Full text of "The Encyclopaedia Britannica : a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information"

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THE 



ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA 



ELEVENTH EDITION 



FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768 1771. 

SECOND ten 17771784. 

THIRD eighteen 17881797. 

FOURTH twenty 1801 1810. 

FIFTH twenty 18151817. 

SIXTH twenty 1823 1824. 

SEVENTH twenty-one 18301842. 

EIGHTH twenty-two 18531860. 

NINTH twenty-five 18751889. 

TENTH ninth edition and eleven 

supplementary volumes, 1902 1903. 

ELEVENTH ,, published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 1911. 



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in all countries subscribing to the 
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by 
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of the 
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THE 

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA 



DICTIONARY 

OF 

ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL 

INFORMATION 



ELEVENTH EDITION 



VOLUME XXVII 

TONALITE to VESUVIUS 




Cambridge, England: 

at the University Press 

New York, 35 West 32nd Street 
191 1 



E.3 



Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911, 

by 
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company 



INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXVII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL 

CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE 

ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. 



A. B. Go. ALFRED BRADLEY GOUGH, M.A., PH.D. f 

Sometime Casberd Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. English Lector at the T Trier. 
University of Kiel, 1896-1905. I 

A. C. S. ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE. / Tourneur CvrtI 

See the biographical article: SWINBURNE, ALGERNON CHARLES. 

A. E. H. L. AUGUSTUS EDWARD HOUGH LOVE, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. f 

Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Secretary J Variafinnc r-,in,,i,,c f 
to the London Mathematical Society. Hon. Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford ; 1 DS> LalCl Ot ' 

formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. 

A. F. L. ARTHUR FRANCIS LEACH, M.A. [" 

Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Charity Commissioner for England and Wales. J JTJ-I M !O I._I.. C 
Formerly Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Fellow of All Souls 1 UOal> nlcnolas - 
College, Oxford, 1874-1881. Author of English Schools at the Reformation; &c. 

A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S. f 

Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls J 

College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- | Vermigli, Pietro Martire. 
1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of 
England under the Protector Somerset ; Henry VIII. ; Life of Thomas Cranmer ; &c. * 

A. Ge. SIR ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, K.C.B. /Vesuvius (in fiarti 

See the biographical article: GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD. I Vl 5 (tn pa ">- 

A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. f Unitarianism; 

Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. \ Valdes, Juan de. 

A. H. K. AUGUSTUS HENRY KEANE, LL.D., F.R.G.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. 

Emeritus Professor of Hindustani at University College, London. Author of -I Tripoli: North, Africa (m pan); 

Ethnology; Man Past and Present; The World's Peoples; &c. I Ural-Altaic. 

A. H.-S. SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. J IT i L- f 

General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. | unuia, Lan 

A. J. ALEXANDER JOHNSTON. / I .. 

See the biographical article : JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER. \ Umted States: Sttt "? WJMK 

A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. r 

Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent J , Cf / .-, 

College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member of ] ursula > M (.** P art >- 
Mysore Educational Service. 

A. J. L. ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX. 

Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Editor of the Rio News J Venezuela: Geography and 
(Rio de Janeiro), 1879-1901. [ Statistics. 

A. L. ANDREW LANG. f 

See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW. \ Totemism. 

A. Lo. AUGUSTE LONGNON. r 

Professor at the College de France, Paris. Director of the Ecole des Hautes Etudes. Tr-nvnc- r/,,,/c / TV 

Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Livre des vassaux du Comti de Cham- J ,, 

pagne et de Brie; Geographie de la Gaule au VI siecle; Atlas historique de la France } Vermancjols. 

depuis Cesar jusqu'a nos jours ; &c. 

A. M.* REV. ALLAN MENZIES, M.A., D.D. r 

Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism, St Mary's College, St Andrews. Author J United Free Church Of Scotland. 

of History of Religion ; &c. Editor of Review of Theology and Philosophy. 

A. M.-Fa. ALFRED MOREL-FATIO. r 

Professor of Romance Languages at the College de France, Paris. Member of the J yega Carpio (in part). 
Institute of France; Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Secretary of the Ecole 1 
des Chartes, 1885-1906. Author of L'Espagne au XVI' et au XVII' siecles. [ 

1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. 

v 



VI 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 



A. N. 
A. P. H. 

A. R. B. 

A. Sp. 
A. Sy. 
A. W. H.* 

A. W. R. 

B. M. 
B. R. 



r Toucan; Touracou; 

ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. J Tree-creeper; Trogon; 

See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. Tropic-bird; Trumpeter; 

I Turkey; Turnstone. 

ALFRED PETER HILLIER, M.D., M.P. (~ 

Author of South African Studies; The Commonweal; &c. Served in Kaffir War, 

1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S. Jameson in South Africa till 1896. Member of i Transvaal: History (in part). 
Reform Committee, Johannesburg, and political prisoner at Pretoria, 1895-1896. 
M.P. for the Hitchin Division of Herts, 1910. 

THE REV. AUGUSTUS ROBERT BUCKLAND, M.A. [ 

Secretary of the Religious Tract Society, London. Morning Preacher, Foundling -j Tract: Tract Societies. 
Hospital, London. Author of The Heroic in Missions ; &c. L 



ARCHIBALD SHARP. 

Consulting Engineer and Chartered Patent Agent. 

ARTHUR SYMONS. 

See the biographical article: SYMONS, ARTHUR. 

ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. 

Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. 



Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. 



Tricycle. 



Verlaine, Paul. 



Utrecht, Treaty of. 



Vaseline. 



B. W. G. 

C. A. C. 

C. A. S. 

C. B. P. 
C. C. W. 

C. D. W. 
C. El. 

C. F. A. 
C. H. Ha. 
C. J. L. 

C. M. 

C* K. D* 



ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. J _ . -,.,,/. rt 

Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws ] *raae marKS \m part), 
of England. 

BRANDER MATTHEWS, A.M., LL.D., LITT.D., D.C.L. f 

Professor of Dramatic Literature, Columbia University, New York. President of I Twain, Mark. 
the Modern Language Association of America (1910). Author of French Dramatists | 
of the iQth Century ; &c. I 

SIR BOVERTON REDWOOD, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.I.C., Assoc.lNST.C.E., 

M.lNST.M.E. 

Adviser on Petroleum to the Admiralty, Home Office, India Office, Corporation of 
London, and Port of London Authority. President of the Society of Chemical 
Industry. Member of the Council of the Chemical Society. Member of Council of 
the Institute of Chemistry. Author of Cantor Lectures on Petroleum; Petroleum 
and its Products ; Chemical Technology ; &c. 

BENEDICT WILLIAM GINSBURG, M.A., LL.D. 

St Catharine's College, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law of the Inner Temple. J Tonnage. 
Formerly Editor of The Navy, and Secretary of the Royal Statistical Society. 1 
Author of Hints on the Legal Duties of Shipmasters ; &c. 

CHARLES ARTHUR CONANT. 

Member of Commission on International Exchange of U.S., 1903. Treasurer, -j Trust Company. 
Morton Trust Co., New York, 1902-1906. Author of History of Modern Banks I 
of Issue; The Principles of Money and Banking; &c. 

REV, CHARLES ANDERSON SCOTT, M.A. 

Dunn Professor of the New Testament, Theological College of the Presbyterian 
Church of England, Cambridge. Author of Ulfilas, Apostle of the Goths; &c. 

CATHERINE BEATRICE PHILLIPS (MRS W. ALISON PHILLIPS). 
Associate of Bedford College, London. 



Ulfilas. 



Unicorn. 



CHARLES CRAWFORD WHINERY, A.M. f United States: History (in 

Cornell University. Assistant Editor nth Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. \ part). 



HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON WRIGHT. 

See the biographical article: WRIGHT, CARROLL DAVIDSON. 

SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., LL.D., D.C.L. 

Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, 
Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East 
Africa Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for 
German East Africa, 1900-1904. 

CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. 

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal 
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbor. 

CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. 

Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York.. Member of the 
American Historical Association. 

SIR CHARLES JAMES LYALL, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., LL.D. (Edin.). 

Secretary, Judicial and Public Department, India Office, London. Fellow of I 
King's College, London. Secretary to Government of India in Home Department, { Tulsi Das. 
1889-1894. Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces, India, 1895-1898. Author of 
Translations of Ancient Arabic Poetry; &c. 

CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.Tn. f Trent, Council of; 

Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Publizistik -| Ultramontanism; 
im Zeitalter Gregor VII. ; Quellen zur Geschichle des Papstthums ; &c. Vatican Council The. 

CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.Lixr., F.R.G.S., F.R.HiST.S. f 

Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow Varthema, LudoviCO di; 
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. H v, A 
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Ves P uccl > AmengO. 
Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c. 



Trade Unions: United Slates. 



Turks. 

("Transvaal: History (in part); 
4 Turenne, Vicomte de; 
I Uniforms. 

J Truce of God; 
\ Urban II.-VI. 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES vii 

C. W. W. SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907). f 

Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary J . . , 

Commission. .Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director- j v * n: Turkey (in part). 
General of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum; I 
Life of Lord Clive ; &c. 

D. B. Ma. DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. 

Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, Hartford, Conn. J 
Author of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional 1 
Theory; Selections from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c. I 

D. C. B. DEMETRIUS CHARLES BOULGER. 

Author of England and Russia in Central Asia; History of China; Life of Gordon;} Tnurnai 

India in the loth Century; History of Belgium; Belgian Life in Town and Country; \ 

&c. 

D. C. G. DANIEL COIT OILMAN. J Universities- United 

See the biographical article : GILMAN, DANIEL COIT. \ um 

D. (X T. DAVID CROAL THOMSON. J 

Formerly Editor of the Art Journal. Author of The Brothers Maris; The Barbizon ) Troyon, Constant. 
School of Painters ; Life of " Phiz " ; Life of Bewick ; &c. 

D. F. T. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. f 

Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The\ Variations. 
Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. 

D. G. H. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. 

Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. Tralles; 

Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 4 Tripoli: Syria; 

1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Trov and Trnad (in barti 

Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. 

D. H. DAVID HANNAY. f Toulon; 

Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal < Tourville, Comte de; 
Navy; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. L Trafalgar, Battle of. 

E. B.* ERNEST CHARLES FRANCOIS BABELON. 

Professor at the College de France. Keeper of the Department of Medals and 
Antiquities at the Bibliotheque Nationale. Member of the Academic des In- J Utica. 
scriptions et Belles Lettres, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of 
Descriptions Historiques des Monnaies de la Republique Romaine; Traites des 
Monnaies Grecques et Romaines ; Catalogue des Camees de la Bibliotheque Nationale. 

E. C. B. RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.Lrra. J T . J 

Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius," | * 
in Cambridge Texts and Studies, vol. vi. L Vallombrosians. 

E. E. A. ERNEST E. AUSTEN. J 

Assistant in the Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South 1 Tsetse-fly. 
Kensington. 

E. F. S. EDWARD FAIRBROTHER STRANGE. 

Assistant Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Member of < Utamaro. 

Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects. Joint -editor 
of Bell's " Cathedral " Series. 

I Topelius, Zakris; Triolet; 

E. G. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L. I Troubadour; Trouvere; 

See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND. j Usk, Thomas; 

[ Vers de Soeiete; Verse. 

E. Ga. EMILE GARCKE, M.lNST.E.E. c 

Managing Director of the British Electric Traction Co., Ltd. Author of Manual of ^ Tramway. 

Electrical Undertakings; &c. [ 

E. H. M. ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. f 

University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian ( Tyras. 
at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. 

E. J. W. G. ELIAS JOHN WILKINSON GIBB. f Turkev . ji tera i ure 

Translator of several Turkish books. \ * ' 

E. K. C. EDMUND KERCHEVER CHAMBERS. 

Assistant Secretary, Board of Education. Sometime Scholar of Corpus Christ! 

College, Oxford. Chancellor's English Essayist, 1891. Author of The Medieval J. Vaughan Thomas. 

Stage. Editor of the "Red Letter" Shakespeare; Donne's Poems; Vaughan's 

Poems. 

Ed. M. EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.LITT., LL.D. f 

Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Ge<schichte des J, Vardanes. 
Alterthums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme. [ 

E. 0.* EDMUND OWEN, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. f Tongue: Surgery; 

Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, I Tonsillitis; Ulcer; 
Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of A 1 Varicose Veins; 
Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. I Venereal Diseases 

E. Tn. REV. ETHELRED LUKE TAUNTON, S.J. (d. 1907). J Torquemada, Thomas. 

Author of The English Black Monks of St Benedict; History of the Jesuits in England. \ 



Vlll 

E. W. H. 

F. C. C. 
F. D. A. 

F. G. M. B. 
F. G. P. 

F. J. H. 

F. J. T. 
F. Po. 

F. R. C. 

F. R. M. 

F. S. P. 

F. Wa. 
F. W. Ga. 

F. W. R.* 

G. A. B. 
G. A. C.* 

G. E. 
G. E. D. 

G. H. Bo. 
G. J. T. 

G. Re. 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 

ERNEST WILLIAM HOBSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. f 

Fellow and Tutor in Mathematics, Christ's College, Cambridge. Stokes Lecturer in -i Trigonometry. 
Mathematics in the University. 

FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.Tn. 

Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. I Toneues Qitt O f 
Editor of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle. Author of Myth, Magic and \ 
Morals; &c. 



FRANK DAWSON ADAMS, PH.D.. D.Sc., F.G.S., F.R.S. 

Dean of the Faculty of Applied Science and Logan Professor of Geology, McGill J Vancouver 
University, Montreal. President of the Canadian Mining Institute. Author of 



nes, . 

Papers dealing with problems of Metamorphism ; &c. 



i 



Island 



Vandals (in part). 



FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. 

Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. 

FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. r Tongue; 

Vice- President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on I Vascular System: Anatomy- 
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital, London, and the London School of Medicine for *! 
Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. 

FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. [Trimontium; 

Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of I Trinovantes; 
Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Censor, Student, 1 Urieoniunr 
Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. I v eru lamium 
Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain ; &c. 

FREDERICK JACKSON TURNER, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D., PH.D. J United States: History (in 

Professor of History, Harvard University. Formerly Professor of American i p art \ 
History at the University of Wisconsin. Author of Rise of the New West ; &c. 

SIR FREDERICK POLLOCK, Bart., LL.D., D.C.L. 
See the biographical article: POLLOCK (Family). 



Tort. 



FRANK R. CANA. 

Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. 



FRANCIS RICHARD MAUNSELL, C.M.G. 

Lieut.-Col., Royal Artillery. Military Vice-Consul, Sivas, Trebizond, Van (Kurd- 
istan), 1807-1898. Military Attache^ British Embassy, Constantinople, 1901-1905. 
Author of Central Kurdistan; &c. 



(Transvaal: Geography and 
Statistics, and History (in 
Part); 
Tripoli: North Africa (in part) ; 
Tsana (in part) ; Tuat. 

r 

Van: Turkey (in part). 



FRANCIS SAMUEL PHILBRICK, A.M., PH.D. 

Formerly Fellow of Nebraska State University and Scholar and Resident Fellow "! 
of Harvard University. Member of the American Historical Association. 



States: Population 
Social Conditions; 

ntiit Cnmmerrf 
(met ^uinrnKrLc, 

Finance and Army. 



United 

and 



FRANCIS WATT, M.A. 

Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. 



Author of Law's Lumber Room. 



-! Treasure Trove. 



Trematodes. 



FREDERICK WILLIAM GAMBLE, D.Sc., F.R.S. 

Professor of Zoology, Birmingham University. Formerly Assistant Director of the 
Zoological Laboratories and Lecturer in Zoology, University of Manchester. Author 
of Animal Life. Editor of Marshall and Hurst's Practical Zoology; &c. t 

FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f Topaz; 

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1897-1902.^ Tourmaline; 
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. [ Turquoise 

GEORGE A. BOULENGER, D.Sc., F.R.S. f 

In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British { 
Museum. Vice- President of the Zoological Society of London. 

REV. GEORGE ALBERT COOKE, M.A., D.D. 

Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture, Oxford, and Fellow of Oriel _, 
College. Canon of Rochester. Hon. Canon of St Mary's Cathedral, Edinburgh. " 
Author of Text-Book of North Semitic Inscriptions; &c. 

REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HisT.S. 

Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909. 
Hon. Member Dutch Historical Society, and Foreign Member, Netherlands Associa- * 
tion of Literature. 

GEORGE EDWARD DOBSON, M.A., M.B., F.Z.S., F.R.S. (1848-1805). 

Army Medical Department, 1868-1888. Formerly Curator of the Royal Victoria _ 
Museum, Netley. Author of Monograph of the Asiatic Chiroptera; A Monograph of' 
the Inseclivora, Systematic and Anatomical; &c. 

REV. GEORGE HERBERT Box, M.A. 

Rector of Sutton Sandy, Beds. Formerly Hebrew Master, Merchant Taylors' - 
School, London. Author of Translation of the Book of Isaiah; &c. 

GEORGE JAMES TURNER. 

Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. 
Society. 



Trout. 



Tyre (in part). 



Utrecht: Province (in part). 



Vampire. 



Urim and Thummin. 



Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden J Trinoda Necessitas. 



SIR GEORGE REID, LL.D. 

See the biographical article: REID, SIR GEORGE. 



-I Turner. 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix 

G. W. C.* REV. GEORGE WILLIS COOKE. f 

Lecturer at Rand School of Social Science, New York. Author of Critical Study of j Tr!o,-n-- TT , j c, , 

Emerson; History of Unitarianism in America; Woman in the Progress of Civiliza- 1 Unilariamsm. United Mates. 
lion; &c. 

H. A. C. HOWARD ADAMS CARSON, A.M. C 

Civil Engineer. Past President of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers. Formerly J 
Chief Engineer of the Boston Transit Commission. In charge of designing and con- | 
structing the Boston Subway, the East Boston Tunnel ; &c. I 

H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. f 

Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition of 4 Transvaal: History (in part). 
the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the loth edition. 1_ 

H. De. REV. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J. / Valentine; 

Bollandist. Joint-editor of the Ada Sanctorum and the Analecta Bollandiana. \ Veronica, St. 

H. E. A. HENRY EDWARD ARMSTRONG, PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S. f 

Professor of Chemistry at the City and Guilds of London Central Institute, South -j Valency. 
Kensington. Author of Introduction to the Study of Organic Chemistry. I 

H. F. B. HORATIO ROBERT FORBES BROWN, LL.D. 

Editor of the Calendar of Venetian State Papers, for the Public Record Office. J ir-,.-- 
Author of Life on the Lagoons; Venetian Studies; John Addington Symonds, a | venlce - 
Biography; &c. I 

H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, F.R.S., PH.D. f . 

Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. < Tortoise. 
Author of " Amphibia and Reptiles " in the Cambridge Natural History. 

H. F. T. REV. HENRY FANSHAWE TOZER, M.A., F.R.G.S. 

Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford. Fellow of the 
British Academy. Corresponding Member of the Historical Society of Greece. < Trebizond. 
Author of History of Ancient Geography; Classical Geography; Lectures on the 
Geography of Greece ; &c. 

H. H HENRI SIMON HYMANS, PH.D. 

Keeper of the Bibliotheque Royale de Belgique, Brussels. Author of Rubens: sa 1 Van Dyck (in part). 
vie el son ceuvre. 



H. Ha. HEBER^LEONIDAS ^HART, LL.D. j Valuation and Valuers. 

H. H. F. H. HAMILTON FYFE. C 

Special Correspondent of the Daily Mail ; Dramatic Critic of The World. Author -I Tricoupis Charilaos 
of A Modern Aspasia; The New Spirit in Egypt; &c. [ 

H. H. J. SIR HARRY HAMH/TON JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., D.Sc., LL.D. ("Tunisia; 

See the biographical article: JOHNSTON, SIR H. H. \ Uganda; Unyoro. 

H. Lb. HORACE LAMB, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. r 

Professor of Mathematics, University of Manchester. Formerly Fellow and Assistant 
Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Member of Council of the Royal Society, J. Vector Analysis 
1894-1896. Royal Medallist, 1902. President of the London Mathematical 
Society, 1902-1904. Author of Hydrodynamics ; &c. I 

H. L. C. HUGH LONGBOURNE CALLENDAR, F.R.S., LL.D. f 

Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, London. Formerly Professor of < Vaporization. 
Physics in McGill College, Montreal, and in University College, London. 



Tuberculosis. 



H. L. H. HARRIET L. HENNESSY, M.D. (Brux.), L.R.C.P.I., L.R.C.S.I. 

H. L. 0. HERBERT LEVI OSGOOD, A.M., PH.D. f 

Professor of History at Columbia University, New York. Author of The American J United States: Historydn part). 
Colonies in the Seventeenth Century; &c. 

H. M. C. HECTOR MUNRO CHADWICK, M.A. r -r^.. 

Fellow and Librarian of Clare College, Cambridge. Author of Studies on Anglo- J * ' 
Saxon Institutions. \ Valkyries. 

H. M. R. HUGH MUNRO Ross. ( _, . ,, , D .. , 

Formerly Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford. Editor of The Times Engineer- \ yPgrapny- Modern Practical 
ing Supplement. Author of British Railways. [ Typography (in part). 

H. M. Wo. HAROLD MELLOR WOODCOCK, D.Sc. f" 

Assistant to the Professor of Proto-Zoology, London University. Fellow of Uni- J . 
versity College, London. Author of " Haemoflagellates " in Sir E. Ray Lankester's ] 1 rypanosomes. 
Treatise on Zoology, and of various scientific papers. 

H. St. HENRY STURT, M.A. f ... 

Author of Idola Theatri; The Idea of a Free Church; Personal Idealism. \ Utilitarianism. 

H. Sw. HENRY SWEET, M.A., PH.D., LL.D. r 

University Reader in Phonetics, Oxford. Member of the Academies of Munich, 

Berlin, Copenhagen and Helsingfors. Author of A History of English Sounds since "j Universal Languages. 

the Earliest Period ; A Handbook of Phonetics ; &c. 

I. M. A. REV. ISAAC MORGAN Arwoop, M.A., D.D., LL.D. r 

Secretary of the Universalist General Convention. Associate-editor of the Uni- I 

versalist Leader, Boston. General Superintendent of the Universalist Church, H Universalist Church. 

1898-1906. Author of Latest Word of Unitiersalism; &c. 

J. An. JOSEPH ANDERSON, LL.D. 

Keeper of the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh, and Assistant Secretary 

of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. Honorary Professor of Antiquities to J Tumulus. 

the Royal Scottish Academy. Author of Scotland in Early Christian and Pagan 

Times. 



x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 

J. A. P. JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., F.R.S., D.Sc. 

Fender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow of I Transformers; 
University College, London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and 1 Tjnits Physical 
Lecturer on Applied Mechanics in the University. Author of Magnets and Electric I 
Currents. 

J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE. JTorridonian; 

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of "j. TV:.--:- c v ctem 
The Geology of Building Stones. I TltKSlc System. 

[ Tribonian; 

J. Br. RIGHT HON. JAMES BRYCE, D.C.L., D.Lixr. J United States: Constitution 

See the biographical article: BRYCE, JAMES [ and Government. 



J. Bt. JAMES BARTLETT. 

. Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation. Quantities, &c., at King's I Vpntilatinn 

College, London. Member of the Society of Architects. Member of the Institute 
of Junior Engineers. 

J. B. M. JAMES BASS MULLINGER, M.A. r 

Lecturer in History, St John's College, Cambridge. Formerly University Lecturer 
in History and President of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society. Birkbeck Lecturer J Universities, 
in Ecclesiastical History at Trinity College, Cambridge, 1890-1894. Author of 
History of the University of Cambridge; The Schools of Charles the Great; &c. L 

Jj. C. H. RIGHT REV. JOHN CUTHBERT HEDLEY, O.S.B., D.D. /Transubstantiation. 

R.C. Bishop of Newport. Author of The Holy Eucharist; &c. \ 

J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, Lrrr.D., F.R.Hisx.S. r_ 

Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. .Translation; 
Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. -I Valera y Alcala Galiano, Juan; 
Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of Vega Carpio (in part). 
Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. 

J. F. W. JOHN FORBES WHITE, M.A., LL.D. (d. 1904). /Velazquez (in part). 

Joint-author of the Life and Art of G. P. Chalmers, R.S.A.; &c. \ 

J. G. H. JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.MECH.E. /_ . 

Author of Plating and Boiler-Making; Practical Metal-Turning; &c. \ 1001. 

J. G. M. JOHN GRAY M'KENDRICK, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S. (Edin.). f Touch; 

Emeritus Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Professor of ( Vascular System: History 
Physiology, 1876-1906. Author of Life in Motion ; Life of Helmholtz; &c. Of Discovery. 

J. H. H. JOHN HENRY HESSELS, M.A. J TvDOCTanhv jjistorv 

Author of Gutenberg: an Historical Investigation. \ 

J H. M. JOHN HENRY MIDDLETON, M.A., Lrrr.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). f 

Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director Verona (M part); 
of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South -j Verrocchio, Andrea del; 
Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Vesta (in part). 
Times ; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times. 

J. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. f 

Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family] Vere (Family). 
History; Peerage and Pedigree, [ 

J. J. T. SIR JOSEPH JOHN THOMSON, F.Sc., LL.D., PH.D., F.R.S. r 

Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics and Fellow of Trinity College, 
Cambridge. President of the British Association, 19091910. Author of A Treatise -I Vacuum Tube. 
on the Motion of Vortex Rings; Application of Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry; 
Recent Researches in Electricity and Magnetism ; &c. L 

J. L.* SIR JOSEPH LARMOR, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. [ 

Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and Lucasian Professor of Mathematics _ ., _.. 

in the University. Secretary of the Royal Society. Professor of Natural Philo- 1 Umts Dimensions Of. 

sophy, Queen's College, Galway, 1880-1885. Author of Ether and Matter, and 

various memoirs on Mathematics and Physics. 

J. L. E. D JOHN Louis EMIL DREYER. f 

Director of Armagh Observatory. Author of Planetary Systems from Thales to { Transit Circle. 
Kepler; &c. L 

J. L. W. JESSIE LAIDLAY WESTON. f Tristan. 

Author of Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory. \ 

J. 0. JOSIAH OLDFIELD, M.A., D.C.L., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. f 

Barrister-at-law. Senior Physician of the Lady Margaret Fruitarian Hospital, 1 Vegetarianism. 
Bromley. Author of Myrrh and Amaranth; The Voice of Nature; &c. 

J. 0. B. JOHN OLIVER BORLEY, MA. f Trawling, Seining and Netting. 

Gonville and Cams College, Cambridge. ^ 

J. P.-B. JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST. f 

Editor of the Guardian, London. 1 

J. P. P REV. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D. (" 

Canon Residentiary, Protestant Episcopal Cathedral of St John the Divine in New 
York City. Formerly Professor of Hebrew, University of Pennsylvania. In charge J i 
of the Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania to Nippur, 1888-1895. Author I 
of Scriptures, Hebrew and Christian; Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on I 
the Euphrates; &c. 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 



XI 



J. So. 
J. S. F. 

J. S. N. 
J. S. R. 



J. T. Be. 

J. W. 
J. W. He. 

J. W. J. 
K. S. 

L. C.* 
L. Du. 

L. E. H. 

L. J.* 
L. J. S. 
L. V.* 

M. Br. 
M. G. 

M. N. T. 
M. 0. B. C. 
N. D. M. 



JOHN SOUTHWARD. 

Author of A Dictionary of Typography and its Accessory Arts; Practical Printing; 
&c. 

JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. 

Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in 
Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby 
Medallist of the Geological Society of London. 

JOSEPH SHIELD NICHOLSON, M.A., Sc.D. 

Professor of Political Economy at Edinburgh University. Fellow of the British 
Academy. Author of Principles of Political Economy; Money and Monetary 
Problems; &c. 

JAMES SMITH REID, M.A., LL.D., Lirr.D. 

Professor of Ancient History and Fellow and Tutor of Gonville and Caius College, 
Cambridge. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Christ's College. 
Browne's and Chancellor's Medals. Editor of editions of Cicero's Academia; De 
Amicitia; &c. 



JOHN THOMAS BEALBY. 

Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical - 
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. 



Typography: Modern Practical 
[ Typography (in part). 

f Tonalite; Trachyte; 

Tuff; Variolites; 
! Veins (Geology). 

Usury; 
[ Value. 

Trajan; 

Tribune; 

Varro, Marcus Terentius. 

Transbaikalia (in part); 
Transcaspian Region (in part) ; 
Turgai (in part); 
Turkestan (in part); 
Ufa (Government) (in part); 
Ural Mountains (in part). 



JAMES WILLIAMS, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. f 

All Souls Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln ] Torture. 
College. Author of Wills and Succession ; &c. 

JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A. 

Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education, London. I 

Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient -j Treitschke Heinrich von. 

History at Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the 

German Empire; &c. I 

JEREMIAH WHIPPLE JENKS. 

See the biographical article: JENKS, JEREMIAH WHIPPLE. 



KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. 

Editor of The Portfolio o f Musical Archaeology. 
Orchestra. 



Author of The Instruments of the 



Trusts. 

Trigonon; Tromba Marina; 
Trombone (in part); 
Trumpet (in part); 
Tuba; Valves. 



Louis COURTAULD, M.A., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. 

Formerly Research Scholar, Middlesex Hospital Cancer Laboratories. Author of -.' Tumour. 
Life-History of Pneumococcus; &c. 

Louis DUNCAN, PH.D., M.AM.INST.E.E. 

Late Associate Professor of Applied Electricity, at the Johns Hopkins University, I T f . 
Baltimore, Md. Head of the Department of Electrical Engineering, Massachusetts 1 * rac " on - 
Institute of Technology. 

LEONARD ERSKINE HILL, F.R.S., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. r 

Lecturer on Physiology at the London Hospital. Formerly Demonstrator of J 

Physiology in the University of Oxford ; and Assistant Professor of Physiology, 1 Vascular System: Physiology. 
University College, London. Author of Manual of Physiology; &c. 

LIONEL JAMES, F.R.G.S. r 

The Times Special Correspondent in South Africa, 1899-1901. Reuter's Special 

Correspondent in the Chitral Campaign, 1894-1895. Author of With the Chitral~] Transvaal: History (in part). 
Relief Force; On the Heels of De Wet; &c. &c. | 

LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. r , 

Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar J , 
of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the * 
Mineralogical Magazine. 

LuiGI VlLLARI. 

Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Department). Formerly Newspaper Corre- 
spondent in the east of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906; Phila- 
delphia, 1907; and Boston, 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town and 
Country; &c. 

MARGARET BRYANT. 



T,*, 

lle> 
Tndymite; Vanadinite; 



[ Vesuvianite. 



Tuscany: History; 
Vespers, Sicilian. 



MOSES CASTER, PH.D. 



/Tourneur, Cyril: Introduction 

\ and Bibliography. 

SEb VjAS'l'EKj rH.JJ. r 

Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. Vice- President, Zionist 

Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine J Vacarescu. 

Literature, 1886 and 1891. Author of A New Hebrew Fragment of Ben-Sira; The ' 

Hebrew Version of the Secretum Secretorum of Aristotle. { 

MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. r 

Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. J Vaphio. 
Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. 

MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. r T racm - s . 

Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham J T . . ' , . . ... 
University, 1905-1908. ' [ Umbna (Ancient). 



NEWTON DENNISON MERENESS, A.M., PH.D. 
Author of Maryland as a Proprietary Province. 



f United States: 

\ Flora. 



Fauna and 



Xll 
0. Ba. 

P. A. K. 

P. C. M. 

P. C. Y. 
P. Gi. 

P. G. K. 

P. La. 

R. A.* 
R. A. S. 

R. C. J. 
R. D. S. 

R. I. P. 
R. J. M. 

R. K. D. 
R. L.* 

R. N. B. 

R. P. S. 

R. S. C. 

R. Tr. 
S. A. C. 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 

OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A. f Tournament- 

Editor of the Ancestor, 1002-1005. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the-^ _ '., 

Honourable Society of the Baronetage. I Tudor ( Faml 



PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. 

See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A. 



Transbaikalia (in part}; 
Transcaspian Region (in part) ; 
Turgai (in part); 
Turkestan (in part); 
Ufa (Government) (in part); 
Ural Mountains (in part). 



PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D. f 

Secretary of the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com- J Variation and Selection; 
parative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. 1 Vertebrata. 
Author of Outlines of Biology; Sec. 

PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. / y ane gj r g 

Magdalen College, Oxford. Editor of Letters of Princess Elizabeth of England. 

PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., Lrrr.D. f 

Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J **. 
Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo- 1 V. 
logical Society. I 

PAUL GEORGE KONODY. f Van Dyck (in part)- 

Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of the Artist. { - 
Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez: Life and Work; &c. 

PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. r 

Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly 
of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian 
Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Kayser's Comparative Geology. 



Venezuela: Geology. 



ROBERT ANCHEL. 

Archivist of the Department de 1'Eure. 

RICHARD ALEXANDER STREATFEILD. f 

Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British Museum. Musical Critic of 4 Verdi, Guiseppe. 
the Daily Graphic. Author of Masters of Italian Music ; The Opera ; &c. 

SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, LL.D., D.C.L., Lnr.D. 
See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD C. 

ROLLIN D. SALISBURY, A.M., LL.D. r' 

Geologist in charge of Pleistocene Geology of New Jersey. Dean of Ogden (Grad.) | United States: Geology (in 

School of Science and Head of the Department of Geography in the University of 1 part). 

Chicago. 



Vendee, Wars of the. 



< Troy and Troad (in part). 



REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. 

Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. 



| Trilobites. 



f Tone, Theobald Wolfe; 
Formerly Editor of the St James's J Tyler, Wat; 

[ Ulster, Earls of. 

ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS. r 

Formerly Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at the British Museum; and 

Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Author of The Language and Lilera- H Tseng Kuo-fan. 

lure of China; &c. 



RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A. 

Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-law. 
Gazette (London). 

SIR 



RICHARD LYDEKKER, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. 

Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of Toxodontia; 

Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The Deer \ Tylopoda; 
of All Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c. i Uneulata 



ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). 

Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. 
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 



Author of Scandinavia: 



{Torkenskjold, Peder; 
Torstensson, Count; 
Valdemar I., II. ana IV. of 
Denmark; 
Verboczy, Istvan. 

PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. 

Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past 
President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, . 
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's 
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c. 



-Tower; 
Tracery; 

Triumphal Arch; 
Vault. 



ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.Lnr. (Cantab.). r 

Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. Veneti; 
Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville ] Voctini' 
and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. 



ROLAND TRUSLOVE, M.A. 

Fellow, Dean and Lecturer in Classics at Worcester College, Oxford. 



S Troyes. 



STANLEY ARTHUR COOKE, M.A. f 

Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and 
formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew J Tree-Worship' 
and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic] Ti-~- a i, 
Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on uzzlan> 
Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c. 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 



Xlll 



S. M. C. 



S. M. E.-W. 



S. N. 



T. As. 



SYDNEY MONCKTON COPEMAN, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P., M.R.C.S., F.R.S. 

Medical Inspector to H.M. Local Government Board, London. Medical Lecturer 
on Public Health at Westminster Hospital. Lt.-Col. and Divisional Sanitary , 
Officer, 1st London Division, Territorial Force. Milroy Lecturer, Royal College of I Vaccination. 
Physicians, London, 1898. Author of Vaccination, its Natural History and Patho- 
logy; &c. 

SIR SYDNEY MAROW EARDLEY-WILMOT. 

Rear-Admiral (retired). Commanded H.M.S. " Dolphin " in Red Sea, 1885-1886, j 

and assisted in the defence of Suakin. Superintendent of Ordnance Stores, "j Torpedo. 

19021909. Author of Life of Vice- Admiral Lord Lyons; Our Navy for a Thousand 

Years ; &c. [ 



SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D., D.Sc. 

See the biographical article : NEWCOMB, SIMON. 



THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT. 

Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. 



Formerly Scholar of 



f Uranus (Astronomy). 
I. Venus (Astronomy). 

Tortona; Trapani; 

Trasimene, Lake; Trebula; 

Turin; Turris Libisonis; 

Tuscany: Geography; 

Tusculum; Tyndaris; 



Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member' 



of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. 

graphy of the Roman Campagna. 



Author of The Classical Topo- 



T. A. A. 
T. A. I. 
T. C. C. 



T. E. H. 

T. F. C. 
T. H. 
T. S. 

T. Se. 
V. C.* 

V. M. 

W. A. B. C. 

W. A. He. 

W. A. P. 
W. Bo. 



THOMAS ANDREW ARCHER, M.A. 

Author of The Crusade of Richard I. ; &c. 

THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. 
Trinity College, Dublin. 

THOMAS CHROWDER CHAMBERLIN, A.M., PH.D., LL.D., Sc.D., F.G.S., 

F.A.A.S., &c. 

Professor and Head of Department of Geology and Director of the Walker Museum, 
University of Chicago. Investigator of Fundamental Problems of Geology at the 
Carnegie Institute. Consulting Geologist, United States and Wisconsin .Geological 
Survey. Author of Geology of Wisconsin; General Treatise on Geology (with R. D. 
Salisbury) ; &c. 

THOMAS ERSKINE HOLLAND, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., K.C. r 

Fellow of the British Academy. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Professor of 
International Law and Diplomacy in the University of Oxford, 1874-1910. Bencher I Treaties; 
of Lincoln's Inn. Author of Studies in International Law; The Elements of Juris- 1 Vacarius. 
prudence ; A Iberici Gentilis de jure belli ; The Laws of War on Land; Neutral Duties 
in a Maritime War; &c. 



Udine; Umbria (Modern); 
Valeria Via; Varia; Vasto; 
Veii; Veleia; Velia; 
Velletri; Venafrum; Venusia; 
Vercelli; Verona (in part); 
Vesuvius (in part). 

Ursula, St (in part). 



j Unemployment; Vagrancy. 



United States: Geology 
(in part). 



THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D. 

Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass. 

THOMAS HODGKIN, D.C.L., Lixx.D. 

See the biographical article: HODGKIN, THOMAS. 



J Urban VII. and VIII. 
4 Vandals (in part). 



THE RIGHT HONOURABLE LORD SHAW or DUNFERMLINE. 

Lord of Appeal. M.P. for Hawick District, 1892-1909. Lord Advocate for Scotland, -| Vergniaud, Pierre. 
1905-1909. I 

THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. f 

Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, J vanhmo-h ir Tnhn 
University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of | V 
Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson; &c. l 

SIR VINCENT HENRY PENALVER CAILLARD. f 

Director of Vickers, Sons & Maxim, Ltd.; and the London, Chatham & Dover J Turkey: Geography and 
Railway. Formerly President of the Ottoman Public Debt Council, and Financial } (-,, t -' f - 
Representative of England, Holland and Belgium in Constantinople. Author of 
Imperial Fiscal Reform. 

VICTOR CHARLES MAHILLON. /Trombone (in part); 

Principal of the Conservatoire Royal deMusique at Brussels. Chevalier of the Legion | Trumpet (in part) 
of Honour. L 



REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S. 

Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's 
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature 
and in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889. 

WILLIAM ABBOT HERDMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S. 

Professor of Natural History in the University of Liverpool. President of the 
Linnean Society, 1904. Author of Report upon the Tunicata collected during the 
Voyage of the " Challenger " ; &c. 

WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. 

Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, 
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ; &c. 

WlLHELM BOUSSET, D.Tn. 

Professor of New Testament Exegesis in the University of Gottingen. Author of 
Das Wesen der Religion; The Antichrist Legend; &c. 



{Topfier, Rodolphe; Trent; 
Tschudi; Unterwalden; 
Uri; Valais; Var; Vaud. 

\ Tunicata. 

Utrecht: Province (in part); 
Valet; Vavassor; 
Verona, Congress of; 
Vestments. 

j Valentinus and the 
[ Valentinians. 



XIV 
W. E. G. 

W. F. C. 
W. G.* 
W. L. F. 
W. MeD. 

W. MacD.* 

W. M. D. 

W. P. C. 
W. R. M. 

W. R. S. 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 

SIR WILLIAM EDMUND GARSTIN, G.C.M.G. j 

Governing Director, Suez Canal Co. Formerly Inspector-General of Irrigation, J. Tsana (in part). 
Egypt, and Adviser to the Ministry of Public Works in Egypt. 

WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. J Trade Marks (in part); 

Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King s College, 1 Treason; Trial; Venue. 
London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (zyd edition). 

AL GeoloEist on 'H.M. Geological Survey. Author of The Gold-bearing Rocks of the S. \ Transvaal: Geology. 

m i .. .. i TTr _ _ iiT_ _ f A f..: T"7._ ^- / ,.. nf /~"f*fi1 ,IM A fnfil \/ftt'*>it'vi a fvr- 



LjCOlOglSt On n.m. vjeuiogl^ill ouivcy. xrui" "& - ;-~ 

Transvaal; Mineral Wealth of Africa; The Geology of Coal and Coal Mining; 

WALTER LYNWOOD FLEMING, A.M., Pn.D. 

Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Editor of Documentary History 
of Reconstruction ; &c. 

WILLIAM MCDOUGALL, M.A. 

Wilde Reader in Mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Formerly bellow 
of St John's College, Cambridge. 

WILLIAM MACDONALD, LL.D. 

Professor of American History in Brown University, Providence, R.I. Protessor ol 
History and Political Science at Bowdoin, 1893-1901. Author of History and 
Government of Maine ; &c. Editor of Select Documents illustrative of the History of 
the United States ; &c. 

WILLIAM MORRIS DAVIS, D.Sc., PH.D. 

Professor of Geology in Harvard University. Formerly Professor of Physical -j 
Geography. Author of Physical Geography ; &c. L 



Union League of America, 
The. 

Trance. 



Tyler, John; 

Van Buren, Martin. 

f United States: Physical 
Geography and Climate. 



WILLIAM PRIDEAUX COURTNEY. 

See the biographical article: COURTNEY, L. H. BARON. 

WILLIAM RICHARD MORFILL, M.A. (d. 1910). 

Formerly Professor of Russian and the other Slavonic Languages in the University 
of Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Institution, Oxford. Author of Russia: 
Slavonic Literature ; &c. 

WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D. 

See the biographical article: SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON. 



J Tooke, John Home. 



Turgueniev, Ivan. 
Tyre (in part). 



PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES 



Tonga. 

Tongking. 

Toronto. 

Toul. 

Toulouse. 

Touraine. 

Tours. 

Townshend, Charles. 

Townshend, Viscount. 

Trade, Board of. 

Trade Organization. 

Trade Unions (in part). 

Transylvania. 

Transylvanian Mountains. 

Trap. 

Trenck, Franz. 

Trendelenburg, Friedrich. 

Trenton (N.J.). 

Tresham, Francis. 

Trespass. 

Triazines. 

Trieste. 

Trinidad. 

Tristan da Cunha. 



Trollope, Anthony. 

Tromp. 

Tropine. 

Troy (N.Y.). 

Truffle. 

Trust and Trustees. 

Tschaikovsky, Peter. 

Tuareg. 

Tuke (Family). 

Tulip. 

Tungsten. 

Tunis. 

Turgot, Anne Robert 

Jacques. 

Turkey: History. 
Turpentine. 

Tweeddale, Marquesses of. 
Tyndale, William. 
Tyndall, John. 
Tynemouth. 
Typewriter. 
Typhoid Fever. 
Typhus Fever. 
Tyrone. 



Ulfeldt, Korflts. 

Ulm. 

Ulrich. 

Umbelliferae. 

United Kingdom of Great 

Britain and Ireland. 
United Presbyterian Church. 
United Provinces of Agra and 

Oudh. 

United States Naval Academy. 
Upsala. 
Uranium. 
Urbino. 
Urea. 

Urinary System. 
Ursins, Princess des. 
Urticaceae. 
Uruguay. 
Usher, James. 
Uskoks. 
Utah. 

Utica (N.Y.). 
Utrecht. 
Uxmal. 



Valencia (Province). 

Valencia (City). 

Valens. 

Valentinian I.-II. 

Valerian. 

Valla, Lorenzo. 

Valladolid. 

Valtellina. 

Vanadium. 

Vanderbilt, Cornelius. 

Vane, Sir Henry. 

Vanilla. 

Vauban. 

Vaughan, Henry. 

Vauvenargues, Marquis de. 

Venezuela: History. 

Venus's Fly-trap. 

Verdun. 

Vermont. 

Vernet (Family). 

Verney (Family). 

Vernon, Edward. 

Versailles. 

Vespasian. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA 



ELEVENTH EDITION 



VOLUME XXVII 



TONALITE, in petrology, a rock of the diorite class, first 
described from Monte Adamello near Tonale in the Eastern 
Alps. It may be described as a quartz-diorite containing 
biotite and hornblende in nearly equal proportions. The prin- 
cipal felspar is plagioclase, but orthoclase occurs also, usually 
in small amount. Those varieties which are rich in orthoclase, 
in addition to plagioclase, have been called quartz-monzonites 
or adamellites, but a better term is grano-diorite, which has 
been very generally adopted in America for rocks which are 
intermediate in character between the granites and the diorites. 
The hornblende of the diorites is green, sometimes with a tinge 
of brown; the biotite is always brown and strongly pleochroic. 
Often these two minerals are clustered together irregularly or in 
parallel growths. They have generally a fairly strong tendency 
to idiomorphism, but may sometimes enclose plagioclase fel- 
spar in ophitic manner. Both of them decompose to chlorite, 
epidote and carbonates. The plagioclase felspar, which may 
form more than one-half of the rock, is andesine or oligoclase; 
simple crystals are rare, the majority being complex growths 
with centres of felspar rich in lime, while in the external zones the 
proportion of soda felspar increases greatly. The inner portions 
have often well-defined, but very irregular, boundaries, and are 
sometimes sponge-like, with the cavities filled up with a later, 
more acid, deposit. This seems to indicate that growth has 
taken place in stages, alternating with periods when the 
crystallized felspar was eroded or partly dissolved. The ortho- 
clase sometimes forms irregular plates enclosing individuals 
of plagioclase. Quartz occurs both in irregular simple grains 
and as micropegmatite. Occasionally pale green pyroxene is 
visible in the centre of crystals of dark green hornblende. The 
accessory minerals apatite, magnetite and zircon are always 
present, and very common also are orthite in coffee-coloured 
zonal prisms practically always encircled by yellow epidote, 
and reddish-brown crystals of sphene, simple or twinned. 

In external appearance the tonalites are very like the granites 
but usually darker in colour. Tonalite-porphyrites often accom- 
pany them, having the same composition but with phenocrysts 
of felspar, quartz, hornblende and biotite in a fine-grained ground- 
mass. Veins and threads of fine grey rock, mainly composed of 
quartz and felspar, often intersect tonalite-masses and have been 
called tonalite-aplites, seeing that they bear the same relations to 
aplites as the aplites do to the granites. They contain more soda- 
lime felspar than the normal aplites. Towards their margins 
the larger alpine masses of tonalite often assume banded or gneissic 
facies, due apparently to movement during intrusion. 

XXVII. I 



In eastern Tirol another tonalite occurs at Rieserferner ; there 
is also a well-known mass of this rock near Traversella. In the south 
of Scotland (Galloway district) tonalites accompany hornblende- 
and biotite-granites, hornblende- and augite-diorites. The newer 
granites of the Highlands of Scotland in many places pass into 
tonalites, especially near their margins, and similar rocks occur in 
Ireland in a few places. Grano-diorites have been described from 
California, and rocks of very similar character occur in the Andes, 
Patagonia and the lesser Antilles. Tonalites are also said to be 
frequent among the igneous rocks of Alaska. (J. S. F.) 

TONAWANDA, a city of Erie county, New York, U.S.A., 
about ii m. by rail N. of Buffalo on the Niagara River at the 
mouth of Tonawanda Creek (opposite North Tonawanda), 
and on the Erie Canal. Pop. (1900), 7421, of whom 1834 were 
foreign-born; (1910 census), 8290. Tonawanda is served 
by the New York Central & Hudson River and the Erie railways, 
and is connected with Buffalo, Niagara Falls and Lockport by 
electric lines. The industries depend chiefly on electric power 
generated by the Niagara Falls, 11 m. distant. There are rolling- 
mills, planing-mills, ship-yards, and blast-furnaces, and among 
the manufactures are wooden ware, flour and paper. The 
surrounding region was the scene of hostilities during the Seven 
Years' War, and the War of 1812. The first permanent white 
settlement was made about 1809, and Tonawanda was in- 
corporated as a village in 1854 and was chartered as a city in 
1903. The name of the city is an Indian word said to mean 
" swift water." 

TONBRIDGE [TUNBRIDGE], a market town in the Tonbridge 
or south-western parliamentary division of Kent, England, 
295 m. S.S.E. of London by the South Eastern & Chatham 
railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 12,736. It is situated 
on rising ground above the river Medway, which is crossed by a 
stone bridge erected in 1775. The church of St Peter and St 
Paul, chiefly Decorated and Perpendicular, with some portions 
of earlier date, was completely restored in 1879. There are 
remains of an ancient castle, consisting chiefly of a finely pre- 
served gateway, of the Early Decorated period, flanked by two 
round towers. The castle was formerly defended by three 
moats, one of them formed by the Medway. Tonbridge School 
was founded by Sir Andrew Judd, lord mayor of London in 
the time of Edward VI., and was rebuilt in 1865, remodelled 
in 1880, and extended subsequently. Ornamental articles of 
inlaid wood, called Tonbridge ware, chiefly sold at Tunbridge 
Wells, are largely manufactured. There are gunpowder mills 
on the banks of the Medway, and wool-stapling, brewing and 



TONDERN TONE 



tanning are carried on. There is some traffic on the Medway, 
which is navigable for barges. 

Tonbridge owed its early importance to the castle built by 
Richard, earl of Clare, in the reign of Henry I. The castle 
was besieged by William Rufus, was taken by John in the wars 
with the barons, and again by Prince Edward, son of Henry III. 
After being in the possession of the earls of Clare and Hert- 
ford, and of the earls of Gloucester, it became the property of 
the Staffords, and on the attainder of the duke of Bucking- 
ham in the reign of Henry VIII. was taken by the Crown. It 
was dismantled during the Civil War. The lords of the castle 
had the right of attending the archbishops of Canterbury on 
state occasions as chief butlers. 

TONDERN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of 
Schleswig-Holstein, on the Widane, 8 m. from the North Sea at 
Hoyer, opposite the island of Sylt, and 42 m. by rail N.W. from 
Flensburg. Pop. (1900), 4244. Tondern was in early days a 
seaport, but since the reclamation of the marshes and the dredg- 
ing of the Widane navigation has ceased, and vessels load and 
unload at Hoyer, with which the place has direct railway com- 
munication. The trade consists chiefly in agricultural produce 
and cattle, and there is an important horse market. 

In the village of Galhus, lying about 4m. N., were discovered, 
in 1639 an d 1734 respectively, two golden horns of the Scandi- 
navian period; these were stolen in 1802 from tne Museum of 
Northern Antiquities in Copenhagen, where they had been 
treasured, and have never been recovered. 

See Karstens, Die Stadt Tondern (Tondern, 1861). 

TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798), Irish rebel, the 
son of Peter Tone, a Dublin coachmaker, was born in Dublin 
on the aoth of June 1763. His grandfather was a small 
farmer in county Kildare, and his mother was the daughter of 
a captain in the merchant service. Though entered as a student 
at Trinity College, Dublin, Tone gave little attention to study, 
his inclination being for a military career; but after eloping 
with Matilda Witherington, a girl of sixteen, he took his degree 
in 1786, and read law in London at the Middle Temple and after- 
wards in Dublin, being called to the Irish bar in 1789. Though 
idle, Tone had considerable ability. Chagrined at finding no 
notice taken of a wild scheme for founding a military colony 
in the South Seas which he had submitted to Pitt, he turned to 
Irish politics. An able pamphlet attacking the administration 
of the marquess of Buckingham in 1790 brought him to the 
notice of the Whig club; and in September 1791 he wrote a 
remarkable essay over the signature " A Northern Whig," of 
which 10,000 copies are said to have been sold. The principles 
of the French Revolution were at this time being eagerly em- 
braced in Ireland, especially among the Presbyterians of Ulster, 
and two months before the appearance of Tone's essay a great 
meeting had been held in Belfast, where republican toasts 
had been drunk with enthusiasm, and a resolution in favour 
of the abolition of religious disqualifications had given the first 
sign of political sympathy between the Roman Catholics and 
the Protestant dissenters of the north. The essay of "A 
Northern Whig " emphasized the growing breach between the 
Whig patriots like Flood and Grattan, who aimed at Catholic 
emancipation and parliamentary reform without disloyalty 
to the connexion with England, and the men who desired to 
establish a separate Irish republic. Tone expressed in his 
pamphlet unqualified contempt for the constitution which 
Grattan had so triumphantly extorted from the English govern- 
ment in 1782; and, himself a Protestant, he urged co-operation 
between the different religious sects in Ireland as the only 
means of obtaining complete redress of Irish grievances. 

In October 1791 Tone converted these ideas into practical 
policy by founding, in conjunction with Thomas Russell (1767- 
1803), Napper Tandy (q.v.) and others, the society of the " United 
Irishmen." The original purpose of this society was no more 
than the formation of a political union between Roman Catholics 
and Protestants, with a view to obtaining a liberal measure of 
parliamentary reform; it was only when that object appeared 
to be unattainable by constitutional methods that the majority 



of the members adopted the more uncompromising opinions which 
Wolfe Tone held from the first, and conspired to establish an 
Irish republic by armed rebellion. Tone himself admitted 
that with him hatred of England had always been " rather an 
instinct than a principle," though until his views should become 
more generally accepted in Ireland he was prepared to work 
for reform as distinguished from revolution. But he desired 
to root out the popular respect for the names of Charlemont 
and Grattan, and to transfer to more violent leaders the conduct 
of the national movement. Grattan was a reformer and a 
patriot without a tincture of democratic ideas; Wolfe Tone was 
a revolutionary whose principles were drawn from the French 
Convention. Grattan's political philosophy was allied to that 
of Edmund Burke; Tone was a disciple of Danton and Thomas 
Paine. 

Democratic principles were gaining ground among the Roman 
Catholics as well as the Presbyterians. A quarrel between the 
moderate and the more advanced sections of the Roman Catholic 
Committee led, in December 1791, to the secession of sixty-eight 
of the former, led by Lord Kenmare; and the direction of the 
committee then passed to more violent leaders, of whom the 
most prominent was John'Keogh, a Dublin tradesman. The 
active participation of the Roman Catholics in the movement 
of the United Irishmen was strengthened by the appointment 
of Tone as paid secretary of the Roman Catholic Committee in 
the spring of 1792. When the legality of the Roman Catholic 
Convention in 1792 was called in question by the government, 
Tone drew up for the committee a statement of the case on which 
a favourable opinion of counsel was obtained; and a sum of 
1500 with a gold medal was voted to Tone by the Convention 
when it dissolved itself in April 1793. Burke and Grattan were 
anxious that provision should be made for the education of 
Irish Roman Catholic priests at home, to preserve them from 
the contagion of Jacobinism in France; Wolfe Tone, " with an 
incomparably juster forecast," as Lecky observes, " advocated 
the same measure for exactly opposite reasons." He rejoiced 
that the breaking up of the French schools by the revolution 
had rendered necessary the foundation of Maynooth College, 
which he foresaw would draw the sympathies of the clergy into 
more democratic channels. In 1794 the United Irishmen, 
persuaded that their scheme of universal suffrage and equal 
electoral districts was not likely to be accepted by any party in 
the Irish parliament, began to found their hopes on a French 
invasion. An English clergyman named William Jackson, a 
man of infamous notoriety who had long lived in France, where 
he had imbibed revolutionary opinions, came to Ireland to 
negotiate between the French committee of public safety and 
the United Irishmen. For this emissary Tone drew up a 
memorandum on the state of Ireland, which he described as 
ripe for revolution; the paper was betrayed to the government 
by an attorney named Cockayne to whom Jackson had impru- 
dently disclosed his mission; and in April 1794 Jackson was 
arrested on a charge of treason. Several of the leading United 
Irishmen, including Reynolds and Hamilton Rowan, immediately 
fled the country; the papers of the United Irishmen were seized; 
and for a time the organization was broken up. Tone, who had 
not attended meetings of the society since May 1793, remained 
in Ireland till after the trial and suicide of Jackson in April 
1795. Having friends among the government party, including 
members of the Beresford family, he was enabled to make terms 
with the government, and in return for information as to what 
had passed between Jackson, Rowan and himself he was per- 
mitted to emigrate to America, where he arrived in May 1795. 
Taking up his residence at Philadelphia, he wrote a few months 
later to Thomas Russell expressing unqualified dislike of the 
American people, whom he was disappointed to find no more 
truly democratic in sentiment and no less attached to order and 
authority than the English; he described George Washington 
as a " high-flying aristocrat," and he found the aristocracy of 
money in America still less to his liking than the European 
aristocracy of birth. 

Tone did not feel himself bound in honour by his compact 



TONGA 



with the government at home to abstain from further conspiracy ; 
and finding himself at Philadelphia in the congenial company 
of Reynolds, Rowan and Napper Tandy, he undertook a mission 
to Paris to persuade the French government to send an expedi- 
tion to invade Ireland. In February 1796 he arrived in Paris 
and had interviews with De La Croix and L. N. M. Carnot, who 
were greatly impressed by his energy, sincerity and ability. A 
commission was given him as adjutant-general in the French 
army, which he hoped might protect him from the penalty of 
treason in the event of capture by the English; though he himself 
claimed the authorship of a proclamation said to have been issued 
by the United Irishmen, enjoining that all Irishmen taken with 
arms in their hands in the British service should be instantly 
shot ; and he supported a project for landing a thousand criminals 
in England, who were to be commissioned to burn Bristol and 
commit any other atrocity in their power. He drew up two 
memorials representing that the landing of a considerable 
French force in Ireland would be followed by a general rising 
of the people, and giving a detailed account of the condition of 
the country. The French directory, which possessed informa- 
tion from Lord Edward Fitzgerald (q.v.) and Arthur O'Connor 
confirming Tone, prepared to despatch an expedition under 
Hoche. On the 15th of December 1796 the expedition, consist- 
ing of forty-three sail and carrying about 15,000 men with a 
large supply of war material for distribution in Ireland, sailed 
from Brest. Tone, who accompanied it as " Adjutant-general 
Smith," had the greatest contempt for the seamanship of the 
French sailors, which was amply justified by the disastrous 
result of the invasion. Returning to France without having 
effected anything, Tone served for some months in the French 
army under Hoche; and in June 1797 he took part in prepara- 
tions for a Dutch expedition to Ireland, which was to be sup- 
ported by the French. But the Dutch fleet was detained in the 
Texel for many weeks by unfavourable weather, and before it 
eventually put to sea in October, only to be crushed by Duncan 
in the battle of Camperdown, Tone had returned to Paris; and 
Hoche, the chief hope of the United Irishmen, was dead. Bona- 
parte, with whom Tone had several interviews about this time, 
was much less disposed than Hoche had been to undertake in 
earnest an Irish expedition; and when the rebellion broke out 
in Ireland in 1798 he had started for Egypt. When, therefore, 
Tone urged the directory to send effective assistance to the Irish 
rebels, all that could be promised was a number of small raids 
to descend simultaneously on different points of the Irish coast. 
One of these under Humbert succeeded in landing a force in 
Killala Bay, and gained some success in Connaught before it was 
subdued by Lake and Cornwallis, Wolfe Tone's brother Matthew 
being captured, tried by court-martial, and hanged; a second, 
accompanied by Napper Tandy (q.v.), came to disaster on the 
coast of Donegal; while Wolfe Tone took part in a third, under 
Admiral Bompard, with General Hardy in command of a force 
of about 3000 men, which encountered an English squadron 
near Lough Swilly on the i2th of October 1798. Tone, who was 
on board the " Hoche," refused Bompard's offer of escape in a 
frigate before the action, and was taken prisoner when the 
" Hoche " was forced to surrender. When the prisoners were 
landed a fortnight later Sir George Hill recognized Tone in the 
French adjutant-general's uniform. At his trial by court-martial 
in Dublin, Tone made a manly straightforward speech, avowing 
his determined hostility to England and his design " by fair and 
open war to procure the separation of the two countries," and 
pleading in virtue of his status as a French officer to die by the 
musket instead of the rope. He was, however, sentenced to be 
hanged on the I2th of November; but on the nth he cut his 
throat with a penknife, and on the igth of November 1798 he 
died of the wound. 

Although Wolfe Tone had none of the attributes of greatness, 
" he rises," says Lecky, "far above the dreary level of common- 
place which Irish conspiracy in general presents. The tawdry 
and exaggerated rhetoric; the petty vanity and jealousies; the 
weak sentimentalism; the utter incapacity for proportioning 
means to ends, and for grasping the stern realities of things, 



which so commonly disfigure the lives and conduct even of the 
more honest members of his class, were wholly alien to his nature. 
His judgment of men and things was keen, lucid and masculine, 
and he was alike prompt in decision and brave in action." In 
his later years he overcame the drunkenness that was habitual 
to him in youth ; he developed seriousness of character and unsel- 
fish devotion to what he believed was the cause of patriotism; 
and he won the respect of men of high character and capacity 
in France and Holland. His journals, which were written for 
his family and intimate friends, give a singularly interesting 
and vivid picture of life in Paris in the time of the directory. 
They were published after his death by his son, William Theobald 
Wolfe Tone (1791-1828), who was educated by the French 
government and served with some distinction in the armies of 
Napoleon, emigrating after Waterloo to America, where he died, 
in New York City, on the roth of October 1828. 

See Life of Theobald Wolfe Tone by himself, continued by his son, 
with his political writings, edited by W. T. Wolfe Tone (2 vols., 
Washington, 1826), another edition of which is entitled Auto- 
biography of Theobald Wolfe Tone, edited with introduction by 
R. Barry O'Brien (2 vols., London, 1893) ; R. R. Madden, Lives of 
the United Irishmen (7 vols., London, 1842); Alfred Webb, Com- 
pendium of Irish Biography (Dublin, 1878) ; W. E. H. Lecky, 
History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century, vols. iii., iv., v. (cabinet 
ed., 5 vols., London, 1892). (R. J. M.) 

TONGA, or FRIENDLY ISLANDS (so called by Captain Cook), 
an archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean, about 350 m. S.S.W. 
of Samoa and 250 m. E.S.E. of Fiji. The long chain of islands, 
numbering about 150, though with a collective land area of 
only 385 sq. m., extends from 18 5' to 22 29' S. and 174 to 
176 10' W., and is broken into three groups, viz. the Tonga to 
the south, Hapai (which again is divided into three clusters) in 
the centre and Vavau to the north. The largest island is 
Tongatabu (the Sacred Tonga, Tasman's Amsterdam) in the 
southern group, measuring about 25 by 10 m., and 165 sq. m. 
in area, which contains the capital, Nukualofa. The vegetation 
is rich and beautiful, but the scenery tame, the land seldom rising 
above 60 ft.; Eua (Tasman's Middelburg), 9 m. south-east and 
67 sq. m. in area, is 1078 ft. in extreme height, and much more 
picturesque, being diversified by rocks and woods. Vavau, 
in the northern group, is 55 sq. m. in extent and 300 ft. high. 
Next to these come the coral islands Nomuka and Lifuka in 
the Hapai group; Tofua, 2846 ft., Late or Lette, 1800 ft. and Kao, 
3020 ft. high, which are volcanic and smaller. The numerous 
islets of the central group are very fertile. It is along the western 
side of the northern half of the chain that the line of volcanic 
action is apparent; the islands here (of which some are active 
volcanoes) are lofty. To the east the whole chain is bounded 
by a profound trough in the ocean bed, which extends south- 
westward, east of the Kermadec Islands, towards New Zealand. 
The majority of the Tonga Islands, however, are level, averaging 
40 ft. high, with hills rising to 600 ft.; their sides are generally 
steep. The surface is covered with a rich mould unusual in 
coral islands, mixed towards the sea with sand, and having a 
substratum of red or blue clay. The soil is thus very productive, 
although water is scarce and bad. Barrier reefs are rare; 
fringing reefs are numerous, except on the east side, which is 
nearly free, and there are many small isolated reefs and volcanic 
banks among the islands. If the reefs impede navigation they 
form some good harbours. The best is on the south-western side 
of Vavau; another is on the north of Tongatabu. Earthquakes 
are not infrequent. From 1845 to 1857 volcanic eruptions were 
very violent, and islands once fertile were devastated and nearly 
destroyed. A new island rose from the sea, and was at once 
named " Wesley," but disappeared again. In 1886 there was 
a serious volcanic eruption in the outlying island of Niuafoou, 
and at the same time Falcon Reef, normally awash at high water, 
discharged sufficient scoriae and pumice to form a new island 
50 ft. high. In 1898 the island had been washed away, but in 
1900 H.M.S. " Porpoise " found that a solid core of black rock 
had been extruded 6 ft. above high water. All the volcanoes 
in the group were then quiescent. 

Geology. The line of volcanic action extends along the western side 
of the northern half of the chain. Some of the islands are built of 



TONGA 



volcanic rocks alone; such are Hongu-tonga and Hongu-hapai, which 
appear to be fragments of a single ancient crater, Tofua, Kao, Late, 
Metis, Amargua and Falcon Island. The lava is a basic au'gite- 
andesite. Another group of islands consists of elevated masses of 
submarine volcanic deposits, upon some of which coral-reef limestone 
forms a more or less complete covering; such are Tonumeia and the 
Nomuka group (Mango, Tonua, Nomuka-iki). All the volcanic rocks 
of these islands are submarine stratified tuffs which are penetrated 
here and there by andesite or diabase dikes. The Vavau group 
consists entirely of coral limestone, which is occasionally crystalline, 
and contains stalactitic caves of great beauty. 

Climate, Flora, Fauna. The climate is healthy for Europeans, 
being dry and cool as compared with that of Samoa and Fiji. There 
are frequent alternations of temperature, which averages 75 to 
77 F., though considerably higher in the wet season. Cool south- 
east trade winds blow, sometimes with great violence, from April 
to December. During the rest of the year the winds blow from 
west-north-west and north, with rain and occasional destructive 
hurricanes. A cyclone which devastated Vavau in April 1900 was the 
most destructive ever recorded in the group, but hurricanes are rare. 
The average rainfall for the year is about 80 ins. The vegetation 
is similar to that of Fiji, but more definitely Indo-Malayan in 
character; it embraces all the plants of the groups to the east with 
many that are absent there. Ferns abound*, some of them peculiar, 
and tree ferns on the higher islands, and all the usual fruit trees 
and cultivated plants of the Pacific are found. There are several 
kinds of valuable timber trees. The only indigenous land mammalia 
are a small rat and a few curious species of bats. The dog and the 
pig were no doubt introduced by man. Of birds some 30 kinds 
are known, an owl being the only bird of prey; parrots, pigeons, 
kingfishers, honey-suckers, rails, ducks, and other water birds are 
numerous. There are snakes and small lizards, but no frogs or 
toads. Of insects there are relatively few kinds; but ants, beetles 
and mosquitoes abound. The fishes, of an Indo-Malay type, are 
varied and numerous. Turtle and sea-snakes abound, as do mollusca, 
of which a few are peculiar, and zoophytes. 

Inhabitants. The population of the archipelago is about 
19,000, of whom about 370 are whites or half-castes. The 
natives, a branch of the Polynesian race, are the most progressive 
and most intellectual in the Pacific Islands, except the 
Hawaiians. They have exercised an influence over distant 
neighbours, especially in Fiji, quite out of proportion to their 
numbers. Their conquests have extended as far as Niu6, or 
Savage Island, 200 m. east, and to various other islands to the 
north. In Captain Cook's time Poulaho, the principal chief, 
considered Samoa to be within his dominions. This pre- 
eminence may perhaps be due to an early infusion of Fijian 
blood: it has been observed that such crosses are always more 
vigorous than the pure races in these islands; and this influence 
seems also traceable in the Tongan dialect, and appears to have 
been partially transmitted thence to the Samoan. Various 
customs, traditions and names of places also point to a former 
relation with Fiji. Their prior conversion to Christianity gave 
the Tongans material as well as moral advantages over their 
neighbours. Crime is infrequent, and morality, always above 
the Polynesian average, has improved. The people have strict 
notions of etiquette and gradations of rank. In disposition 
they are amiable and courteous, but arrogant, lively, inquisitive 
and inclined to steal their attacks in earlier days on Europeans, 
when not caused by misunderstandings, being due probably 
to their coveting property which to them was of immense value. 
They are brave and not unenergetic, though the soft climate 
and the abundance of food discourage industry. They value 
children, and seldom practised infanticide, and cannibalism was 
rare. Their women are kindly treated, and only do the lighter 
work. Agriculture, which is well understood, is the chief 
industry. They are bold and skilful sailors and fishermen; 
other trades, as boat and house building, carving, cooking, net 
and mat making, are usually hereditary. Their houses are 
slightly built, but the surrounding ground and roads are laid 
out with great care and taste. 

There were formerly (till the early l8th century) two sovereigns; 
the higher of these, called Tui Tonga (chief of Tonga), was greatly 
reverenced but enjoyed little power. The real ruler and the chief 
officers of _the state were members of the Tubou family, from which 
also the wife of the Tui Tonga was always chosen, whose descendants 
through the female line had special honours and privileges, under 
the title of tamaha, recalling the vasu of Fiji. The explanation 
of the dual kingship is probably this the Tui Tonga were regarded 
as the direct descendants of the original head of the family from 
which the people sprang; regarded with reverence, and possessing 



unlimited power, they came to misuse this and discontent resulted, 
whereupon, to protect themselves, they appointed an executive 
deputy. Below these came the Eiki or chiefs, and next to them the 
class called Matabule. These were the hereditary counsellors and 
companions of the chiefs, and conveyed to the people the decisions 
formed at their assemblies. They also directed the national cere- 
monies, and preserved the popular traditions. While, under the 
control of Europeans, the Tongans have shown some aptitude for 
administration, they fail when left to themselves. They pick up 
superficial acquirements with astonishing ease, but seem to be 
incapable of mastering any subject. They write shorthand, but 
speak no English; they have a smattering of higher mathematics, 
yet are ignorant of book-keeping. Their government, effective 
enough when dealing with natives, breaks down in all departments 
concerned with Europeans, and becomes the prey of designing 
traders. Their ambition is to rank as a civilized state, and the 
flattery lavished on them by their teachers has spoiled them. 

There are some ancient stone remains in Tongatabu, burial places 
(feitoka) built with great blocks, and a remarkable monument 
consisting of two large upright blocks morticed to carry a transverse 
one, on which was formerly a circular basin of stone. 

Administration and Trade. In May 1900 the group became a 
British protectorate under the native flag, the appointment of 
the consul and agent being transferred to the government of 
New Zealand. In 1904 the financial and legal administration 
was put into the hands of the British High Commissioner for 
the Western Pacific. The native king is assisted by a legislative 
assembly consisting, in equal numbers, of hereditary nobles and 
popular (elected) representatives. The wisdom of King George 
Tubou in refusing to alienate an acre of land, except upon lease, 
has resulted in Tonga having been the last native state in the 
Pacific to lose its independence. There is a revenue of about 
21,000 annually derived chiefly from a poll-tax, leases and 
customs. The principal exports are copra, bananas, oranges and 
fungus, and the annual values of exports and imports are 80,000 
and 70,000 respectively on an average, though both fluctuate 
considerably. British coin is legal tender (since 1905). There 
are five churches in Tonga the Free Wesleyans, embracing the 
great majority of the inhabitants, Wesleyans, Roman Catholics, 
and Seventh Day Adventists. These last are few; a still smaller 
number of natives are nominally Anglicans. 

History. In 1616 the vessels of Jacob Lemaire and Willem 
Cornelis Schouten reached the island of Niuatobutabu, and had 
a hostile encounter with the natives. In 1643 Abel Tasman 
arrived at Tongatabu and was more fortunate. The next visit 
was that of Samuel Wallis in 1767, followed in 1773 by that of 
Captain Cook. In 1777 Cook returned, and stayed seven weeks 
among the islands. In 1799 a revolution, having its origin in 
jealousy between two natives of high rank, broke out. Civil 
war dragged on for many years long after the deaths of the 
first leaders but Taufaahau, who became king in 1845 under 
the name of George Tubou I., proved a strong ruler. In 1822 
a Methodist missionary had arrived in the island, and others 
followed. The attempt to introduce a new faith led to renewed 
strife, this time between converts and pagans, but King George 
(who fully appreciated the value of intercourse with foreigners) 
supported the missionaries, and by 1852 the rebels were subdued. 
The missionaries, finding their position secure, presently began 
to take action in political affairs, and persuaded the king to 
grant a constitution to the Tongans, who welcomed it with a 
kind of childish enthusiasm, but were far from fitted to receive 
it. A triennial parliament, a cabinet, a privy council, and an 
elaborate judicial system were established, and the cumbrous 
machinery was placed in the hands of a " prime minister," a 
retired Wesleyan missionary, Mr Shirley Baker. Treaties of 
friendship were concluded with Germany, Great Britain, and 
the United States of America. Baker induced the king to break 
off his connexion with the Wesleyan body in Sydney, and to set 
up a state church. Persecution of members of the old church 
followed, and in 1890 the missionary-premier had to be removed 
from the group by the high commissioner. He afterwards 
returned to initiate a new sect called the " Free Church of 
England," which for a time created further divisions among the 
people. 

King George Tubou died in 1893 at the age of ninety-six, and 
was succeeded by his great-grandson under the same title. 



TONGKING 



Mr Basil Thomson (who after Baker's deportation had carried 
out reforms which the natives, when left alone, were incapable 
of maintaining) was sent in 1900 to conclude the treaty by 
which the king placed his kingdom under British protection. 

See Captain Cook's Voyages and other early narratives; Martin, 
Mariner's account of the Tonga Islands (Edinburgh, 1827) ; Vason, 
Four Years in Tongatabu (London, 1815) ; A. Monfort, Les Tonga, ou 
Archipel des Amis (Lyons, 1893); B. H. Thomson, The Diversions 
of a Prime Minister (London, 1894). 

TONGKING, 1 a province of French Indo-China, and protec- 
torate of France, situated between 20 and 235 N. and 102 and 
1085 E., and bounded N. by the Chinese provinces of Kwang- 
Tung, Kwang-Si and Yun-nan, W. by Laos, S. by Annam, and 
E. by the Gulf of Tongking. Area, about 46,000 sq. m. The 
population is estimated at 6,000,000, including 33,000 Chinese 
and about 4000 Europeans. Geographically, Tongking com- 
prises three regions: (i) the delta of the Song-Koi (Red river), 
which, beginning at Son-Tay and coalescing with the delta of 
the Thai-Binh, widens out into the low-lying and fertile plain 
within which are situated the principal cities. (2) Two moun- 
tainous tracts, to the north and west of the delta, running 
approximately from north-west to south-east, one separating 
the basins of the Song-Koi and the Canton river, the other those 
of the Song-Koi and the Mekong. (3) A region of plateaus 
and low hills forming a transition between the delta and the 
mountains. The main geographical feature in the country is 
the Song-Koi, which, taking its rise near Tali Fu, in Yun-nan, 
enters Tongking at Lao-Kay (the Lao boundary), and flows 
thence in a south-easterly direction to the Gulf of Tongking. 
It was this river which mainly, in the first instance, attracted the 
French to Tongking, as it was believed by the explorers that, 
forming the shortest route by water to the rich province of 
Yun-nan, it would prove also to be the most convenient and 
expeditious means of transporting the tin, copper, silver and 
gold which are known to abound there. This belief, however, 
has proved fallacious. The upper course of the stream is 
constantly impeded by rapids, the lowest being about thirty 
miles above Hung-Hoa. Beyond Lao-Kay navigation is 
impracticable during the dry season, and at all other times of 
the year goods have to be there transferred into light junks. 
Below Lao-Kay larger junks, and in the summer months steam 
launches of shallow draught use the river. Within the limits 
of Yun-nan the navigation is still more difficult. Near Son-Tay 
the Song-Koi receives the waters of the Song-Bo (Black 
river) and the Song-Ka (Clear river), parallel affluents 
rising in Yun-nan, and from that point divides into a network of 
waterways which empty themselves by countless outlets into 
the sea. The Song-Cau rises in north-eastern Tongking and 
below the town of Sept Pagodes, where it is joined by the Song- 
Thuong to form the Thai-Binh, divides into numerous branches, 
communicating with the Song-Koi by the Canal des Rapides 
and the Canal des Bambous. 

The coast line of Tongking from Mon-Kay on the Chinese 
frontier to Thanh-Hoa, near that of Annam, has a length of 
375 m. From Mon-Kay as far as the estuary of the Song-Koi it 
is broken, rugged and fringed with islands and rocky islets. The 
bay of Tien-Hien, to the south of which lies the island of Ke-Bao, 
and the picturesque bay of Along, are the chief indentations. 
Beyond the island of Cac-Ba, south of the Bay of Along, the coast 
is low, flat and marshy, and tends to advance as the alluvial 
deposits of the delta accumulate. 

The climate of Tongking is less trying to Europeans than that 
of the rest of French Indo-China. During June, July and August, 
the temperature ranges between 82 and 100 F., but from October 
to May the weather is cool. The country is subject to typhoons in 
August and September. 

In the wooded regions of the mountains the tiger, elephant 
and panther are found, and wild buffalo, deer and monkeys are 
common. The delta is the home of ducks and many other varieties 
of aquatic birds. Tea, cardamom, and mulberry grow wild, and 
in general the flora approximate to that of southern China. 

The Annamese (see ANNAM), who form the bulk of the population 
of Tongking, are of a somewhat better physique than those of the 



1 See also INDO-CHINA, FRENCH, and ANNAM. 



rest of Indo-China. Savage tribes inhabit the northern districts 
the Muongs the mountains bordering the Black river, the Th6s the 
regions bordering the Clear river and the Thai-Binh. The Muongs 
are bigger and stronger than the Annamese. They have square 
foreheads, large faces and prominent cheek-bones, and their eyes are 
often almost straight. 

Rice, which in some places furnishes two crops annually, is incom- 
parably the most important product of the delta. Elsewhere there 
are plantations of coffee, tobacco, ramie, paper-tree (Daphne odora), 
cotton, jute, sugar-cane, pepper and mulberry. The cultivation 
of silkworms is of growing importance. 

Gold, copper, tin, lead and other metals are found in the higher 
regions of Tongking, but only gold and tin are exploited, and these 
only to a very limited extent. There is a large output of coal of 
inferior quality from Hon-Gay on the bay of Along and there are 
coal-workings on the island of Ke-Bao. 

Hanoi, Hai-phong and Nam-Dinh carry on cotton-spinning, and 
Hanoi and Nam-Dinh are well known for the manufacture of carved 
and inlaid furniture. The natives are skilful at enamelling and the 
chasing and ornamentation of gold and other metals. The manu- 
facture of paper from the fibrous bark of the paper-tree is a wide- 
spread industry and there are numerous distilleries of rice-spirit. 

The imports of Tongking, which in 1905 reached a value of 
3,501,422, comprise railway material, cereals, flour, liquors, woven 
goods, petroleum, glassware, paper, prepared skins, clocks and 
watches, arms and ammunition, &c. Exports (valued at 1,393,674 
in 1905) comprise rice, rubber, manila hemp, ramie, lacquer and 
badian oils, raw skins, silk-waste, coal, Chinese drugs, rattan, mats, 
gamboge. 

The transit trade via Tongking between Hong-Kong and the 
province of Yun-nan in southern China is of considerable importance, 
reaching in 1905 a value of 1,146,000. This trade is entirely in 
the hands of Chinese houses, the tin of the Yun-nan mines and 
cotton yarns from Hong-Kong constituting its most important 
elements. Goods in transit enjoy a rebate of 80% of the customs 
duties. Goods are carried on the Song-Koi to Lao-Kay or Man-Hao, 
thence on mules. The waterways of the delta are lined with em- 
bankments, the causeways along which form the chief means of land 
communication of the region. (For railways, see INDO-CHINA, 
FRENCH.) 

The protectorate of Tongking approaches nearer to direct admin- 
istration than that of Annam, where the conditions of the protector- 
ate are more closely observed. Till 1897 the emperor of Annam 
was represented in Tongking by a viceroy (kinh-luoc), but now the 
native officials are appointed by and are directly under the control 
of the resident-superior, who resides at Hanoi, presides over [the (pro- 
tectorate council, and is the chief territorial representative of France. 
Tongking is divided into nineteen provinces, in each of which 
there is a resident or a vice-resident, and four military territories, 
the latter administered by commandants. In each province there 
is a council of native " notables," elected by natives and occupied 
with the discussion of the provincial budget and public works. 
There is also a deliberative council of natives (instituted 1907) fof 
the whole of Tongking. The provincial administration, local 
government and educational system are analogous to those of Annam 
(g.t;.). Two chambers of the court of appeal of Indo-China and a 
criminal court sit at Hanoi; there are tribunals of first instance and 
tribunals of commerce at Hanoi and Hai-Phong. When both 
parties to a suit are Annamese, it comes within the jurisdiction of 
the An-Sat or native judge of the province. 

The following is a summary of the budgets of 1899 and 1904: 





Receipts. 


Expenditure. 


1899 
1904 



461,235 
756,648 



427,993 
494,034 



The chief source of revenue is the direct taxes (including especially 
the poll-tax and land-tax), which amounted in 1904 to 417,723, 
while the chief items of expenditure are the cost of the residencies 
and general staff, public works and the civil guard. 

For the early history of Tongking, see ANNAM and INDO-CHINA, 
FRENCH. Tongking was loosely united to Annam until 1801, 
when Gia-long, king of Annam, brought it definitely under his 
sway. Having, by the treaty of 1862 and the annexation of 
Cochin China, firmly established themselves in Annames* 
territory, the French began to turn their attention to Tongking, 
attracted by the reported richness of its mineral wealth. They 
found a pretext for interfering in its affairs in the disturbances 
arising from the invasion of its northern provinces by the 
disbanded followers of the Taiping rebels. The Franco-German 
War of 1870-71 put an end to the project for a time, but the 
return of peace in Europe was the signal for the renewal of hos- 
tilities in the East. The appearance of Garnier's work on his 
expedition up the Mekong again aroused an interest in Tongking, 



TONGKING 



and the reported wealth of the country added the powerful 
motive of self-interest to the yearnings of patriotism. Already 
Jean Dupuis, a trader who in the pursuit of his calling had 
penetrated into Yun-nan, was attempting to negotiate for the 
passage up the Song-Koi of himself and a cargo of military stores 
for the Chinese authorities in Yun-nan. Meanwhile Captain 
Senez appeared from Saigon, having received instructions to 
open the route to French commerce. But to neither the trader 
nor the naval officer would the Tongkingese lend a favourable 
ear, and in default of official permission Dupuis determined to 
force his way up the river. This he succeeded in doing, but 
arrived too late, for he found the Taiping rebellion crushed and 
the stores no longer wanted. 

On the return of Dupuis to Hanoi, the Tongkingese general 
at that place wrote to the king of Annam, begging him to induce 
the governor of Cochin-China to remove the intruder. An order 
was thereupon issued calling upon Dupuis to leave the country. 
This he declined to do, and, after some negotiations, Francis 
Gamier with a detachment was sent to Hanoi to do the best 
he could in the difficult circumstances. Gamier threw himself 
heart and soul into Dupuis's projects, and, when the Tongkingese 
authorities refused to treat with him except on the subject of 
Dupuis's expulsion, he attacked the citadel in November, 1873, 
and carried it by assault. Having thus secured his position, 
he sent to Saigon for reinforcements, and meanwhile sent small 
detachments against the five other important fortresses in the 
delta (Hung-yen, Phu-Ly, Hai-Duong, Ninh-Binh and Nam- 
Dinh), and captured them all. The Tongkingese now called in 
the help of Lu-Vinh-Phuoc, the leader of the " Black Flags," l 
who at once marched with a large force to the scene of action. 
Within a few days he recaptured several villages near Hanoi, 
and so threatening did his attitude appear that Gamier, who had 
hurried back after capturing Nam-Dinh, made a sortie from the 
citadel. The movement proved a disastrous one, and resulted 
in the death of Gamier and of his second in command, Balny 
d'Avricourt. 

Meanwhile the news of Garnier's hostilities had alarmed the 
governor of Saigon, who, having no desire to be plunged into a 
war, sent Philastre, an inspector of native affairs, to offer 
apologies to the king of Annam. When, however, on arriving 
in Tongking Philastre heard of Garnier's death, he took command 
of the French forces, and at once ordered the evacuation of 
Nam-Dinh, Ninh-Binh and Hai-Duong a measure which, 
however advantageous it may have been to the French at the 
moment, was most disastrous to the native Christian population, 
the withdrawal of the French being the signal for a general 
massacre of the converts. In pursuance of the same policy 
Philastre made a convention with the authorities (March, 1874) 
by which he bound his countrymen to withdraw from the occu- 
pation of the country, retaining only the right to trade on the 
Song-Koi and at Hanoi and Hai-Phong, and agreed to put an 
end to Dupuis's aggressive action. 

For a time affairs remained in stai/u quo, but in 1882 Le Myre 
deVillers, the governor of Cochin-China, sent Henri Riviere with 
a small force to open up the route to Yun-nan by the Song-Koi. 
With a curious similarity the events of Garnier's campaign were 
repeated. Finding the authorities intractable, Riviere stormed 
and carried the citadel of Hanoi, and then, with very slight loss, 
he captured Nam-Dinh, Hai-Duong, and other towns in the delta. 
And once again these victories brought the Black Flags into 
the neighbourhood of Hanoi. As Gamier had done, so Riviere 
hurried back from Nam-Dinh on news of the threatened danger. 
Like Gamier also he headed a sortie against his enemies, and like 
Gamier he fell a victim to nis own impetuosity (May, 1883). 

In the meantime the Annamese court had been seeking to 
enlist the help of the Chinese in their contest with the French. 
The tie which bound the tributary nation to the sovereign state 
had been for many generations slackened or drawn closer as 
circumstances determined, but it had never been entirely 
dissevered, and from the Annamese point of view this was one 

1 Bands of Chinese rebels who infested the mountainous region of 
Tongking. 



of the occasions when it was of paramount importance that it 
should be acknowledged and acted upon. With much more 
than usual regularity, therefore, the king despatched presents 
and letters to the court of Peking, and in 1880 he sent a special 
embassy, loaded with unusually costly offerings, and bearing a 
letter in which his position of a tributary was emphatically 
asserted. Far from ignoring the responsibility thrust upon him, 
the emperor of China ordered the publication of the letter in the 
Peking Gazette. 

The death of Riviere and the defeat of his troops had placed 
the French in a position of extreme difficulty. M. Jules Ferry, 
who had become premier of France in February 1883, determined 
on a vigorous forward policy. But for the moment the outlying 
garrisons, except those of Nam-Dinh and Hai-Phong, had to 
be withdrawn and Hanoi itself was besieged by the Black Flags. 
Reinforcements brought by Admiral Courbet and General Bouet 
were insufficient to do more than keep them at bay. So con- 
tinued was the pressure on the garrison that Bouet determined 
to make an advance upon Son-Tay to relieve the blockade. .He 
attacked Vong, a fortified village, but he met with such resistance 
that, after suffering considerable loss, he was obliged to retreat 
to Hanoi. In the lower delta fortune sided with the French, 
and almost without a casualty Hai-Duong and Phu-Binh fell 
into their hands. Meanwhile, in order to put more effective 
pressure upon the court of Hue, Dr Harmand, commissary- 
general, supported by Courbet, proceeded with a naval force to 
the Hue river. They found that, though King Tu Due was dead, 
his policy of resistance was maintained, and therefore stormed 
the city. After a feeble defence it was taken, and Harmand 
concluded a treaty with the king (August 1883) in which the 
French protectorate was fully recognized, the king further 
binding himself to recall the Annamese troops serving in Tong- 
king, and to construct a road from Saigon to Hanoi. 

Though this treaty was exacted from Annam under pressure, 
the French lost no time in carrying out that part of it which 
gave them the authority to protect Tongking, and Bouet again 
advanced in the direction of Son-Tay. But again the resistance 
he met with compelled him to retreat, after capturing the fortified 
post of Palan. Meanwhile, on the determination to attack 
Son-Tay becoming known in Paris, the Chinese ambassador 
warned the ministry that, since Chinese troops formed part of 
the garrison, he should consider it as tantamount to a declaration 
of war. But his protest met with no consideration. On the 
arrival of reinforcements an advance was again made; and on the 
i6th of December 1883, after some desperate fighting, Son-Tay 
fell. 

During 1884 the French made themselves masters of the lower 
delta. Throughout the campaign Chinese regulars fought 
against the French, who thus found themselves involved in war 
with China. While hostilities were in progress M. Fournier, (he 
French consul at Tientsin, had been negotiating for peace, so 
far as China was concerned, with Li Hung-chang, and in May 
1884 had signed and sealed a memorandum by which the 
Chinese plenipotentiary agreed that the Chinese troops should 
evacuate the northern provinces of Tongking " immediatement." 
In the following month another treaty, signed at Hue, confirmed 
the French protectorate over Annam and Tongking. It was 
not, however, followed by a cessation of military operations. 
A misunderstanding arose between the French and the Chinese 
as to the exact date for the evacuation of their posts by the 
Chinese, and in June General Millot, then commander-in-chief of 
the French forces, dispatched Colonel Dugenne at the head of 
a strong force to occupy Lang-Son. The expedition was badly 
arranged; the baggage train was far too unwieldy; and the pace 
at which the men were made to march was too quick for that 
scorching time of the year. They advanced, however, to Bac-Le, 
within 25 m. of Lang-Son, when they suddenly came upon a 
Chinese camp. An irregular engagement began, and, in the 
pitched battle which ensued, the Chinese broke the French lines, 
and drove them away in headlong flight. This brought the 
military operations for the season to a close. 

During the rainy season fevers of all kinds became alarmingly 



TONGS TONGUE 



prevalent, and the number of deaths and of men invalided 
was very large. In the meantime, however, an expedition, led 
by Colonel Donnier, against the Chinese garrison at Chu, about 
10 m. south-east from Lang-kep, was completely successful; 
and in a battle fought near Chu the Chinese were defeated, with 
a loss of 3000 killed, the French loss being only 20 killed and 90 
wounded. In the skirmishes which followed the French were 
generally victorious, but not to such a degree as to warrant any 
enlargement of the campaign. 

In January 1885 large reinforcements arrived and Briere 
de 1'Isle, who had succeeded Millot as commander-in-chief, 
ordered an advance towards Lang-Son. The difficulties of 
transport greatly impeded his movements, still the expedition 
was successful. On the 6th of February three forts at Dong- 
Song, with large supplies of stores and ammunition, fell into the 
hands of the French. Three days' heavy fighting made them 
masters of a defile on the road, and on the i3th Lang-Son was 
taken, the garrison having evacuated the town just before the 
entrance of the conquerors. With his usual energy General 
Negrier, who commanded a division under Briere de 1'Isle, 
pressed on in pursuit to Ki-Hea, and even captured the frontier 
town of Cua-Ai. But Briere de 1'Isle had now to hurry back 
to the relief of Tuyen-Kwan, which was doggedly resisting the 
attacks of an overwhelming Chinese force, and Negrier was left 
in command at Lang-Son. The withdrawal of Briere de ITsle's 
division gave the Chinese greater confidence, and, though for a 
time Negrier was able to hold his own, on the 22nd and 23rd of 
March he sustained a severe check between Lang-Son and 
That-Ke, which was finally converted into a complete rout, 
his troops being obliged to retreat precipitately through Lang- 
Son to Than-Moi and Dong-Song. Briere de 1'Isle reached 
Tuyen-Kwan, the garrison of which was commanded by Colonel 
Domine, on the 3rd of March, and effected its relief. The 
disaster at Lang-Son caused the downfall of the Ferry ministry 
(March 30). Shortly afterwards Sir Robert Hart succeeded 
in negotiating peace with China. By the terms agreed on at 
Tientsin (June, 1885), it was stipulated that France was to take 
Tongking and Annam under its protection and to evacuate 
Formosa and the Pescadores. (For further history, see INDO- 
CHINA.) 

See J. Dupuis, Le Tong-kin et I' intervention fran^aise (Paris, 
1898); C. B. Norman, Tonkin or France in the Far East (London, 
1884); Prince Henri d'Orl&ms, Autour du Tonkin (Paris, 1896); 
J. Ferry, Le Tonkin et la mere-palrie (Paris, 1890); J. Chailley, 
Paul Bert au Tonkin (Paris, 1887) ; E. Lunet de Lajonquiere, 
Ethnographic du Tonkin Septentrional (Paris, 1906) ; A. Gaisman, 
L'CEuvre de la France au Tonkin (Paris, 1906) ; also the bibliography 
under INDO-CHINA, FRENCH. 

TONGS (O. Eng. tange, M. Eng. longe, cf. Du. tang, Ger. Zange, 
from base tang, to bite, cf. Gr. SaKveiv), a gripping and lifting 
instrument, of which there are many forms adapted to their 
specific use. Some are merely large pincers or nippers, but the 
greatest number fall into three classes: the first, as in the com- 
mon fire-tongs, used for picking up pieces of coal and placing 
them on a fire, which have long arms terminating in small fiat 
circular grippers and are pivoted close to the handle; the second, 
as in the sugar-tongs, asparagus tongs, and the like, consisting 
of a single band of metal bent round or of two bands joined at 
the head by a spring, and third, such as the blacksmith's tongs 
or the crucible-tongs, in which the pivot or joint is placed close 
to the gripping ends. A special form of tongs is that known as 
the " lazy-tongs," consisting of a pair of grippers at the end of a 
series of levers pivoted together like scissors, the whole being 
closed or extended by the movement of the handles communi- 
cated to the first set of levers and thence to the grippers, the 
whole forming an extensible pair of tongs for gripping and lifting 
things at a distance. 

TONGUE (O. Eng. tunge), in anatomy, a movable organ 
situated in the floor of the mouth, and serving for the sensation 
of taste besides helping in the mastication of food, in articulate 
speech, and in feeling the exact position of any structure 
within the mouth. 

The tongue is divided into a main part or body, a base which 



looks backward toward the pharynx, a dorsum or upper surface, 
a root by which it is attached to the hyoid bone and floor of the 
mouth, a tip which is free and an inferior free surface in contact 
with the front part of the floor of the mouth and with the lower 
incisor teeth. Owing to the large amount of muscle in its com- 
position the shape of the tongue varies considerably from time 
to time. The dorsum of the tongue is covered by stratified 
squamous epithelium, and, when at rest, is convex both antero- 
posteriorly and transversely; it is thickly studded with papillae, 
of which four kinds are recognized. 

Filiform papillae are minute conical projections covering the 
whole of the dorsum, by which term the true upper surface is 
meant, as well as the tip and borders of the tongue. They are very 
numerous and contain a short core of subepithelial mucous mem- 
brane covered by a thick coating of epithelial cells, which coating 
may divide at its tip into a number of thread-like processes. 

Fungiform papillae are less numerous than the last, and somewhat 
resemble "button mushrooms"; they generally contain special 
taste buds. 

Circumiiallate papillae are usually from seven to ten in number 
and are arranged in the form of a V, the apex of which points down 
the throat. They lie quite at the back of the upper surface of the 
tongue and each consists of a little flat central mound surrounded 
by a deep moat, the outer wall of which is slightly raised above the 
surface, and it is to this that the papillae owe their name. Both 
sides of the moat have taste buds embedded in them, while into the 
bottom small serous glands open. 

Foliate papillae are only vestigial in man and consist of a series 
of vertical ridges occupying a small oval area on each side of the 
tongue near its base and just in front of the attachment of the 
anterior pillars of the fauces. (See PHARYNX.) 

The posterior surface or base of the tongue forms part of the anterior 
wall of the pharynx and has a quite different appearance to that of 
the dorsum. On it are found numerous circular or oval elevations 
of the mucous membrane caused by lymphoid tissue (lymphoid 
follicles), on the summit of the most of which is a mucous crypt 
or depression. The division between the superior or oral surface 
of the tongue and the posterior or pharyngeal is sharply marked by 
a V-shaped shallow groove called the sulcus terminals which lies 
just behind and parallel to the V-shaped row of circumvallate 
papillae. At the apex of this V is a small blind pit, the foramen 
caecum. 

At the lower part of the pharyngeal surface three folds of mucous 
membrane, called glosso-epiglottic folds, run backward ; the middle 
one passes to the centre of the front of the epiglottis, while the two 
lateral ones, in modern anatomy often called pharyngo-epiglottic 
folds, pass backward and outward to the fossa of the tonsil. 

On the inferior free surface of the tongue, that is to say, the surface 
which is seen when the mouth is looked into and the tongue turned 
up, there is a median fold of mucous membrane called the fraenum 
linguae, which is attached below to the floor of the mouth. On each 
side of this the blue outlines of the ranine veins are seen, while close 
to these a little fold on each side, known as a plica fimbriata, is often 
found. It must not, however, be confused with the plica sublin- 
gualis described in the article MOUTH AND SALIVARY GLANDS. 

The substance of the tongue is composed almost entirely of striped 
muscle fibres which run in different directions. Some of these 
bundles, such as the superficial, deep, transverse and oblique linguales 
are confined to the tongue and are spoken of as intrinsic muscles. 
Other muscles, such as the hyo-glossus, stylo-glossus, &c. come 
from elsewhere and are extrinsic; these are noticed under the head 
of MUSCULAR SYSTEM. The arteries of the tongue are derived 
from the lingual, a branch of the external carotid (see ARTERIES), 
while the veins from the tongue return the blood, by one or more 
veins on each side, into the internal jugular vein (see VEINS). 

The nerves to the tongue are the (i) lingual or gustatory, a branch 
of the fifth (see NERVES .Cranial) which supplies the anterior two- 
thirds with ordinary sensation and also, by means of the chorda 
tymphani which is bound up with it, with taste sensation; (2) 
the glossopharyngeal which supplies the circumvallate papillae 
and posterior third of the tongue with taste and ordinary sensation ; 
(3) a few twigs of the superior laryngeal branch of the vagus to the 
pharyngeal surface of the tongue; and (4) the hypoglossal which is 
the motor nerve to the muscles. 

Embryology. 

The mucous membrane covering the second and third visceral 
arches fuses to form the furcula (see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM). Just 
in front of this a rounded eminence appears at an early date in 
the ventral wall of the pharynx to form the tuberculum impar 
which is separated from the furcula by the depression known as 
the sinus arcuatus. This tuberculum impar gradually grows to 
form the central part of the tongue in front of the foramen 
caecum, while the anterior part of the organ is derived from two 
lateral swellings which appear in the floor of the mouth and surround 
the tuberculum impar antero-laterally. The posterior third, or 
pharyngeal part, is developed from the anterior part of the furcula 



8 



TONGUE 



in the middle line, that is to say from the third visceral arch. The 
sinus arcuatus becomes gradually shallower as these two parts of 
the tongue grow together and eventually is indicated by the sulcus 
terminalis; in the mid line, however, the isthmus of the thyroid 
grows down from it, forming the thyro-glossal duct the remains of 
which are seen in the foramen caecum (see DUCTLESS GLANDS). 
It will be seen that the tongue is developed in connexion with the 
first, second and third visceral arches, and it is therefore to be 
expected that the fifth, seventh and ninth nerves which supply 
those arches would help to supply it, but the vagus from the fourth 
arch reaches it in addition, while the fact that most of the muscular 
substance of the tongue is supplied by the hypoglossal nerve is 
explained on the theory that some of the cervical skeletal muscula- 
ture has grown cephalad into the tongue and has carried its nerve 
with it. 

Comparative Anatomy. 

The tongue is present in fishes but it is an immovable swelling in 
the floor of the mouth and is practically devoid of muscles. In the 
hag (Myxine) among the Cyclostomata, and pike (Esox) among the 



Internal jugular vein 
Spinal accessory nerve 
Digastric muscle | 



Hypoglossal nerve 

Internal carotid artery 
| Pneumogastric nerve 
I | Sympathetic 

Ascending phoryngeal artery 
Odontoid proc 



Styloltyoid 
Glosso- 

pharyngeal nerve 

Parotid gland 

Temporo- 

maxillary vein 

External carotid 

artery 

Slyloglossu 

Ascending 
palatine artery 

Internal pterygoid 
Epiglottis 

Frenulum 
epiglottidis 

Massetei 

Pharyftgeal portioi 
of tongu 



Post-pharyngeal 
lymphatic gland 

Superior 

constrictor muscle 
Posterior palatine 
arch 



Pharyngo-epiglottic 
fold 

Anterior palatine 
arch 



Fuogiform 




Buccinat 



Fungiform papill 



(From Ambrose Birmingham in Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy.} 

Horizontal Section through Mouth and Pharynx at the Level of the Tonsils. 

Teleostei, teeth are developed on the tongue. In the Amphibia 
the tailed forms (Urodela) usually have tongues like fishes, though in 
the genus Spelerpes the organ is very free and can be protruded for 
a great distance. In the majority of the Anura the tongue is usually 
attached close to the front of the floor of the mouth so that it can 
be flapped forward with great rapidity. There are, however, two 
closely allied families of frogs (Xenopodidae and Pipidae) which 
form the order of Aglossa, because in them the tongue is suppressed. 

In the reptiles the tongue is generally very movable, though 
this is not the case in the Crocodilia and many of the Chelonia. The 
forked tongues of snakes and many lizards and the highly specialized 
telescopic tongue of the chameleon are familiar objects. 

In_ birds the tongue is usually covered with horny epithelium 
and is poorly supplied with muscles. When it is very protrusible, 
as in the woodpecker, the movement is due to the hyoid, with the 
base of the tongue attached, moving forward. 

In the Mammalia the tongue is always movable by means of well- 
developed extrinsic and intrinsic muscles, while papillae and glands 
are numerous. The filiform papillae reach their maximum in the 
feline family of the Carnivora where they convert the tongue into 
a rasp by which bones can be licked clean of all flesh attached to 
them. 

Foliate papillae are best seen in the rodents, and when they are 



well developed the circumvallate papillae are few, often only one 
on each side. 

In the lemurs an under tongue or sub lingua is found, which is 
probably represented by the plicae fimbriatae under the human 
tongue, and by some morphologists is regarded as the homologue 
of the whole tongue of the lower vertebrates, the greater part of 
the mammalian tongue being then looked upon as a new formation. 

For further details and literature see R. Wiedersheim's Compara- 
tive Anatomy of Vertebrates, translated by W. N. Parker (London, 
1907) ; C. Gegenbaur, Vergleich. Anat. der Wirbelthiere (Leipzig, 
1901); A. Oppel, Lehrb. vergleich. mikroskop. Anat. der Wirbelthiere, 
Teil 3 (Jena, 1900); Parker and Haswell, Text Book of Zoology 
(London, 1897). (F. G. P.) 

Surgery of the Tongue. 

During infancy it is sometimes noticed that the little band of 
membrane (fraenum) which binds the under part of the tongue 
to the middle line of the floor of the mouth is unusually short. The 
condition will probably, right itself as the front part of the tongue 
takes on its natural growth. In some children the tongue is so 

large that it hangs out of the mouth, 
scratching itself upon the teeth. This 
condition is likely to be associated 
with weak intellect. 

Acute inflammation of the tongue 
may be caused by the sting of a wasp 
or by the entrance of septic germs 
through a wound, and the trouble may 
end in an abscess. 

Chronic inflammation of the tongue 
may be caused by syphilis, by the 
irritation of decayed teeth or of a 
badly-fitting plate of artificial teeth, 
or by excessive smoking. The con- 
dition is one of danger in that it may 
lead eventually to the tongue becom- 
ing the seat of cancer. The treatment 
demands the removal of every source 
of irritation. The teeth must be made 
sound and smooth and must be kept 
so. Smoking must be absolutely and 
entirely given up, and salt, mustard, 
pickles, spirits, aerated waters, and 
everything else which is likely to be a 
cause of irritation must be avoided. 

Cancer of the tongue is the result of 
chronic irritation which produces an 
excessive growth of the scaly covering 
of the tongue and causes an invasion 
of the deeper parts of the tongue by 
the scales. It is more often found in 
men than women and is usually asso- 
ciated with a hard swelling at one side 
of the tongue perhaps near a jagged 
tooth or at the spot where the end of 
the pipe-stem approaches the tongue. 
The nerves of the tongue being caught 
and compressed in the growth, pain 
is constant and severe, and the move- 
ments during mastication cause great 
distress. The swelling gradually in- 
creases in size and, spreading to the 
floor of the mouth, hinders the free 
movements of the tongue. In due 
course it breaks down in the middle 
and a hard-walled ulcer appears. All 
this time the small scales of the cancer 

are finding their way along the lymph-channels and causing a 
secondary enlargement in the glands just below the jaw and along 
the side of the neck. Enlargement of the cervical glands is a very 
serious complication of cancer of the tongue. 

The only treatment for cancer of the tongue which is at present 
known in surgery is the early removal by operation. It not seldom 
happens that because there is a certain amount of doubt as to the 
exact nature of the growth in the early weeks delay in operating 
is reasonably permitted, but during this time there is the risk of 
the cells of the disease finding their way to the lymphatic system. 
Still, inasmuch as there may be great difficulty in determining the 
diagnosis from tertiary syphilitic disease, a course of treatment by 
iodide of potassium may well be recommended. Syphilis is often 
the precursor of lingual cancer, and it is impossible to say exactly 
when the syphilitic lesion becomes malignant. In the case of a 
cancerous tumour of the tongue being so deeply or so widely attached 
that its removal cannot be recommended, relief may be afforded by 
the extraction of most, or all of the teeth, by limiting the food to the 
most simple and unirritating kinds, and possibly by dividing the 
great sensory nerves of the tongue. 

Cancer of the tongue is now operated on in advanced cases such as in 
former years would not have been dealt with by a radical operation. 
An incision is made beneath the jaw and through the floor of *he 



Raphe of tongue 



Conical papillae 



TONGUES, GIFT OF 



mouth, by which the tongue is drawn out and rendered easily 
accessible, the arteries being leisurely secured as the tissues are cut 
across. The upper part of the gullet is plugged by a sponge so that 
no blood can enter the lungs, and unimpeded respiration is provided 
for by the preliminary introduction of a tube into the windpipe. 
Through the incision which is made below the jaw the infected 
lymphatic glands are removed. To Dr Kocher of Berne the profes- 
sion and the public are indebted for this important advance in the 
treatment of this disease. (E. O*.) 

TONGUES, GIFT OF, or GLOSSOLALIA (y^Sxraa, tongue, 
\a\fiv, speak), a faculty of abnormal and inarticulate vocal 
utterance, under stress of religious excitement, which was 
widely developed in the early Christian circles, and has its 
parallels in other religions. In the New Testament such 
experiences are recorded in Caesarea (Acts x. 46), at Corinth 
(Acts xix. 6; i Cor. xii., xiv.), Thessalonica (i Thess. v. 19), 
Ephesus (Eph. v. 18), and universally (Mark xvi. 17). From 
the epistles of Paul, who thanked God that he spake with tongues 
more than all or any of his Corinthian converts, we can gather a 
just idea of how he regarded this gift and of what it really was. 

Firstly, then, it was a grace (charisma) of the spirit, yet not 
of the holy or pure spirit only, but of evil spirits also who on 
occasions had been known to take possession of the larynx of a 
saint and exclaim, " Jesus is Anathema." As no one could 
curse Jesus except under the influence of a devilish afflatus, so 
none could say " Jesus is Lord " except he was inspired by the 
Holy Spirit. But, secondly, the pneumatic utterances techni- 
cally known as speaking with tongues failed to reach this level 
of intelligibility; for Paul compares " a tongue " to a material 
object which should merely make a noise, to a pipe or harp 
twanged or blown at random without tune or time, to a trumpet 
blaring idly and not according to a code of signal notes. Unless, 
therefore, he that has the gift of tongues also possess the gift 
of interpreting his exclamations, or unless some one present can 
do so for him, he had not better exercise it in church. He is 
a barbarian to others and they to him, since they cannot under- 
stand what is spoken by him. Paul discriminates between the 
Spirit which during these paroxysms both talks and prays to God 
and the nous or understanding which informs a believer's psalm, 
teaching, revelation or prophesy, and renders them intelligible, 
edifying and profitable to the assembly. Accordingly Paul 
lays down rules which he regarded as embodying the Lord's 
commandment. A man " that speaketh in a tongue speaketh 
not unto men, but unto God; for no man understandeth;" and 
therefore it is expedient that he keep this gift for his private 
chamber and there pour out the mysteries. In church it is best 
that he should confine himself to prophesying, for that brings 
to others " edification and comfort and consolation." If, 
however, tongues must be heard in the public assembly, then let 
not more than three of the saints exhibit the gift, and they only 
in succession. Nor let them exhibit it at all, unless there is 
some one present who can interpret the tongues and tell the 
meeting what it all means. If the whole congregation be 
talking with tongues all at once, and an unbeliever or one with 
no experience of pneumatic gifts come in, what will he think, 
asks Paul. Surely that " you are mad." So at Pentecost on 
the occasion of the first outpouring of the Spirit the saints were 
by the bystanders accused of being drunk (Acts ii. 15). In 
the church meeting, says Paul, " I had rather speak five words 
with my understanding, that I might instruct others also, than 
ten thousand words in a tongue." 

The writer of Acts ii., anxious to prove that Providence 
from the first included the Gentiles in the Messianic Kingdom, 
assumes that the gift of tongues was a miraculous faculty of 
talking strange languages without having previously learned 
them. Augustine accordingly held that each of the disciples 
talked all languages miraculously; Chrysostom that each talked 
one other than his own. The Pentecostal inspiration has been 
construed as a providential antithesis to the confusion of tongues 
an idea which Grotius expressed in the words: " Poena 
linguarum dispersit homines; donum linguarum disperses in 
unum populum collegit." Competent critics to-day recognize 
that such a view is impossible; and it has been suggested with 



much probability that in the second chapter of Acts the words 
in . 5: " Now there were dwelling . . . under heaven " as well as 
. 6-i i : " because that every man . . . mighty works of God " 
were interpolated by Luke in the document he transcribed. 1 
The faithful talking with tongues were taken by bystanders 
for drunken men, but intoxicated men do not talk in languages 
of which they are normally ignorant. 2 

Paul on the whole discouraged glossolaly. " Desire earnestly 
the greater gifts," he wrote to the Corinthians. The gift of 
tongues was suitable rather to children in the faith than to the 
mature. Tongues were, he felt, to cease whenever the perfect 
should come; and the believer who spoke with the tongues of 
men and of angels, if he had not love, was no better than the 
sounding brass and clanging cymbal of the noisy heathen 
mysteries. It was clearly a gift productive of much disturbance 
in the Church (i Cor. xiv. 23). He would not, however, entirely 
forbid and quench it (i Thess. v. 19), so long as decency and order 
were preserved. 

It is not then surprising that we hear little of it after the 
apostolic age. It faded away in the great Church, and probably 
Celsus was describing Montanist circles (though Origen assumed 
that they were ordinary believers) when he wrote 3 of the many 
Christians of no repute who at the least provocation, whether 
within or without their temples, threw themselves about like 
inspired persons; while others did the same in cities or among 
armies in order to collect alms, roaming about cities or camps. 
They were wont to cry out, each of himself, " I am God; I am 
the Son of God; or I am the divine Spirit." They would indulge 
in prophecies of the last judgment, and back their threats with 
a string of strange, half-frantic and utterly unmeaning sounds, 
the sense of which no one with any intelligence could discover; 
for they were obscure gibberish, and merely furnished any fool 
or impostor with an occasion to twist the utterances as he chose 
to his own purposes. 

In the above we get a glimpse both of the glossalist and of his 
interpreter as they appeared to the outside world; and the 
impression made on them is not unlike that which Paul appre- 
hended would be left on outsiders by an indiscriminate use of 
the gift. Tertullian early in the 3rd century testifies that 
glossolaly still went on in the Montanist Church which he had 
joined; for we must so interpret the following passage in his 
De anima, cap. ix.: " There is among us at the present time a 
sister who is endowed with the charismatic gift of revelations, 
which she suffers through ecstasy in the spirit during the Sunday 
service in church. She converses with angels, sometimes even 
with the Lord, and both hears and see mysteries." The magical 
papyri teem with strings of senseless and barbaric words which 
probably answer to what certain of the Fathers called the 
language of demons. It has been suggested that we here have 
recorded the utterances of glossolalists. 

The attitude of Paul toward glossolaly among his converts 
strikingly resembles Plato's opinion as expressed in the Timaeus, 
p. 7 2, of the enthusiastic ecstasies of the ancient >&VT (sooth- 
sayer) . " God," he writes, " has given the art of divination not to 
the wisdom, but to the foolishness of man ; for no man, when in 
his wits, attains prophetic truth and inspiration; but when he 
receives the inspired word either his intelligence is enthralled 
by sleep, or he is demented by some distemper or possession. 
And he who would understand what he remembers to have been 
said, whether in a dream or when he was awake, by the prophetic 
and enthusiastic nature, or what he has seen, must first recover 
his wits; and then he will be able to explain rationally what all 

1 This misunderstanding of Acts ii. has influenced the official 
Roman doctrine of demoniacal possession. The Sacerdotale indi- 
cates as one of the symptoms of possession the ability of the possessed 
to talk other tongues than his own. Cf. the Fustis daempnum, 
cap. xi. Venetus (1606): " Aliqui sermonem alienum a patria sua 
loquuntur etsi nunquam e laribus paternis recesserint." 

2 It is noteworthy that in Eph. v. 18 Paul contrasts the being filled 
with the Spirit with the foolishness of intoxication with wine, and 
remarks that those filled with the Spirit speak to themselves in 
psalms and hymns and spiritual songs and give thanks always for 
all things. 

3 Orieen, Contra Celsum, vii. 9. 



IO 



TONK TONNAGE 



such words and apparitions mean, and what indications they 
afford to this man or that, of past, present or future good and 
evil. But, while he continues demented, he cannot judge of 
the visions which he sees or the words which he utters. . . . And 
for this reason it is customary to appoint diviners or interpreters 
to be judges of the true inspiration." 1 From such passages 
as the above we infer that the gift of tongues and of their inter- 
pretation was not peculiar to the Christian Church, but was a 
repetition in it of a phase common in ancient religions. The 
very phrase y\6xrffcu.s XaXsTc, " to speak with tongues," was 
not invented by the New Testament writers, but borrowed from 
ordinary speech. 

Virgil (Aen. vi. 46, 98) draws a life-like picture of the ancient 
prophetess " speaking with tongues." He depicts her quick 
changes of colour, her dishevelled hair, her panting breast, her 
apparent increase of stature as the god draws nigh and fills her 
with his divine afflatus. Then her voice loses its mortal's ring: 
" nee mortale sonans." The same morbid and abnormal trance 
utterances recur in Christian revivals in every age, e.g. among 
the mendicant friars of the i3th century, among the Jansenists, 
the early Quakers, the converts of Wesley and Whitefield, the 
persecuted protestants of the Cevennes, the Irvingites. 

Oracular possession of the kind above described is also common 
among savages and people of lower culture; and Dr Tylor, in 
his Primitive Culture, ii. 14, gives examples of ecstatic utterance 
interpreted by the sane. Thus in the Sandwich Islands the 
god Oro gave his oracles through a priest who " ceased to act 
or speak as a voluntary agent, but with his limbs convulsed, 
his features distorted and terrific, his eyes wild and strained, 
he would roll on the ground foaming at the mouth, and reveal 
the will of the god in shrill cries and sounds violent and indis- 
tinct, which the attending priests duly interpreted to the 
people." 

See E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture; H. Weinel, Die Wirkungen 
des Geisles und der Geister (Freiburg, 1899); Shaftesbury's Letter on 
Enthusiasm; Mrs Oliphant, Life of Irving, vol. ii. (F. C. C.) 

TONK, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency. It 
consists of six isolated tracts, some of which are under the Central 
India agency. Total area, 2553 sq. m.; total population (1901), 
273,201; estimated revenue 77,000. No tribute is payable. 
The chief, whose title is nawab, is a Mahommedan of Afghan 
descent. The founder of the family was Amir Khan, the noto- 
rious Pindari leader at the beginning of the igth century, who 
received the present territory on submitting to the British in 
1817. The nawab Mahommed Ibrahim Ali Khan, G.C.I.E., 
succeeded in 1867, and was one of the few chiefs who attended 
both Lord Lytton's Durbar in 1877 and the Delhi Durbar of 1903 
as rulers of their states. The late minister, Sir Sahibzada 
Obeidullah Khan, was deputed on political duty to Peshawar 
during the Tirah campaign of 1897. Grain, cotton, opium and 
hides are the chief exports. Two of the outlying tracts of the 
state are served by two railways. Distress was caused by 
drought in 1899-1900. The town of Tonk is situated 1462 ft. 
above sea-level, 60 m. by road south from Jaipur, near the right 
bank of the river Banas. Pop. (1901), 38,759. It is surrounded 
by a wall, with a mud fort. It has a high school, the Walter 
female hospital under a lady superintendent, and a hospital for 
males. 

There is another town in India called Tonk, or Tank, in Dera 
Ismail Khan district, North-West Frontier Province; pop. (1901), 
4402. It is the residence of a nawab, who formerly exercised 
semi-independent powers. Here Sir Henry Durand, lieutenant- 
governor of the Punjab, was killed in 1870 when passing on an 
elephant under a gateway. 

TONNAGE. The mode of ascertaining the tonnage of mer- 
chant ships is settled by the Merchant Shipping Acts. But 
before explaining the method by which this is computed, it is 
well to remark that there are several tonnages employed in 
different connexions. Displacement tonnage is that which is 
invariably used in respect of warships, and is the actual weight 
of water displaced by the vessel whose tonnage is being dealt 
1 Jowett's translation. 



with. Men-of-War are designed to carry all their weights, 
including coal, guns, ammunition, stores and water in tanks and 
in boilers, at a certain draught, and the tonnage attributed to 
them is the weight of water which at that designed draught 
they actually displace. This displacement tonnage is therefore 
a total made up of the actual weight of the ship's fabric and 
that of everything that is on board of her. It can be found by 
ascertaining the exact cubic space occupied by the part of her 
body which is immersed (including her rudder, propellers and 
external shafting) at the draught under consideration in cubic 
feet, and dividing this by 35, since 35 cubic feet of sea-water 
weigh one ton. Of course there is nothing to prevent displace- 
ment tonnage from being used in describing the size of merchant 
ships, and indeed in regard to the performances of fast steam- 
ships on trial it is usual to give their draught on the occasion 
when they are tested, and to state what was their actual displace- 
ment under these trial conditions. But it is obvious, from what 
has been said as to the components which go to make up the 
displacement at load draught, that this tonnage must, in respect 
of any individual ship, be the greatest figure which can be quoted 
in regard to her size. It is usual for dues to be assessed against 
merchant vessels in respect of their registered tonnage. This must 
therefore be fixed by authority, and at present vessels are 
measured by the officer of customs according to the rules laid 
down in the second schedule to the Merchant Shipping Act 
1894. As will be seen from the explanation of the method 
adopted, this is a somewhat arbitrary process, and even the 
gross registered tonnage affords little indication of the actual 
size of the ship, whilst the under-deck and net tonnages are 
still less in accord with the extreme dimensions. 

As to length for tonnage, the measurements start with the 
tonnage deck, which in vessels with less than three decks is the 
upper, and in vessels of three or more decks is the second from 
below. The length for tonnage is measured in a straight line 
along this deck from the inside of the inner plank at the bow 
to the inside of the inner plank at the stern, making allowance 
for the rake, if any, which the midship bow and stern timbers 
may have in the actual deck. When this is measured it is 
apparent into which of five classes the ship's tonnage-length 
places her. If she be under 50 ft. in length she falls into the 
first class, while if she be over 225 ft. in length she falls into the 
fifth class, the remaining three classes being intermediate to 
these. Vessels of the first class are measured as in four equal 
sections, and vessels of the larger class as in twelve equal sections, 
according to their length. Then at each of the points of division 
so marked off transverse areas are taken. This is done by 
measuring the depth in feet from a point at a distance of one- 
third of the round of the beam below the tonnage deck to the 
upper side of the floor timbers. Where the vessel has a ceiling 
and no water-ballast tanks at the point of measurement, 25 in. 
is allowed for ceiling. But where there are such tanks the 
measurement is taken from the top of the tank and no allowance 
is made for ceiling, whether there in fact be any or not. If the 
midship depth so found exceeds 16 ft., each depth is divided into 
six equal parts, and the horizontal breadths are measured at 
each point of division and also at the upper and lower points of 
the depth, extending each measurement to the average thickness 
of that part of the ceiling which is between the points of measure- 
ment. They are then numbered from above, and the second, 
fourth and sixth multiplied by four, whilst the third and fifth 
are multiplied by two. The products are then added together. 
To the sum are added the first and the seventh breadths. This 
total having been multiplied by one-third the common interval 
between the breadths, the resultant is the transverse area. The 
transverse areas so obtained at each point of the vessel's length 
are numbered from the bow aft. Omitting the first and last, the 
second and every even area so obtained are multiplied by four, 
whilst the third and every odd area are multiplied by two. 
These products are added together, as are also those of the first 
and last areas if they yield anything, and the figure thus reached 
is multiplied by one-third of the common interval between the 
areas. This product is reckoned as the cubical capacity of the 



TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE TONSILLITIS 



ii 



ship in feet. When divided by 100 the result is the registered 
under-deck tonnage of the ship subject to the additions and 
deductions ordered by the act. Directions of a kind similar 
to those already set out are given whereby the tonnage in the 
space enclosed between the tonnage and upper decks may be 
ascertained, and also for the measuring of any break, poop or 
other permanent closed-in space on the upper deck available 
for stores, and the sum of the capacity of these must be added 
to the under-deck tonnage to arrive at the gross registered tonnage. 
But an express proviso is enacted that no addition shall be made 
in respect of any building erected for the shelter of deck pas- 
sengers and approved by the board of trade. In the process of 
arriving at the net tonnage the main deduction allowed from the 
gross tonnage is that of machinery space in steamships. The 
method of measurement here is similar to that by which the 
under-deck tonnage is reached. Where the engines and boilers 
are fitted in separate compartments, each compartment is 
measured separately, as is the screw shaft tunnel in the case 
of steamships propelled by screws. The tonnage of these spaces 
is reckoned, not from the tonnage deck, but from the crown of 
the space; whilst, if it has previously been reckoned in the gross 
tonnage, there may be an allowance for the space above the 
crown, if enclosed for the machinery or for the admission of 
light and air. Allowances are only made in respect of any 
machinery space if it be devoted solely to machinery or to 
light and air. It must not be used for cargo purposes or 
for cabins. Further, by the act itself in the case of paddle 
steamships, where the machinery space is above 20% and 
under 30% of the gross tonnage, it is allowed to be reckoned 
as 37% f such gross tonnage; whilst similarly, in the case of 
screw steamships, where such machinery space is over 13 % 
and under 20 % of the gross tonnage, it is allowed to be reckoned 
as 32%. Further deductions are also made in respect of space 
used solely for the accommodation of the master and the crew, 
and for the chart-room and signal- room, as well as for the wheel- 
house and chain cable locker and for the donkey-engine and 
boiler, if connected with the main pumps of the ship, and in 
sailing vessels for the sail locker. The space in the double 
bottom and in the water-ballast tanks, if these be not available 
for the carriage of fuel stores or cargo, is also deducted if it has 
been reckoned in the gross tonnage in the first instance. 

From the rules above laid down it follows that it is possible 
for vessels, if built with a full midship section, to have a gross 
registered tonnage considerably below what the actual cubical 
capacity of the ship would give, whilst in the case of steam 
tugs of high power it is not unprecedented, owing to the large 
allowances for machinery and crew spaces, for a vessel to 
have a registered net tonnage of nil. 

Suez Canal dues being charged on what is practically the 
registered tonnage (though all deductions permitted by the 
British board of trade are not accepted), it is usual, at all events 
in the British navy, for warships to be measured for what would 
be their registered tonnage if they were merchant ships, so that 
in case they may wish to pass through the canal a scale of 
payment may be easily reached. But such tonnage is never 
spoken of in considering their size relative to other vessels. 

Two other tonnages are also made use of in connexion with 
merchant ships, especially when specifications for vessels are 
being made. The first of these is measurement capacity. This 
is found by measuring out the true cubic capacity of the holds, 
whereby it is found what amount of light measurement goods 
can be carried. The second is deadweight capacity. This is 
generally given as excluding what is carried in the coal bunkers, 
and it is therefore the amount of deadweight which can be carried 
in the holds at load draught when the vessel is fully charged 
with coals and stores. (B. W. G.) 

TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE, in England, customs duties 
anciently imposed upon exports and imports, the former being a 
duty upon all wines imported in addition to prisage and butlerage, 
the latter a duty imposed ad valorem at the rate of twelve- 
pence in the pound on all merchandise imported or exported. 
The duties were levied at first by agreement with merchants 



(poundage in 1302, tonnage in 1347), then granted by parliament 
in *373> a t first for a limited period only. They were considered 
to be imposed for the defence of the realm. From the reign 
of Henry VI. until that of James I. they were usually granted 
for life. They were not granted to Charles I., and in 1628 that 
king took the unconstitutional course of levying them on his 
own authority, a course denounced a few years later by 
16 Car. I. c. 18 (1640), when the Long Parliament granted them 
for two months. After the Restoration they were granted to 
Charles II. and his two successors for life. By acts of Anne and 
George I. the duties were made perpetual, and mortgaged for the 
public debt. In 1 787 they were finally abolished, and other modes 
of obtaining revenue substituted, by 27 Geo. III. c. 13 (1787). 

Poundage also signifies a fee paid to an officer of a court for his 
services, e.g. to a sheriff's officer, who is entitled by 29 Eliz. c. 4 
(1586-1587) to a poundage of a shilling in the pound on an execution 
up to 100, and sixpence in the pound above that sum. 

TONNERRE, a town of north-central France, capital of an 
arrondissement in the department of Yonne, 52 m. S.E. of Sens 
on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906), 3974. It is situated 
on a slope of the vineclad hills on the left bank of the Armangon. 
At the foot of the hill rises the spring of Fosse-Dionne, enclosed 
in a circular basin 49 ft. in diameter. The town has two interest- 
ing churches. That of St Pierre, which crowns the hill, possesses 
a fine lateral portal of the Renaissance period to which the church, 
with the exception of the choir (1351), belongs. The church of 
Notre-Dame is mainly Gothic, but the facade is a fine specimen 
of Renaissance architecture. The Salle des Malades, a large 
timber-roofed apartment in the hospital, dates from the end of 
the I3th century and is used as a chapel. It is 330 ft. long and 
contains the tombs of Margaret of Burgundy, wife of Charles 
of Anjou, king of Sicily, and foundress of the hospital, and of 
Frangois-Michel Le Tellier, marquis of Louvois, war minister 
of Louis XIV. The hospital itself was rebuilt in the igth 
century. The Renaissance Hotel d'Uzes was built in the i6th 
century. Tonnerre is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal 
of first instance. The vineyards of the vicinity produce well- 
known wines. The trade of the town is chiefly in wine, in 
the good building-stone found in the neighbourhood and in 
Portland cement. Cooperage is carried on. 

Its ancient name of Tornodorum points to a Gallic or Gallo- 
Roman origin for Tonnerre. In the 6th century it became the 
capital of the region of Tonnerrois and in the loth century of a 
countship. After passing into the possession of several noble 
families, it was bought from a count of Clermont-Tonnerre by 
Louvois, by whose descendants it was held up to the time of 
the Revolution. 

TONQUA BEAN. The Tonqua, Tonka or Tonquin bean, 
also called the coumara nut, is the seed of Dipterix odorala, a 
leguminous tree growing to a height of 80 ft., native of tropical 
South America. The drupe-like pod contains a single seed 
possessed of a fine sweet " new-mown hay " odour, due to the 
presence of coumarin (q.v.}. Tonqua beans are used principally 
for scenting snuff and as an ingredient in perfume sachets and 
in perfumers' " bouquets." 

TONSBERG, a fortified seaport of Norway, in Jarlsberg- 
Laurvik ami (county), situated on a bay on the south coast, 
near the entrance to Christiania Fjord, 72 m. S. by W. of Christi- 
ania on the Skien railway. Pop. (1900), 8620. It is one of 
the most ancient towns in Norway. It is the headquarters of a 
sealing and whaling fleet. The principal industries are refineries 
for preparing whale and seal oil and saw-mills. An interesting 
collection of antiquities and whaling implements is preserved in 
the Slotstaarn on Castle Hill. 

TONSILLITIS, acute inflammation of the tonsils, or quinsy, 
due to the invasion of the tonsil, or tonsils, by septic micro- 
organisms which may have gained access through the mouth or 
by the blood-stream. Sometimes the attack comes on as the 
result of direct exposure to sewer gas, and it is not at all an 
uncommon affection of house surgeons, nurses and others 
who have to spend most of their time in a hospital. The 
association of quinsy with rheumatism may be the result of the 



12 



TONSON TONTINE 



infection of the tonsils by the micro-organisms or the toxins 
of that disease. Acute tonsillitis is very apt to run on to the 
formation of abscess. Quinsy may begin with a feeling of 
chilliness or with an attack of shivering. Then comes on a 
swelling in the throat with pain, tenderness and difficulty in 
swallowing. Indeed, if both tonsils are acutely inflamed it 
may be impossible to swallow even fluid and the breathing 
may be seriously embarrassed. The temperature may be raised 
several degrees. There is pain about the ear and about the 
jaw, and there is a swelling of the glands in the neck. The 
breath is offensive and the tongue is thickly coated. There 
may be some yellowish markings on the surface of the tonsil, 
but these differ from the patches of " false membrane " of 
diphtheria in that they can be easily brushed off by a swab, but 
often a true diagnosis can only be made by bacteriological 
examination. The treatment consists in giving a purgative, 
and in encouraging the patient to use an inhaler containing hot 
carbolized water. Hot compresses also may be applied to the 
neck. As regards medicines, the most trustworthy are salicylic 
acid, iron and quinine. As soon as abscess threatens, a 
slender-bladed knife should be thrust from before backward 
deeply into the swollen mass. And if, as most likely happens, 
matter then escapes, the patient's distress speedily ends. Con- 
valescence having set in, a change of air and course of tonic 
treatment will be advisable. 

Chronic tonsillitis is often associated with adenoid vegetations 
at the back of the throat of tuberculous or delicate children, such 
children being spoken of as being " liable to sore throat." Chronic 
enlargement of the tonsils may seriously interfere with a child's 
general health and vigour and, should the condition not subside 
under general measures such as a stay at a bracing seaside place 
and the taking of cod-liver oil and iron, it will be well to treat the 
tonsils by operation. (E. O.*) 

TONSON, the name of a family of London booksellers and 
publishers. Richard and Jacob Tonson (c. 1656-1736), sons 
of a London barber-surgeon, started in 1676 and 1677 indepen- 
dently as booksellers and publishers in London. In 1679 Jacob, 
the better known of the two, bought and published Dryden's 
Troilus and Cressida, and from that time was closely associated' 
with Dryden, and published most of his works. He published 
the Miscellany Poems (1684-1708) under Dryden's editorship, 
the collection being known indifferently as Dryden's or Tonson's 
Miscellany, and also Dryden's translation of Virgil (1697). 
Serious disagreements over the price paid, however, arose 
between poet and publisher, and in his Faction Displayed 
(1705) Dryden described Tonson as having " two left legs, and 
Judas-coloured hair." Subsequently the relations between the 
two men improved. The brothers jointly published Dryden's 
Spanish Friar (1683). Jacob Tonson also published Congreve's 
Double Dealer, Sir John Vanbrugh's The Faithful Friend and 
The Confederacy, and the pastorals of Pope, thus justifying 
Wycherly's description of him as "gentleman usher to the 
Muses." He bought also the valuable rights of Paradise Lost, 
half in 1683 and half in 1690. This was his first profitable 
venture in poetry. In 1712 he became joint publisher with 
Samuel Buckley of the Spectator, and in the following year 
published Addison's Cato. He was the original secretary and 
a prominent member of the Kit-Cat Club. About 1720 he gave 
up business and retired to Herefordshire, where he died on the 
and of April 1736. His business was carried on by his 
nephew, Jacob Tonson, jun. (d. 1735), and subsequently by 
his grand-nephew, also Jacob (d. 1767). 

TONSURE (Lat. tonsura, from tondere, to shave), a religious 
observance in the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Eastern 
Churches, consisting of the shaving or cutting part of the hair 
of the head as a sign of dedication to special service. The 
reception of the tonsure in these churches is the initial ceremony 
which marks admission to orders and to the rights and privileges 
of clerical standing. It is administered by the bishop with an 
appropriate ritual. Candidates for the rite must have been 
confirmed, be adequately instructed in the elements of the 
Christian faith, and be able to read and write. Those who have 
received it are bound (unless in exceptional circumstances) 
to renew the mark, consisting of a bare circle on the crown of 



the head, at least once a month, otherwise they forfeit the 
privileges it carries. The practice is not a primitive one; Ter- 
tullian simply advises Christians to avoid vanity in dressing 
their hair, and Jerome deprecates both long and closely cropped 
hair. According to Prudentius (IlepuT. xiii. 30) it was customary 
for the hair to be cut short at ordination. Paulinus of Nola 
(c. 490) alludes to the tonsure as in use among the (Western) 
monks; from them the practice quickly spread to the clergy. 
For Gaul about the year 500 we have the testimony of Sidonius 
ApoUinaris (iv. 13), who says that Germanicus the bishop had 
his hair cut " in rotae speciem." 

The earliest instance of an ecclesiastical precept on the subject 
occurs in can. 41 of the Council of Toledo (A.D. 633) : " omnes clerici, 
detonso superius capite toto, inferius solam circuli coronam relin- 
quant." Can. 33 of the Quinisext council (692) requires even singers 
and readers to be tonsured. Since the 8th century three tonsures 
have been more or less in use, known respectively as the Roman, 
the Greek and the Celtic. The first two are sometimes distinguished 
as the tonsure of Peter and the tonsure of Paul. The Roman or 
St Peter's tonsure prevailed in France, Spain and Italy. It consisted 
in shaving the whole head, leaving only a fringe of hair supposed to 
symbolize the crown of thorns. Late in the middle ages this 
tonsure was lessened for the clergy, but retained for monks and 
friars. In the Eastern or St Paul's tonsure the whole head was 
shaven, but when now practised in the Eastern Church this tonsure 
is held to be adequately shown when the hair is shorn close. In 
the Celtic tonsure (tonsure of St John, or, in contempt, tonsure of 
Simon Magus) all the hair in front of a line drawn over the top of 
the head from ear to ear was shaven (a fashion common among the 
Hindus). The question of the Roman or Celtic tonsure was one of 
the points in dispute in the early British Church, settled in favour 
of the Roman fashion at the Council of Whitby (664). The tonsure 
at first was never given separately, and even children when so 
dedicated were appointed readers, as no one could belong to the 
clerical state without at least a minor order. From the 7th century, 
however, children were tonsured without ordination, and later on 
adults anxious to escape secular jurisdiction were often tonsured 
without ordination. Till the loth century the tonsure could be 
given by priests or even by laymen, but its bestowal was gradually 
restricted to bishops and abbots. 

TONTINE, a system of life insurance owing its name to 
Lorenzo Tonti, an Italian banker, born at Naples early in the i7th 
century, who settled in France about 1650. In 1653 he proposed 
to Cardinal Mazarin a new scheme for promoting a public loan. 
A total of 1,025,000 livres was to be subscribed in ten portions 
of 102,500 livres each by ten classes of subscribers, the first class 
consisting of persons under 7, the second of persons above 7 and 
under 14, and so on to the tenth, which consisted of persons 
between 63 and 70. The annual fund of each class was to be 
divided among the survivors of that class, and on the death of the 
last individual the capital was to fall to the state. This plan of 
operations was authorized under the name of "tontine royale" 
by a royal edict, but this the parlement refused to register, and the 
idea remained in abeyance till 1689, when it was revived by 
Louis XIV., who established a tontine of 1,400,000 livres divided 
into fourteen classes of 100,000 each, the subscription being 300 
livres. This tontine was carried on till 1726, when the last bene- 
ficiary died a widow who at the time of her decease was drawing 
an annual income of 73,500 livres. Several other government 
tontines were afterwards set on foot; but in 1763 restrictions 
were introduced, and in 1770 all tontines at the time in existence 
were wound up. Private tontines continued to flourish in 
France for some years, the " tontine Lefarge," the most cele- 
brated of the kind, being operled in 1791 and closed in 1889. 

The tontine principle has often been applied in Great Britain, 
at one time in connexion with government life annuities. Many 
such tontines were set on foot between the years 1773 and 1789, 
those of 1773, 1775 and 1777 being commonly called the Irish 
tontines, as the money was borrowed under acts of the Irish parlia- 
ment. The most important English tontine was that of 1789, which 
was created by 29 Geo. III. c. 41. Under this act over a million was 
raised in 10,000 shares of 100, 53. It was also often applied to the 
purchase of estates or the erection of buildings. The investor 
staked his money on the chance of his own life or the life of his 
nominee enduring for a longer period than the other lives involved 
in the speculation, in which case he expected to win a large prize. It 
was occasionally introduced into life assurance, more particularly 
by American life offices, but newer and more ingenious forms of 
contract fiave now made the tontine principle practically a thing 
of the past. (See NATIONAL DEBT; INSURANCE.) 



TOOKE, J. H. 



TOOKE, JOHN HORNE (1736-1812), English politician and 
philologist, third son of John Home, a poulterer in Newport 
Market, whose business the boy when at Eton happily veiled 
under the title of a " Turkey merchant," was born in Newport 
Street, Long Acre, Westminster, on the 25th of June 1736. 
After passing some time at school in Soho Square, and at a 
Kentish village, he went from 1744 to 1746 to Westminster 
School and for the next five or six years was at Eton. On the 
1 2th of January 1754 he was admitted as sizar at St John's 
College, Cambridge, and took his degree of B.A. in 1758, as last 
but one of the senior optimes, Richard Beadon, his lifelong friend, 
afterwards bishop of Bath and Wells, being a wrangler in the 
same year. Home had been admitted on the 9th of November 
1756, as student at the Inner Temple, making the friendship of 
John Dunning and Lloyd Kenyon, but his father wished him to 
take orders in the English Church, and he was ordained deacon 
on the 23rd of September 1759 and priest on the 23rd of 
November 1760. For a few months he was usher at a boarding 
school at Blackheath, but on the 26th of September 1760 he 
became perpetual curate of New Brentford, the incumbency of 
which his father had purchased for him, and he retained its 
scanty profits until 1773. During a part of this time (1763-1764) 
he was absent on a tour in France, acting as the bear-leader of a 
son of the miser Elwes. Under the excitement created by the 
actions of Wilkes, Home plunged into politics, and in 1765 
brought out a scathing pamphlet on Lords Bute and Mansfield, 
entitled " The Petition of an Englishman." In the autumn of 
1765 he escorted to Italy the son of a Mr Taylor. In Paris he 
made the acquaintance of Wilkes, and from Montpellier, in 
January 1766, addressed a letter to him which sowed the seeds 
of their personal antipathy. In the summer of 1767 Home 
landed again on English soil, and in 1768 secured the return of 
Wilkes to parliament for Middlesex. With inexhaustible energy 
he promoted the legal proceedings over the riot in St George's 
Fields, when a youth named Allen was killed, and exposed the 
irregularity in the judge's order for the execution of two Spital- 
fields weavers. His dispute with George Onslow, member for 
Surrey, who at first supported and then threw over Wilkes for 
place, culminated in a civil action, ultimately decided, after the 
reversal of a verdict which had been obtained through the charge 
of Lord Mansfield, in Home's favour, and in the loss by his 
opponent of his seat in parliament. An influential association, 
called " The Society for Supporting the Bill of Rights," was 
founded, mainly through the exertions of Home, in 1769, but 
the members were soon divided into two opposite camps, and 
in 1771 Home and Wilkes, their respective leaders, broke out 
into open warfare, to the damage of their cause. On the ist 
of July 1771 Home obtained at Cambridge, though not without 
some opposition from members of both the political parties, his 
degree of M.A. Earlier in that year he claimed for the public the 
right of printing an account of the debates in parliament, and 
after a protracted struggle between the ministerial majority and 
the civic authorities, the right was definitely established. The 
energies of the indefatigable parson knew no bounds. In the 
same year (1771) he crossed swords with Junius, and ended in 
disarming his masked antagonist. Up to this time Home's fixed 
income consisted of those scanty emoluments attached to a 
position which galled him daily. He resigned his benefice in 
1773 and betook himself to the study of the law and philology. 
An accidental circumstance, however, occurred at this moment 
which largely affected his future. His friend Mr William Tooke 
had purchased a considerable estate, including Purley Lodge, 
south of the town of Croydon in Surrey. The possession of 
this property brought about frequent disputes with an ad- 
joining landowner, Thomas de Grey, and, after many actions 
in the courts, his friends endeavoured to obtain, by a bill 
forced through the houses of parliament, the privileges which 
the law had not assigned to him (February 1774). Home, 
thereupon, by a bold libel on the Speaker, drew public atten- 
tion to the case, and though he himself was placed for a 
time in the custody of the serjeant-at-arms, the clauses which 
were injurious to the interest of Mr Tooke were eliminated from 



the bill. Mr Tooke declared his intention of making Home 
the heir of his fortune, and, if the design was never carried 
into effect, during his lifetime he bestowed upon him large 
gifts of money. No sooner had this matter been happily 
settled than Home found himself involved in serious 
trouble. For his conduct in signing the advertisement soliciting 
subscriptions for the relief of the relatives of the Americans 
" murdered by the king's troops at Lexington and Concord," 
he was tried at the Guildhall on the 4th of July 1777, before 
Lord Mansfield, found guilty, and committed to the King's Bench 
prison in St George's Fields, from which he only emerged after 
a year's durance, and after a loss in fines and costs amounting to 
1200. Soon after his deliverance he applied to be called to the 
bar, but his application was negatived on the ground that his 
orders in the Church were indelible. Home thereupon tried his 
fortune, but without success, on farming some land in Hunting- 
donshire. Two tracts about this time exercised great influence 
in the country. One of them, Fads Addressed to Landholders, 
&c. (1780), written by Home in conjunction with others, 
criticizing the measures of Lord North's ministry, passed through 
numerous editions; the other, A Letter on Parliamentary Reform 
(1782), addressed by him to Dunning, set out a scheme 
of reform, which he afterwards withdrew in favour of that 
advocated by Pitt. On his return from Huntingdonshire he 
became once more a frequent guest at Mr Tooke's house at 
Purley, and in 1782 assumed the name of Home Tooke. In 
1786 Home Tooke conferred perpetual fame upon his bene- 
factor's country house by adopting, as a second title of his 
elaborate philological treatise of "Eirta impoevTa, the more 
popular though misleading title of The Diversions of Purley. 
The treatise at once attracted attention in England and the 
Continent. The first part was published in 1786, the second 
in 1805. The best edition is that which was published in 1829, 
under the editorship of Richard Taylor, with the additions 
written in the author's interleaved copy. 

Between 1782 and 1790 Tooke gave his support to Pitt, and 
in the election for Westminster, in 1784, threw all his energies 
into opposition to Fox. With Fox he was never on terms of 
friendship, and Samuel Rogers, in his Table Talk, asserts that 
their antipathy was so pronounced that at a dinner party given 
by a prominent Whig not the slightest notice was taken by Fox 
of the presence of Home Tooke. It was after the election of 
Westminster in 1788 that Tooke depicted the rival statesmen 
(Lord Chatham and Lord Holland, William Pitt and C. J. Fox) 
in his celebrated pamphlet of Two Pair of Portraits. At the 
general election of 1790 he came forward as a candidate for that 
distinguished constituency, in opposition to Fox and Lord Hood, 
but was defeated; and, at a second trial in 1796, he was again 
at the bottom of the poll. Meantime the excesses of the French 
republicans had provoked reaction in England, and the Tory 
ministry adopted a policy of repression. Home Tooke was 
arrested early on the morning of the i6th of May 1794, and 
conveyed to the Tower. His trial for high treason lasted for six 
days (i7th to 22nd of November) and ended in his acquittal, 
the jury only taking eight minutes to settle their verdict. His 
public life after this event was only distinguished by one act of 
importance. Through the influence of the second Lord Camel- 
ford, the fighting peer, he was returned to parliament in 1801 
for the pocket borough of Old Sarum. Lord Temple endeavoured 
to secure his exclusion on the ground that he had taken orders 
in the Church, and one of Gilray's caricatures delineates the two 
politicians, Temple and Camelford, playing at battledore and 
shuttlecock, with Home Tooke as the shuttlecock. The ministry 
of Addington would not support this suggestion, but a bill 
was at once introduced by them and carried into law, which 
rendered all persons in holy orders ineligible to sit in the House 
of Commons, and Home Tooke sat for that parliament only. 

The last years of Tooke's life were spent in retirement in a 
house on the west side of Wimbledon Common. The traditions 
of his Sunday parties have lasted unimpaired to this day, 
and the most pleasant pages penned by his biographer describe 
the. politicians and the men of letters who gathered round his 



14 

hospitable board. His conversational powers rivalled those of 
Dr Johnson; and, if more of his sayings have not been chronicled 
for the benefit of posterity, the defect is due to the absence of a 
Boswell. Through the liberality of his friends, his last days 
were freed from the pressure of poverty, and he was enabled 
to place his illegitimate son in a position which soon brought 
him wealth, and to leave a competency to his two illegitimate 
daughters. Illness seized him early in 1810, and for the next 
two years his sufferings were acute. He died in his house at 
Wimbledon on the i8th of March 1812, and his body was buried 
with that of his mother at Baling, the tomb which he had 
prepared in the garden attached to his house at Wimbledon 
being found unsuitable for the interment. An altar-tomb still 
stands to his memory in Ealing churchyard. A catalogue of 
his library was printed in 1813. 

The Life of Horne Tooke, by Alexander Stephens, is written in an 
unattractive style and was the work of an admirer only admitted 
to his acquaintance at the close of his days. The notice in the 
Quarterly Review, June 1812, of W. Hamilton Reid's compilation, 
is by J. W. Ward, Lord Dudley. The main facts of his life are set 
out by Mr J. E. Thorold Rogers, in his Historical Gleanings, 2nd 
series. Many of Horne Tooke 's wittiest sayings are preserved in the 
Table Talk of Samuel Rogers and S. T. Coleridge. (W. P. C.) 

TOOKE, THOMAS (1774-1858), English economist, was born 
at St Petersburg on the 2Qth of February 1774. Entering a 
large Russian house in London at an early age, he acquired 
sound practical experience of commercial matters and became 
a recognized authority on finance and banking. He was one of 
the earliest advocates of free trade and drew up the Merchants' 
Petition presented to the House of Commons by Alexander 
Baring, afterwards Lord Ashburton. He gave evidence before 
several parliamentary committees, notably the committee of 
1821, on foreign trade, and those of 1832, 1840 and 1848 on the 
Bank Acts. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 
1821. He died in London on the 26th of February 1858. 

Tooke was the author of Thoughts and Details on the High and Low 
Prices of the last Thirty Years (1823), Considerations on the State of 
the Currency (1826), in both of which he showed his hostility to the 
policy afterwards carried out in the Bank Act of 1844, but he is 
best known for his History of Prices and of the State of the Circulation 
during the Years 1703-1856 (6 vols., 1838-1857). In the first four 
volumes he treats (a) of the prices of corn, and the circumstances 
affecting prices; (b) the prices of produce other than corn; and (c) 
the state of the circulation. The two final volumes, written in 
conjunction with W. Newmarch (q.v.), deal with railways, free trade, 
banking in Europe and the effects of new discoveries of gold. 

TOOL (O. Eng. 161, generally referred to a root seen in the 
Goth, taujan, to make, or in the English word " taw," to work or 
dress leather), an implement or appliance used by a worker 
in the treatment of the substances used in his handicraft, 
whether in the preliminary operations of setting out and 
measuring the materials, in reducing his work to the required 
form by cutting or otherwise, in gauging it and testing its 
accuracy, or in duly securing it while thus being treated. 

For the tools of prehistoric man see such articles as ARCHAEOLOGY ; 
FLINT IMPLEMENTS; and EGYPT, Art and Archaeology. 

In beginning a survey of tools it is necessary to draw the 
distinction between hand and machine tools. The former class 
includes any tool which is held and operated by the unaided 
hands, as a chisel, plane or saw. Attach one of these to some 
piece of operating mechanism, and it, with the environment of 
which it is the central essential object, becomes a machine tool. 
A very simple example is the common power-driven hack saw 
for metal, or the small high-speed drill, or the wood-boring auger 
held in a frame and turned by a winch handle and bevel-gears. 
The difference between these and a big frame-saw cutting down a 
dozen boards simultaneously, or the immense machine boring the 
cylinders of an ocean liner, or the great gun lathe, or the hydraulic 
press, is so vast that the relationship is hardly apparent. Often 
the tool itself is absolutely dwarfed by the machine, of which 
nevertheless it is the central object and around which the machine 
is designed and built. A milling machine weighing several tons 
will often be seen rotating a tool of but two or three dozen 
pounds' weight. Yet the machine is fitted with elaborate slides 
and self-acting movements, and provision for taking up wear, 



TOOKE, T. TOOL 



and is worth some hundreds of pounds sterling, while the tool 
may not be worth two pounds. Such apparent anomalies are 
in constant evidence. We propose, therefore, first to take a 
survey of the principles that underlie the forms of tools, and 
then pursue the subject of their embodiment in machine tools. 

HAND TOOLS 

The most casual observation reveals the fact that tools admit 
of certain broad classifications. It is apparent that by far the 
larger number owe their value to their capacity for cutting or 
removing portions of material by an incisive or wedge-like 
action, leaving a smooth surface behind. An analysis of the 
essential methods of operation gives a broad grouping as 
follows: 

I. The chisel group . . Typified by the chisel of the woodworker. 
II. The shearing group . scissors. 
III. The scrapers . . cabinet-maker's scrape. 

IV " Th d e etrrjve S gi V o e u P ^ \ " " "" and the I"*- 
V. The moulding group . trowel. 

The first three are generally all regarded as cutting tools, 
notwithstanding that those in II. and III. do not operate as 
wedges, and therefore are not true chisels. But many occupy 
a border-line where the results obtained are practically those 
due to cutting, as in some of the shears, saws, milling cutters, 
files and grinding wheels, where, if the action is not directly 
wedge-like, it is certainly more or less incisive in character. 

Cutting Tools. The cutting edge of a tool is the practical outcome 
of several conditions. Keenness of edge, equivalent to a small 
degree of angle between the tool faces, would appear at first sight 
to be the prime element in cutting, as indeed it is in the case of a 
razor, or in that of a chisel for soft wood. But that is not the prime 
condition in a tool for cutting iron or steel. Strength is of far 
greater importance, and to it some keenness of edge must be sacri- 
ficed. All cutting tools are wedges; but a razor or a chisel edge, 
included between angles of 15 or 20, would be turned over at once 
if presented to iron or steel, for which angles of from 60 to 75 are 
required. Further, much greater rigidity in the latter, to resist 
spring and fracture, is necessary than in the former, because the 
resistance to cutting is much greater. A workman can operate a 
turning tool by hand, even on heavy pieces of metal-work. Formerly 
all turning, no matter how large, was done by hand-operated tools, 
and after great muscular exertion a few pounds of metal might be 
removed in an hour. But coerce a similarly formed tool in a rigid 
guide or rest, and drive it by the power of ten or twenty men, and 
it becomes possible to remove say a hundredweight of chips in an 
hour. Or, increase the size of the tool and its capacity for endurance, 
and drive by the power of 40 or 60 horses, and half a ton of chips 
may be removed in an hour. 

All machine tools of which the chisel is the type operate by cutting ; 
that is, they act on the same principle and by the same essential 
method as the knife, razor or chisel, and not by that of the grind- 
stone. A single tool, however, may act as a cutting instrument at 
one time and as a scrape at another. The butcher's knife will 
afford a familiar illustration. It is used as a cutting tool when sever- 
ing a steak, but it becomes a scrape when used to clean the block. 
The difference is not therefore due to the form of the knife, but to the 
method of its application, a distinction which holds good in reference 
to the tools used by engineers. There is a very old hand too} once 
much used in the engineer's turnery, termed a graver." This was 
employed for cutting and for scraping indiscriminately, simply by 
varying the angle of its presentation. At that time the question 
of the best cutting angles was seldom raised or discussed, because 
the manipulative instinct of the turner settled it as the work pro- 
ceeded, and as the material operated on varied in texture and degree 
of hardness. But since the use of the slide rest holding tools rigidly 
fixed has become general, the question of the most suitable tool 
formation has been the subject of much experiment and discussion. 
The almost unconscious experimenting which goes on every day 
in every workshop in the world proves that there may be a difference 
of several degrees of angle in tools doing similar work, without 
having any appreciable effect upon results. So long as certain 
broad principles and reasonable limits are observed, that is sufficient 
for practical purposes. 

Clearly, in order that a tool shall cut, it must possess an incisive 
form. In fig. I, A might be thrust over the surface of the plate of 
metal, but no cutting action could take place. It would simply 
grind and polish the surface. If it were formed like B, the grinding 
action would give place to scraping, by which some material would 
be removed. Many tools are formed thus, but there is still no 
incisive or knife-like action, and the tool is simply a scrape and not 
a cutting tool. But C is a cutting tool, possessing penetrative 
capacity. If now B were tilted backwards as at D, it would at 



HAND TOOLS] 



TOOL 



once become a cutting tool. But its bevelled face would rub and 
grind on the surface of the work, producing friction and heat, and 
interfering with the penetrative action of the cutting edge. On 
the other hand, if C were tilted forwards as at E its action would 
approximate to that of a scrape for the time being. But the high 
angle of the hinder bevelled face would not afford adequate support 
to the cutting edge, and the latter would therefore become worn 
off almost instantly, precisely as that of a razor or wood-working 
chise! would crumble away if operated on hard metal. It is obvious 




FIG. i. 

A, Tool which would burnish F, G, H, Presentations of tools 

only. for planing, turning and 

B, Scrape. boring respectively. 

C, Cutting tool. J, K, L, Approximate angles of 
D and E, Scraping and cutting tools; a, clearance angle, or 

tools improperly presented. bottom rake ; b, front or top 

rake; c, tool angle. 

therefore that the correct forirt for a cutting tool must depend upon 
a due balance being maintained between the angle of the front 
and of the bottom faces " front " or " top rake," and "bottom 
rake " or " clearance " considered in regard to their method of 
presentation to the work. Since, too, all tools used in machines are 
held rigidly in one position, differing in this respect from hand- 
operated tools, it follows that a constant angle should be given to 
instruments which are used for operating on a given kind of metal 
or alloy. It does not matter whether a tool is driven in a lathe, 
or a planing machine, or a sharper or a slotter; whether it is cutting 
on external or internal surfaces, it is always maintained in a direction 
perpendicularly to the point of application as in fig. I, F, G, H, 
planing, turning and boring respectively. It is consistent with 
reason and with fact that the softer and more fibrous the metal, 
the keener must be the formation of the tool, and that, conversely, 
the harder and more crystalline the metal the more obtuse must be 
the cutting angles, as in the extremes of the razor and the tools 
for cutting iron and steel already instanced. The three figures 
J, K, L show tools suitably formed, for wrought iron and mild steel, 
for cast iron and cast steel, and for brass respectively. Cast iron 
and cast steel could not be cut properly with the first, nor wrought 
iron and fibrous steel with the second, nor either with the third. 
The angles given are those which accord best with general practice, 
but they are not constant, being varied by conditions, especially 
by lubrication and rigidity of fastenings. The profiles of the first 
and second tools are given mainly with the view of having material 
for grinding away, without the need for frequent reforgmg. But 
there are many tools which are formed quite differently when used 
in tool-holders and in turrets, though the same essential principles 
of angle are observed. 

The angle of clearance, or relief, a, in fig. I, is an important detail 
of a cutting tool. It is of greater importance than an exact angle 
of top rake. But, given some sufficient angle of clearance, its 
exact amount is not of much moment. Neither need it be uniform 
for a given cutting edge. It may vary from say 3 to 10, or even 
20, and under good conditions little or no practical differences will 
result. Actually it need never vary much from 5 to 7. The object 
in giving a clearance angle is simply to prevent friction between 
the non-cutting face immediately adjacent to the edge and the 
surface of the work. The limit to this clearance is that at which 
insufficient support is afforded to the cutting edge. These are the 
two facts, which if fulfilled permit of a considerable range in clear- 
ance angle. The softer the metal being cut the greater can be the 
clearance; the harder the material the less clearance is permissible 
because the edge requires greater support. 

The front, or top rake, b in fig. I, is the angle or slope of the front, 
or top face, of the tool; it is varied mainly according as materials 
are crystalline or fibrous. In the turnings and cuttings taken off 
the more crystalline metals and alloys, the broken appearance of the 
chips is distinguished from the shavings removed from the fibrous 
materials. This is a feature which always distinguishes cast iron 
and unannealed cast steel from mild steel, high carbon steel from 



that low in carbon, and cast iron from wrought iron. It indicates 
too that extra work is put on the tool in breaking up the chips, 
following immediately on their severance, and when the comminu- 
tions are very small they indicate insufficient top rake. This 
is a result that turners try to avoid when possible, or at least to 
minimize. Now the greater the slope of the top rake the more 
easily will the cuttings come away, with the minimum of break in the 
crystalline materials and absolutely unbroken over lengths of many 
feet in the fibrous ones. The breaking up, or the continuity 
of the cuttings, therefore affords an indication of the suitability of 
the amount of top rake to its work. But compromise often has 
to be made between the ideal and the actual. The amount of top 
rake has to be limited in the harder metals and alloys in order to 
secure a strong tool angle, without which tools would lack the endur- 
ance required to sustain them through several hours without 
regrinding. 

The too/ angle, c, is the angle included between top and bottom 
faces, and its amount, or thickness expressed in degrees, is a measure 
of the strength and endurance of any tool. At extremes it varies 
from about 15 to 85. It is traceable in all kinds of tools, having 
very diverse forms. It is difficult to place some groups in the 
cutting category; they are on the border-line between cutting and 
scraping instruments. 

Typical Tools. A bare enumeration of the diverse forms in which 
tools of the chisel type occur is not even possible here. The grouped 
illustrations (figs. 2 to 6) show some of the types, but it will be 
understood that each is varied in dimensions, angles and outlines 
to suit all the varied kinds of metals and alloys and conditions of 
operation. For, as every tool has to be gripped in a holder of some 
kind, as a slide-rest, tool-box, turret, tool-holder, box, cross-slide, 
&c., this often determines the choice of some one form in preference 
to another. A broad division is that into roughing and finishing 




FIG. 2. Metal-turning Tools. 



A , Shape of tool used for scrap- E, Diamond or angular-edge tool 

ing brass. for cutting all metals. 

B, Straightforward tool for turn- F, Plan of finishing tool. 

ing all metals. G, Spring tool for finishing. 

C, Right- and left-hand tools for H, Side or knife tool. 

all metals. J, Parting or cutting-off tool. 

D, A better form of same. K, L, Round-nose tools. 

M, Radius tool. 




FIG. 3. Group of Planer Tools. 

Planer type of tool, cranked E, Parting or cutting-off or 

grooving tool. 

F, V tool for grooves. 

G, Right- and left-hand tools for 

V-slots. 

H , Ditto for T-slots. 
/, Radius tool held in holder. 



to avoid digging into the 
metaj. 

B, Face view of roughing tool. 

C, Face view of finishing tool. 

D, Right- and left-hand knife or 

side tools. 



i6 



TOOL 



[HAND TOOLS 



tools. Generally though not invariably the edge of the first is 
narrow, of the second broad, corresponding with the deep cutting 
and fine traverse of the first and the shallow cutting and broad 




B 

I 

FIG. 4. Group of Slotter Tools. 

A, Common roughing tool. B, Parting-off or grooving tool. 
C, Roughing or finishing tool in a holder. D, Double-edged tool 
for cutting opposite sides of a slot. 




FIG. 5. Group of Tool-holders. 

A, Smith & Coventry swivelling holder. B, Holder for square 
steel. C, D, right- and left-hand forms of same. E, Holder for 
round steel. F, Holder for narrow parting-off tool. 

traverse of the second. The following are some of the principal 
forms. The round-nosed roughing tool (fig. 2) B is of straight- 
forward type, used for turning, 
planing and shaping. As the 
correct tool angle can only occur 
on the middle plane of the tool, it 
is usual to employ cranked tools, 
C, D, E, right- and left-handed, 
for heavy and moderately heavy 
duty, the direction of the crank- 
ing corresponding with that in 
which the tool is required to 
traverse. Tools for boring are 
cranked and many for planing 
(fig. 3). The slotting tools (fig. 4) 
embody the same principle, but 
their shanks are in line with 
the direction of cutting. Many 
roughing and finishing tools are 
of knife type H. Finishing tools 
have broad edges, F, G, H. They 
occur in straightforward and 
right- and left-hand types. 
These as a rule remove less than 




FIG. 6. Group of Chisels. 

A, Paring chisel. 

B, Socket chisel for heavy duty. 

C, Common chipping chisel. 



in. in depth, while the rough- 
ing tools may cut an inch or 

D, Narrow cross-cut or cape chisel, more into the metal. But the 

E, Cow-mouth chisel, or gouge. traverse of the first often exceeds 

F, Straight chisel or sett. 
C, Hollow chisel or sett. 



an inch, while in that of the 
second J in. is a yery coarse 
amount of feed. Spring tools, G, 
used less now than formerly, are only of value for imparting a smooth 
finish to a surface. They are finishing tools only. Some spring 
tools are formed with considerable top rake, but generally they act 
by scraping only. 

Solid Tools v. Tool-holders. It will be observed that the fore- 
going are solid tools ; that is, the cutting portion is forged from a solid 



bar of steel. This is costly when the best tool steel is used, hence 
large numbers of tools comprise points only, which are gripped in 
permanent holders in which they interchange. _ Tool^ steel usually 
ranges from about J in. to 4 in. square; most engineers' work is done 
with bars of from J in. to li in. square. It is in the smaller and 
medium sizes of tools that holders prove of most value. Solid tools, 
varying from 2\ in. to 4 in. square, a,re used for the heaviest cutting 
done in the planing machine. Tool-holders are not employed for very 
heavy work, because the heat generated would not get away fast 
enough from small tool points. There are scores of holders; per- 
haps a dozen good approved types are in common use. They are 
divisible into three great groups: those in which the top rake of 
the tool point is embodied in the holder, and is constant; those in 
which the clearance is similarly embodied; and those in which 
neither is provided for, but in which the tool point is ground to any 
angle. Charles Babbage designed the first tool-holder, and the 
essential type survives in several modern forms. The best-known 
holders now are the Tangye, the Smith & Coventry, the Armstrong, 
some by Mr C. Taylor, and the Bent. The Smith & Coventry (fig. 5), 
used more perhaps than any other single design, includes two forms. 
In one E the tool is a bit of round steel set at an angle which gives 
front rake, and having the top end ground to an angle of top rake. 
In the other A the tool has the section of a truncated wedge, set 
for constant top rake, or cutting angle, and having bottom rake 
or clearance angle ground. The Smith & Coventry round tool is 
not applicable for all classes of work. It will turn plain work, and 
plane level faces, but will not turn or plane into corners or angles. 
Hence the invention of the tool of V-section, and the swivel tool- 
holder. The round tool-holders are made right- and left-handed, 
the swivel tool-holder has a universal movement. The amount of 
projection of the round tool points is very limited, which impairs 
their utility when some overhanging of the tool is necessary. The 
V-tooIs can be slid out in their holders to operate on faces and 
edges situated to some considerable distance inwards from the end 
of the tool-holder. 

Box Tools. In one feature the box tools of the turret lathes 
resemble tool-holders. The small pieces of steel used for tool 
points are gripped in the boxes, as in tool-holders, and all the 
advantages which are derived from this arrangement of separating 
the point from its holder are thus secured (fig. 7). But in all other 




FIG. 7. Box Tool for Turret Lathe. (Alfred Herbert, Ltd., Coventry.) 
A, Cutting tool. B, Screw for adjusting radius of cut. C C, 
V-steadies supporting the work in opposition to A. D, Diameter 
of work. E, Body of holder. F, Stem which fits in the turret. 

respects the two are dissimilar. Two or three tool-holders of different 
sizes take all the tool points used in a lathe, but a new box has to- 
be devised in the case of almost every new job, with the exception 
of those the principal formation of which is the turning down of 
plain bars. The explanation is that, instead of a single point, 
several are commonly carried in a box. As complexity increases 
with the number of tools, new designs and dimensions of boxes 
become necessary, even though there may be family resemblances 
in groups. A result is that there is not, nor can there be : anything 
like finality in these designs. Turret work has become one of the 
most highly specialized departments of machine-shop practice, and 
the design of these boxes is already the work of specialists. More 
and more of the work of the common lathe is being constantly 
appropriated by the semi- and full-automatic machines, a result to 
which the magazine feeds for castings and forgings that cannot 
pass through a hollow spindle have contributed greatly. New 
work is constantly being attacked in the automatic machines that 
was deemed impracticable a short time before ; some of the commoner 
jobs are produced with greater economy, while heavier castings 
and forgings, longer and larger bars, are tooled in the turret lathes. 
A great deal of the efficiency of the box tools is due to the support 
which is afforded to the cutting edges in opposition to the stress 
of cutting. V-blocks are introduced in most cases as in fig. 7, and 
these not only resist the stress of the cutting, but gauge the diameter 
exactly. 

Shearing Action. In many tools a shearing operation takes place, 
by which the stress of cutting is lessened. Though not very 
apparent, it is present in the round-nosed roughing tools, in the 
knife tools, in most milling cutters, as well as in all the shearing 
tools proper the scissors, shears, &c. 

Planes. We pass by the familiar great chisel group, used by wood- 
workers, with a brief notice. Generally the tool angles of these lie 
between 15 and 25. They include the chisels proper, and the 
gouges in numerous shapes and proportions, used by carpenters, 



HAND TOOLS] 



TOOL 



cabinet-makers, turners, stone-masons and allied tradesmen. These 
are mostly thrust by hand to their work, without any mechanical 
control. Other chisels are used percussively, as the stout mortise 
chisels, some of the gouges, the axes, adzes and stone-mason's tools. 
The large family of planes embody chisels coerced by the mechanical 
control of the wooden (fig. 8) or metal stock. These also differ 










FIG. 8. Section through Plane. 
A, Cutting iron. B, Top or back iron. C, Clamping screw. 

D, Wedge. E, Broken shaving. F, Mouth. 

from the chisels proper in the fact that the face of the cutting iron 
does not coincide with the face of the material being cut, but lies 
at an angle therewith, the stock of the plane exercising the necessary 
coercion. We also meet with the function of the top or non-cutting 




B 'c 'D 'E^ " 'F' 

FIG. 9. Group of Wood-boring Bits. 

A, Spoon bit. B, Centre-bit. C, Expanding centre-bit. 
Gilpin or Gedge auger. E, Jennings auger. ' F, Irwin auger. 



D. 




IT 




a 












i 


F 




k 








\ 




I 












HI 








1 1 






Tl 


it 


i \ 


1 







FIG. 10. Group of Drills for Metal. 

A, Common flat drill. 5, Twist drill. C, Straight fluted drill. 
D, Pin drill for flat countersinking. E, Arboring or facing tool. 
F.. Tool for boring sheet-metal. 



iron in breaking the shaving and conferring rigidity upon the cutting 
iron. This rigidity is of similar value in cutting wood as in cutting 
metal though in a less marked degree. 

Drilling and Boring Tools. Metal and timber are bored with 
equal facility; the tools (figs. 9 and 10) embody similar differences 
to the cutting tools already instanced for wood and metal. All the 
wood- working bits are true cutting tools, and their angles, if analysed, 
will be found not to differ much from those of the razor and common 
chisel. The drills for metal furnish examples both of scrapers and 
cutting tools. The common drill is only a scraper, but all the twist 
drills cut with good incisive action. An advantage possessed by all 
drills is that the cutting forces are balanced on each side of the 
centre of rotation. The same action is embodied in the best wood- 
boring bits and augers, as the Jennings, the Gilpin and the Irwin 
much improved forms of the old centre-bit. But the balance is 
impaired if the lips are not absolutely symmetrical about the centre. 
This explains the necessity for the substitution of machine grinding 
for hand grinding of the lips, and great developments of twist drill 
grinding machines. Allied to the drills are the D-bits, and the 
reamers (fig. n). The first-named both initiate and finish a hole; 




B 




FIG. II. 

A, D-bit. B, Solid reamer. C, Adjustable reamer, having six flat 
blades forced outward by the tapered plug. Two lock-nuts at the 
end fix the blades firmly after adjustment. 

the second are used only for smoothing and enlarging drilled holes, 
and for correcting holes which pass through adjacent castings or 
plates. The reamers remove only a mere film, and their action 
is that of scraping. The foregoing are examples of tools operated 
from one end and unsupported at the other, except in so far as they 
receive support within the work. One of the objectionable features 
of tools operated in this way is that they tend to " follow the hole," 
and if this is cored, or rough-drilled out of truth, there is risk of 
the boring tools following it to some extent at least. With the one 
exception of the D-bit there is no tool which can be relied on to take 
out a long bore with more than an approximation to concentricity 
throughout. Boring tools (fig. 12) held in the slide-rest will spring 
and bend and chatter, and unless the lathe is true, or careful com- 
pensation is made for its want of truth, they will bore bigger at one 
end than the other. Boring tools thrust by the back centre are 
liable to wabble, and though they are variously coerced to prevent 
them from turning round, that does not check the to-and-fro wabbly 




FIG. 12. Group of Boring Tools. 

A, Round boring tool held in V-blocks on slide-rest. B, C, Square 
and V-pointed boring tools. D, Boring bar with removable cutters, 
held straight, or angularly. 

motion from following the core, or rough bore. In a purely reaming 
tool this is permitted, but it is not good in tools that have to initiate 
the hole. 

This brings us to the large class of boring tools which are supported 
at each end by being held in bars carried between centres. There 
are two main varieties: in one the cutters are fixed directly in 
the bar (fig. 13, A to D), in the other in a head fitted on the bar 



i8 



TOOL 



[HAND TOOLS 



(fig. 13, E), hence termed a " boring head." As lathe heads are 
fixed, the traverse cannot be imparted to the bars as in boring 
machines. The boring heads can be traversed, or the work can be 




FIG. 13. Group of Supported Boring Tools. 



A, Single-ended cutter in boring 

bar. 

B, Double-ended ditto. 

C, Flat single-ended finishing 

cutter. 



D, Flat double-ended finishing 

cutter. 

E, Boring head with three cutters 

and three steady blocks. 




traversed by the* mechanism of the lathe saddle. The latter must be 
done when cutters are fixed in bars. A great deal of difference 
exists in the details of the fittings both of bars and heads, but they 
are not so arbitrary as they might seem at first sight. The principal 
differences are those due to the number of cutters used, their shapes, 
and their method of fastening. Bars receiving their cutters direct 
include one, two or four, cutting on opposite sides, and therefore 
balanced. Four give better balance than two, the cutters being 
set at right angles. If a rough hole runs out of truth, a single cutter 
is better than a double-ended one, provided a tool of the roughing 
shape is used. The shape of the tools varies from roughing to 
finishing, and their method of attachment is by screws, wedges or 
nuts, but we cannot illustrate the numerous differences that are 
met with. 

Saws. The saws are a natural connecting link between the chisels 
and the milling cutters. Saws are used for wood, metal and stone. 

Slabs of steel several inches 

I in thickness are sawn 
through as readily as, 
though more slowly than, 
timber planks. Circular 
and band saws are common 
in the smithy and the 
boiler and machine shops 
for cutting off bars, forgings 
and rolled sections. But 
the tooth shapes are not 
those used for timber, nor is 
the cutting speed the same. 
In the individual saw-teeth 
both cutting and scraping 
actions are illustrated (fig. 
14). Saws which cut tim- 
ber continuously with the 
grain, as rip, hand, band, 
circular, have incisive teeth. 
For though many are desti- 
tute of front rake, the 
method of sharpening at 
an angle imparts a true 
shearing cut. But all cross- 
cutting teeth scrape only, 
the teeth being either of 
triangular or of M-form, 
variously modified. Teeth 
for metal cutting also act 
strictly by scraping. The 
pitching of the teeth is 
related to the nature of 
the material and the 
for timber than for metal, 





AA7VAA 
nrtnnn 

FIG. 14. Typical Saw Teeth. 
Teeth of band and ripping saws. 
Teeth of circular saw for hard wood 

shows set. 
Ditto for soft wood. 

D, Teeth of cross-cut saw. 

E, M-teeth for ditto. 



A 
B 

C, 



direction of cutting. It is coarser 

coarser for ripping or sawing with the grain than forVross' cutting,' 
coarser for soft than for hard woods. The setting of teeth 
or the bending over to right and left, by which the clearance is 
provided for the blade of the saw, is subject to similar variations. 
It is greatest for soft woods and least for metals, where in 
fact the clearance is often secured without set, by merely thinning 
But it is greater for cross cutting than for 



the blade backwards. 



ripping timber. Gulleting follows similar rules. The softer the 
timber, the greater the gulleting, to permit the dust to escape freely. 
Milling Cutters. Between a circular saw for cutting metal and 
a thin milling cutter there is no essential difference. Increase the 
thickness as if to produce a very wide saw, and the essential plain 
edge milling cutter for metal results. In its simplest form the 
milling cutter is a cylinder with teeth lying across its periphery, or 
parallel with its axis the edge tnill (fig. 15), or else a disk with teeth 
radiating on its face, or at right angles with its axis the end mill 
(fig. 16). Each is used indifferently for producing flat faces and 
edges, and for cutting grooves which are rectangular in cross-section. 
These milling cutters invade the province of the single-edged tools 
of the planer, shaper and slotter. Of these two typical forms the 




FIG. 15. Group of Milling Cutters, 
mill, with 



A, Narrow edge 

straight teeth. 

B, Wide edge mill with spiral 

teeth. 

C, Teeth on face and edges. 



D, Cutter having teeth like C. 

E, Flat teeth held in with screws 

and wedges. 

F, Large inserted tooth mill; with 

taper pins secure cutters. 





FIG. 16. Group of End Mills. 



/ cV Wlth stra 'g h t teeth. B, Ditto with spiral teeth. 

C, bhowing method of holding shell cutter on arbor, with screw 
and key. D, T-slot cutter. 



HAND TOOLS] 



TOOL 



changes are rung in great variety, ranging from the narrow slitting 
tools which saw off bars, to the broad cutters of 24 in. or more in 
width, used on piano-millers. 

When more than about an inch in width, surfacing cylindrical 
cutters are formed with spiral teeth (fig. 15, B), a device which is 




A, Straddle Mill, cutting faces and edges. 

B, Set of three mills cutting grooves. 




FIG. 18. Group of Angular Mills. 

A, Cutter with single slope. 

B, Ditto, producing teeth in another cutter. 

C, Double Slope Mill, with unequal angles. 

essential to sweetness of operation, the action being that of shearing. 
These have their teeth cut on universal machines, using the dividing 
and spiral head and suitable change wheels, and after hardening 
they are sharpened on universal grinders. When cutters exceed 
about 6 in. in length the difficulties of hardening and grinding render 
the " gang " arrangement more suitable. Thus, two, three or more 
similar edge mills are set end to end on an arbor, with the spiral 
teeth running in reverse directions, giving a broad face with balanced 
endlong cutting forces. From these are built up the numerous 
gang mills, comprising plane faces at right angles with each other, 
of which the straddle mills are the best known (fig. 17, A). A 
common element in these combinations is the key seat type B having 
teeth on the periphery and on both faces as in fig. 15, C, D. By 
these combinations half a dozen faces or more can be tooled simul- 
taneously, and all alike, as long as the mills retain their edge. The 
advantages over the work of the planer in this class of work are seen 
in tooling the faces and edges of machine tables, beds and slides, in 
shaping the faces and edges of caps to fit their bearing blocks. In 
a single cutter of the face type, but having teeth on back and edge 
also, T-slots are readily milled (fig. 1 6, D) ; this if done on the planer 
would require re-settings of awkwardly cranked tools, and more 
measurement and testing with templets than is required on a 
milling machine. 

When angles, curves and profile sections are introduced, the 
capacity of the milling cutter is infinitely increased. The making 
of the cutters is also more difficult. Angular cutters (fig. 18) are 
used for producing the teeth of the mills themselves, for shaping 
the teeth of ratchet wheels, and, in combination with straight cutters 
in gangs, for angular sections. With curves, or angles and curves 
in combination, taps, reamers and drills can be fluted or grooved, 

the teeth of wheels shapeo!, and in 
fact any outlines imparted (fig. 19). 
Here the work of the fitter, as well 
as that of the planing and allied 
machines, is invaded, for much of 
this work if prepared on these 
machines would have to be finished 
laboriously by the file. 

There are two ways in which 
milling cutters are used, by which 
their value is extended; one is to 
transfer some of their work proper 
to the lathe and boring machine, 
the other is by duplication. A 
good many light circular sections, 




i r 



FIG. 19. 

A, Convex Cutter. 

B, Concave Cutter. 

C, Profile Cutter. 



as wheel rims, hitherto done in lathes, are regularly prepared in 
the milling machine, gang mills being used for tooling the peri- 
phery and edges at once, and the wheel blank being rotated. 
Similarly, holes are bored by a rotating mill of the cylindrical type. 
Internal screw threads are done similarly. Duplication occurs 
when milling sprocket wheels in line, or side by side, in milling nuts 
on an arbor, in milling a number of narrow faces arranged side by 
side, in cutting the teeth of several spur-wheels on one arbor and 
m milling the teeth of racks several at a time. 

One of the greatest advances in the practice of milling was that 
of making backed-off cutters. The sectional shape behind the tooth 



face is continued identical in form with the profile of the edge, the 
outline being carried back as a curve equal in radius to that of the 
cutting edge (fig. 20). The 
result is that the cutter may 
be sharpened on the front 
faces of the teeth without 
interfering with the shape 
which willbe milled, because 
the periphery is always con- 
stant in outline. After re- 
peated sharpenings the teeth 
would assume the form indi- 
cated by the shaded portion 

on two of the teeth. The FlG . 2 o. Relieved Teeth of Milling 
limit of grinding is reached Cutter, 

when the tooth becomes too 

thin and weak to stand up to its work. But such cutters will endure 
weeks or months of constant service before becoming useless. The 





-/.CD 




FIG. 21. Group of Scrapes. 

A, MetaJ- worker's scrape, pushed D, Diamond point used by 

straightforward. wood-turners. 

B, Ditto, operated laterally. E, F, Cabinet-makers' scrapes. 

C, Round-nosed tool used by 

wood-turners. 

chief advantage of backing-off or relieving is in its application to 
cutters of intricate curves, which would be difficult or impossible to 
sharpen along their edges. Such cutters, moreover, if made with 




A, Warding. 

B, Mill. 

C, Flat. 

D, Pillar. 

E, Square. 

F, G, Swaged reapers. 
H, Mill. 



FIG. 22. Cross-sectional Shapes of Files. 



P, 

Q, 



J, Topping. 

K, Reaper. 

L, Knife. 

M, Three-square. 

N, Cant. 

0, Slitting or 
feather-edge. 

ordinary teeth would soon be worn down, and be much weaker than 
the strong form of teeth represented in fig. 20. The relieving is usually 
done in special lathes, employing a profile tool which cuts the surface 



Round. 

Pit-saw or 
frame-saw. 
R, Half-round. 
5, T, Cabinet. 
U, Tumbler. 
V, Crossing. 



-/I 





IfA 

H Ij UK L 



A , Parallel or blunt. 

B, Taper bellied. 

C, Knife reaper. 

D, Tapered square. 

E, Parallel triangular. 



FIG. 23. Longitudinal Shapes of Files. 



F, Tapered triangular. K, Tapered half- 

G, Parallel round. round. 
H, Taper or rat-tail. L, Riffler. 
/, Parallel half- 
round. 



20 

of the teeth back at the required radius. Relieved cutters can of 
course be strung together on a single arbor to form gang mills, by 
which very complicated profiles may be tooled, beyond the capacity 
of a single solid mill. 

Scrapes. The tools which operate by scraping (fig. 21) include 
many of the broad finishing tools of the turner in wood and metal 
(cf. fig. 2), and the scrape of the wood worker and the fitter. The 
practice of scraping surfaces true, applied to surface plates, machine 
slides and similar objects, was due to Sir Joseph Whitworth. It 
superseded the older and less accurate practice of grinding to a 
mutual fit. Now, with machines of precision, the practice of grinding 
has to a large extent displaced the more costly scraping. Scraping 
is, however, the only method available when the most perfect contact 
is desired. Its advantage lies in the fact that the efforts of the work- 
man can be localized over the smallest areas, and nearly infinitesimal 
amounts removed, a mere fine dust in the last stages. 

Files. These must in strictness be classed with scrapes, for, 
although the points are keen, there is never any front rake. Collec- 
tively there is a shearing action because the rows of teeth are cut 
diagonally. The sectional forms (fig. 22) and the longitudinal 
forms (fig. 23) of the files are numerous, to adapt them to all classes 
of work. In addition, the method of cutting, 
and the degrees of coarseness of the teeth, vary, 
being single, or float cut, or double cut (fig. 24). 
The rasps are another group. Degrees of coarse- 
ness are designated as rough, middle cut, bastard 
cut, second cut, smooth, double dead smooth; 
the first named is the coarsest, the last the 
finest. The terms are relative, since the larger 
a file is the coarser are its teeth, though of the 
same name as the teeth in a shorter file, which 
are finer. 

Screwing Tools. The forms of these will be 
found discussed under SCREW. They can scarcely 
be ranked among cutting tools, yet the best kinds 
remove metal with ease. This is due in great 
measure to the good clearance allowed, and to 
the narrowness of the cutting portions. Front 
rake is generally absent, though in some of the 
best screwing dies there is a slight amount. 

Shears and Punches. These maybe of cutting 
or non-cutting types. Shears (fig. 25) have no 
front rake, but only a slight clearance. They 
a slight shearing cut, because the blades do not 



TOOL 



[HAND TOOLS 




FIG. 24. File 
Teeth. 



A, 
B, 



Float cut. 
Double cut. 



C, Rasp cut. 



generally give _ _^_ 

lie parallel, but the cutting begins at one end and continues in detail 
to the other. But strictly the shears, like the punches, act by a 

I. I 



J 




FlG. 25. Shear Blades. 

a, a, Blades. 

b, Plate being sheared. 



FIG. 26. Punching. 
a, Punch, b, Bolster. 
c, Plate being punched. 



severe detrusive effort; for the punch, with its bolster (fig. 26), 
forms a pair of cylindrical shears. Hence a shorn or punched 
edge is always rough, ragged, and covered with minute, shallow 
cracks. Both processes are therefore dangerous to iron and steel. 
The metal being unequally stressed, fracture starts in the annulus 
of metal. Hence the advantage of the practice of reamering out 
this annulus, which is completely removed by enlargement by 
about an f in. diameter, so that homogeneous metal is left throughout 
the entire unpunched section. The same results follow reamering 
both in iron and steel. Annealing, according to many experiments, 
has the same effect as reamering, due to the rearrangement of the 
molecules of metal. The perfect practice with punched plates 
is to punch, reamer, and finally to anneal. The effect of shearing 
is practically identical with that of punching, and planing and 
annealing shorn edges has the same influence as reamering and 
annealing punched holes. 

Hammers. These form an immense group, termed percussive, 
from the manner of their use (fig. 27). Every trade has its own 
peculiar shapes, the total of which number many scores, each with 
its own appropriate name, and ranging in size from the minute 
forms of the jeweler to the sledges of the smith and boiler maker 
and the planishing hammers of the coppersmith. Wooden hammers 
are termed mallets, their purpose being to avoid bruising tools or 
the surfaces of work. Most trades use mallets of some form or 
another. Hammer handles are rigid in all cases except certain 
percussive tools of the smithy, which are handled with withy rods, 
or iron rods flexibly attached to the tools, so that when struck by 
the sledge they shall not jar the hands. The fullering tools, and 
flatters, and setts, though not hammers strictly, are actuated by 



percussion. The dies of the die forgers are actuated percussively, 
being closed by powerful hammers. The action of caulking tools 
is percussive, and so is that of moulders' rammers. 




A, Exeter type. 

B, Joiner's hammer. 



JW KW I), 
FIG. 27. Hammers. 

F, Ditto, straight pane. 

G, Sledge hammer, straight 



C, Canterbury claw hammer pane. 

(these are wood-workers' H, Ditto, double-faced, 

hammers). /, K, L, M, Boiler makers' ham- 

D, Engineer's hammer, ball pane. mers. 

E, Ditto, cross-pane. N, Scaling hammer. 

Moulding Tools. This is a group of tools which, actuated either 
by simple pressure or percussively, mould, shape and model forms 
in the sand of the moulder, in the metal of the smith, and in press 
work. All the tools of the moulder (fig. 28) with the exception of 
the rammers and vent wires act by moulding the sand into shapes 




FIG. 28. Moulding Tools. 



/, Button sleeker. 
K, Pipe smoother. 



A , Square trowel. E, Flange bead. 

B, Heart trowel. F, Hollow bead. 

C, D, Cleaners. G, H, Square corner sleekers. 

by pressure. Their contours correspond with the plane and curved 
surfaces of moulds, and with the requirements of shallow and deep 
work. They are made in iron and brass. The fullers, swages and 
flatters of the smith, and the dies used with hammer and presses, 
all mould by percussion or by pressure, the work taking the counter- 
part of the dies, or of some portion of them. The practice of die 
forging consists almost wholly of moulding processes. 

Tool Steels. These now include three kinds. The common 
steel, the controlling element in which is carbon, requires to be 
hardened and tempered, and must not be overheated, about 500 F. 
being the highest temperature permissible- the critical tempera- 
ture. Actually this is seldom allowed to be reached. The dis- 
advantage of this steel is that its capabilities are limited, because the 
heat generated by heavy cutting soon spoils the tools. The second 
is the Mushet steel, invented by R. F. Mushet in 1868, a carbon 
steel, in which the controlling element is tungsten, of which it contains 
from about ;> to 8%. It is termed self-hardening, because it is 
cooled in air instead of being quenched in water. Its value consists 
in its endurance at high temperatures, even at a low red heat. 
Until the advent of the high-speed steels, Mushet steel was 
reserved for all heavy cutting, and for tooling hard tough 
steels. It is made in six different tempers suitable for various 
kinds of duty. Tools of Mushet steel must not be forged below 
a red heat. It is hardened by reheating the end to a white heat, 
and blowing cold in an air blast. The third kind of steel is termed 
high-speed, because much higher cutting speeds are practicable 
with these than with other steels. Tools made of them are hardened 
in a blast of cold air. The controlling elements are numerous and 
vary in the practice of different manufacturers, to render the 



MACHINE TOOLS] 



TOOL 



21 



tools adaptable to cutting various classes of metals and alloys. 
Tungsten is the principal controlling element, but chromium is 
essential, and molybdenum and vanadium are often found of 
value. The steels are forged at a yellow tint, equal to about 
1850 F. They are raised to a white heat for hardening, and copied 
in an air blast to a bright red. They are then often quenched in a 
bath of oil. 

The first public demonstration of the capacities of high speed 
steels was made at the Paris Exhibition of 1900. Since that time 
great advances have been made. It has been found that the 
section of the shaving limits the practicable speeds, so that, although 
cutting speeds of 300 and 400 ft. a minute are practicable with 
light cuts, it is more economical to limit speeds to less than 100 ft. 
per minute with much heavier cuts. The use of water is not 
absolutely essential as in using tools of carbon steel. The new 
steels show to much greater advantage on mild steel than on cast 
iron. They are more useful for roughing down than for finishing. 
The removal of 20 tb of cuttings per minute with a single tool 
is common, and that amount is often exceeded, so that a lathe 
soon becomes half buried in turnings unless they are carted away. 
The horse-power absorbed is proportionately large. Ordinary 
heavy lathes will take from 40 to 60 h.p. to drive them, or from 
four to six times more than is required by lathes of the same centres 
using carbon steel tools. Many remarkable records have been 
given of the capacities of the new steels. Not only turning and 
planing tools but drills and milling cutters are now regularly made 
of them. It is a revelation to see these drills in their rapid descent 
through metal. A drill of I in. in diameter will easily go through 
5 in. thickness of steel in one minute. 

MACHINE TOOLS 

The machine tools employed in modern engineering factories 
number many hundreds of well-defined and separate types. 
Besides these, there are hundreds more designed for special 
functions, and adapted only to the work of firms who handle 
specialities. Most of the first named and many of the latter admit 
of grouping in classes. The following is a natural classification: 

I. Turning Lathes. These, by common consent, stand as a 
class alone. The cardinal feature by which they are distin- 
guished is that the work being operated on rotates against a 
tool which is held in a rigid fixture the rest. The axis of 
rotation may be horizontal or vertical. 

II. Reciprocating Machines. The feature by which these 
are characterized is that the relative movements of tool and 
work take place in straight lines, to and fro. The recipro- 
cations may occur in horizontal or vertical planes. 

III. Machines which Drill and Bore Holes. These have some 
features in common with the lathes, inasmuch as drilling and 
boring are often done in the lathes, and some facing and turning 
in the drilling and boring machines, but they have become 
highly differentiated. In the foregoing groups tools having 
either single or double cutting edges are used. 

IV. Milling Machines. This group uses cutters having 
teeth arranged equidistantly round a cylindrical body, and 
may therefore be likened to saws of considerable thickness. 
The cutters rotate over or against work, between which and the 
cutters a relative movement of travel takes place, and they may 
therefore be likened to reciprocating machines, in which a 
revolving cutter takes the place of a single-edged one. 

V. Machines for Cutting the Teeth of Gear-wheels. These 
comprise two sub-groups, the older type in which rotary milling 
cutters are used, and the later type in which reciprocating 
single-edged tools are employed. Sub-classes are designed for 
one kind of gear only, as spur-wheels, bevels, worms, racks, 
&c. 

VI. Grinding Machinery. This is a large and constantly 
extending group, largely the development of recent years. 
Though emery grinding has been practised in crude fashion for 
a century, the difference in the old and the new methods lies 
in the embodiment of the grinding wheel in machines of high 
precision, and in the rivalry of the wheels of corundum, car- 
borundum and alundum, prepared in the electric furnace with 
those of emery. 

VII. Sawing Machines. In modern practice these take an 
important part in cutting iron, steel and brass. Few shops 
are without them, and they are numbered by dozens in some 
establishments. They include circular saws for hot and cold 
metal, band saws and hack saws. 



VIII. Shearing and Punching Machines. These occupy a 
border line between the cutting and non-cutting tools. Some 
must be classed with the first, others with the second. The 
detrusive action also is an important element, more especially 
in the punches. 

IX. Hammers and Presses. Here there is a percussive action 
in the hammers, and a purely squeezing one in the presses. 
Both are made capable of exerting immense pressures, but the 
latter are far more powerful than the former. 

X. Portable Tools. This large group can best be classified 
by the common feature of being readily removable for operation 
on large pieces of erection that cannot be taken to the regular 
machines. Hence they are all comparatively small and light. 
Broadly they include diverse tools, capable of performing 
nearly the whole of the operations summarized in the pre- 
ceding paragraphs. 

XI. Appliances. There is a very large number of articles 
which are neither tools nor machine tools, but which are in- 
dispensable to the work of these; that is, they do not cut, or 
shape, or mould, but they hold, or grip, or control, or aid in 
some way or other the carrying through of the work. Thus 
a screw wrench, an angle plate, a wedge, a piece of packing, a 
bolt, are appliances. In modern practice the appliance in 
the form of a templet or jig is one of the principal elements 
in the interchangeable system. 

XII. Wood-working Machines. This group does for the 
conversion of timber what the foregoing accomplish for metal. 
There is therefore much underlying similarity in many machines 
for wood and metal, but still greater differences, due to the 
conditions imposed on the one hand by the very soft, and on the 
other by the intensely hard, materials operated on in the two 
great groups. 

XIII. Measurement. To the scientific engineer, equally 
with the astronomer, the need for accurate measurement is of 
paramount importance. Neither good fitting nor interchange- 
ability of parts is possible without a system of measurement, 
at once accurate and of ready and rapid application. Great 
advances have been made in this direction lately. 

I. LATHES, 1 

The popular conception of a lathe, derived from the familiar 
machine of the wood turner, would not give a correct idea of the 
lathe which has been developed as the engineer's machine tool. 
This has become differentiated into nearly fifty well-marked.types, 
until in some cases even the term lathe has been dropped for more 
precise definitions, as vertical boring machine, automatic machine, 
while in others prefixes are necessary, as axle lathe, chucking lathe, 
cutting-off lathe, wheel lathe, and so on. With regard to size and 
mass the height of centres may range from 3 in. in the bench lathes 
to 9 or 10 ft. in gun lathes, and weights will range from say 50 Ib 
to 200 tons, or more in exceptional cases. While in some the 
mechanism is the simplest possible, in others it is so complicated 
that only the specialist is able to grasp its details. 

Early Lathes. Space will not permit us to trace the evolution 
of the lathe from the ancient bow and card lathe and the pole 
lathe, in each of which the rotary movement was alternately for- 
ward, for cutting, and backward. The curious thing is that the 
wheel-driven lathe was a novelty so late as the lAth and isth 
centuries, and had not wholly displaced the ancient forms even in 
the West in the igth century, and the cord lathe still survives in 
the East. Another thing is that all the old lathes were of dead 
centre, instead of running mandrel type; and not until 1794 did the 
use of metal begin to take the place of wood in lathe construction. 
Henry Maudslay (1771-1831) did more than any other man to 
develop the engineer's self-acting lathe in regard to its essential 
mechanism, but it was, like its immediate successors for fifty 
years after, a skeleton-like, inefficient weakling by comparison 
with the lathes of the present time. 

Broad Types. A ready appreciation of the broad differences in 
lathe types may be obtained by considering the differences in the 
great groups of work on which lathes are designed to operate. 
Castings and forgings that are turned in lathes vary not only in 
size, but also in relative dimensions. Thus a long piece of driving 
shafting, or a railway axle, is very differently proportioned in length 
and diameter from a railway wheel or a wheel tire. Further, while 
the shaft has to be turned only, the wheel or the tire has to be 
turned and bored. Here then we have the first cardinal distinction 
between lathes, viz. those admitting work between centres (fig. 29) 
and face and boring lathes. In the first the piece of work is pivoted 
and driven between the centres of head-stock and tail-stock or loose 
poppet; in the second, it is held and gripped only by the dogs or 



22 



TOOL 



[LATHES 



jaws of a face-plate, on the head-stock spindle, the loose 
poppet being omitted. 

These, however, are broad types only, since proportions 
of length to diameter differ, and with them lathe designs 
are modified whenever there is a sufficient amount of work 
of one class to justify the laying down of a special machine 
or machines to deal with it. Then further, we have dupli- 
cate designs, in which, for example, provision is made in 
one lathe for turning two or three long shafts simultane- 
ously, or for turning and boring two wheels or tires at 
once. Further, the position of the axis of a face lathe 
need not be horizontal, as is necessary when the turning 
of long pieces has to be done between centres. There are 
obvious advantages in arranging it vertically, the princi- 
pal being that castings and forgings can be more easily 
set and secured to a horizontal chuck than to one the face 
of which lies vertically. The chuck is also better sup- 
ported, and higher rates of turning are practicable. In 
recent years these vertical lathes or vertical turning and 
boring mills (fig. 30) have been greatly increasing in num- 
bers; they also occur in several designs to suit either 
general or special duties, some of them being used for 
boring only, as chucking lathes. Some are of immense 
size, capable of boring the field magnets of electric 
generators 40 ft. in diameter. 

Standard Lathes. But for doing what is termed 
the general work of the engineer's turnery, the stan- 
dard lathes (fig. 29) predominate, i.e. self-acting, sliding 
and surfacing lathes with headstock, loose poppet and 
slide-rest, centres, face plates and chucks, and an equip- 
ment by which long pieces are turned, either between 
centres or on the face chucks, and bored. One of 
the greatest objections to the employment of these 
standard types of lathes for indiscriminate duty is due 
to the limited height of the centres or axis of the head- 
stock, above the face of the bed. This is met generally 
by providing a gap or deep recess in the bed next 
the fast headstock, deep enough to take face work of 
large diameter. The device is very old and very common, 
but when the volume of work warrants the employment 
of separate lathes for face-work and for that done 
between centres it is better to have them. 

Screw-cutting.^ A most important section of the work 
of the engineer's turnery is that of cutting screws (see 
SCREW). This has resulted in differentiation fully as 
great as that existing between centres and face-work. 
The slide-rest was designed with this object, though 
it is also used for plain turning. The standard " self- 
acting sliding, surfacing and screw-cutting lathe " is 
essentially the standard turning lathe, with the addi- 
tion of the screw-cutting mechanism. This includes a 
master screw the lead or guide screw, which is 
gripped with a clasp nut, fastened to the travelling 
carriage of the slide-rest. The lead-screw is connected 
to the headstock spindle by change wheels, which are 
the variables through which the relative rates of move- 
ment of the spindle and the lead-screw, and therefore 
of the screw-cutting tool, held and traversed in the 
slide-rest, are effected. By this beautiful piece of 
mechanism a guide screw, the pitch of which is per- 
manent, is made to cut screw-threads of an almost 
infinite number of possible pitches, both in whole and 
fractional numbers, by virtue of rearrangements of 
the variables, the change wheels. The objection to 
this method is that the trains of change wheels have 
to be recalculated and rearranged as often as a screw 
of a different pitch has to be cut, an operation which 
takes some little time. To avoid this, the nest or 
cluster system of gears has been largely adopted, its 
most successful embodiment being in the Hendey- 
Norton lathe. Here all the change wheels are arranged 
in a series permanently on one shaft underneath the 
headstock, and any one of them is put into engagement 
by a sliding pinion operated by the simple movement 
of a lever. Thus the lead-screw is driven at different 
rates without removing any wheel from its spindle. 
This has been extensively applied to both small and 
large lathes. But a moment's thought will show that 
even this device is too cumbrous when large numbers of 
small screws are required. There is, for example, little 
in common between the screw, say of 5 or 6 ft. in 
length, for a massive penstock or valve, and J-in. bolts, 
or the small screws required in thousands for electrical 
fittings. Clearly while the self-acting screw-cutting 
lathe is the best possible machine to use for the first 
it is unsuitable for the last. So here at once, from the 
point of view of screw cutting only, an important diver- 
gence takes place, and one which has ultimately led 
to very high specialization. 

Small Screws. When small screws and bolts are cut in 




LATHES] 



TOOL 



large quantities, the guide-screw and change wheels give place to other 
devices, one of which involves the use of a separate master-screw 
for every different pitch, the other that of encircling cutting in- 
struments or dies. The first are represented by the chasing lathe, 
the second by the screwing lathes and automatics. Though the 
principles of operation are thus stated in brief, the details in design 
are most extensive and varied. 

In a chasing lathe the master-screw or hob, which may be either 
at the rear of the headstock or in front of the slide-rest, receives 
a hollow clasp-nut or a half-nut, or a star-nut containing several 
pitches, which, partaking of the traverse movement of the screw- 
thread, imparts the same horizontal movement to the cutting tool. 
The latter is sometimes carried in a hinged holder, sometimes in 
a common slide-rest. The attendant throws it into engagement 
at the beginning of a traverse, and out when completed, and also 



this is an economical system, but in others not. It cannot be 
considered so when bolts, screws and allied forms are of small 
dimensions. 

Hollow Mandrel Lathes. It has been the growing practice since 
the last decade of the igth century to produce short articles, re- 
quired in large quantities, from a long bar. This involves making 
the lathe with a hollow mandrel; that is, the mandrel of the head- 
stock has a hole drilled right through it, large enough to permit 
of the passage through it of the largest bar which the class of work 
requires. Thus, if the largest section of the finished pieces should 
require a bar of ij in. diameter, the hole in the mandrel would be 
made if in. Then the bar, inserted from the rear-end, is gripped 
by a chuck or collet at the front, the operations of turning, screwing 
and cutting off done, and the bar then thrust farther through 
to the exact length for the next set of identical operations to be 




FIG. 30. Boring and Turning Mill, vertical lathe. (Webster Bennett, Ltd., Coventry.) 



A, Table, running with stem in vertical bearing. 

B, Frame of machine. 

C, Driving cones. 

D, Handle giving the choice of two rates, through concealed 

sliding gears, shown dotted. 

E, Bevel-gears driving up to pinion gearing with ring of teeth 

on the table. 

F, Saddle moved on cross-rail G. 

changes the hobs for threads of different sections. The screwed 
stays cf locomotive fire-boxes are almost invariably cut on chasing 
lathes of this class. 

In the screwing machines the thread is cut with dies, which 
encircle the rotating bar; or alternatively the dies rotate round a 
fixed pipe, and generally the angular lead or advance of the thread 
draws the dies' along. These dies differ in no essentials from similar 
tools operated by a hand lever at the bench. There are many 
modifications of these lathes, because the work is so highly special- 
ized that they are seldom used for anything except the work of 
cutting screws varying but little in dimensions. Such being the 
case they can hardly be classed as lathes, and are often termed 
screwing machines, because no provision exists for preliminary 
turning work, which is then done elsewhere, the task of turning 
and threading being divided between two lathes. In some cases 



H, Vertical slide, carrying turret J. 

K, Screw feeding F across. 

L, Splined shaft connecting to H for feeding the latter up or 
down. 

M, M, Worm-gears throwing out clutches N, N at predeter- 
mined points. 

O, Cone pulley belted up to P, for driving the feeds of saddle 
and down-slide. 

performed, and so on. This mechanism is termed a wire feed, because 
the first lathes which were built of this type only operated on large 
wires; the heavy bar lathes have been subsequently developed 
from it. In the more advanced types of lathes this feeding through 
the hollow spindle does not require the intervention of the attendant, 
but is performed automatically. 

The amount of preliminary work which has to be done upon a 
portion of a bar before it is ready for screwing varies. The simplest 
object is a stud, which is a parallel piece screwed up from each end. 
A bolt is a screw with a head of hexagonal, square or circular 
form, and the production of this involves turning the shank and 
shoulder and imparting convexity to the end, as well as screwing. 
But screw-threads have often to be cut on objects which are not 
primarily bolts, but which are spindles of various kinds used on 
mechanisms and machine tools, and in which reductions in the form 



TOOL 



[LATHES 



of steps have to be made, and recesses, or flanges, or other features 
produced. Out of the demands for this more complicated work, 
as well as for plain bolts and studs, has arisen the great group of 
turret or capstan lathes (fig. 31) and the automatics or automatic 
screw machines which are a high development of the turret lathes. 



Turret Lathes. The turret or capstan (fig. 32) is a device for grip- 
ping as many separate tools as there are distinct operations to be 
performed on a piece of work; the number ranges from four to as 
many as twenty in some highly elaborated machines, but five or 
six is the usual number of holes. These tools are brought round 




FIG. 31. Turret, Lathe. _ (Webster & Bennett, Ltd., Coventry.) 



A, 
B, 
C, 
D, 
E, 
F, 
H, 
J, 
K, 
M, 



Bed. 

Waste oil tray. 

Headstock. 

Hollow mandrel. 

Cones keyed to D. 

Split tapered close-in chuck, actuated by tube G. 

Toggle dogs which push G. 

Coned collar acting on H. 

Handle to slide / through sleeve on bar L. 

Rack slid on release of chuck, moving bearing /V lorward. 



0, 
P, 

ft 

5, 
T, 
V, 



Bearing to feed the work through mandrel (constituting the 
wire or bar feed). A collar is clamped on the work, and is 
pushed by the bearing N at each time of feeding. 

Cross-slide. 

Hand-wheel operating screw to travel 0. 

Turret-slide. 

Cross-handle moving Q to and fro. 

Turret or capstan. 

U, Sets of fast and loose pulleys, for open and crossed belts. 

Cone belted down to E on lathe. 



I 




FIG. 32. Plan of Set of Turret Tools. (A. Herbert, Ltd.) 



A, 
B, 

C, 



Turret. 

Tool for first operation or 
chucking. 

Cutting tools for second 
operation, starting or point- 
ing. 



D, Box tool carrying two cutters 

for third operation, rough 
turning. 

E, Similar tool for fourth opera- 

tion, finish turning. 

F, Screwing tools in head for 

final operation of screwing. 



in due succession, each one doing its little share of work, until the 
cycle of operations required to produce the object is complete, 
the cycle including such operations as turning and screwing, rough- 
ing and finishing cuts, drilling and boring. Severance of the finished 
piece is generally done by a tool or tools held by a cross-slide between 
the headstpck and turret, so termed because its movements take 
place at right angles with the axis of the machine. This also 
often performs the duty of " forming," by which is meant the shap- 
ing of the exterior portion of an object of irregular outline, by a 
tool the edge of which is an exact counterpart of the profile required. 
The exterior of a cycle hub is shaped thus, as also are numerous 
handles and other objects involving various curves and shoulders, 
&c. The tool is fed perpendicularly to the axis of the rotat- 
ing work and completes outlines at once: if this were done in 
ordinary lathes much tedious manipulation of separate tools would 
be involved. 

Automatics. But the marvel of the modern automatics (fig. 33) 
lies in the mechanism by which the cycle of operations is rendered 
absolutely independent of attendance, beyond the first adjustments 
and the insertion of a fresh bar as often as the previous one becomes 
used up. The movements of the rotating turret and of the cross- 
slide, and the feeding of the bar through the hollow spindle, take 
place within a second, at the conclusion of the operation preceding. 
These movements are effected by a set of mechanism independent 
of that by which the headstock spindle is rotated, viz. by cams 
or cam drums on a horizontal cam shaft, or other equivalent 
device, differing much in arrangement, but not principle. Move- 
ments are hastened or retarded, or pauses of some moments may 
ensue, according to the cam arrangements devised, which of course 
have to be varied for pieces of different proportions and dimensions. 
But when the machines with their tools are once set up, they will 
run for days or weeks, repeating precisely the same cycle of opera- 
tions; they are self-lubricating, and only require to be fed with 
fresh lengths of bar and to have their tools resharpened occasionally. 
Of these automatics alone there are something like a dozen distinct 
types, some with their turrets vertical, others horizontal. Not 
only so but the use of a single spindle is not always deemed suffi- 
ciently economical, and some of these designs now have two, three 
and four separate work spindles grouped in one head. 



LATHES] 



TOOL 



Specialized Lathes. Outside of these main types of lathes there 
are a large number which do not admit of group classification. 
They are designed for special duties, and only a representative list 
can be given. Lathes for turning tapered work form a limited 




FIG. 33. Automatic Lathe or Screw Machine. (A. Herbert, Ltd.) 



A, Main body. 

B, Waste oil tray. 

C, Headstock. 

D, Wire-feed tube. 

E, Slide for closing chuck. 

F, Shaft for ditto. 

G, Feed-slide. 

H, Piece of work. 

J, Turret wich box tools. 

K, Turret slide. 

L, Saddle for ditto, adjustable 

along bed. 
M, Screw Tor locating adjustable 

slide. 

N, Cut-off and forming cross- 
slide. 
O, 0, Back and front tool-holders 

on slide. 
P, Cam shaft. 
Q, Cam drum for operating 

chuck. 
R, Cam drum for operating 

turret. 
S, Cam disk for actuating 

cross-slide. 



a, a, a, Cams for actuating chuck 
movements through pins 
b, b. The cam which re- 
turns D is adjustable but 
is not in view. 

c, Feeding cam for turret. 

d,<i,Return cams for turret. 

e, e.Cams on cam disk for oper- 
ating the lever /, which 
actuates the cut-off and 
forming slide. 

T, Worm-wheel which drives 
cam shaft by a worm on 
the same shaft as the 
feed-pulley U. 

V, Handwheel on worm shaft for 
making first adjustments. 

W, Change feed disk. 

g, g.Change feed dogs adjustable 
round disk. 

X, Change feed lever. 

Y, Oil tube and spreader for 
lubricating tools and work. 

Z, Tray for tools, &c. 






number, and they include the usual provisions for ordinary turning. 
In some designs change wheels are made use of for imparting a 
definite movement of cross traverse to the tool, which being com- 
pounded with the parallel sliding movements produces the taper. 
In others an upper bed carrying the heads and work swivels on a 
lower bed, which carries the slide rest. More often tapers are 
turned by a cross adjustment of the loose poppet, or by a taper 
attachment at the rear of the lathe, which coerces the movement 
of the top or tool-carrying slide of the rest. Or, as in short tapers, 
the slide-rest is set to the required angle on its carriage. Balls 
are sometimes turned by a spherical attachment to the slide-rest 
of an ordinary lathe. Copying lathes are those in which an object 
is reproduced from a pattern precisely like the objects required. 
The commonest example is that in which gun-stocks and the spokes 
of wheels are turned, but these are used for timber, and the engineer's 
copying lathe uses a form or cam and a milling cutter. The form 
milling machine is the copying machine for metal-work. The 
manufacture of boilers has given birth to two kinds of lathes, one 
for turning the boiler ends, the other the boiler flue flanges, the 
edges of which have to be caulked. Shaft pulleys have appropriated 
a special lathe containing provision for turning the convexity of 
the faces. Lathes are duplicated in two or three ways. Two, 
four, six or eight tools sometimes operate simultaneously on a piece 
of work. Two lathes are mounted on one bed. A tool will be boring 
a hole while another is turning the edges of the same wheel. One 
will be boring, another turning a wheel tire, and so on. The rolls 
for iron and steel mills have special lathes for trueing them up. 
The thin sheet metal-work produced by spinning has given rise to 
a special kind of spinning lathe where pressure, and not cutting, 
is the method adopted. 

Methods of Holding and Rotating Work. Chucks. The term chuck 
signifies an appliance used in the lathe to hold and rotate work. 
As the dimensions and shapes of the latter vary extensively, so 
also do those of the chucks. Broadly, however, the latter corre- 
spond with the two principal classes of work done in the lathe, 
that between centres, and that held at one end only or face work. 



This of course is an extremely comprehensive classification, because 
chucks of the same name differ vastly when used in small and large 
lathes. The chucks, again, used in turret work, though they grip 
the work by one end only, differ entirely in design from the face 
chucks proper. 

Chucking between Centres. The simplest and by far the commonest 
method adopted is to drill countersunk centres at the ends of the 
work to be turned, in the centre or longitudinal axis (fig. 34, A), 
and support these on the point centres of headstock and poppet. 
The angle included by the centres is usually 60, and the points 
may enter the work to depths ranging from as little as A in- in very 
light pieces to J in., f in. or i in. in the heaviest. Obviously a 
piece centred thus cannot be rotated by the mere revolution of the 
lathe, but it has to be driven by some other agent making con- 




D 

FIG. 34. 

A, Centring and driying; a, point B, Face-plate driver or _ catch- 
centre; 6, carrier; c, driver 
fixed in slot in body of point 



centre; d, back centre; e, 
work. 



plate; a, centre; b, driver. 

C, Common heart-shaped carrier. 

D, Clement double driver; a, face- 

plate; 6, 6, drivers; c, loose 
plate carrying drivers. 

nexion between it and the mandrel. The wood turner uses a forked 
or prong centre to obtain the necessary leverage at the headstock 
end, but that would be useless in metal. A driver is therefore used, 
of which there are several forms (fig. 34), the essential element 
being a short stiff prong of metal set away from the centre, and rotat- 
ing the work directly, or against a carrier which encircles and 
pinches the work. As this method of driving sets up an unbalanced 
force, the " Clement " or double driver (fig. 34, D), was invented, 
and is frequently made use of, though not nearly so much as the 
common single driver. In large and heavy work it is frequently 
the practice to drive in another way, by the dogs of the face-plate. 
Steadies. Pieces of work which are rigid enough to withstand 
the stress of cutting do not require any support except the centres. 




FIG. 35- 

A, Travelling steady with adjust- slotted bolt holes a, a; 6, b, 

able studs a, a; b, work; brass or steel facings. 

c, tool ; d, slide-rest. C, Fixed steady with hinged top 

B, Steady with horizontal and and three setting pieces. 

vertical adjustment through 

But long and comparatively slender pieces have to be steadied at 
intermediate points (fig. 35). Of devices for this purpose there 
are many designs; some are fixed or bolted to the bed and are 
shifted when necessary to new positions, and others are bolted to 
the carriage of the slide-rest and move along with it travelling 



26 



TOOL 



[LATHES 



steadies. In some the work is steadied in a vee, or a right angle, 
in others adjustable pins or arms are brought into contact with it. 
As the pressure of the cut would cause an upward as well as back- 
ward yielding of the work, these two movements are invariably 
provided against, no matter in what ways the details of the steadies 
are worked out. Before a steady can be used, a light cut has to 
be taken in the locality where the steady has to take its bearing, 
to render the work true in that place. The travelling steady 
follows immediately behind the tool, coming in contact therefore 
with finished work continually. 

Mandrels. Some kinds of work are earned between centres 
indirectly, upon mandrels or arbors (fig. 36). This is the method 




FIG. 36. Mandrels. 

A, Plain mandrel. B, Stepped mandrel. C, Expanding mandrel, 
adopted when wheels, pulleys, bushes and similar articles are bored 
first and turned afterwards, being chucked by the bore hole, which 
fits on a mandrel. The latter is then driven between point centres 
and the bore fits the mandrel sufficiently tightly to resist the stress 
of turning. The large number of bores possible involves stocking 
a considerable number of mandrels of different diameters. As it 
is not usual to turn a mandrel as often as a piece of work requires 
chucking, economy is studied by the use of stepped mandrels, which 
comprise several diameters, say from three to a dozen. A better 
device is the expanding mandrel, of which there are several forms. 
The essential principle in all is the capacity for slight adjustments 
in diameter, amounting to from j in. to | in., by the utilization 
of a long taper. A split, springy cylinder may be moved endwise 
over a tapered body, or separate single keys or blades may be 
similarly moved. 

Face-Work. That kind of work in which support is given at the 
headstock end only, the centre of the movable poppet not being 
required, is known as face-work. It includes pieces the length of 
which ranges from something less than the diameter to about 
three or four times the diameter, the essential condition being that 
the unsupported end shall be sufficiently steady to resist the stress 
of cutting. Work which has to be bored, even though long, cannot 
be steadied on the back centre, and if long is often supported on 
a cone plate. The typical appliance used for face-work is the common 
face-plate (fig. 37). It is a plain disk, screwed on the mandrel 




FIG. 37. Face-plate. 
A, Screwed hole to fit mandrel nose. B, Slots for common bolts. 

C, Tee-slots for tee-head bolts, 
nose, and having slot holes in which bolts are inserted for the pur- 
pose of cramping pieces of work to its face. There are numerous 
forms of these clamps, and common bolts also are used. The face- 
plate may also serve to receive an intermediary, the angle-plate, 
against which work may be bolted when its shape is such as to 
render bolting directly to the plate inconvenient. 

Jaw Chucks. When a face-plate has fitted to it permanent dogs 
or jaws it is termed a dog or jaw chuck (fig. 38). In the commonest 
form the jaws are moved radially and independently, each by 
its own screw, to grip work either externally or internally. In 
some cases the dogs are loosely fitted to the holes in a plain face- 
plate. In all these types the radial setting is tentative, that is 



the jaws being independent, there is no self-centring capacity, and 
thus much time is lost. A large group, therefore, are rendered 
self-centring by the turning of a ring which actuates a face scroll 




FIG. 38. Independent Jaw Chuck. 

A, Body. b. Square heads of screws for 
a,' Recess to receive face-plate. key. 

B, Jaws or dogs. c, Tee-grooves for bolts. 

C, Screws for operating jaws. 




FIG. 39. Scroll Chuck, ungeared. 

A, Face-plate screwed to man- E, Jaws in chuck face, having 

drel nose. 

B, Back of chuck screwed to 

A. 

C, Knurled chuck body with 



scroll a on face. 
D, Chuck face. 



sectional scroll teeth en- 
gaging with scroll a, and 
moved inwards or outwards 
by the scroll when C is 
turned. 

b, Tommy or lever hole in C. 

F, Piece of work outlined. 




B, 
C, 



FIG. 40. Combination Geared 

Scroll Chuck. 

A , Back plate ; o, recess for face- 
plate. 
Pinions. 

Circular rack with scroll b on 
face. 

D, Chuck body. 

E, Jaws fitting on intermediate 

pieces c that engage with 
the scroll b. 

d, Screws for operating jaws 
independently. 




FIG. 41. Spiral Geared Chuck, 
concentric movement. (C.Taylor, 
Birmingham.) 

A, Back. 

B, Body. 

C, Spiral plate with teeth engag- 

ing in jaws D. 

E, Bevel pinions gearing with 
teeth on back of C. 



RECIPROCATING MACHINES] 



TOOL 



(fig. 39) or a circular rack with 
pinions (fig. 40), turned with 
a key which operates all the 
jaws simultaneously inwards 
or outwards. But as some 
classes of jobs have to be 
adjusted eccentrically, many 
chucks are of the combination 
type (fig. 40), capable of being 
used independently or con- 
centrically, hence termed uni- 
versal chucks. The change 
from one to the other simply 
means throwing the ring of 
teeth out of or into engage- 
ment with the pinions t>y 
means of cams or equivalent 
devices. Each type of chuck 
occurs in a large range of 
dimensions to suit lathes of all 
centres, besides which every 
lathe includes several chucks, 
large and small, in its equip- 
ment. The range of dia- 
meters which can be taken 
by any one chuck is limited, 
though the jaws are made 
with steps, in addition to the 
range afforded by the ope- 
rating screws. The " Taylor " 
spiral chucks (fig. 41) differ 

essentially from the scroll types in having the actuating threads set spirally 
on the sloping interior of a cone. The result is that the outward pressure 
of each jaw is received behind the body, because the spiral rises up at the 
back. In the ordinary scroll chucks the pressure is taken only at the bottom 
of each jaw, and the tendency to tilt and pull the teeth out of shape is very 
noticeable. The spiral, moreover, enables a stronger form of tooth to be used, 
together with a finer pitch of threads, so that the wearing area can be 
increased. 

The foregoing may be termed the standard chucks. But in addition there 
are large numbers for dealing with special classes of work. Brass finishers 
have several. Most of the hollow spindle lathes and automatics have draw-in 
or push-out chucks, in which the jaws are operated simultaneously by the 
conical bore of the encircling nose, so that their action is instantaneous and 
self-centring. They are either operated by hand, as in fig. 31, or automatically, 
as in fig. 33. There is also a large group used for drills and reamers the drill 
chucks employed in lathes as well as in drilling machines. 

II. RECIPROCATING MACHINE TOOLS 
This is the only convenient head under which to group three great classes of 

machine tools which possess the feature of reciprocation in common. It 

includes the planing, shaping and slotting machines. The feature of reciproca- 
tion is that the cutting tool is operative only in one direction; that is, it cuts 

during one stroke or movement and is idle during the return stroke. It is, 

therefore, in precisely the same condition as a hand tool such as a chisel, a 

carpenter's plane or a hand 

saw. We shall return again 

to this feature of an idle 

stroke and discuss the devices 

that exist to avoid it. 

Planing Machines. In the 

standard planer for general 

shop purposes (fig. 42) the 

piece of work to be operated 

on is attached to a horizontal o 

table moving to and fro on a 

rigid bed, and passing under- 
neath the fixed cutting tool. 

The tool is gripped in a box 

having certain neccssary'ad- 

justments and movements, so 

that the tool can be carried 

or fed transversely across the 

work, or at right angles with 

the direction of its travel, to 

take successive cuts, and also 

downwards or in a vertical 

direction. The tool-box is 

carried on a cross-slide which 

has capacity for several feet 

of vertical adjustment on up- 
right members to suit work 

of varying depths. These up-(j , 

rights or housings are bolted 

to the sides of the bed, and 

the whole framing is so rigidly 

designed that no perceptible 

tremor or yielding takes place 

under the heaviest duty im- 
posed by the stress of cutting. 




liv 



s 3 

ess 



oj C oj 
Z rt-C 



1) .-BC 

3>^ 
aji a T 

; 3*2 tj"ft3 



"2 5 



1 | 



.H 8 



ill? 1 

hll ? 

J C 4-. .0 

r-=^so> 

U1 CO J 





(I 






_ 

'i .......... J.4....4J ----- .-... 

',.,,,~, 







. 

PH 0-i Cu r_/) 



,2 



.,. 
!fJJt.& 



28 



TOOL 



[RECIPROCATING MACHINES 



Moreover, after the required adjustments have been made and the 
machine started, the travel and the return of the work- table and 
the feeding of the tool across the surface are performed by self-acting 
mechanism actuated by the reciprocations of the table itself, the 
table being driven from the belt pulleys. 



To such a design there are objections, which, though their im- 
portance has often been exaggerated, are yet real. First, the cross- 
rail and housings make a rigid enclosure over the table, which 
sometimes prevents the admission of a piece that is too large to 
pass under the cross-rail or between the housings. Out of this 




FIG. 43. 2O-in. Side Planing Machine. 

A, Bed. 

B, B, Feet. 

C, C, Work tables adjustable vertically on the faces D, D, by 

means of screws E, E, from handles F, F, through bevel 
gears. 



(G. Richards & Co., Ltd., Manchester.) 

G, Tool-box on travelling arm H, travelled by fast and loose 

pulleys J for cutting, and by pulleys K for quick return. 
L, Feed-rod with adj ustable dogs a, a, for effecting reversals through 

the belt forks b, b. 
M, Brickwork pit to receive deep objects. 




FIG. 44. 8-in. Shaping Machine. 

A, Base. 

B, Work-table, having vertical movement on carriage C, which has 

horizontal movement along the face of A, 

D, Screw for effecting vertical movement, by handle E and bevel 
gears. 

F, Screw for operating longitudinal movement with feed by hand 

or power. 

G, Tool ram. 
H, Tool-box. 

a, Worm-gear for setting tool-holder at an angle. 

b, Crank handle spindle for operating ditto. 

c, Handle for actuating down feed of tool. 



(Cunliffe & Croom, Ltd., Manchester.) 

J, Driving cone pulley actuating pinion d, disk wheel e, with slotted 
disk, and adjustable nut moving in the slot of the crank /, 
which actuates the lever g, connected to the tool ram G, the 
motion constituting the Whitworth quick return; g is pivoted 
to a block which is adjustable along a slot in G, and the 
clamping of this block in the slot regulates the position of the 
ram G, to suit the position of the work on the table. 

k, Feed disk driven by small gears from cone pulley. 

j, Pawl driven from disk through levers at various rates, and con- 
trolling the amount of rotation of the feed screw F. 

K, Conical mandrel for circular shaping, driven by worm and 
wheel /. 



RECIPROCATING MACHINES] 



TOOL 



29 



objection has arisen a new design, the side planer (fig. 43), in which 
the tool-box is carried by an arm movable along a fixed bed or base, 
and overhanging the work, which is fastened to the side of the 
base, or on angle brackets, or in a deep pit alongside. Here the 
important difference is that the work is not traversed under the 
tool as in the ordinary planer, but the tool moves over the work. 
But an evil results, due to the overhang of the tool arm, which being 
a cantilever supported at one end only is not so rigid when cutting 
as the cross-rail of the ordinary machine, supported at both ends 
on housings. The same idea is embodied in machines built in other 
respects on the reciprocating table model. Sometimes one housing 
is omitted, and the tool arm is carried on the other, being therefore 
unsupported at one end. Sometimes a housing is made to be 
removable at pleasure, to be temporarily taken away only when a 
piece of work of unusual dimensions has to be fixed on the table. 
Another objection to the common planer is this. It seems 
unmechanical in this machine to reciprocate a heavy table and 
piece of work which often weighs several tons, and let the tool 
and its holder of a few hundredweights only remain stationary. 
The mere reversal of the table absorbs much greater horse-power 



there is no limitation whatever to the length of the work, since it 
may extend to any distance beyond the base-plate. 

Shaping Machines. The shaping machine (fig. 44) does for com- 
paratively small pieces that which the planer does for long ones. 
It came later in time than the planer, being one of James Nasmyth's 
inventions, and beyond the fact that it has a reciprocating non- 
cutting return stroke it bears no resemblance to the older machine. 
Its design is briefly as follows: The piece of work to be shaped is 
attached to the top, or one of the vertical side faces, of a right- 
angled bracket or brackets. These are carried upon the face of a 
main standard and are adjustable thereon in horizontal and vertical 
directions. In small machines the ram or reciprocating arm (see 
fig. 44, G) slides in fixed guides on the top of the pillar, and the 
necessary side traverse is imparted to the work table B. To the top 
of the main standard, in one design, a carriage is fitted with hori- 
zontal traverse to cover the whole breadth, within the capacity of the 
machine, of any work to be operated on. In the largest machines 
two standards support a long bed, on which the carriage, with its 
ram, traverses past the work. These machines are frequently made 
double-headed, that is carriages, rams and work tables are dupli- 




FIG. 45. 12-in. Stroke Slotting Machine 

A, Main framing. 

B, Driving cone. 

C, D, Gears driven by cones. 

E, Shaft of L. 

F, Tool ram driven from shaft E through disk G and rod H , with 

quick return mechanism D. 
J, Counter-balance lever to ram. 

than the actual work of cutting. Hence a strong case is often 
stated for the abandonment of the common practice. But, on the 
other hand, the centre of gravity of the moving table and work 
lies low down, while when the cross-rail and housings with the cut- 
ting tool are travelled and reversed, their centre of gravity is high, 
and great precautions have to be taken to ensure steadiness of 
movement. Several planers are made thus, but they are nearly 
all of extremely massive type the pit planers. The device is 
seldom applied to those of small and medium dimensions. 

But there is a great group of planers in which the work is always 
fixed, the tools travelling. These are the wall planers, vertical 
planers or wall creepers, used chiefly by marine engine builders. 
They are necessary, because many of the castings and forgings 
are too massive to be put on the tables of the largest standard 
machines. They are therefore laid on the base-plate of the wall 
planer, and the tool-box travels up and down a tall pillar bolted to 
the wall or standing independently, and so makes vertical cutting 
strokes. In some designs horizontal strokes are provided for, or 
either vertical or horizontal as required. Here, as in the side planer, 



(Greenwood & Batley, Ltd., Leeds.) 
K, Flywheel. 
L, Driving-disk. 

M, N, Feed levers and shaft operated from disk, actuating linear 
movements of slides 0, P, and circular movement of table 

E, through gears R. 
ed motions to table. 
T, Countershaft. 

cated, and the operator can set one piece of work while the other 
is being shaped. In all cases the movement of the reciprocating 
arm, to the outer end of which the tool is attached, takes place in a 
direction transversely to the direction of movement of the carriage, 
and the tool receives no support beyond that which it receives from 
the arm which overhangs the work. Hence the shaper labours 
under the same disadvantages as the side planer it cannot operate 
over a great breadth. A shaper with a 24-in. stroke is one of large 
capacity, 16 in. being an average limit. Although the non-cutting 
stroke exists, as in the planer, the objection due to the mass of a 
reciprocating table does not exist, so that the problem does not 
assume the same magnitude as in the planer. The weak point in 
the shaper is the overhang of the arm, which renders it liable to 
spring, and renders heavy cutting difficult. Recently a novel 
design has been introduced to avoid this, the draw-cut shaper, in 
which the cutting is done on the inward or return stroke, instead of 
on the outward one. 

Slotting Machines. In the slotting machine (fig. 45) the cutting 
takes place vertically and there is a lost return stroke. All the 



TOOL 



[DRILLING MACHINES 



necessary movements save the simple reciprocating stroke are im- 
parted to the compound table on which the work is carried. These 
include two linear movements at right angles with each other and 
a circular motion capable of making a complete circle. Frequently 
a tilting adjustment is included to permit of slotting at an angle. 
The slotting machine has the disadvantage of an arm unsupported 
beyond the guides in which it moves. But the compound movements 
of the table permit of the production of shapes which cannot be done 
on planers and shapers, as circular parts and circular arcs, in com- 
bination with straight portions. Narrow key grooves in the bores 
of wheels are also readily cut, the wheels lying on the horizontal 
table, which would only be possible on planer and shaper by the use 
of awkward angle brackets, and of specially projecting tools. 

Quick return in planers is accomplished by having two distinct 
sets of gearing a slow set for cutting and a quick train for return, 
each operated from the same group of driving pulleys. The return 
travel is thus accomplished usually three, often four, times more 
quickly than the forward rate; sometimes even higher rates are 
arranged for. In the shaper 
and slotter such acceleration 
is not practicable, a rate of 
two to one being about the 
limit, and this is obtained not 
by gears, but by the slotted 
crank, the Whitworth return, 
on shapers and slotters, or by 
elliptical toothed wheels on 
slotters. The small machines 
are generally unprovided with 
this acceleration. 

The double-cutting device 
seems at first sight the best 
solution, and it is adopted on 
a number of machines, though 
still in a great minority. The 
pioneer device of this kind, 
the rotating tool-box of 
Whitworth, simply turns the 
tool round through an angle 
of 180 at the termination of 
each stroke, the movement 
being self-acting. In some 
later designs, instead of the 
box being rotated to reverse 
the tool, two tools are used 
set back to back, and the one 
that is not cutting is relieved 
for the time being, that is 
tilted to clear the work. 
Neither of these tools will 
plane up to a shoulder as will 
the ordinary ones. 

Allied Machines. The re- 
ciprocation of the tool or the 
work, generally the former, is 
adopted in several machines 
besides the standard types 
named. The plate-edge planer 
is used by platers and boiler 
makers. It is a side planer, 
the plates being bolted to a 
bed, and the tool traversing 
and cutting on one or both 
strokes. Provision is often 
included for planing edges at 
right angles. The key-seaters 
are a special type, designed 



the speed of the tools, and this controls the design of the driving 
and feeding mechanism. Another important difference is that 
between drilling or boring one or more holes simultaneously. With 
few exceptions the tool rotates and the work is stationary. The 
notable exceptions are the vertical boring lathes already mentioned. 
Obviously the demands made upon drilling machines are nearly as 
varied as those on lathes. There is little in common between the 
machines which are serviceable for the odd jobs done in the general 
shop and those which are required for the repetitive work of the 
shops which handle specialities. Provision often has to be made 
for drilling simultaneously several holes at certain centres or 
holes at various angles or to definite depths, while the mass of 
the spindles of the heavier machines renders counter-balancing 
essential. 

Bench Machines are the simplest and smallest of the group. They 
are operated either by hand or by power. In the power machines 
generally, except in the smallest, the drill is also fed downwards 
by power, by means of toothed gears. The upper part of the drilling 














~~\ 



A, Base-plate. 

B, Pillar. 

C, Radial arm. 

D, Spindle carriage. 

E, Drill spindle. 

F, Main driving cones driving vertical shaft G 

through mitre-gears H. 

J, Spur-wheels, driving from C to vertical shaft K. 

L, Mitre-wheels, driving from K to horizontal 
shaft M, having its bearings in the radial arm. 

N, Nest of mitre-wheels driving the wheel spindle 
E from M. 

O, Feed-gears to drill spindle, actuated by hand- 
wheel P or worm-gears Q. 



FIG. 46. Pillar Radial Drilling Machine, 5 ft. radius. 

R, R, Feed cones driving from shaft M to worm- 
shaft S, for self-acting feed of drill. 

T, Change-speed gears. 

U, Hand-wheel for racking carriage D along radial 
arm C. 

V, Clutch and lever for reversing direction of 
rotation of spindle. 

W, Worm-gear for turning pillar B. 

d, Handle for turning worm. 

X, Screw for adjusting the height of the radial 
arm. 

Y, Gears for actuating ditto from shaft C. 

i, Rod with handle for operating elevating gear. 



mainly to remove the work of cutting key grooves in the bores 
of wheels and pulleys from the slotting machine. The work is 
fixed on a table and the keyway cutting tool is drawn downwards 
through the bore, with several resulting practical advantages. 
Many planing machines are portable so that they may be fixed 
upon very massive work. Several gear-wheel cutting machines 
embody the reciprocating tool. 

III. DRILLING AND BORING MACHINES 

The strict distinction between the operations of drilling and 
boring is that the first initiates a hole, while the second enlarges one 
already existing. But the terms are used with some latitude. A 
combined drilling and boring machine is one which has provision 
for both functions. But when holes are of large dimensions the 
drilling machine is useless because the proportions and gears are 
unsuitable. A 6-in. drill is unusually large, but holes are bored up 
to 30 ft. or more in diameter. 

Types of Machines. The distinction between machines with 
vertical and horizontal spindles is not vital, but of convenience only. 
1 he principal controlling element in design is the mass of the work, 
which often determines whether it or the machine shall be adjusted 
relatively to each other. Also the dimensions of a hole determine 



spindle being threaded is turned by an encircling spur-wheel, operated 
very slowly by a pinion and hand-wheel by the right hand of the 
attendant, the movement being made independent of the rotation 
of the spindle. A rack sleeve encircling the spindle is also common. 
In the power machines gears are also used, but a belt on small cone 
pulleys drives from the main cone shaft at variable speeds. From 
three to four drilling and feeding speeds are provided for by the 
respective cone pulleys. Work is held on or bolted to a circular 
table, which may have provision for vertical adjustment to suit 
pieces of work of different depths, and which can usually be swung 
aside out of the way to permit of deep pieces of work being introduced, 
resting on the floor or on blocking. 

Watt Machines. One group of these machines resembles the bench 
machines in general design, but they are made to bolt to a wall 
instead of on a bench. Their value lies in the facilities which they 
afford for drilling large pieces of work lying on the floor a on block- 
ing, which could not go on the tables of the bench machines. Some- 
times a compound work-table is fastened to the floor beneath; 
and several machines also are ranged in line, by means of which long 
plates, angles, boilers or castings may be brought under the simul- 
taneous action of the group of machines. Another type is the 
radial arm machine, with or without a table beneath. In each case 



DRILLING MACHINES] 



TOOL 



an advantage gained is that a supporting pillar or standard is not 
required, its place being taken by the wall. 

Self-contained Pillar Machines include a large number having the 
above-named feature in common. In the older and less valuable 
types the framework is rigid, and the driving and feeding are by belt 
cones. But the machines being mostly of larger capacities than those 
just noted, back-gears similar to those of lathes are generally in- 
troduced. The spindles also are usually counterbalanced. The 
machine framing is bolted to a bed-plate. A circular work-table 
may or may not be included. When it is, provision is made for 
elevating the table by gears, and also for swinging it aside when deep 
work has to be put on the base-plate. 

Radial Arm Machines, In these (fig. 46) the drilling mechanism 
is carried on a radial arm which is pivoted to the pillar with the 
object of moving the drill over the work, when the latter is too massive 
to permit of convenient adjustment under the drill. The driving 
takes place through shafts at right angles, from a horizontal shaft 
carrying the cones and back-geared to a vertical one, thence to a 
horizontal one along the radial arm, whence the vertical drilling 



makers and platers. In others the spindles are adjustable in circles 
of varying radii, as in those employed for drilling the bolt holes in 
pipe flanges. In many of these the spindles are horizontal. Some 
very special multiple-spindle machines have the spindles at different 
angles, horizontal and vertical, or at angles. 

Universal Machines are a particular form of the pillar type in 
which the spindle is horizontal, moving with its carriage on a pillar 
capable of traversing horizontally along a bed; the carriage has ver- 
tical adjustment on its pillar and so commands the whole of the face 
of a large piece of work bolted to a low bed-plate adjacent to the 
machine. The term " universal " signifies that the machine com- 
bines provision for drilling, boring, tapping screws and inserting 
screw studs, facing and in some cases milling. The power required 
for boring is obtained by double and treble gears. These machines 
are used largely in marine engine works, where very massive 
castings and forgings must be operated on with their faces set 
vertically. 

Boring Machines. Many machines are classified as suitable for 
drilling and boring. That simply means that provision is made on 




FIG. 47. Lincoln Milling Machine. 

A, Bed. 

B, B, Legs. 

C, Upright. 

D, Spindle or arbor. 

E, Headstock, carrying bearings for spindle D. 

F, Tailstock, carrying point centre for tail end of spindle. 

G, Hand-wheel for effecting adjustment in height of headstock, 

through bevel-gears H and screw ./. 

K, Cross-bar connecting head- and tail-stocks, and ensuring 
equal vertical adjustment of the spindle bearings from the 
screw /. 

spindle is driven. The latter has its bearings in a carriage which 
can be traversed along the arm for adjustment of radius. The 
spindle is counterbalanced. Hand as well as power adjustments 
are included. In the work-tables of radial and rigid machines 
there is a great diversity, so that work can be set on top, or at the 
sides, or at an angle, or on compound tables, so covering all the 
requirements of practice. 

Sensitive Machines have developed greatly and have superseded 
many of the older, slower designs. The occasion for their use lies 
in the drilling of small holes, ranging up to about an inch in diameter. 
They are belt-driven, without back-gears, and usually without 
bevel-gears to change the direction of motion. The feed is by lever 
moving a rack sleeve. A slender pillar with a foot supports the 
entire mechanism, and the work-table, with a range of vertical 
adjustment. 

Multiple Spindle Machines. Many of the sensitive machines 
are fitted with two, three or more spindles operated in unison with 
a belt common to all. In other machines the multiple spindles are 
capable of adjustment for centres, as in the machines used by boiler 



(John Holroyd & Co., Ltd., Milnrow.) 
L, Speed cones for driving spindle, through pinion M and wheel 

N. 
0, Frame, carrying the bearings for the cone pulley L, and pivoted 

to the bed at a, and to the headstock E. This device keeps 

the gears M and N in engagement in all variations in the 

height of the spindle D. 
P, Q, Cones for driving the table R through worm-gears S, T, and 

spurs U, V, to the table screw. 
W, Stop for automatic knock-off to feed. 
X, Hand-wheel for turning the same screw through worm-gears 

Y, Z. 

a drilling machine for boring holes of moderate size, say up to 8 or 
10 in., by double and treble back-gears. But the real boring machine 
is of a different type. In the horizontal machines a splined bar 
actuated by suitable gears carries a boring head which holds the 
cutters, which head is both rotated with, and traversed or fed along 
the bar. The work to be bored is fixed on a table which has pro- 
vision for vertical adjustment to suit work of different dimensions. 
The boring-bar is supported at both ends. In the case of the 
largest work the boring-bar is preferably set with its axis vertically, 
and the framing of the machine is arch-like. The bar is carried in 
a bearing at the crown of the arch and driven and fed there by suit- 
able gears, while the other end of the bar rotates in the table which 
forms the base of the machine. Some boring machines for small 
engine cylinders and pump barrels have no bar proper, but a long 
boring spindle carrying cutters at the further end is supported along 
its entire length in a long stiff boss projecting from the headstock 
of the machine the snout machine. The work is bolted on a carriage 
which slides along a bed similar to a lathe bed. Many of these 
machines have two bars for boring two cylinders simultaneously. 



TOOL 



[MILLING MACHINES 



IV. MILLING MACHINES 

In milling machines rotary saw-like cutters are employed. To a 
certain extent these and some gear-cutting machines overlap because 
they have points in common. Many gear-wheel teeth are produced 
by rotary cutters on milling machines. In many machines designed 
for gear cutting only, rotary cutters alone are used. For this reason 
the two classes of machines are conveniently and naturally grouped 
together, notwithstanding that a large and increasing group of gear- 
cutting machines operate with reciprocating tools. 

The French engineer, Jacques de Vaucanson (1709-1782), is 
credited with having made the first milling cutter. The first very 
crude milling machine was made in 1818 at a gun factory in Connecti- 
cut. To-day the practice of milling ranks as of equal economic value 
with that of any other department of the machine shop, and the 
varieties of milling machines made are as highly differentiated as are 
those of any other group. An apparent incongruity which is rather 
striking is the relative disproportion between the mass of these 
machines and the small dimensions of the cutters. The failures of 
many of the early machines were largely due to a lack of appreciation 
of the intensity of the stresses involved in milling. A single-edged 
cutting tool has generally a very narrow edge in operation. Milling 
cutters are as a rule very wide by comparison, and several teeth in 
deep cuts are often in simultaneous operation. The result is that 
the machine spindle and the arbor or tool mandrel are subjected to 
severe stress, the cutter tends to spring away from the surface being 
cut, and if the framings are of light proportions they vibrate, and in- 
accuracy and chatter result. Even with the very stiff machines now 
made it is not possible to produce such accurate results on wide sur- 
faces as with the planer using a narrow-edged tool. Because 
of this great resistance and stress, cutters of over about 
an inch in width are always made with the teeth arranged 
spirally, and wide cutters which are intended for roughing 
down to compete with the planer always have either 
inserted cutters or staggered teeth. Hence the rotary cutter 
type of machine has not been able to displace the planing 
machine in wide work when great accuracy is essential. Its place 
lies in other spheres, in some of which its position is unassailable. 
Nearly all pieces of small and medium dimensions are machined as 
well by milling as by single-edged tools. All pieces which have more 
than one face to be operated on are done better in the milling machine 
than elsewhere. All pieces which have profiled outlines involving 
combinations of curves and plane faces can generally only be pro- 
duced economically by milling. Nearly all work that involves 
equal divisions, or pitchings, as in the manufacture of the cutters 
themselves, or spiral cutting, or the teeth of gear-wheels when pro- 
duced by rotary cutters, must be done in milling machines. Beyond 
these a large quantity of work lies on the border-line, where the choice 
between milling and planing, shaping, slotting, &c., is a matter for 
individual judgment and experience. It is a matter for some sur- 
prise that round the little milling cutter so many designs of machines 
have been built, varying from each other in the position of the tool 
spindles, in their number, and in the means adopted for actuating 
them and the tables which carry the work. 

A very early type of milling machine, which remains extremely 
popular, was the Lincoln. It was designed, as were all the early 
machines, for the small arms factories in the United States. The 
necessity for all the similar parts of pistols and rifles being inter- 
changeable, has had the paramount influence in the development 
of the milling machine. In the Lincoln machine as now made 
(fig. 47) the work is attached to a table, or to a vice on the table, 
which has horizontal and cross traverse movements on a bed, but 
no capacity for vertical adjustment. The cutter is held and rotated 
on an arbor driven from a headstock pulley, and supported on a tail- 
stock centre at the other end, with capacity for a good range of ver- 
tical adjustment. This is necessary both to admit pieces of work 
of different depths or thicknesses between the table and the cutter, 
and to regulate the depth of cutting (vertical feed). Around this 
general design numerous machines small and large, with many 
variations in detail, are built. But the essential feature is the ver- 
tical movement of the spindle and cutter, the support of the arbor 
(cutter spindle) at both ends, and the rigidity afforded by the bed 
which supports head- and tail-stock and table. 

The pillar and knee machines form another group which divides 
favour about equally with the Lincoln, the design being nearly of 
an opposite character. The vertical movements for setting and 
feed are imparted to the work, which in this case is carried on a 
bracket or knee that slides on the face of the pillar which supports 
the headstock. Travelling and transverse movements are imparted 
to the table slides. The cutter arbor may or may not be supported 
away from the headstock by an arched overhanging arm. None of 
these machines is of large dimensions. They are made in two leading 
designs the plain and the universal. The first embodies rectangular 
relations only, the second is a marvellous instrument both in 
its range of movements and fine degree of precision. The first 
machine of this kind was exhibited at Paris in 1867. The design 
permits the cutting of spiral grooves, the angle of which is embodied 
in the adjustment of a swivelling table and of a headstock thereon 
(universal or spiral head). The latter embodies change-gears like 



a screw-cutting lathe and worm-gear for turning the head, in com- 
bination with an index or dividing plate having several circles of 
holes, which by the insertion of an index peg permit of the work 
spindle being locked during a cut. The combinations possible with 
the division plate and worm-gear number hundreds. The head also 
has angular adjustments in the vertical direction, so that tapered 
work can be done as well as parallel. The result is that there is 
nothing in the range of spiral or parallel milling, or tapered work or 
spur or bevel-gear cutting, or cutter making, that cannot be done 
on this type of machine, and the_ accuracy of the results of equal 
divisions of pitch and angle of spiral do not depend on the human 
element, but are embodied in the mechanism. 




FIG. 48. Vertical Spindle Milling Machine. (James 
Archdale & Co., Ltd.) 

A, Main framing. 

B, Knee. 

C, Spindle, having its vertical position capable of adjustment by 

the sliding of D on A. 
E, Driving cone, belt driving over guide pulleys F to spindle 

pulley G. 

H, Enclosed gears for driving spindle by back gear. 
J, Hand-wheel for adjusting spindle vertically. 
K, K, Pulleys over which spindle is counterbalanced. 
L, Feed pulley, driven from counter shaft. 
M, Vertical feed shaft, driven from L through mitre-gears. 
N, Change gear box. 
O, Horizontal feed shaft, operating longitudinal and transverse 

feed of table through spiral and spur-gears. 

P, P, Handles for operating changes in feed speeds, nine in number. 
Q, Handle for reversing direction of motion of table R. 
S, Hand-wheel for longitudinal movement of table. 
T, Hand-wheel for effecting cross adjustments. 
V, Spiral gears indicated for effecting self-acting rotation of 

circular table W. 

X, Hand-wheel for rotation of table. 
Y, Hand-wheel for vertical movements of knee B on screw Z. 

Machines with vertical spindles (fig. 48) form another great group, 
the general construction of which resembles that either of the com- 
mon drilling machine or of the slotting machine. In many cases the 
horizontal position is preferable for tooling, in others the vertical, 
but often the matter is indifferent. For general purposes, the heavier 
class of work excepted, the vertical is more convenient. But apart 
from the fitting of a special brace to the lower end of the spindle 
which carries the cutter, the spindle is unsupported there and is 
thus liable to spring. But a brace can only be used with a milling 
cutter that operates by its edges, while one advantage of the vertical 
spindle machine is that it permits of the use of end or face cutters. 
One of the greatest advantages incidental to the vertical position 
of the spindle is that it permits of profile milling being done. One 
of the most tedious operations in the machine shop is the production 
of outlines which are not those of the regular geometric figures, 
as rectangles and circles, or combinations of the same. There is 



GEAR-CUTTING MACHINES] 



TOOL 



33 



only one way in which irregular forms can be produced cheaply 
and interchangeably, and that is by controlling the movements of 
the tool with an object of similar shape termed a "form" or 
" former," as in the well-known copying lathes, in the cam grinding 
machine, and in the forming adjuncts fitted to vertical spindle milling 
machines, so converting those into profiling machines. The prin- 
ciple and its application are alike simple. An object (the form) is 
made in hardened steel, having the same outlines as the object to be 
milled, and the slide which carries the cutter spindle has a hardened 
former pin or roller, which is pulled hard against the edges of 
the form by a suspended weight, so causing the tool to move and cut 
in the same path and in the same plane around the edges of the work. 
Here the milling machine holds a paramount place. No matter 
how many curves and straight portions may be combined in a piece, 
the machine reproduces them all faultlessly, and a hundred or a 
thousand others all precisely alike without any tentative corrections. 
Piano-millers, also termed slabbing machines, form a group that 
grows in value and in mass and capacity. They are a comparatively 
late development, becoming the chief rivals to the planing machines, 
for all the early milling was of a very light character. In general 
outlines the piano-millers closely resemble the planing machines, 
having bed, table, housings and cross-rail. The latter in the piano- 
miller carries the bearings for the cutter spindle or spindles under 
which the work travels and reciprocates. These spindles are ver- 
tical, but in some machines horizontal ones are fitted also, as in 
planers, so that three faces at right or other angles can be operated 
on simultaneously. The slabbing operations of the piano-millers do 
not indicate the full or even the principal utilities of these machines. 
To understand these it must be remembered that the cross-sections 
of very many parts which have to be tooled do not lie in single planes 
merely, but in combinations of plane surfaces, horizontal, vertical 
or angular. In working these on the planing machine separate 
settings of tools are required, and often successive settings. But 
milling cutters are built up in " gangs " to deal with such cases, and 
in this way the entire width of profile is milled at once. Horizontal 
faces, and vertical and angular edges and grooves, are tooled simul- 
taneously, with much economy in time, and the cutter profile will 
be accurately reproduced on numbers of separate pieces. Allied 
to the piano-millers are the rotary planers. They derive their name 
from the design of the cutters. An iron disk is pierced with holes 
for the insertion of a large number of separate cutters, which by the 
rotation of the disk produce plane surfaces. These are milling 
cutters, though the tools are single-edged ones, hence termed 
" inserted tooth mills." These are used on other machines besides 
the rotary planers, but the latter are massive machines built on 
the planer model, with but one housing or upright to carry the 
carriage of the cutter spindle. These machines, varied considerably 
in design, do good service on a class of work in which a very high 
degree of accuracy is not essential, as column flanges, ends of 
girders, feet of castings, and such like. 

V. GEAR-CUTTING MACHINES 

The practice of cutting the teeth of gear-wheels has grown but 
slowly. In the gears used by engineers, those of large dimensions 
are numerous, and the cost of cutting these is often prohibitive, 
though it is unnecessary in numbers of mechanisms for which 
cast wheels are as suitable as the more accurately cut ones. The 
smallest gears for machines of precision have long been produced 
by cutting, but of late years the practice has been extending to 
include those of medium and large dimensions, a movement which 
has been largely favoured by the growth of electric driving, the 
high speeds of which make great demands on reduction and trans- 
mission gears. Several new types of gear-cutting machines have 
been designed, and specialization is still growing, until the older 
machines, which would, after a fashion, cut all forms of gears, 
are being ousted from modern establishments. 

The teeth of gear-wheels are produced either by rotary milling 
cutters or by single-edged tools (fig. 49). The advantage of the 
first is that the cutter used has the same sectional form as the inter- 
tooth space, so that the act of tooth cutting imparts the shapes 
without assistance from external mechanism. But this holds good 
only in regard to spur-wheel teeth, that is, those in which the teeth 
lie parallel with the axis of the wheel. The teeth of bevel-wheels, 
though often produced by rotary cutters, can never be formed 
absolutely correctly, simply because a cutter of unalterable section 
is employed to form the shapes which are constantly changing 
in dimensions along the length of the teeth (the bevel-wheel being 
a frustum of a cone). Hence, though fair working teeth are ob- 
tained in this way, they result from the practice of varying the 
relative angles of the cutters and wheel and removing the material 
in several successive operations or traverses, often followed by a 
little correction with the file. Although this practice is still commonly 
followed in bevel-wheels of small dimensions, and was at one time 
the only method available, the practice has been changing in favour 
of shaping the teeth by a process of planing with a single-edged 
reciprocating tool. As, however, such a tool embodies no formative 
section as do the milling cutters, either it or the wheel blank, or 
both, have to be coerced and controlled by mechanism outside the 
tool itself. Around this method a number of very ingenious 

xxvn. 2 



machines have been designed, which may be broadly classed under 
two great groups the form and the generating types. 

In the form machines a pattern tooth or form-tooth is prepared 
in hardened steel, usually three times as large as the actual teeth 
to be cut, and the movement of the mechanism which carries the 
wheel blank is coerced by this form, so that the tool, reciprocated 
by its bar, produces the same shape on the reduced dimensions of 
the wheel teeth. The generating machines use no pattern tooth, 
but the principles of the tooth formation are embodied in the mechan- 
ism itself. These are very interesting designs, because they not 
only shape the teeth without a pattern tooth, but their movements 
are automatically controlled. A large number of these have been 
brought out in recent years, their growth being due to the demand 
for accurate gears for motor cars, for electric driving, and for 
general high-class engineers' work. These are so specialized that 
they can only cut the one class of gear for which they are designed 
the bevel-wheels, and these in only a moderate range of dimensions 
on a single machine of a given size. The principal bevel-gear 
cutting machines using forms or formers, are the Greenwood & 
Batley, Le Progrfes Industriel, the Bouhey (cuts helical teeth), 
the Oerlikon, which includes two types, the single and double 
cutting tools, the Gleason and the Rice. Generating machines 
include the Bilgram (the oldest), the Robey-Smith, the Monneret, 
the Warren, the Beale and the Dubosc. 




FIG. 49. Gear Cutting. 

A, Rotary milling cutter pro- D, Action of " Fellows " cutter, 

ducing tooth space. planing teeth. 

B, Planer tool operating on tooth E, Shape of " Fellows " cutter. 

flank. F, Hobbing cutter. 

C, Planer form-tool finishing G, Tapered hob beginning worm- 

tooth space. wheel. 

H, Ditto finishing. 

As the difficulties of cutting bevel-wheels with rotary cutters, 
consequent on change of section of the teeth, dp not occur in spur- 
gears, there are no examples of form machines for spur-wheel 
cutting, and only one generating planing type of machine, the 
Fellows, which produces involute teeth by a hardened steel-cutting 
pinion, which shapes wheels having any number of teeth of the 
same pitch, the cutter and blank being partly rotated between each 
cut as they roll when in engagement. 

The worm-gears appropriate a different group of machines, the 
demands on which have become more exacting since the growth 
of electric driving has brought these gears into a position of greater 
importance than they ever occupied before. With this growth 
the demand for nothing less than perfect gears has developed. 
A perfect gear is one in which the teeth of the worm-wheel are 
envelopes of the worm or screw, and this form can only be produced 
in practice in one way by using a cutter that is practically a 
serrated worm (a hob), which cuts its way into the wheel just as 
an actual worm might be supposed to mould the teeth of a wheel 
made of a plastic substance. To accomplish this the relative move- 
ments of the hob and the wheel blank are arranged to be precisely 
those of the working worm and wheel. Very few such machines 
are made. A practical compromise is effected by causing the hob 



34 



TOOL 



[GRINDING MACHINES 



both to drive and cut the blank in an ordinary machine. When 
worms are not produced by these methods the envelope cannot be 
obtained, but each tooth space is cut by an involute milling cutter 
set at the angle of thread in a universal machine, or else in one of 
the general gear-cutting machines used for spur, bevel and worm 
gears, and only capable of yielding really accurate results in the 
case of spur-wheels. 

The previous remarks relate only to the sectional forms of the 
teeth. But their pitch or distance from centre to centre requires 
dividing mechanism. This includes a main dividing or worm- 
wheel, a worm in conjunction with change gears, and a division 
plate for setting and locking the mechanism. The plate may have 
four divisions only to receive the locking lever or it may be drilled 
with a large number of holes in circles for an index peg. The 
first is adopted in the regular gear-cutters, the second on the 
universal milling machines which are used also for gear-cutting. 
In the largest number of machines this pitching has to be done by 
an attendant as often as one tooth is completed. But in a good 
number of recent machines the pitching is effected by the move- 
ments of the machine itself witnout human intervention. With 
spur-wheels the cutting proceeds until the wheel is complete, when 
the machine is often made to ring a bell to call attention to the 
fact. But in bevel-wheels only one side of the teeth all the way 
round can be done; the attendant must then effect the necessary 
settings for the other side, after which the pitchings are automatic. 

As a general rule only one tooth is being operated on at one time. 
But economy is studied in spur-gears by setting several similar 
wheels in line on a mandrel and cutting through a single tooth 
of the series at one traverse of the tool. In toothed racks the 
same device is adopted. Again, there are cases in which cutters 
are made to operate simultaneously on two, three or more adjacent 
teeth. 

Recently a generating machine of novel design has been manu- 
factured, the spur-wheel hobbing machine. In appearance the 
hob resembles that employed for cutting worm-gears, but it also 
generates the teeth of spur and spiral gears. The hob is a worm 
cut to form teeth, backed off and hardened. The section of the 
worm thread is that of a rack. Though it will cut worm-wheels, 
spiral-wheels or spur-wheels equally correctly, the method of pre- 
sentation varies. When cutting worm-wheels it is fed inwards per- 
pendicularly to the blank; when cutting spirals it is set at a suitable 
angle and fed across the face of the blank. The angle of the worm 
thread in the hob being about 2j, it has to be set by that amount 
out of parallel with the plane of the gear to be cut. It is then fed 
down the face of the wheel blank, which is rotated so as to syn- 
chronize with the rotation of the worm. This is effected through 
change gears, which are altered for wheels having different numbers 
of teeth. The advantage is that of the hob over single cutters; 
one hob serves for all wheels of the same pitch, and each wheel 
is cut absolutely correct. While using a set of single cutters many 
wheels must have their teeth only approximately correct. 

VI. GRINDING MACHINES 

The practice of finishing metallic surfaces by grinding, though 
very old, is nevertheless with regard to its rivalry with the work 
of the ordinary machine tools a development of the last part of the 
I9th century. From being a non-precision method, grinding has 
become the most perfect device for producing accurate results 
measured precisely within thousandths of an inch, ft would be 
rather difficult to mention any class of machine-shop work which 
is not now done by the grinding wheel. The most recent develop- 
ments are grinding out engine cylinders and grinding the lips of 
twist drills by automatic movements, the drills rotating constantly. 

There are five very broad divisions under which grinding machines 
may be classified, but the individual, well-defined groups or types 
might number a hundred. The main divisions are: (l) Machines 
for dealing with plane surfaces; (2) machines for plain cylindrical 
work, external and internal; (3) the universals, which embody 
movements rendering them capable of angular setting; (4) the 
tool grinders: and (5) the specialized machines. Most of these 
might be again classed under two heads, the non-precision and the 
precision types. The difference between these two classes is that 
the first does not embody provision for measuring the amount of 
material removed, while the second does. This distinction is a 
most important one. 

The underlying resemblances and the differences in the main 
designs of the groups of machines just now noted will be better 
understood if the essential conditions of grinding as a correc- 
tive process are grasped. The cardinal point is that accurate 
results are produced by wheels that are themselves being abraded 
constantly. That is not the case in steel cutting tools, or at least 
in but an infinitesimal degree. A steel tool will retain its edge for 
several hours (often for days) without the need for regrinding, 
Dut the particles of abrasive in an emery or other grinding wheel 
are being incessantly torn out and removed. A wheel in traversing 
along a shaft say of 3 ft. in length is smaller in diameter at the 
terrrujnation than at the beginning of the traverse, and therefore 
the shaft must be theoretically larger at one end than the other. 
Shafts, nevertheless, are ground parallel. The explanation is, and 



it lies at the basis of emery grinding, that the feed or amount 
removed at a single traverse is extremely minute, say a thousandth 
or half a thousandth of an inch. The minuteness of the feed 
receives compensation in the repetition and rapidity of the traverse. 
The wear of the wheel is reduced to a minimum and true work 
is produced. 

From this fact of the wear of grinding wheels two important 
results follow. One is that a traverse or lateral movement must 
always take place between the wheel and the piece of work being 
ground. This is necessary in order to prevent a mutual grooving 
action between the wheel and work. The other is that it is essential 
to provide a large range in quality of wheels, graded according to 
coarseness and fineness, of hardness and softness of emery to suit 
all the different metals and alloys. Actually about sixty grades 
are manufactured, but about a dozen will generally cover average 
shop practice. With such a choice of wheels the softest brass as 
well as the hardest tempered steel or case-hardened glass-like 
surfaces that could not possibly be cut in lathe or planer, can be 
ground with extreme accuracy. 




FIG. 50. Universal Grinding Machine, 7 in. centres; 3 ft. 6 in. 
between centres. (H. W. Ward & Co., Ltd., Birmingham.) 



Base or body, with waste 
water tray round top edge, 
and interior fitted as cup- 
boards, with shelves and 
doors. 

B, Sliding table. 

C, Swivej table. 

D, Grinding wheel. 

E, Wheel guard. 

F, Wheel headstock swivelling 

in a horizontal plane, and 
having the base graduated 
into degrees for angular 
setting. 

G, Slide carrying headstock. 

H, Hand-wheel for traversing 
table. 



/, Headstock for carrying and 
driving work, used for 
chuck work or dead centre 
work ; the base is graduated 
into degrees. 

a, Dogs, which regulate auto- 
matic reversals. An internal 
grinding fixture, not shown, 
is fitted to wheel head. 

L, Countershaft pulley driving to 
wheel pulley. 

M, Pulley driving to cones. 

N, Pulley driving to work head- 
stock pulley. 

O, Belt from line shaft. 

P, Water pipe from pump. 

Q, Water guards above table. 



Plane surfacing machines in many cases resemble in general 
outlines the well-known planing machine and the vertical boring 
mill. The wheels traverse across the work, and they are fed 
vertically to precise fractional dimensions. They fill a large place 
in finishing plane surfaces, broad and narrow alike, and have be- 
come rivals to the planing and milling machines doing a similar 
class of work. For hardened surfaces they have no rival. 

Cylindrical grinders include many subdivisions to embrace 
external and internal surfaces, either parallel or tapered, small or 



GRINDING MACHINES] 



TOOL 



35 



large. In their highest development they fulfil what are termed 
" universal " functions (fig. 50), that is, they are capable of grinding 
both external and internal cylinders, plane faces, tapers, both of 
low and high angle, and the teeth of various kinds of tools and 
cutters. These machines occur in two broad types. In one the 
axis of the revolving wheel is traversed past- the work, which 
revolves but is not traversed. In the other the reverse occurs, 
the work traversing and the axis of the wheel with its bearings 
remaining stationary. Equally satisfactory results are obtained 
by each. 

In all external cylindrical grinding, when the work can be rotated, 
the piece being ground rotates in an opposite direction to the 
rotation of the wheel (fig. 51, A). In all small pieces ground 
internally the same procedure is adopted (fig. 51, B). Incidentally, 




FIG. 51. 

A, External cylindrical grinding. B, Internal ditto. C, External 
grinding when the work is fixed. D, Internal ditto. 

mention should be made of the fineness of the fitting required and 
attained in the construction of the spindles which carry the wheels 
for internal grinding. The perfection of fitting and of the means 
of adjustment for eliminating the effects of wear in the ordinary 
spindles for external and internal grinding is remarkable. The 
spindles for internal work have to revolve at rates ranging from about 
6000 to 30,000 times ,in a minute, yet run so truly that the holes 
ground do not depart from accuracy by more than say 5^3 to rsJnnr 
of an inch. Yet so long as the work can be revolved no special 
complication of mechanism is required to ensure good results. 
The revolution of the wheel and the work is mutually helpful. The 
real difficulties arise when the work, on account of its mass or awk- 
wardness of shape, cannot be revolved. The principle embodied 
in machines designed to deal satisfactorily with such cases, though 
much diversified in detail, is the application of the planet device to 
the grinding wheels. That is, the wheel spindle rotating at a high 
speed, 6000 or 7000 revolutions per minute, is simultaneously 
carried round in a circular path, so that its axis makes about 25 
or 30 revolutions per minute (fig. 51, C and D). The diameter of 
the path is capable of adjustment with minute precision within 
wide limits to suit bores of different diameters. The periphery of 
the grinding wheel which lies farthest from its axis of revolution 
sweeps round in a path -the diameter of which equals that of the 
bore to be ground. These machines are now used largely for 
grinding out the cylinders of gas and petrol engines, valve seatings, 
the bushed holes of coupling rods, and similar classes of work. 
Many of them have their spindles set horizontally, others vertically. 

Allied to these are a relatively small but important group of 
machines used for grinding the slot links of the slide-valve gear 
of locomotive and other engines. The slot is mounted on a pivoted 
bar adjusted to the same radius as the slot to be ground, and the 
slot is moved relatively to the wheel, so producing the required 
curves. 

In another direction much development has taken place jn the 
practice of grinding. The increasing use of the milling cutter has 




FIG. 52. 



A, Grinding front edges of milling cutter. B, Grinding side 
edges of milling cutter; a, a, Tooth rests. C, Grinding face of 
formed mill. 

been the occasion for the growth and high specialization of the cutter 
grinding machines. It is essential to the efficiency of such cutters 
that regrinding shall be done without drawing the temper, and this 
can only be effected by the use of an abrasive. In the early days 
of their use the temper had to be drawn to permit of filing and 
rehardening effected with its inevitable distortion. 

Cutter grinding machines must possess universality of movements 
to deal with the numerous shapes in which milling cutters are made; 
hence they often resemble in general outlines the universal grinding 
machines. But as a rule they are built on lighter models, and with 
a smaller range of movements, because the dimensions of cutters are 



generally much smaller than those of the ordinary run of engineers' 
work which has to be ground. Frequently a single pillar or standard 
suffices to carry the mechanism. In an ordinary universal tool 
grinder all the teeth of any form of cutter can be ground pre^sely 
alike (fig. 52) excepting those having irregular profiled outlines, for 
which a special machine, or an extra attachment to an ordinary 
machine, is necessary. But little of this is done, because in such 
cases, and in many others, the faces of the teeth are ground instead 
of the edge. This idea, due to the firm of Brown & Sharpe, may 
seem a trifle, but nevertheless to it the credit is largely due for the 
economies of cutter grinding. The principle is that in the " formed 
cutter," as it is termed, the profiles of the teeth are not struck from 
the axis of revolution, but from another centre (fig. 20) ; grinding 
the tooth faces, therefore, has no effect on the shapes of the profiles, 
but only lessens the tooth thicknesses. Designed originally for 
the cutters for the teeth of gear-wheels, it has long been applied 
to profiles which involve combinations of curves. The pitching 
of the teeth is effected by a strip of metal, or tooth rest a (fig. 52), 
on which each successive tooth rests and is coerced during the 
grinding. If teeth are of special form the traverse movement of 
a spiral tooth along the rest ensures the required movement. 

Besides the cutter grinders used for milling cutters, reamers and 
screwing taps, there are two other groups of tool grinders, one for 
twist drills o^Jry and the other for the single-edged tools used in 
lathe, planer, shaper and other machines. Both these in their best 
forms are of recent development. The machines used for grinding 
twist drills embody numerous designs. Hand grinding is practically 
abandoned, the reason being that a very minute departure from 
symmetry on the two cutting lips of the drill results inevitably in 
the production of inaccurate holes. It is essential that the two 
lips be alike in regard to length, angle and clearance, and these are 
embodied in the mechanism of the grinding machines. But formerly 
in all these the drill holder had to be moved by hand around its 
pivot, and one lip ground at a time There are now some very 
beautiful machines of German manufacture in which the necessary 
movements are all automatic, derived from the continuous rotation 
of a belt pulley. The drill rotates constantly, and small amounts 
are ground off each lip in turn until the grinding is finished. The 
other group for grinding single-edged tools is a very small one. 
The correct angles for grinding are embodied in the setting of the 
machine, with the great advantage that any number of similar tools 
can be ground all alike without skilled attendance. 

Lying outside these broad types of machines there is a large and 
growing number designed for special service. The knife-grinding 
group for sharpening the planer knives used in wood-working 
machinery is a large one. Another is that for gulleting or deepening 
the teeth of circular saws as they wear. Another is designed for 
grinding the cups and cones for the ball races of cycle wheels, and 
another for grinding the hardened steel balls employed in ball 
bearings. 





B C D 

FIG. 53. Typical Grinding Wheels. 

A , Common disk held on spindle with washers and nuts. 

B, Thin disk. 

C, Flanged disk for grinding to shoulders. 

D, Bevelled disk for cutter grinding. 

E, F, Cupped and dished wheels for cutter grinding. 

G, Cup wheel for grinding on face o; diameter remains constant. 

Emery grinding is dependent for much of its success on a plentiful 
supply of water. Dry grinding, which was the original practice, 
is hardly employed now. The early difficulties of wet grinding were 
due to the want of a cementing material which would not soften 
under the action of water. Now wheels will run constantly without 
damage by water, and they are so porous that water will filter through 
them. Improvements in the manufacture of wheels, and the 
increased use of water, have concurred to render possible heavier 
and more rapid grinding without risk of distortion due to heating 
effects. In the best modern machines the provisions for water 
supply are a study in themselves, including a centrifugal pump, a 
tank, jointed piping, spraying tube, guards to protect the bearings 
and slides from damage, and trays to receive the waste water and 
conduct it back to the tank. 

There are two points of view from which the modern practice 
of grinding is now regarded one as a corrective, the other as a 



TOOL 



[SAWING MACHINES 




formative process. The first is the older and is still by far the most 
important. The second is a later ideal towards which design and 
practice have been extending. As yet 
grinding cannot compete with the work 
of the single-edged tools and milling cut- 
ters when large quantities of material 
have to be removed. Just as some 
leading firms have been designing 
stiffer machines having fuller lubri- 
cation with a view to increase the duty 
of grinding wheels, the advent of the 
high-speed steels has given a new lease 
of life to the single-edged cutting tools. 
The rivalry now lies not with the tools 
of carbon temper steel, but with high- 
speed varieties. But as a corrective 
process grinding never occupied so im- 
portant a position as it does to-day, 
and its utility continues to extend. 

The commoner forms in which grind- 
ing wheels are made are shown in fig. 53. 
These are varied largely in dimensions, 
from tiny cylindrical rollers a fraction 
of an inch in diameter for hole grind- 
ing, to big wheels of 3 ft. or more 
in diameter. Safety mountings, two 
examples of which are shown in fig. 54, 
embody means of retaining the broken 
pieces of a wheel in case it bursts. 

Sand-blast. The well-known erosive 
action of sand when driven against 
rocks and stones by the wind is utilized 
Fl G 54 Safety Devices industrially in the sand-blastapparatus, 

A, Grinding wheel, with the invention of B. C. Tilghman. The 

coned washer to retain sand . ls propelled by a current of steam 
broken pieces in case or *"' . an ,9 bem 8 delivered through a 
of fracture nozzle is directed against the surface of 

B, Cup wheel with encircling the ^ ork ' cutting it away by the action 

ring, moved backwards of ., t P e enormous number of grains 

as the wheel face wears. strlkln g th e face, each removing a very 

minute quantity of material. The 

action is very gentle, and may be modified 

by varying the class of sand and its velocity. 

Other materials, such as emery, chilled iron 

globules, &c., are employed for certain classes 

of work. _In some instances the powder is 

used dry, in others it is mixed with water, 

being then in the condition of fluid mud. The 

plant includes an air-compressing engine, an 




B 



air reservoir and the blast nozzle through which the air passes and 
propels the sand in the form of a jet. The pressures range from 
8 Ib up to about 60 tb per sq. in., depending on the class of work 
which is done. 

The peculiar advantage of the sandblast lies in its adaptability to 
the working of irregular surfaces, which could not be touched by any 
other class of grinding. The blast penetrates hollows and recesses, 
and acts over an entire surface. There are many classes of 
operation done with the sand-blast, including cleaning, frosting, 
ornamentation, engraving and sharpening. In engineers' works 
a large amount of cleaning is effected upon castings, forgings, sheets 
and other products, either preparatory to machining or to painting, 
enamelling, tinning, galvanizing or plating. Cycle frames are 
cleaned with the sand-blast after brazing. The teeth of files are 
sharpened by directing a stream of sand and water against their 
backs, with the result that the burr thrown up by the chisel when 
cutting is obliterated, and a strong form of tooth is produced. Worn 
files may also be sharpened up to equal new ones by sand-blasting 
them. Frosting glass is another useful application of the sand-blast, 
and by attaching suitable patterns or designs to the surface the sand 
may be caused to work ornamental figurings. It is a peculiar circum- 
stance that the sand has little effect upon soft and yielding substances 
in comparison with the abrasion it produces on hard surfaces, so 
that the pattern will remain undamaged, while the glass or other 
object beneath is frosted where the sand reaches it, through the 
openings. Not only can designs be worked on glass, or cut in stone, 
but perforations may be made in glass, &c., by the continued action 
of the sand, without any risk of fracture occurring. Much sand- 
blasting is performed inside closed chambers, having panes through 
which the workman watches the progress of the operation. But 
when the blast must be used in the open, protection is necessary and 
is afforded to the operator by a special helmet, which keeps out the 
flying dust and gives a supply of pure air through a tube in a 
similar fashion to the diver's helmet. 

VII. SAWING MACHINES 

Metal-sawing machines are employed extensively in engineering 
works for cutting off bars, shafts, rails, girders and risers on steel 
castings, and for getting out curved pieces which would be difficult 
and expensive to slot. There are three classes of these saws, circular, 
band and reciprocating. The first named are used for straight- 
forward work, operating at 
right or other angles, the 
second for straight cuts and 
also for curves which can- 
not be treated with circular 
saws, and the third for small 
pieces. The circular sawsem- 
body a stiff spindle, carrying 
the saw disk and driven by 
gearing. This spindle may 
be mounted in a sliding 
bearing to carry it past the 
work held on a fixed table, 
or the spindle may be sta- 
tionary and the work be 
moved along past the saw. 
The method of feeding should 
be sensitive, so that it will 
" give " and prevent damage 




A, Saw blade. 

B, Spindle. 

C, Sliding spindle carriage. 

D, Driving pulleys. 

, First pinion, connecting through train of gears to wheel F, driving 

splined shaft G. 

H, Wheel driven from sliding pinion on G. 

J, Bevel-gears, communicating the motion to spindle B. 

K, Screw for feeding carriage C along. 



P, 



FIG. 55. Cold-sawing Machine. (Isaac Hill & Son, Derby.) 

L, Three-step cone on shaft G, belted to M , connected by bevel-gears 

N and worm-gear O, to the screw K. 
Clutch for throwing in O to drive K. 

Gears connecting shaft of L direct to K, also through clutch P. 
R, Handle for operating clutch P, which thus gives slow feed when 
clutch is in mesh with O, and quick return when engaging with P. 
S, Tappet rod, having dogs struck by carriage to stop feeding. 
T , Work-table, with clamp to hold objects. 
U, H-Girder being sawn off. 



SHEARING MACHINES] 



TOOL 



37 



to the teeth, should undue stress come upon the saw. This is usually 
effected by the use of weights or springs, which allow a certain free- 
dom or latitude to the driving gears. The work is held by screw 
clamps, V-blocks being required in the case of circular objects. A 
number of pieces, such as shafts, rails or girders, can be fastened down 
close together in a pile and cut through in one operation. 

There is a very useful class of circular saw, the flush-side (fig. 55), 
ti:at is valuable for cutting close up to a surface. The disk is bolted 
to a flange on the end of the spindle with countersunk bolts, so that 
the face is quite flat. Another class of saw used for dealing with 
girders and bars is carried in bearings upon a pivoted arm, which 
is pulled downwards by a weight to give the feed. The work is 
bolted to a table below the saw. Ample lubrication, by oil or soapy 
water, is essential in cutting wrought iron and steel; it is pumped 
on the blade, keeping it cool and washing away the cuttings. 

Band-saw machines resemble in outline the familiar types employed 
for sawing wood, but they are necessarily stronger and stiffer, and 
the saws run at a much lower speed. The tables, moreover, differ 
in possessing compound slides for moving the work and in the provi- 
sion of a series of slots on the top table, whereby the object to be sawn 
is secured with bolts and clamps. The tables are moved automatic- 
ally or by hand. The rate of cutting must be varied according to 
the thickness of metal. Lubrication is effected by running the lower 
saw pulley in a bath of oil or soapy water, which is carried up, so 
keeping the blade cool and " easing " the cut. 

The reciprocating class of saw has until recently been confined to 
small types for workshop use, termed hack saws, which have a 
small blade ranging from 12 to 18 in. long. This is strained between 
a couple of bearings in a frame which is reciprocated above the work 
clamped in a vice. An arrangement of weights feeds the saw 
downwards. The larger hack saws cut off bars and girders up 
to 12 in. across, and in some there is a provision introduced for giving 
intermittent rotation to the bar, thus presenting fresh faces to 
the saw. The hack saw is of great utility for comparatively light 
work, and, as the smallest blades are cheap enough to be thrown away 
when worn out, there is no trouble and expense connected with their 
sharpening, as in the circular and band saws. An adaptation of the 
reciprocating saw is that of the jig type, which has a small blade 
set vertically and passing up through a table on which the work is 
laid. It is handy for cutting out dies and various curved outlines, 
in the same manner that fret-sawing in wood is done. 

VIII. SHEARING AND PUNCHING MACHINES 

These have much in common as regards their mode of operation. 
They are actuated either by belt and spur gearing, by steam-engine, 
by electric motor, or hydraulically. The first named is only suitable 
where arrangements can be made for driving from a line shaft. 
In view of the great convenience of the other methods of driving, 
they are coming into greater use, especially for ship-yards and other 
works where shafting is undesirable or inconvenient. 

For boiler makers' and platers' use the function of punching, and 
shearing are usually combined in one machine, the rams being placed 
at opposite ends and actuated from the same source of power. The 
last shaft in the train of gearing is set to bring its ends within the 
boxes containing the rams, and eccentrics on the shaft are moved 
within die blocks fitted to the rams, so that as the shaft revolves it 
causes the rams to move up and down and operate the shear blade and 




P, 




FlG. 56. Hydraulic Punching and Shearing Machine. (Musgrave Brothers, Leeds.) 
A, Frame. E, Punch. /, K, Main and return rams for 

B Shear blades, set angularly. F & G, Main and return rams ditto. 

C, Ram for operating blade. for punch. L, M, N, Attendant's control- 

D, Small ram for returning ditto. H, Angle shear. ling handles. 



FIG. 57. Steam Hammer, small Overhanging Type. 
(B. & S. Massey, Manchester). 

A, Standard. B, Base-plate. 

C, Anvil block (independent of standards). 

D, Tup or hammer head. 

E, Pallets, or forging blocks, attached to anvil and tup. 

Steam cylinder. 

Piston, solid with piston rod H. 

Piston valve, regulating period of admission of steam, operated 

by hand by lever K or lever N. 
Stop or throttle valve for controlling admission of steam to 

valve chest, operated by hand lever M. 
Lever in contact with roller on tup D, which moves the valve 

J automatically as the tup rises and falls. 

Lever for pre-ad justing the range of movement of N and J, 
according to its setting in the notches of the quadrant from 

a to b. 
Steam supply pipe from boiler. Q, Exhaust steam pipe. 

the punch attached to the bottom 
end. Another class of machines is 
worked by means of massive levers, 
pivoted in the framing, and actuated 
by cams on the driving shaft which 
cause the levers to rock and move 
the punches or shears up and down 
by the opposite ends. The punch 
slides are constructed to " dwell " 
for a short period at the top of the 
stroke at each revolution, thus giving 
the attendant time to place and ad- 
just the plate accurately beneath the 
punch. The same effect is obtained 
in the eccentric types of machines 
mentioned above, by a disengaging 
motion .which is thrown in by touching 
a lever, thus stopping the punch until 
the operator is ready for its descent. 
The more complete machines have an 
angle shear situated centrally, with 
V-blades for severing angle iron. The 
largest forms of shears, for massive 
plates, usually have the blade recipro- 
cated by crank or eccentrics on the 
driving shaft, coupled by connecting- 
rods to the slide. 

Hydraulic punching and shearing 
machines are used largely on account 
of their convenience, since they dis- 
pense with all belts, engines or motors 
in the vicinity, and give a very powerful 



TOOL 



[HAMMERS AND PRESSES 



stroke. The hydraulic cylinder is generally direct-connected to 
the slides, and the operator turns on the pressure water by a lever. 



work; they embody two circular blades placed with their axes 
parallel, and the sharp bevelled edges nearly in contact. The blades 
being rotated sever the plate as it is fed between them. Either 
straight or circular cuts may be made; true circles or disks are pro- 
duced by mounting the plate on a fixed stud and rotating it through 
a complete revolution past the cutters. 

IX. HAMMERS AND PRESSES 

The growth in the use of hammers actuated by steam and com- 
pressed air, and of presses worked by water power, has been remark- 
able. The precursors of the power hammers were the helve and 
the Oliver; the first named was operated by gravity, being lifted 
by a circle of cams, while the second was lifted by a spring pole 
overhead and pulled down by the foot of the workman, acting on 
a lever the hammer shaft. The first was used by the ironworkers 
and the second by the smiths, until displaced by the Nasmyth hammer 
and its extensive progeny. Even now the old helve and Oliver 
survive in some unprogressive shops. 

Steam Hammers. The original hammer as invented by James 
Nasmyth was single acting, operating simply by gravity, the function 
of the steam being to lift the hammer for each succeeding fall. The 
first improvement was made by Rigby, who took the waste steam 
exhausted from the lower side of the piston to the upper side and 
so imparted some slight pressure in the descent. It was a stage 
between the early and the present hammers. In these, high-pressure 
steam is admitted above the piston to impart a more powerful blow, 
compounded of velocity X mass, than is obtainable by gravity; 
hence they are termed double-acting hammers (fig. 57). The 
principal difficulties which have to be surmounted in their construc- 
tion are those due to the severe concussion of the blows, which 
very sensibly shake the ground over an area of many yards. Fram- 
ings are made very rigid, and in the larger hammers double, enclosing 
the hammer head between them. The foundations are fay far the 
heaviest used in any machine tools. Deep piling is often resorted 
to, supporting crossing timber balks; or concrete is laid in mass on 
which the iron anvil block is bedded. This block weighs anywhere 
between 100 and 1000 tons. The piston and its rod and the 
hammer head are generally a solid steel forging, for the piston rod 
is a weak element and cottered or screwed fittings are not trust- 
worthy. Piston valves are gener- 
ally used in preference to ordinary 
D-valves, combining simplicity 
of fitting with good balance. 
The periods of steam admission 
are under the control of the 
attendant, so that the length of 
stroke and the force of the blow 
are instantly responsive to his 
manipulation of the operating 
lever. Many hammers can be 
set to run automatically for any 
given length of stroke. 

Pneumatic Hammers. A suc- 
cessful type of hammer for the 
ordinary operations of the smithy 
is that which is actuated by com- 
pressed air. Though designs 
vary the principle is the same, 
namely, air compressed in a 
controlling cylinder (fig. 58), and 
brought into an operating or 
hammer cylinder above the piston. 
Cushioning,or releaseof the air be- 
low the piston, is under control, as 
is the pressure of the air above it. 
Drop Hammers. The require- 
ments of forged work have, be- 
sides the power hammers ope- 
FIG. 58 Pneumatic Forging rated by a po s i t i ve down stroke, 




Hammer. 

(W. & J. Player, Birmingham.) 
A , Standards. 
Base-plate. 
Anvil block. 
Tup. 
Pallets. 



B, 

C, 
D, 

E, E, 
C, 



H, 



R, 



been the cause of the develop- 
ment of an equally large group 
which are gravity hammers only 
the drop hammers. They are 
put into operation by a belt or 
belts, but the function of the 
belt is simply to lift the hammer 

Hammer cylinder, the piston to the height desired, at which 
rod of L which is attached point it is released and falls, 
to D. The place of the drop hammer 

Air compressing cylinder. is in the lighter class of smith's 
Belt pulleys which reciprocate work, as that of the steam 
by means of the crank O, hammer lies in the heavier, but 
the piston in H. there is much overlapping, since 

Handle controlling the valve small steam hammers are rivals 
between H and G. to the others in light forging. 



But, speaking generally, the largest volume of repetitive die forging 
or stamping of light articles is done under drop hammers. The 
small arms factories and the regular stamping shops scarcely use 
any other type. They may be roughly divided into three great 
groups; the belt, the board and the latest form the Brett lifter. 
In each the hammer head or tup, is lifted to any height within the 
range of lift, the height being controlled by the attendant at each 
blow. In most machines setting can be done at any constant 
height and the blows delivered automatically. Control is effected 
by hand or foot or both. Drop hammers generally have the 
advantage of working with greater rapidity than steam hammers. 
The original drop hammers, which are believed to have originated 
with the locksmiths of Birmingham and district, consisted of a 
hammer head attached to a rope, one end of which ran up over 
a loose pulley suspended in the roof, and the other was pulled by a 
man or two men, so lifting the hammer, which was then allowed to 
drop. The principle is embodied in many belt hammers to-day, 
but the pulley is driven constantly by shafting, and when the 
attendant pulls at the free end of the belt the friction of the pulley 
draws the belt over and lifts the hammer until the attendant lets 
it go. The weight lifted is greater than in the old type, but the 
labour is nevertheless very severe, and the blows are not rapid 
enough for quick forging. A far better machine is the board hammer. 
In this (fig. 59) the place of the belt is taken by an ordinary strip 
of board which passes between two rollers at the top of the hammer, 
which rollers are belt driven. The rollers are fitted on eccentric 




FIG. 59. Drop Hammer board type. 
Manchester.) 



(B. & S. Massey, 



A, A, Standards. 

B, Anvil, or baseblock. 

C, Tup. 

D, Board, fitting in slot in tup. 

E, F, Rollers gripping and lifting board. 

C, H, Pulleys actuating rollers through eccentrics J, K. 

L, Rod by which the amount of lift is regulated. 

a, Dog and lever adjustable on L, which strikes the edge b of the 

tup, releasing eccentrics and roller and allowing tup to fall. 
c, Catch on which tup rests previous to release, fitted into either 

one of the row of holes beneath, to suit various heights of drop. 
M, Mechanism struck fay the edge d of the tup, which either keeps 

the roller F clear of the board D, allowing the tup to fall, or 

brings the rollers E and F into contact, and lifts the board 

and tup. 

N, Hand-lever for operating hammer. 
O, Foot-lever for ditto, connected by chain e. 
f, Spring for lifting levers. 
P, Rod with nuts g, to compensate for wear on the rollers by the 

adjustment of roller E. 



HAMMERS AND PRESSES] 



TOOL 



39 



pins, so that the movement of levers causes them to grip the board 
for the lift, or release it for the fall, these levers being under the 
control of the attendant. They can also be set to operate automically 
for any height of lift. 

These types are all subject to much concussion and vibration, 
because the machines are self-contained ; anvil, standards and heads 
being rigidly bolted together, the concussion of every blow is trans- 
mitted through the entire mechanism. The Brett hammers (fig. 60) 
are designed to lessen this, in some cases by making the anvil distinct 
from the superstructure, and in all by connecting the lifting ropes 
to the ends of long levers which act something like elastic springs, 
absorbing vibration. The driving mechanism is also original, 
comprising a cylinder with a wing piston, which is rotated by steam 
pressure through an arc of a circle only, sufficiently to operate the 
lifting levers. Another advantage is that the lifter cylinder need 
not be immediately over the hammer, but may be situated elsewhere. 
The hammer can be operated by hand directly for each stroke, or 
be set to work automatically. 




FIG. 60. 5 cwt. Belt Drop Hammer with Brett's Lifter. 
(Brett's Patent Lifter Co., Ltd., Coventry.) 



b, 



arrest 



Buffer blocks which 
motion of lever c. 

d, Lever for automatic regula- 

tion of valve. 
/, Lever for regulating amount 

of opening of valve by hand. 
K, Foot lever for holding tup in 

either of the stops L. 

e, Spring for foot lever. 



A, A, Uprights. 

B, Anvil. 

C, Tup. 

D, Belt. 

E, Lifter cylinder. 

F, Valve casing. 

G, Rod operating valve by 

lever H. 

a, Rock shaft. 

Spring Hammers are a rather smaller group than the others. 
In these a belt-driven pulley actuates the tup through the medium 
of elastic leaf springs. The length of stroke is adjustable across 
the face of a slotted disk on the driving shaft. 

Forging Machines. The Ryder forging machine is fitted with 
four or five pairs of swage tools, the lower halves being fixed and 
the upper ones driven by a rotating eccentric shaft. The operations 
imitate those on the anvil by hand forging, but from 800 to 1200 
blows are delivered in a minute. The swages are arranged in succes- 
sion, so that an operation is begun at one end and finished at the 
other, the attendant moving the bar rapidly through the successive 
swages or dies. 

Forging Presses. These are rivals to the hammers, especially 
for heavy forgings, from which hammers are being rapidly dis- 
placed (fig. 61). It is now well understood that a hammer will not 



effect the consolidation of a massive forging right to the centre as a 

press will. The force of the hammer blow is not transmitted to the 

centre as is that of a press, nor is the 

hammer so useful in work of large 

dimensions but of no great weight. 

In railway and wagon shops the 

presses are used far more frequently 

than the hammers. A great advan- 

tage of the press is that two and 

three rams can be brought into 

operation so that a forging may be 

pressed from above, from below and 

to one side, which is of great value 

in complicated forms and in welding, 

but is not practicable in the hammers. 

Hence the forging presses have be- 

come developed for work of average 

dimensions as well as for the most 

massive. Many are of horizontal type, 

termed bull-dozers. 

Power presses for working sheet- 
metal articles include those for cut- 
ting out the blanks, termed cutting- 
out or blanking presses, and those 
for cupping or drawing the flat blank 
into shape if desired (fig. 62). The 
lower dies are held upon a bed, and 

the upper in a sliding ram, moved FIG. 61. Hydraulic Forg- 
up and down by a cam or crank- ing Press. (Fielding & Platt, 
shaft. A clutch mechanism is fitted, Ltd., Gloucester.) 
by means of which this shaft is 
connected with or disconnected from 




^4 fable 
' 



, i j . . . . ... 

the heavy driving-wheel at will to c Drawbac k ram for return- 

give a single stroke or a series of j ng g 

strokes to the ram. In the normal D Horizontal ram. 

state the ram remains stationary at Controlling valves. 

the top position. The lightest presses 

are driven direct by belt on the crank-shaft pulley, but in the heavier 

classes spur-gearing must be interposed between the pulley shaft 

and the final shaft. The operation of drawing requires an encircling 

die which presses on the blank as it lies on its die, the cupping 

of the blank being effected by the downward motion of the plunger. 




Sectional Elevation. Front Elevation. 

FIG. 62. Power Press. 

A, Main frame. 

B, Bed for attaching dies. 

C, Central slide. 

D, Outer slide. 

E, Belt pulleys on shaft, geared to wheel F thrown in by clutch 

to drive its shaft, which has two crank pins to reciprocate D 
and a cam disk actuating C. 

G Extractor rocked downwards as slide rises to raise lever H and 
work an ejector rod, forcing finished article out of die. 

This is why the machine shown in fig. 62 has an outer slide D, which 
is made to " dwell " with an even pressure, while the middle ram 
is moving down and drawing out the article. Blanking and cupping 
may be done as one continuous operation if the work is shallow. 

Inclinable presses are employed for certain classes of work, the 
object being to let the stamped articles slide down the slope of the 
bed as rapidly as they are produced, instead of having to be removed 
by the operator. Much work can be placed on the dies by hand, 
but for producing large quantities of small articles automatic feeds 



TOOL 



[PORTABLE TOOLS 



are employed whenever possible. A good deal of work is produced 
from flat sheet, supplied in the form of a roll and fed through rollers 
by intermittent movements to the dies. Circular turn-tables are 
also used, operated by ratchet devices, which turn the tables round 
to bring a ring of pockets, carrying the pieces, successively under 
the dies; the attendant keeps the pockets supplied, but his hands 
do not come near the dies. 

X. PORTABLE TOOLS 

The growth of portable machine tools is one of the remarkable 
movements of the present day. To some extent they have always 
been used, notably in the drilling and tapping operations of loco- 
motive fire-boxes, but 'not until recently to any important extent 
in the ordinary fitting and erecting shops. The main reason lay 
in the difficulties due to transmission of power by ropes or shafts. 
The employment of compressed air, water, electricity and flexible 
shafts, by which long distances can be covered, has given new life 
to the portable system, which is destined to occupy a place of even 
greater importance than it does at present. The reason for the grow- 
ing desirability of these tools is to be seen in the massive character 
of much engine and machine construction of the present time. 
Although firms that undertake the largest work can generally arrange 
to tool the individual parts on machines of massive sizes, that only 
meets a part of the difficulty. Very big work cannot be treated 
like that of small or even medium dimensions, done repetitively; 
that is, it is not practicable to drill and bore and ream and provide 
for the fitting of every piece by the aid of templets and jigs, while 
the work lies on the machine, but a great deal of adjustment and 
mutual fitting has to be accomplished in the course of erection. 
Therein lies the opportunity for the portable machine. If this is 
not used the alternatives are partial dismantling of the work and 
the transference of certain portions to machines or hand work. 
Another cause has been the substitution of machining for much hand 
work formerly done on massive constructions. 

The principal operations for which portable tools are designed are 
the following: Drilling, screwing, cutting the seatings for keys, 
planing short portions of work, facings for the attachment of other 
pieces, as brackets and bearings, hammering operations, as in making 
welded joints, caulking the edges of boiler plates, chipping with 
hammer and chisel, riveting, ramming sand in foundry moulds, 
planing ships' decks, and some operations of lesser magnitude. 

Portable tools are used in various ways. The first and most 
obvious is to attach them directly to the casting, forging or machine 
which is being built up. Thus a drilling machine will be clamped 
just where it is required to operate. Or if it has to be used on a 
large plane surface as a ship's deck, an electrical machine is suitable, 
in which magnetic attraction is set up between the foot of the machine 
and the deck sufficient to hold it down. A key-seating machine 
will be clamped on the shaft in which a keygroove has to be cut. 
A drilling machine may be fastened to a pipe with a chain embracing 
the pipe. Very many of the drills, and all the caulking and chipping 
hammers, are grasped in the hands and so thrust to their work. 
The tapping of screw holes is mostly done in this way, a common 
example being the holes for the stay bolts in the fire-boxes of steam 
boilers. 

Another later method which has been introduced and practised 
in a few shops consists in installing a cast-iron floor-plate of large 
area, planed truly and provided with bolt holes and slots. On this 
a massive casting, forging or piece of work undergoing erection will 
be bolted. Then the portable tools planers, drills, &c., as required 
will be bolted to the table and brought into operation on the various 
sections of the work, several sometimes operating simultaneously. 
This method is to a certain extent coming into rivalry with the 
abnormal growth of machine tools, the development of which has 
been greatly accelerated by the massive dimensions of productions 
which only became possible by the substitution of steel made by 
the Bessemer and Siemens processes for iron. 

The reciprocating motion necessary to effect hammering, chipping 
or caulking operations is produced by the action of a solid piston, 
sliding in a cylinder (fig. 63) and driven sharply against the end 
of the tool by the inrush of compressed air, being then returned 
for another stroke. The strokes range in number up to as many 
as 2000 per minute in some cases. For heavy riveting a " long- 
stroke " hammer is employed, having a longer barrel than the 
chipping hammer shown in fig. 63, in order to obtain a greater force 
of blow. The operator grasps the hammer by the handle, with his 
fingers or thumb on the controlling lever, and as long as this is held 
down the blows continue. The air-supply pipe is flexible, so that 
it does not impede the movements of the workman. The tools at 
the end of the cylinder are simply held in a socket, so that they can 
be changed rapidly. 

Rotative motion can be produced either by electric or pneumatic 
motors, and both systems are in wide use. Pneumatic motors are 
very suitable when an air-compressing plant is already laid down 
for other tools, while if electricity is used in the works portable tools 
operated by this agent may be employed instead of the pneumatic 
ones. In the electric drills (fig. 64) a small motor is fitted within 
the body and_ connected by spur-gears to the spindle to effect suitable 
speed reduction. A switch provides for stopping and starting the 
motor; the current is brought through a flexible cable which, like 



pneumatic hose, is armoured with wire to protect it from damage. 
The smallest drills are simply gripped in the operator's hand and 




FIG. 63. Tierney Pneumatic Chipping Hammer. (The Globe 
Pneumatic Engineering Co., Ltd.) 

A, Cylinder. 

B, Tool socket, carrying chisel C. 

D, Piston, which strikes the back of C. 

E, Handle, screwed and clamped to A. 

F, Trigger or lever clasped by operator's hand and opening valve G, 

admitting compressed air through connexion H, up passage J, 
through valve-box K, past valve L, and so against end of D, 
moving it towards C. As soon as the groove in the piston D 
registers with the hole M, air is admitted from a small hole 
(not shown), passes round the groove through hole M and 
passage N to the rear of the valve. This acting on the back of 
the valve throws it forward, thus shutting off the supply to the 
rear of the piston and permitting a small quantity of air to flow 
to the forward end of the piston for driving it in a backward 
direction. As soon as the air pressure is relieved on the 
back of the valve by the uncovering of exhaust holes (not 
seen) by the piston D, the valve is returned to the original 
position, owing to the air constantly pressing on the small area 
of the valve. 

pushed up to the work; larger ones are supported by a pillar and 
arm, against which the thrust is taken, and the feed given by turning 
a screw at intervals. 




FIG. 64. Electrically-driven Hand Drill. (Kramos Ltd., Bath.) 

A, Body, cast in aluminium, with handles a, a. 

B, Motor, with revolving armature C, connected by spur-gears D, 

to the drill spindle E, fitted with ball thrust bearings. 
F, Switch, operated by attendant pushing in a plug; the current 
is brought by flexible wires through the right-hand handle a. 

Pneumatic drills are usually worked by little motors having 
oscillating cylinders, by which the air and exhaust ports are covered 
and uncovered. They run at a high speed and are geared down 
to the spindle. In some cases two cylinders are used, but often 
four are fitted to give a powerful and equable turning moment. 
Grinding machines are also built with air motors directly coupled 
to the wheel spindle, the machines being moved about over the work 
by handles. 

Another class of portable tools is driven, not by self-contained 
motors, but from an outside source of power, which is conveyed to 
the tools through flexible shafts built up of a series of spiral springs, 
or through flexible joints which form a connexion that permits the 
shaft to bend round corners and accommodate itself to any position 
in which the tool may be placed. The advantage of this is that the 
tool itself is much lightened, since there is no motor, and it can 
therefore be easily handled. Thus a drill simply contains the 
spindle, running in a frame which carries bevel-gears for transmitting 
the motion of the flexible shaft. Portable grinders also have nothing 
but the spindle, wheel and frame. 

XI. APPLIANCES 

Appliances are vastly more numerous in a modern shop than in 
the older works, largely on account of the more repetitive character 



WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY] 



TOOL 






of the operations done and of the desire to eliminate human labour, 
with its greater cost and chances of inaccuracy in the finished pro- 
duct. On all machines there are numerous aids by which the fixing 
of the work is facilitated. Many of these consist of simple packing 
blocks, by which heights are adjusted. These reach their higher 
developments in wedge-shaped packings, some of which are operated 
by a screw, while others act directly by screws. In some cases the 
exact height can be ascertained by observing graduations on 
the packings. Circular work is held in V-blocks, which occur in 
numerous modified forms. Various kinds of straps, clamps and bolts 
are used for gripping work with sufficient security to enable it to 
withstand the stress of the heaviest cutting. The highest develop- 
ment of all is attained in the templets and jigs, which are now 
indispensable in all modern shops, and which increase in number 
and complexity as the product of the shop becomes more specialized. 
A templet is a piece of metal cut to a definite shape, which being 
laid upon the work becomes a guide for striking the same shape 
on the surface of the work with a pointed scriber, and by which the 
tooling of any number of similar pieces is done without the labour 
of lining out each separate piece. Obviously, in such a case the 
degree of accuracy of the tooling still depends on the machine hand, 
who may work exactly, or only approximately, to these lines. Hence 
a great advance is made in the jig, which may be defined generally 
as a templet that is clamped rigidly to the work, or a box in which 
the work to be tooled is held. No marking off is done, but the jig 
becomes the actual guide for the operation of the cutting tools. 
The operation most frequently performed in jigs is drilling. Then 
the holes in the jig receive and coerce the drills, so that the holes 
made cannot vary in the least degree from those already in the jig. 
As it will often happen that hundreds or thousands of similar pieces 
will have to be tooled in this manner, holes in jigs are generally 
bushed with hardened steel, which is capable of enduring very 
lengthy service, and which can be renewed when worn. This is 
a simple illustration, but many jigs are of an extremely elaborate 
character, for it is obvious that the cost of a jig, though it may run 
into many pounds, becomes a mere trifle when spread over some 
thousands of pieces of work. 

XII. WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY 

There is a large range of various classes of tools for performing 
the operations on timber, from the rough log to the finished product. 
Division is effected by saws, planing and finishing to outlines by 
knives or cutters, boring by augers and smoothing by sandpaper. 

The first operation is that of tree-felling, which is often effected 
by machine, consisting of a reciprocating blade, working horizontally 
in a frame and moved by a steam cylinder. The boiler is separate, 
so that the machine may be transported about and set to work over 
a considerable area, steam being conveyed to it by a flexible pipe. 
When the trees are brought into the saw-mills in the form of logs, 
i.e. with the branches lopped off, they are often cross-cut to reduce 
them to suitable lengths. This operation is effected either by a 
reciprocating saw, operated by a pulley and crank, or by an electric 
motor, or else with a circular saw, travelling on a carriage which 
moves the saw through the log laid in front of it. The next opera- 
tion, that of division or breaking-down into smaller portions, is 
done by saws of various types, according to the class of work. The 
oldest form of machine is the frame-saw, which is still used very 
largely. It comprises a framing within which a saw-gate or saw- 
frame is reciprocated up and down by a crank; the frame holds a 
number of saws or webs of flat form, strained up tightly with wedges 
or cotters between the top and bottom of the frame, the distance 
between the saws being capable of variation to, suit boards of all 
thicknesses. The log is fed longitudinally to the gang of saws upon 
carriages, which are of two types. In the roller-feed, which is 
suitable tor comparatively even and straight logs, ribbed rollers 
in front and behind the saws obtain a bite on the top and bottom 
of the timber and feed it forward by their rotation. In the rack-feed 
the log is mounted bodily upon a long carriage that runs by rollers 
upon a set of rails, and the carriage is travelled along by pinions and 
racks, which give a positive feed regardless of the shape of the log. 
The carriage in the roller-feed machines is only represented by a 
couple of plain trolleys supporting the timber at back and front. 
The feed is obtained through a friction wheel of V-shape, with a 
smooth pawl, called the silent feed; the wheel is given a partial 
rotation at each down stroke of the saw-gate to turn the rollers or 
the pinions for carrying forward the log. The division of the timber 
may be either into deals or flitches, or planks or boards. In the 
last-named case as many as fifty saw-blades are sometimes held in 
a frame. 

For the more valuable hardwoods a single blade reciprocating 
saw, operated horizontally, is used very largely, the machine being 
termed a board-cutter. The log is clamped to a travelling table, 
passing underneath the saw, which is strained in a frame sliding 
on a cross-rail that can be adjusted up or down on a couple of up- 
rights like a planing machine. The saw is worked from a crank and 
connecting-rod. As only one board is sawn at a time the attendant 
is able to see the figuring of the timber and to avoid waste when bad 
places are encountered. 

A machine much more rapid in operation is the horizontal band- 



saw, modelled on the lines of the above machine, but with a band- 
saw blade running over two pulleys, at a high speed, of about 7000 ft. 
per minute. The saws are very thin, so that a minimum of wood is 
wasted in the cut or " kerf,' a very important consideration in 
dealing with costly woods. Vertical band-saws, having one pulley 
above the other so that the blade runs vertically, are very popular 
in America; they occupy less floor space than the horizontal types. 
It is necessary to present the log from the side, and it is therefore 
clamped by dogs upon a carriage running on rails, with provision 
for feeding the log laterally to the saw by sliding ways on the carriage. 

The use of circular saws for breaking-down is confined chiefly 
to squaring up heavy balks, which need only a cut on each side, or 
for cutting thick slabs. The thickness of the saw entails considerable 
waste of wood, and a large amount of power is required for driving. 
The machines are termed rack-benches, and comprise a long divided 
table built up of thin plates and travelling past the fixed saw upon 
rollers, the movement being effected by a rack and pinion. 

Re-sawing machines are those designed for further cutting-up 
deals, flitches, planks, &c., already broken out from the log, into 
boards and other scantlings. The deal and flitch frames are built 
on the model of the frame-saws first described, but with the differ- 
ences that roller feed is always used, because the stuff is smooth and 
easily fed, and that the back of the timber is run against fences to 
keep it moving in a straight line. In the double equilibrium frames, 
which are much favoured, there are two sets of saws in separate 
frames connected by rods to opposite crank-shafts, so that as one 
frame is rising the other is going down ; the forces are thus balanced 
and vibration is diminished, so that the machines can be speeded 
rather higher. Re-sawing is also done on circular and band saws 
of various types, fitted with fences for guiding the timber and 
controlling the thicknesses. 

The cross-cut saws constitute another large group. They are 
employed for cutting-off various classes of stuff, after breaking-down 
or re-sawing, and are of circular saw type. The pendulum saw is 
a suspended form, comprising a circular saw at the bottom of a hang- 
ing arm, which can be pulled over by the attendant to draw the 
saw through a piece of wood laid on a bench beneath. Circular 
saws are also mounted in tables or benches and made to part off 
stuff moved laterally upon a sliding-table. When there is sufficient 
repetition work machines with two or more saws are used to cut 
one or more pieces to accurate length without the necessity for 
measurement. 

The lighter classes of circular and band-saws, employed for sawing 
up comparatively small pieces of timber, embody numerous provisions 
for quickening output. The plain saw benches, with circular saws, 
are the simplest class, consisting merely of a framed table or bench 
carrying bearings for the saw spindle and a fence on the top to guide 
the wood. A mechanical feed is incorporated in the heavier machines 
to push the timber along. The rope-feed mechanism includes a 
drum driven at varying rates and giving motion to a rope, which is 
connected with a hook to the timber, to drag it along past the saw, 
roller supports on rails taking the weight at each end of the bench. 
Roller-feed saws propel the stuff by the contact of vertical fluted 
rollers placed opposite the fence. Other classes of saws for joinery 
work, &c., are constructed with rising and falling spindles, so that 
the saw may be made to project more or less from the table, this 
provision being necessary in grooving and tonguing with special 
types of saws. The same effect is obtained by making the table 
instead of the spindle rise and fall. 

As it is necessary to use different saws for ripping (with the grain) 
and cross-cutting, some machines embody two saws so that work 
can be cut to shape on the same machine. These " dimension saws " 
have two spindles at the opposite ends of a pivoted arm that can 
be turned on a central pin to bring one or the other saw above as 
required. In cases where much angular and intricate sawing is 
done universal benches are employed, having in addition to the 
double saws a tilting motion to the table, which in conjunction with 
various special fittings enables the sawyer to produce a large range 
of pieces for any class of construction. 

Band-saws, which have a thin narrow blade, are adapted especi- 
ally for curved sawing and cutting-out work which the circular saw 
cannot manage. The usual design of machine (fig. 65) comprises a stiff 
standard supporting a lower pulley in fixed bearings, and an upper 
one in a sliding bearing, which by means of a weight or spring is 
caused to rise and maintain an even tension on the saw blade as it 
is driven by the lower pulley, and runs the upper one. India-rubber 
tires are placed around the pulley rims to prevent damage to the 
saw teeth. The table, placed between the pulleys, may be angled 
for cutting bevel work. It is necessary, in order to do true work, 
to guide the saw blade above and below the cut, and it is therefore 
run in guides consisting of flat strips, in combination with anti- 
friction rollers which take the backward thrust of the saw. Fret 
or jig saws are a small class with a vertical reciprocating blade, 
employed chiefly for cutting out interior portions which necessitate 
threading the saw first through a hole. 

Planing machines, used for truing up the surfaces of wood after 
sawing, depend for their action upon rapidly revolving knives 
fastened to flat-sided cutter blocks. The simplest machines, the 
hand-planers, have a cutter cylinder revolving between two flat 



TOOL 



[WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY 



table slides adjustable for height to support the wood while it is 
pushed along over the knives by the hand. A fence guides it in a 
straight line. Exact thicknessing is done on another type of 
machine, the panel planer or thicknesser, in which the cutter cylinder 
revolves above -the table and the stuff is fed through by rollers above 




FIG. 65. Band-sawing Machine with 30 in. pulleys. 
(Thomas White & Sons, Paisley.) 

A, Cast-iron cored frame. 

B, Fast and loose pulleys driving pulley C. 
D, Belt shipper operated by handle E. 

F, Upper saw pulley, with its shaft carried in swivel bearing. 

G, Screw for raising or lowering F to suit saw. 

H, Spring to maintain even tension on saw, by raising E. 

J, Counterbalanced guide bar, having a Jackson guide K at bottom ; 
K has wooden strips embracing the saw and a ball-bearing 
roller against which the back runs, while / is adjusted up or 
down to bring K as near to the work as convenient. 

L, Table, with slit for saw; it may be canted for bevel sawing, by 
means of hand worm-gear M. 

N, Protective casing to saw. 

0, Guard to prevent saw flying over in case of breakage. 

and below. By altering the height of the table the thickness of 
wood can be varied. Double machines include a cutter cylinder 
above and below the timber, so that the upper and under sides are 
planed simultaneously. A combination of the hand-planer and 
the thicknesser is useful in cases where space or expenditure must 
be limited. 

When large quantities of planed stuff are wanted, such as for 
flooring-boards, &c., other types of machines are employed. The 
four-cutter planers are the most rapid in output, and the timber 
is passed through them at a high rate, ranging up to 150 ft. per 
minute. There is first a revolving cutter cylinder, which roughs 
off the underside of the stuff, whence it passes (being propelled by 
rollers) to a fixed knife which imparts a very smooth face. A little 
farther on in the machine two vertical cutter blocks are encountered 
which carry cutters to plane or tongue or mould the edges, after 
which another cylinder above finishes the top face. Similar types 
of machines are made to produce mouldings, using four cutters 
shaped to suit the pattern required. 

Moulding is also done on the vertical spindle shapers, which carry 
a cutter or cutters at the top of a spindle projecting through a flat 
table. The work is slid over the table and controlled by touching 
a collar below the cutter. Any form may be given to the cutters 
to produce different profiles. Some special moulding machines 



use a cutter at the end of a spindle projecting downwards from an 
arm overhanging a table, an arrangement which enables recessing 
and carving to be performed. 

Boring machines comprise rotating spindles and feeding mechanism 
to actuate augers. The single spindle machines are satisfactory 
enough for ordinary work, but when a number of differently sized 
holes have to be bored in a single piece of work, or in rapid succession, 
it is the practice to employ a machine with a number of spindles, so 
that a succession of augers of graduated diameters may be ready 
to use at will. 

Mortising or cutting slots is done in vertical machines with a 
reciprocating spindle, operated either by hand or by crank disk 
and pulleys. The tool that cuts the mortise resembles a wood- 
worker's chisel, but is of stouter form and has a suitable shank to 
fit in the spindle. The latter can be reversed to turn round and let 
the chisel face in the opposite direction for cutting at each end of a 




Machine with graduated stroke. 
i Sons, Johnstone.) 



FIG. 66. Mortising and Boring 
(John McDowall <5 

A, Frame. 

B, Auger head, driven by belt C. 

D, Mortising chisel reciprocated up and down by crank-disk E. 

F, G, Levers connecting crank-pin to spindle of D. 

H, Treadle connected to F; a gradually increasing stroke is 
imparted to the chisel by depressing H, which brings F, G 
into play and continually lengthens the stroke of D, cutting 
the mortise without shock. 

/, Fast and loose pulleys driving E. 

K, Cord actuated from shaft of /, which reverses the chisel when 
the handle L is moved and makes it cut in the reverse 
position. 

M, Knee raised or lowered by hand-wheel and screw. 

N, Cross-slide, adjusted by hand-wheel and screw. 

O, Longitudinal slide, moved by rack and pinion and hand- 
wheel. 

P, Timber vice. 

mortise. A boring spindle is often incorporated with the machine 
to make holes for the mortising chisel to start in (fig. 66). Another 
class of mortiser employs a square hollow chisel, inside of which an 
auger rotates and first bores a hole, leaving to the chisel the duty 
of finishing out the corners. The chain mortiser is another type; 
it has an endless chain of flat links, sharpened to make cutting teeth, 
and is run around a bar and a roller at a high speed, so that when 
fed into the wood a recess or mortise is cut out. 

Tenoning machines, designed to cut the reduced ends or tenons 
to fit in mortises, perform their work by the aid of cutter blocks, 
revolved on horizontal sp : ndles above and below the timber, which 
is fed laterally upon a sliding carriage. 

Dovetailing is effected by revolving cutters in machines having 
mechanism for pitching out the cuts, or if the work warrants it an 
entire row of dovetails is made at one traverse, by fitting a row of 



MEASUREMENT] 



TOOL 



43 



cutters and feeding simultaneously. Corner-locking, or cutting 
parallel tongues and grooves in the edges of boxes, &c., is a rather 
more rapid operation than dovetailing, and is done with suitable 
cutter blocks or disks of appropriate thickness and pitching apart. 

The general joiner, as its name implies, will do a large variety of 
operations, and is used in shops and on estates where a complete 
plant of machines would be out of the question. It usually has a 
circular saw and sometimes a band-saw also, together with planing 
and moulding apparatus, a moulding spindle, boring spindle and 
tenoning apparatus. 

The lathes used in woodworking comprise the plain hand types 
with a simple T-rest on which the turner rests the tools to deal with 
the work revolving between centres, and the copying or Blanchard 
lathes, in which a master form or copy is rotated and caused by the 
contact and coercion of a roller to move the cutter rest in a corre- 
sponding fashion, so that the work is cut away until it exactly 
matches the shape of the copy. 

Sand-papering machines, which finish the surface of wood to a 
high degree, deal with both flat and curved faces. Flat boards, 
panels, &c., can be done by contact against revolving drums or 
disks covered with glass-paper, being fed along over them by hand 
or by rotating rollers. In one class of machine a revolving disk is 
placed at the end of a series of jointed arms, by which the disk can 
be moved about over the work resting on a table underneath. 

XIII. MEASUREMENT 

An advance of the greatest importance made in mechanical 
engineering is that of measurement. Since the beginning of the loth 
century steady movement has been going on in this direction until it 
seems impossible that much greater refinement can now be looked for. 
Probably the chief advances to be expected will lie in the general 
extension in workshop practice of the knowledge already acquired, 
rather than in the acquisition of higher degrees of refinement. 

Methods of measurement adopted in woodworking have but little 
application in high-class engineers' work. They are adopted, how- 
ever, to a considerable extent in the metal trades which are allied 
to engineering, as sheet metal working, girder work, &c. When a 
carpenter or joiner sets about constructing a door, window sash, 
roof or box he takes a two-foot rule, a flat lead pencil, and marks off 
the dimensions and lines by which he intends to work. If he has to 
work very carefully, then instead of using a pencil he cuts a line 
with the edge of a keen scriber or chisel-like tool, by which to saw, 
plane or chisel. If outlines are curved, the compasses are brought 
into requisition, and these cut a fine line or lines on the surface of 
the wood. But in any case the eye alone judges of the coincidence 
of the cutting with the lines marked. Whether the tool used be saw, 
chisel, gouge or plane, the woodworker estimates by sight alone 
whether or not the lines marked are worked by. 

The broad difference between his method and that of the engineer's 
machinist lies in this, that while the first tests his work by the eye, 
the second judges of its accuracy or otherwise by the sense of touch. 
It may seem that there cannot be very much difference in these two 
methods, but there is. To the first, the sixty-fourth part of an inch 
is a fine dimension, to the second one-thousandth of an inch is rather 
coarse. Now the thickness of tissue paper is about one-thousandth 
of an inch, and no one could possibly work so closely as that by the 
eye alone. Engineers' steel rules usually have one inch which is 
divided into one hundred parts. Tolerably keen sight is required 
to distinguish those divisions, and few could work by them by ocular 
measurement alone, that is, by placing them in direct juxtaposition 
with the work. A thousandth part of an inch seems by com- 
parison a fine dimension. But it is very coarse when considered 
in relation to modern methods of measurement. In what are called 
" limit gauges " the plugs and rings are made of slightly different 
dimensions. If a plug is made a thousandth of an inch less than 
its ring it will slip tnrough it easily with very perceptible slop. 
The common rule is therefore scarcely seen in modern machine 
shop, while the common calipers fill but a secondary place, their 
function having been invaded by the gauges. A minute dimension 
cannot be tested by lines of division on a rule, neither can a dimen- 
sion which should be fixed be tested with high precision with a 
movable caliper of ordinary type. Yet it must not be supposed 
that the adoption of the system of gauging instead of the older 
methods of rule measurement relieves men of responsibility. The 
instruments of precision require delicate handling. Rough forcing 
of gauges will not yield correct results. A clumsy workman is as 
much out of place in a modern machine shop as he would be in a 
watch factory. Without correctness of measurement mechanical 
constructions would be impossible, and the older device of mutual 
fitting of parts is of lessening value in face of the growth of the inter- 
changeable system, of international standards, and of automatic 
machine tools which are run with no intervention save that of feeding 
stock. 

The two broad divisions of measurement by sight and by contact 
are represented in a vast number of instruments. To the first- 
named belong the numerous rules in wood and metal and with 
English and metric divisions, and the scales which are used for 
setting out dimensions on drawings smaller than those of the real 
objects, but strictly proportional thereto. The second include all 



the gauges. These are either fixed or movable, an important sub- 
division. The first embrace two groups one for daily workshop 
service, the other for testing and correcting the wear of these, hence 
termed " reference gauges." They are either made to exact standard 
sizes, or they embody " limits of tolerance," that is, allowances for 
certain classes of fits, and for the minute degrees of inaccuracy 
which are permissible in an interchangeable system of manufacture. 
The movable group includes a movable portion, either correspond- 
ing with one leg of a caliper or having an adjustable rod, with pro- 
vision for precise measurement in the form of a vernier or of a screw 
thread divided micrometrically. These may be of general character 
for testing internal or external diameters, or for special functions 
as screw threads. Subtitles indicate some particular aspect or 
design of the gauges, as " plug and ring," " caliper," " horseshoe," 
" depth," " rod," " end measure," &c. So severe are the require- 
ments demanded of instruments of measurement that the manu- 
facture of the finer kinds remains a speciality in the hands of a very 
few firms. The cost and experience necessary are so great that 
prices rule high for the best instruments. As these, however, are 
not required for ordinary workshop use, two or three grades are 
manufactured, the limits of inaccuracy being usually stated and a 
guarantee given that these are not exceeded. 

Measurement by Sight. Rules and Scales. The rules are used 
for marking off distances and dimensions in conjunction with other 
instruments, as scribers, compasses, dividers, squares; and for test- 
ing and checking dimensions when marked, and work in course of 
reduction or erection, directly or from calipers. They are made in 
boxwood and in steel, the latter being either rigid or flexible, as 
when required to go round curves. Rules are fitted in combination 
with other instruments, as sliding calipers, squares, depth gauges, 
&c. The scales are of boxwood, of ivory, the value of which is dis- 
counted by its shrinkage, and of paper. They are of flat section 
with bevelled edges, and of oval and of triangular sections, each 
giving a thin edge to facilitate readings. They are fully divided, 
or open divided; in the first case each division is alike subdivided, 
in the second only the end ones are thus treated. 

The Gauges. Fixed Gauges. These now embrace several kinds, 
the typical forms being represented by the cylindrical or plug and 
ring gauges and by the caliper form or snap gauges. The principle 
in each is that a definite dimension being embodied in the gauge, 
the workman has not to refer to the rule, either directly or through 
the medium of a caliper. This distinction, though slight, is of 
immense importance in modern manufacturing. Broadly it corre- 
sponds with the difference between the older heterogeneous and the 
present interchangeable systems. 

Plug and Ring Gauges. The principal ones and the originals of 
all the rest, termed Whitworth gauges after the inventor, are the 
plug and ring gauges (fig. 67, A and 
B). The principle on which they 
depend is that if the two gauges are 
made to fit with perfect accuracy, 
without tightness on the one hand 
or slop on the other, then any 
work which is measured or turned 
and bored or ground by them will 
also fit with equal accuracy. Bored 
holes are tested by the plug gauge, 
and spindles are tested by the 
ring gauge, and such spindles and 
holes make a close fit if the work 
is done carefully. Of course, in prac- 
tice, there is very much variation in 
the character of the work done, 
and the finest gauges are too fine 
for a large proportion of engineers' 
work. It is possible to make these 
gauges within 5^ of an inch. AB p , nd 
But they are seldom required so c ' niffprem-p o-amrp 
fine as that for shop use; VA a is ' g D ed reference eau^e 
generally fine enough. For general " 

shop work the gauges are made to within about r^Va of an 
inch. Standard gauges in which the plug and ring are of the 
same diameter will only fit by the application of a thin film of oil 
and by keeping the plug in slight movement within the ring. 
Without these precautions the two would " seize " so hard that they 
could not be separated without force and injury. 

Plug and Ring v. Horseshoe Gauges. The horseshoe, snap or 
caliper gauges (fig. 68) are often used in preference to the plug and 
ring types. They are preferred because the surfaces in contact 
are narrow. These occur in various designs, with and without 
handles, separately and in combination and in a much larger range 
of dimensions than the plug and ring. Ring gauges are not quite 
such delicate instruments as the fixed caliper gauges. But since 
they measure diameter only, and turned work is not always quite 
circular, the caliper gauges are not so convenient for measurement 
as the round gauges, which fit in the same manner as the parts have 
to fit to one another. 

Fixed Gauges. Limit Gauges. Some fits have to be what 
is termed in the shops " driving fits," that is, so tight that they 




44 



TOOL 



[MEASUREMENT 



have to be effected by driving with a hammer or a press, while 
others have to be " working fits," suitable, say, for the revolution of 
a loose pulley on its shaft or of an axle in its bearings. The " limit " 
or " difference gauges " (figs. 67 and 68) are designed for producing 
these working fits ; that is, the plug and ring gauges differ in dimen- 
sions so that the work bored will drive tightly, or slide freely over 




FIG. 68. 



A, Separate caliper or snap C, Difference gauge. 

gauges. D, Newall adjustable limit 

B, Combined internal and ex- gauge. 

ternal gauges. a, b, Plugs. 

the work turned. These are variously sub-classified. The system 
which is generally accepted is embodied in the gauges by the Newall 
Engineering Co. These embrace force fits, which require the applica- 
tion of a screw or hydraulic press; driving fits, that require less 
power, as that of a hammer; push fits, in which a spindle can be 
thrust into its hole by hand; and running fits, such as that of shafts 
in bearings. Fixed gauges are made for each of these, but as this 
involves a heavy outlay the Newall firm have adjustable limit 
gauges (fig. 68, D) for external dimensions, the standard plug being 
used for holes. The setting is done by screwed plugs or anvils 
adjusted by reference bars. In all these gauges the " go on " and 
" not go on " ends respectively are stamped on the gauge, or the 
equivalents of -f- and . 

Fixed Reference Gauges. Reference Disks and End Measuring 
Rods. Shop working gauges become in time so damaged by service 
that they fail to measure so accurately as when new. To correct 
these errors reference gauges are provided, by which the inaccuracy of 
the worn ones is brought to the test. These are never used in the 
shops for actual measurement of work, but are only kept for checking 
the truth of the working gauges. They include disk, stepped and 
end measurement gauges. The disk and the stepped are used for 
testing the ring gauges, the stepped kind comprising essentially a 
collection of disks in one piece (fig. 67, D). The end measure pieces 
test the external gauges. The end measure standard lengths 
made by the Pratt & Whitney Co. are so accurate that any sizes 
taken at random in any numbers from } in. to 4 in., varying by 
sixteenths of an inch, will, when placed end to end, make up an exact 
length ; this is a difficult test, since slight variations in the lengths of 
the components would add up materially when multiplied by the 
number of pieces. The ends are ground off with diamond dust or 
emery in a special machine under water, and are so true that one 
piece will support another by cohesive force, and this though the 
surfaces are less than } in. square. 

Movable Gauges. This extensive group may be regarded as 
compounded of the common caliper and the Whitworth measuring 
machine. They are required when precise dimensions have to be 
ascertained in whole numbers and minute fractional parts. They 
combine the sense of touch by contact, as in the calipers, with the 
exact dimensions obtained by inspection of graduated scales, either 
the vernier or the micrometer screw. If gauges must not vary by 
more than nrfrinr of an inch, which is the limit imposed by 
modern shop ideals, then instruments must be capable of measuring 
to finer dimensions than this. Hence, while the coarser classes of 
micrometers read directly to tiftnv P art of an inch, the finest 
measure up to-iojftnnj of an inch, about 200 times as fine as the 
diameter of a human hair. They range in price correspondingly 
from about a sovereign to 100. 

Ttif Calipers. Common calipers (fig. 69) are adjusted over or 
within work, and the dimensions are taken therefrom by a rule or a 
gauge. They usually have no provision for minute adjustment 
beyond the gentle tapping of one of the legs when setting. In some 
forms screw adjustment is provided, and in a few instances a vernier 
attachment on the side of the pivot opposite to the legs. 

Vernier Calipers. The vernier fitting, so named after its inventor, 
Pierre Vernier, in 1631, is fitted to numerous calipers and caliper 
rules. It is applied to calipers for engineers' use to read toryinr 
of an inch without requiring a magnifier. The beam of the caliper 
is divided into inches and tenths of the inch, and each tenth into 



fourths and the vernier into twenty-five parts, or the beam is divided 
into fiftieths of an inch (fig. 70) and the vernier has 20 divisions to 
19 on the rule. The caliperiaws are adapted to take both external 
and internal dimensions. These " beam calipers " are also made 
for metric divisions. Minor variations in design by different 
manufacturers are numerous. 




FIG. 69. Calipers. 

A, Ordinary external type, adjusted by tapping the legs. 

B, Type adjusted by screw in auxiliary leg. 

C, Screw calipers, opened by contraction of curved spring and closed 

by nut. 

D, Self-registering caliper, with pointer moving over quadrant. 

E, Common internal type. 

F, Screw type with spring. 

G, Combined internal and external for measuring chambered holes. 
H, Compass caliper for finding centres. 

J, Keyhole caliper for measuring from hole to outside of boss. 




FIG. 70. Vernier Caliper. 
A, Beam; B, vernier; C, fixed jaw; D, movable jaw; E, 
clamping head; F, abutment head, with adjusting screw a, for 
fine adjustment of D. 




So oo 



o 




FIG. 71. Measuring Machine. (The Newall Engineering Co.) 

A, Hollow base or bed, mounted on three points. 

B, Measuring or fast headstock. 

C, Movable head, or tailstock. 

D, Spirit-level to indicate alterations in length of piece being 

measured due to changes in temperature, termed the indi- 
cator or comparator. 

E, Measuring screw. 

F, Nut for rapid adjustment of ditto. 

G, Knob of speed screw for slow movement of ditto. 
H, Dividing and measuring wheel. 

J, Vernier or reading bar. 

a, a, Points between which contact is made. 



MEASUREMENT] 



TOOL 



45 



Micrometer Calipers are the direct offspring of the Whitworth 
measuring machine. In the original form of this machine a screw 
of 20 threads to the inch, turned by a worm-wheel of 200 teeth 
and single-threaded worm, had a wheel on the axis of the worm with 
250 divisions on its circumference, so that an adjustment of IB oh) OB of 
an inch was possible. The costly measuring machines made to-day 
have a dividing wheel on the screw, but they combine modifications 
to ensure freedom from error, the fruits of prolonged experience. 
Good machines are made by the Whitworth, the Pratt & Whitney, 
the Newall (fig. 71), and the Brown & Sharpe firms. These are 
used for testing purposes. But there are immense numbers of small 
instruments, the micrometer calipers (fig. 72), made for general 
shop use, measuring directly to rjVj of an inch, and in the 

B 




FIG. 72. Micrometer Calipers. (Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co.) 

A, Frames. a, Adjusting nuts for taking up 

B, Anvil or abutment. 

C, Hub divided longitudinally. b, 

D, Spindle with micrometer 1 c, 

screw. 

E, Thimble, divided circularly. 



wear. 

Clamping nut. 

Ratchet stop, which slips under 
undue pressure to ensure 
uniform measurement. 



hands of careful men easily to half and quarter thousandths ; these 
cost from i to i, IDS. only. In these the subdivision of the turns 
of the screw is effected by circular graduations. Usually the screw 




at a. a 





FIG. 73. Beam Micrometer Calipers. 

C, Abutment block with screw 

c for fine adjustment. 

d, Clamping screws. 

D, Micrometer. 

e. Anvil. 



A, Beam. 

B, Head, adjustable by equal 

inch divisions, by lines a, a, 
or holes b, b, and plug b' 
holes bushed. 



pitch is 40 to the inch, and the circular divisions number 25, so that 
a movement of one division indicates that the screw has been ad- 
vanced fa of 4 V r 10*00 f an . inch. Provision for correcting or 
taking up the effects of wear is included in these designs (e.g. at 
a in fig. 72), and varies with different manufacturers. A vernier is 
sometimes fitted in addition, in very high class instruments, to the 
circular divisions, so that readings of ten thousandths of an inch can 
be taken. Beam micrometer calipers (fig. 73) take several inches 
in length, the micrometer being reserved for fractional parts of the 
inch only. 

Depth Gauges. It is often necessary to measure the depth of 
one portion of a piece of work below another part, or the height of 
one portion relatively to a lower one. To hold a rule perpendicularly 
and take a sight is not an accurate method, because the same 
objections apply to this as to rule measurement in general. There 
are many depth gauges made with rule divisions simply, and then 
these have the advantage of a shouldered face which rests upon the 
Upper portion of the work and from which the rule measurement is 




FIG. 74. Depth Gauges. 

A, Plain round rod a, sliding in head b, and pinched with screw c. 

B, Rule a, graduated into inches or metric divisions, sliding on head 

b, in grooved head of clamping screw c. 

C, Slocomb depth gauge, fitted with micrometer, a, Rod marked in 

half inches, sliding in head b ; c, hub ; d, thimble corresponding 
with similar divided parts in the micrometer calipers; e, clamp- 
ing screw. 

taken (fig. 74). These generally have a clamping arrangement. 
But for very accurate work either the vernier or the micrometer 
fitting is applied, so that depths can be measured in thousandths 
of an inch, or sometimes in sixty-fourths, or in metric subdivisions. 




FIG. 75. Rod Gauges. 

A, Pratt & Whitney gauge, a, Tube split at ends; 6, 6, chucks 

clamping tube on plain rod c, and screwed end d. Rough 
adjustment is made on rod c, of which several are provided; 
fine adjustment is by screwed end d. 

B, Sawyer gauge, a, Body; 6, extension rods for rough adjust- 

ment, several being supplied and pinched with screw c; 
d, screwed end with graduated head ; e, reading arm extending 
from body over graduations; /, clamping screw. 

Rod Gauges. When internal diameters have to be taken, too 
large for plug gauges or calipers to span, the usual custom is to set 
a rod of iron or steel across, file it till it fits the bore, and then 
measure its length with a rule. More accurate as well as adjust- 
able are the rod gauges (fig. 75) to which the vernier or the micro- 
meter are fitted. These occur in a few varied designs. 

Screw Thread Gauges. The taking of linear dimensions, though 
provided for so admirably by the systems of gauging just dis- 
cussed, does not cover the important section of screw measurement. 
This is a department of the highest importance. In most English 
shops the only test to-day of the size of a screw or nut is the use 
of a standard screw or nut. That there is variation in these is 
evidenced by the necessity for fitting nuts to bolts when large 



4 6 



TOOL 



[MEASUREMENT 



numbers of these are being assembled, after they have been used 
in temporary erections or when nuts are brought from the stores 
to fit studs or bolts cut in the shop. This method may suffice in 
many classes of work, but it is utterly unsuited to an interchange- 
able system; and when there is a fair amount of the latter firms 
sometimes make thread gauges of their own, in general form like 
the plug and ring gauges, using a hard quality of steel for small 
sizes or a tough quality of cast iron for the larger. These, though 
not hardened, will endure for a long time if treated carefully. But 




B 2 

FIG. 76. Screw Thread Gauges. (Pratt & Whitney Co.) 

A, Plug gauge; a, size of tapping hole; b, thread. 

B, Ring gauge; a, pins to prevent lateral movement; b, adjusting 
screw for opening gauge ; c, screw for closing ditto. 

though very useful and far better than none at all they lack two 
essentials. They are simply accommodation gauges, made to an 
existing tap or die, and do not therefore embody any precise abso- 
lute measurement, nor do they include 
any means for measuring variations from 
standard, nor are they hardened. To 
produce gauges to fulfil these require- 
ments demands an original standard to 
work by, micrometric measurements, and 
the means of grinding after the harden- 
ing process. These requirements are 
fulfilled in the screw thread gauges and 
calipers of the Pratt & Whitney and the 
Brown & Sharpe companies. The essen- 
tial feature of a screw gauge is that it 
measures the sides of the threads with- 
out risk of a possible false reading due 
to contact on the bottom or top of the 
V. This is fulfilled by flatting the top 
and making the bottom of the gauge 
keen. The Pratt & Whitney gauges are 
made as a plug and ring (fig. 76), the 
plug being solid and the ring capable of 
precise adjustment round it. There is 
a plain round end, ground and lapped 
exactly to the standard size of the bottom 
of the thread, a dimension which is 



of an inch (fig. 77). They are used in some kinds of lathe chuck 
work, but their principal value is in fitting and erecting the finer 
mechanisms. 




FIG. 77. Indicator. 

A, Base; B, stem; C, arm; D, pointer or feeler, pivoted at 
a, and magnifying movement of the work E upon the scale b; 
F, spring to return D to zero. 

Surface Plates and Cognate Forms. Allied to the gauges are the 
instruments for testing the truth of plane surfaces: the surface 
plates, straight-edges and winding strips. The origination of plane 
surfaces by scraping, until the mutual coincidence of three plates, 
is secured, was due to Whitworth. These surface plates (fig. 78, A) 
fill an important place in workshop practice, since in the best 
work plane surfaces are tested on them and corrected by scraping. 
To a large extent the precision grinding machines have lessened 
the value of scraping, put it is still retained for machine slides 
and other work of a similar class. In the shops there are two 
classes of surface plates: those employed daily about the shops, 
the accuracy of which becomes impaired in time, and the standard 






C, Common square. 

D, Square with adjustable blade. 



obliterated in the threaded end because of the bottoms of the 
angles being made keen for clearance. There are three kinds of 
this class of gauge made; the first and most expensive is hardened 
and ground in the angle, while the second is hardened but not 
ground. The first is intended for use when a very perfect gauge 
is required, the second for ordinary shop usage. The third is 



made unhardened for purposes of reference simply, and it is 
not brought into contact with the work to be tested at all, 
but measurements are taken by calipers; in every detail it repre- 
sents the standard threads. The Brown & Sharpe appliance is 
of quite a different character. It is a micrometer caliper having 
a fixed V and a movable point between which the screw to be 
measured is embraced. By the reading of the micrometer and 
the use of a constant the diameter of any thread in the middle 
of the thread can be estimated. 

Miscellaneous. The foregoing do not exhaust the gauges. There 
are gauges for the sectional shapes of screw threads of all pitches, 
gauges for drilled holes that have to be screwed, gauges for the 
depth and thickness of the teeth of gear-wheels, gauges for the tapers 
of machine spindles, gauges for key-grooves, &c. There are also 
the woodworker's gauges the marking and cutting, the panel, 
the mortise and the long-tooth. 

Indicators are a small group of measuring instruments of a rather 
peculiar character. They magnify the most minute error by adapta- 
tions of long and short lever arms. The Bath, the Starrett and the 
Brown & Sharpe are familiar in high-class shops. Some simply 
magnify inaccuracy, but in one type an index reads to thousandths 



FIG. 78. 

A, Surface plate ; a, protecting cover for ditto 

when not in use. 

B, Large ribbed straight-edge. 

plate or plates employed for test and correction. Straight-edges 
are derived from the surface plates, or may be originated like them. 
The largest are made of cast-iron, ribbed and curved on one edge, 
to prevent flexure, and provided 
with feet (fig. 78, B). But the 
smaller straight-edges are gener- 



ally parallel, and a similar pair 
constitutes " winding strips," by 
which any twist or departure 
from a plane surface is detected. 
Squares, of which there are numer- 
ous designs (fig. 78, C and D), are 
straight-edges set at right angles. 
Bevels or Devel-squares (fig. 79), 
are straight-edges comprising a 
stock and a blade, which are ad- 
justable for angle in relation to 
each other. Shop protractors often p JG 

include a blade adjustable for ^ Common bevel 
angle, forming a bevel with gradua- B ' Universal bev l for test ; ng 
tions. Spirit-levels test the hon- , ana \K 

zontal truth of surfaces. Many 

levels have two bubble tubes at right angles with each other, one 
of which tests the truth of vertical faces. Generally levels have 
flat feet, but some are made of V-section to fit over shafting. The 
common plumb-bob is in frequent use for locating the vertical 
position of centres not in the same horizontal plane. When a 




TOOLE TOP 



47 






plumb-bob is combined with a parallel straight-edge the term plumb- 
rule is applied. It tests the truth of vertical surface more accurately 
than a spirit-level. (J. G. H.) 

TOOLE, JOHN LAWRENCE (1832-1906), English actor, son 
of an old employe of the East India Company who for many years 
acted as toast-master in the City of London, was born in London 
on the i2th of March 1832. He was educated at the City of 
London School, and started life in a wine merchant's office; but 
his natural propensity for comic acting was not to be denied, and 
after some practice as an amateur with the City Histrionic Club, 
he definitely took to the stage in 1852, appearing in Dublin as 
Simmons in The Spitalfields Weaver. He gained experience in 
the provinces, and in 1854 made his first professional appearance 
in London at the St James's theatre, acting Samuel Pepys in 
The King's Rival and Weazel in My Friend the Major. In 1857, 
having just had a great success as Paul Pry, he met Henry 
Irving in Edinburgh, and recommended him to go to' London; 
and their friendship remained thenceforth of the closest kind. 
In 1858 Toole joined Webster at the Adelphi, and established 
his popularity as a comedian, among other parts creating Joe 
Spriggins in Id on parle fran$ais. In 1868 he was engaged at 
the Gaiety, appearing among other pieces in Thespis, the first 
Gilbert and Sullivan collaboration. His fame was at its height 
in 1874, when he went on tour to the United States, but he failed 
to reproduce there the success he had in England. In 1879 he 
took the " Folly " theatre in London, which he renamed " Toole's " 
in 1882. He was constantly away in the provinces, but he pro- 
duced here a number of plays: H. J. Byron's Upper Crust and 
Auntie; Pinero's Hester's Mystery and Girls and Boys; burlesques 
such as Paw Claudian, and, later, J. M. Barrie's Walker, London. 
But his appearances gradually became fewer, and after 1893 he 
was seen no more on the London stage, while his theatre was 
pulled down shortly afterwards for an extension of Charing Cross 
Hospital. He published his reminiscences in 1888. Toole 
married in 1854; and the death of his only son in 1879, and later 
of his wife and daughter, had distressing effects on his health; 
attacks of gout, from 1886 onwards, crippled him, and ultimately 
he retired to Brighton, where after a long illness he died on the 
3oth of July 1906. In his prime he was immensely popular, 
and also immensely funny in a way which depended a good deal 
on his tricks and delivery of words. He excelled in what may 
be called Dickens parts combining humour and pathos. He 
was a good man of business, and left a considerable fortune, 
out of which he made a number of bequests to charity and to 
his friends. His genial and sympathetic nature was no less 
conspicuous off the stage than on it. 

TOOMBS, ROBERT (1810-1885), American political leader, 
was born near Washington, Wilkes county, Georgia, on the 
2nd of July 1810. He was educated at Franklin College (univer- 
sity of Georgia), at Union College, Schenectady, New York, 
from which he graduated in 1828, and at the law school of the 
university of Virginia. He was admitted to the bar in 1830, 
and served in the Georgia House of Representatives (1838, 
1840-1841 and 1843-1844), in the Federal House of Represen- 
tatives (1845-1853), and in the United States Senate (1853- 
1861). He opposed the annexation of Texas, the Mexican War, 
President Polk s Oregon policy, and the Walker Tariff of 1846. 
In common with Alexander H. Stephens and Howell Cobb, he 
supported the Compromise Measures of 1850, denounced the 
Nashville Convention, opposed the secessionists in Georgia, and 
helped to frame the famous Georgia platform (1850). His 
position and that of Southern Unionists during the decade 1850- 
1860 has often been misunderstood. They disapproved of 
secession, not because they considered it wrong in principle, 
but because they considered it inexpedient. On the dissolution 
of the Whig party Toombs went over to the Democrats. He 
favoured the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, the admission of Kansas 
under the Lecompton Constitution, and the English Bill (1858), 
and on the 24th of June 1856 introduced in the Senate the 
Toombs Bill, which proposed a constitutional convention in 
Kansas under conditions which were acknowledged by various 
anti-slavery leaders as fair, and which mark the greatest con- 



cessions made by the pro-slavery senators during the Kansas 
struggle. The bill did not provide for the submission of the 
constitution to popular vote, and the silence on this point of the 
territorial law under which the Lecompton Constitution of 
Kansas was framed in 1857 was the crux of the Lecompton 
struggle (see KANSAS). In the presidential campaign of 1860 
he supported John C. Breckinridge, and on the 22nd of December, 
soon after the election of Lincoln, sent a telegram to Georgia 
which asserted that " secession by the 4th of March next should 
be thundered forth from the ballot-box by the united voice of 
Georgia." He delivered a farewell address in the Senate 
(Jan. 7, 1861), returned to Georgia, and with Governor Joseph 
E. Brown led the fight for secession against Stephens and 
Herschel V. Johnson (1812-1880). His influence was a most 
powerful factor in inducing the " old-line Whigs " to support 
immediate secession. After a short term as secretary of state in 
President Davis's cabinet, he entered the army (July 21, 1861),, 
and served first as a brigadier-general in the Army of Northern 
Virginia and after 1863 as adjutant and inspector-general of 
General G. W. Smith's division of Georgia militia. He then spent 
two years in exile in Cuba, France and England, but returned to 
Georgia in 1867, and resumed the practice of law. Owing to his 
refusal to take the oath of allegiance, he was never restored to the 
full rights of citizenship. He died at his home in Washington, 
Georgia, on the 1 5th of December 1885. 

See Pleasant A. Stovall, Robert Toombs, Statesman, Speaker, 
Soldier, Sage (New York, 1892). 

TOOTHWORT, the popular name for a small British plant of 
curious form and growth, known botanically as Lathraea squa- 
maria. It grows parasitically on roots, chiefly of hazel, in shady 
places such as hedge sides. It consists of a branched whitish 
underground stem closely covered with thick fleshy colourless 
leaves, which are bent over so as to hide the under surface; 
irregular cavities communicating with the exterior are formed 
in the thickness of the leaf. On the inner wall of these chambers 
are stalked hairs, which when stimulated by the touch of an 
insect send out delicate filaments by means of which the insect 
is killed and digested. The only portions that appear above 
ground are the short flower-bearing shoots, which bear a spike of 
two-lipped dull purple flowers. The scales which represent the 
leaves also secrete water, which escapes and softens the ground 
around the plant. Lathraea is closely allied to another British 
parasitic plant, broomrape (Orobanche). 

TOOWOOMBA, a town of Aubigny county, Queensland, 
Australia, 76 m. by rail W. by N. of Ipswich, and 101 m. from 
Brisbane. It is situated on the summit of the Great Dividing 
Range, and is the centre of the rich pastoral and agricultural 
district of Darling Downs. The chief buildings are the town-hall, 
a large theatre, a school of arts and a library; the Christian 
Brothers College and several handsome churches. The industries 
are brewing, tanning, soap-boiling, flour-milling, malting, iron- 
founding, saw-milling and jam-making. Vineyards are culti- 
vated by a German colony and large quantities of wine are made. 
The town received a municipal charter in 1860, and during the 
governorship of Lord Lamington (1896-1897) became the summer 
residence of the governor and his staff. Pop. (1901), 9137; 
within the five-mile radius, 14,087. 

TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot), a toy consist- 
ing of a body of conical, circular or oval shape with a point or 
peg on which it turns or is made to whirl. The twisting or whirl- 
ing motion is applied by whipping or lashing when it is a " whip- 
ping top " or " peg-top," or by the rapid unwinding of a string 
tightly wound round a head or handle. When the body is 
hollow this results in a whirring noise, whence the name " hum- 
ming top." Other kinds of tops are made as supports for coloured 
disks which on revolving show a kaleidoscopic variation of 
patterns. The top is also used in certain games of chance, when 
it is generally known as a " teetotum." There are many references 
to it in ancient classical literature. The Greek terms for the 
toy are /3e/ij3t^, which was evidently the whipping or peg top 
(Arist. Birds, 1461), and orpo/SiXos, a humming top, spun by a 
string (Plato, Rep. iv. 436 E.). In Homer (//. xiv. 413) the word 



TOPAZ TOPEKA 



orpo/Lt/Sos seems to point to the humming top. The Latin name 
for the top was turbo. This word and the Greek /ioju/3os are 
sometimes translated by " top " when they refer to the 
instrument used in the Dionysiac mysteries, which, when 
whirled in the air by a string, produced a booming noise. This 
was no doubt the equivalent of the " bull roarer " (q.v.). Strutt 
(Games and Pastimes, 491) says that the top was known in 
England as early as the I4th century. For the scientific 
properties of the top see GYROSCOPE and GYROSTAT. 

This word must be distinguished from that signifying the highest 
or uppermost part of anything. It appears to have meant origin- 
ally a tuft or crest of hair, cf. Ger. Zopf, Du. top, Icel. topps, &c. ; 
it is allied to Eng. " tap," a spike for a cask, and " tip,' point. 
Some etymologists have identified the two words, the toy being 
so called from spinning on its top or tip, but the two German 
forms seem to prove conclusively that the words are different. 

TOPAZ, a mineral usually found in connexion with granitic 
rocks and used, when fine, as a gem-stone. It is believed that 
the topaz of modern mineralogists was unknown to the ancients, 
and that the stone described under the name of Toirdftos, in 
allusion to its occurrence on an island in the Red Sea known as 
TOTraf tos i^tros, was the mineral which is now termed chrysolite 
or peridot (q.v.). The Hebrew pitdah, translated " topaz " in 
the Old Testament, may also have been the chrysolite. 

Topaz crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, usually with a 
prismatic habit (figs, i and 2). Many of the crystals, like those 
from Saxony and Siberia, are rich in faces, and present with the 
prisms a complicated combination of pyramids and domes. The 
faces of the prism-zone are usually striated vertically. Doubly- 
terminated crystals are rare, and sometimes apparently hemi- 
morphic. The mineral presents a perfect cleavage transverse 





M 



FIG. i. 



M 



FIG. 2. 



to the long axis of the prism, and the cleavage-plane often has a 
pearly lustre. The chemical composition of the topaz has given 
rise to much discussion, but it is now generally regarded as an 
aluminium fluo-silicate having the formula Al 2 F 2 SiC>4. It was 
shown by Professor S. L. Penfield and Mr J. C. Minor that the 
fluorine may be partially replaced by hydroxyl. When strongly 
heated topaz suffers considerable loss of weight. Sir D. Brewster 
found in topaz numerous microscopic cavities containing fluids, 
some of which have received the names of brewsterlinite and 
cryptolinite. Possibly some of the liquid inclusions may be 
hydrocarbons. 

The topaz, when pure, may be colourless, and if cut as a 
brilliant has been mistaken for diamond. It has, too, the 
same specific gravity, about 3-5. It is, however, greatly 
inferior in hardness, the hardness of topaz being only 8; and it 
has lower refractivity and dispersive powers: moreover, being an 
orthorhombic mineral, it possesses double refraction. From 
phenacite and from rock-crystal, for which it may be mistaken, it 
is distinguished by being biaxial and by having a much higher 
specific gravity. The topaz becomes electric by heating, by 
friction or by pressure. Colourless limpid topazes are known in 
Brazil as pingos d'agoa, or " drops of water," whilst in England 
they pass in trade as " minas novas," from a locality in the 
state of Minas Geraes in Brazil. 

Coloured topazes usually present various shades of yellow, blue 
or brown. The pleochroism is fairly marked, the colour of the 
sherry-yellow crystals from Brazil being generally resolved by the 



dichroscope into a brownish-yellow and a rose-pink. The colour 
in many cases is unstable, and the brown topazes of Siberia are 
specially liable to suffer bleaching by exposure to sunlight. In 
1750 a Parisian jeweller named Dumelle discovered that the 
yellow Brazilian topaz becomes pink on exposure to a moderate 
heat, and this treatment has since been extensively applied, so 
that nearly all the pink topaz occurring in jewelry has been 
artificially heated. Such " burnt topaz " is often known as 
" Brazilian ruby," a name applied also to the natural red topaz, 
which, however, is excessively rare. " Brazilian sapphire " is 
the term sometimes given to blue topaz, but the colour is usually 
pale. The delicate green topaz has been incorrectly called 
aquamarine, which is a name applicable only to the sea-green 
beryl (q.v.). According to A. K. Coomaraswamy, yellow sapphire 
is often sold as topaz in Ceylon, where yellow topaz is unknown, 
whilst pink corundum is frequently called there " king topaz." 

The topaz is cut on a leaden wheel, and polished with tripoli. 
It is generally step-cut, or table-cut, but its beauty is best 
developed when in the form of a brilliant. Cut topazes of 
large size are known, and it is said that the great " Braganza 
diamond " of Portugal is probably a topaz. 

Topaz usually occurs in granitic and gneissose rocks, often in 
greisen, and is commonly associated with cassiterite, tourmaline and 
beryl. It seems to have been formed, in many cases, by pneumato- 
lytic action. In the west of England it is found in Cornwall, 
notably at St Michael's Mount and at Cligga Head near St Agnes. 
It occurs also in Lundy Island. The finest British topaz is found 
in the Cairngorm group of mountains in the central Highlands, 
especially at Ben a Buird. Rolled pebbles occur in the bed of the 
Avon in Banffshire. Beautiful, though small, crystals occur in 
the drusy cavities of the granite of the Mourne Mountains in 
Ireland. The famous topaz-rock of the Schneckenstein, near 
Auerbach, in Saxony, yields pale yellow crystals, formerly cut for 
jewelry, and it is said that these do not become pink on heating. 
Fine topazes occur in Russia, at several localities in the Urals and 
in the Adun-chalon Mountains, near Nerchinsk, in Siberia. A very 
fine series from the Koksharov collection is in the British Museum. 
Beautiful crystals of topaz are found in Japan, especially at Taka- 
yama in the province of Mino, and at Tanokamiyama in Omi 
province. Ceylon and _ Burma occasionally yield topazes. Brazil 
is a famous locality, the well-known sherry-yellow crystals coming 
from Ouro Preto, formerly called Villa Rica, the capital of Minas 
Geraes, where they occur in a kaolinitic matrix, resulting from the 
alteration of a mica-schist, which is regarded by Professor O. A. 
Derby as a metamorphosed igneous rock. Topaz occurs in the 
tin-drifts of New South Wales, especially in the New England 
district; it has been discovered in the Coolgardie goldfield. West 
Australia; and it is found also in the tinfields of Tasmania and on 
Flinders Island in Bass's Strait. Fine topaz has been worked 
near Pike's Peak in Colorado, and in San Diego county, California. 
The mineral occurs in rhyolite at Nathrop in Chaffee county and 
Chalk Mountain in Summit county, Colorado, and in trachyte 
near Sevier Lake, Utah. The occurrence of topaz in these volcanic 
rocks is very notable, and contrasts with its common occurrence 
in granites. It is found in like manner in rhyolite at San Luis 
Potosi in Mexico; and beautiful little limpid crystals accompany 
stream-tin at Durango. Common topaz occurs in coarse crystals 
at many localities. A columnar variety from the tin-districts of 
Saxony and Bohemia, and from Mt Bischoff in Tasmania, is 
known as pycnite (nvnvk, dense) ; whilst a coarse opaque topaz 
from granite near Falun, in Sweden, has been termed pyrophysa- 
lite (irDp, fire; 4>woa>, to blow), in allusion to its behaviour when 
heated. 

" Oriental topaz " is the name sometimes given to yellow corun- 
dum, a mineral readily distinguished from true topaz by superior 
hardness and density. Yellow and smoke-tinted quartz, or cairn- 
gorm, is often known as " Scotch topaz " or " Spanish topaz," 
according to its locality; but these, on the contrary, are inferior 
in hardness and density. The chief differences between the three 
minerals may be seen in the following table, in which they are 
arranged in order of hardness, density and refractivity : 





Scotch 
Topaz. 


True 
Topaz. 


Oriental 
Topaz. 


Hardness .... 
Specific gravity 
Refractive indices 
Crystallization 
Chemical composition 


1-6 

1-54, 1-55 
Hexagonal 
SiO 2 


8 

3-5 
1-61, 1-62 
Orthorhombic 
Al 2 F 2 SiO4 


9 
4 
1-76, 1-77 
Hexagonal 
A1 2 3 


(F. W. R.*) 
TOPEKA, a city and the county-seat of Shawnee county, 
Kansas, U.S.A., the capital of the state, situated on both sides of 



TOPELIUS TOPFFER 



49 



the Kansas river, in the east part of the state, about 60 m. W. of 
Kansas City. Pop. (1900), 33,608, of whom 3201 were foreign- 
born (including 702 Germans, 575 Swedes, 512 English, 407 
Russians, 320 Irish, &c.) and 4807 were negroes; (1910, census), 
43,684. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the 
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Union Pacific and the 
Missouri Pacific railways. The city is regularly laid out on a 
fairly level prairie bench, considerably elevated above the river 
and about 890 ft. above sea-level. Among its prominent build- 
ings are the United States government building, the Capitol 
(erected 1866-1903 at a cost of $3,200,589 and one of the best 
state buildings in the country), the county court house, the 
public library (1882), an auditorium (with a seating capacity 
of about 5000), the Y.M.C.A. building, a memorial building, 
housing historical relics of the state, and Grace Church Cathedral 
(Protestant Episcopal). The city is the see of a Protestant 
Episcopal bishop. In the Capitol are the library (about 6000 
volumes) and natural history collections of the Kansas Academy 
of Science, and the library (30,000 books, 94,000 pamphlets and 
28,500 manuscripts) and collections of the Kansas State Historical 
Society, which publishes Kansas Historical Collections (1875 
sqq.) and Biennial Reports (1879 sqq.). The city is the seat of 
Washburn (formerly Lincoln) College (1865), which took its 
present name in 1868 in honour of Ichabod Washburn of Wor- 
cester, Massachusetts, who gave it $25,000; in 1909 it had 783 
students (424 being women). Other educational establishments 
are the College of the Sisters of Bethany (Protestant Episcopal, 
1861), for women, and the Topeka Industrial and Educational 
Institute (1895), for negroes. In Topeka are the state insane 
asylum, Christ's Hospital (1894), the Jane C. Stormont Hospital 
and Training School for nurses (1895), the Santa Fe Railway 
Hospital, the Bethesda Hospital (1906) and the St Francis 
Hospital (1909). Topeka is an important manufacturing city. 
Its factory product was valued in 1905 at $14,448,869. Natural 
gas is piped from southern Kansas for manufacturing and 
domestic use. 

The first white settlement on the site of Topeka was made in 
1852, but the city really originated in 1854, when its site was 
chosen by a party from Lawrence. It was from the first a free- 
state stronghold. More than one convention was held here in 
Territorial days, including that which framed the Topeka 
Constitution of 1855; and some of the meetings of the free-state 
legislature chosen under that document (see KANSAS) were also 
held here. Topeka was made the temporary state capital under 
the Wyandotte Constitution, and became the permanent capital 
in 1861. It was first chartered by the pro-slavery Territorial 
legislature in 1857, but did not organize its government until 
1858 (see LAWRENCE). In 1881 it was chartered as a city of the 
first class. The first railway outlet, the Union Pacific, reached 
Eugene, now North Topeka, in 1865. The construction of the 
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe was begun here in 1868, and its 
construction shops, of extreme importance to the city, were built 
here in 1878. In 1880, just after the great negro immigration to 
Kansas, the coloured population was 31% of the total. 

See F. W. Giles, Thirty Years in Topeka (Topeka, 1886). 

TOPELIUS, ZAKRIS [ZACH ARIAS] (1818-1898), Finnish 
author, was born at Kuddnas, near Nykarleby, on the 
I4th of January 1818. He was the son of a doctor of 
the same name, who was distinguished as the earliest collector 
of Finnish folk-songs. Topelius became a student at Hel- 
singfors in 1833, was made professor in 1863 and received 
in succession all the academic distinctions open to him. 
Quite early in his career he began to distinguish himself 
as a lyric poet, with the three successive volumes of his 
Heather Blossoms (1845-1854). The earliest of his historical 
romances was The Duchess of Finland, published in 1850. 
He was also editor-in-chief of the Helsingfors Gazette from 
1841 to 1860. In 1878 Topelius was allowed to withdraw from 
his professional duties, but this did not sever his connexion 
with the university; it gave him, however, more leisure for his 
abundant and various literary enterprises. Of all the multi- 
farious writings of Topelius, in prose and verse, that which has 



enjoyed the greatest popularity is his Tales of a Barber-Surgeon, 
episodes of historical fiction from the days of Gustavus II. 
Adolphus to those of Gustavus III., treated in the manner of 
Sir Walter Scott; the five volumes of this work appeared at 
intervals between 1853 and 1867. Topelius attempted the 
drama also, with most success in his tragedy of Regina von 
Emmeritz (1854). Topelius aimed, with eminent but perhaps 
pathetic success, at the cultivation of a strong passion of 
patriotism in Finland. He died on the I3th of March 1898 
at Helsingfors. Topelius was an exceptionally happy writer 
for children, his best-known book being Lasning for barn. 
His abundant poetry is graceful and patriotic, but does not 
offer any features of great originality. (E. G.) 

TOPETE, JUAN BAUPTISTA (1821-1885), Spanish naval 
commander and politician, was born in Mexico on the 24th of 
May 1821. His father and grandfather were also Spanish 
admirals. He entered the navy at the age of seventeen, cut out 
a Carlist vessel in 1839, became a midshipman at twenty-two, 
obtained the cross of naval merit for saving the life of a sailor in 
1841 and became a lieutenant in 1845. He served on the West 
Indian station for three years, and was engaged in repressing the 
slave trade before he was promoted frigate captain in 1857. He 
was chief of staff to the fleet during the Morocco War, 1859, after 
which he got the crosses of San Fernando and San Hermenegildo. 
Having been appointed chief of the Carrara arsenal at Cadiz, he 
was elected deputy and joined the Union Liberal of O'Donnell 
and Serrano. He was sent out to the Pacific in command of the 
frigate " Blanca," and was present at the bombardment of 
Valparaiso and Callao, where he was badly wounded, and in 
other engagements of the war between Chile and Peru. On his 
return to Spain, Topete was made port captain at Cadiz, which 
enabled him to take the lead of the conspiracy in the fleet against 
the Bourbon monarchy. He sent the steamer " Buenaventura " 
to the Canary Isle for Serrano and the other exiles; and when 
Prim and Sagasta arrived from Gibraltar, the whole fleet under 
the influence of Topete took such an attitude that the people, 
garrison and authorities of Cadiz followed suit. Topete took 
part in all the acts of the revolutionary government, accepted the 
post of marine minister, was elected a member of the Cortes of 
1869, supported the pretensions of Montpensier, opposed the 
election of Amadeus, sat in several cabinets of that king's reign, 
was prosecuted by the federal republic of 1873 and again took 
charge of the marine under Serrano in 1874. After the Restora- 
tion Topete for some years held aloof, but finally accepted the 
presidency of a naval board in 1877, and sat in the Senate as a 
life peer until his death on the 2gth of October 1885 at Madrid. 

TOPFFER, RODOLPHE (1799-1846), the inventor of pedes- 
trian journeys in Switzerland by schoolboys, was born at Geneva 
on the 3ist of January 1799. His grandfather, a tailor, came 
about 1 760 from Schweinfurt (Bavaria) to settle in Geneva, while 
his father, Adam, was an artist. Rodolphe's literary education 
was rather desultory, as he intended to be an artist, like his father. 
But in 1819 his weak eyesight put an end to that intention, so 
he studied in Paris, intending to devote himself to the profession 
of schoolmaster. After passing some time in a private school in 
Geneva (1822-1824), he founded (1824) one of his own, after his 
marriage. It was in 1823 that he made his first foot journey 
in the Alps with his pupils, though this became his regular 
practice only from 1832 onwards. These Voyages en zigzag were 
described annually (1832-1843) in a series of lithographed volumes, 
with sketches by the author the first printed edition appeared 
at Paris in 1844, and a second series (Nouveaux voyages en zig- 
zag) also at Paris in 1854. Both series have since passed through 
many editions. In 1832 he was named professor of belles-lettres 
at the university of Geneva, and held that chair till his death, 
on the 8th of June 1846. As early as 1830 he published an article 
in the Bibliotheque universelle of Geneva. It was followed by a 
number of tales, commencing with the Bibliotheque de man oncle 
(1832), many of which were later collected (1841) into the well- 
known volume which bears the title of Nowvelles genevoises. 
He took some part (on the Conservative side) in local politics, 
and was (1841-1843) editor of the Courrier de Geneve. Among 



50 

his other works are an edition of Demosthenes (1824), and a 
volume of artistic studies, the Reflexions el menus propos d'un 
peinire genevois (1848). 

Lives by A. Blondel and the abb<5 Relave (both published at 
Paris, 1886), and shorter notices in E. Rambert's iLcrivains nationaux 
(Geneva, 1874) ; and E. Javelle's Souvenirs d'un alpinists (Lausanne, 
1886; Eng. trans., 1899, under the title of Alpine Memories), and 
several chapters in Ste Beuve's Causeries du lundi, Derniers 
portraits litteraires and Portraits contemporains. (W. A. B. C.) 

TOPHET, or TOPHETH ( nynn), the name given in 2 Kings 
xxiii. 10; Jer. vii. 31, to a spot in the valley of Ben Hinnom near 
Jerusalem where the Hebrews in the time of Ahab and Manasseh 
offered children to Molech and other heathen gods. Josiah 
" denied" it as part of his reforming activity, and it became a 
place for the bestowal and destruction of refuse, and a synonym 
for Gehenna (Isa. xxx. 33 ; Jer. vii. 32). 

The uncertain etymology of the word is discussed in the Ency. 
Bib., s.v. " Molech," 3, "Topheth." 

TOPIARY, a term in gardening or horticulture for the cutting 
and trimming of shrubs, such as cypress, box or yew, into regular 
and ornamental shapes. It is usually applied to the cutting of 
trees into urns, vases, birds and other fantastic shapes, which 
were common at the end of the iyth century and through 
the 1 8th, but it also embraces the more restrained art necessary 
for the laying out of a formal garden. Yew and holly trees cut 
into fantastic objects may still be seen in old-fashioned cottage 
or farmhouse gardens in England. The Lat. topiarius meant an 
ornamental or landscape gardener, and was formed from topia 
(Gr. roxos, place), a term specially employed for a formal kind of 
landscape painting used as a mural decoration in Roman houses. 

TOPLADY, AUGUSTUS MONTAGUE (1740-1778), Anglican 
divine, was born at Farnham, Surrey, and educated at West- 
minster and Trinity College, Dublin. Although originally a 
follower of Wesley, he in 17 58 adopted extreme Calvinist opinions. 
He was ordr.ined in 1762 and became vicar of Harpford with 
Fenn-Ottery, Devonshire, in 1766. In 1768 he exchanged to the 
living of Broadhembury, Devonshire. He is chiefly known as a 
writer of hymns and poems, including " Rock of Ages," and the 
collections entitled Poems on Sacred Subjects (Dublin, 1759) and 
Psalms and Hymns for Public and Private Worship (London, 
1776). His best prose work is the Historic Proof of the Doctrinal 
Calvinism of the Church of England (London, 1774). Some 
comments by Wesley upon Toplady's presentation of Calvinism 
led to a controversy which was carried on with much bitter- 
ness on both sides. Toplady wrote a venomous Letter to 
Mr Wesley (1770), and Wesley repeated his comments in The 
Consequence Proved (1771), whereupon Toplady replied with 
increased acridity in More Work for Mr Wesley (1772). From 
1775 to 1778, having obtained leave of non-residence at 
Broadhembury, he lived in London, and ministered at a 
Calvinist church in Orange Street. 

TOPOGRAPHY (Gr. TOTOJ, place, yp^fiv, to write), a 
description of a town, district or locality, giving details of its 
geographical and architectural features. The term is also applied 
in anatomy to the mapping out of the surface of the human 
body, either according to a division based on the organs or parts 
lying below certain regions, or on a superficial plotting out of 
the body by anatomical boundaries and landmarks. 

TORAN, the name in Hindustani (Skr. torana, from tor, pass) 
of a sacred or honorific gateway in Buddhist architecture. Its 
typical form is a projecting cross-piece resting on two uprights 
or posts. It is made of wood or stone, and the cross-piece is 
generally of three bars placed one on the top of the other; both 
cross-piece and posts are usually sculptured. 

10RBERNITE (or cupro-uranite), a mineral which is one of the 
" uranium micas "; a hydrous uranium and copper phosphate, 
Cu(UO 2 )2(PO4)2+i2H 2 O. Crystals are tetragonal and have the 
form of square plates, which are often very thin. There is a 
perfect micaceous cleavage parallel to the basal plane, and on 
this face the lustre is pearly. The bright grass-green colour 
is a characteristic feature of the mineral. The hardness is z\ 
and the specific gravity 3-5. The radio-activity of the mineral 



TOPHET TORDENSKJOLD 



is greater than that of some specimens of pitchblende. It was 
first observed in 1772 at Johanngeorgenstadt in Saxony, but the 
best examples are from Gunnislake near Calstock and Redruth 
in Cornwall. The name torbenite is after Torbern Bergman: 
chalcolite is a synonym. (L. J. S.) 

TORCELLO, an island of Venetia, Italy, in the lagoons about 
6 m. to the N.W. of Venice, belonging to the commune of Burano. 
It was a flourishing city in the early middle ages, but now has 
only a few houses and two interesting churches. The former 
cathedral of S. Maria was founded in the 7th century. The 
present building, a basilica with columns, dates from 864; the 
nave was restored in 1008, in which year the now ruined octagonal 
baptistery was built. It contains large mosaics of the i2th 
century, strongly under Byzantine influence; those on the west 
wall represent the Resurrection and Last Judgment. The 
seats for the priests are arranged round the semicircular apse, 
rising in steps with the bishop's throne in the centre an arrange- 
ment unique in Italy. Close by is S. Fosca, a church of the i2th 
century, octagonal outside, with colonnades on five sides and a 
rectangular interior intended for a dome which was never 
executed, beyond which is a three-apsed choir. In the local 
museum are four Mycenaean vases, one found in the island and 
another on the adjacent island of Mazzorbo, proving direct 
intercourse with the Aegean Sea in prehistoric times. 

SeeR. M. Dawkins, in Journal of Hellenic Studies (\<)Q$ , xxiv. 125. 

TORCH (O. Fr. torche, from Med. Lat. lorlia, derived from 
tortus, twisted, torquere, to twist), a light or illuminant that can 
be carried in the hand, made of twisted tow, hemp or other 
inflammable substance. Torches or " links " were, till the general 
introduction of street lighting, necessary adjuncts for passengers 
on foot or in carriages in towns at night, and many of the older 
houses in London and elsewhere still retain the iron stands 
outside their doors, in which the torches might be placed. 

TORCHERE, a candelabrum mounted upon a tall stand of 
wood or metal, usually with two or three lights. When it 
was first introduced in France towards the end of the I7th 
century the torchere mounted one candle only, and when the 
number was doubled or tripled the improvement was regarded 
almost as a revolution in the lighting of large rooms. 

TORDENSKJOLD, PEDER (1691-1720), eminent Danish 
naval hero, the tenth child of alderman Jan Wessel of Bergen, in 
Norway, was born at Trondhjem on the 28th of October 1691. 
Wessel was a wild unruly lad who gave his pious parents much 
trouble. Finally he ran away from them by hiding in a ship 
bound for Copenhagen, where the king's chaplain Dr Peder Jes- 
persen took pity on the friendless lad, gratified his love for the 
sea by sending him on a voyage to the West Indies, and finally 
procured him a vacant cadetship. After further voyages, 
this time to the East Indies, Wessel was, on the 7th of July 
1711, appointed 2nd lieutenant in the royal marine and shortly 
afterwards became the captain of a little 4-gun sloop " Ormen" 
(The Serpent), in which he cruised about the Swedish coast 
and picked up much useful information about the enemy. 
In June 1712 he was promoted to a 2o-gun frigate, against 
the advice of the Danish admiralty, which pronounced him to 
be too flighty and unstable for such a command. His dis- 
criminating patron was the Norwegian admiral Lovendal, 
who was the first to recognize the young man's ability as a 
naval officer. At this period Wessel was already renowned for 
two things: the audacity with which he attacked any Swedish 
vessels he came across regardless of odds, and his unique seaman- 
ship, which always enabled him to escape capture. The Great 
Northern War had now entered upon its later stage, when Sweden, 
beset on every side by foes, employed her fleet principally to 
transport troops and stores to her distressed German provinces. 
The audacity of Wessel impeded her at every point. He was 
continually snapping up transports, dashing into the fjords where 
her vessels lay concealed, and holding up her detached frigates. 
In July 1714 he encountered a frigate which had been equipped 
in England for the Swedes and was on its way to Gothenburg 
under the command of an English captain. Wessel instantly 



TOREADOR TORENO 



attacked her but in the English captain he met his match. 
The combat lasted all day, was interrupted by nightfall, and 
renewed again indecisively the following morning. Wessel's 
free and easy ways procured him many enemies in the Danish 
navy. He was accused of unnecessarily endangering his 
majesty's war-ships in the affairs with the frigate and he was 
brought before a court-martial. But the spirit with which 
he defended himself and the contempt he poured on his less 
courageous comrades took the fancy of King Frederick IV., 
who cancelled the proceedings and raised Wessel to the rank of 
captain. When in the course of 1715 the return of Charles XII. 
from Turkey to Stralsund put a new life into the jaded and 
dispirited Swedish forces, Wessel distinguished himself in 
numerous engagements off the Pomeranian coast and did the 
enemy infinite damage by cutting out their frigates and destroy- 
ing their transports. On returning to Denmark in the beginning 
of 1716 he was ennobled under the title of " Tordenskjold " 
(Thundershield). When in the course of 1716 Charles XII. 
invaded Norway and sat down before the fortress of Fredrik- 
shald, Tordenskjold compelled him to raise the siege and 
retire to Sweden by pouncing upon the Swedish transport 
fleet laden with ammunition and other military stores which 
rode at anchor in the narrow and dangerous strait of Dynekil, 
utterly destroying the Swedish fleet with little damage to him- 
self. For this, his greatest exploit, he was promoted to the rank 
of commander, but at the same time incurred the enmity of 
his superior officer Admiral Gabel, whom he had omitted to 
take into his confidence on the occasion. Tordenskjold 's first 
important command was the squadron with which he was 
entrusted in the beginning of 1717 for the purpose of destroying 
the Swedish Gothenburg squadron which interrupted the com- 
munications between Denmark and Norway. Owing to the 
disloyalty of certain of his officers who resented serving under 
the young adventurer, Tordenskjold failed to do all that was 
expected of him. His enemies were not slow to take advantage 
of his partial failure. The old charge of criminal recklessness 
was revived against him at a second court-martial before which 
he was summoned in 1718; but his old patron Admiral U. C. 
Gyldenlove again intervened energetically in his behalf and 
the charge was quashed. In December 1718 Tordenskjold 
brought to Frederick IV. the welcome news of the death of 
Charles XII. and was made a rear-admiral for his pains. Tor- 
denskjold's last feat of arms was his capture of the Swedish 
fortress of Marstrand, when he partially destroyed and partially 
captured the Gothenburg squadron which had so long eluded him. 
He was rewarded with the rank of vice-admiral. Tordenskjold 
did not long survive the termination of the war. On the 2oth 
of November 1720 he was killed in a duel with a Livonian 
colonel, Jakob Axel Stael von Holstein. Although, Dynekil 
excepted, Tordenskjold ; s victories were of far less importance 
than Sehested's at Stralsund and Gyldenlove's at Rugen, he is 
certainly, after Charles XII., the most heroic figure of the Great 
Northern War. His courage was fully equal to the courage 
of " The Lion of the North," but he lacked that absolute self- 
command which gives to the bravery of Charles XII. its peculiar, 
almost superhuman, character. 

See Carstensen and Lutken, Tordenskjold (Copenhagen, 1887). 

(R. N. B.) 

TOREADOR, a Spanish word derived from torear, to engage 
in a bull-fight, two, a bull, Latin taurus, for one of the principal 
performers in the national sport of bull-fighting (q.v.). 

TORELL, OTTO MARTIN (1828-1900), Swedish geologist, 
was born in Varberg on the sth of June 1828. He was edu- 
cated at Lund for the medical profession, but became interested 
in zoological and geological studies, and being of independent 
means he devoted himself to science. He gave his attention 
first especially to the invertebrate fauna and the physical 
changes of pleistocene and recent times. He studied the 
glacial phenomena of Switzerland, Spitzbergen and Green- 
land, making two Arctic expeditions in company with A. E. 
Nordenskiold. In 1866 he became professor of zoology and 
geology in the University at Lund, and in 1871 he was appointed 



chief of the Swedish Geological Survey. In the latter capacity 
he laboured until 1897. His published contributions, though of 
much interest and importance, were not large, but his influence 
in promoting a knowledge of geology in Sweden was of great 
service. His Arctic experiences enabled him to interpret 
the method of origin of the drift deposits in northern Europe, 
and to show that they were largely of glacial or fluvio-glacial 
origin. In the English drifts he recognized many boulders of 
Scandinavian origin. He died on the nth of September 1900. 

His publications include: Bidrag till Spitzbergens molluskfauna 
('859); and memoirs to accompany several sheets of the Geological 
Survey map of Sweden. 

Obituary with portrait, in Geol. Mag (May 1902), reproduced in 
abridged form from memoir by L. Holmstrom, in Geologiska forenin- 
gen i Stockholm's forhandlingar, xxiii. 

TORENO, JOS6 MARIA QUIEPO DE LLANO RUIZ DE 
SARAVIA, COUNT OF (1786-1843), Spanish politician and his- 
torian, was born at Oviedo on the 25th of November 1786. His 
family was wealthy and belonged to the most ancient nobility 
of Asturias. His mother, Dominga Ruiz de Saravia, had 
property in the province of Cuenca. The son received a better 
education in classics, mathematics and modern languages 
than was usual at that time. The young viscount of Matarrosa, 
the title he bore in his father's lifetime, was introduced 
to the writings of Voltaire and Rousseau by the abbot 
of the Benedictine house of Monserrat in Madrid. He was 
present at Madrid when the city rose against Murat on the 2nd 
of May 1808, and took part in the struggle which was the 
beginning of the Peninsular War. From Madrid he escaped 
to Asturias, and on the 3oth of May he embarked in a Jersey 
privateer at Gijon, with other delegates, in order to ask for the 
help of England against the French. The deputation was 
enthusiastically received in London. By the 3Oth of December 
he was back in Asturias, his father having died in the interval. 
During the Peninsular War he saw some service in the first 
occupation of Asturias by the French, but he was mainly occu- 
pied by his duties as a member of the Cortes. In 1809 he was at 
Seville, where one of his uncles was a member of the central 
Junta. In the following year he was a leader of the party which 
compelled the Regency to summon the Cortes to which he was 
elected by Asturias early in 1811 though he wanted some months 
of the legal age of twenty-five. His election was opposed by 
some of his own relatives who did not share his advanced opinions, 
but it was ratified by the Cortes. Toreno was conspicuous 
among the well-meaning men who framed the constitution of 
1812, which was made as if it was meant for some imaginary 
republic and not for Catholic and monarchical Spain. When 
Ferdinand VII. returned from prison in France in 1814 Toreno 
foresaw a reaction, and put himself out of reach of the king. 
He was the more an object of suspicion because his brother- 
in-law, Porlier, perished in a wild attempt to support the con- 
stitution by force. Toreno remained in exile till the outbreak 
of the revolution of 1820. Between that year and 1823 he was 
in Spain serving in the restored Cortes, and experience had 
abated his radical ardour. When the French intervened in 1823 
Toreno had again to go into exile, and remained abroad till the 
king published the amnesty of the isth of October 1832. He 
returned home in July 1833, but remained on his estates till 
the king's death on the 29th of September. As hereditary 
standard bearer of Asturias (Alferez Mayor) it fell to him to 
proclaim the young queen, Isabella II. In 1834 his now 
moderate opinions pointed him out to the queen regent, Maria 
Christina, as a useful man for office. In June 1834 he was 
minister of finance, and became prime minister on the 7th of 
June. His tenure of the premiership lasted only till the I4th of 
September of the same year, when the regent's attempt to retain 
a practically despotic government under a thin constitutional 
veil broke down. The greater part of the remainder of his 
life was spent in voluntary exile, and he died in Paris on the 
1 6th of September 1843. As a politician he felt the need for a 
revision of the worn out despotism which ruled till 1808, but he 
was destitute of any real political capacity. Toreno is chiefly 
remembered as the author of the History of the Rising, War 



TORENO TORONTO 



and Revolution of Spain, which he began between 1823 and 
1832 and published in 1836-1838 in Paris. As a work of military 
criticism it is not of high value, and Toreno was prejudiced in 
favour of his colleagues of the Cortes, whose errors and ex- 
cesses he shared in and excused. The book is, however, written 
in excellent Castilian, and was compiled with industry. It is 
worth consulting as an illustration of the time in which the author 
lived, as a patriotic Spanish view of the war, and for the pro- 
minence it gives to the political side of the Peninsular War, 
which he justly treated as a revolution. 

A biography by Don Antonio de Cueto is prefixed to the reprint 
of the Levantamiento guerra y revolution de Espana, in vol. Ixiy. 
of the Biblioleca de auiores espanoles of Rivadeneyra (Madrid 
1846-1880). 

TORENO, QUEIPO DE LLANO Y GAYOSO DE, COUNT 
(1840-1890), Spanish politician, son of the preceding, was 
born in Madrid in 1840. He was educated at the Madrid 
Institute and University, entered parliament in 1864 as 'a 
Moderado, and sat in all the Cortes of Queen Isabella's reign 
as a deputy for his ancestral province, Asturias. Loyal to the 
Bourbons all through the revolution, he nevertheless became a 
deputy in the Cortes of 1871-1873, and founded an Alphonsist 
paper, El Tiempo, in 1873. When the Restoration took place, 
its first cabinet made Count de Toreno mayor of the capital, 
and in 1875 minister of public works, in which capacity he im- 
proved the public libraries, museums, academies and archives, 
and caused many important works to be published, includ- 
ing the Cartas de Indias. In 1879 he became minister for 
foreign affairs, in 1880 president of the House of Deputies, in 
1884 again governor of Madrid, and in 1885 again president 
of the House of Deputies. During the reign of Alphonso XII. 
and the first years of the regency of Queen Christina Count de 
Toreno was one of the most prominent Conservative leaders, 
and was often consulted by the Crown. He died on the 3ist 
of January 1890. He was a patron of the turf, and established 
a race-course in Madrid, where the first races took place in the 
reign of Alphonso XII. 

TORGAU, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of 
Saxony, situated on the left bank of the Elbe, 30 m. N.E. of 
Leipzig and 26 m. S.E. of Wittenberg by rail. Pop. (1905), 
12,299. Its most conspicuous building is the Schloss Hartenfels, 
on an island in the Elbe, which was built, or at least was finished, 
by the elector of Saxony, John Frederick the Magnanimous. 
This castle, which is now used as a barracks, is one of the largest 
Renaissance buildings in Germany. It was for some time the 
residence of the electors of Saxony and contains a chapel con- 
secrated by Martin Luther. The town hall, a 16th-century 
building, houses a collection of Saxon antiquities. Torgau 
has two Evangelical churches and a Roman Catholic church. 
One of the former, the Stadt Kirche, contains paintings by 
Lucas Cranach and the tomb of Catherine von Bora, the wife of 
Luther. The chief industries of the town are the manufacture 
of gloves, carriages, agricultural machinery, beer and bricks; 
there is a trade in grain both on the Elbe and by rail. The 
fortifications, begun in 1807 by order of Napoleon, were dis- 
mantled in 1889-1891. In the vicinity is the royal stud farm of 
Graditz. 

Torgau is said to have existed as the capital of a distinct 
principality in the time of the German king Henry I., but early 
in the I4th century it was in the possession of the margraves 
of Meissen and later of the electors of Saxony, who frequently 
resided here. The town came into prominence at the time of 
the Reformation. In 1526 John, elector of Saxony, Philip, 
landgrave of Hesse, and other Protestant princes formed a 
league against the Roman Catholics, and the Torgau articles, 
drawn up here by Luther and his friends in 1530, were the 
basis of the confession of Augsburg. Torgau is particularly 
celebrated as the scene of a battle fought on the 3rd of November 
1760, when Frederick the Great defeated the Austrians (see 
SEVEN YEARS' WAR). In January 1814 Torgau was taken by 
the Germans after a siege of three months and it was formally 
ceded to Prussia in 1815. 



See Grulich and Btirger, Denkwurdigkeiten der altsachsischen 
Resident Torgau aus der Zeit der Reformation (Torgau, 1855) ; Knabe, 
Geschichte der Stadt Torgau bis zur Reformation (Torgau, 1880); 
and the publications of the Altertumverein zu Torgau (Torgau 
1884 sqq.). 

TORNADO (Span., tornado, a turning about, cf. " turn "), 
a local whirlwind of extreme violence, usually formed within a 
thunderstorm. In appearance it consists of a funnel-shaped 
cloud, depending from the mass of storm-cloud above, and when 
fully developed tapering downwards to the earth. Besides its 
whirling motion, a tornado has an advancing movement of 
from 20 to 40 m. an hour and along its own narrow path it 
carries destruction. Its duration is usually from half an hour 
to an hour. Tornadoes are most common in America, espe- 
cially in the Mississippi Valley and the Southern states ; in Europe 
and elsewhere they are comparatively rare. Owing to their 
association with thunderstorms they generally occur in warm 
weather. A tornado is the result of a condition of local in- 
stability in the atmosphere, originating high above the earth. 
A current of air is induced to ascend with a rapid spiral motion 
round a central core of low pressure. The moisture in the 
ascending air is condensed by cooling both as it ascends and as 
it expands into the low-pressure core. The cloud-funnel appears 
to grow downwards because the moisture in the air is condensed 
more rapidly than the air itself, following a spiral course, ascends. 

TORO, a town of Spain, in the province of Zamora, on the 
right bank of the river Duero (Douro), and on the Zamora- 
Medina del Campo railway. Pop. (1900), 8379. Toro is an 
ancient fortified town, with picturesque narrow streets, among 
which are many medieval churches, convents and palaces, 
besides modern schools and public buildings. A fine bridge 
of twenty-two arches spans the river. The cathedral church 
is Romanesque; it dates from the I2th century but has been 
partially restored. The palace of the marquesses of Santa 
Cruz was the meeting place of the Cortes of 1371, 1442 and 
1505, which made Toro and its code of laws celebrated. Toro 
is first mentioned in documents of the loth century. It played 
an important part in the development of the kingdoms of Leon 
and Castile and in the reconquest of Spain from the Moors. 

TORONTO, the capital of the province of Ontario, and the 
second largest city in the Dominion of Canada, situated on 
the northern shore of Lake Ontario, almost due north from the 
mouth of the Niagara river. It lies on a plateau gradually 
ascending from the lake shore to an altitude of 220 ft., and 
covers an area of nearly 20 sq. m. The river Don flows 
through the eastern part of the city, and the river Humber 
forms its western limit. The fine bay in front of the city, 
affording a safe and commodious harbour, is formed by an 
island stretching along the south of it. The city is well laid 
out for the most part, the streets crossing each other at right 
angles; Yonge Street, the chief artery, running north from the 
bay, was constructed as a military road in 1796, and extends 
under the same name for upwards of 30 m. to Lake Simcoe. It 
constitutes the dividing line of the city, the cross streets being 
called east or west according to the side of it they are on. 

Toronto is the seat of government for the province, and 
contains the parliament buildings, the lieutenant-governor's 
residence, the courts of law and the educational departmental 
buildings. The parliament buildings are situated in Queen's 
Park, almost in the centre of [the city, and are an imposing 
structure of red sandstone in the neo-Greek style built at great 
cost. They are shortly to be enlarged, as the needs of the 
province have outgrown them. A little distance to the west 
stand the university buildings, the central one being a splendid 
piece of architecture in the Norman style. Stretching in a semi- 
circle round the broad campus are the library, the medical 
building, the biology building and museum, the school of practical 
science, the geology and chemistry buildings and the convoca- 
tion hall, their architecture varying very greatly, beauty having 
been sacrificed to more practical considerations; the magnetic 
observatory is also in the grounds, but is overshadowed by some 
of the more recent erections. It is one of the meteorological 



TORPEDO 



53 



stations established by the British government on the recom- 
mendation of the Royal Society in 1840 and is now maintained 
by the Dominion government. The university of Toronto, 
for the support of which the province is responsible, includes 
faculties of arts, science and medicine, in the teaching of which 
it is strictly secular. But near at hand and in full affiliation 
with the university are Victoria College (Methodist), Wycliffe 
College (Anglican), Knox College (Presbyterian) and St Michael's 
College (Roman Catholic), wherein courses in divinity are given 
and degrees conferred. Victoria College, likewise, provides a 
course in arts, but none in science. Trinity College (Anglican), 
though some distance away, is also affiliated with the univer- 
sity, and her students enjoy its full advantages. Besides the 
university, Toronto is remarkably rich in educational institu- 
tions. Upper Canada College, founded in 1829, in many respects 
resembles one of the English public schools. It has over 300 
students. St Andrew's College, also for boys, is a more recent 
establishment, and has about the same number of pupils. 
There are three large collegiate institutes, having some 300 to 
600 pupils each, and in addition a number of schools for girls, 
such as Havergal College and Westminster College. Osgoode 
Hall, a stately structure in the heart of the city, houses the 
higher courts of law and appeal, and also a flourishing law school. 
The city hall and court-house is one of the finest civic build- 
ings in North America. It is in the Romanesque style, and 
accommodates all the civic offices, the board of education, the 
police and county courts, &c. Many of the churches are worthy 
examples of good architecture. 

Toronto is essentially a residential city. The houses of the 
better class stand separate, not in long rows, and have about 
them ample lawns and abundant trees. It is consequently a 
widespread city, the length from east to west approximating 
ten miles. An electric railway system provides means of com- 
munication. There are many parks, ranging in size from 
Carlton Park of one acre to High Park (375 acres) and Island 
Park (389), the latter being across the harbour and constitut- 
ing the favourite resort of the people during the summer. In 
Exhibition Park there is held annually an industrial and agri- 
cultural exhibition that has grown to great magnitude. It lasts 
a fortnight in late summer. It is a municipal enterprise and 
the profits belong to the city. 

The population in 1907, as shown by the police census, 
exceeded 300,000. The government of the city is vested in a 
council consisting of the mayor and four controllers elected 
annually and eighteen aldermen (three from each of the six wards 
into which the city is divided). The council as a whole is the 
legislative body, while the board of control is the executive 
body, and as such is responsible for the supervision of all matters 
of finance, the appointment of officials, the carrying on of 
public works, and the general administration of the affairs of 
the city, except the departments of education and of police, 
the first being under the control of the board of education, 
elected annually by the citizens, and the latter under the 
board of police commissioners, consisting of the mayor, the 
county judge and the police magistrate. 

Toronto is one of the chief manufacturing centres of the 
dominion; agricultural machinery, automobiles, bicycles, cotton 
goods, engines, furniture, foundry products, flour, smoked meats, 
tobacco, jewelry, &c., are flourishing industries, and the list is 
constantly extending. The situation of the city is favourable 
to commerce, and the largest vessels on the lakes can use its 
harbour. It is the outlet of a rich and extensive agricultural 
district, and throughout the season of navigation lines of steamers 
ply between Toronto and the other lake ports on both the 
Canadian and American sides, the route of some of them 
extending from Montreal to Port Arthur on Lake Superior. 
Railway communication is complete, three great trunk lines 
making the city a terminal point, viz. the Grand Trunk, the 
Canadian Pacific and the Canadian Northern. 

As a financial centre Toronto has made remarkable advance. 
The transactions on the stock exchange rival those of Montreal. 
The Bank of Commerce has its headquarters here, as have also 



the Bank of Nova Scotia, the Bank of Toronto, the Standard 
Traders, Imperial, Sovereign, Dominion, Crown, United Empire, 
Sterling and other banks. 

The name of the city is of Indian origin, meaning "a place of 
meeting," the site in the days before the coming of the white 
man being an established rendezvous among the neighbouring 
Indian tribes. It first appears in history in 1749 as a centre of 
trade when the French built a small fort and started a trading 
establishment called Fort Rouille. Before long, however, 
British traders came up from the south and entered into active 
rivalry with the French, and in 1793 the fort was burned by 
the latter to prevent its occupation by their foes. A year later 
Governor Simcoe transferred the seat of government of the new 
province of Upper Canada from the town of Newark at the 
mouth of the Niagara River to Toronto, giving the new capital 
the Mame of York, in honour of the second son of George III. 
Under its new name it made slow progress as the surrounding 
country was cleared and settled. The entrance to the harbour 
was guarded by two blockhouses; provision was made for 
barracks and garrison stores; buildings were erected for the 
legislature; and there the members of parliament, summoned 
by royal proclamation to "meet us in our provincial parliament 
in our town of York," assembled on the ist of June 1797. 
Sixteen years later the population numbered only 456. The 
town was twice sacked in the war of 1812. General Dearborn 
captured it at the head of a force of upwards of 2000. On their 
advance to the outworks of the garrison the magazine of the 
fort exploded, whether by accident or design, killing many of 
the invaders. The halls of legislature and other buildings were 
burnt and the town pillaged. On the restoration of peace the 
work of creating a capital for Upper Canada had wellnigh to 
begin anew. The organization of Upper Canada College in 
1830, with a staff of teachers nearly all graduates of Cambridge, 
gave a great impetus to the city and province. In 1834 the 
population of York numbered fully 10,000; and an act of the 
provincial legislature conferred on it a charter of incorporation, 
with a mayor, aldermen and councilmen. Under this charter 
it was constituted a city with the name of Toronto. Since 
that time the progress of the city has been rapid and substantial, 
the population doubling every twenty years. In 1885 the 
total assessment was $69,000,000; in 1895 $146,000,000 and in 
1906 $167,411,000, the rate of taxation being i8 mills. 

TORPEDO. In 1805 Robert Fulton demonstrated a new 
method of destroying ships by exploding a large charge of 
gunpowder against the hull under water. No doubt then 
remained as to the effectiveness of this form of attack when 
successfully applied; it was the difficulty of getting the torpedo, 
as it was called, to the required position which for many years 
retarded its progress as a practical weapon of naval warfare. 
Attempts were first made to bring the explosive in contact with 
the vessel by allowing it to drift down to her by the action of 
tide or current, and afterwards to fix it against her from some 
form of diving boat, but successive failures led to its restriction 
for a considerable period to the submarine mine (g.v.) in which 
the explosive is stationary and takes effect only when the ship 
itself moves over or strikes the charge. Used in this way, it 
is an excellent deterrent to hostile warships forcing a harbour. 

Spar or Outrigger Torpedo. The limitations attached to the 
employment of submarine mines, except for coast defence, 
revived the idea of taking the torpedo to the ship instead of 
waiting for the latter to gain some exact point which she might 
very possibly avoid. This first took practical shape in the spar 
or outrigger torpedo. This consisted of a charge of explosive, 
at the end of a long pole projecting from the bow of a boat, 
the pole being run out and immersed on arriving near the object. 
Directly the charge came in contact with the hull of the ship it 
was exploded by an electric battery in the boat. If the boat 
was not discovered and disabled while approaching, the chances 
were favourable to success and escape afterwards. Against a 
vigilant enemy it was doubtless a forlorn hope, but to brave 
men the venture offered considerable attractions. 

Frequent use of this spar or outrigger torpedo was made during 



TORPEDO 



the American Civil War. A notable instance was the destruction 
of the Confederate ironclad " Albemarle " at the end of October 
1864. On this mission Lieut. Gushing took a steam launch 
equipped with an outrigger torpedo up the Roanoke River, in 
which lay the " Albemarle." On arriving near the ship Gushing 
found her surrounded by logs, but pushing his boat over them, 
he immersed the spar and exploded his charge in contact with 
the " Albemarle " under a heavy fire. Ship and launch sank 
together, but the gallant officer jumped overboard, swam away 
and escaped. Submerged boats were also used for similar 
service, but usually went to the bottom with their crews. 
During the war between France and China in 1884 the " Yang 
Woo " was attacked and destroyed by an outrigger torpedo. 

Locomotive Torpedoes. Though the spar torpedo had scored 
some successes, it was mainly because the means of defence 
against it at that time were inefficient. The ship trusted solely 
to her heavy gun and rifle fire to repel the attack. The noise, 
smoke, and difficulty of hitting a small object at night with a 
piece that could probably be discharged but once before the boat 
arrived, while rifle bullets would not stop its advance, favoured 
the attack. When a number of small guns and electric lights 
were added to a ship's equipment, success with an outrigger 
torpedo became nearly, if not entirely, impossible. Attention 
was then turned in the direction of giving motion to the torpedo 
and steering it to the required point by electric wires worked 
from the shore or from another vessel; or, dispensing with any 
such connection, of devising a torpedo which would travel under 
water in a given direction by means of self-contained motive 
power and machinery. Of the former type are the Lay, Sims- 
Edison and Brennan torpedoes. The first two electrically 
steered by a wire which trails behind the torpedo have in- 
sufficient speed to be of practical value, and are no longer used. 
The Brennan torpedo, carrying a charge of explosive, travels 
under water and is propelled by unwinding two drums or 
reels of fine steel wire within the torpedo. The rotation of 
these reels is communicated to the propellers, causing the 
torpedo to advance. The ends of the wires are connected 
to an engine on shore to give rapid unwinding and 
increased speed to the torpedo. It is steered by vary- 
ing the speed of unwinding the two wires. This tor- 
pedo was adopted by the British war office for harbour 
defence and the protection of narrow channels. 

Uncontrolled, Torpedoes. The objection of naval 
officers to have any form of torpedo connected by wire 
to their ship during an action, impeding her free move- 
ment, liable to get entangled in her propellers and 
perhaps exploding where not desired disadvantages 
which led them to discard the Harvey towing torpedo 
many years ago has hitherto prevented any navy from 
adopting a controlled torpedo for its sea-going fleet. The 
last quarter of the igth century saw, however, great 
advances in the equipment of ships with locomotive torpedoes of 
the uncontrolled type. The Howell may be briefly described, 
as it has a special feature of some interest. Motive power is 
provided by causing a heavy steel fly-wheel inside the torpedo 
to revolve with great velocity. This is effected by a small special 
engine outside operating on the axle. When sufficiently spun 
up, the axle of the flywheel is connected with the propeller 
shafts and screws which drive the torpedo, so that on entering 
the water it is driven ahead and continues its course until the 
power stored up in the flywheel is exhausted. Now when a 
torpedo is discharged into the sea from a ship in motion, it has 
a tendency to deflect owing to the action of the passing water. 
The angle of deflexion will vary according to the speed of the 
ship, and is also affected by other causes, such as the position 
in the ship from which the torpedo is discharged, and its own 
angle with the line of keel. Hence arise inaccuracies of shooting; 
but these do not occur with this torpedo, for the motion of the 
flywheel, acting as a gyroscope the principle of which applied 
to the Whitehead torpedo is described later keeps this torpedo 
on a straight course. This advantage, combined with simplicity 
in construction, induced the American naval authorities at one 



time to contemplate equipping their fleet with this torpedo, for 
they had not, up to within a few years ago, adopted any loco- 
motive torpedo. A great improvement in the torpedo devised 
by Mr Whitehead led them, however, definitely to prefer the 
latter and to discontinue the further development of the Howell 
system. 

The Whitehead torpedo is a steel fish-shaped body which 
travels under water at a high rate of speed, being propelled by 
two screws driven by compressed air. It carries a large charge 
of explosive which is ignited on the torpedo striking any hard 
substance, such as the hull of a ship. The body is divided into 
three parts. The foremost portion or head contains the explo- 
sive usually wet gun-cotton with dry primer and mechanical 
igniting arrangement; the centre portion is the air chamber 
or reservoir, while the remaining part or tail carries the engines, 
rudders, and propellers besides the apparatus for controlling 
depth and direction. This portion also gives buoyancy to the 
torpedo. 

When the torpedo is projected from a ship or boat into the 
water a lever is thrown back, admitting air into the engines 
causing the propellers to revolve and drive the torpedo ahead. 
It is desirable that a certain depth under water should be main- 
tained. An explosion on the surface would be deprived of the 
greater part of its effect, for most of the gas generated would 
escape into the air. Immersed, the water above confines the 
liberated gas and compels it to exert all its energy against the 
bottom of the ship. It is also necessary to correct the tendency 
to rise that is due to the torpedo getting lighter as the air is 
used up, for compressed air has an appreciable weight. This 
is effected by an ingenious apparatus long maintained secret. 
The general principle is to utilize the pressures due to different 
depths of water to actuate horizontal rudders, so that the 
torpedo is automatically directed upwards or downwards as 
its tendency is to sink or rise. 

The efficiency of such a torpedo compared with all previous types 
was clearly manifest when it was brought before the maritime 
states by the inventor, Whitehead, and it was almost universally 
adopted. The principal defect was want of speed which at first 

Sped 23 Knots to 800 Mctni 
: U3 tis e Gun Coc/i 




Speed 30 Knots to 600 Yds. 
C/Mrye_ //5(t>so 
t^706 Lbs 



14-INCH TORPEDO 




FIG. I. Diagrams of 14- and i8-in. Torpedoes, 
did not exceed 10 knots an hour but by the application of Brother- 
hood's 3-cylinder engine the speed was increased to 18 knots 
a great advance. From that time continuous improvements have 
resulted in speeds of 30 knots and upwards for a short range being 
obtained. For some years a torpedo 14 ft. long and 14 in. in 
diameter was considered large enough, though it had a very limited 
effective range. For a longer range a larger weapon must be 
employed capable of carrying a greater supply of air. To obtain 
this, torpedoes of 18 in. diameter, involving increased length and 
weight, have for some time been constructed, and have taken the 
place of the smaller torpedo in the equipment of warships. This 
advance in dimensions has not only given a faster and steadier 
torpedo, but enabled such a heavy charge of gun-cotton to be 
carried that its explosion against any portion of a ship would inevit- 
ably either sink or disable her. The dimensions, shape, &c., of the 14- 
and i8-in. torpedoes are shown in fig. I. A limited range was 
still imposed by the uncertainty of its course under water. The 
speed of the ship from which it was discharged, the angle with her 
keel at which it entered the water, and the varying velocity of 
impulse, tended to error of flight, such error being magnified the 
farther the path of the torpedo was prolonged. Hence 8po yds. 
was formerly considered the limit of distance within which the 
torpedo should be discharged at sea against an object from a ship 
in motion. 

In these circumstances, though improvements in the manufacture 
of steel and engines allowed of torpedoes.of far longer range being 



TORPEDO 



55 



made (the fastest torpedo up to 1898 having a speed of 29 knots 
for 800 yds.), it was of no advantage to make them, as they could 
not be depended upon to run in a straight line from a stationary 
point for more than 800 yds., while from a ship in motion good 
practice could only be ensured at a reduced range. It was obvious, 
therefore, that to increase the effective range of the torpedo, these 
errors of direction must be overcome by some automatic steering 
arrangement. Several inventors turned their attention to the 
subject, nearly all of whom proposed to utilize the principle of the 
gyroscope for the purpose. The first which gave any satisfactory 
results was an apparatus devised by Ludwig Obry an engineer 
in Austria and tried by the Italian government about 1896. 
These trials demonstrated the feasibility of accurately and auto- 
matically steering a torpedo in a direct line by this means. Messrs 
Whitehead & Co., of Fiume, then acquired the invention, and after 
exhaustive experiments produced the apparatus which is now 
fitted to every torpedo made. It is based on the principle that 
a body revolving on a free axis tends to preserve its plane of rotation. 
A gyroscope with plane of rotation parallel to the vertical axis of 
the torpedo will have an angular motion if the torpedo is diverted 
from its original course. This angular motion is employed to actuate 
the steering mechanism by operating an air motor connected 
with the rudders, and keeping the torpedo in the line of discharge. 
The apparatus consists of a flywheel caused to rotate by a spring, 
the barrel on which the latter is wound having a segmental wheel 
which gears into a toothed pinion spindle of the flywheel. Owing 
to the diameter of the segment being much greater than the pinion, 
a rapid rotatory motion is imparted. The spring is wound up by a 
key from outside the torpedo, and kept in tension until the pro- 
jectile is discharged, when the spring is released by the air lever 
being thrown back, which admits air to the engine; the gyroscope 
is then freed and set in motion with its plane in the plane of the 
vertical axis of the torpedo as it was in the launching tube. 

Assuming now that the course of the torpedo is diverted by any 
cause, its axis will move or perform a certain angular motion with 
regard to the plane of the flywheel, which will have the same 
result as if we consider the conditions reversed, i.e. as if the plane 
of rotation of the flywheel were altered and that of the axis of the 
torpedo remained the same. The axis of the flywheel performs 
a relative angular motion which it imparts to a crank actuating 
a servo-motor worked by compressed air, and connected with the 
rudders _ of the torpedo, moving them in the opposite direction 
to that in which the torpedo was diverted from its original course. 
Thus all inaccuracies of flight due to errors of adjustment, mis- 
calculation of deflexion, or even damage to some part, are elimin- 
ated. As long as the gyroscope is in good order the torpedo is 
bound to run in the line it was pointing when the flywheel was 
started. It is placed in the after-body of the torpedo, as indicated 
in fig. 2. 



limited by the strength of the engines and other parts. Improve- 
ments in steel manufacture have permitted the use of much higher 
pressures of air and the construction of air-chambers able to with- 
stand the pressure of 2000 Ib to the sq. in. with the same weight of 
air-chamber. This has enabled increased range without reduction 
in speed to be attained, or conversely, increased speed at shorter 
ranges. By improvement in the engines which are now of the 
Brotherhood 4-cylinder central crank type further gains have 
been effected. 

Having reached the limit of pressure and endurance of air- 
chambers with present materials without undue increase of weight, 
the designer had to seek additional energy in another direction. 
Now the energy obtainable from a given weight of compressed air 
is dependent upon the volume of air available at the working 
pressure of the engines. At a constant pressure this volume of 
air is proportionate to its absolute temperature. If then the air 
be stored cold and highly heated before delivery to the engine 
the available energy from a given weight will be greatly increased. 
By this means we obtain the equivalent of a larger and heavier 
air-chamber without the increased weight such would involve. 

As originally used a quantity of hydrocarbon fuel was placed in 
the air-vessel. Upon discharging the torpedo this fuel was auto- 
matically ignited and the contents of the air-chamber were heated. 
Unless, however, the combustion could be regulated there were 
serious risks of abnormal pressures, of overheating and weakening 
the air-vessel. Devices have been applied to overcome this liability, 
and other methods devised to obtain the same result. 

By the use of heating and thereby increasing the volume of air 
in proportion to the rise of temperature the extra volume will 
allow of an increased speed for a given range or a greater range 
without increase of speed. The limit to the development of this 
system seems to be the temperature the materials will stand, but 
even at this early stage it has added several knots to the speed of 
this wonderful weapon. 

Torpedo Carriages and Discharge. As no gun which is ineffi- 
ciently mounted can give good results, so the best torpedo is valueless 
without a good carriage or system of discharge. In the early days 
of the Whitehead, discredit came upon it because the importance 
of this was not sufficiently realized; and an erratic course under 
water was in nine cases out of ten due to a crude method of dis- 
charge. A delicate piece of mechanism was dropped into the water 
from a height of several feet, and naturally suffered internal derange- 
ment. Gun-ports were then used for the purpose, but now a special 
orifice is made, to which the torpedo carriage is fitted with a ball- 
and-socket joint forming a water-tight aperture so that this 
carriage or tube may be only 2 or 3 ft. above the water-line. The 
ball-and-socket joint enables it also to have a considerable angle 
of training. Originally the torpedo was pushed out by a rod 
acted upon by compressed air, in which case the carriage was a 




FIG. 2. Arrangement 

The efficiency of the Whitehead torpedo has thus been enormously 
increased, and more accurate practice can now be made at 
2000 yds. than was formerly possible at 800 yds. This adds con- 
siderably to the chances of torpedo-boats attacking ships, even in 
day-time, at sea or at anchor, and will render further protection 
necessary against this weapon. Against a ship in motion there is 
still, however, the calculation as to her speed and the distance she 
will travel before the torpedo reaches her. Should this be mis- 
calculated, an increased range for torpedoes will magnify the error. 
For instance, a 3O-knot torpedo will travel 1000 yds. in a minute. 
If aimed at a ship on the beam assumed to be steaming 15 knots 
an hour, to reach her when 1000 yds. distant the torpedo must 
be discharged at a point 500 yds. ahead of her. But if the ship 
is actually steaming 12 knots, she will have travelled only 400 yds. 
in the minute, and the torpedo will be 100 yds. in advance of 
her. If discharged at a range of 500 yds., such a miscalculation 
causes an error of only 50 yds. or 150 ft. But if the object is 
300 it. long, and her centre was taken as the target, her bow would 
be just at the spot the torpedo would reach in thirty seconds. It 
would seem, therefore, that increased velocity of torpedo is necessary 
before the full advantages of the gyroscope can be realized. Now 
the range of the torpedo is entirely dependent upon the store of 
energy which can be carried; upon, therefore, the capacity of the 
air reservoir, the maximum pressure it can stand, and on the effici- 
ency of the propelling engines. The speed over a given range is 
also dependent upon these factors; the maximum speed being 



of Gyroscope in Torpedo. 

simple frame. The rod, pressing against the tail with some force, 
was apt to damage or disarrange the rudders, so the air-gun took 
the place of rod impulse. Here the torpedo fits closely in a tube 
or cylinder with an opening at the rear made air-tight when closed. 
At the desired moment compressed air is admitted to the rear 
part of the cylinder and blows the torpedo out. Gunpowder then 
superseded air for this operation; and now this has given place to 
a small charge of cordite, which does not leave any deposit on the 
inside of the cylinder. There is a double risk in the use of locomotive 
torpedoes from above water, (i) The charge may be exploded 
by hostile fire. Though mainly consisting of damp gun-cotton, 
which is not readily ignited, the dry primer and detonator may be 
struck, which would lead to a disastrous explosion. (2) The air- 
chamber is also a source of danger. As it contains air compressed 
to a high degree of tension, experiments have shown that if struck 
by a small shell it may burst with great violence; and as it offers 
a considerable mark, this is not an improbable event in an action. 
An instance of the danger of above-water torpedo tubes occurred 
in the Spanish-American War at the battle of Santiago. A shell 
entered the " Almirante Oquendo " and struck a 14-in. torpedo 
in the tube. The charge detonated, causing a fearful explosion 
and practically wrecking that part of the vessel. The develop- 
ment of moderate-sized quick-firing guns has increased this risk. 
Hence we find the use of above-water torpedo tubes now mainly 
confined to torpedo and other craft too small for submerged 
discharge. 



TORPEDO 



Submerged Discharge. The risk attached to having loaded 
torpedoes above the water-line independently of the fact that to 
get the best result they should start in the elejnent to which they 
belong has given great impetus to the system of submerged 



Gun end Torpedo reedy to fire 



VERTICAL SECTION. 




and tube into the ship again, so that practically the whole operation 

is one motion. 

Fig. 3 will further explain this apparatus. A is the outer tube; 

B the inner tube; C the shield; D torpedo; E explosion chamber 
for cordite charge placed at K ; F pipe for gas to pass 
into outer tube ; G and Y doors of inner and outer tube ; 
J the valve which opens automatically when inner tube 
arrives at position shown in fig. 2 ; T and P appliance 
for running the tube in and out by hand when desired ; 
O arrangement for bringing whole apparatus back 
for repair, &c. ; M and N sluice- valve and handle; 
R, r 1 , r", r 3 , for draining tubes before torpedo is put in; 
X indicator showing position of inner tube. 

Torpedoes have been discharged from this apparatus 
with successful result from a ship steaming at I7i 
knots. 

The advantage of cordite over compressed air for 
impulse is that it requires no attention : when a charge 



PLAN V IEW 




FIG. 3. Broadside Submerged l8-in. Torpedo Tube. 



discharge. From the earliest days of the weapon this has been 
employed to some extent. But it was principally in the direction 
of right-ahead fire, by having an orifice in the stem of the ship under 
water, to which a torpedo tube was connected. The tactical 
idea was thus to supplement attack with the ram, so that if the 
vessel endeavouring to ram saw that the object would evade this 
attack, she could project a torpedo ahead, which, travelling faster 
than the vessel, might as effectually accomplish the required service. 
The stem orifice had a water-tight cover, which was removed on 
the torpedo being placed in the tube and the inner door closed; 
then, sufficient impulse being imparted to eject the torpedo, and its 
machinery being set in motion at the same time, it darted forward 
towards the enemy. There is, however, some risk of the ship using 
a torpedo in this manner striking it before the missile has gathered 
the necessary impetus from its propellers to take it clear of the 
vessel. The system, moreover, has the disadvantage of weakening 
the ram, the construction of which should be of immense strength. 
There is the further liability of ramming with a torpedo in the bow 
tube, which would be as disastrous to friend as foe. This method 
of submerged discharge has therefore given place to ejecting the 
torpedo from the broadside. Considerable difficulty attached to 
getting the torpedo clear of the ship from this position without 
injury, especially when the vessel was proceeding at speed. The 
natural tendency of the passing water acting on the head of 
the torpedo as it emerged was to give a violent wrench and crush 
the rear end before that portion could clear the aperture. To prevent 
this the torpedo must be held rigid in the line of projection until 
the tail is clear of the ship. This is thus effected. Besides the 
tube with the aperture in side of the ship under water, fitted with 
sluice-valve, all broadside submerged discharge apparatus possess 
the following features: A shield is pushed out from the ship's 
side. In this shield there are grooves of some form. Guides on 
the torpedoes fit and run in these grooves. When discharged the 
torpedo is thus supported against the streams of passing water, 
and guided so that its axis continues in the line of projection until 
the tail is clear of the side, the shield being of such length that this 
occurs at the same time that the guides on the torpedo leave the 
grooves in the shield. An apparatus on this principle has been 
fitted to a number of ships of the British navy, and gives good 
results at high rates of speed. It has the defect that the shield 
must be run out previous to the torpedo being discharged, and 
brought back afterwards, thus involving three separate operations, 
each performed by compressed air. 

In the broadside submerged discharge, designed, constructed 
and supplied to many foreign navies by Messrs Armstrong of the 
Elswick works, the three operations are combined in one. There is 
an outer tube as before, but it contains an inner tube carrying the 
torpedo. Fized to this tube, and prolonging it, is the shield fitted 
with grooves. Both tubes have a door at the rear made air- 
tight when closed by which the torpedo is entered. A charge of 
cordite is used for ejection instead of compressed air, the gas from 
which entering the outer cylinder first forces the inner tube out, 
and then by means of a valve in the door of the inner tube passes 
in and blows put water and torpedo together, the shield supporting 
the latter until the tail is clear of the ship. By this time the cordite 
gas has expanded and cooled so as to relieve the pressure in rear- 
this causes the pressure of the water outside to push the shield 



is placed in the explosion chamber, and a torpedo is in the tube, 
all is in readiness for firing when desired, without further attention 
in the torpedo-room. The cordite is fired by electricity from the 
conning-tower; the officer, therefore, having ascertained that all is 
ready below, has only to press a button when the object is in the 
required position. Automatic indications are given in the conning- 
tower when the sluice-valve is opened and when all is in readiness 
for firing. 

This method of discharging torpedoes from the broadside under 
water eliminates the principal danger of the system, which required 
the shield to be put into position beforehand. It was then liable 
to be struck and distorted by passing wreckage without the fact 
being apparent to those in the ship. On the discharge of a torpedo 
its course might thus be arrested, or possibly the charge be pre- 
maturely exploded in dangerous proximity to its own ship. There 
was a risk of getting the shield out too soon, and thereby exposing 
it unduly to injury, or leaving the operation until too late. The 
tendency of naval equipment being towards complication, any 
readjustment which makes for simplicity cannot be otherwise 
than beneficial, and this feature is especially desirable in all matters 
connected with the use of torpedoes. 

The compartment containing the broadside submerged apparatus 
usually extends across the ship, so as to contain a tube for each 
side. 

Use in War. This has been mainly confined to attacks upon 
squadrons and single ships by torpedo craft of various types. 
At the battle of Yalu, between the Chinese and Japanese fleets, 
torpedoes were discharged by the former, but none took effect. 
The Japanese trusted solely to gun-fire. After the defeat of 
the Chinese at sea, their remaining ships took refuge in the 
harbour of Wei-hai-Wei. Here they were blockaded by the 
Japanese fleet, which, having a number of torpedo-boats, made 
several determined attacks upon the ships inside. After one 
or two attempts, foiled by the obstructions placed by the 
Chinese to bar the passage, the Japanese boats succeeded in 
torpedoing several ships, and thus expedited the reduction of the 
place. In the war between Spain and the United States the 
inferiority of Admiral Cervera's squadron to that under Admiral 
Sampson might at the battle of Santiago have been to some 
extent counterbalanced by a skilful and vigorous use of torpedoes. 
If, instead of striving only to escape, a bold dash had been made 
for the American ships, the Spanish cruisers rapidly approaching 
end on to the foe, enveloped in the smoke of their own guns, 
should some at least have got within torpedo range without 
fatal injury. Closing each other at a speed of 10 knots only 
they would cover an interval of 6000 yds. in 9 minutes a 
short time in which to disable a ship by gun-fire under such 
conditions. But Cervera elected to offer a passive resistance 
only, and while suffering destruction wrought no material injury 
upon his opponents. On the other hand, there have been 



TORPEDO 



57 



several instances of large warships being sunk by locomotive 
torpedoes discharged from small craft. During the Chilean 
revolutionary war of 1891, a battleship, the " Blanco Encalada," 
of 3500 tons, was attacked in Caldera Bay by two torpedo vessels 
the " Lynch " and " Condell " of 750 tons. They entered the 
bay at dawn, the " Condell " leading. This vessel fired three 
torpedoes which missed the ironclad; then the " Lynch," after 
one ineffective shot, discharged a second torpedo, which struck 
the " Blanco " on the side nearly amidships. The latter had 
opened fire with little result, and sank soon afterwards. A 
similar incident occurred in 1894, when the Brazilian ironclad 
" Aquidaban " was sunk in Catherina Bay by the " Sampaio " 
a torpedo vessel of 500 tons. She entered the bay at night, 
and first discharged her bow torpedo at the ironclad, which 
missed; she then fired a broadside torpedo, which struck and 
exploded against the bow of the " Aquidaban." It caused a 
great shock on board, throwing an officer on the bridge into the 
water. The vessel sank soon afterwards, and the " Sampaio " 
escaped uninjured. 

In the war (1904-5) 'between Russia and Japan the Whitehead 
torpedo did not exercise an important influence upon the naval 
operations. It scored a success at the beginning of the struggle 
when a Japanese torpedo-flotilla made an attack upon the 
Russian fleet lying at anchor outside Port Arthur. For some 
unaccountable reason, though war was imminent, little or no 
precautions seemed to have been taken for effectually guarding 
the vessels. They had no nets in position nor boats patrolling 
outside them. Thus taken by surprise when the Japanese 
torpedo-boats suddenly appeared about midnight on the 8th of 
February 1904, several Russian ships were struck by torpedoes 
before they could offer any resistance. The most damaged 
were the " Retvisan " and " Tsarevitch " (battleships) and 
" Pallada " (cruiser), but all managed to get into Port Arthur 
and were eventually repaired. With three ships hors de 
combat the Russian fleet was considerably weakened at an 
early stage. The loss of the " Petropavlovsk " in April from a 
mine explosion was a further discouragement, especially as 
with this ship went down the gallant and energetic Admiral 
Makarov. In these circumstances the Russian fleet could not 
assume the offensive nor prevent the Japanese troops being 
sent by sea to invest Port Arthur. In June when the injured 
vessels were fit for service again the fleet put to sea but returned 
the same evening. The incident is noteworthy only because it 
led to an attack by the Japanese torpedo craft on the retiring 
squadron after sunset. As illustrating the uncertainty of hit- 
ting a moving object at sea with the Whitehead torpedo, already 
mentioned, no vessels were struck on this occasion and they 
reached the anchorage uninjured. In the battle of Tsushima 
the Japanese torpedo-boats attacked the Russian fleet after its 
disablement by gun-fire and gave the coup de grdce to some 
of the ships, which had little power of resistance owing to the 
destruction of their light armament. This war, therefore, did 
not increase to any extent our knowledge of the actual capability 
of this weapon. 

E/ect upon Naval Tactics: Blockade. It has often been 
assumed that steam and the torpedo will in future render 
blockade impossible as it was carried out in the old wars; that, 
no longer dependent upon the wind to allow egress from the 
blockaded port, a vessel using steam can emerge when she 
chooses, while the fear of torpedo attack will deter a blockading 
squadron from keeping such watch as to foil the attempt. As 
regards the power conferred by steam, it will be no less advan- 
tageous to a blockading squadron, enabling it to maintain its 
position, whereas sailing ships were often driven by gales to leave 
their station and seek a port. This gave opportunities for the 
blockaded vessels to escape. As regards torpedo-boats, they 
would no doubt be a danger to a blockading squadron unpro- 
vided with a means of defence against these craft. Such defence 
consists in an adequate number of small vessels interposing an 
in-shore squadron between the port and the main body outside. 
Thus they perform the twofold service of watching the enemy's 
movements within and frustrating a torpedo attack. As an 



instance of blockade under modern conditions, we have that 
of Admiral Sampson upon Santiago a guard more rigidly 
maintained than any in the old wars. So little was he deterred 
by the knowledge that Admiral Cervera had two torpedo 
vessels in his force, that he drew his squadron closer in at night 
when an attack might be expected, actually illuminating the 
entrance of the harbour with his electric searchlights, so that 
no craft could come out unperceived. No attempt was made to 
dislodge him from that position, and we may assume that 
blockade, if required in any scheme of naval strategy, will be 
carried out, whatever the weapons of warfare. 

As regards the effect of torpedoes upon tactics at sea, and in 
general, as well as single ship, actions, they must operate against 
close range and employment of the ram. If it is recognized that 
a vessel within 1000 yds. is liable to a fatal blow, she will 
endeavour in ordinary circumstances to keep outside that 
distance and rely upon gun-fire. The exception would be where 
she is overmatched in that respect, and hence might endeavour 
to restore the balance by the use of torpedoes. In a fleet action 
the danger of missing a foe and hitting a friend would restrict 
the discharge of torpedoes; and this risk increases as formations 
disappear. But the torpedo must be conceded a tactical 
superiority over the ram for the following reasons: A vessel 
to use the latter must come within torpedo range, while her 
adversary may successfully apply torpedoes without placing 
herself in any danger of being rammed. The ram can only be 
used in one direction, and a small miscalculation may cause 
disaster. If a vessel has more than one position from which 
torpedoes can be discharged, she is not confined as regards 
attack to a single bearing or direction. 

In action we may consider the speed of the torpedo as double 
that of the ship, and since against a moving object allowance 
must be made for the space traversed while ram or torpedo is 
travelling towards it, the faster weapon is less affected in its 
chance of successful impact by change of direction and speed 
of the object at the last moment. Lastly, with machinery 
disabled a ship is powerless to use the ram, but can avert a ram 
attack with her torpedoes. The movements of squadrons or 
single ships on entering an action are not likely to be influenced 
by any contemplated immediate use of torpedoes, for the gun 
must remain the primary weapon, at any rate at the first 
onset. Commanders would hardly risk being crushed by 
gun-fire before getting within torpedo range. Having faith 
in the efficiency of their ordnance and the gunnery skill of their 
crew, they would first manoeuvre to bring these into play. 
Tactics for torpedo attack in such circumstances have not 
therefore been laid down, and it is only necessary to consider 
the positions which are advantageous for the use of this weapon, 
and, conversely, what should be avoided when a vessel, finding 
herself overmatched in gunnery, seeks to redress the balance 
with torpedoes. 

Size of Target. This, with a ship, varies in length as the torpedo 
approaches end on to the vessel, or at angle to the line of keel; 
the greatest being when the path of both forms a right angle. 
Hence the object is to place your ship where it presents the former 
condition to the enemy, while he affords the larger target. It 
must be remembered that, owing to the comparatively slow velocity 
of the torpedo, it must be aimed not directly at a ship in motion 
like a shot from a gun but at a point ahead which the ship will 
reach after the torpedo has traversed the intervening distance. 
Thus speed of object has to be estimated, and hence the importance 
of adding to the velocity of the torpedo and getting a broadside 
shot so as to reduce as much as possible errors of calculation. 
The great increase of the dimensions of warships, especially in 
length, which now has reached 500 ft., adds to the chances of a 
successful hit with torpedoes, and will doubtless tend to diminish 
a desire in future naval tactics to close inside torpedo range for the 
purpose of ramming. 

Range Though the effective range of a_ torpedo discharged 
from a ship or torpedo vessel against a single object moving 
at high speed may be considered as approximately within 1000 
yds. this limit of distance is considerably augmented where the 
target consists of several vessels at sea in close order, or is that 
afforded by a fleet at anchor. In the first case it may be worth 
while to discharge torpedoes from a distance of two or three thou- 
sand yards at the centre of the line for the chance of hitting one of 
the vessels composing it. As regards a mass of ships at anchor, 



TORQUAY TORQUEMADA, T. 



unless protected by an impenetrable guard such as a breakwater 
or some invulnerable defence carried by the ships themselves, the 
increased range and accuracy of the torpedo imparted by recent 
developments would give it a chance of success if discharged against 
such a target at even greater distance. 

Finally, by improvements in construction and methods of dis- 
charge the torpedo has recovered the place it was rapidly losing a 
few years ago. As armour receives increased resisting power to 
above-water projectiles, and gets on a level again with the gun, 
more attention will be given to under-water attack, against which 
no adequate protection has yet been devised. Thus we. shall 
probably find the torpedo taking a very prominent place in any 
future war between the great maritime powers. (S. M E.-W.) 

TORQUAY, a municipal borough, seaport and watering place, 
in the Torquay parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, 
on Tor Bay of the English Channel, 26 m. S. of Exeter, by the 
Great Western railway. Pop. (1901), 33,625. Owing to the 
beauty of its site and the equability of its climate, and to its 
being screened by lofty hills on the north, east and west, and 
open to the sea-breezes of the south, it has a high reputation 
as a winter residence. The temperature seldom rises as high 
as 70 F. in summer or falls below freezing-point in winter. 
To the north lies the populous suburb of St Mary Church. 
There are some remains of Tor or Torre Abbey, founded 
for Praemonstratensians by William, Lord Brewer, in 1196. 
They stand north of the modern mansion, but, with the 
exception of a beautiful pointed arch portal, are of small 
importance. On the south of the gateway is a 13th-century 
building, known as the Spanish barn. On Chapel Hill are 
the remains of a chapel of the I2th century, dedicated to 
St Michael, and supposed to have formerly belonged to the 
abbey. St Saviour's parish church of Tor-Mohun, or Tor- 
moham, an ancient stone structure, was restored in 1874. 
The old church at St Mary Church, north of Torquay, was 
rebuilt in Early Decorated style; and in 1871 a tower was 
erected as a memorial to Dr Phillpotts, bishop of Exeter, who 
with his wife is buried in the churchyard. St John's Church, 
by G. E. Street, is a fine example of modern Gothic. Among 
the principal buildings and institutions are the town-hall, 
museum of the natural history society, theatre and opera-house 
(1880), market, schools of art and science, the Torbay infirmary 
and dispensary, the Western hospital for consumption, Crypt 
House institution for invalid ladies and the Mildmay home for 
incurable consumptives. The control of the harbour, piers, 
pleasure grounds, &c., was acquired from the lord of the manor 
by the local board in 1886. The harbour has a depth of over 
20 ft. at low water. The principal imports are coal, timber 
and slates, and the principal export stone of the Transition 
limestone or Devonshire marble. In the town are a number of 
marble-polishing works. Terra-cotta ware of fine quality is 
also manufactured from a deposit of clay at Watcombe and 
at Hele. The town is governed by a mayor, 9 aldermen and 
27 councillors. Area, 3588 acres. 

There was a village at Torre even before the foundation of the 
abbey, and in the neighbourhood of Torre evidence has been 
found of Roman occupation. The manor was granted by 
William the Conqueror to Richard de Bruvere or de Brewere, and 
was subsequently known as Tor Brewer. After the defeat of the 
Spanish Armada, Don Pedro's galley was brought into Torbay; 
and William, prince of Orange, landed at Torbay on the sth of 
November 1688. Until the middle of the igth century it was 
an insignificant fishing village. It was incorporated in 1892. 

TORQUE, or TORC (Lat. torquis, torques, a twisted collar, 
torquere, to twist), the term given by archaeologists to the 
twisted collars or armlets of gold or other metal worn particu- 
larly by the ancient Gauls and other allied Celtic races. The 
typical torque is a circlet with twisted rope-like strands, the ends 
not joined together; the torque was usually worn with the 
opening in the front as seen in a figure of a Gaul in a sculptured 
sarcophagus in the Capitoline Museum at Rome. In mechanics, 
the term " torque " is used of the turning-moment of a system- 
force, as in a series dynamo. 

TORQUEMADA, JUAN DE (1388-1468), or rather JOHANNES 
DE TURRECREMATA, Spanish ecclesiastic, was born at Valladolid, 



in 1388, and was educated in that city. At an early age he 
joined the Dominican order, and soon distinguished himself 
for learning and devotion. In 1415 he accompanied the general 
of his order to the Council of Constance, whence he proceeded 
to Paris for study, and took his doctor's degree in 1423. After 
teaching for some time in Paris he became prior of the Dominican 
house first in Valladolid and then in Toledo. In 1431 Pope 
Eugenius IV. called him to Rome and made him " magister 
sancti palatii." At the Council of Basel he was one of the ablest 
supporters of the view of the Roman curia, and he was rewarded 
with a cardinal's hat in 1439. He died at Rome on the 26th of 
September 1468. 

His principal works are In Gratiani Decretum commentarii 
(4 vpls., Venice, 1578) ; Expositio brevis et utilis super toto psalterio 
(Mainz, 1474); Quaesliones spirituales super evangelia totius anni 
(Brixen, 1498); Summa ecclesiastica (Salamanca, 1550). The last- 
named work has the following topics: (l) De universa ecclesia; 
(2) De Ecclesia romana et ppntificis primatu ; (3) De universali- 
bus conciliis ; (4) De schismaticis et haereticis. His De conceptime 
deiparae Mariae, libri viii. (Rome, 1547), was edited with preface 
and notes by E. B. Pusey (London, 1869 seq.). 

TORQUEMADA, THOMAS (1420-1498), inquisitor-general of 
Spain, son of Don Pedro Ferdinando, lord of Torquemada, a small 
town in Old Castile, was born in 1420 at Valladolid during the 
reign of John II. Being nephew to the well-known cardinal of the 
same name, he early displayed an attraction for the Dominican 
order; and, as soon as allowed, he joined the Friars Preachers 
in their convent at Valladolid. His biographers state that he 
showed himself from the beginning very earnest in austere life 
and humility; and he became a recognized example of the 
virtues of a Dominican. Valladolid was then the capital, and in 
due course eminent dignities were offered to him, but he gave 
signs of a determination to lead the simple life of a Friar Preacher, 
In the convent, his modesty was so great that he refused to 
accept the doctor's degree in theology, which is the highest 
prized honour in the order. His superiors, however, obliged 
him to take the priorship of the convent of Santa Cruz in 
Segovia, where he ruled for twenty-two years. The royal family, 
especially the queen and the infanta Isabella, often stayed at 
Segovia, and Torquemada became confessor to the infanta, 
who was then very young. He trained her to look on her 
future sovereignty as an engagement to make religion respected. 
Esprit Flechier, bishop of Nimes, in this Histoire du cardinal 
Jimenes (Paris, 1693), says that Torquemada made her promise 
that when she became queen she would make it her principal 
business to chastise and destroy heretics. He then began to 
teach her the political advantages of religion and to prepare the 
way for that tremendous engine in the hands of the state, the 
Inquisition. 

Isabella succeeded to the throne (1474) on the death of 
Henry IV. Torquemada had always been strong in his advice 
that she should marry Ferdinand of Aragon and thus consolidate 
the kingdoms of Spain. Hitherto he had rarely appeared at 
court ; but now the queen entrusted him not only with the care of 
her conscience, but also with the benefices in the royal patronage. 
He also helped her in quieting Ferdinand, who was chafing under 
the privileges of the Castilian grandees, and succeeded so 
well that the king also took him as confessor. Refusing the rich 
see of Seville and many other preferments he accepted that 
of councillor of state. For a long time he had pondered over 
the confusion in which Spain was, which he attributed to the 
intimate relations allowed between Christians and infidels for 
the sake of commerce. He saw Jews, Saracens, heretics and 
apostates roaming through Spain unmolested; and in this lax 
toleration of religious differences he thought he saw the main 
obstacle to the political union of the Spains, which was the 
necessity of the hour. He represented to Ferdinand and 
Isabella that it was essential to their safety to reorganize the 
Inquisition, which had since the I3th century (1236) been 
established in Spain. The bishops, who were ex officio inquisitors 
in their own dioceses, had not succeeded in putting a stop to 
the evils, nor had the friars, by whom they had been practically 
superseded. By the middle of the 15th century there was 



TORQUEMADA, T. 



59 






hardly an active inquisitor left in the kingdom. In 1473 
Torquemada and Gonzalez de Mendoza, archbishop of Toledo, 
approached the sovereigns. Isabella had been for many years 
prepared, and she and Ferdinand, now that the proposal for 
this new tribunal came before them, saw in it a means of over- 
coming the independence of the nobility and clergy by which 
the royal power had been obstructed. With the royal sanction 
a petition was addressed to Sixtus IV. for the establishment of 
this new form of Inquisition; and as the result of a long intrigue, 
in 1479 a papal bull authorized the appointment by the Spanish 
sovereigns of two inquisitors at Seville, under whom the 
Dominican inquisitions already established elsewhere might serve. 
In the persecuting activity that ensued the Dominicans, " the 
Dogs of the Lord " (Domini canes), took the lead. Commissaries 
of the Holy Office were sent into different provinces, and ministers 
of the faith were established in the various cities to take cogni- 
sance of the crimes of heresy, apostasy, sorcery, sodomy and 
polygamy, these three last being considered to be implicit 
heresy. The royal Inquisition thus started was subversive of 
the regular tribunals of the bishops, who much resented the 
innovation, which, however, had the power of the state at its 
back. 

In 1481, three years after the Sixtine commission, a tribunal 
was inaugurated at Seville, where freedom of speech and licence 
of manner were rife. The inquisitors at once began to detect 
errors. In order not to confound the innocent with the guilty, 
Torquemada published a declaration offering grace and pardon 
to all who presented themselves before the tribunal and avowed 
their fault. Some fled the country, but many (Mariana says 
17,000) offered themselves for reconciliation. The first seat of 
the Holy Office was in the convent of San Pablo, where the friars, 
however, resented the orders, on the pretext that they were not 
delegates of the inquisitor-general. Soon the gloomy fortress of 
Triana, on the opposite bank of the Guadalquivir, was prepared 
as the palace of the Holy Office; and the terror-stricken Sevil- 
lianos read with dismay over the portals the motto of the 
Inquisition: " Exsurge, Domine, Judica causam tuam, Capite 
nobis vulpes." Other tribunals, like that of Seville and under 
La Suprema, were speedily established in Cordova, Jaen and 
Toledo. The sovereigns saw that wealth was beginning to flow 
in to the new tribunals by means of fines and confiscations; 
and they obliged Torquemada to take as assessors five persons 
who would represent them in all matters affecting the royal 
prerogatives. These assessors were allowed a definite vote in 
temporal matters but not in spiritual, and the final decision 
was reserved to Torquemada himself, who in 1483 was appointed 
the sole inquisitor-general over all the Spanish possessions. In 
the next year he ceded to Diego Deza, a Dominican, his office of 
confessor to the sovereigns, and gave himself up to the congenial 
work of reducing heretics. A general assembly of his inquisitors 
was convoked at Seville for the 2gth of November 1484; and 
there he promulgated a code of twenty-eight articles for the 
guidance of the ministers of the faith. Among these rules are 
the following, which will give some idea of the procedure. 
Heretics were allowed thirty days to declare themselves. Those 
who availed themselves of this grace were only fined, and their 
goods escaped confiscation. Absolution in foro externo was 
forbidden to be given secretly to those who made voluntary 
confession; they had to submit to the ignominy of the public 
auto-de-fe. The result of this harsh law was that numerous 
applications were made to Rome for secret absolution; and thus 
much money escaped the Inquisition in Spain. Those who 
were reconciled were deprived of all honourable employment, 
and were forbidden to use gold, silver, jewelry, silk or fine wool. 
Against this law, too, many petitions went to Rome for rehabili- 
tation, until in 1498 the Spanish pope Alexander VI. granted 
leave to Torquemada to rehabilitate the condemned, and with- 
drew practically all concessions hitherto made and paid for at 
Rome. Fines were imposed by way of penance on those 
confessing willingly. If a heretic in the Inquisition asked for 
absolution, he could receive it, but subject to a life imprisonment; 
but if his repentance were but feigned he could be at once 



condemned and handed over to the civil power for execution. 
Should the accused, after the testimony against him had been 
made public, continue to deny the charge, he was to be con- 
demned as impenitent. When serious proof existed against one 
who denied his crime, he could be submitted to the question by 
torture; and if under torture he avowed his fault and confirmed 
his guilt by subsequent confession he was punished as one con- 
victed; but should he retract he was again to be submitted to 
the tortures or condemned to extraordinary punishment. This 
second questioning was afterwards forbidden; but the prohibi- 
tion was got over by merely suspending and then renewing the 
sessions for questioning. It was forbidden to communicate to 
the accused the entire copy of the declaration of the witnesses. 
The dead even were not free from the Holy Office; but processes 
could be instituted against them and their remains subjected 
to punishment. But along with these cruel and unjust measures 
there must be put down to Torquemada's credit some advanced 
ideas as to prison life. The cells of the Inquisition were, as a rule, 
large, airy, clean and with good windows admitting the sun. 
They were, in those respects, far superior to the civil prisons of 
that day. The use of irons was in Torquemada's time not 
allowed in the Holy Office; the use of torture was in accordance 
with the practice of the other royal tribunals; and when these 
gave it up the Holy Office did so also. 

Such were some of the methods that Torquemada introduced 
into the Spanish Inquisition, which was to have so baneful an 
effect upon the whole country. During the eighteen years that 
he was inquisitor-general it is said that he burnt 10,220 persons, 
condemned 6860 others to be burnt in effigy, and reconciled 
97,321, thus making an average of some 6000 convictions a year. 
These figures are given by Llorente, who was secretary of the 
Holy Office from 1790 to 1792 and had access to the archives; 
but modern research reduces the list of those burnt by Torque- 
mada to 2000, in itself an awful holocaust to the principle of 
intolerance. The constant stream of petitions to Rome opened 
the eyes of the pope to the effects of Torquemada's severity. 
On three separate occasions he had to send Fray Alfonso Badaja 
to defend his acts before the Holy See. The sovereigns, too, 
saw the stream of money, which they had hoped for, diverted 
to the coffers of the Holy Office, and in 1493 they made com- 
plaint to the pope; but Torquemada was powerful enough to 
secure most of the money for the expenses of the Inquisition. 
But in 1496, when the sovereigns again complained that the 
inquisitors were, without royal knowledge or consent, disposing 
of the property of the condemned and thus depriving the public 
revenues of considerable sums, Alexander VI. appointed Jimenes 
to examine into the case and make the Holy Office disgorge the 
plunder. 

For many years Torquemada had been persuading the sove- 
reigns to make an attempt once for all to rid the country of the 
hated Moors. Mariana holds that the founding of the Inquisi- 
tion, by giving a new impetus to the idea of a united kingdom, 
made the country more capable of carrying to a satisfactory 
ending the traditional wars against the Moors. The taking of 
Zahaia in 1481 by the enemy gave occasion to reprisals. Troops 
were summoned to Seville and the war began by the siege of 
Alhama, a town eight leagues from Granada, the Moorish 
capital. Torquemada went with the sovereigns to Cordova, to 
Madrid or wherever the states-general were held, to urge on 
the war; and he obtained from the Holy See the same spiritual 
favours that had been enjoyed by the Crusaders. But he did 
not forget his favourite work of ferreting out heretics; and his 
ministers of the faith made great progress over all the kingdom, 
especially at Toledo, where merciless severity was shown to the 
Jews who had lapsed from Christianity. The Inquisition, 
although as a body the clergy did not mislike it, sometimes 
met with furious opposition from the nobles and common people. 
At Valentia and Lerida there were serious conflicts. At 
Saragossa Peter Arbue, a canon and an ardent inquisitor, 
was slain in 1485 whilst praying in a church; and the threats 
against the hated Torquemada made him go in fear of his life, 
and he never went abroad without an escort of forty familiars 



6o 



TORRE ANNUNZIATA TORRENS 



of the Holy Office on horseback and two hundred more on 
foot. In 1487 he went with Ferdinand to Malaga and thence to 
Valladolid, where in the October of 1488 he held another general 
congregation of the Inquisition and promulgated new laws 
based on the experience already gained. He then hurried 
back to Andalusia where he joined the sovereigns, who 
were now besieging Granada, which he entered with the 
conquering army in January 1492 and built there a convent 
of his order. 

The Moors being vanquished, now came the turn of the 
Jews. In 1490 had happened the case of El Santo nino de 
la Guardia a child supposed to have been killed by the Jews. 
His existence had never been proved; and in the district of 
Guardia no child was reported as missing. The whole story 
was most probably the creation of imaginations stimulated by 
torture and despair, unless it was a deliberate fiction set forth 
for the purpose of provoking hostility against the Jews. For 
a long time' Torquemada had tried to get the royal consent to 
a general expulsion; but the sovereigns hesitated, and, as the 
victims were the backbone of the commerce of the country, 
proposed a ransom of 30x5,000 ducats instead. The indignant 
friar would hear of no compromise: "Judas," he cried, " sold 
Christ for 30 pence; and your highnesses wish to sell Him again 
for 300,000 ducats." Unable to bear up against the Domini- 
can's fiery denunciations, the sovereigns, three months after 
the fall of Granada, issued a decree ordering every Jew either 
to embrace Christianity or to leave the country, four months 
being given to make up their minds; and those who refused to 
become Christians to order had leave to sell their property and 
carry off their effects. But this was not enough for the in- 
quisitor-general, who in the following month (April) issued orders 
to forbid Christians, under severe penalties, having any communi- 
cation with the Jews or, after the period of grace, to supply 
them even with the necessaries of life. The former prohibition 
made it impossible for the unfortunate people to sell their 
goods which hence fell to the Inquisition. The numbers 
of Jewish families driven out of the country by Torquemada 
is variously stated from Mariana's 1,700,000 to the more 
probable 800,000 of later historians. The loss to Spain was 
enormous, and from this act of the Dominican the commercial 
decay of Spain dates. 

Age was now creeping on Torquemada, who, however, never 
would allow his misdirected zeal to rest. At another general 
assembly, his fourth, he gave new and more stringent rules, which 
are found in the Compilacidn de las instructions del officio de la 
Santa Inquisicidn. He took up his residence in Avila, where 
he had built a convent; and here he resumed the common life 
of a friar, leaving his cell in October 1497 to visit, at Salamanca, 
the dying infante, Don Juan, and to comfort the sovereigns 
in their parental distress. They often used to visit him at 
Avila, where in 1498, still in office as inquisitor-general, he 
held his last general assembly to complete his life's work. 
Soon afterwards he died, on the i6th of September 1498, 
" full of years and merit " says his biographer. He was buried 
in the chapel of the convent of St Thomas in Avila. 

The name of Torquemada stands for all that is intolerant 
and narrow, despotic and cruel. He was no real statesman 
or minister of the Gospel, but a blind fanatic, who failed to 
see that faith, which is the gift of God, cannot be imposed on 
any conscience by force. (E. TN.) 

TORRE ANNUNZIATA, a seaport of Campania, Italy, in 
the province of Naples, on the east of the Bay of Naples, and 
at the south foot of Mt Vesuvius, 14 m. S.E. of Naples by rail. 
Pop. (1901), 25,070 (town); 28,084 (commune). It is on the main 
line to Battipaglia, at the point of junction of a branch line 
from Cancello round the east of Vesuvius, and of the branch to 
Castellammare di Stabia and Gragnano. It has a royal arms 
factory established by Charles IV., and other ironworks, 
considerable manufacture of macaroni, paper, breeding of 
silkworms, and some fishing and shipping. The harbour is 
protected by moles. Remains attributed to the Roman post- 
station of Oplontis were discovered in making the railway 



between Torre del Greco and Torre Annunziata, a little west of 
the latter, in 1842. 

TORRE DEL GRECO, a seaport of Campania, Italy, in the 
province of Naples, 7! m. S.E. of that city by rail. Pop. 
(1901), 35,328. It lies at the south-west foot of Vesuvius, on the 
shore of the Bay of Naples. It is built chiefly of lava, and stands 
on the lava stream of 1631, which destroyed two-thirds of the 
older town. Great damage was done by the eruptions of 
1737 and 1794; the earthquake of 1857 and the eruption of the 
8th of December 1861 were even more destructive. After each dis- 
aster the people returned, the advantage of the rich volcanic land 
overcoming apprehensions of danger. In the outskirts are 
many beautiful villas and gardens. The town has shipbuilding 
yards and lava quarries. The inhabitants take part in the 
coral and sponge fishing off the African and Sicilian coasts, and 
coral is worked in the town. There is also fishing for tunny, 
sardines and oysters; hemp is woven, and the neighbourhood 
is famed for its fruit and wine. In June the great popular 
festival "Dei Quattro Altari " is annually celebrated here in 
commemoration of the abolition of the feudal dominion in 
1700. Remains of ancient villas and baths have been found 
here. 

TORRENS, ROBERT (1780-1864), English soldier and econo- 
mist, was born in Ireland in 1780. He entered the Marines 
in 1797, became a captain in 1806, and major in 1811 for 
bravery in Anhalt during the Walcheren expedition. He 
fought in the Peninsula, becoming lieutenant-colonel in 1835 
and retiring as colonel in 1837. After abortive attempts to 
enter parliament in 1818 and 1826, he was returned in 1831 as 
member for Ashburton. He was a prolific writer, principally on 
financial and commercial policy. Almost the whole of the pro- 
gramme which was carried out in legislation by Sir Robert Peel 
had been laid down in his economic writings. He was an 
early and earnest advocate of the repeal of the corn laws, 
but was not in favour of a general system of absolute free trade, 
maintaining that it is expedient to impose retaliatory duties 
to countervail similar duties imposed by foreign countries, 
and a lowering of import duties on the productions of countries 
retaining their hostile tariffs would occasion a decline in 
prices, profits and wages. 

His principal writings of a general character were: The Economist 
[i.e. Physiocrat] refuted (1808); Essay on the Production of Wealth 
(1821); Essay on the External Corn-trade (eulogized by Ricardp) 
(1827) ; The Budget, a Series of Letters on Financial, Commercial 
and Colonial Policy (1841-1843); The Principles and Practical 
Operations of Sir Robert Peel's Act of 1844 Explained and Defended 
(1847). 

TORRENS, SIR ROBERT RICHARD (1814-1884), British 
colonial statesman, was born at Cork, Ireland, in 1814, and 
educated at Trinity College, Dublin. He went to South Aus- 
tralia in 1840, and was appointed collector of customs. He was 
an official member of the first legislative council and in 1852 
was treasurer and registrar-general. When responsible govern- 
ment was established he was elected as a representative for 
Adelaide and became a member of the first ministry. In 1857 
he introduced his famous Real Property Act, the principle of 
which consists of conveyance by registration and certificate 
instead of deeds. The system was rapidly adopted in the other 
colonies and elsewhere, and was expounded by the author during 
a visit to the United Kingdom in 1862-1864. After leaving 
South Australia, Sir R. R. Torrens represented Cambridge 
in the House of Commons from 1868 to 1874; in 1872 he was 
knighted. He was the author of works on the effect of the 
gold discoveries on the currency, and other subjects. He died 
on the 3ist of August 1884. 

TORRENS, WILLIAM TORRENS M'CULLAGH (1813-1894), 
English politician and social reformer, son of James M'Cullagh 
(whose wife's maiden name, Torrens, he assumed in 1863), 
was born near Dublin on the I3th of October 1813. He was 
called to the bar, and in 1835 became assistant commissioner 
on the special commission on Irisrupoor-relief, which resulted 
in the extension of the workhouse system in Ireland in 
1838. In the "forties he joined the Anti-Corn Law League, 



TORRES NAHARRO, B. DE TORRICELLI 



61 



and in 1846 published his Industrial History of Free Nations. 
In 1847 he was elected to parliament for Dundalk, and sat 
till 1852. In 1857 he was elected as a Liberal for Yarmouth 
and from 1865 to 1885 he represented Finsbury. Torrens 
was a well known man in political life, and devoted himself 
mainly to social questions in parliament. It was an amend- 
ment of his to the Education Bill of 1870 which established 
the London School Board, and his Artisans' Dwellings Bill in 
1868 facilitated the clearing away of slums by local authorities. 
He published several books, and his Twenty Years in Parlia- 
ment (1893) and History of Cabinets (1894) contain useful 
material. He died in London on the 26th of April 1894. 

TORRES NAHARRO, BARTOLOM6 DE (1480-1530;, 
Spanish dramatist, was born towards the end of the isth century 
at Torres, near Badajoz. After some years of soldiering and of 
captivity in Algiers, Torres Naharro took orders, settled in 
Rome about 1511, and there devoted himself chiefly to writing 
plays. Though he alludes to the future pope, Clement VII. as 
his protector, he left Rome to enter the household of Fabrizio 
Colonna at Naples where his works were printed under the title 
of Propaladia (1517). He is conjectured to have returned to his 
native place, and to have died there shortly after 1529. His 
Dialogo del nacimiento is written in unavowed, though obvious, 
imitation of Encina, but in his subsequent plays he shows a 
much larger conception of dramatic possibilities. He classifies his 
pieces as comedias a noticia and comedias d fantasia; the former, 
of which the Soldatesca and Tinellaria are examples, present 
in dramatic form incidents within his personal experience; the 
latter, which include such plays as Serafina, Himenea, Calamita 
and Aquilana, present imaginary episodes with adroitness and 
persuasiveness. Torres Naharro is much less dexterous in stage- 
craft than many inferior successors, his humour is rude and 
boisterous and his diction is unequal; but to a varied knowledge 
of human nature he adds knowledge of dramatic effect, and his 
rapid dialogue, his fearless realism and vivacious fancy prepared 
the way for the romantic drama in Spain. 

TORRES NOVAS, a town of Portugal, in the district of San- 
tarem, 19 m. N.N.E. of Santarem on the Lisbon-Entroncamento 
railway. Pop. (1900), 10,746. It manufactures cottons, linens, 
jute, paper, leather and spirits. It was probably founded by 
Greeks, and was held by the Romans, Goths and Moors, from 
whom it was conquered in 1148 by Alphonso I. of Portugal. 

TORRES VEDRAS, a town of Portugal, in the district of 
Lisbon, 43 m. N. by W. of Lisbon, on the Lisbon-Figueira da 
Foz railway. Pop. (1900), 6900. Torres Vedras is built on 
the left bank of the river Sizandro; it has a Moorish citadel 
and hot sulphur baths. Roman inscriptions and other remains 
have been found here, but the Latin name of the town, Turres 
Veleres, is probably medieval. Here were the noted fortifica- 
tions known as the " lines of Torres Vedras," constructed by 
Wellington in 1810 (see PENINSULAR WAR). Here also in 1846 
the troops of General Saldanha defeated those of the count 
de Bomfin and seized the castle and town (see PORTUGAL: 
History). 

TORRES Y VILLAROEL, DIEGO DE (1696-1759?), Spanish 
miscellaneous writer, was born hi 1696 at Salamanca, where his 
father was bookseller to the university. In his teens Torres 
escaped to Portugal where he enlisted under a false name; he 
next moved tc Madrid, living from hand to mouth as a hawker; 
in 1717 he was ordained subdeacon, resumed his studies at 
Salamanca, and in 1726 became professor of mathematics at 
the university. A friend of his having stabbed a priest, Torres 
was suspected of complicity, and once more fled to Portugal, 
where he remained till his innocence was proved. He then 
returned to his chair, which he resigned in 1751 to act as steward 
to two noblemen; he was certainly alive in 1758, but the date 
of his death is not known. Torres had so slight a smattering 
of mathematics that his appointment as professor was thought 
scandalous even in his own scandalous age; yet he quickly 
acquired a store of knowledge which he displayed with serene 
assurance. His almanacs, his verses, his farces, his devotional 
and pseudo-scientific writings show that he possessed the alert 



adaptiveness of the born adventurer; but all that remains of 
his fourteen volumes (1745-1752) is his autobiography, an 
amusing record of cynical effrontery and successful imposture. 

TORREVIEJA, a seaport of south-eastern Spain, in the pro- 
vince of Alicante, 3 m. S.W. of Cape Cervera, and at the 
terminus of a railway to Albatera on the Alicante-Murcia line. 
Pop. (1900), 7706. The district is famous for its salt beds, which 
are owned and worked by the state, the Laguna Grande alone 
yielding more than 100,000 tons a year. The other industries 
are chiefly fishing, shipbuilding and the manufacture of ropes 
and sails. The roadstead affords safe anchorage. There is an 
active trade in fruit and agricultural products. 

TORREY, JOHN (1796-1873), American botanist, was bom 
at New York on the i5th of August 1796. When he was 15 
or 16 years of age his father received a prison appointment at 
Greenwich, and there he made the acquaintance of Amos Eaton 
(i 776-1842), a pioneer of natural history studies in America. He 
thus learned the elements of botany, as well as something of 
mineralogy and chemistry. In 1815 he began the study of 
medicine, qualifying in 1818. In the following year he issued 
his Catalogue of Plants growing spontaneously within Thirty Miles 
of the City of New York, and in 1824 he issued the first and only 
volume of his Flora of the Northern and Middle States. In the 
same year he obtained the chair of chemistry and geology at 
West Point military academy, and three years later the pro- 
fessorship of chemistry and botany in the College of Physicians 
and Surgeons, New York. In 1836 he was appointed botanist 
to the state of New York and produced his Flora of that state in 
1843; while from 1838 to 1843 he carried on the publication of 
the earlier portions of Flora of North America, with the assistance 
of his pupil, Asa Gray. From 1853 he was chief assayer to the 
United States assay office, but he continued to take an interest 
in botanical teaching until his death at New York on the loth 
of March 1873. He made over his valuable herbarium and 
botanical library to Columbia College in 1860, and he was the 
first president of the Torrey Botanical Club in 1873. His name 
is commemorated in the small coniferous genus Torreya, found 
in North America and in China and Japan. T. taxifolia, a 
native of Florida, is known as the Torrey tree or savin, and also 
as the stinking cedar. 

TORREY, REUBEN ARCHER (1856- ), American evange- 
list, was born in Hoboken, New Jersey, on the 28th of January 
1856. He graduated at Yale University in 1875 and at the Yale 
Divinity School in 1878. He became a Congregational minister 
in 1878, studied theology at Leipzig and Erlanger in 1882-1883, 
joined D. L. Moody in his evangelistic work in Chicago in 1889, 
and became pastor of the Chicago Avenue Church in 1894 and 
afterwards superintendent of the Moody Bible Institute of 
Chicago. In 1902-1903 he preached in nearly every part of the 
English-speaking world, and with Charles McCallon Alexander 
(b. 1867) conducted revival services in Great Britain in 1903- 
1905; Torrey conducted a similar campaign in American and 
Canadian cities in 1906-1907. 

TORRICELLI, EVANGELISTA (1608-1647), Italian physicist 
and mathematician, was born at Faenza on the isth of October 
1608. Left fatherless at an early age, he was educated under 
the care of his uncle, a Camaldolese monk, who in 1627 sent him 
to Rome to study science under the Benedictine Benedetto 
Castelli (1577-1644), professor of mathematics at the Collegio 
di Sapienza. The perusal of Galileo's Dialoghi delle nuove 
scienze (1638) inspired him with many developments of the 
mechanical principles there set forth, which he embodied in a 
treatise De motu (printed amongst his Opera geometrica, 1644). 
Its communication by Castelli to Galileo in 1641, with a proposal 
that Torricelli should reside with him, led to Torricelli repairing 
to Florence, where he met Galileo, and acted as his amanuensis 
during the three remaining months of his life. After Galileo's 
death Torricelli was nominated grand-ducal mathematician 
and professor of mathematics in the Florentine academy. The 
discovery of the principle of the barometer (q.v.) which has 
perpetuated his fame (" Torricellian tube " " Torricellian 
vacuum ") was made in 1643. 



TORRIDONIAN TORRINGTON, EARL OF 



The publication amongst Torricelli's Opera geometrica 
(Florence, 1644) of a tract on the properties of the cycloic 
involved him in a controversy with G. P. de Roberval, who 
accused him of plagiarizing his earlier solution of the problem oi 
its quadrature. There seems, however, no room for doubt that 
Torricelli's was arrived at independently. The matter was 
still in debate when he was seized with pleurisy, and died at 
Florence on the 25th of October 1647. He was buried in San 
Lorenzo, and a commemorative statue of him erected at Faenza 
in 1864. 

Among the new truths detected by him was the valuable 
mechanical principle that if any number of bodies be so con- 
nected that, by their motion, their centre of gravity can neither 
ascend nor descend, then those bodies are in equilibrium. He 
also discovered the remarkable fact that the parabolas described 
(in a vacuum) by indefinitely numerous projectiles discharged 
from the same point with equal velocities, but in all directions 
have a paraboloid of revolution for their envelope. His theorem 
that a fluid issues from a small orifice with the same velocity 
(friction and atmospheric resistance being neglected) which it 
would have acquired in falling through the depth from its sur- 
face is of fundamental importance in hydraulics. He greatly 
' improved both the telescope and microscope. Several large 
object lenses, engraven with his name, are preserved at Florence. 
He used and developed B. Cavalieri's method of indivisibles. 

A selection from Torricelli's manuscripts was published by 
Tommaso Bonaventura in 1715, with the title Lezioni accademiche 
(Florence). They include an address of acknowledgment on his 
admission to the Accademia della Crusca. His essay on the inun- 
dations of the Val di Chiana was printed in Raccolta d'autori 
che trattano del motodelV acque, iv. 115 (Florence, 1768), and amongst 
Opusculi idraidici, iii. 347 (Bologna, 1822). For his life see Fabroni, 
Vitae Italorum, i. 345 ; Ghinassi, Lettere fin qui inedite di Evan- 
gelista Torricelli (Faenza, 1864) ; Tiraboschi, Storia della lett. it. 
viii. 302 (ed. 1824); Montucla, Hist, des math., vol. ii. ; Marie, Hist, 
des sciences, iv. 133. 

TORRIDONIAN, in geology, a series of pre-Cambrian are- 
naceous sediments extensively developed in the north-west high- 
lands of Scotland and particularly in the neighbourhood of upper 
Loch Torridon, a circumstance which suggested the name 
Torridon Sandstone, first applied to these rocks by J. Nicol. 
The rocks are mainly red and chocolate sandstones, arkoses, 
flagstones and shales with coarse conglomerates locally at the 
base. Some of the materials of these rocks were derived from 
the underlying Lewisian gneiss, upon the uneven surface of 
which they rest; but the bulk of the material was obtained 
from rocks that are nowhere now exposed. Upon this ancient 
denuded land surface the Torridonian strata rest horizontally 
or with gentle inclination. Their outcrop extends in a belt of 
variable breadth from Cape Wrath to the Point of Sleet in Skye, 
running in a N.N.E.-S.S.W. direction through Ross-shire and 
Sutherlandshire. They form the isolated mountain peaks of 
Canisp, Quinag and Suilven in the neighbourhood of Loch 
Assynt, of Slioch near Loch Maree and other hills. They attain 
their maximum development in the Applecross, Gairloch and 
Torridon districts, form the greater part of Scalpay, and occur 
also in Rum, Raasay, Soay and the Crowlin Islands. The 
Torridonian rocks have been subdivided into three groups: an 
upper Aultbea group, 3000-5000 ft.; a middle or Applecross 
group, 6000-8000 ft.; and a lower or Diabeg group, 500 ft. in 
Gairloch but reaching a thickness of 7200 ft. in Skye. 

See " The Geological Structure of the North- West Highlands 
of Scotland," Mem. Geol. Survey (Glasgow, 1907). (J. A. H.) 

TORRIGIANO, PIETRO (1472-1522), Florentine sculptor, 
was, according to Vasari, one of the group of talented youths 
who studied art under the patronage of Lorenzo the Magnificent 
in Florence. Benvenuto Cellini, reporting a conversation with 
Torrigiano, relates that he and Michelangelo, while both young, 
were copying the frescoes in the Carmine chapel, when some 
slighting remark made by Michelangelo so enraged Torrigiano 
that he struck him on the nose, and thus caused that disfigure- 
ment which is so conspicuous in all the portraits of Michelangelo. 
Soon after this Torrigiano visited Rome, and helped Pintu- 
ricchio in modelling the elaborate stucco decorations in the 



Apartamenti Borgia for Alexander VI. After some time spent as a 
hired soldier in the service of different states, Torrigiano was 
invited to England to execute the magnificent tomb for Henry 
VII. and his queen, which still exists in the lady chapel of West- 
minster Abbey. This appears to have been begun before the 
death of Henry VII. in I5O9> but was not finished till 1517. 
The two effigies are well modelled, and have lifelike but not 
too realistic portraits. After this Torrigiano received the com- 
mission for the altar, retable and baldacchino which stood at 
the west, outside the screen of Henry VII. 's tomb. The altar 
had marble pilasters at the angles, two of which still exist, and 
below the mensa was a life-sized figure of the dead Christ in 
painted terra-cotta. The retable consisted of a large relief of 
the Resurrection. The baldacchino was of marble, with enrich- 
ments of gilt bronze; part of its frieze still exists, as do also a 
large number of fragments of the terra-cotta angels which sur- 
mounted the baldacchino and parts of the large figure of Christ. 
The whole of this work was destroyed by the Puritans in the i7th 
century. 1 Henry VIII. also commissioned Torrigiano to make 
him a magnificent tomb, somewhat similar to that of Henry 
VII., but one-fourth larger, to be placed in a chapel at Windsor; 
it was, however, never completed, and its rich bronze was melted 
by the Commonwealth, together with that of Wolsey's tomb. 
The indentures for these various works still exist, and are printed 
by Neale, Westminster Abbey, i. 54-59 (London, 1818). These 
interesting documents are written in English, and in them 
the Florentine is called " Peter Torrysany." For Henry VII. 's 
tomb he contracted to receive 1500, for the altar and its fit- 
tings 1000, and 2000 for Henry VIII. 's tomb. Other works 
attributed from internal evidence to Torrigiano are the tomb 
of Margaret of Richmond, mother of Henry VII., in the south 
aisle of his chapel, and a terra-cotta effigy in the chapel of the 
Rolls. 

While these royal works were going on Torrigiano visited 
Florence in order to get skilled assistants. He tried to induce 
Benvenuto Cellini to come to England to help him, but Cellini 
refused partly from his dislike to the brutal and swaggering 
manners of Torrigiano, and also because he did not wish to 
live among " such beasts as the English." The latter part 
of Torrigiano's life was spent in Spain, especially at Seville, 
where, besides the painted figure of St Hieronymus in the 
museum, some terra-cotta sculpture by him still exists. His 
violent temper got him into difficulties with the authorities, 
and he ended his life in 1522 in the prisons of the Inquisition. 

See Wilhelm Bode, Die italienische Plastik (Berlin, 1902). 

TORRINGTON, ARTHUR HERBERT, EARL OF (1647- 
1716), British admiral, was the son of a judge, Sir Edward 
Herbert (c. 1591-1657). He entered the navy in 1663, and served 
in the Dutch wars of the reign of Charles II., as well as against 
the Barbary pirates. From 1680 to 1683 he commanded in 
the Mediterranean. His career had been honourable, and he 
had been wounded in action. The known Royalist sentiments 
of his family combined with his reputation as a naval officer to 
point him out to the favour of the king, and James II. appointed 
bim rear-admiral of England and master of the robes. The 
king no doubt counted on his support of the repeal of the Test 
Acts, as the admiral was member for Dover. Herbert refused, 
and was dismissed from his places. He now entered into com- 
munication with the agents of the prince of Orange, and promised 
to use his influence with the fleet to forward a revolution. 
After the acquittal of the seven bishops in 1688 he carried the 
nvitation to William of Orange. The Revolution brought him 
ample amends for his losses. He was named first lord, and took 
the command of the fleet at home. In 1689 he was at sea 
attempting to prevent the French admiral Chateau-Renault 
(q.ii.) from landing the troops sent by the king of France to the 
aid of King James in Ireland. Though he fought an action with 

'An old drawing still exists showing this elaborate work; it is 
ngraved in the Hierurgia anglicana, p. 267 (London, 1848). Many 
lundreds of fragments of this terra-cotta sculpture were found a 
ew years ago hidden under the floor of the triforium in the abbey; 
hey are unfortunately too much broken and imperfect to be fitted 
together. 



TORRINGTON, VISCOUNT TORRINGTON 



the French in Bantry Bay on the loth of May he failed to baffle 
Chateau-Renault, who had a stronger force. Being discontented 
with the amount of force provided at sea, he resigned his place 
at the admiralty, but retained his command at sea. In May 
1689 he was created earl of Torrington. In 1690 he was in the 
Channel with a fleet of English and Dutch vessels, which did 
not rise above 56 in all, and found himself in front of the much 
more powerful French fleet. In his report to the council of 
regency he indicated his intention of retiring to the Thames, and 
losing sight of the enemy, saying that they would not do any 
harm to the coast while they knew his fleet to be " in being." 
The council, which knew that the Jacobites were preparing for 
a rising, and only waited for the support of a body of French 
troops, ordered him not to lose sight of the enemy, but rather 
than do that to give battle " upon any advantage of the wind." 
On the loth of July Torrington, after consulting with his Dutch 
colleagues, made a half-hearted attack on the French off Beachy 
Head in which his own ship was kept out of fire, and severe 
loss fell on his allies. Then he retired to the Thames. The 
French pursuit was fortunately feeble (see TOURVILLE, COMTE 
DE) and the loss of the allies was comparatively slight. The 
indignation of the country was at first great, and Torrington 
was brought to a court martial in December. He was acquitted, 
but never again employed. Although twice married, he was 
childless when he died on the i4th of April 1716, his earldom 
becoming extinct. The unfavourable account of his moral 
character given by Dartmouth to Pepys is confirmed by Bishop 
Burnet, who had seen much of him during his exile in Holland. 
An attempt has been made in recent years to rehabilitate the 
character of Torrington, and his phrase " a fleet in being " has 
been widely used (see Naval Warfare, by Vice-Admiral P. H. 
Colomb). 

See Charnock's Biog. Nav., i. 258. The best account of the battle 
of Beachy Head is to be found in " The Account given by Sir John 
Ashby Vice-Admiral and Rear-Admiral Rooke, to the Lords Com- 
missioners " (1691). 

TORRINGTON, GEORGE BYNG, VISCOUNT (1663-1733), 
English admiral, was born at Wrotham, Kent. His father, 
John Byng, was compelled by pecuniary losses to sell his property 
and his son entered the navy as a king's letter boy (see NAVY) 
in 1678. He served in a ship stationed at Tangier, and for a 
time left the navy to enter one of the regiments of the garrison, 
but in 1683 he returned to the navy as lieutenant, and went to 
the East Indies in the following year. During the year 1688, 
he had an active share in bringing the fleet over to the prince 
of Orange, and by the success of the revolution his fortune was 
made. In 1702 he was appointed to the command of the 
" Nassau," and was at the taking and burning of the French 
fleet at Vigo, and the next year he was made rear-admiral of 
the red. In 1704 he served in the Mediterranean under Sir 
Cloudesley Shovel, and reduced Gibraltar. He was in the battle 
of Malaga, and for his gallantry received the honour of knight- 
hood. In 1708 as admiral of the blue he commanded the 
squadron which baffled the attempt of the Old Pretender to land 
in Scotland. In 1718 he commanded the fleet which defeated the 
Spaniards off Cape Passaro and compelled them to withdraw from 
their invasion of Sicily. This commission he executed so well 
that the king made him a handsome present and sent him full 
powers to negotiate with the princes and states of Italy. Byng 
procured for the emperor's troops free access into the fortresses 
which still held out in Sicily, sailed afterwards to Malta, and 
brought out the Sicilian galleys and a ship belonging to the 
Turkey Company. By his advice and assistance the Germans 
retook the city of Messina in 1719, and destroyed the ships which 
lay in the basin an achievement which completed the ruin 
of the naval power of Spain. To his conduct it was entirely 
owing that Sicily was subdued and the king of Spain forced to 
accept the terms prescribed him by the quadruple alliance. 
On his return to England in 1721 he was made rear-admiral 
of Great Britain, a member of the privy council, Baron Byng 
of Southill, in the county of Bedford and Viscount Torrington 
in Devonshire. He was also made one of the Knights Com- 



panions of the Bath upon the revival of that order in 1725. 
In 1727 George II. on his accession made him first lord of the 
admiralty, and his administration was distinguished by the 
establishment of the Royal Naval College at Portsmouth. He 
died on the I7th of January 1733, and was buried at Southill, 
in Bedfordshire. Two of his eleven sons, Pattee (1699-1747) 
and George (1701-1750), became respectively the 2nd and 3rd 
viscounts. The title is still held by the descendants of the 
latter. 

See Memoirs relating to Lord Torrington, Carnden Soc., new series 
46, and A True Account of the Expedition of the British Fleet to Sicily 
1718-1720, published anonymously, but known to be by Thomas 
Corbett of the admiralty in 1739. Forbin's Memoirs contain 
the French side of the expedition to Scotland in 1708. 

TORRINGTON, a borough of Litchfield county, Connecticut, 
U.S.A., in the township of Torrington, on the Naugatuck river, 
about 25 m. W. of Hartford. Pop. (1900), 8360, of whom 2565 
were foreign-born; (1910) 15,483; of the township, including the 
borough (1900) 12,453; (1910) 16,840. It is served by the New 
York, New Haven & Hartford railway and by an electric line con- 
necting with Winsted. It has a public library (1865) with 15,000 
volumes in 1909. There is a state armoury in the borough. 
Torrington is a prosperous manufacturing centre. In 1905 the 
value of the factory product was $9,674,124. The township 
of Torrington, originally a part of the township of Windsor, 
was first settled in 1734, and was separately incorporated in 
1740. The site was covered by pine trees, which were much 
used for ship-building, and for this reason it was known as 
Mast Swamp. In 1751 a mill was erected, but there were few, 
if any, residences until 1800. In 1806 the settlement was known 
as New Orleans village. In 1813 members of the Wolcott family 
of Litchfield, impressed with the water-power, bought land and 
built a woollen mill, and the village that soon developed was 
called Wolcottville. Its growth was slow until 1864. In 1881 
its name was changed to Torrington, and in 1887 the borough 
was incorporated. 

See S. Orcutt's History of Torrington (Albany, 1878), and an 
article, " The Growth of Torrington," in the Connecticut Magazine, 
vol. ix., No. i. 

TORRINGTON (GREAT TORRINGTON), a market town and 
municipal borough in the South Molton parliamentary division 
of Devonshire, England, on the Torridge, 225 m. W. by S. of 
London by the London & South-Western railway. Pop. 
(1901), 3241. It stands on a hill overlooking the richly wooded 
valley of the Torridge, here crossed by three bridges. Glove 
manufactures on a large scale, with flour and butter making 
and leather dressing, are the staple industries. The town is 
governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 
3592 acres. 

Torrington (Toritone) was the site of very early settlement, 
and possessed a market in Saxon times. The manor was held 
by Brictric in the reign of Edward the Confessor, and in 1086 
formed part of the Domesday fief of Odo Fitz Gamelin, which 
later constituted an honour with Torrington as its caput. In 
1 221 it appears as a mesne borough under William de Toritone, 
a descendant of Odo and the supposed founder of the castle, 
which in 1228 was ordered to be razed to the ground, but is 
said to have been rebuilt in 1340 by Richard de Merton. The 
borough had a fair in 1221, and returned two members to parlia- 
ment from 1295 until exempted from representation at its own 
request in 1368. The government was vested in bailiffs and 
a commonalty, and no charter of incorporation was granted 
till that of Queen Mary in 1554, which instituted a governing 
body of a mayor, 7 aldermen and 18 chief burgesses, with 
authority to hold a court of record every three weeks on 
Monday; law-days and view of frankpledge at Michaelmas and 
Easter; a weekly market on Saturday, and fairs at the feasts 
of St Michael and St George. This charter was confirmed by 
Elizabeth in 1568 and by James I. in 1617. A charter from 
James II. in 1686 changed the style of the corporation to a 
mayor, 8 aldermen and 12 chief burgesses. In the i6th century 
Torrington was an important centre of the clothing trade, and 
in 1605 the town is described as very prosperous, with three 



TORSTENSSON TORT 



fairs, and a great market " furnished from far on every quarter, 
being the most convenient place for occasions of king or county 
in those parts." The Saturday market is still maintained, but 
the fairs have been altered to the third Saturday in March and 
the first Thursday in May. In 1643 Colonel Digby took up 
his position at Torrington and put to flight a contingent of 
parliamentary troops; but in 1646 the town was besieged by Sir 
Thomas Fairfax and finally forced to surrender. The borough 
records were destroyed by fire in 1724. 

See Victoria County History: Devonshire; F. T. Colby, History 
of Great Torrington (1878). 

TORSTENSSON, LENNART, COUNT (1603-1651), Swedish 
soldier, son of Torsten Lennartsson, commandant of Elfsborg, 
was born at Forstena in Vestergotland. At the age of fifteen 
he became one of the pages of the young Gustavus Adolphus 
and served during the Prussian campaigns of 1628-29. In 
1629 he was set over the Swedish artillery, which under his 
guidance materially contributed to the victories of Breitenfeld 
(1631) and Lech (1632). The same year he was taken prisoner 
at Alte Veste and shut up for nearly a year at Ingolstadt. 
Under Baner he rendered distinguished service at the battle of 
Wittstock (1636) and during the energetic defence of Pomerania 
in 1637-38, as well as at the battle of Chemnitz (1638) and in 
the raid into Bohemia in 1639. Illness compelled him to return 
to Sweden in 1641, when he was made a senator. The sudden 
death of Baner in May 1641 recalled Torstensson to Germany 
as generalissimo of the Swedish forces and governor-general of 
Pomerania. He was at the same time promoted to the rank 
of field marshal. The period of his command (1641-1645) 
forms one of the most brilliant chapters in the military history 
of Sweden. In 1642 he marched through Brandenburg and 
Silesia into Moravia, taking all the principal fortresses on his 
way. On returning through Saxony he well nigh annihilated 
the imperialist army at the second battle of Breitenfeld 
(Oct. 23, 1642). In 1643 he invaded Moravia for the second 
time, but was suddenly recalled to invade Denmark, when his 
rapid and unexpected intervention paralysed the Danish 
defence on the land side, though Torstensson's own position in 
Jutland was for a time precarious owing to the skilful handling 
of the Danish fleet by Christian IV. In 1644 he led his army 
for the third time into the heart of Germany and routed 
the imperialists at Jiiterbog (Nov. 23). At the beginning 
of November 1645 he broke into Bohemia, and the brilliant 
victory of Jankow (Feb. 24, 1645) laid open before him the 
road to Vienna. Yet, though one end of the Danube bridge 
actually fell into his hands, his exhausted army was unable to 
penetrate any farther and, in December the same year, Tor- 
stensson, crippled by gout, was forced to resign his command 
and return to Sweden. In 1647 he was created a count. From 
1648 to 1651 he ruled all the western provinces of Sweden, as 
governor-general. On his death at Stockholm (April 7, 
1651) he was buried solemnly in the Riddarholmskyrka, the 
Pantheon of Sweden. Torstensson was remarkable for the 
extraordinary and incalculable rapidity of his movements, 
though very frequently he had to lead the army in a litter, as 
his bodily infirmities would not permit him to mount his horse. 
He was also the most scientific artillery officer and the best and 
most successful engineer in the Swedish army. 

His son, Senator Count Anders Torstensson (1641-1686), 
was from 1674 to 1681 governor-general of Esthonia. The 
family became extinct on the sword-side in 1727. 

See J. W. de Peyster, History of the Life of L. Torstensson (Pough- 
keepsie, 1855); J. Feil, Torstensson before Vienna (trans, by de 
Peyster, New York, 1885); Gustavus III., Eulogy of Torstensson 
(trans, by de Peyster, New York, 1872). (R. N. B.) 

TORT (Fr. for wrong, from Lat. tortus, twisted, participle 
of torquere), the technical term, in the law of England, of those 
dominions and possessions of the British Empire where the 
common law has been received or practically adopted in civil 
affairs, and of the United States, for a civil wrong, i.e. the 
breach of a duty imposed by law, by which breach some person 
becomes entitled to sue for damages. A tort must, on the 



one hand, be an act which violates a general duty. The rule 
which it breaks must be one made by the law, not, as in the 
case of a mere breach of contract, a rule which the law protects 
because the parties have made it for themselves. On the other 
hand, a tort is essentially the source of a private right of action. 
An offence which is punishable, but for which no one can bring 
a civil action, is not a tort. It is quite possible for one and the 
same act to be a tort and a breach of contract, or a tort and a 
crime; it is even possible in one class of cases for the plaintiff 
to have the option for purposes of procedural advantage of 
treating a real tort as a fictitious contract; but there is no 
necessary or general connexion. Again, it is not the case that 
pecuniary damages are always or necessarily the only remedy 
for a tort; but the right to bring an action in common law juris- 
diction, as distinct from equity, matrimonial or admiralty 
jurisdiction, with the consequent right to damages, is invariably 
present where a tort has been committed. 

This technical use of the French word tort (which at one 
time was near becoming a synonym of wrong in literary 
English) is not very ancient, and anything like systematic 
treatment of the subject as a whole is very modern. Since 
about the middle of the i9th century there has been a current 
assumption that all civil causes of action must be founded on 
either contract or tort; but there is no historical foundation for 
this doctrine, though modified forms of the action of trespass 
actions in consimili casu, or "on the case " in the accustomed 
English phrase did in practice largely supplant other more 
archaic forms of action by reason of their greater convenience. 
The old forms were designed as penal remedies for manifest 
breach of the peace or corruption of justice; and traces of the 
penal element remained in them long after the substance of the 
procedure had become private and merely civil. The transition 
belongs to the general history of English law. 

In England the general scope of the law of torts has never 
been formulated by authority, the law having in fact been 
developed by a series of disconnected experiments with the 
various forms of action which seemed from time to time to 
promise the widest and most useful remedies. But there is 
no doubt that the duties enforced by the English law of torts 
are broadly those which the Roman institutional writers summed 
up in the precept Alterum non laedere. Every member of a 
civilized commonwealth is entitled to require of others a certain 
amount of respect for his person, reputation and property, 
and a certain amount of care and caution when they go about 
undertakings attended with risk to their neighbours. Under 
the modern law, it is submitted, the question arising when one 
man wilfully or recklessly harms another is not whether some 
technical form of action can be found in which he is liable, but 
whether he can justify or excuse himself. This view, at any rate, 
is countenanced by a judgment of the Supreme Court of the 
United States delivered in 1904. If it be right, the controverted 
question whether conspiracy is or is not a substantive cause 
of action seems to lose most of its importance. Instead of the 
doubtful proposition of law that some injuries become unlawful 
only when inflicted by concerted action, we shall have the plain 
proposition of fact that some kinds of injury cannot, as a rule, 
be inflicted by one person with such effect as to produce any 
damage worth suing for. 

The precise amount of responsibility can be determined only 
by full consideration in each class of cases. It is important to 
observe, however, that a law of responsibility confined to a man's 
own personal acts and defaults would be of next to no practical 
use under the conditions of modern society. What makes the 
law of torts really effective, especially with regard to redress 
for harm suffered by negligence, is the universal rule of law that 
every one is answerable for the acts and defaults of his servants 
(that is, all persons acting under his direction and taking their 
orders from him or some one representing him) in the course of 
their employment. The person actually in fault is not the less 
answerable, but the remedy against him is very commonly not 
worth pursuing. But for this rule corporations could not be 
liable for any negligence of their servants, however disastrous 



TORT 



to innocent persons, except so far as it might happen to constitute 
a breach of some express undertaking. We have spoken of the 
rule as universal, but, in the case of one servant of the same 
employer being injured by the default of another, an unfortunate 
aberration of the courts, which started about two generations 
ago from small beginnings, was pushed to extreme results, 
and led to great hardship. A partial remedy was applied in 
1880 by the Employers' Liability Act; and in 1897 a much bolder 
step was taken by the Workmen's Compensation Act (super- 
seded by a more comprehensive act in 1906). But, as the 
common law and the two acts (which proceed on entirely 
different principles) cover different fields, with a good deal of 
overlapping, and the acts are full of complicated provisos and 
exceptions, and. contain very special provisions as to procedure, 
the improvement in substantial justice has been bought, so 
far, at the price of great confusion in the form of the law, and 
considerable difficulty in ascertaining what it is in any but 
the most obvious cases. The Workmen's Compensation Act 
includes cases of pure accident, where there is no fault at all, 
or none that can be proved, and therefore goes beyond the 
reasons of liability with which the law of torts has to do. In 
fact, it establishes a kind of compulsory insurance, which can 
be justified only on wider grounds of policy. A novel and 
extraordinary exception to the rule of responsibility for 
agents was made in the case of trade combinations by the 
Trade Disputes Act 1906. This has no interest for law as 
a science. 

There are kinds of cases, on the other hand, in which the law, 
without aid from legislation, has imposed on occupiers and other 
persons in analogous positions a duty stricter than that of 
being answerable for themselves and their servants. Duties 
of this kind have been called " duties of insuring safety." Gene- 
rally they extend to having the building, structure, or works in 
such order, having regard to the nature of the case, as not 
to create any danger to persons lawfully frequenting, using, or 
passing by them, which the exercise of reasonable care and skill 
could have avoided; but in some cases of " extra-hazardous " 
risk, even proof of all possible diligence according to English 
authority, which is not unanimously accepted in America will 
not suffice. There has lately been a notable tendency to extend 
these principles to the duties incurred towards the public by 
local authorities who undertake public works. Positive duties 
created by statute are on a similar looting, so far as the breach 
of them is capable of giving rise to any private right of 
action. 

The classification of actionable wrongs is perplexing, not 
because it is difficult to find a scheme of division, but because it is 
easier to find many than to adhere to any one of them. We may 
start either from the character of the defendant's act or omission, 
with regard to his knowledge, intention and otherwise; or from 
the character of the harm suffered by the plaintiff. Whichever 
of these we take as the primary line of distinction, the results can 
seldom be worked out without calling in the other. Taking 
first the defendant's position, the widest governing principle is 
that, apart from various recognized grounds of immunity, a 
man is answerable for the " natural and probable " consequences 
of his acts; i.e. such consequences as a reasonable man in his 
place should have foreseen as probable. Still more is he answer- 
able for what he did actually foresee and intend. Knowledge 
of particular facts may be necessary to make particular kinds 
of conduct wrongful. Such is the rule in the case of fraud and 
other allied wrongs, including what is rather unhappily called 
" slander of title," and what is now known as " unfair com- 
petition " in the matter of trade names and descriptions, short 
of actual piracy of trade-marks. But where an absolute right 
to security for a man's person, reputation or goods is interfered 
with, neither knowledge nor specific intention need be proved. 
In these cases we trespass altogether at our peril. It is in 
general the habit of the law to judge acts by their apparent 
tendency, and not by the actor's feelings or desires. I cannot 
excuse myself by good motives for infringing another man's 
rights, whatever other grounds of excuse may be available; 
xxvn. 3 



and it is now settled conversely, though after much doubt, 
that an act not otherwise unlawful is not, as a rule, made 
unlawful by being done from an evil motive. This rule was 
known some time ago to apply to the exercise of rights of 
property, and such speculative doubt as remained was removed 
by the decision of the House of Lords in the leading case of 
Allen v. Flood (1898, A.C. i). We now know that it applies to 
the exercise of all common rights. The exceptions are very 
few, and must be explained by exceptional reasons. Indeed, 
only two are known to the present writer malicious prose- 
cution, and the misuse of a " privileged occasion " which would 
justify the communication of defamatory matter if made in good 
faith. In each case the wrong lies in the deliberate perversion 
of a right or privilege allowed for the public good, though the 
precise extent of the analogy is not certain at present. 1 It 
must be remembered, however, that the presence or absence 
of personal ill will, and the behaviour of the parties generally, 
may have an important effect, when liability is proved or 
admitted, in mitigating or aggravating the amount of 
damages awarded by juries and allowed by the court to be 
reasonable. It may likewise be noted, by way of caution, that 
some problems of criminal law, with which we are not here 
concerned, require more subtle consideration. However, it is 
hardly ever safe to assume that the bounds of civil and criminal 
liability will be found coextensive. Perhaps we may go so far 
as to say that a man is neither civilly nor criminally liable for a 
mere omission (not being disobedience to a lawful command 
which he was bound to obey), unless he has in some way assumed 
a special duty of doing the act omitted. 

We have already had to mention the existence of grounds 
of immunity for acts that would otherwise be wrongful. Such 
grounds there must be if the law is to be enforced and justice 
administered at all, and if the business of life is to be carried 
on with any freedom. Roughly speaking, we find in these 
cases one of the following conditions: Either the defendant 
was executing a lawful authority; or he was justified by 
extraordinary necessity; or he was doing something permitted 
by legislation for reasons of superior utility, though it may 
produce damage to others, and either with or without special 
provisions for compensating damage; or he was exercising a 
common right in matters open to free use and competition; 
or the plaintiff had, by consent or otherwise, disabled himself 
from having any grievance. Pure accident will hardly seem to 
any one who is not a lawyer to be a special ground of exemption, 
the question being rather how it could ever be supposed to be a 
ground of liability. But it was supposed so by many lawyers 
down to recent times; the reason lying in a history of archaic 
ideas too long to be traced here. Exercise of common rights 
is the category where most difficulty arises. Here, in fact, 
the point at which a man's freedom is limited by his neighbour's 
has to be fixed by a sense of policy not capable of formal 
demonstration. 

As Justice Holmes of the Supreme Court of the United States 
has said, we allow unlimited trade competition (so long as it is 
without fraud) though we know that many traders must suffer, 
and some may be ruined by it, because we hold that free com- 
petition is worth more to society than its costs. A state with 
different economic foundations might have a different law on this, 
as on many other points. This freedom extends not only to the 
exercise of one's calling, but to choosing with whom and under 
what conditions one will exercise it. Also the law will not inquire 
with what motives a common right is exercised ; and this applies 
to the ordinary rights of an owner in the use of his property 

1 It was formerly supposed that an action by a party to a con- 
tract against a third person for procuring the other party to break 
his contract was within the same class, i.e. that malice must be 
proved. But since Allen v. Flood, and the later decision of the 
House of Lords in Quinn v. Leathern (1901, A.C. 495), this view 
seems untenable. The ground of action is the intentional violation 
of an existing legal right; which, however, since 1906, may 
be practised with impunity in the United Kingdom " in 
contemplation or furtherance of a trade dispute " : Trade 
Disputes Act, 3. 



66 



TORTOISE 



as well as to the right of every man to carry on his business. 1 
Owners and occupiers of immovable property are bound, indeed, 
to respect one another's convenience within certain limits. 
The maxim or precept Sic utere tuo ut alienum non laedas does 
not mean that I must not use my land in any way which can 
possibly diminish the profit or amenity of my neighbour's. 
That would be false. It is a warning that both his rights and 
mine extend beyond being free from actual unlawful entry, 
and that if either of us takes too literally the more popular but 
even less accurate maxim, " Every man may do as he will with his 
own," he will find that there is such a head of the law as nuisance. 

From the point of view of the plaintiff, as regards the kind of 
damage suffered by him, actionable wrongs may be divided 
into four groups. We have some of a strictly personal kind; 
some which affect ownership and rights analogous to owner- 
ship; some which extend to the safety, convenience and profit of 
life generally in short, to a man's estate in the widest sense; 
and some which may, according to circumstances, result in 
damage to person, property or estate, any or all of them. Per- 
sonal wrongs touching a man's body or honour are assault, false 
imprisonment, seduction or " enticing away " of members of 
his family. Wrongs to property are trespass to land or goods, 
" conversion " of goods (i.e. wrongful assumption of dominion 
over them), disturbance of easements and other individual 
rights in property not amounting to exclusive possession. Tres- 
pass is essentially a wrong to possession; but with the aid of 
actions " on the case " the ground has been practically covered. 
Then there are infringements of incorporeal rights which, though 
not the subject of trespass proper, are exclusive rights of 
enjoyment and have many incidents of ownership. Actions, 
in some cases expressly given by statute, lie for the piracy of 
copyright, patents and trade marks. Wrongs to a man's estate 
in the larger sense above noted are defamation (not a strictly 
personal wrong, because according to English common law the 
temporal damage, not the insult, is, rightly or wrongly, made 
the ground of action); deceit, so-called "slander of title" 
and fraudulent trade competition, which are really varieties 
of deceit; malicious prosecution; and nuisance, which, though 
most important as affecting the enjoyment of property, is not 
considered in that relation only. Finally, we have the results of 
negligence and omission to perform special duties regarding 
the safety of one's neighbours or customers, or of the public, 
which may affect person, property, or estate generally. 

The law of wrongs is made to do a great deal of work which, 
in a system less dependent on historical conditions, we should 
expect to find done by the law of property. We can claim or 
reclaim our movable goods only by complaining of a wrong 
done to our possession or our right to possess. There is no 
direct assertion of ownership like the Roman vindicatio. The 
law of negligence, with the refined discussions of the test and 
measure of liability which it has introduced, is wholly modern; 
and the same may be said of the present working law of nuisance, 

1 The rule that a man's motives for exercising his common 
rights are not examinable involves the consequence that advising 
or procuring another, who is a free agent, to do an act of this kind 
can, a fortiori, not be an actionable wrong at the suit of a third 
person who is damnified by the act, and that whatever the adviser's 
motives may be. This appears to be included in the decision of 
the House of Lords in Allen v. Flood. That decision, though not 
binding in any American court, is approved and followed in most 
American jurisdictions. It is otherwise where a system of coercion 
is exercised on a man's workmen or customers in order to injure 
him in his business. The extension of immunity to such conduct 
would destroy the value of the common right which the law pro- 
tects: Quinn v. Leathern. The coercion need not be physical, and 
the wrong as a whole may be made up of acts none of which taken 
alone would be a cause of action. In this point there is nothing 
novel, for it is so in almost every case of nuisance. Conspiracy is 
naturally a frequent element in such cases, but it does not appear 
to be necessary; if it were, millionaires and corporations might 
exceed the bounds of lawful competition with impunity whenever 
they were strong enough. The reasons given in Quinn v. Leathern 
are many and various, but the decision is quite consistent with 
Allen v. Flood. However, the Trade Disputes Act will probably have 
its intended effect of reducing the law on this head to relative 
insignificance in England. 



though the term is of respectable antiquity. Most recent of all 
is the rubric of " unfair competition," which is fast acquiring 
great importance. 

It will be observed that the English law of torts answers 
approximately in its purpose and contents to the Roman law 
of obligations ex delicto and' quasi ex delicto. When we have 
allowed for the peculiar treatment of rights of property in the 
common law, and remembered that, according to one plausible 
theory, the Roman law of possession itself is closely connected 
in its origin with the law of delicts, we shall find the corre- 
spondence at least as close as might be expected a priori. Nor 
is the correspondence to be explained by borrowing, for this 
branch of the common law seems to owe less to the classical 
Roman or medieval canon law than any other. Some few 
misunderstood Roman maxims have done considerable harm in 
detail, but the principles have been worked out in all but 
complete independence. 

A list of modern books and monographs will be found at the 
end of the article on " Torts " by the present writer in the Encyclo- 
paedia of the Laws of England (2nd ed.). Among recent editions 
of works on the law of torts and new publications the following may 
be mentioned here: Addison, by W. E. Gordon and W. H. Griffith 
(8th ed., 1906); Clerk and Lindsell, by Wyatt Paine (4th ed., 
1906); Pollock (8th ed., 1908); Salmond, The Law of Torts (and ed., 
1910). In America: Burdick, The Law of Torts (1905); Street, The 
Foundations of Legal Liability (1906), 3 vols. of which vol. i. is 
on Tort. (F. Po.) 

TORTOISE. Of the three names generally used for this order 
of reptiles, viz. tortoise, turtle and terrapin, the first is derived 
from the Old French word tortis, i.e. twisted, and was probably 
applied first to the common European species on account of 
its curiously bent forelegs. Turtle is believed to be a corruption 
of the same word, but the origin of the name terrapin is un- 
known: since the time of the navigators of the i6th century it 
has been in general use for fresh-water species of the tropics, 
and especially for those of the New World. The name tortoise 
is now generally applied to the terrestrial members of this group 
of animals, and that of turtle to those which live in the sea or 
pass a great part of their existence in fresh water. They consti- 
tute one of the orders of reptiles, the Chelonia: toothless reptiles, 
with well developed limbs, with a dorsal and a ventral shell 
composed of numerous bony plates, large firmly fixed quadrates, 
a longitudinal anal opening and an unpaired copulatory organ. 

The whole shell consists of the dorsal, more or less convex carapace 
and the ventral plastron, both portions being joined laterally by 
the so-called bridge. The carapace is (with the exception of 
Sphargis) formed by dermal ossifications which are arranged in 
regular series, viz. a median row (l nuchal, mostly 8 neurals and 
1-3 supracaudal or pygal plates), a right and left row of costal 
plates which surround and partly replace the ribs, and a consider- 
able number (about 1 1 pairs) of marginal plates. The plas- 
tron consists of usually 9, rarely II, dermal bones, viz. paired 
epi-, hyo-, hypo- and xiphi-plastral plates and the unpaired 
endo-plastral ; the latter is homologous with the interclavicle, the 
epi-plastra with the clavicles, the rest with so-called abdominal 
ribs of other reptiles. 

In most Chelonians the bony shell is covered with a hard epi- 
dermal coat, which is divided into large shields, commonly called 
" tortoiseshell." These horny shields or scutes do not correspond 
in numbers and extent with the underlying bones, although there 
is a general, vague resemblance in their arrangement; for instance, 
there is a neural, a paired costal and a paired marginal series. 
The terminology may be learned from the accompanying illus- 
trations (figs, i and 2). 

The integuments of the head, neck, tail and limbs are either 
soft and smooth or scaly or tubercular, frequently with small osseous 
nuclei. 

All the bones of the skull are suturally united. The dentary 
portion of the mandible consists of one piece only, both halves 
being completely fused together. The pectoral arch remains 
separate in the median line ; it consists of the coracoids, which slope 
backwards, and the scapulae, which stand upright and often abut 
against the inside of the first pair of costal plates. Near the glenpid 
cavity for the humerus arises from the scapula a long process which 
is directed transversely towards its fellow ; it represents the acromial 
process of other vertebrates, although so much enlarged, and is 
neither the precoracoid, nor the clavicle, as stated by the thought- 
less. The tail is still best developed in the Chelydridae, shortest in 
the Trionychoidea. Since it contains the large copulatory organ, 
it is less reduced in the males. No Chelonians possess the slightest 



TORTOISE 



67 



traces of teeth, but their jaws are provided with horny sheaths, with 
hard and sharp edges, forming a beak. 

The number of Chelonians known at present may be estimated 
at about 200, the fresh-water species being far the most numerous, 
and are abundant in well-watered districts of the tropical and 
sub-tropical zones. Their number and variety decrease beyond 
the tropics, and in the north they disappear entirely about the 
5<3th parallel in the western and about the 56th in the eastern 
hemisphere, whilst in the southern hemisphere the terrestrial 
forms seem to advance to 36 S. only. The marine turtles, 
which are spread over the whole of the equatorial and sub-tropical 
seas, sometimes stray beyond those limits. As in other orders 




FIGS. I, 2. Shell of Testudo pardalis, to show the divisions of 
the integument, which are marked by entire lines, and of the 
osseous carapace, these being marked by dotted lines. Fig. I, 
Upper or dorsal aspect. Fig. 2, Lower or ventral aspect. 



Epidermal shields: 

co, Costals. 

t>, Vertebrals. 

m, Marginals. 

g, Gulars. 

pg, Postgulars or numerals. 

p. Pectorals. 

ab, Abdominals. 

pa, Preanals or femorals. 

an, Anals. 



Bones of the Carapace: 
co 1 , Costals. 
ne, Neurals. 
nu, Nuchal. 
py, Pygals. 
m l . Marginals. 
ent, Entoplastron. 
ep, Epiplastron. 
hyo, Hyoplastron. 
hyp, Hypoplastron. 
xyp, Xiphiplastron. 



of reptiles, the most specialized and the largest forms are 
restricted to the tropics (with the exception of Macroclemmys) ; 
but, unlike lizards or snakes, Chelonians are unable to exist in 
sterile districts or at great altitudes. 

They show a great divergence in their mode of life some 
living constantly on land, others having partly terrestrial 
partly aquatic habits, others again rarely leaving the water 
or the sea. The first-mentioned, the land tortoises proper, have 
short club-shaped feet with blunt claws, and a very convex, 
heavy, completely ossified shell. In the fresh-water forms 
the joints of the limb bones are much more mobile, the digits 
distinct, armed with sharp claws, and united by a membrane 



or web; their shell is less convex, and is flattened, and more 
or less extensive areas may remain unossified, or transparent 
windows are formed with age, for instance in Batagur. As a 
rule, the degree of development of the interdigital web and of 
convexity of the shell indicates the prevalence of aquatic or 
terrestrial habits of a species of terrapin. Finally, the marine 
turtles have paddle-shaped limbs resembling those of Cetaceans. 

Land tortoises are sufficiently protected by their carapace, 
and therefore have no need of any special modification of 
structure by means of which their appearance would be assimi- 
lated to the surroundings and thus give them additional 
security from their enemies. These, however, are few in number. 
On the other hand, among the carnivorous terrapins and fresh- 
water turtles instances of protective resemblance are not 
scarce, and may even attain to a high degree of specialization, 
as in Chelys, the matamata. The colours of land tortoises are 
generally plain, or in yellow and brown patterns, whilst 
those of many terrapins are singularly varied, bright and 
beautiful, especially in the very young, but all this beauty is 
lost in the adult of many species. 

Chelonians are diurnal animals; only a few are active during 
the night, habitually or on special occasions, as, for instance, 
during oviposition. Land tortoises are slow in all their move- 
ments, but all kinds living in water can execute rapid motions, 
either to seize their prey or to escape from danger. All 
Chelonians are stationary, residing throughout the year in 
the same locality, with the exception of the marine turtles, 
which periodically migrate to their breeding-stations. Species 
inhabiting temperate regions hibernate. 

Land tortoises, a few terrapins, and some of the marine 
turtles are herbivorous, the others carnivorous, their prey con- 
sisting chiefly of fish, frogs, molluscs, and other small aquatic 
animals; some, e.g. Clemmys insculpta and Cistudo Carolina, 
have a mixed vegetable and animal diet. 

All Chelonians are oviparous, and the eggs are generally covered 
with a hard shell, mostly elliptical, rarely quite round, as in the 
case of the marine turtles. The various modifications, and also 
the not uncommon individual variations, in the composition of 
the carapace plates and the number and disposition of the shields, 
are very significant. They show an unmistakable tendency 
towards reduction in numbers, a concentration and simplification 
of the shell and its covering shields. We can to a certain extent 
reconstruct a generalized ancestral tortoise and thereby narrow 
the wide gap which separates the Chelonia from every other reptilian 
order. The early Chelonians possessed most likely more than 
five longitudinal dorsal rows of plates. The presence of several 
small supramarginal shields in Macroclemmys may be an indication 
that the total number of longitudinal rows was originally at least 
seven. The number of transverse rows, both of plates and shields, was 
also greater. We can account for at least twelve median plates and 
as many pairs of marginals, but for only eieht median and eight pairs 
of costal shields (individual variations observed in Thalassochelys) . 
It stands to reason that originally each trunk metamere had its full 
complement of plates and shields ; consequently that about twelve 
trunk metameres partook in the formation of the shell, which, 
with subsequent shortening and broadening of the trunk, has under- 
gone considerable concentration and reduction, a process which 
has reduced the costal plates to seven pairs in the American species 
of Trionyx, has completely abolished the neural plates of some 
Chelydidae, and has brought down the costal shields to four pairs in 
the majority of recent Chelonians. In several species of Testudo 
the little nuchal shield is suppressed, thereby reducing the unpaired 
median shields to five. The complete absence of shields in the Triony- 
chidae and in Carettochelys is also due to a secondary process, which, 
however, has proceeded in a different way. 

Classification of Chelonia. 

H. Stannius in 1854 clearly separated the Trionychoidea 
from the rest. E. D. Cope, in 1870, distinguished between 
Pleurodira and Cryptodira according to whether the neck, 
Sept) or SetpTj, is bent sidewards, or hidden by being withdrawn 
in an S-shaped curve in a vertical plane; he also separated 
Sphargis as Athecae from all the other Chelonians, for which 
L. Dollo, in 1886, proposed the term Thecophora. These terms 
are most unfortunate, misleading. Athecae (from OitKij, 
shell) has reference to the absence of a horny shell-covering in 
the leathery turtle; but since the same character applies to 
Trionychoidea and to Carettochelys, nobody can guess that 



68 



TORTOISE 



the term Athecae in Dollo's sense refers to the fact that the 
shell of the leathery turtle is not homologous with the typical 
shell or 61)107 of the other Chelonians. The grouping of the 
latter into families recognizable by chiefly internal, skeletal 
characters has been effected by G. A. Boulenger. For practical 
purposes the following " key " is preferable to those taxonomic 
characters which are mentioned in the descriptions of the 
different families. The relationships between them may be 
indicated as follows: 

f Athecae Sphargidae 

("Pelomedusidae 
Chelonia-j fPleurodira J. Chelydidae 

Carettochelydidae 
rChelydridae Derma- 
temydidae-Cinosternida 



[Thecophora 



Cryptodira 



-I Platysternidae 
Testudinidae 
Chelonidae 



Neck bending sideways under the shell 



Trionychoidea 
Key to the Families of Chelonia. 
Shell covered with horny shields. 

Digits distinct, with five or four claws. 
Pectoral shields separated from the mar- 
ginals by inframarginals. 
Tail long and crested. Plastron small 

and cruciform ....... Chelydridae 

Tail long, covered with rings of shields. 

Plastron large Platysternidae 

_ .. , ( Dermatemydidae 

Tail short { Cinosternidae 

Pectoral shields in contact with the mar- 
ginals. 
Plastral shields 1 1 or 12, without an inter- 

gular. 
Neck retractile in an S-shaped vertical 

curve Testudinidae 

Plastral shields 13, an intergular being 
present. 

( Chelydidae 
\ Pelomedusidae 
Limbs paddle-shaped, with one or two 

claws Chelonidae 

Shell without horny shields, covered with soft 

leathery skin. 
Digits distinct, broadly webbed, but with 

only three claws Trionychoidea 

Limbs paddle-shaped. 

Shell composed of regular series of bony 

plates. Two claws Carettochelydidae 

Shell composed of very many small plates 

arranged like mosaic. No claws . . Sphargidae. 

Sub-order I. Athecae. The shell consists of a mosaic of numerous 
small polygonal osseous plates and is covered with leathery skin 
without any horny shields. The limbs are transformed into paddles, 
without claws. Marine. Sole representative Sphargis or Derma- 
tochelys coriacea, the leathery turtle or luth ; it is the largest of living 
Chelonians, surpassing 6 ft. in length, has a wide 
distribution over all the intertropical seas, but 
is very rare everywhere; a few stragglers have 
appeared as far north as the coasts of Long 
Island, and those of Great Britain, Holland and 
France. It is a curious fact that only adults 
and young, but none of intermediate size, happen 
to be known. This creature shows many im- 
portant features. The vertebrae and ribs are 
not fused with, but remain free from, the cara- 
pace, and this is fundamentally different from 
and not homologous with that of other Chelon- 
ians. O. P. Hay has suggested that the mosaic 
polygonal components of the shell of Sphargis 
are, so to speak, an earlier generation of osteo- 
dermal plates than the fewer and larger plates 
of the Thecophora, which in them fuse with the 
neural arches and the ribs. Sphargis has, how- 
ever, the later category in the plastron and in its first neural or nuchal 
plate. If this suggestion is correct, this turtle has either lost or 
perhaps never had developed the horny shields. The many mosaic 
plates comprise larger plates which form an unpaired median, 
two pairs of other dorsal, a lateral and three pairs of ventral series 
or ridges ; thirteen, or when the inner ventral pair fuses, twelve pairs 
in all. 

The skull, excellently studied by J. F. van Bemmelen, much 
resembles that of Chelone, but so-called epipterygoids are absent; 
further, the pterygoids, instead of sending lateral arms to the jugals 
and maxillaries, are widely separated from these bones by the 



palatines, and these do not at all ventrally roof over the choanae. 
The position of Sphargis in the system is still a moot question. 
G. A. Boulenger looks upon it as the sole remnant of a primitive 
group in opposition to all the other recent Chelonia; G. Baur con- 
sidered it the most specialized descendant of the Chelonidae, a 




FIG. 3. A portion of the Osseous Plates of the Carapace of 
Sphargis coriacea, showing three large keeled plates of one of the 
longitudinal ridges of the carapace, with a number of the small 
irregular plates on either side of them. 

view which has been supported by W. Dames, E. C. Case, and to 
a certain extent by J. F. van Bemmelen. For literature, &c., 
see L. Dollo, Bull. S. R. Bruxelles (Fevrier 4, 1901). 

Sub-order II. Thecophora. The bony shell is composed of 
several longitudinal series of plates (on the dorsal side a median 
or neural, a paired lateral or costal series, and marginal plates). 
With few exceptions this shell is covered with large horny scutes 
or shields. 

Super-family I. Cryptodira. The neck, if retractile, bends in 
an S-shaped curve in a vertical plane. The pelvis is not fused 
with the shell, and this is covered with large horny shields, except 
in Carettochelys. 

Family I . Chelydridae. The plastron is rather narrow, and cross- 
shaped ; the bridge is very narrow and is covered by a pair of shields, 
the displaced abdominals, which are separated from the marginals 
by a few inframarginals. The limbs, neck and head are so stout 
that they cannot completely be withdrawn into the shell. The 
tail is very long. Only two genera with three species, confined to 
America. Chelydra serpentina, the " snapping turtle," ranging 
from the Canadian lakes through the United States east of the 



Rockies ; 
Ecuador. 



closely allied is C. rossignoni of Central America and 
Macroclemmys temmincki, the " alligator turtle," is 



the largest known fresh- water Chelonian, its shell growing to a length 




FIG. 4. The Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina). 

of 3 ft. It is characterized by the three series of strong prominent 
keels ajong the back; it inhabits the whole basin of the Mississippi 
and Missouri rivers. 

Family 2. Dermatemydidae. The pectoral shields are widely 
separated from the marginals by inframarginals, the gulars are 
small or absent, and the tail is extremely short. Only a few species, 
in Central America. The plastron is composed of nine plates. 
The nuchal plate has a pair of rib-like processes like those of the 
Chelydridae. One or more of the posterior costal plates meet in 
the middle line. The shell of these aquatic, broadly web-fingered 
tortoises, is very flat and the covering shields are thin. They feed 



TORTOISE 



69 



upon leaves, grass and especially fruit. Staurotypus, e.g. salvini 
with 23, Dermalemys, e.g. mawi, with 25 marginal shields. 

Family 3. Cinosternidae. Closely allied to the two previous 
families from which Cinosternum, the only genus, differs chiefly 
by the absence of the endo-plastral plate. Inframarginals are 
present. The nuchal plate has a pair of rib-like processes. The 
neural plates are interrupted by the meeting of several pairs of the 
costal plates. Twenty-three marginal shields. In some species the 
skin of the legs and neck is so baggy that these parts slip in, the 
skin rolling off, when such a turtle withdraws into its shell. In 
some the plastron is hinged and the creature can shut itself up tightly, 
e.g. C. leucostoma of Mexico; in others the plastron leaves gaps, 
or it is narrow and without hinges, e.g. C. odoratum, the mud turtle 
or stinkpot terrapin of the eastern half of North America. About 
a dozen species, mostly Central American. 

Family 4. Platysternidae. Platysternum megacephalum, the only 
species, from Burma to southern China. The total length of these 
thick-headed, very long-tailed turtles is about I ft., only 5 in. 
belonging to the shell. The plastron is large, oblong, not cruci- 
form, composed of nine plates. The nuchal is devoid of rib-like 
processes. A unique arrangement is that the jugals are completely 
shut off from the orbits owing to the meeting of the post-frontals 
with the maxillaries. 

Family 5. Testudinidae. The shell is always covered with well- 
developed shields; those which cover the plastral bridge are in 
direct contact with the marginals. The plastron is composed 
of nine bones. The digits have four or five claws. The neck is 
completely retractile. 

This family contains the majority of tortoises, divided into as 
many as 20 genera. These, starting with Entys as the least special- 
ized, can be arranged in two main diverging lines, one culminating 
in the thoroughly aquatic Batagur, the other in the exclusively 
terrestrial forms. Emys, with the plastron movably united to the 
carapace; with well-webbed limbs, amphibious. E. orbicularis or 
europaea was, towards the end of the Pleistocene period, distributed 
over a great part of middle Europe, remains occurring in the peat 
of England, Belgium, Denmark and Sweden ; it is now withdrawing 
eastwards, being restricted in Germany to isolated localities east 
of Berlin, but it reoccurs in Poland and Russia, whence it extends 
into western Asia ; it is common in south Europe. The other species, 
E. blandingi, lives in Canada and the north-eastern states of the 
Union. Clemmys with the plastron immovably united to the cara- 

ace; temperate holarctic region, e.g. C. caspica, C. leprosa in 
pain and Morocco; C. insculpta, in north-east America. Mala- 
coclemmys with a few species in North America, e.g. M. terrapin, 
the much prized " diamond-back. " Chrysemys with many American 
species, e.g. Ch. picta, the " painted terrapin " and C. concinna, 
most of them very handsomely coloured and marked when still 
young. Batagur and Kachuga in the Indian sub-region. 

Cistudo Carolina, the box tortoise of North America, with the 
plastron divided into an anterior and a posterior movable lobe, so 
that the creature can shut itself up completely. Although essen- 
tially by its internal structure a water tortoise, it has become 
absolutely terrestrial in habits, and herewith agree the high- 
backed instead of depressed shell, the short webless fingers and its 
general coloration. It has a mixed diet. The eyes of the males 
are red, those of the females are brown. From Long Island to 
Mexico. Cinixys, e.g. belliana of tropical Africa, has the posterior 
portion of the carapace movably hinged. Pyxis arachnoides of 
Madagascar has the front-lobe of the plastron hinged. 

Testudo, the main genus, with about 40 species, is cosmopolitan 
in tropical and sub-tropical countries, with the exception of the whole 
of the Australian and Malay countries; most of the species are 
African. T. graeca, in Mediterranean countries and islands. T. 
marginata in Greece with the posterior margin of the carapace 
much flanged or serrated, and T. ibera or mauritanica from Morocco 
to Persia; both differ from T. graeca by an unpaired supracaudal, 
marginal shield, and by the possession of a strong, conical, horny 
tubercle on the hinder surface of the thigh. With age the posterior 
portion of the plastron develops a transverse ligamentous hinge. 
T. polyphemus, the " gopher " of southern United States, lives in 
pairs in self-dug burrows. T. labulata is one of the few South 
American terrestrial tortoises. 

Of great interest are the so-called gigantic land tortoises. In 
former epochs truly gigantic species of the genus Testudo had a wide 
and probably more continuous distribution. There was T. atlas, 
of the Pliocene of the Sivalik hills with a skull nearly 8 in. long, 
but the shell probably measured not more than 6 ft. in length, 
the restored specimen in the Natural History Museum at South 
Kensington being exaggerated. T. perpigniana of Pliocene France 
was also large. Large land tortoises, with a length of shell of 
more than 2 ft., became restricted to two widely separated regions 
of the world, viz. the Galapagos Islands (called thus after the Spanish 
galapago, i.e. tortoise), and islands in the western Indian Ocean 
viz. the Mascarenes (Bourbon, Mauritius and Rodriguez) and Aldabra. 
When they became extinct in Madagascar is not known, but 
T. grandidieri was a very large kind, of apparently very recent date. 
At the time of their discovery those smaller islands were un- 
inhabited by man or any predaceous mammal. It was on these 
peaceful islands that land tortoises lived in great numbers; with 



plenty of food there was nothing for them to do but to feed, to 
propagate, to grow and to vary. Most of the islands were or are 
inhabited by one or more typical, local forms. As they provided, 
like the equally ill-fated dodo and solitaire, a welcome provision 
of excellent meat, ships carried them about, to be slaughtered as 
occasion required, and soon almost exterminated them; some 
were occasionally liberated on other islands, for instance, on the 
Seychelles and on the Chagos, or they were left as presents, in 
Ceylon, Java or on Rotuma near the Fijis. Thus it has come to 
pass that the few survivors have been very much scattered. The 
small genuine stock at Aldabra is now under government protection, 
in a way. A large male of T. gigantea or elephanlina or hololissa 
or ponderosa, was brought to London and weighed 870 ft; another 
specimen had in 1908 been living at St Helena for more than one 
hundred years. A specimen of T. daudini, native of the South 
Island of Aldabra, was known for many years on Egmont Island, 
one of the Chagos group, then it was taken to Mauritius and then 
to England, where of course it soon died ; its shell measures 55 in. 
in a straight line, and it weighed 560 ft. The type specimen of 
T. sumeirei, supposed to have come originally from the Seychelles, 
was in 1908 still kept in the barrack grounds at Port Louis, Mauri- 
tius, and had been known as a large tortoise for about 1 50 years. 
T. vosmaeri was a very thin-shelled species in Rodriguez. Of the 
Galapagos species T. ephippium still survives on Duncan Island; 
T. abingdoni lived on Abingdon Island; of T. elephanlopus or 
vicina, G. Baur still collected 21 specimens in 1893 on Albemarle 
Island. One monster of this kind is said to have measured 56 in. 
over the curve of the carapace, with a skull a little more than 7 in. 
in length. All the Galapagos species are remarkable for their 
comparatively small head and the very long neck, which is much 
larger and more slender than that of the eastern species. 

Family 6. Chelonidae. Marine turtles, with only two recent 
genera, with three widely distributed species. The limbs are paddle- 
shaped, with only one or two claws, and the shell is covered with 
horny shields. The neck is short and incompletely retractile. 
The parietals, post-frontals, squamosals, quadrato-jugals, and jugals 
are much expanded and form an additional or false roof over the 
temporal region of the skull. 

The Chelonidae are a highly specialized offshoot of the Cryptodira, 
adapted to marine life. Fundamentally they agree most with the 
Testudinidae, and there is nothing primitive about them except 
that they still possess complete series of inframarginal shields. 

Chelone, with only 4 pairs of costal shields, with 5 neurals and 
a broad nuchal. C. mydas s. viridis, the " green or edible turtle," 




FIG. 5. Green Turtle (Chelone mydas). 



has, when adult, a nearly smooth shell. It attains a length of 
nearly 4 ft., and may then weigh more than three hundredweight. 
Their food consists of algae, and of Zostera marina. Their capture 
forms a regular pursuit wherever they occur in any numbers. 
Comparatively few are caught in the open sea, others in staked 
nets, but the majority are intercepted at well-known periods and 
localities where they go ashore to deposit their eggs. These are 
round, with a parchment-like shell and buried in the sand, above 
the high-tide mark, as many as 100 to 250 being laid by one female. 
They are eagerly searched for and eaten. The famous turtle- 
soup is made not only of the meat and the fat, but also from the 
thick and gelatinous layer of subcutaneous tissue which lines the 
inside of the shell. Only the females are eaten ; the males, recogniz- 
able by the longer tail, are rejected at the London market. This 
species inhabits the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. 

C. imbricata, the " hawksbill turtle. " The shields are thick, 
strongly overlapping each other from before backwards, but in 
old specimens the shields lose their keel, flatten and become juxta- 
posed. The horny cover of the upper jaw forms a hooked beak. 
This species lives upon fish and molluscs and is not eaten; but 
is much persecuted for the horny shields which yield the 



7 o 



TORTOISE 



" tortoise-shell, " so far as this is not a fraudulent imitation. When 
heated in oil, or boiled, the shields (which singly are not thick enough 
to be manufactured into larger articles) can be welded together 
under pressure and be given any desired shape. The " hawksbill " 




FIG. 6. Hawksbill Turtle (Chelone imbricata). 

ranges over all the tropical and sub-tropical seas and scarcely reaches 
3 ft. in length, but such a shell yields up to 8 Ib of tortoiseshell. 

Thalassochelys caretla, the " loggerhead, " has normally five pairs 
of costal shields, but whilst the number of shields in the genus 
Chelone is very constant, that of the loggerhead varies individually 
to an astonishing extent. The greatest number of neurals ob- 
served, and counting the nuchal as the first, is 8, and 8 pairs of 
costal, in all 24; the lowest numbers are 6 neurals with 5 pairs of 
costals; odd costals are frequent. The most interesting facts are 
that some of the supernumerary shields are much smaller than the 
others, sometimes mere vestiges in all stages of gradual suppression, 
and that the abnormalities are much more common in babies and 
small specimens than in adults. The importance of these ortho- 
genetic variations has been discussed by H. Gadow in A. Willey's 
Zoolog. Results, pt. iii. p. 207-222, pis. 24, 25 (Cambridge 1899). 




FIG. 7. Loggerhead (Thalassochelys caretta). 



The " loggerhead " is carnivorous, feeding on fish, molluscs and 
crustaceans, and is not esteemed as food. A great part of the 
turtle-oil which finds its way into the market is obtained from it; 
its tortoiseshell is of an inferior quality. Besides all the inter- 
tropical seas it inhabits the Mediterranean, and is an accidental 
visitor of the western coasts of Europe. The old specimen captured 
on the Dutch coast in 1894 contained the enormous number of 
1150 eggs. 

Super-family 2. Pleurodira. The long neck bends laterally and 
is tucked away between the anterior portion of the carapace and the 



plastron. The dorsal and ventral ends of the pelvis are anchylosed 
to the shell. Fresh-water tortoises of South America, Australia, 
Africa and Madagascar. 




FIG. 8. The Matamata (Chelys fimbriata) with side view of 
head, and separate view of plastron. 



Family I . Pelomedusidae. Neck completely retractile. 
' which the nuchal is wanting. 



Carapace 

covered with horny shields, of which the nuchal is wanting. Plastron 
composed of II plates. With 24 marginal and 13 plastral shields, 




FIG. 9. Lower view of Trionyx euphratica. 

inclusive of a conspicuous intergular. Sternolhaerus in Africa and 
Madagascar. Pelomedusa galeata in Madagascar and from the Cape 
to the Sinaitic peninsula. Podocnemis is common in tropical 
South America, e.g. P. expansa of Brazilian rivers, noteworthy for 



TORTOISESHELL TORTONA 



the millions of eggs which are, or were, annually collected for the 
sake of their oil. Bates (The Naturalist on the River Amazon) 
gives a most interesting account of these turtles, which are entirely 
frugivorous. 

Family 2. Chelydidae. The neck, when bent, remains partly 
exposed. Shell covered with shields. Plastron composed of 9 

Elates, but covered with 13 shields. This family, still represented 
y nearly 30 species, with 8 genera, is found in South America 
and in Australia. Chelys fimbriata, the " matamata " in the rivers of 
Guiana and North Brazil; total length about 3 ft.; with animal 
diet. Hydromedusa, e.g. tectifera, with very long neck, in Brazil, 
much resembling Chelodina, e.g. longicollis of the Australian region. 
Family 3. Carettochelydidae. Carettochelys insculpta, the only 
species, in the Fly river of New Guinea; still imperfectly known. 
This peculiar turtle seems to stand in the same relation to the Chely- 
didae and to the Trionychidae as do the Chelonidae to the Testu- 
dinidae by the transformation of the limbs into paddles with only two 
claws, and the complete reduction of the horny shields upon the 
shell, which is covered with soft skin. The plastron is composed 
of 9 plates; the 6 neural plates are all separated from one another 
by the costals. The premaxilla is single, as elsewhere only in 




FIG. 10. Upper view of the Turtle of the Euphrates (Trionyx 
euphratica). 

Chelys and in the Trionychidae. The neck is short and non-retractile. 
Length of shell about 18 in. 

Super-family 3. Trionychoidea. The shell is very flat and much 
smaller than the body, and covered with soft leathery skin, but 
traces of horny structures are still represented, especially in the 
young of some species, by numerous scattered little spikes on the 
back of the shell and even on the soft parts of the back. The limbs 
are short, broadly webbed and only the three inner digits are pro- 
vided with claws. Head and neck are retractile, bending in a sig- 
moid curve in a vertical plane. The jaws are concealed by soft 
lip-like flaps and the nose forms a short soft proboscis. The tem- 
poral region is not covered in by any arches; the quadrate is trumpet- 
shaped as in the Chelydidae, but the jugular arch is complete. 
The pelvis is not anchylosed to the shell. The carapace is much 
reduced in size, the ribs extending beyond the costal plates, and 
there are no marginals; except in the African Cyclanorbts the 
neural plates form a continuous series. All the nine elements of 
the plastron are deficient and but very loosely connected with each 
other. Most of these reductions in the skeletal and tegumentary 
armature are the result of life in muddy waters, in the bottom of 
which these creatures bury themselves with only the head exposed. 
They feed upon aquatic animals; those which are partial to hard- 
shelled molluscs soon wear down the sharp horny edges of the jaws, 
and thick horny crushing pads are developed in their stead. They 



only crawl upon land in order to lay their round brittle eggs. 
Trionyxes inhabit the rivers of Asia, Africa and North America. 
Trionyx ferox, the " soft-shelled turtle," in the whole of the Missis- 
sippi basin and in the chain of the great northern lakes. T. triunguis 
in Africa, the largest species, with a length of shell of 3 ft. T. 
hurum and T. gangeticus are the commonest Indian species. The 
young are ornamented with two or three pairs of large, round, 
ocellated spots on the back. (H. F. G.) 

TORTOISESHELL. The tortoiseshell of commerce consists 
of the epidermic plates covering the bony carapace of the 
hawksbill turtle, Chelonia imbricata, the smallest of the sea 
turtles. The plates of the back or carapace, technically called 
the head, are 13 in number, 5 occupying the centre, flanked 
by 4 on each side. These overlap each other to the extent of 
one-third of their whole size, and hence they attain a large size, 
reaching in the largest to 8 in. by 13 in., and weighing as 
much as 9 oz. The carapace has also 24 marginal pieces, 
called hoofs or claws, forming a serrated edge round it; but these, 
with the plates of the plastron, or belly, are of inferior value. The 
plates of tortoiseshell consist of horny matter, but they are 
harder, more brittle, and less fibrous than ordinary horn. 
Their value depends on the rich mottled colours they display a 
warm translucent yellow, dashed and spotted with rich brown 
tints and on the high polish they take and retain. The finest 
tortoiseshell is obtained from the Eastern Archipelago, par- 
ticularly from the east coast of Celebes to New Guinea; but the 
creature is found and tortoiseshell obtained from all tropical 
coasts, large supplies coming from the West Indian Islands and 
Brazil. 

Tortoiseshell is worked precisely as horn; but, owing to the high 
value of the material, care is taken to prevent any waste in its 
working. The plates, as separated by heat from the bony skeleton, 
are keeled, curved, and irregular in form. They are first flattened 
by heat and pressure, and superficial inequalities are rasped away. 
Being harder and more brittle than horn, tortoiseshell requires 
careful treatment in moulding it into any form, and as high heat 
tends to darken and obscure the material it is treated at as low a 
heat as practicable. For many purposes it is necessary to increase 
the thickness or to add to the superficial size of tortoiseshell, and 
this is readily done by careful cleaning and rasping of the surfaces 
to be united, softening the plates in boiling water or sometimes by 
dry heat, and then pressing them tightly together by means of heated 
pincers or a vice. The heat softens and liquefies a superficial film 
of the horny material, and that with the pressure effects a perfect 
union of the surfaces brought together. Heat and pressure are 
also employed to mould the substance into boxes and the numerous 
artificial forms into which it is made up. 

Tortoiseshell has been a prized ornamental material from very 
early times. It was one of the highly esteemed treasures of the 
Far East brought to ancient Rome by way of Egypt, and it was 
eagerly sought by wealthy Romans as a veneer for their rich furniture. 
In modern times it is most characteristically used in the elaborate 
inlaying of cabinet-work known as buhl furniture, and in com- 
bination with silver for toilet articles. It is also employed as a 
veneer for small boxes and frames. It is cut into combs, moulded 
into snuff-boxes and other small boxes, formed into knife-handles, 
and worked up into many other similar minor articles. The plates 
from certain other tortoises, known commercially as turtle-shell, 
possess a certain industrial value, but they are either opaque or 
soft and leathery, and cannot be mistaken for tortoiseshell. A 
close imitation of tortoiseshell can be made by staining translucent 
horn or by varieties of celluloid. 

TORTOLI, a town and episcopal see of Sardinia, on the east 
coast, 140 m. N.N.E. of Cagliari by rail (55 m. direct). Pop. 
(1901), 2105. It lies 60 ft. above sea-level to the south-west of a 
large lagoon, which renders it unhealthy. The harbour is 2\ m. to 
the east, and serves for the export of the wine and agricultural 
produce of the Ogliastra. A little to the south of Tortoli was 
the station of Sulci on the Roman coast road, known to us only 
from the itineraries. 

TORTONA (anc. Dertona), a town and episcopal see of Pied- 
mont, Italy, in the province of Alessandria, from which it is 
14 m. E. by rail, on the right bank of the Scrivia, at the northern 
foot of the Apennines, 394 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 
11,308 (town); 17,419 (commune). Tortona is on the main line 
from Milan to Genoa; from it a main line runs to Alessandria, 
a branch to Castelnuovo Scrivia, and a steam tramway to 
Sale. Its fortifications were destroyed by the French after 
Marengo (1799); the ramparts are now turned into shady 



TORTOSA TORTURE 



promenades. The cathedral, erected by Philip II., contains a 
remarkably fine Roman sarcophagus of the Christian period. 
Silk- weaving, tanning and hat-making are the chief industries; 
and there is some trade in wine and grain. 

Dertona, which may have become a Roman colony as early 
as the 2nd century B.C. and certainly did so under Augustus, 
is spoken of by Strabo as one of the most important towns of 
Liguria. It stood at the point of divergence of the Via 
Postumia (see LIGURIA) and the Via Aemilia, while a branch 
road ran hence to Pollentia. A number of ancient inscriptions 
and other objects have been found here. In the middle ages 
Tortona was zealously attached to the Guelphs, on which 
account it was twice laid waste by Frederick Barbarossa, in 
1 155 and 1163. (T. As.) 

TORTOSA, a fortified city of north-east Spain, in the province 
of Tarragona; 40 m. by rail W.S.W. of the city of Tarragona, 
on the river Ebro 22 m. above its mouth. Pop. (1900), 24,452. 
Tortosa is for the most part an old walled town on the left bank 
of the river, with narrow, crooked and ill-paved streets, in which 
the houses are lofty and massively built of granite. But some 
parts of the old town have been rebuilt, and there is a modern 
suburb on the opposite side of the Ebro. The slope on which 
old Tortosa stands is crowned with an ancient castle, which 
has been restored and converted into barracks and a hospital. 
All the fortifications are obsolete. The cathedral occupies the 
site of a Moorish mosque built in 914. The present structure, 
which dates from 1347, has its Gothic character disguised 
by a classical facade with Ionic pillars and much tasteless 
modernization. The stalls in the choir, carved by Cristobal de 
Salamanca in 1588-1593, and the sculpture of the pulpits, as well 
as the iron-work of the choir-railing and some of the precious 
marbles with which the chapels are adorned, deserve notice. 
The other public buildings include an episcopal palace, a town- 
hall and numerous churches. There are manufactures of 
paper, hats, leather, ropes, porcelain, majolica, soap, spirits, 
and ornaments made of palm leaves and grasses. There is an 
important fishery in the river, and the harbour is accessible to 
vessels of 100 tons burden. Corn, wine, oil, wool, silk, fruits 
and liquorice (a speciality of the district) are exported. The 
city is connected with Barcelona and Valencia by the coast 
railway, and with Saragossa by the Ebro valley line; it is also 
the terminus of a railway to San Carlos de la Rapita on the 
Mediterranean. Near Tortosa are rich quarries of marble and 
alabaster. 

Tortosa, the Derlosa of Strabo and the Colonia Julia Augusta 
Dertosa of numerous coins, was a city of the Ilercaones in 
Hispania Tarraconensis. Under the Moors it was of great im- 
portance as the key of the Ebro valley. It was taken by Louis 
the Pious in 811 (after an unsuccessful siege two years before), 
but was soon recaptured. Having become a haunt of pirates, 
and exceedingly injurious to Italian commerce, it was made the 
object of a crusade proclaimed by Pope Eugenius III. in 1148, 
and was captured by Ramon Berenguer IV., count of Barcelona, 
assisted by Templars, Pisans and Genoese. An attempt to 
recapture the city in 1149 was defeated by the heroism of the 
women, who were thenceforth empowered by the count to wear 
the red sash of the Order of La Hacha (The Axe), to import 
their clothes free of duty, and to precede their bridegrooms at 
weddings. Tortosa fell into the hands of the duke of Orleans 
in 1708; during the Peninsular War it surrendered in 1811 to 
the French under Suchet, who held it till 1814. 

TORTURE (from Lat. torquere, to twist), the general name for 
innumerable modes of inflicting pain which have been from time 
to time devised by the perverted ingenuity of man, and especially 
for those employed in a legal aspect by the civilized nations of 
antiquity and of modern Europe. From this point of view 
torture was always inflicted for one of two purposes: (i) As a 
means of eliciting evidence from a witness or from an accused 
person either before or after condemnation; (2) as a part of the 
punishment. The second was the earlier use, its function as a 
means of evidence arising when rules were gradually formulated 
by the experience of legal experts. 



Torture as a part of the punishment may be regarded as 
including every kind of bodily or mental pain beyond what is 
necessary for the safe custody of the offender (with or without 
enforced labour) or the destruction of his life in the language 
of Bentham, an " afflictive " as opposed to a " simple " punish- 
ment. Thus the unnecessary' sufferings endured in English 
prisons before the reforms of John Howard, the peine forte 
et dure, and the drawing and quartering in executions for 
treason, fall without any straining of terms under the category 
of torture. 

The whole subject is now one of only historical interest as far 
as Europe is concerned. It was, however, up to a comparatively 
recent date an integral part of the law of most countries 
(to which England, Aragon and Sweden 1 formed honourable 
exceptions) as much a commonplace of law as trial by jury 
in England. 2 The prevailing view, no doubt, was that truth was 
best obtained by confession, the regina probationum. Where 
confession was not voluntary, it must be extorted. Speaking 
generally, torture may be said to have succeeded the ordeal 
and trial by battle. Where these are found in full vigour, 
as in the capitularies of Charlemagne, there is no provision for 
torture. It was no doubt accepted reluctantly as being a 
quasi judicium Dei, but tolerated in the absence of any better 
means of eliciting truth, especially in cases of great gravity, on 
the illogical assumption that extraordinary offences must be 
met by extraordinary remedies. Popular feeling too, says 
Verri, preferred, as causes of evil, human beings who could be 
forced to confess, rather than natural causes which must be 
accepted with resignation. Confession, as probatio probatissima 
and vox vera, was the best of all evidence, and all the machinery 
of law was moved to obtain it. The trials for witchcraft 
remain on record as a refutation of the theory. 

The opinions of the best lay authorities have been almost 
unanimously against the use of torture, even in a system where 
it was as completely established as it was in Roman law. " Tor- 
menta," says Cicero, 3 in words which it is almost impossible to 
translate satisfactorily, " gubernat dolor, regit quaesitor, flectit 
libido, corrumpit spes, infirmat metus, ut in tot rerum angustiis 
nihil veritati loci relinquatur." Seneca says bitterly, " it forces 
even the innocent to lie." St Augustine 4 recognizes the fallacy 
of torture. " If," says he, " the accused be innocent, he will 
undergo for an uncertain crime a certain punishment, and that 
not for having committed a crime, but because it is unknown 
whether he committed it." At the same time he regards it as 
excused by its necessity. The words of Ulpian, in the Digest 
of Justinian, 6 are no less impressive: " The torture (quaestio) 
is not to be regarded as wholly deserving or wholly undeserving 
of confidence; indeed, it is untrustworthy, perilous and decep- 
tive. For most men, by patience or the severity of the torture, 
come so to despise the torture that the truth cannot be elicited 
from them; others are so impatient that they will lie in any 
direction rather than suffer the torture; so it happens that they 
depose to contradictions and accuse not only themselves but 
others." Montaigne's 6 view of torture as a part of the punish- 
ment is a most just one: "All that exceeds a simple death 
appears to me absolute cruelty; neither can our justice expect 
that he whom the fear of being executed by being beheaded or 
hanged will not restrain should be any more awed by the imagina- 
tion of a languishing fire, burning pincers, or the wheel." 
He continues with the curious phrase: " He whom the judge 
has tortured (gehenne) that he may not die innocent, dies inno- 
cent and tortured." Montesquieu 7 speaks of torture in a most 
guarded manner, condemning it, but without giving reasons, 
and eulogizing England for doing without it. The system was 
condemned by Bayle and Voltaire with less reserve. Among 

1 But even in these countries, whatever the law was, torture 
certainly existed in fact. 

1 Primitive systems varied. There is no trace of it in Babylonian 
or Mosaic law, but Egyptian and Assyrian provided for it; and the 
story of Regulus seems to show that it was in use at Carthage. 

8 Pro Sulla, c. 28. 4 De civ. Dei, bk. xix. c. 6. 

6 Dig. xlviii. 18, 23. 'Essay Ixv. (Cotton's trans.) 

7 Esprit des lois, bk. vi. c. 17. 



TORTURE 



73 



the Germans, Sonnenfels (1766), and, among the Italians, 
Beccaria, 1 Verri 2 and Manzoni 3 will be found to contain most that 
can be said on the subject. The influence of Beccaria in rendering 
the use of torture obsolete was undoubtedly greater than that of 
any other legal reformer. The great point that he makes is 
the unfair incidence of torture, as minds and bodies differ in 
strength. Moreover, it is, says he, to confound all relations to 
expect that a man should be both accuser and accused, and that 
pain should be the test of truth, as though truth resided in the 
muscles and fibres of a wretch under torture. The result of the 
torture is simply a matter of calculation. Given the force of the 
muscles and the sensibility of the nerves of an innocent person, 
it is required to find the degree of pain necessary to make him 
confess himself guilty of a given crime. Bentham's 4 objection 
to torture is that the effect is exactly the reverse of the intention. 
" Upon the face of it, and probably enough in the intention of 
the framers, the object of this institution was the protection 
of innocence; the protection of guilt and the aggravation of the 
pressure upon innocence was the real fruit of it." The apologists 
of torture are chiefly among jurists. But theoretical objections 
to it are often urged by the authors of books of practice, as by 
Damhouder, von Rosbach, von Boden, Voet, and others named 
below under the head of The Netherlands. It is worthy 
of note as illustrative of the feeling of the time that even Bacon 5 
compares experiment in nature to torture in civil matters as the 
best means of eliciting truth. Muyart de Vouglans 6 derives 
the origin of torture from the law of God. Other apologists 
are Simancas, bishop of Badajoz, 7 Engel, 8 Pedro de Castro, 9 
and in England Sir R. Wiseman. 10 

Greece. The opinion of Aristotle was in favour of torture as a 
mode of proof. ' It is," he says, " a kind of evidence, and appears 
to carry with it absolute credibility because a kind of constraint 
is applied." It is classed as one of the " artless persuasions " 
(&Tfx"i T(<TTS). U " It was the surest means of obtaining evidence, 
says Demosthenes. 12 At Athens slaves, and probably at times 
resident aliens, were tortured, 13 in the former case generally with 
the master's consent, but torture was seldom applied to free citizens, 14 
such application being forbidden by a psephism passed in the 
archonship of Scamandrius. After the mutilation of the Hermae 
in 415 B.C. a proposition was made, but not carried, that it should 
be applied to two senators named by an informer. In this particular 
case Andocides gave up all his slaves to be tortured. 16 Torture was 
sometimes inflicted in open court. The rack was used as a punish- 
ment even for free citizens. Antiphon was put to death by this 
means. 16 The torture of Nicias by the Syracusans is alluded to by 
Thucydides"as an event likely to happen, and it was only in order 
to avoid the possibility of inconvenient disclosures that he was put 
to death without torture. Isocrates and Lysias refer to torture 
under the generic name of <TTpej8\w<r, but it was generally called 
/9d<raw>t, in the plural, like tormenta. As might be expected, 
torture was frequently inflicted by the Greek despots, and both 
Zeno and Anaxarchus are said to have been put to it by such irre- 
sponsible authorities. At Sparta the despot Nabis was accustomed, 
as we learn from Polybius, 18 to put persons to death by an instrument 
of torture in the form of his wife Apega, a mode of torture no doubt 
resembling the Jungfernkuss once used in Germany. At Argos, as 
Diodorus informs us (xv. 57), certain conspirators were put to the 
torture in 371 B.C. 19 



1 Dei Delilti e delle pene, c. xvi. ! Osservazioni sutta tortura. 
3 Storia delta Colonna infatne. 4 Works, vii. 525. 

6 Nov. Org., bk. i. aph. 98. In the Advancement of Learning, 
bk. iv. ch. 4, Bacon collects many instances of constancy under 
torture. 

' Instituts du droit criminel (Paris, 1757). 

7 De catholicis institutionibus liber, ad praecavendas el extirpandas 
haereses admodum necessarius (Rome, 1575). 

8 De tortura ex for is christianis non proscribenda (Leipzig, 1733). 
' Defensa de la tortura (Madrid, 1778). 

10 Law of Laws, p. 122 (London, 1686). 

11 Rhet. i. 15, 26. 12 In Onetum, i. 874. 

13 Usually by the diaetetae in the Hephaestaeum, Isocrates, 
Trapez. 361. 

14 The opinion of Cicero (De partitionibus oratoriis, 34), that it 
was so applied at Athens and Rhodes, seems, as far as regards Athens, 
not to be justified by existing evidence. 

16 The demand for, or the giving up of, a slave for torture was called 
TpAcX7|<ris tlj ffaaavov. 

16 In the Ranae of Aristophanes, v. 617, there is a list of kinds of 
torture, and the wheel is alluded to in Lysistrata, v. 846. 

17 vii. 86. " xiii. 7. 

u For the whole subject, see Diet. Ant., s.v. Tormenta. 



Rome. The Roman system was the basis of all subsequent 
European systems which recognized torture as a part of their pro- 
cedure, and the rules attained a refinsment beyond anything 
approached at Athens. The law of torture was said by Cicero to rest 
originally on custom (mores majorum), but there is no allusion to it 
in the Twelve Tables. There are frequent allusions to it in the 
classical writers, 20 both of the republic and the empire. The law, 
as it existed under the later empire, is contained mainly in the titles 
De quaestionibus 11 of the Digest and the Code 22 the former consisting 
largely of opinions from the Sententiae receptae of Paulus, 23 the latter 
being for the most part merely a repetition of constitutions contained 
in the Theodosian Code. 24 Both substantive law and procedure 
were dealt with by these texts of Roman law, the latter, however, 
not as fully as in medieval codes, a large discretion being left to the 
judges. Torture was used both in civil and criminal trials, but in 
the former only upon slaves and freedmen or infamous persons (after 
Nov. xc. I, i, upon ignoli and obscuri if they showed signs of corrup- 
tion) such as gladiators and in the absence of alia manifesta 
indicia, as in cases affecting the inheritance (res hereditariae). Its 
place in the case of free citizens was taken by the reference to the 
oath of the party. During the republic torture appears to have 
been confined to slaves in all cases, but with the empire a free man 
became liable to it if accused of a crime, though in most cases not as 
a witness. On an accusation of treason every one, whatever his 
rank, was liable to torture, for in treason the condition of all was 
equal. 26 The same was the case of those accused of sorcery (magi), 
who were regarded as humani generis inimici." A wife might be 
tortured (but only after her slaves had been put to the torture) it 
accused of poisoning her husband. In accusations of crimes other 
than treason or sorcery, certain persons were protected by the dignity 
of their position or their tender age. The main exemptions were 
contained in a constitution of Diocletian and Maximian, and included 
soldiers, nobles of a particular rank, i.e. eminentissimi and perfectis- 
simi, and their descendants to the third generation, and decuriones 
and their children to a limited extent (tormenta moderata) that is 
to say, they were subject to the torture of the flumbatae in certain 
cases, such as fraud on the revenue and extortion. In addition to 
these, priests (but not clergy of a lower rank), children under fourteen 
and pregnant women were exempt. A free man could be tortured 
only where he had been inconsistent in his depositions, or where 
there was a suspicion that he was lying. 28 The rules as to the torture 
of slaves were numerous and precise. It was a maxim of Roman 
law that torture of slaves was the most efficacious means of obtaining 
truth. 29 They could be tortured either as accused or as witnesses 
for their masters in all cases, but against their masters only in 
accusations of treason, adultery, frauds on the revenue, coining, and 
similar offences (which were regarded as a species of treason), 
attempts by a husband or wife on the life of the other, and in cases 
where a master had bought a slave for the special reason that he 
should not give evidence against him. The privilege from accusa- 
tions by the slave extended to the master's father, mother, wife, or 
tutor, and also to a former master. On the same principle a freedman 
could not be tortured against his patron. The privilege did not 
apply where the slave was joint property, and one of his masters had 
been murdered by the other, or where he was the property of a 
corporation, for in such a case he could be tortured in a charge against 
a member of the corporation. Slaves belonging to the inheritance 
could be tortured in actions concerning the inheritance. The adult 
slaves of a deceased person could be tortured where the deceased had 
been murdered. In a charge of adultery against a wife, her husband's, 
her own and her father's slaves could be put to the torture. A 
slave manumitted for the express purpose of escaping torture was 
regarded as still liable to it. Before putting a slave to torture 
without the consent of his master, security must be given to the 
master for his value and the oath of calumny must be taken. 80 The 
master of a slave tortured on a false accusation could recover double 
his value from the accuser. The undergoing of torture had at one 
time a serious effect upon the after-life of the slave, for in the time of 
Gaius a slave who had been tortured could on manumission obtain 
no higher civil rights than those of a dediticius. 31 The rules of 
procedure were conceived in a spirit of as much fairness as such rules 
could be. Some of the most important were these: The amount 
of torture was at the discretion of the judge, but it was to be so 



20 An instance is Pliny's letter to Trajan (Epist. x. 97), where he 
mentions having put to the torture two Christianr deaconesses 
(ministrae). The words are confitentes iterum ac tertio interrogavi. 
This supports Tertullian's objection to the torture of Christians, 
torquemur confitentes (Apol. c. 2). 

21 Quaestio included the whole process of which torture was a part. 
In the words of Cujacius, Quaestio est interrogatio quaefit per lormenta, 
vel de reis, vel de testibus qui facto intervenisse dicuntur. 

22 Dig. xlviii. 18; Cod. ix. 41. 

23 v. 14, 15, 16. 24 ix. 35. 

26 Cod. ix. 8, 3. * Ibid. ix. 8, 4. 

27 Ibid. ix. 1 8, 7. ffl Ibid. iv. 20, 13. 

29 Ibid. i. 3, 8. 

30 Ibid. ii. 59, I, i. The demand of another man's slave for torture 
was postulare. 

31 Gaius i. 13. 



74 



TORTURE 



applied as not to injure life or limb. If so applied the judge was 
infamis. The examination was not to begin by torture; other 
proofs must be exhausted first. The evidence 1 must have advanced 
so far that nothing but the confession of the slave was wanting to 
complete it. Those of weakest frame and tenderest age were to be 
tortured first. Except in treason, the unsupported testimony of a 
single witness was not a sufficient ground for torture. The voice 
and manner of the accused were to be carefully observed. A spon- 
taneous confession, or the evidence of a personal enemy, was to be 
received with caution. Repetition of the torture could only be 
ordered in case of inconsistent depositions or denial in the face of 
strong evidence. There was no rule limiting the number of repeti- 
tions. Leading questions were not to be asked. A judge was not 
liable to an action for anything done during the course of the examina- 
tion. An appeal from an order to torture was competent to the 
accused, except in the case of slaves, when an appeal could be made 
only by the master. 2 The appellant was not to be tortured pending 
the appeal, but was to remain in prison. 3 The quaesitor asked the 
questions, the tortores applied the instruments. The principal 
forms of torture in use were the equuleus, or rack (mentioned as far 
back as Cicero), 4 the plumbatae, or leaden balls, the ungulae, or 
barbed hooks, the lamina, or hot plate, the mala mansio, 6 and the" 
fidiculae, or cord compressing the arm. Other allusions in the 
Digest and Code, in addition to those already cited, may be shortly 
noticed. The testimony of a gladiator or infamous person (such as 
an accomplice) was not valid without torture. 6 This was no doubt 
the origin of the medieval maxims (which were, however, by no 
means universally recognized) Vilitas personae est justa causa 
torquendi testem, and Torlura purgatur infamia. Torture could not 
be inflicted during the forty days of Lent. 7 Robbers and pirates 
might be tortured even on Easter day, the divine pardon being hoped 
for where the safety of society was thus assured. 8 Capital punish- 
ment was not to be suffered until after conviction or confession under 
torture.' Withdrawal from prosecution (abolitio) was not to be 
allowed as a rule after the accused had undergone the torture. 10 In 
charges of treason the accuser was liable to torture if he did not 
prove his case. 11 The infliction of torture, not judicial, but at the 
same time countenanced by law, was at one time allowed to creditors. 
They were allowed to keep their debtors in private prisons, and most 
cruelly ill-use them, in order to extort payment. 12 Under the empire 
private prisons were forbidden. 13 In the time of Juvenal the Roman 
ladies actually hired the public torturers to torture their domestic 
slaves. 14 As a part of the punishment torture was in frequent use. 
Crucifixion, mutilation, exposure to wild beasts in the arena and 
other cruel modes of destroying life were common, especially in the 
time of the persecution of the Christians under Nero. 16 Crucifixion 
as a punishment was abolished by Constantine in 315, in veneration 
of the memory of Him who was crucified for mankind. On the other 
hand, where the interests of the Church were concerned the tendency 
was in favour of greater severity. Thus, by the Theodosian Code, 
a heretic was to be flogged with lead (conlusus plumbo) before 
banishment, 16 and Justinian made liable to torture and exile any one 
insulting a bishop or priest in a church, or saying litany, if a layman. 17 



1 The evidence on which the accused might be tortured was 
expressed in Roman law by the terms argumentum and indicium 
(used technically as early as Cicero, Verres, i. 10 and 17). The 
latter term, as will be seen, afterwards became one of the most 
important in the law of torture, but the analysis of indicium is later 
than Roman law. Indicium was not quite the same thing as semi- 
plena probatio, though the terms appear to be occasionally used as 
synonyms. Indicium was rather the foundation or cause of 
probatio, whether plena or semiplena. An indicium or a concurrence 
of indicia might, according to circumstances, constitute a plena or 
semiplena probatio. The phrase legilima indicia was sometimes used. 
In Sir T. Smith's work, c. 24 (see below), index means a prisoner 
acting as an approver under torture. Tormentum, tortura and 
quaestio appear to be equivalent terms. The medieval jurists 
derived the first of these from torquere mentem, an etymology as false 
as testamenlum from testatio mentis (Inst. ii. 10 pr.). 

8 Dig. xlix. i. 15. * Cod. vii. 62, 12. 

4 Mtlo, Ivii. 

' Of doubtful meaning, but perhaps like the " Little Ease " of the 
Tower of London. 

6 Dig. xxii. 5, 21, 2. 7 Cod. iii. 12, 6. 

* Ibid. iii. 12, 10. Ibid. ix. 47, 16. 

10 Ibid. ix. 42, 3. Ibid. ix. 8, 3. 

12 See, for instance, Livy vi. 36. 13 Cod. i. 4, 23 ; ix. 5. 

14 Ibid. vi. 480. 

15 As an example of such punishments, cf. the well-known lines 
of Juvenal (Sat. i. 155): 

" Taeda lucebis in ilia, 

Qua stantes ardent qui fixo gutture fumant." 

For other poetical allusions, see vi. 480, xiv. 21; Lucr. iii. 1030; 
Propert. iv. 7, 35. 
" xvi. 53. 

17 Nov. cxxiii. 31. On the subject of torture in Roman law 
reference may be made to Wasserscheben, Historia quaeslionum 
per tormenta apud Romanos (Berlin, 1836); H. Wallon. Hisloire de 
I'esclavage dans I'antiquite (Paris, 1879); Mommsen, Romisches 



The Leges barbarorum are interesting as forming the link of connexion 
between the Roman and the medieval systems. Through them the 
Roman doctrines were transmitted into the Roman law countries. 
The barbarian codes were based chiefly on the Theodosian Code. 
As compared with Roman law there seems to be a leaning towards 
humanity, e.g. the provision for redemption of a slave after confession 
by s. 40 of the Lex salica. After the edict of Gundobald in 501 
the combat rather than the torture became the expression of the 
judicium Dei. 

The Church. As far as it could the Church adopted the Roman 
jaw. The Church generally secured the almost entire immunity of 
its clergy, at any rate of the higher ranks, from torture by civil 
tribunals; 18 but in general, where laymen were concerned all persons 
were equal. In many instances councils of the Church pronounced 
against torture, e.g. in a synod at Rome in 384. 19 Torture even of 
heretics seems to have been originally left to the ordinary tribunals. 
Thus a bull of Innocent IV., in 1282, directed the torture of heretics by 
the civil power, as being robbers and murderers of souls, and thieves 
of the sacraments of God. 20 The Church also enjoined torture for 
usury. 21 A characteristic division of torture, accepted by the Church, 
but not generally acknowledged by lay authorities, was into spiritual 
and corporal, the latter being simply the imposition of the oath of 
purgation, the only form originally in use in the ecclesiastical courts. 
The canon law contains little on the subject of torture, and that little 
of a comparatively humane nature. It laid down that it was no sin in 
the faithful to inflict torture, 22 but a priest might not do so with his 
own hands, 23 and charity was to be used in all punishments. 24 No 
confession was to be extracted by torture 26 and it was not to be 
ordered indiciis non praecedentibus. The principal ecclesiastical 
tribunal by which torture was inflicted in more recent times was the 
Inquisition. The code of instructions issued by Torquemada in 
Spain in 1484 provided that an accused person might be put to the 
torture if semiplena probatio existed against the accused- that is, 
so much evidence as to raise a grave and not merely a light presump- 
tion of guilt, often used for the evidence of one eye or ear witness of 
a fact. If the accused confessed during torture, and afterwards 
confirmed the confession, he was punished as convicted ; if he 
retracted, he was tortured again, or subjected to extraordinary 
punishment. One or two inquisitors, or a commissioner of the Holy 
Office, were bound to be present at every examination. Owing to the 
occurrence of certain cases of abuse of torture, a decree of Philip II. 
was issued, in 1558, forbidding the administration of torture 
without an order from the council. But this decree does not appear 
to have been fully observed. By the edict of the inquisitor-general 
Vald6s, in 1561, torture was to be left to the prudence and equity of 
the judges. They must consider motives and circumstances before 
decreeing torture, and must declare whether it is to be employed in 
caput proprium, i.e. to extort a confession, or in caput alienum, i.e. 
to incriminate an accomplice. Torture was not to be decreed until 
the termination of the process and after defence heard, and the 
decree was subject to appeal, but only in doubtful cases, to the Council 
of the Supreme. It was also only in doubtful cases that the inquisitors 
were bound to consult the council; where the law was clear (and 
of this they were the judges) there need be no consultation, and no 
appeal was allowed. On ratification twenty-four hours afterwards 
of a confession made under torture, the accused might be reconciled, 
if the inquisitors believed him to be sincerely repentant. If 
convicted of bad faith he might be relaxed, i.e. delivered to the 
secular power to be burned. The inquisitors had a discretion to 
allow the accused to make the canonical purgation by oath 
instead of undergoing corporal torture, but the rule which allows 
this to be done at the same time discountenances it as fallacious. 
It is remarkable that the rules do not allow much greater efficacy 
to torture. They speak of it almost in the terms of Roman law 
as dangerous and uncertain, and depending for its effects on 
physical strength. 27 Torture had ceased to be inflicted before the 
suppression of the Inquisition, and in 1816 a papal bull decreed 
that torture should cease, that proceedings should be public, and 
that the accuser should be confronted with the accused. The 
rules in themselves were not so cruel as the construction put upon 
them by the inquisitors. For instance, by Torquemada's instruc- 
tions torture could not be repeated unless in case of retractation. 
This led to the subtlety of calling a renewed torture a continuation, 

Strafrecht, iii. 5 (Leipzig, 1899); Greenidge, Legal Procedure of 
Cicero's Time, p. 479 (Oxford, 1901). 

18 See Escobar, Theol. Mor. tract, vi. c. 2. They were to be tor- 
tured only by the clergy, where possible, and only on indicia of 
special gravity. 

19 Lea, Superstition and Force, p. 419 (3rd ed., Philadelphia, 
1878). 

20 Leges et constilutiones contra haereticos, 26. 

21 Lecky, Rationalism in Europe, ii. 34. 

22 Decretum, pt. ii. 23, 4, 45. 23 Ibid. pt. i. 86, 25. 

24 Ibid. pt. ii. 12, 2, II. 26 Ibid. pt. ii. 15, 6, I. 

26 Decretals, v. 41, 6. 

27 The rules will be found in H. C. Lea, Hist, of the Inquisition of 
Spain (1906). See also Hist, of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages 
(New York, 1888) by the same writer; R. Schmidt, Die Herkvnft 
des Inquisitionsprocesses (Berlin, 1902). 



TORTURE 



75 



and not a repetition. The rules of Torquemada and of Valdes are 
those of the greatest historical importance, the latter forming the 
code of the Holy Office until its suppression, not only in Spain, but 
in other countries where the Inquisition was established. But 
several other manuals of procedure existed before the final perfec- 
tion of the system by Vald<;s. The earliest is perhaps the instruc- 
tions for inquisitors (Directorium inquisitorum) compiled a century 
earlier than Torquemada by Nicholas Eymerico, grand inquisitor 
of Aragon about 1368.' Rules of practice were also framed two 
centuries later by Simancas, whose position as an apologist has been 
already stated. The textbook of procedure of the Italian Inquisi- 
tion was the Sacro arsenale. 2 In 1545 and 1550 instructions for the 
guidance of inquisitors were issued by Charles V. The liability of 
a judge for exceeding the law was not always recognized by the 
Inquisition to the same extent as by the lay tribunals. Llorente 
gives an instance of a warrant by an inquisitor to a licentiate order- 
ing the torture of an accused person, and protesting that, in case 
of death or fracture of limbs, the fact is not to be imputed to the 
licentiate. 3 

Thus far of the law. In practice all the ingenuity of cruelty was 
exercised to find new modes of torment. 4 These cruelties led at 
times to remonstrance from the civil power. One example is the 
edict of Philip II. just mentioned. Another and an earlier one is 
an ordonnance of Philip the Fair, in 1302, bidding the Inquisition 
confine itself within the limits of the law. 6 At Venice the senate 
decreed that three senators should be present as inquisitors. 

As the practice of torture became more systematized, it grew to 
be the subject of casuistical inquiry by churchmen to an extent far 
exceeding the scanty discussion of the question in the text of the 
canon law. It will be sufficient here to cite as an example the treat- 
ment of it by Liguori, who incorporates the opinions of many of the 
Spanish casuists. On the whole, his views appear to be more humane 
than the prevailing practice. The object of torture he defines 
very neatly as being to turn semiplena into plena probatio. For 
this proper indicia are necessary. He then proceeds to decide 
certain questions which had arisen, the most interesting of which 
deal with the nature of the sin of which the accused and the judge 
are guilty in particular instances. A judge sins gravely if he does 
not attempt all milder means of discovering truth before resorting 
to torture. He sins in a criminal cause, or in one of notable infamy, 
if he binds the accused by oath to tell the truth before there is proof 
against him. It is the same if without oath he uses threats, terror 
or exhibition of torments to confound the witness. 6 If any one, to 
avoid grave torments, charges himself with a capital crime, he does 
not sin mortally. 7 It was a doubtful question whether he sinned 
gravely in such a case. Escobar at an earlier date supported the 
morally dangerous view that an inquisitor may follow a probable 
opinion in ordering torture, relinquishing a more probable. 8 

England. It is the boast of the common law of England that it 
never recognized torture as legal. One, perhaps the chief, reason 
for this position taken by the law is the difference of the nature of 
the procedure in criminal cases from that in general use in European 
countries. To use words more familiar in foreign jurisprudence, 
the English system is accusatorial as distinguished from inquisitorial. 
In the former the accuser has to prove guilt, in the latter the accused 
has to prove innocence. The common law of England has always 
shown itself averse from the inquisitorial system, and so (at least 
in theory) to the torture which may be regarded as an outcome of 
the system whose one end was to obtain a confession from the accused. 
The tendency of the small amount of statute law bearing on the 
subject is in the same direction. It was provided by Magna Carta, 
29, " that no free man . . . should be destroyed in any way unless 
by legal judgment of his equals or by the law of the land." On 
this Sir E. Coke comments, " No man destroyed, &c., that is, fore- 
judged of life or limb, disinherited, or put to torture or death." 9 
The act of 27 Hen. VIII. c. 4 enacted that, owing to the frequent 
escape of pirates in trials by the civil law, " the nature whereof 
is that before any judgment of death can be given against the 
offenders they must plainly confess their offence (which they will 
never do without torture or pains)," such persons should be tried 
by jury before commissioners under the Great Seal. Finally, the 
Bill of Rights provided that cruel and unusual punishments ought 
not to be inflicted. The opinions of the judges have been invariably 
against torture in theory, however much some of them may have 

1 An edition was published at Rome in 1558, and a compendium at 
Lisbon in 1762, and by Marchena at Montpellier in 1821. 

2 It was by Father Masini, and went through numerous editions 
(complete or compendia) from 1558 to 1730. Among other manuals 
of practice were those of Carenas Caesar (1655), Morellet (1762). 

3 Llorente c. xiv. 

4 Among others were the gradual pouring of water drop by drop 
on a particular spot of the body, the tormento de toca, or pouring of 
water into a gauze bag in the throat, which gradually forced the 
gauze into the stomach, and the pendola, or swinging pendulum, 
so graphically described in one of Edgar Poe's tales. 

6 Ordonnances des rois, i. 346. 

8 Theol. mar. bk. ix. 202. ' Ibid. 274. 

Ibid. v. 3 and 7. > 2 Inst. 48 b. 



been led to countenance it in practice. The strongest authority 
is the resolution of the judges in Felton's case (1628), that he ought 
not by the law to be tortured by the rack, for no such punishment 
is known or allowed by our law." 10 In accordance with this are 
the opinions of Sir John Fortescue, 11 Sir Thomas Smith u and Sir 
E. Coke. The latter says, " As there is no law to warrant tortures 
in this land, nor can they be justified by any prescription, being 
so lately brought in." 13 In spite of all this, torture in criminal 
proceedings was inflicted in England with more or less frequency 
for some centuries, both as a means of obtaining evidence and as 
a part of the punishment. But it should be remarked that torture 
of the former kind was invariably ordered by the Crown or council, 
or by some tribunal of extraordinary authority, such as the Star 
Chamber, not professing to be bound by the rules of the common 
law. In only two instances was a warrant to torture issued to a 
common law judge. 14 

A licence to torture is found as early as the Pipe Roll of 34 Hen. II." 
The Templars were tortured in 1310 by royal warrant addressed 
to the mayor and sheriffs of London. 16 In this case it is recorded that 
torture was unknown in England, and that no torturer was to be 
found in the realm. 17 A commission was issued concerning the 
tortures at Newgate in I334- 18 The rack in the Tower is said to 
have been introduced by the duke of Exeter in the reign of Henry VI., 
and to have been thence called "the duke of Exeter's daughter." 19 
In this reign torture seems to have taken its place as a part of 
what may be called extraordinary criminal procedure, claimed, and 
it may be said tacitly recognized, as exercisable by virtue of the 
prerogative, and continued in use down to l64O. 20 The infliction 
of torture gradually became more common under the Tudor monarchs. 
Under Henry VIII. it appears to have been in frequent use. Only 
two cases are recorded under Edward VI., and eight under Mary. 21 
The reign of Elizabeth was its culminating point. In the words 
of Hallam, " the rack seldom stood idle in the Tower for all the 
latter part of Elizabeth's reign." 22 The varieties of torture used at 
this period are fully described by Dr Lingard, 23 and consisted of 
the rack, the scavenger's daughter, 24 the iron gauntlets or bilboes, 
and the cell called " Little Ease." The registers of the council 
during the Tudor and early Stuart reigns are full of entries as to 
the use of torture, both for state and for ordinary offences. 26 Among 
notable prisoners put to the torture were Anne Askew, the Jesuit 
Campion, Guy Fawkes 26 and Peacham (who was examined by Bacon 
" before torture, in torture and after torture "). 27 The prevalence 
of torture in Elizabeth's reign led to the well-known defence at- 
tributed to Lord Burghley, " A declaration of the favourable dealing 
of Her Majesty's commissioners appointed for the examination of 
certain traitors, and of tortures unjustly reported to be done upon 
them for matter of religion," 1583. ffl The use of torture in England 
being always of an extraordinary and extra-judicial nature, it is 



10 3 State Trials, 371. 

11 De laudibus legum Angliae, c. 22. 

12 Commonwealth of England, bk. ii. c. 27 (1583; ed. by L. Alston, 
1906). It is curious that Sir T. Smith, with all his hatred of torture, 
was directed by a warrant under the queen's seal alone (not through 
the council) to torture the duke of Norfolk's servants in 1571. In 
a letter to Lord Burghley he pleaded for exemption from so hateful 
a task. 

13 3 Inst. 35. Nevertheless, in the trials of Lord Essex and 
Southampton, Coke is found extolling the queen's mercy for not 
racking or torturing the accused (i State Trials, 1338). (See further 
authorities in Pollock and Maitland, Hist, of English Law, ii. 656.) 

14 Jardine, Reading on the Use of Torture in the Criminal Law of 
England (1837), p. 52. 

6 L. O. Pike, Hist, of Crime in England, i. 427. 

16 Rymer, Foedera, iii. 228, 232. 

17 Walter of Hemingford, p. 256. 

18 Pike i. 481. 19 3 Inst. 34. 

20 This is the date of the latest warrant in Jardine's work, but it 
was used on three Portuguese at Plymouth during the Common- 
wealth (Thurloe iii. 298). 

21 It is to be noticed, as Jardine observes, that all these are cases 
of an ordinary nature, and afford no ground for the assertions made 
by Strutt and Bishop Burnet that torture was used to heretics as 
heretics. 

22 Const. Hist. i. 201. 

23 Hist, of England, vol. viii. app. note v. 

24 These two were exactly opposite in principle. The rack stretched 
the limbs of the sufferer; the scavenger's daughter compressed him 
into a ball. 

25 Fifty-five of these will be found in the appendix to Mr Jardine's 
work. An ordinary robber of plate was threatened with torture 
in 1567. Froude, Hist, of England, viii. 386. 

26 It is not certain whether he was racked, but probably he was, 
in accordance with the king's letter: " If he will not otherwise confess 
the gentlest tortures are to be first used to him, and so on, step by 
step, to the most severe, and so God speed the good work." 

27 Dalrymple, Memoirs and Letters of James I. p. 85; Macaulay's 
essay on the works of Bacon. 

28 Lord Somers's Tracts, i. 189. 



7 6 



TORTURE 



comparatively certain that it could hardly have been applied with 
that observation of forms which existed in countries where it was 
regulated by law. There were no rules and no responsibility beyond 
the will of the Crown or council. This irresponsibility is urged by 
Selden * as a strong objection to the use of torture. The main 
differences between the infliction of torture in England and on the 
continent of Europe seem to be that English lawyers made no dis- 
tinction of those liable to it, never allowed torture of witnesses, and 
elaborated no subtle rules as to plena and semiplena probatio. 

So far of what may be called torture proper, to which the common 
law professed itself a stranger. There were, however, cases fully 
recognized by the common law which differed from torture only 
in name. The peine forte el dure was a notable example of this. 
If a prisoner stood mute of malice instead of pleading, he was 
condemned to the peine, that is, to be stretched upon his back and 
to have iron laid upon him as much as he could bear, and more, 
and so to continue, fed upon bad bread and stagnant water through 
alternate days until he pleaded or died. 2 It was abolished by 12 
Geo. III. c. 20. 7 and 8 Geo. IV. c. 28 enacted that a plea of " not 
guilty " should be entered for a prisoner so standing mute. A case 
of peine occurred as lately as 1726. At times tying the thumbs 
with whip-cord was used instead of the peine. This was said to be 
a common practice at the Old Bailey up to the i8th century. 3 In 
trials for witchcraft the legal proceedings often partook of the 
nature of torture, as in the throwing of the reputed witch into a 
pond to see whether she would sink or swim, in drawing her blood, 4 
and in thrusting pins into the body to try to find the insensible spot. 
Confessions, too, appear to have been often extorted by actual 
torture, and torture of an unusual nature, as the devil was supposed 
to protect his votaries from the effects of ordinary torture. 

Torture as a part of the punishment existed in fact, if not in 
name, down to a very recent period. Mutilation as a punishment 
appears in some of the pre-Conquest codes, such as those of Alfred, 
Athelstan and Canute, in the laws attributed to William the 
Conqueror and in the assize of Northampton (1176). Bracton, who 
does not notice torture as a means of obtaining evidence, divides 
corporal punishment into that inflicted with and without torture. 5 
Later instances are the punishment of burning to death inflicted 
on heretics under the Six Articles (31 Hen. VIII. c. 14) and other 
acts, and on women for petit treason (abolished by 30 Geo. III. 
c. 48), the mutilation inflicted for violence in a royal palace by 
33 Hen. VIII. c. 12, the punishment for high treason, which 
existed nominally until 1870, the pillory (abolished by 7 Will. IV. 
and i Viet. c. 23), the stocks, branks and cucking-stool, and the 
burning in the hand for felony (abolished by 19 Geo. III. c. 74^). 
Corporal punishment now exists only in the case of juvenile 
offenders and of robbery with violence. It was abolished in the 
army by the Army Act i88i. 6 Cruelty in punishment did not 
entirely cease in prisons even after the Bill of Rights. See such 
cases as R. v. Huggins, 17 State Trials, 298; Castell v. Bambridge, 
2 Strange's Rep. 856. 

Scotland. Torture was long a recognized part of Scottish criminal 
procedure, and was acknowledged as such by many acts and warrants 
of the Scottish parliament and warrants of the Crown and the privy 
council. Numerous instances occur in the Register of the Privy 
Council. 7 Two acts in 1649 dealt with torture; one took the form 
of a warrant to examine witnesses against William Barton by any 
form of probation, 8 the other of a warrant to a committee to inquire 
as to the use of torture against persons suspected of witchcraft. 9 
The judges in 1689 were empowered by the estates to torture Chiesly 
of Dalrye, charged with the murder of the lord president Lockhart, 
in order to discover accomplices. In the same year the use of torture 
without evidence or in ordinary cases was declared illegal in the 
Claim of Right. The careful wording of this will be noticed : it 
does not object to torture altogether, but reserves it for cases where 
a basis of evidence had already been laid, and for crimes of great 
gravity, thus admitting the dangerous principle, founded on Roman 
law, that the importance of the crime is a reason for departing from 
the ordinary rules of justice. However great the crime, it is no 
more certain than in the case of a crime of less gravity that the 
person accused was the person who committed it. A warrant issued 
in the same year to put to the torture certain persons accused of 
conspiring against the government, and also certain dragoons 
suspected of corresponding with Lord Dundee. In 1690 an act 
passed reciting the torture of William Carstares, a minister, in 1683, 
and re-establishing his competency as a witness. 10 The last warrant 
appears to be one in 1690 for torturing a man accused of rape and 
murder. In 1708 torture in Scotland was finally abolished by 7 



1 Table Talk, " Trial." 

1 Stephen, Hist, of the Criminal Law, i. 297. 



1 Stephen i. 300; Kelyng, Reports, p. 27. 

4 The superstition was that any one drawing a witch's blood was 



free from her power. This is alluded to in Henry VI. pt. i. act i. 
sc. 5; " Blood will I draw on thee; thou art a witch." 

6 1046. 

7 E.g. i. 525, iv. 680, vi. 156. 

' c. 370. 

"The thumbscrew with which Carstares had been tortured was 
afterwards presented to him as a remembrance by the privy council. 



8 44 Viet. c. 9, s 7. 
8 c. 333. 



Anne c. 21, 55. Many details of the tortures inflicted will be found 
in Pitcairn's Criminal Trials, the introduction to ]. Maclaurins' 
R. Criminal Cases and J. H. Burton's Narratives from Criminal 
Trials. Among other varieties the nature of some of them can 
only be guessed were the rack, the pilniewinkis, the boot, 11 the 
caschie-laws, the lang irnis, the narrow-bore, the pynebankis, and 
worst of all, the waking, or artificial prevention of sleep. 12 The 
ingenuity of torture was exercised in a special degree on charges 
of witchcraft, notably in the reign of James VI., an expert both in 
witchcraft and in torture. The act of 1649 already cited shows 
that the principle survived him. Under the government of the dukes 
of Lauderdale and York torture as a practice in charges of religious 
and political offences reached its height. " The privy council was 
accustomed to extort confessions by torture; that grim divan of 
bishops, lawyers and peers sucking in the groans of each undaunted 
enthusiast, in hope that some imperfect avowal might lead to the 
sacrifice of other victims, or at least warrant the execution of the 
present." 13 With such examples before them in the law, it is scarcely 
to be wondered at that persons in positions of authority, especially 
the nobility, sometimes exceeded the law and inflicted torture at 
their own will and for their own purposes. There are several 
instances in the Register of the Privy Council of suits against such 
persons, e.g. against the earl of Orkney, in 1605, for putting a son 
of Sir Patrick Bellenden in the boots. 

Ireland seems to have enjoyed comparative immunity from torture. 
It was not recognized by the common or statute law, and the cases 
of its infliction do not appear to be numerous. In 1566 the president 
and council of Munster, or any three of them, were empowered to 
inflict torture, " in cases necessary, upon vehement presumption 
of any great offence in any party committed against the Queen's 
Majesty." 14 In 1583 Hurley, an Irish priest, was tortured in Dublin 
by toasting his feet against the fire with hot boots." 15 In 1627 the 
lord deputy doubted whether he had authority to put a priest 
named O'Cullenan to the rack. An answer was returned by Lord 
Killultagh to the effect that " you ought to rack him if you saw cause 
and hang him if you found reason." " The latest case of peine forte 
et dure seems to have been in 1740. 

British Colonies and Dependencies. The infliction of torture in 
any British colony or dependency has usually been regarded as 
contrary to law, and ordered only by arbitrary authority. It is 
true that in the trial of Sir Thomas Picton in 1806, for subjecting, 
while governor of Trinidad, a woman named Luisa Calderon to the 
torture of the picquet, l7 one of the grounds of defence was that such 
torture was authorized by the Spanish law of the island, but the 
accused was convicted in spite of this defence, and the final decision 
of the cofirt of king's bench, in 1812, decreeing a respite of the 
defendant's recognizances till further order, was perhaps not so 
much an affirmation of the legality in the particular instance as 
the practical expression of a wish to spare an eminent public servant. 18 
As to India, the second charge against Warren Hastings was extortion 
from the begums of Oude by means of the torture of their servants. 19 
In the present Indian Penal Code and Evidence Acts there are 
provisions intended, as Sir James Stephen says, 20 to prevent the 
practice of torture by the police for the purpose of extracting con- 
fessions from persons in their custody. 21 In Ceylon torture, which 
had been allowed under the Dutch government, was expressly 
abolished by royal proclamation in 1799. 

In the Channel Islands confessions of persons accused of witch- 
craft in the I7th century were frequently obtained by torture. 22 

United States. ^One instance of the peine forte et dure is known. 
It was inflicted in 1692 on Giles Cory of Salem, who refused to 
plead when arraigned for witchcraft. 23 The constitution of the 
United States provides, in the words of the Bill of Rights, that 
cruel and unusual punishments are not to be inflicted. 24 This is 
repeated in the constitutions of most states. The infliction of cruel 
and unusual punishment by the master or officer of an American 
vessel on the high seas, or within the maritime jurisdiction of the 
United States, is punishable with fine or imprisonment, or both. 25 
There have been a good many decisions on the question of cruel 
and unusual punishments; e.g. Wilkerson v. Utah, 99 U.S. Rep. 130; 



11 Persons subjected to more than usual torture from the boot 
were said to be " extremely booted." 

12 This seems to have been used in one case in England. Lecky, 
Rationalism in Europe, i. 122. 

13 Hallam, Const. Hist. iii. 436. See Burnet, Hist, of Own Time, 
i. 583; and SCOTLAND. 

14 Frpude, Hist, of England, viii. 386. 

15 Ibid xi. 263. 16 Jardine, p. 54. 

17 In the picquet the sufferer was supported only on the great toe 
(which rested on a sharp stake), and by a rope attached to one arm. 

18 30 State Trials, 449, besides many pamphlets of the period. 

19 See the Report of the Proceedings, vol. i. 

20 Stephen, Indian Evidence Act, p. 126. 

21 Sections 327-331 of code; ss. 25-27 of act. 

22 J. L. Pitts, Witchcraft in the Channel Islands, p. o. (Guernsey, 
1886). 

23 Bouvier, Law Diet., s.y. " Peine forte et dure." 

24 Amendments, art. viii. (1789). 
26 Revised Stat. 5347. 



TORTURE 



77 



Territory of New Mexico v. Ketchum, 65 Pacific Rep. 169 (death 
penalty for train robbery held not unconstitutional). 

Continental European States. These fall into four main groups, 
the Latin, Teutonic, Scandinavian and Slav states respectively. 
The principles of Roman law were generally adopted in the first 
and second groups. 

Latin States. In France torture does not seem to have existed 
as a recognized practice before the itth century. From that period 
until the I7th century it was regulated by a series of royal ordonnances 
at first of local obligation, afterwards applying to the whole kingdom. 
Torture was used only by the royal courts, its place in the seigneurial 
courts being supplied by the judicial combat. The earliest ordonnance 
on the subject was that of Louis IX. in 1254 for the reformation of 
the law in Languedoc. It enacted that persons of good fame, though 
poor, were not to be put to the question on the evidence of one 
witness. 1 Numerous other provisions were made between 1254 
and 1670, when an ordonnance was passed under Louis XIV., which 
regulated the infliction of torture for more than a century. Two 
kinds were recognized, the question preparatoire and the question 
prealable. The first was used where strong evidence of a capital 
crime strong, but of itself insufficient for conviction was produced 
against the accused. The second was used to obtain a confession 
of accomplices after conviction. There was also a mitigated torm 
called the presentment, in which the accused was simply bound 
upon the rack in terrorem and there interrogated. No person was 
exempt on the ground of dignity, but exemption was allowed to 
youths, old men, sick persons and others. Counsel for the accused 
were usually not allowed. The question preparatoire was abolished 
by royal decree in 1780, but in 1788 the parliaments refused to 
register a decree abolishing the prealable. But torture of all kinds 
was abolished by an ordonnance in 1789. The Declaration of Right 
in 1791 (art. viii.) affirmed that the law ought not to establish any 
punishments other than such as are strictly and evidently necessary. 
In modern law the code penal enacts that all criminals shall be 
punished as guilty of assassination who for the execution of their 
crimes employ torture. 2 The code also makes it punishable to 
subject a person under arrest to torture. 3 The theory of semiplena 
probalio was worked out with more refinement than in other systems. 
In some parts of France not only were half-proofs admitted, but 
quarters and eighths of proofs.* Among the numerous cases of 
historical interest were those of the Templars in 1307, Villon about 
1457, Dolet in 1546, the marquise de Brinvilliers in 1676 and Jean 
Galas in 1762. 5 

The law as it existed in Italy is contained in a long line of authorities 
chiefly supplied by the school of Bologna, beginning with the 
glossatores and coming down through the post-glossatores, until the 
system attained its perfection in the vast work of Farinaccius, 
written early in the I7th century, where every possible question 
that could arise is treated with a revolting completeness. One 
of the earliest jurists to treat it was Cino da Pistoia, the friend of 
Dante. 6 He treats it at no great length. With him the theory of 
indicia exists only in embryo, as they cannot be determined by law 
but must be at the discretion of the judge. Differing from Bartolus, 
he affirms that torture cannot be repeated without fresh indicia. 
The writings of jurists were supplemented by a large body of legis- 
lative enactments in most of the Italian states, extending from the 
constitutions of the emperor Frederick II. down to the i8th century. 
It is not until Bartolus (1314-1357) that the law begins to assume 
a definite and complete form. In his commentary on book xlviii. 
of the Digest he follows Roman law closely, but introduces some 
further refinements: e.g. though leading questions may not be 
asked in the main inquiry they are admissible as subsidiary. There 
is a beginning of classification of indicia. A very full discussion 
of the law is contained in the work on practice of Hippolytus de 
Marsiliis, 7 a jurist of Bologna, notorious, on his own admission, as 
the inventor of the torture of keeping without sleep. He defines 
the question as inquisitio veritatis per tormenta et cordis dolorem, 
thus recognizing the mental as well as the physical elements in 
torture. It was to be used only in capital cases and atrocious crimes. 
The works of Farinaccius and of Julius Clarus nearly a century later 
were of great authority from the high official positions filled by the 
writers. Farinaccius was procurator-general to Pope Paul V., 
and his discussion of torture is one of the most complete of any. 8 
It occupies 251 closely printed folio pages with double columns. 
The length at which the subject is treated is one of the best proofs 

1 Ordonnances des rois, i. 72. * s. 303. * s. 344. 

4 See Pollock and Maitland, ii. 658, note. 

6 On the French system generally see Imbettus, Institutiones 
forenses gallicae (Utrecht, 1649); N. Weiss, La Chambre ardente, 
1540-1550 (Paris, 1889). A large number of authorities deal 
mainly with the ordonnance of 1670; Muyart de Vouglans, Inst. 
crim. (Paris, 1767), and Jousse, Traite de la justice crim. (Paris, 1771), 
are examples. F. Siegneux de Correvon, Essai sur V usage, I'abus, 
et les inconveniens de la torture (Geneva, 1768), is one of the 
opponents of the system. 

6 Cinus Pistorensis, Super codice, de tormentis (Venice, 1493). 

7 Practica criminalis quae Ayerolda nuncupatur (Venice, 1532). 
'Praxis et theorica criminalis, bk. ii. tit. v. quaest. 36-51 

(Frankfort, 1622). 



of the science to which it had been reduced. The chief feature of 
the work is the minute and skilful analysis of indicia, jama, prae- 
sumptio, and other technical terms. Many definitions of indicium 
are suggested, the best perhaps being conjectura ex probabUibus et nan 
necessariis orta, a quibus potest abesse veritas sed non verisimilitude. 
For every infliction of torture a distinct indicium is required. 
A single witness or an accomplice constitutes an indicium. 
But this rule does not apply where it is inflicted for discovering 
accomplices or for discovering a crime other than that for which 
it was originally inflicted. Torture may be ordered in all 
criminal cases, except small offences, and in certain civil 
cases; such as denial of a depositum, bankruptcy, usury, 
treasure trove, and fiscal cases. It may be inflicted on all 
persons, unless specially exempted (clergy, minors, &c.), and 
even those exempted may be tortured by command of the 
sovereign. There are three kinds of torture, levis, gravis and 
gravissima, the first and second corresponding to the ordinary 
torture of French writers, the last to the extraordinary. The 
extraordinary or gravissima was as much as could possibly be borne 
without destroying life. The judge could not begin with torture; 
it was only a subsidium. If inflicted without due course of law, 
it was void as a proof. The judge was liable to penalties if he 
tortured without proper indicia, if a privileged person, or if to the 
extent that death or permanent illness was the result. An immense 
variety of tortures is mentioned, and the list tended to grow, for, as 
Farinaccius says, judges continually invented new modes of torture 
to please themselves. Numerous casuistical questions are treated 
at length, such as, what kinds of reports or how much hearsay 
evidence constituted fame? Were there three or five grades in 
torture? Julius Clarus of Alessandria was a member of the council 
of Philip II. To a great extent he follows Farinaccius.' He puts 
the questions for the consideration of the judge with great clearness. 
They are whether (i) a crime has been committed, (2) the charge 
is one in which torture is admissible, (3) the fact can be proved other- 
wise, (4) the crime was secret or open, (5) the object of the torture 
is to elicit confession of crime or discovery of accomplices. The 
clergy can be tortured only in charges of treason, poisoning and 
violation of tombs. On the great question whether there are three 
or five grades, he decides in favour of five, viz. threats, taking to the 
place of torment, stripping and binding, lifting on the rack, racking. 9 
Other Italian writers of less eminence have been referred to for the 
purposes of this article. The burden of their writings is practically 
the same, but they have not attained the systematic perfection of 
Farinaccius. Citations from many of them are made by Manzoni 
(see below). Among others are Guido de Suzara, Paris de Puteo, 
Aegidius Bossius of Milan, Casonus of Venice, Decianus, Follerius 
and Tranquillus Ambrosianus, whose works cover the period from the 
1 3th to the end of the 1 7th century. The law depended mainly 
on the writings of the jurists as interpreters of custom. At the 
same time in all or nearly all the Italian states and colonies 10 the 
customary law was limited, supplemented, or amended by legislation. 
That a check by legislative authority was necessary appears from 
the glimpses afforded by the writings of the jurists that the letter of 
the law was by no means always followed. The earliest legislation 
after the Roman law seems to be the constitutions of the emperor 
Frederick II. for Sicily promulgated in 1231. Torture was abolished 
in Tuscany in 1786, largely owing to the influence of Beccaria, whose 
work first appeared in 1764, and other states followed, but the puntale 
or piquet seems to have existed in practice at Naples up to 1859. 

Several instances of the torture of eminent persons occur in Italian 
history, such as Savonarola, Machiavelli, Giordano Bruno, Cam- 
panella. Galileo appears to have only been threatened with the 
esame rigoroso. The historical case of the greatest literary interest 
is that of the persons accused of bringing the plague into Milan 
in 1630 by smearing the walls of houses with poison. An analysis 
of the case was undertaken by Verri " and Manzoni, 12 and puts in a 
clear light some of the abuses to which the system led in times of 
popular panic. Convincing arguments are urged by Manzoni, 
after an exhaustive review of the authorities, to prove the ground- 
lessness of the charge on which two innocent persons underwent 
the torture of the canape, or hempen cord (the effect of which was 
partial or complete dislocation of the wrist), and afterwards suffered 
death by breaking on the wheel. The main arguments, shortly 
stated, are these, all based upon the evidence as recorded, and the 
law as laid down by jurists, (i) The unsupported evidence of an 
accomplice was treated as an indicium in a case not one of those 
exceptional ones in which such an indicium was sufficient. The 
evidence of two witnesses or a confession by the accused was neces- 
sary to establish a remote indicium, such as lying. (2) Hearsay 
evidence was received when primary evidence was obtainable. (3) 
The confession made under torture was not ratified afterwards. 
(4) It was made in consequence of a promise of impunity. (5) It 
was of an impossible crime. 

* Practica criminalis finalis (Lyons, 1637). 

10 It is obvious from the allusion at the end of Othello that Shake- 
speare regarded torture as possible in Cyprus when it was a Venetian 
colony. 

11 Osservazioni sulla tortura. 

12 Storia della Colonna infame. Neither writer alludes to Beccaria. 



TORTURE 



In Spain, as in Italy, the law depended partly on the writings of 
jurists, partly on legislation. Roman law was carried through the 
Visigothic Code and the Fuero juzgo 1 (which repeats it almost 
word for word) down to the Siete partidas? This treatise, com- 
piled by Alphonso the Wise about 1243, but not promulgated till 
1256, amended the previously existing law in the direction of greater 
precision. Torment is defined as a manner of punishment which 
lovers of justice use, to scrutinize by it the truth of crimes committed 
secretly and not provable in any other manner. Repetition was 
allowed in case of grave crimes. There were the usual provisions 
for the infliction of torture only by a judge having jurisdiction, and 
for the liability of the judge for exceeding legal limits. Subsequent 
codes did little more than amend the Partulas in matters of pro- 
cedure. Torture is not named in the Ordenanzas reales of Ferdinand 
and Isabella (1485). The Nueva recopilacion of Philip II. enacted 
that torture was to be applied by the alcaldes on due sentence 
of the court-^-even on hidalgos in grave crimes without regard 
to alleged privilege or custom. In the Novisima recopilacion 
of 1775 the only provisions on the subject are that the alcaldes 
are not to condemn to torment without preceding sentence 
according to law, and that hidalgos are not to be tormented 
or suffer infamous punishment. In Aragon, while it was an inde- 
pendent state, torture was not in use to the same extent as in other 
parts of Spain. It was abolished in the I3th century by the General 
Privilege of 1283 except in the case of vagabonds charged with coin- 
ing. A statute of 1335 made it unlawful to put any freeman to the 
torture. 3 On the other hand, the Aragonese nobility had a power, 
similar to the peine forte et dure, of putting a criminal to death by 
cold, hunger and thirst. 4 The jurists dealing with the subject are 
not as numerous as in Italy, no doubt because Italian opinions were 
received as law in all countries whose systems were based on Roman 
law. 6 Some of the Italian jurists too, like Clarus, were at that 
same time Spanish officials. The earliest Spanish secular jurist 
appears to be Suarez de Paz. 6 According to him the most usual 
tortures in Spain were the water and cord, the pulley or strappado, 
the hot brick, and the tablillas, or thumbscrew and boot combined. 
Three was the greatest number of times that any torture could be 
applied. It might be decreed either on demand of the accuser or 
at will of the judge. The Roman rule of beginning with the weakest 
was amplified into a series of regulations that a son was to be put 
to the question before a father, a woman before a man, &c. The 
fullest statement of Spanish law is to be found in the work of Antonio 
Gomez, a professor at Salamanca. 7 With him no exceptions apply 
in charges of iaesa majeslas divina or humana. A judge is liable 
to different punishment according as he orders torture dolose or 
culpabiliter. Differing from Hippolytus de Marsiliis, Gomez holds 
that the dying accusation of a murdered man is not an indicium. 
A confession on insufficient indicia is void. His division of torture 
into tortura actualis and terror propinquus is the same as that of 
the French jurists into torture and presentment. The conclusions 
of the ecclesiastical writers of Spain, such as Eymerico and Simancas, 
were accepted wholly or partially by the secular writers, such as 
Alvarez de Velasco, 8 and the Peruvian, Juan de Hevia Bolanos, 9 
who points out differences in the ecclesiastical and secular systems, 
e.g. the former brought up the accused for ratification in three days, 
the latter in twenty-four hours. A good deal of the Spanish law 
will be found in the proceedings against Sir Thomas Picton (see 
above). Torture in Spain seems to have been inflicted on Jews to 
an extraordinary extent, as it was also in Portugal, where the latest 
legislation as to torture seems to be of the year 1678. In 1790 it 
had become obsolete, 10 and in a work on criminal procedure four 
years later it is only referred to for the purpose of stating that when 
it did exist it was realis or verbalist 

Teutonic Slates. Germany (including Austria) is distinguished 
by the possession of the most extensive literature and legislation 

1 vi. 4, 5. 

2 Partida, vii. 30. It was one of the earliest books printed in 
Spain, the earliest edition appearing in 1491. 

' Cited Hallam, Middle Ages, iii. 76. 
4 Du Cange, s.v. Fame necare. 

In all the Latin countries the idea of torture had become a 
commonplace. The dramatists contain frequent allusions to it. 
In Lope de Vega's El Perro del hortelano (" The Dog in the Manger "), 
one of the characters says, " Here's a pretty inquisition!" to which 
the answer is, " The torture will be next applied." Moliere and 
Racine both make use of it. In L'Avare, act iv. sc. J, Harpagon 
threatens to put his whole household to the question. In Les 
Plaideurs Dandin invites Isabelle to see la question as a mode of 
passing an hour or two. In England Bacon (Essay Ivi.) says, 
" There is no worse torture than the torture of laws." The same 
jdea occurs again in the Advancement of Learning, viii. 3, 13, " It 
is a cruel thing to torture the laws that they may torture men." 

Praxis ecclesiastica et saecularis, vol. i. pt. v. . 3 (Salamanca, 
1583)- 

7 Variae resolutiones, p. 412 (Antwerp, 1593). 
' Judex perfectus (Lausanne, 1740). 

Curia fuipica (Madrid, 1825). 

u Repertorio geral das leis extravagantes, p. 381 (Coimbra, 1815). 
u Paschal Freirus, Inst. jur. crim. lusitani, p. 203 (Lisbon, 1794). 



on the subject. The principal writers are Langer, von Rosbach 
and von Boden. In addition may be cited the curious Layenspiegel 
of Ulrich Tengler (1544), and the works of Remus, Casonus and 
Carpzow. 12 Legislation was partly for the empire, partly for its 
component states. Imperial legislation dealt with the matter in 
the Golden Bull (1356), the Ordinance of Bamberg (1507), the 
Carolina (;532) 13 and the Constitulio criminalis theresiana (1768). u 
The Carolina followed the usual lines, the main difference being 
that the infliction must be in the presence of two scabini and a 
notary, who was to make a detailed record of the proceedings. The 
code of Maria Theresa defines torture as " a subsidiary means of 
eliciting truth." It could be applied only in cases where condemna- 
tion would have involved capital or severe corporal punishment. 
The illustrated edition was suppressed by Prince Kaunitz a few 
days after its appearance. Torture was formally abolished in the 
empire in 1776. In Prussia it was practically abolished by Frederick 
the Great in 1740, formally in 1805. Even before its abolition it 
was in use only to discover accomplices after conviction." In 
some other states it existed longer, in Baden as late as 1831. It 
was carried toexcess in Germany, as in the Netherlands and Scotland 
in charges of witchcraft. 

The Netherlands. The principal legislative enactment was the 
code of criminal procedure promulgated by Philip II. in 1570 and 
generally known as the Ordonnance sur le style. 16 One of its main 
objects was to assimilate the varieties of local custom, as the Nueva. 
recopilacion had done in Spain three years earlier. The French 
ordonnance of 1670 is probably largely based on it. In spite of 
the attempt of the ordinance to introduce uniformity, certain cities 
of Brabant, it is said, still claimed the privilege of torturing in 
certain cases not permitted by the ordinance, e.g. where there was 
only one witness. 17 

The law of 1670 continued to be the basis of cnrnutal procedure 
in the Austrian Netherlands until 1787. In the United Provinces 
it was not repealed until 1798. The principal Itext-writers are 
Damhouder, 18 van Leeuwen 19 and Voet. Van Leeuwen lays down 
as a fundamental principle that no one was to be condemned to 
death without confession, and such confession, if attainable in no 
other way, ought to be elicited by torture. Witnesses could be 
tortured only if they varied on confrontation. One of the indicia 
not always recognized by jurists was previous conviction for a similar 
crime. Voet's commentary ad Pandectas 20 is interesting for its 
taking the same view as St Augustine as to the uselessness of torture, 
and compares its effect with that of the trial by battle. At the 
same time he allows it to be of some value in the case of very grave 
crimes. The value of torture was doubted by others as well as 
Voet, e.g. by A. Nicholas 21 and by van Essen. 22 At the same time a 
writer was found to compose a work on the unpromising subject 
of the rack. 23 

Scandinavian Countries. There is a notice of torture in the Ice- 
landic Code known as the Gragas (about 1119). Judicial torture 
is said to have been introduced into Denmark by Valdemar I. in 
1 157. 24 In the code of Christian V. (1683) it was limited to cases of 
treason. 26 It was abolished by the influence of Struensee in 1771, 
but notwithstanding this he was threatened with it, though it was 
not actually inflicted, before his execution in 1772. In Sweden 
torture never existed as a system, and in the code of 1734 it was 
expressly forbidden. 26 It was however occasionally inflicted, as 
in England, by extrajudicial authorities, called secret committees. 

11 Extracts from these and other writers will be found in Lea, 
Superstition and Force, and in R. Quanter, Die Falter in der 
deutschen Rechtspflege sonst und jetzt (Berlin, 1900). 

13 Chs. 33-44. 

14 Art. 38 (Vienna, 1769). 

16 This statement is made on the authority of a work attributed 
to Frederick himself, Dissertation sur les raisons d'etablir ou d'abroger 
les lois (1748). 

" A list of the numerous commentaries on this code will be 
found in Nybels, Les Ordonnances criminelles de Philippe II. de 1570, 
p. 23 (Brussels, 1856). 

17 Nybels, pp. 31, 33. 

18 Pratique judiciaire en causes criminelles (Antwerp, 1564). 

19 Censura forensis, pt. ii. bk. ii. chs. 8, 9 (Leiden, 1677). 

20 On Dig. xlviii. 18. There are numerous editions of Voet, the 
sixth (generally found in libraries) is the Hague (1734). 

21 Si la torture est un moyen sur a verifier les crimes (Amsterdam, 
1681). Also by an anonymous writer thirty years earlier, De 
Pijnbank wedersproken en bematigt (Rotterdam, 1651). 

22 Jus ecclesiaslicum universum (Louvain, 1720). 

23 Hieronymi Magii Anglarenis de equuleo liber postumus (Amster- 
dam, 1664). There are several works dealing with torture in 
witchcraft proceedings. A large number of cases will be found in 
I. Scheltema, Geschiedenis der Hexen-processen (Haarlem, 1828). 
For torture in the i8th century see E. Hubert, La Torture aux Pays 
Bas autrichiens pendant la xviii' siecle (Brussels, 1897). 

24 Baden, Dansk juridisk Ordbog, s.v. " Tortur " (Copenhagen,. 
1828). 

26 Kolderup-Rosenvinge, Udvalg af gamle Danske-Domme, bk. i. 
c. 20 (Copenhagen, 1848). 

28 Cod. leg. svecicarum, pp. 233, 370 (Stockholm, 1743). 



TORUS TOTEMISM 



79 



The " cave of roses," where reptiles were kept for the purpose of 
torture, was closed by Gustavus III. in 1772. 

Slav Countries. The earliest mention of torture seems to be that 
of the mutilation provided for certain offences by the code of Stephen 
Dushan in 1349. In Russia torture does not occur in the recensions 
of the earlier law. It was possibly of Tatar origin, and the earliest 
mention of it in an official document is probably in the Sudebnik 
of Ivan the Terrible (1497). In the ordinance of 1556 there are 
elaborate regulations, which one learns from history were not always 
observed in periods of political disturbance, and torture seems to 
have been used even as a means of enforcing payment of debts. 
The reaction begins with Peter the Great and culminates with 
Catharine II., who was largely influenced by the opinions of Beccaria 
and Voltaire. In the instructions to the commission for framing 
a criminal code (1766), it is declared that all punishments by which 
the body is maimed ought to be abolished, 1 and that the torture 
of the rack violates the rules of equity and does not produce the end 
proposed by the laws. 2 It was formally abolished by Alexander I. 
in 1801, and in 1832 the Svod Zakonov subjected to penalties any 
judge who presumed to order it. But even as late as 1847 it seems 
to have been inflicted in one or two exceptional cases. 3 

AUTHORITIES. For England Jardine's is still the standard work. 
Much general information and numerous authorities will be found 
in Lipenius, Bibliotheca realis Juridica, s.v. " Tortura " (Frankfort, 
1679), and in the more modern work of J. Helbing, Die Tortur 
(Berlin, 1902). For those who can obtain access to it the catalogue 
issued at the sale of M. G. Libri (1861) is valuable. He had collected 
most of the books on the subject. There are several publications 
dealing with cases of individuals in addition to the numerous ones 
on witchcraft trials, e.g. those of William Lithgow, the Amboyna 
case, Dellon and Van Halen. Lithgow' s story has been republished 
(Glasgow, 1907). (J. W.) 

TORUS, a Latin word, meaning a round swelling or pro- 
tuberance, applied to a convex moulding in architecture, which 
in section is generally a semicircle. The earliest examples 
are found in Egypt, where it was carried up the angles of the 
pylon and temple walls and horizontally across the same. Its 
most frequent employment is in the bases of columns; in the 
Roman Doric order being the lowest moulding; in the Ionic 
orders there are generally two torus mouldings separated by a 
scotia with fillets. Both in Greek and Roman bases sometimes 
the torus is elaborately carved. (See MOULDING.) 

TORZHOK, a town of Russia, in the government of Tver, 
on the river Tvertsa, 21 m. by rail S.W. of the Likhoslavl, 
station of the St Petersburg & Moscow railway. Pop. (1900), 
15,119. It dates from the nth century, and the name (market- 
place) shows that this dependency of Novgorod was a commercial 
centre. It was fortified with a stone wall, which only partially 
protected it from the attacks of Mongols, Lithuanians and 
Poles. Torzhok is celebrated in Russia for its embroidered 
velvet and embroidered leather-work, for the manufacture of 
travelling bags, and for its trade in corn and flour. 

TOSCANELLA (anc. Tuscana, q.v.}, a town of the province of 
Rome, Italy, 15 m. N.E. of Corneto by road, 545 ft. above sea- 
level. Pop. (1901), 4839. The medieval walls with their towers 
are still preserved. On the ancient citadel hill is the Romanesque 
church of S. Pietro, belonging to four different periods 739, 
1093 (the date of the reconstruction of the crypt), the middle of 
the 1 2th and the end of the i2th century. It has the shape of a 
Roman basilica, with a nave and two aisles and one apse. The 
elaborate facade with its rose window also belongs to the I2th 
century. S. Maria in the valley below dates from 1050 to 1206, 
and has a similar facade and a massive square campanile. In 
the town are two other Romanesque churches. 

See G. T. Rivoira, Origini dell architettura Lombarda i. 146 
(Rome 1901). 

TOSTIG (d. 1066), earl of Northumbria, was a son, probably 
the third, of Earl God wine, and in 1051 married Judith, sister 
or daughter of Baldwin V., count of Flanders. In the year of 
his marriage he shared the short exile of his father, returning 
with him to England in 1052, and became earl of Northumbria 
after the death of Earl Siward in 1055. He was very intimate 
with his brother-in-law, Edward the Confessor, and in 1061 he 
visited Pope Nicholas II. at Rome in the company of Aldred, 
archbishop of York. By stern and cruel measures Tostig 

1 Art. 96. s Ibid. 192-197. 

* See the various histories of Russian law, such as Maceiovski, 
Lange and Zagoskin, under the heads of puitka or muchenie. 



introduced a certain amount of order into the wild northern 
district under his rule; this severity made him exceedingly 
unpopular, and in 1065 Northumbria broke into open revolt. 
Declaring Tostig an outlaw and choosing Morkere in his stead, 
the rebels marched southwards and were met at Oxford by 
Earl Harold, who, rather against the will of the king, granted 
their demands. Tostig sailed to Flanders and thence to Nor- 
mandy, where he offered his services to Duke William, who 
was related to his wife and who was preparing for his invasion of 
England. He then harried the Isle of Wight and the Kentish 
and Lincolnshire coasts, and, after a stay in Scotland and possibly 
a visit to Norway, joined another invader, Harald III. Hardrada, 
king of Norway, in the Tyne. Together they sailed up the Hum- 
ber and at Gate Fulford, near York, defeated Earls Morkere 
and Edwine and entered York. But Harold, now king, was 
hurrying to the north. Taking the Norwegians by surprise 
at Stamford Bridge he destroyed their army on the 25th of 
September 1066, and in this battle both Tostig and the king of 
Norway were slain. Tostig's two sons appear to have taken refuge 
in Norway, and his widow Judith married Welf , duke of Bavaria. 
See E. A. Freeman, The Norman Conquest, vols. ii. and iii. 
(1870-1876). 

TOTANA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Murcia, 
on the Lorca-Murcia railway. Pop. (1900), 13,703. The 
town, which consists of two parts, the Barrio de Sevilla and 
Barrio de Triana, contains several handsome public buildings, 
among them the church of Santiago, with its three naves. Water 
is conveyed to Totana from the Sierra de Espuna by an aqueduct 
7 m. long. Saltpetre is obtained among the hills, and there 
is a thriving trade in wheat, oranges, olives, almonds, and wine 
from the Sangonera valley. Other industries are the manufac- 
ture of linen, leather and the earthenware jars called tinajas, 
which are used for the storage of oil and wine. 

TOTEMISM. The word " totem " is used in too many varying 
senses by students of early society and religion. The term 
came into the English language in the form of " totam," through 
a work of 1791, by J. Long, an interpreter between the whites 
and the Red Indians of North America. 4 Long himself 
seems to have used the word to denote the protective familiar, 
usually an animal, which each Indian selected for himself, 
generally through the monition of a dream during the long 
fast of lads at their initiation. Such selected (or, when bestowed 
by medicine-men or friends, " given ") totems are styled 
" personal totems " and have no effect in savage law, nor are 
they hereditary, with any legal consequences. 

In stricter terminology " totem " denotes the object, gene- 
rally of a natural species, animal or vegetable, but occasionally 
rain, cloud, star, wind, which gives its name to a kindred 
actual or supposed, among many savages and barbaric races in 
America, Africa, Australia and Asia and the isles. Each 
child, male or female, inherits this name, either from its 
mother (" female descent ") or from its father (" male descent "). 
Between each person and his or her name-giving object, a 
certain mystic rapport is supposed to exist. Where descent 
wavers, persons occasionally have, in varying degrees, the 
totems of both parents. 

Religious Aspect of the Totem. As a rule, by no means in- 
variable, the individual may not kill or eat the name-giving 
object of his kin, except under dire necessity; while less usually 
it is supposed to protect him and to send him monitory dreams. 
This is the " religious " or semi-religious aspect of the totem, 
or this aspect is, by some students, called " religious." 

We also hear of customs of burying and lamenting dead ani- 
mals which are regarded with reverence by this or that " family," 
or " clan." This custom is reported among the Samoans, and 
one " clan " was said to offer first-fruits to its sacred animal, 
the eel; while the " clan " that revered the pigeon kept and fed 
a tame specimen. 6 But in Samoa, though the sacred animals 
of "clans " or " families " are, in all probability, survivals of 
totemism, they are now regarded by the people as the vehicles 

4 Long, Voyages and Travels of an Indian Interpreter (1791), p. 86. 
6 Turner, Samoa, p. 71. 



8o 



TOTEMISM 



of " clan " or " family " gods, and therefore receive honours 
not paid to the hereditary totems of Australia and North 
America, which have nothing godlike. It is to be presumed that 
" totem dances " in which some Australian tribes exhibit, in 
ballets d'action, the incidents of a myth concerning the totem, 
are, in a certain sense, " religious "; when they are not magical, 
and intended to foster and fertilize the species, animal or 
vegetable or other to which the totem belongs. 

The magical performances for the behoof of the totem crea- 
tures may be studied in the chapters on " Intichiuma " in Messrs 
Spencer and Gillen's Native Tribes of Central Australia, and 
Native Tribes of Northern Australia. Among the many guesses 
at the original purpose of totemism, one has been that the 
primal intention of totem sets of human beings was to act as 
magical co-operative stores for supplying increased quantities 
of food to the tribe. But this opinion has gone the way of 
other conjectures. The " religious " status of the totem is 
lowest among peoples where its influence on social regulations 
is greatest, and vice versa, a topic to which we recur. 

There are also various rites, in various tribes, connecting the 
dead man with his totem at his funeral; perhaps at his initia- 
tion, when a boy, into the esoteric knowledge and rules of his 
tribe. Men may identify themselves with their totems, or, 
mark themselves as of this or that totem by wearing the hide 
or the plumage of the bird or beast, or by putting on a mask 
resembling its face. The degree of " religious " regard for the 
revered object increases in proportion as it is taken to contain 
the spirit of an ancestor or to be the embodiment of a god: 
ideas not found among the most backward savages. 

The supreme or superior being of low savage religion or 
mythology is never a totem. He may be able, like Zeus in 
Greek mythology, to assume any shape he pleases; and in the 
myths of some Australian tribes he ordained the institution of 
totemism. Byamee, among the Euahlayi tribe of north-west New 
South Wales, had all the totems in him, and when he went to 
his paradise, Bullimah, he distributed them, with the mar- 
riage rules, among his people. 1 In other legends, especially 
those of central and northern Australia, the original totem 
creatures, animal in form, with bestial aspect, were developed in a 
marine or lacustrine environment, and from them were evolved 
the human beings of each totem kin. The rule of non-inter- 
marriage within the totem was, in some myths, of divine institu- 
tion; in others, was invented by the primitive wandering totemic 
beings; or was laid down by the wisdom of mere men who saw 
some unknown evil in consanguine unions. The strict regard 
paid to the rule may be called " religious "; in so far as totemists 
are aware of no secular and social raison d" lire of the rule it 
has a mysterious character. But whereas to eat the totem is 
sometimes thought to be automatically punished by sickness or 
death, this danger does not attach to marriage within the totem 
save in a single known case. The secular penalty alone is 
dreaded; so there seems to be no religious fear of offending a 
superior being, or the totem himself: no tabu of a mystic sort. 

Social Aspect of the Totem. The totem has almost always a 
strong influence on or is associated with marriage law, and 
except in the centre of Australia, and perhaps in the little-known 
West, men and women of the same totem may not intermarry, 
" however far apart their hunting grounds," and though there is 
no objection on the score of consanguinity. 

This is the result, in Australia, of the custom, there almost 
universal, which causes each individual to belong, by birth, to 
one or other of the two main exogamous and intermarrying 
divisions of the tribe (usually called " phratries "). The phra- 
tries (often known by names of animals, as Eagle Hawk and 
Crow, Crow and White Cockatoo) contain each a number of 
totem kins, as Dog, Wild Cherry, Wombat, Frog, Owl, Emu, 
Kangaroo, and so on, and (except among the Arunta " nation " 
of five tribes in Central Australia) the same totem kin never 
occurs in both phratries. Thus as all persons except in the 
Arunta nation, marry out of their own phratry, none can marry 
into his or her totem kin. 

1 Mrs Langloh Parker, The Euahlayi Tribe. 



In some parts of North America the same rule prevails; with 
this peculiarity that the phratries, or main exogamous divisions, 
are not always two, as in Australia, but, for example, among 
the Mohegans three Wolf, Turtle, and Turkey. 2 In Wolf 
all the totems are quadrupeds; under Turtle they are various 
species of turtles and the yellow eel; and under Turkey all 
the totems are birds. 

Clearly this ranking of the totems in the phratries is the result 
of purposeful design, not of accident. Design may also be 
observed in such phratries of Australian tribes as are named after 
animals of contrasted colours, such as White Cockatoo and 
Crow, Light Eagle Hawk and Crow. It has been supposed by 
Mr J. Mathew, Pere Schmidt and others that these Australian 
phratries arose in an alliance with connubium between a darker 
and a lighter race. 3 But another hypothesis is not less prob- 
able; and as we can translate only about a third of Australian 
phratry names, conjecture on this subject is premature. 

Both in Australia and America the animals, as Eagle Hawk and 
Crow, which give their names to the phratries, are almost always 
totem kins within their own phratries. 4 

The Moquis of Arizona are said to have ten phratries, by 
Captain Ulick Bourke in his Snake Dance of the Moquis, but 
possibly he did not use the term " phratry " in the sense which 
we attach to it. 

Among the Urabunna of Southern Central Australia, and 
among the tribes towards the Darling River, a very peculiar rule 
is said to prevail. There are two phratries, and in each are many 
totem kins, but each totem kin may intermarry with only one 
totem kin which must be in the opposite phratry. 6 Thus there 
are as many exogamous divisions as there are totems in the 
tribes, which reckon descent in the female line; children in- 
heriting the mother's totem only. Corroboration of these 
statements is desirable, as the tribes implicated are peculiarly 
" primitive," and theirs may be the oldest extant set of 
marriage rules. 

The existence of two or more main exogamous divisions, 
named or unnamed, is found among peoples where there are 
either no totem kins, or where they have fallen into the back- 
ground, as in parts of Melanesia, among the Todas and Meitchis 
of India and the Wanika in East Africa. 6 

An extraordinary case is reported from South Australia where 
people must marry in their own phratry, while their children 
belong to the opposite phratry. 7 This awaits corroboration. 

We now see some of the numerous varieties which prevail 
in the marriage rules connected with the totems. Even among 
a tribe whose members, it is reported, may marry into their 
own phratries, it appears that they must not marry within their 
own totem kins. This is, indeed, the rule wherever totemic 
societies are found in anything approaching to what we deem 
their most archaic constitution as in south-east Australia and 
some tribes of North America. 

Exogamy: The Arunta Abnormality. Meanwhile, in Central 
Australia, in the Arunta " nation," the rule forbidding marriage 
within the totem kin does not exist. Totems here are not, as 
everywhere else, inherited from either parent, but a child is of 
what we may call " the local totem " of the place where its 
mother first became conscious of its life within her. The idea 
is that the spirits of a primal race, in groups each of one totem 
only (" Alcheringa folk"), haunt various localities; or spirits 
(ratapa) emanating from these primal beings do so; they enter 
into passing married women, and are incarnated and born again. 8 

2 Morgan, Ancient Society, p. 174. 

* Mathew, Eagle Hawk and Crow; Schmidt, Anthropos (1909). 
4 See Lang, The Secret of the Totem, pp. 154, 170; and N. W. 
Thomas, Kinship and Marriage in Australia, pp. 9, 31. 

6 Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, pp. 93, 181, 188; 
Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 60, 61, 
Northern Tribes, p. 71 ; Lang, Anthropological Essays; Tyler's Fest- 
schrift, pp. 203-210. 

8 Thomas, ut supra, p. 10. See, for numerous examples, T. G. 
Frazer, Totemism (1910). 

7 MS. of Mrs Bates. 

8 It is necessary to state here the sources of our information 
about the central, north, north-western and south-eastern forms of 



TOTEMISM 



81 



Thus if a woman, whatever her own totem, and whatever her 
husband's may be, becomes conscious of her child's life in a 
known centre of Wild Cat spirits, her child's totem is Wild Cat, 
and so with all the rest. 

As a consequence, a totem sometimes here appears in what 
the people call the " wrong " (i.e. not the original) exogamous 
division; and persons may marry within their own totem name, 
if that totem be in the " right " exogamous division, which is not 
theirs. Each totem spirit is among the Arunta associated with 
an amulet or churinga of stone; these are of various shapes, and 
are decorated with concentric circles, spirals, cupules, and other 
archaic patterns. These amulets are only used in this sense by 
the Arunta nation and their neighbours the Kaitish, " and it is 
this idea of spirit individuals associated with churinga and 
resident in certain definite spots that lies at the root of the present 

totemism. About the central Arunta tribe with its neighbours, the 
Urabunna, we have the evidence very carefully collected by Mr 
Gillen, a protector of the aborigines, and Professor Baldwin Spencer 
(Native Tribes of Central Australia). Concerning the peoples north 
from the centre to the Gulf of Carpentaria, the same scholars furnish 
a copious account in their Northern Tribes. These two explorers had 
the confidence of the blacks ; witnessed their most secret ceremonies, 
magical and initiatory; and collected their legends. Their, books, 
however, contain no philological information as to the structure 
and interrelation of the dialects, information which is rarely to be 
found in the works of English observers in Australia. As far as 
appears, the observers conversed with the tribes only in " pidgin 
English." If this be the case that lingua franca is current among 
some eighteen central-northern tribes speaking various native 
dialects. We are told nothing about the languages used in each 
case; perhaps the Arunta men who accompanied the expedition 
arranged a system of interpreters. 

For the Dieri tribe, neighbours of the Urabunna, we have copious 
evidence in Native Tribes of South-East Australia by the late Mr 
A. W. Howitt, who studied the peoples for forty years; was made 
free of their initiatory ceremonies; and obtained intelligence from 
settlers in regions which he did not visit. We have also legends 
with Dieri texts and translations from the Rev. Mr Siebert, a mis- 
sionary among the Dieri. That tribe appears now to exist in a very 
dwindled condition under missionary supervision. The accounts 
of tribes from the centre to the south-east by Mr R. E. Mathew, 
are scattered in many English, Australian and American learned 
periodicals. Mr Mathew has given a good deal of information 
about some of the dialects. His statements as to the line of descent 
and on other points among certain tribes are at variance with those 
of Messrs Spencer and Gillen (see an article by Mr A. R. Brown in 
Man, March 1910). Mr Mathew, however, does not enable us to 
test the accuracy of his informants among the northern tribes, which 
is unfortunate. For the Aranda (or Arunta) of a region apparently 
not explored by Messrs Spencer and Gillen, and for the neighbouring 
Loritja tribe, we have Die Aranda und Loritja Stamme, two volumes 
by the Rev. C. Strehlow (Baer, Frankfurt am Main, 1907, 1908). 
Mr Strehlow is a German missionary who, after working among 
the Dieri and acquiring their language, served for many years among 
a branch of the Arunta (the Aranda), differing considerably in 
dialect, myths and usages from the Arunta of Messrs Spencer and 
Gillen. In some points, for example as to the primal ancestors 
and the spirits diffused by them for incarnation in human bodies, 
the Aranda and Loritja are more akin to the northern tribes than 
to Mr Spencer's Arunta. In other myths they resemble some 
south-eastern tribes reported on by Mr Howitt. Unlike the Arunta 
of Messrs Spencer and Gillen, but like the Arunta described by 
Mr Gillen earlier in The Horn Expedition, they believe in " a 
magnified non-natural man," Altjira, with a goose-foot, dwelling 
in the heavens. Unlike the self-created Atnatu of the Kaitish of 
Messrs Spencer and Gillen, he is not said to have created things, 
or to take any concern about human beings, as Atnatu does in 
matters of ceremonial. Mr Strehlow gives Aranda and Lortija 
texts in the original, with translations and philological remarks. 

Mr Frazer, in his Totemism, makes no use of Mr Strehlow's 
information (save in a single instance). To us it seems worthy of 
study. His reason for this abstention is that, in a letter to him 
(Melbourne, March 10, 1908), Mr Spencer says that for at least twenty 
years the Lutheran Missions have taught the natives " that altjira 
means ' god ' ; have taught that their sacred ceremonies and secular 
dances are ' wicked ' ; have prohibited them, and have never seen 
them. Flour and tobacco, &c., are only given to natives who attend 
church and school. Natives have been married who, according 
to native customary law, belong to groups to which marriage is 
forbidden. For these reasons Mr Frazer cannot attempt " to 
filter the native liquor clear of its alien sediment," (Totemism, 
i. 186, note 2). 

Against this we may urge that, as regards the goose-footed sky- 
dweller, Mr Strehlow reports less of his active interest in human 
affairs than Mr Gillen does concerning his " Great Ulthaana of the 



totemic system of the Arunta," says Messrs Spencer and Gillen. 1 
Every Arunta born incarnates a pre-existent primal spirit 
attached to one of the stone churinga dropped by primal totemic 
beings, all of one totem in each case, at a place called an 
oknanikilla. Each child belongs to the totem of the primal 
beings of the place, where the mother became aware of the 
child's life. 

Thus the peculiar causes which have produced the unique 
Arunta licence of marrying within the totem are conspicuously 
obvious. 

Contradictory Theories about the Arunta Abnormal Totemism. 
At this point theories concerning the origin of totemism begin 
to differ irreconcilably. Mr Frazer, Mr Spencer, and, apparently 
Dr Rivers, hold that, in Australia at least, totemism was 
originally " conceptional." It began in the belief by the women 
that pregnancy was caused by the entrance into them of some 
spirit associated with a visible object, usually animal or vegetable; 
while the child born, in each case, was that object. Hence that 
class of objects was tabued to the child; was its totem, but such 
totems were not hereditary. 

Next, for some unknown reason, the tribes were divided into 
two bodies or segments. The members of segment A may not 
intermarry; they must marry persons of segment B, and vice 
versa. Thus were evolved the primal forms of totemism and 
exogamy now represented in the law of the Arunta nation alone. 
Here, and here alone, marriage within the totem is permitted. 
The theory is, apparently, that, in all other exogamous and totemic 
peoples, totems had been, for various reasons, made hereditary, 
before exogamy was enforced by the legislator in his wisdom. 
Thus, all over the totemic world, except in the Arunta nation, 
the method of the legislator was simply to place one set of 
totem kins in tribal segment A, and the other in segment B, and 
make the segments exogamous and intermarrying. Thus it 
was impossible for any person to marry another of the same 
totem. This is the theory of Mr Frazer. 

Upholders of the contradictory system maintain that the 
Arunta nation has passed through and out of the universal and 
normal system of hereditary and exogamous totemism into its. 
present condition, by reason of the belief that children are 
incarnations of pre-existing animal or vegetable spirits, plus the 
unique Arunta idea of the connexion of such spirits with their 
stone churinga. Where this combination of the two beliefs does 
not occur, there the Arunta non-hereditary and non-exogamous 
totemism does not occur. It would necessarily arise in any 
normal tribe which adopted the two Arunta beliefs, which are not 
" primitive." 

Arguments against Mr Frazer' s Theory. There was obviously 
a time, it is urged, when all totems were, as everywhere else, 

heavens " among the Arunta. Mr Strehlow's being, Altjira, has 
a name apparently meaning " mystic " or sacred, which is applied 
to other things, for example to the inherited maternal totem of 
each native. His names for Altjira (god) and for the totemic 
ancestors (totem gods), are inappropriate, but may be discounted. 
Many other tribes who are discussed by Mr Frazer have been long 
under missionary influence as well as the Aranda. According to 
Mr Frazer the Dieri tribe had enjoyed a German Lutheran mission 
station (since 1866) for forty-four years up to 1910. About 150 
Dieri were alive in 1909 (Totemism, iii. 344). Nevertheless the 
Dieri myths published by Mr Siebert in the decadence of the 
tribe, and when the remnant was under missionaries, show no 
" alien sediment." Nor do the traditions of Mr Strehlow's Aranda. 
Their traditions are closely akin, now to those of the Arunta, now 
to those of the northern tribes, now to those of the Euahlayi of Mrs 
Langloh Parker (The Euahlayi Tribe) in New South Wales, and once 
more to those of Mr Howitt's south-eastern tribes. There is no trace 
of Christian influence in the Aranda and Loritja matter, no vestige 
of " alien " (that is, of European) " sediment," but the account of 
Atnatu among the Kaitish reported on by Messrs Spencer and Gillen 
reads like a savage version of Milton's " Fall of the Angels " in Paradise 
Lost. For these reasons we do not reject the information of Mr 
Strehlow, who is master of several tribal languages, and, of course, 
does not encourage wicked native rites by providing supplies of 
flour, tobacco, &c., during the performances, as Mr Howitt and 
others say that they found it necessary to do. Sceptical colonists 
have been heard to aver that natives will go on performing rites as, 
long as white men will provide supplies. 
1 Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 123. 



82 



TOTEMISM 



in what the Arunta call "the right" divisions; Arunta, that is, 
were so arrayed that no totem existed in more than one division. 
Obliged, as row, to marry out of their own exogamous division 
(one of four sub-classes among the Arunta) into one of the four 
sub-classes of the opposite side, no man could then find in it a 
woman of his own totem to marry. But when Arunta ceased to 
be hereditary, and came to be acquired, as now, by the local 
accident of the totem spirits all, in each case, of one totem 
name, which haunt the supposed place of a child's conception 
some totems inevitably would often get out of their original 
sub-class into another, and thus the same totems are in 
several divisions. But granting that a man of division 
A may legally marry a woman of division B, he is not 
now prevented from doing so because his totem (say Wild 
Cat) is also hers. His ..or hers has strayed, by accident 
of supposed place of conception, out of its " right " 
into its " wrong " division. The words " right " and " wrong " 
as here used by the Arunta make it certain that they still 
perceive the distinction, and that, before the Arunta evolved 
the spiritual view of conception, they had, like other people, 
their totems in each case confined to a single main exogamous 
division of their tribe, and therefore no persons could then 
marry into their own totems. 

But when the theory of spiritual conception arose, and was 
combined, in the Arunta set of tribes alone (it is common enough 
elsewhere in northern and western Australia), with the churinga 
doctrine, which gave totems by accident, these two factors, as 
Messrs Spencer and Gillen say, became the causes " lie at the 
root " of the present Arunta system by which persons may marry 
others of " the right " division, but of " the wrong " totem. 
That system is strictly confined to the group of tribes (Ilpirra, 
Loritja, Unmaterja, Kaitish, Arunta) which constitute " the 
Arunta nation." Elsewhere the belief in spiritual conception 
widely prevails, but not the belief in the connexion of spirits of 
individuals with the stone churinga of individuals. Consequently 
the Arunta system of marriage within the totem exists nowhere, 
and the non-exogamous non-hereditary totem exists nowhere, 
except in the Arunta region. Everywhere else hereditary totems 
are exogamous. 1 

Thus the practice of acquiring the totem by local accident 
is absolutely confined to five tribes where the churinga doctrine 
coexists with it. That the churinga belief, coexistent with the 
spiritual theory of conception, is of relatively recent origin is a 
demonstrable fact. Had it always been present among the 
Arunta the inevitable result, in the course of ages, would be the 
scattering of the totems almost equally, as chance would scatter 
them among the eight exogamous divisions. 

This can be tested by experiment. Take eight men, to 
represent the eight exogamous divisions, and set them apart in 
two groups of four. Take four packs of cards, 208 cards, to 
represent the Arunta totems, which are over 200 in number. 
Deal the cards round in the usual way to each of the eight men; 
each will receive 26 cards. It will not be found that group A has 
" the great majority " of spades and clubs, while group B has 
" the great majority " of diamonds and hearts, and neither group 
will have " the great majority " of court cards. Accident does 
not work in that way. But while accident alone now determines 
the totem to which an Arunta shall belong, nevertheless " in the 
Arunta, as a general rule, the great majority of the members of 
any one totemic group belong to one moiety of the tribe; but this 
is by no means universal . . . " that is, of the totems the great 
majority in each case, as a rule, belongs to one or the other set of 
four exogamous sub-classes. 2 

The inference is obvious. While chance has now placed only 
the small minority of each totem in all or several of the eight 
exogamous divisions, the great majority of totems is in one or 
another of the divisions. This great majority cannot come by 
chance, as Arunta totems now come; consequently it is but lately 
that chance has determined the totem of each individual. Had 
chance from the first been the determining cause, each totem 

1 N.T.C.A.p. 257; cf. Frazer, Totemism, i. 200-201. 
1 Northern Tribes, pp. 151 sqq. 



would not be fairly equally present in each of the two sets of four 
exogamous divisions. But determination by accident has only 
existed long enough to affect " as a general rule " a small minority 
of cases. " The great majority " of totems remain in what is 
recognized as " the right," the original divisions, as elsewhere 
universally. Arunta myth sometimes supports, sometimes 
contradicts, the belief that the totems were originally limited, 
in each case, to one or other division only, and, being self- 
contradictory, has no historic value. 

A further proof of our point is that the northern neighbours 
of the Arunta, the Kaitish, have only partially accepted Arunta 
ideas, religious and social. Unlike the Arunta they have a 
creative being, Atnatu, from whom half of the population 
descend; the other half were evolved out of totemic forms. 3 In 
the same way the Kaitish totems " are more strictly divided 
between the two moieties " (main exogamous divisions) " of the 
tribe." 4 Consequently a man may marry a woman of his own 
totem if she be in the right exogamous division. " She is not 
actually forbidden to him, as a wife becomes of this identity and 
totem, as she would be in the Warramunga neighbouring 
tribe . . ." " It is a very rare thing for a man to marry a 
woman of the same totem as himself," 6 naturally, for the old 
rule holds, in sentiment, and a totem is still very rarely in the 
wrong division. The Arunta system of accidental determination 
of the totem has as yet scarcely produced among the Kaitish 
any of its natural and important effects. 

This view of the case seems logical: Arunta non-exogamous 
non-hereditary totemism is the result, as Messrs Spencer and 
Gillen show, of the theory of spiritual conception and the theory 
of the relation of the spirit part of each individual to his churinga. 
These two beliefs have already caused a minority of Arunta 
totems to get out of the original and into the wrong exogamous 
Arunta divisions. The process is not of old standing; if it were, 
all totems would now be fairly distributed among the divisions 
by the laws of chance. In the Kaitish tribe, on the other hand, 
the processes must be of very recent operation, for they have only 
begun to produce their necessary effects. The totemism of the 
Arunta is thus the reverse of " primitive," and has but slightly 
affected the Kaitish. 

Precisely the opposite view of the facts is taken by Mr Frazer 
in his erudite and exhaustive work Totemism. In the Kaitish, 
he writes, " we may detect the first stage in the transition from 
promiscuous marriage and fortuitous descent of the totem to 
strict exogamy of the totem clans and strict heredity of the 
totems in the paternal line." 6 By "promiscuous marriage," 
marriage within or without the totem, at pleasure, is obviously 
intended, for the Arunta do not marry " promiscuously " do 
not marry their nearest kin. 

How, on Mr Frazer's theory, was the transition from the 
condition of the Arunta to that of the Kaitish made? If the 
Kaitish were once in the actual Arunta stage of totemism, how 
did their totems come now to be much more strictly divided 
between the two moieties, though " the division is not so 
absolute as amongst the Urabunna in the south and the tribes 
farther north . . ."? How did this occur? The Kaitish have 
not made totems hereditary by law; they are acquired by local 
accident. They have not made a rule that all totems should, 
as among the more northern neighbours of the Arunta, be 
regimented so that no totem occurs in more than one division: 
to this rule there are exceptions. A man " is not actually 
forbidden " to marry a woman of his own totem provided she 
be of " the right division," but it is clear that he " does not 
usually do so." This we can explain as the result of a survival 
in manners of the old absolute universal prohibition. 

Meanwhile our view of the facts makes all the phenomena 
seem natural and intelligible in accordance with the statement 
of the observers, Messrs Spencer and Gillen, that the cause of 
the unique non-hereditary non-exogamous totems of the Arunta 
is the combination of the churinga spiritual belief with the belief 
in spiritual conception. This cause, though now present among 

' Northern Tribes, pp. 153, 154, 175. * Ibid. p. 152. 

6 Ibid. p. 175. * Totemism, i. 244. 



TOTEMISM 



the Kaitish, has, so far, operated but faintly. We have been 
explicit on these points because on them the whole problem of 
the original form of totemism hinges. In our view, for the reasons 
stated, the Arunta system of non-exogamous non-hereditary 
totemism is a peculiarity of comparatively recent institution. 
But Mr Frazer, and the chief observer of the phenomena, Mr 
Spencer, consider the Arunta system, non-exogamous and non- 
hereditary, to be the most archaic form of totemism extant. 

As to non-hereditary, we find another report of the facts in 
Die Aranda und Loritja Stiimme, by the Rev. Mr Strehlow, who 
has a colloquial and philological knowledge of the language of 
these tribes. As he reports, among other things, that the 
Aranda (Arunta) in his district inherit their mother's totems, in 
addition to their " local totems," they appear to retain an 
archaic feature from which their local totem system and marriage 
rules are a departure. 1 

The hereditary maternal totem is, in Mr Strehlow's region, the 
protective being (altjira) of each Arunta individual. 

Are the Arunta " Primitive " or not? In the whole totemic 
controversy the question as to whether the non-exogamous 
non-hereditary totemism of the Arunta or the hereditary and 
exogamous totemism of the rest of Australia and of totemic 
mankind, be the earlier, is crucial. 

That Arunta totemism is a freak or " sport," it is argued, 
is made probable first by the fact that the Arunta inherit all 
things hereditable in the male line, whereas inheritance in the 
female descent is earlier. (To this question we return; see below, 
Male and Female Lines of Descent.) M. Van Gennep argues 
that tribes in contact, one set having female, the other male, 
descent, " like the Arunta have combined the systems." 2 But 
several northern tribes with male descent of the totem which are 
not in contact with tribes of female descent show much stronger 
traces of the " combination " than the Arunta, who intermarry 
freely with a tribe of female descent, the Urabunna; while the 
Urabunna, though intermarrying with the Arunta who inherit 
property and tribal office in the male line, show no traces of 
" combination." Thus the effects occur where the alleged 
causes are not present; and the alleged causes, in the case of 
the Urabunna and Arunta, do not produce the effects. 

Next the Arunta have no names for their main exogamous 
divisions, these names being a very archaic feature which in many 
tribes with sub-classes tend to disappear. In absence of phratry 
names the Arunta are remote from the primitive. M. Van 
Gennep replies that perhaps the Arunta have not yet made the 
names, or have not yet borrowed them. This is also the view 
of Mr Frazer. As he says, the Southern Arunta lived under the 
rule of eight classes, but of these four were anonymous, till the 
names for them were borrowed from the north. The people 
can thus have anonymous exogamous divisions; the two main 
divisions, or phratries, of the Arunta may, therefore, from the 
first, have been anonymous. 

To this the reply is that people borrow, if they can, what they 
need. The Arunta found names for their four hitherto anony- 
mous classes to be convenient, so they borrowed them. But 
when once class-names did, as they do, all that is necessary, the 
Arunta had no longer any use for the names of the two primary 
main divisions: these were forgotten; there is nothing to be got 
by borrowing that; while four Arunta " sub-classes " are gaining 
their names, the " classes " (phratries or main divisions) have 
lost them. It is perfectly logical to hold that while things 
useful, but hitherto anonymous, are gaining names, other things, 
now totally useless, are losing their names. One process is as 
natural as the other. In all Australia tribes with two main 
divisions and no sub-classes, the names of the two main divisions 
are found, because the names are useful. In several tribes with 
named sub-classes, which now do the work previously thrown on 
the main divisions, the names of the main divisions are unknown: 
the main divisions being now useless, and superseded by the sub- 
classes. The absence of names of the two main divisions in the 
Arunta is merely a result, often found, of the rise of the sub- 

1 Strehlow, ii. 57 (1908). 

2 Mythes et legendes d'Australie, p. xxxii. 



classes, which, as Mr Frazer declares, are not primitive, but the 
result of successive later legislative acts of division.' 

Manifestly on this point the Arunta are at the farthest point 
from the earliest organization: their loss of phratry names is 
the consequence of this great advance from the " primitive." 

All Arunta society rests on a theory of reincarnated spirits, 
a theory minutely elaborated. M Van Gennep asks " why 
should this belief not be primitive? " Surely neither the 
belief in spirits, nor the elaborate working out of the belief 
connecting spirits with manufactured stone amulets, can have 
been primitive. Nobody will say that peculiar stone amulets 
and the Arunta belief about spirits associated with them are 
primitive. To this M Van Gennep makes no reply. 4 

The Arunta belief that children are spirit-children (ralapa) 
incarnated is very common in the other central and northern 
tribes, and, according to Mrs Bates, in Western Australia; Dr 
Roth reports the same for parts of Queensland. It is alleged by 
Messrs Spencer and Gillen that the tribes holding this belief 
deny any connexion between sexual unions and procreation. 
Mr Strehlow, on the other hand, says that in his region the 
older Arunta men understand the part of the male in procreation ; 
and that even the children of the Loritja and Arunta understand, 
in the case of animals. 5 (Here corroboration is desirable and 
European influence may be asserted.) Dr Roth says that the 
Tully River blacks of Queensland admit procreation for all 
other animals, which have no Koi or soul, but not for men, who 
have souls. (Their theory of human birth, therefore, merely 
aims primarily at accounting for the spiritual part of man.) 6 

According to Mrs Bates, some tribes in the north of South 
Australia, tribes with the same " class " names as the Arunta, 
hold that to have children a man must possess two spirits 
(ranee). If he has but one, he remains childless. If he has two, 
he can dream of an animal, or other object, which then passes 
into his wife, and is born as a child, the animal thus becoming the 
child's totem. This belief does not appear to apply to reproduc- 
tion in the lower animals. It is a spiritual theory of the begetting 
of a soul incarnated. If a man has but one spirit, he cannot give 
one to a child, therefore he is childless. 

It is clear that this, and all other systerr s in which reproduction 
is explained in spiritual terms, can only arise among peoples 
whose whole mode of thinking is intensely " animistic." It is 
also plain that all such myths answer two questions (i) How 
does a being of flesh and spirit acquire its spiritual part? (2) 
How is it that every human being is in mystical rcpport 
with an animal, plant, or other object, the totem? Manifestly 
the second question could not arise and need answer before 
mankind were actually totemists. It may be added that in 
the south of Western Australia the name for the mythical 
" Father of All " (a being not there worshipped, though 
images of him are made and receive some cult at certain 
licentious festivals) and the name for " father-stock " is 
maman, which Mrs Bates finds to be the native term for 
membrum virile. All this appears to be proof of understand- 
ing of the male part in reproduction, though that understanding 
is now obscured by speculation about spirits. 

The question arises then, is the ignorance of procreation, where 
that ignorance exists, " primitive," and is the Arunta totemism 
also " primitive," being conditioned, as we are told it is, by the 
unique belief in some churinga? Or is the ignorance due to 
attempts of native thinkers to account for the spirit in man as a 
pre-existing entity that has been from the beginning? The 
former view is that of Messrs Spencer and Gillen, and Mr Frazer. 
For the latter see Lang, Anthropological Essays presented to 
E. B. Tylor, pp. 210-218. We can hardly call people primitive 
because they have struggled with the problem " how has material 
man an indwelling spirit?" 

Theories of the Origin of Totemic Exogamy. Since the word 
" exogamy " as a name for the marriage systems connected (as 
a rule) with totemism was used by J. F. McLennan in his. 

8 Totemism, i. 282, 283. 4 Van Gennep, pp. xxxiii-xxxv. 

6 Loritja Stiimme, p. 52, note 7. 

Roth, Bulletin, No. 5, pp. 17, 22, 65, 81. 



8 4 



TOTEMISM 



Primitive Marriage (1866), theories of the origin of exogamy 
have been rife and multifarious. All, without exception, are 
purely conjectural. One set of disputants hold that man 
(whatever his original condition may have been) was, when he 
first passed an Act of Exogamy, a member of a tribe. Hewitt's 
term for this tribe was " the undivided commune." It had, 
according to him, its inspired medicine-man, believed to be in 
communication with some superior being. It had its pro- 
bouleutic council of elders or " headmen " and its general 
assembly. Such was man's political condition. 1 It is not dis- 
tinguishable from that of many modern Australian tribes. Other 
tribes, said by some to be the most primitive, the Arunta and 
their neighbours, pay no attention to the dictates of a superior 
being, and the Arunta of Spencer and Gillen seem to know no 
such entity, though as Atnatu, Tukura, Altjira, and " the Great 
Ulthaana of the heavens," he exists in a dwindled form among 
the Kaitish, Loritja and outlying portions of the Arunta tribe. 
In religion Howitt's early men were already in advance of Mr 
Spencer's Arunta. Socially, man, at this date, according to 
Howitt, at first left the relations of the sexes wholly unregulated; 
the nearest kinsfolk by blood coupled at will, though perfectly 
aware that they were, at least on the maternal side, actual 
brothers and sisters, parents and children. 

Upholders of the first theory, that man lived promiscuously 
in a tribal state with legislative assemblies and then suddenly 
reformed promiscuity away, must necessarily differ in their 
opinion as to the origins of totems and exogamy from the friends 
of the second theory, who believe that man never was "pro- 
miscuous," and given to sexual union with near kin. Why man, 
on the first theory familiar as he was with unions of the nearest 
kin suddenly abolished them is explained in four or five different 
ways. Perhaps the most notable view is Mr Frazer's; he easily 
confutes, in thirty-five pages, the other hypotheses. 2 Man saw, 
or thought he saw, injurious consequences to the wedded near- 
related couples, and therefore he prohibited, first, unions between 
mothers and sons, and brothers and sisters. 3 But, in his fourth 
volume, Mr Frazer sees conclusive objections to this view 4 and 
prefers another. Some peoples, far above the estate of savagery, 
believe that human incest blights and sterilizes the crops, 
women and animals. " If any such belief were entertained by 
the founders of exogamy, they would clearly have been perfectly 
sufficient motives for instituting the system, for they would 
perfectly explain the horror with which incest has been regarded 
and the extreme severity with which it has been punished." 6 
That is to say, people had a horror and hatred of incest because 
they supposed that it blighted the crops and other things. Mr 
Frazer had previously written (iv. 108) " It is important to bear 
steadily in mind that the dislike of certain marriages must always 
have existed in the minds of the people, or at least of their leaders, 
before that dislike, so to say, received legal sanction by being 
embodied in an exogamous rule." 

Again (iv. 112) " There had, for some reason unknown to us, 
been long growing up a strong aversion to consanguineous 
unions " before any legislative bar was raised against them. 
This is insisted on. The prohibition " must have answered to 
certain general sentiments of what was right and proper " 
(iv. 121). But here the theorist has to explain the origin of 
the strong aversion, the general sentiment that unions of near 
kin are wrong and improper. But Mr Frazer does not seem to 
explain the point that most needs explanation. That " strong 
aversion," that " general sentiment," cannot have arisen from 
a growing belief that unions of close kin spoiled the crops or 
the natural resources of the country. That superstition could 
only arise as a consequence of the horror and aversion with 
which " incest " was regarded. Now no idea corresponding 
to " incest " could arise before unions of near kin were deemed 
abominable. When once such unions were thought hateful to 
gods and men, and an upsetting of the cosmic balance, then, 
but not till then, they might be regarded as injurious to the 
crops. All such beliefs are sanctions of ideas already in strong 

1 N.T.S.E.A. pp. 89, 90. Ibid. i. 165. 

1 Totemism, iv. 75-120. 4 Ibid. iv. 155, 156. 

6 Ibid. iv. 158. 



force. The idea that such or such a thing is wrong begets 
the prohibition, followed by the sanction the belief that 
the practice of the thing is injurious in a supernormal way: 
where that belief exists. We do not know it in Australia, for 
example. 

A belief that close sexual unions were maleficent cosmic 
influences could not possibly arise previous to, and could not 
then cause, " the dislike of certain marriages "; " the strong 
aversion to consanguineous unions " which existed already. 
This latest guess of Mr Frazer at the origin of the idea of 
" incest " of the abomination of certain unions is untenable. 
What he has to explain is the origin of the dislike, the aversion, 
the horror. Once that has arisen, as he himself observes, the 
prohibition follows, and then comes the supernormal sanction. 
Thus no theory of exogamous rules as the result of legislation 
to prevent the unions of persons closely akin, can produce, or 
has produced, any reason for the aversion to such unions arising 
among people to whom, on the theory, they were familiar. 
Mr Frazer has confuted the guesses of MacLennan, Morgan, 
Durkheim and others; but his own idea is untenable. 

The Supposed Method of Reform. On Mr Frazer's theory 
the reformers first placed half of the mothers of the tribe, 
with their children, in division A; and the rest of the mothers, 
with their children, in division B. The members of each division 
(phratry) must marry out of it into the other, and thus no man 
could marry his sister or mother. (The father could marry his 
daughter, but in tribes with no exogamous explicit rule against 
the union, he never does.) Later the two divisions were bisected 
each into a couple of pairs (classes) preventing marriage 
between father and daughter; and another resegmentation 
prohibited the unions of more distant relations. These systems, 
from the simplest division into two phratries, to the more 
complex with two " sub-classes " in each phratry, and the 
most elaborate of all with four sub-classes in each phratry, 
exist in various tribes. Environment and climate have 
nothing to do with the matter. The Urabunna and the 
Arunta live in the same climate and environment, and inter- 
marry. The Urabunna have the most primitive, the Arunta 
have the most advanced of these organizations. While the 
rules are intended to prevent consanguineous marriages, the 
names of the " sub-classes " (when translatable, the names of 
animals) cannot perhaps be explained. They have a totemic 
appearance. 

Totems in Relation to Exogamy. So far, in this theory nothing 
has been said of totems, though it is an all but universal rule 
that people of the same totem may not intermarry, even if the 
lovers belong to tribes separated by the breadth of the continent. 
In fact, according to the hypothesis which has been set forth, 
totems, though now exogamous, played no original part in 
the evolution of exogamy. They came in by accident, not by 
design, and dropped into their place in a system carefully 
devised. 

Originally, on this theory, a totem came to a child, not as is 
usual now, by inheritance, but by pure accident; the mother 
supposing that any object which caught her attention at the 
moment when she first felt the life of her child, or any article 
of food which she had recently eaten, became incarnate in her, 
so that the emu (say) which she saw, or had eaten of, was her 
child. He or she was an Emu man or woman, by totem was an 
Emu. 

Certain localities, later, were somehow associated each with 
one given object cat, kangaroo, grub, or anything else, and 
now " local totems " (if the phrase may be used) took the place 
of " conceptional totems," as among the Arunta. The child 
inevitably was of the local totem and its supposed place of 
conception. 

Finally all tribes except the Arunta " nation " made the totem 
hereditary, either from mother or father; and as the mother or 
father, an Emu, was in division A, so was the child, and he 
or she must marry out of that division into the other, B.' 

The objections taken to this theory are now to be stated: 

' Frazer, Totemism, i. 157-167. 



TOTEMISM 



(i.) The theory can by no possibility apply to tribes with three 
or more main exogamous divisions or phratries, such as we find 
in North America. In a three-phratry tribe we are reduced to 
suppose that there were three sexes, or resort to some other 
solution not perhaps compatible with the theory, (ii.) We have 
no evidence that any totemic people, except the Navajoes, 
think the closest sexual unions injurious to the parties or their 
offspring. The theory is thus merely extracted from the facts 
certain unions are forbidden, therefore they must have been 
deemed injurious. Now, even if they were generally thought 
injurious, the belief would be a mere inference from the fact 
that they were forbidden, (iii.) The supposed original legisla- 
tive exogamous division produced a very different effect than 
that said to be aimed at, namely, the prohibition of marriage 
between brothers and sisters. It forbade to every man marriage 
with half the women of his tribe, most of whom were not, even 
in the wide native use of the term, his " tribal " sisters, that 
is, women in a man's phratry of the same status as his own 
sisters. Such relationships, of course, could not exist before 
they were created by the supposed Act of Division. It would 
have been easy to prohibit marriages of brothers with sisters 
directly, just as, though no exogamous rule forbids, the father, 
in tribes of female descent, is directly forbidden to marry his 
daughters. The natives can take a simple instead of a bewilder- 
ing path. To this natural objection Mr Frazer replies: 1 " If we 
assume, as we have every right to do, that the founders of exo- 
gamy in Australia recognized the classificatory system of rela- 
tionship, and the classificatory system of relationship only, we 
shall at once perceive that what they intended to prevent was 
not merely the marriage of a man with his sister, his mother, 
or his daughter in the physical sense in which we use these 
terms; their aim was to prevent his marriage with his sister, 
his mother and his daughter in the classificatory sense of 
these terms; that is, they intended to place bars to marriage 
not between individuals merely but between the whole groups 
of persons who designated their group, not their individual 
relationships, their social, not their consanguineous ties, by the 
names of father and mother, brother and sister, son and daughter. 
And in this intention the founders of exogamy succeeded per- 
fectly." Mr Frazer's theory of the origin of exogamy appears 
now to waver. It was 2 that the primal bisection of the 
tribe was " deliberately devised and adopted as a means of 
preventing the marriage, at first, of brother with sisters. . . ." 
Here was the place to say, if it was then intended to say, that 
the Australians " recognized the classificatory system of rela- 
tionships only." As a matter of fact they recognize both the 
consanguine and the classificatory systems. It is not the 
case that " the savage Australian, it may be said with truth, 
has no idea of relationships as we understand them, and does 
not discriminate between his actual father and mother and 
the men and women who belong to the group, each member of 
which might have lawfully been either his father or his mother, 
as the case may be." 

This statement is made inadvertently and unfortunately by 
Messrs Spencer and Gillen, 3 but it is contradicted by their 
own observations. An Arunta can tell you, if asked, which of 
all the men whom he calls " father " is his very own father. 4 
The Dieri have terms for " great " (actual) and " little " (tribal) 
father, and so for other relationships. In Arunta orgies 
a woman's " tribal " " fathers " and " brothers " and " sons " 
are admitted to her embraces; her actual father and brothers 
and sons are excluded. 6 Thus, if the prohibition be based on 
aversion to unions of persons closely akin by blood, as the 
actual father is excluded, the actual father, among the Arunta, 
is, or has been, amongst that people, regarded as near of blood to 
his daughters. The Arunta are ignorant, we are told, of the 
part of the male in procreation. Be it so, but there has been 
a time when they were not ignorant, and when the father was 
recognized as of the nearest kin by blood to his daughters. If 



1 Totemism, i. 288. 

1 Northern Tribes, pp. 95 seq. ; 

4 Central Tribes, p. 57. 



2 Ibid. i. 163. 

Totemism, i. 289. 

6 Ibid. p. 97. 



not, and if the prohibition is based on hatred of unions of 
close kin, why is the father excluded? Nothing, in short, can 
be more certain than that Australian tribes distinguish between 
" social " or " tribal " relations on the one hand, and close 
consanguine relations on the other. Among the Arunta office 
is inherited by a man from his mother's husband, his father quern 
nuptiae demonstrant; not from any " tribal " father. 6 

Mr Frazer 7 apparently meant in his earlier statement that 
brothers and sisters consanguine, and these only, were to 
be excluded from intermarriage, because he went on to say that 
science cannot decide as to whether the closest interbreeding 
is injurious to the offspring of healthy parents, however near 
in blood; and that very low savages could not discover what is 
hidden from modern science. He had therefore marriages of 
consanguine brothers and sisters present to his mind: " the 
closest interbreeding." Brothers and sisters were finally for- 
bidden, on this theory, to intermarry, not because of any dread 
of injury to the offspring. " The only alternative open to us 
seems to be to infer that these unions were forbidden because 
they were believed to be injurious to the persons engaged in 
them, even when they were both in perfect health." 8 These 
" incestuous unions " are between brothers and sisters, mothers 
and sons. Here brothers and sisters consanguine, children of the 
same mother in each case, certainly appear to be intended. Who 
else, indeed, can be intended? But presently 9 we are to assume 
that the Australians, before they made the first exogamous 
division of the tribe " recognized the classificatory system of 
relationship, and the classificatory system only." They meant, 
now, to bar marriage between " whole groups of persons," 
related by " social, not consanguineous ties." But this seems 
to be physically impossible. These " whole groups " never 
existed, and never could exist, as far as we can see, till they 
were called into being by the legislative division of the tribe 
into two exogamous phratries which had not yet been made. 
How could a man call a whole group of women " nupa," as at 
present (the word being applied to his wife and to all women 
of the opposite phratry to his whom he might legally marry) 
before the new law had constituted such a group? In what 
sense, again, were all women of a certain status called my 
" sisters " (like my actual sisters) before the new law made a 
new group of them in regard to marriage as sacred as my own 
sisters now were to me? It cannot be said that all women 
of my status were called, collectively, my " sisters " before the 
new division of the tribe and new rule arose, because previously, 
all women of my status in the tribe have been my " sisters." 
Who else could be collectively my " sisters "? If to marry a 
" sister " were reckoned dangerous to her and to me, I must have 
been forbidden to marry all the women of my status in the 
tribe. How could a law which merely halved the number of my 
" sisters " remove the unknown danger from half of them? If 
any women except my actual sisters were, before the new rule, 
reckoned as socially my sisters, all women in the tribe of a certain 
status must have been so reckoned. If all dangerous, I must 
marry none of them. But by the new rule, I may marry half 
of them! Why have they ceased to be dangerous? 

If the theory be that originally only brothers and sisters con- 
sanguine were thought dangerous to each other in sexual rela- 
tions, and the superstition was later extended so as to include 
all " classificatory " brothers and sisters, who were in these 
days (before the exogamous division) classificatory brothers and 
sisters? How and for what reason were some marriageable 
girls in the tribe classificatory sisters of a young man while 
others, equally young and marriageable, were not ? The classi- 
ficatory brothers and sisters must have been all the marriageable 
youth of both sexes in a generation, in the tribe. 

But then if all the youth of a generation, of both sexes, 
were classificatory brothers and sisters, and if therefore their 
unions were dangerous to themselves, or to the crops, the danger 
could not be prevented by dividing them into two sets, and 

6 See Proceedings of British Academy, iii. 4. Lang, "^Origin 
of Terms of Human Relationships." 

7 Totemism, i. 163. " Ibid. i. 165. Ibid. i. 288. 



86 



TOTEMISM 



allowing each set of brothers to marry each set of sisters. The 
only way to parry the danger was to force all these brothers and 
sisters to marry out of the local tribe into another local tribe 
with the same superstition. When that was done, the two local 
tribes, exogamous and intermarrying, were constituted into the 
two phratries of one local tribe. But that is not the theory of 
observers on the spot: their hypothesis is that a promiscuous 
and communistic local tribe, for no known or conceivable 
reason, bisected itself into two exogamous and intermarrying 
" moieties." 

On the face of it, it is a fatal objection to the theory that when 
men dwelt in an undivided commune they recognized no system 
of relationships but the classificatory, yet were well aware of 
consanguineous relationships; were determined to prohibit 
the marriages of people in such relationships; and included in 
the new prohibition people in no way consanguineous, but 
merely of classificatory kin. The reformers, by the theory, 
were perfectly able to distinguish consanguineous kinsfolk, so 
that they might easily have forbidden them to intermarry; 
while if all the members of the tribe were not in the classificatory 
degrees of relationship, who were? How were persons in classifi- 
catory relationships with each other discriminated from other 
members of the tribe who were not? They were easily discrim- 
inated as soon as the phratries were instituted, but, we think, not 
before. 

Term of Classificatory Relationships. Here it is necessary to 
say a few words about " classificatory " terms of relationship. 
Among many peoples the terms or names which with us denote 
relationships of consanguinity or affinity, such as Father, 
Mother, Brother, Sister, Son, Daughter, Husband, Wife, are 
applied both to the individuals actually consanguineous in 
these degrees, and also to all the other persons in the speaker's 
own main exogamous division or phratry who are of the same 
" age-grade " and social status as the Father, Mother, Brother, 
Sister, Son, Daughter, Husband, Wife, and so forth. As a 
man thus calls all the women whom he might legally have married 
by the same term as Re calls his wife, and calls all children of 
persons of his own " age-grade," class and status by the same 
name as he calls his own children, many theorists hold this to 
be a proof of the origin of the nomenclature " in a system of 
group marriage in which groups of men exercised marital rights 
over groups of women, and the limitation of one wife to one 
husband was unknown. Such a system would explain very 
simply why every man gives the name of wife to a whole group 
of women, and every woman gives the name of husband to a 
whole group of men," and so on with all such collective terms 
of relationship. 1 

Certainly this is a very simple explanation. But if we wished 
to explain why every Frenchman applies the name which he 
gives to his " wife " (femme) to every " woman " in the world, 
it would be rather simpler than satisfactory to say that this 
nomenclature arose when the French people lived in absolute 
sexual promiscuity. The same reasoning applies to English 
" wife," German Weib, meaning " woman," and so on in many 
languages. Moreover the explanation, though certainly very 
simple, is not " the only reasonable and probable explanation." 
Suppose that early man, as in a hypothesis of Darwin's, lived, 
not in large local tribes with the present polity of such tribes 
in Australia, but in " cyclopean families," where the sire con- 
trolled his female mates and offspring; and suppose that he, 
from motives of sexual jealousy, and love of a quiet life, forbade 
amours between his sons and daughters. Suppose such a society 
to reach the dimensions of a tribe. The rules that applied to 
brothers and sisters, mothers and sons, would persist, and the 
original names for persons in such relationships in the family 
would be extended, in the tribe, to all persons of the same 
status: new terms being adopted, or old terms extended, to 
cover new social relationships created by social laws in a wider 
society. 

Another Theory of the Origin of Totemism and Exogamy. How 
this would happen may be seen in studying the other hypothesis 
1 Totemism, \. 304. 



of exogamy and totemism. 2 Man was at first, as Darwin sup- 
posed, a' jealous brute who expelled his sons from the neighbour- 
hood of his women; he thus secured the internal peace of his. 
fire circle; there were no domestic love-feuds. The sons there- 
fore of necessity married out were exogamous. As man 
became more human, a son was permitted to abide among his 
kin, but he had to capture a mate from another herd (exogamy). 

The groups received sobriquets from each other, as Emu, 
Frog, and so forth, a fact illustrated copiously in the practice 
of modern and English and ancient Hebrew villages.* 

The rule was now that marriage must be outside of the local 
group-name. Frog may not marry Frog, or Emu, Emu. The 
usual savage superstition which places all folk in mystic 
rapport with the object from which their names are derived 
gradually gave a degree of sanctity to Emu, Frog and the rest. 
They became totems. 

Perhaps the captured women in' group Emu retained and 
bequeathed to their children their own group-names; the 
children were Grubs, Ants, Snakes, &c. in Emu group. Let 
two such groups, Emu and Kangaroo, tired of fighting for 
women, make peace with connubium, then we have two phra- 
tries, exogamous and intermarrying, Emu and Kangaroo, with 
totem kins within them. (Another hypothesis is necessary 
if the original rule of all was, as among the Uraburtha and other 
tribes, that each totem kin mustmarryout of itself into only one 
other totem kin. 4 But we are not sure of the fact of one 
totem to one totem marriage.) In short, the existence of the 
two main exogamous divisions in a tribe is the result of an alliance 
of two groups, already exogamous and intermarrying, not of a 
deliberate dissection of a promiscuous horde. 6 

The first objection to this system is that it is not held by 
observers on the spot, such as Mr Howett and Mr Spencer. 
But while all the observed facts of these observers are accepted 
(when they do not contradict their own statements, or are not 
corrected by fresh observations), theorists are not bound to 
accept the hypotheses of the observers. Every possible respect 
is paid to facts of observation. Hypotheses as to a stage of 
society which no man living has observed may be accepted as 
freely from Darwin as from Howitt, Spencer and L. Morgan. 

It is next objected that " the only ground for denying that the 
elaborate marriage-system" (systems?) "of the Australian 
aborigines has been devised by them for the purpose which 
it actually serves, appears to be a preconceived idea that these 
savages are incapable of thinking out and putting in practice 
a series of checks on marriage so intricate that many civilized 
persons lack either the patience or the ability to understand 
them . . . The truth is that all attempts to trace the origin and 
growth of human institutions without the intervention of human 
intelligence and will are radically vicious and foredoomed to 
failure."* But nobody is denying that the whole set of 
Australian systems of marriage is the result of human emotions, 
intelligence and will. Nobody is denying that, in course of 
time, the aborigines have thought out and by successive steps 
have elaborated their systems. The only questions are, what 
were the human motives and needs which, in the first instance, 
set human intelligence and will to work in these directions; and 
how, in the first instance, did they work? The answers given 
to these questions are purely and inevitably hypothetical, 
whether given by observers or by cloistered students. 

It is objected, as to the origin of totemism, that too much 
influence is given to accident, too little to design. The answer 
is that " accident " plays a great part in all evolution, and that, 

5 Lang and Atkinson, Social Origins and Primal Law. Lang, 
Secret of the Totem. 

3 Lang, Social^ Origins and Secret of the Totem. 

4 Anthropological Essays, pp. 206-209. 

6 This theory, already suggested by the Rev. J. Mathew, and Mr 
Daniel McLennan, occurred independently to M. Van Gennep, who, 
in Mythes it leeendes d'Australie, suppressed his chapter on it, after 
reading The Secret of the Totem. The conclusions were almost 
identical with those of that work (Op. cit. pp. vi. xxxiv.). The 
details of the evolution, which are many, may be found in Social 
Origins and Primal Law, and revised in The Secret of the Totem. 

6 Totemism, i. 280, 281. 



TOTEMISM 



in the opposed theory, the existence and actual exogamous 
function of totems is also accidental, arising from ignorance 
and a peculiar superstition. It is urged that no men would 
accept a nickname given from without by hostile groups. This 
is answered by many examples of cases in which tribes, clans, 
political parties, and, of course, individuals, have accepted 
sobriquets from without, and even when these were hostile and 
derisive. 1 It is asked, Why, on this theory, are there but two 
exogamous divisions in the tribe? The reply is that in America 
there may be three or more: that in the Urabunna there are as 
many exogamous divisions (dual) as there are totems, and that 
these, like the main exogamous divisions, go in pairs, because 
marriage is between two contracting parties. 2 

It is maintained in this theory that Australian blacks, who are 
reflective and by no means illogical men, have long ago observed 
that certain marriages are rigorously barred by their social 
system, for no obvious reason. Thus a man learns that he 
must not marry in his own main exogamous division, say 
Eagle Hawk. He must choose a wife from the opposite division, 
Crow. She must belong to a certain set of women in Crow, 
whose tribal status is precisely that, in Crow, of his own sisters, 
and his " little sisters " (the women of his sister's status) in 
Eagle Hawk. The reflective tribesman does not know why these 
rules exist. But he perceives that the marriageable women in 
his own main division bear the same title as his sisters by 
blood. He therefore comes to the conclusion that they are 
all what his own sisters manifestly are, " too near flesh," as the 
natives say in English; and that the purpose of the rule is to 
bar marriage to him with all the women who bear the name 
" sisters " that denotes close consanguinity. Presently he 
thinks that other kinsfolk, actual, or bearing the same collective 
title as actual kinsfolk of his, are also " too near flesh," and he 
goes on to bar them till he reaches the eight class model; or 
like some south-eastern tribes, drops the whole cumbrous 
scheme in favour of one much like our own. 

The reflective savage, in short, acts exactly as the Church 
did when she extended to cousins the pre-existing Greek and 
Roman prohibitions against the marriages of very near kin; 
and, again, extended them still further, to exclude persons not 
consanguineous at all but called by the same title as real 
consanguines, " father," " mother " and " child " in " gossipred " 
godfather, godmother, godchild. 

The savage and ecclesiastical processes are parallel and 
illustrate each other. Probably when a tribe with two main 
exogamous and intermarrying divisions came into existence in 
the way which we have indicated, the names used in families for 
father, mother, daughter, son, husband, wife, brother, sister, 
were simply extended so as to include, in each case, all persons in 
the tribe who were now of the same status, socially, with the 
same rights, restrictions and duties, as had been theirs in the 
fire-circle before the tribe was made a tribe by the union of two 
exogamous and previously hostile intermarrying local groups; 
or two sets of such groups. The process is natural; the wide 
extension now given to old names of relationships saved the 
trouble of making new names. Thus we have found a reasonable 
and probable way of accounting for classificatory terminology 
without adopting the hypothesis that it arose out of " group- 
marriage " and asking " But how did group-marriage arise?" 

There is no accident here, all is deliberate and reflective 
design, beginning with the purely selfish and peace-loving 
design of the jealous sire. Meanwhile the totemic prohibition, 
" no marriage in the same totem name," has been retained and 
expanded even beyond the tribe, and " however remote the 
hunting grounds " of two persons, they may not intermarry if 
their totem name be the same. 

Such are the two chief opposed theories of the origins of 
exogamy, and of the connexions of exogamy with totemism. 
The second does not enjoy the benefit of notice and criticism 
in Mr Frazer's Totemism. 

1 The Secret of the Totem, pp. 128, 13,1. 

* For other arguments explaining the duality of the divisions 
see Van Gennep, ut supra, p. xxxiv. and note I. 



Relations of the Social and Religious Aspects of Totemism. It 
is a curious fact (if it be accepted as a fact) that the social 
aspect of totemism the prohibition to marry a person of the 
same hereditary totem name is sometimes strongest where 
the " religious " prohibition against killing or eating the totem 
is weakest; while the highest regard is paid to the totem, or 
to the god which is supposed to inhabit the totem species, where 
there is no prohibition on marrying within the totem name. 
Thus in Australia, where (except in the centre, among the 
Arunta) almost all tribes prohibit marriages within the totem 
name, it is scarcely possible to find an instance in which irreligious 
treatment of the totem, killing or eating it, is (as among many 
other totemic peoples) thought to be automatically or " reli- 
giously " punished by illness, death or miscarriage. Religion, 
in these cases, does not hold that the injured majesty of the 
totem avenges itself on the malefactor. On the other hand the 
Samoans, who pay no regard to the sacred animal of each 
community in the matter of not marrying within his name, 
believe that he will inflict death if one of his species be eaten 
and if no expiatory rite be performed. 3 In Samoa, we saw, 
the so-called totem is the vehicle of a God; in Australia no such 
idea is found. 

Meanwhile the offence of marrying within the totem name is 
nowhere automatically punished in any way except among the 
American Navajos, where, to make certain, the totem kin also 
inflicts secular penalties; 4 and it is part of the magic of the 
Intichiuma rites for the behoof of the totem that his kin should 
eat of him sparingly, as on all occasions they may do. In all 
other quarters, where marriage within the totem kin is forbidden, 
the penalty of a breach of law has been death or tribal excom- 
munication. The offence is secular. The Euahlayi, who never 
marry within the totem name, " may and do eat their hereditary 
totems with no ill effects to themselves." 6 This is very 
common in South Australia. As a rule, however, in Australia 
some respect is paid to the actual plant or animal, and some 
Northern tribes who inherit the paternal totem respect it almost 
as much as the maternal totem. As they also inherit property 
in the maternal line, it seems clear that they have passed from 
female to male descent, as regards the totem, but not as regards 
inheritance. 6 

Male and Female Descent of the Totem. It was the almost 
universal opinion of anthropologists that, in the earliest totemic 
societies, the totem was inherited from the mother, and that 
inheritance from the father was a later development. But when 
the peculiar totemism of the Arunta was discovered, and it was 
desired to prove that this non-exogamous totemism was the 
most primitive extant, it was felt to be a difficulty that the Arunta 
reckon descent of everything hereditable in the male, not the 
female line. If then, the Arunta were not primitive but advanced, 
in this matter as well as in their eight sub-classes and ceremonies, 
how could their totemism be primitive? It would have been 
easy to reply that a people might be " primitive " in some details 
though advanced in others the fact is notorious. But to escape 
from the dilemma the idea was proposed that neither male nor 
female descent was more primitive than the other. One tribe 
might begin with male, one with female descent. Nobody can 
prove that it was not so, but " whereas evidence of the passage 
from female to male reckoning may be observed, there is virtually 
none of a change in the opposite direction." 7 

Thus the Worgaia and Northern neighbours of the Arunta, 
with male descent, have certainly passed through a system of 
female descent of the totem, and actually inherit property in the 
female line, while Strehlow's Aranda or Arunta inherit their 
mothers' totems. Moreover Howitt shows us at least one tribe 

8 Turner, Samoa, p. 31, sqq. 

4 Bourke, Snake Dance of the Moquis, p. 279. 

6 Mrs Langloh Parker, The Euahlayi Tribe, p. 279. 

6 See for Worgaia and Warramunga reverence of the mother's 
totem, though they inherit the father's, Spencer and Gillen, Northern 
Tribes, p. 166. That these tribes, though reckoning descent in 
the paternal line, inherit property in the maternal is certain, see 
pp. 523, 524- 

'Thomas, ut supra, p. 15. 



TOTEMISM 



with female descent, the Dieri, actually in the process of diverging 
from female to male descent of the totem. " A step further is 
when a man gives his totem name to his son, who then has those 
of both father and mother. This has been done even in the 
Dieri tribe," which appears to mean that it is also done in other 
tribes. 1 

A difficult case in marriage law is explained by saying that 
" possibly some man, as is sometimes the case, gave his Murdu 
(totem) to his son, who was then of two Murdus, and so could not 
marry a girl of one of his two totems." 2 We thus see how the 
change from female to male descent of the totem is " directly 
led to," as Mr Howitt says, 3 by a man's mere fatherly desire to 
have his son made a member of his own totem kin. On the other 
hand, we never read that with male descent of the totem a mother 
gives hers to son or daughter. All these facts make it hard to 
doubt (though absolute proof is necessarily impossible) that 
female everywhere preceded male descent of the totem. 

Proof of transition from female to male descent of the totem 
appears to be positive in some tribes of the south of South 
Australia. Among them each person inherits his mother's 
totem, and may not marry a woman of the same. But he also 
inherits his father's totem, which " takes precedence," and gives 
its name to the local group. No person, as apparently among 
the Dieri when a father has " given his totem " to a son, may 
marry into either his father's or his mother's totem kin (Mrs 
Bates). 

Thus we have a consecutive series of evolutions: (a) All 
inherit the maternal totem only, and must not marry within it. 
This is the rule in tribes of south-east Australia with female 
descent, (b) Some fathers in this society give their totems to 
sons, who already inherit their maternal totems. Such sons can 
marry into neither the paternal nor maternal totems. This was 
a nascent rule among the Dieri. (c) All inherit both the paternal 
and the maternal totem, and may marry into neither (southern 
South Australia), (d) All inherit the religious regard for the 
maternal totem, but may marry within it, while they may not 
marry within the paternal totem (Worgaia and Warramunga of 
north central Australia), (e) The paternal totem alone is 
religiously regarded, and alone is exogamous (tribes of south- 
east Australia with male descent). (/) The totem is neither 
hereditary on either side nor exogamous (Spencer's Arunta). 
(g) The maternal totem is hereditary and sacred, but not 
exogamous (Strehlow's Arunta). 

In this scheme we give the degrees by which inheritance of the 
totem from the mother shades into inheritance of the totem from 
both parents (Dieri) , thence to inheritance of both the maternal 
and paternal totem while the paternal alone regulates marriage 
(Worgaia and Warramunga), thence to exclusive inheritance of 
the paternal, without any regard paid to the maternal totem 
(some tribes of South Australia) , and so on. 

Meanwhile we hear of no tribe with paternal descent of the 
totem in which mothers are giving their own totems also to their 
children. We cannot expect to find more powerful presumptions 
in favour of the opinion that tribes having originally only 
maternal have advanced by degrees to only paternal descent of 
the totem. Mr Frazer says, " So far as I am aware, there is no 
evidence that any Australian tribe has exchanged maternal for 
paternal descent, and until such evidence is forthcoming we are 
justified in assuming that those tribes which now trace descent 
from the father formerly traced it from the mother." 4 

We have now provided, however, the evidence for various 
transitional stages from maternal to paternal descent, but have 
found no traces of the contrary process, nor more than one way of 
interpreting the facts. It is admitted by Mr Frazer that in several 
North American tribes the change from female to male descent 
has to all appearance been made. 6 Among the Delawares the 
initial process was much akin to that of the Dieri, who, in a tribe 
of female descent, " gives " his own totem to his sons. " The 
Delawares had a practice of sometimes naming a child into its 
father's clan," and a son thus became a member of his father's 

1 N.T.S.E.A. p. 284. * Ibid. p. 167. 

' Ibid. p. 284. ' Totemism, \. 317. ' Ibid. iii. 42, 58, 72, 80. 



clan. This " may very well have served to initiate a change of 
descent from the female to the male line." 6 Howitt says pre- 
cisely the same thing about the paternal practice of the Dieri. 
Thus there is no reason for denying that the change from female 
to male descent can be made by Australian as readily as by 
American tribes. We have given evidence for every step in the 
transition. The opposite opinion arose merely in an attempt 
to save the primitiveness of the Arunta, some of whom actually 
still make the maternal totem hereditary. 

The change to male descent is socially very important. The 
totem kin of a man, for example, takes up his blood feud. Where 
the descent is female a " man may probably have some (totemic) 
kinsmen in the same group, but equally a considerable number 
of members of other totem kins." But it is clear that the rule 
of male descent gives far greater security to the members of a 
local group; for they are surrounded by kinsmen, local totem 
groups only occurring where male descent of the totem prevails, 
or is predominant. 7 The change from female to male descent of 
the totem, or the adoption of male descent from the first (if if 
ever occurred) is thus a great social advantage. 

The Ways out of Totemism. While Howitt believed (though 
later he wavered in his opinion) that female had always preceded 
male descent of the totem, he also observed that with male 
descent came in abnormal developments. One of these is that 
the people of a district with male descent are often known by 
the name of the region, or of some noted object therein (say wild 
cherries). 8 They may even regard (or white observers suppose 
that they regard) some object as their " local totem," yet they 
marry within that so-called totem. But they take to marrying, 
not out of the hereditary totem kin, which becomes obsolescent, 
but out of their own region into some other given locality. Thus 
in the Kurnai tribe there were no inevitable hereditary totems, 
but thundung were given by the fathers to lads" when about ten 
years old or at initiation." 9 The animal thundung(tlder brother) 
was to protect the boy, or girl (the girl's thundung was 'called 
banung). The names of the creatures, in each case, appear to 
have been given to their human brothers and sisters; the 
thundung name descended to a man's sons. " The names 
are perpetuated " (under male descent) " from- generation to 
generation in the same locality." 10 

Thus it appears that when a Kurnai wishes to marry he 
goes to a locality where he finds girls of banung names into 
which he may lawfully wed. So far he seems, in fact, to practise 
totemic exogamy; that he has to travel to a particular locality 
is merely an accident. Though the thundung and banung 
names are not inherited at birth by the children, they are given 
by the father when the child is old enough to need them. 11 

On the whole, we seem to see, in tribes where male descent 
is of old standing, that the exogamous function of the totem 
becomes obsolete, but a shadow of him, as thundung, retains a 
sort of " religious " aspect and even an unappreciated influence 
in marriage law. 

In Fiji and Samoa, in Melanesia w and British New Guinea, 
many types of contaminated and variegated survivals of totem- 
ism may be studied. In the Torres Islands 13 hero-worship blends 
with totemic survivals. As in parts of South Africa, where a 
tribe, not a kin, has a sacred animal, as in Fiji, he seems to be the 
one survivor of many totems, the totem of some dominant local 

Totemism, iii. 42. 

7 Except among the Arunta, where, though totems come by 
change, local groups are usual. See Spencer and Gillen, Central 
Tribes, p. g. How this occurs we can only guess. See Folk Lore, 
vol. xx., No. 2, pp. 229-231. Here it is conjectured that adults 
of the totem congregate for the purpose of convenience in performing 
Intich''.uma, or magical services for the propagation of the totem 
as an article of food. For the nature of these rites, common in 
the central and northern but unknown to the south-eastern tribes, 
see Central Tribes, pp. 167-212, and Northern Tribes, pp. 283-320. 
The Arunta totem aggregates are magical local societies. 

8 Central Tribes, pp. 8, 9. ' N.T.S.E.A. p. 146. 

10 Ibid. p. 146. u Cf. Howitt, ibid. pp. 270-279. 

12 Rivers, " Totemism in Polynesia and Melanesia," Journ. Anthrop. 
Inst. vol. xxxix. 

13 Haddon, Cambridge Expedition, vol. v. 



TOTEMISM 



89 



totem group, before which the other totems have fled, or but 
dimly appear, or are vehicles of gods, or, in Africa, of ancestral 
spirits. (These African tribal sacred animals are called Siboko 1 .) 
Some tribes explain that the Siboko originated in an animal 
sobrique, as ape, crocodile, given from without. 2 Sibokoism, the 
presence of a sacred animal in a local tribe, can hardly be called 
toteraism, though it is probable that the totem of the leading 
totem kin, among several such totem kins in a tribe, has become 
dominant, while the others have become obsolete. On the Gold 
Coast of Africa as long ago as 1819, Bowdich 3 found twelve 
" families," as he called them, of which most were called by the 
name of an animal, plant or other object, more or less sacred 
to them. They might not marry a person of the same kindred 
name, and there can be little doubt that totemism, with exogamy, 
had been the rule. But now the rules are broken down, especially 
in the peoples of the coast. The survivals and other informa- 
tion may be found in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute 
(1906) xxxvi. 178, 188. 

There are fainter traces of totemism in the Awemba between 
Lake Tanganyika and Lake Bangweolo. 4 A somewhat vague 
account of Bantu totems in British East Africa, by Mr C. W. 
Hobley, indicates that among exogamous " clans " a certain 
animal is forbidden as food to each " clan." 6 The largest 
collection of facts about African totemism, from fresh and 
original sources, is to be found in Mr Frazer's book. For 
totemism in British Columbia the writings of Mr Hill Tout may 
be consulted. 6 The Thlinkit tribes have the institution in 
what appears to be its earliest known form, with two exogamous 
phratries and female descent. Among the Salish tribes " per- 
sonal " totems are much more prominent. Mr Hill Tout, with 
Professor F. Boas, considers the hereditary exogamous totem 
to have its origin in the non-exogamous personal totem, which is 
acquired in a variety of ways. The Salish are not exogamous, 
and have considerable property and marked distinctions of rank. 
It does not, therefore, appear probable that their system of 
badges or crests and personal totems is more primitive than the 
totemic rules of the less civilized Thlinkits, who follow the form 
of the south-east Australian tribes. 7 

Other very curious examples of what we take to be aberrant 
and decadant totemism in New Guinea are given by Mr Selig- 
mann (Man, 1908, No. 89), and by Dr Rivers for Fiji (Man, 
1908, No. 75). Mr Seligmann (Man, 1908, No. 100) added to 
the information and elucidated his previous statements. The 
" clans " in British south-east New Guinea usually bear geo- 
graphical names, but some are named after one of the totems 
in the " clan." " Every individual in the clan has the same 
linked totems," of which a bird, in each case, and a fish seem 
to be predominant and may not be eaten. " The clans are 
exogamous . . . and descent is in the female line." It appears, 
then, that a man, having several totems, all the totems in his 
" clan," must marry a woman of another " clan " who has all 
the totems of her " clan." 

Similar multiplicity of totems, each individual having a 
number of totems, is described in Western Australia (Mrs 
Bates). In this case the word " totem " seems to be used rather 
vaguely and the facts require elucidation and verification. 
In this part of Australia, as in Fiji 8 "pour la naissance . . . 
1'apparition du totem-animal avait toujours lieu." In Fiji 
the mother sees the animal, which does not affect conception, 
and " is merely an omen for the child already conceived." But 
in Western Australia, as we have seen, the husband dreams 
of an animal, which is supposed to follow him home, and to be 
the next child borne by his wife If it is correctly stated that 
when the husband has dreamed of no animal, while nevertheless 
his wife has a baby, the husband spears the man whom he 
suspects of having dreamed of an animal, the marital jealousy 

1 Frazer, " Totemism, South Africa," Man (1901), No. Hi. 

2 See Secret of the Totem, pp. 25, 26. 3 Mission to Ashanti. 
4 Journ. Anthrop. Inst. (1906), xxxvi. 154. 

6 Ibid. (1903), xxxiii. 346-348. " Ibid. (1903-1904). 

7 See discussion in Secret of the Totem for details and references. 

8 Pere Schmidt, Man (1908), No. 84, quoting Pere de Marzan, 
Anthrapos, ii. 400-405. 



takes an unusual form and human life becomes precarious. But 
probably the husband has some reason for the direction of his 
suspicions. He never suspects a woman. 

" The Banks' Islanders," says Mr Frazer, " have retained the 
primitive system of conceptional totemism." 9 On the other hand 
Dr Rivers, who is here our authority, writes " totemism is absent " 
from " the northern New Hebrides, the Banks' and the Terres 
groups." 10 In a place where totemism is absent it does not prima 
facie seem likely that we shall discover " the primitive system 
of conceptional totemism." The Banks' Islanders have no 
totemism at all. But they have a certain superstition applying 
to certain cases, and that superstition resembles Arunta and 
Loritja beliefs, in which Mr Frazer finds the germs of totemism. 
The superstition, however, has not produced any kind of 
totemism in the Banks' group of isles, at least, no totemism is 
found. " There are," writes Dr Rivers, " beliefs which would seem 
to furnish the most natural starting-point for totemism, beliefs 
which Dr Frazer has been led by the Australian evidence " 
(by part of the Australian evidence, we must say) " to regard 
as the origin of the institution." Thus, in Banks' Islands we 
have the starting-point of the institution, without the institution 
itself, and in many Australian tribes we have the institution 
without the facts which are " the most natural starting-point." 
As far as they go these circumstances look as if " the most 
natural " were not the actual starting-point. The facts are 
these: in the Isle of Mota, Banks' group, " many individuals " 
are under a tabu not to eat, in each case, a certain animal 
or fruit, or to touch certain trees, because, in each case, " the 
person is believed to be the animal or fruit in question." 

This tabu does not, as in totemism, apply to every individual; 
but only to those whose mothers, before the birth of the indivi- 
duals, " find an animal or fruit in their loin-cloths." This, 
at least, " is usually " the case. No other cases are given. 
The women, in each case, are informed that their child " will 
have the qualities of the animal " (or fruit) " or even, it appeared 
would be himself or herself the animal " (or fruit). A coco-nut 
or a crocodile, a flying fox or a brush turkey, could not get 
inside a loin-cloth; the animal and fruits must be of exiguous 
dimensions. When the animal (or fruit) disappears " it is 
believed that it is because the animal has at the time of its dis- 
appearance entered into the woman. It seemed quite clear that 
there was no belief in physical impregnation on the part 
of the animal nor of the entry of a material object in the form 
of the animal . . , but, so far as I could gather, an animal 
found in this way was regarded as more or less supernatural, a 
spirit animal and not one material, from the beginning." 

" There was no ignorance of the physical r61e of the human 
father, and the father played the same part in conception as 
in cases unaccompanied by an animal appearance." The part 
played by the animal or fruit is limited to producing a tabu 
against the child eating it, in each case, and some community 
of nature with the animal or fruit. Nothing here is hereditary. 
The superstition resembles some of those of the Arunta, Loritja 
and Euahlayi. Among the Euahlayi the superstition has no 
influence; normal totemism prevails; among the Arunta nation 
it is considered to be, and Dr Rivers seems to think that it is, 
likely to have been the origin of totemism. In Mota, however, 
it either did not produce totemism, or it did; and, where the 
germ has survived in certain cases, the institution has disappeared 
while the germinal facts have vanished in the great majority 
of totemic societies. Dr Rivers does not explain how a brush 
turkey, a sea snake or a flying fox can get into a woman's 
loin-cloth, yet these animals, also crabs, are among those tabued 
in this way. Perhaps they have struck the woman's fancy 
without getting into her loin-cloth. 

It is scarcely correct to say that " the Banks' Islanders 
have retained the primitive system of conceptional totemism." 
They only present, in certain instances, features like those which 
are supposed to be the germs of a system of conceptional 

Man, iv. 128. 

10 " Totemism in Polynesia and Melanesia," Journ. Anthrop. Inst. 
xxxix. 173, sqq. 



9 o 



TOTEMISM 



totemism. In the case of the Arunta we have demonstrated 
that hereditary and exogamous totemism of the normal type 
preceded the actual conceptional method of acquiring, by local 
accident, " personal totems." If the Banks' Islanders were 
ever totemists they have ceased to be so, and merely retain, in 
cases, a superstition analogous to that which, among the Arunta, 
with the aid of the stone churinga, has produced the present 
unique and abnormal state of affairs totemic. 

For totemism in India, see Dal ton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal; 
for the north of Asia, Strahlenberg's Description, &c. (1738); and in 
all instances Mr Frazer's book. 

Myths of Totem Origins. The myths of savages about the 
origin of totemism are of no historical value. Not worshipping 
ancestral spirits, an Australian will not, like an ancestor- 
worshipping African, explain his totem as an ancestral spirit. 
But where, as in the north and centre, he has an elaborate 
philosophy of spirits, there the primal totems exude spirits 
which are incarnated in women. 

In their myths as to the origin of totemism, savages vary 
as much as the civilized makers of modern hypotheses. Some 
claim descent from the totem object; others believe that an 
original race of animals peopled the world; animals human in 
character, but bestial, vegetable, astral or what not, in form. 
These became men, while retaining the rapport with their 
original species; or their spirits are continually reincarnated in 
women and are born again (Arunta of Messrs Spencer and 
Gillen); or spirits emanating from the primal forms, or from 
objects in nature, as trees or rocks, connected with them, enter 
women and are reincarnated (Arunta of Mr Strehlow and some 
Australian north-western tribes, studied by Mrs Bates). 
Other Australians believe that the All-Father, Baiame, gave 
totems and totemic laws to men. 1 There are many other explana- 
tory myths wherever totemism, or vestiges thereof, is found in 
Australia, Africa, America and Asia. 

All the myths of savages, except mere romantic Marchen, and 
most of the myths of peoples who, like the Greeks, later became 
civilized, are " aetiological," that is, are fanciful hypotheses 
made to account for everything, from the universe, the skies, 
the sun, the moon, the stars, fire, rites and ceremonies, to the 
habits and markings of animals. It is granted that almost all of 
these fables are historically valueless, but an exception has been 
made, by scholars who believe that society was deliberately 
reformed by an act bisecting a tribe into two exogamous divisions, 
for savage myths which hit on the same explanation. We might 
as well accept the savage myths which hit on other explanations, 
for example the theory that Sibokoism arose from animal 
sobriquets. Exceptions are also made for Arunta myths in 
which the primal ancestors are said to feed habitually if not 
exclusively on their own totems. But as many totems, fruit, 
flowers, grubs, and so on are only procurable for no longer than 
the season of the May-fly or the March-brown, these myths are 
manifestly fabulous. 

Again the Arunta primal ancestors are said to have cohabited 
habitually with women of their own totem, though without 
prejudice against women of other totems whom they encountered 
in their wanderings. These myths are determined by the 
belief in oknanikilla, or spots haunted by spirits all of one totem, 
which, again, determine the totem of every Arunta. The 
idea being that the fabled primal ancestors male and female 
in each wandering group of miracle-workers were always all of 
one totem, it follows that, if not celibate, which these savages 
never are, they must have cohabited with women of their own 
totem, and, by the existing Arunta system, there is no reason 
why they should not have done so. In no other field of research 
is historical value attributed to savage legends about the 
inscrutable past that lies behind existing institutions. 

We are thus confronted by an institution of great importance 
socially where it regulates marriages and the blood-feud, 
or where it is a bond of social union between kinsmen in the 
totem or members of a society which does magic for the behoof 

1 Mrs Langloh Parker, The Euahlayi Tribe. 



of its totem (central and north-western Australia), and is of 
some " religious " and mythical importance when, as in Samoa, 
the sacred animal is regarded as the vehicle of a god. Of the 
origin of these beliefs, which have practical effects in the evolution 
of society and religion, much, we saw, is conjectured, but as we 
know no race in the act of becoming totemic as in all peoples 
which we can study totemism is an old institution, and in most 
is manifestly decaying or being transmuted we can only form 
the guesses of which examples have been given. Others may 
be found in the works of Herbert Spencer and Lord Avebury, 
and criticisms of all of them may be read in A. Lang's Social 
Origins. 

Whether or not survivals of totems are to be found in the 
animal worship of ancient Egypt, in the animal attendants of 
Greek gods, in Greek post-Homeric legends of descent from gods 
in various bestial disguises, and in certain ancient Irish legends, it 
is impossible to be certain, especially as so many gods are now 
explained as spirits of vegetation, to which folk-lore assigns 
carnal forms of birds and beasts. 

^ Other Things called Totems. As has been said, the name 
" totem " is applied by scholars to many things in nature which 
are not hereditary and exogamous totems. The " local totem " 
(so called) has been mentioned, also " linked totems." 

Personal Totems. This is the phrase for any animal or other 
object which has been " given " to a person as a protective 
familiar, whether by a sorcerer 2 or by a father, or by a congress 
of spaewives at birth; or whether the person selects it for him- 
self, by the monition of a dream or by caprice. The Euahlayi 
call the personal totem Yunbeai, the true totem they style Dhe. 
They may eat their real but not their personal totems, which 
answer to the hares and black cats of our witches. 

Three or four other examples of tribes in which " personal 
totems " are " given " to lads at initiation are recorded by 
Howitt. 3 The custom appears to be less common in Australia 
than in America and Africa (except in South Australia, where 
people may have a number of " personal totems "). In one case 
the " personal totem " came, to a man in a dream, as in North 
America. 4 Here it may be noted that the simplest and appar- 
ently the easiest theory of the origin of totemism is merely 
to suppose that a man, or with female descent a woman, 
made his or her personal totem hereditary for ever in his or her 
descendants. But nobody has explained how it happened 
that while all had evanescent personal totems those of a few 
individuals only become stereotyped and hereditary for ever. 

Sex-Totems. The so-called " sex totem " is only reported in 
Australia. Each sex is supposed by some tribes to have its 
patron animal, usually a bird, and to injure the creature is to 
injure the sex. When lovers are backward the women occasion- 
ally kill the animal patron of the men, which produces horse- 
play, and " a sort of jolly fight," like sky-larking and flirtation. 5 
The old English " jolly kind of fight," between girls as partisans 
of ivy, and men as of the holly " sex-totem," is a near analogue. 
It need not be added that " sex-totems " are exogamous, in 
the nature of things. 

Sub-Totems. This is the name of what are also styled " multi- 
plex totems," that is, numerous objects claimed for their own 
by totem kins in various Australian regions. The Emu totem 
kin, among the Euahlayi tribe, claims as its own twenty-three 
animals and the north-west wind. 6 The whole universe, 
including mankind, was apparently .divided between the totem 
kins. Therefore the list of sub-totems might be extended 
indefinitely. 7 These " sub-totems " are a savage effort at 
universal classification. 

Conclusion. We have now covered the whole field of con- 
troversy as to the causes and origins of totemic institutions. 
Australia, with North America, provides the examples of those 
institutions which seem to be " nearest to the beginning," 
and in Australia the phenomena have been most carefully and 



2 TJie Euahlayi Tribe, p. 21. 
* Ibid. p. 154. 

6 The Euahlayi Tribe, p. I *.. 

7 N.T.S.E.A. p. 454. 



3 N.T.S.E.A. pp. 144-148. 
6 Ibid. pp. 148-151. 



TOTILA TOTNES 



9 1 



elaborately observed among peoples the least sophisticated. In, 
North America most that we know of many great tribes, 
Iroquois, Hurons, Delawares and others, was collected long ago, 
and when precision was less esteemed, while the tribes have 
been much contaminated by our civilization. It has been 
unavoidably necessary to criticize, at almost every stage, the 
conclusions and hypotheses of the one monumental collection 
of facts and theories, Mr Frazer's Totemism (1910). Persons 
who would pursue the subject further may consult the books 
mentioned in the text, and they will find a copious, perhaps an 
exhaustive bibliography in the references of Mr Frazer's most 
erudite volumes, with their minute descriptive account not 
only of the totemism, but of the environment and general 
culture of hundreds of human races, in Savagery and in the 
Lower and Higher Barbarism. (A. L.) 

TOTILA (d. 552), king of the Ostrogoths, was chosen king 
after the death of his uncle Ildibad in 541, his real name being, 
as is seen from the coinage issued by him, Baduila. The work 
of his life was the restoration of the Gothic kingdom in Italy and 
he entered upon the task at the very beginning of his reign, 
collecting together and inspiring the Goths and winning a victory 
over the troops of the emperor Justinian, near Faenza. Having 
gained another victory in 542, this time in the valley of Mugello, 
he left Tuscany for Naples, captured that city and then received 
the submission of the provinces of Lucania, Apulia and Calabria. 
Totila's conquest of Italy was marked not only by celerity but also 
by mercy, and Gibbon says " none were deceived, either friends 
or enemies, who depended on his faith or his clemency." Towards 
the end of 545 the Gothic king took up his station at Tivoli and 
prepared to starve Rome into surrender, making at the same 
time elaborate preparations for checking the progress of Beli- 
sarius who was advancing to its relief. The Imperial fleet, moving 
up the Tiber and led by the great general, only just failed to 
succour the city, which must then, perforce, open its gates to 
the Goths. It was plundered, although Totila did not carry 
out his threat to make it a pasture for cattle, and when the 
Gothic army withdrew into Apulia it was from a scene of desola- 
tion. But its walls and other fortifications were soon restored, 
and Totila again marching against it was defeated by Belisarius, 
who, however, did not follow up his advantage. Several 
cities were taken by the Goths, while Belisarius remained 
inactive and then left Italy, and in 549 Totila advanced a third 
time against Rome, which he captured through the treachery 
of some of its defenders. His next exploit was the conquest 
and plunder of Sicily, after which he subdued Corsica and Sar- 
dinia and sent a Gothic fleet against the coasts of Greece. By 
this time the emperor Justinian was taking energetic measures 
to check the Goths. The conduct of a new campaign was 
entrusted to the eunuch Narses; Totila marched against him 
and was defeated and killed at the battle of Tagina in July 

552- 

See E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall, edited by J. B. Bury (1898), 
vol. iv; T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders (1896), vol. iv. and 
Kampfner, Totila, Konig der Ostgoten (1889). 

TOTNES, GEORGE CAREW, or CAREY, EARL OF (1555-1629), 
English politician and writer, son of Dr George Carew, dean of 
Windsor, a member of a well-known Devonshire family, and Anne, 
daughter of Sir Nicholas Harvey, was born on the 29th of May 
I555, 1 and was educated at Broadgates Hall, Oxford, where he 
took the degree of M.A. in 1588. He distinguished himself 
on the field on several occasions and filled important military 
commands in Ireland. In 1584 he was appointed gentleman- 
pensioner to Queen Elizabeth, whose favour he gained. In 1586 
he was knighted -in Ireland. Refusing the embassy to France, 
Sir George Carew was made master of the ordnance in Ireland 
in 1588, in 1590 Irish privy councillor; and in 1592 lieutenant- 
general of the ordnance in England, in which capacity he 
accompanied Essex in the expedition to Cadiz in 1596 and to 

'According to his own statement, Archaeologia, xii. 401. In the 
introduction, however, to the Calendar of Carew MSS. the date of 
his birth is given as 1558, and his admission into Broadgates Hall in 
1572, aged 15. In the preface to Carew's Letters to Roe it is given 
as 1557- 



the Azores in 1597. In 1598 he attended Sir Robert Cecil, the 
ambassador, to France. He was appointed treasurer at war to 
Essex in Ireland in March 1599, and on the latter's sudden 
departure in September of the same year, leaving the island 
in disorder, Carew was appointed a lord justice, and in 1600 
president of Munster, where his vigorous measures enabled the 
new lord deputy, Lord Mountjoy, to suppress the rebellion. He 
returned to England in 1603 and was well received by James I., 
who appointed him vice-chamberlain to the queen the same 
year, master of the ordnance in 1608, and privy councillor in 
1616; and on the accession of Charles I. he became treasurer 
to Queen Henrietta Maria in 1626. He sat for Hastings in the 
parliament of 1604, and on the 4th of June 1605 was created 
Baron Carew of Clopton, being advanced to the earldom of 
Totnes on the 5th of February 1626. In 1610 he revisited 
Ireland to report on the state of the country; and in 1618 pleaded 
in vain for his friend Sir Walter Raleigh. He died on the 27th 
of March 1629, leaving no issue. He married Joyce, daughter of 
William Clopton, of Clopton in Warwickshire. 

Besides his fame as president of Munster, where his administration 
forms an important chapter in Irish history, Carew had a consider- 
able reputation as an antiquary. He was the friend of Camden, of 
Cotton and of Bodley. He made large collections of materials 
relating to Irish history and pedigrees, which he left to his secretary, 
Sir Thomas Stafford, reputed on scanty evidence to be his natural 
son; while some portion has disappeared, 39 volumes after coming 
into Laud's possession are now at Lambeth, and 4 volumes in the 
Bodleian Library. A calendar of the former is included in the 
State Papers series edited by J. S. Brewer and W. Bullen. His 
correspondence from Munster with Sir Robert Cecil was edited in 
1864 by Sir John Maclean, for the Camden Society, and his letters 
to Sir Thomas Roe (1615-1617) in 1860. Other letters or papers are 
in the Record Office; among the MSS. at the British Museum and 
calendared in the Hist. MSS. Com, Series, Marquess of Salisbury's 
MSS. Stafford published after Carew's death Pacata Hibernia, or 
the History of the Late Wars in Ireland (1633), the authorship of 
which he ascribes in his preface to Carew, but which has been 
attributed to Stafford himself. This was reprinted in 1810 and re- 
edited in 1896. A Fragment of the History of Ireland, a translation 
from a French version of an Irish original, and King Richard II..., 
in Ireland from the French, both by Carew, are printed in Walter 
Harris's Hibernica (1757). According to Wood, Carew contributed 
to the history of the reign of Henry V. in Speed's Chronicle. His 
opinion on the alarm of the Spanish invasion in 1596 has also been 
printed. 

See also the Life of Sir P. Carew, ed. by Sir J. Maclean (1857). 

TOTNES, a market town and municipal borough in the Totnes 
parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, on the Dart, 
29 m. S.S.W. of Exeter, by the Great Western railway. Pop. 
(1901), 4035. It stands on the west bank of the river, and is 
joined by a bridge to the suburb of Bridgetown. It was formerly 
a walled town, and two of the four gates remain. Many old 
houses are also preserved, and in High Street their overhanging 
upper stories, supported on pillars, form a covered way for 
foot-passengers. The castle, .founded by the Breton Juhel, 
lord of the manor after the Conquest, was already dismantled 
under Henry VIII.; but its ivy-clad keep and upper walls 
remain. The grounds form a public garden. Close by are the 
remains of St Mary's Priory, which comprise a large Perpen- 
dicular gatehouse, refectory, precinct wall, abbot's gate and 
still-house. A grammar school, founded 1554, occupied part 
of the Priory, but was removed in 1874 to new buildings. The 
Perpendicular church of St Mary contains a number of interest- 
ing tombs and effigies dating from the i5th century onwards, 
and much excellent carved work. The guildhall is formed from 
part of the Priory. Vessels of 200 tons can lie at the wharves 
near the bridge. The industries include brewing, flour mill- 
ing, and the export of agricultural produce, chiefly corn and 
cider. Trout and salmon are plentiful in the river. The town is 
governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area 
1423 acres. 

Totnes ( Toteneis, Tolton) was a place of considerable importance 
in Saxon times; it possessed a mint in the reign of /Ethelred, 
and was governed by a portreeve. In the Domesday Survey 
it appears as a mesne borough under Juhel of Totnes, founder 
of the castle and priory; it had 95 burgesses within and 15 
without the borough, and rendered military service according 



TOTONICAPAM TOUCAN 



to the custom of Exeter. In 1215 a charter from John instituted 
a gild merchant with freedom from toll throughout the land. A 
mayor is mentioned in the court roll of 1386-1387, and a charter 
from Henry VII. in 1505 ordered that the mayor should be 
elected on St Matthew's day, and should be clerk of the market. 
The present governing charter was granted by Elizabeth in 
1596, and instituted a governing body of a mayor, fourteen 
masters or councillors, and an indefinite number of burgesses, 
including a select body called " the Twenty-men." A fresh 
charter of incorporation from James II. in 1689 made no altera- 
tions of importance. The borough was represented in parlia- 
ment by one member in 1295, and by two members from 1298 
until disfranchised by the act of 1867. A market on Saturday 
existed at least as early as 1255, and in 1608 is described as well 
stocked with provisions. The charter of Elizabeth granted a 
three days' fair at the feast of SS Simon and Jude (Oct. 28), 
and in 1608 fairs were also held on May day and at the feast of 
St James (July 25). The market day has been transferred to 
Friday, but the May and October fairs are continued. The 
town was formerly noted for serges, and in 1641 the inhabitants 
represented their distress owing to the decline of the woollen 
trade. The industry is now extinct. During the Civil War 
General Goring quartered his troops at Totnes, and Fairfax 
also made it his temporary station. 

See Victoria County History; Devonshire; The History of Totnes, 
its neighbourhood and Berry Pomeroy Castle (Totnes, 1825); William 
Cotton, A Graphic and Historical Sketch of the Antiquities of Totnes 
(London, 1858). 

TOTONICAPAM, or TOTONICAPAN, the capital of the depart- 
ment of Totonicapam, Guatemala, on the same high plateau as 
Quezaltenango, the nearest railway station, from which it is 
12 m. E.N.E. Pop. (1905) about 28,000. Totonicapam is 
inhabited mainly by Quiche Indians, employed in the making 
of cloth, furniture, pottery and wooden musical instruments. 
There are hot mineral springs in the neighbourhood. In 1838 
Totonicapam was declared an independent republic, in which 
the adjoining departments of Solola and Quezaltenango were 
included. This state existed for two years, and was then again 
merged in the republic of Guatemala. Totonicapam suffered 
greatly in the earthquake of the i8th of April 1902. 

TOTTENHAM, an urban district in the Tottenham parlia- 
mentary division of Middlesex, England, forming a north 
suburb of London, 65 m. north of London Bridge, adjoining 
Edmonton on the south. Top. (1901), 102,541. Its full 
name, not now in use, was Tottenham High Cross, from the 
cross near the centre of the township. The origin and 
significance of this cross are doubtful. The present structure 
was erected c. 1600, and ornamented with stucco in 1809. In 
the time of Isaak Walton there stood by it a shady 
arbour to which the angler was wont to resort. Formerly 
Tottenham was noted for its " greens," in the centre of one 
of which stood the famous old elm trees called the " Seven 
Sisters "; these were removed in 1840, but the name is pre- 
served in the Seven Sisters Road. Bruce castle, on the site 
of the old mansion of the Bruces, but built probably by Sir 
William Compton in the beginning of the i6th century, was 
occupied by a boarding-school founded by Mr (afterwards Sir) 
Rowland Hill in 1827 on the system instituted by him at Hazle- 
wood, Birmingham. It became public property in 1892. 
The church of All Hallows, Tottenham, was given by David, 
king of Scotland (c.ii26), to the canons of the church of Holy 
Trinity, London. It retains Perpendicular portions, a south 
porch of brick of the i6th century and numerous ancient monu- 
ments and brasses. The grammar school was enlarged and 
endowed in 1686 by Sarah, dowager duchess of Somerset. The 
urban district formerly included Wood Green to the west, but 
this became a separate urban district in 1888 (pop. 34,233). 

In the reign of Edward the Confessor the manor of Tottenham 
was possessed by Earl Waltheof . It was inherited by his daughter 
Maud, who was married first to Simon de St Liz and after- 
wards to David, son of Malcolm III., king of Scotland, who was 
created by Henry I. earl of Huntingdon, and received possession 



of all the lands formerly held by Earl Waltheof. The manor 
thus descended to William the Lion, king of Scotland, and was 
granted by him in 1184 to his brother David, earl of Angus 
and Galloway, the grant being confirmed in 1199 by King 
John of England, who created him earl of Huntingdon. He 
married Maud, heiress of Hugh, earl of Chester, and his son 
John inherited both earldoms. The son married Helen, daughter 
of Llewelyn, prince of Wales, by whom he was poisoned in 
1237, dying without issue. She retained possession till 1254, 
when the manor was divided between his coheirs Robert de 
Brus, John de Baliol and Henry de Hastings, each division 
forming a distinct manor bearing the name of its owner. In 
1429 they were reunited in the possession of John Gedeney, 
alderman of London. 

William Bedwell, the Arabic scholar, was vicar of Tottenham, and 
published in 1632 a Briefe Description of the Towne of Tottenham, in 
which he printed for the first time the burlesque poem, the Turna- 
ment of Tottenham. 

TOTTENVILLE, a former village of Richmond county, New 
York, U.S.A., and since 1898 a part of New York City. It is 
on the southern shore of Staten Island in New York Bay and on 
Staten Island Sound, about 20 m. S.W. of the south extremity 
of Manhattan Island, and is the terminus of the Staten Island 
Rapid Transit railway. Marine engines, terra-cotta and boats 
are manufactured here, and there are oyster fisheries. The 
" Billopp House " here (still standing) was the scene of the con- 
ference, on the nth of September 1776, between Lord Howe, 
representing Lord North, and Benjamin Franklin, John Adams 
and Edward Rutledge, representing the Continental Congress, 
with regard to Lord North's offer of conciliation. This house, 
originally called the " Manor of Bentley," was built by Captain 
Christopher Billopp (1638-1726), who sailed from England in an 
armed vessel, the " Bentley," in 1667, and, by circumnavigating 
Staten Island in 24 hours, made it, under the ruling of the 
duke of York, a part of New York. From the duke of York 
he received 1163 acres of land, including the present site of 
Tottenville. The village was long known as Bentley, but in 
1869 was incorporated (under a faulty charter, revised in 1894) 
as Tottenville, apparently in honour of Gilbert Totten, a soldier 
in the War of Independence. 

TOUCAN, the Brazilian name of a bird, 1 long since adopted 
into nearly all European languages, and apparently first given 
currency in England (though not then used as an English word) 
in 1668 2 by W. Charleton (Onomasticon, p. 115); but the bird, 
with its enormous beak and feather-like tongue, was described 
by Oviedo in his Sumario de la historia natural de las Indias, 
first published at Toledo in 1527 (ch. 42)," and, to quote 
the translation of part of the passage in F. Willughby's Ornith- 
ology (p. 1 29) , " there is no bird secures her young ones better from 
the Monkeys, which are very noisom to the young of most Birds. 
For when she perceives the approach of those Enemies, she so 
settles her self in her Nest as to put her Bill out at the hole, 
and gives the Monkeys such a welcome therewith, that they 
presently pack away, and glad they scape so." Indeed, so 
remarkable a bird must have attracted the notice of the earliest 
European invaders of America, the more so since its gaudy 
plumage was used by the natives in the decoration of their per- 
sons and weapons. In 1555 P. Belon (Hist. nat. oyseaux, p. 184) 
gave a characteristic figure of its beak, and in 1558 Thevet 
(Singularitez de la France antarctique, pp. 88-90) a long descrip- 
tion, together with a woodcut (in some respects inaccurate, 
but quite unmistakable) of the whole bird, under the name 
of " Toucan," which he was the first to publish. In 1560 
C. Gesner (Icones avium, p. 130) gave a far better figure (though 

1 Commonly believed to be so called from its cry; but Skeat 
(Proc. Philolog. Society, May 15, 1885) adduces evidence to prove 
that the Guarani Tuca is from 11, nose, and cdng, bone, i.e. nose of 
bone. 

2 In 1656 the beak of an " Aracari of Brazil," which was a toucan 
sf some sort, was contained in the Musaeum tradescantianum (p. 2), 
out the word toucan does not appear there. 

3 The writer has only been able to consult the reprint of this rare 
work contained in the Biblioteca de autores espanoles (xxii. 473-515), 
published at Madrid in 1852. 



TOUCH 



93 






still incorrect) from a drawing received from Ferrerius, and 
suggested that from the size of its beak the bird should be called 
Burhynchus or Ramphestes. This figure, with a copy of Thevet's 
and a detailed description, was repeated in the posthumous 
edition (1585) of his larger work (pp. 800, 801). By 1579 
Ambroise Pare ((Euvres, ed. Malgaigne, iii. 783) had dissected a 
toucan that belonged to Charles IX. of France, and about the 
same time Lery (Voyage fait en la terre du Brisil, ch. xi.), 
whose chief object seems to have been to confute Thevet, con- 
firmed that writer's account of this bird in most respects. In 
1599 Aldrovandus (Ornithologia, i. 801-803), always ready to 
profit by Gesner's information, and generally without acknow- 
ledgment, again described and repeated the former figures of 
the bird; but he corrupted his predecessor's Ramphestes into 
Ramphastos, and in this incorrect form the name, which should 
certainly be Rhamphestes or Rhamphastas, was subsequently 
adopted by Linnaeus and has since been recognized by system- 
atists. Into the rest of the early history of the toucan's discovery 
it is needless to go. 1 Additional particulars were supplied by 
many succeeding writers, until in 1834 J. Gould completed his 
Monograph of the family 2 (with an anatomical appendix by 
R. Owen), to which, in 1835, he added some supplementary 
plates; and in 1854 he finished a second and much improved 
edition. The most complete compendium on toucans is J. 
Cassin's " Study of the Ramphastidae," in the Proceedings 
of the Philadelphia Academy for 1867 (pp. 100-124). 

By recent systematists 5 genera and from 50 to 60 species of the 
family are recognized; but the characters of the former have never 
been satisfactorily denned, much less those of numerous subdivisions 
which it has pleased some writers to invent. There can be little 
doubt that the bird first figured and described by the earliest 
authors above named is the R. toco of nearly all ornithologists, and 
as such is properly regarded as the type of the genus and therefore 
of the family. It is one of the largest, measuring 2 ft. in length, 
and has a wide range throughout Guiana and a great part of Brazil. 
The huge beak, looking like the great claw of a lobster, more than 
8 in. long and 3 high at the base, is of a deep orange colour, with a 
large black oval spot near the tip. The eye, with its double iris 
of green and yellow, has a broad blue orbit, and is surrounded by a 
bare space of deep orange skin. The plumage generally is black, 
but the throat is white, tinged with yellow and commonly edged 
beneath with red; the upper tail-coverts are white, and the lower 
scarlet. In other species of the genus, 14 to 17 in number, the bill 
is mostly particoloured green, yellow, red, chestnut, blue and black 
variously combining so as often to form a ready diagnosis; but some 
of these tints are very fleeting and often leave little or no trace after 
death. Alternations of the brighter colours are also displayed in 
the feathers of the throat, breast and tail-coverts, so as to be in like 
manner characteristic of the species, and in several the bare space 
round the eye is yellow, green, blue or lilac. The sexes are alike in 
coloration, the males being largest. The tail is nearly square or 
moderately rounded. In the genus Pteroglossus, the " Aracaris " 
(pronounced Arassari), the sexes more or less differ in appearance, 
and the tail is graduated. The species are smaller in size, and 
nearly all are banded on the belly, which is generally yellow, with 
black and scarlet, while except in two the throat of the males at 
least is black. One of the most remarkable and beautiful is P. 
beauharnaisi, by some authors placed in a distinct genus and called 
Beauharnaisius ulocomus. In this the feathers of the top of the 
head are very singular, looking like glossy curled shavings of black 
horn or whalebone, the effect being due to the dilatation of the shaft 
and it? coalescence with the consolidated barbs. Some of the 
feathers of the straw-coloured throat and cheeks partake of the same 
structure, but in a less degree, while the subterminal part of the 
lamina is of a lustrous pearly- white. 3 The beak is richly coloured, 



1 One point of some interest may, however, be noticed. In 1705 
Plot (N.H. Oxfordshire, p. 182) recorded a toucan found within two 
miles of Oxford in 1644, the body of which was given to the repository 
in the medical school of that university, where, he said, " it is still to 
be seen." Already in 1700 Leigh in his Lancashire (i. 195, Birds, 
tab. i, fig. 2) had figured another which had been found dead on the 
coast of that county about two years before. The bird is easily kept 
in captivity, and no doubt from early times many were brought alive 
to Europe. Besides the one dissected by Par, as above mentioned, 
Joh. Faber, in his additions to Hernandez's work on the Natural 
History of Mexico (1651), figures (p. 697) one seen and described by 
Puteus (Dal Pozzo) at Fontainebleau. 

2 Of this the brothers Sturm in 1841 published at Nuremberg a 
German version. 

* This curious peculiarity naturally attracted the notice of the first 
discoverer of the species, Poeppig, who briefly described it in a letter 
published in Froriep's Notizen (xxxii. 146) for December 1831. 



being green and crimson above and lemon below. The upper 
plumage generally is dark green, but the mantle and rump are 
crimson, as are a broad abdominal belt, the flanks and many 
crescentic markings on the otherwise yellow lower parts. 4 The 
group or genus Selenodera, proposed by J. Gould in 1837 (Icones 
avium, pt. i), contains some 6 or 7 species, having the beak, which 
is mostly transversely striped, and tail shorter than in Pteroglossus. 
Here the sexes also differ in coloration, the males having the head 
and breast black, and the females the same parts chestnut; but all 
have a yellow nuchal crescent (whence the name of the group). The 
so-called hill-toucans have been separated as another genus, Andi- 
gena, and consist of some 5 or 6 species chiefly frequenting the slopes 
of the Andes and reaching an elevation of 10,000 ft., though one, 
often placed among them, but perhaps belonging rather to Ptero- 
glossus, the A. bailloni,_ remarkable for its yellow-orange head, neck 
and lower parts, inhabits the lowlands of southern Brazil. Another 
very singular form is A. laminirostris, which has affixed on either 
side of the maxilla, near the base, a quadrangular ivory-like plate, 
forming a feature unique in this or almost in any family of birds. 
The group Aulacorhamphus, or " groove-bills," with a considerable 
but rather uncertain number of species, contains the rest of the 
toucans. 

The monstrous serrated bill that so many toucans possess was 
by G. L. L. Buffon accounted a grave defect of nature, and it must 
be confessed that no one has given what seems to be a satisfactory 
explanation of its precise use, though on evolutionary principles none 
will now doubt its fitness to the bird's requirements. Solid as it 
looks, its weight is inconsiderable, and the perfect hinge by which 
the maxilla is articulated adds to its efficiency as an instrument 
of prehension. W. Swainson (Classif. Birds, ii. 138) imagined it 
merely " to contain an infinity of nerves, disposed like net-work, all 
of which lead immediately to the nostrils," and add to the olfactory 
faculty. This notion seems to be borrowed from J. W. H. Trail 
(Trans. Linn. Society, xi. 289), who admittedly had it from Waterton, 
and stated that it was " an admirable contrivance of nature to 
increase the delicacy of the organ of smell;" but R. Owen's descrip- 
tion showed this view to be groundless, and he attributed the 
extraordinary development of the toucan's beak to the need of com- 
pensating, by the additional power of mastication thus given, for the 
absence of any of the grinding structures that are so characteristic 
of the intestinal tract of vegetable-eating birds its digestive organs 
possessing a general simplicity of formation. The nostrils are placed 
so as to be in most forms invisible until sought, being obscured by 
the frontal feathers or the backward prolongation of the horny 
sheath of the beak. The wings are somewhat feeble, and the legs 
have the toes placed in pairs, two before and two behind. The tail 
is capable of free vertical motion, and controlled by strong muscles, 
so that, at least in the true toucans, when the bird is preparing to 
sleep it is reverted and lies almost flat on the back, on which also 
the huge bill reposes, pointing in the opposite direction. 

The toucans are limited to the new world, and by far the greater 
number inhabit the north of South America, especially Guiana and 
the valley of the Amazons. Some three species occur in Mexico, and 
several in Central America. One, R. vitellinus, which has its head- 
quarters on the mainland, is said to be common in Trinidad, but none 
are found in the Antilles proper. They compose the family Rham- 
phastidae of Coraciiform birds, and are associated with the wood- 
peckers (Picidae) and puff-birds and jacamars (Galbulidae) ; their 
nearest allies perhaps exist among the Capitonidae, but none of these 
is believed to have the long feather-like tongue which is so charac- 
teristic of the toucans, and is, so far as known, possessed besides 
only by the Momotidae (see MOTMOT). But of these last there is no 
reason to deem the toucans close relatives, and according to W. 
Swainson, who had opportunities of observing both, the alleged 
resemblance in their habits has no existence. Toucans in confine- 
ment feed mainly on fruit, but little seems amiss to them, and they 
swallow grubs, reptiles and small birds with avidity. They nest in 
hollow trees, and lay white eggs. (A. N.) 

TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teu- 
tonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. 
zucchen, to twitch or draw), in physiology, a sense of pressure, 
referred usually to the surface of the body. It is often understood 
as a sensation of contact as distinguished from pressure, but it 
is evident that, however gentle be the contact, a certain amount 
of pressure always exists between the sensitive surface and the 
body touched. Mere contact in such circumstances is gentle 
pressure; a greater amount of force causes a feeling of resistance 
or of pressure referred to the skin; a still greater amount causes a 
feeling of muscular resistance, as when a weight is supported 
on the palm of the hand; whilst, finally, the pressure may be so 
great as to cause a feeling of pain. The force may not be exerted 

4 Readers of F. Bates's Naturalist on the River Amazons will 
recollect the account (ii. 344) and illustration there given of his 
encounter with a flock of this species of toucan. His remarks on 
the other species with which he met are also excellent. 



94 



TOUCH 




vertically on the sensory surface, but in the opposite direction 
as when a hair on a sensory surface is pulled or twisted. Touch 
is therefore the sense by which mechanical force is appreciated 
and it presents a strong resemblance to hearing, in which the 
sensation is excited by intermittent pressures on the auditory 
organ. In addition to feelings of contact or pressure referred 
to the sensory surface, contact may give rise to a sensation oi 
temperature, according as the thing touched feels hot or cold 
These sensations of contact, pressure or temperature are usually 
referred to the skin or integument covering the body, but they 
are experienced to a greater or less extent when any serous or 
mucous surface is touched. The skin being the chief sensory 
surface of touch, it is there -that the sense is most highly 
developed both as to delicacy in detecting minute pressures and 
as to the character of the surface touched. Tactile impressions, 
properly so called, are absent from internal mucous surfaces, as 
has been proved in men having gastric, intestinal and urinary 
fistulae. In these cases, touching the mucous surface caused 
pain, and not a true sensation of touch. 

In the article NERVE (Spinal) the cutaneous distribution of the 
organs of touch is dealt with. 

The Amphibia and Reptilia do not show any special organs of 
touch. The lips of tadpoles have tactile papillae. Some snakes 
have a pair of tentacles on the snout, but the tongue is probably 
the chief organ of touch in most serpents and lizards. All reptiles 
possessing climbing powers have the sense of touch highly developed 
in the feet. 

Birds have epithelial papillae on the soles of the toes that are no 
doubt tactile. These are of great length in the capercailzie (Tetrax 

urogallus) , " enabling it to 
grasp with more security the 
frosted branches of the Nor- 
wegian pine trees " (Owen). 
Around the root of the bill 
in many birds there are 
special tactile organs, assist- 
ing the bird to use it as a kind 
of sensitive probe for the de- 
tection in soft ground of the 
worms, grubs and slugs that 
constitute its food. Special 
bodies of this kind have been 
detected in the beak and 
tongue of the duck and goose, called the tactile corpuscles of F. S. 
Merkel, or the corpuscles of Grandry (fig. i). Similar bodies have 
been found in the epidermis of man and mammals, in the outer 
root-sheath of tactile hairs or feelers. They consist of small bodies 
composed of a capsule enclosing two or more flattened nucleated 
cells, piled in a row. Each corpuscle is separated from the others 
by a transparent protoplasmic disk. Nerve fibres terminate either 
in the cells (Merkel) or in the protoplasmic intercellular matter 
(Ranyier, Hesse, Izquierdo). Another form of end-organ has been 
described by Herbst as existing in the mucous membrane of the duck's 
tongue. These corpuscles of Herbst are like small Pacinian corpuscles 
^5^==?^ with thin and very close lamellae. Develop- 

//^S^^O\ ments of integument devoid of feathers, 

/ y^^y^*\\ such as the " wattles " of the cock, the 

I i J/i-^&ru " caruncles " of the vulture and turkey, 
\ <TN<!SX'1\ are not tactile in their function. 

In the great majority of Mammalia the 
general surface of the skin shows sensitive- 
ness, and this is developed to a high degree 
on certain parts, such as the lips, the end 
of a teat and the generative organs. 
Where touch is highly developed, the skin, 
more especially the epidermis, is thin and 
devoid of hair. In the monkeys tactile 
papillae are found in the skin of the fingers 
and palms, and in the skin of the prehen- 
sile tails of various species (Ateles). Such 
papillae also abound in the naked skin of 
the nose or snout, as in the shrew, mole, pig, tapir and elephant. 
In the Ornithorhynchus the skin covering the mandibles is tactile 
(Owen). In many animals certain hairs acquire great size, length 
and stiffness. These constitute the vibrissae or whiskers. Each 
large hair grows from a firm capsule sunk deep in the true skin, 
and the hair bulb is supplied with sensory nerve filaments. In 
the walrus the capsule is cartilaginous in texture. The marine 
Carnivora have strong vibrissae which " act as a staff, in a way 
analogous to that held and applied by the hand of a blind man 
(Owen). Each species has hairs of this kind developed on the 
eyebrows, lips or cheeks, to suit a particular mode of existence, 
as, for example, the long fine whiskers of the night-prowling 
felines, and in the aye-aye, a monkey having nocturnal habits. 



FIG. I. Tactile Corpuscles from 
duck's tongue. 
n, Nerve. 




FIG. 2. Tactile Cor- 
puscle from the hand. 



In the Ungulata the hoofs need no delicacy of touch as regards 
the discrimination of minute points. Such animals, however, have 
broad, massive sensations of touch, enabling them to 
appreciate the firmness of the soil on which they tread, 
and under the hoof we find highly vascular and sen- 
sitive lamellae or papillae, contributing 
no doubt, not only to the growth of the 
hoof, but also to its sensitiveness. The 
Cetacea have numerous sensory papillae 
in the skin. Bats have the sense of 
touch strongly developed in the wings 
and external ears, and in some species 
in the flaps of skin found near the nose. 
There is little doubt that many special 
forms of tactile organs will be found in 
animals using the nose or feet for bur- 
rowing. A peculiar end-organ has been 
found in the nose of the mole, while there 
are " end-capsules " in the tongue of the 
elephant and " nerve rings " in the ears 
of the mouse. FlG. 3 .-Tactile Corpuscles 

End-Organs of Touch in Man. In from clitoris of rabbit, 
man three special forms of tactile "' 

end-organs have been described, and can be readily demon- 
strated. 

i.^ The End- Bulbs of Krause. These are oval or rounded 
bodies, from ^J-j to j^j of an inch long. Each consists of a 
delicate capsule, composed of nucleated connective tissue 





FIG. 4. End-Bulb from 
human conjunctiva. 

a, Nucleated capsule. 

b, Core. 

c, Entering nerve-fibre 

terminating in the 
core at d. 




FIG. 5. End-Bulb from 

conjunctiva of calf. 

n, Nerve. 



mclosing numerous minute cells. On tracing the nerve fibre, 

t is found that the nerve sheath is continuous with the capsule, 
whilst the axis cylinder of the nerve divides into branches 
which lose themselves among the cells. W.. Waldeyer and 

xmgworth state that the nerve fibrils terminate in the cells, 

hus making these bodies similar to the cells described by F. S. 

Vterkel (ut supra). (See fig. 4.) These bodies are found in the 
deeper layers of the conjunctiva, margins of the lips, nasal 
mucous membrane, epiglottis, fungiform and circumvallate 

>apillae of the tongue, glans penis and clitoris, mucous membrane 
the rectum of man, and they have also been found on the 
under surface of the " toes of the guinea-pig, ear and body of 

he mouse, and in the wing of the bat " (Landois and Stirling). 

n the genital organs aggregations of end-bulbs occur, known 
as the " genital corpuscles of Krause " (fig. 3). In the synovial 
membrane of the joints of the fingers there are larger end-bulbs, 

:ach connected with three four nerve-filaments. 

(2) The Touch Corpuscles of Wagner and Meissner. These 
are oval bodies, about -j-J^ of an inch long by -gfa of an inch in 

jreadth. Each consists of a series of layers of connective tissue 
arranged transversely, and containing in the centre granular 
matter with nuclei (figs. 2, 3 and 6). One, two or three 
nerve fibres pass to the lower end of the corpuscle, wind 

ransversely around it, lose the white substance of Schwann, 
penetrate into the corpuscle, where the axis cylinders, dividing, 

:nd in some way unknown. The corpuscles do not contain 
any soft core, but are apparently built up of irregular septae 

f connective tissue, in the meshes of which the nerve fibrils 
end in expansions similar to Merkel's cells. Thin describes 

imple and compound corpuscles according to the number of 
nerve fibres entering them. These bodies are found abundantly 



TOUCH 



95 



in the palm of the hand and sole of the foot, where there 
may be as many as 21 to every square millimetre (i mm. = 
5*5 inch). They are not so numerous on the back of the 
hand or foot, mamma, lips and tip of the tongue, and they 
are rare in the genital organs. 

3. The Corpuscles of Vater or 
P acini. These, first described by 
Vater so long ago as 1741, are small 
oval bodies, quite visible to the naked 
eye, from iV to iV of an inch long and 




i 

(From Landois and Stirling, after Biesiadecki.) 
FIG. 6. Vertical Section of the Skin of 
the Palm of the Hand. 

a. Blood-vessel. 

b, Papilla of the cutis vera. 

c. Capillary. 

d, Nerve-fibre passing to a touch- 

corpuscle. 

, Wagner's touch-corpuscle. 
/, Nerve-fibre, divided transversely, 
g, Cells of the Malpighian layer of the 

skin. 




FIG. 7. Vater'sor Pacini's 
Corpuscle. 

a, Stalk. 

b, Nerve-fibre entering it. 

c, d, Connective-tissue en- 

velope. 

e, Axis cylinder, with its 
end divided at /. 



fa to -jVf an inch in breadth, attached to the nerves of the 
hands and feet. They can be readily demonstrated in the 
mesentery of the cat (fig. 7). Each corpuscle consists of 40 to 
50 lamellae or coats, like the folds of an onion, thinner and 
closer together on approaching the centre. Each lamella is 
formed of an elastic material mixed with delicate connective- 
tissue fibres, .and the inner surface of each is lined by a single 
continuous layer of endothelial cells. A double-contoured nerve 
fibre passes to each. The white substance of Schwann becomes 
continuous with the lamellae, whilst the axis cylinder passes into 
the body, and ends in a small knob or in a plexus. Some- 
times a blood-vessel also penetrates the Pacinian body, entering 
along with the nerve. Such bodies are found in the sub- 
cutaneous tissue on the nerves of the fingers and toes, near 
joints, attached to the nerves of the abdominal plexuses of 
the sympathetic, on the coccygeal gland, on the dorsum 
of the penis and clitoris, in the meso-colon, in the course 
of the intercostal and periosteal nerves, and in the capsules of 
lymphatic glands. 

Physiology of Touch in Man. Such are the special end-organs 
of touch. It has also been ascertained that many sensory 
nerves end in a plexus or network, the ultimate fibrils being 
connected with the cells of the particular tissue in which they 
are found. Thus they exist in the cornea of the eye, and at 
the junctions of tendons with muscles. In the latter situation 
'' flattened end-flakes or plates " and " elongated oval end- 
bulbs " have also been found. A consideration of these 
various types of structure show that they facilitate intermittent 
pressure being made on the nerve endings. They are all, as it 
were, elastic cushions into which the nerve endings penetrate, 
so that the slight variation of pressure will be transmitted to 
the nerve. Probably also they serve to break the force of a 
sudden shock on the nerve endings. 

Sensitiveness and Sense of Locality. The degree of sensitiveness 
of the skin is determined by finding the smallest distance at which 



:he two points of a pair of compasses can be felt. This method 
first followed by Weber, is employed by physicians in the diagnosis 




Tip of tongue 

Third phalanx of finger, volar surface 



FIG. 8. Aesthesiometer of Sieveking. 

of nervous affections involving the sensitiveness of the skin. The 
following table shows the sensitiveness in millimetres for an adult. 

Mm. 
I-I 
2-2-3 

4-5 
4-4-5 
5-5-5 

6-8 

6-8 
5-6-8 
6-5-7 
5-5-6 

8-9 



Red part ol the lip 

Second phalanx of finger, volar surface 

First phalanx of finger, volar surface 

Third phalanx of finger, dorsal surface 

Tip of nose 

Head of metacarpal bone, volar 

Ball of thumb 

Ball of little finger 

Centre of palm 

Dorsum and side of tongue; white of the lips; metacarpal 

part of the thumb 9 

Third phalanx of the great toe, plantar surface. . . . 11-3 

Second phalanx of the fingers, dorsal surface . . . . 11-3 

Back n-3 

Eyelid 11-3 

Centre of hard palate . 13-5 

Lower third of the forearm, volar surface 15 

In front of the zygoma 15-8 

Plantar surface of the great toe 15-8 

Inner surface of the lip . 20-3 

Behind the zygoma .... 22-6 

Forehead 22-6 

Occiput 27-1 

Back of the hand 31-6 

Under the chin 33'8 

Vertex 33' 8 

Knee 36-1 

Sacrum (gluteal region) 44-6 

Forearm and leg 45" I 

Neck 54-1 

Back of the fifth dorsal vertebra; lower dorsal and lumbar 

region 54" r 

Middle of the neck 67-7 

Upper arm ; thigh ; centre of the back 67-7 

These investigations show not only that the skin is sensitive, 
but that one is able with great precision to distinguish the part 
touched. This latter power is usually called the sense of locality, 
and it is influenced by various conditions. The greater the number 
of sensory nerves in a given area of skin the greater is the degree 
of accuracy in distinguishing different points. Contrast in this 
way the tip of the finger and the back of the hand. Sensitiveness 
increases from the joints towards the extremities, and sensitiveness 
is great in parts of the body that are actively moved. The sensibility 
of the limbs is finer in the transverse axis than in the long axis of 
the limb, to the extent of J on the flexor surface of the upper limb 
and J on the extensor surface. It is doubtful if exercise improves 
sensitiveness, as Francis Galton found that the performances of 
blind boys were not superior to those of other boys, and he says that 
" the guidance of the blind depends mainly on the multitude of 
collateral indications, to which they give much heed, and not their 
superiority to any one of them. When the skin is moistened 
with indifferent fluids sensibility is increased. Suslowa made the 
curious discovery that, if the area between two points distinctly 
felt be tickled or be stimulated by a weak electric current, the 
impressions are fused. Stretching the skin, and baths in water 
containing carbonic acid or common salt, increase the power of 
localizing tactile impressions. In experimenting with the com- 
passes, it will be found that a smaller distance can be distinguished 
if one proceeds from greater to smaller distances than in the reverse 
direction. A smaller distance can also be detected when the points 
of the compasses are placed one after the other on the skin than 
when they are placed simultaneously. If the points of the com- 
passes are unequally heated, the sensation of two contacts becomes 
confused. An anaemic condition, or a state of venous congestion, 
or the application of cold, or violent stretching of the skin, or the 
use of. such substances as atropine, daturin, morphia, strychnine, 
alcohol, bromide of potassium, cannabin and hydrate of chloral 
blunt sensibility. The only active substance said to increase it 
is caffein. 



9 6 



TOUCH 



Absolute sensitiveness, as indicated by a sense of pressure, has 
been determined by various methods. Two different weights are 
placed on the part, and the smallest difference in weight that can 
be perceived is noted. Weber placed small weights directly on the 
skin; Aubert and Kammler loaded small plates; Dohrn made use 
of a balance, having a blunt point at one end of the beam, resting on 
the skin, whilst weights were placed on the other end of the beam 
to equalize the pressure; H. Eulenberg invented an instrument like 
a spiral spring paper-clip or balance (the baraesthesiometer), having 
an index showing the pressure in grammes; F. Goltz employed 
an India-rubber tube filled with water, and this, to ensure a constant 
surface of contact, bent at one spot over a piece of cork, is touched 
at that spot by the cutaneous part to be examined, and, by rhyth- 
mically exerted pressure, waves analogous to those of the arterial 
pulse are produced in the tube ; and L. Landois invented a mercurial 
balance, enabling him to make rapid variations in the weight without 
giving rise to any shock. These methods have given the following 
general results, (i) The greatest acuteness is on the forehead, 
temples and back of the hand and forearm, which detect a pressure 
of 0-002 gramme; fingers detect 0-005 to 0-015 gramme; the chin, 
abdomen and nose 0-04 to 0-05 gramme. (2) Goltz's method gives 
the same general results as Weber's experiment with the compasses, 
with the exception that the tip of the tongue has its sensation of 
pressure much lower in the scale than its sensation of touch. (3) 
Eulenberg found the following gradations in the fineness of the 
pressure sense : the forehead, lips, back of the cheeks, and temples 
appreciate differences of fa to ^ (200: 205 to 300: 310 grammes). 
The back of the last phalanx of the fingers, the forearm, hand, 
first and second phalanges, the palmar surface of the hand, forearm 
and upper arm distinguish differences of A to fa (200: 220 to 200: 
210 grammes). The front of the leg and thigh is similar to the fore- 
arm. Then follow the back of the foot and toes, the sole of the foot, 
and the back of the leg and thigh. Dohrn placed a weight of 
I gramme on the skin, and then determined the least additional weight 
that could be detected, with this result: third phalanx of finger 
0-499 gramme; back of the foot, 0-5 gramme; second phalanx, 0-771 
gramme; first phalanx, 0-82 gramme; leg, I gramme; back of hand, 
1-156 grammes; palm, 1-108 grammes; patella, 1-5 grammes; fore- 
arm, 1-99 grammes; umbilicus, 3-5 grammes; andback,3-8 grammes. 
(4) In passing from light to heavier weights, the acuteness increases 
at once, a maximum is reached, and then with heavy weights the 
power of distinguishing the differences diminishes. (5) A sensation 
of pressure after the weights have been removed may be noticed 
(after-pressure sensation), especially if the weight be considerable. 

(6) Valentine noticed that, if the finger were held against a blunt- 
toothed wheel, and the wheel were rotated with a certain rapidity, 
he felt a smooth margin. This was experienced when the intervals 
of time between the contacts of successive teeth were less than from 
lio to BJU of a second. The same experiment can be readily made 
by holding the finger over the holes in one of the outermost circles 
of a large syren rotating quickly: the sensations of individual 
holes become fused, so as to give rise to a feeling of touching a slit. 

(7) Vibrations of strings are detected even when _the number is 
about 1500 per second; above this the sensation of vibration ceases. 
By attaching bristles to the prongs of tuning-forks and bringing 
these into contact with the lip or tongue, sensations of a very acute 
character are experienced, which are most intense when the forks 
vibrate from 600 to 1500 per second. 

Information from Tactile Impressions. These enable us to come 
to the following conclusions, (i) We note the existence_of some- 
thing touching the sensory surface. (2) From the intensity of the 
sensation we determine the weight, tension or intensity of the 
pressure. This sensation is in the first instance referred to the skin, 
but after the pressure has reached a certain amount muscular 
sensations are also experienced the so-called muscular sense. 
(3) The locality of the part touched is at once determined, and from 
this the probable position of the touching body. Like the visual 
field, to which all retinal impressions are referred, point for point, 
there is a tactile field, to which all points on the skin surface may be 
referred. (4) By touching a body at various points, from the 
difference of pressure and from a comparison of the positions of 
various points in the tactile field we judge of the configuration of 
the body. A number of " tactile pictures are obtained by passing 
the skin over the touched body, and the shape of the body is further 
determined by a knowledge of the muscular movements necessary 
to bring the cutaneous surface into contact with_ different portions 
of it. If there is abnormal displacement of position, a false con- 
ception may arise as to the shape of the body. Thus, if a small 
marble or a pea be placed between the index and middle finger so 
as to touch (with the palm downwards) the outer side of the index 
finger and the inner side of the middle finger, a sensation of touching 
one round body is experienced ; but if the fingers be crossed, so that 
the marble touches the inner side of the index finger and the outer 
side of the middle finger, there will be a feeling of two round bodies, 
because in these circumstances there is added to the feelings of 
contact a feeling of distortion (or of muscular action) such as would 
take place if the fingers, for purposes of touch, were placed -in that 
abnormal position. Again, as snowing that our knowledge of the 
tactile field is precise, there is the well-known fact that when a piece 



of skin is transplanted from the forehead to the nose, in the operation 
for removing a deformity of the nose arising from lupus or other 
ulcerative disease, the patient feels the new nasal part as if it were 
his forehead, and he may have the curious sensation of a nasal 
instead of a frontal headache. (5) From the number of points 
touched we judge as to the smoothness or roughness of a body. A 
body having a uniformly level surface, like a billiard ball, is smooth ; 
a body having points irregular in size and number in a given area 
is rough ; and if the points are very close together it gives rise to a 
sensation, like that of the pile of velvet almost intolerable to some 
individuals. Again, if the pressure is so uniform as not to be felt, 
as when the body is immersed in water (paradoxical as this may seem, 
it is the case that the sensation of contact is felt only at the limit 
of the fluid), we experience the sensation of being in contact with a 
fluid. (6) Lastly, it would appear that touch is always the result 
of variation of pressure. No portion of the body when touching 
anything can be regarded as absolutely motionless, and the slight 
oscillations of the sensory surface, and in many cases of the body 
touched, produce those variations of pressure on which touch 
depends. 

To explain the phenomenon of the tactile field, and more specially 
the_ remarkable variations of tactile sensibility above described, 
various theories have been advanced, but none are satisfactory. 
(See article " Cutaneous Sensations " by C. S. Sherrington in 
Schafer's Physiology, ii. 920). Research shows that the sensation 
of touch may be referred to parts of the skin which do not contain 
the special end organs associated with this sense, and that filaments 
in the Malpighian layer (the layer immediately above the papillae 
ot the true skin) may form the anatomical basis of the sense. The 
skin may be regarded, also, as an extensive surface containing 
nervous arrangements by which we are brought into relation with 
the outer world. _ Accordingly, touch is not the only sensation 
referred to the skin, but we also refer sensations of temperature 
(heat and cold), and often those peculiar sensations which we call 
pain. 

Sensations of Temperature. These depend on thermic irritation 
of the terminal organs, as proved by the following experiment of 
E. H. Weber: " If the elbow be dipped into a verv cold fluid, the 
cold is only felt at the immersed part of the body (where the fibres 
terminate) ; pain, however, is felt in the terminal organs of the ulnar 
nerve, namely, in the finger points; this pain, at the same time, 
deadens the local sensation of cold. " If the sensation of cold were 
due to the irritation of a specific-nerve fibre, the sensation of cold 
would be referred to the tips of the fingers. When any part of the 
skin is above its normal mean temperature, warmth is felt; in the 
opposite case, cold. The normal mean temperature of a given area 
varies according to the distribution of hot blood in it and to the 
activity of nutritive changes occurring in it. When the skin is brought 
into contact with a good conductor of heat there is a sensation of 
cold. A sensation of heat is experienced when heat is carried to 
the skin in any way. The following are the chief facts that have 
been ascertained regarding the temperature sense: (i) E. H. 
Weber found that, with a skin temperature of from i5-5C.to35 C., 
the tips of the fingers can distinguish a difference of 0-25 C. to 0-2 C. 
Temperatures just below that of the blood (33-27 C.) are 
distinguished by the most sensitive parts, even to 0-05 C. (2) The 
thermal sense varies in different regions as follows: tip of tongue, 
eyelids, cheeks, lips, neck, belly. The " perceptible minimum " was 
found to be, in degrees C.: breast 0-4; back, 0-9; back of hand, 0-3; 
palm, 0-4 ; arm, 0-2 ; back of foot, 0-4 ; thigh, 0-5 ; leg, 0-6 to 0-2; 
cheek, 0-4; temple, 0-3. (3) If two different temperatures are applied 
side by side and simultaneously, the impressions of ten fuse, especially 
if the areas are close together. (4) Practice is said to improve the 
thermal sense. (5) Sensations of heat and cold may curiously 
alternate; thus when the skin is dipped first into water at 10 C. 
we feel cold, and if it be then dipped into water at 16 C. we have at 
first a feeling of warmth, but soon again of cold. (6) The same 
temperature applied to a large area is not appreciated in the same 
way as when applied to a small one; thus the whole hand when 
placed in water at 29-5 C. feels warmer than when a finger is 
dipped into water at 32 C. " 

There is every reason to hold that there are different nerve fibres 
and different central organs for the tactile and thermal sensations, 
but nothing definite is known. The one sensation undoubtedly 
affects the other. Thus the minimum distance at which two com- 
pass points are felt is diminished when one point is wanner than 
the other. Again, a colder weight is felt as heavier, " so that the 
apparent difference of pressure becomes greater when the heavier 
weight is at the same time colder, and less when the lighter weight 
is colder, and difference of pressure is felt with equal weights of 
unequal temperature " (E. H. Weber). Great sensibility to differ- 
ences of temperature is noticed after removal, alteration by vesicants, 
or destruction of the epidermis, and in the skin affection called 
herpes zoster. The same occurs in some cases of locomotor ataxy. 
Removal of the epidermis, as a rule, increases tactile sensibility 
and the sense of locality. Increased tactile sensibility is termed 
hyperpselaphesia, and is a rare phenomenon in nervous diseases. 
Paralysis of the tactile sense is called hypopselaphesia, whilst its 
entire loss is apselaphesia. Brown-Sequard mentions a case in 



TOUCH 



97 



which contact of two points gave rise to a sense of a third point of 
contact. Certain conditions of the nerve centres affect the senses 
both of touch and temperature. Under the influence of morphia 
the person may feel abnormally enlarged or diminished in size. As 
a rule the senses are affected simultaneously, but cases occur where 
one may be affected more than the other. 

Sensations of heat and cold are chiefly referred to the skin, and 
only partially to some mucous membranes, such as those of the 
alimentary canal. Direct irritation of a nerve does not give rise 
to these sensations. The exposed pulp of a diseased tooth, when 
irritated by hot or cold fluids, gives rise to pain, not to sensations 
of temperature. It has now been ascertained that there are minute 
areas on the skin in which sensations of heat and cold may be more 
acutely felt than in adjoining areas; and, further, that there are 
points stimulated by addition of heat, hot spots, while others are 
stimulated by withdrawal of heat, cold spots. 

A simple method of demonstrating this phenomenon is to 
use a solid cylinder of copper, 8 in. in length by in. in thick- 
ness, and sharpened at one end to a fine pencil-like point. Dip 
the pointed end into very hot water, close the eyes, and touch 
parts of the skin. When a hot spot is touched, there is an acute 
sensation of burning. Such a spot is often near a hair. Again, 
in another set of experiments, dip the copper pencil into ice-cold 
water and search for cold spots. When one of these is touched, a 
sensation of cold, as if concentrated on a point, is experienced. Thus 
it may be demonstrated that in a given area of skin there may be 
hot spots, cold spots and touch spots. 

Cold spots are more abundant than hot spots. The spots are 
arranged in curved lines, but the curve uniting a number of cold 
spots does not coincide with the curve forming a chain of hot spots. 
By Weber's method it will be found that we can discriminate cold 
spots at a shorter distance from each other than hot spots. Thus 
on the forehead cold spots have a minimum distance of 8 mm., and 
hot spots 4 mm.; on the skin of the breast, cold spots 2 mm., and 
hot spots 5 mm.; on the back, cold spots 1-5 mm., and hot spots 
4 to 6 mm.; on the back of the hand, cold spots 3 mm., and hot 
spots 4 mm. ; on the palm, cold spots 8 mm., and hot spots 2 mm. ; 
and on the thigh and leg, cold spots 3 mm., and hot spots 3-5 mm. 
Electrical and mechanical stimulation of the hot or cold spots call 
forth the corresponding sensation. No terminal organ for dis- 
crimination of temperature has yet been found. It will be observed 
that the sensation of heat or cold is excited by change of temperature, 
and that it is more acute and definite the more sudden the change. 
Thus discrimination of temperature is similar to discrimination of 
touch, which depends on more or less sudden change of pressure. 
The term cold means, physiologically, the sensation we experience 
when heat is abstracted, and the term heat, the sensation felt when 
heat is added to the part. Thus we are led to consider that the skin 
contains at least two kinds of specific terminal organs for sensations 
of touch and temperature, and two sets of nerve fibres which carry 
the nervous impulses to the brain. In all probability, also, these 
fibres have different central endings, and in their course to the brain 
run in different tracts in the spinal cord. This will explain cases 
of disease of the central nervous system in which, over certain areas 
of skin, sensations of touch have been lost while sensations of tem- 
perature and pain remain, or vice versa. Tactile and thermal 
impressions may influence each other. Thus a leg sent to "sleep" 
by pressure on the sciatic nerve will be found to be less sensitive 
to heat, but distinctly sensitive to cold. In some cases of disease 
it has been noticed that the skin is sensitive to a temperature above 
that of the limb, but insensitive to cold. It is highly probable that 
just as we found in the case of touch (pressure), the terminal organs 
connected with the sense of temperature are the fine nerve filaments 
that have been detected in the deeper strata of the Malpighian region 
of the epidermis, immediately above the true skin, and it is also 
probable that certain epidermic (epithelial) cells in that region 
play their part in the mechanism. Sensations of a painful character 
may also, in certain circumstances, be referred to the viscera, and 
to mucous and serous surfaces. Pain is not a sensation excited by 
irritating the end organs either of touch or of temperature, nor 
even by irritating directly the filaments of a sensory nerve. Even 
if sensory nerves are cut or bruised, as in surgical operations, there 
may be no sensations of pain; and it has been found that muscles, 
vessels and even the viscera, such as the heart, stomach, liver or 
kidneys, may be freely handled without giving rise to any feeling 
of pain, or indeed to any kind of sensation. These parts, in ordinary 
circumstances appear to be insensitive, and yet they contain afferent 
nerves. If the sensibility of these nerves is heightened, or possibly 
if the sensitiveness of the central terminations of the nerves is raised, 
then we may have sensations to which we give the name of pain. 
In like manner the skin is endowed with afferent nerves, distinct 
from those ministering to touch and to temperature, along which 
nervous impulses are constantly flowing. When these nervous 
impulses reach the central nervous system in ordinary circumstances 
they do not give rise to changes that reach the level of consciousness, 
but they form, as it were, the warp and woof of our mental life, and 
they also affect metabolisms, that is to say, nutritive changes in 
many parts of the body. They may also, as is well known, affect 
unconsciously such mechanisms as those of the action of the heart, 
the calibre of the blood-vessels and the movements of respiration. 

XXVII. 4 



If, however, this plane of activity is raised, as by intermittent 
pressure, or by inflammatory action, or by sudden changes of 
temperature, as in burning, scalding, &c., such nervous impulses give 
rise to pain. Sometimes pain is distinctly located, and in other 
cases it may be irradiated in the nerve centres, and referred to areas 
of skin or to regions of the body which are not really the seat of 
the irritation. Thus irritation of the liver may cause pain in the 
shoulder; disease of the hip-joint often gives rise to pain in the knee; 
and renal colic, due to_ the passage of a calculus down the ureter, 
to severe pain even in the abdominal walls. These are often 
termed reflex pains and their interpretation is of great importance 
to physicians in the diagnosis of disease. Their frequent occurrence 
has also directed attention to the distribution in the skin and 
termination in the brain of the sensory nerves. It is also notice- 
able that a sensation of pain gives us no information as to its 
cause; we simply have an agonizing sensation in a part to which, 
hitherto, we probably referred no sensations. The acuteness or 
intensity of pain depends partly on the intensity of the irritation, 
and partly on the degree of excitability of the sensory nerves at 
the time. 

Pain. In addition to sensations of touch and of temperature 
referred to the skin, there is still a third kind of sensation, unlike 
either, namely, pain. This sensation cannot be supposed to be 
excited by irritations of the end organs of touch, or of specific 
thermal end organs (if there be such), but rather to irritation of 
ordinary sensory nerves, and there is every reason to believe that 
painful impressions make their way to the brain along special tracks 
in the spinal cord. If we consider our mental condition as regards 
sensation at any moment, we notice numerous sensations more or 
less definite, not referred directly to the surface, nor to external 
objects, such as a feeling of general comfort, free or impeded breath- 
ing, hunger, thirst, malaise, horror, fatigue and pain. These are 
all caused by the irritation of ordinary sensory nerves in different 
localities, and if the irritation of such nerves, by chemical, thermal, 
mechanical or nutritional stimuli, passes beyond a certain maximum 
point of intensity the result is pain. Irritation of a nerve, in accord- 
ance with the law of " peripheral reference of sensation," will cause 
pain. Sometimes the irritation applied to the trunk of a sensory 
nerve may be so intense as to destroy its normal function, and loss 
of sensation or anaesthesia results. If then the stimulus be increased 
further, pain is excited which is referred to the end of the nerve, with 
the result of producing what has been called anaesthesia dolorosa. 
Pains frequently cannot be distinctly located, probably owing to 
the fact of irradiation in the nerve centres and subsequent reference 
to areas of the body which are not really the seat of irritations. 
The intensity of pain depends on the degree of excitability of the 
sensory nerves, whilst its massiveness depends on the number of 
nerve fibres affected. The quality of the pain is probably produced 
by the kind of irritation of the nerve, as affected by the structure 
of the part and the greater or less continuance of severe pressure. 
Thus there are piercing, cutting, boring, burning, throbbing, pressing, 
gnawing, dull and acute varieties of pain. Sometimes the excitability 
of the cutaneous nerves is so great that a breath of air or a delicate 
touch may give rise to suffering. This hyperalgia is found in 
inflammatory affections of the skin. In neuralgia the pain is charac- 
terized by its character of shooting along the course of the nerve 
and by severe exacerbations. In many nervous diseases there 
are disordered sensations referred to the skin, such as alterna- 
tions of heat and cold, burning, creeping, itching and a feeling as 
if insects were crawling on the surface (formication). This con- 
dition is termed parafgia. The term hypalgia is applied to a 
diminution and analgia to paralysis of pain, as is produced by 
anaesthetics. 

Muscular Sense. The sensory impressions considered in this 
article are closely related to the so-called muscular sense : or that 
sense or feeling by which we are aware of the state of the muscles of 
a limb as regards contraction or relaxation. Some have held that 
the muscular sense is really due to greater or less stretching of the 
skin and therefore to irritation of the nerves of that organ. That 
this is not the case is evident from the fact that disordered move- 
ments indicating perversion or loss of this sense are not affected by 
removal of the skin (Claude Bernard). Further, cases in the human 
being have been noticed where there was an entire loss of cutaneous 
sensibility whilst the muscular sense was unimpaired. It is also 
known that muscles possess sensory nerves, giving rise, in certain 
circumstances, to fatigue, and, when strongly irritated, to the pain 
of cramp. Muscular sensations are really excited by irritation of 
sensory nerves passing from the muscles themselves. There are 
specialized spindle-like bodies in many muscles, and there are organs 
connected with tendons which are regarded as sensory organs by 
which pressures are communicated to sensory nerve-filaments. 
We are thus made conscious of whether or not the muscles are 
contracted, and of the amount of contraction necessary to overcome 
resistance, and this knowledge enables us to judge of the amount 
of voluntary impulse. Loss or diminution of the muscular sense 
is seen in chorea and especially in locomotor ataxy. Increase of 
it is rare, but it is seen in the curious affection called anxietas 
tibiarum, a painful condition of unrest, which leads to a continual 
change in the position of the limbs (see EQUILIBRIUM). 

(J- G. M.) 



9 8 



TOUL TOULON 



TOUL, a garrison town of north-eastern France, capital of an 
arrondissement in the department of Meurthe-et-Moselle, 21 m. 
W. of Nancy on the Eastern railway Pop. (1906), town 9523; 
commune, 13,663. Toul is situated in a plain on the left bank 
of the Moselle, which skirts the town on the S. and S. E., while 
on the N. it is bordered by the Marne-Rhine canal. It is princi- 
pally important as being the centre of a great entrenched camp 
close to the German frontier. Immediately after the Franco- 
German War the whole system of frontier defence was revised, 
and of all the new fortresses of the Meuse and Moselle Toul is 
perhaps the most formidable. The works were begun in 1874 
by the construction of four outlying forts north, north-east 
and south of the town, but these soon became merely 
an inner line of defence. The principal defences now lie 
much farther out on all sides. The west front of the 
new line of forts occupies a long line of high ground (the 
watershed of the Meuse and the Moselle), the north front, 
about 4 m. from Toul, is in undulating country, while facing 
towards Nancy and forming the chord of the arc which 
the Moselle describes from Fontenay below to Villey-le-Sec 
above, is the strong east front, the outlying works of which 
extend far to the east (Fort Frouard and other works 
about Nancy) and to the south-east (Pont St Vincent). 
The south front extends from the Moselle at Villey-le- 
Sec south-westwards till it meets the southern end of the 
west front on the high ground overlooking the Meuse 
valley. The fort at Pagny on the Meuse to the south-west 
may be considered an outwork of this line of defence. The 
perimeter of the Toul defences proper is nearly 30 m., and 
their mean distance from the town about 6 m. Northward, 
along the Meuse, Toul is connected with the fortress of Verdun 
by the " Meuse line " of barrier forts, the best known of which 
are Gironville, Liouville and Troyon. South of Toul the country 
was purposely left unfortified as far as Epinal (q.v.) and this 
region is known as the Trouee d'Epinal. 

The town itself forms an oval within a bastioned enceinte 
pierced by three gateways. It has two important churches. 
That of St Etienne (formerly a cathedral) has a choir and 
transept of the I3th century; the nave and aisles are of the i4th, 
and the facade, the finest part of the building, of the last half of 
the isth. The two western towers, which have no spires, reach 
a height of 246 ft. The two large lateral chapels of the nave are 
in the Renaissance style. The chief features of the interior 
are its stained glass and organ loft. South of the church there 
is a fine cloister of the end of the I3th century which was 
much damaged at the Revolution. The church of St 
Gengoult, which dates chiefly from the late I3th or early i4th 
century, has a facade of the isth century and a cloister in the 
Flamboyant Gothic style of the i6th century. The h6tel- 
de-ville occupies a building of the i8th century, once the epis- 
copal palace, and contains the library and museum. Toul 
is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of commerce 
and a communal college among its public institutions. The 
industries include the manufacture of porcelain; trade is in 
wine and brandy. 

Toul (Tullum) is one of the oldest towns of France; originally 
capital of the Leuci, in the Belgic Confederation, it acquired 
great importance under the Romans. It was evangelized by 
St Mansuy in the latter half of the 4th century, and became 
one of the leading sees of north-east Gaul. After being sacked 
successively by Goths, Burgundians, Vandals and Huns, Toul 
was conquered by the Franks in 450. Under the Merovingians 
it was governed by counts, assisted by elective officers. The 
bishops became sovereign counts in the loth century, holding 
only of the emperor, and for a period of 300 years (isth to i6th 
centuries) the citizens maintained a long struggle against 
them. Together with Verdun and Metz the town and its 
domain formed the territory of the Trois-Eveches. Toul was 
forced to yield for a time to the count of Vaudemont in the I2th 
century, and twice to the duke of Lorraine in the I5th, and was 
thrice devastated by the plague in the i6th century. Charles V. 
made a solemn entry into the town in 1 544, but in the following 



year, at the instance of the cardinal of Lorraine, it placed 
itself under the perpetual protection of the kings of France. 
Henry II. took possession of the Trois-Eveches in 1552, but the 
territory was not officially incorporated with France till 1648. 
Henry IV. was received in state in 1603, and in 1637 the 
parlement of Metz was transferred to Toul. In 1700 Vauban 
reconstructed the fortifications of the town. In 1790 the 
bishopric was suppressed and the diocese united to that of 
Nancy. Toul, which had then no modern defences, capitulated 
in 1870 after a bombardment of twelve days. 

TOULON, a seaport and first-class fortress and naval station 
of France, department of Var, capital of the arrondissement 
of Toulon, on the Mediterranean, 42 m. E.S.E. of Marseilles. 
Pop. (1886), 53,941; (1901), 101,602. The bay, which 
opens to the east, has two divisions, the Grande Rade 
and the Petite Rade; it is sheltered on the north and 
west by high hills, closed on the south by the peninsula of 
capes Sicie and Cepet, and protected on the east by a huge 
breakwater, the entrance, 1300 ft. wide, being defensible by 
torpedoes. A ship coming from the open sea must first 
pass the forts of St Marguerite, of Cap Brun, of Lamalgue 
and of St Louis to the north, and the battery of the signal 
station to the south; before reaching the Petite Rade it must 
further pass under the guns of the battery of Le Salut to the 
east, and of the forts of Balaguier and L'Aiguillette to the west. 
The Bay of La Seyne lies west of the Petite Rade, and is 
defended by the forts of Six-Fours, Napoleon (formerly Fort 
Caire), and Malbousquet, and the batteries of Les Arenes and 
Les Gaus. To the north of Toulon rise the defensive works 
of Mont Faron and Fort Rouge, to the east the forts of Artigues 
and St Catherine, to the north-east the formidable fort of 
Coudon, and to the south-east that of Colle Noire, respectively 
dominating the highway into Italy and the valley of Hyeres 
with the Bay of Carqueiranne. The town, enlarged to the 
north under the Second Empire, has on that side a fine modern 
quarter; but in the old town the streets are for the most part 
narrow, crooked and dirty, and to their 'insanitary state the 
cholera epidemic of 1884 was attributed. The chief buildings 
are the former cathedral of St Marie Majeure (from the 5th 
century Toulon was a bishop's see till 1801, when it was annexed 
to that of Frejus), the church of St Louis, the naval and military 
hospital, with a natural history collection and an anatomical 
museum attached, a naval school of medicine, a school of 
hydrography, and large barracks. In 1883-1887 a handsome 
Renaissance building was erected to accommodate the picture 
gallery and the town library. The monument in com- 
memoration of the centenary of the French Revolution was 
erected in 1890 in the Place de la Liberte, the finest in the 
new town. The imports are wine, corn, wood, coal, hemp, iron, 
sugar, coffee and fresh fish; the exports are salt, copper ore, 
barks for tanning and oils. The principal industries, apart 
from the arsenal, are shipbuilding, fishing, lace-making and 
wine-growing. Toulon possesses an observatory and a 
botanical garden. The interesting buildings and gardens of 
the hospital of St Mandrier stand on the peninsula of Cape 
Cepet, and near them is the lazaretto. 

Toulon is the most important of the French dockyards, and is 
the headquarters of the Mediterranean fleet. The arsenal, which 
was created by Louis XIV. Vauban being the engineer of the 
works lies on the north side of the Petite Rade. This is ap- 
proached from the Grande Rade by passages at the north and 
south ends of a long breakwater which extends from the direction 
of Le Mourillon towards the C6pet Peninsula. The water space 
within the moles amounts to about 150 acres, while the quays 
approach 4 m. in length. Outside in the Petite Rade is a splendid 
protected anchorage for a great fleet, the whole being commanded 
by many forts and batteries. There are four great basins ap- 
proached from the Petite Rade the Vielle Darse, to the east, 
on the side of Le Mourillon; the Darse Vauban, next to it; and the 
Darse de Castigneau and the Darse Missiessy, farther to the west. 
In the Darse Vauban are three dry docks, two of them 246 ft. long, 
with a depth of water on the sill of about 20 ft. ; while the third 
is 283 ft. long, with a depth of over 24 ft. Three other dry docks are 
in the Darse de Castigneau, of which one is in two sections. The 
largest of the docks is 385 ft. long, and the depth of water on the 
sill in all these docks averages 30 ft. In the Darse Missiessy are 



TOULOUSE, COUNT OF- -TOULOUSE 



99 






two dry docks, 426 ft. long, with a depth on the sill of over 32 ft. 
There are several building slips, and the yard is supplied with 
a gun foundry and wharf, fitting-shops, boiler works, victualling 
and other establishments, rolling mills and magazines. Le Mourillon 
is a subsidiary yard at Toulon, devoted chiefly to ship-building, 
and possessing large facilities, including five covered slips. 

The Roman Telo Martius is supposed to have stood near 
the lazaretto. The town was successively sacked by 
Goths, Burgundians, Franks and Saracens. During the 
early middle ages, and till conquered by Charles of Anjou 
in 1259, it was under lords of its own, and entered into alli- 
ance with the republics of Marseilles and Aries. St Louis, 
and especially Louis XII. and Francis I. strengthened 
its fortifications. It was seized by the emperor Charles V. 
in 1524 and 1536. Henry IV. founded a naval arsenal at 
Toulon, which was further strengthened by Richelieu, and 
Vauban made the new dock, a new enceinte, and several 
forts and batteries. In 1707 the town was unsuccessfully 
besieged by the duke of Savoy, Prince Eugene and an English 
fleet. In 1720 there was an outbreak of the plague. In 1792 
after great and sanguinary disorder, the royalists of the town 
sought the support of the English and Spanish fleets cruising 
in the neighbourhood. The Convention having replied by 
putting the town " hors la loi," the inhabitants opened their 
harbour to the English. The army of the republic now (1793) 
laid siege to the town, and on this occasion Napoleon Bonaparte 
first made his name as a soldier. The forts commanding the 
town having been taken, the English ships retired after setting 
fire to the arsenal. The conflagration was extinguished by 
the prisoners, but not before 38 out of a total of 56 vessels had 
been destroyed. Under the Directory Toulon became the 
most important French military fort on the Mediterranean; 
here Napoleon organized the Egyptian campaign, and the 
expedition against Algiers set out from Toulon in 1830. The 
fortifications have been strengthened by Napoleon I., Louis 
Philippe, Napoleon III., and since 1870. 

Battle of Toulon. This naval battle took place on the nth of 
February 1744, near the port of Toulon. A British fleet of thirty 
sail of the line under command of Thomas Mathews, who combined 
the offices of naval commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean and 
envoy to the courts of Sardinia and the Italian princes, engaged 
a combined force of Spaniards under Don Jos6 Navarrq and French 
under M. de Court. They were in all twenty-seven sail. The allies 
left Toulon on the 9th of February. Mathews was at anchor jn 
Hyeres Bay to watch them, for though France and Great Britain 
were already engaged as allies on opposite sides in the War of the 
Austrian Succession, there had been no declaration of war between 
them. It was known that the allies meant to transfer Spanish 
troops to Italy to serve against the Austrians, and Mathews had no 
hesitation in attacking them, Great Britain being at war with 
Spain. He left Hyeres in very light wind with a heavy westerly 
swell, and with his fleet in confusion. The British ships were strag T 
gling over a distance of ten miles, but he put himself between the 
enemy and Toulon. Mathews was on bad terms with his second 
in command, Lestock, who commanded the rear division and showed 
little disposition to support his superior. By the morning of the 
nth the interval between the van and centre of the British fleet 
and its rear had increased in the light breezes, and also ^hrough 
the voluntary or involuntary misapprehension of Mathews' s orders 
by Lestock. The allies were in a fairly well-formed line, heading 
to the south, and southward of the British. Mathews pursued, 
and at 1.30 p.m., when his leading ship was abreast of the centre 
ship of the allies, he attacked. Some hot fighting took place 
between Mathews and the Spaniards who formed the allied rear. 
The action was notable as the last occasion on which an attempt 
was made to use a fireship on the open sea. One was sent against 
the " Real " (114), the Spanish flagship, but she was reduced to a 
sinking state by the fire of the Spaniards, and blew up prematurely, 
with the loss of all on board. At about five o'clock, the French 
in the van turned back to support the Spaniards, and Mathews drew 
off. One Spanish ship, the " Poder " (60), which had surrendered 
was recaptured, and then set on fire by the allies. Mathews made 
only a feeble attempt to renew the battle on the following days, 
and on the 1 3th returned towards the coast of Italy, which he said 
he had to defend. The British rear division had not come into 
action at all. 

The battle, though a miserable affair in itself, is of great impor- 
tance in naval history because of the pronouncement of doctrine 
to which it led. Mathews, who was dissatisfied with his subordinate, 
Lestock, suspended him from command and sent him home for 
trial. Several of the captains had behaved ill, and the failure of 



a superior British fleet to gain a success over the allies caused 
extreme discontent at home. A parliamentary inquiry was opened 
on the I2th of March 1745, which on the l8th of April, after a 
confused investigation, ended in a petition to the king to order 
trials by court-martial of all the officers accused of misconduct. 
A long series of courts-martial began on the nth of September 
1745, and did not end till the 22nd of October 1746. Several 
captains were sentenced to be dismissed the service. Lestock was 
acquitted, but Mathews was condemned and sentenced to dis- 
missal. The finding of the court, which blamed the officer who 
actually fought, and acquitted the other who did not, puzzled and 
angered public opinion. The technical points were not appreci- 
ated by laymen. The real evil done by the condemnation of 
Mathews was not understood even in the navy. Mathews was 
blamed on the ground that he had not waited to engage till his 
van ship was abreast of the van ship of the enemy. By this declara- 
tion of principle the court confirmed the formal system of naval 
tactics which rendered all sea-fighting between equal or nearly 
equal forces so ineffective for two generations. 

See Beatson, Naval and Military Memoirs, i. 197 seq. (London, 
1804), a full and fair narrative. (D. H.) 

TOULOUSE, LOUIS ALEXANDRE DE BOURBON, COUNT OF 
(1678-1737), third son of Louis XIV. and Mme de Montespan 
was born on the 6th of June 1678. At the age of five he was 
created admiral of France. He distinguished himself during 
the War of the Spanish Succession, and inflicted a severe 
defeat on Admiral Rooke near Malaga in 1704. He kept 
aloof from the intrigues of his sister-in-law, the duchess of 
Maine, and died on the ist of December 1737. His son, Louis 
Jean Marie de Bourbon, due de Penthievre (1725-1793), succeeded 
his father in his posts, among others in that of grand admiral. 
He served under Marshal de Noailles, and fought brilliantly 
at Dettingen (1743) and Fontenoy (1745). He then lived in 
retreat at Rambouillet and Sceaux, protecting men of letters, 
an'd particularly the poet Florian, and dispensing charity. 
He lost his son, the prince of Lamballe, in 1768, and survived 
his daughter-in-law, Louise Marie Therese of Savoy-Carignan, 
the friend of Marie Antoinette, who was killed by the populace 
on the 3rd of September 1792. He died on the 4th of March 
1793; his daughter and heiress, Louise Marie Adelaide, married 
Philippe (Egalite), duke of Orleans. 

TOULOUSE, a city of south-western France, capital of the 
department of Haute-Garonne, 443 m. S. by W. of Paris by 
the Orleans railway, and 159 m. S.E. of Bordeaux by the 
Southern railway. Pop. (1906), town, 125,856; commune, 
149,438. Toulouse is situated on the right bank of the Garonne, 
which here changes a north-easterly for a north-westerly 
direction, describing a curve round which the city extends in the 
form of a crescent. On the left bank is the suburb of St Cyprien, 
which is exposed to the inundations of the river owing to its 
low situation. The river is spanned by three bridges that 
of St Pierre to the north, that of St Michel to the south, and 
the Pont Neuf in the centre; the last, a fine structure of seven 
arches was begun in 1543 by Nicolas Bachelier, the sculptor, 
whose work is to be seen in many of the churches and mansions 
of the city. East and north of the city runs the Canal du 
Midi, which here joins the lateral canal of the Garonne. Between 
the Canal du Midi and the city proper extends a long line of 
boulevards leading southwards by the Allee St Etienne to the 
Grand Rond, a promenade whence a series of allees branch out 
in all directions. South-west the Allee St Michel leads towards 
the Garonne, and south the Grande Allee towards the Faubourg 
St Michel. These boulevards take the place of the old city 
walls. Between them and the canal lie the more modern 
faubourgs of St Pierre, Arnaud-Bernard, Matabiau, &c. The 
Place du Capitole, to which streets converge from every side, 
occupies the centre of the city. Two broad straight thorough- 
fares of modern construction, the Rue de Metz and the Rue 
d'Alsace-Lorraine, intersect one another to the south of this 
point, the first running east from the Pont Neuf, the other 
running north and south. The other streets are for the most 
part narrow and irregular. 

The most interesting building in Toulouse is the church of St 
Sernin or Saturnin, whom legend represents as the first preacher 
of the gospel in Toulouse, where he was perhaps martyred about 
the middle of the 3rd century. The choir, the oldest part of the 



IOO 



TOULOUSE 



present building, was consecrated by Urban II. in 1096. The 
church is the largest Romanesque basilica in existence, being 
375 ft. from east to west and 210 ft. in extreme breadth. The nave 
(i2th and I3th centuries) has double aisles. Four pillars, support- 
ing the central tower, are surrounded by heavy masonry, which 
somewhat spoils the general harmony of the interior. In the 
southern transept is the " portail des comtes," so named because 
near it lie the tombs of William Taillefer, Ppns, and other early 
counts of Toulouse. The little chapel in which these tombs (as- 
cribed to the nth century) are found was restored by the capitols 
of Toulouse in 1648. Another chapel contains a Byzantine Christ 
of late nth-century workmanship. The choir (llth and I2th 
centuries) ends in an apse, or rather chevet, surrounded by a range 
of columns, marking off an aisle, which in its turn opens into five 
chapels. The stalls are of 16th-century work and grotesquely 
carved. Against the northern wall is an ancient table d'autel, 
which an nth-century inscription declares to have belonged to 
St Sernin. In the crypts are many relics, which, however, were 
robbed of their gold and silver shrines during the Revolution. 
On the south there is a fine outer porch in the Renaissance style; 
it is surmounted by a representation of the Ascension in Byzantine 
style. The central tower (l3th century) consists of five storeys, 
of which the two highest are of later date, but harmonize with the 
three lower ones. A restoration of St Sernin was carried out in 
the igth century by Viollet-le-Duc. 

The cathedral, dedicated to St Stephen, dates from three different 
epochs. The walls of the nave belong to a Romanesque cathedral 
of the nth century, but its roof dates from the first half of the 
J3th century. The choir was begun by Bishop Bertrand de 1'Ile 
(c. 1272), who wished to build another church in place of the old 
one. This wish was unfulfilled and the original nave, the axis of 
which is to the south of that of the choir, remains. The choir was 
burned in 1690 but restored soon after. It is surrounded by seven- 
teen chapels, finished by the cardinal d'Orleans, nephew of Louis XI., 
about the beginning of the l6th century, and adorned with glass 
dating from the 1 5th to the 1 7th century. The western gate, 
flanked by a huge square tower, was constructed by Peter du 
Moulin, archbishop of Toulouse, from 1439 to 1451. It has been 
greatly battered, and presents but a poor approximation to its 
ancient beauty. Over this gate, which was once ornamented with 
the statues of St Sernin, St Exuperius and the twelve apostles, 
as well as those of the two brother archbishops of Toulouse, Denis 
(1423-1439) and Peter du Moulin, there is a beautiful 13th-century 
rose-window, whose centre, however, is not in a perpendicular 
line with the point of the Gothic arch below. 

Among other remarkable churches may be noticed Notre-Dame 
de la Daurade, near the Pont Neuf, built on the site of a gth-century 
Benedictine abbey and reconstructed towards the end of the i8th 
century; and Notre-Dame de la Dalbade; perhaps existing in the 
nth, but in its present form dating from the l6th century, with 
a fine Renaissance portal. The church of the Jacobins, held by 
Viollet-le-Duc to be " one of the most beautiful brick churches 
constructed in the middle ages," was built towards the end of 
the 1 3th century, and consists of a nave divided into two aisles 
by a range of columns. The chief exterior feature is a beautiful 
octagonal belfry. The church belonged to a Dominican monastery, 
of which part of the cloister, the refectory, the chapter-hall and the 
chapel also remain and are utilized by the lycee. Of the other 
secular buildings the most noteworthy are the capitole and the 
museum. The capitole has a long Ionic fagade built from 1750 
to 1760. The theatre is situated in the left wing. Running along 
almost the whole length of the first floor is the salle des illustres 
adorned with modern paintings and sculptures relating to the history 
of the town. The museum (opened in 1795) occupies, besides a 
large modern building, the church, cloisters and other buildings 
of an old Augustinian convent. It contains pictures and a splendid 
collection of antiquities, notably a series of statues and busts of 
Roman emperors and others and much Romanesque sculpture. 
There is an auxiliary museum in the old college of St Raymond. 
The natural history museum is in the Jardin des Plantes. The 
law courts stand on the site of the old Chateau Narbonais, once 
the residence of the counts of Toulouse and later the seat of the 
parlement of Toulouse. Near by is a statue of the jurist Jacques 
Cujas, born at Toulouse. 

Toulouse is singularly rich in mansions of the i6th and 1 7th 
centuries. Among these may be mentioned the Hotel Bernuy, 
a fine Renaissance building now used by the lycee and the H6tel 
d'Ass6zat of the same period, now the property of the Academic 
des Jeux Floraux (see below), and of the learned societies of the city. 
In the court of the latter there is a statue of C16mence Isaure, a 
lady of Toulouse, traditionally supposed to have enriched the 
Acade'mie by a bequest in the isth century. The Maison de Pierre 
has an elaborate stone fagade of 1612. 

Toulouse is the seat of an archbishopric, of a court of appeal, 
a court of assizes and of a prefect. It is also the headquarters 
of the XVII. army corps and centre of an educational circum- 
scription (academic). There are tribunals of first instance and of 
commerce, a board of trade-arbitration, a chamber of commerce 
and a branch of the Bank of France. The educational institutions 
include faculties of law, medicine and pharmacy, science and 



letters, a Catholic institute with faculties of theology and 'letters, 
higher and lower ecclesiastical seminaries, lycees and training colleges 
for both sexes, and schools of veterinary science, fine arts and 
industrial sciences and music. 

Toulouse, the principal commercial and industrial cenitre of 
Languedoc, has important markets for horses, wine, grain, flowers, 
leather, oil and farm produce. Its pastry and other delicacies 
are highly esteemed. Its industrial establishments include the 
national tobacco factory, flour-mills, saw-mills, engineering work- 
shops and factories for farming implements, bicycles, vehicles, 
artificial manures, paper, boots and shoes, and flour pastes. 

TOLOSA, chief town of the Volcae Tectosages, does not 
seem to have been a place of great importance during the early 
centuries of the Roman rule in Gaul, though in 106 B.C. the 
pillage of its temple by Q. S. Cepio, afterwards routed by the 
Cimbri, gave rise to the famous Latin proverb habet aurum 
Tolosanum, in allusion to ill-gotten gains. It possessed a 
circus and an amphitheatre, but its most remarkable remains 
are to be found on the heights of Old Toulouse (vetus Tolosa) 
some 6 or 7 m. to the east, where huge accumulations of 
broken pottery and fragments of an old earthen vail mark 
the site of an ancient settlement. The numerous coins that 
have been discovered on the same spot do not date back farther 
than the 2nd century B.C., and seem to indicate the position 
of a Roman manufacturing centre then beginning to occupy 
the Gallic hill-fortress that, in earlier days, had in times of 
peril been the stronghold of the native tribes dwelling on the 
river bank. Tolosa does not seem to have been a Roman 
colony; but its importance must have increased greatly towards 
the middle of the 4th century. It is to be found entered in 
more than one itinerary dating from about this time; and 
Ausonius, in his Ordo nobilium urbium, alludes to it in terms 
implying that it then had a large population. In 419 it was 
made the capital of his kingdom by Wallia, king of the Visigoths, 
under whom or whose successors it became the seat of the 
great Teutonic kingdom of the West-Goths a kingdom that 
within fifty years had extended itself from the Loire to Gibraltar 
and from the Rhone to the Atlantic. On the defeat of Alaric 
II. (507) Toulouse fell into the hands of Clovis, who carried 
away the royal treasures to Angouleme. Under the Merovingian 
kings it seems to have remained the greatest city of southern 
Gaul, and is said to have been governed by dukes or counts 
dependent on one or other of the rival kings descended from 
the great founder of the Prankish monarchy. It figures pro- 
minently in the pages of Gregory of Tours and Sidonius 
Apollinaris. About 628 Dagobert erected South Aquitaine 
into a kingdom for his brother Charibert, who chose Toulouse 
as his capital. For the next eighty years its history is obscure, 
till we reach the days of Charles Martel, when it was besieged 
by Sema, the leader of the Saracens from Spain (c. 715-720), 
but delivered by Eudes, " princeps Aquitaniae," in whom 
later writers discovered the ancestor of all the later counts of 
Toulouse. Modern criticism, however, has discredited this 
genealogy; and the real history of Toulouse recommences in 
780 or 781, when Charlemagne appointed his little son Louis 
king of Aquitaine, with Toulouse for his chief city. 

During the minority of the young king his tutor Chorson 
ruled at Toulouse with the title of duke or count. Being 
deposed at the Council of Worms (790), he was succeeded by 
William Courtnez, the traditional hero of southern France, 
who in 806 retired to his newly founded monastery at Gellone, 
where he died in 812. In the unhappy days of the emperor 
Louis the Pious and his children Toulouse suffered in common 
with the rest of western Europe. It was besieged by Charles 
the Bald in 844, and taken four years later by the Normans, who 
in 843 had sailed up the Garonne as far as its walls. About 852 
Raymond I., count of Quercy, succeeded his brother Fridolo as 
count of Rouergue and Toulouse; it is from this noble that all 
the later counts of Toulouse trace their descent. Raymond I.'s 
grandchildren divided their parents' estates; of these Ray- 
mond II. (d. 924) became count of Toulouse, and Ermengaud, 
count of Rouergue, while the hereditary titles of Gothia, Quercy 
and Albi were shared between them. Raymond II. 's grandson, 
William Taillefer (d. c. 1037), married Emma of Provence, and 



TOUNGOO TOUP, J. 



101 



handed down part of that lordship to his younger son Bertrand. 1 
William's elder son Pons left two children, of whom William IV. 
succeeded his father in Toulouse, Albi, Quercy, &c.; while 
the younger, Raymond IV. of St Gilles (c. 1066), made him- 
self master of the vast possessions of the counts of Rouergue, 
married his cousin the heiress of Provence, and about 1085 began 
to rule the immense estates of his elder brother, who was still 
living. 

From this time the counts of Toulouse were the greatest 
lords in southern France. Raymond IV., the hero of the first 
crusade, assumed the formal titles of marquis of Provence, 
duke of Narbonne and count of Toulouse. While Raymond 
was away in the Holy Land, Toulouse was seized by William 
IX., duke of Aquitaine, who claimed the city in right of his 
wife Philippa, the daughter of William IV., but was unable 
to hold it long (1098-1100). Raymond's son and successor 
Bertrand followed his father's example and set out for the 
Holy Land in 1109, leaving his great estates at his death to 
his brother Alphonse Jourdain. The rule of this prince was 
disturbed by the ambition of William IX. and his grand-daughter 
Eleanor, who urged her husband Louis VII. to support her 
claims to Toulouse by war. On her divorce from Louis and 
her marriage with Henry II., Eleanor's claims passed on to this 
monarch, who at last forced Raymond V. to do him homage for 
Toulouse in 1173. Raymond V., the patron of the troubadours, 
died in 1194, and was succeeded by his son Raymond VI., 
under whose rule Languedoc was desolated by the crusaders of 
Simon de Montfort, who occupied Toulouse in 1215, but lost 
his life in besieging it in 1218. Raymond VII., the son of 
Raymond VI. and Princess Joan of England, succeeded his 
father in 1222, and died in 1249, leaving an only daughter 
Joan, married to Alfonso the brother of Louis IX. On the 
death of Alfonso and Joan in 1271 the vast inheritance of the 
counts of Toulouse lapsed to the Crown. 2 From the middle 
years of the izth century the people of Toulouse seem to have 
begun to free themselves from the most oppressive feudal 
dues. An act of Alphonse Jourdain (1141) exempts them from 
the tax on salt and wine; and in 1152 we have traces of a 
" commune consilium Tolosae " making police ordinances in 
its own name " with the advice of Lord Raymond, count of 
Toulouse, duke of Narbonne, and marquis of Provence." This 
act is witnessed by six " capitularii," four duly appointed 
judges (judices constiluti), and two advocates. Twenty-three 
years later there are twelve capitularii or consuls, six for the 
city and six for its suburbs, all of them elected and sworn to do 
justice in whatever municipal matters were brought before 
them. In 1222 their number was increased to twenty-four; 
but they were forbidden to touch the city property, which 
was to remain in the charge of certain " communarii " chosen 
by themselves. Early in the i4th century the consuls took 
the name of " domini de capitulo," or, a little later, that of 
" capitulum nobilium." From the I3th century the consuls 
met in their own house, the " palatium communitatis Tolosae " 
or h6tel-de-ville. In the i6th century a false derivation 
changed the ancient consuls (domini de capitulo) into the modern 
" capitouls " (domini cafritolii tolosani), a barbarous etymology 
which in its turn has, in the present century, transformed 
the old assembly house of Toulouse into the capitole. The 

1 About 975 there was a partition of the estates which William 
Taillefer and his cousin Raymond II. of Auvergne held in common, 
Albi, Quercy, &c., falling to William, and Gothia, &c., to 
Raymond. 

1 List of the counts of Toulouse: 



Chorson. .... 778-790 


Raymond III. . . 924-c. 950 


William I. 700-806 


William Taillefer c. 950-6. 1037 


Raymond Rafinel 


c 


1 7 

812-818 


Pons 1037-1060 


Berenger 






818-835 


William IV. . . io6o-c. 1093 


Bernard I. . 






835-844 


Raymond IV. 


1093-1096 


Warin. . . 






844-845 


Bertrand . 


1096-1109 


William II. . 






845-850 


Alphonse Jourdain 


1109-1148 


Fridolo . 






850-852 


Raymond V. . 


1148-1194 


Raymond I. . 






852-864 


Raymond VI. 


1194-1222 


Bernard . 






864-875 


Raymond VII. 


1222-1249 


Eudo 






875-018 


Alfonso and Joan 


1249-1271 


Raymond II. 




9i8-c. 924 





parlement of Toulouse was established as a permanent court 
in 1443. Louis XI. transferred it to Montpellier in 1467, but 
restored it to Toulouse before the close of the next year. This 
parlement was for Languedoc and southern France what the 
parlement of Paris was for the north. During the religious 
wars of the i6th century the Protestants of the town made 
two unsuccessful attempts to hand it over to the prince de 
Conde. After St Bartholomew's Day (1572) 30x3 of the party 
were massacred. Towards the end of the i6th century, during 
the wars of the League, the parlement was split up into 
three different sections, sitting respectively at Carcassonne or 
Beziers, at Castle Sarrasin, and at Toulouse. The three were 
reunited in 1 596. Under Francis I. it began to persecute heretics, 
and in 1619 rendered itself notorious by burning the philosopher 
Vanini. In 1762 Jean Calas, an old man falsely accused of 
murdering his eldest son to prevent him becoming a Reman 
Catholic, was broken on the wheel. By the exertions of Voltaire 
his character was afterwards rehabilitated. The university 
of Toulouse owes its origin to the action of Gregory IX., who 
in 1229 bound Raymond VII. to maintain four masters to 
teach theology and eight others for canon law, grammar, and 
the liberal arts. Civil law and medicine were taught only a 
few years later. The famous " Floral Games " of Toulouse, 
in which the poets of Languedoc contended (May 1-3) for the 
prize of the golden amaranth and other gold or silver flowers, 
given at the expense of the city, were instituted in 1323-1324. 
The Academic des Jeux Floraux still awards these prizes for 
compositions in poetry and prose. In 1814 the duke of 
Wellington defeated Marshal Soult to the north-east of the 
town. 

See L. Ariste and L. Brand, Histoire populaire de Toulouse depuis 
les origines jusqu'ti ce jour (Toulouse, 1898). This work contains 
an exhaustive bibliography. 

TOUNGOO, or TAUNG-NGU, a town and district in the Tenas- 
serim division of Lower Burma. The town is situated on the 
right bank of the river Sittang, 166 m. by rail N. from Rangoon. 
Pop. (1001), 15,837. From the I4th to the i6th century it was 
the capital of an independent kingdom. After the second 
Burmese War it was an important frontier station, but the 
troops were withdrawn in 1893. The district of Toungoo 
has an area of 6172 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 279,315, showing an 
increase of 32% in the preceding decade. Three mountain 
ranges traverse the district the Pegu Yomas, the Karen, 
and the Nat-taung or " Great Watershed " all of which have 
a north and south direction, and are covered for the most 
part with dense forest. The Pegu Yomas have a general 
elevation of from 800 to 1 200 ft., while the central range averages 
from 2000 to 3000 ft. The rest of Toungoo forms the upper 
portion of the valley of the Sittang, the only large river in the 
district, the chief tributaries of which are the Shwa, Hkabaung, 
Hpyu Thank-ye-Kat and Yank-thua-wa, all navigable for a 
great portion of their course. Limestone appears in various 
places, and in the north-east a light grey marble is quarried for 
lime. The rivers form the chief means of communication during 
the rainy season. The rainfall in 1905 was 80-30 in. There 
are 14 railway stations in the district. Rice is the staple 
crop; there are promising plantations of coffee and rubber. 
Forests cover more than 5000 sq. m., of which 1337 sq. m. 
have been reserved, yielding a large revenue. 

TOUP, JONATHAN [JOANNES TOTJPIUS] (1713-1785), English 
classical scholar and critic, was born at St Ives in Cornwall, 
and was educated at a private school and Exeter College, 
Oxford. Having taken orders, he became rector of St Martin's 
Exeter, where he died on the igth of January 1785. Toup 
established his reputation by his Emendationes in Suidam 
(1760-1766, followed in 1775 by a supplement) and his edition 
of Longinus (1778), including notes and emendations by 
Ruhnken. The excellence of Toup's scholarship was " known 
to the learned throughout Europe " (so epitaph on the tablet 
in the church of East Looe set up by the delegates of the 
Clarendon Press), but his overbearing manner and extreme 
self-confidence made him many enemies. 



IO2 



TOURACOU TOURAINE 



TOURACOU, the name, evidently already in use, under 
which in 1743 G. Edwards figured a pretty African bird, 1 and 
presumably that applied to it in Guinea, whence it had been 
brought alive. It is the Cuculus persa of Linnaeus, and Turacus 




(After Schlegel.) 

White-Crested Tburacou (Turacus albicristatus). 
or Corythaix persa of later authors. Cuvier in 1799 or 1800 
Latinized its native name (adopted in the meanwhile by both 
French and German writers) as above, for which barbarous 
term J. K. W. Illiger, in 1811, substituted a more classical 
word. In 1788 Isert described and figured (Beobacht. Gesellsch. 
naturf. Freunde, iii. 16-20, pi. i) a bird, also from Guinea, 
which he called Musophaga violated. Its affinity to the original 
Touracou was soon recognized, and both forms have been 
joined by modern systematists in the family Musophagidae, 
commonly Englished Plantain-eaters or Touracous. 

To take first the Plantain-eaters proper, or the genus Musophaga, 
of which only two species are known. One, about the size of a 
crow, is comparatively common in museums, and has the horny 
base of its yellow bill prolonged backwards over the forehead in 
a kind of shield. The top of the head and the primaries, except 
their outer edge and tip, are deep crimson ; a white streak extends 
behind the eye; and the rest of the plumage is glossy purple. The 
second species, M. rossae, which is rare, chiefly differs by wanting 
the white eye-streak. Then of the Touracous the species origin- 
ally described is about the size of a jay, and has the head, crest 
(which is vertically compressed and tipped with red), neck and breast 
of grass-green, varied by two white streaks one, from the gape 
to the upper part of the crimson orbit, separated by a black patch 
from the other, which runs beneath and behind the eye. The 
wing-coverts, lower part of the back, and tail are of steel-purple, 
the primaries deep crimson, edged and tipped with bluish black. 
Over a dozen other congeneric species, more or less resembling 
this, have been described, and all inhabit some district of Africa. 
One, found in the Cape Colony and Natal, where it is known as 
the " Lory " (cf. xy. 7, note i), though figured by Daubenton and 
others, was first differentiated in 1841 by Strickland (Ann. Nat. 
History, vii. 33) as Turacus albicristatus its crest having a con- 
spicuous white border, while the steel-purple of T. persa is replaced 
by a rich and glossy bluish green of no less beauty. In nearly all 
the species of this genus the nostrils are almost completely hidden 
by the frontal feathers; but there are two others in which, though 
closely allied, this is not the case, and some systematists would 
place them in a separate genus Gallirex; while another species, 
the giant of the family, has been moved into a third genus as Cory- 
thaeola cristata. This differs from any of the foregoing by the 
absence of the crimson coloration of the primaries, and seems to 
lead to another group, Schizorrhis, in which the plumage is of a 
still plainer type, and, moreover, the nostrils here are not only 
exposed but in the form of a slit, instead of being oval as in all the 

1 Apparently the first ornithologist to make the bird known was 
Albin, who figured it in 1738 from the life, yet badly, as " The 
Crown-bird of Mexico." He had doubtless been misinformed as 
to its proper country; but Touracous were called " Crown-birds " 
by the Europeans in West Africa, as witness Bosnian's Description 
of the Coast of Guinea (2nd ed., 1721), p. 251, and W. Smith's Voyage 
to Guinea (1745), p. 149, though the name was also given to the 
crowned cranes, Balearica. 



rest. This genus contains about half-a-dozen species, one of which, 
S. concolor, is the Grey Touracou of the colonists in Natal, and is 
of an almost uniform slaty brown. A good deal has been written 
about these birds, which form the subject of a beautiful monograph 
De Toerako's afgebeld en beschreven by Schlegel and Westerman, 
brought out at Amsterdam in 1860; while further information is 
contained in an elaborate essay by Schalow (Journ. f. ornilhologie, 
1886, pp. 1-77). Still, much remains to be made known as to their 
distribution throughout Africa and their habits. They seem to 
be all fruit-eaters, and to frequent the highest trees, seldom coming 
to the ground. Very little can be confidently asserted as to their 
nidification, but at least one species of Schizorrhis is said to make 
a rough nest and therein lay tnree eggs of a pale blue colour. An 
extraordinary peculiarity attends the crimson coloration which 
adorns the primaries of so many of the Musophagidae. So long 
ago as 1818, Jules Verreaux observed (Proc. Zool. Society, 1871, 
p. 40) that in the case of T. albicristatus this beautiful hue vanishes 
on exposure to heavy rain and reappears only after some interval 
of time and when the feathers are dry. 1 

The Musophagidae form a distinct family, of which the Cuculidae 
are the nearest allies, the two being associated to torm the Cuculine 
as compared with the Psittacine division of Cuculiform birds 
(see BIRD and PARROT). T. C. Eyton pointed out (Ann. Nat. 
History, 3rd series, vol. ii. p. 458) a feature possessed in common by 
the latter and the Musophagidae, in the " process attached to the 
anterior edge of the ischium," which he likened to the so-called 
" marsupial " bones of Didelphian mammals. J. T. Reinhardt 
has also noticed (Vidensk. meddels. naturhist. forening, 1871, 
pp. 326-341) another Cuculine character offered by the os uncina- 
tum affixed to the lower side of the ethmoid in the Plantain-eaters 
and Touracous; but too much dependence must not be placed on 
that, since a similar structure is presented by the frigate-bird (q.v.) 
and the petrels (q.v.). A corresponding process seems also to be 
found in Trogon (q.v.). The bill of nearly all the species of Muso- 
phagidae is curiously serrated or denticulated along the margin 
and the feet have the outer toe reversible, but usually directed 
backwards. No member of the family is found outside of the 
continental portion of the Ethiopian region. (A. N.) 

TOURAINE, an old province in France, which stretched 
along both banks of the Loire in the neighbourhood of Tours, 
the river dividing it into Upper and Lower Touraine. It 
was bounded on the N. by Orleanais, W. by Anjou and 
Maine, S. by Poitou and E. by Berry, and it corresponded 
approximately to the modern department of Indre et Loire. 
Touraine took its name from the Turones, the tribe by which it 
was inhabited at the time of Caesar's conquest of Gaul. They 
were unwarlike, and offered practically no resistance to the 
invader, though they joined in the revolt of Vercingetorix 
in A.D. 52. The capital city, Caesarodunum, which was built 
on the site of the eastern part of the present city of Tours, 
was made by Valentinian the metropolis of the 3rd Lyon- 
naise, which included roughly the later provinces of Touraine, 
Brittany, Maine and Anjou. Christianity seems to have been 
introduced into Touraine not much earlier than the beginning 
of the 4th century, although tradition assigns St Gatien, the 
first bishop of Tours, to the 3rd. The most famous of its 
apostles was St Martin (fl. 375-400), who founded the 
abbey of Marmoutier, near Tours, and whose tomb in the 
city became a celebrated shrine. Tours was besieged by the 
Visigoths in 428, and though it offered a successful resistance 
on this occasion it was included fifty years later in the territory 
of the Visigoths. The Tourangeans refused to adopt the 
Arian heresy of their conquerors, and this difference in religion 
materially assisted in 507 the conquest of the province by 
Clovis, whose orthodoxy was guaranteed by the miraculous 
intervention of St Martin. St Clotilda, wife of Clovis, spent 
the last years of her life in retreat at Tours. The possession 
of Touraine was constantly the subject of dispute between 
the Merovingian princes, and the province enjoyed no settled 
peace until the reign of Charlemagne. He established Alcuin 
as abbot of St Martin of Tours, and under his auspices the 
school of Tours became one of the chief seats of learning in 

2 The fact of this colouring matter being soluble in water was 
incidentally mentioned at a meeting of the Zoological Society of 
London by W. B. Tegetmeier, and brought to the notice of Professor 
A. H. Church, who, after experiment, published in 1868 (Student 
and Intellectual Observer, i. 161-168) an account of it as " Turacin, 
a new animal pigment containing copper." Further information 
on the subject was given by Monteiro (Ghent. News, xxviii. 201; 
Quart. Journ. Science, 2nd series, vol. iv. p. 132). The property is 
possessed by the crimson feathers of all the birds of the family. 



TOURCOING TOURMALINE 



103 



the middle ages. In the gth century Tours also became the 
ecclesiastical metropolis of Brittany, Maine and Anjou, and 
when the empire was divided by Louis the Pious into various 
districts or missatica, Tours was the centre of one of these, 
the boundaries of which corresponded roughly with those of 
the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the city. Touraine suffered 
from the invasions of the Northmen, who massacred the 
monks of Marmoutier in 853, but never pillaged Tours. The 
administration of Touraine was entrusted, from Merovingian 
times onward, to counts appointed by the crown. The office 
became hereditary in 940 or 941 with Thibault the Old or the 
" Tricheur." His son Odo I. was attacked by Fulk the Black, 
count of Anjou, and despoiled of part of his territory. His 
grandson Thibault III., who refused homage to Henry I., 
king of France, in 1044, was entirely dispossessed by Geoffrey 
of Anjou, called the Hammer (d. 1060). The 7th count, 
Fulk (d. 1109), ruled both Anjou and Touraine, and the county 
of Touraine remained under the domination of the counts of 
Anjou (q.v.) until Henry II. of England deprived his brother 
Geoffrey of Touraine by force of arms. Henry II. carried out 
many improvements, but peace was destroyed by the revolt 
of his sons. Richard Coeur de Lion, in league with Philip 
Augustus, had seized Touraine, and after his death Arthur of 
Brittany was recognized as count. In 1204 it was united to 
the French crown, and its cession was formally acknowledged 
by King John at Chinon in 1214. Philip appointed Guillaume 
des Roches hereditary seneschal in 1204, but the dignity was 
ceded to the crown in 1312. Touraine was granted from time 
to time to princes of the blood as an appanage of the crown of 
France. In 1328 it was held by Jeanne of Burgundy, queen 
of France; by Philip, duke of Orleans, in 1344; and in 1360 
it was made a peerage duchy on behalf of Philip the Bold, 
afterwards duke of Burgundy. It was the scene of dispute 
between Charles, afterwards Charles VII., and his mother, 
Isabel of Bavaria, who was helped by the Burgundians. After 
his expulsion from Paris by the English Charles spent much 
of his time in the chateaux of Touraine, although his seat of 
government was at Bourges. He bestowed the duchy successively 
on his wife Mary of Anjou, on Archibald Douglas and on Louis 
III. of Anjou. It was the dower of Mary Stuart as the widow of 
Francis II. The last duke of Touraine was Francis, duke of 
Alencon, who died in 1584. Plessis-les-Tours had been the 
favourite residence of Louis XL, who granted many privileges 
to the town of Tours, and increased its prosperity by the 
establishment of the silk-weaving industry. The reformed 
religion numbered many adherents in Touraine, who suffered 
in the massacres following on the conspiracy of Amboise; 
and, though in 1562 the army of Conde pillaged the city of Tours, 
the marshal of St Andre reconquered Touraine for the Catholic 
party. Many Huguenots emigrated after the massacre of 
St Bartholomew, and after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes 
the silk industry, which had been mainly in the hands of the 
Huguenots, was almost destroyed. This migration was one 
of the prime causes of the extreme poverty of the province 
in the next century. At the Revolution the nobles of 
Touraine made a declaration expressing their sympathy 
with the ideas of liberty and fraternity. Among the many 
famous men who were born within its boundaries are Jean 
le Meingre Boucicaut, marshal of France, Beroalde de Verville, 
author of the Moyen de parvenir, Rabelais, Cardinal Richelieu, 
C. J. Avisseau, the potter (1796-1861), the novelist Balzac 
and the poet Alfred de Vigny. 

See the quarterly publication of the Memoires of the Societe 
archeologique de Touraine (1842, &c.) which include a Dictionnaire 
geographique, historique et biographique (6 vols., 1878-1884), by 
J. X. Carr6 de Busserolle. There are histories of Touraine and its 
monuments by Chalmel (4 vols. Paris, 1828), by S. Bellanger 
(Paris, 1845), by Bourrasse 1 (1858). See also Dupin de Saint Andre 1 , 
Hist, du protestantisme en Touraine (Paris, 1885); T. A. Cook, 
Old Touraine (2 vols. London, 1892). 

TOURCOING, a manufacturing town of northern France 
in the department of Nord, less than a mile from the Belgian 
frontier, and 8 m. N.N.E. of Lille on the railway to 



Ghent. Pop. (1906), 62,694 (commune, 81,671), of whom 
about one-third are natives of Belgium. Tourcoing is prac- 
tically one with Roubaix to the south, being united thereto by 
a tramway and a branch of the Canal de Roubaix. The public 
institutions comprise a tribunal of commerce, a board of trade 
arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, an exchange and a condi- 
tioning house for textiles. Together with Roubaix, Tourcoing 
ranks as one of the chief textile centres of France. Its chief 
industry is the combing, spinning and twisting of wool 
carried on in some eighty factories employing between 
10,000 and 12,000 workpeople. The spinning and twisting 
of cotton is also important. The weaving establishments 
produce woollen and mixed woollen and cotton fabrics together 
with silk and satin drapery, swanskins, jerseys and other fancy 
goods. The making of velvet pile carpets and upholstering 
materials is a speciality of the town. To these industries 
must be added those of dyeing, the manufacture of hosiery, 
of the machinery and other apparatus used in the textile factories 
and of soap. 

Famed since the i2th century for its woollen manufactures, 
Tourcoing was fortified by the Flemings in 1477, when LouisXI. 
of France disputed the inheritance of Charles the Bold 
with Mary of Burgundy, but in the same year was taken and 
pillaged by the French. In 1794 the Republican army, under 
Generals Moreau and Souham, gained a decisive victory over 
the Austrians, the event being commemorated by a monument 
in the public garden. The inhabitants, 18,000 in 1789, were 
reduced by the French Revolution to 10,000. 

TOURMALINE, a mineral of much interest to the physicist 
on account of its optical and electrical properties; it is 
also of some geological importance as a rock-constituent 
(see SCHORL), whilst certain transparent varieties have economic 
value as gem-stones. The name is probably a corruption 
of turmali, or toramalli, the native name applied to tourmaline 
and zircon in Ceylon, whence specimens of the former mineral 
were brought to Europe by the Dutch in 1703. The green 
tourmaline of Brazil had, however, been known here much 
earlier; and coarse varieties of the mineral had passed for cen- 
turies under the German name of Schorl, an old mining word 
of uncertain origin, possibly connected with the old German 
Schor (refuse), in allusion to the occurrence of the mineral with 
the waste of the tin-mines. The German village of Schorlau 
may have taken its name from the mineral. It has been 
suggested that the Swedish form skorl has possible connexion 
with the word sko'r, brittle. 

Tourmaline crystallizes in the rhombohedral division of the 
hexagonal system. The crystals have generally a prismatic habit, the 
prisms being longitudinally striated or even channelled. Trigonal 
prisms are characteristic, so that a transverse section becomes 
triangular or often nine-sided. By combination of several prisms 
the crystals may become sub-cylindrical. The crystals when doubly 
terminated are often hemimorphic or present dissimilar forms at 
the opposite ends; thus the hexagonal 
prisms in fig. I are terminated at one end 
by rhombohedral faces, o, P, and at the 
other by the basal plane k'. Doubly- 
terminated crystals, however, are com- 
paratively rare ; the crystals being usually 
attached at one end to the matrix. It is 
notable that prismatic crystals of tour- 
maline have in some cases been curved 
and fractured transversely; the displaced 
fragments having been cemented together 
by deposition of fresh mineral matter. Tourmaline is not infre- 
quently columnar, acicular or fibrous; and the fibres may radiate 
from a centre so as to form the so-called " tourmaline suns." 
Crystals of tourmaline present no distinct cleavage, but break with 
a sub-conchpidal fracture; and whilst the general lustre of the 
mineral is vitreous, that of the fractured surface is rather pitchy. 
The hardness is slightly above that of quartz (7). The specific 
gravity varies according to chemical composition, that of the 
colourless varieties being about 3, whilst in schorl it may rise to 3^2. 

Tourmaline has a great range of colour, and in many cases the 
crystals are curiously parti-coloured. Occasionally, though rarely, 
the mineral is colourless, and is then known as achroite, a name 
proposed by R. Hermann in 1845, and derived from the Greek 
SXPOOS (uncoloured). Red tourmaline, which when of fine colour 
is the most valued of all varieties, is known as rubellite (?..). Green 
tourmaline is by no means uncommon, but the blue is rather rare 




FIG. i. 



104 



TOURNAI 



and is distinguished by the name indigolite, generally written indi- 
colite. Brown is a common colour, and black still more common, 
this being the usual colour of schorl, or common coarse tourmaline. 
Thin splinters of schorl may, however, be blue or brown by 
transmitted light. 

The double refraction of tourmaline is strong. The mineral is 
optically negative, the ordinary index being about 1-64, and the 
extraordinary 1-62. Coloured tourmalines are intensely pleochroic, 
the ordinary ray, which vibrates perpendicular to the principal axis, 
being much more strongly absorbed than the extraordinary; hence 
a slice cut in the direction of the principal or optic axis trans- 
mits sensibly only the extraordinary ray, and may consequently be 
used as a polarizing medium. The brown tourmaline of Ceylon and 
Brazil is best adapted for this purpose, but the green is also used. 
Two plates properly mounted form the instrument used by opticians 
for testing spectacle-lenses, and are known as the " tourmaline tongs." 
In order to secure the best colour-effect when used as a gem-stone, 
the tourmaline should be cut with the table parallel to the optic 
axis. 

It was in tourmaline that the phenomenon of pyroelectricity was 
first observed. On being heated in peat ashes its attractive power 
was observed by the Dutch, in the early part of the l8th century; 
and this curious character obtained for it the name of aschtrekker, 
or ash-drawer. J. R. Hatty first pointed out the relation of pyroelec- 
tricity with hemimorphism. Tourmaline is also piezoelectric, that 
is, it becomes electric by pressure. If a crystal be subjected to 
pressure along the optic axis, it behaves as though it were contracting 
by reduction of temperature. The mineral may also be rendered 
electric by friction, and retains the charge for a long time. 

Tourmaline is a boro-silicate of singularly complex composition. 
Indeed the word tourmaline is sometimes regarded as the name of 
a group of isomorphous minerals rather than that of a definite 
species. Numerous analyses have been made, and the results 
discussed by a large number of authorities. In the view of S. L. 
Penfield and H. W. Foote all tourmaline may be derived from a 
boro-silicic acid of the formula HnB^iiOu. It is believed that 
the hydrogen is present as hydroxyl, and that this may be partially 
replaced by fluorine. The tourmaline acid has probably the con- 
stitution Hi8(B-OH)jSi 4 Oi9. Nine atoms of hydrogen are replaced 
by three of aluminium, and the remaining nine in part by other 
metals. Lithium is present in red tourmaline; magnesium dominates 
in brown; iron, manganese and sometimes chromium are found 
in green ; and much iron occurs in the black varieties. Four groups 
are sometimes recognized, characterized by the presence of (l) 
lithium, (2) ferrous iron, (3) ferric iron and (4) magnesium. 

Tourmaline occurs commonly in granite, greisen, gneiss and 
crystalline schists. In many cases it appears to have been formed 
by pneumatolysis, or the action on the rocks of heated vapours 
containing boron and fluorine, as in many tin-bearing districts, 
where tourmaline is a characteristic mineral. Near the margin 
of a mass of granite the rock often becomes schorlaceous or tourma- 
liniferous, and may pass into " tourmaline-rock," which is usually 
an aggregate of tourmaline and quartz. Tourmaline is an essential 
constituent of the west of England rocks called luxullianite (luxuly- 
anite) and trowlesworthite. It occurs embedded in certain meta- 
morphic limestones, where it is possibly due to fumarolic action. 
Microscopic crystals are common in clay-slate. By resistance to 
decomposition, tourmaline often survives the disintegration of the 
matrix, and thus passes into sands, clays, marls and other 
sedimentary deposits. 

Many of the finest crystals of tourmaline occur in druses in 
granitic rocks, such as those of San Piero in Elba, where some of 
the pale pink and green prisms are tipped with black, and have 
consequently been called nigger-heads. Lepidolite is a common 
associate of tourmaline, as at Rozena in Moravia. Tourmaline 
occurs, with corundum, in the dolomite of Campolongo, in canton 
Ticino, Switzerland. Fine black crystals, associated with apatite 
and quartz, were formerly found in granite at Chudleigh, near 
Bovey Tracey in Devonshire. The Russian localities for tourmaline 
are mentioned under RUBELLITE. Most of the tourmaline cut for 
jewelry comes from the gem-gravels of Ceylon. The green tour- 
maline has generally a yellowish or olive-green colour, and is known 
as " Ceylon chrysolite." Fine green crystals are found in Brazil, 
notably in the topaz-locality of Minas Novas; and when of vivid 
colour they have been called " Brazilian emeralds." Green tour- 
maline is a favourite ecclesiastical stone in South America Blue 
tourmaline occurs with the green ; this variety is found also at Ut6 
in Sweden (its original locality) and notably near Hazaribagh in 
Bengal. Certain kinds of mica occasionally contain flat crystals 
of tourmaline between the cleavage-planes. 

Many localities in the United States are famous for tourmaline. 
Magnificent specimens have been obtained from Mt Mica, near 
Pans, Maine, where the mineral was accidentally discovered in 1820 
by two students, E. L. Hamlin and E. Holmes. It occurs in granite, 
with lepidolite, smoky quartz, spodumene, &c. ; and some of the 
prismatic crystals are notable for being red at one end and 
green at the other. Mt Rubellite at Hebron, and Mt Apatite at 
Auburn, are other localities in Maine which have yielded fine tour- 
maline. At Chesterfield, Massachusetts, remarkable crystals occur, 
some of which show on transverse section a triangular nucleus of 



red tourmaline surrounded by a shell of green. Red and green 
tourmalines, with lepidolite and kunzite, are found in San Diego 
county, California. Fine coloured tourmalines occur at Haddam 
Neck, Connecticut; and excellent crystals of black tourmaline are 
well known from Pierrepont, New York, whilst remarkable brown 
crystals occur in limestone at Gouverneur in the same state. Canada 
is rich in tourmaline, notably at Burgess in Lanark county, Ontario, 
and at Grand Calumet Island in the Ottawa river. Heemskirk 
Mountain, Tasmania, and Kangaroo Island, South Australia, have 
yielded fine coloured tourmaline fit for jewelry. Madagascar is 
a well-known locality for black tourmaline in large crystals. 

Many varieties of tourmaline have received distinctive names, 
some of which are noticed above. Dravite is G. Tschermak's name 
for a brown tourmaline, rich in magnesia but with little iron, occur- 
ring near Unter Drauburg in the Drave district in Carinthia. Taltalite 
was a name given by I. Domeyko to a mixture of tourmaline and 
copper ore from Taltal in Chile. The colourless Elba tourmaline 
was called apyrite by J. F. L. Hausmann, in allusion to its refractory 
behaviour before the blow-pipe; whilst a black iron-tourmaline from 
Norway was termed aphrazite by J. B. d'Andrada, in consequence 
of its intumescence when heated. (F. W. R.*) 

TOURKAI '(Flemish Doornik), a city of Belgium, in the 
province of Hainaut, situated on the Scheldt. Pop. (1904), 
36,744. Although in the course of its long history it has 
undergone many sieges and was sacked at various epochs by 
the Vandals, Normans, French and Spaniards, it preserves 
many monuments of its ancient days. Among these is the 
cathedral of Notre-Dame, one of the finest and best preserved 
Romanesque and Gothic examples in Belgium (for plan, &c., 
see ARCHITECTURE: Romanesque and Gothic in Belgium). Its 
foundation dates from the year 1030, while the nave is Roman- 
esque of the middle of the i2th century, with much pointed 
work. The transept was added in the i3th century. The first 
choir was burned down in 1213, but was rebuilt in 1242 at 
the same time as the transept, and is a superb specimen 
of pointed Gothic. There are five towers with spires, which 
give the outside an impressive appearance, and much has been 
done towards removing the squalid buildings that formerly con- 
cealed the cathedral. There are several old pictures of merit, 
and the shrine of St Eleuthere, the first bishop of Tournai 
in the 6th century, is a remarkable product of the silversmith's 
art. The belfry on the Grand Place was built in 1187, 
partly reconstructed in 1391 and finally restored and endowed 
with a steeple in 1852. The best view of the cathedral can 
be obtained from its gallery. The church of St Quentin in 
the same square as the belfry is almost as ancient as Notre- 
Dame, and the people of Tournai call it the " little cathedral." 
In the church of St Brice is the tomb of Childeric discovered 
in 1655. Among the relics were three hundred small golden 
models of bees. These were removed to Paris, and when 
Napoleon was crowned emperor a century and a half later he 
chose Childeric's bees for the decoration of his coronation 
mantle. In this manner the bee became associated with the 
Napoleonic legend just as the lilies were with the Bourbons. 
The Pont des Trous over the Scheldt, with towers at each end, 
was built in 1290, and among many other interesting buildings 
there are some old houses still in occupation which date 
back to the I3th century. On the Grand Place is the 
fine statue of Christine de Lalaing, princess d'Epinoy, who 
defended Tournai against Parma in 1581. Tournai carries 
on a large trade in carpets (called Brussels), bonnet shapes, 
corsets and fancy goods generally. With regard to the carpet 
manufactory, it is said locally to date from the time of the 
Crusades, and it is presumed that the Crusaders learnt the 
art from the Saracens. 

The history of Tournai dates from the time of Julius Caesar, 
when it was called civitas Nerviorum or castrum Turnacum. In the 
reign of Augustus, Agrippa fixed the newly mixed colony of Suevi 
and Menapii at Tournai, which continued throughout the period 
of Roman occupation to be of importance. In the sth century 
the Franks seized Tournai, and Merovaeus made it the capital 
of his dynasty. This it remained until the subdivision of the 
Frank monarchy among the sons of Clovis. When feudal 
possessions, instead of being purely personal, were vested in the 
families of the holder after the death of Charlemagne, Tournai 
was specially assigned to Baldwin of the Iron Arm by Charles 



TOURNAMENT 



PLATE. 





KNIGHTS JOUSTING WITH CRONELLS ON THEIR LANCES. French MS. early XIV Century. (Royal MS. 14 E. Hi.) 




KNIGHTS JOUSTING. From a French MS. of the latter half of the XV Century. (Cotton MS. Nero D. ix.) 




ENGLISH KNIGHTS RIDING INTO THE LISTS. From the Great Tournament Roll of 1511; by permission of the College of Arms. 
XXVII. 104. 



TOURNAMENT 



the Bald, whose daughter Judith he had abducted, on receiving 
the hereditary title of count of Flanders. During the Bur- 
gundian period it was the residence of Margaret of York, widow 
of Charles the Bold; and the pretender Perkin Warbeck, whom 
she championed, if not born there, was the reputed son of a 
Jew of Tournai. In the early i6th century Tournai was an 
English possession for a few years and Henry VIII. sold it to 
Francis I. It did not long remain French, for in 1521 the 
count of Nassau, Charles V.'s general, took it and added it to 
the Spanish provinces. During the whole of the middle ages 
Tournai was styled the " seigneurie de Tournaisis," and pos- 
sessed a charter and special privileges of its own. Near Tournai 
was fought, jon the nth of May 1745, the famous battle 
of Fontenoy. (D. C. B.) 

TOURNAMENT, or TOURNEY (Fr. tournement, tournoi, Med. 
Lat. torneamentum, from tourner, to turn), the name popularly 
given in the middle ages to a species of mock fight, so called 
owing to the rapid turning of the horses (Skeat). Of the several 
medieval definitions of the tournament given by Du Cange 
(Glossarium, s.v. " Tourneamentum "), the best is that of Roger 
of Hoveden, who described tournaments as " military exercises 
carried out, not in the spirit of hostility (nullo inlerveniente 
odio), but solely for practice and the display of prowess (pro solo 
exercitio, atque ostentations virium)." Men who carry weapons 
have in all ages played at the game of war in time of peace. 
But the tournament, properly so called, does not appear in 
Europe before the nth century, in spite of those elaborate 
fictions of Ruexner's Thurnierbuch which detail the tournament 
laws of Henry the Fowler. More than one chronicler records 
the violent death, in 1066, of a French baron named Geoffroi de 
Preulli, who, according to the testimony of his contemporaries, 
" invented tournaments." In England, at least, the tourna- 
ment was counted a French fashion, Matthew Paris calling it 
confliclus gallicus. 

By the i2th century the tournament had grown so popular 
in England that Henry II. found it necessary to forbid the 
sport which gathered in one place so many barons and knights 
in arms. In that age we have the famous description by William 
FitzStephen of the martial games of the Londoners in Smith- 
field. He tells how on Sundays in Lent a noble train of young 
men would take the field well mounted, rushing out of the city 
with spear and shield to ape the feats of war. Divided into parties, 
one body would retreat, while another pursued striving to un- 
horse them. The younger lads, he says, bore javelins disarmed 
of their steel, by which we may know that the weapon of the 
elders was the headed lance. William of Newbury tells us how 
the young knights, balked of their favourite sport by the royal 
mandate, would pass over sea to win glory in foreign lists. 
Richard I. relaxed his father's order, granting licences for 
tournaments, and Jocelin of Brakelond has a long story of the 
great company of cavaliers who held a tournament between 
Thetford and Bury St Edmunds in defiance of the abbot. From 
that time onward unlicensed tourneying was treated as an 
offence against the Crown, which exacted heavy fees from all 
taking part in them even when a licence had been obtained. 
Often the licence was withheld, as in 1255, when the king's son's 
grave peril in Gascony is alleged as a reason for forbidding a 
meeting. In 1299 life and limb were declared to be forfeit in 
the case of those who should arrange a tourney without the royal 
licence, and offenders were to be seized with horse and harness. 
As the tournament became an occasion for pageantry and 
feasting, new reason was given for restraint: a simple knight 
might beggar himself over a sport which risked costly horses 
and carried him far afield. Jousters travelled from land to land, 
like modern cricketers on their tours, offering and accepting 
challenges. Thus Edward I., before coming to the throne, led 
eighty knights to a tournament on the Continent. Before the 
jousts at Windsor on St George's Day in 1344 heralds published 
in France, Scotland, Burgundy, Hainault, Flanders, Brabant 
and the domains of the emperor the king's offer of safe conduct 
for competitors. At the weddings of princes and magnates and 
at the crowning of kings the knights gathered to the joustings, 



which had become as much a part of such high ceremonies 
as the banquet and the minstrelsy. The fabled glories of the 
Round Table were revived by princely hosts, who would assemble 
a gallant company to keep open house and hold the field against 
all comers, as did Mortimer, the queen's lover, when, on the eve 
of his fall, he brought all the chivalry of the land to the place 
where he held his Round Table. About 1292 the " Statute of 
Arms for Tournaments " laid down, " at the request of the earls 
and barons and of the knighthood of England," new laws for 
the game. Swords with points were not to be used, nor pointed 
daggers, nor club nor mace. None was to raise up a fallen 
knight but his own appointed squires, clad in his device. The 
squire who offended was to lose horse and arms and lie three 
years in gaol. A northern football crowd would understand 
the rule that forbade those coming to see the tournament to 
wear harness or arm themselves with weapons. Disputes were 
to be settled by a court of honour of princes and earls. That 
such rules were needful had been shown at Rochester in 1251, 
where the foreign knights were beaten by the English and so 
roughly handled that they fled to the city for refuge. On their 
way the strangers were faced by another company of knights 
who handled them roughly and spoiled them, thrashing them 
with staves in revenge for the doings at a Brackley tournament. 
Even as early as the I3th century some of these tournaments 
were mere pageants of horsemen. For the Jousts of Peace held 
at Windsor Park in 1278 the sword-blades are of whalebone and 
parchment, silvered; the helms are of boiled leather and the 
shields of light timber. But the game could make rough sport. 
Many a tournament had its tale of killed and wounded in the 
chronicle books. We read how Roger of Lemburn struck 
Arnold de Montigny dead with a lance thrust under the helm. 
The first of the Montagu earls of Salisbury died of hurts taken 
at a Windsor jousting, and in those same lists at Windsor the 
earl's grandson Sir William Montagu was killed by his own 
father. William Longespee in 1256 was so bruised that he never 
recovered his strength, and he is among many of whom the like 
is written. Blunted or " rebated " lance-points came early 
into use, and by the i4th century the coronall or cronell head 
was often fitted in place of the point. After 1400 the armourers 
began to devise harness with defences specially wrought for ser- 
vice in the lists. But the joust lost its chief perils with the 
invention of the tilt, which, as its name imports, was at first a 
cloth stretched along the length of the lists. The cloth became 
a stout barrier of timber, and in the early i6th century the 
knight ran his course at little risk. Locked up in steel harness, 
reinforced with the grand-guard and the other jousting pieces, 
he charged along one side of this barrier, seeing little more through 
the pierced sight-holes of the helm than the head and shoulders 
of his adversary. His bridle arm was on the tilt-side, and thus 
the blunted lance struck at an angle upon the polished plates. 
Mishaps might befall. Henry II. of France died from the stroke 
of Gabriel de Montgomeri, who failed to cast up in time the 
truncheon of his splintered lance. But the 16th-century tourna- 
ment was, in the main, a bloodless meeting. 

The i sth century had seen the mingling of the tournament 
and the pageant. Adventurous knights would travel far afield 
in time of peace to gain worship in conflicts that perilled life 
and limb, as when the Bastard of Burgundy met the Lord Scales 
in 1466 in West Smithfield under the fair and costly galleries 
crowded with English dames. On the first day the two ran 
courses with sharp spears; on the second day they tourneyed 
on horseback, sword in hand; on the third day they met on foot 
with heavy pole-axes. But the great tournament held in the 
market-place of Bruges, when the jousting of the Knights of the 
Fleece was part of the pageant of the Golden Tree, the Giant 
and the Dwarf, may stand as a magnificent example of many 
such gay gatherings. When Henry VIII. was scattering his 
father's treasure the pageant had become an elaborate masque. 
For two days after the crowning of the king at Westminster, 
Henry and his queen viewed from the galleries of a fantastic 
palace set up beside the tilt-yard a play in which deer were pulled 
down by greyhounds in a paled park, in which the Lady Diana 



io6 



TOURNEFORT TOURNEUR 



and the Lady Pallas came forward, embowered in moving castles, 
to present the champions. Such costly shows fell out of fashion 
after the death of Henry VIII.; and in England the tournament 
remained, until the end, a martial sport. Sir Henry Lee rode 
as Queen Elizabeth's champion in the tilt-yard of Whitehall 
until his years forced him to surrender the gallant office to that 
earl of Cumberland who wore the Queen's glove pinned to the 
flap of his hat. But in France the tournament lingered on until 
it degenerated to the carrousel, which, originally a horseman's 
game in which cavaliers pelted each other with balls, became an 
unmartial display when the French king and his courtiers 
pranced in such array as the wardrobe-master of the court 
ballets would devise for the lords of Ind and Africk. 

The tournament was, from the first, held to be a sport for men 
of noble birth, and on the Continent, where nobility was more 
exactly defined than in England, the lists were jealously closed 
to all combatants but those of the privileged class. In the 
German lands, questions as to the purity of the strain of a candi- 
date for admission to a noble chapter are often settled by appeal 
to the fact that this or that ancestor had taken part in a tourna- 
ment. Konrad Griinenberg's famous heraldic manuscript 
shows us the Helmschau that came before the German tournament 
of the 1 5th century the squires carrying each his master's 
crested helm, and a little scutcheon of arms hanging from it, 
to the hall where the king of arms stands among the ladies and, 
wand in hand, judges each blazon. In England several of those 
few rolls of arms which have come down to us from the middle 
ages record the shields displayed at certain tournaments. 
Among the illustrations of the article HERALDRY will be 
seen a leaf of a roll of arms of French and English jousters at 
the Field of the Cloth of Gold, and this leaf is remarkable 
as illustrating also the system of " checques " for noting the 
points scored by the champions. (O. BA.) 

TOURNEFORT. JOSEPH PITTON DE (1656-1708), French 
botanist, was born at Aix, in Provence, on the sth of June 1656. 
He studied in the convent of the Jesuits at Aix, and was destined 
for the Church, but the death of his father left him free to 
follow his botanical inclinations. After two years' collecting, 
he studied medicine at Montpellier, but was appointed pro- 
fessor of botany at the Jardin des Plantes in 1683. By the king's 
order he travelled through western Europe, where he made 
extensive collections, and subsequently spent three years in 
Greece and Asia Minor (1700-1702). Of this journey a de- 
scription in a series of letters was posthumously published in 
3 vols. (Relation d'un voyage du Levant, Lyons, 1717). His 
principal work is entitled Institutiones rei herbariae (3 vols. 
Paris, 1700), and upon this rests chiefly his claims to remem- 
brance as one of the most eminent of the systematic botanists 
who prepared the way for Linnaeus. He died on the 28th of 
December 1708. 

TOURNEUR, CYRIL (c. 1575-1626), English dramatist, was 
perhaps the son of Captain Richard Turner, water-bailiff and 
subsequently lieutenant-governor of Brill in the Netherlands. 
Cyril Tourneur also served in the Low Countries, for in 1613 
there is a record made of payment to him for carrying letters 
to Brussels. He enjoyed a pension from the government 
of the United Provinces, possibly by way of compensation 
for a post held before Brill was handed over to the Dutch 
in 1616. In 1625 he was appointed by Sir Edward Cecil, whose 
father had been a former governor of Brill, to be secretary 
to the council of war. This appointment was cancelled by 
Buckingham, but Tourneur sailed in Cecil's company to Cadiz. 
On the return voyage from the disastrous expedition he was 
put ashore at Kinsale with other sick men, and died in Ireland 
on the 28th of February 1626. (M.BR.) 

An allegorical poem, worthless as art and incomprehensible 
as allegory, is his earliest extant work; an elegy on the death 
of Prince Henry, son of James I., is the latest. The two 
plays on which his fame rests, and on which it will rest for 
ever, were published respectively in 1607 and 1611, but all 
students have agreed to accept the internal evidence which 
assures us that the later in date of publication must be the 



earlier in date of composition. His only other known work 
is an epicede on Sir Francis Vere, of no great merit as poetry, 
but of some value as conveying in a straightforward and mascu- 
line style the poet's ideal conception of a perfect knight or 
" happy warrior," comparable by those who may think fit to 
compare it with the more nobly realized ideals of Chaucer 
and of Wordsworth. But if Tourneur had left on record no 
more memorable evidence of his powers than might be fupplied 
by the survival of his elegies, he could certainly have claimed 
no higher place among English writers than is now occupied 
by the Rev. Charles Fitzgeoffrey, whose voluminous and fer- 
vent elegy on Sir Francis Drake is indeed of more actual value, 
historic or poetic, than either or than both of Tourneur's elegiac 
rhapsodies. The singular power, the singular originality and 
the singular limitation of his genius are all equally obvious 
in The Atheist's Tragedy, a dramatic poem no less crude and 
puerile and violent in action and evolution than simple and noble 
and natural in expression and in style. The executive faculty of 
the author is in the metrical parts of his first play so imperfect 
as to suggest either incompetence or perversity in the workman; 
in The Revenger's Tragedy it is so magnificent, so simple, im- 
peccable and sublime that the finest passages of this play 
can be compared only with the noblest examples of tragic 
dialogue or monologue now extant in English or in Greek. 
There is no trace of imitation or derivation from an alien source 
in the genius of this poet. The first editor of Webster has observed 
how often he imitates Shakespeare; and, in fact, essentially 
and radically independent as is Webster's genius also, the 
sovereign influence of his master may be traced not only in the 
general tone of his style, the general scheme of his composition, 
but now and then in a direct and never an unworthy or imper- 
fect echo of Shakespeare's very phrase and accent. But the 
resemblance between the tragic verse of Tourneur and the 
tragic verse of Shakespeare is simply such as proves the natural 
affinity between two great dramatic poets, whose inspiration 
partakes now and then of the quality more proper to epic 
or to lyric poetry. The fiery impulse, the rolling music, the 
vivid illustration of thought by jets of insuppressible passion, 
the perpetual sustenance of passion by the implacable persist- 
ency of thought, which we recognise as the dominant and 
distinctive qualities of such poetry as finds vent in the utter- 
ances of Hamlet or of Timon, we recognise also in the scarcely 
less magnificent poetry, the scarcely less fiery sarcasm, with 
which Tourneur has informed the part of Vindice a harder- 
headed Hamlet, a saner and more practically savage and serious 
Timon. He was a satirist as passionate as Juvenal or Swift, 
but with a finer faith in goodness, a purer hope in its ultimate 
security of triumph. This fervent constancy of spirit relieves 
the lurid gloom and widens the h'mited range of a tragic imagina- 
tion which otherwise might be felt as oppressive rather than 
inspiriting. His grim and trenchant humour is as peculiar in 
its sardonic passion as his eloquence is original in the strenuous 
music of its cadences, in the roll of its rhythmic thunder. 
As a playwright, his method was almost crude and rude in 
the headlong straightforwardness of its energetic simplicity; 
as an artist in character, his interest was intense but narrow, 
his power magnificent but confined; as a dramatic poet, the 
force of his genius is great enough to ensure him an enduring 
place among the foremost of the followers of Shakespeare. 

(A. C. S.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The complete list of his extant works runs: 
The Atheists Tragedie; or, The Honest Man's Revenge (1611); A 
Funerall Poeme Upon the Death of the Most Worthie and True Soldier, 
Sir Francis Vere, Knight . . . (1609) ; "A Griefe on the Death 
of Prince Henrie, Expressed in a Broken Elegie . . .," printed with 
two other poems by John Webster and Thomas Haywood as Three 
Elegies on the most lamented Death of Prince Henry (1613) ; The 
Revengers Tragaedie (1607 and 1608); and an obscure satire, 
The Transformed Metamorphosis (1600). The only other play of 
Tourneur's of which we have any record -is The Nobleman, the MS. of 
which was destroyed by John Warburton's cook. This was entered 
on the Stationers' Register (Feb. 15, 1612) as a " Tragecomedye 
called The Nobleman written by Cyrill Tourneur." In 1613 a letter 
from Robert Daborne to Henslowe states that he has commissioned 
Cyril Tourneur to write one act of the promised Arraignment of 



TOURNEUX TOURS 



London. " The Character of Robert, earl of Salisburye, Lore 
High Treasurer of England . . . written by Mr Sevill Turneur . . .,' 
in a MS in possession of Lord Mostyn (Hist. MSS. Commission. 
4th Report, appendix, p. 361) may reasonably be assigned to 
Tourneur. Although no external evidence is forthcoming, Mr R. 
Boyle names Tourneur as the collaborator of Massinger in The Secona 
Maid's Tragedy (licensed 1611). 

The Revenger's Tragedy was printed in Dodsley's Old Plays (vol. iv., 
1744, 1780 and 1825), and in Ancient British Drama (1810, vol. ii.). 
The best edition of Tourneur's works is The Plays and Poems 
Cyril Tourneur, edited with Critical Introduction and Notes, by 
Churton Collins (1878). See also the two plays printed with the 
masterpieces of Webster, with an introduction by J A. Symonds, in 
the" Mermaid Series " (l888and 1903). No particulars of Tourneur's 
life were available until the facts given above were abstracted by 
Mr Gordon Goodwin from the Calendar of State Papers (" Domestic 
Series," 1628-1629, 1629-1631, 1631-1633) and printed in the 
Academy (May 9, 1891). A critical study of the relation of The 
Atheist's Tragedy to Hamlet and other revenge-plays is given in 
Professor A. H. Thorndike's " Hamlet and Contemporary Revenge 
Plays " (Publ. of the Mod. Lang. Assoc., Baltimore, 1902). For the 
influence of Marston on Tourneur see E. E. Stoll, John Webster . . . 
(1905, Boston, Massachusetts); pp. 105-116. (M. BR.) 

TOURNEUX, JEAN MAURICE (1840- ), French man 
of letters and bibliographer, son of the artist and author J. F E. 
Tourneux, was born in Paris on the i2th of July 1849. 
He began his career as a bibliographer by collaborating in 
new editions of the Supercheries litteraires of Joseph Querard 
and the Dictionnaire des anonymes of Antoine Barbier. His 
most important bibliographical work was the Bibliographic de 
I'histoire de Paris pendant la revolution francflise (3 vols. 1890- 
1901), which was crowned by the Academy of Inscriptions. 
This valuable work serves as a guide for the history of the 
city beyond the limits of the Revolution. 

His other works include bibliographies of Prosper MeVimee (1876), 
of Thebphile Gautier (1876), of the brothers deGoncourt (1897) and 
others; also editions of F. M. Grimm's Correspondance litteraire, 
of Diderot's Neveu de Rameau (1884), of Montesquieu's Lettres 
persanes (1886), &c. 

TOURNON, a town of south-western France, capital of an 
arrondissement in the department of Ardeche, on the right bank 
of the Rhone, 58 m. S. of Lyons by rail. Pop. (1906), town, 
3642; commune, 5003. Tournon preserves a gateway of the 
15th century and other remains of fortifications and an old 
castle used as town hall, court-house and prison and con- 
taining a Gothic chapel. The church of St Julian dates chiefly 
from the I4th century. The lycee occupies an old college 
founded in the i6th century by Cardinal Francois de Tournon. 
Of the two suspension bridges which unite the town with Tain 
on the left bank of the river, one was built in 1825 and is the 
oldest in France. A statue to General Rampon (d. 1843} 
stands in the Place Carnot. Wood-sawing, silk-spinning, and 
the manufacture of chemical manures, silk goods and hosiery 
are carried on in the town, which has trade in the wine of 
the Rhone hills. Tournon had its own counts as early as 
the reign of Louis I. In the middle of the i7th century the title 
passed from them to the dukes of Ventadour. 

TOURNUS, a town of east-central France, in the depart- 
ment of Saone-et-Loire, on the right bank of the Sa6ne, 20 m. 
N. by E. of Macon on the Paris-Lyons railway. Pop. (1906), 
3787. The church of St Philibert (early nth century) once 
belonging to the Benedictine abbey of Tournus, suppressed in 
1785, is in the Burgundian Romanesque style. The facade lacks 
one of the two flanking towers originally designed for it. The 
nave is roofed with barrel vaulting, supported on tall cylin- 
drical columns. The choir beneath which is a crypt of the nth 
century has a deambulatory and square chapels. In the Place 
de l'H6tel de Ville stands a statue of J. B. Greuze, born in the 
town in 1725. There are vineyards in the surrounding dis- 
trict and the town and its port have considerable commerce in 
wine and in stone from the neighbouring quarries. Chair- 
making i? an important industry. 

TOURS, a town of central France, capital of the department 
of Indre-et-Loire, 145 m. S.W. of Paris by rail. Pop. (1906), 
town 61,507; commune, 67,601. Tours lies on the left bank of 
the Loire on a flat tongue of land between that river and the 
Cher a little above their junction. The right bank of the 



IO7 



Loire is bordered by hills at the foot of which lie the suburbs 
of St Cyr and St Symphorien. The river is crossed by two 
suspension bridges, partly built on islands in the river, and by 
a stone bridge of the second half of the i8th century, the Pont 
de Tours. Many foreigners, especially English, live at or visit 
Tours, attracted by the town itself, its mild climate and situa- 
tion in " the garden of France," and the historic chateaux in 
the vicinity. The Boulevard Beranger, with its continuation, 
the Boulevard Heurteloup, traverses Tours from west to east 
dividing it into two parts; the old town to the north, with its 
narrow streets and ancient houses, contains the principal 
buildings, the shops and the business houses, while the new 
town to the south, centring round a fine public garden, is almost 
entirely residential. The Rue Nationale, the widest and hand- 
somest street in Tours, is a prolongation of the Pont de Tours 
and runs at right angles to the boulevards, continuing under the 
name of the Avenue de Grammont until it reaches the Cher. 

St Gatien, the cathedral of Tours, though hardly among the 
greatest churches of France, is nevertheless of considerable 
interest. A cathedral of the first half of the i2th century was 
burnt in 1 1 66 during the quarrel between Louis VII. of France 
and Henry II. of England. A new cathedral was begun about 
1170 but not finished till 1547. The lower portions of the 
west towers belong to the iath century, the choir to the i3th 
century; the transept and east bays of the nave to the i4th; 
the remaining bays, a cloister on the north, and the facade, 
profusely decorated in the Flamboyant style, to the isth and 
i6th centuries, the upper part of the towers being in the 
Renaissance style of the i6th century. In the interior there is 
fine stained glass, that of the choir (i3th century) being espe- 
cially remarkable. The tomb of the children of Charles VIII., 
constructed in the first years of the i6th century and attributed 
to the brothers Juste is also of artistic interest. 

An example of Romanesque architecture survives in the great 
square tower of the church of St Julien, the rest of which is in the 
early Gothic style of the I3th century, with the exception of two 
apses added in the 1 6th century. Two towers and a Renaissance 
cloister are the chief remains of the celebrated basilica of St Martin 
built mainly during the 1 2th and I3th centuries and demolished 
in 1802. It stood on the site of an earlier and very famous church 
built from 466 to 472 by bishop St Perpetuus and destroyed together 
with many other churches in a fire in 998. Two other churches 
worthy of mention are Nptre-Dame la Riche, originally built in 
the I3th century, rebuilt in the l6th, and magnificently restored 
in the igth century; and St Saturnin of the isth century. The 
new basilica of St Martin and the church of St Etienne are modern. 
Of the old houses of Tours the h6tel Gouin and that wrongly 
known as the house of Tristan 1'Hermite (both of the isth century) 
are the best known. Tours has several learned societies and a 
valuable library, including among its MSS. a gospel of the 8th century 
on which the kings of France took oath as honorary canons of the 
church of St Martin. The museum contains a collection of pictures, 
and the museum of the Archaeological Society of Touraine has 
valuable antiquities; there is also a natural history museum. 

The chief public monuments are the fountain of the Renaissance 
built by Jacques de Beaune (d. 1527), financial minister, the statues 
of Descartes, Rabelais and Balzac, the latter born at Tours, and a 
monument to the three doctors Bretonneau, Trousseau and Velpeau. 
Tours is the seat of an archbishop, a prefect, and a court of assizes, 
and headquarters of the IX. Army Corps and has tribunals of first 
instance and of commerce, a board of trade arbitration, a chamber 
of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. Among its 
educational institutions are a preparatory school of medicine and 
pharmacy, lycees for both sexes, a training college for girls: and schools 
}f fine art and music. The industrial establishments of the town 
nclude silk factories and numerous important printing-works, 
steel works, irort. foundries and factories for automobiles, machinery, 
oil, lime and cement, biscuits, portable buildings, stained glass, 
5Oots and shoes and porcelain. A considerable trade is carried on 
n the wine of the district and in brandy and in dried fruits, sausages 
and confectionery, for which the town is well known. Three-quarters 
)f a mile to the south-west of Tours lie unimportant remains of 
3 lessis-les-Tours, the chateau built by Louis XL, whither he retired 
Before his death in 1483. On the right bank of the Loire 2 m. 
above the town are the ruins of the ancient and powerful abbey of 
Vlarmoutier. Five miles to the north-west is the large agricultural 
reformatory of Mettray founded in 1839. 

Tours (see TOURAINE), under the Gauls the capital of the 
Turones or Turons, originally stood on the right bank of the 
Loire, a little above the present village of St Symphorien. At 



io8 



TOURVILLE, COMTE DE 



first called Altionos, the town was afterwards known as Caesaro- 
dunum. The Romans removed the town from the hill where it 
originally stood to the plain on the left bank of the river. 
Behind the present cathedral, remains of the amphitheatre 
(443 ft. in length by 394 in breadth) built towards the end of the 
2nd century might formerly be seen. Tours became Christian 
about 250 through the preaching of Gatien, who founded the 
bishopric. The first cathedral was built a hundred years later by 
StLitorius. The bishopricbecameanarchbishopricwhenGratian 
made Tours the capital of Lugdunensis Tertia though the 
bishops did not adopt the title of archbishop till the pth 
century. About the beginning of the 5th century the official 
name of Caesarodunurn was changed for that' of Civitas Turo- 
norum. St Martin, the great apostle of the Gauls, was bishop of 
Tours in the 4th century, and he was buried in a suburb which 
soon became as important as the town itself from the number of 
pilgrims who flocked to his tomb. Towards the end of the 4th 
century, apprehensive of barbarian invasion, the inhabitants 
pulled down some of their earlier buildings in order to raise a 
fortified wall, the course of which can still be traced in places. 
Their advanced fort of Larcay still overlooks the valley of the 
Cher. Affiliated to the Armorican confederation in 435, the 
town did not fall to the Visigoths till 473, and the new masters 
were always hated. It became part of the Prankish dominions 
under Clovis, who, in consideration of the help afforded by St 
Martin, presented the church with rich gifts out of the spoils 
taken from Alaric, confirmed and extended its right of sanc- 
tuary, and accepted for himself and his successors the title of 
canon of St Martin. At the end of the 6th century the bishopric 
was held by St Gregory of Tours. Tours grew rapidly in 
prosperity under the Merovingians, but abuse of the right of 
sanctuary led to great disorder, and the church itself became 
a hotbed of crime. Charlemagne re-established discipline in the 
disorganized monastery and set over it the learned Alcuin, 
who established at Tours one of the oldest public schools of 
Christian philosophy and theology. The arts flourished at 
Tours in the middle ages and the town was the centre of the 
Poitevin Romanesque school of architecture. The abbey was 
made into a collegiate church in the nth century, and was for a 
time affiliated to Cluny, but soon came under the direct rule of 
Rome, and for long had bishops of its own. The suburb in 
which the monastery was situated became as important as Tours 
itself under the name of Martinopolis. The Normans, attracted 
by its riches, pillaged it in 853 and 903. Strong walls were 
erected from 906 to 910, and the name was changed to that of 
Chateauneuf. Philip Augustus sanctioned the communal 
privileges which the inhabitants forced from the canons of 
St Martin and the innumerable offerings of princes, lords and 
pilgrims maintained the prosperity of the town all through the 
middle ages. A 13th-century writer speaks with enthusiasm 
of the wealth and luxury of the inhabitants of Chateauneuf, 
of the beauty and chastity of the women and of the rich shrine 
of the saint. In the I4tb century Tours was united to Chateau- 
neuf within a common wall, of which a round tower, the Tour 
de Guise, remains, and both towns were put under the same 
administration. The numerous and long-continued visits of 
Charles VII., Louis XI., who established the silk-industry, and 
Charles VIII. during the isth century favoured the commerce 
and industry of the town, then peopled by 75,000 inhabitants. 
In the isth and i6th centuries the presence of Jean Fouquet 
the painter of Michel Colomb and the brothers Juste the sculp- 
tors, enhanced the fame of the town in the sphere of art. In 
1562 Tours suffered from the violence of both Protestants and 
Catholics, and enjoyed no real security till after the pact entered 
into at Plessis-les-Tours between Henry III. and Henry of 
Navarre in 1589. In the I7th and i8th centuries Tours was the 
capital of the government of Touraine. Its manufactures, 
of which silk weaving was the chief, suffered from the revocation 
of the Edict of Nantes (1685). In 1772 its mint, whence were 
issued the " livres " of Tours (librae Turonenses) was suppressed. 
During the Revolution the town formed a base of operations of 
the Republicans against the Vendeans. In 1870 it was for a 



time the seat of the delegation of the government of national 
defence. In 1871 it was occupied by the Germans from the 
toth of January to the 8th of March. 

See P. Vitry, Tours et les chdteaux de Touraine (Paris, 1905); 
E. Giraudet, Histoire de la ville de Tours (Tours, 1873) I L& Artistes 
tourangeaux (Tours, 1885). 

TOURVILLE, ANNE-HILARION DE COTENTIN (or Cos- 

TANTIN), COMTE DE (1642-1701), French admiral and marshal 
of France, was the son of Cesar de Cotentin, or Costantin, who 
held offices in the household of the king and of the prince of 
Conde. He is said to have been born at Tourville in Normandy, 
but was baptized in Paris on the 24th of November 1642, was 
commonly known as M. de Tourville, and was destined by his 
family to enter the Order of Malta. From the age of fourteen 
to the age of twenty-five, he served with the galleys of the Order. 
At that time the knights were still fighting the Barbary pirates 
of Algiers and Tunis. The young Anne-Hilarion is said to have 
been distinguished for courage. His life during these years, 
however, is little known. The supposed Memoirs bearing his 
name were published by the Abbe de Magron in the i8th century 
and belong to the large class of historical romances which pro- 
fessed to be biographies or autobiographies. In 1667 he was 
back in France, and was incorporated in the corps of officers of 
the French Royal navy which Louis XIV. was then raising from 
the prostration into which it had fallen during his minority. 
The positions of French naval officer and knight of Malta were 
not incompatible. Many men held both. The usual practice 
was that they did not take the full vows till they were in middle 
life, and had reached the age when they were entitled to hold 
one of the great offices. Until then they were free to marry, 
on condition of renouncing all claim to the chief places. As 
Anne-Hilarion de Cotentin married a wealthy widow, the 
marquise de Popeliniere, in 1689 at which time he was made 
count of Tourville, he severed his connexion with the Order. 
Nor does he appear to have served with it at all after his return 
to France in 1667. He was at first employed in cruising against 
the Barbary pirates and the Turks. In the expedition sent 
against Crete in 1668-69 under command of the Due de Beau- 
fort he had command of the " Croissant " (44). The Due de 
Beaufort was killed, and the expedition was a failure. When 
the war with Holland in which France and England acted as 
allies began in 1670, Tourville commanded the " Page " (50), 
in the squadron of the comte d'Estrees (1624-1707) sent to 
co-operate with the duke of York. He was present at the battle 
of Solebay (June 7, 1672), and in the action on the coast of 
Holland in the following year, when Prince Rupert commanded 
the English fleet. When England withdrew from the alliance, 
the scene of the naval war was transferred to the Mediterranean, 
where Holland was co-operating with the Spaniards. Tourvillle 
served under Abraham Duquesne in his battles with De Ruyter. 
He particularly distinguished himself at the battle of Palermo 
on the 2nd of June 1676. By this time he was known as one of 
the best officers in the service of King Louis XIV. Unlike many 
employed by the king to command his ships in the earlier part 
of his reign, Tourville was a seaman. He had the reputation 
of being able to do all the work required in a ship, and he had 
made a study of naval warfare. The great treatise on naval 
tactics afterwards published under the name of his secretary, 
the Jesuit Hoste or 1'Hoste, was understood to have been 
inspired by him. In 1683 he was chef d'escadre rear admiral 
with Duquesne in operations against the Barbary pirates, and 
he continued on that service with D'Estrees. By 1689 he bad 
been promoted lieutenant-general des armees navales, and was 
named vice-admiral du Levant or of the East. In June of 
that year he took up the commandership-in-chief of the French 
naval forces in the war against England and her continental allies 
which had begun in the previous year. From this time till 
the failure of his resources compelled King Louis XIV. to 
withdraw his fleets from the sea, Tourville continued to com- 
mand the naval war in the Channel and the Atlantic. His 
conduct and example during this period were the source of the 
system of manoeuvring to gain an advantage by some method 



TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE TOWEL 



109 



other than plain fighting. The personal character of Tourville 
must be held to account largely for the timidity of the principles 
he established. Tourville's personal valour was of the finest 
quality, but like many other brave men, he was nervous under 
the weight of responsibility. It is no less clear that anxiety 
to avoid risking a disaster to his reputation was of more weight 
with him than the wish to win a signal success. He belonged 
to the type of men in whose minds the evil which may happen is 
always more visible than the good. In 1690 he had an oppor- 
tunity which might well have tempted the most cautious, and 
he missed it out of sheer care to keep his fleet safe against all 
conceivable chances, aided perhaps by a pedantic taste for 
formal, orderly movement. He was opposed in the channel 
by the allies, who had only fifty-six ships, while his own force, 
though it included some vessels of no serious value, was from 
seventy to eighty sail strong. He was feebly attacked by 
Admiral Arthur Herbert, the newly created earl of Torrington, 
off Beachy Head on the loth of July. The Dutch ships in the 
van were surrounded. The allies had to retreat in disorder, 
and Tourville followed in " line of battle " which limited his 
speed to that of his slowest ship. So his enemy escaped with 
comparatively little loss. In the following year he performed 
his famous " off shore cruise," in the Bay of Biscay. He moved 
to and fro in fine order avoiding being brought to battle, but 
also failing to inflict any harm on his opponent. In the mean- 
time the cause of King James II. was ruined in Ireland. In 
1692 the Mediterranean fleet having failed to join him, he was 
faced by a vastly superior force of the allies. The French 
king had prepared a military force to invade England, and 
Tourville was expected to prepare the way. Having at least 
a clear indication that he was expected to act with vigour, 
if not piecise orders to fight against any odds, he made a 
resolute attack on the centre of the allies on the 2gth of May off 
Cape Barfleur, and drew off before he was surrounded. This 
action which with the pursuit of the following days made up what 
is called the battle of La Hogue, from the Bay where some of 
the fugitive French ships were destroyed, or Barfleur, proved 
his readiness to face danger. But his inability to take and act 
on a painful decision was no less proved in the retreat. He 
hesitated to sacrifice his crippled flagship, and thereby detained 
his whole fleet. The result was that the " Soleil Royale " 
herself and fifteen other ships were cut off and destroyed at 
La Hogue. In 1693 he was again at sea with a great fleet, and 
had a chance to inflict extreme injury on the allies by the capture 
of the Smyrna convoy which included their whole Mediterranean 
trade for the year. He did it a great deal of harm outside the 
Straits of Gibraltar, but again he kept his fleet in battle order, 
and a large part of the convoy escaped. King Louis XIV. 
who had a strong personal regard for him, continued to treat 
him with favour. Tourville was made Marshal of France in 
1693, but the growing exhaustion of the French treasury no 
longer allowed the maintenance of great fleets at sea. Tour- 
ville remained generally at Toulon, and had no more fighting. 
He died in Paris in 1701. His only son, a colonel in the 
army, was killed at Denain in 1712. 

The English account of the battles of Beachy Head and La Hogue 
will be found in Ledyard's Naval History. Troude's Batailles navales 
de la France gives the French version of these and the other actions 
in which Tourville was concerned. Tourville is frequently mentioned 
in the Life of Duquesne by M. Jal. (D. H.) 

TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE (or LOUVERTURE), PIERRE- 
DOMINIQUE (c. 1746-1803), one of the liberators of Haiti, 
claimed to be descended from an African chief, his father, a slave 
in Haiti, being the chief's second son. He was at first surnamed 
Breda, but this was afterwards changed to L'Ouverture in token of 
the results of his valour in causing a gap in the ranks of the 
enemy. From childhood he manifested unusual abilities 
and succeeded, by making the utmost use of every 
opportunity, in obtaining a remarkably good education. He 
obtained the special confidence of his master, and was made 
superintendent of the other negroes on the plantation. After 
the insurrection of 1791 he joined the. insurgents, and, having 
acquired some knowledge of surgery and medicine, acted as 



physician to the forces. His rapid rise in influence aroused, 
however, the jealousy of Jean Francois, who caused his arrest 
on the ground of his partiality to the whites. He was liberated 
by the rival insurgent chief Baisson, and a partisan war ensued, 
but after the death of Baisson he placed himself under the orders 
of Jean Francois. Subsequently he joined the Spaniards, 
but, when the French government ratified the act declaring 
the freedom of the slaves, he came to the aid of the French. 
In 1796 he was named commander-in-chief of the armies of 
St Domingo, but, having raised and disciplined a powerful 
army of blacks, he made himself master of the wh'ole country, 
renounced the authority of France, and announced himself 
" the Buonaparte of St Domingo." He was taken prisoner by 
treachery on the part of France, and died in the prison of Joux, 
near Besanfon, on the 27th of April 1803. 

See Toussaint 1'Ouverture's own Memoires, with a life by Saint 
Remy; (Paris, 1850); Gragnon-Laconte, Toussaint Louverture 
(Paris, 1887); Scholcher, Vie de Toussaint Louverture (Paris, 1 889)1 
and J. R. Beard, Life of Toussaint Louverture (1853). 

TOW, the term given in textile manufacture to the short 
fibres formed during the processes of scutching and hackling, 
and also to the yarns which are made from these fibres. A 
special machine termed a carding engine or a tow card is used 
to form these fibres into a sliver, this sliver then passes to the 
drawing frames, and thereafter follows the same process as line 
yarns in flax spinning. 

TOWANDA, a borough and the county-seat of Bradford 
county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the west bank of the Susque- 
hanna river, about 50 m. N.W. of Wilkes-Barre. Pop. (1890), 
4169; (1900), 4663 (322 foreign-born); (1910) 4281. Towanda 
is served by the Lehigh Valley and the Susquehanna & New 
York railways. It is situated about 730 ft. above the sea, and 
is surrounded by high hills. Towanda contains the museum 
of the Bradford County Historical Society. The borough is 
in a farming, dairying and stock-raising region, and has various 
manufactures. The first settlement was made by William Means 
in 1786, the village was laid out in 1812, became the county- 
seat in the same year, was variously known for some years 
as Meansville, Overton, Williamson, Monmouth and Towanda, 
and in 1828 was incorporated as the Borough of Towanda. Its 
name is an Indian word said to mean " where we bury the 
dead." 

TOWCESTER, a market town in the southern parliamentary 
division of Northamptonshire, England, 8 m. S.S.W. of North- 
ampton, on the East & West Junction and the Northampton 
& Banbury Junction railways. Pop. (1901), 2371. It is 
pleasantly situated on the small river Tove, a left-bank affluent of 
the Ouse. The church of St Lawrence is a good Early English, 
Decorated and Perpendicular building, with a fine western 
Perpendicular tower. There are a considerable agricultural 
trade and a manufacture of boots and shoes. 

Here was a Roman town or village situated on Watling 
Street. The site has yielded a considerable number of relics. 
In the roth century a fortress was maintained here against the 
invading Danes. The site of both this and the Roman station 
is marked by an artificial mound known as Burg Hill, not far 
from the church, above the river. Towcester, with the whole 
of this district, witnessed a large part of the operations during 
the Civil War of the I7th century. 

TOWEL, a cloth used for the purpose of drying the hands, 
face or body after bathing or washing. These cloths are made 
of different materials, known as " towellings," the two principal 
kinds are " huckaback," a slightly roughened material for 
chamber towels for face and hands, and Turkish towelling, 
with a much rougher surface, for bath towels; finer towellings 
are made of linen or damask. The term has a particular eccle- 
siastical usage as applied to a linen altar cloth or to a rich cloth 
of embroidered silk, velvet, &c., covering the altar at all " such 
periods when Mass is not being celebrated." 

The Mid. Eng. towaille comes through the O. Fr. touaille 
from the Low Lat. toacula, represented in other Romanic languages 
by Sp. toalla, Ital. tovaglia; this is to be referred to the Teutonic 
verb meaning " to wash," O. H. G. twahan, M. H. G. dwahen, O. Eng. 
]miedn, and cf. Ger. Zwehle, provincial Eng. dwile, a dish-cloth. 



no 



TOWER TOWER OF LONDON 



TOWER (Lat. turns; Fr. lour, docker; Ital. tone; Ger. 
Thurm), the term given to a lofty building originally designed for 
defence, and, as such, attached to and forming part of the 
fortifications of a city or castle. Towers do not seem to have 
existed in Egypt, but in Mesopotamia from the earliest times 
they form the most important feature in the city walls, and are 
shown in the bas-reliefs of the Assyrian palaces at Nimroud 
and elsewhere. The earliest representation is perhaps that 
engraved on the tablet in the lap of Gudea the priest king of 
Lagash (270x3 B.C.), whose statue, found at Tello, is now in the 
Louvre; the drawing is that of a large fortified enclosure, with 
gates, bastions and towers, corresponding with remains of 
similar structures of the same and later periods. In the dis- 
coveries made here, at Susa and at Dom Sargoukin, the towers 
were about 40 ft. square, projecting from 16 to 20 ft. in front 
of the curtain walls which connected them, and standing about 
80 ft. apart. In Roman and Byzantine times this distance 
was increased, owing probably to the greater speed of pro- 
jectiles, and in the wall built by Theodosius at Constantinople 
the towers were 150 ft. apart (see also CASTLE and FORTIFI- 
CATION). 

From the architectural point of view, the towers which are 
of chief interest are those of ecclesiastical and secular buildings, 
those in Italy being nearly always isolated and known as cam- 
panili (see CAMPANILE). In England the earliest known are the 
Anglo-Saxon towers, the best examples of which are those at 
Earl's Barton,Monkwearmouth, Barnack, Barton-on-Humberand 
Sompting; they were nearly always square on plan and situated 
at the west end, in an axial line with the nave, their chief 
characteristics being the long-and-short work of the masonry 
at the quoins, the decoration of the wall with thin pilaster strips, 
and the slight setting back of the storeys as they rose. There 
are a few examples of central Anglo-Saxon towers, as at St 
Mary's, Dover; Breamore, Hants; and Dunham Major, Nor- 
folk; and, combined with western towers, at Ramsay and Ely; 
twin western towers existed at Exeter. Contemporary with 
these Saxon towers are many examples in France, but they are 
invariably central towers, as at Germigny-des-Pres and at 
Querqueville in Normandy; in Germany the twin towers of 
Aix-la-Chapelle are the best known. As a rule the single 
western tower is almost confined to England, prior to the end 
of the nth century, when there are many examples throughout 
Germany. In Norman times in England, central towers are 
more common, and the same obtains in France, where, however, 
they are sometimes carried to a great height, as at Perigueux, 
where the wall decoration consists of pilasters in the lower 
storeys, and semi-detached columns above, probably based on 
that of the Roman amphitheatre there: otherwise the design 
of the Romanesque church towers is extremely simple, de- 
pending for its effect on the good masonry and the enrichment 
of the belfry windows. In later periods flat buttresses are 
introduced, and these gradually assume more importance and 
present many varieties of design; greater apparent height 
is given to the tower by the string courses dividing the second 
storeys, and by rich blank arcading on them, the upper storey 
with the belfry windows forming always the most important 
feature of the tower. In those towers which are surmounted by 
spires (q.v.) the design of the latter possesses sometimes a greater 
interest both in England and France. A very large number 
of the towers of English cathedrals and churches have flat 
roofs enclosed with lofty battlemented parapets and numerous 
pinnacles and finials; in France such terminations are not 
found, and in Germany the high pitched roof is prevalent every 
where, so that the numerous examples in England have a special 
interest; sometimes the angle buttresses are grouped to carry 
octagonal pinnacles, and sometimes, as at Lincoln and Salis- 
bury, octagonal turrets rise from the base of the tower. 

Among the finest examples are those of Canterbury, Ely, York, 
Gloucester, Lincoln and Worcester cathedrals; among churches, 
those of the minster at Beverley ; St Mary's, St Neots (Huntingdon- 
shire) ; St Stephen's, Bristol, St Giles, Wrexham (Denbighshire in 
many respects the most beautiful in England) ; St Mary Magdalene, 
Taunton; Magdalen College, Oxford, St Botolph, Boston, crowned 



with an octagonal tower; St Mary's, Ilminster (Somersetshire) and 
Malvern (Worcestershire) ; and the isolated towers at Chichcster, 
Evesham and Bury St Edmund's. 

So far reference has been made only to central and western 
towers, the latter not always placed, like the Anglo-Saxon towers, 
in the axial line of the nave, but sometimes on the north or south 
side of the west end; and as a rule these are only found in Eng- 
land. In France and Germany, however, they are greatly 
increased in number; thus in Reims seven towers with spires 
were contemplated, according to Viollet-le-Duc, but never 
completed; at Chartres eight towers, and at Laon seven, of which 
six are completed; in Germany the cathedrals of Mayence and 
Spires and two of the churches in Cologne have from four to 
seven towers; and at Tournai cathedral, in Belgium, are seven 
towers. In many of the churches in Norfolk and Suffolk the 
western tower is circular, owing probably to the fact that, 
being built with stone of small dimensions, the angles of the 
quoins would have been difficult to construct. In some of the 
French towns, isolated towers were built to contain bells, and 
were looked upon as 'municipal constructions; of these there 
are a few left, as at Bethune, Evreux, Amiens and Bordeaux, 
the latter being a double tower, with the bells placed in a roof 
between them. 

The towers of secular buildings are chiefly of the town halls, of 
which there are numerous examples throughout France and Belgium, 
such as those of the h6tel de ville at St Antonin (i3th century) 
and Compiegne, both in France; at Lubeck, Danzig and Miinster 
in Germany; and Brussels, Bruges and Oudenarde in Belgium. 

(R. P. S.) 

TOWER OF LONDON, THE, an ancient fortress on the east 
side of the City of London, England, on the north bank of 
the river Thames. On a slight elevation now called the Tower 
Hill, well protected by the river and its marshes, and by woods 
to the north, there was a British stronghold. Tradition, 
however, pointed to Julius Caesar as the founder of the 
Tower (Shakespeare, Richard III., in., i; and elsewhere), 
and remains of Roman fortifications have been found beneath 
the present site. The Tower contains barracks, and is the 
repository of the regalia. It covers an irregular hexagonal area, 
and is surrounded by a ditch, formerly fed by the Thames, but 
now dry. Gardens surround it on the north and west, and an 
embankment borders the river on the south. Two lines of 
fortifications enclose the inner bail, in which is the magnificent 
White Tower or Keep, flanked by four turrets. This was built 
by Gundulf, bishop of Rochester, c. 1078. Its exterior was 
restored by Sir Christopher Wren, but within the Norman work 
is little altered. Here may be seen a collection of old armour 
and instruments of torture, the rooms said to have been Sir 
Walter Raleigh's prison, and the magnificent Norman chapel 
of St John. Among the surrounding buildings are the barracks, 
and the chapel of St Peter ad Vincula, dating from the early 
part of the i4th century, but much altered in Tudor times. 
The Ballium Wall, the inner of the two lines of fortification, 
is coeval with the keep. Twelve towers rise from it at 
intervals, in one of which, the Wakefield Tower, the Regalia or 
crown jewels are kept. The chief entry to the fortress is through 
the Middle Tower on the west, across the bridge over the moat, 
and through the By ward Tower. The Lion Gate under the Middle 
Tower took name from a menagerie kept here from Norman 
times until 1834. On the south, giving entry from the river 
through St Thomas Tower and the Bloody Tower, is the famous 
Traitor's Gate, by which prisoners of high rank were admitted. 
The chief historical interest of the Tower lies in its association 
with such prisoners. The Beauchamp Tower was for long the 
place of confinement, but dungeons and other chambers in 
various parts of the building are also associated with prisoners 
of fame. Executions took place both within the Tower and 
on Tower Hill. Many of those executed were buried in the chapel 
of St Peter ad Vincula, such as Sir Thomas More, Henry VIII. 's 
queens, Anne Boleyn and Katharine Howard, Lady Jane Grey 
and her husband Dudley, Sir Walter Raleigh, and the duke of 
Monmouth. The Tower was not only a prison from Norman 
times until the igth century, but was a royal residence at 



TOWN TOWNSHEND, C. 



in 



intervals from the reign of Stephen, if not before. The royal 
palace was demolished by order of Cromwell. The tower is 
under the governorship of a constable. The attendant staff, 
called Yeomen of the Guard or familiarly " Beefeaters," still 
wear their picturesque Tudor costume. 

AUTHORITIES. W. Hepworth Dixon, Her Majesty's Tower 
(London, 1869); Lord Ronald Sutherland Gower, The Tower of 
London (London, 1901). 

TOWN, in its most general sense, a collection or aggregation of 
inhabited houses larger than a village. The O. Eng. tun (M. Eng. 
loun) meant originally a fence or enclosure, cf. Ger. zaun, hedge, 
hence an enclosed place. The Scottish and Northern English 
use of the word for a farmhouse and its buildings, a farmstead, 
preserves this original meaning, and is paralleled by the Icel. tun, 
homestead, dwelling-house. A cognate Celtic form meaning a 
fastness, a strong place, appears in Gael, and Irish dun, Welsh, 
din, fortress, hill-fort (cf. Welsh dinas, town). This is familiar 
from the many Latinized names of places, e.g. Lugdunum, 
A ugustodunum, &c. In English law " town " is not a word defined 
by statute. For purposes of local government there are boroughs, 
urban districts and rural districts, but many urban districts are 
rural in character and the distinction is purely an administrative 
one (see BOROUGH; CITY; COMMUNE (MEDIEVAL); MUNICIPIUM; 
ENGLAND: Local Government, and the sections on local adminis- 
tration under various country headings) . The meaning attached 
to the term " township " in the local administration of the 
United States is treated under UNITED STATES: Local Government. 

TOWNELEY (or TOWNLEY), CHARLES (1737-1805), English 
archaeologist and collector of marbles, was born at Towneley, 
the family seat, near Burnley in Lancashire, on the ist of October 
1737. He was educated at the college of Douai, and subsequently 
under John Turberville Needham, the physiologist and divine. 
In 1758 he took up his residence at Towneley, where he lived the 
ordinary life of a country gentleman until about 1765, when he 
left England to study ancient art, chiefly at Rome. He also 
made several excursions to the south of Italy and Sicily. In 
conjunction with Gavin Hamilton, the artist, and Thomas 
Jenkins, a banker in Rome, he got together a splendid collection 
of antiquities, which was deposited in two houses bought 
by him for the purpose in Park Street, Westminster, where he 
died on the 3rd of January 1805. His solitary publication was 
an account of an ancient helmet found at Ribchester. His 
marbles, bronzes, coins, and gems were purchased by the British 
Museum for about 28,000, and form part of the Graeco-Roman 
collection. 

For an account of the antiquities see Sir Henry Ellis's The Townley 
Gallery (1836), and A. T. F. Michaelis's Ancient Marbles in Great 
Britain (1882). 

TOWNLEY, JAMES (1714-1778), English dramatist, second 
son of Charles Townley, merchant, was born in London on the 
6th of May 1714. Educated at Merchant Taylors' School and at 
St John's College, Oxford, he took holy orders, being ordained 
priest on the z8th of May 1738. He was lecturer at St Dunstan's 
in the East, chaplain to the lord mayor, then under-master at 
Merchant Taylors' School until 1753, when he became grammar 
master at Christ's Hospital. In 1760 he became head master 
of Merchant Taylors' School, where in 1762 and 1763 he revived 
the custom of dramatic performances. He retained his head- 
mastership until his death on the sth of July 1778. He took a 
keen interest in the theatre, and it has been asserted that many 
of David Garrick's best productions and revivals owed much 
to his assistance. He was the author, although the fact was 
long concealed, of High Life below Stairs, a two-act farce pre- 
sented at Drury Lane on the 3ist of October 1759; also of False 
Concord (Covent Garden, March 20, 1764) and The Tutor (Drury 
Lane, Feb. 4, 1765). 

TOWNSHEND, CHARLES (1725-1767), English politician, 
was the second son of Charles, 3rd Viscount Townshend, who 
married Audrey (d. 1788), daughter and heiress of Edward 
Harrison of Ball's Park, near Hertford, a lady who rivalled her 
son in brilliancy of wit and frankness of expression. Charles was 
born on the zgth of August 1725, and was sent for his education 



to Leiden and Oxford. At the Dutch university, where he 
matriculated on the 27th of October 1745, he associated with a 
small knot of English youths, afterwards well known in various 
circles of life, among whom were Dowdeswell, his subsequent 
rival in politics, Wilkes, the witty and unprincipled reformer, and 
Alexander Carlyle, the genial Scotchman, who devotes some of 
the pages of his Autobiography to chronicling their sayings and 
their doings. He represented Great Yarmouth in parliament 
from 1747 to 1761, when he found a seat for the treasury borough 
of Harwich. Public attention was first drawn to his abilities 
m 1-753, when he delivered a lively attack, as a younger son 
who might hope to promote his advancement by allying himself 
in marriage to a wealthy heiress, against Lord Hardwicke's 
marriage bill. Although this measure passed into law, he 
attained this object in August 1755 by marrying Caroline (d. 
1794), the eldest daughter of the 2nd duke of Argyll and the 
widow of Francis, Lord Dalkeith, the eldest son of the 2nd duke 
of Buccleuch. In April 1754 Townshend was transformed from 
the position of a member of the board of trade, which he had held 
from 1 749, to that of a lord of the admiralty, but at the close of 
1755 his passionate attack against the policy of the ministry, an 
attack which shared in popular estimation with the scathing 
denunciations of Pitt, the supreme success of Single-Speech 
Hamilton, and the hopeless failure of Lord Chesterfield's illegiti- 
mate son, caused his resignation. In the administration which 
was formed in November 1756, and which was ruled by Pitt, 
the lucrative office of treasurer of the chamber was given to 
Townshend, and in the following spring he was summoned to 
the privy council. 

With the accession of the new monarch in 1760 this volatile 
politician transferred his attentions from Pitt to the young 
king's favourite, Bute, and when in 1761, at the latter's instance, 
several changes were made in the ministry, Townshend was 
promoted to the post of secretary-at-war. In this place he 
remained after the great commoner had withdrawn from the 
cabinet, but in December 1762 he threw it up. Bute, alarmed 
at the growth in numbers and in influence of his enemies, tried 
to buy back Townshend's co-operation by sundry tempting 
promises, and at last secured his object in March 1763 with the 
presidency of the board of trade. When Bute retired and George 
Grenville accepted the cares of official life, the higher post of 
first lord of the admiralty fell to Townshend's lot, but with 
his usual impetuosity he presumed to designate one of his 
satellites, Sir William Burrell (1732-1796), to a place under him 
at the board, and the refusal to accept the nomination led 
to his exclusion from the new administration. While in 
opposition his mind was swayed to and fro with conflicting 
emotions of dislike to the head of the ministry and of desire 
to share in the spoils of office. The latter feeling ultimately 
triumphed; he condescended to accept in the dying days 
of Grenville's cabinet, and to retain through the " lutestring " 
administration of Lord Rockingham " pretty summer 
wear," as Townshend styled it, " but it will never stand 
the winter " the highly paid position of paymaster-general, 
refusing to identify himself more closely with its fortunes as 
chancellor of the exchequer. The position which he refused from 
the hands of Lord Rockingham he accepted from Pitt in August 
1 766, and a few weeks later his urgent appeals to the great minister 
for increased power were favourably answered, and he was 
admitted to the inner circle of the cabinet. The new chancellor 
proposed the continuance of the land tax at four shillings in the 
pound, while he held out hopes that it might be reduced next year 
to three shillings, whereupon his predecessor, William Dowdeswell, 
by the aid of the landed gentlemen, carried a motion that the 
reduction should take effect at once. This defeat proved a 
great mortification to Lord Chatham, and in his irritation 
against Townshend for this blow, as well as for some acts of in- 
subordination, he meditated the removal of his showy colleague. 
Before this could be accomplished Chatham's mind became 
impaired, and Townshend, who was the most determined and 
influential of his colleagues, swayed the ministry as he liked, 
pledging himself to find a revenue in America with which to meet 



ii2 TOWNSHEND, 2ND VISCOUNT TO WNSHEND, IST MARQUESS 



the deficiency caused by the reduction in the land tax. His wife 
was created (August 1767) baroness of Greenwich, and his elder 
brother George, the 4th viscount, was made lord-lieutenant of 
Ireland. He himself delivered in the House of Commons many 
speeches unrivalled in parliamentary history for wit and reckless- 
ness; and one of them still lives in history as the " champagne 
speech." His last official act was to carry out his intention by 
passing through parliament resolutions, which even his colleagues 
deprecated in the cabinet, for taxing several articles, such as 
glass, paper and tea, on their importation into America, which he 
estimated would produce the insignificant sum of 40,000 for the 
English treasury, and which shrewder observers prophesied would 
lead to the loss of the American colonies. Soon after this event 
he died somewhat suddenly on the 4th of September 1767. 

The universal tribute of Townshend's colleagues allows him 
the possession of boundless wit and ready eloquence, set off by 
perfect melody of intonation, but marred by an unexampled lack 
of judgment and discretion. He shifted his ground in politics 
with every new moon, and the world fastened on him the nick- 
name, which he himself adopted in his " champagne " speech, of 
the weathercock. His official knowledge was considerable; and 
it would be unjust to his memory to ignore the praises of his 
contemporaries or his knowledge of his country's commercial 
interests. The House of Commons recognized in him its spoilt 
child, and Burke happily said that " he never thought, did or 
said anything " without judging its effect on his fellow members. 

A Memoir by Percy Fitzgerald was published in 1866. See also 
W. E. H. Lecky, History of England (1892); and Horace Walpole, 
Memoirs of the Reign of George III., edited by G. F. R. Barker (1894). 

TOWNSHEND, CHARLES TOWNSHEND, 2ND VISCOUNT 
(1674-1738), English statesman, was the eldest son of Sir 
Horatio Townshend, Bart. (c. 1630-1687), a zealous supporter 
of Charles II., who was created Baron Townshend in 1661 and 
Viscount Townshend of Raynham in 1682. The old Norfolk 
family of Townshend, to which ho belonged, is descended from 
Sir Roger Townshend (d. 1493) of Raynham, who acted as legal 
adviser to the Paston family, and was made a justice of the 
common pleas in 1484. His descendant, another Sir Roger 
Townshend (c. 1543-1590), had a son Sir John Townshend 
(1564-1603), a soldier, whose son, Sir Roger Townshend (1588- 
1637), was created a baronet in 1617. He was the father of Sir 
Horatio Townshend. 

Charles Townshend succeeded to trie peerage in December 
1687, and was educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge. 
He had Tory sympathies when he took his seat in the House of 
Lords, but his views changed, and he began to take an active 
part in politics as a Whig. For a few years after the accession 
of Queen Anne he remained without office, but in November 
1708 he was appointed captain of the yeomen of the guard, 
having in the previous year been summoned to the privy council. 
He was ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary to the 
states-general from 1709 to 1711, taking part during these years 
in the negotiations which preceded the conclusion of the treaty 
of Utrecht. After his recall to England he was busily occupied 
in attacking the proceedings of the new Tory ministry. Towns- 
hend quickly won the favour of George I., and in September 
1714, the new king selected him as secretary of state for the 
northern department. The policy of Townshend and his 
colleagues, after they had crushed the Jacobite rising of 1715, 
both at home and abroad, was one of peace. The secretary 
disliked the interference of England in the war between Sweden 
and Denmark, and he promoted the conclusion of defensive 
alliances between England and the emperor and England and 
France. In spite of these successes the influence of the Whigs 
was gradually undermined by the intrigues of Charles Spencer, 
earl of Sunderland, and by the discontent of the Hanoverian 
favourites. In October 1716, Townshend's colleague, James 
Stanhope, afterwards ist Earl Stanhope, accompanied the king 
on his visit to Hanover, and while there he was seduced from his 
allegiance to his fellow ministers by Sunderland, George being 
led to believe that Townshend and his brother-in-law, Sir 
Robert Walpole, were caballing with the prince of Wales, their 



intention being that the prince should supplant his father on 
the throne. Consequently in December 1716 the secretary was 
dismissed and was made lord-lieutenant of Ireland, but he only 
retained this post until the following April. 

Early in 1720 a partial reconciliation took place between the 
parties of Stanhope and Townshend, and in June of this year 
the latter became president of the council, a post which he held 
until February 1721, when, after the death of Stanhope and the 
forced retirement of Sunderland, a result of the South Sea 
bubble, he was again appointed secretary of state for the 
northern department, with Walpole as first lord of the treasury 
and chancellor of the exchequer. The two remained in power 
during the remainder of the reign of George I., the chief domestic 
events of the time being the impeachment of Bishop Atterbury, 
the pardon and partial restoration of Lord Bolingbroke, and ths 
troubles in Ireland caused by the patent permitting Wood to 
coin halfpence. Townshend secured the dismissal of his rival, 
John Carteret, afterwards Earl Granville, but soon differences 
arose between himself and Walpole, and he had some difficulty 
in steering a course through the troubled sea of European politics. 
Although disliking him, George II. retained him in office, but 
the predominance in the ministry passed gradually but surely 
from him to Walpole. Townshend could not brook this. So 
long, to use Walpole's witty remark, as the firm was Townshend 
and Walpole all went well with it, but when the positions were 
reversed jealousies arose between the partners. Serious differ- 
ences of opinion concerning the policy to be adopted towards 
Prussia and in foreign politics generally led to a final rupture 
in 1730. Failing, owing to Walpole's interference, in his efforts 
to procure the dismissal of a colleague and his replacement by 
a personal friend, Townshend retired on the isth of May 1730. 
His remaining years were passed at Raynham, where he inte- 
rested himself in agriculture and was responsible for introducing 
into England the cultivation of turnips on a large scale and for 
other improvements of the kind. He died at Raynham on the 
2ist of June 1738. 

Townshend was twice married first to Elizabeth (d. 1711), 
daughter of Thomas Pelham, ist Baron Pelham of Laughton, 
and secondly to Dorothy (d. 1726), sister of Sir Robert Walpole. 
He had eight sons. The eldest son, Charles, the 3rd viscount 
(1700-1764), was called to the House of Lords in 1723. The 
second son, Thomas Townshend (1701-1780), was member of 
parliament for the university of Cambridge from 1727 to 1774; 
his only son, Thomas Townshend (1733-1800), who was created 
Baron Sydney in 1783 and Viscount Sydney in 1789, was a 
secretary of state and leader of the House of Commons from July 
1782 to April 1783, and from December 1783 to June 1789 
again a secretary of state, Sydney in New South Wales being 
named after him; his grandson, John Robert Townshend (1805- 
1890), the 3rd viscount, was created Earl Sydney in 1874, the 
titles becoming extinct at his death. Charles Townshend's eldest 
son by his second wife was George Townshend (1715-1769), 
who after serving for many years in the navy, became an 
admiral in 1765. The third viscount had two sons, George, 
ist Marquess Townshend, and Charles Townshend, who are 
separately noticed. 

For the 2nd viscount see W. Coxe, Memoirs of Sir Robert Wal- 
pole (1816) ; W. E. H. Lecky, History of England in the l8th Century 
(1892); and Earl Stanhope, History of England. 

TOWNSHEND, GEORGE TOWNSHEND, IST MARQUESS (1724- 
1807), eldest son of Charles, 3rd Viscount Townshend (1700- 
1764), and brother of the politician Charles Townshend (?..), 
was born on the 28th of February 1724, his godfather being 
George I. Joining Cope's dragoons as a captain, he saw some 
service in the Netherlands in 1745, and as a member of the duke 
of Cumberland's staff was present at Culloden. Afterwards he 
accompanied the duke to the Netherlands, and was present at 
Lauffeld. By 1750 he had become lieutenant-colonel in the 
ist Foot Guards, but differences with the duke of Cumberland 
led to his retirement in that year. This difference soon became 
hostility, and, coupled with his dread of permanent armies, 
caused him to give vehement support to the Militia Bill. In 



TOWNSVILLE TOXODONTIA 



this matter his views and his methods of expressing them raised 
up a host of enemies. The retirement of the duke after the 
disastrous campaign in North Germany in 1757 brought Towns- 
hend back to active service as a colonel, and in 1758 he sailed 
for North America as one of Wolfe's three brigadiers. In the 
long and painful operations against Quebec he showed himself 
a capable officer, but his almost open dissatisfaction with Wolfe's 
methods sensibly added to the difficulty of the enterprise. At 
the battle of the Heights of Abraham the command, on the death 
of Wolfe and the wounding of Monckton, devolved upon Towns- 
hend, whose over-caution for a time imperilled the success of 
the British arms. The loss of Montcalm, however, had similarly 
paralyzed the French, and the crisis passed. Townshend sent 
home a despatch, announcing the fall of Quebec, which at once 
became the butt of the wits and the object of criticism of a more 
serious kind; and when, Monckton having taken over the com- 
mand in Canada, Townshend returned to England to enjoy, as 
he hoped, the hero-worship of the public, he was soon involved 
in bitter controversies. He succeeded to the title in 1764 
on his father's death, and in 1767, through his brother's influence, 
was made lord-lieutenant of Ireland. The story of his vice- 
royalty may be read in the article on him in the Diet. Nat. Biog., 
and in Lecky's History of England in the i8th Century (vol. iv.). 
With the best will in the world, and in spite of excellent capacity, 
he came into continual conflict with the Irish House of Commons 
in his attempt to form an English party in Ireland, and he 
excited unmeasured abuse. In 1772 he was recalled. In 1787 
he was created Marquess Townshend of Rainham. He died on 
the i4th of September 1807. 

Townshend was twice married first to Charlotte, Baroness 
de Ferrars (d. 1770) and secondly to Anne Montgomery (d. 1819). 
His eldest son George (1755-1811), who became the second 
marquess, had succeeded to the barony of de Ferrars in 1770 
and had been created earl of Leicester in 1784. Although he 
was in turn master of the mint, joint postmaster-general and 
lord steward of the royal household, he did not take much part 
in politics, but showed a great taste for antiquarian studies. 
His elder son, George Ferrars Townshend, the 3rd marquess 
(1778-1855), was disinherited by his father for conduct which 
also compelled him to reside outside England. When he died 
at Genoa in December 1855 the earldom of Leicester became 
extinct. The marquessate, however, passed to a cousin, John 
Townshend (1798-1863), who became the 4th marquess. John 
James Dudley Stuart Townshend (b. 1866), who became the 6th 
marquess in 1899, came prominently before the public in 1906 
in consequence of a judicial inquiry into his sanity, the decision 
being that he was not capable of managing his own affairs. 

TOWNSVILLE, a town of Elphinstone county, Queensland, 
Australia, 870 m. direct N.W. of Brisbane. Pop. (1901), 12,717. 
It is the seat of the Anglican bishop of North Queensland and has 
a cathedral and several handsome buildings, including the supreme 
court and the custom-house. It is picturesquely situated partly 
on the slopes of Castle Hill and Melton Hill, and partly on the 
banks of Ross Creek, which is spanned by the Victoria Bridge, a 
swing bridge 550 ft. in length, worked by hydraulic power. The 
tidal harbour is enclosed by stone breakwaters, and large vessels 
enter and load frozen meat direct from the refrigerator cars. 
The port is an outlet for a wide area of pastoral country and for 
several goldfields, and has regular communication with all ports 
north and south by lines of steamers. The immigration barracks 
on Ross Island have accommodation for five hundred persons. 
The railway station is the terminus of the Northern line, which 
extends 236 m. to Hughenden. Townsville was founded in 1864 
by John Medwin Black and named after his partner Captain 
Towns. A municipal charter was granted in 1866. 

TOWTON, a village of Yorkshire, England, 2^ m. S. of Tad- 
caster, the scene of a battle fought on Palm Sunday, the 2gth of 
March 1461, between the armies of York and Lancaster. The 
party of Lancaster had lately won the battle of St Albans, but, 
unable to gain admission into London, and threatened by the 
approach of Edward the young duke of York from the west of 
England, was compelled to fall back northward. York, having 



been proclaimed as Edward IV. on the 2nd, 3rd and 4th of March 
1460/1461, followed them up into Yorkshire, and on the 27th his 
leading troops surprised the passage of the Aire at Ferrybridge. 
The Lancastrians were encamped at Towton, some miles away, 
covering Tadcaster and York; but a force under Lord Clifford 
was promptly sent out, recaptured Ferrybridge by surprise, and 
cut to pieces the Yorkist garrison. About the same time, how- 
ever, Edward's van, under Lord Fauconberg, an experienced 
soldier, crossed the Aire higher up, and Clifford was compelled 
to retire. He was closely pressed, and at Dintingdale, within a 
few furlongs of his own camps, was cut off and killed with nearly 
all his men. Edward's main body was now close at hand, and the 
Lancastrians drew up on their chosen battlefield early on the 
agth. This field was an elevated plateau, with steep slopes, 
between the present Great North Road and the river Cock, cut 
in two by a depression called Towton Dale. On opposite sides 
of this depression stood the two armies, that of York facing north, 
their opponents southward. Both lines of battle were very 
dense. On a front of little more than a thousand yards the 
Lancastrian party had nearly 60,000 men. Edward's force 
(less than 50,000) was not all present, the rear " battle " under 
Norfolk being still distant. Snow and sleet blew in the faces 
of the Lancastrians and covered the field of battle. The skilful 
Fauconberg used this advantage to the utmost. Aided by the 
wind, his archers discharged flights of arrows against the enemy, 
who replied blindly and feebly, hampered by snow and wind. 
The Yorkists withdrew until the enemy had exhausted their 
quivers, and then advanced afresh. Their arrows soon stung the 
Lancastrians into a wild and disorderly charge. Suffering severe 
losses the latter closed with Edward's line of battle. No quarter 
was given by either party, and on the narrow front the numerical 
superiority of the Lancastrians counted for little. The long, 
doubtful and sanguinary struggle was only decided by the arrival 
of Norfolk's corps, which charged the enemy in flank. Driven 
backwards and inwards, the Lancastrians were in a desperate 
position, for their only way of escape to Tadcaster crossed the 
swollen waters of the Cock by a single narrow and difficult ford, 
and when, after a stubborn struggle, they finally broke and fled, 
they were slaughtered in thousands as they tried to cross. At the 
close of the day the defeated army had. ceased to exist. Twenty- 
five thousand Lancastrian and eight thousand Yorkist dead were 
buried in and about Towton. The neighbourhood of the battle- 
field contains many relics and memorials of this, the greatest 
battle hitherto fought on English soil. Particularly well pre- 
served is the tomb of Lord Dacre, a prominent Lancastrian, 
in Saxton churchyard. 

See R. Brooke, Visits to English Battlefields (London, 1857); 
C. R. B. Barrett, Battles and Battlefields of England (London, 1896) ; 
H. B. George, Battles of English History (London, 1895). 

TOXICOLOGY, the name of that branch of science which deals 
with poisons, their effects and antidotes, &c. For the general 
treatment of the subject and for the law relating to the sale 
thereof see POISONS, and for the criminal- law see MEDICAL 
JURISPRUDENCE. The term " toxic," meaning poisonous, is 
derived from Gr. rb^ov, bow, owing to the custom of smearing 
arrows with poison. 

TOXODONTIA, a sub-order of extinct South American Tertiary 
ungulate mammals typified by the genus Toxodon, so named 
from the bow-like curvature of the molar teeth. They all show 
signs of distant kinship to the Perissodactyla, as regards both 
limb-structure and dentition; while some exhibit resemblance 
to the Rodents and Hyraxes resemblances which, however, 
are probably to be attributed to parallelism in development. 

Under the sub-order Toxodontia may be included not only the 
typical Toxodon, but the more aberrant Typotherium (fig. l) of the 
Pleistocene of Buenos Aires and the smaller Pachyrucus and Hegeto- 
therium of the Patagonian Santa Cruz -beds. All the members 
of the sub-order have tall-crowned and curved cheek-teeth, some 
or all of which generally have persistent pulps, while at least one pair 
of incisors in each jaw is rootless. The bodies of the cervical 
vertebrae have flat articular surfaces, the bones of the two rows 
of the carpus alternate, and in the tarsus the navicular articulates 
with the calcaneum, which, as in the Artiodactyla, is articulated 
to the fibula, while the astragalus, which is slightly grooved above, 



TOY, C. H. TOYNBEE 



is formed on the Perissodactyle plan. The number of toes varies 
between three and five, of which the middle one is the largest, and 
the femur may or may not have a third trochanter. The Typo- 
theriidae and Pachyrucidae are remarkable among the Ungulates for 




(After Gervais.) 

FIG. I. Skull of Typotherium cristatum, from the Pampas 
Formation of Buenos Aires. (\ nat. size.) 

the retention of clavicles, and for their curious approximation in 
dentition and certain characters of the skeleton to the Rodentia. 
The dental formula of Typotherium is i. $, c. $, p. f , m. | ; that of the 
smaller Patagonian forms differs by the larger number (f) of pre- 
molars. The toes were unguiculate rather than ungulate in character, 
except the hind ones (four in number) of Typotherium. Certain 
allied Patagonian forms, such as A rgyrohyrax, have been supposed 
to be related to the Hyraxes. 

The Toxodontidae differ from the preceding families by the loss 
of the clavicles and the reduction of the digits to three in each foot. 
The typical genus Toxodon is represented by animals the size of a 




(From British Museum [Nat. His.] Guide to the Fossil Mammalia.) 

FIG. 2. Skeleton of the Toxodon (Toxodon platensis). From 

(About J$ nat. size.) 

rhinoceros, of which the entire skeleton is now known (fig. 2). The 
teeth, of which the formula is i. J, c. } p. |r|, m. f , all grow from per- 
sistent pulps; those of the cheek-series are very tall, highly curved, 
and with a simplified crown-structure. In the older Nesodon, on 
the other hand, the cheek-teeth are shorter-crowned, and depart 
less widely from a generalized Perissodactyle type, the total number 
of teeth being forty-four, and there being scarcely any gap in the 
series. Very remarkable changes occur in the dentition as age 
advances, most of the teeth eventually developing roots, although 
the second pair of incisors in each jaw was rootless. The complete 



skeleton is not yet known, but it is ascertained that the femur 
differs from that of Toxodon in the retention of a third trochanter. 

Toxodon is typified by T. platensis from the Pampean formation 
of Buenos Aires. Toxodontotherium and Xotodon are allied but 
rather older types. Nesodon is from the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia, 
the typical N. imbricatus having a skull about a foot in length, but 
N. ovinus was a smaller animal, about the size of a sheep. 

(R. L.) 

TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL (1836- ), American Hebrew 
scholar, was born in Norfolk, Virginia, on the 23rd of March 1836. 
He graduated at the university of Virginia in 1856, and studied 
at the university of Berlin in 1866-1868. In 1869-1879 he was 
professor of Hebrew in the Southern Baptist Theological 
Seminary (first in Greenville, South Carolina, and after 1877 in 
Louisville, Kentucky), and in 1880 he became professor of 
Hebrew and Oriental languages in Harvard University, where 
until 1903 he was also Dexter lecturer on biblical literature. 

He wrote The Religion of Israel (1882); Quotations from the Old 
Testament in the New Testament (1884); Judaism and Christianity 
(1890); and the Book of Proverbs (1899) in the "International 
Critical Commentary " ; and edited a translation of Erdmann's 
commentary on Samuel (1877) in Lange's commentaries; Murray's 
Origin of the Psalms (1880); and, in Haupt's Sacred Books of the 
Old Testament, the Book of Ezekiel (Hebrew text and English version, 
1899). 

TOY (an adaptation of Du. tuig, tools, implements, stuff, 
speltuig, playthings, i.e. stuff to play with, spelen, to play), a 
child's plaything, also a trifle, a worthless, petty ornament, 
a gew-gaw, a bauble. Children's toys and playthings survive 
from the most remote periods of man's life on the earth, though 
many so-called diminutive objects made and used by primitive 
man, sometimes classified as playthings, may have been work- 
men's models, votive offerings or sepulchral objects. A large 
number of wooden, earthenware, stone or metal dolls remain 
with which the children of ancient Egypt once played; thus 
in the British Museum collection there is a flat painted wooden 
doll with strings of mud-beads representing the hair, a bronze 
woman doll bearing a pot on her head, an earthenware doll 
carrying and nursing a child; some have movable jointed arms. 
There are also many toy animals, such as a painted wooden 

calf, a porcelain 
elephant with a 
rider; this once had 
movable legs,which 
have disappeared. 
Balls are found 
made of leather 
stuffed with hair, 
chopped straw and 
other material, and 
also of blue porce- 
lain or papyrus. 
Jointed dolls, 
moved by strings, 
were evidently 
favourite play- 
things of the Greek 
and Roman chil- 
dren, and small 
modelsof furniture, 
chairs, tables, sets 
of jugs painted with 
scenes of children's 
life survive from 
both Greek and 
Roman times. 
Balls, tops, rattles 

and the implements of numerous games, still favourites in all 
countries and every age, remain to show how little the amuse- 
ments of children have changed. 

See also DOLL; TOP; PLAY; and for the history of toys, with their 
varying yet unchanging fashions, see H. R. d'Allemagne, Hisloire des 
Jouets, and F. N. Jackson, Toys of other Days (1908). 

TOYNBEE, ARNOLD (1852-1883), English social reformer 
and economist, second son of Joseph Toynbee (1815-1866), 



the Pampean Formation of Argentina. 



TRABEATED TRACERY 



a distinguished surgeon, was born in London on the 23rd of 
August 1852. He had originally intended to enter the army, 
but ill health and a growing love of books changed his plans, 
and he settled down to read for the bar. Here again the same 
causes produced a change of purpose, and he entered as a 
student at Pembroke College, Oxford. Finding himself by 
no means at ease in that college he migrated after two years 
to Balliol College. Continued ill health prevented his reading 
for honours, but he made so deep an impression on the authori- 
ties of his college that on taking his degree he was appointed 
lecturer and tutor to students preparing for the Indian civil 
service. He devoted himself to the study of economics and 
economic history. He was active also as a practical social 
reformer, taking part in much public work and delivering 
lectures in the large industrial centres on economic problems. 
He overtaxed his strength, and after lecturing in London in 
January 1883 he had a complete break-down, and died of 
inflammation of the brain at Wimbledon on the gth of March. 

Toynbee had a striking influence on his contemporaries, not merely 
through his intellectual powers, but by his strength of character. 
He left behind him a beautiful memory, filled as he was with the 
love of truth and an ardent and active zeal for the public good. He 
was the author of some fragmentary pieces, published after his 
death by his widow, under the title of The Industrial Revolution. 
This volume deserves attention both for its intrinsic merit and as 
indicating the first drift of a changing method in the treatment of 
economic problems. He, however, fluctuated considerably in his 
opinion of the Ricardian political economy, in one place declaring 
it to be a detected " intellectual imposture," whilst elsewhere, 
apparently under the influence of Bagehot, he speaks of it as having 
been in recent times " only corrected, re-stated, and put into the 
proper relation to the science of life," meaning apparently, by this 
last, general sociology. He saw that the great help in the future 
for the science of economics must come from the historical method, 
to which in his own researches he gave preponderant weight. Toyn- 
bee' s interest in the poor and his anxiety to be personally acquainted 
with them led to his close association with the district of White- 
chapel in London, where the Rev. Canon S. A. Barnett (g.fi.) was 
at that time vicar an association which was commemorated after 
his death by the social settlement of Toynbee Hall, the first of many 
similar institutions erected in the East End of London for the purpose 
of uplifting and brightening the lives of the poorer classes. 

See F. C. Montague's Arnold Toynbee (Johns Hopkins University 
Studies, 1889); Lord Milner's Arnold Toynbee: a Reminiscence 
(1901); and L. L. Price's Short History of Political Economy in 
England for a criticism of Toynbee as an economist. 

TRABEATED, the architectural term given to those styles 
in which the architrave or beam (Lat. Irabs) is employed instead 
of the arch, in the latter case the term " arcuated " being used. 
The principal trabeated styles are the Egyptian, Persian, 
Greek, Lycian, nearly all the Indian styles, the Chinese, 
Japanese and South American styles, in all cases owing their 
origin to the timber construction, for which reason the term 
post-and-lintel architecture is sometimes applied to it. 

TRACERY, a late coined word from " trace," track, Lat. 
trahere, to draw; the term given in architecture (French 
equivalents are rtseau, remplissage) to the intersecting rib- 
work in the upper part of a Gothic window; applied also to 
the interlaced work of a vault, or on walls, in panels and in 
tabernacle work or screens. The tracery in windows is usually 
divided into two sections, plate tracery and rib or bar tracery, 
the latter rising out of the former, and entirely superseding 
it in the geometrical, flowing and rectilineal designs. The 
windows of the Early English period were comparatively 
narrow slits, and were sometimes grouped together under a 
single enclosing arch; the piercing of the tympanum of this 
arch with a circular light produced what is known as plate 
tracery, which is found in windows of the late i2th century, 
as in St Maurice, York, but became more common in the first 
half of the i3th century. In England the opening pierced in 
the head was comparatively small, its diameter never exceeding 
the width of one of the windows below, but in France it 
occupied the full width of the enclosing arch and was filled 
with cusping, and sometimes, as in Chartres, with cusping in 
the centre and a series of small quatrefoils round, all pierced 
on one plane face. In order further to enrich the mullions and 
arches of the window, they were moulded, as in Stowe church, 



Kent; the other portions were pierced; and finally, to give 
more importance to the principal lights, additional depth was 
given to their mouldings, so that they gradually developed into 
bar or rib tracery, of which the earliest examples in England 
are those in Westminster Abbey (c. 1250) and Netley Abbey 
near Southampton. Henceforth that which is described in 
architecture as the " element " ruled the design of the window, 
and led to the development of geometrical tracery, in which 
the bars or ribs are all about equidistant from one another. 
In windows of three lights the heads of the windows consisted 
of three circular openings, but with four lights they were grouped 
in two pairs, with a single circle over each and a larger one at 
the top in the centre. This led to increased dimensions being 
given to the moulding of the enclosing arches and the upper 
circle, forming virtually two planes in the tracery. In the 
great east window at Lincoln, with eight lights, there was a 
double subdivision and three planes, and here the upper circle 
was filled with semicircles, so that the openings were all about 
the same width. In France the upper circle always maintained 
its predominance, its subdivisions only retaining the scale. 
The next development, which would seem to have taken place 
in Gloucester Cathedral, was the omission of portions of the 
enclosing circle, so as to allow the ribs to run one into the other, 
forming therefore lines of double curvature, and giving rise 
to what is known as flowing or flamboyant tracery, of which 
the great window in Carlisle Cathedral is the most important 
example. In this window there are nine lights, the four outer 
ones in each rib being grouped together; these were not sub- 
divided again,* and consequently there are only two planes of 
tracery. The Perpendicular style which followed might per- 
haps be considered as a reaction against the abuse of the flowing 
lines in masonry, were it not that in the earlier examples it 
appears timidly. At Edington church in Wiltshire (1361), 
in a five-light window, the centre light is wider than the others 
and its mullions run straight up into the arch mould. In New 
College chapel, Oxford (1386), the head of the window is sub- 
divided into narrow vertical lights, each half the width of those 
below, and this is followed in some counties, but not in all, in 
the east of England the flamboyant tracery being retained a 
century later. In St Mary's church, Oxford, with seven lights, 
all the mullions run straight up into the arch mould, and another 
feature is introduced, already found in New College chapel, 
and at a much earlier date in domestic work and in spire-lights, 
viz. the transom. In the later Perpendicular work another 
change takes place; the pointed arch struck from two centres 
is replaced by one struck from four centres, and this eventually 
in domestic work is superseded by the flat arch. 

So far reference has been made only to that which may be called 
the " element " of the window. The enrichment of the lights with 
cusping gave additional beauty to them, took away the hard wire- 
drawn effect of the mouldings, and formed openings of great variety ; 
in some of the windows of the Decorated period the ball flower and 
other foliage is introduced into the mouldings. In French work 
the geometrical style lasted till the I4th century, and then there 
was a lapse in building, so that the flamboyant style which followed, 
and from which at one time it was assumed that the English mason 
had derived the style, was apparently taken up by the French after 
its abandonment in England in favour of Perpendicular work. 
Germany and Spain have always followed in the wake of the French ; 
and in Italy, where architects preferred to decorate their walls with 
frescoes, the light from stained glass interfered with their effect, 
so that there was no demand for huge windows or their subdivision 
with mullions. At the same time there are many beautiful examples 
of tracery in Italy, generally in marble, such as those of Giotto's 
Campanile and the cathedral at Florence, in the Ducal and other 
palaces at Venice, and in the triforium arcades of Pisa and Siena 
cathedrals; but they destroyed its effect by the insertion of small 
capitals to the mullions, which gave horizontal lines where they 
were not wanted, virtually dividing the window into two parts 
instead of emphasizing, as was done in the Perpendicular period, 
the vertically of the mullions. 

Among the most glorious features in the Gothic architecture of 
France, England and Spain are the immense rose windows which were 
introduced, generally speaking, in the transepts of the cathedrals; 
the tracery of these follows on the lines of those of the windows, 
changing from geometrical to Decorated and afterwards to flam- 
boyant. In some respects perhaps the finest examples of plate- 
tracery were produced in the rose windows of the I3th century. 



n6 



TRACHELIUM TRACHYTE 



Thus in France in the rose window of Chartrcs in the west front 
(1225), and in England in those of Barfreston in Kent (1180) and 
Beverley Minster in Yorkshire (1220), plate-tracery of such great 
beauty is found that it is unfortunate it should have been entirely 
superseded by rib-tracery. The rose window of Lincoln Cathedral 
in the north transept is a compromise between the two, as all the 
lights are cut out independently and in one plane, but there are 
mouldings round each connected with flowers; in its design and 
effect this window is far superior to the flamboyant circular window 
in the south transept. Sometimes a rose window is arranged in the 
upper portion of an ordinary window, as in the west front of Lichfield 
Cathedral, and this is constantly found in those of the transepts 
of the French cathedrals. In the south of Italy, at Bari, Bitonto 
and Troja, and atOrvietoandAssisi.farthernorth, there are examples 
of rose windows, but inferior in design to French and English work, 
though elaborated with carving. The revival of the i6th century 
was fatal so far as tracery was concerned; in the place of the flam- 
boyant work of the last phase of Gothic in France semicircular and 
elliptical curves with poor mouldings were introduced, and the 
elaborate cusping which gave such interest to the light was omitted 
altogether, as in St Eustache, Paris. There is, however, one remark- 
able example in the church of Le Grand Andely, in Normandy, 
dating from the Henri II. period, in which a return was made to 
the tracery of the I3th century; but the introduction of Renaissance 
details in the place of the cusping is not altogether satisfactory, 
though the general design is fine. 

The tracery decorating the vault of Gothic work began on the 
introduction of the fan vault at Gloucester (see VAULT) ; it was only 
a surface decoration, both rib and web being cut out of the same 
block of stone, and it received further development in the various 
phases which followed. In the later Perpendicular work the walls 
and buttresses were all panelled with blank tracery, the most com- 
plete example of which is found in Henry VII. 's chapel, Westminster 
Abbey. 

In tabernacle work the tracery is purely of a decorative character, 
copied in miniature from the mullions, arch-moulds and crockets 
of Gothic work. 

Some of the most beautiful examples of tracery are those on the 
rood screens of churches, either in stone as in the Jub6 of the Made- 
leine at Troyes, or in wood as in the rood screens of the churches 
in East Anglia and in Somersetshire; and with this must be included 
that which was introduced into the panelling of church doors, choir 
stalls and other church fittings; this was continued, first in the early 
Renaissance of the l6th century, the finest examples being those 
of the stalls of King's College, Cambridge, and afterwards in the 
Jacobean style, in the church at Croxcombe near Shepton Mallet, 
and the church of St John at Leeds, the two latter ranking as the 
best work of that late period. (R. P. S. ) 

TRACHELIUM (Gr. T/oax'jXos, neck), the term in architecture 
given to the neck of the capital of the Doric and Ionic orders. 
In the Greek Doric capital it is the space between the annulets 
of the echinus and the grooves which marked the junction of 
the shaft and capital; in some early examples, as in the basilica 
and temple of Ceres at Paestum and the temple at Metapontum, 
it forms a sunk concave moulding, which by the French is 
called the gorge. In the Roman Doric and the Ionic orders 
the term is given by modern writers to the interval between 
the lowest moulding of the capital and the top of the astragal 
and fillet, which were termed the " hypotrachelium " (q.v.). 

TRACHEOTOMY, the operation of opening the trachea or 
windpipe (see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM) and inserting a tube 
(canula) to provide a means of breathing when the natural 
air-passage is obstructed. The operation is by no means easy 
when performed on a small child, for the wind-pipe is deeply 
placed amongst important structures. The chief anxiety is 
in connexion with haemorrhage, for the vessels are large and 
generally overfull on account of the impairment of the respira- 
tion. The higher the opening is made in the trachea the easier 
and safer is the operation. 

TRACHIS, a city of ancient Greece, situated at the head of 
the Malian Gulf in a small plain between the rivers Asopus and 
Melas, and enclosed by the mountain jvall of Oeta which here 
extended close to the sea and by means of the Trachinian 
Cliffs completely commanded the main road from Thessaly. 
The position was well adapted as an advanced post against 
invaders from the north, and furthermore guarded the road 
up the Asopus gorge into the Cephissus valley. Strangely 
enough, it is not recorded what part Trachis played in the 
defence of Thermopylae against Xerxes. Its military impor- 
tance was recognized in 427 B.C. by the Spartans, who sent a 
garrison to guard the Trachinian plain against the marauding 



highland tribes of Oeta and built a citadel close by the 
Asopus gorge with the new name of Heraclea. The Spartans 
failed to safeguard Heraclea against the Oetaeans and 
Thessalians, and for a short time were displaced by the 
Thebans (420). After a bloody defeat at the hands of the 
neighbouring mountaineers (409) the Spartan governor quar- 
relled with the native settlers, whom he expelled in 399. 
Four years later Thebes used her new predominance in central 
Greece to restore the Trachinians, who retained Heraclea until 
371, when Jason of Pherae seized and dismantled it. The 
fortress was rebuilt, and after 280 served the Aetolians as a 
bulwark against Celts and Macedonians. It was captured 
in 191 by the Romans, but restored to the Aetolian League 
until 146. Henceforth the place lost its importance; in 
Strabo's time the original site was apparently deserted, and 
the citadel alone remained inhabited. 

Strabo p. 428; Herodotus vii. 198-203; Thucydides iii. 92, 
v. 51-52; Diodorus xiv. 38, 82; Livy xxxvi. 22-24. W. Leake, 
Travels in Northern Greece, iii. 2431 (London, 1835) ; G. B. Grundy, 
Great Persian War, pp. 261-264 (London, 1901). (M. O. B. C.) 

TRACHOMA, the name given to a chronic destructive form 
of inflammation of the conjunctiva of the eye (see EYE: Diseases) , 
or " granular conjunctivitis " (Egyptian ophthalmia). It is 
a contagious disease, associated with dirty conditions, and 
common in Egypt, Arabia and parts of Europe, especially 
among the lower class of Jews. Hence it has become important, 
in connexion with the alien immigration into the United King- 
dom and America, and the rejection of those who are afflicted 
with it. It is important that all cases should be isolated, and 
that the spread of the infection should be prevented. 

TRACHYTE (Gr. rpo.-x.rn, rough), in petrology, a group of 
volcanic rocks which consist mainly of sanidine (or glassy 
orthoclase) felspar. Very often they have minute irregular 
steam cavities which make the broken surfaces of specimens 
of these rocks rough and irregular, and from this character 
they have derived their name. It was first given by Haiiy 
to certain rocks of this class from Auvergne, and was long 
used in a much wider sense than that defined above, in fact 
it included quartz-trachytes (now known as liparites and 
rhyolites) and oligoclase-trachytes, which are now more properly 
assigned to andesites. The trachytes are often described as 
being the volcanic equivalents of the plutonic syenites. Their 
dominant mineral, sanidine felspar, very commonly occurs 
in two generations, i.e. both as large well-shaped porphyritic 
crystals and in smaller imperfect rods or laths forming a finely 
crystalline groundmass. With this there is practically always 
a smaller amount of plagioclase, usually oligoclase; but the 
potash felspar (sanidine) often contains a considerable pro- 
portion of the soda felspar, and has rather the characteristics 
of anorthoclase or cryptoperthite than of pure sanidine. 

Quartz is typically absent from the trachytes, but tridymite 
(which likewise consists of silica) is by no means uncommon 
in them. It is rarely in crystals large enough to be visible 
without the aid of the microscope, but in thin slides it may 
appear as small hexagonal plates, which overlap and form 
dense aggregates, like a mosaic or like the tiles on a roof. 
They often cover the surfaces of the larger felspars or line the 
steam cavities of the rock, where they may be mingled with 
amorphous opal or fibrous chalcedony. In the older trachytes 
secondary quartz is not rare, and probably sometimes results 
from the recrystallization of tridymite. 

Of the ferromagnesian minerals present augite is the most 
common. It is usually of pale green colour, and its small 
crystals are often very perfect in form. Brown hornblende 
and biotite occur also, and are usually surrounded by black 
corrosion borders composed of magnetite and pyroxene. Some- 
times the replacement is complete and no hornblende or biotite 
is left, though the outlines of the cluster of magnetite and 
augite may clearly indicate from which of these minerals it 
was derived. Olivine is unusual,. though found in some tra- 
chytes, like those of the Arso in Ischia. Basic varieties of 
plagioclase, such as labradorite, are known also as phenocrysts 



TRACT 



117 



in some Italian trachytes. Dark brown varieties of augite and 
rhombic pyroxene (hypersthene or bronzite) have been observed 
but are not common. Apatite, zircon and magnetite are prac- 
tically always present as unimportant accessory minerals. 

The trachytes being very rich in potash felspar, necessarily 
contain considerable amounts of alkalis; in this character they 
approach the phonolites. Occasionally minerals of the fels- 
pathoid group, such as nepheline, sodalite and leucite, occur, 
and rocks of this kind are known as phonolitic trachytes. The 
soda-bearing amphiboles and pyroxenes so characteristic of the 
phonolites may also be found in some trachytes; thus aegirine 
or aegironic augite forms outgrowths on diopside crystals, and 
riebeckite may be present in spongy growths among the felspars 
of the groundmass (as in the trachyte of Berkum on the Rhine) . 
Trachytic rocks are typically porphyritic, and some of the best- 
known examples, such as the trachyte of Drachenfels on the 
Rhine, show this character excellently, having large sanidine 
crystals of tabular form an inch or two in length scattered 
through their fine-grained groundmass. In many trachytes, 
however, the phenocrysts are few and small, and the ground- 
mass comparatively coarse. The ferromagnesian minerals 
rarely occur in large crystals, and are usually not conspicuous 
in hand specimens of these rocks. Two types of ground- 
mass are generally recognized: the trachytic, composed 
mainly of long, narrow, sub-parallel rods of sanidine, and 
the orthophyric, consisting of small, squarish or rectan- 
gular prisms of the same mineral. Sometimes granular 
augite or spongy riebeckite occurs in the groundmass, but 
as a rule this part of the rock is highly felspathic. Glassy 
forms of trachyte (obsidians) occur, as in Iceland, and 
pumiceous varieties are known (in Teneriffe and elsewhere), 
but these rocks as contrasted with the rhyolites have a remark- 
ably strong tendency to crystallize, and are rarely to any 
considerable extent vitreous. 

Trachytes are well represented among the Tertiary and Recent 
volcanic rocks of Europe. In Britain they occur in Skye as lava 
flows and as dikes or intrusions, but they are much more common 
on the continent of Europe, as in the Rhine district and the Eifel, 
also in Auvergne, Bohemia and the Euganean Hills. In the neigh- 
bourhood of Rome, Naples and the island of Ischia trachytic lavas 
and tuffs are of common occurrence. In America trachytes are 
less frequent, being known in S. Dakota (Black Hills). In Iceland, 
the Azores, Teneriffe and Ascension there are Recent trachytic 
lavas, and rocks of this kind occur also in New South Wales (Cambe- 
warra range), East Africa, Madagascar, Aden and in many other 
districts. 

Among the older volcanic rocks trachytes also are not 
scarce, though they have often been described under the 
names orthophyre and orthoclase-porphyry, while " trachyte " 
was reserved for Tertiary and Recent rocks of similar com- 
position. In England there are Permian trachytes in the Exeter 
district, and Carboniferous trachytes are found in many parts 
of the central valley of Scotland. The latter differ in no 
essential respect from their modern representatives in Italy 
and the Rhine valley, but their augite and biotite are often 
replaced by chlorite and other secondary products. Permian 
trachytes occur also in Thuringia and the Saar district in Germany. 

Closely allied to the trachytes are the Keratophyres, which occur 
mainly in Palaeozoic strata in the Harz (Germany) , in the Southern 
Uplands of Scotland, in Cornwall, &c. They are usually por- 
phyritic and fluidal ; and consist mainly of alkali felspar (anortho- 
clase principally, but also albite and orthoclase), with a small 
quantity of chlorite and iron oxides. Many of them are lavas, but 



for a lengthy monograph on a subject, dealing with it technically 
and authoritatively, whereas a tract is understood to be brief 
and rather argumentative than educational. There is, again, 
the rarer word tractate, which is not a tract, in the precise sense, 
so much as a short treatise. 

The word " tract " has come to be used for brief discourses 
of a moral and religious character only, and in modern practice 
it seems to be mainly confined to serious and hortatory themes. 
An essay on poetry, or the description of a passage of scenery, 
would not be styled a tract. In the Protestant world, the 
tract which Luther composed in 1520, on the Babylonish 
captivity, has been taken more or less as the type of this species 
of literature, which, however, existed long before his day, both 
in Latin and in the vernacular tongues of western Europe. 
It is difficult, if not impossible, in early history, to distinguish 
the tract from other cognate forms of moralizing literature, 
but it may perhaps be said that the homilies of ^Elfric (955- 
1025?) are the earliest specimens of this class in English litera- 
ture. Four centuries later Wyclif issued a series of tracts, 
which were remarkable for their vigour, and exercised a strong 
influence on medieval theology. Bishop Reginald Pecock 
published many controversial tracts between 1440 and 1460. 
Sir Thomas More, John Fisher (d. 1535) and William Tyndale 
were prominent writers of controversial treatises. It was the 
Martin Marprelate agitation, in the reign of Elizabeth, which 
led from 1588 to 1591 to the most copious production of tracts 
in English literature; of these nearly thirty survive. On the 
Puritan side the principal writers were John Udall (1560-1592), 
Henry Barrowe (d. 1593), John Penry (1550-1593) and Job 
Throckmorton (1545-1601), the tracts being printed in the 
house of the last-mentioned; on the side of the Established 
Church the principal authors were Bishop Thomas Cooper 
(1517-1594) and the poets Lyly and Nash. An enormous 
collection of tracts was published between 1717 and 1720 in 
elucidation of what is known as the Bangorian Controversy, 
set in motion by a sermon of Benjamin Hoadly, bishop of 
Bangor, on " The Nature of the Kingdom of Christ " (1717). 
Convocation considered this a treatise likely to impugn and 
impeach the royal supremacy in religious questions. A vast 
number of writers took part in the dispute, and Thomas Sherlock 
(1678-1761) fell into disgrace through the violence of his 
contributions to it. Convocation was finally obliged to 
give way. 

The most famous collection of tracts published in the course 
of the igth century was that produced from 1833 onwards by 
Newman, Keble and E. B. Pusey, under the title of " Tracts 
for the Times." Among these Pusey's "Tract on Baptism" 
(1835) and his " On the Holy Eucharist" (1836) had a profound 
effect in leading directly to the foundation of the High Church 
party, so much so that the epithet " Tractarian " was bar- 
barously coined to designate those who wished to oppose the 
spread of rationalism by a quickening of the Church of England. 
In 1841 Newman's " Tract No. XC." was condemned by the 
heads of houses in Oxford, and led to the definite organization 
of the High Church forces. (X.) 

Tract Societies are agencies for the production and distribution, 
or the distribution only, of Christian literature, more especially in 





SiO 2 


A1 2 O 3 


Fe 2 O 3 


FeO 


MgO 


CaO 


Na 2 O 


K 2 O 


H 2 


Riebeckite trachyte, Hohenberg, Berkum, Rhenish Prussia .... 
Keratophyre, Hamilton Hill, Peebles, Scotland 
Trachyte (Orthophyre) Garleton Hill, Haddington, Scotland. 
Trachyte, Monte Nuovo, Phlegraean Fields, near Naples, Italy . 
Trachyte, Algersdorf , Bohemia 


66-06 
64-38 
6i-35 
6o-33 
64. -60 


16-46 
16-98 
16-88 

18-74 
l8--*Q 


2-25 
4-04 
0-41 
2-84 


I-IO 

5-oi 
1-29 

V44 


O-I9 
0-28 
0-44 
0-38 

O-4Q 


0-79 
i -08 
2-39 
I-I5 
1-72 


6-81 

7-57 
5-26 

7-iS 
4-61 


5-52 
4-30 

6-12 

7-30 
6-46 


0-62 
1-64 
1-70 
0-56 

O-2d 























others are probably dikes or thin intrusions. As the analyses given 
above will show, they differ from trachytes mainly in being richer 
in soda. (J. S. F.) 

TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through 
Provencal tr octal and Ital. trattato), in the literary signification, 
a work in which some particular subject, or aspect of a subject, 
is treated. As far as derivation is concerned, a tract is identical 
with a treatise, but by custom the latter word has come to be used 



tract form. They vary in importance from the Society for 
Promoting Christian Knowledge (London), the Religious Tract 
Society (London) and the American Tract Society (New York) 
all of which are publishing houses of recognized standing to 
small and purely local organizations for distributing evangelistic 
and pastoral literature. It was not until the Evangelical Revival 
that tract work began to develop along its modern lines. Start- 
ing from the provision of simple evangelistic literature for home 



n8 



TRACTION 



use, the enterprise grew into the provision of Christian literature, 
not only for home use, but also for the mission fields of the 
world. With this growth there proceeded another develop- 
ment, the production of books and magazines being added to 
that of tracts. The title " Tract Society " has, in fact, become 
misleading, as suggestive of limitations which had but a brief 
existence and are no longer recognized by the more important 
agencies. On the other hand it must not be supposed that 
because the work has gone beyond the provision of tracts, these 
are no longer widely employed. Probably their use in various 
forms at home was never wider than it is to-day; whilst in 
India, China and elsewhere the attack of the Christian tracts 
is being met by the circulation of vernacular tracts in defence 
of the non-Christian faiths. 

The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, founded in 1698, 
though most widely known as a publishing agency, assists in a wide 
variety of ways the work of the Church of England. On its publica- 
tion side, it is for its own Church both a Bible society and a tract 
society. Moreover, its publications include not only versions 
of the Holy Scriptures and of the Liturgy, but also theological and 
general literature in many forms. It has given much attention to 
providing good reading for children; whilst its tract catalogue is 
especially rich in works bearing on Christian evidences, Church 
seasons and the doctrines of the Anglican Church. .To the foreign 
missions of the Church the S.P.C.K. has been a helper of the utmost 
value, more especially in regard to their medical missions and their 
use of Christian literature. In the latter case the help is given by 
grants of works produced either at home or by mission presses in 
the field. As early as 1 720 it was using Arabic ; but it has from time 
to time been of especial value in helping to found a Christian 
literature in languages or dialects just reduced to writing. Thus 
whilst recent publications for the mission field include works in 
Arabic, Chinese and Urdu, they also include publications in Addo, 
Lunyoro and Sgau Karen. 

The Religious Tract Society, founded in 1 799, and thus contemporary 
with the great missionary agencies and the Bible Society, is, like the 
last-named, an interdenominational organization. Its earliest 
publications were in English and were tracts. But it speedily 
undertook book publications and extended its field of operations. 
It began to provide tracts for China in 1813, and as early as 1817 
an auxiliary tract society was founded at Bellary in India by some 
men of the 84th Regiment. In undertaking book publication, the 
society became one of the pioneers in the provision of sound and 
cheap literature; whilst by the issue of the Sunday at Home, the 
Leisure Hour, the Boy's Own Paper, the Girl's Own Paper, the 
Cottager and Artisan and other periodicals, it helped to lead the 
work in the provision of popular magazines. Like the S.P.C.K., 
the R.T.S. now produces general theological literature as well as 
tracts in a variety of forms, whilst it also gives especial attention 
to the provision of healthy reading matter for young people. Its 
grants of books and tracts are open to members of all Protestant 
denominations. The society aids Protestant communities on the 
Continent by maintaining dep6ts at Madrid, Barcelona, Lisbon, 
Vienna, Budapest and Warsaw; whilst it also assists, by grants, 
publication work in France, Italy, Russia, Turkey and Scandinavia. 
In the mission field it works mainly through subsidiary tract societies 
|ocally organized. The chief of these tract and book societies are 
in India carried on at Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, Bangalore, 
Allahabad and Lahore; in China at Peking, Shanghai, Hong Kong, 
Canton, Hankow, Chung-king and Mukden; and in Japan at Tokio. 
The literature produced by these organizations ranges from com- 
mentaries on the Holy Scriptures to the simplest tracts and leaflets. 
In 1908 the society opened a special fund in aid of its Chinese work, 
and by this means the provision of Christian literature in book 
and tract form for Chinese readers has been greatly extended. 
Much literature for various foreign fields is also produced in Great 
Britain and distributed from the society's headquarters. As with the 
S.P.C.K., the R.T.S. has been of great service in providing (next 
to the Holy Scriptures) the earliest literature for some languages. 
Thus it has helped to provide tracts for the Miaos of west 
China and for the Baganda, together with the Pilgrim's Progress 
in Bemba and in Ewe\ two little-known African tongues. The 
languages in which works produced or aided by the society have 
appeared number about 300. In the distribution of its grants 
of tracts for home work nearly all the great evangelical organiza- 
tions have a share. In the administration of a subsidiary tract 
society all the evangelical agencies at work in its field are as a rule 
represented. 

In addition to the work of these societies, the production and 
distribution of_tracts at home is carried on by The Stirling Tract 
Enterprise, wh'ch also sends grants of its publications to India, 
Ceylon and Ainca; by The Children's Special Service Mission, which 
also issues publications in Chinese, Japanese and some Indian 
languages; and by The Scripture Gift Mission, which sends its publi- 
cations into China and the East generally. In the mission field 
The Christian Literature Society for India (formerly the Christian 



Vernacular Educational Society), established in 1858, has its head- 
quarters in London with auxiliary committees in India and Ceylon. 
It will always be associated with the name of Dr John Murdoch 
(d. Aug. ip, 1904), its secretary for nearly half a century. It 
works on similar lines to the tract societies, but includes a wider 
range of educational literature, in the provision of which it has 
been especially helpful to the mission schools of India. 

The Christian Literature Society for China (formerly the Society 
for the Diffusion of Literature and General Knowledge among the 
Chinese) is incorporated (1909) in Shanghai, but has an advisory 
committee and an executive committee in London. It has been 
of great service in approaching the official and upper classes of 
China by its magazines and .books, as well as by the diffusion 
of more popular literature. 

The American Tract Society (New York) works, both in regard 
to domestic and foreign enterprises, upon similar lines to those of 
the Religious Tract Society. Upper Canada has its tract society 
also and similar organizations exist on the continent of Europe. 

(A. R. B.) 

TRACTION (Lat. trahere, to draw), the act of drawing or 
hauling. As used in this article the term refers to the methods 
of employing animal and mechanical power for transporting 
persons or things from place to place in wheeled vehicles. 

Animal Traction. The oldest form of motive power is that 
of animals, those most commonly employed for draught purposes 
on ordinary roads being horses, mules, donkeys and oxen. On 
the continent of Europe dogs are often harnessed to light carts 
or barrows, but in England their use in this way was prohibited 
by the Cruelty to Animals Act of 1854. Camels and elephants 
are only rarely used as draught animals in special circumstances. 

When men and animals carry burdens, or draw or propel 
loads in certain vehicles, it is difficult, and sometimes impossible, 
to determine the duty performed in foot-pounds of work, 
because of the uncertainty of the amount in pounds of the 
resistance overcome. In this case, for the purpose of comparing 
performances of the same kind with each other, a unit is 
employed called a foot-pound of horizontal transport, meaning 
the conveying of a load of i ft i ft. horizontally. The 
following table, given by W. J. Macquorn Rankine, gives 
some examples of the daily duty of men and horses in units 
of horizontal transport, L denoting the load in ft, V the 
velocity in feet per second, and T the number of seconds per 
day of working: 





L. 


V. 


T 

3600" 


LV. 


LVT. 




ib. 


Feet 
per 

second. 


Hours 
per 
day. 


Ib. con- 
veyed 
i ft. 


Ib. conveyed 
i ft. 


MAN 












Walking unloaded , transport of own ) 
weight ) 


140 


5-o 


10 


700 


25,200,000 


Do. do 
Wheeling load L in two-wheeled barrow, ) 
returning empty; V = velocity . J 


140 
224 


6-0 
1-6 


10 
10 


840 
373 


30,240,000 
13,428,000 


Do. one-wheeled barrow, do. . 


135 


i 6 


IO 


225 


8,100,000 


Travelling with burden 
Conveying burden, returning unloaded 


00 

140 


ri 


7 
6 


225 
233 


5,670,000 
5,032,800 


I 


252 










Carrying burden for 30 seconds only <. 


126 


n-7 





1474-2 





( 





23-1 











HORSE 












Walking with cart always loaded . 


500 


3'6 


IO 


5400 


194,400,000 


Trotting do. do. 


750 


72 


*i 






Walking with cart, going loaded, re- ) 
turning empty; V = i mean velocity ) 


500 


2-O 


VI 
IO 


5400 

3000 


108,000,000 


Carrying burden, walking .... 


270 


3'6 


IO 


972 


34.902,000 


Do. trotting .... 


1 80 


7-2 


7 


1296 


32,659,200 



For tramway service, horse, or occasionally mule, traction 
was formerly employed almost universally, but on account of 
limited speed and high cost it has been generally abandoned, 
except in a few localities, where the smallness of the line, low 
value of livestock, labour and feed, and long headway intervals, 
make it still profitable. 

The tractive force required on a straight and level tramway 
is found to vary from T^TT to -$ of the load, according to the 
condition of the rails. On a tramway having grooved rails 
in average condition it is about T^T- The resistance is thus, 
at the best, nearly double that on a railway, and sometimes 
as much as on a good paved road. This is due to the friction 
of the flange of the wheel in the grooved rail, and to the fact 
that the latter is always more or less clogged with dirt. The 



TRACTION 



119 



clearance between the flange and the groove is necessarily 
small, as the former must have sufficient strength, and the 
latter must be narrow. The least inaccuracy of gauge, there- 
fore, causes extra friction, which is greatly increased on curves. 
By removing the flanges from two of the four wheels of the 
tramway car H. E. Tresca (1814-1885) found that the resistance 
was reduced from ^fa to j-J-g- of the load. The resistance due 
to gravity is of course not lessened on a tramway; and if T-^<J of 
the load be the tractive force required on the level, twice as 
much, or -jV of the load, will be required on a gradient of i in 
100 and three times as much on a gradient of i in 50. To 
start a tramcar, four or five times as great a pull is required 
as will keep it in motion afterwards, and the constant starting 
after stoppages, especially on inclines, is destructive to horses. 
Horses employed on tramways are worked only a few hours a 
day, a day's work being a journey of 10 or 12 m., and much 
less on steep gradients. In London a tramcar horse bought 
at the age of five years had to be sold at a low price after about 
four years' work. On the Edinburgh tramways, in consequence 
of steep gradients, the horses lasted a less time, and had 
to be constantly shifted from steep to easier gradients. The 
cost of traction by horses is generally 6d. or 7d. per mile for 
two horses, and more when the gradients are steep (see also 
TRAMWAY) . 

Steam Traction. The most universally used form of motive 
power is the steam engine, which has been constructed to work 
on ordinary roads, on tramways and on railways. The road 
or traction engine comprises a boiler mounted on wheels, and a 
steam engine usually placed on top of the boiler. The front 
axle is pivoted so that it may be moved by means of a steering 
wheel geared to it, and the rear wheels are geared to the engine. 
The wheel rims are made wide to prevent them from sinking 
in loose earth or muddy roads. The whole arrangement is 
similar to the ordinary wheeled portable boiler and engine with 
the addition of the steering wheel and a gear connexion from the 
engine to the rear wheels. The tractive power of these engines 
is high, but their speed low usually 4 to 6 m. per hour. 

A peculiar form of road motor is made by equipping the axles of 
a traction engine with the so-called " Pedrail " invented by B. J. 
Diplock. This is an arrangement whereby circular pads or " feet," 
fastened around the periphery of a wheel, come successively in 
contact with the ground, the motion approximating to a smooth, 
even stepping or walking along. Fourteen of these feet are placed 



on the ground as the movement of the engine proceeds, and the engine 
itself rolls along on the rail portion of the cam which rests on the 
rollers beneath it. Ball and socket joints are used to connect the 
feet to the spokes so that they may rest on any conformation they 
may 'encounter. This machine has shown a remarkable ability 
to pass over obstacles and rough roads, and even to climb roadless 
hills. It gives a maximum of adhesion of the drivers, and it is 
claimed that it will pass over rough roads with the expenditure 
of less energy than will an ordinary wheeled traction engine. Its 
speed is necessarily low about 4 m. per hour. 




FIG. 2. Chain Track Tractor. 

The Hornsby " Chain Track Tractor " (fig. 2), patented by Mr 
David Roberts, is provided with two endless chains, one on each 
side, which constitute the track on which the machine travels. 
Each chain is carried on two sprocket wheels, placed at the extreme 





(From The Scientific American.) 

Position of the parts in overcoming Position of the parts on a level 

obstacles. road. 

FIG. I. Principle of the Pedrail's operation. 

around a wheel, and each is attached at the end of a spoke, free 
to slide radially toward and from the hub of the wheel. Each spoke 
has fastened to it a helical spring which tends to draw it inwards. 
On each spoke there is also a roller, which bears against a cam-shaped 
piece placed inside the periphery of the wheel. The engine is sus- 
pended by springs from the cam and is supported by it. The lower 
edge of the cam is practically straight and horizontal, the length of 
this straight portion being great enough to subtend an angle equal 
to the spacing of three spokes, or about 70. By this means three 
of the feet are always resting on the roadway and support the engine, 
which really slides along on the rollers that are at any instant under- 
neath the flat portion of the cam. The feet take successive positions 



FIG. 3. Links of Chain Track. 

ends of the frame, and is formed of a number of links (fig. 3) so 
connected that it is free to bend in one direction, as required to 
pass round the sprocket wheels, but is locked into a rigid bar by 
pressure acting in the opposite direction. On their outer surfaces 
these links bear pads or feet, while their inner 
surfaces compose a track upon which roll the 
middle or weight-bearing wheels. Power applied 
to one of the sprocket wheels exerts a pull on 
the chain, but this being held fast by the weight 
of the engine pressing the feet to the ground, the 
effect is to roll the engine along the track, and 
as this happens the feet at the rear end are one 
by one lifted off the ground, carried round the 
sprocket wheels, and relaid at the front of the 
machine. This construction not only renders the 
whole weight available for adhesion, but also 
provides a long supporting base and thus enables 
the machine to pass over soft ground, loose sand, 
morasses, &c., in which an ordinary traction 
engine would certainly sink. Steering is effected 
by retarding or stopping the motion of the sprocket 
wheels on the side towards which it is desired to 
turn. 

For tramway work steam is scarcely used at 
all now, though small locomotives usually 
having their engines geared to the driving- 
wheels, instead of the connecting-rods being 
coupled direct to them have been used in the 
They were compactly designed and equipped 



past for this work. 

with mufflers to deaden the sound of the exhaust, with other 
devices to decrease noise and smoke. In some instances, the 
engine and boiler were placed in the forward end of a car, a 
partition separating them from the main body of the car in which 
the' passengers were carried. 

For description of steam railway engines see RAILWAYS: Loco- 
motive Power, and STEAM ENGINE. 

Fireless Engines. Fireless engines were first tried in New 
Orleans, and were in successful use on tramways in France and 



I2O 



TRACTION 



Batavia, Java, for some years. The motive power was obtained 
from water heated under pressure to a very high temperature 
in stationary boilers and carried in a reservoir on the engine, 
where it gave off steam as the pressure and temperature were 
reduced. Two tons of water heated to give a steam-pressure 
of 250 Ib to the square inch served for a run of 8 or 10 m., more 
than i^j- of the water and a pressure of 20 to 25 ib above the 
atmosphere being left on returning to the boiler station. Large 
boiler-power was required to reheat the engine reservoirs quickly, 
and this could be afforded for only a few engines; but, when 
worked on a sufficient scale, the fireless engines were claimed to 
be economical, the economy resulting from the generation of the 
steam in large stationary boilers. 

Compressed Air. Compressed air as a motive power offers 
the advantage of having neither steam nor the products of 
combustion to be got rid of. In W. D. Scott Moncrieff's engine, 
which was tried on the Vale of Clyde tramways in 1876, air was 
compressed to 310 Ib per sq. in., and expanded in the cylinders 
from a uniform working pressure to that of the atmosphere. 
There is a considerable loss of heat during the expansion of the 
air which is attended with a serious loss of pressure, and in 
L. Mekarski's system, which was in use for the propulsion of 
tramcars at Nantes for a number of years, the loss of pressure 
was considerably lessened by heating the air during expansion. 
The air, at a pressure of 426 Ib per sq. in., was stored in 
cylindrical reservoirs beneath the car, and before use was passed 
through a vessel three-quarters full of water heated to 300 F., by 
which it was heated and mixed with steam. The heat of the 
latter was absorbed by the air during its expansion, first to a 
working pressure which could be regulated by the driver, and 
then to atmospheric pressure in the cylinders. At Nantes the 
average cost for three years of propelling a car holding thirty- 
four persons was about 6d. per mile. Owing to the heat losses 
in compressing the air, and other considerable losses incident to 
its use, the compressed-air systems of traction have been found 
inefficient and have nearly all been replaced by the more flexible 
and efficient electric motor. 

Cable Traction. Moving steel cables, propelled by steam 
engines, have been used for traction. The street railway cars 
running from New York to Brooklyn, over the Brooklyn Bridge, 
were for many years propelled by a cable to or from which the 
cars could be attached or detached at will, and, though electric 
motors are now used on this line, the cables are still kept in 
place as a reserve in case of breakdown of the electrical system, 
and are used whenever an accident to the electrical plant occurs. 
Before the advent of electric traction, the tramways using cable 
propulsion were numerous and of great size, as at San Francisco, 
Chicago, Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia and New York 
in America, at Highgate Hill (London) and Edinburgh in the 
United Kingdom, and at Melbourne in Australia. The Glasgow 
Subway is so equipped. 

In the usual form, the motive power is transmitted from a station- 
ary engine by a rope of steel wire running always in one direction, 
up one track and down the other, in a tube 
midway between the rails, on pulleys (fig. 4) 
which are arranged so as to suit curves 
and changes of gradient as well as straight 
and level lines. Over the rope is a slot \ in. 
wide, in which travels a flat arm of steel 
connecting the dummy car with the gripper 
(fig- 5) which grasps the cable. The flat 
arm is in three pieces, the two outer ones 
constituting a frame which carries the lower 
jaw of the gripper, with grooved rollers at 
each end of it, over which the cable runs when 
the gripper is not in action. The upper jaw 
is carried by the middle piece which slides within the outer frame, 
and can be depressed by a lever or screw, pressing the cable first 
on the rollers and then on the lower jaw until it is firmly held. The 
speed of the cable, which is generally 8 to 10 m. an hour, is thus 
imparted to the car gradually and without jerk. The arrangements 
for passing the pulleys, for changing the dummy and cars from one 
line to the other at the end of the road, for keeping the cable 
uniformly taut, and for crossings and junctions with other lines, are 
of considerable ingenuity. When the cars are cast off from the cable 
they must be stopped by hand brakes which, on steep gradients 
especially, must be of great power. 




_ 
' 



_ . 

r-K| r TJ S ^4 tl n 




Gasolene Engine Traction. Explosive engines using gasolene 
(petrol) have been used for motive power, and this is the 
principal form employed 
in the road motor car. 
Certain railways in Eng- 
land and America have 
experimented with cars 
having a gasolene engine 
placed in one end to 
propel the car, the greater 
part of which is left clear 
for the accommodation of 
passengers. These cars 
are intended for short 
runs and may in effect be 
classed as belonging to ex- 
tended tramway service. 
They have yielded en- 
couraging results. 

Electric Traction. 
Electric traction, as 
treated here, will refer to 
the operation of vehicles 
for the transportation of 
passengers and goods 
upon tracks, as distin- 
guished from what are 
known as telpherage sys- 
tems on the one hand 
(see CONVEYORS) , and 
automobiles intended to 
run on common roads on 
the other (see MOTOR 
VEHICLES). 

Possibly the first elec- 
tric motor was that made FlG - 5- Gripper. 
by the Abbe Salvatore 

dal Negro in Italy in 1830. As early as 1835, Thomas Daven- 
port, a blacksmith of Brandon, Vermont, U.S.A., constructed 
and exhibited an automobile electric car, operated by batteries 
carried upon it. Robert Davidson, of Aberdeen, Scotland, 
began experimenting about 1838 with the electric motor as 
a means of traction, and constructed a very powerful engine, 
weighing five tons and carrying a battery of forty cells. This 
locomotive made several successful trips on Scottish railways, 
but was finally wrecked by jealous employes of the railway 
while it was lying in the car sheds at Perth. In 1840 a pro- 
visional patent was granted in England to Henry Pinkus, which 
described a method of supplying electric energy to a moving 
train from fixed conductors. A little later, in 1845, French and 
Austrian patents granted to Major Alexander Bessolo described 
practically what is to-day the third-rail system. In 1847 
Professor Moses G. Farmer, of Maine, U.S.A., built a model 
locomotive operated by electricity, which he exhibited at Dover, 
New Hampshire, and later at other places in New England. 
Shortly afterwards Professor C. G. Page, of the Smithsonian 
Institution in Washington, constructed an electric railway 
motor, which made a trip on the 2gth of April 1851, from 
Washington, D.C., to Bladensburg, Maryland, over the Baltimore 
& Ohio railway. This machine carried 100 Grove's cells, and 
attained speeds as high as 19 m. an hour. Perhaps the beginning 
of modern electric traction may be said to date from 1879, when 
the firm of Siemens & Halske put in operation the first electric 
railway at the Industrial Exposition in Berlin. In America it 
was not until a year later that real work began and T. A. Edison 
built an experimental line near his laboratory in Menlo Park, 
New Jersey. In 1880 a locomotive driven by accumulators 
was constructed and operated at a linen-bleaching establishment 
at Breuil-en-Auge, in France; and in 1881 a similar car was 
worked upon the Vincennes tramway line. On the I2th of May 
1 88 1 the first commercial electric railway for regular service 
was opened for operations at Lichterfelde, in Germany. The 



TRACTION 



121 



first really noteworthy road was that constructed in 1883 at the 
Giant's Causeway at Portrush, in the north of Ireland. This 
line was 6 m. long, and the power was obtained from turbine 
wheels actuated by a cascade on the river Rush. The method of 
supply was, curiously enough, the third rail. 

In 1883 invention in electric railways seems to have taken 
a decided advance in America. It was in this year that the 
conflicting interests of Edison and S. D. Field were consolidated; 
and at the same time C. J. van Depoele and Leo Daft began their 
experimental work, which later resulted in numerous commercial 
railways. Next year E. H. Bentley and Walter Knight opened 
to the public in Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A., a railway operated by 
an open-slot conduit, and for the first time worked in competition 
with horse traction on regular street railway lines. For the next 
two years much experimental work was done, but it may be 
said with fairness that the first of the thoroughly modern 
systems, in which a large railway was equipped and operated 
under service conditions by electricity, was the line built in 
Richmond, Virginia, U.S.A., by Frank J. Sprague in 1887. This 
railway had 13 m. of track, and started with an equipment of 
forty cars. It has been in continuous and successful commercial 
operation ever since. The original Richmond system was in 
all its essential particulars the overhead trolley system now in 
use. Many improvements have been made in the construction 
of the motors, the controllers, the trolleys and the various 
details of car equipment and overhead construction, but the 
broad principles have not been departed from. The success of 
the Richmond line called the attention of tramway managers to 
the advantages of electricity as a motive power, and its substitu- 
tion for other systems progressed with astonishing rapidity. 

The pioneer application of electricity to heavy electric traction 
was that of the Baltimore & Ohio railway tunnel at Baltimore, 
Md., U.S.A., and the system was put into operation in 1895. 
This tunnel is about ij m. in length and passes under the 
city of Baltimore. Its route made the expense of ventilation 
prohibitive, and the smoke and gases from the locomotives 
made the use of the tunnel impossible without ventilation. 
The management therefore decided to attempt the use of 
electric locomotives to haul the trains through, despite the 
fact that there existed no prior applications of heavy electric 
motors for even far lighter service than that demanded by the 
conditions, namely, the propulsion of trains of over 2000 tons 
up a grade of 42 ft. to the mile. The engineering work and 
designing of the locomotives were undertaken by Dr Louis 
Duncan. The locomotives weigh 96 tons and have worked 
successfully since they were first put into commission. The 
electric service has been extended 6 m. from the mouth of the 
tunnel, making a total haul of nearly 8 m. for these locomotives. 
In 1907 many heavy electric locomotives using continuous 
current were constructed for the New York Central & Hudson 
River Railroad Company to operate a distance of about 5 m. from 
the New York terminus, and others for practically the same 
service, but using single-phase alternating currents, were put in 
for the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad Company. 

It has been fully demonstrated that electricity is superior 
to its competitors horses and moving cables for tramway 
work. It is cheaper and more flexible. The relative cost of 
operation varies with the local conditions, but a fair average 
estimate would be that cable lines cost 25% more to operate 
than electric, and horse lines 100% more. The increased speed 
of the electric cars and the comfort rendered possible by larger 
vehicles always increase the receipts when horse traction is 
replaced by electric, while the latter, as compared with the 
cable, allows better and easier control of the car and a much 
greater possible speed variation. The installation of an overhead 
electric line costs less than a cable system, though the expense 
of a conduit electric line is about the same. By the extension 
of the urban tramway systems into the suburbs and the construc- 
tion of inter-urban lines, electricity has come into competition 
with steam. Here the conditions are different. For ordinary 
suburban service, the electric cars, running through the city 
streets and on the highways, cannot, in speed, compete with 



steam trains operated on private rights of way. The fact that 
they run more frequently and can take up passengers anywhere 
along the line gives them an advantage, and within limited 
distances they have taken a large proportion of suburban traffic 
from steam railways. For long-distance service, in order to 
compete with steam a speed much greater than that used on 
ordinary tram-lines must be adopted, while owing to the time 
spent on the car more attention must be paid to the comfort 
of the passenger. Speed and comfort being equal, the great 
advantage of electricity is that, when it is used, the most 
economical way of transporting a given number of passengers 
between two points is in a larger number of small trains; with 
steam the converse is true. A frequent service is a great 
attraction to passengers. 

For freight service, especially on railways having heavy 
grades, electricity also possesses many advantages, due princi- 
pally to the peculiarity of the electric locomotive, which admits 
of its maintaining its tractive effort or so-called " draw-bar 
pull " when running at relatively high speeds. This steam loco- 
motives cannot do. Thus a steam locomotive weighing 100 tons 
may exert a draw-bar pull of say 45,000 Ib at a speed of 6 m. per 
hour, while at 1 5 m. per hour the continuous draw-bar pull will 
not exceed about 25,000 Ib. On the other hand, an electric 
locomotive weighing 75 tons and having a tractive effort of 
34,000 Ib at 6 m. per hour will exert a pull of about 27,000 Ib 
at 25 m. per hour. From this it is clear that an electric locomo- 
tive may pull a heavier train at a fair speed than can a larger 
steam locomotive. This admits of more rapid movement of 
freight trains, and thus decreases the hauling cost. Another 
advantage the electric system has for freight service is the 
ability to couple several light locomotives in tandem, all under 
the control of one driver, and thus pull at a high speed larger 
trains than may now be drawn by steam locomotives of weights 
commercially admissible. Also, these lighter motors distribute 
the weight over the track instead of having it concentrated on a 
few wheels, and the heavy pounding due to the latter condition 
is obviated and the maintenance of the track and bridges reduced. 
Other savings arise from diminished fuel consumption, elimina- 
tion of water and coal stations with their attendants, and greatly 
reduced repairs on motive power. The chief disadvantage 
is the stoppage of all trains on a section if the source of current 
supply should fail. With proper precautions in design and 
construction this should be a remote possibility, and since 
electric rail haulage, in any form attempted up to the present, 
has shown a reduced cost for a given service as compared 
with steam traction, it is not improbable that the future will 
witness great activity in the change from steam to electricity 
for long-distance railway work. 

Systems of electric traction may be divided broadly into two 
classes, the one employing continuous, the other alternating 
currents to drive the motors. Both of these classes may be 
further divided with reference to the conducting system 
employed between the source of current and the motor. The 
system may also be divided according to operative units into 
three classes the single car, the train pulled by one or more 
directly controlled locomotives or motor cars, and the train 
operated by two or more motor cars under a common secondary 
control. This last is called the " multiple unit system." 

Continuous-Current Systems. The applications of continuous 
current to electric traction comprise six principal varieties, with 
numerous modifications and combinations. In all of them the 
motors are operated under a constant, or approximately constant, 
potential difference. The system in which cars were connected in 
series by automatic switches, in limited use in the United States 
in 1888 and 1889, has now disappeared, and the parallel system 
of connexion, in which the cars are bridged across between the 
two conductors of a parallel system, maintained at a substantially 
constant voltage, has become practically universal. 

The overhead conductor and track-return construction is the 
standard for street railway work in most of the cities Ov . efftead 
where electric traction is employed, though there are 
some notable exceptions. In its present development the . ' 
system may be said to have grown out of the work of ' 
Sprague in Richmond in 1887. Over the track is suspended a bare 



122 



TRACTION 



wire, generally of hard-drawn copper, known as the trolley wire. The 
normal practice is to use a wire not less than 0-325 of an inch in 
diameter to assure permanence, since smaller wires wear out rapidly 
from the friction of the trolley and the burning of the surfaces of 
contact. The wire is usually of circular cross-section. Sometimes 
wires of other sections have been used, notably one having a cross- 
section similar to the figure 8, but the advantage of these forms is 
problematical, while the difficulty attending their proper installation 
is considerable. In some cases the working-conductor, or trolley 
wire, is suspended at one side of the track, connexion with it being 
'made by a side-bearing trolley, but its usual place is directly over 
the track, as this arrangement leads to simpler and more efficient 
construction of the trolleys and their accessory parts. For certain 
special cases, where very large currents are employed, the overhead 
conductor is made of bar metal or structural. shapes. In the Boston 
(Massachusetts) subway, where the traffic is very heavy, a bar of 
rectangular section is used, supported at frequent intervals from 
the roof. In the Baltimore & Ohio railway tunnel at Baltimore, 
Md., the steel working-conductor originally consisted of two Z 
bars forming a trough, the current being collected by an iron shoe, 
but this form has been replaced by a sectional third rail. But what- 
ever the nature of the conductor, it is usually insufficient to carry 
the current necessary for the operation of the system without 
excessive loss. Recourse is therefore had to feeders or reinforcing 
conductors. These may be of any form, but are most frequently 
copper wires or cables of large section, connected at intervals of 
a few hundred feet to the working-conductor. They are sometimes 
carried on poles, but municipal ordinances frequently require their 
installation in underground conduits. In general, it is customary 
to divide the working-conductor into sections of from 1000 to 5000 ft. 
in length, insulated from one another and fed separately through 
manual or automatic cut-out switches, so that an accident causing 
a short-circuit or break in continuity on one section will not impair 
the operation of others. 

In ordinary street railway construction two methods of suspending 
the trolley wire are in vogue. The most usual construction is to hang 
it from insulators attached to transverse wires running between pairs 
of poles set on opposite sides of the track. Bracket arms attached 
to poles are often used, especially on suburban lines; they are 
frequently double, or T-shaped, and placed between the two tracks 
of a double-track line. In the standard construction for either 
variety of suspension, the insulators are bell-shaped, and composed 
of some hard moulded or vitreous material. The trolley wire is 
supported by a clamp about 9 in. long, which embraces about 
three-quarters of its circumference. This clamp is usually made 
of bronze, and is now generally fastened to the trolley wire by a 
screw, causing the two parts of the clamp to close upon the wire 
as would the jaws of a vice, or is automatic, clamping the wire the 
more tightly as the strain upon it increases. It was formerly con- 
sidered expedient to solder the wire into the clamp, but this practice 
is now generally abandoned. The insulating bell is so designed 
that its material is subjected only to compression stresses by the 
weight of the wire. It is provided at its upper part with a single 
catch for attachment to the transverse wire or to the bracket arm. 
If a span wire is used it is fastened to the poles, there being turn- 
buckles to tighten it, while a strain insulator on either side gives 
a double insulation between the trolley wire and the poles. With 
a bracket construction it was formerly the custom to attach the 
insulator directly to the bracket arm, but the blow of the trolley 
wheel broke great numbers of insulators, and it has therefore become 
the practice to adopt some more flexible method of attachment, 
a number of different forms being in use. The poles between which 
the span wires are stretched, or to which the bracket arms are 
attached, are of wooa or iron. They are firmly set in the ground, 
usually with concrete. 

Another form of overhead construction for high speed service, 
brought out by the Westinghouse Company and known as the 
Catenary " Catenary " system (fig. 6), is designed to hold the 
Construe- contact or trolley wire in a horizontal position above 
tloa. t he track' without any dip or sag. Essentially it is 




FIG. 6. Single Catenary Line. 

made up of a supporting cable made of stranded galvanized steel 
wire T'J in. in diameter which is firmly fastened to brackets attached 
to the supporting poles and from which the trolley wire is suspended 



by means of rigid iron hangers spaced about 10 ft. apart. A proper 
sag is given the supporting cable, and the lengths of the hangers vary 
so that the trolley wire is held horizontal without sag. The con- 
struction resembles a single supporting cable and suspended chord 
of a suspension bridge. The trolley wire, the hangers and the sus- 
pension cable are all mechanically connected together and in metallic 
contact, so that the whole system acts as a conductor. The support- 
ing cable is held by insulators at the points where it is supported 
on the brackets at the poles. For heavy work there the currents 
taken by the passing cars and locomotives are great, requiring a 
very large trolley wire, two supporting cables are strung from pole 
to pole and the trolley wire suspended below and between the two. 




FIG. 7. Double Catenary Line. 



In this case the hangers are triangular in form and hung with the 
apex of the triangle downward. The two upper angles are fastened 
to the pair of supporting cables, while to the lower angle is attached 
the trolley wire. This arrangement is called the " douole catenary " 
construction (fig. 7). 

In order to provide a proper return path for the current, the track 
must be made electrically continuous. This is accomplished by 
bonding the individual lengths of rail together in some .. 
way, or by actually welding them together to form gL a M n , 
a continuous length. There are many types of rail- 
bonding. In most of them holes are drilled in the ends of adjacent 
rails, and a copper conductor inserted between them, its ends being 
in some way forced against the walls of the holes. In one type the 
bond is in the form of a hollow cylinder, the ends of which are inserted 
in the holes in the rails, a tapered steel pin being driven in so as to 
expand the cylinder out against the rail. In another form the end* 
of the bond is a solid cylinder, which is upset by hydraulic pressure, 
forcing it against the rail. A semi-plastic amalgam of mercury 
has been used to give a contact between the adjacent rails and the 
fish-plate connecting them. The most usual practice is tft use a 
short bond covered and protected by the fish-plates. Tracks used 
for a return circuit are cross-bonded at intervals. If the track 
return has too great an electrical resistance it is reinforced by 
conductors connected to it at intervals and extending back to the 
power-house. Neglect to provide a proper return circuit has often 
caused a great loss of energy, and, in many places, excessive electro- 
lytic action on iron pipes, cable sheaths and other metallic bodies 
buried in the earth. The lightning arresters provided on overhead 
lines are placed on the poles at intervals determined by the location 
of the line. 

In a few places the municipal authorities, in order to avoid the 
disturbances on telephone lines due to the fluctuation of a trolley 
current, and the electrolysis of gas and water pipes which oouftte 
may arise from a grounded return, have required the _ w 
erection of a double overhead system. In this each 
track has two trolley wires forming a complete metallic circuit. 
The largest system of this kind is in Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A., where 
there are over 225 m. of tram-lines. The system has the advantages 
to which it owes its existence, but the multiplicity of wires at 
crossings, right-angle turnouts and switches is so complicated 
that automatic switching cannot be attempted. The man in charge 
of the car removes the double trolley from the wires at such points, 
and replaces it when they are passed. The construction adopted, 
except in respect to the points mentioned, is practically similar to 
that already described for the track-return system. 

A number of patents have been granted in various countries for 
electric traction systems in which one or both of the fixed conductors 
are installed in a conduit underground, communication O . en . s j 0< 
being had with them by means of an open slot, into conduh. 
which projects a current-taking device of some nature 
carried by the car as it moves along. A system of this character 
was installed at Blackpool, England, m 1885, and later one was ve.-y 
successfully operated in Budapest. The first large and important 



TRACTION 



123 



installation of this character to be made was in Washington, D.C., 
U.S.A., where a considerable system of street railways was changed 
from horse operation to this new method. The success of this 
system, and of experiments made on Lenox Avenue, in New York 
City, led to the construction of many miles of railways of the conduit 
type in the latter city. It is also used extensively in London. 
(For details of the construction of the conduits, see TRAMWAY.) 
This system is much more expensive to install than the overhead 
trolley system, but experience has shown that it can be as economi- 
cally operated. Most of the troubles that have occurred have been 
due to lack of experience, but on the whole they have not been mre 
serious than those experienced with overhead systems. 

The great expense of the open conduit has led numerous inventors 
to bring out systems of operating electric railways by means of 
. closed conduits or sectional third rails, in which the 
c d it working-conductor is laid on the surface of the ground 
between the rails, and is connected with the source of 
current only as the car passes over each section. In this way the 
immediate section or portion of the working-conductor under the 
car is electrically active, but other sections are not, and all danger 
to the passage of street traffic is removed. Up to 1900, nearly one 
thousand patents for this type of street railway construction, known 
also as the " surface contact " system, had been granted by the 
United States patent office alone. So far the system has been 
introduced in but few places, but its performance has been more 
than promising, and it is thought that it will be more extensively 
adopted in the future. Among the more important railways at 
present equipped with it may be mentioned one in Paris, using 
the Diatto system, and one at Monte Carlo, where the Westing- 
house system is installed. In both these the current is supplied 
by means of " buttons " or metallic disks laid flush with the surface 
of the street between the tracks, and connected through switches 
to a working-conductor. Under the car is installed a current- 
taking device in the shape of a long runner or skate, which runs 
over the buttons and is appropriately connected with a storage 
battery on the car, so that when it touches one of the buttons 
current is sent from the battery through a system of electro-magnets 
operating the switches which connect that particular button to 
the feeding system, and thus the runners are enabled to receive 
current for the operation of the motors on the car. The various 
systems differ in the method of connecting the contact rail or 
button with the live conductors; in some a magnet on the car works 
a mechanism to make the desired contact, in others a current 
from batteries on the car actuates a switch located near the track. 
(See TRAMWAY.) 

The third-rail system, which is a development of the overhead 
trolley and track-return system, has been applied to several large 
and important railway installations, especially in the 
United States, and in the prolongation of the Orleans 
"'**' railway in Paris from the Place Valhubert to the 
new station at the Quai d'Orsay. Its name almost sufficiently 
indicates its method of operation. A rail similar to the track-rails 
is laid upon insulators and forms the working-conductor. On the 
elevated railways in New York, Brooklyn, Boston and Chicago 
and the subway in New York, a pressure of about 600 volts is 
used between this rail and the track-rails which form the return 
circuit. Contact is made with the third rail by means of a bronze 
or cast-iron shoe, either resting upon the rail by its own weight, 
or pressed down upon it by springs. This is generally attached 
to some part of the truck of the car in preference to any part of the 
body of the car, so as to avoid any vibration or swaying due to the 
movement of the body upon its springs. The third-rail system 
has been adopted in many instances where large and powerful 
trains are to be operated on private rights of way, but it is nowhere 
in use for electric traction upon highways or in streets where there 
is any passing of foot passengers or vehicles. An excellent example 
of such construction may be found in the Albany & Hudson 
railroad, which connects the city of Albany with the city of Hudson, 
in New York state. Here the length of the road is about 32 m., 
the track being of standard gauge and laid with a 6o-lb T-rail. 
A T-rail of the same size, raised about I ft. above the level of the 
running-rails, is used for the electrical conductor, and is installed 
on insulators situated 5 ft. apart on the ends of the cross-ties. 
AH these rails are well bonded with copper bonds at the joints. 
At road crossings, which on this railroad are at grade, the third 
rail is omitted for a distance nearly equal to the length of a train. 
Appropriate cast-iron shoes, fixed to the trucks of the front and 
rear cars of a train, bridge the space, so that the forward shoes are 
running on the rail past the break before the rev shoes leave it. 
Upon this railroad motors of considerable size and power are used, 
and both passengers and freight in their original cars, as received 
from connecting steam railways, are transported. Other examples 
of third-rail construction occur in the extension of the Baltimore & 
Ohio railway tunnel at Baltimore, the New York Central Railway 
Company's New York terminal, the underground systems of the 
City & South London railway, the Waterloo & City railway, and the 
Central London railway in London, and the Versailles division of the 
Western railway of France. In some cases, as on the Metropolitan, 
the District, and several of the " tube " railways in London, the 
running-rails are not used for the return circuit, which is 



completed by a fourth rail similar to the conductor rail, laid 
outside the track. 

One of the oldest forms of electric traction is by accumulators. 
In brief, its principle is that storage batteries, or accumulators, are 
carried on the car, which becomes a veritable automobile, -i.-,../.. 
It has been the usual practice to instal about 80 cells, tors 
giving a pressure of 160 to 175 volts at the motors; 
these are recharged after the car has run about 25 m. In general, 
the accumulators are not charged in place, but the car is supplied 
with a new set, fully charged, at the end of a run of about the length 
mentioned. The system has been installed in a very large number 
of places in Europe and America, but has never shown the gratify- 
ing commercial success which the direct-conduction systems 
exhibit, on account of the high cost and depreciation of storage 
batteries. In some places, notably in Hanover, Germany, where 
legislative ordinances have forbidden the overhead conducting 
system in city streets, a combination has been used whereby accumu- 
lator cars run in the city districts from the energy stored in their 
batteries, and in the suburbs operate directly as overhead trolley 
cars, the batteries being charged at the same time from the over- 
head system. 

Alternating Current Systems. Alternating current systems are 
now being used, both single-phase and three-phase. In the former 
case the newly-developed single-phase motors, later to - . ., 
be described, are employed, while with three-phase M> vPase. 
systems induction motors are used. The polyphase current is 
much used as a means of .distributing energy from a central power- 
station over extended lines of railways, but is generally converted 
into direct current through the agency of rotary converters, and 
fed to the lines as such. There are, however, a few railways working 
directly with induction motors upon a three-phase system of supply. 
Prominent among these may be mentioned the Valtellina railway 
in Italy and the Jungfrau railway in Switzerland. Upon these 
lines the rails are used as one of the three conductors, and two 
trolley wires are suspended above the track. The locomotive is 
provided with two trolleys, one running upon each wire, and con- 
sists simply of an induction motor coupled through appropriate 
gearing to the mechanism of the truck. For starting a large 
resistance is introduced into the rotor or secondary circuit of the 
motors by means of collecting rings placed on its shaft, upon which 
bear brushes. This resistance is cut out as the speed increases, 
until it is all withdrawn and the rotor is short-circuited, when full 
speed is attained. It has been found that potential differences 
of about 500 volts in each phase can be safely handled, and it is 
claimed that the few railways which use polyphase currents have 
shown gratifying results in practice. 

In the early years of the 2Oth century single-phase alternating 
current motors for electric traction were developed, and single- 
phase systems were extensively installed both in Europe ~. ^ 
and in America. The simplest type of single-phase 
motor is a series motor provided with the usual commu- 
tator and brushes, in which the current passes through both the 
field coils and the armature coils. The armature and field windings 
being traversed by the same current, the reversal of the field magne- 
tization and that of the direction of current flow in the armature 
are coincident, so that the turning effort or torque, on the armature 
current produced by the interaction of armature and field magne- 
tization is always in the same direction. Since the alternating current 
passes through both members of the motor, the armature and field 
cores are both laminated. In the later types of these motors the 
field coils are distributed and embedded in the field ring, so that the 
inner surface of the field ring presents a practically smooth surface 
to the armature. Troubles were at first experienced with commu- 
tation of the heavy alternating currents required for the operation 
of these motors, vicious sparking taking place at the brushes. 
This was overcome by the use of auxiliary or " compensating " 
coils, which are embedded in the field magnet ring, being placed 
between successive magnet coils. These compensating coils are 
usually connected in series with the main armature and field circuit. 
They may each, however, have their two ends joined together, 
(short-circuited), the currents in them being induced by the 
alternating magnetic flux of the fields. 

Motors of the above types have the general characteristics of 
direct current series motors, and possess the same general relations 
between speed and torque that are such an important element in 
the success of direct current series motors. The efficiency of alter- 
nating current motors is not quite so good as that of direct current 
motors, on account of the rapid reversal of the iron magnetization 
in the field magnets, but their efficiency is high and their perform- 
ance in practical work has been excellent (fig. 8). 

There is another type of single-phase motor that has been used 
in Europe, but not in America, which is commonly called the repul- 
sion motor. In these motors the armature is not directly included 
in the main circuit, but opposite points 'on the commutator are 
connected together through brushes. The working current is fed 
to the field magnets, and the rapid reversals of magnetization induce 
currents in the armature coils, which currents, working with the field 
magnetization, cause rotation. Several types of repulsion motors 
have been developed, and in general their characteristics are similar 
to those of the plain series type. They have not, however, come 



124 



TRACTION 



into extended commercial use. Single-phase motors for a given 
power are much larger, heavier and more expensive than the ordinary 
direct current motors, owing to the low magnetic densities at which 
the iron is worked. The power factor is between 0-75 and 0-85. 



A. 

P* 

--: 

I 

4 

1000 

uoo 

1200 
1000 
800 
600 
400 
200 






L 


25 


ts v< 


.1 












































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/ 








\ 








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100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 

imperas 
FIG. 8. Characteristics of Series Single-phase Motor. 

The advantages of the single- phase alternating system lie in the fact 
that it combines the simplicity of the overhead direct current con- 
struction with the possibility of exceedingly high voltage. Where 
heavy traffic is to be handled, and especially where that traffic is 
scattered, a direct current system, which up to the present has been 
limited in its voltage, is not commercially possible, as the amount of 
copper used for distribution and the excessive amount of apparatus 
required to convert high tension alternating current into low tension 
direct current, would make the cost prohibitive. In direct current 



WESTINGHOUSE RAILWAY MOTOR 

500 VOLTS 

GEAR RATIO, 16 TO 73 "33" WHEELS 
CONTINUOUS CAPACITY 60 AMPERES AT 300 VOLTS 
.. .. 55 .. .. 400 " 




FIG. 9. 

systems for lines of any length, it is the custom to use alternating 
current of high potential and to reduce it to direct current of low 
potential at different points along the line. This involves rotary 
converters, which by their nature require attendance in the sub- 
stations, while if the traffic is scattered so that the load on the sub- 



stations may at times be zero, and at other times may be very large, 
the capacity of the sub-stations must be equal to handling a maxi- 
mum load, so that the total capacity of each sub-station, would be 
based on the maximum instead of on an average condition. With 
the single-phase alternating current system, on the contrary, only 
static transformers in sub-stations along the line are required, and 
with the high voltages available (voltages as high as 11,000 volts are 
used at present) the distances between these sub-stations can be 
greatly increased as compared with the direct current sub-stations, 
so that each sub-station feeding a much longer portion of the 
line would have a better average load than in the direct current 
case. The static transformers do not require attendance, and their 
efficiency is much higher than that of the rotary converters. 

Electric motors for traction purposes have been highly elaborated 
and developed. At first they drove the car axles through belts or 
sprocket chains, the motor being sometimes attached 
to the car, sometimes to the truck. At Richmond, 
however, in 1887, the Sprague method of communicating the power 
from the motor axle to the car axle was put into practical operation, 
and this has with slight modifications been retained. It consists 
of sleeving one end of the motor on the axle, suspending the other 




FIG. 10. Standard Railway Motor. 



flexibly from the car body or truck, and driving from the armature 
through spur gearing. At first the motors were too small for the 
work demanded of them. Their high speed required a double 
reduction in gearing, their overheating caused continual burn-outs, 
and the sparking at the commutators necessitated constant repairs. 
These defects were gradually eliminated. The motors were made 
larger, the quality of the iron and insulation was greatly improved, 
and finally a four-pole motor requiring only a single-speed reduction 
by spur-gearing was produced. Since that time further improve- 
ments in material and design have been introduced, and the present 
motor has been evolved. Almost all the standard modern traction 
motors are of the same general design. They are series wound, i.e. 
the same current passes through both the armature and the fields. 
This gives a strong starting torque or tractive effort, the torque 
diminishing as the speed increases. This characteristic is particu- 
larly suitable for traction. Fig. 9 shows the relation between speed 
and tractive effort of a standard railway motor of large size and 
power. The armature is built up of carefully tested iron disks, 
which are deeply slotted to make room for the coils. These are 
wound and insulated separately, and placed in the slots in the 
armature core; sometimes they are held in place by binding wire, 
sometimes by wedges. The commutator is put in place, the coil 
connexions soldered to it, and the proper end-coverings put on. 
The magnet frame is made in two parts, of cast steel, enclosing the 
entire armature. A lid in the top casting gives access to the 
brushes, which are of carbon. The field coils are wound on forms 
and properly insulated. When in operation it is practically water 



TRACTION 



125 



and dust proof, and with proper attention is a very durable piece 
of machinery (fig. 10). Although the standard design of motors 
is at present based on a single-reduction gearing, there are in 
operation traction-motors which are not geared. 

On the locomotives used on the New York Central, the New York, 
New Haven & Hartford, and the Baltimore & Ohio railways in 
America, the City & South London railway in England, the 
armatures surround the driving axles. In all the cases mentioned, 
except the Baltimore & Ohio railway, the armatures are set 
directly on and solid with the axles of the driving-wheels, while on 
the Baltimore & Ohio locomotives the motors are sleeved on the 
axles, there being a slight play between the sleeve and the axle, 
which allows a flexible support. The wheels are driven by arms 
projecting from the armature shaft. 

There is no fixed method of rating the output of traction-motors. 
Most manufacturers, in giving a certain horse-power capacity, 
mean that at the given rating the motor will run an hour with a rise 
in temperature of a certain number of degrees, not that it can be run 
continuously at the power given. Another system of rating depends 
on the draw-bar pull which the motor can develop under normal 
conditions of voltage and speed. Uniformity is greatly needed. 

One of the most important parts of the equipment of an electric 
car or locomotive is the controlling device. In the early days of 
Contrail rs ?' ectr ' c traction a number of different methods of regulat- 
'ing the speeds of the cars were used, but they have been 
reduced to practically one standard method. In the old Sprague 
system there were at first no resistances outside of the motors them- 
selves, but the field coils of the motors were divided into sections, 
and by changing the relative connexions of these sections the total 
resistance of the circuit could be changed; at the same time the 
strength of the field for a given total current was either increased 




FIG. ii. Controller (open). 

or decreased. In other systems the fields and armatures of the 
motors were not changed in their relation to one another, but exter- 
nal resistances were cut out and in by the controller. Usually there 
are two motors on each car, and it is evident that if the speed of a 
car be changed within wide limits, all the other factors remaining 
constant, there will be a very considerable loss by either of these 
methods of regulating, unless the relative connexions of the motor 
armatures can be changed. This can be done by putting the two 
motors in series where low speed is desired, and in parallel where the 
speed is to be increased. This method was tried in the early days 
of electric traction at Richmond, and discarded, but it has been again 
taken up, and is now the standard method of regulation in ordinary 
tramway work. Roughly speaking, when thecar is started the 
controller connects the two motors in series with an external resist- 
ance, then cuts out the external resistance, then breaks the circuit, 
then connects the two motors in parallel. The external resistance 
is put again in series with them, and then is gradually cut out as 
the car speed increases. By this method a considerable range of 
speed is attained at a fair efficiency. The controller (fig. 1 1) consists 
of a cylinder having on it a number of copper segments so arranged 
that on rotating it different connexions are made between stationary 
fingers that bear on these segments. In the first types much diffi- 
culty was experienced from the burning of the segments and fingers, 
due to the sparking on breaking the circuit, but this has been to a 
large extent obviated by using magnetic blow-outs at the point of 
break. (A magnetic blow-out is simply a magnet so arranged that 
the arc caused by breaking the circuit takes place in the magnetic 
field.) There is a reversing lever on the controllers separate from 
the controller handle, and interlocking with the controller so that 
the reverse lever may not be moved except when the controller is in 
the "off" position. 



When it is desired to run trains of cars and to accelerate them 
rapidly, it is sometimes necessary to have more than one car 
equipped with motors. In this case all the motors must be controlled 
from one point, and a number of ingenious devices have been 
evolved to accomplish such " multiple control." In general, each 
car has its own controller, and all the controllers are operated by 
electric power from switches on each platform of any of the motor 
cars. 

A motor and controlling system designed to save and utilize the 
power produced by a car running down an incline has been developed 
and is termed the " regenerative system." A car run- 
ning over a line having heavy grades must have sufficient 
energy given to it to overcome its frictional resistance 
to motion and also to lift the weight of car and load from the 
bottom to top of each up-grade. On the return trip, the car 
" coasts " or runs down the grade without the consumption of 
current, but is restrained from attaining too high a speed by the 
brakes, thus wasting the energy existing by reason of the position of 
the car. 

With the regenerative system the motors are caused to act as 
dynamos which are driven by the motion of the car axles when 
descending a grade, and, as they are connected to the line by the 
trolley or contacting device, the current thus generated is fed to the 
line and may assist other cars climbing grades at some other point 
on the system. The delivery of electrical energy also puts a resis- 
tance on the car axles and produces a braking effect which almost 
automatically fixes the car speed. If the speed be too high, the 
excessive current generated will tend to retard the car and reduce 
its velocity, while if too low the small current produced will set up 
but little opposition to motion and the car will accelerate. 

Obviously, series motors cannot be used for this service. The 
motors have shunt fields, and their speed is varied by varying the 
field strength. Motors of this type are larger, more costly and 
slightly less efficient than series machines, so that a regenerative 
system has no place on roads that have a fairly level contour. 
When, however, the grades are frequent and excessive, the power 
saved more than counterbalances these factors, and the system may 
prove a valuable one for such service. 

For tramcars of ordinary sizes hand-brakes are used, these being 
generally spindle brakes, with leverage enough to handle the com- 
paratively heavy cars. When the size and speed of the 
car increases, however, these hand-brakes do not give 
sufficient control, and power brakes have to be adopted. Of these 
there are several forms that have proved successful in practice. 
The one most extensively used in electric railways is the air-brake, 
which is similar in its mechanical operation to the air-brake used on 
steam railways. The compressed air required for the operation of 
the brake is obtained by means of an air-pump driven by an electric 
motor, the circuit of which is controlled by a switch actuated by the 
pressure of the air in the receiving tank. When this pressure rises 
to a predetermined value, the device acts and interrupts the supply 
of current to the motor, which is thus stopped. When the pressure 
falls below a determined minimum the device operates in the oppo- 
site direction, and the motor and pump start. Of electric brakes 
there are several varieties. One type consists of two iron disks, 
one keyed on the axle but capable of moving along it a short distance 
axially, and the other held firmly on the frame of the truck. By 
means of a coil, set in a recess of annular form turned in the face of 
the fixed disk, the disks are magnetized transversely, and are drawn 
together with greater or less pressure, dependent on the amount of 
current that is allowed to pass through the coil. It is customary to 
arrange the current connexions in this form of electric brake so that 
when the handle of the controller is turned beyond the stopping 
position the current is cut off from the source of supply, and the 
motor running as a dynamo furnishes the current to work the 
brake. 

The magnetic track-brake, which is sometimes used on tramway 
cars, consists of a pair of steel shoes, suspended from the truck frame 
and hanging near and over the rail, a steel yoke connecting the two 
shoes together. On this yoke is wound a heavy magnetizing coil 
which, when energized, strongly magnetizes the two steel shoes and 
causes them to draw against and adhere to the track. Bracing links 
connect these track shoes with brake shoes on the wheel rims, and 
the drag of the track shoes thus applies pressure also to the wheel 
shoes. The downward pull of the track shoes gives a greater 
pressure of the wheels against the track than that due to the weight 
of the car, and the sliding or " skidding " of wheels, with the conse- 
quent production of flats, is avoided. A further braking effect comes 
from the use of the motors as dynamos, driven by the motion of the 
car, to supply current to the brake magnetizing coils. This therefore 
is one of the most effective brakes that has been devised. It has, 
however, not been very extensively used owing to its high cost and 
difficulties that arise from the track shoes running so close to the 
rails that any uneven places frogs, switches, crossings and the like 
may rub against them and give a braking effect at times when the 
car is accelerating or running. A pair of shoes is applied on both 
sides of the car, one pair being hung over either rail. 

Another method of braking is by arranging the connexions of 
the two motors so that one acts as a dynamo driven by the motion 



126 



TRACY, COMTE DE 



of the car and supplies current to the other, which works as a motor, 
tending to turn the wheels in the direction opposite to that in which 
the car is moving. The production of current by the one motor and 
the reverse effort of the other give a powerful braking effect. The 
proper connexions are made by constructing the controllers with 
contacts additional to those required for motor control, which 
connect the machines in the desired manner when the controller 
handle is moved round past the "off " position. 

Automatic brakes are always preferable to hand-brakes even 
though they cost much more, because the energy required to propel 
an ordinary tramcar is from 10 to 25 % more with hand than with 
automatic brakes. The cause is the constant pressure of the brake 
shoes of a hand brake against the wheel rims, the shoes being so 
held by the operator to avoid having too long a hand movement in 
applying the brake. The maximum pressure possible for any brake 
should be about 90 % of the weight of the car on the braked wheels. 
Less than this amount will give an inefficient brake; more will 
produce sliding or " skidding" of the wheels, producing " flats" on 
them, and also causing loss of retarding effect. 

Of the numerous accessories necessary in the operation of electric 
railways one of the most important is the trolley. For an overhead 
Accessories svstem tms consists in general of a metallic rod or tube 
' ' mounted upon the top of the car and pressed upward 
against the trolley wire by springs. At the upper end of this 
trolley pole is generally placed a bronze wheel which runs along 
the under surface of the wire. On the continent of Europe 
considerable use has been made of bow-trolleys, which consist of 
light metallic bow-shaped structures, sustained in place by springs 
and running along on the under side of the wire against which they 
rub. The designs patented for trolleys are almost innumerable. 
Besides the trolleys, cars are ordinarily equipped with switches 
which are used to break the trolley circuit, with fuses or automatic 
circuit-breakers, with electric lamps, with lightning arresters, and 
with the necessary car wiring. The fuses or automatic circuit- 
breakers guard against an excess of current being passed through the 
motors, and when they are fitted the ordinary platform switch can 
be dispensed with. These automatic breakers can be set for any 
' desired current. 

The question of the generation and the distribution of the 
current belongs to this article only in so far as electric traction 
_ ,. has introduced peculiarities in the type of apparatus 
otCurreai. or *^ e metn ds of its use. In a continuous current 
station the current is generated at an approximately 
constant potential, varying from 500 volts to 700 volts on 
different systems. As the load is apt to fluctuate, except 
in large stations, within wide limits, the machinery must be 
designed to stand the most severe usage. The engines are more 
massive than would be necessary for constant loads, and the dynamos 
must be built to stand sudden overloads without destructive spark- 
ing; usually, indeed, they are considerably over-compounded, not 
so much for the sake of raising the voltage as to strengthen the field 
and prevent sparking on overload. When a number of machines 
are to be run in parallel as is usually the case they are provided 
with " equalizing " switches, which serve to throw the series fields 
in parallel. As a result, if one of the machines tends to increase 
its armature current beyond the proper amount, the current in the 
series fields does not increase with it, but retains its normal propor- 
tion. The armature reaction and resistance fall of potential, in 
this machine, would both tend to increase, thereby decreasing its 
armature potential, and therefore its current would return to its 
proper value. From the dynamos the current from each machine 
goes through an ammeter and automatic circuit-breaker to the main 
" omnibus " bars, then through the station ammeter to the feeder 
" omnibus " bars, then through ammeters and circuit-breakers to 
the feed-cables. As a rule, watt-meters are provided to measure 
the output of the station, and, if an overhead system is being 
supplied, lightning arresters are installed. Where continuous 
currents are used to operate cars at considerable distances from the 
generating stations, " boosters " are used. These are series-wound 
dynamos driven at a constant speed, through which is passed the 
current that is to feed the distant section of the line. Usually the 
characteristic of the booster is so calculated that the amount by 
which it raises the voltage for a given current just equals the fall of 
potential in the feeding-line for the same current. The result is 
that the potential at the end of the line will be the same as that at 
the station. The question of economy, as between putting in 
additional copper and wasting energy in the booster, is easily 
calculated; the advantage is more and more on the side of the 
latter as the distance increases and the car service becomes more 
infrequent. It is necessary to the satisfactory operation of a 
system that the variations of voltage should not be too great, so 
boosters sometimes become a practical necessity, irrespective of the 
question of economy. 

Accumulators are frequently installed in power stations to prevent 
the heavy load fluctuations which arise from starting and stopping 
of cars and ascending or descending grades. The generators give 
an approximately unvarying amount of current. When the load 
demand is less than that delivered by the generators, the excess 
current goes into the storage battery, and when the load is greater 



than the power from the generators the additional current required 
comes from the battery. The generators, engines and boilers may 
thus be proportioned for the average instead of the maximum load 
requirements, and the sizes of these units are thereby reduced. 

As traction systems have been combined and extended, the area of 
operation of many of the companies has grown so that a number of 
direct-current stations are used for a single system. The limit 
of distance to which electric energy can be economically supplied 
at the comparatively low voltages employed is not great, and the 
advantage of having one or two large stations to supply a system, 
in place of a number of smaller ones, is evident. This fact has led 
to the use of high-potential alternating currents for the distribution 
of energy, the voltage being reduced at the points of consumption, 
and in most cases changed to a continuous current by rotary 
converters. If alternating currents are used for the car motors, the 
economical distribution of energy is greatly simplified, the rotary 
converters being eliminated and their first cost and losses and 
expense of operation saved. The expense of operating sub-stations 
containing rotary converters is necessarily large, and the capital 
outlay required for them is often greater than for the generating 
station. 

As a rule, the cars used for electric traction have varied but 
slightly from the type of tramway car prevalent in different localities. 
The tendency, however, has been to increase their size. Cars 
For electric railway work, as distinguished from tram- 
way work, the cars generally follow the pattern that is standard on 
American steam lines. The trucks used for electric cars are made of 
steel, with heavy axles and suspension bars for carrying the electric 
motors. For smaller vehicles, a single four-wheel truck is used, the 
wheel base being limited by the curvature of the track, but not as a 
rule exceeding 7J ft. For the longer and heavier cars, two four- 
wheeled bogie trucks are employed. If two motors are used on a 
double-truck car, and if the grades on the road are very heavy, the 
trucks are made on the " maximum traction " pattern, in which one 
pair of wheels in each truck is of smaller diameter than the other 
and the greater part of the weight of the car is on the larger motor- 
driven wheels. For very large high-speed cars, trucks are used of 
practically the same type and weight as are employed on steam 
railways. (See also TRAMWAY.) (L. Du.) 

TRACY, ANTOINE LOUIS CLAUDE DESTUTT, COMTE DE 
(1754-1836), French philosopher, son of a distinguished soldier, 
was born in Bourbonnais on the 2oth of July 1754. He belonged 
to a noble family of Scotch descent, tracing its origin to Walter 
Stutt, who in 1420 accompanied the earls of Buchan and Douglas 
to the court of France, and whose family afterwards rose to be 
counts of Tracy. He was educated at home and at the univer- 
sity of Strassburg, where he was chiefly noted for his athletic 
skill. He went into the army, and when the Revolution broke 
took an active part in the provincial assembly of Bourbonnais. 
He was elected a deputy of the nobility to the states-general, 
where he sat alongside of his friend La Fayette. In the spring 
of 1792 he received the rank of marshal de camp in command of 
the cavalry in the army of the north; but the influence of the 
extremists becoming predominant he took indefinite leave of 
absence, and settled at Auteuil, where, with Condorcet and 
Cabanis, he devoted himself to scientific studies. Under the 
Reign of Terror he was arrested and imprisoned for nearly a 
year, during which he studied Condillac and Locke, and aban- 
doned the natural sciences for philosophy. On the motion of 
Cabanis he was named associate of the Institute in the class 
of the moral and political sciences. He soon began to attract 
attention by the memoires which he read before his colleagues 
papers which formed the first draft of his comprehensive work 
on ideology. The society of " ideologists " at Auteuil embraced, 
besides Cabanig and Tracy, Constantin Francois de Chassebceuf, 
Comte de Volney and Dominique Joseph Garat (1740-1833), 
professor in the National Institute. Under the empire he was 
a member of the senate, but took little part in its deliberations. 
Under the Restoration he became a peer of France, but protested 
against the reactionary spirit of the government, and remained 
in opposition. In 1808 he was elected a member of the French 
Academy in place of Cabanis, and in 1832 he was also named 
a member of the Academy of Moral Sciences on its reorganization. 
He appeared, however, only once at its conferences, owing to his 
age and to disappointment at the comparative failure of his 
work. He died at Paris on the gth of March 1836. 

Destutt de Tracy was the last eminent representative of the 
sensualistic school which Condillac (q.v.) founded in France upon a 
one-sided interpretation of Locke. He pushed the sensualistic 



TRACY, B. F. TRADE, BOARD OF 



127 






principles of Condillac to their last consequences, being in full agree- 
ment with the materialistic views of Cabanis, though the attention 
of the latter was devoted more to the physiological, that of Tracy 
to the psychological or " ideological " side of man. His ideology, 
he frankly stated, formed " a part of zoology," or, as we should say, 
of biology. To think is to feel. The four faculties into which he 
divides the conscious life perception, memory, judgment, will 
are all varieties of sensation. Perception is sensation caused by a 
present affection of the external extremities of the nerves; memory 
is sensation caused, in the absence of present excitation, by dis- 
positions of the nerves which are the result of past experiences; judg- 
ment is the perception of relations between sensations, and is itself 
a species of sensation, because if we are aware of the sensations we 
must be aware also of the relations between them ; will he identifies 
with the feeling of desire, and therefore includes it as a variety of 
sensation. It is easy to see that such conclusions ignore important 
distinctions, and are, indeed, to a large extent an abuse of language. 
As a psychologist de Tracy deserves credit for his distinction between 
active and passive touch, which developed into the theory of the 
muscular sense. His account of the notion of external existence, 
as derived, not from pure sensation, but from the experience of 
action on the one hand and resistance on the other, may be compared 
with the account of Bain and later psychologists. 

His chief works are Elements d'ideologie (1817-1818 ; 2nd ed., 1824- 
1825), in which he presented the complete statement of his earlier 
monographs; Commentaire sur I' esprit des lots de Montesquieu 
(1806; 5th ed., 1828; Eng. trans., President Jefferson, 1811); Essai 
sur le genie et les ouvrages de Montesquieu (1808). See histories of 
philosophy, especially F. Picavet, Les Ideologues chs. v. and vi. 
(Paris, 1891), and La Philosophic de Biran (Acad<5mie des sci. mor. 
et pol., 1889); G. H. Lewes, Hist, of Phil. 

TRACY, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1830- ), American 
lawyer and soldier, was born in Owego, New York, on the 26th 
of April 1830. He was educated at the Owego academy, was 
admitted to the bar in 1851, was district-attorney of Tioga 
county in 1853-1859, and was a member of the state Assembly 
in 1862. In 1862 he organized the icxpth and the I37th regiments 
of New York Volunteer Infantry and (Aug. 28) was made colonel 
of the former. In September 1864 he became colonel of the 
I27th United States Colored Infantry; in 1864-1865 was in 
command of the prison camp at Elmira, New York, and in 
March 1865 was breveted brigadier-general of volunteers. He 
received a Congressional medal of honour in 1895 for gallantry 
at the Wilderness in May 1864. He was United States district- 
attorney for the eastern district of New York in 1866-1873, and 
an associate judge of the New York court of appeals in 1881- 
1882. In 1889-1893 he was secretary of the navy in the cabinet 
of President Benjamin Harrison, and then resumed the practice 
of law in New York City. He was chairman of the commission 
which drafted the charter for Greater New York, and in 1897 
was defeated as Republican candidate for mayor of the city. In 
1899 he was counsel for Venezuela before the Anglo- Venezuelan 
boundary arbitration commission in Paris. 

TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in 
M. Eng, the forms (red, trod and trade appear, the last in the 
sense of a beaten track), originally a term meaning track or 
course, and so surviving in " trade-wind " (q.v.), a wind which 
always blows in one course; hence a way of life, business or 
occupation, and, specifically, the handicraft in which a man 
has been trained and which he makes his means of livelihood, 
or the mercantile business which he carries on for profit, 
as opposed to the liberal arts or professions. A further 
development of meaning makes the word synonymous with 
commerce, comprehending every species of exchange or dealing 
in commodities. 

See COMMERCE ; BALANCE OF TRADE ; FREE TRADE ; PROTECTION ; 
TARIFFS; TRADE ORGANIZATION; and also the sections dealing with 
trade and commerce under the various countries. 

TRADE, BOARD OF. The greater part of such supervision 
of commerce and industry as exists in the United Kingdom is 
exercised by the " Committee of Privy Council for Trade " or, 
as it is usually called, the board of trade. As early as the i4th 
century councils and commissions had been formed from time 
to time to advise parliament in matters of trade, but it was not 
till the middle of the i7th century, under the Commonwealth, 
that any department of a permanent character was attempted. 
Cromwell's policy in this respect was continued under the 



Restoration, and in 1660 a committee of the privy council was 
appointed for the purpose of obtaining information as to the 
imports and exports of the country and improving trade. A 
few years later another committee of the council was appointed 
to act as intermediaries between the crown and the colonies, 
or foreign plantations, as they were then called. This joint 
commission of trade and plantations was abolished in 1675, 
and it was not until twenty years later that it was revived under 
William -III. Among the chief objects set before this board were 
the inquiry into trade obstacles and the employment of the poor; 
the state of the silver currency was also a subject on which John 
Locke, its secretary, lost no time in making representations to 
the government. Locke's retirement in 1700 removed any 
chance of the board of trade advocating more enlightened 
opinions on commercial subjects than those generally held. It 
had only a small share in making the constitutions of the Amer- 
ican colonies, as only the Carolinas, Pennsylvania, Georgia and 
Nova Scotia were formed after the reign of Charles II.; and in 1760 
a secretary of state for the colonies was appointed, to whom 
the control drifted away. In 1780 Burke made his celebrated 
attack on the public offices, which resulted in the abolition of 
the board. In 1786, however, another permanent committee 
of the privy council was formed by order in council, and with one 
or two small exceptions the legal constitution of the board of 
trade is still regulated by that order. Under it all the principal 
officers of state, including the first lords of the treasury and 
admiralty, the secretaries of state, and certain members of the 
privy council, among whom was the archbishop of Canterbury, 
obtained seats at the board ex officio; and ten unofficial members, 
including several eminent statesmen, were also placed on the 
committee. The duties of the revived board were made the 
same as they were in the beginning of the century, but the growth 
of commerce necessarily threw new administrative duties upon 
it. The board of trade thus became a mere name, the president 
being practically the secretary of state for trade, and the vice- 
president became, in 1867, a parliamentary secretary, with 
similar duties to those of a parliamentary under-secretary of 
state. At present, besides the president, who has usually a 
seat in the cabinet, 1 and whose salary is 5000 a year, 
there is a parliamentary secretary with a salary of 1200, 
a permanent secretary (salary 1500, rising to 1800), and 
four assistant secretaries (each with a salary of 1200) for 
the harbour, marine, commercial, labour and statistical, and 
railway departments. There are also other important officials 
in charge of different departments, as mentioned below. 

i. The Commercial, Labour and Statistical Department is the real 
remains of the original board of trade, as it combines the charge 
of the trade statistics with the general consultative duties with which 
King Charles II. 's board was originally entrusted. The statistical 
work includes compiling abstracts, memoranda, tables and charts 
relating to the trade and industrial conditions of the United King- 
dom, the colonies and foreign countries, the supervision of the trade 
accounts, the preparation of monthly and annual accounts of ship- 
ping and navigation, statistics as to labour, cotton, emigration and 
foreign and colonial customs, tariffs and regulations. The commer- 
cial intelligence department collects and disseminates accurate 
information on general commercial questions, and collects and 
exhibits samples of goods of foreign origin competing with similar 
British goods. It keeps a register of British firms who may desire 
to receive confidential information relative to their respective trades 
and supplies that information free of charge. The labour statistics 
published by the department are exhaustive, dealing with hours of 
labour, the state of the labour market, the condition of the working 
classes and the prices of commodities; annual reports are also 

1 Since 1882 there have been only two occasions on which the 
president of the board was not included in the cabinet. Frequent 
suggestions were made as to raising the status and salary 
of the president of the board, which up to 1900 was 2000. Lord 
Jersey's committee in 1904 suggested that the president should be 
put on the same footing as a secretary of state, and be given the 
title of " minister of commerce and industry." In 1909 the Board 
of Trade Act repealed the Board of Trade (President) Act 1826, 
which limited the salary of the president, and enacted that the 
president should be paid such annual salary as parliament might 
determine (5000). The increased salary came into operation in 
1910, when a new president of the board came into office. 



128 



TRADE MARKS 



published of trade unions, of strikes and lock-outs and other important 
subjects. The staff comprises a controller-general (salary 1200 
rising to 1500), a deputy controller-general and labour commis- 
sioner, a principal for statistics, a principal of the commercial depart- 
ment, an assistant labour commissioner, a chief staff officer for 
commercial intelligence, a chief labour correspondent, a special 
inquiry officer, and a staff of investigators and labour correspondents. 
The department also edits the Board of Trade Journal (started in 
1886), giving items of commercial information, trade and tariff 
notices and various periodical returns. There are also branches 
which deal with the census of production, labour exchanges, &c. 

2. The Railway Department was originally constituted in 1840, 
and performs multifarious duties under various railway acts, 
including the inspection of railways before they are open, inquiries 
into accidents, reports on proposed railways, approval of by-laws, 
appointment of arbitrators in disputes, as well as many duties under 
private railway acts. The inspection of tramways, their by-laws 
and "provisional orders" are all dealt with here, as are similar 
orders relating to gas and water schemes and to electric lighting. 
There is a special office of inspection of railways with a chief 
inspecting officer (salary 1400) and an assistant staff. Patents, 
designs and trade marks are now dealt with by the patent office 
under the charge of a controller-general (salary 1800), which is 
subordinate to the railway department, and copyright, art unions 
and industrial exhibitions are also among the matters dealt with by 
the department. Annual returns with regard to its business are 
published by the department. 

3. The Marine Department was created a separate branch of the 
board of trade in 1850, about which time many new and important 
marine questions came under the board of trade, such, for example, 
as the survey of passenger steamers, the compulsory examination 
of masters and mates, the establishment of shipping offices for the 
engagement and discharge of seamen. Further work fell to the 
marine department by the act of 1853, which gave it the control of 
lighthouse funds, and to a certain extent of pilotage. The consoli- 
dating Merchant Shipping Act of 1854 and subsequent legislation 
so much increased the department that in 1866 it was divided into 
three, viz. the present marine department, which deals with ships 
and seamen, the harbour department and the finance department. 

4. The Harbour Department was, as stated above, a branch of 
the marine department until 1866, so far as it is connected with 
the physical adjuncts of navigation, but various other matters have 
since been added, e.g. the charge of the foreshores belonging to the 
crown, formerly managed by the commissioners of woods and forests, 
and the protection of navigable harbours and channels, long under 
the control of the admiralty, provisional orders under the General 
Pier and Harbour Acts and under the Pilotage Acts, and the settle- 
ment of by-laws made by harbour authorities. Control over the 
lighthouse funds of the lighthouse authorities of the United King- 
dom, the registry of British ships, wreck, salvage and quarantine are 
all among the matters dealt with by this department, which also has 
charge ofthe standards department for weights and measures. 

5. The Finance Department was, like the harbour department, 
separated in 1866 from the marine department. The accounts of 
all the branches of the board of trade are in its charge, including 
the subordinate offices. It also deals with the accounts of harbours, 
lighthouses and mercantile marine offices, and of the merchant 
seamen's fund, and with the consuls' accounts for disabled seamen 
abroad. Savings banks and seamen's money orders are also among 
the accounts and payments with which it is charged, and outside 
these marine matters it has to prepare for parliament the life in- 
surance companies' accounts and to take charge of the bankruptcy 
estate accounts. 

6. The Bankruptcy Department was established under the 7ist 
section of the Bankruptcy Act 1883. At its head is the inspector- 
general in bankruptcy (salary 1200). An account of the duties 
of the department will be found under BANKRUPTCY. 

7. The Fisheries Department. By an act of 1886 the powers of 
the home office over salmon and other fisheries were transferred 
to the board of trade, and a small department was consequently 
created charged with the care of those industries. But by an act 
of 1903 (3 Ed. VII. c. 31) the powers and duties of the board of 
trade under this department were transferred to the board of 
agriculture and fisheries. 

TRADE MARKS. A "trade mark" may be defined as a 
symbol, consisting in general of a picture, a label or a word or 
words, applied or attached to the goods of a trader for the purpose 
of distinguishing them from the similar goods of other traders, 
and of identifying them as his goods, or as those of his successors, 
in the business in which they are produced or put forward for 
sale. A trade mark differs in its legal character both from a 
patent and from a copyright. In the case of a trade mark the 
property and the right to protection are in the device or symbol 
adopted to designate the goods to be sold, and not in the article 
which is manufactured and sold. The article is open to the 
whole world to manufacture and sell, and all that the owner 



of the trade mark is entitled to prevent is such use of his mark 
by other traders as will lead purchasers to buy, as his, goods 
which are not his. On the other hand, patent-right and copy- 
right protect the substance of the article; and any unauthorized 
manufacture of it in the former case, or reproduction of it in the 
latter, while the protection lasts, is prohibited. The grounds, 
however, on which trade marks, patent-right and copyright 
obtain legal recognition, though they are to a certain extent 
dissimilar, have a common element. Patent-right and copy- 
right rest upon the view that the results of the original labour of 
the inventor and the author ought, as a matter alike of justice 
and of public policy, to be secured against piracy; while, as 
regards the proprietor of a trade mark, the question of originality 
does not arise so long as the mark is sufficiently distinctive really 
to identify his goods and, for purposes of registration, to satisfy 
the Trade Marks Acts. In truth, the registration of a trade mark 
is rather the recognition of a fact than the grant of a privilege 
(Kerly and Underhay, Trade Marks Act, 1905, p. 3). The law as 
to trade marks as well as that as to patents or copyright is based 
on a man's rights to have guaranteed to him the profit derivable 
from his own property. " No man," said James (L.J.), in the 
case of the Singer Manufacturing Co. v. Loog (1880, 18 Ch. D., 
412), "is entitled to present his goods as being the goods of 
another man, and no man is permitted to use any mark, sign 
or symbol, device or means, whereby, without making a direct 
false representation himself to a purchaser from him, he enables 
such purchaser to tell a lie or to make a false representation to 
somebody else who is the ultimate customer." 

I. British Trade Marks before the Registration Acts. The 
existing law in the United Kingdom cannot be properly appre- 
ciated unless the subject is approached in the first instance from 
the historical side. English trade-mark law practically com- 
mences with the first years of the igth century. The use of 
trade marks was indeed of far earlier date, for in 1742 we find 
Lord Hardwicke declaring that " every particular trader had 
some particular mark or stamp." But in the very case in which 
Lord Hardwicke made that statement (Blanchard v. Hill, 
2 Atkyns, 484) he refused to protect the " Great Mogul " stamp 
on cards, being apparently under the influence of the notion 
that the legal recognition of trade marks would involve the 
creation of a new species of monopoly; and with regard to a 
case decided in the reign of James I. (Southern v. How, Cro. 
Jac. 471), in which a clothier had applied the mark of another 
clothier to his own inferior goods, the reports leave it doubtful 
whether the action was brought by the owner of the mark, or 
by a defrauded customer, in which latter event it would be merely 
an ordinary action for deceit. But although the actual law of 
trade marks cannot be traced farther back than the beginning of 
the ipth century, Lord Eldon repeatedly granted injunctions 
to restrain one trader from fraudulently " passing off " his goods 
as those of another, and thus laid a foundation on which the 
present law has been built up. The stages through which its 
development passed possess considerable interest, and may be 
described quite briefly. The first reported case apart from the 
doubtful one in the time of James I. above referred to in which 
the infringement of a trade mark (a label on blacking) was 
restrained by the court of chancery was Day v. Day (Eden on 
Injunctions, ed. 1821, p. 314) in 1816. In 1824 the common law 
courts, in the case of Sykes v. Sykes (3 B. & C. 541), established 
the right of the owner of an infringed trade mark to damages. 
In 1833 it was held by the court of king's bench that it was not 
necessary for the plaintiff in an infringement action to prove 
that the defendant's goods were inferior to his, or that he had 
suffered special damage by the infringement. Later this became 
a rule of equity as well as of law. On another point, however, 
the practice of the courts of common law and equity diverged 
for a time. It was decided by Lord Cottenham in 1838, in the 
leading case of Millington v. Fox (3 Mylne & Craig 338), that an 
injunction to restrain the infringement of a trade mark could 
be obtained, even although the defendant had acted without 
fraudulent intent. On the common law side, on the other hand, 
fraud was an essential ingredient in the cause of action, and 



TRADE MARKS 



129 



remained so till the fusion of law and equity by the Judicature 
Acts. 

The effect of Lord Cottenham's decision in the case of Milling- 
ton v. Fox clearly was to recognize a right of property in trade 
marks, and the action for infringement became a familiar species 
of litigation. Under the then existing law, however, the plain- 
tiff in such actions generally found himself in a very disadvan- 
tageous and unsatisfactory position. The basis of his action was 
the reputed association between his trade mark and his goods. 
This association the defendant often a person of no means 
would deny, and it had to be proved as a fact by witnesses at 
a cost to the plaintiff which there was little hope of his recovering. 
Moreover, even if the trade mark proprietor secured a judgment 
in his favour, it carried with it no immunity from the obligation 
of again establishing his right to the mark against any subsequent 
infringer who chose to dispute it. Thus to take an interesting 
and pertinent illustration given in Kerly on Trade Marks (p. 6) 
the case of Rodger -s v. Nowlll (22 L. J. Ch. 404) lasted five years 
and cost the plaintiff 2211, without giving him in the end any 
security that he might not have to incur equal delay and expense 
in proving his title to the exclusive use of the trade mark in 
proceeding against other defendants. To complete this state- 
ment of the shortcomings of the law before the Merchandise 
Marks Act 1862, it should be noted that the infringement of 
trade marks except in cases where the seller of spuriously 
marked goods cheated the buyer was not a criminal offence. 
The remedies obviously needed were the establishment of a 
system of registration of trade marks which would simplify the 
proof of a plaintiff's title, and the creation of a criminal law of 
false marking. 1 The first step in the accomplishment of the 
latter object was taken by the Merchandise Marks Act 1862. 

II. Under the Registration Acts. Provision was first made for 
the registration of trade marks by the Trade Marks Registration 
Act 1875. That statute made registration in the register of 
trade marks which it established prima facie evidence of the right 
of the registered proprietor to the exclusive use of the trade mark 
in connexion with goods of the class for which it was registered 
and used, and enacted that it should after the expiration of five 
years be conclusive proof of such right, provided that the 
proprietor of the mark remained the owner of the goodwill of 
the business in which it was used. This provision was carried 
as to the act of 1883 (s. 76). The act also provided that a person 
should not be entitled to institute any proceeding to prevent 
the infringement of trade mark until it was registered, or (a 
later statutory modification) until, in the case of a mark in use 
before the passing of the act of 1875, registration of the mark 
as a trade mark had been refused. The act of 1875 was a con- 
siderable success, but no provision was made under it for the 
registration of words unless they either were old marks or were 
registered in combination with one or more of the " essential 
particulars " prescribed by the act, such as a distinctive device, 
heading, mark, label or ticket. These limitations excluded from 
registration most of the trade marks ordinarily in use. 

The Patents Designs and Trade Marks Act 1883 remedied 
this defect besides altering the law in other important respects. 
The act of 1883 was amended in 1888 on the recommendation 
of a committee presided over by Lord Herschell. Neither the 
act of 1875 nor those of 1883 and 1888 altered the common law 
definition of a trade mark, nor contained any definition of the 
term. The description in the acts of what was registrable as a 
trade mark led to much litigation, and the interpretations of 
the judges left commercial men dissatisfied on three points : 
(i) the number of good and valuable trade marks which were 
not registrable; (2) that on allowing registration the patent 
office insisted on disclaimers which hampered the owner in 
obtaining protection in the colonies and foreign countries; (3) 
that there was no effective period of Limitation to attacks on 

1 Further reference may be made, in regard to the subject of 
trade marks before the Registration Acts 1883-1888, to an admirable 
introductory chapter in Kerly on Trade Marks, and also to the report 
of the Merchandise Marks Committee 1862, and the annual reports 
of the commissioners af.d the comptroller-general of patents from 
1876 to 1884 (and report). 

xxvn. s 



registered trade marks, because though registration for five 
years was declared conclusive by s. 76 of the act of 1883, the 
powers of the court to rectify the register could be invoked even 
after the lapse of the five years (re Gesletner's Trade Mark, 1907, 
2 Ch. 478). In re-enacting and enlarging the provisions of the 
act of 1875 the act of 1883 laid down certain essential particulars 
of one at least whereof a trade mark must consist to be regis- 
trable. These particulars will be considered later in dealing 
with the present law. The act of 1883 first provided for " word 
marks," and included among them " a fancy word or words not 
in common use " [s. 64, (i) (c)]. 

The expression " fancy word," used in the act of 1883, gave 
rise to considerable difference of opinion. It was interpreted 
by the court of appeal as equivalent to " obviously meaningless 
as applied to the article in question," or " obviously non- 
descriptive." In accordance with this interpretation, the words 
" gem " for guns, " melrose " for a hair restorer, " electric " 
for velveteen, and " washerine " for a soap were all held not 
to be registrable. On the recommendation, however, in 1887, 
of a committee appointed by the board of trade, and presided 
over by Lord Herschell, the expression " invented word " was 
substituted for " fancy word " by the act of 1888. 

In 1905 and 1907 the legislation as to trade marks was 
amended and remodelled. A bill was introduced in 1905 at 
the instance of the London Chamber of Commerce, and after 
consideration by a select committee became the Trade Marks 
Act 1905. This act repeals the bulk of the provisions of the 
Patents, &c., Acts of 1883 and 1888 with respect to trade marks, 
and embodies them with amendments (to be noticed later) in a 
separate statute. The only portions of the earlier acts left 
standing with respect to trade marks were ss. 83 and 84 (as 
amended in 1885 and 1888) with reference to the administration 
in the patent office of the law as to trade marks (1905, s. 74); 
ss. 103 and 104 of the act of 1883 (as amended in 1885) relating 
to registration of trade marks, both as enacted in the acts of 1883 
and 1885 and as applied by orders in council, are to be read as 
applying to trade marks registrable under the act of 1905 (s. 65). 
The sections of the Patents Acts of 1883, 1885 and 1888, thus 
preserved as to trade marks, were repealed by the Patents and 
Designs Act 1907. Sections 62 seq. of this act replace ss. 83 
and 84 of the act of 1883, and retain the administration of trade 
mark law in the patent office; and s. 91 replaces ss. 103 and 104 
of the act of 1883 as to international and colonial arrangements 
for mutual protection (inter alia) of trade marks. According 
to the rule laid down by the Interpretation Act 1889 the refer- 
ences in the act of 1905 to the acts of 1883, &c., are to be read 
as applying to the above-stated sections of the act of 1907. 

The act of 1905 differs from the preceding acts in containing a 
definition of trade mark for the purposes of the act unless the context 
otherwise requires; viz. that it " shall mean a mark used or proposed 
to be used upon or in connexion with goods for the purposeof indicat- 
ing that they are the goods of the proprietor of such mark by virtue 
of manufacture, selection, certification, dealing with or offering 
for sale "; and " mark " is defined as including " a device, brand, 
heading, label, name, signature, word, letter, numeral or any 
combination thereof " (s. 3). The act, modifying to the extent 
indicated in italics the acts of 1883 and 1888, prescribes (s. 9) that a 
trade mark to be registrable must contain or consist of at least one 
of the following essential particulars : 

1. The name of a company, individual or firm represented in a 
special or particular manner (under the act of 1883 it has been held 
that the name must be in the nominative case, and that ordinary 
printing is not representation in a particular manner). 

2. The signature of the applicant for registration or some prede- 
cessor in his business. It is not clear that this includes descriptive 
trading styles. 

3. An invented word or words. 

4. A word or words having no direct reference to the character 
or quality of the goods, and not being according to its ordinary signifi- 
cation a geographical name or a surname. 

5. Any other distinctive mark; but a name, signature, or word or 
words other than such as fall within the descriptions in the above para- 
graphs 1,2,3 and 4, shall not, except by order of the board of trade or 
of the court, be deemed a distinctive mark. By distinctive is meant 
" adapted to distinguish the goods of the proprietor of the trade 
mark from those of other persons ": and " in determining whether 
a trade mark is so adapted the tribunal may in the case of a trade 
mark in actual use take into consideration the extent to which such 



130 



TRADE MARKS 



Invented 
Words. 



user has rendered such trade mark in fact distinctive for the goods 
in respect of which it is registered or proposed to be registered." 
Where the mark is limited to specified colours, that fact may be 
taken into account in deciding whether the mark is distinctive (s. 10). 
There are certain special rules as to cotton marks. 

Trade marks containing the essential particulars are not regis- 
trable if they contain any matter which would by reason of its being 
calculated to deceive or otherwise be disentitled to protection in a 
court of justice or would be contrary to law or morality, or any 
scandalous design (s. 11). (See Eno v. Dunn, 1890, 15 App. Cas. 
293, and the " Motricine " case, 1907, 2 Ch. 435.) Registration of 
the same matter as a trade mark under the act of 1905 and as a 
design under the Patents and Designs Act (1907) is possible (re 
U.S. Playing Card Co.'s Applic., 1907, W. N. 251). 

Old marks are registrable, i.e. any special or distinctive word or 
words, letter, numeral or combination of letters or numerals, used 
by the applicant or his predecessors in business before the I4th of 
August 1875, subject to the qualification that it has " continued to 
be used either in its original form or with additions or alterations 
not substantially affecting the same down to the date of the applica- 
tion for registration " (s. 9). In the case of new marks, but not of 
old marks, a trade mark is not registrable except by order of the 
court in respect of any goods or description of goods which is 
identical with a mark already on the register with respect to such 
goods or description of goods, or so nearly resembles such registered 
mark as to be calculated to deceive (s. 19). 

Most controversy arose under the acts of 1883 and 1888 as to 
the meaning of the phrase " invented word " preserved in the act 
of 1905. An invented word need not be wholly 
meaningless, nor is it disqualified because words may 
have suggested it. Thus " mazawattee " was held 
to be an " invented word," although the latter part of it was 
a Sinhalese term meaning " estate," and there were estates 
in Ceylon having names ending with " wattee " from which 
tea came; and in a leading case on the construction of the 
clauses under consideration (Eastman Co.'s Trade Mark, L. Rep. 
1898, A. C. 571), the word " solio " was held to be registrable as a 
trade mark for photographic printing paper under both clauses, 
although it was objected that " solio " was equivalent to "sunio." 
The expression " calculated to deceive " has been considered by 
the courts in very many cases. It is not merely or chiefly the retailer 
or dealer who has to be kept in view when the question of the likeli- 
hood of deception is under consideration. The courts have regard 
also, and mainly, to the ultimate purchaser whom the trade mark 
may reach, and careless or unwary persons are considered as well as 
those who are careful and intelligent. The judge's eye is the ultimate 
test as to the degree of resemblance that is calculated to deceive, 
although expert evidence on the point is admissible. " Savonol " 
for soap (/. C. & J. Field Ltd. v. Wagel Syndicate Ltd., 1900, 17 
R.P.C. 266), " tachytype " for typographical and composing 
machines (in re Linotype Co.'s Application, 1900, 17 R.P.C. 380), 
have been held to be invented words. But the following have been 
held not invented " uneeda " (=you need a) in re National 
Biscuit Co. (1902 ; I Ch. 783) ; " absorbine " for an absorbent prepara- 
tion (Christy & Co. v. Tipper & Son, 1005, 21 R.P.C. 97, 775); 
" bioscope " (Warwick Trading Co. v. Urban, 1904, 21 R.P.C. 240); 
" cyclostyle " (re Gestetner's Trade Mark, 1907, 2 Ch. 478) ; and cf. in 
re Kodak and Trade Marks (1903, 20 R.P.C. 337). 

Subsections (3) and (4), it should be noted, are independent: 
the former deals with newly-coined words, the latter deals with 
the existing words of the English language, or of other languages 
likely to be known to the public. A word which is really " invented " 
may be registered, whether it is descriptive or not. An old word 
used in a new sense is not invented (Hommel v. Bauer & Co., 1904, 
21 R.P.C. 576). The exact scope of clause (5) as to other distinctive 
marks has not been much discussed by the courts. Registration 
was allowed of the word " apollinaris " as a distinctive mark for the 
mineral waters of the applicants, on an undertaking to apply it only 
to water from the Neuenahr spring or district (in re Apollinaris 
Trade Mark, 1907, 2 Ch. 178). Under prior legislation the mark had 
been refused registration as being a geographical name (re Apollinaris 
Co.'s Trade Mark, 1891, 2 Ch. 186). 

Identical marks (except old marks) may not be registered in 
respect of the same goods, or goods of the same description, for 
two different persons (s. 19) ; and where several appli- 
cants make rival claims to identical marks the registrar 
may refuse to register until their rights have been deter- 
mined by the court or settled by agreement in manner approved 
by the registrar, or, on appeal, by the board of trade (s. 20). In the 
case of honest concurrent user or of other special circumstances 
making it proper so to do, the court may permit the registration of 
the same mark or of nearly identical marks for the same goods by 
more than one owner, subject to such conditions or limitations, if 
any, as to mode or place of use or otherwise as the court may think 
it right to impose (s. 21). 

New provisions were made in 1905 as to what are called " associa- 
ted trade marks." Where registration is sought for a mark so closely 
resembling a mark of the applicant already on the register for 
the same goods as to be calculated to deceive or cause confusion if 
used by any one but the applicant, the registration of the new mark 



Identical 
Marks. 



may be conditional on entering both marks as associated trade 
marks (s. 24). This section applies only to marks closely resembling 
one already on the register for the same goods or des- 
cription of goods, and has nothing to do with identical '* ss< ' c ' a ' e< * 
marks (Birmingham Small Arms Co.'s Application, 1907, Mm **- 
2 Ch. 396). 

In the case of combined trade marks provision is made for regis- 
tering as separate trade marks -the part in which the applicant has 
exclusive rights, and as associated marks trade marks of which the 
exclusive portion forms a part (s. 25). 

A series of trade marks of the same owner may be registered on 
one registration as associated marks (s. 26). 

Provision is made for allowing the registration of marks used 
upon or in connexion with goods by an association (or person) 
which undertakes the examination of goods in respect 
of origin, material, mode of manufacture, quality, j >ra " < ' a - 
accuracy, or other characteristic, and certifies the result ?" 
of the examination by marks used upon or in connexion 
with the goods. These marks cannot be registered unless the board 
of trade consider their registration of public advantage. Their 
registration is not conditional on the association or person being a 
trader or having goodwill in connexion with the examination or 
certification. The registration gives the association or person the 
rights of the owner of a registered trade mark, except that assign- 
ment and transmission needs permission of the board of trade 
(s.62). 

In respect of cotton piece-goods, marks consisting of a line heading 
alone or a word alone are not registrable, and no word or line heading 
is treated as distinctive in respect of such goods. In 
respect of cotton yarn the same rule applies with respect 
to words, and no registration of any cotton mark gives 
any exclusive right to the use of a word, letter, numeral, line, 
heading or combination thereof [s. 64 (10)]. 

By s. 68, which is a re-enactment of s. 105 of the Patents, &c., Act, 
1883, it is made illegal for any person without the authority of the 
king to use the royal arms in any trade in such a manner .. . 
as to create the belief that he has authority so to do ; J; se 
a similar provision is embodied in the Merchandise , . _ 
Marks Act 1898 of the Isle of Man. 

The central register of trade marks is kept at the Patent Office, 
Southampton Buildings, London, and is under the charge of the 
comptroller-general of patents, designs and trade marks, ^ . . 
who is appointed by and acts under the superintendence 
of the board of trade, and has a deputy the registrar of trade 
marks. There is a branch registry at Manchester, whose chief 
officer is the keeper of cotton marks, which deals with all applications 
for the registration of trade marks for cotton goods falling within 
classes 23, 24, 25 in schedule 3 of the Trade Marks Rules 1906. The 
registry has been long established, but was not recognized by statute 
till 1905. Records are kept and are open to public inspection of 
all applications made since 1875, whether granted or refused. 

There is a branch registry at Sheffield containing the marks for 
metal goods (" Sheffield marks ") registered by persons carrying on 
business in or within six miles of Hallamshire. The care of this 
register is vested in the Cutlers' Company, who are substituted for 
the comptroller as to registration of " Sheffield marks " (s. 63). 
Applications made to the company are notified to the registrar, and 
may not be proceeded with if he objects. Any person aggrieved by 
the registrar s objection may appeal to the court. Applications made 
to the registrar for metal marks are notified to the Cutlers' Company. 
Persons aggrieved by the decision of the Cutlers' Company have 
an appeal to the courts (s. 64). 

In 1906 fourteen applications were made at the head registry 
which were all dealt with by the Cutlers' Company. That company, 
by arrangement made with the sanction of the treasury, retain all 
fees taken at Sheffield with respect to registration up to 400, and 
half of the fees received in excess of that amount (Parl. Pap., 1907, 
No. 164, p. 9). 

A trade mark must be registered in respect of particular goods 
or classes of goods (s. 8), and the classification in force is scheduled 
to the Trade Marks Rules 1906 (R. & O., 1906, No. 233). _^ 
Doubts as to the class to which the goods in question 
belong are settled by the registrar. The procedure for obtaining 
registration is regulated by the act of 1905 and the rules above 
mentioned. The registrar has power to refuse applications or 
accept them absolutely or subject to conditions, amendments and 
modifications (s. 12). His discretion is not absolute, but subject 
to the provisions of the act (re Birmingham Small Arms Co.'s 
Application, 1907, 2 Ch. 396); and he must if required state his 
reasons, and his decision is subject to appeal to the board of trade 
or the court at the option of the applicant [s. 12 (3)]. 

" New marks " may not be placed on the register except by order 
of the court for any goods or description of goods which are identical 
with marks already on the register with respect to the same goods, 
&c., or so nearly resemble a registered mark as to be calculated to 
deceive (s.'ig). The question whether particular goods are of the 
same description is not determined solely by reference to the statu- 
tory classification. " The true test," says Kerly (Trade Marks, 
p. 181), " would seem to be supplied by the question: Are the two 
sets of goods so commonly dealt in by the same trader that his 



TRADE MARKS 



customers, knowing his mark in connexion with one set, and seeing 
it upon the others, would be likely to suppose that it was used upon 
them also to indicate that they were his goods? " Wine and spirits, 
beer, and even aperient drinks and baking powder, have been held 
to be " goods of the same description." When a trade mark contains 
(i) parts not separately registered as trade marks or (2) matter 
common to the trade or otherwise of a non-distinctive character, 
the registrar, or the board of trade or the court, in deciding whether 
the mark shall be entered or retained on the register, may impose as 
a condition that the owner shall disclaim all right to exclusive use 
of any part or parts of such trade mark or of all or any portion of 
such matter to the exclusive use whereof they deem him not to 
be entitled, or make any other disclaimer which they consider 
needful to define his rights under the registration (s. 15). Marks 
calculated to deceive are not entitled to protection (Eno v. Dunn, 
1890, 15 App. Cas. 250). 

Applications as accepted are advertised; the advertisements 
state the conditions, if any, imposed on acceptance (s. 13). Notice 
of opposition to the registration of a trade mark may be given under 
s. 14 of the act of 1905 (which replaces s. 69 of the act of 1883). 
The registrar after consideration decides whether the opposition is 
well or ill founded. His decision is subject to appeal to the High 
Court or by consent of the parties to the board of trade [1905, s. 14 
(5)]. In 1906 there were 251 notices of opposition, of which 51 were 
heard. There were 4 appeals to the board of trade, all referred by 
the board to the court under s. 59 of the act. 

There may be added to any one or more of the " essential particu- 
lars " above enumerated any letters, words or figures, or a combina- 
tion of these. But the right to the exclusive use of the added matter 
must be disclaimed. A man is not required, however, to disclaim 
his own name, or trade name, or that of his place of business, if the 
name appears in the mark. The number of applications to register 
trade marks in 1884 was 7104, and the number of marks registered 
4523. In 1906 the corresponding figures were 11,414 and 4731. 
These figures included 153 applications made to the Cutlers' 
Company at Sheffield (Part. Pap., 1907, 164, 24th report). 

The register may be corrected on the request of the registered 

owner of a trade mark as to errors or changes of address in the name 

of the registered owner, or by cancelling entries of 

I^Ait marks or by striking out classes of goods for which 

fy" ftl?' 3 - mar k ' s registered or by entering disclaimers or 

R" ter memoranda as to a mark, provided that they do not 

extend the rights given by the existing registration 

(s. 33)- 

A registered trade mark may be altered or added to in matters 
not substantially affecting its identity (s. 34). Thus a firm on be- 
coming a limited company has been allowed to add the word 
" limited " to its name upon a registered mark, but no alteration 
will be permitted in regard to any " essential particular." In the 
above cases the corrections or alterations are made by the registrar 
subject to appeal to the board of trade (ss. 32, 34). A registered 
trade mark may be taken off by order of the court on the application 
of a person aggrieved, on the ground that it was registered without 
a bona fide intention to use it in connexion with a particular class of 
goods, and that there has not been any such bona fide user, or that 
there has been no such bona fide user during the five years preceding 
the application. Non-user may be excused if proved to be owing 
to special circumstances and not to any intention not to use or to 
abandon the use of the mark (s. 37). (See re Hare's Trade Mark, 
1907, 24 R.P.C. 263). 

The register may be rectified by order of the court on the 
application of any person aggrieved, or in the case of fraud in regis- 
tration or transmission of the mark on the application of the 
registrar. The powers of rectification include correcting or 
expunging wrong entries, supplying errors and omissions and defects 

Registration is effective for 14 years but is renewable (s. 28). 
The registration if valid gives the proprietor the exclusive right to 
_ . the use of the mark on or in connexion with the 

R-vtstra- Koods in respect of which it is registered (1905, s. 39). 

This rule is subject to the following qualifications. 

(a) Where two or more persons are registered owners 
of the same or substantially the same mark in respect of the same 
goods, no one of them shall as against any other of them have any 
right of exclusive user except so far as their respective rights have 
been defined by the court. (6) Registration of a trade mark does 
not entitle the proprietor to interfere with or restrain the user by 
any person of a similar mark upon or in connexion with goods upon 
or in connexion with which such person has by himself or his 
predecessors in business continuously used such trade mark from a 
date anterior to the use of the mark by the registered proprietor, 
or to object to the registration of the other man's similar mark for 
concurrent user. 

In all legal proceedings relating to a registered trade mark registra- 
tion is prima facie eyidence of validity, and after seven years from 
the original registration, or seven years from the passing of the act 
of 1905, whichever shall last happen, the original registration shall 
be taken to be valid in all respects unless it was obtained by 
fraud, or the mark offends against s. II of the act. This pro- 
vision as to validity limits the power which formerly existed of 



getting rid of long registered marks by proceedings to rectify the 
register. 

Registered trade marks are assignable and transmissible only with 
the goodwill of the business concerned in the goods for which they 
are registered, and are determinable with the goodwill (s. 22). 
Associated marks are assignable and transmissible only as a whole 
and not separately (s. 27). The owner of a registered mark may 
assign the right to use his registered mark in any British possession 
or protectorate or foreign country in connexion with any goods for 
which it is registered, together with the goodwill of the business 
therein of such goods (s. 22). Provision is made for apportioning 
marks where the goodwill of a business by dissolution of partnership 
or otherwise does not pass to a single successor (s. 23). 

The assignments, &c., on proof of title, are recorded on the register 
(s- 33)- It is a condition precedent to an action for the infringement 
of a new trade mark that the plaintiff should be the registered 
proprietor of the mark at the time when the action comes on for 
hearing. This last provision does not apply to an action for 
" passing-off " (vide infra). In actions for infringement, evidence of 
passing off, or that the infringing mark is calculated to deceive, is 
not necessary. The court decides on the probability of deception 
by inspecting and comparing the marks (Hennessy v. Keating, 1907, 
24'R.P.C. 485). 

In the case of an old mark in use before the 1 4th of August 1875 
proceedings may be taken if registration under the act of 1907 has 
been refused (s. 42). 

The right to a trade mark lapses if the mark ceases to be distinc- 
tive and becomes publici juris; if it is separated from the goodwill 
(a trade mark can only be assigned with the goodwill) ; if the mark is 
applied by the trader to spurious goods (as where boxes of cigarettes 
were so labelled, in conformity with an alleged custom of the trade, 
as to indicate that they were of Russian manufacture; which was 
not the fact ; or when the mark is abandoned) ; (temporary disuse, 
however, is not abandonment unless the mark has in the meantime 
become associated with the goods of another trader) ; or where, 
as in the " linoleum " case (7 Ch. D. 834) it has become the name of 
the goods, and so merely descriptive; or after fourteen years where 
registration is not renewed. In dealing with a claim for infringement 
the court must admit evidence of the usages of trade as to the get-up 
of the goods for which the mark is registered, and of any trade 
marks or get-up legitimately used with such goods by other persons 

(s. 43)- 

The registrar has an uncontrolled discretion in the administration 
of the act, except in those cases in which an appeal is given from 
his acts or refusals to the court or the board of trade Anoeal , *- 
(ss. 53, 54). In cases of difficulty he consults the law " ppet 
officers (s. 56). 

Actions or other proceedings with relation to trade marks, so fai 
as they are for the court, may be brought in the High Court of 
Justice in England or Ireland and in the Court of Session in Scotland 
(ss. 3, 69). In the case of marks registered on application at the 
Manchester branch, the chancery court of Lancaster has concurrent 
jurisdiction with the High Court (s. 71). Actions for infringement 
of a trade mark are not within the jurisdiction of the county court 
(Bow v.Hart, 1905, I K.B. 592). An annual report is made by the 
comptroller-general of patents, &c., as to proceedings with reference 
to trade marks. 

III. " Passing-off " and Trade Name. A trader has generally, 
besides his trade mark, numerous other symbols, which he uses 
as indicia of his goods, e.g. the name of title under which he 
himself trades, the name under which his goods are known and 
sold, badges of property which are termed " trade name," and 
the distinctive " get-up " of the goods as they appear in the 
market. These symbols enjoy the protection of the law, under 
certain conditions, equally with trade marks. No trader is 
entitled to " pass off " his goods as those of another, and if he 
infringes this rule he is liable to an action for an injunction and 
damages, and these rights are preserved by the Trade Marks Act 
1905 (s. 45). The right to be protected against " passing-off " is 
restricted to goods of the same description as those upon which 
the trader uses the " get-up," &c., imitated. Even if the " pass- 
ing-off " is done innocently it will be restrained (Milling/on 
v. Fox, 1838, 3 Mylne and Craig, 338). This case is described 
as not one of the use of a properly descriptive name, but rather 
a case of the same class as those in which a fancy or invented 
name is used (Cellular Clothing Co. v. Maxton, 1899, App. Cas. 
326, 341). Although the first purchaser is not deceived, still if 
the article delivered to him bears words or marks such that it is 
" calculated to deceive " a purchaser from him, the use of them 
is illegal. 

To this general rule there are several exceptions: 
I. No monopoly is allowed in names that are merely descriptive. 
But words which prima facie are descriptive, such as " camel-hair 
belting," for belting made of camel-hair (Reddaway v. Banham. 



132 



TRADE MARKS 



1896, App. Cas. 199), or " Stone Ales " for ales brewed at Stone 
(Montgomery v. Thompson, 1891, App. Cas. 217), may be shown to 
have acquired by long use a " secondary distinctive meaning," and, 
in fact, to mean the goods of a particular trader. And where a 
defendant is not selling the genuine goods indicated by the name, 
as where the composition of the goods is a secret, even if the name 
might otherwise be taken as merely that of the goods, he cannot rely 
on the defence that the name is descriptive (Birmingham Vinegar 
Co. v. Powell, 1897, App. Cas. 710; the " Yorkshire Relish Case"). 
If, however, the primary meaning of the word is simple and well 
known, it is extremely difficult to establish a secondary meaning 
exclusive of the primary one (Hommel v. Bauer & Co., 1905, 22 R.P.C. 
43; " Haematogen," a preparation for forming blood, secondary 
meaning not established; cf. Fells v. Hedley & Co., 1904, 21 R.P.C. 
91; "Naphtha soap," secondary meaning not established; Wurm v. 
Webster & Girling, 1904, 21 R.P.C. 373; "White Viennese Band," 
secondary meaning not established ; Cellular Clothing Co. v. Maxton, 
1899, A.C. 326, " cellular " as applied to cloth, secondary meaning 
not established). But although a name may not, owing to the 
fact that it consists of well-known or descriptive words, be 
inherently entitled to protection, a distinctive scroll or device, in 
which it is embodied, may be so. Thus, in a case (Weingarten 
Brothers^. Bayer & Co., 1905, 21 Times L.R. 418; and see 19 Times 
L.R. 604) which sharply divided judicial opinion in England, the 
defendants were restrained from selling corsets in boxes bearing the 
name " Erect Form Corsets " scrolled thereon by the plaintiffs in 
a distinctive manner. No monopoly, of course, could be claimed in 
the words, but it was otherwise with the scroll. The use of a fancy 
name " iron oxide tablets " has been restrained where it was found 
likely to cause deception as being used to supersede in the market 
certain well-known " Iron Ox " tablets (Iron Ox Remedy Co. 
v. Co-operative Wholesale Society Ltd., 1907, 24 R.P.C. 425). 
(2) A trader cannot be prevented from trading under his own name, 
if he is using it honestly (bona fide) ; even though from its similarity to 
the name of another trader even one previously well-established 
it may injure the business of the latter (Burgess v. Burgess, 1853, 
3 De Gex, M. & G. 896; Turton v. Turton, 1889, 42 Ch. D. 128; 
Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre Co. v. Dunlop Motor Co., 1907, App. Cas. 
430). This right is recognized by the Trade Marks Act 1905, s. 44, 
which provides that registration of a trade mark under the act shall 
not interfere with any bona fide use by any person of his own name 
or place of business or that of any of his predecessors in business. 
But if a trader has never carried on such a business on his own 
account or in partnership with others, he cannot, by promoting 
and registering a joint-stock company with a title of which his name 
forms part, conferon the company the rights which he as an individual 
possesses in the use of his name (Fine Cotton Spinners, &c., Associa- 
tion Ltd. and John Cash & Sons Ltd. v. Harwood Cash & Co. Ltd., 
1907, 2 Ch. 184). If a trader's own name has, before he entered 
the trade, become the trade name of some other person's goods, 
he would probably not be allowed to use it without taking steps 
to prevent deception. This rule does not debar him from using 
" any bona fide description of the character or quality of his goods " 
(1905, s. 44). A name can become universally known as referring 
to the goods of a particular maker, i.e. as having a secondary meaning. 
This does not give exclusive rights to use of the name, but only 
to prevent other firms from using the goods so as to pass off their 
goods as those of the person whose name is in question (Joseph 
Rodgers & Sons Ltd. v. Hearnshaw, 1906, 23 R.P.C. 348). 

It is provided by the Companies Act 1862 (s. 20), that no company 
shall be registered under a name identical with that by which a 
subsisting company is already registered, or so nearly resembling 
it as to be calculated to deceive, unless the subsisting company is 
in process of being wound up and consents to such registration; 
and provision is also made for a change of the name of any company 
which, through inadvertence or otherwise, is registered under a 
name coming within the statutory prohibition. It is to be observed 
(cf. Buckley, Companies Acts, 8th ed. p. 27) that (a) the Companies 
Act 1862 applies only to the case of taking the name of a subsisting 
company already registered, and not to a case where a new company 
proposes to register in the name of, or in a name closely resembling, 
the name of an old-established company which is not registered, or 
of a firm or individual trader; (6) that as soon as the new company 
is registered the act ceases to apply; and (c) that the act forbids 
registration irrespectively of the question whether the business 
proposed to be carried on by the new company is the same as that 
of the subsisting company or not. But the provisions of the Com- 
panies Act on this subject are merely supplemental to the common 
law, and any company trading in the United Kingdom may restrain 
persons from registering a new company to carry on a rival business 
under a name identical with or so similar as to be calculated to 
deceive, and a company already registered under such a name may 
be restrained from carrying on a rival business under it. The right 
to interfere depends not upon fraud but upon the tendency of the 
similarity to cause confusion, deception or mistake (Fine Cotton 
Spinners case above cited; Birmingham Small Arms Co. v. Webb, 
1907, 24 R.P.C. 27; Star Cycle Co. v. Frankenburgs, 1907, 24 
R.P.C. 405; re Reddaway & Co., 1907, 24 R.P.C. 203). _In 
such proceedings evidence is admissible to show how the existing 



company has used the name, and what, by reason of its con- 
necting that name with its goods, the public have come to at- 
tribute to it (Daimler Motor Car Co. v. London Daimler Co., 1907, 
24 R.P.C. 379). A new company will not be allowed to take the 
whole name of a subsisting company, even although that name 
is of a descriptive character (Manchester Brewery Co. Ltd. v. North 
Cheshire and Manchester Brewery Co. Ltd., 1899, App. Cas. 83). 

The purchaser of the goodwill of a business has the right to use 
the trade name under which the business is known, and to restrain 
others from using it or such imitations of it as may 
mislead the public. But he is not entitled by the use 
of the trade name to make the vendor liable, under 
the doctrine of " holding out," for debts of the business incurred 
after the sale. And if the vendor of the goodwill gave his name 
to the business, he cannot (in the absence of any restrictive condition 
in the agreement for sale) be prevented from beginning to trade 
in his own name again, unless it be shown that in so doing he is 
attempting to deceive the public into the belief that he is still the 
owner of the old business. In construing the words " calculated 
to deceive " (s. 20) the courts will adopt principles closely analogous 
to those applicable in " passing off " cases in which the question 
is raised whether a trade name or the description or get-up of a 
particular class of goods is or is not likely to deceive (BritishVacuum 
Cleaner Co. v. New Vacuum Cleaner Co., 1907, 2 Ch. 312; Aerators 
Ltd. v. Tollett, 1902, 2 Ch. 319, 324). When the names of the two 
companies contain terms of common ordinary meaning descriptive 
of an article, s. 20 will be applied less readily than where the words 
said to create the confusion are of the character of fancy words 
relating rather to the maker than the article (Vacuum Cleaner 
Case). 

IV. Merchandise Marks. The first attempt to make the 
falsification of trade marks a criminal offence was in the Mer- 
chandise Marks Act 1862 (25 & 26 Viet. c. 88). That statute 
provided that the forgery of a trade mark with intent to defraud, 
and the false application of a trade mark to goods with the like 
intent, should be misdemeanours, but left upon the prosecutor 
the burden of establishing the fraudulent intent. The act 
contained no provision for summary prosecutions, and did not 
provide for the seizure of falsely-marked goods on importation 
from abroad. The international convention for the protection 
of industrial property, made at Paris in 1883, to which Great 
Britain acceded in 1884, contains a provision that all goods 
illegally bearing a trade mark or trade name may be seized on 
importation into those states of the union where the mark or 
name has a right to legal protection, and that the seizure shall 
be effected at the request of either the proper public department 
or of the interested party, pursuant to the internal legislation 
of each country. The law had to be amended in order to carry 
out this article in the convention, and the Merchandise MarksAct 
1887 was passed to effectuate this object and generally to make 
better provision for the protection of merchandise. It was 
subsequently amended in 1891 and 1894. The effect of the 
provisions of these statutes may be briefly stated. Any person 
is guilty of an offence, punishable on indictment or summary 
conviction by fine or imprisonment, who does any of the five 
following acts, unless he proves as regards the first four of them 
that he acted without intent to defraud (there is a special 
defence to No. v. which is noted below): (i). forges any trade 
mark, or makes, disposes of, or has in his possession for such 
purpose any die or instrument; (ii.) falsely applies any trade 
mark or a colourable imitation of any trade mark to goods; 
(iii.) applies any false trade description to goods; (iv.) causes 
any of the above offences to be committed; (v.) sells or exposes 
for sale, or has in his possession for sale, trade or manu- 
facture, any goods or things to which any forged trade mark 
or false trade description is applied, or any trade mark 
or colourable imitation of a trade mark is falsely applied, 
unless the defendant proves that, having taken all reasonable 
precautions, he had no ground to suspect the genuineness of 
the mark, &c., and also that on demand he gave to the prosecutor 
all the information in his power as to the person from whom he 
obtained the goods, &c., or proves that he otherwise acted 
"innocently." (See Thwaites & Co. v. McEvilly, 1903, 
20 R.P.C. 663). 

" Trade description " is defined as any descriptive statement or 
other indication as to the measurement, quantity (not quality, it 
should be observed), or weight, place or mode of production, or 



TRADE MARKS 



the material of the goods, or as to their being subject to an 
existing patent, privilege or copyright; conventional or customary 
descriptions lawfully in use in August 1887 to indicate 
n i n tnat goods are of a particular class or method of 
""'manufacture are allowed to be continued; but if they 
contain the name of a place and are calculated to mislead as to 
the real place of production, the name of the latter must be 
added. The test of what is a trade description depends upon the 
understanding of the trade and not on scientific correctness 
(Fowler v. Cripps, 1906, I K.B. 16). 

On a prosecution for any of these offences, there is a power to forfeit 
the things found although no one is convicted. If the offender is 
indicted (it is in his option to be tried in this way) the punishment 
is fine and imprisonment, the latter not to exceed two years. On 
summary conviction the punishment is not to exceed, for a first 
offence, four months' imprisonment, with or without hard labour, 
and a fine of 20; and for any subsequent offence six months' im- 
prisonment and a fine of 50. The importation is forbidden of 
goods by means of or in relation to which an offence against the acts 
has been committed, and also of all goods of foreign manufacture 
bearing any name or trade name being or purporting to be that 
of a manufacturer or trader within the country, unless it be accom- 
panied by a definite indication of the country where the goods were 
made or produced. There are also special provisions with regard 
to the marking of catch-cases. The commissioners of customs 
have power to make general orders for carrying out the Merchandise 
Marks Acts. (See Regulations of the 1st of December 1887, Stat. 
R. & O. Revised, 1904, vol. viii. tit. Merchandise Marks.) Prosecu- 
tions may be undertaken by the board of trade in cases appearing 
to affect the general interests of the country or of a section of the 
community, or of a trade, subject to regulations made on the aist 
of May 1892; and the board of agriculture and fisheries has a like 
power in the case of the produce of agriculture, horticulture and 
fisheries [act of 1894, s. i; Board of Agriculture and Fisheries Act 
1903, s. i (8); see the regulations of the 27th of October 1894, 
Stat. R. & O. Revised, vol. viii. tit. Merchandise Marks.]. Under 
the Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1899, and the Butter and Margarine 
Act 1907, the importation, except in containers showing their 
character, of margarine, margarine cheese, adulterated or im- 
poverished butter, milk-blended butter or condensed, separated or 
skimmed milk, is penalized, and it is provided that the commissioners 
of customs, in accordance with directions given by the treasury after 
consultation with the board of agriculture, shall take such samples 
of consignments of imported articles of food as may be necessary 
for the enforcement of the law. 

V. International Arrangements. (The Trade Marks Act 1905 
applies to the British Islands.) By the international conven- 
tion for the protection of industrial property (see PATENTS), 
which was signed at Paris in 1883, the signatory states (others 
have since acceded) agreed that the subjects or citizens of each 
state should, in all the other states, enjoy as regards trade marks 
and trade names the advantages that their respective laws then 
granted, or should thereafter grant, to their own subjects or 
citizens. So far as Great Britain is concerned the provisions 
made for carrying out this convention are contained in s. 65 of 
the Trade Marks Act 1905 and in s. 91 of the Patents and 
Designs Act 1907.' The effect of that section is to confer on 
an applicant for the protection of a trade mark in one of the 
other contracting states a priority over other applicants for 
registration in the United Kingdom during the space of four 
months. The section does not, however, exempt the applicant 
from the conditions and formalities incumbent on ordinary 
applicants for registration in Great Britain; nor does the fact 
that the foreign application has been successful of itself give 
the applicant a right to have his mark accepted for registration. 
Under the Convention of Madrid of the I4th of April 1891 
(to which Great Britain is not a party) a trade mark may be 
registered as the result of a single application in the countries 
of all the signatory powers. Besides the general international 
conventions there are also particular arrangements between 
many states, e.g. Germany and Italy (Italian law of the 24th 
of December 1903). Guatemala and Salvador, also signatory 
parties, have withdrawn from the convention. 

The following is a list of the British orders in council that have 
been issued, applying to foreign countries, s. 103 of the Patents, 
&c., Act 1883: 

1 This section supersedes ss. 103, 104 of the Patents, &c., Act 
1883. The references to these sections in the Trade Marks Act 
1905 must now be read as applying to s. 91 of the Patents, &c., 
Act 1907. 



Foreign State. 


Date of Order in Council. 


Belgium. 


June 26, 1884. 


Brazil 
Cuba 


June 26, 1884. 
January 12, 1905. 


Denmark (including the Faroe 
Islands) 




Dominican Republic 


October 21,1 890. 


Ecuador 


May 16, 1893. 


France 


June 26, 1884 


Germany .... 


October 9 1903 


Greece . 


October 15 1894 


Honduras 


September 26,1901. 


Italy 


June 26, 1884. 


Japan 


October 7 1899 


Mexico 


May 28 1889 


Netherlands 


June 26, 1884. 


,, (East Indian Colonies). 
(Curacoa and Surinam) 
Norway (and Sweden) .... 
Paraguay .... 


November 17, 1888. 
May 17, 1890. 
July 9, 1885. 


Portugal 


June 26 1884 


Rumania 


August 5 1892 


Servia 


June 26 1884 


Spain 
Sweden (and Norway) 


Tune 26, 1884. 
July 9, 1885. 


Switzerland 


June 26 1884 


Tunis 


June 26, 1884 


United States 
Uruguay 


July I2 t I88;. 2 
SeDtember 24. 1886. 



All these orders in council are printed in the Statutory Rules 
and Orders Revised (ed. 1904), vol. ix., under the title " Patents, &c." 
By orders in council, made under the provisions of the Foreign 
Jurisdiction Acts, penalties have been imposed on British subjects 
committing offences against the Patents, &c., Act 1883-1888 (now 
represented by the Trade Marks Act 1905, and the Patents and 
Designs Act 1907) and the orders in council issued thereunder, and 
the Merchandise Marks Act 1887: China and Corea (1904), Egypt 
(1899), Morocco (1889), Muscat (1904), Ottoman Empire (1899), 
Persia, Persian coast and islands (1889-1901), Siam (1906) and 
Zanzibar (1906). 

By s. 91 of the Patents and Designs Act 1907,' and s. 65 of the 
Trade Marks Act 1905, the king is empowered by order in council 
to apply the provisions of 5.91 above mentioned, with such variations 
or additions as may seem fit, to any British possession. The follow- 
ing is a list of the orders in council that have been issued : 



British Possessions. 


Date of Order in Council. 




August 7 tool 


New Zealand 


February 8 1890 


Trinidad and Tobago .... 
Australia (Commonwealth) . . . 


August 12, 1907. 
August 12, 1907. 



The orders in council up to 1903 are printed in the Statutory Rules 
and Orders Revised (ed. 1904), vol. ix.,underthe title" Patents, &c." 
It should be added that the protection of the Merchandise Marks 
Act 1887, extends to any trade mark which, either with or without 
registration, is protected by law in any British possession or foreign 
state to which the provisions of s. 103 of the act of 1883 or s. 91 of 
the act of 1907 are, under order in council, for the time being applic- 
able. 

A foreigner suing in the United Kingdom for infringement of a 
trade mark, or for " passing off," is in the same position as a subject. 

VI. Colonial and Foreign Trade Mark Laws. The British 
colonies generally follow the model of the English Trade Marks 
Acts (1883-1888). 

Australia. Legislation on trade marks is one of the subjects 
which the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 
(s. 9, pt. v. 51, xviii.) places within the exclusive competence 
of the Federal Parliament. By the Commonwealth Trade 
Marks Act 1905, s. 20, provision is made for registration of 
trade marks throughout the Commonwealth, and subject to 
this act and other Commonwealth legislation the common law 
of England as to trade marks is applied throughout the Common- 
wealth. Prior to this act most of the states had their own trade 
mark law (New South Wales, No. 19 of 1900; Tasmania, No. 9 
of 1893; Victoria, No. 1146, 1890; Western Australia, Nos. 7 

2 A treaty was also concluded between Great Britain and the 
United States on the 24th of October 1877, for the protection of 
trade marks. 

3 This section re-enacts the provisions of ss. 103, 104 of the Patents, 
&c., Act 1883. 



134 



TRADE MARKS 



of 1884, 5 of 1886, 4 of 1894). But the state Trade Marks Acts, 

with certain savings, cease to apply to trade marks (1905, s. 6). 

The Commonwealth act contains certain novel provisions: 

1. As to a Commonwealth trade mark to be applied to all goods 
included in or specified by a resolution passed by both houses, that 
in their opinion the conditions as to the remuneration of labour 
in connexion with their manufacture are fair and reasonable (s. 78). 
The mark consists in a device or label bearing the words " Australian 
Labour Conditions." 

2. As to workers' trade marks intended to protect the products 
of any individual Australian worker or association of such workers 
other than primary products of agricultural or pastoral industries 
(s. 74). Sections 115, 116 of the act contain provisions for inter- 
national and intercolonial arrangements as to protection of trade 
marks based on ss. 103, 104 of the act of 1883. By the Commerce 
Trade Descriptions Act, No. 16 of 1905, the import into and export 
from Australia of falsely marked goods is prohibited. 

In Canada the law as to trade marks (Rev. Stats, c. 63) and 
merchandise marks (c. 41 of 1888) has been regulated by 
Dominion acts, similar to English statute law. New Zealand has 
an act of 1889. The Hong-Kong ordinance, No. 18 of 1898, is a 
typical instance of an ordinance in a Crown colony [see also 
Ceylon, No. 9 of 1906, Jamaica (laws 17 of 1888 and 6 of 1889)]. 
In the Bahamas a trade marks law was passed on the 29th of 
May 1906, based on the imperial act of 1905. In the Straits 
Settlements there is no registration of trade marks, but the 
common law as to " passing off " is applied. 

United States. Provision for the registration of trade marks 
in the United States was first made by an act of Congress of 
1870; but that enactment was subsequently declared invalid 
by the Supreme Court (U.S. v. Stejfens, 1879, 100 U.S. 82), on 
the ground that the constitution of the United States did not 
authorize legislation by Congress on the subject of trade marks, 
except such as had been actually used in commerce with foreign 
nations or with the Indian tribes. Congress legislated again 
on the subject in 1881 (act of the 3rd of March 1881, Revised 
Stats. U.S. ss. 4937-4947). The act of 1881 was repealed by 
an act of the 2oth of February 1905 (s. 592), which, as modified 
by an act of the 4th of May 1906, now regulates the subject. 
A trade mark may be registered by the owner if he is domiciled 
within the United States, including all territory under the juris- 
diction and control of the United States (s. 29), or resides or is 
located in any foreign country which by treaty, convention or 
law affords similar privileges to citizens of the United States 
(s. i). 

The right of persons domiciled in the United States was in 
1906 extended to owners of trade marks who have a factory 
in the United States, so far as concerns the registration, &c., of 
trade marks used in the products of the factory (1906, s. 3). To 
obtain registration the owner of the mark (whether firm, corpora- 
tion, association or natural person) must file in the patent office 
an application (a) specifying the name, domicile, location and 
citizenship of the applicant; (6) stating the class of merchandise 
and the particular description of goods in the class to which the 
mark is appropriated; ' (c) annexing a drawing of the trade mark 
and as many specimens as may be required by the commissioner 
of patents; (d) giving a description of the trade mark (only when 
needed to express colours not shown in the drawing); and (e) 
specifying the mode in which the mark is applied and affixed to 
goods; (/) stating the time during which the m rk has been used 
(1906, c. 2081, s. i). 

The application must be accompanied by a fee of $10, and be 
supported by a sworn declaration verifying the ownership and 
the drawing and description and stating that no one else has a 
right to use the mark, nor one so like it as might be calculated 
to deceive, and that the mark is in use in commerce among the 
several states or with foreign countries or with Indian tribes 
(1905 c. 592, s. 2). 

Where the applicant resides or is located in a foreign country 
he must also show that the mark is registered in the foreign country, 
or that application has been made to register it there. Registration 
on behalf of foreign registrants is not made until foreign registration 
is proved nor unless application for United States registration is 

1 By the law of 1906 (s. 21) the commissioner of patents is 
directed to establish classes of merchandise. 



made within four months of the application abroad (1905, c. 592, 

SS. 2, 4). 

The United States policy is to require registration of all trade 
marks unless they (a) consist of or comprise scandalous or immoral 
matter; (6) consist of or comprise the flag or insignia of the United 
States, or of any state or municipality, or of any foreign nation ; (c) 
are identical with another known or registered trade mark owned 
and used by another and appropriated to merchandise of the same 
description, or so nearly resemble such other marks as to be likely 
to cause confusion or mistake in the mind of the public or to deceive 
purchasers; (d) consist merely in the name of an individual, firm, 
corporation or association, unless it is written, printed, impressed 
or woven in a particular or distinctive manner, or is associated 
with a portrait of the individual ; (e) consist merely in words or devices 
descriptive of the goods with which they are used, or of the character 
or quality of such goods, or merely of a geographical name or term ; 
(/) contain the portrait of a living individual unless his consent is 
evidenced by an instrument in writing. 

Old marks may be registered irrespective of the above rules, no 
proof that they have been actually and exclusively used as a trade 
mark of the applicant or his predecessors from whom he derived title 
in such commerce as aforesaid for ten years before the 2Oth of April 
1905. Applications made in proper form with the prescribed fee 
are at once examined in the patent office and if in order are gazetted 
to give opportunity for " interference." 

Decisions of the examiners on applications or oppositions are 
subject to appeal to the commissioner of patents, and from him 
to the court of appeals for the District of Columbia (ss. 8, 9). The 
general jurisdiction in trade mark cases is given to the Federal courts 
below the Supreme Court, which has power by certiorari to review 
the decisions of circuit courts of appeal upon such cases (ss. 17, 1 8). 
The maximum protection given by registration is twenty years. 
The protection given to marks already registered in a foreign 
country lapses when the mark ceases to be protected in the foreign 
country (s. 12). Certificates of registration are issued under the 
seal of the patent office. 

Provision is made to prevent importation of merchandise which 
copies or simulates the name of any domestic manufacture, manu- 
facturer or trader, or of a manufacturer or trader located in a country 
affording like privileges to the United States, or which copies or 
simulates the trade mark registered in the United States, or which 
bears names or marks calculated to create the belief that it is made 
in the United States, or in any country other than the true country 
of origin. United States traders who seek protection can have their 
names and marks recorded and communicated to the customs 
department (s. 27). At any time during the six months prior to 
the expiry of the term of twenty years the registration may be 
renewed on the same terms and for a like period. The right to 
the use of any registered trade mark is assignable (with the goodwill 
of the business in which it is used) by an instrument in writing; 
and provision is made for recording such instruments in the patent 
office (s. 10). 

France. In France (laws of the 23rd of June 1857, and the 3rd 
of March 1890) trade marks are optional, but may be declared 
compulsory for certain specified articles by decrees in the form of 
administrative orders. The decrees regulating registration are 
of the 27th of February 1891 and the I7thof December 1892. The 
following are considered trade marks: names of a distinctive 
character, appellations, emblems, imprints, stamps, seals, vignettes, 
reliefs, letters, numbers, wrappers and every other sign serving 
to distinguish the products of a manufacture or the articles of a 
trade. A fixed fee of one franc is charged for entering the minute 
by registration (dep6t) of each mark, and making a copy thereof, 
exclusive of stamp and registration fees. By legislation of the 1st 
of August 1905 and the nth of July 1906 provision is made for 
marking certain classes of commodities, mainly food products, to 
prevent falsification and the sale of foreign products as French. 

Germany. Under the German trade mark law of the I2th of May 
1894 any person whatsoever can acquire protection for a trade mark, 
and all foreigners in Germany are placed on an exactly equal footing 
with Germans in the eyes of the law, so long as they have a domicile 
(Niederlassung) within the empire, i.e. a place of business or a resi- 
dence which involves the payment of German taxes. The registration 
of a trade mark expires ipso facto after ten years from its date, 
but may be renewed for a similar period. Germany acceded to 
the international convention on the 1st of May 1903. 

In the Netherlands (law of the 3Oth of September 1893) two 
distinct forms of registration are in force: (a) registration merely 
for the Netherlands; (6) international registration, available for 
the states of the international union. 

The following other foreign trade mark laws may also be noted: 
Austria-Hungary, law of 1890 (published in Vienna on the 6th of 
January and in Budapest on the 6th of April 1 890) , and amending law 
of the 30th of July 1895, which enactment protects additions to trade 
marks. Denmark (law of the nth of April 1800, and an amending 
law of the igth of. December 1898, which enables traders to register 
words or figures, provided that these are not indicative of the origin, 
kind, use, quality or price of the goods). Japan (law of the 1st 
of July, and regulations of the aoth of July 1899). Russia (law 



TRADE ORGANIZATION 



135 



of the 26th of February [gth of March] 1896). Switzerland (law of 
the 26th of September 1890). 

AUTHORITIES. Sebastian, Trade Marks (4th ed., London, 1899; 
in this work the American cases are fully dealt with) ; Kerly, Trade 
Marks (London, 3rd ed., 1908); Kerly and Underhay, Trade Marks 
Act 190$ (London, 1906); Cartmell's Digest (London, 1876-1892); 
Sebastian, Digest (London; cases down to 1879); Gray, Merchandise 
Marks Act (London, 1888); Safford, Merchandise^ Marks (London, 
1893). The reports of the Departmental Committee of 1887, and 
of the Select Committees of the House of Commons appointed in 
1887 and 1890 to consider the law with regard to merchandise marks 
and false marks, and the annual Reports of the Comptroller-General, 
throw great light on both the history and the practical working of 
the law. For American law, see Browne, Treatise on Trade Marks 
(Boston, 1873); Cox, American Trade Mark Cases (Cincinnati, 
1871); Manual of Trade Mark Cases (Boston, 1881); Greeley, 
Foreign Patents and Trade Marks (Washington, 1899); Paul, Law 
of Trade Marks (St. Paul, Minn., 1903) ; and the reports of the com- 
missioner of patents. As to foreign trade mark laws generally, 
see the following : British Parl. Papers; Reports relative to Legislation 
in Foreign Countries (1879; Cd. 2284, 2420); Reports from H.M.'s 
Representatives Abroad, on Trade Marks, Laws and Regulations 
(1900; Cd. 104); Summaries of Foreign and Colonial Laws as to 
Merchandise Marks (1900; Cd. 358, p. 850 seq.). 

(A.W.R.; W.F.C.) 

TRADE ORGANIZATION. The development of commercial 
organization which attended the growth of trade and industry 
during the igth century assumed two distinct phases. In the 
first we see the creation of associations of persons engaged in 
trade and industry for the purpose of protecting their interests 
and of facilitating and fostering commercial relations. In the 
second, governments elaborate departmental organizations for 
the supervision of commerial matters, and utilize their con- 
sular services as means of commercial intelligence and influence. 

The associations belonging to the first category comprise three 
classes: 

a. Those which are themselves engaged in trade, like ordinary 
joint-stock companies, or which result from the combination of 
firms or individuals in the same or connected trades, for the 
purpose of facilitating or restricting production, limiting com- 
petition, regulating prices, &c. 

b. Those which, without engaging in trade, aim at providing 
facilities for the transaction of commercial or financial operations. 
They chiefly take the form of exchanges, bourses, public sale 
rooms, &c., such as the Baltic, Lloyd's, the Stock Exchange, 
the Corn and Coal Exchanges, the Commercial Sale Rooms. 

c. Non-trading bodies, in the nature of public institutions, 
whose objects are to protect the interests of trade. 

When, at the close of the i8th century and early in the igth, 
the power of the old trade gilds and corporations of merchants 
had been broken, both governments and commercial men soon 
realized that the ancient societies would not follow the com- 
mercial evolution, and that new organizations must be created 
to meet new requirements. Two systems were evolved, which, 
British and from their prototypes, are known as the British 
French and the French systems. In the former, trade 
Systems, organizations were left to develop themselves in 
their own way, and in whatever direction they might think 
fit, without any official interference. In the latter, on the 
contrary, the government constituted itself the creator of trade 
organizations, which it incorporated into the administrative 
system of the country, and to which it gave an official status as 
an integral part of the machinery of the state. The former 
have grown chiefly into associations for the promotion and 
defence of commercial interests, whilst the latter have mainly 
become sources of commercial information and means of action 
at the disposal of the government. While organizations on the 
British system are, as regards the government, purely advisory 
bodies whose opinion might or might not be asked in connexion 
with commercial matters, and whose duties are limited to the 
services which they are in a position to render to their members 
and to commerce generally, organizations on the French system 
not only must be consulted, in certain specified cases, by the 
government, especially in connexion with the drafting of com- 
mercial legislation and of regulations affecting trade, but they 
have also administrative duties to perform, such as the control 
of public commercial institutions, of testing, standardizing and 



conditioning establishments, port and dock works, &c. The 
British system obtains in the United Kingdom and the British 
colonies, in the United States and in Belgium, while the French 
has been adopted in most European countries, and in Japan. 

I. GREAT BRITAIN AND COLONIES 
A. Commercial Associations. 

In the United Kingdom commercial associations arose with 
the growth of trade, without any assistance from the state and 
free from all government restriction or control. The first in 
point of date were the " commercial societies " which were 
formed, chiefly during the last quarter of the i8th century, in 
Birmingham, Exeter, Halifax, Leeds, Liverpool and Manchester, 
and which exercised a not unimportant influence upon com- 
mercial developments at the close of the i8th and in the early 
years of the ipth centuries. The modern associations which 
superseded them divided themselves into four classes, viz: 

a. Chambers of commerce and associations which aim at 
becoming representative of general commercial interests; 

6. Associations or institutes which represent particular trades 
or branches of trades; 

c. Trade protection societies, which look after the interests 
of retail as well as wholesale traders, and undertake to supply 
them with information as to the standing and credit of firms, 
expose swindlers, collect debts, &c. ; and 

d. Non-representative associations rendering general com- 
mercial services. 

a. Chambers of Commerce and General Associations. Most of 
the chambers of commerce in the United Kingdom were formed 
during the latter half of the loth century, although a few were 
in existence much earlier. The oldest British chamber is the 
Jersey chamber, which dates from 1768. The Glasgow chamber 
was founded in 1783. Dublin followed in 1785, Edinburgh in 
1786, Manchester in 1794, Belfast in 1796, Birmingham in 1813, 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1818, Liverpool in 1851, Sheffield in 1857, 
&c. The London chamber was the last of the chambers of impor- 
tance to be established; it dates only from 1881. 

The London Chamber of Commerce, which has over 3000 members, 
is one of the most representative associations of its kind, and the 
organization adopted has been very effective in securing _ 
this. The chamber has been divided into trade sections, ' " e Loaaoa 
of which there are at present forty-four, and members 
specify the sections to which they desire to belong. Each section 
has a separate organization, and is presided over by a chairman 
elected by itself, who may be helped by an elected committee if 
found advisable. The general council of the chamber confirms 
the election of chairmen of sections, and no action can be taken by 
the chamber on the recommendation of a section without authoriza- 
tion of the council. The chamber has placed itself in connexion 
with a number of mercantile associations which, whilst preserving 
their separate organizations and their independence of action, have 
found it advantageous to work in conjunction with it, either for 
general or for particular purposes, and to have a voice in its council. 
The more important of these are the Institute of Bankers, the 
Institute of Chartered Accountants, the Society of Accountants 
and Auditors, the General Ship Owners' Society, the General Produce 
Brokers' Association, the Federation of Grocers' Associations of 
the United Kingdom, the West India Committee, the Corn Trade 
Association, the United Planters' Association of Southern India, &c. 

Particular reference should also be made to the Liverpool chamber, 
which, as regards division into trade sections and co-operation 
with independent associations, works on similar lines Thf 
to those of the London chamber. The African trade , . . 

section of the Liverpool chamber has been prominent chamber 
in connexion with African questions, and since its 
foundation in 1884 has been the leading voice in all matters relating 
to West Africa. 

The Association of Chambers of Commerce of the United Kingdom, 
which was formed in 1860, contributed much to give chambers of 
commerce as a whole a national importance. This 
association, like the chambers themselves, was of course **? &tioa 
purely voluntary, and at its foundation only sixteen t C J* 
chambers decided to join it. The association is main- 
tained by an annual subscription from the constituent 
chambers. It has been instrumental in passing many useful acts 
of parliament, and in otherwise influencing legislation upon com- 
mercial topics. The general meetings, which are held annually 
in March, in London, and at which delegates are present from all 
parts of the country, have come to be considered as a kind of parlia- 
ment of trade, and representatives of the Board of Trade, the general 
post office, and the foreign and colonial offices are generally in 
attendance. Special meetings take place in September, and are 
held in provincial towns on the invitation of the local chamber. 



136 



TRADE ORGANIZATION 



The association has limited its work to the United Kingdom, 
and has not taken advantage of the commercial development of the 
colonies to afford colonial interests an opportunity of voicing their 
needs in the metropolis. To supply this need the London Chamber 
of Commerce has, from time to time, organized congresses of 
chambers of commerce of the empire. Some of these congresses 
have been held in the colonies, the first being at Montreal in 1903. 

The home organization of chambers of commerce is supplemented 
by a few British chambers which have been established in foreign 
countries. These institutions are self-supporting, and not, 
as seems often to be thought, branches of, or subsidized 
Chambers Qr ,-ontrolled by home chambers. The British Chamber 
Abroad. Q j Commerce in Paris, which is the oldest of them, dates 
from 1 873, and was originally established by British merchants in Paris 
for the defence of their own trade interests. Its scope soon extended, 
however, arid it admitted to membership British firms trading with 
France although not resident in France, and in course of time became 
representative of general British commercial interests in the French 
markets. Other British chambers are tobefoundinGenoa, Alexan- 
dria, Barcelona, Constantinople and St Petersburg. In Brussels'an 
Anglo-American chamber jointly represents British and American 
interests. Several countries are represented in London by 
chambers of commerce, while the American Chamber (Liverpool), 
the Anglo-Belgian, the Anglo-Portuguese, the Aus- 
tralasian, the Italian, the Norwegian and the Swedish 
Chambers la c h am bers are members of the Association of Chambers 
Eaglaad. of Commerce of the United Kingdom. The United 
States are represented in England by the American Chamber of 
Commerce in Liverpool. 

Commercial organization in the colonies is very much on the 
same footing as it is in the United Kingdom. The most representa- 
... . live associations are the chambers of commerce, whose 
constitution and functions are similar to those of the 
"*' British chambers. In Canada the chambers, which 
are also sometimes called Boards of Trade, after the American 
custom, number over sixty, the most important being the Montreal 
and Toronto Boards of Trade and the Quebec Chamber of Commerce. 
The Canadian chambers have no association, but hold periodical 
conferences. There is, in addition, the Canadian Manufacturers' 
Association, with headquarters in Toronto and branches in all the 
provinces, which incorporates all the associations of manufacturers 
in the Dominion. The Australian chambers of commerce, which 
number some thirty, have joined into an association called the 
General Council of the Chambers of Commerce of the Commonwealth 
of Australia. In New Zealand, South Africa, India and many 
British colonies there are chambers of commerce in all the more 
important towns. 

6. Associations Representing Particular Trades. Associations 
representative of particular trades are almost innumerable. The 
London General Shipowners' Society, the Liverpool Shipowners' 
Association, the North of England Shipowners' and Steamship 
Owners' Associations may be mentioned as representative. The 
chambers of shipping and shipowners' associations joined forces 
in 1878 in order to establish the Chamber of Shipping of the United 
Kingdom, which does for them what the Association of Chambers 
of Commerce does for chambers of commerce. The Iron 
and Steel Institute affords a means of communication between 
members of the iron and steel trades, while the British Iron Trade 
Association is one of the most powerful. The nature of other 
associations is sufficiently indicated by their titles. In addition 
there are the Cotton Association, the Drapers' Chamber of Trade, 
the Fish Trade Association, the Sugar Refiners' Committee, various 
tea planters' associations, the Oil Seed Association, the Petroleum 
Defence Committee, the Mansion House Association on Railway 
and Canal Traffic, &c. 

c. Trade Protection Societies. These seem to be, on the vhole, 
more ancient bodies than chambers of commerce. In the early 
part of the igth century they were already strongly organized, 
especially in the West Riding of Yorkshire. Outside of that district 
the Dublin Society was the most important. They number more 
than 100 throughout the United Kingdom. 

The Manchester Guardian Society, which dates from 1826, 
occupies a position of special prominence in the Midlands, and may 
be taken as the model of such associations. Its objects are-ythe 
making of private inquiries as to the respectability and credit of 
traders, the detection and exposure of swindlers; the collection of 
debts; the winding-up of insolvent estates; the issue of notices of 
bills of sale, judgments, bankruptcies, &c. ; and generally the im- 
provement of laws and regulations affecting trade. The society 
has over 6000 members, and its usefulness may be gauged by the 
fact that it answers an average of 40,000 credit inquiries every year. 

Trade protection societies formed themselves, as early as 1848, 
into an association, which was at first an association of secretaries, 
but in 1865 was transformed into an association of societies. 
The association issues a quarterly journal called the Trade 
Protection Journal. 

B State Departmental Organizations. 

Although the British government allowed commercial organi- 
zations within its jurisdiction to grow independently of official 



control, it does not follow that it took no interest in the protec- 
tion and promotion of British trade and the dissemination of 
commercial intelligence. As long ago as the reign of Charles II. 
the body which is now the British equivalent of what is known 
in most countries as the ministry of commerce, viz. the board 
of trade, was established. The commercial jurisdiction of 
the Board of Trade does not extend beyond the limits of the 
United Kingdom, but the Foreign Office, through the negotiation 
of commercial treaties and by means of the consular body, 
came into touch with international trade. With the develop- 
ment of the colonies, the colonial and India offices also found 
themselves called upon to act, to a certain extent, as guardians 
of commercial rights and channels for the dissemination of 
commercial intelligence. But when competition began to 
displace British goods from foreign markets, and when the 
British trader noticed the efforts which were being made by 
foreign governments for the promotion of trade, he came to 
the conclusion that the British government was not doing 
anything for him. 

Complaints were especially loud against the consuls, who were 
accused of systematically disregarding commercial interests, whilst 
their American, German, French and Belgian colleagues _ . 
did not consider it below their dignity to take advantage servlc 
of their position, in order to promote the trade of the 
country they represented. British Consular Reports were also 
unfavourably compared with those issued by foreign consuls, notably 
the American. The result was that, in 1886, instructions were issued 
to the consular service which, for the completeness and fairness 
with which they deal with the subject, have frequently been quoted 
as models which might advantageously be followed (see Parlia- 
mentary Paper, Commercial, No. 16, 1886). The preparation of con- 
sular reports, however, continued to be most unfavourably criticised, 
and frequent instructions were issued by the foreign office in regard 
to them. The whole question was raised again in 1896, when, as 
the result of lengthy communications between the Foreign Office 
on the one hand, and the Association of Chambers of Commerce 
and the London chamber on the other, fresh instructions were sent 
to British consuls, reiterating the instructions of 1886. 

The consular service has of late years been supplemented by the 
appointment of commercial attachds. 

The pressure exercised by the chambers of commerce upon the 
government led to the appointment in 1897 of a departmental 
committee on the dissemination of commercial intelli- 
gence, which was charged with considering means of Commercial 
more adequately supplying traders with commercial Intelligence 
information, of improving consular and colonial reports, the Board ot 
and with reporting on the advisability of appointing f ra( j ei 
commercial agents to the colonies and establishing a com- 
mercial intelligence office. The chief result of the committee's recom- 
mendations was the establishment of the commercial intelligence 
branch of the Board of Trade. It publishes the Board of Trade 
Journal weekly. Attached to the branch is an advisory committee, 
composed of representatives of the various government departments 
and of the Association of Chambers of Commerce. 

The scope of the commercial intelligence branch was further 
increased, and its means of action strengthened, by the transfer of 
the Imperial Institute to the Board of Trade, which was effected 
in 1902 by the passing of a private act of parliament. 

The self-governing colonies are represented in London by agents- 
general (g.f.), while the commercial interests of the crown colonies 
are in the hands of the crown agents for the colonies. 

II. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 

A. Commercial Associations. 

American trade organizations have been developed mainly on 
the lines of the British system. Of the associations which come 
within the scope of this article, the most important are the 
chambers of commerce, which in certain cases are called boards 
of trade. Theoretically there is a distinction between the two, 
chambers of commerce being entrusted with the protection of 
general commercial interests, especially in connexion with 
foreign trade, whilst boards of trade look after local commercial 
questions. But in practice the difference is of no importance, 
as chambers of commerce take cognisance of local as well as 
international trade matters, and the boards of trade in no way 
limit the sphere of their activity to purely American questions. 

The oldest American commercial organization is the New York 
Chamber of Commerce, which was founded in 1768, and incorporated 
by royal charter in 1770. In the words of its charter, its object 
was " to carry into execution, encourage and promote by just and 
lawful ways and means such measures as will tend to promote and 






TRADE ORGANIZATION 



extend just and lawful commerce." It was the prototype of all i 
the other chambers of commerce and boards of trade which have 
since been established in the United States, and which are said to 
exceed 1000 in number. American trade organizations are associated 
in a National Board of Trade, which corresponds to the Association 
of Chambers ot Commerce of the United Kingdom. The objects 
of this institution are to secure unity and harmony of action in 
reference to commercial questions, and to obtain, through its 
representative character, more satisfactory consideration of the 
matters which it brings under the notice either of the Federal govern- 
ment or of the local state administrations. The expenses of the 
National Board of Trade are defrayed out of a fund formed by the 
subscriptions of the various associations belonging to it. The 
United Sytates has a number of chambers of commerce established 
in foreign countries. The first institution of this kind was started 
so long ago as 1801, when the American Chamber of Commerce 
in Liverpool \yas established. This chamber is the only one repre- 
senting American commercial interests in the United Kingdom, 
there being no association of this nature in London. The American 
Chamber of Commerce in Paris is one cf the most active, important 
and representative foreign associations on the continent of Europe. 
In some places where neither the American nor the British element 
is strong enough to maintain separate associations (notably in 
Brussels), they have joined hands to support an Anglo-American 
Chamber of Commerce, which is found to work fairly satisfactorily 
The American commercial museums, although of recent founda- 
tion, have attracted much notice owing to the practical and business- 
like manner in which they are conducted, and are considered to be 
among the best equipped institutions of this nature. Those in 
Philadelphia and at San Francisco are the best known. The 
Philadelphia museum, which came first and is better known, was 
established by an ordinance of the municipality in 1894, and is 
supported by subscriptions and by municipal subsidies, administered 
by a board of trustees, who are appointed for life and serve without 
remuneration. The work of the museum is supervised by an advisory 
board, composed of representatives of the principal commercial 
organizations in the United States. Its objects are to assist American 
manufacturers and merchants in securing wider foreign markets 
for their products, to aid them in forming connexions abroad, and 
to bring foreign buyers in touch with them. One of the chief ways 
in which this Is done is by means of an index file of foreign customers 
supplied to American manufacturers, and vice versa. In addition to 
the regular service to members, the museum also maintains abroad, 
in various cities, index files covering some sixty American trades 
or trade divisions, containing the names of American manufacturers 
of standing, with full particulars of their various lines of manufacture. 
These files are generally entrusted to chambers of commerce, or 
similar commercial institutions, and are placed gratuitously at the 
disposal of foreign manufacturers and merchants. The Philadelphia 
museum has also a most valuable library and a museum of samples. 

B. Slate Departmental Organization. 

The American state organization for dealing with commercial 
matters lacks the theoretical completeness of the organization 
of most European states, but is nevertheless found to give satis- 
faction. Official control is exercised through various bureaus 
placed, for the most part, under the treasury department. 
The most important of these are: the interstate commerce 
commission, which deals with matters affecting the inland 
trade; the industrial commission, which looks chiefly after 
manufacturing; and the fishery bureau. Foreign commercial 
matters come within the cognisance of the bureau of foreign 
commerce, a section of the state department which also controls 
the consular body, and sees to the publication of their reports and 
to the dissemination of foreign commercial intelligence. The 
state department corresponds to the British foreign office. 

The Pan-American Union, until 1910 called the Bureau of Amer- 
ican Republics, was established in 1889, as a result of the Pan- 
American Conference called together in that year by the late James 
G. Elaine, secretary of state at that time. This bureau, which 
had its office in Washington, is supported by a contribution from all 
the republics of North, Central and South America, which is fixed 
at the rate of 1000 dollars a year per million inhabitants. Its 
object is the dissemination of trustworthy commercial information 
concerning the republics of the American continent, and in pursu- 
ance of this object it has issued a large variety of publications. 

The American consular service has been frequently pointed out 
as a model to be followed in connexion with commercial matters. 
Consular America, contrary to the European practice, has no 
Service. consuls de carriere. Her consular representatives are 
appointed for a period of, as a rule, four years, and 
are selected in preference from commercial circles. Their work, as 
compared with that of British consuls, is rather limited, and they 
have nothing to monopolize their time like the shipping interests 
with which the British consular body is entrusted in most countries. 
Since 1898 the bureau of foreign commerce issues consular reports 



daily, as fast as they are received, and circulates them in advance 
sheets, printed on one side of the paper only, like printers' proofs. 
They are afterwards republished in permanent form. 

The American consular body, which numbers some 400 members, 
and is exclusively composed of American citizens, is distributed 
according to the commercial importance of towns. 

III. FRANCE 

A. Commercial Associations. 

The French government was the- first to elaborate a regular 
system of trade organizations, which it endeavoured to make 
as complete as possible. This system comprises: 

a. Chambers of commerce; 

b. Consultative chambers of arts and manufactures; and 

c. Syndical chambers of trade and industry. 

a. Chambers of Commerce. Chambers of commerce owe their 
origin to the city of Marseilles, where, in 1599, the town council, 
which had hitherto looked after the commercial interests Q t . 
of the city, found it no longer possible to combine com- 
mercial with municipal functions, and established an association 
which it called the " Chamber of Commerce " to take up the com- 
mercial part of its duties. This seems to be the first time that the 
title was used. The new chamber soon became a most important 
body, and in 1650, during the minority of Louis XIV., lettres 
patentes were granted to it. It settled the law merchant and 
the customs of the port, was entrusted with the appointment of 
consuls and the control of French consulates in the Levant, fitted 
out expeditions against corsairs, owned fleets, sent embassies to 
the Barbaresque countries, organized commercial missions, &c. 
Its ordinary budget, at one time, amounted to over one million 
livres. Louis XIV. conceived the idea of a system of organizations 
which, whilst not being allowed to become so dangerously power- 
ful as that of Marseilles, would nevertheless be useful in other 
towns, and in 1700 he caused an arrete to be published, ordering 
the creation of chambers of commerce, which were entrusted with 
the nomination of deputies to the Royal Council of Commerce 
which had just been created in Paris. Chambers were consequently 
established in Lyons, Rouen, Toulouse, Montpellier, Bordeaux, La 
Rochelle, Lille, Bayonne, Amiens, &c. These bodies, however, 
did not exercise much influence under the monarchy. Including 
the Marseilles chamber, they were suppressed, with all trade 
gilds and other trade associations, in 1789. Napoleon re-established 
the chambers by decree of the 24th of December 1802, and endowed 
them with a constitution similar, in essential particulars, to the one 
they have at present, which has served as a model for chambers 
of commerce on the Continent, but he submitted them to a uni- 
form and narrow administrative jurisdiction which practically 
deprived them of all initiative. 

They are now regulated by the law of the gth of April 1898, 
which codified, altered and completed previous legislation on the 
subject. Under this law, chambers of commerce can 
only be established by a decree countersigned by the 
minister of commerce, upon the advice of the municipal 
council of the place where the chamber is to be, of the general 
council of the department, and of the existing chambers of com- 
merce of the district. The members of chambers of commerce 
used to be elected by the " Notables Commercants," who were a 
body of commercial electors selected by the prefects in accordance 
with the provisions of the Code of Commerce. They were abolished 
by law in 1871, but those who were then entitled to the designation 
still continue to use it, which explains the words " Notable Com- 
mercant," so puzzling to foreigners in French commercial directories 
and on French business cards. At present, commercial houses pay- 
ing patente which is a special tax upon people engaged 'in trade 
elect the members of the chamber, the number of whom is fixed 
for each chamber by the minister of commerce. 

Their functions, which are consultative and administrative, are 
set out in part ii. of the law of 1898. The government is bound 
to take their opinion regarding the regulation of com- F aac aons. 
mercial usages, the establishment of public institutions 
of a commercial or financial nature, and of tribunals of commerce, 
the improvement of transport and communications, the applica- 
tion of laws of a local character, the sale price of prison-made 
goods and the tariff for prison labour, and local public works, and 
loans or taxation in connexion therewith. On the other hand, 
they are allowed to submit observations to the government, with- 
out being asked, on proposed changes in the commercial or economic 
legislation of the country; on customs tariffs and regulations; on 
railway, canal and river rates; and on transport regulations. As 
regards their administrative functions, they may be authorized to 
establish and administer such institutions as bonded warehouses, 
public sale-rooms, fire-arm testing establishments, conditioning 
rooms for wool, silk, textiles, paper, &c., commercial, professional, 
or technical schools and museums, &c. They may be granted 
concessions for public works, and may undertake the carrying out 
of public services, especially in regard to the ports, docks, canals 
and navigable rivers in their district, and be authorized to issue 
loans for the purpose. 



Constitu- 
tion. 



138 



TRADE ORGANIZATION 



French 
Chambers of '. 
Commerce 
Abroad. 



Constitu- 
tion. 



Previous to 1898 it was illegal for chambers of commerce to hold 
joint meetings for the discussion of matters of public interest, and 
they were not even allowed to correspond or consult in any way, 
except through the medium of the minister of commerce. The 
new law relaxed to a certain extent this prohibition, by authorizing 
direct correspondence and permitting chambers in a district to 
meet for the joint consideration of questions affecting their district, 
but for no other purpose. Such a thing as an association of 
chambers of commerce is still illegal in France. 

When, in 1873, British merchants in Paris started a British 
chamber of commerce in the French capital, the French govern- 
ment looked rather askance at the new venture, and M. 
on Say, when minister of commerce, even threatened 
with forcible dissolution unless the title " Chamber 
of Commerce " was dropped. This demand was not 
ultimately pressed, and the services rendered by the 
British chamber soon opened the eyes of the French government 
to the advantages which they might derive from the formation 
of similar institutions to represent French commercial interests 
abroad. In 1883 the minister of commerce started the organization 
of such chambers, which endeavoured to combine to a certain 
extent the French and the British systems. 

Foreign commercial interests are represented in Paris by seven 

foreign chambers of commerce, of which the British Chamber is 

the oldest. The others are the American, Austro- 

. Hungarian, Belgian, Italian, Spanish and Russian 

/ chambers. In 1896 these chambers formed them- 

in'paris^ ' se ' ves mto an Association of Foreign Chambers of 

Commerce, but the French government gave it to be 

understood that, as they did not allow associations of French 

chambers, they could not treat foreign bodies more favourably, 

and the association had to be dissolved. 

b. Consultative Chambers of Arts and Manufactures. These 
institutions, organized somewhat after the model of chambers of 

commerce, represent manufacturing and industrial 
interests. They were established by Napoleon I. in 
1803, and formed part of the complete system of 
commercial organizations which he intended to give France. They 
are now regulated by decrees of 1852 and 1863, and are composed 
of twelve members elected for six years by merchants and manu- 
facturers inscribed upon an electoral list specially drawn up by 
the prefects. These chambers, of which there are some fifty in 
existence, are placed under the control of the minister of commerce, 
but instead of being kept out of the patentes, like chambers of 
commerce, they are supported by the municipality of the town 
where they are situated, which has also to provide them with offices 
rent free, and with clerical assistance. In addition to giving 
.. advice in connexion with manufacturing and industrial 

"**" matters, they have to look after and report upon im- 
provements in manufactures and machinery, new industrial pro- 
cesses, &c. They are especially useful in the preparation of local 
and international exhibitions. They are also entrusted with the 
nomination of the Consultative Committee of Arts and Manufactures, 
a body whose functions are to advise the ministers of commerce 
and finance, as well as those of the interior and of public works, 
as regards the regulation of dangerous trades and industries, patents 
and trade marks legislation, and the interpretation of customs 
regulations. 

c. Syndical Chambers^ of Trade and Industry. By the side of 
the official trade organizations other associations have grown up, 
which, although regulated by law, are in the nature of voluntary 
and self-supporting bodies, viz. the syndical chambers of trade 
and industry. The repeal in 1884 of the law of 1791, which pro- 
hibited the formation of trade or professional association, was the 
signal for the formation of those chambers, which soon acquired 
great influence. A few syndical chambers existed before that 
date, the oldest, the Chamber of Master Builders, dating back as 
far as 1809, but they were only tolerated, and their existence, 
being illegal, was most precarious. 

The syndical chambers, which are divided into chambers of 
employers and chambers of employed, are the official organs and 
r tu representatives of the trade and professional syndicates 
authorized by the law of the list of March 1884, which 
was the work of M. Waldeck-Rousseau. Each syndicate 
has its separate chamber. They may be established without 
government authorization, but a copy of their rules and a list of 
their officials must be sent to the prefect. Membership is strictly 
limited to persons of French nationality. The only way in which 
the government can dissolve them is by application to the courts 
of justice for an order of dissolution on the ground of infringement 
of the provisions of the law. In Paris, most of the syndical chambers 
have formed an association . called the Union Nationale du 
Commerce et de 1'Industrie Alliance des Chambres Syndicales. 
Another association, intended to take up the defence of the interests 
and rights of syndical chambers, has been formed under the title of 
Syndicat du Commerce et de 1'Industrie Syndicat des Chambres 
Syndicales. The syndical chambers are kept up by the subscrip- 
tions of their members, and have the right to hold real property, 
as have also the associations of chambers, which are kept up by 
subscriptions from the constituent chambers. 



According to the law which authorized their formation, the 
objects of the syndical chambers are exclusively " the study 
and defence of economic, industrial, commercial and _ .. 
agricultural interests," and for this purpose they have ^unctions. 
complete freedom of intercommunication and can hold congresses. 
They are authorized to establish for their members mutual benefit 
societies and pension and relief funds, to open employment agencies, 
to give legal advice to, and in certain cases to bring actions on behalf 
of their members, and to organize the settlement of disputes by 
arbitration. They take part in the election of judges of the tri- 
bunals of commerce and of the Conseils de Prud'hommes. 

B. State Departmental Organization. 

The state commercial departments and offices are chiefly 
centred round the ministry of commerce, to which is assigned the 
commercial part of the duties fulfilled in England by 
the board of trade. A ministry of commerce existed 
for short periods in 1811 and in 1828, but it was 
ultimately suppressed in 1829, and from that date until 1886, 
when the department received its present form and separate 
existence, commerce was only represented in the French govern- 
ment by a subsidiary bureau attached sometimes to one ministry, 
sometimes to another. The ministry is divided into three main 
bureaus the first entrusted with all matters connected with 
the home trade and industry, the second with foreign and colonial 
relations, and the third with the compilation of statistics. 

Attached to the ministry of commerce is a body called the 
Conseil Superieur du Commerce et de 1'Industrie, which acts as 
an advisory council to the minister. Its origin goes back to the 
council of commerce established by Louis XIV., but it is now regu- 
lated by a decree of 1882. 

The Office National du Commerce Exterieur was established by 
a law of the 4th of March 1898, and is carried on jointly by the 
ministry of commerce and the chamber of commerce 
of Paris, the latter having provided it with an in- ?/. " , 
stallation at a cost of over 1,200,000 francs. The * 
office, which has been founded for the promotion of Tr'd*" 
French trade with foreign countries and the dis- 
semination of commercial intelligence, fulfils duties similar to those 
of the commercial intelligence branch of the board of trade. It 
also publishes the weekly Moniteur officiel du commerce. 

The Office Colonial, whose duties are especially to furnish in- 
formation concerning the French colonies, to promote emigration 
thither, and to foster a demand in France for the 
produce of her colonies, was established by a decree 
of the I4th of March 1899. It is entrusted, in addition, 
with a permanent exhibition of colonial produce and a museum 
of samples of goods supplied by or required in the colonies. The 
office is also in charge of a colonial garden at Vincennes, where 
experiments are made for the acclimatization of colonial plants 
and produce in France, and the cultivation of French produce in 
the colonies. The office publishes a monthly bulletin of miscel- 
laneous colonial information, and issues yearly commercial and other 
reports dealing with the colonies. It is a dependency of the ministry 
of the colonies. 

French consuls are instructed to transmit to their government 
all information which they may consider useful for the prosperity 
of French trade. It is also their duty to spread, in the country where 
they reside, a knowledge of such French commercial and financial 
matters as they may consider most useful in the interests of their 
own country. The close relations which they are 
recommended to cultivate with the French commercial 
community within their jurisdiction through the 
local French chamber of commerce and the councillors of foreign 
trade are intended to enable them to keep in better touch with 
commercial questions. They have had, however, to be frequently 
reminded of their commercial duties, and the French chambers 
of commerce have criticized them almost as much as the British 
chambers have British consuls. The most important instructions 
issued to consuls were contained in circulars from the minister 
for foreign affairs dated the I5th of March and the 24th of April 
1883. French consuls have to make a return to their government 
every fortnight every month if the district is not of great commer- 
cial importance^showing, upon forms specially provided, the nature, 
quantity, origin or destination, prices wholesale and retail, and chief 
trade marks of the goods imported into and exported from the 
district, the results of public sales of produce, the conditions of 
transport, contemplated public works and tenders advertised, 
state of the labour market, artistic enterprises, commercial failures 
and rumours concerning important local firms, effect of foreign 
competition, imitation of French trade marks, &c. These returns 
are mostly of a confidential nature, and are not intended for publica- 
tion, but whenever the minister considers it advisable he causes 
information to be conveyed through the chambers of commerce, or 
other channels, to the parties chiefly interested. The ordinary 
consular reports are published in weekly instalments in the Moni- 
teur officiel du commerce. 



nfflce 



a 



TRADE ORGANIZATION 



IV. GERMANY 
A. Commercial Associations. 
German trade organizations are of three kinds, viz.: 

a. Official organizations established by law, and called Handels- 
kammern, or chamber of commerce; 

b. Semi-official associations; and 

c. Voluntary or " free " associations. 

a. Chambers of Commerce. Contrary to the idea prevalent in 
England, official trade organizations in Germany are in a somewhat 
chaotic state. They have been established under more or less 
different conditions and systems in each state of the empire, and 
in certain districts still bear the imprint of foreign origin. They 
are under the control of the local state governments and lack the 
homogeneity and unity of direction of the French official system. 

Before proceeding to a general examination of the German 
regime, special mention must be made of the chambers of com- 
H tic merce f tne o'd Hanseatic Confederacy which stand 
o /,. apart, and whose duties, as well as constitution, differ 
t fo a ' from those of trade organizations in the rest of Ger- 
many. The chambers of commerce in Hamburg, 
Bremen and Liibeck are not only the successors of, but (con- 
trary to what happened in Germany as well as in other 
countries) have been evolved out of the old corporations which 
looked after the interests of the Hans traders in the olden days, 
and which, in the case of the Hamburg " Commerz-Deputation," 
tor instance, dated as far back as 1665. 

The Hamburg Chamber of Commerce, whose present constitution 
dates from 1860, is composed of twenty-four members elected for 
six years by the ancient " Versammlung eines ehrbaren Kauf- 
mannes," that is to say, the merchants and commercial men whose 
names appear on the register of the " Honest Merchants " of the 
city. Its income is chiefly derived from special taxation, to which 
are added the proceeds of the sale of contract and transfer stamps, 
and also the amount paid every year for the re-registration of 
each " Honest Merchant." This latter source of income amounts 
to about 70,000 marks per annum. The chamber has to submit 
its accounts for approval to the Senate of the Republic. 

In addition to the general duties of chambers of commerce in 
connexion with trade matters, the Hamburg chamber the same 
may also be said of the other Hanseatic chambers fulfils the 
combined functions of a chamber of shipping and of a port and 
docks board. It has the right of proposing judges and of nominat- 
ing experts attached to the courts. The exchanges and public 
sale rooms of the city are under its control, and it publishes the 
official quotations, as well as a weekly price list of goods and pro- 
duce at the port of Hamburg. It is entitled to elect members to 
the " Biirgerschaft " or lower house of representatives, who are 
especially competent to deal with trade and shipping questions, 
customs duties and emigration. The chamber must be consulted 
by the " Biirgerschaft " with reference to all proposals affecting 
trade and navigation. 

In Bremen the chamber is composed of twenty-four members 
elected by the " Ausschuss des Kaufmanns-Konvents, "which com- 
prises all the important commercial houses of the city. Two 
members go out every year, and no one can remain a member for 
more than eighteen years. The Bremen chamber is intimately con- 
nected with the Senate of the Republic, a standing committee of 
both being in existence to settle questions affecting trade and 
navigation. 

The Liibeck chamber is composed of twenty members elected for 
six years by the associations representing the wholesale and retail 
trades. The president must be approved by the senate, and is 
sworn in as a state official. He holds office for two years, and is 
not paid for his services, but when he goes out of office is pre- 
sented with a sum of money subscribed by the townspeople. The 
Liibeck chamber is probably the wealthiest organization of its 
kind in Germany, and is entrusted with the administration of the 
property of the old corporation of the " Vorstand der Kaufmann- 
schaft, ' which is very important. The senate must consult it not 
only in trade and navigation matters, but also with reference to 
all contracts entered into on behalf of the state. 

Chambers of commerce in other parts of the German Empire are 
not so important, nor are their duties so varied, as in the Hanseatic 
r/i.fc.n towns - The oldest ones were established by Napoleon 

C/7i)/nOtT.S O/ . . , *~tri)Ai ~ 11 

Commerce. m l8 2 m Cologne, Crefeld, Aachen, btolberg and 
other towns which were then under the control of 
France, and they were submitted to the legislation which regu- 
lated the chambers organized in France at the same time. The 
model set up by the French was more or less closely followed in 
the subsequent establishment of institutions of this nature in other 
German states. The Berlin chamber was only constituted on the 
1st of April 1902. A trade corporation called the " Aelteste der 
Kaufmannschaft " previously fulfilled, to a certain extent, the 
duties of a chamber of commerce. The new chamber rests on a 
broader basis than the old corporation, which, however, remains 
intact, though the sphere of its action has been restricted. 

Broadly speaking, the German chambers are elected by the 
registered tradespeople and the merchants. Throughout the whole 



of Germany chambers are under the strict supervision of the state 
minister of commerce, and cannot be established except with his 
permission. He fixes the number of members as well as the amount 
of the state allocation to the chamber. In Prussia and Bavaria 
the government is entitled to dissolve chambers whenever it 
considers it advisable to do so, and there is always a government 
commissioner in attendance at all meetings. In most cases the 
local government allows a fixed sum for the expenses of chambers 
of commerce, and if this amount is exceeded the electors who are 
on the commercial register have to make good the excess by 
the striking of a special rate. In some states, e.g. Brunswick, 
Wurttemberg and Baden, the electors cannot be called upon to 
pay for deficiencies more than an amount fixed by law. In Bavaria 
chambers^get a subvention from the district and central funds. 

The duties and powers of the German chambers are practically 
the same as those of the French chambers. 

The German government did not, like the French, interfere with 
the liberty of association of chambers of commerce, and as a 
result German chambers have united, together with other trade 
corporations, in an association called the " Deutsche Handelstag," 
founded in 1861, and carried on in its present form since 1886. 

The German government is understood to be opposed to the forma- 
tion of German chambers of commerce abroad, and as a German 
matter of fact there are no German chambers in Europe Chambers 
outside of Germany. A few have been established Abroad and 
in South America, but they are purely voluntary Foreign 
associations. No foreign chambers of commerce exist Chamberstn 
in Germany. Germany. 

b. Semi-Official Corporations. Besides the chambers of com- 
merce, there exist, chiefly in Prussia, various old-established and 
quasi-official corporations, whose views receive as careful con- 
sideration from the government as do those of chambers of com- 
merce. The Berliner Aelteste der Kaufmannschaft is one of the 
most important of these corporations, but the Gewerbekammer of 
Memel, the Kaufmiinnische Verein of Breslau, the Vorsteher 
Amt der Kaufmannschaft of Koenigsberg also deserve mention. 
Others exist in Elbing, Stettin, Danzig, Tilsit and Magdeburg. 
They originated for the most part in ancient gilds or associations 
of commercial firms, and were organized in their present form 
between 1820 and 1825. 

c. Voluntary Associations. Germany possesses also a large 
number of influential commercial associations of a voluntary 
character called the " Freie Vereine," which, especially in recent 
years, have greatly contributed to the commercial development of 
the empire. 

B. State Departmental Organization. 

The German Empire has no ministry of commerce. As in the 
United States, commercial matters form only a department of the 
ministry of state. Most of the states of the empire have, how- 
ever, their own ministries of commerce, the oldest being the 
Prussian ministry of commerce and industry, which dates from 
1848. 

In Prussia, the minister of commerce is advised by the Volks- 
wirthschaftsrath, or council of national economy, an official body 
constituted in 1880 by the Emperor William I. The 
functions of this council, which assembles periodic- 
ally under the presidency of the minister of commerce, 
are also similar to those fulfilled in France by the C? 
Conseil SupeVieur du Commerce et de 1'Industrie. 

The German government has taken steps to facilitate the dis- 
semination of commercial intelligence by the establishment of 
commercial museums, which are variously called _ 
" Handelsmuseen, " " Ausfuhrmusterlager " or " Ex . c n "" e '*> 
portmusterlager. " The first of these, which are on the 
model of the Vienna Handelsmuseum, was opened in Berlin in 1883. 
Others followed in Munich, Karlsruhe, Frankfort, Cologne, Dresden, 
Leipzig, Weimar, &c. They perform, to a certain extent, much 
the same functions as those performed in England by the com- 
mercial intelligence branch of the board of trade. 

A perusal of the instructions given to German consuls with 
regard to commercial matters shows that the German consular body 
is in this respect very much in the same position as 
the British consular body. If German consuls as a Consu/ar 
whole have been especially active and successful in 
promoting German commercial interests, it is not on account of 
the nature of the instructions received from their government, 
these instructions being to all intents and purposes similar to those 
issued to British consuls, but because particular care was taken 
to select consuls from a class of men imbued with the desire of 
increasing the greatness of their country by the promotion of German 
trade. 

Of distinctly commercial attaches, like those of Great Britain and 
Russia, Germany has none; but in addition to the consular body 
she is represented in foreign countries by five attaches 
or experts, whose duties are to study the movements of 
agricultural produce, and interest themselves in agri- 
cultural matters generally. They cover Great Britain, France, 
Russia, the Danube district and the United States. 



. 



140 



TRADE UNIONS 



V. BELGIUM 



A. Commercial Associations. 

The important place which Belgium has taken in international 
trade has directed much attention to her commercial organization, 
which comes nearer to the British model than that of any other 
European country. Belgian chambers of commerce were on the 
French system until 1875, when all official ties between them and 
the government were broken, and full liberty was given to com- 
mercial associations to establish and govern themselves in their 
own way. The Belgian chambers have now no administrative 
functions of any kind, but the Belgian government never fails to 
consult them in matters likely to interest the commercial com- 
munity. The most important chambers are those of Antwerp, 
Brussels, Ghent, Liege, Charlcroi, Verviers and Namur. Mention 
should also be made of the federations of industrial and com- 
mercial associations at Antwerp and at Brussels, and of the 
syndical union of Brussels. In some places there are Liberal and 
Conservative chambers of commerce. 

In addition to institutions representative of the general interests 
of commerce and industry, the principal trades have also in the 
larger cities separate associations or syndicates. There are a large 
number of associations for the promotion of colonial trade, which 
have grown up since the establishment of the Congo Free State. A 
number of Belgian chambers of commerce also exist abroad, the 
first of which was established in New York in 1867. 

B. State Departmental Organization. 

The Belgian ministry of commerce, under whose control com- 
mercial matters are placed, dates only from 1895, previous to which 
time the department of commerce at the ministry for foreign 
affairs fulfilled the same functions. The ministry has established 
in Brussels a Commercial Museum, similar to those of Germany 
and Austria, to centralize commercial intelligence and facilitate its 
dissemination. 

VI. OTHER COUNTRIES 

Austria-Hungary. The control exercised by the government 
over commercial organizations in Austria and in Hungary is very 
close. The only institutions of this kind of any importance within 
the dual monarchy are the chambers of commerce. They are 
official bodies, regulated by the law of the agth of June 1868, 
which is, as regards the functions of chambers, almost similar to 
the French law. But the Austrian chambers, in certain cases, 
have the right to elect members of parliament, which right depends 
upon taxation. Within the -Trieste district one-third of the 
members of chambers of commerce may be foreigners. 

Austria and Hungary have each a ministry of commerce, the 
former since 1853 a . n d tne latter since 1867, whose jurisdiction is 
strictly confined to internal trade matters in each country. When- 
ever important questions arise affecting common interests the 
Gemeinsame Zoll-Conferenz, or Common Customs Conference, is 
summoned. This conference is made up of representatives of the 
various ministries of both countries. Matters arising out of com- 
mercial relations with foreign countries are under the control of 
the commercial department of the imperial foreign office. 

The Vienna commercial museum was the prototype of similar 
institutions. It was established in 1875, as a consequence of the 
Vienna International Exhibition of 1873, and was followed shortly 
afterwards by the establishment of a similar one in Budapest. 

Italy. The chambers of commerce and arts, which are regu- 
lated by the law of 1862, are official bodies. They are instituted, 
and may be dissolved, by royal decree, and their functions are 
almost similar to those performed by the French chambers. They 
are, however, at liberty to unite for the consideration of commercial 
and industrial questions of common interest, and are entitled to 
own property and to levy taxes for their maintenance. 

An advisory council is attached to the ministry of commerce, 
which dates from 1878. This council is called upon to give an 
opinion with reference to all matters connected with trade and 
industry. There are also two commercial museums, one in Rome and 
one in Milan. 

Spain. Spanish chambers of commerce were organized by a 
royal decree of 1886, which places them under the control of the 
Ministro de Fomento. They are self-supporting bodies with un- 
limited membership, but have also an official standing. In order 
to belong to them one must be of Spanish nationality, be engaged 
in trade, have paid direct taxes to the state for at least five years 
for the business in connexion with which membership of the chamber 
is sought, and pay annualjy the amount of the subscription pro- 
vided by the regulations. The government must consult chambers 
of commerce upon treaties of commerce and navigation, tariff 
changes, the creation of commercial exchanges and the organization 
of commercial education. Owing to the peculiarity of their con- 
stitution the Spanish chambers are much more representative of 
the feelings of the commercial community, and much less under 
the strict control of the government, than similar institutions in 
other continental countries. Spain has no ministry of commerce 
proper, the duties of this office being performed by the commercial 
sub-department of the Ministro de Fomento, which dates from 
1847. 



Portugal. In Portugal the organizations corresponding to 
chambers of commerce, which are called " commercial associa- 
tions, " are voluntary associations kept up by the subscriptions of 
their members. The associations at Lisbon and Oporto are the 
only ones of importance. 

Russia. Attached to the department of trade and manufactures 
of the ministry of Finance, which in Russia does duty for the ministry 
of commerce, there is an official council of trade and manufactures 
which sits in St Petersburg, and is presided over by a representative 
of the ministry. A similar council is also in existence at Moscow. 
In addition to these there are six local bodies, called the " local 
committees of trade and manufactures, " entrusted with the care 
of commercial interests in Archangel, Odessa, Rostov-on-the-Don, 
Tver, Tikhvin and Ivanovo-Voznesensk. At Warsaw there is 
a " committee of manufactures. " The committees are purely 
consultative bodies. 

Closer to what we know as chambers of commerce are the in- 
stitutions called " exchange committees. " They are voluntary 
associations, chosen by a council elected for the purpose by the 
commercial community; they generally consist of twelve members 
elected for five years, and the president is appointed by the minister 
of finance. Two important commercial societies, although un- 
official, are recognized and frequently consulted by the govern- 
ment, viz. the Society for the Encouragement of Russian Trade and 
Industry, of St Petersburg, and the Society for the Encouragement 
of Navigation, of Moscow. 

The Russian government is represented abroad by commercial 
attaches, who are known as " agents of the Russian ministry of 
finance. " The duties of these attaches are almost similar to 
those of the British commercial attaches, but they are entrusted 
with the promotion of Russian financial as well as commercial 
interests. 

Japan. Commercial matters in Japan come within the cogniz- 
ance of the minister of state for agriculture and commerce. The 
chief commercial associations are the chambers of commerce, 
which are under the direct control of the minister. They are 
official bodies, with a constitution somewhat resembling that of 
the French chambers. The members must be Japanese subjects. 

AUTHORITIES. Correspondence respecting diplomatic and con- 
sular assistance to British trade abroad. Parliamentary Papers, 
No. 16, 1886, and No. 5, 1897; Report of the Departmental Committee 
on the Dissemination of Commercial Intelligence (2 vols., c. 8962, 
8963, 1898); Reports on the constitution and functions of ministries 
of commerce and analogous branches of foreign administrations. 
Parliamentary Paper, No. 12 (1889). Reports, rules, by-laws and 
articles of association of the various chambers mentioned. W. H. 
Schoff , American Commercial Institutions (New York, 1900) ; Foreign 
Trade Policies; American Consular Report, No. 307 (Dec. 24, 1898). 
The Bureau of American Republics Annual Reports (Washington). 
The Chambers of Commerce Year Book (York, 1909). 

TRADE UNIONS, combinations for regulating the relations 
between workmen and masters, workmen and workmen, or 
masters and masters, or for imposing restrictive conditions on 
the conduct of any industry or business. 

I. THE UNITED KINGDOM 

By the English common law such combinations were, with 
certain unimportant exceptions, regarded as illegal. They were 
considered to be contrary to public policy, and were History ot 
treated as conspiracies in restraint of trade. Those British 
who were concerned in them were liable to be Legislation. 
criminally prosecuted by indictment or information, and 
to be punished on conviction by fine and imprisonment. The 
offence was the same whether it was committed by masters or 
by workmen. But although the common law applied mutatis 
mutandis to both of them alike, it was, practically speaking, in 
reference rather to the latter than to the former that its effects 
were developed and ascertained. Although workmen, as indi- 
viduals, might lawfully consent or refuse to labour for any 
remuneration or for any time they pleased, the hostility of the 
common law to combinations effected the result that when two 
or more of them joined together, and agreed to labour only on 
certain stipulated terms, their agreements were not only null 
and void, but were criminal offences subject to punishment. 
It was immaterial whether the end they had in view was to deter- 
mine wages or to limit work; or whether the means they adopted 
for promoting its attainment was a simultaneous withdrawal 
from employment, an endeavour to prevent other workmen from 
resuming or taking employment, or an attempt to control the 
masters in the management of their trade, the engagement of 
journeymen or apprentices, or the use of machinery or industrial 
processes; or whether in seeking to enforce their demands they 



UNITED KINGDOM] 



TRADE UNIONS 



141 



relied merely on advice and solicitation, or resorted to reproach 
and menace, or proceeded to actual violence. In any event 
their combination in itself constituted a criminal conspiracy, and 
rendered them amenable to prosecution and punishment. 

From the reign of Edward I. to the reign of George IV. the 
operation of the common law was enforced and enlarged by 
between thirty and forty acts of parliament, all of which were 
more or less explicitly designed to prohibit and prevent the 
organization of labour. But the rise of the manufacturing 
system towards the end of the i8th century, and the revolution 
which accompanied it in the industrial arrangements of the 
country, were attended by a vast and unexpected extension of 
the movement which the legislature had for so long essayed to 
suppress. Among the multitudes of workmen who then began 
to be employed in factories, trade unions in the form of secret 
societies speedily became numerous and active, and to meet 
the situation a more summary procedure than that which had 
hitherto been available was provided by an act passed in 1800. 
Act of 1800. ^ v tms statute it was enacted that all persons 
' combining with others to advance their wages or 
decrease the quantity of their work, or in any way to affect 
or control those who carried on any manufacture or trade 
in the conduct and management thereof, might be convicted 
before one justice of the peace, and might be committed to 
the common gaol for any time not exceeding three calendar 
months, or be kept to hard labour in the house of correction for 
a term of two calendar months. 

The discontent and disorder consequent upon the introduction 
of steam and improved appliances into British manufactures 
in the first quarter of the igth century, in conjunction with a 
state of commercial depression and national distress, led to the 
nomination of a select committee by the House of Commons, 
to inquire into the whole question of what were comprehensively 
designated the " combination laws," in the session of 1824. 
The committee reported to the House that " those laws had not 
only not been efficient to prevent combinations either of masters 
Act of 1824. or wor kmen, but on the contrary had, in the opinion 
'of many of both parties, had a tendency to produce 
mutual irritation and distrust and to give a violent 
character to the combinations, and to render them highly dan- 
gerous to the peace of the community." They further reported 
that in their judgment " masters and workmen should be freed 
from such restrictions as regards the rate of wages and the hours 
of working, and be left at perfect liberty to make such agreements 
as they mutually think proper." They therefore recommended 
that " the statute laws which interfered in these particulars 
between masters and workmen should be repealed," and also 
that " the common law under which a peaceable meeting of 
masters or workmen might be prosecuted should be altered." 
In pursuance of their report, an act, 5 Geo. IV. c. 95, was at 
once brought in and passed. But the immediate results of 
the change which it effected were regarded as so inconvenient, 
formidable and alarming, that in the session of 1825 the House 
of Commons appointed another select committee to re-examine 
the various problems, and review and reconsider the evidence 
submitted to their predecessors. They reported without delay 
in favour of the total repeal of the act of 1824, and the restora- 
tion of those provisions of the combination laws, whether statu- 
tory or customary, which it had been more particularly intended 
to abrogate. The consequence was an act passed in 1825 of 
Act ot 1825. which the preamble declares that the act of 1824 
had not been found effectual, and that combinations 
such as it had legalized were " injurious to trade and com- 
merce, dangerous to the tranquillity of the country, and 
especially prejudicial to the interests of all who were concerned 
in them." The effect of this act was to leave the common law 
of conspiracy in full force against all combinations in restraint 
of trade, except such as it expressly exempted from its operation, 
as it had been before the act of 1824 was passed. It comprised, 
however, within itself the whole of the statute law relating to 
the subject, and under it no persons were liable to punishment 
for. meeting together for the sole purpose of consulting upon and 



determining the rate of wages or prices which they, being 
present, would require for their work or pay to their workmen, 
or the hours for which they would work or require work in any 
trade or business, or for entering into any agreement, verbal or 
written, for the purpose of fixing the rate of wages or prices which 
the parties to it should so receive or pay. But all persons were 
subjected to a maximum punishment of three months' imprison- 
ment with hard labour who should by violence, threats or intimi- 
dation, molestation, or obstruction, do, or endeavour to do, or 
aid, abet or assist in doing or endeavouring to do, any of a 
series of things inconsistent with freedom of contract which the 
act enumerated and defined. 

In 1859, in order to remove certain doubts which had arisen 
as to the true import and meaning of the undefined words 
"molestation" and "obstruction," it was provided Act otl8S9 
by an amending act that " no person, by reason 
merely of his endeavouring peaceably and in a reasonable 
manner, and without threat or intimidation, direct or indirect, 
to persuade others to cease or abstain from work, in order to 
obtain the rate of wages or the altered hours of labour agreed 
to by him and others, should be deemed to have been guilty 
of ' molestation ' or ' obstruction.' " 

In spite of the partial recognition which trade unions had 
thus received, they continued to be unlawful, although not 
necessarily criminal, associations. In certain cases, 
they were by statute exempted from penal con- 
sequences, and their members were empowered to 
combine for specified purposes, and to collect funds by volun- 
tary contributions for carrying them into effect. But in the 
estimation of the common law the special privileges which had 
been accorded to them under particular circumstances did 
not confer any general character of legality upon them, and 
where their rules were held to be in restraint of trade, as in 
the prohibition of piece-work or the limitation of the number 
of apprentices, they were still regarded as conspiracies. In 
this condition the law was when what became notorious as the 
" Sheffield and Manchester outrages " suggested the appoint- 
ment of the royal commission on trade unions, which investi- 
gated the subject from 1867 to 1869. The outcome was, first, 
a temporary measure for the more effectual protection of 
the funds of trade unions, passed in 1869, and, secondly, the 
two measures which, as amended and amending, are cited 
together as the " Trade Union Acts 1871 and 1876." 

Under these statutes, construed with the Conspiracy and 
Protection of Property Act 1875, the law relating to combi- 
nations, whether of workmen or of masters, 

entered upon a new phase. In connexion with 

.. ... effects. 

trade disputes no person can be prosecuted for 

conspiracy to commit an act which would not be criminal if 
committed by him singly. The purposes of a trade union 
are not to be deemed illegal merely because they are in 
restraint of trade, and the circumstance that they are 
in restraint of trade is not to render any member of it liable 
to prosecution, nor is it to avoid or make voidable any agree- 
ment or trust relating to it. No court, however, can enter- 
tain legal proceedings with the object of directly enforcing 
or recovering damages for the breach of an agreement between 
the members of a trade union as such, concerning the con- 
ditions on which the members for the time being shall or 
shall not sell their goods, transact their business, employ or 
be employed, or the payment by any person of any subscrip- 
tion or penalty to a trade union, or for the application of 
the funds of a trade union to provide benefits or to furnish 
contributions to any employer or workman not a member of 
such trade union in consideration of such employer or 
workman acting in conformity with the rules or resolutions 
of such trade union, or to discharge any fine imposed upon 
any person by any court of justice or any agreement made 
between one trade union and another, or any bond to secure 
such agreement. But such incapacity to sue on such agree- 
ments is not to be taken as constituting any of them illegal. 
Every person, however, commits a misdemeanour, and on 



142 



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conviction is liable to a maximum fine of 20, or to a maximum 
imprisonment of three months with hard labour, who wilfully and 
maliciously breaks a contract of service or hiring, knowing or 
having reasonable cause to believe that the probable consequence 
of his so doing, either alone or in combination with others, 
will be to endanger human life or cause serious bodily injury, 
or to expose valuable property, whether real or personal, 
to destruction or serious injury; or, who, being employed 
by a municipal authority or by any company or contractor on 
whom is imposed by act of parliament, or who have otherwise 
assumed, the duty of supplying any place with gas or water, 
wilfully and maliciously breaks a contract of service or hiring, 
knowing, or having reasonable cause to believe, that the 
probable consequence of his so doing, alone or in combination 
with others, will be to deprive the inhabitants of that place, 
wholly or in part, of their supply of gas or water; or who, 
with a view to compel any other person to do or to abstain 
from doing any act which such other person has a right to 
abstain from doing or to do, wrongfully and without legal 
authority uses violence to or intimidates such other person 
or his wife or children, or injures his property, or who per- 
sistently follows such person about from place to place, or who 
hides any tools, clothes or other property owned or used by 
such other person, or deprives him of or hinders him in the use 
thereof, or who watches or besets the house or other place where 
such person resides or works or carries on business or happens 
to be, or the approach to such house or place, or who follows 
such other person with two or more other persons in a disorderly 
manner in or through any street or road. Attending at or near 
the house or place where a person resides or works or carries 
on business, in order merely to obtain or communicate infor- 
mation was not watching or besetting within the statute, but 
this proviso has since been repealed. In regard to registration, 
trade unions are placed on a similar footing with friendly and 
provident and industrial societies, and they enjoy all the 
privileges, advantages and facilities which those associations 
possess and command, except in so far as they differ by the 
fact that there is no legally enforceable contract between a trade 
union and its members, and that the right of a registered trade 
union to invest funds with the National Debt Commissioners 
is limited, and in a few other matters. On their side, how- 
ever, they have to comply with the same conditions, are sub- 
ject to the same liabilities, and are compelled to make the same 
periodical returns. 

During the years following 1876 several important amend- 
ments of the law, other than special trade union legislation, 
and the decisions of the courts in various cases, led 
Legisiatioa. u P *- *- ne important act of 1906. These affected 
principally the liability of trade union funds to be 
taken in execution for the wrongful acts of agents of the union, 
the statute law relating to picketing and other incidents of 
strikes, and the law of conspiracy as affecting trade unions. 

The two latter points are dealt with in the article on STRIKES 
AND LOCK-OUTS, and it may suffice here to say that the clauses 
in the act of 1875 prescribing punishment for watching and beset- 
ting a house, &c., with the view of compelling any other person in 
the manner set forth, have been amended by the repeal of the 
proviso that " Attending at or near the house or place where a 
person resides, cr works, or carries on business, or happens to be, 
or the approach to such house or place, in order merely to obtain 
or communicate information, shall not be deemed a watching 
or besetting within the meaning of this section " by the enact- 
ment in the act of 1906 that : " It shall be lawful for one or 
more persons, acting on their own behalf or on behalf of 
a trade union or of an individual employer or firm in con- 
templation or furtherance of a trade dispute, to attend at 
or near a house or place where a person resides or works or 
carries on business or happens to be, if they so attend merely 
for the purpose of peacefully obtaining or communicating 
information, or of peacefully persuading any person to work 
or abstain from working." 

The object was to include the right of peaceful persuasion 



which had been supposed by parliament to be implied in the 
terms of the act of 1875. Further, the law of conspiracy 
has been amended by enactments in the act of 1906 that: " An 
act done in pursuance of an agreement or combination by two 
or more persons shall, if done in contemplation or furtherance 
of a trade dispute, not be actionable unless the act if done 
without any such agreement or combination would be action- 
able," and " An act done by a person in contemplation or 
furtherance of a trade dispute shall not be actionable on the 
ground only that it induces some other person to break a con- 
tract of employment or that it is an interference with the trade, 
business or employment of some other person, or with the 
right, of some other person to dispose of his capital or his labour 
as he wills." 

The act of 1875, in the words of Lord Cairns, was framed on 
the principle that " the offences in relation to trade disputes 
should be thoroughly known and understood, and Leading 
that persons should not be subjected to the indirect Cases la the 
and deluding action of the old law of conspiracy," Law-courts. 
but no one during the discussion of the bill was thinking of 
the civil action. This matter became important when the 
dicta of various judges in the House of Lords in the case 
of Quinn v. Leathern showed that there might be an 
action for damages based on any conspiracy to injure 
or do harm, particularly when it is considered that the very 
essence of a strike is in one sense injury to those against 
whom it is directed, and these opinions became of the utmost 
import to trade unions when the Taff Vale case showed that 
the fact of procuring to strike might also involve trade union 
funds in liability, even where there had been no procuring 
to break contracts. This important decision arose through 
the amendment of general procedure under the Judicature 
Acts in 1881. The distinction was abolished between legal 
and equitable rules as regards parties to sue and be sued, 
and in 1883 there was issued a General Order No. xvi. of 
the supreme court, rule 9 of which prescribed that where there 
are numerous parties having the same interest in one cause 
or matter, one or more of such persons may sue or be sued, 
or may be authorized by a court or judge to defend in such 
cause or matter, on behalf or for the benefit of all persons 
so interested. It was decided in Temperton v. Russell in 1893 
where three trade unions were made defendants to represent 
all the members, and the order did not apply in the case of 
a trade union, because the words of the order " numerous 
parties having the same interest in one cause or matter " could 
only be satisfied by parties who had, or claimed to have, a 
beneficial proprietary right which they were asserting or de- 
fending, from which it was inferred that they could not be sued 
at all, and in the report of the Royal Commission on Labour 
in 1894 the opinion was either assumed or expressly stated 
that they could not be sued in tort. In 1901 the House 
of Lords overruled Temperton v. Russell in the case of the 
Duke of Bedford v. Ellis, holding that the General Order No. 
xvi. rule 9, was universal in its application. In the same 
year the Taff Vale case came before the House of Lords. 
In the first place, expounding the Trade Union Act 1871, 
they held unanimously that from the provisions in that act 
concerning registered trade unions there is to be legally in- 
ferred an intention of parliament that a trade union might be 
sued in tort in its registered name, with the conse- nvaie 
quence that trade union funds would be liable case. 
for any damages that might be awarded. Secondly 
apart from the Trade Union Act Lord Macnaghten and 
Lord Lindley expressed an unhesitating opinion that under the 
General Order No. xvi. as interpreted in Duke of Bedford v. 
Ellis, any trade union, whether registered or not, could be sued 
in tort by means of a representative action. Trade unionists 
protested against the result as a decision of judges making 
a practically new law against trade unions and nullifying 
the settlement of their status made by the legislature in 
1871, and in June 1903 a royal commission was again ap- 
pointed to inquire into the subject of trade disputes and trade 



UNITED KINGDOM] 



TRADE UNIONS 



combinations and as to the law affecting them, and to report 
on the law applicable to the same and the effect of any modifi- 
cations thereof. 

The majority of the commission reported in January 1906 
in favour of an alteration in the law relating to picketing and 
conspiracy, but against any alteration of the law 
*906. as la 'd down in the Taff Vale judgment. A 

different view was, however, expressed in the Trade 
Disputes Act passed in the same year, whereby it was 
enacted with reference to trades union funds that " an action 
against a trade union, whether of workmen or masters, or 
against any members or officials thereof on behalf of them- 
selves and all other members of the trade union in respect 
of any tortious act alleged to have been committed by or 
on behalf of the trade union, shall not be entertained by 
any court, " although " nothing in this section shall affect 
the liability of the trustees of a trade union to be sued 
in the events provided for by the Trades Union Act 1871, 
section 9, except in respect of any tortious act committed 
by or on behalf of the union in contemplation or in further- 
ance of a trade dispute. " This act and the two previous 
acts are cited together as the Trade Union Acts 1871 to 1906, 
and form the present statutory enactments upon the subject. 

In December 1909 one of the most important judgments 
in connexion with trade unions was delivered in the 
case of Osborne v. Amalgamated Society of Railway 
Servants. The litigation had extended over two 
years, ending in the House of Lords (December 21, 
1909) upholding the decision of the court of appeal (L.R. 
1909, ch. 163). The plaintiff, who had been a member of the 
Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants since 1892, sued 
his trade union to have it declared that one of its current 
rules, which provided, amongst other things, for parliamentary 
representation and the enforced levy of contributions from 
him and other members of the society, towards the payment 
of salaries or maintenance allowance to members of parliament 
pledged to observe and fulfil the conditions imposed by the 
Labour Party, was ultra vires and void. It was decided in 
the King's Bench against the plaintiff, but the judgment was 
reversed by the court of appeal, whose decision was upheld 
by the House of Lords. This meant that the Labour Party 
in the House of Commons would have to find other ways and 
means than contributions from trade unionists to maintain their 
members in parliament. A voluntary levy was attempted, but 
did not meet with any success, and in 1910 agitation was set on 
foot by the Labour Party for the reversal of the " Osborne 
judgment. " They also announced in September their intention 
of making a change in the constitution of their party by elimin- 
ating the necessity of each member signing an acceptance 
of certain conditions, on the ground that the party had 
arrived at a state when it could trust to ordinary party loyalty 
to keep their members' action in accordance with the policy 
of the party. It was also hoped that it would meet many 
objections raised against their agitation for the reversal of 
the Osborne judgment. The agitation had the result of in- 
creasing the force of the movement for payment of members, 
not only in the Liberal party but also among the more pro- 
gressive Conservatives. 

Trade unions, in the sense in which the term is now under- 
stood, appear to be almost exclusively of modern growth. 
Though combinations among various classes of 
n workmen to improve their position have doubt- 
' less been formed from time to time from an early 
period, such combinations, up to comparatively recent years, 
were mostly ephemeral, almost the only class among whom 
permanent associations of journeymen are known to have 
existed in the middle ages being the masons, whose con- 
federacies were prohibited by law in 1425. With this 
doubtful exception, there is little or no trace of permanent 
combinations corresponding to the modern trade union 
before the i8th century. During the period when wages and 
conditions of employment were the subject of State regulation 



(e.g. under the Statute of Apprentices of Elizabeth), combina- 
tions to exact higher rates or other conditions than those so fixed 
were naturally regarded as illegal conspiracies. 

The craft gilds of the middle ages have sometimes been 
regarded as the true predecessors of trade unions, but the 
analogy must not be pressed too far. The structure, con- 
stitution and functions of a gild of craftsmen, aiming at the 
protection and regulation of the craft as a whole, were essen- 
tially different from those of a trade union, formed to protect 
one class of persons engaged in an industry against another. 
Nor is there any trace of direct continuity between gilds 
and trade unions, for the claim of certain Irish trade unions 
to be descended from gilds will not-bear scrutiny (see Webb, 
History of Trade Unionism, appendix). The only true sense 
in which it can be said that there is a certain indirect 
historical filiation between gilds and trade unions is that, as 
pointed out by Brentano, some of the earliest trade unions had 
for their original object the enforcement of the decaying 
Elizabethan legislation, which in its turn had taken the 
place of the obsolete regulation of industry by the craft gilds, 
so that among the rules and objects of such unions would 
naturally be some bearing a likeness to gild regulations. 

The actual way in which trade unions first came into being 
probably varied very greatly. In some cases, as stated above, 
their origin can be definitely traced to associations for en- 
forcing the legal regulation of industry against the opposition 
of employers; in others, the meetings of journeymen belonging 
to the same trade for such purposes as sick or burial clubs 
became naturally the nucleus of secret combinations to raise 
wages. The growth of the " capitalistic " system of industry, 
under which the workman no longer owned the materials or 
instruments with which he worked, was one of the most potent 
causes of the development of workmen's combinations. The 
efforts of trade unions to revive the enforcement of the Eliza- 
bethan' legislation not only failed, but led to its repeal (1813- 
1814); but the laws against combinations, which had been made 
more stringent and more general by the acts of 1799-1800, 
remained unaltered until 1824. In spite of these acts, which 
made all combinations illegal, there is evidence that trade 
clubs of journeymen existed and were tolerated in many 
trades and districts during the first quarter of the igth 
century, though they were always subject to the fear of 
prosecution if they took hostile action against employers; 
and in many cases strikes were suppressed by the conviction 
of their leaders under these acts or under the common law 
of conspiracy. The partial protection accorded to societies 
for the purpose of regulating wages and hours of labour by 
the law of 1825 led to a rapid multiplication and expansion 
of trade unions, and to an outburst of strikes, in which, 
however, partly owing to the widespread commercial depres- 
sion, the workmen were mostly unsuccessful. Thus the first 
impetus given to trade unions by the modification of the 
combination laws was followed by a collapse, which in its 
turn was followed (in the third decade of the century) by 
a succession of attempts on the part of workmen to establish 
a federal or universal combination, to embrace members not 
of one but of several trades. To this new form of combination, 
which excited a good deal of alarm among employers, the term 
" trades union, " as distinct from trade union, was applied. 
All these general movements, however, proved short-lived, 
and the most extensive of them, the " Grand National Con- 
solidated Trades Union," which was formed in 1834 and 
claimed half a million adherents, only had an active existence 
for a few months, its break-up being hastened by the con- 
viction and transportation of six Dorchester labourers for the 
administration of unlawful oaths. In the years of depressed 
trade which followed, trade unionism' once more declined, 
and the interest of workmen was largely diverted from trade 
combinations to more general political movements, e.g. Chartism, 
the Anti-Corn-Law agitation and Robert Owen's schemes of 
co-operation. 

From 1845 we trace another revival of trade unions, the 



144 



TRADE UNIONS 



[UNITED KINGDOM 



characteristic tendency of this period being the amalgamation 
of local trade clubs to form societies, national in scope, but 
confined to single or kindred trades. High rates of contri- 
bution, and the provision of friendly as well as trade benefits, 
were among the features of the new type of union, of which 
the Amalgamated Society of Engineers, formed in 1851, was 
the most important example. The growth of unions of the new 
type was followed by a development of employers' associations 
in the 'sixties, and by a number of widespread strikes and 
lock-outs, and also by various efforts to promote arbitration 
and conciliation by the establishment of joint boards of 
employers and employed. (See ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION 
and STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS.) 

A series of outrages at Sheffield and Manchester in 1865- 
1866, in which officials of some local trade societies were impli- 
cated, led to the appointment in 1867 of a Royal Commission on 
Trade Unions, whose report was followed by the passage of the 
Trade Union Act of 1871, which as amended in 1876 and 1906 
now governs the legal position of trade unions. Conferences 
of trade union representatives held in 1866 and 1867 to deter- 
mine their policy with respect to the royal commission of in- 
quiry, led to the gatherings of the trade union congress which 
are still held annually. 

The period of inflated trade which began in 1871 caused, 
as usual, another rapid growth of trade combinations, of which 
the most characteristic feature was their extension to agricultural 
and general labourers. To meet this new development of com- 
bination, the National Federation of Associated Employers 
of Labour was formed in 1873. The years of depression, 1875- 
1880, were marked by a series of unsuccessful strikes against 
reductions of wages, and by a general decline of trade unions, 
which did not again revive until nearly ten years later, when 
the new wave of prosperous trade brought with it an outburst 
of strikes, chiefly among unskilled labourers, for improved 
conditions, of which the most notable was the strike 'of the 
London dock labourers in 1889. These trade movements 
were accompanied by the formation of a large number of 
unions of a type more akin to those of 1830-1834 than to the 
more modern trade-friendly society with its high contributions 
and benefits. The " new unions " were chiefly among unskilled 
labourers; their rates of contributions were from id. to 3d. a 
week, and as a rule they only offered strike benefit. Another 
characteristic was the extent to which their leaders were per- 
meated with the Socialistic doctrines which had then recently 
taken root in Great Britain, and which led them to advocate 
positive state interference with industry in the interests of 
the labourers (e.g. the legal limitation of hours of labour). 

The reports of the Royal Commission on Labour, which 
sat from 1891 to 1894, contain much valuable information 
on the state of facts and on the opinions of employers and 
workmen at this period. 

From 1892 onwards the progress of trade unionism can be 
traced statistically. The depression of trade, 1892-1895, brought 
with it, as usual, some decline in trade unionism; but though 
many of the " new unions" collapsed, some of the more im- 
portant have survived to the present time. The revival of 
trade which began in 1896 was naturally accompanied by an 
increase in the strength of trade unions; but the most 
marked characteristic of this period was the extension and 
consolidation of employers' associations, of which perhaps 
the most notable is the Engineering Employers' Federation, 
which was originally formed on the Clyde, but gradually 
extended to other districts and became a national organiza- 
tion of great strength during its successful struggle with 
the Amalgamated Society of Engineers in 1897-1898. Among 
the other more important employers' associations and 
federations of a national character may be mentioned the Ship- 
ping Federation, the Federated Coal Owners, the Ship-building 
Federation, the Federation of Master Cotton-Spinners' 
Associations, the National Federation of Building Trade Em- 
ployers, and the Incorporated Federated Associations of Boot 
and Shoe Manufacturers. 



In 1899 a general federation of trade unions was established 
which had in 1907 a membership of 650,000 in 117 affiliated 
societies. This federation links the trade unions of the United 
Kingdom with those of other countries by its affiliation 
with the international federation of trade unions, which em- 
braces the national federations of the principal European 
countries. During recent years there has been a noticeable 
tendency towards the creation of federations of trade unions, 
and the absorption of the smaller by the larger societies. Trade 
unions, both in their historical development and their present 
organization, present a very great variety of constitutions. 
The oldest type is that of the local trade club, con- 
sisting of a comparatively small number of men c astltu - 
following the same occupation in the same locality. 
A large number of unions have never progressed beyond this 
primitive form of organization. The government is of the 
simplest kind, by a general assembly of all the members, while 
such officers as are required to carry on the necessary routine 
business of the society are chosen by rotation or even by lot. 

Indisposition to concentrate power in the hands of per- 
manent officers and a tendency to divide the business of manage- 
ment equally among all the members, instead of delegating 
authority to a few chosen representatives, are leading character- 
istics of trade unions in this primitive form. The organization 
here described, even if adequate for ordinary current require- 
ments, is ill suited for conducting a contest with employers, 
and accordingly in times of strife an improvised " strike com- 
mittee " often comes into existence and practically governs 
the conduct of the dispute. No doubt this double constitution 
of the old trade club as a loosely organized friendly society, 
converting itself at times into a more or less secret strike 
combination ruled by an irresponsible committee, is to be traced 
to the time when trade unions as such were illegal com- 
binations and had to carry out their objects under the guise of 
friendly societies. The Friendly Society of Ironfounders 
(established in 1809), though it has to a great extent out- 
grown its primitive constitution, retains in its name the mark 
of its origin, while the government of the London Society 
of Bookbinders, by mass meeting of its members, offers an 
example of the persistence of traditional methods under wholly 
changed conditions. The Sheffield trade clubs, responsible 
for the outrages which led to the appointment of the Trade 
Union Commission in 1867, and subsequently to the passage 
of the Trade Union Acts, conformed as a rule to the primitive 
type. At the present time over 750 trade unions are known 
to exist which are purely local in character, with no branches. 
The next step in trade union evolution seems to have generally 
been an alliance or federation of two or more local clubs be- 
longing to the same trade. This federation would make it 
necessary to provide some machinery for common management, 
the simplest and crudest expedient being for each of the allied 
clubs to act in rotation as the governing branch. Thus the 
government of the federation or " amalgamated society " was 
at any given time confided to the members of a single locality, 
and the seat of government was periodically shifted. Some 
federal societies (e.g. the Mutual Association of Journeymen 
Coopers) still retain this primitive form of government. 

As the tendency developed for local clubs to unite, the necessity 
of permanent officials to cope with the growing business of the 
amalgamation caused the institution of a paid secretary (usually 
elected by the whole body of members), and this led naturally 
to the fixing of the seat of administration at a particular centre 
instead of rotating among the branches. Some continuity of 
policy and of office tradition was thus made possible, but the 
executive committee almost invariably continued to consist of 
the local committee of the district where the seat of government 
happened to be. Thus up to 1892 the business of the Amalga- 
mated Society of Engineers, a society with hundreds of branches 
all over the United Kingdom and even abroad, was conducted by 
a committee elected by the London branches. The Boilermakers 
continued a somewhat similar form of government up 10.1895; 
and many great societies, e.g. the Amalgamated Society of 



UNITED KINGDOM] 



TRADE UNIONS 



Carpenters and Joiners, continue a somewhat similar system to 
the present day. 

The plan of entrusting the government of a national society 
to a local executive has obvious conveniences, where the society 
consists of a body of working men scattered over a large area and 
with no leisure for travelling. But the control exercised by a 
locally-elected committee over a general secretary deriving his 
authority not from them but from the vote of a much wider 
constituency, could hardly be expected to be very effective; 
while the expedients of referring all important questions to a vote 
of the whole body of members, and of summoning at periodical 
intervals special delegate meetings to revise the rules, have 
proved in practice but clumsy substitutes for the permanent 
control and direction of the executive officers by a representative 
council. Quite as ineffective in some cases has been the authority 
of a mere local executive over the committees of other districts. 
Accordingly, some of the largest " amalgamated " unions have 
now adopted a representative system of government. Thus in 
1892 the Engineers revised their rules so as to provide for the 
election of the executive council by vote of all the members divided 
into eight equal electoral districts. The members of council so 
elected are permanent paid officials, devoting all their time to 
the work of the society. The general secretary, however, con- 
tinues to be chosen by the whole body of members, while the 
responsibility of the council is also weakened by the institution 
of " district delegates " nominally responsible to them, but 
chosen by direct election in the various districts. (This division 
of authority and consequent weakness of responsibility was one 
of the causes of the state of things which led to the great engineer- 
ing dispute of 1807, and it also led to a deadlock in negotiations 
on the north-east coast in 1908, the executive being powerless to 
enforce its views.) The Boilermakers adopted the system of a 
permanent executive in 1895. 

In the case of certain highly-localized industries, such as 
cotton and coal, the conditions have admitted of a somewhat 
different form of constitution from that described above. Thus 
the Amalgamated Association of Operative Cotton-Spinners is a 
federal organization, consisting of a number of local associations, 
all, however, situated within a comparatively small area. The 
governing bodies of the association are (i) a quarterly meeting 
of about a hundred representatives of the districts; (2) an 
executive committee of thirteen chosen by the above represen- 
tative meeting, of whom seven must be working spinners and the 
other six are usually permanent district officials; (3) a sub- 
council to transact the ordinary daily work of the association, 
consisting of the six official members referred to above. The 
secretary is chosen by the representative meeting, and engages 
his own office assistants. Here we have the familiar features of 
representative institutions a large legislative body, a small 
executive chosen by and responsible to this body, and a still 
smaller group of permanent officials to transact ordinary business. 

Lastly, there are some large societies constituted not by the 
aggregation of local clubs or the federation of neighbouring 
associations, but originally founded as " national societies " 
divided into districts and branches for administrative conveni- 
ence. An example is the Amalgamated Society of Railway 
Servants, founded in 1872. 

Besides the tendency of the national society with branches to 
swallow up the local trade club, there is a further tendency among 
the larger societies to form federations for certain common pur- 
poses. Such federations are to be distinguished from national 
trade unions, inasmuch as their members are societies and not 
individuals, and as a rule their powers over their constituent 
organizations are limited to certain specific objects. On the other 
hand, they are more than merely consultative bodies (such as 
local trades councils). 

Some federations consist of unions in the same industry in 
different districts (e.g. the Miners' Federation). " Single trade" 
federations like this have usually considerable powers, including 
that of imposing levies. 

In the cotton-spinning trade, the trade union organization 
has a federal character, and the Amalgamated Association of 



Operative Cotton-Spinners, in spite of its name, is, strictly 
speaking, a federation. 

Other federations (e.g. in the building trade) are formed of 
allied trades in the same locah'ty, and usually have little executive 
power. The Federation of Engineering and Shipbuilding Trades 
has among its objects the settlement of disputes between members 
of its constituent societies as to the limits of their work. Some 
federations aim at embracing societies in all kinds of industries, 
but as a rule such organizations have not proved long-lived. 
The most recent example is the " General Federation of Trade 
Unions," formed in 1899, referred to above. 

Since 1866 a congress of delegates from trade unions has met 
annually for discussion, and a parliamentary committee elected 
by this congress watches over matters in which trade unions are 
interested during the ensuing year. 

The principal object of every trade union is to protect the 
trade interests of its members, and to strengthen their position 
in bargaining with their employers with regard to the 
conditions under which they work. The chief means 
by which they seek to attain these objects (apart 
from political methods such as the promotion of legislation or of 
administrative action by public authorities) are twofold: viz. 
the support of members when engaged in a collective dispute with 
employers by the payment of " dispute " benefit, and the insur- 
ance of members against loss from want of work by the payment 
of " unemployed " benefit, so as to enable them to refuse any 
terms of employment inferior to those recognized by the trade 
union. All trade unions in one form or another provide " dis- 
pute " benefit, but a separate " unemployed " benefit is by no 
means universal, though, except in certain groups of trades, it is 
usual among more powerful and well established societies. Thus 
in the mining, clothing, and even many branches of the building 
trade, comparatively little is spent by trade unions on " un- 
employed " benefit, while, on the other hand, in the metal, 
engineering, shipbuilding, printing and other trades a large 
proportion of the total expenditure is devoted to this object 
(see Statistics below). In some important societies, such as 
the Amalgamated Society of Engineers, " unemployed " and 
" dispute " benefits are mixed up together, members engaged 
in a dispute receiving an addition of 55. per week (known as 
" contingent " benefit) to the ordinary out-of-work pay (known 
as " donation "). 

Unemployed benefit may, of course, be regarded as a " friendly " 
benefit, i.e. a provision against one class of the casualties to 
which a workman is exposed the loss of employment through 
slackness of trade. But in practice it also operates as a method 
of maintaining the " standard " rate of wages, members being 
entitled to it who could obtain employment, but only on con- 
ditions disapproved by the society or branch. 

The conditions under which the members of a union are 
entitled to financial support in a strike vary in different societies, 
and are prescribed in the rules. Usually, though the initiative 
may come from the localities, the central executive must approve 
of the strike before it takes place, and may at any time declare it 
to be closed, though in some societies the central authority is 
often unwilling to take the responsibility of curbing its members 
by exercising its powers in this respect. 

" Dispute " and " unemployed " benefits are the only ones 
which are specially characteristic of trade unions, and as regards 
the latter benefit, it may be said that trade unions have hitherto 
been the only form of organization capable of meeting the 
difficulties arising from " malingering." Most of the more 
firmly established unions, however, add to their trade functions 
those of friendly societies, providing sick, accident, superannua- 
tion, and funeral benefits, or some of these. The position of a 
trade union, however, with regard to these benefits differs very 
materially from that of a friendly society. The trade union is 
under no legally enforceable contract with its members to provide 
the stipulated benefits: it can change their scale, or even abolish 
them, by vote of its members, and a member who has contributed 
for years in hope of receiving them has no legal redress. Again, 
a member excluded from the society for some " trade " reason 



146 



TRADE UNIONS 



[UNITED KINGDOM 



incidentally loses all claim to friendly benefits. The funds of a 
trade union applicable to trade and friendly purposes are never 
kept distinct (in the few cases in which some distinction is 
attempted, the society may " borrow " from the one fund in 
aid of the other in case of emergency); and a prolonged strike 
or depression of trade may so deplete the funds as to make 
it impossible for the society to meet its engagements as 
regards sickness or superannuation. Thus the friendly society 
operations of trade unions have strictly no actuarial basis, and 
in some cases the scale of contribution and benefit have been 
fixed with little regard to ultimate solvency. 

On the other hand, the power of levying and varying the scale 
of contributions adds to some extent to the financial stability 
of the funds, and the provision of " friendly " as well as " trade " 
benefits by a trade union undoubtedly gives strength and 
continuity to the society, and increases its power of discipline 
over its members. Societies that only provide " dispute " pay 
are exposed to violent oscillations of membership, and also to a 
dangerous temptation to rush into an ill-considered strike owing 
to the mere accumulation of funds which can be used for no 
other purpose. 

The statistics of trade union expenditure on benefits of various 
classes are given below. Of the 100 principal unions, all provide 
dispute benefit; 79 in the year 1905 provided unemployed benefit 
(including in some cases travelling pay); 79, sick or accident 
benefit; 37, superannuation benefit; and 87, funeral benefit; 
32 unions providing all four classes of benefit. 

One of the most important functions of trade unions in many 
industries is the negotiation of agreements with employers and 
employers' associations for the regulation of the conditions of 
employment in those industries. While undoubtedly the power 
of withdrawing its members from employment in the last resort 
adds to the power of a trade union in such negotiations, many of 
the most important agreements by which the conditions of labour 
of large bodies of workmen are governed are habitually con- 
cluded, and from time to time revised, by conferences of repre- 
sentatives of the trade union and employers without any strike 
taking place. To the functions of trade unions as fighting 
organizations and as friendly benefit societies should therefore 
be added that of providing the necessary machinery and basis 
for the conclusion of industrial agreements between bodies of 
workpeople and their employers (see ARBITRATION AND CONCILIA- 
TION, and STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS). 

While the broad objects of trade union policy are generally 
similar, their methods and features vary greatly in detail. 
Among the objects most frequently met with (besides those of 
raising wages and shortening hours, which may be said to be 
universal) are the enforcement of a " minimum " wage; the 
limitation of overtime; the restriction of numbers in the trade 
through the limitation of apprentices, or the regulation of the 
age of entrance; the restriction or regulation of piecework (in 
trades accustomed to " time " work) ; the preservation for 
members of the trade of the exclusive right to perform certain 
classes of work claimed by other trades (leading to so-called 
" demarcation " disputes) ; resistance to the encroachment of 
labourers on work considered to be " skilled " (leading to disputes 
as to the class of persons to be employed on machines, &c.) ; and 
the securing of a monopoly of employment for members of the 
union by a refusal to work with non-unionists. 



Year. 


Number of 
Unions. 


Membership 
of Unions. 1 


1897 


1292 


,622,713 


1898 


1261 


,659,480 


1899 


1255 


,820,755 


1900 


1244 


,928,035 


1901 


1238 


,939,585 


1902 


1203 


,925,800 


1903 


1187 


,903,596 


1904 


1153 


,864,374 


1905 


1136 


,887,823 


1906 


I IOI 


2,106,283 



Groups of Unions. 


Number 
of 
Unions. 


Membership in 1905. 


Number. 


Percentage 
of Total. 


Mining and quarrying .... 
Metal engineering and shipbuilding 
Textile 
Building 


68 

222 

253 
IOI 

55 
48 
40 
35 

IOO 

18 
196 


495,968 
339,282 

239,539 
205,383 
162,563 
72,182 
62,368 
60,407 

40,115 
96,094 
113,922 


26 
18 

13 
II 

9 
4 
3 
3 

2 

5 
6 


Railway, dock and other transport 
Public employment 
Printing, bookbinding and paper . 
Clothing 
Wood-working and furnishing 
General labour 
All other unions 

Total . . . 


1136 


1,887,823 


100 



Includes a small number of members abroad. 



The statistics of trade unions are very complete for recent years, 
but for earlier years the records are so fragmentary that it is im- 
possible to give exact figures showing the total growth statlstks 
of trade unions over a long period. The table at ' 
foot of preceding column, based on the statistics published by the 
board of trade, shows the number and membership of all trade unions 
in the United Kingdom making continuous returns for each of the 
ten years 1897 to 1906. 

The fluctuations in membership correspond in the main to the 
oscillations of trade, membership declining in the years of depression 
and increasing with the revival of trade. The decline in the number 
of separate unions is chiefly due to the growing tendency to amalga- 
mate into large societies. 

The following table shows the distribution of trade unions among 
the various groups of trades in 1905 : 



This table shows that the strength of trade unionism lies in the 
five first-named groups of trades mining; metal engineering and 
shipbuilding; textile; building; and railway, dock and other trans- 
port which among them account for over three-quarters of the 
total membership. 

In agriculture, trade unionism is at present practically non- 
existent, but in 1875 there were important unions of agricultural 
labourers, though at no time did they include any considerable 
proportion of the total agricultural population. 

Taking the men belonging to all trade unions together, we find 
that their number does not amount to more than about one in five 
of the adult men who belong to the classes from which trade unionists 
are drawn. . Only in a few groups do trade unionists form a high 
percentage of the total working population, e.g. coal-mining and 
cotton manufacture. The number of women belonging to trade 
unions at the end of 1906 was 162,453, distributed among 156 unions, 
of which, however, only 28 consisted exclusively of women. The 
great bulk of women trade unionists are found in the cotton trade, 
in which they actually outnumber the male members. Of all the 
women employed in factories and workshops, about one in twelve 
belongs to a trade union. 

The available statistics with regard to the financial resources of 
trade unions, and their expenditure on various objects, are not so 
complete as those of membership, as the board of trade figures 
only relate to 100 of the principal unions. As, however, these 
unions include nearly two-thirds of the total membership, the 
figures snowing their financial position may be accepted as being 
representative of the whole number of societies. In 1906 the 
income of these 100 societies was 2,344,157 or 363. gjd. per head; 
and their expenditure 1,958,676 or 303. gd. per head; and at the 
end of the year the funds in hand amounted to 5,198,536 or 8is. 7jd. 
per head. 

The actual rates of contribution per member vary greatly among 
the unions from 75. up to 4 per annum. Generally speaking, 
the highest income per member is found among the unions in the 
metal, engineering and shipbuilding group, where in 1905 it averaged 
3, 5 s - 7id., while the average in the mining unions was only 
l, 43. lid., and among dock labourers still lower. The metal trades 
and the textile unions appear to hold the highest amount of funds 
compared with their membership, the amounts at the end of 1905 
being 6, 33. 8 Jd. and 6, os. 3d. per head respectively in these groups, 
while in the building trade unions it was only 1 8s. 8|d. and in some 
societies of unskilled labourers far less than this. 

The main items of expenditure of trade unions are " dispute " 
benefit, " unemployed " benefit, various friendly benefits (including 
sick and accident, superannuation and funeral), and working ex- 
penses. The proportions of expenditure on these various objects 
naturally vary greatly in different groups of unions, and also in 
different years, some of the items being affected largely by the 
general state of employment, and the occurrence or absence of im- 
portant disputes. On the basis, however, of an average of the ten 
years 1897-1906, the following analysis of the proportionate expendi- 
ture of the 100 principal unions on various classes of objects has 
been made: on disputes, 13-4%; on unemployed 22-1 %; on friendly 



FOREIGN AND COLONIAL] 



TRADE UNIONS 



benefits (other than " unemployed "). 42*5%; on working expenses 
22%. The 42-570 of expenditure on friendly benefits is made up 
of 19-1 % on sick and accident, 12-4% on superannuation and n % 
on funeral and other benefits. 

The mining unions devoted 28-6% of their expenditure to the 
support of disputes (friendly benefits in this industry being largely 
provided by other agencies), while the unions in the printing and 
bookbinding trades only used 3'9% for this object, over three- 
quarters of their expenditure going to unemployed or friendly 
benefits. As illustrations of the variation in the expenditure by 
the same group of unions on a particular object from year to year, 
it may be stated that within the ten years' period referred to the 
annual expenditure of the metal, engineering and shipbuilding 
group on disputes varied from 514,637 in 1897, the year of the 
great engineering dispute, to 13,266 in 1899. Again, the expenditure 
of the same group of unions on unemployed benefit varied from 
80,512 in 1899 to 303,749 in 1904. The burden of superannuation 
payments by the 100 unions has steadily increased during the ten 
years from 137,813 in 1896 to 306,089 in 1906. 

At the end of 1906 there were 89 federations, including societies 
with a gross membership of over a million and three-quarters, but 
a considerable deduction must be made from this total on account 
of duplication. In the same year 231 " trades councils " were 
known to exist, with an affiliated membership of over 895,000. 

The number of employers' associations and federations known 
to exist in the United Kingdom in 1906 was 953, including 60 
federations and national associations. Of the total number of 
associations 398 are in the building trades. 

II. FOREIGN AND COLONIAL 

Modern trade unionism has had its chief development in Eng- 
lish-speaking countries, and especially in the United Kingdom, 
where the conditions necessary for its growth have been present 
to the fullest extent. With some exceptions, such unions as 
are found elsewhere are either derived or copied from English 
organizations, or are associations with political objects. It is 
therefore unnecessary to give more than a brief summary of the 
position of trade unions in some of the principal countries and 
colonies outside the United Kingdom (for United States see IV. 
below). 

Germany. In Germany the majority of trade unions are of a 
political character, being closely connected with the Social 
Democratic party. These Socialist trade unions, termed 
" Gewerkschaften, " were started by a congress held at Berlin in 
1868, under the auspices of Fritscher and Schweitzer, two fol- 
lowers of Lassalle. In 1878 many of them were dissolved under 
the law prohibiting socialistic organizations, but shortly after 
their place was taken by local unions termed " Fachvereine," 
which ostensibly abstained from politics, but which in various 
ways succeeded in evading the law and carrying on the work 
of the Gewerkschaften. In 1887 a general committee of the 
German Gewerkschaften was formed, and in 1890 the General 
Commission of Trade Unions in Germany was established. Later 
years of prosperous trade have been marked by a rapid growth 
in the strength of trade unions in Germany. 

The Social Democratic (Gewerkschaften) trade unions included 
in 1907 a membership of 1,886,147 as compared with 743,296 in 
1902 and 419,162 in 1897. Of the total number of members in 
1907, 1 ,865,506 belonged to branches affiliated to central federations ; 
the membership of non-federated local unions being returned as 
only 20,641. The income of the federated trade unions in 1907 
was 2,569,839, or over 275. per member as compared with 554,887 
(or about 153. per member) in 1902 and 204,185 (or about los. 
per member) in 1897, and the expenditure in the same years to 
2,156,126, 500,276 and 177,140 respectively. Of the 61 federa- 
tions in existence in 1907, 43 paid travelling benefit, 42 paid unem- 
ployed benefit, 47 paid sick benefit and 57 paid funeral, removal 
and special allowance. 

Another group of trade unions in Germany, less important as 
regards number and membership than the above, are the " Gewerk- 
vereine," or non-political trade unions, sometimes known as " Hirsch- 
Duncker " unions, from the names of their founders. These unions 
were first formed in 1868, immediately after the Berlin congress 
referred to above. They were directly modelled on British trade 
unions. Since 1876 Social Democrats have been excluded. In 
their earlier years these unions suffered in membership from a series 
of unsuccessful strikes, and of late years they have been mostly 
benefit societies. In 1907 the Gewerkvereine embraced 108,889 
members. Their income amounted to 77,068 in 1907 and their 
expenditure to 71,717. 

Another group of unions, the Christian trade unions (Christliche 
Gewerkvereine), was formed in 1894. In 1907 the membership 
of this group was 354,760. The income of these unions 



in 1907 was 225,821, and the expenditure 167,867. Besides 
these groups of unions there were a number of independent societies 
with a membership of 96,684 in 1907. 

It will be seen that German trade unions of one type or another 
included a membership of nearly two and a half millions in 1907, 
their membership having more than doubled in the last five years. 

France. In France combinations of workmen as well as of 
employers were prohibited by the laws of the I4th of June and the 
28th of September 1792, which overthrew the old gild or corpora- 
tion system. They were also penalized under various articles 
of the Penal Code, and it was not till 1864 that the prohibition 
was modified by law. At present the status of trade unions in 
France is regulated by the law of 1884, which repealed that of 
1791 and modified the articles of the Penal Code so far as regards 
professional syndicates of employers or workmen. Since then 
there has been a considerable growth of workmen's unions, which 
in 1906 numbered 5322 with a membership of 896,012. Of the 
unions in existence in 1906, 3675 with a membership of 752,362 
belonged to 187 federations. There is, however, some dupli- 
cation owing to the fact that some unions belong to more than 
one federation. In 1906 there were 260,869 members of unions in 
the transport, warehousing, &c., groups of trades, 103,835 in the 
metal, 73,126 in the mining and quarrying, 78,854 in the textile, 
66,678 in the building, 51,407 in the agricultural, forestry, fishing 
and cattle breeding, 48,353 in the food preparation trades and 
the remainder in various other trades. 

Austria. Apart from the Austrian gilds, membership of which 
is compulsory for persons engaged in non-factory handicrafts and 
trades (under a law of 1883) and in mining (under a law of 1896), 
there are a certain number of trade unions in Austria, though 
freedom of combined action among workmen is less complete 
than in many other European countries. Such right of combina- 
tion as exists rests on the law of 1870, which removed the restric- 
tions imposed by the Penal Code on combinations for influencing 
the conditions of labour. The impulse given to the formation 
of unions by this law, and by the advantages gained for the work- 
men during the years of prosperous trade that immediately 
followed, received a severe check during the succeeding depres- 
sion of trade, when these advantages were mostly lost. Trade 
unionism did not revive until 1888, from which time the unions 
formed have mostly been on a Social Democratic basis, the 
majority being affiliated to a central organization in Vienna. 

Since 1901 statistics relating to the trade unions of Austria have 
been published annually by the Central Trade Union Commission 
(Gewerkschafts-Kommission) at Vienna. In 1907 there were 5156 
trade unions in particular trades, with a membership of 501,094, 
affiliated to the Social Democratic trade unions (Gewerkschaften). 
Of the total number of unions, 49 were central unions, 77 were district 
unions and 5030 were local unions. Of the total number of members 
454,693 were males and 46,401 were females. The greatest member- 
ship, 84^,085 in 1907, is shown to have been in the metal engineering 
and shipbuilding group of industries, the building trades coming 
next with 68,543 members. The transport trades showed a member- 
ship of 61,744, an d the textile trades, 51,632. The chemical, glass 
and pottery trades included 54,469 members and the wood-working 
and furnishing group included 36,502 members. Food and tobacco 
trades accounted for 32,679, and mining and quarrying for 30,715 
members. 

The total receipts of the trade unions in 1907 amounted to 338,365 
and the total expenditure to 297,822, excluding receipts and ex- 
penditure for disputes. The expenditure on account of disputes, 
for which 136,822 was collected by special free organizations of 
the branch unions, amounted to 76,066 in 1907. 

There are besides these unions a number of general unions not 
confined to one trade, and trade-clubs educational associations 
discharging to a greater or less extent trade union functions. These 
associations have, however, been excluded from the statistics 
published by the Gewerkschafts Kommission as not being trade 
unions proper. 

Hungary. The trade union movement in Hungary is of very 
recent growth. The membership of unions affiliated to the Central 
Federation at the end of 1907 is given in the Volkwirtschaftliche 
Mitteilungen aus Ungarn as 130,192, compared with 129,332 at the 
end of 1906. Independent local unions had a membership of 11,838 
at the end of 1907. The largest groups of organized workers are :n 
the building trade (35,630), metal workers (27,732), railway employees 
(17,192) and wood-workers (14,665). 

Italy. The Bolletino of the bureau of labour for August 1908 
states that the membership of trade unions at the beginning of 
1908 numbered 191,599 (in 2550 local unions). Included in the 



148 



TRADE UNIONS 



[ECONOMIC EFFECTS 



membership of 1908 are 48,877 building trades workers, 40,000 
railway employes and 17,110 metal-trade workers. The agricul- 
tural labourers' trade unions were stated to have a membership of 
425,983 at the beginning of 1908 as compared with 273,698 at the 
beginning of 1907. 

Denmark. In 1907 there were 99,052 members of 1249 trade 
unions in Denmark, and of these 78,081 were in unions affiliated 
to the National Federation. The largest unions in the Federation 
are those of the general labourers with 22,660 members; black- 
smiths and machinists with 8000 members; masons, 5300 members; 
railway employ6s, 4990 members; carpenters, 3855 members ; textile 
workers, 3700 members; and cabinet-makers, 3590 members. 

Sweden, In Sweden there were, in 1906, 126,272 members of 
1596 trade unions, and of these 30,645 were factory workers (trades 
not specified), 24,485 were in unions connected with the metal 
trades, 10,706 were in the transport trades, 17,862 were in the wood- 
working trades, 7132 were in the food, &c., trades, 6602 were in the 
building trades, and 6005 were in the clothing trades. 

Norway. -The trade union movement in Norway dates practically 
from 1884. At the end of 1906 there were 25,339 members of trade 
unions, as compared with 16,087 at the end of 1905. Of the member- 
ship in 1905, 5277 were iron and metal workers, 4910 journeymen 
(factory workers), and 1117 printers. 

Holland. In 1893 a National Labour Secretariat was formed, 
to which, in 1899, 45 societies with 13,050 members were said to be 
affiliated. After a general strike in April 1903 the membership 
of trade unions in Holland decreased considerably, the Secretariat 
losing half its members and several trade unions dissolving. In 
1906 it was stated in the International Report of the Trade Union 
Movement that a new national centre of unions had been formed 
with trade unions affiliated to it, having a membership of 26,227, 
while the old centre still continued with a membership of 5000. 
The Diamond Workers' Federation, with a membership of over 
8000, was affiliated with the new national centre. 

The total number of members of trade unions at the end of 1906 
is given as 128,845, 33.125 f these belonging to Christian organiza- 
tions, while 95,720 belonged to other organizations. 

Belgium. The status of trade unions in Belgium is regulated by 
the law of 1898, under which they can be incorporated, provided 
that their objects are non-political and are confined to the further- 
ance of the interests of particular trades. Belgian trade unions, 
nevertheless, are mostly political in character, the majority being 
connected either with the Socialist-Labour, Catholic or Liberal 
parties. The membership of the Socialist-Labour group of unions 
in 1905 was 94,151, of the Catholic unions 17,814, of the free trade 
unions 34,833 and of the Liberal unions 1685, making a grand total 
of 148,483. 

Of the 94,000 members of the Socialist-Labour unions, 60,000 
are employed in mining, 11,500 in the textile industry and 7800 
in the metal industry. Of the 17,800 in the Catholic trade unions, 
5300 are in the textile trades, and 3200 in the building trades. Of 
the 35,000 in the free trade unions, 1 1,000 are in the textile industry, 
6000 in the glass industry, 3600 in the applied art trades and 3300 
in the printing and bookbinding trades. 

Several organizations, e.g. the diamond workers, the printers' 
federation of Brussels, &c., are affiliated with the trade union com- 
mittee without, however, joining the political organization. The 
Catholic and Liberal associations also do not affiliate with the other 
organizations. 

British Dominions and Colonies. Trade unionism has only 
developed to any considerable extent in a few of the industrial 
centres of the self-governing dominions. A great number of the 
unions in Canada are branches of organizations having their head- 
quarters in the United States or in England. In July 1907 the 
Canadian Labour Gazette stated that of the 1593 local trade 
unions known to be in existence, 1346 were affiliated with central 
organizations of an international character. Besides these 1593 
local trade unions, there were 8 congresses and national associa- 
tions of labour, 49 trade and labour councils and 31 federations 
of trade unions known to be in existence. 

Between 1876 and 1890 all the principal Australian states 
passed statutes more or less resembling the Trade Union Acts of 
the United Kingdom. A similar law was passed in New Zealand 
in 1878, but in this dominion and in some of the Australian states 
trade unions can now become incorporated and acquire a special 
legal status by registration as industrial unions under the laws 
relating to industrial conciliation and arbitration. In New 
Zealand there were, in 1906, 261 unions of workers with a member- 
ship of 29,869 and 133 unions of employers with a membership 
of 3276. In the years immediately preceding 1890 certain 
Australian unions, especially among the shearers and the seamen 
and wharf labourers, acquired great strength, and their determined 
attempts to secure a monopoly of employment for members of 



their organizations led to prolonged labour disputes in 1890 and 
1891 (see STRIKES AND LocK-Ouxs), which resulted in the defeat 
of the unions and a consequent diminution of their membership 
and influence. More recently the unions have revived. They 
are encouraged by the laws relating to arbitration and concilia- 
tion, which (inter alia) permit preference for employment to be 
awarded to members of trade unions in certain circumstances. 

AUTHORITIES. For statistics of recent progress of trade unions, 
see reports on trade unions published by the board of trade (from 
1887 onwards). Much information respecting trade unions is 
contained in the reports of the royal commission on trade unions 
(1867) and of the royal commission on labour (1891-1894). See 
also report of royal commission on trade disputes and trade 
combinations (19031906). The reports of the chief registrar of 
friendly societies give information with regard to trade unions 
registered under the Trade Union Acts. On the history and con- 
stitution of trade unions the fullest information is given in Webb's 
History of Trade Unionism and Industrial Democracy, both of which 
contain valuable bibliographical appendices which may be consulted 
as regards other sources of information respecting British trade 
unions. On trade unions abroad (besides the reports on for.eign 
countries and the colonies of the royal commission on labour), 
see Kulemann's Die Cewerkschaftsbewegung (Jena, 1900), dealing with 
trade unions in all countries, and the board of trade " Abstract 
of Foreign Labour Statistics " and Labour Gazette, both of which 
give numerous references to the foreign official sources of information 
on trade unions, together with a summary of the statistics which 
they contain. 

III. ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF TRADE UNIONISM 
There is no general consensus of opinion as to the extent to 
which trade unions can attain success in achieving the objects 
which they set before themselves, or as to how far their action 
is beneficial or otherwise to the general community. One of the 
principal objects of trade unions being to maintain and increase 
the rates of wages paid to their members, the first question would 
be practically solved if statistical evidence were available to 
connect the course of wages with the action of combinations. 
Such evidence, however, is inconclusive. The period of growth 
of trade unionism in Great Britain has certainly been on the whole 
a period of rising wages. But many other causes tending to 
raise wages have been operative over the same period, and some 
of the facts might be explained as much by the tendency of rising 
wages to strengthen combinations as by that of combinations to 
raise wages. 

Again, the observed fact that the rise has not been confined 
to industries in which organizations are strong might be explained 
either by the supposition that the rise brought about by trade 
unions has benefited a wider circle than their membership, or 
that the rise both within and outside the ranks of trade unions 
is due to causes other than their action. Perhaps the strongest 
statistical evidence of the power of trade unions to affect wages in 
particular districts is afforded by the local differences of wages in 
the same trade, which, it is contended, cannot be wholly explained 
by local differences of cost of living or industrial conditions, but 
which often correspond closely to differences of strength of trade 
union organization. This argument, however, does not touch 
the question of the effect of combination on the general level 
of wages. 

Hardly more conclusive than the reasoning founded on 
statistics have been the attempts to solve the question by pure 
economic theory. During the prevalence of the old view of wages 
known as the " wage-fund " theory, combinations were usually 
held to be powerless to affect the general rate of wages, because 
they could not alter the proportion between capital and popula- 
tion, on which wages were thought to depend. The question 
however, was reopened by the change in theory which led econo- 
mists to regard wages as depending primarily on the productivity 
of industry, and secondarily (and within comparatively narrow 
limits) on the relative power of bargaining as between the labourers 
or groups of labourers and the organizers of labour. According 
to this view, the effect of combinations on the rate of wages will 
ultimately depend, so far as the first and most important factor 
in the problem is concerned, on their effect on the general pro- 
ductiveness of industry. Prima facie, we might expect that trade 
unionism would, on the whole, restrict productiveness, and this 



ECONOMIC EFFECTS] 



TRADE UNIONS 



149 



is undoubtedly a view widely held among employers. Strictly 
professional associations tend generally to become conservative 
so far as methods of work are concerned; and even trade unions 
which may not " officially " oppose the introduction of new pro- 
cesses and the use of machinery may nevertheless serve to focus 
and make effective the hostility felt by the artisan towards 
methods of business organization which seem to him likely to 
decrease the demand for his services or to alter the conditions of 
work to his detriment. In some trades also trade unions are 
charged with encouraging or permitting their members to restrict 
the amount of work performed by them in a given time, with the 
short-sighted object of making more work for others. Many 
unions have attempted also with varying degrees of success to 
keep up the value of their labour by creating an artificial scarcity 
by restricting the numbers entering the trade, and have in 
various ways sought to control the management of business to a 
degree which must restrict the freedom of experiment on which 
the attainment of the maximum productiveness of industry must 
depend. By the resort to strikes an essentially wasteful method 
of settling differences with employers they have also to some 
extent restricted production, though the loss directly due to 
this cause is often exaggerated (see STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS). 
Moreover, by their insistence on the payment to all workmen of a 
fixed " minimum " wage they have diminished the field for the 
profitable employment of the old and less capable, and may to 
some extent have discouraged the expert workman from earning 
and receiving the full reward of his extra ability. 

On the other hand, it is claimed that trade unions have in 
many cases acted in the interests of industrial peace by restrain- 
ing their members from ill-considered strikes, and that, by provid- 
ing a recognized channel through which the workmen's grievances 
may find expression, they have often assisted in adjusting 
differences which would otherwise have led to the interruption 
of production. In particular they have frequently formed a 
convenient basis on which to build a system of conciliation or 
arbitration boards by which strikes are prevented (see ARBITRA- 
TION). It is also claimed that by protecting the " standard of 
life" of their members through the policy of securing a 
" minimum " rate of wages, trade unions may tend in the 
long run to build up a physically and industrially superior 
class of workmen, and thus ultimately increase the efficiency of 
industry. 

The comparative weight of the above considerations differs 
according to the point of view from which the question is 
regarded. At any given time an individual employer may 
tend to feel most strongly the disadvantages of the restrictions 
under which he is placed by the action of a particular trade 
union, and may attach but little importance to the general 
effects, in the long run, on the national output of the pressure 
which such combinations exercise which from the point of 
view of the general well-being of the community is by far 
the most important consideration. Generally speaking, any 
action of trade unions tending to diminish the efficiency and 
industry of the individual workman is as injurious to the com- 
munity as to the individual employer, except in so far as such 
restriction may conceivably affect the health of the working 
community from over-strain. But the policy of " levelling up " 
the standard rate of wages, which may mean loss or ruin to 
a particular employer, may nevertheless act quite otherwise with 
respect to the national well-being, in so far as it tends to eliminate 
the " unfit" employer and to concentrate the industry in the 
hands of the more capable and more enterprising of the employ- 
ing class, and in the localities most suited for the purpose. The 
pressure of rising wages has undoubtedly acted as a stimulus to 
the invention of labour-saving devices and the adoption of 
economical methods, as is shown in America, where the highest 
wages are often seen concurrently with the lowest labour cost. 
Advocates of trade unionism sometimes lay much stress on this 
aspect of their operation. On the other hand, it must not be 
forgotten that competition, both as between different grades of 
employing ability and of local advantages, is now international, 
and that the concentration of an industry in the most suitable 



localities and in the hands of the most capable organizers, which 
is claimed as a beneficial result of trade union action, may for 
any particular country mean the transference of the industry 
abroad; and this transference, especially in the case of indus- 
tries dependent on export to neutral markets, may involve a 
considerable national loss. 

Apart from the effect of trade unions on the total amount of 
the " national dividend," their supporters claim that they are 
able to alter the mode of distribution of this dividend. It is not 
usually claimed that they are able to affect the proportion of the 
total product which is paid as rent or interest for the use of the 
instruments of production, but that they can alter the pro- 
portions in which the residue is shared between the organizers of 
labour and the manual labouring class, to the advantage of the 
latter. The methods by which trade unions seek to achieve this 
result require separate examination. 

The first group of methods are those which aim at creating a 
scarcity of some particular kind of labour so as to alter the 
relation of demand and supply. The particular methods em- 
ployed for this purpose have been already sufficiently described. 
\\ ith regard to all of them it may be remarked that they are 
ineffective as regards the raising of the general rate of wages 
throughout the country (i.e. the average income per head of the 
manual labour classes), seeing that an artificial scarcity of one 
sort of labour implies a redundancy of some other kind. As 
regards the rate of wages in particular occupations there is no 
doubt but that at least for a time such methods may cause a 
considerable rise of wages, only limited at first by the imperfec- 
tion of the control exercised by the union over the number com- 
peting in the labour market and by the extent to which the rise 
in the cost of production so caused is checked by the competition 
of goods imported from abroad, or of alternative commodities, 
or by the loss of foreign markets, or the diminution of home 
demand. But as time goes on other forces of a more subtle 
kind tend to come into play which further limit the power 
of the combination to keep up wages through restricting the 
supply of labour. Besides the substitution of alternative com- 
modities, alternative processes of production may be invented, 
diminishing the demand for the services of the members of 
the exclusive trade union, while the artificial rise of wages 
is also likely to attract labour into the trade. 

Generally speaking, it may be said that while the artificial 
restriction of the supply of workmen in a trade may raise wages 
for a time, it calls into play forces tending to restore the equili- 
brium of demand and supply by diminishing demand, and that 
these forces grow progressively stronger as time goes on, while 
the restrictive capacity of the combination usually tends to 
diminish. This is apart from the fact that restriction of the supply 
of labour entering a trade almost always involves the narrowing 
of the field of ability from which the trade can be recruited, and 
thus a lowering of the general standard of efficiency. 

The other group of trade union methods which requires exami- 
nation is that which aims at strengthening the economic position 
of the labourer by substituting collective for individual negotia- 
tions as regards wages, supported by a common reserve fund out 
of which the labourer may be maintained while waiting for his 
terms to be accepted. Undoubtedly these methods of mutual 
insurance and collective bargaining afford a powerful instrument 
for preventing " sweating " and for enabling the whole body of 
workmen to exact at the earliest moment and retain to the latest 
moment the full amount of the wages which a given state of trade 
and prices will enable the industry to support. The establish- 
ment of general working rules and standards of time or piece wages 
throughout a trade or district may also serve to protect the better 
and more capable employers against their more inefficient or 
unscrupulous competitors, and thus tend towards the survival 
of the " fittest" among the employing class. It is always to be 
remembered that the effect of collective bargaining is not in the 
long run one-sided. Combinations of workmen beget counter- 
combinations of employers, and the conditions of important 
industries tend to be settled more and more by " treaties " con- 
cluded between powerful bodies of employers and employed. 



TRADE UNIONS 



[UNITED STATES 



Were the combinations on both sides which enter into these 
agreements conterminous with the entire trades which they 
represent, and especially if the trades were protected from foreign 
competition, the interests of the general unorganized mass of 
consumers might conceivably suffer from these agreements. 

As regards the future prospects of trade unions in Great 
Britain it is difficult to prophesy. The hopes of those who look 
for a universal expansion of these organizations so as to include 
the whole or the majority of the members of the manual-labour 
classes are probably extravagant. Not less chimerical is the 
expectation of the opponents of trade unions that a few defeats at 
the hands of determined employers or employers' organizations 
will permanently cripple them and lead to their decay and extinc- 
tion. Probably for many years trade unions will include, as 
now, in their membership a powerful minority of the working 
classes, wielding an influence out of all proportion to their actual 
numbers. It is to be expected that experience and the spread of 
education may cause them gradually to abandon the rules and 
methods which interfere most with the economical application 
of labour and capital to industry. 

Lastly, it may be pointed out that trade unionism has been 
the result of the growth of a class of manual workmen working 
for wages for employers who provide the materials and instru- 
ments of industry, and into whose ranks it is relatively difficult 
for the average workman to rise. It remains to be proved 
whether the class feeling which enables powerful trade unions 
to flourish can permanently be fostered and maintained except 
among workmen who expect to remain workmen most of their 
lives. If these conditions should be materially altered, trade 
unionism in its present form must decay or undergo a profound 
alteration. (X.) 

IV. UNITED STATES 

Trade unions in the United States are best treated from the 
broad standpoint of labour organizations generally, i.e. associa- 
tions of wage-earners having for their general purpose the 
improvement of their members, either through a lessened working 
day, increased wages, or more satisfactory rules and conditions 
of employment. They may or may not admit employers, but as 
a rule they do not admit them. Sometimes they are formed for a 
specific purpose, like the Eight-Hours League, but generally 
they have platforms comprehending all the demands which labour 
Labour usually makes. Labour organizations in the United 
Organiza- States cannot be given a definite birthday. Prior to 
float. jg 2 ^ th ere were ver y f ew o f them. In colonial days 
we have hints of their existence, but their purpose was partly 
political, and their membership often consisted of politicians. 
The purpose of the Caulkers' Club, in the early days of Massa- 
chusetts, was " to lay plans for introducing certain persons into 
places of trust and power." Tradition has it that the word 
" caucus " was derived from this club. It is also said that Samuel 
Adams's father, as early as 1724, was active in the club's work. 
There was probably a union of journeymen bakers in the city of 
New York in 1741 and of shoemakers in Philadelphia in 1792. 
The shipwrights of New York City were incorporated on the 3rd 
of April 1803, and the tailors and carpenters of that city were 
organized in 1806. The New York Typographical Society was in 
existence in 1817, and was probably organized in the early years 
of the igth century. Peter Force was its president for a time, and 
Thurlow Weed was a member. A strike occurred in Mr Weed's 
office in 1821 on account of the employment of a non-union man, 
who was then designated a " rat." In 1823 was organized the 
Columbian Charitable Society of Shipwrights and Caulkers of 
Boston and Charlestown. 

The period from 1825 to 1860 may be called the formative 
period. About 1825, and for some years afterwards, there was a 
general discussion of socialistic theories, growing out 
Robert Owen's experiments at New Lanark, in 
Scotland, and out of his communistic attempt at New 
Harmony, Indiana, in 1825. The wave of philosophic transcen- 
dentalism also, which swept over the country between 1825 and 
1840, affected not only social but industrial life. Labour papers 
began to be established. The Working Man's Advocate, published 



VB 



in New York City in 1825, was probably the very first American 
labour journal. Soon afterwards there appeared the Daily 
Sentinel and Young America, projected by two Englishmen, 
George Henry Evans and Frederick W. Evans. The chief 
demands advocated by these journals were the freedom of public 
lands, the breaking up of monopolies, the adoption of a general 
bankruptcy law, a lien for the labourer upon his work for his 
wages, the abolition of imprisonment for debt, equal rights for 
women with men, and the abolition of chattel and wage slavery. 
These demands were endorsed by over 600 newspapers. In 1830 
a Working-man's Convention was held in Syracuse, New York, 
the outcome of which was the nomination of Ezekiel Williams 
for governor. In 1832 a delegated convention which met in the 
state house at Boston initiated the lo-hours movement. The 
Tribune (New York), under the leadership of Horace Greeley, 
was opened to the advocacy of Fourierism, and so on all hands the 
movement towards organization was helped. In 1845 the New 
England Working Man's Association was organized, and such men 
as Charles A. Dana, George Ripley, Albert Brisbane, Wendell 
Phillips, William Lloyd Garrison, Theodore Parker, and others 
participated in its meetings. The first industrial congress of the 
United States was convened in the city of New York on the 1 2th 
of October 1845, but little came of it. Other and more important 
labour congresses were held in that city and in Chicago in 1847 
and 1850 respectively. During the latter part of the formative 
period, that is, from 1825 to 1860, most of the great national 
trade unions that are now influential were projected and organ- 
ized, though their great and rapid growth has been since the Civil 
War. The National Typographical Union was organized in 
1852, its name being changed to International in 1862 in order to 
admit Canadian members; the National Union of Hat Finishers 
in 1854; the Iron Moulders' Union of North America on the sth of 
July 1859; and in the same year the Machinists' and Blacksmiths' 
Union of North America. By 1860 the national unions already 
formed numbered 26. 

During the next few years, among other important organiza- 
tions, were instituted what are known as the group of railway 
brotherhoods, the oldest and largest of which is the Railway 
International Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers. Brother- 
The grand division was founded at Detroit, Michigan, hoods. 
on the 1 7th of August 1863, under the name of the Brotherhood 
of the Footboard. The society was reorganized under its present 
title at Indianapolis, Ind. , on thei7th of August 1864. Thesecond 
national association of railway employes that was organized 
was the Conductors' Brotherhood, formed at Mendota, Illinois, 
on the 6th of July 1868, by the conductors from various railways 
in the United States. This brotherhood was recognized, and a 
general governing board established, on the i5th of December 
of the same year. Ten years later the name of the organization 
was changed from the Conductors' Brotherhood to the Order 
of Railroad Conductors of America. The Brotherhood of 
Locomotive Firemen was organized at Port Jervis, N.Y., on the 
ist of December 1873. The Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen 
was organized at Oneonta, N.Y., on the 23rd of September 1883. 
It was called the Brotherhood of Railroad Brakemen until the 
ist of January 1890, when the present name was adopted. The 
Brotherhood of Railroad Trackmen is one of the younger and 
smaller organizations. The first efforts to found it were made 
in the spring of 1887, but its permanent organization took place 
a year later. The Brotherhood o/ Railroad Carmen of America 
was founded on the gth of September 1890, by the consolidation 
of the Carmen's Mutual Aid Association, the Brotherhood of 
Railroad Car Repairers, the Car Inspectors, Repairers and 
Oilers' Protective Association and the Brotherhood of Railroad 
Carmen of Canada. The Switchmen's Union of North America 
is the outgrowth of the Switchmen's Mutual Aid Association, 
the present organization dating from 1897. Several of these 
railway brotherhoods suffered materially in their membership 
and influence through the organization of the American 
Railway Union in 1893. 

The Cigar-Makers' National Union dates from 1864, the 
Bricklayers' and Masons' International Union from the I7th of 



UNITED STATES] 



TRADE UNIONS 



October 1865, the United States Wool Hat Finishers' Association 
from 1869 and the National Union of Horseshoers of the United 
States from 1875. The Amalgamated Association of Iron and 
Steel Workers resulted, as its name signifies, from the consolida- 
tion of various other orders and societies, the present order 
being organized at Pittsburg in August 1876. The consolidated 
societies were known previously to the new order 
unions' of things as the United Sons of Vulcan, the Associated 
Brotherhood of Iron and Steel Heaters, Rollers and 
Roughers of the United States, and the Iron and Steel Roll 
Hands' Union. The oldest was the United Sons of Vulcan, 
originating in Pittsburg on the 1 7th of April 1858, and afterwards 
called the Iron City Forge. The organization is now known as 
the Amalgamated Association of Iron, Steel and Tin Workers. 
The Granite Cutters' National Union was organized in 1877, the 
Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners in 1881 and the Journey- 
men Bakers' National Union in 1886. 

There have also been attempts to organize labour on a 
general or universal plan. The first of these was the Inter- 
national Association of Working-men, known as the " Inter- 
national," which was organized in London in the autumn of 
1864. This society sought to associate working-men wherever 
manufacturing has been extended. The International grew 
for a while, but never at any time had a member- 
r he later- sn jp exceec iing 100,000 and probably never over 
50,000. It did not extend to the United States with 
much force; certainly no large number of the working-men of the 
country were involved in it, and branches were not organized 
in the union until 1870 or 1871. 

The second attempt was the Noble Order of Knights of Labour 
of America, which was founded in Philadelphia on Thanks- 
giving Day 1860,- through the efforts of Uriah S. 
l Labouf t Stephens and six associates, all garment-cutters. 
For several years the garment-cutters of Philadelphia 
had been organized as a trade union, but failed to maintain 
satisfactory rates of wages. Dissatisfaction prevailed, and 
resulted in the autumn of 1869 in the disbandment of the union. 
Stephens, who was a far-seeing man, and anticipated the dis- 
ruption of his union, had prepared the outlines of a plan for an 
organization embracing, as he said, " all branches of honourable 
toil." He advocated education, co-operation and an intelligent 
use of the ballot as the proper means for gradually abolishing 
the present wage-system. The order had a varied career. 
Mr Stephens, himself a Mason, brought into the ritual of the 
new order many of the features of speculative Masonry. The 
obligations were in the nature of oaths, taken with much 
solemnity upon the Bible, and the members were sworn to the 
strictest secrecy. The order was known for a long time as 
" Five Stars," that designation being used in printing and 
writing. Many expressions taken from Greek literature were 
introduced into the ceremonies. The instructions given to 
every person admitted into the order are perhaps the best 
exponent of the nature of the ritual : 

Labour is noble and holy. To defend it from degradation; to 
divest it of the evils to body, mind and estate which ignorance 
and greed have imposed ; to rescue the toiler from the grasp of the 
selfish is a work worthy of the noblest and best of our race. In 
all the multifarious branches of trade capital has its combinations; 
and, whether intended or not, they crush the manly hopes of labour 
and trample poor humanity in the dust. We mean no conflict 
with legitimate enterprise, no antagonism to necessary capital, 
but men, in their haste and greed, blinded by self-interests, overlook 
the interests of others and sometimes violate the rights of those 
they deem helpless. We mean to uphold the dignity of labour, to 
affirm the nobility of all who earn their bread by the sweat of their 
brows. We mean to create a healthy public opinion on the subject 
of labour (the only creator of values), and the justice of its receiving 
a full, just share of the values or capital it has created. We shall, 
with all our strength, support laws made to harmonize the interests 
of labour and capital, and also those laws which tend to lighten the 
exhaustivcness of toil. To pause in his toil, to devote to his own 
interests [sic], to gather a knowledge of the world's commerce, to 
unite, combine and co-operate in the great army of peace and 
industry, to nourish and cherish, build and develop, the temple he 
lives in, is the highest and noblest duty of man to himself, to his 
fellow men and to his Creator. 



The ritual was neither printed nor written, and in all probability 
there is not now in existence a copy of it. So long as the utmost 
secrecy was retained the order did not grow rapidly; gradually 
it lost its secrecy and worked on more general plans. From 
the best evidence that can be secured it is probable that the 
first local assembly of the Knights of Labour was organized 
as early as 1873 in Philadelphia. Attempts at outside organiza- 
tion had been unsuccessful. The second assembly consisted 
of ship carpenters and caulkers employed in Cramp's shipyard. 
After this the order spread quite rapidly, 20 assemblies being 
organized in Philadelphia during 1873. A district assembly, 
consisting of delegates from local assemblies in Philadelphia, 
met in that city on Christmas Day 1873 and organized District 
Assembly No. i. The order increased during the years follow- 
ing this action, and in 1877 delegates were chosen to organize a 
general assembly. These delegates met at Reading, Pennsylvania, 
on the ist of January 1878, and organized the first general 
assembly, Mr Stephens, t.he founder, presiding as temporary 
chairman. Seven states were represented. General assemblies 
have been held each year since that time, and changes in the 
constitution or work of the order have been the subject of warm 
discussion. At the meeting of the first general assembly the 
membership must have been small, probably only a few 
thousand. It did not reach 50,000 till five years later. The 
general assembly of 1880, at Pittsburg, denounced strikes as 
injurious and not worthy of support except in extreme cases. 
At the fifth session, at Detroit, in 1881, the most important 
actions in the history of the order were taken, and from this 
session the rapid growth of the order may be dated. The 
assembly then declared that on and after the ist of January 1882 
the name and objects of the order should be made public. 
It also declared that women should be admitted upon an equal 
footing with men, and a strong committee was appointed to 
revise the constitution and the ritual. At the next general 
assembly, September 1882, in New York, the revised constitu- 
tion was adopted, as well as laws and regulations for support- 
ing strikes. After this the order began to grow rapidly. It 
antagonized the trade unions, the contention being that the 
order embraced higher and grander principles than those 
underlying the organization of the former. The trade unions 
in existence at that time struggled to preserve their organiza- 
tions against what they considered the encroachment of the 
Knights of Labour. The high-water mark of the order was 
probably during 1883, 1884, 1885 and 1886, when, accord- 
ing to the very best information, it numbered not less than 
1,000,000 members. In 1900 its membership was estimated 
at about 130,000. 

The order of the Knights of Labour is based on the federal plan, 
and has a hierarchy of assemblies the local assembly, the district 
assembly, the state and the general assembly. The .. . 
officers of the local assembly consist of a master ,f^' 
workman, worthy foreman, venerable sage, recording 
secretary, financial secretary, treasurer, worthy inspector, 
almoner, statistician and some minor officers. These are elected 
semi-annually by ballot or by acclamation. The district assembly 
is composed of duly accredited delegates from at least five 
local assemblies, and is the highest tribunal of the Knights of 
Labour within its jurisdiction under the general laws of the order. 
It has the power to levy assessments for its maintenance upon all 
locals, and has also the power to establish locals in the territory 
governed by it. The officers and their duties are similar to those 
of the local assembly, except that the master workman is called 
the district master workman. The constitution of the general 
assembly is a very imposing document, containing twenty articles. 
The assembly consists of representatives chosen by the district 
assemblies, and has full and final jurisdiction, being the highest 
tribunal of the order. It alone possesses the power and authority 
to make, amend or repeal the fundamental and general laws of 
the order, to decide finally all controversies arising, and to issue 
charters to state, district and local assemblies. The officers are 
elected at each annual session, and their titles correspond almost 
completely with those of the local and district assemblies, with 
the exception that the word " general " takes the place of " dis- 
trict," as " general master workman," &c. The general master 
workmen have been Uriah S. Stephens (the founder of the order), 
Terence V. Powderly, James R. Sovereign, John N. Parsons and 
Henry A. Hicks. The order has a publication known as the Journal 
of the Knights of Labour, published at Washington, D.C. 



152 



TRADE UNIONS 



[UNITED STATES 



The third attempt to bring into one order men employed 
in different vocations was the American Railway Union, 
American organized in Chicago on the zoth of June 1893. 
Railway It included all railway employes born of white 
Union. parents. It was organized for the protection of 
members in all matters relating to wages and their rights as 
employes, and affirmed that such employes were entitled to a 
voice in fixing wages and in determining conditions of employ- 
ment. The union won a great victory on the North-Western 
railway in April 1894, but its action in the great strikes in 
Chicago in 1894 cost it its life. Its membership reached at one 
time 150,000. 

The separate unions found that the co-operation of other 
unions was needed to perfect and extend their work, and 

attempts were made from time to time to organize a 
of Labour federated body. The initial steps were taken in 1866, 

when the trades assemblies of New York City and 
Baltimore called a national labour congress, the 100 delegates 
sent by 60 secret and open organizations from different trade 
unions meeting on the aoth of August. In 1867 a second con- 
vention was called to meet in Chicago, the aim being to form a 
Trades Union Congress like that existing in Great Britain. 
The National Labour Union held two conventions in 1868, 
the first in May and the other in September; it met again in 
Chicago in 1869, in Boston in 1870, in Philadelphia in 1871 and 
in Columbus, Ohio, in 1872. This closed the experience of the 
National Labour Union. During 1873, owing to the industrial 
depression, many of the trade unions were suspended. An 
industrial congress met in Rochester, N.Y., in April 1874, 
consisting of some of the leading trade unionists of the United 
States, and on the I4th of that month a convention was held 
representing the Sovereigns of Industry. The expectation was 
that the old National Labour Union should be taken up. The 
Industrial Brotherhood of the United States, another secret 
order, partaking largely of the character of the Knights of 
Labour, was represented in that convention. As might have been 
expected, the two ideas that on which the Knights of Labour 
was organized and the trade union idea immediately became 
antagonistic, yet a platform containing most of the principles 
of the Knights of Labour was adopted. The movement ended 
with the Rochester meeting. The years 1875 and 1876 saw 
other attempts; but they were chiefly political in their character 
and the temporary orders then organized were disbanded. Be- 
tween 1876 and 1881 other attempts were made at federation. 
A call issued jointly by the Knights of Industry and a body 
known as the Amalgamated Labour Union, consisting of some 
dissatisfied members of the Knights of Labour, resulted in a 
convention held at Terre Haute, Ind., on the 2nd of August 1881. 
The chief purpose was to supplant the Knights of Labour by 
the creation of a new secret order. The membership of the 
convention, however, had trade union proclivities and did not 
believe in multiplying labour societies. The secret organization 
was not effected. Another convention was held in Pittsburg, 
on the igth of November 1881, as the result of the following 
statement : 

We have numberless trades unions, trades assemblies or 
councils, Knights of Labour, and various other local, national and 
international labour unions, all engaged in the noble task of elevat- 
ing and improving the condition of the working classes. But great 
as has been the work done by these bodies, there is vastly more that 
can be done by a combination of all these organizations in a federa- 
tion of trades and labour unions. 

It is claimed that the 107 delegates represented 262,000 workmen. 
Their deliberations resulted in the Federation of Organized 
Trades and Labour Unions of the United States and Canada. 
Its platform differed but very little from that of the Knights 
of Labour, although it was in some respects more comprehensive. 
It demanded eight hours as a day's work; called for national 
and state incorporation of trade unions; favoured obligatory 
education of all children, and the prohibition of their employ- 
ment under the age of fourteen; favoured the enactment of 
uniform apprentice laws; opposed bitterly all contract convict 
labour and the truck system for payment of wages; demanded 



laws giving to working men a first lien on property upon which 
their labour had been expended; insisted upon the abrogation 
of all so-called conspiracy laws; advocated the establishment 
of a national bureau of labour statistics; urged the prohibition 
of the importation of foreign labour; opposed government 
contracts on public work; fay cured the adoption by states of an 
employers' liability act; and urged all other labour bodies 
to vote only for labour legislators. The second convention was 
held at Cleveland, O., on the 2ist of November 1882. 

The American Federation of Labour is the largest labour 
organization in the United States. It was organized at Columbus, 
O., on the 8th of December 1886, under the name it now bears. 
In 1888 it was declared that it owed its existence to the Federa- 
tion of Organized Trades. &c., founded in i8Si at Pittsburg, and 
that the American Federation meetings or conventions should 
date from that year; hence it is generally stated that the 
Federation was founded in 1881. From the start in 1881 the 
Federation had a constitution, but it revised it at the convention 
held in Baltimore on the i6th of December 1887, under the name 
of the American Federation of Labour. The order is not secret, 
nor do individual members, through local trades unions or 
otherwise, owe any allegiance to it. Its object is the encourage- 
ment and formation of local trades and labour unions and the 
closer federation of such societies through the organization 
of central trades and labour unions in every state, and the 
combination of such bodies into state, territorial or provincial 
organizations for the purpose of securing general harmony not 
only in the interests of the working masses, but of legislation. 
While it is a federation, it cannot be called a federal body, 
like the Knights of Labour, although there are local trade unions, 
trade assemblies in cities and state federations; nevertheless, 
there is not the hierarchical character of the other body. Most 
of the trade unions in the United States are affiliated with 
the American Federation. The great railway brotherhoods are 
not so affiliated, except the Amalgamated Association of Rail- 
road Employes of America, the Order of Railroad Telegraphers 
and the Brotherhood of Railroad Trackmen. 

The federation has affiliated with it 117 international unions, 
37 state federations, 574 city central bodies and 661 local trade and 
federal labour unions. The international unions are made up of 
approximately 28,500 local unions. The average membership on 
which dues have been paid was 264,825 in 1897, and ten years later 
the number was 1,538,970. 

The chief officers of the federation are a president, first, second, 
third, fourth, fifth and sixth vice-presidents, treasurer and secretary. 
Samuel Gpmpers of New York was the first president, holding that 
position till 1894, when he was defeated through the endeavours 
of the Socialist Labour Party, and John M'Bride elected. At the 
next session, however, he was re-elected. The numerical strength 
of the American Federation of Labour is probably not far from 
1,600,000. It maintains a journal called the A merican Federalionist, 
published at Washington, D.C. The doctrine of the federation 
relative to strikes is that each affiliated society has its own 
government, distinct from the government of the national con- 
vention, which has no power to order strikes, such matters being 
left to the affiliated societies, but is advisory and not conclusive 
in its action. 

Unions are often organized for temporary purposes, their 
existence ceasing as soon as the purposes succeed or fail. The 
total number of members of all kinds of labour 

, j m Estimated 

organizations cannot be stated. There are many strength. 
local societies and associations other than those 
belonging to the Knights of Labour or those affiliated with the 
American Federation of Labour, but which are distinctly labour 
bodies. According to the best possible classification there 
are 20,000,000 wage-earners in the United States, including 
men, women and children. The most liberal estimate of the 
membership of all labour organizations places the total at 
2,000,000. This would be about 10% of the whole body of 
wage- workers; but in some occupations, like that of the printing 
trade, the organization probably includes from 75 to 90%. 

The law relating to trade unions varies somewhat in the 
different states. Both the federal legislature and several of 
the states (Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, 
Maryland, Iowa, Kansas and Louisiana) have passed laws 
permitting the incorporation of unions. Michigan, Wyoming 



TRADE WINDS TRAFALGAR, BATTLE OF 



153 



and Nebraska have specially provided for incorporating assem- 
blies of the Knights of Labour. Hardly any advantage, however, 
has been taken of these statutes. Some states have passed laws 
excepting trade unions from restrictions on combinations and 
conspiracies imposed by other statutes or the common law (e.g. 
New York), and especially from the operation of anti-trust laws 
(Michigan, Wisconsin, Nebraska, Montana, North Carolina 
and Texas). The Texas law, however, has been held uncon- 
stitutional. A number of states have passed laws, some of 
doubtful validity, prohibiting employers from making it a 
condition of employment that labourers should not belong to 
a union. Most states have adopted statutes legalizing union 
labels to indicate the products of members of trade unions. 

By act of Congress, associations of the nature of labour 
organizations, having branches in several states or territories, may, 
on filing articles of association for record in Washington, become 
corporations. American legislation generally is friendly to 
trade unions. Their purposes are regarded as lawful by the 
courts, but if they use unlawful means for their accomplish- 
ments, a remedy will be applied. Injury to property, intimida- 
tion by threats, personal violence, or boycotts enforced by 
terrorism, are such unlawful means. The liberty of action 
thus secured to organizations of labour is equally the right of 
the employer. Therefore, a statute making it an offence for 
one to require those whom he employs to withdraw from a trade 
union is unconstitutional and void (see Reports of American 
Bar Association, xxi. 367, 372). The courts recognize 
that membership in trade unions is a species of property, 
of which no one can be deprived except through a formal 
procedure in conformity with the rules of the organization. 
Some of the States, notably New York, have a statute pro- 
hibiting trade unions from making any discrimination in con- 
nexion with their admission requirements on account of 
membership in the state militia or national guard. 

AUTHORITIES. Ely, The Labour Movement in America (New 
York, N.Y., 1886); M'Neill, The Labour Movement (Boston, Mass., 
1887); Powderly, Thirty Years of Labour (Columbus, O., 1889); 
Simonds, The Story of Manual Labour in all Lands and Ages 
(Chicago, 1886) ; Bliss, The New Encyclopaedia o/ Social Reform 
(New York, 1908) ; Aldrich, "The American Federation of Labour," 
Economic Studies (August 1898); Wright, Industrial Evolution of 
the United States (Meadville, Pa., 1895); "Historical Sketch of 
the Knights of Labour," Quart. Journ. of Economics (January 
1887); " The Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers, ' 
Quart. Journ. of Economics (July 1893 and November 1901); 
J. R. Commons, Trade Unionism and Labor Problems; Hollander 
and Barnett, Studies in American Trade Unionism; Barnett, A Trial 
Bibliography of American Trade Union Publications. (C. D. W.) 

TRADE WINDS, the name given to the winds which blow 
from the tropical belts of high pressure towards the equatorial 
belt of low pressure, from the north-east in the northern hemi- 
sphere and from the south-east in the southern. They are 
exceedingly regular, especially over the oceans, where there is 
no disturbing influence from the great land masses. They 
receive their name from this feature, the term " trade " being 
used in the otherwise obsolete sense of " direction " or " course " 
(cf. " tread ") The area of their greatest influence may be 
taken to extend from about 3 to 35 N., and from the equator 
to 28 S., though these belts are actually somewhat narrower 
at any given season, as the whole system of surface winds over 
the globe moves north and south following the sun. The westerly 
winds prevalent in the belts respectively north of the northern 
tropical belt of high pressure, and south of the southern, are 
sometimes known as anti-trades, their direction being opposite 
to that of the trade winds. 

TRAFALGAR, BATTLE OF. The British victory over the 
French off Cape Trafalgar, fought on the 2ist of October 1805, 
was a sequel of the breakdown of Napoleon's great scheme for 
the invasion of the British Isles (See NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS: 
Naval). When Villeneuve gave up in despair the attempt to 
enter the Channel, he steered for Cadiz, and anchored in that 
port on the 2Oth of August 1805. He found three British 
ships of the line, under the command of Vice-Admiral Cuthbert 
Collingwood, on the watch. Collingwood, resolved that the 



allies should not drive him through the Straits of Gibraltar 
without being compelled to follow, retired slowly, and at a 
short distance ahead of the ships sent to pursue him. They, 
not being willing to be drawn into the Mediterranean, gave up 
the pursuit. The British officer then resumed his watch off 
Cadiz. On the 22nd of August he was joined by Rear- Admiral 
Sir Richard Bickerton with four ships of the line, and on the 3oth 
by Vice-Admiral Sir Robert Calder with 18. The allied fleet, 
consisting of 29 sail of the line which had come with Villeneuve, 
and five already at Cadiz, 34 in all, remained quiescent. The use 
to be made of it, or the measures to be taken for its destruction, 
were matters of urgent consideration to Napoleon and to the 
British government. On the I4th of September Napoleon 
gave orders that the French and Spanish ships at Cadiz should 
put to sea at the first favourable opportunity, join seven Spanish 
ships of the line then at Cartagena, go to Naples, and land the 
soldiers they carried to reinforce his troops then in that king- 
dom, and should fight a decisive action if they met a British 
fleet of inferior numbers. Two Spanish ships of the line were to 
be counted as equal to one French. Their final destination 
was to be Toulon. On the isth he decided that Villeneuve, 
whose " excessive pusillanimity " rendered him incapable of 
vigorous action, must be replaced by Admiral Rosily. Rosily 
received his orders on the i7th and left for Cadiz. The British 
government, determined to confine the allies to Cadiz, or beat 
them if they came out, sent Nelson to take command and 
prepared to despatch reinforcements. Nelson left Portsmouth 
on the isth of September, and reached Cadiz on the 28th, 
bringing three ships of the line with him. He gave orders that 
no salute should be fired for him lest the enemy should learn that 
reinforcements had arrived. The bulk of the fleet 23 sail was 
kept well out at sea, and five ships of the line under Rear-Admiral 
Louis were appointed to cruise close to Cadiz as an inshore 
squadron. On the 5th of October Louis was sent to Gibraltar 
to renew his provisions and water, and the watch was left to 
two frigates. Between the 7th and the I3th of October Nelson 
was joined by six ships of the line, making a total of 34. But 
Admiral Calder, having been summoned home to stand a 
court-martial, took his flagship with him on the I4th, and on 
the 1 7th another line-of-battle ship had to be detached to renew 
her stores. As Admiral Louis could not return before the 
battle of the 2ist, Nelson had at his disposal 27 ships of the line 
in all. Napoleon's order of the i4th of September reached 
Villeneuve on the 28th. He learnt also that Rosily was coming, 
but not that he himself was to be superseded. On the sth of 
October he held a council of war of French and Spanish officers. 
They decided that the condition of their ships did not justify 
them in hoping for victory over the British fleet, but Napoleon's 
orders were peremptory, and they agreed that a sortie must be 
made. Easterly winds were needed to facilitate the sailing 
of a large and awkward fleet from Cadiz, and till the i4th the 
wind was hard from the west. Even when it fell the allies 
lingered. On the i8th of October Villeneuve heard that Rosily 
had reached Madrid, and of his own supersession. Stung by 
the prospect of being disgraced before the fleet, he resolved to 
go to sea before his successor could reach Cadiz. 

The allies, aided by a light land breeze which blew from the 
east, though the wind at sea was westerly, began to leave Cadiz 
Bay on the igth. Their movements were at once known to the 
British look-out frigates, and were transmitted by signal to 
Nelson, who was cruising some thirty miles to the west. During 
the period of blockade he had instructed his captains as to how 
he meant to fight the approaching battle. The memorandum 
in which his instructions were embodied was dated the pth of 
October. It was drawn up in view of the circumstances which 
did not arise that the enemy would come to sea with a strong 
easterly wind which would give him the weather gage; that he 
might be reinforced to a strength of over 50 ships of the line from 
Brest, Rochefort and Cartagena; that the British fleet might 
be raised by reinforcements to 40 ships. But the governing 
principles of the memorandum were independent of such 
details. They were that the order of sailing in which the 



TRAFALGAR, BATTLE OF 



fleet was when the enemy was seen was to be the order of 
battle; that no time was to be wasted in forming a precise line; 
that the attack was to be made in two bodies, of which one, to 
be led by the second in command, Collingwood, was to be thrown 
on the rear of the enemy, while the other, led by Nelson himself, 
was to take care that the centre and van should not come to the 
assistance of the ships cut off. Nelson was careful to point 
out that " Something must be left to chance. Nothing is sure 
in a sea fight beyond all others "; and he left his captains free 
from all hampering rules by telling them that " No captain 
can do very wrong if he places his ship alongside that of the 
enemy." In short the execution was to be as circumstances 
should dictate, subject to the guiding rule that the enemy's 
rear was to be cut off and a concentration of superior force on 
an inferior sought for. 

The uncertainties of naval warfare in the days of sailing 
ships were fully shown at Trafalgar. The allies, having left 
Cadiz on the 2oth of October, were 33 sail of the line strong, 
one of the fleet having been left behind. They sailed in five 
squadrons. Three were nearer the land than the other two. 
The leading squadron of the three was commanded by the 
Spanish admiral, Alava; Villeneuve followed; and the French 
admiral, Dumanoir, commanded the rear. The other two 
squadrons of six ships of the line each, commanded by the Spanish 
admiral, Gravina, and the French admiral, Magon, were parallel 
with, and outside of the three. All headed for the Straits of 
Gibraltar in the westerly breezes, which had become very 
light. The British fleet of 27 sail in two divisions also headed 
for the Mediterranean. During the night of the 2oth-2ist of 
October several movements were made to gain position, and 
there was an inevitable tendency to straggle among vessels which 
did not all sail equally well and were moving in light winds. 
On the early morning of the 2ist the allies were some twelve 
miles off Cape Trafalgar. The British fleet was some ten or 
twelve miles out at sea to the west of them. Seeing that a 
battle would now be forced on him, Villeneuve ordered his 
whole fleet to turn so as to bring their heads on Cadiz. He 
was painfully aware that the incomparably more expert British 
fleet would not be content to attack him in the old-fashioned 
way, coming down in a parallel line and engaging from van to 
rear. He knew that they would endeavour to concentrate on 
a part of his line. But Villeneuve was too conscious of the 
inexperience of his officers and men to think it possible to make 
counter movements with them. It has been said that the 
French and Spanish ships which had taken part in the late 
cruise to the West Indies and back must be considered as 
trained in the same sense as the British. But apart from the 
fact that these vessels formed little more than a half of the 
allied fleet, the comparison is childish. It could only have 
occurred to writers who, wishing to exalt the glory of Trafalgar, 
forget that the superior quality of the British fleet, the fruit 
of foresight, of good sense, and the strenuous work of a people, 
was itself the best of all claims to honour. A hasty cruise 
across the Atlantic and back was no equivalent for years of 
training. The blockades maintained by the British fleet had 
made it difficult for the allies to obtain stores and their ships 
were ill fitted. Their crews contained a minute proportion of 
men bred to the sea, and as they had to be taught the elements 
of seamanship on the few occasions when they got to sea, their 
gunnery was neglected. There was valour in the allied fleet, 
but there was neither skill nor confidence. Moreover the very 
light wind then blowing rendered manoeuvring all but im- 
possible for the most expert crews. Villeneuve could do nothing 
more than order his fleet to turn so as to bring the ships' heads 
on Cadiz, to form the line, and await the enemy's attack. He, 
however, left his captains free to act for the best when the 
battle had begun, by telling them that whoever was not under 
fire was not at his post. The movement of conversion ordered 
at 6 o'clock a.m. was not executed till about 10 o'clock, and it 
was ill done. The three squadrons nearest the shore turned 
first, the rear beginning, to leave room for the others. Thus 
Dumanoir now led the van and Alava followed Villeneuve. 



The two squadrons of Gravina and Magon, which had been 
outside, fell in behind Alava. No accurate line was formed. 
The allies drifted rather than sailed into a curve of some five 
miles long, stretching from north to south, concave on the west 
side, and more pronounced at the southern than at the northern 
end. Their ships did not follow one another, but were in many 
cases two, and in some cases three, abreast in groups. To 
some extent this was to their advantage, as the effective range 
of fire of the artillery of the day was barely 1200 yds., and as 
the power of concentrating the fire of guns out of ports was 
limited, the danger to an assailant bearing down was not great 
during his approach. The peril was that he would be engaged 
with two or three enemies when he had broken into the line, 
and this risk was increased by the accidental group formation 
of the allies. 

The confidence and promptitude of the British fleet presented 
a marked contrast to the passivity of the allies. When in the 
early morning the enemy was seen to the east, Nelson's fleet 
was in two divisions, somewhat scattered his own of 12 sail 
of the line being to the westward and windward in the light 
breeze from W.N.W.; Collingwood's of 15 sail being to leeward 
and east. At 6.40 the signal was made to form the order of 
sailing and prepare for battle. The enemy's movement of 
conversion was already seen, and it was obvious that unless 
he were rapidly stopped he might reach Cadiz Bay in safety. 
A few minutes before 7 o'clock the signal to bear up, No. 76, 
was made by Nelson. Much discussion has arisen as to whether 
this was an order to bear up together, or in succession; the 
first if exactly executed would have caused the British ships 
to approach the enemy in a line abreast (side by side) since alJ 
would have turned at once; the second would have caused 
them to approach in a line ahead (one after the other) since they 
would have turned successively. The discussion is in reality 
futile, because the want of wind rendered it impossible to 
arrange exact formations, because it had been decided that 
no time should be wasted in dressing the line, and because 
Nelson's flagship, the " Victory " (100), and Collingwood's 
flagship, the " Royal Sovereign " (i)> were quick-sailing 
vessels, and both admirals moved at the best attainable speed. 
The slow ships could not keep up with them. The two 
squadrons went down heading to north of east, Collingwood 
to the right and leeward, Nelson to the north and windward, 
in two bodies without exact formation, according to the 
speed of the ships. Collingwood headed for the centre, and 
the pronounced curve at the south end of the allied line 
caused the ships of his division to come into action in a close 
approach to a parallel with the enemy. The " Royal Sovereign " 
was the first British ship to break into the enemy's line, which 
she did about midday and astern of Alava's flagship the " Santa 
Ana." She was alone for a few minutes, but the ships of 
Collingwood's division, as they sailed into the curve, were mostly 
able, by steering to the right, to get into action very soon after 
their admiral. Nelson's division was headed by himself to 
cut through the enemy between his van and centre, and to bar 
his road to Cadiz. It was certainly in a nearer approach to a 
line ahead than Collingwood's. After making a demonstra- 
tion at the allied van, he broke into their line astern of the 
" Bucentaure " (100), the flagship of Villeneuve. 

The exact movements of all the ships engaged could only 
be given in a very detailed account of the battle, but the main 
lines of the action are already indicated. To the allies it 
appeared that the British fleet assailed them in two lines con- 
verging on their centre, and that it then carried out a concen- 
tration on this part of their line. Though this is too simple 
or too bald a statement of the case, it does not go far from 
the truth. The allied formation was broken in two, and though 
the rear part was kept well in play by Collingwood's division, 
the severest blows fell on the central sections. 

The battle, which began at midday, was terminated about 
fiver Eighteen of the allies were taken. Their van, after 
long remaining quiescent, made a futile demonstration, and 
then sailed away. The four van ships which escaped with 



TRAFFIC TRAILL 



155 



Admiral Dumanoir were met and captured off Cape Ortegal 
on the 4th of November by a British squadron of five ships 
under Sir Richard Strachan. The stormy weather which 
followed the battle gave the enemy an opportunity to retake 
some of the prizes, and others were lost. Four only were 
carried into Gibraltar by the British fleet three French and 
one Spanish. Only eleven of the allied fleet succeeded in 
finding safety in Cadiz. The fragment of the French squadron 
remained there under Admiral Rosily till he was forced to 
surrender to the Spaniards in 1808 on the breaking out of the 
Peninsular War. The loss of life of the allies cannot be stated 
with precision. In the British fleet the reported loss in killed 
and wounded was 1690, of whom 1452 belonged to 14 out of 
the 27 ships of the line present the inequality of loss being 
mainly due to the fact that it was as a rule these vessels which 
came earliest into action. For the circumstances of Nelson's 
death see the article NELSON. 

AUTHORITIES. Accounts of the battle of Trafalgar are to be found 
in all the naval, and most of the general, histories of the time. _ The 
most essential of the original authorities are collected by Sir N. 
Harris Nicolas in his Despatches and Letters of Vice-Admiral Lord 
Viscount Nelson, vol. vii. (London 1844-1846). The controversy 
as to the exact method on which the battle was fought, and the 
significance of the signal to bear down, is fully worked out with many 
references to authorities in The Times from the I4th of July to the 
2 1st of October 1905, both in a general correspondence and in a series 
of articles on " Trafalgar and the Nelson Touch," i6th, igth, 22nd, 
26th, 28th and 3Oth of September 1905; see also J. S. Corbett, The 
Campaign of Trafalgar (1910). (D. H.) 

TRAFFIC, properly the interchange or passing of goods or 
merchandise between persons, communities or countries, 
commerce or trade. The term in current usage is chiefly 
applied collectively to the goods, passengers, vehicles and 
vessels passing to and fro over the streets, roads, sea, rivers, 
canals, railways, &c. 

The origin of the word is obscure. It occurs in Fr. trafique, and 
trafiquer, Ital. traffico, trafficare, Sp. trafago, trafagar. I>u Cange 
(Gloss. Med. et Inf. Lai.) quotes the use of traffigare from a treaty 
between M ilan and Venice of 1 380, and gives other variants of the word 
in medieval Latin. There is a medieval Latin word transfegator, an 
explorer, spy, investigator (see Du Cange, op. cit., s.v.) which occurs 
as early as 1243, and is stated to be from transfegare, a corruption of 
transfrelare, to cross over the sea (trans, across, fretum, gulf, strait, 
channel). Diez (Etymologisches Worterbuch der romanischen 
Sprachen) connects the word with Port, trasfegar, to decant, which 
he traces to Late Lat. vicare, to exchange, Lat. vicis, change, turn. 
A suggestion (Athenaeum, app. 7, 1900) has been made that it is 
to be referred to a late Hebrew corruption (traffik) of Gr. Tpoirai'x6s, 
pertaining to a trophy, applied to a silver coin with the figure of 
victory upon it and termed in Latin victoriatiis. 

TRAHERNE, THOMAS (i637?-i674), English writer, was, 
according to Anthony a Wood, a " shoemaker's son of Hereford." 
He entered Brasenose College, Oxford, in 1652, and after 
receiving his degree in 1656 took holy orders. In the 
following year he was appointed rector of Credenhill, near 
Hereford, and in 1661 received his M.A. degree. He found 
a good patron in Sir Orlando Bridgeman, lord keeper of the 
seals from 1667 to 1672. Traherne became his domestic 
chaplain and also " minister " of Teddington. He died at 
Bridgeman's house at Teddington on or about the 27th of 
September 1674. He led, we are told, a simple and devout life, 
and was well read in primitive antiquity and the fathers. His 
prose works are Roman Forgeries (ibis), Christian Ethics (1675), 
and A Serious and Patheticall Contemplation of the Mercies 
of God (1699). His poems have a curious history. They were 
left in MS. and presumably passed with the rest of his library 
into the hands of his brother Philip. They then became appar- 
ently the possession of the Skipps of Ledbury, Herefordshire. 
When the property of this family was dispersed in 1888 the 
value of the MSS. was unrecognised, for in 1896 or 1897 they 
were discovered by Mr W. T. Brooke on a street bookstall. 
Dr Grosart bought them, and proposed to include them in his 
edition of the works of Henry Vaughan, to whom he was 
disposed to assign them. He left this task uncompleted, and 
Mr Bertram Dobell, who eventually secured the MSS., was 
able to establish the authorship of Thomas Traherne. The 



discovery included, beside the poems, four complete " Cen- 
turies of Meditation," short paragraphs embodying reflexions 
on religion and morals. Some of these, evidently autobio- 
graphical in character, describe a childhood from which the 
" glory and the dream " was slow to depart. Of the power 
of nature to inform the mind with beauty, and the ecstatic 
harmony of a child with the natural world, the earlier poems, 
which contain his best work, are full. In their manner, as 
in their matter, they remind the reader of Blake and Words- 
worth. Traherne has at his best an excellence all his own, 
but there can be no reasonable doubt that he was familiar both 
with the poems of Herbert and of Vaughan. The poems on 
childhood may well have been inspired by Vaughan's lines 
entitled The Retreat. His poetry is essentially metaphysical 
and his workmanship is uneven, but the collection contains 
passages of great beauty. 

See Bertram Dobell's editions of the Poetical Works (1906) and 
Centuries of Meditation (1908). 

TRAILL, HENRY DUFF (1842-1900), British author and 
journalist, was born at Blackheath on the i4th of August 1842. 
He belonged to an old Caithness family, the Traills of Rattar, 
and his father, James Traill, was stipendiary magistrate of 
Greenwich and Woolwich. H. D. Traill was sent to the Merchant 
Taylors' School. He rose to be head of the school and obtained 
a scholarship at St John's College, Oxford. He was destined for 
the profession of medicine and took his degree in natural sciences 
in 1865, but then read for the bar, being called in 1869. In 
1871 he received an appointment in the education office which 
left him leisure to cultivate his gift for literature. In 1873 he 
became a contributor to the Pall Mall Gazette, then under the 
editorship of Frederick Greenwood. He followed Greenwood 
to the St James's Gazette when in 1880 the Pall Mall Gazette took 
for a time the Liberal side, and he continued to contribute 
to that paper up to 1895. In the meantime he had also joined 
the staff of the Saturday Review, to which he sent, amongst 
other writings, weekly verses upon subjects of the hour. Some 
of the best of these he republished in 1882 in a volume called 
Recaptured Rhymes, and others in a later collection of Saturday 
Songs (1890). He was also a leader-writer on the Daily Tele- 
graph, and acted for a time as editor of the (Sunday) Observer. 
In 1897 he became first editor of Literature, when that weekly 
paper (afterwards sold and incorporated with the Academy) 
was established by the proprietors of The Times, and directed 
its fortunes until his death. Traill's long connexion with 
journalism must not obscure the fact that he was a man of letters 
rather than a journalist. He wrote best when he wrote with least 
sense of the burden of responsibility. His playful humour and 
his ready wit were only given full scope when he was writing 
to please himself. One of his most brilliant jeux d'esprit was 
a pamphlet which was published without his name soon after 
he had begun to write for the newspapers. It was called The 
Israelitish Question and the Comments of the Canaan Journals 
thereon (1876). This told the story of the Exodus in articles 
which parodied very cleverly the style of all the leading journals 
of the day, and was at once recognized as the work of a born 
humorist. Traill sustained this reputation with The New 
Lucian, which appeared in 1884 (2nd ed., with several new 
dialogues, 1900); but for the rest his labours were upon more 
serious lines. He directed the production of a vast work on 
Social England in 1893-1898; he wrote, for several series of 
biographies, studies of Coleridge (1884), Sterne (1882), Wil- 
liam III. (1888), Shaftesbury (1886), Strafford (1889), and Lord 
Salisbury (1891); he compiled a biography of Sir John Franklin, 
the Arctic explorer (1896); and after a visit to Egypt he pub- 
lished a volume on the country, and in 1897 appeared his book 
on Lord Cromer, the man who had done so much to bring it 
back to prosperity. Of these the literary studies are the best, 
for Traill possessed great critical insight. He published two 
collections of essays: Number Twenty (1892), and The New 
Fiction (1897). In 1865 his Glaucus; a tale of a Fish, was 
produced at the Olympic Theatre with Miss Nellie Farren in 
the part of Glaucus. In conjunction with Mr Robert Hichens 



i 5 6 



TRAIN- -TRAJAN 



he wrote The Medicine Man, produced at the Lyceum in 1898. 
He died in London on the 2ist of February 1900. 

TRAIN (M. Eng. trayn or trayne, derived through Fr. from 
Late Lat. trahinare, to drag, draw, Lat. trahere, cf. trail, trace, 
ultimately from the same source), a general term applied to that 
which is drawn or trailed behind or after anything else, the hind 
part or rear of anything. It is thus used of the portion of a 
skirt, robe or cloak which is lengthened behind so that when 
allowed to fall it trails along the ground. In ceremonial pro- 
cessions and other state functions the duty of keeping raised the 
train of the sovereign's robes, or of the robes of great officials 
and dignitaries, is assigned to pages or to official train-bearers. 
The length of the train which ladies must wear at royal courts, 
drawing-rooms or other state functions is fixed by regulations 
from the lord chamberlain's office. The chief specific uses of 
the term are for the trail of a gun, that portion of the carriage 
which rests upon the ground when it is unlimbered, the line of 
gunpowder or other combustible material which is used to 
ignite a charge of explosives, and, figuratively, to an ordered 
series or sequence of events, thoughts, &c. The most familiar 
application is to a number of carriages, wagons or trucks coupled 
together and drawn by a locomotive engine on a railway (see 
RAILWAYS). A special use of the verb " to train," in the sense 
of to educate, to instruct, to bring into fit and proper con- 
dition, mental, moral or physical, is developed, as in " educate " 
(Lat. educare, literally, to draw out), from the sense of draw- 
ing or bringing out the good qualities aimed at in a course of 
instruction; a specific use is that of training for a race or other 
form of athletics, i.e. getting into fit physical condition. 

TRAJAN [MARCUS ULPIUS TRA JANUS] (A. D. 53-117), 
Roman emperor, was born at Italica, in Spain, on the i8th 
of September 52 (or 53). The family to which he belonged 
was probably Italian and not Iberian by blood. His father 
began as a common legionary soldier, and fought his way up 
to the consulship and the governorship of Asia. The younger 
Trajan was rigorously trained by him, and imbued with the 
same principles and tastes. He was a soldier born and bred. 
No better representative of the true old hardy Roman type, 
little softened by either luxury or education, had come to the 
head of affairs since the days of Marius. His training was 
almost exclusively military, but his experience as an officer 
gave him an acquaintance with almost every important province 
of the empire, which was of priceless value to him when he came 
to the throne. For ten years he held a commission as military 
tribune, which took him to many lands far asunder; then he 
filled important posts in Syria and Spain. By the year 89 
he had achieved a considerable military reputation. At that 
time L. Antonius Saturninus headed a rebellion in Germany, 
which threatened seriously to bring Domitian's rule to an end. 
Trajan was ordered in hot haste from Further Spain to the 
Rhine. Although he carried his troops over that long and 
arduous march with almost unexampled rapidity, he only 
arrived after the insurrection had been put down. But his 
promptitude raised him higher in the favour of Domitian, and 
he was advanced to the consulship in 91. Of the next five 
years of his life we know nothing definite. It is not unlikely 
that they were spent at Rome or in Italy in the fulfilment of 
some official duties. When ' the -revolution of 96 came, and 
Nerva replaced the murdered Domitian, one of the most 
important posts in the empire, that of consular legate of Upper 
Germany, was conferred upon Trajan. An officer whose 
nature, as the event showed, was interpenetrated with the 
spirit of legality was a fitting servant of a revolution whose aim 
it was to substitute legality for personal caprice as the dominant 
principle of affairs. The short reign of Nerva really did start 
the empire on a new career, which lasted more than three- 
quarters of a century. But it also demonstrated how impossible 
it was for any one to govern at all who had no claim, either 
personal or inherited, to the respect of the legions. Nerva saw 
that if he could not find an Augustus to control the army, the 
army would find another Domitian to trample the senate under 
foot. In his difficulties he took counsel with L. Licinius Sura, 



a lifelong friend of Trajan, and on the 27th of October in the 
year 97 he ascended the Capitol and proclaimed that he adopted 
Trajan as his son. The senate confirmed the choice and 
acknowledged the emperor's adopted son as his successor. 
After a little hesitation Trajan accepted the position, which 
was marked by the titles of imperator, Caesar and Germanicus, 
and by the tribunician authority. He immediately proceeded 
to Lower Germany, to assure himself of the fidelity of the 
troops in that province, and while at Cologne he received news 
of Nerva.'s death (Jan. 25, 98). The authority of the new 
emperor was recognized at once all over the empire. The novel 
fact that a master of the Romans should have been born on 
Spanish soil seems to have passed with little remark, and this 
absence of notice is significant. Trajan's first care as emperor 
was to write to the senate an assurance like that which had been 
given by Nerva, that he would neither kill nor degrade any 
senator. He ordered the establishment of a temple and cult 
in honour of his adoptive father, but he did not come to Rome. 
In his dealings with the mutinous praetorians the strength of 
the new emperor's hand was shown at once. He ordered a 
portion of the force to Germany. They did not venture to 
disobey, and were distributed among the legions there. Those 
who remained at Rome were easily overawed and reformed. 
It is still more surprising that the soldiers should have quietly 
submitted to a reduction in the amount of the donative or gift 
which it was customary for them to receive from a new emperor, 
though the civil population of the capital were paid their largess 
(congiarium) in full. By politic management Trajan was able 
to represent the diminution as a sort of discount for immediate 
payment, while the civilians had to wait a considerable time 
before their full due was handed to them. 

The secret of Trajan's power lay in his close personal relations 
with the officers and men of the army and in the soldierly 
qualities which commanded their esteem. He possessed 
courage, justice and frankness. Having a good title to military 
distinction himself, he could afford, as the unwarlike emperors 
could not, to be generous to his officers. The common soldiers, 
on the other hand, were fascinated by his personal prowess and 
his camaraderie. His features were firm and clearly cut; his 
figure was tall and soldierly. His hair was already grey before 
he came to the throne, though he was not more than forty-five 
years old. When on service he used the mean fare of the 
common private, dining on salt pork, cheese and sour wine. 
Nothing pleased him better than to take part with the centurion 
or the soldier in fencing or other military exercise, and he 
would applaud any shrewd blow which fell upon his own helmet. 
He loved to display his acquaintance with the career of dis- 
tinguished veterans, and to talk with them of their battles and 
their wounds. Probably he lost nothing of his popularity with 
the army by occasional indulgence in sensual pleasures. Ye*, 
every man felt and knew that no detail of military duty, how- 
ever minute, escaped the emperor's eye, and that any relaxation 
of discipline would be punished rigorously, yet with unwavering 
justice. Trajan emphasized at once his personal control and 
the constitutionality of his sway by bearing on his campaigns 
the actual title of " proconsul, " which no other emperor had 
done. All things considered, it is not surprising that he was 
able, without serious opposition from the army, entirely to 
remodel the military institutions of the empire, and to bring 
them into a shape from which there was comparatively little 
departure so long as the army lasted. In disciplinary matters 
no emperor since Augustus had been able to keep so strong a 
control over the troops. Pliny rightly praises Trajan as the 
lawgiver and the founder of discipline, and Vegetius classes 
Augustus, Trajan and Hadrian together as restorers of the 
morale of the army. The confidence which existed between 
Trajan and his army finds expression in some of the coins of 
his reign. 

For nearly two years after his election Trajan did not appear 
in Rome. He had decided already what the great task of 
his reign should be the establishment of security upon the 
dangerous north-eastern frontier. Before visiting the capital 



he determined to put affairs in train for the attainment of this 
object. He made a thorough inspection of the great lines of 
defence between the Danube and the Rhine, and framed and 
partly carried out a vast scheme for strengthening and securing 
them. 

The policy of opposing uncivilized tribes by the construction of 
the limes, a raised embankment of earth or other material, inter- 
sected here and there by fortifications, was not his invention, but 
it owed in great measure its development to him. It is probable 
that the northernmost part of the great limes Germaniae, from the 
Rhine at Rheinbrohl, nearly midway between Coblenz and Bonn, 
to a point on the Main cast of Frankfort, where that river suddenly 
changes its course from north to west, was begun by Domitian. 
The extension of this great barrier southwards to the point at which 
it met the limes Raetiae was undertaken by Trajan, though we cannot 
say how far he carried the work, which was not entirely completed 
till long after his time. We may without hesitation follow the 
opinion of Mommsen, who maintains that the limes was not intended, 
like Hadrian's Wall between the Tyne and the Solway, and like the 
great wall of China, to oppose an absolute barrier against incursions 
From the outside. It was useful as marking definitely the boundary 
of the Roman sway, and as assuring the Romans that no inroad 
could be made without intelligence being had of it beforehand, 
while the limes itself and the system of roads behind it enabled troops 
to be directed rapidly to any threatened point, and the fortified 
positions could be held against large numbers till reinforcements 
arrived. Great importance was no doubt attached to the perfection 
of the lines of communication bearing on the limes. Among a 
people of roadmakers, Trajan was one of the greatest, and we have 
definite evidence from inscriptions that some of the military roads 
in this region were constructed by him. The more secure control 
which the Romans now maintained over the territory within the 
limes tended to its rapid civilization, and the Roman influence, if 
not the Roman arms, soon began to affect powerfully the regions 
beyond. 

After his careful survey of the Rhine end of the frontier defences, 
Trajan proceeded to strengthen them in the direction of the Danube. 
From the age of Tiberius onwards the Romans possessed the whole 
southern bank of the river from its source to the Euxine. But 
the precarious tenure of their possession had been deeply impressed 
on them by the disasters and humiliations they had undergone in 
these districts during the reign of Domitian. A prince had arisen 
among the Dacians, Decebalus by name, worthy to be placed at 
the head of all the great barbarian antagonists of Rome. Like 
Maroboduus, he was able to combine the forces of tribes commonly 
hostile to each other, and his military ability almost went the length 
of genius. Domitian attacked him but was compelled to make an 
ignominious peace. He agreed to pay to Decebalus an annual 
subsidy, and to supply him with engineers and craftsmen skilled 
in all kinds of construction, but particularly in the erection of 
fortifications and defensive works. During the nine or ten years 
which had elapsed since the conclusion of this remarkable treaty 
the Dacian prince had immensely strengthened the approaches to 
his kingdom from the Roman side. He had also equipped and drilled 
his formidable army after the Roman fashion. It was impossible 
for a soldier like Trajan to endure the conditions accepted by 
Domitian; but the conquest of Dacia had become one of the most 
formidable tasks that had ever confronted the empire. Trajan 
no doubt planned a war before he left the Danube for Rome late 
in 99. 

The arrival of the emperor had been awaited in the capital 
with an impatience which is expressed by Pliny and by Martial. 1 
As he entered the city and went on foot to the Capitol thS 
plaudits of the people were unmistakably genuine. During 
his stay in the city he riveted more firmly still the affections 
both of the senate and of the people. The reconciliation of 
the empire with liberty, inaugurated, as Tacitus says, by Nerva, 
seemed now to be securely achieved. Trajan was absolutely 
open and simple, and lived with men at Rome as he had lived 
with his soldiers while on service. He realized the senate's 
ideal of the citizen ruler. The assurance that no senator should 
suffer was renewed by oath. All the old republican formalities 
were most punctiliously observed even those attendant on 
the emperor's election to the consulate, so far as they did not 
involve a restoration of the old order of voting at the comitia. 
The veneration for republican tradition is curiously attested 
by the reproduction of many republican types of coin struck 

1 It has been conjectured, not improbably, that the Germania of 
Tacitus, written at this period, had for one of its aims the enlighten- 
ment of the Romans concerning the formidable character of the 
Germans, so that they might at once bear more readily with the 
emperor's prolonged absence and be prepared for the necessity of 
decisive action on the frontier. 



TRAJAN 157 

by senatorial officers. Trajan seized every opportunity for 
emphasizing his view that the princeps was merely the greatest 
of the magistrates, and so was not above but under the laws. 
He was determined, he said, to be to his subjects such a ruler 
as he had desired for himself when a subject. Real power 
and influence were accorded to the senate, which had now, by 
the incorporation of members whose origin was provincial, 
become in a manner representative of the whole empire. Trajan 
associated with the senators on equal terms, and enjoyed in 
their company every kind of recreation. All pomp was dis- 
tasteful to him and discarded by him. There was practically 
no court, and no intrigues of any kind were possible. The 
approach to his house was free, and he loved to pass through 
the city unattended and to pay unexpected visits to his friends. 
He thirsted for no senator's blood, and used severity against the 
delatores alone. There was but one insignificant conspiracy against 
him during his whole reign. Though not literary himself, 
Trajan conciliated the literary men, who at all times had close 
relations with the senate. His intimate, M. Licinius, played 
an excellent Maecenas to his Augustus. In his efforts to 
win the affections of Roman society Trajan was aided by 
his wife Plotina, who was as simple as her husband, benevolent, 
pure in character, and entirely unambitious. The hold which 
Trajan acquired over the people was no less firm than that 
which he maintained upon the army and the senate. His 
largesses, his distributions of food, his public works, and his 
spectacles were all on a generous scale. The exhibitions in 
the arena were perhaps at their zenith during his tenure of 
power. Though, for some unexplained reason, he abolished 
the mimes, so beloved of the populace, at the outset of his reign, 
he availed himself of the occasion of his first triumph to restore 
them again. The people were delighted by the removal of the 
imperial exedra (a large chamber with open front) in the circus, 
whereby five thousand additional places were provided. Taxa- 
tion was in many directions reduced, and the financial exactions 
of the imperial officers controlled by the erection of a special 
court. Elaborate precautions were taken to save Italy from 
famine; it is said that corn for seven years' consumption at 
the capital was retained in the granaries. Special encourage- 
ment was given to merchants to import articles of food. The 
corporation of bakers was organized and made more effective 
for the service of the public. The internal trade of Italy was 
powerfully stimulated by the careful maintenance and extension 
of the different lines of road. But the most striking evidence 
of Trajan's solicitude for his people's welfare is found in his 
institution of the alimenta, whereby means were provided for 
the rearing of poor and orphan children in Italy. The method 
had been sketched out by Nerva, but its great development 
was due to Trajan. The moneys allotted by the emperor were 
in many cases supplemented by private benevolence. As a 
soldier, Trajan realized the need of men for the maintenance 
of the empire against the outer barbarians, and he preferred 
that these men should be of Italian birth. He was only carrying 
a step farther the policy of Augustus, who by a system of 
rewards and penalties had tried to encourage marriage and the 
nurture of children. The actual effect of Trajan's regulations 
is hard to measure; they were probably more effectual for 
their object than those of Augustus. The foundations were 
confiscated by Pertinax, after they had existed less than a 
century. 

On the ist of September in the year 100, when Trajan was 
consul for the third time, Pliny, who had been designated consul 
for a part of the year, was appointed to deliver the " Panegyric" 
which has come down to us, and forms a most important source 
of our knowledge concerning this emperor. Pliny's eulogy of 
Trajan and his denunciation of Domitian are alike couched in 
extravagant phrases, but the former perhaps rests more uniformly 
on a basis of truth and justice than the latter. The tone of the 
" Panegyric " certainly lends itself to the supposition of some 
historians that Trajan was inordinately vain. That the emperor 
had an honest and soldierly satisfaction in his own well-doing is 
clear; but if he .had had anything like the vanity of a Domitian, 



i 5 8 



TRAJAN 



the senate, ever eager to outrun a ruler's taste for flattery, would 
never have kept within such moderate bounds. 

On the 25th of March in the year 101 Trajan left Rome for the 
Danube. Pretexts for a Dacian war were not difficult to find. 
Although there was no lack of hard fighting, victory in this 
war depended largely on the work of the engineer. The great 
military road connecting the posts in Upper Germany with 
those on the Danube, which had been begun by Tiberius, was 
now extended along the right bank of the river as far as 
the modern Orsova. The campaign of 101 was devoted 
mainly to road-making and fortification. In the following 
campaign, after desperate fighting to the north of the Danube 
in the mountainous region of Transylvania, Sarmizegethusa, 
the capital of Decebalus, was taken, and he was forced to 
terms. He agreed to raze all fortresses, to surrender all 
weapons, prisoners and Roman deserters, and to become a 
dependent prince under the suzerainty of Rome. Trajan came 
back to Italy with Dacian envoys, who in ancient style begged the 
senate to confirm the conditions granted by the commander in 
the field. The emperor now enjoyed his first Dacian triumph, 
and assumed the title of Dacicus. At the same time he royally 
entertained the people and no less royally rewarded his brave 
officers. But the Dacian chief could not school his high spirit 
to endure the conditions of the treaty, and Trajan soon found it 
necessary to prepare for another war. A massive stone bridge 
was built across the Danube, near the modern Turn Severin, by 
Apollodorus, the gifted architect who afterwards designed the 
forum of Trajan. In 105 began the new struggle, which on the 
side of Decebalus could now only lead to victory or to destruction. 
The Dacians fought their ground inch by inch, and their army 
as a whole may be said to have bled to death. The prince put 
an end to his own life. His kingdom became an imperial pro- 
vince; in it many colonies were founded and peopled by settlers 
drawn from different parts of the empire. The work done by 
Trajan in the Danubian regions left a lasting mark upon their 
history. The emperor returned to the capital in 106, laden with 
captured treasure. His triumph outdid in splendour all those 
that went before it. Games are said to have been held continu- 
ously for four months. Ten thousand gladiators are said to have 
perished in the arena, and eleven thousand beasts were killed in 
the contests. Congratulatory embassies came from all lands, 
even from India. The grand and enduring monument of the 
Dacian wars is the noble pillar which still stands on the site of 
Trajan's forum at Rome. 

The end of the Dacian wars was followed by seven years of 
peace. During part of that time Pliny was imperial legate in 
the provinces cf Bithynia and Pontus, and in constant communi- 
cation with Trajan. The correspondence is extant and gives 
us the means of observing the principles and tendencies of the 
emperor as a civil governor. 

The provinces (hitherto senatorial) were in considerable disorder, 
which Pliny was sent to cure. It is clear from the emperor's letters 
that in regard to nine out of ten of the matters which his anxious 
and deferential legate referred to him for his decision he would 
have been better pleased if the legate had decided them for him- 
self. Trajan's notions of civil government were, like those of the 
duke of Wellington, strongly tinged with military prepossessions. 
He regarded the provincial ruler as a kind of officer in command, 
who ought to be able to discipline his province for himself and 
only to appeal to the commander-in-chief in a difficult case. In 
advising Pliny about the different free communities in the pro- 
vinces, Trajan showed the same regard for traditional rights and 
privileges which he had exhibited in face of the senate at Rome. 
At the same time, these letters bring home to us his conviction 
that, particularly in financial affairs, it was necessary that local 
self-government should be carried on under the vigilant super- 
vision of imperial officers. The control which he began in this 
way to exercise, both in Italy and in the provinces, over the " muni- 
cipia " and " liberae civitates," by means of agents entitled (then 
or later) " correctores civitatium liberarum," was carried continually 
farther and farther by his successors, and at last ended in the com- 
plete centralization of the government. On this account the reign 
of Trajan constitutes a turning-point in civil as in military history. 
In other directions, though we find many salutary civil measures, 
yet there were no far-reaching schemes of reform. Many details 
in the administration of the law, and particularly of the criminal 
law, were improved. To cure corruption in the senate the ballot 



was introduced at elections to magistracies. The finances' of the 
state were economically managed, and taxpayers were most carefully 
guarded from oppression. Trajan never lacked money to expend 
on great works of public utility; as a builder, he may fairly be 
compared with Augustus. His forum and its numerous appendages 
were constructed on a magnificent scale. Many regions of Italy 
and the provinces besides the city itself benefited by the care and 
munificence which the emperor, bestowed on such public improve- 
ments. His attitude towards religion was, like that of Augustus, 
moderate and conservative. The famous letter to Pliny about the 
Christians is, according to Roman ideas, merciful and considerate. 
It was impossible, however, for a Roman magistrate of the time to 
rid himself of the idea that all forms of religion must do homage 
to the civil power. Hence the conflict which made Trajan appear 
in the eyes of Christians like Tertullian the most infamous of 
monsters. On the whole, Trajan's civil administration was sound, 
careful and sensible, rather than brilliant. 

Late in 113 Trajan left Italy to make war in the East. The 
never-ending Parthian problem confronted him, and with it 
were more or less connected a number of minor difficulties. 
Already by 106 the position of Rome in the East had been 
materially improved by the peaceful annexation of districts 
bordering on the province of Syria. The region of Damascus, 
hitherto a dependency, and the last remaining fragment of the 
Jewish kingdom, were incorporated with Syria; Bostra and Petra 
were permanently occupied, and a great portion of the Naba- 
taean kingdom was organized as the Roman province of Arabia. 
Rome thus obtained mastery of the most important positions 
lying on the great trade routes between East and West. These 
changes could not but affect the relations of the Roman with the 
Parthian Empire, and the affairs of Armenia became in 114 the 
occasion of a war. Trajan's campaigns in the East ended in 
complete though brilliant failure. In the retreat from Ctesiphon 
(117) the old emperor tasted for almost the first time the bitter- 
ness of defeat in the field. He attacked the desert city of Hatra, 
westward of the Tigris, whose importance is still attested by grand 
ruins. The want of water made it impossible to maintain a large 
force near the city, and the brave Arabs routed the Roman 
cavalry. Trajan, who narrowly escaped being killed, was forced to 
withdraw. A more alarming difficulty lay before him. Taking 
advantage of the absence of the emperor in the Far East, and 
possibly by an understanding with the leaders of the rising in 
Armenia and the annexed portions of Parthia, the Jews all over 
the East had taken up arms at the same moment and at a given 
signal. The massacres they committed were portentous. In 
Cyprus 240,000 men are said to have been put to death, and at 
Cyrene 220,000. At Alexandria, on the other hand, many Jews 
were killed. The Romans punished massacre by massacre, and 
the complete suppression of the insurrection was long delayed, 
but the Jews made no great stand against disciplined troops. 
Trajan still thought of returning to Mesopotamia and of avenging 
his defeat at Hatra, but he was stricken with sickness and 
compelled to take ship for Italy. His illness increasing, he 
landed in Cilicia, and died at Selinus early in August 117. 

Trajan, who had no children, had continually delayed to settle 
the succession to the throne, though Pliny in the " Panegyric " 
had pointedly drawn his attention to the matter, and it must have 
caused the senate much anxiety. Whether Hadrian, the relative 
of Trajan (cousin's son), was actually adopted by him or not is 
impossible to determine; certainly Hadrian had not been advanced 
to any great honours by Trajan. Even his military service had 
not been distinguished. Plotina asserted the adoption, and it 
was readily and most fortunately accepted, if not believed, as 
a fact. 

The senate had decreed to Trajan as many triumphs as he chose 
to celebrate. For the first time a dead general triumphed. When 
Trajan was deified, he appropriately retained, alone among the 
emperors, a title he had won for himself in the field, that of " Par- 
thicus." He was a patient organizer of victory rather than a strategic 
genius. He laboriously perfected the military machine, which when 
once set in motion went on to victory. Much of the work he did 
was great and enduring, but the last year of his life forbade the 
Romans to attribute to him that felicitas which they regarded as an 
inborn duality of the highest generals. Each succeeding emperor 
was saluted with the wish that he might be " better than Trajan 
and more fortunate than Augustus." Yet the breach made in Trajan's 
Jelicitas by the failure in the East was no greater than that made 
in the felicitas of Augustus by his retirement from the right bank 
of the Rhine. The question whether Trajan's Oriental policy 
was wise is answered emphatically by Mommsen in the affirmative. 



TRALEE TRAMWAY 






It was certainly wise if the means existed which were necessary 
to carry it out and sustain it. But succeeding history proved that 
those means did not exist. The assertion of Mommsen that the 
Tigris was a more defensible frontier than the desert line which 
separated the Parthian from the Roman Empire can hardly be 
accepted. The change would certainly have created a demand 
for more legions, which the resources of the Romans were not 
sufficient to meet without danger to their possessions on other 
frontiers. 

The records of Trajan's reign are miserably deficient. Our best 
authority is the 68th book of Dio Cassius; then comes the 
" Panegyric " of Pliny, with his correspondence. The facts to be 
gathered from other ancient writers are scattered and scanty. 
Fortunately the inscriptions of the time are abundant and important. 
Of modern histories which comprise the reign of Trajan the best in 
English is that of Merivale; but that in German by H. Schiller 
(Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit, Gotha, 1883) is more on a level 
with recent inquiries. There are special works on Trajan by 
H. Francke (Gustrow, 1837), De la Berge (Paris, 1877), and Dierauer 
in M. Biidinger's Unlersuchungen zur romischen Kaisergeschichte, 
(Leipzig, 1868). A paper by Mommsen in Hermes, iii. pp. 30 seq., 
entitled " Zur Lebensgeschichte des jiingeren Plinius," is important 
for the chronology of Trajan's reign. The inscriptions of the reign, 
and the Dacian campaigns, have been much studied in recent years, 
in scattered articles and monographs. (J. S. R.) 

TRALEE, a market town and seaport, and the county town of 
Co. Kerry, Ireland, on the Ballymullen or Leigh River, about a 
mile from its mouth in Tralee Bay, and on the Great Southern & 
Western railway. Pop. (1901), 9687. A ship canal, permitting 
the passage of ships of 200 tons burden, connects it with 
Tralee Bay. Large vessels discharge at Fenit, 8 m. westward, 
where there is a pier connected with Tralee by rail. Coal, iron 
and timber are imported, and there is a considerable export of 
grain. There is a large trade in butter. Railways serve the 
neighbouring seaside watering-places of Ballybunnion and 
Castlegregory, and the coast scenery of this part is grand and 
varied. Four miles north-west of Tralee is Ardfert, with its 
cathedral, one of the oldest foundations in Ireland, now united 
to the see of Limerick. St Brendan was its original founder, 
and it had once a university. A neighbouring round tower fell 
in 1870. Seven miles north of this again is the fine round 
tower of Rattoo. 

Tralee, anciently Traleigh, the " strand of the Leigh," owes its 
origin to the foundation of a Dominican monastery in 1213 by 
John Fitz-Thomas, of the Geraldine family. During the reign 
of Elizabeth it was in the possession of Earl Desmond, on whose 
forfeiture it came into possession of the Dennys. At the time of 
the rebellion in 1641 the English families in the neighbourhood 
asked to be placed in the castle under the charge of Sir Edward 
Denny, but during his absence a surrender was made. The town 
was incorporated by James I., and returned two members to the 
Irish parliament. Though disfranchised at the Union in 1800, 
it obtained the privilege of returning one member in 1832, but in 
1885 it was merged in the county division. It is governed by an 
urban district council. 

TRALLES (mod. Giizel Hissar), an ancient town of Caria, Asia 
Minor, situated on the Eudon, a tributary of the Maeander. It 
was reputed an Argive and Thracian colony, and was long under 
Persian rule, of which we hear in the history of Dercyllidas' raid 
from Ephesus in 397 B.C. Fortified and increased by the Seleu- 
cids and Pergamenians, who renamed it successively Seleucia and 
Antiochia, it passed to Rome in 133. Though satirized in a 
famous line (Juv. Sat. iii. 70) as a remote provincial place, it 
had many wealthy inhabitants in the Roman period and, to 
judge by objects discovered there, contained many notable 
works of art. Two of the best marble heads in the Constantinople 
museum came from Tralles; and both in the excavations 
conducted for that museum by Edhem Bey (1904), and by 
chance discoveries, fine-art products have come to light on 
the site. Rebuilt by Andronicus II. about 1280, it was super- 
seded a few years later, after the Seljuk conquest, by a 
new town, founded by the amir Aidin in a lower situation 
(see AIDIN). (D. G. H.) 

TRAMORE, a market village and seaside resort of Co. Water- 
ford, Ireland, on the bay of the same name, 7 m. S. of the city 
of Waterford, and the terminus of the Waterford & Tramore 
railway. The situation is pleasant, and the neighbouring coast 



exhibits bold cliff scenery. The bay is open to the south, 
and is dangerous to navigators, as in foggy weather it has been 
frequently mistaken for the entrance to Waterford Harbour. 
On the cliffs to the west are three towers, one having a 
curious iron figure known as the " metal man," erected as a 
warning to sailors. The bay is divided into an outer part 
and an inner lagoon (the Back Strand) by a spit of sand, with 
a strait, crossed by a ferry at its eastern extremity. . A monu- 
ment commemorates the wreck of the troopship " Seahorse " 
in 1816. Four miles west is Dunhill Castle, well situated on 
a precipitous rock. 

TRAMP, a vagrant, one who " tramps " or walks the roads 
begging from house to house or ostensibly looking for work, but 
with no home and habitually sleeping out or moving on from the 
casual ward of one workhouse to that of another (see VAGRANCY) . 
The word is the shortened form of " tramper," one who tramps 
01 walks with heavy tread. The term " tramp " is also used of a 
cargo steamer not running on a regular line but passing from 
port to port where freight may be picked up. 

TRAMWAY, a track or line of rails laid down in the public 
roads or streets (hence the American equivalent " street rail- 
way "), along which wheeled vehicles are run for the conveyance 
of passengers (and occasionally of goods) by animal or mechanical 
power; also a light roughly laid railway used for transporting 
coals, both underground and on the surface, and for other similar 
purposes. The word has been connected with the name of 
Benjamin Outram, an engineer who, at the beginning of the igth 
century, was concerned in the construction of tram roads, and 
has been explained as an abbreviation for " Outram way." But 
this is clearly wrong, since the word is found much earlier. It 
appears to be of Scandinavian origin and primarily to mean a 
beam of wood, cf. Old Swedish tr&m, trum, which have that sense. 
In a will dated 1555 reference is made to amending a "higheway 
or tram " in Bernard Castle, where a log road seems to be in 
question. In Lowland Scottish " tram " was used both of a 
beam of wood and specifically of such a beam employed as the. 
shaft of a cart, and the name is still often given in England to 
the wheeled vehicles used for carrying coal in mining. " Tram- 
way," therefore, is primarily either a way made with beams of 
wood or one intended for the use of " trams " containing coal 
(see RAILWAY). 

Construction. The first tramway or street railway designed for 
passenger cars with flanged wheels was built in New York in 
1832. The construction of this tramway does not appear to 
have been a success, and it was soon discontinued. In 1852 
tramways were revived in New York by a French engineer named 
Loubat, who constructed the track of flat wrought-iron rails with 
a wide, deep groove in the upper surface, laid on longitudinal 
timbers. The groove, which was designed for wheel flanges 
similar to those employed on railways, proved dangerous to the 
light, narrow-tired vehicles of the American type. To meet this 
difficulty a step-rail consisting of a flat plate with a step at one 
side raised about J in. above the surface was designed and laid at 
Philadelphia in 1855. When tramways were first introduced 
into England by G. F. Train in 1860 a rail similar to that laid at 
Philadelphia was adopted. This rail (fig. i ) was made of wrought- 
iron and weighed 50 Ib per yard. It was 6 in. wide and had a 
step i in. above the sole. The rails were spiked to longitudinal 
timbers, which rested on transverse sleepers, and they were laid 
to a gauge of 4 ft. 85 in. Tramways of this type were laid at 
Birkenhead in 1860, at London in 1861, and in the Potteries 
(North Staffordshire) in 1863. The English public, however, 
would not tolerate the danger and obstruction caused by the 
steo-rail, with its large area of slippery iron surface, and the tram- 
way laid in London had to be removed, while those at Birkenhead 
and the Potteries were only saved by being relaid with grooved 
rails. Thus, while the step-rail became the standard form used 
in the United States, the grooved-rail became generally adopted 
in Europe. From the tramway point of view the step-rail 
has many advantages. A groove collects ice and dirt, and on 
curves binds the wheel flanges, increasing the resistance to trac- 
tion. A grooved rail is, however, far less of a nuisance to the 



i6o 



TRAMWAY 



ordinary vehicular traffic, and it has come to be largely used in 
the principal cities of America. 

After the passing of the Tramways Act of 1870 the construction 
of tramways proceeded rapidly in England. A flat grooved rail 
supported on a longitudinal timber and laid on a concrete bed 
was generally adopted. The paving consisted of stone setts from 



mm 

mm 




(Figs. 2 and 3 from D. K. Clarke's Tramways, their Construction and Working, 
by permission of Crosby Lockwood & Son.) 



FIG.I. FIG. 2. 

Early Tramway Rails. 



FIG. 3. 



4 to 6 in. in depth, laid on a thin bed of sand and grouted with 
cement, mortar or a bituminous mixture. With the exception of 
the design of the rail and the manner of supporting it on the con- 
crete foundation, which has continually changed, this method of 
constructing the track has varied but little to the present day. 

The flat section of rail which was wanting in vertical stiffness 
soon proved unsatisfactory. A fillet or flange was then added to 
each side, which, bedding into the supporting timber, not only 
increased the vertical strength but also prevented horizontal 
displacement of the rail. With the addition of the side flanges a 
greatly improved method of fixing the rail to the sleepers was 
adopted. The old vertical spike, which was a crude fastening, 
was replaced by a " dog " or double-ended side spike, one end 
of which was driven through a hole in the flange of the rail 
(fig. 2). This fastening was very strong and proved a great 
improvement. 

The next change was the use of cast-iron chairs to support the 
rails, which were introduced by Kincaid in 1872. These led to a 
modification of the rail section, and instead of the two side 
flanges a rail with a central flange (fig. 3) which fitted into the 
cast-iron chairs was used. The chairs weighed about 75 ft 
each, and were spaced at intervals of about 3 ft. The Barker 
rail laid in Manchester in 1877 was somewhat similar to that 
shown in fig. 3, but a continuous cast-iron chair was used to 
support it. 

The introduction of steam traction about 1880, with its heavier 
axle loads and higher speeds, was a severe test of the permanent 
way. The flat section laid on timber sleepers and the built-up 
rails of the Kincaid and Barker types began to be discarded in 
favour of the solid girder rail rolled in one piece. The solidity 
and depth of this section gave it great vertical stiffness, and 
its introduction materially assisted in solving the problem of 
providing a smooth and serviceable joint. 

The merits of the girder rail soon caused it to be generally 
adopted, and although the design has been greatly improved it 
remains to-day the standard form of tramway rail used through- 
out the world. At first difficulty was experienced in rolling the 
heavier sections with thin webs and wide bases, but the introduc- 
tion of steel and improvements in the rolling mills overcame these 
troubles. The early girder rails laid about 1880 usually weighed 
from 70 to 80 Ib per lineal yard, and were 6 or 65 in. deep. The 
groove varied from i to i| in., and the tread was about i J in. in 
width. The fish-plates were not designed to give any vertical 
support, and were merely used to keep the rail ends in line. The 
girder rails were either bedded directly on the foundation or 
spiked to timber sleepers which were buried in the concrete. 

The form of head adopted for tramway rails in Europe has 
almost universally been one with the groove on one side. With 
this section the wheel flange forces out the dirt clear of the tread. 
In a few isolated cases a centre grooved rail has been used. As 
with railways, the adoption of many different gauges has led to 
much inconvenience. This want of uniformity in the gauge is 
in some parts of the country a great obstacle to the construction 
of inter-urban lines. London and the larger provincial towns 



adopted the standard gauge of 4 ft. 8| in., but in many towns 
narrow gauges of 3 ft. or 3 ft. 6 in. were laid. Glasgow and a 
few other towns adopted the gauge of 4 ft. 7! in. with a view of 
making the narrow grooved rail of the tramways available for 
railway wagons, but without any real success. 

With the introduction of electric traction the weight and 
speed of the cars greatly increased, and experience soon proved 
that only the most substantial form of permanent way was 
capable of withstanding the wear and tear of the traffic. The 
early electric lines were laid with girder rails weighing about 
75 Ib per lineal yard. These proved to be too light, and, at the 
present time, rails weighing from 95 to no Ib per lineal yard 
are in general use. The large number of rail sections designed 
a few years ago gave considerable trouble to makers of rails. 
The issue in 1903 by the Engineering Standards Committee 
of a set of standard girder tramway rail sections was there- 
fore generally welcomed. The sections comprise rails of five 
different weights. Modified sections for use on curves were also 
published, together with a standard form of specification. Fig. 4 
shows the section of the 100 Ib. B.S. rail (No. 3). 

Tramway rails are generally ordered in 45 ft. lengths. Rails 
60 ft. long are sometimes used, but they are difficult to handle, 
especially in narrow streets. The rail joints still prove the weakest 
part of the track. Numerous patents have been taken out for fish- 
plates and sole-plates of special design, but none has proved quite 
satisfactory. The" Dicker "joint, in which the head of the rail on the 

'- ? - J 



- - 1 . --> "I !' 




-2* 



(Reproduced by permission of the Engineering Standards Committee.) 

FIG. 4. British Standard Tramway Rail, No. 3. 

tread side is partly cut away and the fish-plate carried up so that 
the wheel runs on its top edge, and the " anchor " joint, in which a 
short piece of inverted rail is bolted or riveted to the undersides of 
the abutting rails, have been largely used. The latter makes a good 
stiff joint, but when buried in concrete it interferes with the bedding 
of the rail as a whole, often causing it to work loose in the centre. 
Various processes have also been introduced for uniting the ends of 
the rails by welding. Electric welding was first tried in the United 
States about 1893, and has since been considerably used in that 
country. In this process two specially prepared fish-plates are 
applied, one to each side of the joint. Each fish-plate has three 
bosses or projections, one in the centre opposite the joint and one 
near each end. By passing a heavy alternating current of low 
voltage between the opposite bosses the fish-plates are welded to 
the rail. The current is obtained from the line by means of a motor- 
generator and static transformer. Another process which has been 
used considerably in the United States, and at Coventry and Norwich 
in England, is the cast-welded joint. To make this joint the rail 
ends are enclosed in an iron mould filled with molten cast-iron, 
which makes a more or less perfect union with the steel rails. The 



TRAMWAY 



161 



great drawback to these two processes is the costly and cumbersome 
apparatus required. The " thermit " process (see WELDING) does 
not require any large initial outlay, and has been applied to welding 
the joints on both old and new tracks. The cost of making each 
joint is about l. 

Points and crossings are used on a tramway to deflect a car from 
one road to another. In the days of horse traction no movable 
switch was used, the car being guided by making the horses pull the 
leading wheels in the required direction. With the introduction of 
mechanical traction a movable switch was fitted in one of the cast- 
ings to act as a guide to the wheel flanges. On modern tramways the 
points consist of a pair of steel castings, one being a fixed or dummy 
point, and the other containing a movable switch. On a single 
track at passing places the cars in Great Britain always take the left- 
hand road, and a spring is fitted to hold the movable switch to lead in 
that direction. The bottom of the grooves at open points and cross- 
ings are raised so that the car wheel runs on its flange over the break 
in the tread of the rail. Double switch points in which the two 
tongues are connected are sometimes laid. In recent years the size 
and weight of the castings and the length of the movable switches 
have considerably increased. Manganese steel is very generally used 
for the tongues and sometimes for the whole casting. Ordinary 
cast steel with manganese steel inset pieces at the parts which wear 
most quickly are a feature of the later designs. At some junctions 
the points are moved by electric power. 

While the form of concrete foundation remains the same as that 
laid at Liverpool in 1868, far greater care is now given to the bedding 
of the rails. After the excavation has been completed the rails 
are set up in the trench and carefully packed up to the finished level. 
The concrete is then laid and packed under the rail, generally for 
a depth of 6 in. When the surface is to be paved with stone setts 
bedded on sand the concrete may be left rough, but where wood is 
to be laid the surface must be floated with fine mortar and finished 
to a smooth surface. Both hard and soft wood blocks are used for 
paving. Wood should not be used unless the whole width of the 
carriage-way is paved. Many different qualities of stone setts have 
been laid. Hard granite such as that supplied from the quarries 
near Aberdeen is the most suitable. 

In urban districts the road authorities almost always require 
the tramway surface, i.e. between the rails and for 18 in. on either 
side, to be paved. In country districts many tramways- have been 
laid with only a sett edging along each rail, the remainder of the 
surface being completed with either ordinary or tarred macadam. 
This construction, however, is only suitable on roads with very light 
traffic. After a tramway is laid, especially in a macadanizea road, 
the heavy vehicular traffic use the track, and the wear is very much 
greater than on other parts of the carriage-way. 

Steam and Cable Tramways. Horse traction, especially in 
hilly districts, has many limitations, and early in the history of 
tramways experiments were made both with steam cars and cable 
haulage. Although experimental steam cars were tried in 
England in 1873 the first tramways which regularly employed 
steam engines were French, though the engines were supplied 
by an English firm. About 1880 many improvements were 
made in the design of the engines employed, and this form of 
traction was adopted on several tramways in England. Beyond 



formed of concrete, with cast-iron yokes spaced at intervals of 
4 ft. to support the slot beams. The conduit was 19 in. deep by 
9 in. wide. The slot was in. wide. The running rails were 
of the ordinary girder type bedded in concrete. Fig. 5 shows a 
cross-section of the track at a yoke. This form of construction 
is very similar to that employed in forming the tube on a modern 
electric conduit tramway. At Edinburgh and other places where 
a shallow conduit is used the supporting pulleys are placed in 
pits sunk below the general level of the tube. On the Birming- 
ham cable tramway, where the tube is 2 ft. 8 in. deep, pits are not 
required at the supporting pulleys. This reduces the difficulty of 
draining the conduit. The yokes in this case are made of steel 
T-bars spaced 4 ft. apart. 

Electric Tramways. Electricity is now the standard motive 
power for tramway service, and is applied in three main ways: 
(i) the overhead or trolley system; (2) the open conduit system; 
and (3) the surface contact or closed conduit system. (See also 
TRACTION.) 

On a tramway worked on the overhead principle current is supplied 
to the cars by two overhead conductors or wires. Round copper 
wires varying in size from o (0-324 in.) to oooo (0-40 in.) 
S.W. gauge are generally used. With feeding points ve ' 
at every mile, the o wire is electrically sufficient on most TroUe y- 
roads, but from a mechanical point of view oo wire is the smallest 
it is desirable to erect. Wires having figure 8 or elliptical grooved 
sections have been employed, and have the advantage of allowing 
the use of a mechanical clip ear which is clear of the trolley wheel. 
The ordinary round wire is usually supported by a gun-metal or 
gun-metal and iron ear grooved to fit the wire, which is soldered or 
sweated to it. In Great Britain the overhead conductors are re- 
quired by the board of trade to be divided into half-mile sections. 
The wires on adjoining sections are connected by section insulators. 
These consist of gun-metal castings in two parts, insulated from 
each other. The line wires are clamped to the metal ends. The 
continuity of the path of the trolley wheel is provided for on the 
underside of the insulator by fixing a hardwood strip between the 
ends or by the ribs on the castings with air gaps. 

The trolley wires are supported by ears either from span wires 
which extend across the roadway between two poles or from bracket 
arms carried on a pole on one side only of the road. The span wires 
and short bracket suspension wires are also insulated, so that there 
is double insulation between the conductor and the pole. The 
overhead conductors are usually hung about 21 ft. above the rails. 
(For catenary suspensions see TRACTION.) The poles which carry 
the span wires and the bracket arms are placed not more than 
40 yds. apart and are generally placed at the edge of the kerb. They 
are built up of three sections of steel tubes, one overlapping the 
other; the joints are shrunk together while hot. A cast-iron case 
is used to improve the appearance of the pole, and cast-iron collars 
hide the joints. Standard specifications for poles have been issued 
by the Engineering Standards Committee. 

When permission can be obtained the span wires are sometimes 
supported by rosettes attached to the walls of the houses on either 
side of the street. This method has been largely adopted in Germany, 



1 





Yoke 



T. ArnaU's Permanent Way for Tramways and Slrtet Railways, by permission of The Railway Engineer.) 

FIG. 5. Section Edinburgh Cable Conduit. 



requiring a better constructed track it does not necessitate any 
modifications in the general design of the permanent way. The 
first cable tramway was constructed at San Francisco in 1873. 
In England the first cable system was a short length at Highgate 
in 1884. Cable tramways were also laid down at Edinburgh, 
Birmingham, Matlock and Brixton (London). Cable traction, 
with the expensive track construction it necessitates, and the 
limited speed of haulage, belongs to the past. Only gradients 
too severe to be worked by ordinary adhesion will in the future 
justify its use. The construction of the conduit or tube in 
which the cable runs adds very considerably to the cost of the 
permanent way. On the Edinburgh system the conduit was 
xxvji. 6 



and by dispensing with the poles in the roadway it improves the 
appearance of the street. 

Overhead conductors will not be tolerated in some cities, and to 
avoid the use of them open conduit and surface contact tramways 
have been introduced. In the conduit system the 
conductors are carried in a conduit or tube beneath the pe ** 
surface of the track, and the electric current is picked up Conduit. 
by means of a plough carried by the cars. Modern conduit tramways 
are divided into two kinds : those which have the conduit at the side 
under one running rail, and those which have it under the centre of 
the track. The only example of the former to be found in England 
is at Bournemouth, but it is used at Vienna, Brussels, Paris, Berlin 
and Budapest. Centre conduit construction has been adopted in 
London, Nice, Bordeaux, New York, Washington, &c. The advan- 
tages of the side slot system are the reduction in the amount of metal 



TRAMWAY 



in the roadway, less breaking up of the pavement, and slightly 
cheaper cost of construction. Its chief disadvantage is the difficulty 
it introduces in connexion with pomts and crossings. It is also 
objected that if the side slot is made the same width as the rail groove 

h- 




f H -jeSi- J-3 

U t'a'A--- f 

(From Tlie Tramway and Railway World.) 

FlG. 6. Section of Side Conduit. 

it becomes a danger to narrow-tired vehicles. The difficulty in regard 
to points and crossings is overcome by bringing the slot into the 
centre of the track at junctfons and turn-outs. Fig. 6 shows a 
section of the side slot track laid at Bournemouth. The width of 




(From The Tramway and Railway World.) 

FIG. T. Section of Centre Conduit (London County Council type), 
the slot is I in., which is the least width possible. In London J in. was 
first adopted as the width of the centre slot, but later this was increased 
to I in., so that in this particular there is not much to 
choose between the two systems. Fig. 7 shows a 
section of the London County Council track at one 
of the cast-iron yokes. These are spaced 3 ft. 9 in. 
apart, every second yoke being now continued out 
under the running rail which is fastened to it. There 
is no doubt that the extended yoke greatly increases 
the strength of the track. The slot beams weigh 60 Ib 
per yard. The conductor bars are of mild steel, 
T-shaped. They weigh 22 Ib per yard and are sup- 
ported on insulators at intervals of 15 ft. Each in- 
sulator is covered over in the roadway with a cast- 
iron frame and movable lid. There are two conductor 
rails positive and negative so that the whole 
circuit is insulated from earth. The conduit or tube 
is formed of cement concrete. The track between 
the rails is paved with granite setts in order that 
there may be no trouble with wood blocks swelling 
and closing the slot. 

American practice in conduit construction has 
become fairly well standardized (fig. 8). The con- 
duit is oval m shape, its major axis being vertical, 
and is formed of concrete. An excavation about 
jo in. deep and 5 ft. wide is made, and in this are 
laid cast-iron yokes weighing 410 Ib each, and 
spaced 5 ft. apart centre to centre. Every third 
yoke contains bearings for a hand-hole plate, and 
weighs about 600 Ib. These yokes surround the 
conduit proper and are provided with extensions 
on each side for the attachment of the rails. In 
the older construction the rails were laid directly 
upon the iron of the yokes, steel wedges and shims 
being used under them for the final alinement of the 
rails. In the more recent construction, on the Third 
Avenue railroad in New York City, a wooden 
stringer, 6 in. by 4$ in. in size, is laid along from yoke 
to yoke on the bearing surfaces, and the rail laid 
upon this. The rail is held down on the yoke by 
means of two bolts at each bearing-point, these bolts 
having turned-up heads which embrace the foot of 
the rail. The slot rails, or Z bars forming the two 
jaws of the f in. slot, are bolted to the upper part of 
the yokes. The weights of the metal used per linear 



yard of construction of this type are : castiron, including both types 
of yokes, 500 ft ; track rails, 2 14 ft ; slot rails, 1 16 ft ; conductor rails, 
42 ft ; and conduit plate, 16 ft nearly 400 ft of rolled steel per yard. 
After the rails, which are of a high girder type, are fastened in place 
thin plates of sheet steel are bent into the oval holes in the yokes 
extending from yoke to yoke, and form the inner surface of the 
completed conduit. Around this is carefully laid a shell, 4 in. thick, 
of Portland cement concrete. The yokes are furnished with lugs 
which serve to retain, temporarily, wooden boards forming a mould 
in which the concrete is rammed. Sectional wooden shapes serve 
to hold the thin steel lining in place while the concrete is hardening. 
Around this concrete tube, and on each side of it, to form a basis 
for the street pavement, is laid a mass of coarser concrete. In each 
side of the special yokes is placed an insulator of porcelain, protected 
by a cast-iron shell and carrying a support for the conductor rail, 
which is of T-shaped steel, weighing 21 ft per yard. It is in 30 ft. 
lengths and is supported every 15 ft. by the insulators, the ends of 
separate rails being matched at and held by an insulator support. 
This rail is, of course, bonded with copper bonds. Two such con- 




FIG. 8. Cross-section of Open Conduit Road (American type). 

ductor rails are installed in the conduit 6 in. apart, the flat faces 
-corresponding to the upper surface of the T being placed towards 
each other. Elaborate provisions for drainage and inspection are 
also provided, depending upon the situation of the tracks and nature 
of the street. The current is fed to the conductor rails by heavy 
copper conductors of from 500,000 to 1,000,000 circular mils cross- 
section, insulated and lead-covered, laid in ducts alongside of or 
between the two tracks of double-track systems. Connexion is 




(From J. H. Rider's Electric Traction, by permission of Wbittaker & Co ) 

FIG. 9. Cross-section of Stud, Skates and Magnets. Lorain System. 



TRAMWAY 



163 



made between the cars and the conductor rails by means of a 
" plough," carried by a hard steel plate, which is channelled to re- 
ceive the insulated wires leading up to the controller on the car. The 
plough carries two cast-iron rubbing-blocks, which are pressed out- 
ward into contact with the conductor rails by springs, the two being, 
of course, very carefully insulated from each other and from the other 
metal-work of the plough. It has been found expedient in practice 
to reverse the polarity of the current used on these conduit roads 
from time to time, since electrolytic deposits, formed by small 
leakage currents in the vicinity of insulators, &c., are thus dissolved 
before they become a source of trouble. 

Great difficulty is experienced with all conduits in keeping them 
clean and free from water. On the London tramways a sump has 
been formed at intervals of about 60 yds. into which the conduit 
drains. These sumps are connected with the sewers. The principal 
objection to the conduit system is its heavy first cost. The tracks 
alone in London are estimated to cost about 13,000 per mile of 
single track against about 8000 per mile for a track to be worked 
on the overhead system. 

This high cost of construction has caused considerable attention 
to be directed by inventors to devising surface contact systems. 
. Many of the designs which have been patented 

" f CB t appear excellent in theory, but have been found un- 
ac ' trustworthy under working conditions. Among those 
worked commercially in England are (l) the Lorain system in opera- 
tion at Wolverhampton ; (2) the Dolter system at Torquay, Hastings 
and Mexborough, and (3) the G.B. system at Lincoln. Of all these 
systems current is supplied from iron studs laid in the roadway be- 
tween the rails of the track to a skate carried on the car. The studs are 
placed 10 ft. to 15 ft. apart and contain a movable switch or contact, 
which is operated by the influence of a magnet carried under the car. 
In the Lorain system (fig. 9) connexion is made to the source of 
power through two carbon contact pieces. The lower carbon 
contact is carried on a soft iron strip which is connected to the supply 
cable by means of a flat copper ribbon spring. When the magnet 
passes from over a stud the iron armature and the lower carbon 
contact, which has been magnetically attracted, falls vertically, 
assisted by the copper ribbon spring. In the Dolter system the 
contact box (fig. 10) contains a bell crank lever with a carbon contact 
at its lower end. The upper arm of this lever is of soft iron, which 
is attracted by the magnet carried under the car. When the lever 
is moved the carbon block at the lower end is brought into contact 
with the fixed carbon contact in the side of the box which is perma- 
nently connected to the supply cable. In the G.B. contact box 
(fig. T i) contact is made direct to a bare feeder cable carried in a pipe 




(From The Tramway and Railway 
World.) 

FIG. ii. G. B. Stud. 



objectionable feature and the current is collected by a skate, 
suspended under the car, touching the projecting surface. In the 
G.B. system the stud heads are kept flush with the pavement, and 
the collector consists of iron links spring suspended. As the collector 
passes over the box the links are magnetically attracted, and move 
down, making contact with the stud. 

In all surface contact systems, short circuiting devices are provided 
to detect any studs which may remain live after the skate has passed, 
either by blowing a fuse or by ringing a bell, but it is questionable 
how much reliance can be placed on 
their efficiency under all conditions. 
The collecting skate and magnets 
carried by the cars on a surface, con- 
tact tramway are of considerable 
weight, and the skate requires re- 
newal at frequent intervals. 

An efficient system of street 
traction may be defined as one 
which, while giving a reasonable 
return on the capital invested, 
provides the public, without dis- 
figurement of the highway, with 
a quick and frequent service of 
comfortable cars. 

When tramways were first intro- 
duced the surface of the streets 
was often exceedingly rough. The 
tramcar running on rails was there- 
fore a great advance in comfort 
of travelling on the old stage 
carriage. Horse traction, however, 
limited the weight of the car and 
the speed of travelling. The sub- 
stitution of steam traction for horse traction was a great 
advance. Higher speeds and quicker acceleration 
were obtained, and larger and more comfortable cars A ? v * tage * 

,, , _,. , of Different 

could be worked. The power, however, was limited, systems. 
and the locomotives, built as light as possible, were 
expensive in first cost and maintenance. Cable traction, owing 
to the heavy first cost of the track, requires a great 
density of traffic to make it pay. The speed is limited 
both up and down hill to that of the cable. It has the 
advantage that it can be safely worked on severe 
gradients, and once installed the working costs are low. 

Electric traction by accumulator cars was tried in 
Birmingham in 1890 and abandoned after some years of 
unsatisfactory working. The cars were costly to work 
and maintain. The storage batteries had to be re- 
charged at frequent intervals, and they rapidly dropped 
in capacity. There was little reserve of power, and 
the cells added considerably to the weight of the car. 

Those forms of electric traction in which the power is 
supplied to the cars from an outside source have many 
advantages. Only the weight of the motors has to be 
carried. These are efficient over a wide range of speed, 
accelerate quickly, have a large reserve of power and 
are clean and silent. The electric conduit and surface 
contact tramways do not require any disfiguring over- 
head wires. They have, however, troubles of their own. 
The construction of the electric conduit is so expensive 
that its choice must necessarily be limited to large 
cities. The conductors are easily short-circuited. Gaps 
in the conductors must be left at the points and crossings. 
The cost of keeping the conduit clean is considerable. 
It has the advantage, however, of having both the posi- 
tive and negative conductors insulated. Surface contact 
systems require studs or contact boxes to be placed 

(From J . H. Rider s Electric Traction, by permission of Whittaker & Co.) . * 

, in the road. In most systems these project above the 

Cross-section of Stud, Skates and Magnets. Dolter System. sur{ace of the street- The switches . which they contain 

are hidden away from inspection. A failure of insulation or the 
sticking of a switch may allow a live stud to be unprotected 
in the roadway. The weight of the car and consequently the 
power required to move it is considerably increased by the skate, 




under the boxes. The switch, consisting of a piece of galvanized 
iron, is suspended freely by means of an insulated phosphor bronze 
spring. At the lower end of this moving piece a carbon contact 
piece is attached. When the magnet carried by the car passes over 
a stud, the moving piece is magnetically attracted to the cable 
against the pull of the spring. In the Lorain and the Dolter systems 
the studs are raised slightly above the road surface which is an 



magnet and battery which have to be carried. 

For simplicity of working the overhead system easily comes 



164 



TRAMWAY 



first. The conductors are out of reach, they can easily be 
doubly or trebly insulated, and with their insulators are open to 
inspection. The poles and wiring can be erected without closing 
or obstructing the street. The supply of power is not interfered 
with by heavy rain, snow or other climatic causes. Duplicate 
conductors are used, and repairs can be rapidly executed. The 
only objection is that of unsightliness, which, however, can be 
greatly reduced by good design. 

The cost of establishing tramways to be worked on the various 
systems of traction mentioned above has varied considerably. The 
jocality and the amount of street widening have considerable 
influence on the total. Horse tramways in the larger cities cost in 
the past about 15,000' per track mile complete with horses, cars, 
&c., tramways worked by steam power about 18,000 2 per track 
mile including locomotives and cars. The Edinburgh Corporation 
cable tramways cost 23,316" to establish complete with power- 
house, cars, &c. Of this figure, the cost of the permanent way 
construction amounted to 14,^.31. 3 The construction and equipment 
of the South London conduit tramways cost 25,106' per mile 
of single line; the permanent way, its electrical equipment and the 
distributing cables cost 15,895* per track mile. More recent 
estimates appear to show that the average cost in London will be 
between 26,000 and 30,000 per track mile. In Glasgow the total 
cost of constructing and equipping the electric tramways on the 
overhead system, including the provision of a power station, cost 
19,787* per track mile, and at Leeds 13,206. At Manchester, 
where current is provided by the lighting station, the complete cost 
works out at i 2,498. 6 The cost of the permanent way, cables 
and electrical equipment per track mile vanes from 6575 at Man- 
chester to 9959 at Glasgow. The cost of laying down a surface 
contact electric tramway is about slightly more than that of con- 
structing and equipping a track with overhead conductors. The 
cost of the permanent way and its electrical equipment together with 
the cables at Wolverhampton on the Lorain surface contact principle 
amounted to 8601 per track mile. 

The working expenses of the various systems of traction are largely 
affected by the age of the tramway, the locality, and, in the case of 
electric lines, by the cost at which power is obtained. In Birmingham 
in 1890-1891 horse traction cost 9 4 79d. per car mile, steam traction 
io-99d. per mile, cable traction 6~33d. and electric accumulator 
traction g-god. per car mile. Modern electric trolley lines generating 
their own current work at from sd. to 6d. per car mile. Where current 
is purchased the costs vary from 6d. to 7jd. per car mile. The 
working costs of the London County Council conduit tramways 
worked on purchased current amounted to 8-O2d. per car mile in 
the year 1905-1906. 

Tramway Cars. The modern tramway car is made up of two 
distinct parts, the body and the truck. The present type of 
double ended car with a platform at each end was first used 
on the American street railways about 1860. The car body was 
supported directly on axle-boxes through helical steel or rubber 
springs. 

When the early pioneers were experimenting in the United 
States with electric traction they attached the motor to the car 
body. This proved unsatisfactory, and resulted in the develop- 
ment of the modern truck. The truck may be described as a 
carriage or frame supported on the axle-boxes by springs and 
supporting by another set of springs the car body. The truck 
carries the motors and in itself resists all the strains of the 
driving mechanism. 

Modern car bodies are mounted either on a single four-wheeled 
truck, with a fixed or rigid wheel-base, or on two four-wheeled 
bogies or swivelling trucks. Four-wheeled radial trucks have 
been tried on several tramways, but they have not proved satis- 
factory. The wheel-base of the fixed or rigid truck usually 
varies from 6 to 7 ft. The length of the wheel-base should be 
determined by the radius of the sharpest curve. To obtain 
steady running it should be made as long as possible. Two 
motors are generally fitted on a car. 

Of the bogie or swivelling trucks the greater number now in use 
are of the " maximum traction " type. This truck is used to obtain 
the greatest tractive effect from two motors when fitted to a car 
supported on eight wheels. Each bogie is a small four-wheeled 

'and 4 See Tramways: Their Construction and Working, by D. K. 
Clarke. 

* Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. 156, p. 179. 

4 Tramway Accounts, year ended March 31, 1906. 

1 Ibid., year ended March 31, 1905. 

' See Tramways: Their Construction and Working, by D. K. 
Clarke. 



truck in itself. It has one pair of its wheels driven by the single 
motor and of the standard size about 30 in. while the guiding 
or " pony " wheels are of small diameter. The weight of the car 
body is supported eccentrically on the truck, so that about 70% to 
80% is available for adhesion under the driving-wheels. While 
this form of truck has many merits, it also has many disadvantages. 
The small wheels easily leave the rails, while the adhesion of the 
driving-wheels compared with a four-wheeled car is considerably 
reduced. Quick acceleration is difficult, and on a greasy rail much 
energy is lost in slipping. The use of equal-wheeled bogies with a 
motor on every axle gets over the difficulty of the loss of adhesion 
but at a greatly increased cost. The current consumption is increased, 
the first cost is greater, and there are four instead of two motors 
to be maintained. Steel-tired wheels have largely replaced the cast- 
iron chilled wheel for many years used on tramcars. 

While the various forms of trucks are common both to British 
and American practice, car body construction differs in many points. 
The single-deck car is universal outside the United Kingdom, 
where, although many single-deck cars are worked, the greater 
number are of the double-deck type. It is claimed that with small 
single-deck cars a quicker service can be maintained, as they are 
easier to load and unload and generally handier. On the other hand, 
the double-deck car seats more than double the number of passen- 
gers, requires the same number of men to work it, and takes but little 
more power to drive it. Experience has proved that the 58-passenger 
28 inside and 30 outside double-deck car mounted on a four- 
wheeled truck is the type of rolling stock most suitable for British 
conditions. For heavy rush traffic or long distance travel the larger 
bogie cars are convenient. They are, however, slow to start and 
stop, and a 72-passenger car is too much for one conductor to work 
efficiently. Another difference is due to the width of the cars. 
In the United States car bodies vary from 8 ft. to 9 ft. 6 in. in width. 
In Great Britain the width is limited by the Tramways Act of 1870 
to 1 1 in. beyond the outer edge of the wheels, which, on the standard 
gauge, allows the maximum width to be 6 ft. 10 in. This limit has 
governed the arrangement of the seating in the cars. Inside, the 
ordinary side seat is almost invariably adopted. Cross seats have been 
used, but they leave a very narrow gangway a great disadvantage 
at times of overcrowding. On the top deck, where the available 
width is greater and standing is never permitted, cross seats are 
universally fitted. 

On the old horse cars a straight type of stairway was used. The 
reserved stairway, brought in about 1902, gave greater protection 
from accident and increased the seating accommodation on the top 
deck. It had, however, two great disadvantages. The stairway 
shut out the motorman's view on the left-hand side, and the stream 
of passengers descending met the stream of passengers leaving the 
inside of the car, causing delay. The reversed type of stairway has 
now been abandoned and the straight type, well protected by 
railings, is usually fitted. 

In addition to the ordinary single-deck and double-deck types 
af cars which are in general use many other designs are to be found. 
Single-deck open cars of the " toast-rack " type with transverse 
seats are popular on many holiday lines. They have the advantage 
of being quickly filled and emptied. Centre vestibule cars are now 
seldom seen. It is inconvenient not to have the conductor at the back 
of the car where he can look out for passengers, and, if necessary, 
" nurse " the trolley. There is also danger of a passenger being 
struck by the axle-boxes of the rear bogie truck when leaving the car. 
The Californian type of car body, with the central part closed in 
and one or two double-sided transverse seats at each end, has been 
used on routes where low bridges do not allow of the use of double- 
deck cars. The carrying capacity of this type in wet weather when 
the exposed seats cannot be used is small. A demi or one-man car 
lias been worked in some towns. It saves the wages of one man, but 
the average speed of the service is reduced. Top deck covers have 
in recent years been largely fitted. Their use practically doubles 
the covered seating capacity of the car and provides accommodation 
r or smokers, a difficult matter on a single-deck car. 

_In Great Britain the board of trade requires all cars to be fitted 
with an efficient form of lifeguard. The gate and tray pattern, 
n which anything striking the vertical gate drops the tray, is 
that principally employed. In addition to the ordinary hand-brake 
which operates shoes on all the wheels, and the electric reverse 
switch, a large number of cars are fitted with some form of electric 
Drake (see TRACTION). 

Legislative Conditions in Great Britain. The first tramways 
constructed in Great Britain were promoted by private enter- 
prise under powers conferred by private acts of parliament, 
'onsiderable opposition was offered to pioneer schemes, but after 
a few private acts had been passed, parliament, in 1870, passed a 
general act providing for the laying of rails upon roads, and specify- 
ng the procedure for tramway promotion and the main relations 
Between tramway undertakers and local authorities. The 
Tramways Act 1870, which is still in force, enabled promoters to 
apply to the board of trade for a provisional order which, when 
confirmed by parliament, possesses all the force of an act of 



TRAMWAY 



165 



parliament. The procedure is therefore simpler and cheaper than 
private bill procedure. Under this act promoters are obliged 
to obtain, as a condition precedent to making application for a 
provisional order, the consent of local authorities in whose areas 
the proposed tramways are to run. This provision is referred 
to as the " veto clause." Where a line is laid in two or more 
districts and two-thirds of the line are in districts where the local 
authorities do consent, the board of trade may dispense with 
the consent of the remainder. When procedure by private bill 
is adopted a similar " veto " provision is made by Standing 
Order 22, which requires the consent of the local authority (and 
of the road authority where there is one distinct from the local 
authority) before the bill goes to first reading; in this case also 
the consent of authorities for two-thirds of a continuous line are 
deemed sufficient. The powers granted under the Tramways 
Act are in perpetuity, subject to the right of the local authorities 
(under the 43rd section) to purchase, at the end of twenty-one 
years or each septennial period following (or within three months 
after the promoters have discontinued working the tramway or 
have become insolvent) , so much of the undertaking as lies within 
their areas, on paying the then value of the properties suitable to 
and used for the undertaking, exclusive of any allowance for past 
or future profits or compensation for compulsory sale or any 
other consideration whatsoever, such value to be determined by 
an arbitrator appointed by the board of trade. Another part 
of the arrangement specified between the local authorities and 
the undertakers is that the undertakers shall pave the tramway 
track between the outer rails and for 18 in. beyond each outer 
rail. Mr G. F. Shaw-Lefevre (afterwards Lord Eversley), when 
introducing the bill in 1870, said that it " would give powers to 
the local authorities to construct tramways, but not, of course, 
to work them." The idea apparently was that local authorities 
should retain full control of the roads by constructing the tram- 
ways, and would make arrangements with lessees on terms which 
would secure reasonable fares and other conditions for the benefit 
of the travelling public. It was not until 1896 that parliament 
permitted local authorities to work tramways as well as own them, 
except in cases where lessees could not be obtained. The 
precedents for municipal working were created by private acts 
at a time when public opinion was in favour of that policy; 
and after the first few bills for municipal tramway working had 
been successful, other municipalities found practically no diffi- 
culty in obtaining the desired powers, although parliament had 
never adequately discussed, as a specific reform, the departure 
from the principle laid down by Mr Shaw-Lefevre in 1870. The 
conditions in fact proved more favourable to municipal than 
company promoters, since the local authorities, as soon as they 
aspired to work tramways as well as own them, used the power of 
veto against the proposals of companies. 

The situation entered a more acute phase when electric 
traction was introduced on tramways. The Tramways Act 
provides, by section 34, that all carriages shall be moved by 
the power prescribed by the special acts or provisional order, 
and where no such power is prescribed, by animal power only. 
The mechanical power used must be by consent of the board of 
trade, and subject to board of trade regulations. Owing to 
the capital expenditure involved in electric traction, under- 
takings nearing the end of their twenty-one years' tenure found 
that it was not commercially feasible to carry out the change 
without an extension of tenure. The local authorities were 
reluctant to grant that extension, and they were also reluctant 
to give permission for the promotion of new lines. 

The difficulties of the altered conditions created by the advent 
of electric traction were met to some extent by the Light 
Railways Act 1896. This act contains no definition of a light 
railway, and it has been used largely for electric tramway 
purposes. Lord Morley , when piloting the bill through the Lords, 
said that " light railway " includes " not merely all tramways 
but any railway which the board of trade thinks may justly 
be brought within the scope." It certainly includes tramways 
in towns, and it might include large trunk lines throughout 
the country." Accordingly it has been used for the construction 



of many miles of tram lines on the public streets and also in some 
cases for extensions where the track leaves the public road, 
and is laid on land purchased for the purpose. These tracks 
are generally constructed with grooved girder rails, having 
a wide groove and a high check, so that the shallow flanged 
tramcar wheels can run on them with safety at high speeds. 
The rails are laid on cross sleepers and ballasted in the ordinary 
railway fashion. Fencing is erected, but level-crossing gates 
are often omitted, and cattle guards only are used to prevent 
animals straying on the track. These sleeper tracks on private 
ground are cheap to maintain if well constructed in the first 
instance. Speeds of 20 to 25 m. an hour have been sanctioned 
on electric lines of this character, worked by ordinary tramway 
rolling stock. There is no purchase clause in the Light Railways 
Act, but arrangements for purchase of the undertaking were 
usually made with the local authorities and the terms embodied 
in the order. The act contains no veto clause, section 7 stating 
that the commissioners are to " satisfy themselves that all 
reasonable steps have been taken for consulting the local authori- 
ties, including road authorities, through whose areas the rail- 
way is intended to pass, and the owners and occupiers of the 
land it is proposed to take." The Light Railway Commissioners, 
however, have interpreted the act in the spirit of the Tramways 
Act, so that for all practical purposes the veto remains. The new 
act differed from the Tramways Act in providing for the com- 
pulsory purchase of land under the Lands Clauses Acts the 
Tramways Act expressly stating that the promoters should not 
be empowered to acquire land otherwise than by agreement. 
The board of trade has held that the act does not apply to 
tramways wholly within one borough. County, borough and 
district councils as well as individuals and companies are 
empowered to promote and work light railways. 

The passing of the act gave a great impetus to the construction 
of tramways worked by electric traction. But owing to the 
practical retention of the veto, there was not so much progress 
as was anticipated. Another cause of restriction was section g, 
sub-section 3, which provides that if the board of trade con- 
siders that " by reason of the magnitude of the proposed under- 
taking, or of the effect thereof on the undertaking of any railway 
company existing at the time, or for any other special reason 
relating to the undertaking, the proposals of the promoters 
ought to be submitted to parliament," they should not confirm 
the order. In many cases railway companies, by pleading the 
competitive influence of proposed tramways promoted under the 
Light Railways Act, were able to force the promoters to apply 
to parliament or to drop the scheme. The latter alternative 
was frequently adopted, owing to the costs of parliamentary 
procedure being too heavy for the undertaking. 

Commercial Results. Interest in the commercial results of tram- 
way enterprise is practically limited to electric traction, since other 
forms of traction have been almost entirely superseded owing to 
their economical inferiority. The main advantages of electric 
traction over horse traction lie in the higher speed, greater carrying 
capacity of cars, and the saving in power over a system in which only 
a small proportion of the power source is available at one time. 
Steam, compressed air and gas traction possess the disadvantages 
that each car has to carry the dead weight of power-producing 
machinery capable of maintaining speed up to the maximum grade. 
Cable traction has the disadvantages that the speed of the cars is 
limited by the speed of the cable, that the range and complexity of 
the system are restricted, and that construction is expensive. The 
electric system, in which power is generated at a central source 
and distributed to cars which take power in proportion to the work 
being done, possesses a higher degree of flexibility, convenience and 
economy than any other system. Electric tramways in Great 
Britain are mostly equipped on the overhead trolley system, though 
the conduit and the surface contact systems have been installed in 
a few instances. Roughly the capital expenditure required for the 
three systems is in proportion of 2, ij and I, and both the conduit 
and the surface contact systems are more costly to maintain than 
the overhead system. A fourth system of electric traction, in which 
the cars are fitted with storage batteries charged at intervals, has 
been tried frequently and as frequently abandoned. The great 
weight of the batteries, the serious initial cost and high rate of 
deterioration prevented the attainment of financial success. 

The earliest development of electric road traction on a large scale 
took place in America and on the continent of Europe, and the 



i66 



TRAMWAY 



estimates for British tramways were therefore prepared from 
American and continental results. The following figures summarize 
a number of estimates made at this period ; the 
first table gives the figures for capital cost, 
and the second for operating expenses. The 
receipts were estimated at lod per car mile. 



The financial results achieved by electric traction companies 
are summarized in the next table: 



Permanent way, including 
bonding 

Overhead equipment . 

Feeder cables 

Cars at 700 each . . . 

Car sheds, sundries and 
contingencies . 

Total . 



Capital cost 

per mile of 

single track. 

- 5050 

750 
400 

2IOO 
1200 

9500 



Year. 


Number of 
companies. 


Aggregate 
capital. 


Average 
ordinary 
capital. 


Average 
preference 
capital. 


Average loan 
and debenture 
capital. 


Total 
average. 






I 


% 


% 


o/ 
/o 


% 


1899-1900 


24 


9,056,332 


3-87 


5-56 


4-64 


4'37 


1900-1901 


37 


15,021,137 


4-27 


5-53 


4-57 


4-65 


1901-1902 


62 


28,322,117 


4-07 


4-44 


4-53 


4-29 


1903 


64 


35479,296 


4-31 


5'" 


4-47 


4'57 


1904 


77 


48,789,525 


4-13 


4-81 


4'53 


4-41 


1905 


90 


61,273,986 


3-79 


4-92 


4-39 


4'33 


1906 


H7 


77,202,373 


3-47 


4-81 


4-18 


4' 13 


1907 


118 


99,315,028 


2-87 


4-25 


4-38 


3-78' 



Operating expenses per car mile. 

Electrical energy I'Sod 

Wages of drivers and conductors i-io 

Car shed expenses, wages and stores 0-55 

General expenses 0-90 

Repairs and maintenance 1-25 



Total 



5'3od. 



The estimates gave reason to expect that electric traction would 
mean cheaper fares and more frequent services at a higher speed, 
resulting in a considerable increase in traffic receipts per mile and 
a substantial reduction of working expenses. The result of pioneer 
undertakings in South Staffordshire, Bristol and Coventry supported 
this expectation. Later experience, however, showed that the 
estimates were top optimistic. Taking the actual figures realized 
for the undertakings included in the above tables, the capital 
expenditure per mile of single track was 12,000 and the working 
expenses per car mile 6-3d. The expectations as to gross revenue 
have been generally realized, but the increase in capital expenditure 
and working expenses over the estimates is typical of electric cram- 
ways in Great Britain. In the matter of wear and tear the estimates 
have also been top low. The reasons for the larger capital expendi- 
ture are (i) superior track construction, (2) more elaborate overhead 
equipment, (3) use of larger cars, (4) higher cost of road paving and 
other improvements imposed upon tramway undertakings. 

According to the official returns of tramways and light railways 
for the year 1905-1906, there were 312 tramway undertakings in 
the United Kingdom, and 175 of these belonged to local authorities. 
Out of the total of 1491 m. of line owned by local authorities, 1276 m. 
are worked by these authorities themselves, and the remaining 
215 m. by leasing companies. Local authorities working as well as 
owning their tramways made a net profit of 2,529,752, applying 
663,336 to the reduction of tramway debt and 205,981 to the 
relief of rates, while carrying 623,617 to reserve and renewal 
funds. The following table summarizes the amounts expended by 
local authorities on electric traction : 



Year. 


Municipalities. 





1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 

1905 
1906 
1907 


II 

18 

47 
61 
92 
"5 
131 
131 


1,169,429 
2,748,873 
10,519.543 
14,644,126 
21,295,771 
27,876,320 
31,147,824 
35,965,920 



The corresponding table for electric traction companies (including 
electric railways), detailing the amounts and proportions of ordinary 
preference and loan and debenture capital, is as follows: 



The total expenditure on tramways and light railways (omitting 
railways main, branch and suburban) was 15,195,993 in 1896 and 
58,177-832 in 1906. 

One effect of the increased cost of expenditure per mile of track 
is to discourage extensions of rural and inter-urban lines where the 
traffic is not heavy. Proposals have been made to adopt the " rail- 
less trolley " (used in some places on the continent of Europe) for 
such extensions. In this system the cars run on ordinary wheels 
and take power from overhead trolley wires. But so far no such 
arrangement has been put into practice in Great Britain, and out- 
lying districts are generally dealt with by petrol or steam motor 
vehicles, running as feeders to the tramways and railways. The future 
commercial development of tramways lies more in the economics in 
working than in growth of track mileage. Owing to the enormous 
volume of traffic a very slight alteration in one of the items of 
expense or revenue produces a large result in the aggregate. The 
addition of id. per car mile to revenue or a corresponding reduction 
in expenses would, on the 240 millions of car miles run in 1905-1906, 
result in a gain of about 500,000 per annum, which is equal to 
nearly I % on the entire capital expenditure in respect of tramways 
and light railways. The tables given above show that the yield 
upon the capital invested in electric traction is not high. The effect 
of increased capital expenditure has been accentuated by reductions 
in fares. In 1886 the average fare per passenger was i-6id. and in 
1896 it was l-3ld., falling in 1906 as low as l-iod. Some systems 
carry passengers over 2j m. for one penny, workmen being carried 
twice the distance for the same sum. Halfpenny fares are repre- 
sented as a boon to the working man, but they have been abandoned 
as a failure after several years' trial on several systems, and in 
Glasgow it is found that halfpenny fares contribute only 20-4 % of 
the early morning traffic, while the penny fare contributes 72-3% 
of that traffic. The general manager of the Birmingham Corporation, 
tramways reported against halfpenny fares on the basis of his ex- 
perience as general manager of the London County Council tramways 
that all the halfpenny passengers there are carried at a loss. The 
adjustment of fares and stages to their proper value is a question 
now carefully studied by tramway managers along with many 
problems of economy in _ working. The close adjustment of the 
service to the fluctuations in traffic is one source of economy which is 
being more seriously considered. Many systems have adopted 
top covers to cars in order to carry more passengers during wet 
weather. The adoption of these covers is not popular in fine weather; 
it adds to the weight and wind-resistance of the cars, thus increasing 
current consumption, and it adds to the cost of construction and 
maintenance. Economy in electrical energy is, in its broader 
aspects, secured by purchasing current from an outside source in 
preference to generating it at a special station. The average cost 
per unit of electricity for all tramway undertakings in the United 
Kingdom is i-o6d., but one tramway company which purchases its 
energy from a large power company pays only o-8sd. per unit. 
In its narrower aspects economy in current may be secured by 
reducing waste car mileage that is to say, eliminating the running 
of cars at times and places where they are not required for an 
adequate service. Saving may also be effected by supervision of the 
driving of the cars, since the difference of as much as 20 % has been 



noted between different drivers. 



Year. 


Number 
of under- 
takings. 


Ordinary 
capital. 


Percent, 
to total. 


Preference 
capital. 


Percent, 
to total. 


Loan and 
Debenture 
capital. 


Percent, 
to total. 


Total. 


1896 
1897 
1898-1899 
1899-1900 
1900-1901 
1901-1902 
1903 


17 
30 
51 
66 

75 
I2 5 
126 




5,041,375 
6,584,147 

9,793,234 
".770,777 
14,558,076 
19,748,965 
21,600,056 


83 
88 
68 
60 
55 
50 
49 



412,776 
124,850 
1,640,780 
3,834,761 
5,904,998 
9,748,891 
11,170,319 


7 

2 
II 
20 
23 
24 
25 



630,521 
727,176 
2,972,126 
4.033,992 
5,686,785 
10,024,327 
11,296,714 


10 
10 

21 
20 
22 
26 
26 



6,084,672 

7,436,173 
14,406,140 
19,639,530 
26,149,859 
39,522,183 
44,067,089 


1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 


156 
159 
170 

173 


33,491,604 
36,949,069 
38,130,981 
53,034,778 


54 
47 
41 
45 


13,219,487 
22,853,948 
25,206,988 
30,642,266 


22 
29 
27 
26 


14,895,418 
19,410,384 
29,522,581 
34,372,411 


24 
24 
32 
29 


61,606,509 
79,213,401 
92,860,550 
118,049,455 



One tramway manager secured 
substantial improvement by 
merely marking on the trolley 
standards the position which 
the controller handle should 
occupy in passing each point. 
The limitation of stops is an- 
other source of economy, the 
average cost per stop on a system 
having been found to beO'i7d. 
A slight increase in the maxi- 
mum speed of tramcars would 



1 Average reduced owing to 
inclusion of Metropolitan and 
Metropolitan District railways' 
capital. 



TRANCE 



167 



also improve the net results by reducing the proportion of standing 
charges (wages, &c.) to the traffic capacity of the system without 
making the cost of maintenance or current more than slightly greater. 
A 15% increase in average speed means a saving of Jd. per car mile. 
The development of parcels traffic is a source of revenue, and addi- 
tional receipts can be earned by 
the hiring-out of cars for picnics 
and other special purposes. An 
important point is the proper 
selection of the size of car. A 
small four-wheeled car is suitable 
to continual traffic of compara- 
tively small volume, but when 
the traffic is heavy cars of larger 
capacity are advisable. A serious 



The following table gives a few totals, ratios, and percentages 
for the last two years of what may be called a period of electric 
traction, in comparison with a typical "steam" period (i.e. a period 
in which the use of steam power in tramways was at its maximum) 
and a typical " horse " period :- 



burden on tramways is the cost 
of insurance against accidents, although the number of serious 
accidents on electric tramways is exceedingly small in proportion to 
the number of passengers carried, the ratio of tramway accidents of 
all kinds being about one accident to every 15,000 passengers. 

There are many adjoining towns having separate tramway under- 
takings which do not provide intercommunication. Experience 
has shown that a break of tramway facilities reduces the receipts 
by 20 to 50 % on the lines which have been severed ; and the terminal 
half-mile, except in populous districts, is the least remunerative 
section of a tramway route. 

Statistics. Each year the British board of trade issues a return 
of street and road tramways and light railways authorized by act 
or order, showing the amount of capital authorized, paid up and 
expended; the length of line authorized and the length open for 
public traffic ; the gross receipts, working expenditures, net receipts 
and appropriation of net receipts ; the number of passengers conveyed ; 
the number of miles run by cars and the quantity of electrical 
energy used; together with the number of horses, engines and cars 
in use. The return published in January 1909 deals with the figures 
for local authorities up to the 3ist of March 1908 and for companies 
up to the 3 1st of December 1907. The following comparative table 
summarizes the most important general figures for the United 
Kingdom provided by this official return : 





Electric period, 
1907-1908. 


Steam period, 
1896. 


Horse period, 
1879. 


Length of route open 
Total number of passengers carried . . 
Percentage of net receipts to total capital outlay . 
Percentage of working expenditure to gross receipts 
Passengers carried per mile of route open . 
Average fare per passenger 


2,464-22 
2,625,532,895 
6-81 
62-64 
1,065,462 
i-09d. 


1009 
759,466,047 
6-88 
74-79 
752,691 
i-6id. 


321-27 
150,881,515 

3-97 
83-81 
469,641 
i-84d. 



From the above figures it will be noticed that the capital cost 
per mile has increased as a result of the adoption of electric traction, 
while at the same time the percentage of the return on the capital 
has been reduced notwithstanding that the rate of working expendi- 
ture has fallen and the number of passengers carried per mile has 
increased, the fares charged having been disproportionately reduced. 

(E. GA.) 

TRANCE (through the French, from Lat. transilus, from 
Iransire, to cross, pass over) , a term used very loosely in popular 
speech to denote any kind of sleeplike state that seems to pre- 
sent obvious differences from normal sleep; in medical and scien- 
tific literature the meaning is but little better defined. In its 
original usage the word no doubt implied that the soul of the 
entranced person was temporarily withdrawn or passed away 
from the body, in accordance with the belief almost universally 
held by uncultured peoples in the possibility of such withdrawal. 
But the word is now commonly applied to a variety of sleeplike 
states without the implication of this theory; ordinary sleep- 
walking, extreme cases of melancholic lethargy and of anergic 
stupor, the deeper stages of hypnosis (see HYPNOTISM), the 





Year ending Dec. 31 (com- 


Years ended June 30. 


panies) and March 31 (local 




authorities). 




1878. 


1886. 


1898. 


1902. 


1907-1908 


Total capital authorized 


6,586,111 


17,640,488 


24,435,427 


51,677,471 


91,305.439 


Total capital expended 


4,207,350 


12,573,041 


16,492,869 


31,562,267 


68,199,918 


Length of route open (miles) 


269 


865 


1,064 


1,484 


2,464 


Number of horses 


9,222 


24-535 


38,777 


24,120 


5-288 


Number of locomotive engines 


H 


452 


589 


388 


64 


Number of cars 


1,124 


3-44 


5-335 


7,752 


10,908 


Total number of passengers carried .... 
Quantity of electrical energy used, B.O.T. units 
Gross receipts 


I46,OOI,223 
l,099,27I 


384,157,524 
2,630,338 


858,485,524 
4,560,126 


1,394,452,983 
6,679,291 


2,625,532,895 
431,969,119 
12,439,625 


Working expenditure 


868,315 


2,021,556 


3,507,895 


4,817,873 


7,792,663 


Net receipts 


230,956 


608,782 


1,052,231 


1,861,418 


4,646,962 



The total figures at the date of the return are summarized in the 
following table, which is accompanied by one showing the lengths of 
line worked by various methods of traction : 



cataleptic state, the ecstasy of religious enthusiasts, the self- 
induced dream-like condition of the medicine-men, wizards or 
priests of many savage and barbarous peoples, and the abnormal 





Capital expenditure 


Total expendi- 


Length open for traffic. 


No. of 














open for traffic. 


account. 


Double. 


Single. 


Total. 


takings. 




. L 





M. 


Ch. 


M. 


Ch. 


M. 


Ch. 




Tramways and light railways belonging to 




















local authorities 
Tramways and light railways belonging to com- 


32,978,5/9 


44,920,317 


III3 


77 


505 


77 


1619 


74 


177 


panies and private individuals 


18,641, 279 1 


23,279,601 


408 


58 


435 


46 


844 


24 


128 


Total United Kingdom 


51,619,858 


68,199,918 


1522 


55 


941 


43 


2464 


18 


305 



Table showing lengths worked by various methods of traction : 



Method of 
traction. 


England and Scotland. 


Ireland. 


Total. 


Electric 
Steam . 
Cable . . . 
Gas motors . 
Horse . 

Total. 


M. 

1922 

22 
4 

4 

82 


Ch. 

66 
67 
49 

2 
60 


M. 
235 

22 

4 


Ch. 
35 

72 
28 


M. 
127 

29 

. < 

7 


Ch. 
69 

45 
5 


M. 
2286 
52 
27 
4 
94 


Ch. 
IO 
32 
41 
2 

13 


2037 


4 


262 


55 


164 


39 


2461 


18 



1 These figures include cost of buildings and equipment in respect of 
certain local authorities' lines worked in conjunction with other lines. 



state into which many of the mediums of modern spiritualistic 
seances seem to fall almost at will; all these are commonly 
spoken of as trance, or trance-like, states. There are no well- 
marked and characteristic physical symptoms of the trance 
state, though in many cases the pulse and respiration are slowed, 
and the reflexes diminished or abolished.. The common feature 
which more than any other determines the application of the 
name seems to be a relative or complete temporary indifference 
to impressions made on the sense-organs, while yet the entranced 
person gives evidence in one way or another, either by the 
expression of his features, his attitudes and movements, his 
speech, or by subsequent relation of his experiences, that his 



i68 



TRANCE 



condition is not one of simple quiescence or arrest of mental 
life, such as characterizes the state of normal deep sleep and 
the coma produced by defective cerebral circulation by toxic 
substances in the blood or by mechanical violence done to 
the brain. 

If we refuse the name trance to ordinary sleep-walking, to 
normal dreaming, to catalepsy, to the hypnotic state and to 
stupor, there remain two different states that seem to have equal 
claims to the name; these may be called the ecstatic trance and 
the trance of mediumship respectively. 

The ecstatic trance is usually characterized by an outward 
appearance of rapt, generally joyful, contemplation; the sub- 
ject seems to lose touch for the time being with the world of 
things and persons about him, owing to the extreme concen- 
tration of his attention upon some image or train of imagery, 
which in most cases seems to assume an hallucinatory character 
(see HALLUCINATION). In most cases, though not in all, the sub- 
ject remembers in returning to his normal state the nature of his 
ecstatic vision or other experience, of which a curiously frequent 
character is the radiance or sense of brilliant luminosity. 

In the mediumistic trance the subject generally seems to 
fall into a profound sleep and to retain, on returning to his 
normal condition, no memory of any experience during the 
period of the trance. But in spite of the seeming unconscious- 
ness of the subject, his movements, generally of speech or 
writing, express, either spontaneously or in response to verbal 
interrogation, intelligence and sometimes even great intel- 
lectual and emotional activity. In many cases the parts of the 
body not directly concerned in these expressions remain in a 
completely lethargic condition, the eyes being closed, the 
muscles of neck, trunk and limbs relaxed, and the breathing 
stertorous. 

Trances of these two types seem to have occurred sporadic- 
ally (occasionally almost epidemically) amongst almost all 
peoples in all ages. And everywhere popular thought has 
interpreted them in the same ways. In the ecstatic trance 
the soul is held to have transcended the bounds of space or 
time, and to have enjoyed a vision of some earthly event distant 
in space or tune, or of some supernatural sphere or being. The 
mediumistic trance, on the other hand, popular thought in- 
terprets as due to the withdrawal of the soul from the body and 
the taking of its place, the taking possession of the body, by 
some other soul or spirit; for not infrequently the speech or 
writing produced by the organs of the entranced subject seems 
to be, or actually claims to be, the expression of a personality 
quite other than that of the sleeper. It is noteworthy that in 
almost all past ages the possessing spirit has been regarded in 
the great majority of cases as an evil and non-human spirit; 
whereas in modern times the possessing spirit has usually been 
regarded as, and often claims to be, the soul or spirit of some 
deceased human being. Modern science, in accordance with its 
materialistic and positive tendencies, has rejected these popular 
interpretations. It inclines to see in the ecstatic trance a 
case of hallucination induced by prolonged and intense occu- 
pation with some emotionally exciting idea, the whole mind 
becoming so concentrated upon some image in which the idea 
is bodied forth as to bring all other mental functions into abey- 
ance. The mediumistic trance it regards as a state similar to 
deep hypnosis, and seeks to explain it by the application of the 
notion of cerebral or mental dissociation in one or other of its 
many current forms; this assimilation finds strong support 
in the many points of resemblance between the deeper stages 
of hypnosis and the mediumistic trance, and in the fact that the 
artificially and deliberately induced state may be connected 
with the spontaneously occurring trance state by a series of 
States which form an insensible gradation between them. A 
striking feature of the mediumistic trance is the frequent 
occurrence of " automatic " speech and writing; and this 
feature especially may be regarded as warranting the appli- 
cation of the theory of mental dissociation for its explanation, 
for such automatic speech and writing are occasionally pro- 
duced by a considerable number of apparently healthy persons 



while in a waking condition which presents little or no other 
symptom of abnormality. In these cases the subject hears 
his own words, or sees the movement of his hand and his own 
hand writing, as he hears or sees those of another person, 
having no sense of initiating or controlling the movements and 
no anticipatory awareness of the thoughts expressed by the 
movements. When, as hi the majority of cases, such move- 
ments merely give fragmentary expression to ideas or facts 
that have been assimilated by the subject at some earlier date, 
though perhaps seemingly completely forgotten by him, the 
theory of mental dissociation affords a plausible and moderately 
satisfactory explanation of the movements; it regards them as 
due to the control of ideas or memories which somehow have 
become detached or loosened from the main system of ideas 
and tendencies that make up the normal personality, and which 
operate in more or less complete detachment; and the application 
of the theory is in many cases further justified by the fact that 
the " dissociated " ideas and memories seem in some cases to 
become taken up again by, or reincorporated with, the normal 
personality. 

But in recent years a new interest has been given to the study 
of the mediumistic trance by careful investigations (made with a 
competence that commands respect) which tend to re-establish 
the old savage theory of possession, just when it seemed to have 
become merely an anthropological curiosity. These investiga- 
tions have been conducted for the most part by members of 
the Society for Psychical Research, and their most striking 
results have been obtained by the prolonged study of the 
automatic speech and writing of the American medium, Mrs 
Piper. In this case the medium passes into a trance state 
apparently at will, and during the trance the organs of speech 
or the hand usually express what purport to be messages from 
the spirits of deceased relatives or friends of those who are 
present. A number of competent and highly critical observers 
have arrived at the conviction that these messages often com- 
prise statements of facts that could not have come to the know- 
ledge of the medium in any normal fashion ; and those who are 
reluctant to accept the hypothesis of " possession " find that they 
can reject it only at the cost of assuming the operation of tele- 
pathy (q.v.) in an astonishing and unparalleled fashion. During 
1907-1908 the investigation was directed to the obtaining of 
communications which should not be explicable by the most 
extended use of the hypothesis of telepathic communication 
from the minds of living persons. The plan adopted was to 
seek for " cross-correspondences " between the communica- 
tions of the Piper " controls " and the automatic writings of 
several other persons which claimed to be directed by the same 
disembodied spirits; i.e. it was sought to find in the automatic 
writings of two or more individuals passages each of which in 
itself would be fragmentary and unintelligible, but which, taken 
in connexion with similar fragments contemporaneously pro- 
duced by another and distant writer, should form a significant 
whole; for it is argued that such passages would constitute 
irrefutable evidence of the operation of a third intelligence or 
personality distinct from that of either medium. The results 
published up to 1909 seem to show that this attempt met with 
striking success; and they constitute a body of evidence in 
favour of the hypothesis of possession which no impartial and 
unprejudiced mind can lightly set aside. Nevertheless, so 
long as it is possible to believe, as so many of the most competent 
workers in this field believe, that dissociated fragments of a 
personality may become synthesized to form a secondary and 
as it were parasitic personality capable of assuming temporary 
control of the organs of expression, and so long as we can set no 
limits to the scope of telepathic communication between 
embodied minds, lit would seem wellnigh impossible, even 
by the aid of fliis novel and ingenious plan of investigation, 
to achieve completely convincing evidence in favour of the 
hypothesis of "possession." 

LITERATURE. F. Podmore, Modern Spiritualism (London, 1502); 
F. W. H. Myers, Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death 
(London, 1903) ; Morton Prince, The Dissociation of a Personality 



TRANENT TRANSBAIKALIA 



169 






(London, 1906). See also various articles in Grenzfragen des Nerven- 
und Seelenlebens, edited by L. Loewenfeld and H. Kurella (Wiesbaden, 
iqoo), especially the article " Somnambulismus und Spiritismus "; 
also articles in Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, 
especially pts. liii., Iv. and Ivii., and in the Journ. of Abnormal 
Psychology, edited by Morton Prince (Boston, 1906-1909) ; also litera- 
ture cited under AUTOMATISM; HYPNOTISM; MEDIUM; TELEPATHY 
and POSSESSION. (W. Me D.) 

TRANENT, a police burgh of Haddingtonshire, Scotland. 
Pop. (1901), 2584. It lies 9f m. E. of Edinburgh by road and 
i m. S.E. of Prestonpans station on the North British railway. 
The town possesses the oldest coal-mining charter (1202-1218) 
in Great Britain, and the mines and quarries in the neighbour- 
hood provide the staple industry. A fragment of a parish 
church, said to have been built in the nth century, still stands. 
Of the palace of the Setons which stood in the parish there are 
no remains. It was demolished towards the close of the i8th 
century and a modern mansion was erected on its site. 

In the neighbouring village of Ormiston, in 1885, a granite obelisk 
was erected in memory of Robert Moffat (1795-1883), a native, the 
South African missionary and father-in-law of Livingstone. _ At 
Ormiston Hall, a seat of the marquess of Linlithgow, there is a 
yew tree, beneath which the reformer George Wishart (1513-1546) 
used to preach. Hard by is the village of Pencaitland, divided into 
an eastern and a western portion by the Tyne. The parish church 
in Easter Pencaitland probably dates from the I3th century. The 
aisle may belong to the original building, but the rest is of the 
1 6th century, excepting the small belfry of the 1 7th century. The 
old house of Pencaitland stands in the grounds of Winton Castle, 
which was erected by the 3rd earl of Winton in 1620 but forfeited 
by the 5th earl, who was involved in the Jacobite rising of 1715. 
Five miles south-east of Tranent is the village of Salton (or Saltown), 
where Gilbert Burnet, afterwards bishop of Salisbury, had his first 
charge (1665). At his death he bequeathed the parish 20,000 marks 
for the clothing and educating of poor children. He was tutor 
to Andrew Fletcher, who was born at Salton in 1655 and buried 
there in 1716. At Fletcher's instigation James Meikle, a neighbour- 
ing millwright, went to Holland to learn the construction of the 
iron-work of barley mills, and the mill which he erected at Salton 
after his return not only gave Salton barley a strong hold on the 
market, but was also for forty years the only mill of its kind in the 
British Isles. Meikle's son Andrew (1719-1811), inventor of the 
threshing machine, carried on his trade of millwright at Houston 
Mill near Dunbar. Andrew Fletcher, also of Salton (1692-1766), 
nephew of the elder Andrew, became lord justice clerk in 1735 
under the style of Lord Milton. By his mother's energy the art of 
weaving and dressing holland linen was introduced into the village. 
She travelled in Holland with two skilled mechanics who contrived 
to learn the secrets of the craft. The British Linen Company 
laid down their first bleachfield at Salton under Lord Milton's 
patronage. Salton also lays claim to having been the birthplace of 
the poet William Dunbar. 

TRANI, a seaport and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, on the 
Adriatic, in the province of Bari, and 26 m. by rail W.N.W. of 
that town, 23 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 34,688. Trani 
has lost its old walls and bastions, but the 13th-century Gothic 
citadel is used as a prison. Some of the streets remain much as 
they were in the medieval period, and many of the houses dis- 
play more or less of Norman decoration. The cathedral (dedi- 
cated to St Nicholas the Pilgrim, a Greek assassinated at Trani 
in 1094 and canonized by Urban II.), on a raised open site near 
the sea, was consecrated, before its completion, in 1143; it is a 
basilica with three apses, a large crypt and a lofty tower, the 
latter erected in 1230-1239 by the architect whose name appears 
on the ambo in the cathedral of Bitonto, Nicolaus Sacerdos. 
It has an arch under it, being supported partly on the side wall 
of the church, and partly on a massive' pillar. The arches of the 
Romanesque portal are beautifully ornamented, in a manner 
suggestive of Arab influence; the bronze doors, executed by 
Barisanus of Trani in 1175, rank among the best of their period 
in southern Italy. The capitals of the pillars in the crypt are 
fine examples of the Romanesque. The interior of the cathedral 
has been barbarously modernized, but the crypt is fine. Near 
the harbour is the Gothic palace of the doges of Venice, which 
b now used as a seminary. The church of the Ognissanti has 
a Romanesque relief of the Annunciation over the door. S. 
Giacomo and S. Francesco also have Romanesque facades and 
the latter and S. Andrea have " Byzantine " domes. The 
vicinity of Trani produces an excellent wine (Moscato di Trani) ; 



and its figs, oil, almonds and grain are also profitable articles of 
trade. 

Trani is the Turenum of the itineraries. It first became a 
flourishing place under the Normans and during the crusades, 
but attained the acme of its prosperity as a seat of trade with 
the East under the Angevin princes. The harbour, however, 
has lost its importance. 

TRANQUEBAR, a town of British India, in the Tanjore district 
of Madras, on the sea-coast, 18 m. N. of Negapatam. Pop. 
(1901), 13,142. A Danish factory was opened here as early 
as 1620. It was taken by the British in 1801, but restored in 
1814, and finally purchased, with the other Danish settlements 
in India, in 1845. In Danish times Tranquebar was a busy 
port, but it lost its importance when the railway was opened 
to Negapatam. It was the first settlement of Protestant 
missionaries in India, founded by Ziegenbalg and Plutschau 
(Lutherans) in 1706; and there is still a Lutheran mission high 
school and mission press. 

TRANSBAIKALIA (sometimes also known as Dauria), a 
province of Eastern Siberia, lying E. of Lake Baikal, with the 
government of Irkutsk on the N.W. and N., the provinces of 
Amur and Manchuria on the E. and Mongolia on the S. Its 
area (232,846 sq. m.) is nearly as large as that of Austria- 
Hungary, but its population does not much exceed half a 
million. 

Transbaikalia forms an intermediate link between Siberia, Mon- 
golia and the northern Pacific littoral. The Yablonoi Mountains, 
which run north-east from the sources of the Kerulen to the bend 
of the Olekma in 56 N., divide the province into two quite distinct 
parts; to the west, the upper terrace of the high east Asian plateau, 
continued from the upper Selenga and the Yenisei (4000 to 5000 ft. 
high) towards the plateau of the Vitim (3500 to 4000 ft.); and to 
the east the lower terrace of the same plateau (2800 ft.), forming 
a continuation of the eastern Gobi. Beginning at Lake Baikal, a 
valley, deep and broad, penetrates the north-western border-ridge 
of the plateau, and runs eastward up the river Uda, with an im- 
perceptible gradient, like a gigantic railway cutting enclosed 
between two steep slopes, and it sends another branch south 
towards Kiakhta. After having served, through a succession of 
geological periods, as an outlet for the water and ice which 
accumulated on the plateau, it is now utilized for the two 
highways which lead from Lake Baikal across the plateau (3500- 
4000 ft.) to the Amur on the east and the Chinese depression on the 
south. Elsewhere the high and massive border-ridge on the 
north-western edge of the plateau can be crossed only by difficult 
footpaths. The border-ridge just mentioned, gapped by the wide 
opening of the Selenga, runs from south-west to north-east under 
different names, being known as Khamar-daban (6900 ft.) south of 
Lake Baikal, and as the Barguzin Mountains (7000 to 8000 ft.) along 
the east bank of the Barguzin river, while farther north-east it has 
been described under the names of the South Muya and the 
Chara Mountains (6000 to 7000 ft.). Resting its south-east base 
on the plateau, it descends steeply on the north-west to 
the lake and to the broad picturesque valleys of the Barguzin, 
Muya and Chara. Thick forests of larch, fir and cedar clothe the 
ridge, whose dome-shaped rounded summits (goltsy) rise above the 
limits of tree vegetation, but dp not reach the snow-line (here above 
10,000 ft.). The high plateau itself has the aspect of an undulating 
table-land, intersected by ranges, which rise some 1500 or 2000 ft. 
above its surface, and are separated by broad, flat, marshy valleys, 
traversed by sluggish meandering streams. The better drained 
valleys have fine meadow lands, while the hills are clothed with 
forests (almost exclusively of larch and birch). Numberless lakes 
and ponds occur along the river courses. Tunguses hunt in the 
forests and meadows, but permanent agricultural settlements are 
impossible, corn seldom ripening on account of the early frost. 
The lower parts of the broad, flat valley of the Jida have, however, 
a few Cossack settlements, and Mongolian shepherds inhabit the 
elevated grassy valleys about Lake Kosso-gol (5300 ft. above the 
sea). Quite different is the lower terrace of the plateau, occupied 
by the eastern Gobi and the Nerchinsk region, and separated from 
the upper terrace by the Yablonoi range. This last is the south- 
eastern border-ridge of the higher terrace. It rises to 8035 ft. 
in the Sokhondo peak, but elsewhere its dome-shaped summits do 
not exceed 5000 or 6000 ft. Numberless lakes, with flat undefined 
margins, feed streams which join the great north-going rivers or 
the Amur and the Pacific. Low hills rise above the edge of the 
plateau, but the slope is abrupt towards the south-east, where the 
foot-hills of the Yablonoi are nearly 1500 and 2000 ft. lower than 
on the north-west. Climate, flora and fauna change suddenly as 
soon as the Yablonoi has been crossed. The Siberian flora gives 
way to the Daurian flora, and this is in turn exchanged for the 
Pacific littoral flora on the Manchurian plains and lowlands. 



1 70 



TRANSCASPIAN REGION 



The lower terrace has the character of a steppe, but is intersected 
by a number of ranges, plications of Silurian and Devonian rocks, 
all running south-west to north-east, and all containing silver, lead, 
copper and auriferous sands. Agriculture can be easily carried on 
in the broad prairies, the only drawbacks being droughts, and frosts 
in the higher closed valleys of the Nerchinsk or Gazimur Mountains. 
The lower terrace is in its turn fringed by a border-ridge the Great 
Khingan which occupies, with reference to the lower terrace, the 
same position that the Yablonoi does in relation to the upper, 
and separates Siberia from northern Manchuria. This important 
ridge does not run from south to north, as represented on the old 
maps, but from ['south-west to north-east ; it is pierced by the 
Amur near Albazin, and joins the Okhotsk Mountains, which 
however do not join the Yoblonoi Mountains. 

The rivers belong to three different systems the affluents of 
Lake Baikal, of the Lena and of the Amur. Of the first the Selenga 
(800 m. long) rises in north-west Mongolia, one of its tributaries 
(the Egin-gol) being an emissary of Lake Kosso-gol. The Chikoi, 
Khilok and Uda are its chief tributaries in Transbaikalia. The 
Barguzin and the upper Angara enter Lake Baikal from the north- 
east. Of the tributaries of the Lena, the Vitim with its affluents 
(Karenga, Tsipa, and Muya) flows on the high plateau through un- 
inhabited regions, as also does the Olekma. The, tributaries of the 
Amur are much more important. The Argun, which at a quite recent 
epoch received the waters of the Dalai-nor, and thus had the Kerulen 
for its source, is no longer in communication with the rapidly 
desiccating Mongolian lake, but has its sources in the Gan, which 
flows from the Great Khingan Mountains. It is not navigable, 
but receives the Gazimur and several other streams from the 
Nerchinsk mining district. The Shilka is formed by the union 
of the Onon and the Chita rivers, and is navigable from the town of 
Chita, thus being an important channel to the Amur. 

Lake Baikal, with an area of 13,200 sq. m. (nearly equal to that 
of Switzerland), extends in a half crescent from south-west to 
north-east, with a length of nearly 400 m. and a width of 20 to 
50 m. Its level is 1,500 ft. above the sea. 1 The wide delta of the 
Selenga narrows it in the middle, and renders it shallower in the 
east than in the west. The other lakes include the Gusinoye and 
Lake Ba-unt on the Vitim plateau. Many lakes yield common salt. 

The high plateau is built up of granites, gneisses and syenites, 
overlain by Laurentian schists. Silurian and Devonian marine 
deposits occur only on the lower terrace. Since that epoch the 
region has not been under the sea, and only fresh-water Jurassic 
deposits and coal beds are met with in the depressions. During 
the Glacial period most of the high terrace and its border ridges were 
undoubtedly covered with vast glaciers. Volcanic rocks of more 
recent origin (Mesozoic?) are met with in the north-western 
border-ridge and on its slopes, as well as on the Vitim plateau. 
During the Glacial period the fauna of the lowest parts of Trans- 
baikalia was decidedly arctic; while during the Lacustrine or post- 
Glacial periods this region was dotted over with numberless lakes, 
the shores of which were inhabited by Neolithic man. Only few 
traces of these survive, and they are rapidly drying up. Earth- 
quakes are very frequent on the shores of Lake Baikal, especially at 
the mouth of the Selenga, and they extend as far as Irkutsk, 
Barguzin and Selenginsk; in 1862 an extensive area was submerged 
by the lake. Numerous mineral springs, some of them of high 
repute, exist all over Transbaikalia. The most important are the 
hot alkaline springs (130 F.) at Turka, at the mouth of the 
Barguzin, those of Pogromna on the Uda (very similar to the 
Seltzer springs), those of Molokova near Chita and those of Darasun 
in the Nerchinsk district. 

The climate is, as a whole, exceedingly dry. The winter is cold 
and dry, the thermometer dropping as low as 58 F. But the snow 
is so trifling that the horses of the Buryats are able to procure food 
throughout the winter on the steppes, and in the very middle of 
the winter wheeled vehicles are used all over the west. To the east 
of the Yablonoi ridge the Nerchinsk district feels the influence of 
the North Pacific monsoons, and snow falls more thickly, especially 
in the valleys; but the summer is hot and dry. On the high plateau 
even the summer is cold, owing to the altitude and the humidity 
arising from the marshes, and the soil is frozen to a great depth. 
At Chita the daily range in summer and spring is sometimes as much 
as 33 to 46 In the vicinity of Lake Baikal there is a cooler 
summer; in winter exceedingly deep snow covers the mountains 
around the lake. 2 

The estimated population in 1906 was 742,200. The Russian 
population is gathered around the mines of the Nerchinsk 
district, while the steppes are occupied by the Buryats. A string 
of villages has been planted along the Shilka between Chita 
and Stryetensk. The valleys of the Uda, the lower Selenga, 
and especially the Chikoi and the Khilok have been occupied 
since the beginning of the igth century by Raskolniks, some of 
whom, living in a condition of prosperity such as is unknown in 

1 There is uncertainty as to the absolute altitude (see BAIKAL). 

2 See" DasKlimavon Ost-Siberien," by A. Woyeikow, in Meleorol. 
Zeitschrift (1884). 



Russia proper, rank amongst the finest representatives of the 
Russian race. The remainder of the steppe of the Uda is occu- 
pied by Buryats, while the forests and marshes of the plateau 
are the hunting grounds of the nomad Tunguses. South of the 
Khamar-daban the only settled region is the lower valley of 
the Jida. On the Upper Argun the Cossacks are in features, 
character, language and manners largely Mongolian. The 
Russians along the Chinese frontier constitute a separate 
voisko or division of the Transbaikal Cossacks. The Buryats 
number about 180,000, the Tunguses over 30,000. The 
province is divided into five districts, the chief towns of which 
are Chita, the capital, Barguzin, Nerchinsk, Selenginsk and 
Verkhneudinsk. 

Although a good deal of land has been cleared by the settlers, 
nearly one-half of the entire area is still covered with forests. The 
principal varieties are fir, larch, aspen, poplar and birch, with 
Abies pectinata in the north and the cedar in the south. Only about 
one-third of the surface is adaptable for cultivation, and of that 
only about one-tenth is actually under tillage. 

Agriculture is carried on to a limited extent by the Buryats and 
in all the Russian settlements; but it prospers only in the valleys 
of West Transbaikalia, and partly in the Nerchinsk region, while in 
the steppes of the Argun and Onon even the Russians resort to 
pastoral pursuits and trade, or to hunting. Livestock rearing is 
extensively carried on, especially by the Buryats, but their herds 
and flocks are often destroyed in great numbers by the snowstorms 
of spring. Hunting is an important occupation, even with the 
Russians, many of whom leave their homes in October to spend six 
weeks in the taiga (forest region). The fisheries of Lake Baikal and 
the lower parts of its affluents are important. Enormous quantities 
of Salmo omul are taken every year ; and 5. thymalus, S. oxyrhynchus 
and S. fluviatilis are also taken. Mining, and especially gold mining, 
is important, but the production of gold has fallen off. Silver 
mines have only a very small output. Iron mining is gradually 
developing, and good coal mines are now being worked. Salt is 
raised from several lakes, and the extraction of Epsom salts has 
considerably developed. Manufactures, though insignificant, have 
increased. The trade is chiefly concentrated at Kiakhta. The 
Cossacks on the frontier traffic in brick-tea, cattle and hides with 
Mongolia. The export of furs is of considerable value. 

Transbaikalia >is crossed by the Trans-siberian railway from 
Mysovaya on Lake Baikal, via Chita, to Stryetensk, andfromKaida- 
lovo, near Chita, to the Mongolian frontier; the latter section is 
continued across Manchuria to Vladivostok and Port Arthur. 
Regular steamer communication has been established along Lake 
Baikal, not only for the transport of passengers and goods between 
the two railway stations of Listvinichnoye and Mysovaya, but also 
with the object of developing the fishing industry, which is of great 
importance. Steamers ply up the Selenga river as far as Selenginsk, 
considerable cargoes of tea being transported along this line. 

(P.A. K.; J. T. BE.) 

TRANSCASPIAN REGION, a Russian territory on the E. 
of the Caspian, bounded S. by Khorasan and Afghanistan, 
N. by the Russian province of Uralsk, N.E. by Khiva and 
Bokhara and S.E. by Afghan Turkestan. Area, 212,545 sq. m. 
Some of the most interesting problems of geography, such as 
those relating to the changes in the course of the Jaxartes 
(Syr-darya) and the Oxus (Amu-darya), and the supposed 
periodical disappearance of Lake Aral, are connected with the 
Transcaspian deserts; and it is here that we must look for a clue 
to the physical changes which transformed the Euro-Asiatic 
Mediterranean the Aral-Caspian and Pontic basin into a series 
of separate seas, and desiccated them, powerfully influencing 
the distribution of floras and faunas, and centuries ago com- 
pelling the inhabitants of Western and Central Asia to enter 
upon their great migrations. But down to a comparatively 
recent date the arid, barren deserts, peopled only by wandering 
Turkomans, were almost a terra incognita. 

A mountain chain, comparable in length to the Alps, separates 
the deserts of the Transcaspian from the highlands of Khorasan. 
It begins in the Krasnovodsk peninsula of the Caspian, under the 
names of Kuryanyn-kary and Great Balkans, whose masses of 
granite and other crystalline rock reach an altitude of some 5350 ft. 
Farther south-east they are continued in the Little Balkans (2000 ft.) 
and the Kopepet-dagh or Kopet-dagh. The latter rises steep and 
rugged above the flat deserts over a stretch of 600 m. In structure 
it is homologous with the Caucasus chain ; it appears as an outer 
wall of the Khorasan plateau, and is separated from it by a broad 
valley, which, like the Rion and Kura valley of Transcaucasia, is 
drained by two rivers flowing in opposite directions the Atrek, which 
flows north-west into the Caspian, and the Keshef-rud, which flows to 



TRANSCASPIAN REGION 



171 



the south-east and is a tributary of the Murghab. On the other side 
of this valley the Alla-dagh (Aladagh) and the Binalund border- 
ranges (9000 to 11,000 ft.) fringe the edge of the Khorasan plateau. 
Descending towards the steppe with steep stony slopes, the mountain 
barrier of the Kopet-dagh rises to heights of 6000-9000 ft. to the east 
of Kyzyl-arvat, while the passes which lead from the Turkoman 
deserts to the valleys of Khorasan are seldom as low as 3500, and 
usually rise to 5000, 6000 and even 8500 ft., and in most cases are 
very difficult. It is pierced by only one wide opening, that between 
the Great and Little Balkans, through which the sea, which once 
covered the steppe, maintained connexion with the Caspian. 

While the Alla-dagh and Binalund border-ranges are chiefly 
composed of crystalline rocks and metamorphic slates, overlain 
by Devonian deposits, a series of more recent formations Upper 
and Lower Cretaceous and Miocene crops out in the outer wall 
of the Kopet-dagh. Here again we find that the mountains of Asia 
which stretch towards the north-west continued to be uplifted at 
a geologically recent epoch. Quarternary deposits have an extensive 
development on its slopes, and its foothills are bordered by a girdle 
of loess. 

The loess terrace, called Atok (" mountain base "), 10 to 20 m. 
in width, is very fertile; but it will produce nothing without irriga- 
tion , and the streams flowing from the Kopet-dagh are few and scanty. 
The winds which impinge upon the northern slope of the mountains 
have been deprived of all their moisture in crossing the Kara-kum 
the Black Sands of the Turkoman desert; and even such rain as 
falls on the Kopet-dagh (10^ in. a,t Kyzyl-arvat) too often reaches 
the soil in the shape of light showers which do not penetrate it, so 
that the average relative humidity is only 56 as compared with 62 
at even so dry a place as Krasnovodsk. Still, at those places where 
the mountain streams run closer to one another, as at Geok-tepe, 
Askhabad, Lutfabad and Kaaka, the villages are more populous, and 
the houses are surrounded by gardens, every square yard and every 
tree of which is nourished by irrigation. 

North of this narrow strip of irrigated land begins the desert 
the Kara-kum which extends from the mountains of Khorasan 
to Lake Aral and the plateau of Ust-Urt, and from the Caspian 
to the Amu-darya, interrupted only by the oases of Merv and 
Tejen. But the terrible shifting sands, blown into barkhans, or 
elongated hills, sometimes 50 and 60 ft. in height, are accumulated 
chiefly in the west, where the country has more recently emerged 
from the sea. Farther east the barkhans are more stable. Large 
areas amidst the sands are occupied by takyrs, or flat surfaces paved 
with clay, which, as a rule, is hard but becomes almost impassable 
after heavy rains. In these takyrs the Turkomans dig ditches, drain- 
ing into a kind of cistern, where the water of the spring rains can 
be preserved for a few months. Wells also are sunk, and the water 
is found in them at depths of 10 to 50, or occasionally 100 ft. and 
more. All is not desert in the strict sense; in spring there is for 
the most part a carpet of grass. 

The vegetation of the Kara-kum cannot be described as poor. 
The typical representative of the sandy deserts of Asia, the saksaul 
(Anabasis ammodendron), has been almost destroyed within the 
last hundred years, and occurs only sporadically, but the borders 
of the spaces covered with saline clay are brightened by forests 
of tamarisk, which are inhabited by great numbers of the desert 
warbler ( Atraphornis aralensis) a typical inhabitant of the sands- 
sparrows and ground-choughs (Podoces) ; the Houbara macqueeni, 
though not abundant, is characteristic of the region. Hares and 
foxes, jackals and wolves, marmots, moles, _ hedgehogs and one 
species of marten live in the steppe, especially in spring. As a whole, 
the fauna is richer than might be supposed, while in the Atok it 
contains representatives of all the species known in Turkestan, 
intermingled with Persian and Himalayan species. 

The Uzboi. A feature distinctive of the Turkoman desert is the 
very numerous shors, or elongated depressions, the lower portion 
of which are mostly occupied with moist sand. They are obviously 
the relics of brackish lakes, and, like the lakes of the Kirghiz steppes, 
they often follow one another in quick succession, thus closely 
resembling river-beds. As the direction of the .shors is generally 
from the higher terraces drained by the Amu-darya towards the 
lowlands of the Caspian, they were usually regarded as old beds 
of the Amu-darya, and were held to support the idea of its once 
having flowed across the Turkoman desert towards what is now 
the Caspian Sea. It was formerly considered almost settled, not 
only that that river (see Oxus) flowed into the Caspian during histor- 
ical times, but that after having ceased to do so in the yth century, 
its waters were again diverted to the Caspian about 1221. A chain 
of elongated depressions, bearing a faint resemblance to old river- 
beds, was traced from Urgenj to the gap between the Great and the 
Little Balkans; this was marked on the maps as the Uzboi, or old 
bed of the Oxus. 1 The idea of again diverting the Amu into the 
Caspian was thus set afloat, but the investigations of Russian engi- 
neers, especially A. E. Hedroitz, A. M. Konshin, I. V. Mushketov, 



1 On the original Russian map of the Transcaspian, drawn 
immediately after the survey of the Uzboi had been completed, the 
Uzboi has not the continuity which is given to it on subsequent 
maps. 



P. M. Lessar and Svintsov, 2 went to show that the Uzboi is no 
river-bed at all, and that no river has ever discharged its waters 
in that direction. The existence of an extensive lacustrine depres- 
sion, now represented by the small Sary-kamysh lakes, was proved, 
and it was evident that this depression, having a length of more 
than 130 m., a width of 70 m., and a depth of 280 ft. below the present 
level of Lake Aral, would have to be filled by the Amu before its 
waters could advance farther to the south-west. The sill of this 
basin being only 28 ft. below the present level of Lake Aral, this 
latter could not be made to disappear, nor even be notably reduced 
in size, by the Amu flowing south-west from Urgenj. A more careful 
exploration of the Uzboi has shown that, while the deposits in the 
Sary-kamysh depression, and the Aral shells they contain, bear 
unmistakable testimony to the fact of the basin having once been 
fed by the Amu-darya, no such traces are found along the Uzboi 
below the Sary-kamysh depression ; s on the contrary, shells of molluscs 
still inhabiting the Caspian are found in numbers all along it, and 
the supposed old bed has all the characteristics of a series of lakes 
which continued to subsist along the foothills of the Ust-Urt plateau, 
while the Caspian was slowly receding westwards during the post- 
Pliocene period. On rare occasions only did the waters of the Sary- 
kamysh, when raised by inundations above the sill just mentioned, 
send their surplus into the Uzboi. It appears most probable that 
in the l6th century the Sary-kamysh was confounded with a gulf 
of the Caspian; 4 and this gives much plausibility to Konshin's 
supposition that the changes in the lower course of the Amu (which 
no geologist would venture to ascribe to man, if they were to mean 
the alternative discharge of the Amu into the Caspian and Lake 
Aral) merely meant that by means of appropriate dams the Amu 
was made to flow in the I3th-i6th centuries alternately into Lake 
Aral and into the Sary-kamysh. 

The ancient texts (of Pliny, Strabo, Ptolemy) about the Jaxartes 
and Oxus only become intelligible when it is admitted that, since 
the epoch to which they relate, the outlines of the Caspian Sea 
and Lake Aral have undergone notable changes, commensurate 
with those which are supposed to have occurred in the courses of 
the Central Asian rivers. The desiccation of the Aral-Caspian basin 
proceeded with such rapidity that the shores of the Caspian cannot 
possibly have maintained for some twenty centuries the outlines 
which they exhibit at present. When studied in detail, the general 
configuration of ttie Transcaspian region leaves no doubt that both 
the Jaxartes and the Oxus, with its former tributaries, the Murghab 
and the Tejen, once flowed towards the west; but the Caspian of 
that time was not the sea of our days; its gulfs penetrated the 
Turkoman steppe, and washed the base of the Ust-Urt plateau. (See 
CASPIAN and ARAL.) 

Kelif-Uzboi. There is also no doubt that, instead of flowing 
north-westward of Kelif (on the present Bokhara- Afghan frontier), 
the Amu once bent south to join the Murghab and Tejen; the chain 
of depressions described by the Russian engineers as the Kelif- 
Uzboi 6 supports this hypothesis, which a geographer cannot avoid 
making when studying a map of the Transcaspian region ; but the 
date at which the Oxus followed such a course, and the extension 
which the Caspian basin then had towards the east, are uncertain. 

In 1897 the population numbered 377,416, of whom only 
42,431 lived in towns; but, besides those of whom the census 
took account, there were about 25,000 strangers and troops. 

2 Their original papers are printed in the Izvestia of the Russian 
Geographical Society, 1883 to 1887, also in the Journal of the Russian 
ministry of roads and communications. 

8 According to A. E. Hedroitz and A. M. Konshin the old Tonu- 
darya bed of the Amu contains shells of molluscs now living in the 
Amu (Cyrena fluminalis, Dreissensia polymorpha and Anodonta), 
The Sary-kamysh basin is characterized by deposits containing 
Neritina lilurata,, Dreissensia polymorpha and Limnaeus, character- 
istic of this basin. Below the Sary-kamysh there are no deposits 
containing shells characteristic of the Amu; Anodontae are found 
quite occasionally on the surface, not in beds, in company with the 
Caspian Cardium (Didacna) trigonoid.es, var. crassum, Cardium 
piramidatum. Dreissensia polymorpha, D. roslriformis, Hydrobia 
caspia, Neritina lilurata and Dreissensia beardii; the red clays 
containing these fossils extend for 130 m. east of the Caspian (Izvestia 
of Russ. Geog. Soc., 1883 and 1886). 

4 As by Jenkinson, who mentions a freshwater gulf of the Caspian 
within six days' march from Khwarezm (or Khiva), by which gulf 
he could only mean the Sary-kamysh depression. 

6 The Turkomans call this southern " old bed " Unghyuz or Onguz 
(" dry old bed "), and there can be no doubt that when the Bolshoi- 
Chertezh of the i6th century (speaking from anterior information) 
mentions a river, Ughyuz or Ugus, flowing west from the Amu 
towards the Caspian, it is merely describing as a river what the very 
name shows to have been a dry bed, supposed to have been once 
occupied by a river. The similarity of the names Ongus and Ugus 
with Ogus and Ochus possibly helped to accentuate, if not to give 
rise to, the confusion. Cf. N. G. Petrusevich, " The South-east 
Shores of the Caspian," in Zapiski of the Caucasian Geographical 
Society (1880), vol. xi. 



172 



TRANSCAUCASIA TRANSEPT 



Included in the total were some 280,000 Turkomans, 60,000 
Kirghiz, 12,000 Russians, 8000 Persians, 4250 Armenians, and 
some Tatars. The estimated population in 1906 was 397,100. 
The province is divided into five districts, the chief towns of 
which are Askhabad, the capital; Krasnovodsk; Fort Alexan- 
drovskiy, in the district of Manghishlak, on the Caspian Sea; 
Merv and Tejen. Until a recent date the chief occupations of 
the Turkomans were cattle-rearing and robbery. Even those 
who had settled abodes on the oases of the Atok, Tejen and Merv 
were in the habit of encamping during the spring in the steppes, 
the khanates of Afghan Turkestan from Balkh to Meshhed being 
periodically devastated by them. The aspect of the steppe 
has, however, greatly changed since the Russian advance and 
the fall ( 1 88 1 ) of the Turkoman stronghold of Geok-tepe. Their 
principal oases are situated along the Atok or loess terrace, the 
chief settlements being Askhabad, Kyzyl-arvat and Geok-tepe. 
The oasis of Merv is inhabited by Akhal-tekkes (about 240,000) , 
mostly poor. In January 1887 they submitted to Russia. The 
oasis of Tejen has sprung up where the river Tejen (Heri-rud) 
terminates in the desert. 

South-west Turcomania. The region between the Heri-rud and 
the Murghab has the characteristics of a plateau, reaching about 
2000 ft. above the sea, with hills 500 and 600 ft. high covered with 
sand, the spaces between being filled with loess. The Borkhut 
Mountains which connect the Kopet-dagh with the Sefid-kuh in 
Afghanistan reach 3000 to 4000 ft., and are cleft by the Heri-rud. 
Thickets of poplar and willow accompany both the Murghab and 
the Heri-rud. Pistachio and mulberry trees grow in isolated clumps 
on the hills ; but there are few places available for cultivation, and 
the Saryk Turkomans (some 60,000 in number) congregate in only 
two oases Yol-otan or Yelatan, and Penjdeh. The Sarakhs oasis 
is occupied by the Salor Turkomans, hereditary enemies of the Tekke 
Turkomans; they number about 3000 tents at Old Sarakhs, and 1700 
more on the Murghab, at Chardjui, at Maimene (or Meimane), and 
close to Herat. 

The Transcaspian Region is very rich in minerals. Rock-salt, 
petroleum, gypsum and sulphur are extracted. Nearly 300,000 
acres are irrigated by the natives, and attempts are being made by 
the government to increase the irrigated area; it is considered that 
over 5,000,000 acres of land could be rendered suitable for agriculture. 
Several hundred thousand trees are planted every year, and a forest 
guard has been established to prevent useless destruction of the 
saksaul trees, which grow freely in the steppes. A model garden 
and a mulberry plantation have been established at Askhabad 
in connexion with the gardening school. The land in the oases, 
especially those of the Atrek River, is highly cultivated. Wheat and 
barley are grown, in addition to sorghum (a species of millet), maize, 
rice, millet and sesame for oil. Raw cotton is extensively grown in 
the Merv district. Gardening and fruit-growing are well developed, 
and attempts are being made to encourage the spread of viticulture. 
Livestock breeding is the chief occupation of the nomad Turkomans 
and Kirghiz. Considerable fishing is carried on in the Caspian Sea, 
and seals are killed off the Manghishlak peninsula. The natives 
excel in domestic industries, as the making of carpets, travelling 
bags, felt goods and embroidered leather. The Russian population 
is mostly limited to the military and the towns. Wheat, flour, wool, 
raw cotton and dried fruit are exported; while tea, manufactured 
goods, timber, sugar, iron and paraffin oil are imported, as also rice 
and fruit from Bokhara, Turkestan and Persia. The Transcaspian 
railway, constructed across the province from Krasnovodsk to Merv, 
with a branch to Kushk, and from Merv to Bokhara and Russian 
Turkestan, has effected quite a revolution in the trade of Central 
Asia. The old caravan routes via Orenburg have lost their impor- 
tance, and goods coming from India, Persia, Bokhara and even 
China are now carried by rail. (For the history of the region 
see MERV.) 

See the researchesof Andrusov, Bogdanovich, Konshin, Mushketov 
and Obruchev in the Memoirs, the Bulletin (Izvestia) and the Annuals 
of the Russian Geographical Society (1890-1900); P. M. Lessar, 
L' Ancienne junction de I'Oxus avec la mer Caspienne (1889) ; Zarudnoi 
(zoology) in Bulletin de la society des naturalistes de Moscou (1889 
seq.). (P. A. K.; J.T. BE.) 

TRANSCAUCASIA, a general name given to the governments 
and provinces of Russian Caucasia, excluding the steppe 
provinces of Kuban and Terek and the steppe government 
of Stavropol. It thus includes the governments of Baku, 
Elisavetpol, Erivan, Kutais and Tiflis; the provinces of Batum, 
Daghestan and Kars; and the military districts of the Black 
Sea (Chernomorsk) and Zakataly. Its area is 95,402 sq. m., 
and the estimated population in 1906 was 6,114,600. (See 
CAUCASIA and CAUCASUS.) 



TRANSCENDENTALISM (Lat. trans, across, scandere, climb, 
whence Iranscendere, to pass a limit) , in philosophy, any system 
which emphasizes the limited character of that which can be 
perceived by the senses and is based on the view that true know- 
ledge is intuitive, or supernatural. The term is specially applied 
to Kant's philosophy and its successors which hold that know- 
ledge of the a priori is possible. It is traceable as far back as 
the schoolmen of whom Duns Scotus describes as " transcen- 
dental " those conceptions which have a higher degree of univer- 
sality than the Aristotelian categories. Thus ens (being) is 
more universal than God or the physical universe because it 
can be predicated of both. Kant distinguishes as " transcen- 
dent " the world of things-in-themselves as being without the 
limits of experience; while " transcendental " is his term for 
those elements which regulate human experience, though they 
are themselves beyond experience; such are the categories of 
space, time, causality. 

In general use the term is applied rather promiscuously and 
frequently by way of criticism to an attitude of mind which is 
imaginative, aloof from mundane affairs and unmoved by 
practical considerations. The most famous example of the 
pseudo-philosophic use of the term is for a movement of thought 
which was prominent in the New England states from about 
1830 to 1850. Its use originated in the Transcendental Club 
(1836) founded by Emerson, Frederic Henry Hedge (1805-1890), 
and others. This movement had several aspects: philosophical, 
theological, social, economic. Its main theme was regeneration, 
a revolt from the formalism of both Unitarian' and Calvinist 
theology and a widening literary outlook. It took its rise to a 
large extent in the study of German (and to a less extent French) 
philosophy and spread widely among the cultured classes. 
In 1840 the club began to issue an official organ, The Dial, 
and the settlement of Brook Farm (q.v.) followed in 1841. 
These enterprises themselves did not receive general support 
even among the Transcendentalist leaders, and the real signifi- 
cance of the movement was the stimulus which it gave to 
philanthropy, to the Abolition movement, and to a new ideal of 
individual character. The chief names associated with it, 
besides those of Emerson and Hedge, are those of A. B. Alcott 
(q.v.), Margaret Fuller (q.v.), George Ripley (q.v.), W. E. 
Channing (q.v.), and H. D. Thoreau (q.v.). 

TRANSEPT (from Lat. trans, across, and septum, enclosure; 
synonymous terms in other languages are Fr. croisee, nef trans- 
vers&e; Ital. crociala; Ger. Querbau, Querschiff), in architecture, 
the term given to the large and lofty structure which lies at 
right angles to the nave and aisles of a church. The first example 
is that which existed in the old St Peter's at Rome, but as a rule 
it is not found in the early basilicas. At the present day the 
transept might be better defined as that portion of a cruciform 
church which extends from north to south across the main body 
of the building and usually separates the choir from the nave; 
but to this there are some exceptions, as in Westminster Abbey, 
where the choir, with its rood screen, occupies the first four bays 
of the nave; in Norwich two bays; in Gloucester one bay; and 
Winchester one bay. In some of the English cathedrals there 
is an eastern transept, as in Canterbury, Lincoln, Salisbury and 
Worcester; at Durham that which might be regarded as an 
eastern transept is the chapel of the Nine Altars, and the same 
is found in Fountains Abbey. Four of the English cathedrals 
have aisles on east and west sides, viz. Ely, Wells, Winchester and 
York, while at Chester there are aisles to the south transept only, 
and at Lincoln, Peterborough and Salisbury on the east side 
only. In some cases the transept extends to the outer walls 
of the aisles on'.y, but there are many instances in which it is 
carried beyond, as at Lincoln (225 ft. long), Ely (180 ft.), Peter- 
borough (iSoft.), Durham (175 ft.) and Norwich (172 ft.); in all 
these cases the transept is carried three bays beyond; in York 
(220 ft.), St Albans (170 ft.), Lichfield (145 ft.) and Canterbury, 
east transept (165 ft.), two bays beyond; and in Canterbury, 
western transept (130 ft.), Chichester (160 ft.) and Worcester 
(130 ft.), only one bay on each side, the dimension in all cases 
being taken within the north and south walls of the transept. 



TRANSFER TRANSFORMERS 



173 



TRANSFER (from Lat. transferre, to bear across, carry over), 
the handing over, removal or conveyance of anything from one 
person or place to another; also the subject of this transference 
or the form or method by which it is effected. The term is 
particularly used in law of the conveyance of property from one 
person to another, especially of the conveyance of real property 
(see CONVEYANCING). For the simplification of this process by 
means of registration of title, see LAND REGISTRATION. For the 
transference of designs, drawings, &c., by means of transfer- 
paper to the surface of pottery and porcelain, see CERAMICS; 
for their transfer to stones for printing, see LITHOGRAPHY. 

TRANSFORMERS. An electrical transformer is the name 
given to any device for producing by means of one electric 
current another of a different character. The working of such 
an appliance is, of course, subject to the law of conservation of 
energy. The resulting current represents less power than the 
applied current, the difference being represented by the power 
dissipated in the translating process. Hence an electrical 
transformer corresponds to a simple machine in mechanics, 
both transforming power from one form into another with a 
certain energy-dissipation depending upon frictional losses, 
or something equivalent to them. Electrical transformers 
may be divided into several classes, according to the nature of 
the transformation effected. The first division comprises those 
which change the form of the power, but keep the type of the 
current the same; the second those that change the type of 
the current as well as the form of power. The power given up 
electrically to any circuit is measured by the product of the 
effective value of the current, the effective value of the difference 
of potential between the ends of the circuit and a factor called 
the power factor. In dealing with periodic currents, the effective 
value is that called the root-mean-square value (R.M.S.), that 
is to say, the square root of the mean of the squares of the time 
equidistant instantaneous values during one complete period 
(see ELECTROKINETICS). In the case of continuous current, 
the power factor is unity, and the effective value of the current 
or voltage is the true mean value. As the electrical measure of 
a power is always a product involving current and voltage, we 
may transform the character of the power by increasing or 
diminishing the current with a corresponding decrease or increase 
of the voltage. A transformer which raises voltage is generally 
called a step-up transformer, and one which lowers voltage 
a step-down transformer. 

Again, electric currents may be of various types, such as con- 
tinuous, single-phase alternating, polyphase alternating, undirec- 
tional but pulsating, &c. Accordingly, transformers may be 
distinguished in another way, in accordance with the type of 
transformation they effect, (i) An alternating current trans- 
former is an appliance for creating an alternating current of any 
required magnitude and electromotive force from another of 
different value and electromotive force, but of the same fre- 
quency. An alternating current transformer may be con- 
structed to transform either single-phase or polyphase currents. 
(2) A continuous current transformer is an appliance which effects 
a similar transformation for continuous currents, with the 
difference that some part of the machine must revolve, whereas 
in the alternating current transformer all parts of the machine 
are stationary; hence the former is generally called a rotatory 
transformer, and the latter a static transformer. (3) A rotatory 
or rotary transformer may consist of one machine, or of two 
separate machines, adapted for converting a single-phase alter- 
nating current into a polyphase current, or a polyphase current 
into a continuous current, or a continuous current into an alter- 
nating current. If the portions receiving and putting out power 
are separate machines, the combination is called a motor-gene- 
rator. (4) A transformer adapted for converting a single-phase 
alternating current into a unidirectional but pulsatory current 
is called a rectifier, and is much used in connexion with arc 
lighting in alternating current supply stations. (5) A phase trans- 
former is an arrangement of static transformers for producing 
a polyphase alternating current from a single-phase alternating 
current. Alternating current transformers may be furthermore 



divided into (a) single-phase, (b) polyphase. Transformers of 
the first class change an alternating current of single-phase 
to one of single-phase identical frequency, but different power; 
and transformers of the second class operate in a similar manner 
on polyphase currents. (6) The ordinary induction or spark 
coil may be called an intermittent current transformer, since it 
transforms an intermittent low-tension primary current into an 
intermittent or alternating high-tension current. 

Alternating Current Transformer. The typical alternating 
current transformer consists essentially of two insulated electric 
circuits wound on an iron core constituting the magnetic 
circuit. They may be divided into (i) open magnetic circuit 
static transformers, and (2) closed magnetic circuit static trans- 
formers, according as the iron core takes the form of a terminated 
bar or a closed ring. A closed circuit alternating current trans- 
former consists of an iron core built up of thin sheets of iron or 
steel, insulated from one another, and wound over with two 
insulated conducting circuits, called the primary and secondary 
circuits. The core must be laminated or built up of thin sheets 
of iron to prevent local electric currents, called eddy currents, 
from being established in it, which would waste energy. In 
practical construction, the core is either a simple ring, round or 
rectangular, or a double rectangular ring, that is,' a core whose 
section is like the figure 8. To prepare the core, thin sheets of 
iron or very mild steel, not thicker than -014 of an inch, are 
stamped out of special iron (see ELECTROMAGNETISM) and care- 
fully annealed. 

The preparation of the particular sheet steel or iron used for this 
purpose is now a speciality. It must possess extremely small 
hysteresis loss (see MAGNETISM), and various trade names, such as 
" stalloy," " lohys," are in use to describe certain brands. Barrett, 
Brown and Hadfield have shown (Journ. Inst. Eiec. Eng. Land., 
1902, 31, p. 713) that a silicon iron containing 2-87% of silicon has 
a hysteresis loss far less than that of the best Swedish soft iron. 
In any case the hysteresis loss should not exceed 3-0 watts per kilo- 
gram of iron measured at a frequency of 50 and a flux-density of 
10,000 Jines per square centimetre. This is now called the " figure 
of merit " of the iron. 

Examples of the shapes in which these stampings "are supplied 
are shown in fig. i. The plates when annealed are varnished or 
covered with thin paper on one side, and then piled up so as to 
make an iron core, being kept together by bolts and nuts or by 
pressure plates. The designer of a 
transformer core has in view, first, 
economy in metal, so that there may 
be no waste fragments, and second, 
a mode of construction that facili- 
tates the winding of the wire circuits. 
These consist of coils of cotton- 
covered copper wire which are wound 
on formers and baked after being well 
saturated with shellac varnish. The 
primary and secondary circuits are 
sometimes formed of separate bobbins 
which are sandwiched in between 
each other; in other cases they are 
wound one over the other (fig. 2). 
In any case the primary and secondary coils must be symmetri- 
cally distributed. If they were placed on opposite sides of the 
iron circuit the result would be considerable magnetic leakage. 
It is usual to insert sheets or cylinders of micanite between the 
primary and secondary windings. The transformer is then well 
baked and placed in a cast-iron case sometimes filled in with heavy 
insulating oil, the ends of the primary and secondary circuits being 
brought out through water-tight glands. The most ordinary type 
of alternating current transformer is one intended to transform a 
small electric current produced by a large electromotive force 
(2000 to 10,000 volts) into a larger current of low electromotive force 
( i oo to 200 volts). Such a step- 
down transformer may be obvi- 
ously employed in the reverse 
direction for raising pressure and 
reducing current, in which case it 
is a step-up transformer. A trans- 
former when manufactured has to 
be carefully tested to ascertain, 
first, its power of resisting break- 
down, and, second, its energy- 
dissipating qualities. With the 
first object, the transformer is 
subjected to a series of pressure 
tests. If it is intended that the [FlG. 2. Closed Circuit Trans- 
primary shall carry a current former. 




FIG. I. 



Core 




Prlmaty 

Circuit 

Secood&ry 

Circuit 



TRANSFORMERS 



produced by an electromotive force of 2000 volts, an insulation tes 
must be applied with double this voltage between the primary am 
the secondary, the primary and the case, and the primary and th< 
core, to ascertain whether the insulation is sufficient. To preven. 
electric discharges from breaking down the machine in ordinary 
work, this extra pressure ought to be applied for at least a quartei 
of an hour. In some cases three or four times the working pressun 
is applied for one minute between the primary and secondary circuits 
When such an alternating current transformer has an alternating 
current passed through its primary circuit, an alternating magnetiza 
tion is produced in the core, and this again induces an alternating 
secondary current. The secondary current has a greater or less 
electromotive force than the primary current according as the 
number of windings or turns on the secondary circuit is greater or 
less than those on the primary. Of the power thus imparted to 
the primary circuit one portion is dissipated by the heat generatec 
in the primary and secondary circuits by the currents, and another 
portion by the iron core losses due to the energy wasted in the cyclica 
magnetization of the core; the latter are partly eddy current losses 
and partly hysteresis losses. 

In open magnetic circuit transformers the core takes the form oi 
a laminated iron bar or a bundle of iron wire. An ordinary induc- 
tion coil is an instrument of this description. It has been shown 
however, by careful experiments, that for alternating current trans- 
formation there are very few cases in which the closed magnetic 
circuit transformer has not an advantage. An immense number 
of designs of closed circuit transformers have been elaborated since 
the year 1885. The principal modern types are the Ferranti, Kapp, 
Mordey, Brush, Westinghouse, Berry, Thomson-Houston and Ganz. 
Diagrammatic representations of the arrangements of the core and 
circuits in some of these transformers are given in fig. 3. 




A B C 

FIG. 3. Diagrams of (A) Mordey (in section;, (B) Kapp and 
(C) Ganz Transformers. 

i, i Primary circuit; 2, 2 Secondary circuit. 
Alternating current transformers are classified into (i.) Core 
and (ii.) Shell transformers, depending upon the arrangements 
of the iron and copper circuits. If the copper circuits are wound 
on the outside of what is virtually an iron ring, the transformer 
is a core transformer; if the iron encloses the copper circuits, it 
is a shell transformer. Shell transformers have the disadvantage 
generally of poor ventilaton for the copper circuits. Berry, 
however, has overcome this difficulty by making the iron circuit 
in the form of a number of bunches of rectangular frames which 
are set in radial fashion and the adjacent legs all embraced by 
the two copper circuits in the form of a pair of concentric 
cylinders. In this manner he secures good ventilation and a 
minimum expenditure in copper and iron, as well as the possi- 
bility of insulating the two copper circuits well from each other 
and from the core. An important matter is the cooling of the 
core. This may be effected either by ordinary radiation, or 
by a forced draught of air made by a fan or else by immersing 
the transformer in oil, the oil being kept cool by pipes through 
which cold water circulates immersed in it. This last method 
is adopted for large high-tension transformers. 

The ratio between the power given out by a transformer 
and the power taken up by it is called its efficiency, and is best 
Efficiency, represented by a curve, of which the ordinate is 
the efficiency expressed as a percentage, and the 
corresponding abscissae represent the fractions of the full load 
as decimal fractions. The output of the transformer is generally 
reckoned in kilowatts, and the load is conveniently expressed 
in. decimal fractions of the full load taken as unity. The 
efficiency on one-tenth of full load is generally a fairly good 
criterion of the economy of the transformer as a transforming 
agency. In large transformers the one-tenth load efficiency 
will reach 90% or more, and in small transformers 75 to 80%. 



The general form of the efficiency curve for a closed circuit trans- 
former is shown in fig. 4. The horizontal distances represent 
fractions of full secondary load (represented by unity), and the 
vertical distances efficiency in percentages. The efficiency 
curve has a maximum value corresponding to that degree of 
load at which the copper losses, in the transformer are equal to 
the iron losses. 

In the case of modern closed magnetic circuit transformers the 
copper losses are proportional to the square of the secondary cur- 
rent (It) or to gI 2 2 , where g = R ia 2 + R 2 ; Ri being the resistance 
of the primary and R 2 that of the secondary circuit, while a is 
the ratio of the number of secondary and primary windings of 
the transformer. Let C stand for the core loss, and V 2 for the 
secondary terminal potential difference (R.M.S. value). We can 
then write as an expression for the efficiency ();) of the transformer 
(7) = I 2 V 2 / (C + gI 2 2 +I 2 V 2 ). It is easy to show that if d, V 2 and 
g are constants, but I 2 is variable, the above expression for -n has 
a maximum value when C-gI 2 2 = O, that is, when the iron core 
loss C=the total copper losses q\<?. 

The iron core energy-waste, due to the hysteresis and eddy 
currents, may be stated in watts, or expressed as a fraction 
of the full load secondary output. In small trans- i maaaa 
formers of i to 3 kilowatts output it may amount Copper 
to 2 or 3 %, and in large transformers of 10 to 50 . Losses. 
kilowatts and upwards it. should be i or less than i %. 
Thus the core loss of a 3o-kilowatt transformer (one having a 
secondary output of 30,000 watts) should not exceed 250 watts. 
It has been shown that 
for the constant po- 
tential transformer the 
iron core loss is constant 
at all loads, but di- 
minishes slightly as the 
core temperature rises. 
On the other hand, the 
copper losses due to 
the resistance of the 
copper circuits increase 
about 0-4% per degree 
C. with rise of tempera- 
ture. The current taken 
in at the primary side of 
the transformer, when 
the secondary circuit is 
unclosed, is called the 

magnetizing current, and the power then absorbed by the 
transformer is called the open circuit loss or magnetizing 
watts. The ratio of the terminal potential difference at 
the primary and secondary terminals is called the trans- 
formation ratio of the transformer. Every transformer is 
designed to give a certain transformation ratio, corresponding 
:o some particular primary voltage. In some cases trans- 
'ormers are designed to transform, not potential difference, 
Dut current in a constant ratio. The product of the root-mean- 
square (R.M.S.), effective or virtual, values of the primary 
current, and the primary terminal potential difference, is called 
.he apparent power or apparent watts given to the transformer. 
The true electrical power may be numerically equal to this 
product, but it is never greater, and is sometimes less. The 
atio of the true power to the apparent power is called the power 
factor of the transformer. The power factor approaches unity 
n the case of a closed circuit transformer, which is loaded non- 
nductively on the secondary circuit to any considerable fraction 
>f its full load, but in the case of an open circuit transformer 
he power factor is always much less than unity at all loads. 
3 ower factor curves show the variation of power factor with load. 
Examples of these curves were first .given by J. A. Fleming, 
who suggested the term itself (see Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng. Land., 
892, 21, p. 606). A low power factor always implies a magnetic 
:ircuit of large reluctance. 

The operation of the alternating current is then as follows: the 

periodic magnetizing force of the primary circuit creates a periodic 

magnetic flux in the core, and this being linked with the primary 

ircuit creates by its variation what is called the back electromotive 

orce in the primary circuit. The variation of the particular portion 



Fraction of Full Load. 

FIG. 4. Typical Efficiency Curve of 
Closed Circuit Transformer. 



TRANSFORMERS 



of this periodic flux, linked with the secondary circuit, originates 
in this last a periodic electromotive force. The whole of the flux 
linked with the primary circuit is not interlinked with the secondary 
circuit. The difference is called the magnetic leakage of the trans- 
former. This leakage is increased with the secondary output of the 
transformer and with any disposition of the primary and secondary 
coils which tends to separate them. The leakage exhibits itself 
by increasing the secondary drop. If a transformer is worked at 
a constant primary potential difference, the secondary terminal 
potential difference at no load or on open secondary circuit is 
greater than it is when the secondary is closed and the transformer 
giving its full output. The difference between these last two 
differences of potential is called the secondary drop. This secondary 
drop should not exceed 2 % of the open secondary circuit potential 
difference. 

The facts required to be known about an alternating current 
transformer to appraise its value are (i) its full load secondary 
output or the numerical value of the power it is 
designed to transform, on the assumption that it 
will not rise in temperature more than about 60 C. 
above the atmosphere when in normal use; (2) the primary and 
secondary terminal voltages and currents, accompanied by a 
statement whether the transformer is intended for producing 
a constant secondary voltage or a constant secondary current; 
(3) the efficiency at various fractions on secondary load from 
one-tenth to full load taken at a stated frequency; (4) the power 
factor at one- tenth of full load and at full load; (5) the secondary 
drop between full load and no load; (6) the iron core loss, also the 
magnetizing current, at the normal frequency; (7) the total 
copper losses at full load and at one-tenth of full load; (8) the 
final temperature of the transformer after being left on open 
secondary circuit but normal primary potential for twenty-four 
hours, and at full load for three hours. 

The matters of most practical importance in connexion with an 
alternating current transformer are (l) the iron core loss, which 
affects the efficiency chiefly, and must be considered (a) as to its 
initial value, and (b) as affected by " ageing " or use ; (2) the secondary 
drop or difference of secondary voltage between full and no load, 
primary voltage being constant, since this affects the service and 
power of the transformer to work in parallel with others ;-and (3) the 
temperature rise when in normal use, which affects the insulation 
and life of the transformer. The shellacked cotton, oil and other 
materials with which the transformer circuits are insulated suffer 
a deterioration in insulating power if continuously maintained at 
any temperature much above 80 C. to 100 C. In taking the tests 
for core loss and drop, the temperature of the transformer should 
therefore be stated. The iron losses are reduced in value as tem- 
perature rises and the copper losses are increased. The former may 
be 10 to 15% less and the latter 20% greater than when the trans- 
former is cold. For the purpose of calculations we require to know 
the number of turns on the primary and secondary circuits, repre- 
sented by NI and N 2 ; the resistances of the primary and secondary 
circuits, represented by Ri and R 2 ; the volume (V) and weight (W) 
of the iron core; and the mean length (L) and section (Sj of the 
magnetic sectio'n. The hysteresis loss of the iron reckoned in watts 
per tb per 100 cycles of magnetization per second and at a maximum 
flux density of 2500 C.G.S. units should also be determined. 

The experimental examination of a transformer involves 
the measurement of the efficiency, the iron core loss, and the 
secondary drop; also certain tests as to insulation and 
heating, and finally an examination of the relative 
phase position and graphic form of the various periodic quanti- 
ties, currents and electromotive forces taking place in the trans- 
former. The efficiency is best determined by the employment 
w of a properly constructed 

wattmeter (see WATT- 
METER). The trans- 
former T (fig. 5) should 
be so arranged that, if a 
constant potential trans- 
former, it is supplied 
with its normal working 
pressure at the primary 
side and with a load 
which can be varied, and 
which is obtained either 
by incandescent lamps, L, or resistances in the secondary 
circuit. A wattmeter, W, should be placed with its series 
coil, Se, in the primary circuit of the transformer, and its 



Testing. 




FlG. 5. Arrangement for Testing 
Transformers. 



shunt coil, Sh, either across the primary mains in series, 
with a suitable non-inductive resistance, or connected to the 
secondary circuit of another transformer, T 1 , called an 
auxiliary transformer, having its primary terminals connected 
to those of the transformer under test. In the latter case one 
or more incandescent lamps, L, may be connected in series 
with the shunt coil of the wattrrTeter so as to regulate the 
current passing through it. The current through the series 
coil of the wattmeter is then the same as the current through the 
primary circuit of the transformer under test, and the current 
through the shunt coil of the wattmeter is in step with, and 
proportional to, the primary voltage of the transformer. Hence 
the wattmeter reading is proportional to the mean power given 
up to the transformer. The wattmeter can be standardized and 
its scale reading interpreted by replacing the transformer under 
test by a non-inductive resistance or series of lamps, the power 
absorption of which is measured by the product of the amperes 
and volts supplied to it. In the secondary circuit of the trans- 
former is placed another wattmeter of a similar kind, or, if the 
load on the secondary circuit is non-inductive, the secondary 
voltage and the secondary current can be measured with a 
proper alternating current ammeter, A 2 , and voltmeter, Vi, and 
the product of these readings taken as a measure of the power 
given out by the transformer. The ratio of the powers, namely, 
that given out in the external secondary circuit and that taken 
in by the primary circuit, is the efficiency of the transformer. 

In testing large transformers, when it is inconvenient to load up 
the secondary circuit to the full load, a close approximation to the 
power taken up at any assumed secondary load can be obtained by 
adding to the value of this secondary load, measured in watts, the 
iron core loss of the transformer, measured at no load, and the copper 
losses calculated from the measured copper resistances when the 
transformer is hot. Thus, if C is the iron core loss in watts, measured 
on open secondary circuit, that is to say, is the power given to the 
transformer at normal frequency and primary voltage, and if Ri 
and R 2 are the primary and secondary circuit resistances when the 
transformer has the temperature it would have after running at 
full load for two or three hours, then the efficiency can be calculated 
as follows : Let O be the nominal value of the full secondary output 
of the transformer in watts, Vi and V 2 the terminal voltages on the 
primary and secondary side, Ni and N 2 the number of turns, and Ai 
and A 2 the currents for the two circuits; then O/V 2 is the full load 
secondary current measured in amperes, and N 2 Ni multiplied by 
O/V 2 is to a sufficient approximation the value of the corresponding 
primary current. Hence O 2 R 2 /V 2 2 is the watts lost in the secondary 
circuit due to copper resistance, and O 2 RiN 2 2 /V 2 2 Ni 2 is the corre- 
sponding loss in the primary circuit. Hence the total power loss 
in the transformer ( = L) is such that 

L = C 

Therefore the power given up to the transformer is O+L, and the 
efficiency is the fraction O/(O+L) expressed as a percentage. In 
this manner the efficiency can be determined with a considerable 
degree of accuracy in the case of large transformers without actually 
loading up the secondary circuit. The secondary drop, however, 
can only be measured by loading the transformer up to full load, 
and, while the primary voltage is kept constant, measuring the 
potential difference of the secondary terminals, and comparing it 
with the same difference when the transformer is not loaded. Another 
method of testing large transformers at full load without supplying 
the actual power is by W. E. Snmpner's differential method, which 
can be done when two equal transformers are available (see Fleming, 
Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room, ii. 602). 

No test of a transformer is complete which does not comprise 
some investigation of the " ageing " of the core. The slow 
changes which take place in the hysteretic quality ^geia 
of iron when heated, in the case of certain brands, 
give rise to a time-increase in iron core loss. Hence a trans- 
former which has a core loss, say, of 300 watts when new, may, 
unless the iron is well chosen, have its core loss increased from 
50 to 300% by a few months' use. In some cases specifications 
for transformers include fines and deductions from price for any 
such increase; but there has in this respect been great improve- 
ment in the manufacture of iron for magnetic purposes, and 
makers are now able to obtain supplies of good magnetic iron 
or steel with non-ageing qualities. It is always desirable, how- 
ever, that in the case of large sub-station transformers tests 
should be made at intervals to discover whether the core loss 



176 



TRANSFORMERS 



has increased by ageing. If so, it may mean a very considerable 
increase in the cost of magnetizing power. Consider the case 
ef a 30-kilowatt transformer connected to the mains all the year 
round; the normal core loss of such a transformer should be 
about 300 watts, and therefore, since there are 8760 hours in 
the year, the total annual energy dissipated in the core should 
be 2628 kilowatt hours. Reckoning the value of this electric 
energy at only one penny per unit, the core loss costs 10, ips. 
per annum. If the core loss becomes doubled, it means an 
additional annual expenditure of nearly 11. Since the cost 
of such a transformer would not exceed 100, it follows that it 
would be economical to replace it by a new one rather than 
continue to work it at its enhanced core loss. 

In Great Britain the sheet steel or iron alloy used for the trans- 
former cores is usually furnished to specifications which state the 
maximum hysteresis loss to be allowed in it in watts per Ib 
(avoirdupois) at a frequency of 50, and at a maximum flux-density 
during the cycle of 4000 C.G.S. units. When plates having a thick- 
ness t mils are made up into a transformer core, the total energy 
loss in the core due to hysteresis and eddy current loss when worked 
at a frequency n and a maximum flux-density during the cycle B 
is given by the empirical formulae 

T = 0032B 1 ' 66 1 o- 7 + (teB) 2 1 o- 18 , 



where T stands for the loss per cubic centimetre, and TI for the 
same in watts per pound of iron core, B for the maximum flux- 
density in lines per square centimetre, and Bi for the same in lines 
per square inch, / for the thickness of the plates in thousandths 
of an inch (mils), and t\ for the same in inches. The hysteresis 
loss varies as some power near to I -6 of the maximum flux-density 
during the cycle as shown by Steinmetz (see ELECTRO-MAGNETISM). 
Since the hysteresis loss varies as the l-6th power of the maximum 
flux-density during the cycle (B max.), the advantages of a low 
flux-density are evident. An excessively low flux-density increases, 
however, the cost of the core and the copper by increasing the size 
of the transformer. If the form factor (/) of the primary voltage 
curve is known, then the maximum value of the flux-density in the 
core can always be calculated from the formula B = Ei/4/BSNi, 
where E is the R.M.S. value of the primary voltage, Ni the primary 
turns, S the section of the core, and n the frequency. 

The study of the processes taking place in the core and circuits 
of a transformer have been greatly facilitated in recent years by 
Carve the improvements made in methods of observing and 
Tracing. recording the variation of periodic currents and 
electromotive forces. The original method, due to Joubert, 
was greatly improved and employed by Ryan, Bell, Duncan 
and Hutchinson, Fleming, Hopkinson and Rosa, Callendar 
and Lyle; but the most important improvement was the 
introduction and invention of the oscillograph by Blondel, 
subsequently improved by Duddell, and also of the ondograph 
of Hospitalier (see OSCILLOGRAPH). This instrument enables 
us, as it were, to look inside a transformer, for which it, in fact, 
performs the same function that a steam engine indicator does 
for the steam cylinder. 1 Delineating in this way the curves 
of primary and secondary current and primary and secondary 
electromotive forces, we get the following result: Whatever 
may be the form of the curve of primary terminal potential 
difference, or primary voltage, that of the secondary voltage 
or terminal potential difference is an almost exact copy, but 

displaced 180 in phase. Hence 
the alternating current trans- 
former reproduces on its second- 
ary terminals ah 1 the variations 
of potential on the primary, 
but changed in scale. The curve 
of primary current when the 
FIG. 6. Transformer Curves transformer is an open secondary 
at no load. circuit is different in form and 

,. Primary voltage curve; phase, lagging behind the primary 
A, Primary current curve; d, voltage curve (fig. 6); but if the 
Secondary voltage curve. transformer is loaded up on its 

1 For a useful list of references to published papers on alternating 
current curve tracing, see a paper by W. D. B. Duddell, read before 
the British Association, Toronto, 1897; also Electrician (1897), 
xxxix. 636; also Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing 
Room (J. A. Fleming), i. 407. 





secondary side, then the primary current curve comes more into 
step with the primary voltage curve. The secondary current 
curve, if the secondary load is non-inductive, is in step with the 
secondary voltage curve (fig. 7). These transformer diagrams 
yield much information as to the nature of the operations 
proceeding in the transformer. 

The form of the curve of primary current at no secondary load is 
a consequence of the hysteresis of the iron, combined with the fact 
that the form of the core flux-density curves of the transformer 
is always not far removed from a simple sine curve. If i is at any 
moment the electromotive force, ii the current on the primary 
circuit, and 61 is the flux-density in the core, then we have the 
fundamental relation i = Rii'i+SNi db\/dt, where Ri is the re- 
sistance of the primary, and Ni the number of turns, and S is 
the cross-section of the core. In all modern closed circuit trans- 
formers the quantity Riii is very small compared with the quantity 
Stidbfdt except at one instant during the phase, and in taking the 
integral of the above equation, viz. in finding the value of feidt, 
the integral of the first term on the right-hand side may be 
neglected in comparison with the second. Hence we have approxi- 
mately 61 = (SNij r l feidt. In other words, the value of the flux- 
density in the core is obtained by integrating the area of the primary 
voltage curve. In so doing the integration must be started from 
the time point through which passes the ordinate bisecting the 
area of the primary voltage curve. When any curve is formed 
such that its ordinate y is the integral of the area of another curve, 
viz. y=fy l dx, the first curve is always smoother and more regular 
in form than the second. Hence the process above described 
when applied to a complex periodic curve, which can by Fourier's 
theorem be resolved into a series of simple periodic curves, results 
in a relative reduction of the magnitude of the higher harmonics 
compared with the funda- 
mental term, and hence a 
wiping out of the minor 
irregularities of the curve. 
In actual practice the curve 
of electromotive force of 
alternators can be quite 
sufficiently reproduced by 
employing three terms of 
the expansion, viz. the first 
three odd harmonics, and 
the resulting flux-density 

curve is always very nearly FiG. 7. Transformer Curves "at full 
a simple sine curve. i oa d 

We have then the follow- Clt Primary voltage curve ;,, Primary 
ing rules for predetermining current curve; 2 , Secondary voltage 
the form of the current curve curve; 4, Secondary current curve, 
of the transformer at no load , 

assuming that the hysteresis curve of the iron is given, set out in terms 
of flux-density and ampere-turns per centimetre, and also the form of 
the curve of primary electromotive force. Let the time base line be 
divided up into equal small elements. Through any selected point 
draw a line perpendicular to the base line. Bisect the area enclosed 
by the curve representing the half wave of primary electromotive 
force and the base line by another perpendicular. Integrate the 
area enclosed between the electromotive force cftrve and these 
two perpendicular lines and the base. Lastly, set up a length on 
the last perpendicular equal to the value of this area divided by 
the product of the cross-section of the core and the number of 
primary turns. The resulting value will be the core flux-density b 
at the phase instant corresponding. Look out on the hysteresis 
loop the same flux-density value, and corresponding to it will be 
found two values of the magnetizing force in ampere-turns per 
centimetre, one the ' value for increasing flux-density and one for 
decreasing. An inspection of the position of the point of time 
selected on the time line will at once show which of these to select. 
Divide that value of the ampere-turns per centimetre by the product 
of the values of the primary turns and the mean length of tne mag- 
netic circuit of the core of the transformer, and the result gives the 
value of the primary current of the transformer. This can be set 
up to scale on the perpendicular through the time instant selected. 
Hence, given the form of the primary electromotive force curve 
and that of the hysteresis loop of the iron, we can draw the curves 
representing the changes of flux-density in the core and that of 
the corresponding primary current, and thus predict the root- 
mean-square value of the magnetizing current of the transformer. 
It is therefore possible, when given the primary electromotive 
force curve and the hysteresis curve of the iron, to predetermine 
the curves depicting all the other variables of the transformer, 
provided that the magnetic leakage is negligible. 

The elementary theory of the closed iron circuit transformer may 
be stated as follows: Let NI, Na be the turns on the primary and 
secondary circuits, RI and Rt the resistances, S the . !, 
section of the core, and 61 and bt the co-instantaneous Theory 
values of the flux-density just inside the primary and 
secondary windings. Then, if i\ and it and i and 2 are the primary 




TRANSFORMERS 



177 



and secondary currents and potential differences at the same instant, 
these quantities are connected by the equations 



i = IWi +SNrf/, e, = 



2 - R a i. 



Hence, if ii=i 2 , and if R;ii is negligible in comparison^with 
S>Nidb/dt, and *=o, that is, if the secondary circuit is open, then 
i/ej = Ni/N2, or the transformation ratio is simply the ratio of the 
windings. This, however, is not the case if 61 and 62 have not the 
same value; in other words, if there is magnetic leakage. If the 
magnetic leakage can be neglected, then the resultant magnetizing 
force, and therefore the iron core loss, is constant at all loads. 
Accordingly, the relation between the primary current (ii), the 
secondary current (22), and the magnetizing current (i), or primary 
current at no load, is given by the equation Niz'i Njs = Ni*. 
Then, writing b for the instantaneous value of the flux-density 
in the core, everywhere supposed to be the same, we arrive at the 
identity 



This equation merely expresses the fact that the power put into 
the transformer at any instant is equal to the power given out on 
the secondary side together with the power dissipated by the 
copper losses and the constant iron core loss. 

The efficiency of a transformer at any load is the ratio of the 
mean value, during the period, of the product e\i\ to that of the 
product eii?. The efficiency of an alternating current transformer 
is a function of the form of the primary electromotive force curve. 
Experiment has shown 1 that if a transformer is tested for efficiency 
on various alternators having electromotive force curves of different 
forms, the efficiency values found at the same secondary load are 
not identical, those being highest which belong to the alternator 
with the most peaked curve of electromotive force, that is, the 
curve having the largest form factor. This is a consequence of the 
fact that the hysteresis less in the iron depends upon the manner 
in which the magnetization (or what here comes to the same thing, 
the flux-density in the core) is allowed to change. If the primary 
electromotive force curve has the form of a high peak, or runs up 
suddenly to a large maximum value, the flux-density curve will be 
more square-shouldered than when the voltage curve has a lower 
form factor. The hysteresis loss in the iron is less when the magneti- 
zation changes its sign somewhat suddenly than when it does so 
more gradually. In other words, a diminution in the form factor 
of the core flux-density curve implies a diminished hysteresis loss. 
The variation in core loss in transformers when tested on various 
forms of commercial alternator may amount to as much as 10%. 
Hence, in recording the results of efficiency tests of alternating 
current transformers, it is always necessary to specify the form 
of the curve of primary electromotive force. The power factor 
of the transformer or ratio of the true power absorption at no load, 
to the product of the R.M.S. values of the primary current and 
voltage, and also the secondary drop of the transformer, vary with 
the form factor of the primary voltage curve, being also both in- 
creased by increasing the form factor. Hence there is a slight 
advantage in working alternating current transformers off an 
alternator giving a rather peaked or high maximum value electro- 
motive force curve. This, however is disadvantageous in other 
ways, as it puts a greater strain upon the insulation of the trans- 
former and cables. At one time a controversy arose as to the 
relative merits of closed and open magnetic circuit transformers. 
It was, however, shown by tests made by Fleming and by Ayrton 
on Swinburne's " Hedgehog " transformers, having a straight core 
of iron wires bristling out at each end, that for equal secondary 
outputs, as regards efficiency, open as compared with closed mag- 
netic circuit transformers had no advantage, whilst, owing to the 
smaller power factor and consequent large R.M.S. value of the 
magnetizing current, the former type had many disadvantages 
(see Fleming, " Experimental Researches on Alternate Current 
Transformers," Journ, Inst. Elec. Eng., 1892). 

The discussion of the theory of the transformer is not quite so 
simple when magnetic leakage is taken into account. In all cases 
M tic a cert ^' n proportion of the magnetic flux linked with 
Leakage 'I 16 P" mar y circuit is not linked with the secondary 
circuit, and the difference is called the magnetic leakage. 
This magnetic leakage constitutes a wasted flux which is non- 
effective in producing secondary electromotive force. It increases 
with the secondary current, and can be delineated by a curve on 
the transformer diagram in the following manner. The curves of 
primary and secondary electromotive force, or terminal potential 
difference and current, are determined experimentally, and then 
two curves are plotted on the same diagram which represent the 
variation of (i Rit'i)/Ni and (e2 + R 2 J2)/N 2 ; these will represent 
the time differentials of the total magnetic fluxes S&i'and S& 2 linked 
respectively with the primary and secondary T circuits. The above 
curves are then progressively integrated, starting from the time 



'See Dr G. Roessler, Electrician (1895), xxxvi. T iso; Beeton, 
Taylor and Barr, Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng. xxv. 474; also J. A. Fleming, 
Electrician (1894), xxxiii. 580. 



point through which passes the ordinate bisecting the area of each 
half wave, and the resulting curves plotted to express by their 
ordinates S&i and Si 2 - A curve is then plotted whose ordinates 
are the differences Sfri Sfea, and this is the curve of magnetic 
leakage. 

The existence of magnetic leakage can be proved experimentally 
by a method due to Mordey, by placing a pair of thermometers, 
one of mercury and the other of alcohol, in the centre of the core 
aperture. If there is a magnetic leakage, the mercury bulb is 
heated not only by radiant heat, but by eddy currents set up in 
the mercury, and its rise is therefore greater than that of the alcohol 
thermometer. The leakage is also determined by observing the 
secondary voltage drop between full load and no load, and de- 
ducting from it the part due to copper resistance; the remainder 
is the drop due to leakage. Thus if V 2 is the secondary voltage 
on open circuit, and V 2 l that when a current A 2 is taken out of 
the transformer, the leakage drop v is given by the equation 

= (V 2 -W)-fR.A.+RiA,(N J /Ni)). 

The term in the large bracket expresses the drop in secondary 
voltage due to the copper resistance of the primary and secondary 
circuits. 

In drawing up a specification for an alternating current trans- 
former, it is necessary to specify that the maximum secondary 
drop between full and no load to be allowed shall not exceed a 
certain value, say 2% of the no-load secondary voltage; also that 
the iron core loss as a percentage of the full secondary output 
shall not exceed a value, say, of I % after six months' normal work. 

In the design of large transformers one of the chief points 
for attention is the arrangement for dissipating the heat gene- 
rated in their mass by the copper and iron losses. 
For every watt expended in the core and circuit, a 
surface of 3 to 4 sq. in. must be allowed, so that the 
heat may be dissipated. In large transformers it is usual to 
employ some means of producing a current of air through the 
core to ventilate it. In these, called air-blast transformers, 
apertures are left in the core by means of which the cooling air 
can reach the interior portions. This air is driven through the 
core by a fan actuated by an alternating current motor, which 
does not, however, take up power to a greater extent than about 
i or jV/o of the full output of the transformer, and well repays 
the outlay. 

In some cases transformers are oil-insulated, that is to say, in- 
cluded in a cast-iron box which is filled in with a heavy insulating 
oil. For this purpose an oil must be selected free from mineral 
acids and water: it should be heated to a higri temperature 
before use, and tested for dielectric strength by observing the 
voltage required to create a spark between metal balls immersed 



Material. 


Dielectric 
strength in 
kilowatts per 
centimetre. 


Material. 


Dielectric 
strength in 
kilowatts per 
centimetre. 


Glass 
Ebonite .... 
Indiarubber . 
Mica 
Micanite .... 
American linen paper 
paraffined . 


285 
538 
492 
2000 
4OOO 

540 


Lubricating oil . 
Linseed oil . 
Cotton-seed oil . 
Air film -02 cm. 
thick .... 
Air film 1-6 cm. 
thick .... 


83 

67 
57 

27 
48 



in it at a distance of i millimetre apart. Oils, however, are 
inferior in dielectric strength or spark-resisting power to solid 
dielectrics, such as micanite, ebonite, &c., as shown by the 
above table of dielectric strengths (see T. Gray, Phys. Rev., 1898, 
P- I99)- 

Polyphase Transformers are appliances of TP ft> to 
similar construction to the single-phase trans- 
formers already described, but modified 
so as to enable them to transform two or 
more phase-related primary alternating cur- 
rents into similar secondary currents. Thus, 
a three-phase transformer may be constructed 
with a core, as shown in fig. 8. Each core 
leg is surrounded with a primary coil, and 
these are joined up either in star or delta 
fashion, and connected to the three or four , 
line wires. The secondary circuits are then * 

connected in a similar fashion to three or ' j' s L jr ' 

four secondary lines. In the case of two- I ' I J I 
phase transmission with two separate pairs FIG. 8. Brush Three- 
of leads, single-phase transformers may be phase Transformer. 



i 7 8 



TRANSFORMERS 




employed in each branch, but with two-phase three- wire supply, two- 
phase transformers must be supplied. 

Phase Transformers are arrangements of static or rotary trans- 
formers intended to transform single-phase alternating currents into 
polyphase currents. An important system of phase transformation 
has been described by C. F. Scott. 1 It is known that if two alternat- 
ing electromotive forces differing in phase are connected in series, 
the resulting electromotive force will in general differ in phase and 
value from either of the components. Thus, if two alternating 
electromotive forces differing 90 in phase, and having magnitudes 
in the ratio of I : V3, are connected in series, the resulting electro- 
motive force will have a magnitude represented by 2, and the 
three can be represented by the sides of a triangle which is half 
an equilateral triangle. If then a two-phase alternator, D (fig. 9), 

provides two-phase cur- 
rents, and if the two circuits 
are connected, as shown, to 
a pair of single-phase trans- 
formers, Ti and Tj, we can 
obtain three-phase alter- 
nating currents from the ar- 
rangement. The primaries 
of both transformers are 
the same. The secondary 
circuit of one transformer, 
Ti, has, say, 100 turns, and 
a connexion is made to its 
middle point O, and this is 
connected to the secondary 
of the other transformer 
which has 87 ( = 50 V 3) 
turns. From the points 
A, B, C we can then tap off 
three-phase alternating cur- 
rents. The advantages of 
the Scott system are that 
we can transform two-phase 
alternating currents into 
three-phase for transmis- 
sion, and then by a similar 
arrangement retransform 

FIG. 9. Scott's Arrangement for back again into two-phase 
Transformation of Two-phase to Three- for use. In this manner an 
phase Currents. economy of 25 % in copper 

is effected, for instead of 

four transmission lines we have only three. The system adapts itself 
for the transmission of currents both for power in driving three-phase 
motors and for working incandescent lamps. A somewhat similar 
system has been designed by C. P. Steinmetz for producing three- 
phase currents from single-phase (see Electrician, xliii. 2)6). When 
a number of alternating electromotive forces are maintained in 
a closed circuit, the sum of all must be zero, and may be repre- 
sented by the sides of a closed polygon. The fundamental principle 
of Mr Steinmetz's invention consists in so choosing the number 
of these electromotive forces that the polygon must remain stable. 
Thus, if three single-phase alternators are driven independently 
at constant speed and excitation, and if they are joined in series, 
then three wires led away from the junction points will provide 
three-phase currents to a system from which lamps and motors 
may be worked. 

Reference must be made to the continuous current transformer. 
The conversion of a continuous current supplied, say, at 100 volts, 
Continuous mto one nav ' n f> an electromotive force of 10 volts, 
Current can ' course be achieved by coupling together on the 
Trans- same bedplate a suitable electric motor and a dynamo. 

formers. The combination is called a motor-dynamo set, and each 
machine preserves its own identity and peculiarity. 
The same result may, however, be accomplished by winding two 
separate armature circuits on one iron core, and furnishing each 
with its own commutator. The two circuits are interlaced or wound 
on together. An arrangement of this kind constitutes a rotatory 
or rotary transformer, or continuous current transformer. It has 
the advantage of greater cheapness and efficiency, because one field 
magnet serves for both armature windings, and there is only one 
armature core and one pair of bearings; moreover, no shift or lead 
of the brushes is required at various loads. The armature reactions 
of the two circuits annul each other. Machines of this description 
are self-starting, and can be constructed to take in primary current 
at high pressures, say 1000 to 2000 volts, and yield another larger 
current of much lower voltage, say 100 or 150 volts, for use with 
electric lamps. They are used in connexion with public electric 
supply by continuous current in many places. 

Another important class of rotatory transformer is that also 
called a rotatory converter, by means of which continuous current 
is translated into alternating current of one-, two- or three-phase, 
or vice versa. The action of such an appliance may best be under- 
stood by considering the simple case of a Gramme ring armature 

1 Proceedings of the National Electric Light Association (Washing- 
ton, U.S.A., 1894); also Electrician (1894), xxxii. 640. 




(see DYNAMO) having, in addition to its commutator, a pair of in- 
sulated rings on its shaft connected with opposite ends of the arma- 
ture winding (fig. 10). If such a ring is placed in a bipole field 
magnet, and if a pair of brushes make contact with the commutator 
C and another pair with the two rings called slip rings, Si Sj, and 
if continuous current at a constant voltage is supplied to the com- 
mutator side, then the armature will begin to revolve in the field, 
and from the brushes in contact with the slip rings we can draw off 
an alternating current. This reaches its maximum value when 
the points of contact of the rings with the armature circuit pass 
the axis of commutation, or line at right angles to the direction 
of the magnetic field, for it has at this moment a value which is 
double the steady value of the continuous current being poured 
into the armature. The maximum value of the electromotive 
force creating this alternating current is nearly equal to the electro- 
motive force on the continuous current side. Hence if A is the 
maximum value of the continuous current put into the armature 
and V is the value of the brush potential difference on the con- 
tinuous current side, then 2A is the maximum value of the out- 
coming alternating current and V is the maximum value of its 
voltage. Hence 2AV/2=AV is the maximum value of the out- 
coming alternating current 
power, and if we neglect the 
loss in the armature for the 
moment, the power given 
out is equal to the power 
put in. Hence, assuming 
a simple harmonic law of 
variation, the effective value 
of the alternating current 
voltage is V/V2, and that 
of the alternating current 
is 2AV2. This conclusion "" 
follows at once from the fact 
that the mean value of the 
square of a sine function is 
half its maximum value, and 
hence the R.M.S. value is 
I/V2 times the maximum 

value. The outcoming alternating current has its zero value at the 
instant when the ends of the diameter of the axis to which the 
rings are connected are in the direction of the magnetic field 
of the transformer. Hence the power output on the alternating 
current side varies from a maximum value AV to zero. The 
rotatory transformer thus absorbs continuous current power 
and emits it in a periodic form; accordingly, there is a continual 
storage and emission of energy by the armature, and therefore 
its kinetic energy is periodically varying during the phase. 
The armature is also creating a back-electromotive force which 
acts at some instants against the voltage driving the current 
into the armature and at others is creating an electromotive force 
that assists the external impressed voltage in driving a current 
through the alternating current side. If we put on another pair 
of insulated rings and connect them to points of the insulated 
diameter at right angles to the points of connexion of the first pair 
of rings, we can draw off another alternating current, the phase 
of which differs 90 from that of the first. Similarly, if we provide 
three rings connected to points removed 120 apart on the armature 
circuit, we can tap off a three-phase alternating current. 

Returning to the case of the single-phase rotatory transformer, 
we may notice that at the instant when the outcoming alternating 
current is zero the armature is wholly engaged in absorbing power 
and is acting entirely as a motor. When the alternating current 
is a maximum, the armature on the other hand is acting as a gene- 
rator and adds current to the current put into it. The ratio between 
the potential difference of the brushes on the continuous current 
side and the root-mean-square or effective value of the vokagt 
between any pair of rings on the alternating current side is called 
the transformation ratio of the converter. 

The following table, taken from a paper upon rotatory converters 
by S. P. Thompson (Proc. Jnst. Elec. Eng., November 1898), gives 
the voltage ratio or conversion ratio in the case of various forms 
of rotatory transformer: 



FIG. ip. Rotary Converter, 
continuous to two-phase. 











Effective 




Angle 






voltage on 


Number 
of slip 
rings. 


between 
points of 
connexions 
to 


Type of current 
generated. 


Voltage 
ratio. 


alternating 
current side 
as percentage 
of voltage on 




armatures. 






continuous 










current side. 


2 


1 80 


Single-phase 


V2:l 


70-71 


3 


120 


Three-phase 


2>/2:V3 


61-23 


4 


90 


Two-phase 


V2:i 


70-71 


4 


90 


Four-phase 


2:1 


5 


6 


60 


Three-phase 


3V3=V3 


61-23 


6 


60 


Six-phase 


2V2:l 


35'35 



TRANSFORMERS 



179 



Neglecting the energy losses in the armature, and assuming 
that the continuous current side of the transformer is supplied 
with loo amperes, the following table, also taken from a paper by 
S. P. Thompson, shows the effective value of the current on the 
alternating side put out into each line : 





Angle 






Number 
of slip 


between 
points of 
connexion 


Type of current 
generated. 


Effective cur- 
rent put out 
on each line in 


rings. 


to 




amperes. 




armature. 






2 


180 


Single-phase 


141-4 


3 


120 


Three-phase 


94-3 


4 


90 


Two-phase 


70-7 


6 


60 


Six-phase 


47-2 



It is obvious that the same results of conversion can be obtained 
by coupling together two separate machines on the same shaft; 
thus we might obtain a single-phase alternating current from a 
continuous current by coupling together mechanically a continuous 
current motor and a single-phase alternator. Such a combination 
is generally called a motor-dynamo. In this case there are two 
field magnets and two separate armatures, and the hysteresis eddy 
current and copper losses are all in duplicate. If, however, the same 
armature winding is made to serve both purposes, the resulting 
machine is called a rotatory or rotary converter. In the former 
combination the brushes of the continuous current part require 
to be set with the usual lead or lag according as that part is 
generator or motor, but in the latter the armature reactions nearly 
annul each other, and lead or lag is no longer necessary. 

Rectifiers are devices for transforming an alternating (gener- 
ally single-phase) current into a continuous but pulsatory 
current. They may shortly be described as appli- 
ances for separating out each alternate current flux 
in an alternating current. An immense number of more or 
less imperfect methods of doing this have been proposed, and 
here we shall describe two which may be called respectively the 
mechanical and the electrolytic methods. Of the first class a 
good example is the Ferranti rectifier (fig. 1 1). This consists of a 
synchronous alternating current motor which is started up and 
driven in step with the alternator supplying the current. The 



Rectifiers. 




FIG. ii. Ferranti Rectifier. 

motor drives a commutator of insulated segments, each alternate 
segment being connected to two insulated rings, against which 



press a pair of brushes. Another pair of brushes, so adjusted 
as to be in contact simultaneously with a pair of adjacent 
commutator segments, are in connexion with the alternator 
supplying the current to be commutated. The insulated rings 
are in connexion with the external circuit. It will easily be 
seen that when the commutator revolves at proper speed the 
currents delivered from the insulated rings are unidirectional. 
The Ferranti rectifier is much employed for rectifying alter- 
nating current for arc lighting purposes. With this object 
it is associated with a constant current transformer which 
converts alternating current supplied at constant potential 
to one supplied at constant current. This is achieved by 
taking advantage of the repulsive force existing between the 
primary and secondary circuits of a transformer. These are 
wound separately, and so balanced that any increase in the 
current presses them away from each other and so reduces the 
secondary current to normal value. Such an appliance is useful 
for rectifying currents up to 10 or 15 amperes. 

The electrolytic rectifier is based upon the fact that if plates 
of aluminium and carbon are placed in an electrolyte, say a 
solution of alum or dilute acids which yield oxygen on electro- 
lysis, it is found that a current can be sent through the liquid 
from the carbon to the aluminium, but that great counter- 
electromotive force is created to a current in the opposite direc- 
tion. Gratz and Pollak (Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift, 1897, 25, 
P- 359)) taking advantage of this fact, have constructed a 
rectifying arrangement by arranging two series of carbon 
aluminium (CA1) cells with alum or hydro-potassic phosphate 
solution as electrolyte. In one set the order of the plates is 
(CA1), (CA1), &c., and in the other series (A1C), (A1C), counting 
from the same end. These series being connected in parallel, 
it follows that if an alternating current is sent through the parallel 
series ah 1 the currents in one direction pass through one battery 
and all those in the opposite direction through the other. Thus 
the constituents of the alternating current are separated out. 
By using very large cells so as to reduce the internal resistance, 
an efficiency of 95 % is said to be obtained. 

There are many points in the operation of the electrolytic rectifier 
which have as yet been imperfectly explained. The action of the 
aluminium electrolytic rectifier, consisting as it does 
of an aluminium plate and a lead or carbon plate 
placed in an aqueous electrolyte, is to oppose a 
great obstruction to a current passing out of the 
aluminium plate, but little or no obstruction to the current passing 
into the aluminium plate, especially if the ajuminium has been 
subjected to a previous treatment called formation. This unilateral 
conductivity is dependent on a certain voltage or potential differ- 
ence between the plates not being exceeded, but within these 
limits a plate of carbon and aluminium placed in a solution, say of 
hydro-sodic phosphate, acts as an electrical valve, allowing current 
to pass in one direction but not in another. An examination of 
the aluminium plate after it has been so used shows that its appear- 
ance has changed and that its surface is covered by a thin film, 
the thickness of which varies with the electrolyte and the time of 
formation. After a certain period of use this film is seen as a grey, 
dull coating traversed by dark lines. It is impossible that the 
unilateral conductivity can be due to a true electrolytic polariza- 
tion, because we know of no polarization of this latter kind which 
exceeds three volts, and the film can be made to resist the flow of 
a current under an electromotive force of 140 to 200 volts. The 
resistance of this film has been measured and found to be very 
high, so high as to be practically an insulation. Light was thrown 
upon the subject by F. Kohlrausch's discovery of the polarization 
capacity of metallic electrodes, and this discovery was applied to 
develop the theory of the aluminium cell by Streintz (1888), Scott 
(1899) and others. 

This theory was expounded by K. Norden (Electrician, xlyiii. 
107). According to this view, the deposit covering the aluminium 
electrode forms the dielectric of a condenser. One plate of the 
condenser is formed by the aluminium plate and the other by an 
opposite layer of electrically-charged ions in the electrolyte. The 
dielectric film on the aluminium having been formed, the electro- 
motive force of the circuit then charges the resulting condenser to 
the value of its own voltage, but immediately the impressed electro- 
motive force is removed this condenser discharges itself. This con- 
denser theory receives support from the behaviour of the aluminium 
cell when placed in the circuit of an alternating current dynamo, 
for it is found that in these circumstances the current through the 
cell is in advance in phase of the difference of potential. The ques- 
tion then arises, What is the nature of this insulating film? The 



i8o 



TRANSFORMERS 



first discoverer of the phenomenon (Buff) considered it to consist 
of silicon. Later Professor Beetz disproved this by experiment, 
and, with many others, assumed that a sub-oxide of aluminium 
was formed ; but this has never been demonstrated in a satisfactory 
manner. By forming a sufficient quantity of the film Dr K. Norden 
was able to obtain sufficient of the material to make a chemical 
analysis, and this revealed the fact that it consists of normal 
aluminium hydroxide, Al2(OH) 6 . 

According to the facts above stated, one wave of the alternating 
current produces the insulating film by converting the surface of 
the aluminium into hydroxide, practically, therefore, blocking its 
own path very quickly by the creation of this film. If, then, the 
electromotive force reverses its direction the current immediately 
flows. According to Dr Norden, the rapid removal of the insulat- 
ing film is due to the action of the electrolyte corroding or dis- 
solving the weak points in the coating and thus breaking down its 
insulating power. The insulating film is therefore a conductor in 
one direction, but when the current is reversed and flows out of the 
aluminium plate the insulating film is renewed and is continually 
being repaired and kept in order. Thus different electrolytes 
yield aluminium valves having very different efficiencies. 

Rectifying cells have been made by Pollak which will bear a 
voltage of over 140 volts, and which are said to have an efficiency 
of 75%. The plates, however, must be removed when not in use, 
otherwise the film of hydroxide is destroyed by the electrolyte. 
One great practical difficulty in connexion with the aluminium 
rectifier is the tendency to heat in working. 

The historical development of the discovery of this unilateral 
conductivity of an electrolytic cell with an aluminium electrode 
is as follows. The effect was first noticed by Buff in 1857, but was 
not applied technically until 1874, when Ducretet employed it in 
telegraphy. Beret in 1877 and Streintz in 1887 discussed the 
theory of the cell and sought for an explanation. In 1891 Hutin 
and Leblanc, in their study of alternating current, showed its uses 
in rectifying an alternating current. Pollak and Gratz laboured to 
give it a practically useful form. Pollak took out patents in 1895, 
and made a communication to the Academy of Sciences in Paris 
in June 1897; and Gratz presented a memoir at a meeting of the 
German Association of Electrochemists in Munich in 1897. M. 
Blondin has summarized all the work so far done on the aluminium 
rectifier in two articles in L'clairage electrique (1898), xiv. 293, 
and xxviii. 117 (1901). The choice of an electrolyte is of great 
importance. Buff, Ducretet and Gratz employed dilute sulphuric 
acid, and the greatest difference of potential which could then be 
applied to the cell without breaking down its insulation in one 
direction was 20 volts. Pollak in 1896 found that when aqueous 
solutions of alkaline salts were used, and when the aluminium 
was subjected to a preliminary formation, the back electromotive 
force or what is equivalent to it could be raised to 140 or 200 volts. 
Pollak found that the best results were given by the use of 
phosphate of potassium or sodium. It appears, therefore, that the 
ions of _K or Na effect the breaking down of the film of aluminium 
hydroxide more quickly than the ion of hydrogen. The practical 
form of aluminium rectifier, according to Pollak, consists of plates 
of thick aluminium and lead placed in a large deep glass vessel filled 
with a solution of potassium hydrogen phosphate. 

In 1899 Albert Nodon of Paris began experimenting with an 
electric rectifier which is now on a commercial footing. It is 
known as the Nodon electric valve, and it is claimed 
*-^ at il ^ Si ye an efficiency of 75 to 80% when used 
to transform single or polyphase currents into 
continuous currents. In the form used for transforming single- 
phase currents the valve is made up of 4 cells, each consisting 
of an iron cylinder with an insulating plug at the bottom through 
which is passed a cylinder formed of an alloy of zinc and 





(From the Electrical Times, by permission.) (From the Electrical Times, by permission.) 



FIG. 12. Section through 
Nodon Valve. 



FIG. 13. Method of connecting 
the cells. 



aluminium. This cylinder is concentric with the iron tube 
and provided with a terminal at the lower end. The cell is filled 
with a saturated solution of ammonium phosphate, and a non- 
conducting shielding tube can be slid over the aluminium 
electrode to alter the exposed area. 

The valve is shown in section in fig. 12, and the 4 cells are arranged 
in a Wheatstone's Bridge fashion, as shown in fig. 13. A and A 1 
are the terminals to which the alternating current is supplied, 
C and C 1 the terminals from which the continuous current is drawn, 
off. The electrolytic actions which take place in the cells are as 
follows: When the alternating current passes in the positive direction 
from the zinc-aluminium cylinder to the iron cylinder there is 
formed instantly on the former a film of aluminium hydroxide; 
this film, presenting an enormous resistance, opposes the passage of 
the current. On the other hand, if the current passes in the opposite 
direction the film is reduced instantly and the current now flows. 
When used with polyphase currents the valve comprises as many 
times two cells as there are wires in the distribution. The cells 
must stand a pressure varying; from 50 to 140 volts, and for higher 
pressures two or more valves in series are employed. 

The aluminium-iron electrolytic rectifier is not suitable for the 
rectification of very high frequency currents, because the chemical 
actions on which it depends involve a time element. ., 
It was, however, discovered by J. A. Fleming that an cuum ' 
oscillation valve could be constructed for rectifying 
electrical oscillations, as follows (see Proc. Roy. Soc. 
Land., 1905, 74, p. 476) : In a glass bulb similar to that of an 
incandescent lamp a carbon filament is fixed. Around the carbon 
filament, but not touching it, is placed a cylinder of nickel con- 
nected to an external terminal by means of platinum wire sealed 
through the glass. If the carbon filament is made incandescent 
by an insulated battery (and for this purpose it is convenient to 
have the filament adjusted to be fully incandescent at a pressure 
of about 12 volts), then the space between the incandescent fila- 
ment and the embracing cylinder possesses a unilateral conductivity 
such that negative electricity can pass from the incandescent 
filament to the cylinder but not in the opposite direction. Hence 
if the negative terminal of the filament and the terminal attached 
to the cylinder are connected to an oscillation transformer (see 
INDUCTION COIL) which supplies a high frequency alternating 
oscillatory current, the flow of electricity in one direction is cut 
out and the oscillatory current is therefore converted into a con- 
tinuous current. Such valves have been employed by Fleming 
in connexion with wireless telegraphy. Wehnelt discovered that 
if a platinum wire was covered with oxide of barium or any of the 
oxides of rare earth metals, it possessed in the same manner, when 
used in a valve of the above type, an even greater power than 
incandescent carbon. The explanation of this action is to be sought 
for in the fact that incandescent carbon in a vacuum or incandescent 
earthy oxides copiously emit negative electrons. 

A rectifier dependent upon the peculiar qualities of mercury 
vapour has been devised by Cooper-Hewitt for the transformation 
of polyphase currents into continuous 
currents. The three-phase transformer 
is made as follows: A large glass bulb 
(see fig. 14) has four iron electrodes sealed 
through the walls as positive electrodes 
and a negative electrode consisting of a 
pool of mercury in the bottom of the 
bulb connected with platinum wires 
sealed through the glass; the bulb is 
highly exhausted and contains only mer- 
cury vapour. The three iron electrodes 
are connected to the terminals of a star- 
connected polyphase transformer and one 
of them to the positive pole of a con- 
tinuous current starting current, the con- 
nexions being shown as in fig. 15. The 
mercury vapour is a non-conductor for 
low voltages, but if a sufficiently high 
voltage is placed on the mercury bulb 
by means of the continuous current it 
begins to conduct and if the three-phase 
current is then switched on the mercury 
vapour will allow the components of the 
three-phase current to pass when the 
mercury electrode is negative, not when 
it is positive. Hence for alternate cur- 
rent wave of the three-phase, supply is 
cut down and a continuous current can be 
drawn by the connexions as shown in 
fig. 1 5 for the purposes of supplying secondary batteries, arc lamps, &c. 
Owing to the fact that the mercury vapour ceases to conduct 
when the electromotive force on it falls below a certain critical 
value the valve will not work with single-phase currents but will work 
with polyphase currents at all voltage from 100 to 1000 or more 
and can transform as much as 100 amperes. It is stated to have 
an efficiency of 88 to 89 %. (See The Electrician, .1903, 50, p. 510.) 




FIG. 14. 
Cooper-Hewitt Rectifier. 



TRANSIT CIRCLE 



181 



A mechanical polyphase rectifier or rotary devised by Bragstad 
and La Cour is described in Der Kaskadenumformer, by E. Arnold 
and J. L. La Cour, Stuttgart, 1904. It consists of a three-phase 
induction motor coupled direct to a continuous current dynamo, 
the armatures of the two machines being electrically connected 
so that the three-phase current created in the rotor of the induction 




FIG. 15. 

motor enters the continuous current armature and creates around 
it a rotary field. The connexions are such that the rotating field 
turns in a direction opposite to that in which the armature is 
turning, so that the field is stationary in space. From the con- 
tinuous current armature can therefore be drawn off a continuous 
current and the device acts as a transformer of three-phase alternat- 
ing current to a continuous current. 

The ordinary induction coil (q.v.) may be regarded as the trans- 
former for converting continuous current at low voltage into high 
voltage intermittent continuous current, but the difficulties of 
interrupting the primary current render it impossible to transform 
in this way more than a small amount of power. Where, however, 
high voltages are required, high potential transformers are used 
which are now built for the purpose of wireless telegraphy and the 
transformation of power to give secondary voltages up to 20,000, 
30,000 or 60,000 volts. Transformers have even been built to 
give secondary voltages of half a million volts capable of giving 
a 14 in. spark in air. These machines, however, must be regarded 
as more physical laboratory instruments than appliances for tech- 
nical work. For description of one such extra high potential trans- 
former see H. B. Smith, on " Experiments on Transformers for 
Very High Potentials," The Electrician (1904), 54, p. 358. A trans- 
former of this kind must invariably be an oil insulated transformer, 
as under extremely high voltage the air itself becomes a conductor 
and no solid insulator that can be put upon the wires is strong 
enough to stand the electric strain. 

AUTHORITIES. J. A. Fleming, The Alternate Current Transformer 
(3rd ed., 1901); "Experimental Researches on Alternate Current 
Transformers," Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng. (1892); "Alternate Current 
Transformers," Cantor Lectures (Society of Arts, 1896); " Electric 
Oscillations and Electric Waves," Cantor Lectures (Society of Arts, 
1900-1901) ; Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room 
(1901); S. P. Thompson, Dynamo Electric Machinery (1896); Poly- 
phase Electric Currents and Alternate Current Motors (2nd ed., 
1900); "Rotatory Converters," Proc. Inst. Elec. Eng. (1898); 
G. Kapp, The Electrical Transmission of Energy and its Trans- 
formation (1895); Alternating Currents of Electricity (1896); Trans- 
formers for Single and Multiphase Currents (1896) ; C. C. Hawkins 
and F. Wallis, The Dynamo (2nd ed., 1896) ; F. Bedell, The Principles 
of the Transformer (New York, 1896) ; W. E. Goldsborough, " Trans- 
former Tests," Proc. Nat. Electric Light Associations, U.S.A. (1899) ; 
C. P. Steinmetz, The Theory and Calculation of Alternating Current 
Phenomena (4th ed., New York, 1908); A. Still, Alternating Currents 
of Electricity and the Theory of Transformers; D. C. Jackson, Text- 
Book on Electro-magnetism (1896), vol. ii. ; Loppe, Alternating 
Currents in Practice; Martin, Inventions, Researches and Writings of 
Nikola Tesla (New York, 1894); W. G. Rhodes, An Elementary 
Treatise on Alternating Currents (1902) ; A. Hay, Alternating Currents 
(1905); D. K. Morris and G. A. Lister, "The Testing of Trans- 
formers and Transformer Iron," Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng. (1906), 
37, p. 264; J. Epstein, " The Testing of Electric Machinery and 
Materials of Construction," Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng. (1906), 38, p. 28. 

(J. A. F.) 

TRANSIT CIRCLE, or MERIDIAN CIRCLE, an instrument for 
observing the time of a star's passing the meridian, at the same 
time measuring its angular distance from the zenith. The idea 
of having an instrument (quadrant) fixed in the plane of the 
meridian occurred even to the ancient astronomers, and is 
mentioned by Ptolemy, but it was not carried into practice until 
Tycho Brahe constructed a large meridian quadrant. This 
instrument enabled the observer to determine simultaneously 
right ascension and declination, but it does not appear to have 
been much used for right ascension during the I7th century, the 
method of equal altitudes by portable quadrants or measures 
of the angular distance between stars with a sextant being 
preferred. These methods were, however, very inconvenient, 



which induced Romer to invent the transit instrument about 
1690. It consists of a horizontal axis in the direction east and 
west resting on firmly fixed supports, and having a telescope 
fixed at right angles to it, revolving freely in the plane of the 
meridian. At the same time Romer invented the altitude and 
azimuth instrument for measuring vertical and horizontal angles, 
and in 1 704 he combined a vertical circle with his transit instru- 
ment, so as to determine both co-ordinates at the same time. 
This latter idea was, however, not adopted elsewhere, although 
the transit instrument soon came into universal use (the first 
one at Greenwich was mounted in 1721), and the mural quadrant 
continued till the end of the century to be employed for deter- 
mining declinations. The advantage of using a whole circle, 
as less liable to change its figure, and not requiring reversal in 
order to observe stars north of the zenith, was then again recog- 
nized by Ramsden, who also improved the method of reading 
off angles by means of a micrometer microscope as described 
below. The making of circles was shortly afterwards taken up 
by Trough ton, who in 1806 constructed the first modern transit 
circle for Groombridge's observatory at Blackheath, but he 
afterwards abandoned the idea, and designed the mural circle 
to take the place of the mural quadrant. In the United King- 
dom the transit instrument and mural circle continued till the 
middle of the igth century to be the principal instrument in 
observatories, the first transit circle constructed there being that 
at Greenwich (mounted in 1850) but on the continent the transit 
circle superseded them from the years 1818-1819, when two 
circles by Repsold and by Reichenbach were mounted at 
Gottingen, and one by Reichenbach at Konigsberg. 1 The firm 
of Repsold was for a number of years eclipsed by that of Pistor 
and Martins in Berlin, who furnished various observatories 
with first-class instruments, but since the death of. Martins the 
Repsolds have again taken the lead, and have of late years 
made many transit circles. The observatories of Harvard 
College (United States), Cambridge and Edinburgh have large 
circles by Troughton and Simms, who also made the Greenwich 
circle from the design of Airy. 2 

In the earliest transit instrument the telescope was not placed 
in the middle of the axis, but much nearer to one end, in order to 
prevent the axis from bending under the weight of the telescope. 
It is now always placed in the centre of the axis. The latter 
consists of one piece of brass or gun-metal with carefully turned 
cylindrical steel pivots at each end. Several recent instruments 
have been made entirely of steel, which is much more rigid than 
brass. The centre of the axis is shaped like a cube, the sides 
of which form the basis of two cones which end in cylindrical 
parts. The pivots rest on V-shaped bearings, either let into the mas- 
sive stone or brick piers which support the instrument or attached 
to metal frameworks bolted on the tops of the piers. In order to 
relieve the pivots from the weight of the instrument, which would 
soon destroy their figure, the cylindrical part of each end of the axis 
is supported by a hook supplied with friction rollers, and suspended 
from a lever supported by the pier and counterbalanced so as to 
leave only about 10 Ib pressure on each bearing. Near each 
end of the axis is attached a circle or wheel (generally of 3 or 33 ft. 
diameter) finely divided to 2' or 5' on a slip of silver let into the 
face of the circle near the circumference. The graduation is read 
off by means of microscopes, generally four for each circle at 90 
from each other, as by taking the mean of the four readings the 
eccentricity and the accidental errors of graduation are to a great 
extent eliminated. 3 In the earlier instruments by Pistor and Mar- 
tins the microscopes were fixed in holes drilled through the pier, 
but afterwards they let the piers be made narrower, so that the 
microscopes could be at the sides of them, attached to radial arms 
starting from near the bearings of the axis. This is preferable, 
as it allows of the temporary attachment of auxiliary microscopes 
for the purpose of investigating the errors of graduation of the 
circle, but the plan of the Repsolds and of Simms, to make the piers 
short and to let the microscopes and supports of the axis be carried 
by an iron framework, is better still, as no part of the circle is 

x The most notable exception was the transit instrument and 
vertical circle of the Pulkovo observatory, specially designed by 
the elder Struve for fundamental determinations. 

2 This instrument differs in many particulars from others: the 
important principle of symmetry in all the parts (scrupulously 
followed in all others) is quite discarded ; there is only one circle ; 
and the instrument cannot be reversed. There is a similar instru- 
ment at the Cape observatory. 

3 On Reichenbach's circles there were verniers instead of micro- 
scopes, and they were attached to an alidade circle, the immovability 
of which was tested by a level. 



182 



TRANSIT CIRCLE 



exposed to radiation from the pier, which may cause strain and thereby 
change the angular distance between various parts of the circle. 
Each microscope is furnished with a micrometer screw, which 
moves a frame carrying a cross, or better two close parallel threads 
of spider's web, with which the distance of a division line from the 
centre of the field can be measured, the drum of the screw being 
divided to single seconds of Tt^. arc (o-i" being estimated), while 
the number of revolutions fegu are counted by a kind of comb 
in the field of view. The > ^ = periodic errors of the screw 




Transit Circle. 

must be investigated and taken into account, and care must be 
taken that the microscopes are placed and kept at such a distance 
from the circle that one revolution will correspond to l', the excess 
or defect (error of run) being determined from time to time by 
measuring standard intervals of 2' or 5' on the circle. 

The telescope consists of two slightly conical tubes screwed to 
the central cube of the axis. It is of great importance that this 
connexion should be as firm and the tube as stiff as possible, 1 as 
the flexure of the tube will affect the declinations deduced from the 
observations. The flexure in the horizontal position of the tube 
may be determined by means of two collimators or telescopes 
placed horizontally in the meridian, north and south of the transit 
circle, with their object glasses towards it. If these are pointed 
on one another (through holes in the central tube of the telescope), 
so that the wire-crosses in their foci coincide, then the telescope, 
if pointed first to one and then to the other, will have described 
exactly 180, and by reading off the circle each time the amount 
of flexure will be found. M. Loewy has constructed a very ingenious 
apparatus 2 for determining the flexure in any zenith distance, 
but generally the observer of standard stars endeavours to eliminate 
the effect of flexure in one of the following ways: either the tube is 
so arranged that eyepiece and object-glass can be interchanged, 
whereby the mean of two observations of the same star in the two 
positions of the object-glass will be free from the effect of flexure, 
or a star is not only observed directly (in zenith distance Z), but 
also by reflection from a mercury trough (in zenith distance 180 Z), 
as the mean result of the Z.D. of the direct and reflection observa- 
tions, before and after reversing the instrument east and west, will 
only contain the terms of the flexure depending on sin 2Z, sin $Z, &c. 
In order to raise the instrument a reversing carriage is provided 
which runs on rails between the piers, and on which the axis with 
circles and telescope can be raised by a kind of screw-jack, wheeled 
out from between the piers, turned exactly 180, wheeled back, and 
gently lowered on its bearings. 

The eye end of the telescope has in a plane through the focus 
a number of vertical and one or two horizontal wires (spider lines). 
The former are used for observing the transits of the stars, each 
wire furnishing a separate result for the time of transit over the 
middle wire by adding or subtracting the known interval between 
the latter and the wire in question. The intervals are determined 
by observing the time taken by a star of known declination to pass 
from one wire to the other, the poje star being best on account of 
its slow motion. 3 Instead of vertical wires, the eye end may be 
fitted with Repsold's self-registering micrometer with one movable 
wire to follow the star (see MICROMETER). The instrument is pro- 



1 Reichenbach supplied his tubes with counterpoising levers like 
those on the Dorpat refractor (see TELESCOPE). 

1 Comptes rendus, Ixxxvii. 24. 

'The transits are either observed by "eye and ear," counting 
the second beats of the clock and comparing the distance of the star 
from the wire at the last beat before the transit over the wire with 
the distance at the first beat after the transit, in this way estimating 
the time of transit to o- 1" ; or the observer employs a " chronograph. 



vided with a clamping apparatus, by which the observer, after having 
beforehand set to the approximate declination of a star, can clamp 
the axis so that the telescope cannot be moved except very slowly 
by a handle pushing the end of a fine screw against the clamp arm, 
which at the other side is pressed by a strong spring. By this 
slow motion, the star is made to run along one of the horizontal 
wires (or if there are two close ones, in the middle between them), 
after which the microscopes are read off. A movable horizontal 
wire or declination-micrometer is also often used. The field or 
the wires can be illuminated at the observer's pleasure; the lamps are 
placed at some distance from the piers in order not to heat the 
instrument, and the light passes through holes in the piers and 
through the hollow axis to the cube, whence it is directed to the 
eye-end by a system of prisms. 4 

The time of the star's transit over the middle wire is never 
exactly equal to the actual time of its meridian passage, as the plane 
in which the telescope turns never absolutely coincides with the 
meridian. Let the production of the west end of the axis meet 
the celestial sphere in a point of which the altitude above the horizon 
is b (the error of inclination), and of which the azimuth is 90 a 
(the azimuth being counted from stmth through west), while the 
optical axis of the telescope makes the angle 90 + c with the west 
end of the axis of the instrument, then the correction to the ob- 
served time of transit will be jasin(< 5) + b cos (<t> 6) + c) / cos S, 
where <t> is the latitude of the station and S the declination of 
the star. This is called Tobias Mayer's formula, and is very con- 
venient if only a few observations have to be reduced. Putting 
b sin <t> a cos 4> = n, we get Hansen's formula, which gives the 
correction = b sec <j> + n (tan 5 tan <t>) + c sec 8, which is 
more convenient for a greater number of observations. The daily 
aberration is always deducted from c, as it is also multiplied by 
sec S (being o-3l" cos <t> sec ,8). The above corrections are for upper 
culmination; below the pole 180 8 has to be substituted for 8. 
The constant c is determined by pointing the instrument on one 
of the collimators, measuring the distance of its wire-cross from the 
centre wire of the transit circle by a vertical wire movable by a 
micrometer screw, reversing the instrument and repeating the 
operation, or (without reversing) by pointing the two collimators 
on one another and measuring the distance of first one and then the 
other wire-cross from the centre wire. The inclination b is measured 
directly by a level which can be suspended on the pivots. 6 Having 
thus found b and c, the observation of two stars of known right 
ascension will furnish two equations from which the clock error 
and the azimuth can be found. For finding the azimuth it is most 
advantageous to use two stars differing as nearly 90 in declination 
as possible, such as a star near the pole and one near the equator, 
or better still (if the weather permits it) two successive meridian 
transits of a close circumpolar star (one above and one below the 
pole), as in this case errors in the assumed right ascension will not 
influence the result. 

The interval of time between the culminations or meridian 
transits of two stars is their difference of right ascension, 24 hours 
corresponding to 360 or I hour to 15. If once the absolute right 
ascensions of a number of standard stars are known, it is very simple 
by means of these to determine the R.A. of any number of stars. 
The absolute R.A. of a star is found by observing the interval 
of time between its culmination and that of the sun. If the in- 
clination of the ecliptic _(e) is known, and the declination of the 
sun (8) is observed at the time of transit, we have sin a tan e = tan 8, 
which gives the R.A. of the sun, from which, together with the 
observed interval of time corrected for the rate of the clock, we get 
the R.A. of the star. Differentiation of the formula shows that 
observations near the equinoxes are most advantageous, and that 
errors in the assumed and the observed S will have no influence 
if the Aa is observed at two epochs when the sun's R.A. is A and 
180 A or as near thereto as possible. A great number of ob- 
servations of this kind will furnish materials for a standard cata- 
logue; but the right ascensions of many important catalogues have 
been found by making use of the R.A.'s of a previous catalogue 
to determine the clock error and thus to improve the individual 
adopted R.A.'s of the former catalogue. 

In order to determine absolute declinations or polar distances, it 
is first necessary to determine the co-latitude (or distance of the pole 
from the zenith) by observing the upper and lower culmination 
of a number of circumpolar stars. The difference between the 
circle reading after observing a star and the reading corresponding 
to the zenith is the zenith distance of the star, and this plus the 
co-latitude is the north polar distance or 90 8. In order to 

and by pressing an electric key causes a mark to be made on a 
paper stretched over a uniformly revolving drum, on which the 
clock beats are at the same time also marked electrically. 

1 The idea of illuminating through the axis is due to H. Ussher, 
professor of astronomy in Dublin (d. 1790). 

' To avoid the use of a very large level, the pivots of the new 
transit circle at Kiel are supplied with small riders " carrying 
a wire-cross; these can in turn be observed through a horizontal 
telescope with a hanging mirror in front of its object-glass, whereby 
the difference in height of the two pivots above a horizontal line 
may be measured. 



TRANSKEI TRANSLATION 



183 



determine the zenith point of the circle, the telescope is directed 
vertically downwards and a basin of mercury is placed under it, 
forming an absolutely horizontal mirror. Looking through the 
telescope the observer sees the horizontal wire and a reflected 
image of the same, and if the telescope is moved so as to make 
these coincide, its optical axis will be perpendicular to the plane of 
the horizon, and the circle reading will be 1 80 + zenith point. In 
observations of stars refraction has to be taken into account as well 
as the errors of graduation and flexure, and, if the bisection of the 
star on the horizontal wire was not made in the centre of the field, 
allowance must be made for curvature (or the deviation of the 
star's path from a great circle) and for the inclination of the hori- 
zontal wire to the horizon. The amount of this inclination is 
found by taking repeated observations of the zenith distance of 
a star during the one transit, the pole star being the most suitable 
owing to its slow motion. 

Attempts have been made in various places to record the transits 
of a star photographically; with most success at the Georgetown 
College Observatory, Washington (since 1889). A sensitive plate 
is placed in the focus of a transit instrument and a number of short 
exposures made, their length and the time they are made being 
registered automatically by a clock. The exposing shutter is a 
thin strip of steel, fixed to the armature of an electromagnet. The 
plate thus gives a series of dots or short lines, and the vertical 
wires are photographed on the plate by throwing light through 
the object-glass for one or two seconds. This seems to give better 
results than the method adopted at the Paris observatory, where 
the plate is moved by clock-work and the exposure is comparatively 
long, while the image of a fixed slit is photographed at different 
recorded instants. 

LITERATURE. The methods of investigating the errors of a transit 
circle and correcting the results of observations for them are given 
in Briinnow's and Chauvenet's manuals of spherical astronomy. 
For detailed descriptions of modern transit circles, see particularly 
the Washington Observations for 1865, the Publications of the Wash- 
burn Observatory (vol. ii.) and Astrpnomische Bepbachtungen zu 
Kid (1905). The Greenwich circle is described in an appendix 
to the Greenwich Observations for 1852. Accounts of photographic 
transit instruments will be found in The Photochronograph (Washing- 
ton, 1891), Annales de I'observatoire de Tokyo, tome iii. and Comptes 
rendus (July 16, 1906). (J. L. E. D.) 

TRANSKEI, one of the divisions of the Cape province, South 
Africa, east of the Kei River, being part of the country known 
variously as Kaffraria ((q.v.), " the Native Territories " (of the 
Cape) and the Transkeian Territories. The majority of the 
inhabitants are Fingo (q.v.). 

TRANSLATION (Lat. trans, across, and latus, the participle 
of ferre, to carry), literally a carrying over or transference from 
one to another, and so from one medium to another. Among 
the more literal usages is the translation of Enoch in the Bible 
(Heb. xi. 5), or the ecclesiastical removal of a bishop to another 
see. But the commonest sense of the word is in connexion with 
the rendering of one language into another. 

The characteristics of a good translation in the literary sense, 
and the history of the influence, through translations, of one 
literature on another, are worth more detailed notice. Dryden 
has prescribed the course to be followed in the execution of 
the ideal translation: " A translator that would write with any 
force or spirit of an original must never dwell on the words of 
his author. He ought to possess himself entirely, and perfectly 
comprehend the genius and sense of his author, the nature of the 
subject, and the terms of the art or subject treated of; and then 
he will express himself as justly, and with as much life, as if he 
wrote an original; whereas, he who copies word for word loses 
all the spirit in the tedious transfusion." Comparatively few 
translators have satisfied this canon. A writer capable of attain- 
ing the standard set up by Dryden is naturally more disposed 
to use his powers to express his own views than those of his 
foreign predecessors. No doubt at all times, and in all countries, 
translations have usually been produced for utilitarian purposes, 
and not from artistic motives. In the first instance we may 
assume that translations were undertaken in a spirit of educa- 
tional propaganda as a means of communicating new ideas and 
new facts to a somewhat uninstructed and uncritical public, 
indifferent as to matters of form. But, though the translator's 
primary motive is didactic, he is insensibly led to reproduce the 
manner as well as the matter of his original as closely as possible. 
Montaigne warns aspirants of the difficulty in dealing with 
authors remarkable for the finish of their execution. " II faict 



bon," he writes in the Apologie de Raimond Sebonde, " traduire 
les aucteurs comme celuy-la ou il n'y a gueres que la matiere a 
representer; mais ceux qui ont donne beaucoup a la grace et a 
1'elegance de langage ils sont dangereux a entreprendre nomme- 
ment pour les rapporter a un idiome plus foible." As it happens, 
however ^he task of translating foreign masterpieces has 
frequently been undertaken by writers of undisputed literary 
accomplishment whose renderings have had a permanent effect 
on the literature of their native country. 

It was certainly the case when Rome, having conquered 
Greece, was captured by her captive. There is much point 
and little exaggeration in the statement that " when the Greek 
nation became a province of Rome, the Latin literature became 
a province of the Greek "; and this peaceful victory was initiated 
by a series of translations made by writers of exceptional ability 
and, in some cases, of real genius. The first translator whose 
name is recorded in the history of European literature is L. 
Livius Andronicus, a manumitted Greek slave who about 240 
B.C., rendered the Odyssey into Saturnian verse. This transla- 
tion, of which some fragments are preserved, was long in use as 
a school text, for Horace studied it under the formidable Orbilius;- 
but Andronicus appears to have recognized his mistake in using 
the native Latin measure as a vehicle of literary expression, 
and is said to have rendered Greek tragedies and comedies into 
metres corresponding to those of his Greek originals. The deci- 
sion was momentous, for it influenced the whole metrical develop- 
ment of Latin poetry. The example set by Andronicus was 
followed by Naevius and Ennius, both of whom laid the founda- 
tions of the Latin theatre by translating Greek plays especially 
those of Euripides and naturalized in Rome the hexameter, 
which, as practised later by Lucretius and Virgil, was destined 
to become '^the stateliest measure ever moulded by the lips of 
man." The tradition of translating more or less freely was 
continued by Pacuvius, the nephew of Ennius, as well as by 
Plautus and Terence, whose comedies are skilful renderings or 
adaptations from the New Attic Comedy of Philemon, Diphilus 
and Menander. A persistent translator from the Greek was 
Cicero, who interpolates in his prose writings versified renderings 
of passages from Homer, Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides 
which prove the injustice of the popular verdict on his merits 
as a poet. Cicero not only translated the oration of Demosthenes 
On the Crown, but also made Latin versions of Plato's Timaeus 
(part of which survives), of Xenophon's Oeconomicus, and of 
the Phaenomena, an astronomical poem by Aratus of Soli, an 
Alexandrian imitator of Hesiod. This last performance was 
a tribute to the prevailing fashion of the moment, for the Alex- 
andrian poets had supplanted the early Greek school in favour 
among the literary circles of Rome. To the foregoing list may 
be added the great name of Catullus, whose Coma Berenices is 
translated from Callimachus, and Cornelius Callus is mentioned 
as a translator of Euphorion. Complete translations became 
less and less necessary as a knowledge of Greek spread among 
the educated class. But the practice of translating fragments 
of Greek verse continued throughout the classic period of Latin 
literature, and the translations of Greek originals incorporated 
by Virgil were duly pointed out by Octavius Avitus. 

The knowledge of Greek declined with the empire, and trans- 
lations were accordingly produced for the benefit of students 
who were curious concerning the philosophic doctrines of the 
Athenians and the Neoplatonists. Porphyry's introduction to 
Aristotle's Categories was translated by Victorinus about the 
reign of Julian the Apostate; at the end of the 5th century this 
introduction was once more translated by Boetius, whose trans- 
lations of Aristotle's Categories and other logical treatises began 
the movement which ended in establishing the Greek philosopher 
as the most profound and authoritative exponent of intellectual 
problems during the middle ages. Plato was less fortunate, 
for he was known to students chiefly by the Latin version of the 
Timaeus made by Chalcidius (it is said) for Hosius, the bishop 
of Cordova. Cassiodorus, the contemporary of Boetius, went 
farther afield when he ordered a Latin translation of Josephus 
to be prepared; but the interest in Aristotle extended to the 



184 



TRANSLATION 



East, and in the 6th century he was translated into Syriac by 
Sergius of Resaina. The Syrians acted as interpreters of Greek 
learning to the Arabs, and during the 8th and pth centuries 
chiefly through the staff of translators organized at Bagdad by 
Honein ibn Ishak the works of Plato and Aristotle, as well as 
those of Hippocrates and Galen, were translated into Arabic. 
These translations are of capital importance in the history of 
European thought. Many of them were introduced into Spain 
by the Arabs, and were rendered in some cases through the 
intermediary of a Castilian-speaking Jew into Latin at the 
college of translators founded in 1130 (or shortly afterwards) 
at Toledo by Raymund, archbishop of that city. Circulating 
widely throughout western Europe, these Latin translations 
supplied the learned with a third- or fourth-hand knowledge of 
Greek philosophy. When Albertus Magnus, St Thomas Aquinas, 
or any other early light of the schools refers to Aristotle, it must 
be borne in mind that he often had no more exact acquaintance 
with the text which he expounds or confutes than could be 
gathered from an indirect Latin version of an Arabic rendering 
of a Syriac translation of a Greek original. This accounts for 
.many misunderstandings and errors which would otherwise 
be incomprehensible. Among the earliest European translators 
who made their way to Toledo were Adelard of Bath, who 
rendered an Arabic version of Euclid into Latin; the English- 
man known as Robert de Retines, afterwards archdeacon of 
Pamplona, the first translator of the Koran, which he did into 
Latin in 1141-1143 by order of Peter the Venerable; and Gerard 
of Cremona, who, towards the end of the i2th century, was 
responsible for over seventy translations from the Arabic, 
including Ptolemy's Almagest and many of Aristotle's treatises, 
as well as works by Galen, Hippocrates and Avicenna. Early 
in the I3th century Michael Scot, who had begun his Arabic 
studies at Palermo, visited Toledo and (perhaps with the help 
of the Jew Andreas, if we are to believe the statement of Her- 
mann the German, repeated by Roger Bacon) translated into 
Latin various works of Aristotle, Avicenna, and more especially 
Averroes. These Latin translations by Michael Scot intro- 
duced Averroes to the notice of Western scholars, and the fact 
that they were used at the universities of Paris and Bologna 
gave the first impetus to the vogue of Averroistic doctrine which 
lasted from the time of St Thomas Aquinas to the rise of Martin 
Luther. At Toledo, between 1240 and 1256, Hermann the 
German translated into Latin the commentaries of Averroes 
on Aristotle's Ethics, together with abridgments of the Poetic 
and the Rhetoric made respectively by Averroes and Alfarabi. 
But, at the very period of Hermann the German's residence at 
Toledo, a more satisfactory method of translation was begun. 
Within half a century of the conquest of Constantinople in 1 204 
a visit to Spain was no longer indispensable for a would-be 
translator of Greek philosophical treatises. The original texts 
slowly became more available, and a Latin translation of Aris- 
totle's Ethics seems to have been made from the Greek by order 
of Robert Grosseteste, bishop of Lincoln, between 1240-1244. 
Towards the end of the century the indefatigable William of 
Moerbeke (near Ghent) mentioned as " William the Fleming " 
by Roger Bacon produced, amongst numerous other Latin 
renderings from the Greek, versions of Aristotle's Rhetoric and 
Politics which have commended themselves to more exact 
scholars of the modem German type. The Latin renderings 
from the Arabic were current till a much later date; but it was 
henceforth accepted, at least in principle, that translations of 
the Greek classics should be made direct from the original text. 
Meanwhile the work of translating foreign productions into 
the local vernacular had been begun in the north and west of 
Europe. Towards the end of the gth century an illustrious 
English translator appeared in the person of King Alfred, who 
rendered St Gregory the Great's Cura pastordis into West 
Saxon " sometimes word for word, sometimes sense for sense." 
Alfred is also regarded, though with less certainty, as the 
translator of Bede's Historic, ecclesiastica and the Historic, 
adversus paganos of Orosius. The version of St Gregory's treatise 
is the most literal of the three; omissions are frequent in the 



renderings of Bede and Orosius, and in all the diction is disfigured 
by latinisms. A larger conception of a translator's function 
is noticeable in Alfred's version of Boetius's De consolalione 
philosophiae, a famous Neoplatonic treatise which was the 
delight of the middle ages, and was translated later into German 
by Notker Labeo, into French ,by Jean de Meung, and twice 
again into English by Chaucer and by Queen Elizabeth respec- 
tively. In translating Boetius, Alfred deals more freely with 
his author, interpolates passages not to be found in the extant 
texts of the original, and yet succeeds in giving an adequate 
interpretation which is also an excellent specimen of English 
prose. If the alliterative verses found in one manuscript of 
Alfred's translation are accepted as his work, it is clear that he 
had no poetic faculty; but he has the credit of opening up a new 
path, of bringing England into contact with European thought, 
and of stimulating such writers as Werferth, bishop of Worcester 
the translator of St Gregory's Dialogues to proceed on the 
same line. Some forty years earlier John Scotus (Erigena) had 
won celebrity as a translator by his Latin renderings of works 
ascribed to the mysterious 5th century Neoplatonist who passes 
under the name of Dionysius the Areopagite. Towards the close 
of Alfred's reign some countrymen of Erigena bettered his 
example by producing Irish versions of Hippocrates and Galen 
at St Gallen. St Gallen became a centre of translation, and 
there, at the beginning of the nth century, Notker Labeo 
presided over a committee of interpreters who issued German 
renderings of certain treatises by Aristotle, Terence's Andria 
and Virgil's Eclogues. Far greater literary importance attaches 
to Syntipas,ihe title given by Michael Andreopulos to a collection 
of ancient Oriental tales which he translated from an intermediate 
Syriac version into Greek at the request of the Armenian duke 
of Melitene about the end of the nth century. These stories 
were retranslated into French verse and (by Jean de Haute-Seille) 
into Latin during the course of the I2th century under the respec- 
tive titles of the Sept sages de Rome and Dolopathos; they were 
utilized in the Cento novelle antiche, in the Libra dei sette savj, 
and in the Decamerone, and were finally absorbed by every 
literature in Europe. Immense popularity was won by the 
Liber gestorum Barlaam el Josaphat, a Latin translation made in 
the nth or I2th century from the Greek, and recast in many 
European languages during the i3th century. The book is in 
fact a legendary life of Buddha adapted to the purposes of 
Christianity by a monk; but it was accepted as an historical 
record, the undiscerning credulity of the faithful informally 
canonized Barlaam and Josaphat, and ultimately compelled the 
Latin Church to include these two fictitious beings as saints in 
the Martyrologium romanum. This is perhaps the most curious 
result attained by any translation. The interest in Eastern 
apologues and moralizing stories, which was early shown in 
Marie de France's translation of Aesopic fables, was further 
demonstrated by the Castilian translations of Kalilah and 
Dimnah and Sindibad made about the middle of the I3th 
century, by (or at the command of) Alphonso the Learned and 
his brother the Infante Fadrique respectively. 

The enthusiasm for these Oriental stories was communicated 
to the rest of Europe by John of Capua's Directorium humanae 
vitae (1270), a Latin translation of Kalilah and Dimnah; but, in 
the meanwhile, as the younger European literatures grew in 
power and variety, the field of translation necessarily widened 
to such an extent that detailed description becomes impossible. 
Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia regum Britanniae, which pur- 
ports to be a free version of an unnamed Breton book, is the 
source of the Arthurian legends which reappeared transformed 
in elaborate French versions, and were transmitted to the rest 
of Europe during the i2th and i3th centuries. During this 
period of French literary supremacy instances of bilingual 
faculty are not wanting in the form of translations: shortly 
after the middle of the i3th century Brunette Latini translated 
passages of Cicero into Italian, and selections from Sallust into 
French. A hundred years later there are unmistakable indica- 
tions that the middle ages are departing, that the French 
suzerainty over literature is at an end, and that the advent of 



TRANSLATION 



185 



the New Humanism is an accomplished fact. The early Renais- 
sance had already dawned in Italy: a renewed interest in the 
Latin classics (Greek was not yet generally cultivated by scholars) 
proved that there was a revival of learning in France. Livy 
was done into French by Bersuire, Seneca by Bauchant, 
Boccaccio by Laurent de Premier Fait, and a celebrated trans- 
lator appeared in the person of Nicolas Oresme, who, however, 
rendered Aristotle from a Latin version. In England Chaucer 
executed translations of Boetius and part of the Roman de la 
rose, and succeeded equally in interpreting the philosophic 
treatise and the allegorical poem. A still further advance is 
discernible in the book of travels ascribed to Sir John Mande- 
ville: this work, which seems to have been originally written in 
French, is rendered into English with an exceptional felicity 
which has won for the translator the loose-fitting but not 
altogether inappropriate title of " the father of English prose." 
The English version of Mandeville is assigned to the beginning 
of the 1 5th century. About 1470 Sir Thomas Malory produced 
from French originals his Morte d' Arthur, a pastiche of different 
texts translated with a consummate art which amounts to 
originality. Malory's inspired version, together with the 
numerous renderings from the French issued (and often made 
personally) by Caxton, stimulated the public taste for romantic 
narrative, raised the standard of execution, and invested the 
translator with a new air of dignity and importance. 

Yet the i sth century has a fair claim to be regarded as the 
golden age of translation. The Gothic version of the Bible, 
made by Ulfilas during the 4th century almost simultaneously 
with St Jerome's Vulgate, is invaluable as the sole literary 
monument of a vanished language; the I4th century English 
version by Wycliffe and the i5th century English versions 
which bear the names of Tyndale and Coverdale are Interesting 
in themselves, and are also interesting as having contributed 
to the actual Authorized Version of 1611. But they are incom- 
parably less important than Luther's German translation of the 
Bible (1522-1534) which, apart from its significance as indicating 
the complete victory of the liberal middle class and the irreme- 
diable downfall of the feudal and ecclesiastical autocracy, 
supplanted minor dialects and fixed the norm of literary expres- 
sion in German-speaking countries. Luther, it has been truly 
said, endowed Germany with a uniform literary language, a 
possession which she had lost for nearly three hundred years. 
The effect of profane literature was speedily visible in Fischart's 
translations of Rabelais's Pantagrueline (1572) and the first 
book of Gargantua (1575). But before this date France had 
produced a prince of translators in Jacques Amyot, bishop of 
Auxerre. In 1548 Nicolas de Herberay had published a French 
translation of Amadis de Gaule which enchanted the polite 
world at the court of Henry II., had its day, and is forgotten. 
But Amyot's translation of Plutarch (1559) remains an acknow- 
ledged masterpiece, surviving all changes of taste and all 
variations of the canon of translation. Montaigne writes: 
" Je donne la palme avecque raison, ce me semble, a Jacques 
Amyot, sur tous nos escripvains Francois." If " escripvain " be 
understood to mean " translator," this judgment is beyond appeal. 

Lord Berners will not bear comparison with Amyot in achieve- 
ment or influence; but. though less completely equipped and 
less uniformly happy in his choice of texts (for Amyot translated 
the Aethiopian History and Daphnis and Chloe as well as Plu- 
tarch), Lord Berners holds a distinguished place in the ranks 
of English translators. His renderings of Fernandez de San 
Pedro's Cdrcel de amor and of Guevara's Libra aureo are now 
read solely by specialists engaged in tracing English euphuism to 
its remoter sources, and some of his other translations the Boke 
of Duke Huon of Burdeux and Arthur of Little Britain are too 
poor in substance to be interesting nowadays. But Lord Berners 
is justly remembered by his notable translation of Froissart 
(1523-1525). Froissart offers fewer opportunities than Guevara 
for the display of that " fecundious art of rhetoric " in which the 
English translator thought himself deficient, and, with this 
temptation removed, Lord Berners is seen at his best. In his 
version of Froissart, apart from endless confusion of proper 



names, he makes few mistakes of any real importance, and, if he 
scarcely equals his original in brio, .he is almost invariably ade- 
quate in reproducing the French blend of simplicity with state- 
liness. Such translations as Phaer's Virgil (1557) and Golding's 
Ovid (1561) have not the historical importance of William 
Painter's Palace of Pleasure, a miscellaneous collection of stories 
rendered from the Italian, nor of Jasper Heywood's version of 
Seneca (1581) whose plays had exercised immense influence upon 
the methods of Garnier and Montchretien in France. Though 
Kyd translated Garnier's Cornelie, the Senecan system was 
destined to defeat in England, and Heywood's translation did 
not even postpone the catastrophe. On the other hand Marlowe 
found the subject of.his Tamburlaine in Painter's collection, and 
thus began the systematic exploitation of the Palace of Pleasure 
which was continued by his successors on the stage. A trans- 
lator of the rarest excellence was forthcoming in Sir Thomas 
North, who rendered Guevara (1557) from the French (revising 
his second edition from the Spanish), and The M or all Philosophic 
of Doni " a worke first compiled hi the Indian tongue " 
from the Italian (1570). But, good as they are, both these 
versions are overshadowed by the famous translation of Plutarch 
which North published in 1579. He may have referred occa- 
sionally to the Greek, or perhaps to some intermediate Latin 
rendering; but the basis of his work is Amyot, and his English 
is not inferior to the French in sonority and cadence of phrase. 
This retranslation of a translation is a masterpiece of which 
fragments are incorporated with scarcely any change in Corio- 
lanus, Julius Caesar and Antony and Cleopatra; and touches from 
North have been noted also in the Midsummer Night's Dream 
and in Timon of Athens. Amyot greatly influenced the develop- 
ment of French prose, and his translation was the source of 
Racine's Mithridate; but, if we reflect that Shakespeare not only 
took some of his subjects from the English Plutarch and found 
nothing to amend in the diction of many passages, North's 
triumph may be reckoned as even more signal than Amyot's. 
Very h'ttle below North's translation of Plutarch comes 
John Florio's translation of Montaigne (1603), a fantastically 
ingenious performance which contributed a celebrated passage 
to The Tempest and introduced the practice of the essay into 
England. ' It is impossible to cope with the activity of English 
translators during the last half of the i6th century and the first 
half of the I7th. To this period belongs Chapman's impressive 
and resounding translation (1598-1616) of Homer, which was to 
enrapture Keats two hundred years later. Adlington's version 
of Apuleius, Underdown's renderings of Heliodorus and Ovid, 
the translations of Livy, Pliny, Suetonius and Xenophon 
issued in quick succession by Philemon Holland are vivid and 
often extravagantly picturesque in their conveyance of classic 
authors into Elizabethan prose. With them must be named the 
translator of Tacitus (1591), Sir' Henry Savile, who served later 
on the committee which prepared the Authorized Version of 
the Bible, and must therefore be counted amongst those who 
have exercised a permanent influence on English prose style. 
Thomas Shelton produced the earliest translation (1612) of 
Don Quixote, a version which, in spite of its inaccuracies and 
freakishness, preserves much of the tone and atmosphere of the 
original. Mabbe's translation (1622) of Guzmdn de Alfarache 
was lauded by Ben Jonson, and widely read during the I7th 
century, and his version of the Celestina deserved a success which 
it failed to obtain. It compares most favourably with a version 
of Tasso (1600) by Edward Fairfax, who has been persistently 
overpraised. But the Puritanical instinct of the English people, 
powerful even when not in the ascendant, was an insuperable 
obstacle to the acclimatization of Spanish literature in England. 
The Leviathan has obscured Hobbes's fame as a translator, but 
he is known to scholars by his sound but crabbed rendering of 
Thucydides (1629), and by a wholly unnecessary version of 
Homer which h'e published at the very end of his career (1674). 
Sir Roger L'Estrange is responsible for translations of Seneca, 
Cicero and Josephus, which are usually lively enough to be 
readable and unfaithful enough to be misleading; the most 
popular of his renderings is a translation of Quevedo's Suefios 



i86 



TRANSOM TRANSVAAL 



(made through the French) which owes most of its vogue during 
the Restoration rather to its reckless indecency than to its 
intrinsic merit. Dryden's free translations of Juvenal (1693) 
and Virgil (1697) treat the original authors with a cavalier 
freedom, but at least they preserve the meaning, if not the 
conciseness and point, of the Latin. 

Among the multitudinous English translations of the i8th 
century it is only necessary to mention Pope's versions of the 
Iliad (1715-1720) and the Odyssey (1725-1726), and Cowper's 
rendering of Homer, issued in 1791. These neat translations 
necessarily fail to convey any impression of Homer's epical 
grandeur, and they set a mischievous fashion of artificial " ele- 
gance " which has been too often adopted by their successors; 
but both Pope and Cowper conform faithfully to the mistaken 
canon of their age, and both have fugitive moments of felicity. 
A posthumous translation of Don Quixote bearing the name of 
Charles Jarvis appeared in 1742, has been reprinted times 
innumerable ever since, and has helped to make Cervantes's 
masterpiece known to generations of English-speaking people. 
Defective in point of exact scholarship, it has the merit of agree- 
able perspicuity, and there seems no reason to believe the remark, 
ascribed by Warburton to Pope, that Jarvis " translated Don 
Quixote without knowing Spanish ": the available evidence is 
strongly against this malicious theory. The most remarkable 
translations of the i8th century, however, appeared in Germany: 
these are the versions of the Odyssey (1781) and Iliad (1793) by 
Voss, and A. W. von Schlegel's rendering of Shakespeare (1797- 
1810), which gave a powerful impulse to the romantic movement 
on the Continent. 

Byron's version of a Spanish ballad and Shelley's renderings 
of Calderon are interesting exhibitions of original genius volun- 
tarily accepting a subordinate r61e. More importance attaches 
to Carlyle's translation of Wilhelm Meisler (1824), a faithful 
rendering free from the intolerable mannerisms and tricks which 
the translator developed subsequently in his original writings. 
William Taylor had long before translated Burger's Lenore, 
Lessing's Nathan and Goethe's Iphigenia; but such interest 
as the English nation has been induced to take in German litera- 
ture dates from the appearance of Carlyle's translation. If he 
did nothing more, he compelled recognition of the fact that 
Germany had at last produced an original genius of the highest 
class. Calderon found accomplished translators in Denis 
Florence MacCarthy (1848-1873) and in Edward FitzGerald 
(1853), who also attempted to render Sophocles into English; 
but these are on a much lower plane than the translation of 
the Rubaiydl (1859) of Omar Khayyam, in which, by a miracle 
of intrepid dexterity, a half-forgotten Persian poet is transfigured 
into a pessimistic English genius of the igth century. Versions 
of Dante by Longfellow (whose translations of poems by minor 
authors are often admirable), of Latin or Greek classics by 
Conington, Munro, Jowett and Jebb, maintain the best traditions 
of the best translators. William Morris was less happy in his 
poetical versions of Virgil (1875) and the Odyssey (1887) than in 
his prose translations of The Story of Grettir the Strong (1869) and 
The Volsunga Saga (1870) both made in collaboration with 
Magnusson and in his rendering of Beowulf (1895). In his 
Lays of France (1872) Arthur O'Shaughnessy skirts the borders 
of translation without quite entering into the field; he elaborates, 
paraphrases and embroiders rather than translates the lais of 
Marie de France. 

Most versions of modern foreign writers are mere hackwork 
carelessly executed by incompetent hands, and this is even more 
true of England than of France and Germany. But, with the 
development of literature in countries whose languages are 
unfamiliar, the function of the translator increases in importance, 
and in some few cases he has risen to his opportunity. Through 
translations the works of the great Russian novelists have become 
known to the rest of Europe, and through translations of Ibsen 
the dramatic methods of the modern stage have undergone a 
revolution. (J. F.-K.) 

TRANSOM (probably a corruption of Lat. transtrum, athwart, 
in a boat; equivalents are Fr. traverse, croisillon, Ger. Losholz), 



the architectural term given to the horizontal lintel or beam 
which is framed across a window, dividing it into stages or 
heights. In early Gothic ecclesiastical work transoms are only 
found in belfry unglazed windows or spire lights, where they 
were deemed necessary to strengthen the mullions in the 
absence of the iron stay bars, which in glazed windows served a 
similar purpose. In domestic work, on account of the opening 
casements, they are more frequently found. In the later Gothic, 
and more especially the Perpendicular period, the introduction 
of transoms became very general in windows of all kinds. 

TRANSUBSTANTIATION, the term adopted by the Roman 
Catholic Church to express her teaching on the subject of the 
conversion of the Bread and Wine into the Body and Blood of 
Christ in the Eucharist. Its signification was authoritatively 
defined by the Council of Trent in the following words: " If any 
one shall say that, in the Holy Sacrament of the Eucharist there 
remains, together with the Body and Blood of Our Lord Jesus 
Christ, the substance of the Bread and Wine, and shall deny 
that wonderful and singular conversion of the whole substance 
of the Bread into (His) Body and of the Wine into (His) Blood, 
the species only of the Bread and Wine remaining which con- 
version the Catholic Church most fittingly calls Transubstantia- 
tion let him be anathema." J The word Transubstantiation is 
not found earlier than the i2th century. But in the Eucharistic 
controversies of the gth, loth and nth centuries the views 
which the term embodies were clearly expressed; as, for example, 
by Radbertus Paschasius (d. 865), who wrote that " the substance 
of the Bread and Wine is efficaciously changed interiorly into 
the Flesh and Blood of Christ," and that after the consecration 
what is there is " nothing else but Christ the Bread of Heaven." '' 
The words " substantially converted " appear in the formula 
which Berengarius was compelled to sign in 1079. Assuming 
that the Expositio canonis missae ascribed to St Pietro Damiani 
(d. 1072) is doubtful, we may take it that the first use of the word 
is in a passage of Hildebert de Savardin 3 (d. 1133), who brings 
it into an exhortation quite informally, as if it were in common 
use. 4 It is met with in a Decretal of Innocent III. 6 The fourth 
Council of Lateran fully adopted it (1215). It is clear from the 
treatise of Radbertus Paschasius already quoted that the word 
" substance " was used for reality as distinguished from outward 
appearance, and that the word " species " meant outward appear- 
ance as opposed to reality. The terms, therefore, were not 
invented by St Thomas Aquinas, and are not mere scholastic 
subtlety. The definition of the Council of Trent was intended 
both to enforce the accepted Catholic position and to exclude 
the teaching of Luther, who, whilst not professing to be certain 
whether the " substance " of the Bread and Wine could or could 
not be said to remain, exclaimed against the intolerance of the 
Roman Catholic Church in defining the question. 6 

For a full and recent exposition of the Catholic teaching on 
Transubstantiation the reader may consult De ecclesiae sacra- 
mentis, auctore Ludovico Billot, S.J. (Rome, Propaganda Press, 
1896). The Abb6 Pierre Batifol, in his Etudes d'histoire et de 
theologie positive, 2 me seYie (Elaboration de la notion de conversion, 
and Conversion et transubstantiation) treats it from the point of view 
of development (V. Lecoffre, Paris, 1905). (* J. C. H.) 

TRANSVAAL, an inland province of the Union of South Africa 
between the Vaal and Limpopo rivers. It lies, roughly, between 
22^ and 27^ S. and 25 and 32 E., and is bounded S. by the 
Orange Free State and Natal, W. by the Cape province and the 
Bechuanaland Protectorate, N. by Rhodesia, E. by Portuguese 
East Africa and Swaziland. Save on the south-west the frontiers, 
for the main part, are well defined natural features. From the 
south-west to the north-east corners of the colony is 570 m.; east 

1 Condi trident. Sess. XIII. Can. 2. 

3 P. L. Migne. CXX. De corpore et sanguine Domini, cap. viii. 
2, cf. xv. 2. 

3 Sometimes called of Tours, or of Le Mans. 

4 See Batifol, Etudes d'histoire et de theologie positive, 2 me serie. 
"Lib. III. Decretalium, tit. 41, n. 6. 

' De captivitate babylonica ecclesiae. De coena Domini. But 
Luther elsewhere professed Consubstantiation ; that is, in modern 
Lutheran phraseology, the " presence of our Lord's Body " in, 
with and under the bread. 



PHYSICAL FEATURES] 



TRANSVAAL 



to west its greatest extent is 397 m. The total area is 111,196 
sq. m., a little less than the area of Great Britain and Ireland 
The boundaries of the Transvaal have varied from time to time 
The most important alteration was made in January 1903 when 
the districts of Utrecht and Vryheid, which then formed the 
south-eastern part of the country were annexed to Natal. Th 
area thus lost to the Transvaal was 6970 sq. m. (For map se 
SOUTH AFRICA.) 

Physical Features. About five-sixths of the country lies west 
of the Drakensberg (q.v.), the mountain range which forms the inne 
rim of the great tableland of South Africa. For a few miles on the 
Natal-Transvaal frontier the Drakensberg run east and west anc 
here is the pass of Laing's Nek. Thence the mountains sweep 
round to the north, with their precipitous outer slopes facing east 
For some 250 m. within the province the mountains form a more 
, ! ^u. i..--.!..^ int being the Maiichberg 

bile there are several heights 
_ the foot of the Drakensberg 
stretches a broad belt of low land beyond which rise the Lebombo 
hills running north and south along the parallel of 32 E. anc 
approaching within 35 m. of the sea at Delagoa Bay. The Lebombo 
hills are flat topped but with a' well-defined break on their seaward 
side. This eastern edge forms the frontier between Transvaal and 
Portuguese territory. 

The country west of the Drakensberg, though part of the main 
South African tableland, is not uniform in character, consisting of 
(l) elevated downs, (2) their slopes, (3) the flat " bottom " land. 
The downs or plateaus occupy all the southern part of the country, 
sloping gradually westward from the Drakensberg. That part of 
the plateau east of Johannesburg is from 5000 to 6400 ft. high; 
the western and somewhat, larger half is generally below 5000 ft. 
and sinks to about 4000 ft. on the Bechuanaland border. This 
plateau land is called the high veld, 1 and covers about 34,000 sq. m. 
The northern edge of the plateau follows an irregular line from 
somewhat north of Mafeking on the west to the Mauchberg on the 
east. This edge is marked by ranges of hills such as the Witwaters- 
rand, Witwatersberg and Magaliesberg; the Witwatersrand, which 
extends eastward to Johannesburg, forming the watershed between 
the rivers flowing to the Atlantic and Indian Ocean. Farther north, 
beyond the intervening slopes and low bush, are two elevated 
regions covering together over 4000 sq. m. They are the Water- 
berg, and, more to the east, separated from the VVaterberg by the 
valley of the Magalakwane tributary of the Limpopo, the Zoutpans- 
berg. The Zoutpansberg has steep slopes and is regarded as the 
northern termination of the Drakensberg. An eastern offshoot 
of the Zoutpansberg is known as the Murchison Range. The low 
land between the high veld and the Waterberg and Zoutpansberg 
is traversed by the Olifants River, an east flowing tributary of the 
Limpopo. 

The true high veld, extending east to west 120 m. and north to 
south 100 m., consists of rolling grass covered downs, absolutely 
treeless, save where, as at Johannesburg, plantations have been 
made by man, the crest of the rolls being known as builts and the 
hollows as laagtes or vleys. The surface is occasionally broken 
by kopjes either table-shaped or pointed rising sometimes 100 
ft. above the general level. Small springs of fresh water are fre- 
quent and there are several shallow lakes or pans flat bottomed 
depressions with no outlet. The largest of these pans, Lake 
Chrissie, some 5 m. long by I m. broad, is in the south-eastern 
part of the high veld. The water in the pans is usually brackish. 
The middle veld is marked by long low stony ridges, known as rands, 
and these rands and the kopjes are often covered with scrub, 
while mimosa trees are found in the river valleys. 

The banken veld, formed by the denudation of the plateau, is 
much broken up and is rich in romantic scenery. It covers about 
27,000 sq. m., and has an average breadth of 40 m. In places, 
as between Mafeking and Johannesburg, the descent is in terrace- 
like steps, each step marked by a line of hills; in other places there 
is a gradual slope and elsewhere the descent is abrupt, with out- 
lying hills and deep well-wooded valleys. The rocks at the base of 
the slopes are granite, the upper escarpments are of sedimentary 
rocks. Thence issue many streams which in their way to the 
ocean have forced their way through the ranges of hills which mark 
the steps in the plateau, forming the narrow passes or poorts char- 
acteristic of South African scenery. 

As in the middle veld, rands and kopjes occur in the low or bush 
veld, but the general characteristic of this part of the country, 
which covers over 50,000 sq. m., is its uniformity. The low veld 
east of the Drakensberg begins at about 3000 ft. above the sea 
and slopes to 1000 ft. or less until it meets the ridge of the Lebombo 
hills. The lowest point is at Komati Poort, a gorge through the 
Lebombo hills only 476 ft. above the sea. West and north of the 
Drakensberg the general level of the low veld is not much below 
that of the lowest altitudes of the middle veld, though the climatic 

1 By the Boers the western and less elevated part of the plateau 
is known as the middle veld. 



187 



conditions greatly differ. North of the Zoutpansberg the ground 
falls rapidly, however, to the Limpopo flats which are little over 
1200 ft. above the sea. Near the north-west foot of the Zoutpans- 
berg is the large saltpan from which the mountains get their name 
ine low veld is everywhere covered with scrub, and water is scarce 
the rivers being often dry in the winter season. 

River Systems. - There are four separate river basins in the Trans- 
vaal. Of these the Komati (q.v.) and its affluents, and the Pongola 
and its affluents rise in the high veld and flowing eastward to the 
Indian Ocean dram but a comparatively small area of the province, 
ol which the Pongola forms for some distance the south-eastern 
Irontier. The rest of the country is divided between the drainage 
areas of the Vaal and Limpopo. The Vaal (q.v.) rises in the nigh 
veld in the Ermelo district not far from the source of the Komati 
and that of the Usuto tributary of the Pongola. The Vaal drains 
the greater part of the plateau, flowing westward towards the 
Atlantic. Ine waters of the northern escarpments of the plateau 
and of all the region farther north are carried to the Indian Ocean 
by the Limpopo (q.v .) and its tributaries the Olifants, Great Marico 
Great Letaba, &c. Both the Vaal and the Limpopo in their main 
course have high steep banks. They carry an immense volume of 
water during the summer rains, but are very small streams in the 
winter, when several of their tributaries are completely dry. 2 None 
of the rivers is- navigable within the limits of the province. The 
absence of alluvial deposits of any size is another characteristic 
ot the Iransvaal rivers. For a considerable distance the Vaal 
forms the frontier between the province and the Orange Free State 
and in similar manner the Limpopo separates the Transvaal from 
Bechuanaland and Rhodesia. Since the first advent of white 
colonists many springs and pans and small streams have dried up, 
this desiccation being attributed, not so much to decreased rainfall, 
as to the burning off of the grass every winter, so that the water, 
instead of soaking in, runs off the hard, baked ground into the larger 
nvers - (F. R. C.) 

Geology. 

A broad ring of crystalline rocks (Swaziland schists) encircles 
the Transvaal except on the south, where the Karroo formation 
extends over the Vaal River. Within this nearly complete circle 
of crystalline rocks several geological formations have been deter- 
mined, of which the age cannot be more definitely fixed than that 
they are vastly older than the Karroo formation and newer than the 
Swaziland schists. 

The following subdivisions have been recognized by Molengraaff : 
Karroo System, Transvaal System, Vaal River System, South 
African Primary System. Each of these systems is separated 
from the other by a strong unconformity. 

South African Primary System. The South African Primary 
System includes a complex of rocks as yet little understood. Ac- 
cording to Molengraaff it includes the two following series : 

{An upper group including the auri- 
ferous conglomerates of the Rand: 
a lower group (Hospital Hill series) 
of quartzites, shales and conglom- 
erates. 

Barberton and Swaziland/ Crystalline schists, quartzites, conglom- 
Series. \ erates, intrusive granites. 

Barberton Series. Molengraaff considers the Barberton series to 
je the metamorphosed equivalent of the Hospital Hill series, 
while Hatch regards it to be older and to form a portion of his 
Archaean series (Swaziland schists) to which position it is here 
assigned. The chief outcrops are in the south-western Transvaal, 
around Zoutpansberg and in Swaziland. They show a great 
variety of type made up of slates, quartzites, occasional conglom- 
erates, schists with large masses of intrusive granites and gneiss. 

Witwatersrand Series. It is now generally acknowledged that 
this important series consists of two main groups. Their chief 
occurrences are in the districts of Witwatersrand, Heidelberg, 
Klerksdorp and Venterskroon. The lower group (Hospital Hill 
slates) consists of quartzites and shales, resting on the eroded 
surface of the older granites and schists, and estimated to be from 
10,000 to 12,000 ft. thick. There are occasional bands of conglom- 
erates, sometimes auriferous. In the absence of fossils their age 
cannot be determined. The upper group consists of conglomerates, 
;rits and quartzites with a few bands of shales. It has obtained 
lotoriety from the conglomerates along certain bands contain- 
ng gold, when they constitute the famous " banket." The thick- 
ness varies from 2300 to over 11,000 ft. The conglomerate beds 
occur in belts forming in descending order the Elsburg series, 
Cimberley series, Bird Reef series, Livingstone Reef series, Main 
leef series. The richest in gold are to be found among the Main 
*eef series, which yields by far the greater part of the total output 
of gold from the Transvaal. The individual beds, seldom more 
han a few feet in thickness and sometimes only a few inches, are 
nterstratified with an immense thickness of quartzites. The conglom- 
rates consist almost entirely of pebbles of quartz set in a hard 



2 At the Standerton gauge on the Vaal in 1905-1906, a year of 
xtreme drought, the total flow was 8,017,000,000 cub. ft., of which 
,102,000,000 was storm water. 



i88 



TRANSVAAL 



[CLIMATE 



matrix consolidated by the deposition of secondary silica. The 
conglomerate bands and quartzites contain large quantities of iron 
pyrites deposited subsequent to their formation, that in the conglom- 
erates containing the gold. Sericite in the form of scales and 
films characterizes those portions which have been faulted, squeezed 
or sheared % . Sheets of diabase, apparently volcanic flows, and 
numerous 'dykes interfere with the regularity of the stratification. 
The theory of the subsequent infiltration of the gold is that generally 
accepted. No fossils have been discovered, and except that they 
represent some portion or portions of rocks of the Pre-Cape formation 
the age of the upper Witwatersrand beds, as well as that of the 
lower division, remains an open question. They may safely be 
considered to be among the oldest auriferous sediments of the world. 

Vaal River System. This consists largely of rocks of igneous 
origin, of which the amygdaloidal diabase of Klipriversberg forms 
the type. The other rocks include igneous breccias, shales, coarse 
conglomerates and grits. Near Reitzburg the coarse conglom- 
erates reach a thickness of 400 ft. and about 500 ft. at Kroom- 
draai. This system rests unconformably on the Witwatersrand 
series and is unconformably overlain by the Transvaal system. 
It must, however, be acknowledged that these relationships are very 
imperfectly understood. Compared with other formations they 
occupy restricted areas, being only met with south of Johannesburg, 
around Wolmaransstad, Lichtenburg and east of Manco. 

Transvaal System. This is a very definite sequence of rocks 
covering immense areas in the centre of the country. The follow- 
ing groups are recognized: Waterberg Series, Pretoria Series, 
Dolomite Series, Black Reef Series. 

The Black Reef Series is composed of quartzites, sandstone, 
slates and conglomerate. It varies in thickness from 100 ft. in 
the southern Transvaal to 1000 ft. at Lydenburg. Thin bands 
of conglomerate, sometimes auriferous, occur near the base. 

The Dolomite Series, known to the Dutch as " Olifants Klip," 
consists of a bluish-grey magnesian limestone with bands of chert. 
The thickness varies from 2600 ft. in the Witwatersrand area to 
5000 ft. around Pretoria; and is about 2600 ft. about Lydenburg. 
It is worn by solution into caves and swallow-holes (Wondergarien). 
Gold, lead, copper and iron ores occur as veins. So far it has proved 
to be unfossiliferous. Dykes and intrusive rocks are common. 

The Pretoria Series, formerly known as the Gatsrand series, 
consists of repeated alternations of flagstones and quartzites, 
shales and sheets of diabase. These follow conformably on the 
Dolomite series. In the Marico district the shales become highly 
ferruginous and resemble the Hospital Hill slates of the Witwaters- 
rand series. Near Pretoria duplications of the beds, due to over- 
thrusting, are not uncommon. 

The Waterberg Series lies unconformably on the Pretoria series. 
The colour is usually red, forcibly recalling the Old Red Sandstone 
and Trias of England. Sandstones, quartzites, conglomerates 
and breccia make up the formation. They occur to the north- 
east of Pretoria and occupy still wide areas in the Waterberg 
district. 

A complex of igneous rocks of different ages covers immense 
areas in the central Transvaal. Various types of granite are the 
predominant variety. Syenites, gabbros, norites and volcanic 
rocks are also represented. The granite contains two varieties. 
One is a red granite intruded subsequently to the Waterberg sand- 
stones; another is a grey variety considered to be older than the 
Black Reef series and possibly older than the Witwatersrand 
series. 

The Karroo System attains its chief development in the south- 
eastern Transvaal in the districts of Ermelo, Standerton and 
Wakkerstroom. 

The latest classification of Molengraaff subdivides the beds as 
follows: 

Hoogeveld Series = Beaufort beds of Cape Colony. 

Contains coal-seams. 

Ecca shales. Not present at Vereeniging. 

Dwyka conglomerate. Sandstones and conglomerates with 

coal-seams at Vereeniging. 

The Dwyka conglomerate resembles the same bed in the Cape 
province. The boulders consist of very various rocks often of 
large size. Many of them show glacial striae. The direction of 
stnae on the underlying quartzitic rocks, particularly well seen near 
the Douglas colliery, Balmoral, point to an ice movement from the 
north-north-west to south-south-east. 

The Ecca series, as in the Cape, consists of sandstones and shales. 
Seams of coal lie near the base, some of them exceeding 20 ft. in 
thickness, but in this case layers of shaly coal are included. The 
overlying sandstones afford good building stones, and frequently, 
as at Vereeniging, yield many fossil plants. These include among 
others, Glossopteris browniana, Gangamopteris cyclopteroides, Sigil- 
laria Brardi, Bothrodendron Leslii, Noeggeralhiopsis Hislopi. 

The Karroo beds lie almost horizontally, in marked contrast to 
the highly inclined older rocks. Their distribution, other than in 
the south-eastern districts, is imperfectly understood. Remnants 
have been found of their former existence in the neighbourhood of 
Pretoria; and portions of the Bushveld Sandstone have recently 
been relegated to the Karroo formation. 



The diamond pipes probably represent some of the most recent 
rocks of the Transvaal. They may be of Cretaceous age or even 
later, and in any case belong to the same class as those of Kimberley. 
The recent deposits of the Transvaal may be considered to be 
insignificant. They include the gravels and alluviums of the 
present streams and the almost ubiquitous red sand of aeolian 
origin. 1 (W. G.*) 

Climate. Although lying on the border of and partly within the 
tropics, the Transvaal, owing to its high general elevation, and to 
the absence of extensive marshy tracts, enjoys on the whole a healthy 
invigorating climate, well suited to the European constitution. 
The climate of the high veld is indeed one of the finest in the world. 
The air is unusually dry, owing to the proximity of the Kalahari 
Desert on the west and to the interception on the east by the 
Drakensberg of the moisture bearing clouds from the Indian Ocean. 
The range of temperature is often considerable in winter it varies 
from about 100 F. in the shade at I p.m. to freezing point at 
night. During summer (Oct.-April) the mean temperature is about 

J3; during winter about 53. Nov.-Jan. are the hottest and June- 
uly the coldest months. The chief characteristic of the rainfall 
is its frequent intensity and short duration. During May to August 
there is practically no rain, and in early summer (Sept.-Dec.) the 
rainfall is often very light. The heaviest rain is experienced 
between January and April and is usually accompanied by severe 
thunderstorms. On the eastern escarpment of the Drakensberg 
the rainfall is heavy, 50 or 60 in. in the year, but it diminishes 
rapidly towards the centre of the plateau where it averages, at 
Johannesburg about 30 in., 2 while in the extreme west as the Kala- 
hari is approached it sinks to about 12 in. The winds in winter 
are uniformly dry while dust storms are frequent at all seasons 
a fact which renders the country unsuitable for persons suffering 
from chest complaints. In the eastern part of the plateau snow 
occasionally falls, and frost at night is common during winter. 

The banken veld district is also generally healthy though hotter 
than the plateaus, and malarial fever prevails in the lower valleys. 
Malarial fever is also prevalent throughout the low veld, but above 
3000 ft. is usually of a mild type. Nearly all the country below 
that elevation is unsuitable for colonization by whites, while the 
Limpopo flats and other low tracts, including the district between 
the Drakensberg and the Lebombo hills are extremely unhealthy, 
blackwater fever being endemic. In the low veld the shade tempera- 
ture in summer rises to 113 F., but the nights are generally cool, 
and down to 2000 ft. frost occurs in winter. The rainfall in the low 
country is more erratic than on the plateau, and in some districts 
a whole year will pass without rain. 

Flora. The general characteristic of the flora is the prevalence 
of herbaceous over forest growths; the high veld is covered by short 
sweet grasses of excellent quality for pasturage; grass is mingled 
with protea scrub in the middle veld; the banken veld has a richer 
flora, the valley levels are well wooded, scattered timber trees 
clothe their sides and the hills are covered with aloe, euphorbia, 
protea and other scrub growths. Among the timber trees of this 
region is the bolkenhout of terblanz (Faurea Saligna} which yields 
a fine wood resembling mahogany. The scrub which covers the 
low veld consists mainly of gnarled stunted thorns with flattened 
umbrella shaped crowns, most of the species belonging to the sub- 
order mimoseae. A rare species is the acacia erioloba Rameel 
doom, akin to the acacia giraffae of Bechuanaland. The wild 
seringa (Burkea africana) is also characteristic of the low veld and 
extends up the slopes of the plateau. The meroola (sclerocarya. 
caffra) a medium sized deciduous tree with a rounded spreading 
top is found in the low veld and up the slopes to a height of 4500 ft. 
It is common in the lower slopes of the rands of the low veld. Cotton 
and cotton-like plants and vines are also native to the low veld. 
Few of the low veld bushes are large or straight enough to furnish 
any useful wood, and timber trees are wholly absent from the level 
country. The forest patches are confined to the deep kloofs -of 
the mountains, to the valleys of the larger rivers and to the sea- 
slopes of the Drakensberg and other ranges, where they flourish in 
regions exposed to the sea mists. These patches, called " wood- 
bushes," contain many hardwood trees of great size, their flora 
and fauna being altogether different from that immediately out- 
side the wood. Common species in the woodbush are three varieties 
of yellow wood (Podocarpus), often growing to an enormous size, 
the Cape beech (myrsine), several varieties of the wild pear (Olinia) 
and of stinkwood (Oreodaphne) ironwood and ebony. The largest 
forest areas are in the Pongola district and the Haenertsburg and 

1 For geology see : F. H. Hatch and G. S. Corstorphine, The Geology 
of South Africa (London, 2nd ed., 1909); G. A. F. Molengraaff, 
Geologie de la Republique Sud-africaine du Transvaal, Bull, de la 
Soc. Geol. de France, 4 seYie, tome i., pp. 13-92 (1901). (Translation 
by J. H. Ronaldson, Edinburgh and Johannesburg, 1904); Reports 
and Memoirs, Geol. Survey (Transvaal, 1903, et seq.); H. Kynaston, 
The Geology of the Transvaal and the Orange River Colony, Handbook, 
British Association (Cape Town, 1905); Trans. Geol. Soc. S. Africa 
(Johannesburg). 

2 Exceptionally very heavy rain is experienced on the Rand. 
In January 1907 seven inches of rain fell in 24 hours. 



INHABITANTS] 



TRANSVAAL 



189 



Woodbush districts north of the Olifants river. Mimosa and the 
wild wilge-boom (Salix capens-is) are the common trees on the banks 
and rivers, while the weeping willow is frequent round the farmsteads 

Many trees have been introduced and considerable plantations 
made, as for instance on the slopes between Johannesburg and Pre- 
toria. Among the most successful of the imported trees are citrus 
trees, the Australian wattle and the eucalyptus. Tobacco and the 
vine both flourish and most European fruits and vegetables thrive. 
Of native fruits the misple (Vangueria infausta), miscalled the 
wild medlar, is of excellent flavour. It is common on the rands and 
kopjes of the bush veld. Rose and other flowering shrubs and trees 
grow well on the banken veld and in the valleys. A large yellow 
tulip (Homerica pattida) is one of the most abundant flowers on 
moist vlei lands on the high veld and is occasionally met with in 
the low veld; slangkop (Urginea Burkei) with red bulbs like a 
beetroot is a low bush plant apparently restricted to the Transvaal 
and adjacent Portuguese territory. Both these and many other 
plants such as gift-blaar and drouk-gras are poisonous to cattle. 
These poisonous plants are found chiefly in the banken and low 
veld. 

Fauna. When first entered by white men the Transvaal abounded 
in big game, the lion, leopard, elephant, giraffe, zebra and rhinoceros 
being very numerous, while the hippopotamus and crocodile were 
found in all the rivers. The indiscriminate destruction of these 
animals has greatly reduced their numbers and except in the Ppn- 
gola district, at one or two other places on the Portuguese frontier, 
and along the Limpopo the hippopotamus, rhinoceros and crocodile 
are now extinct in the province. A few elephants, giraffes and 
zebras (equus burchelli the true zebra is extinct) are still found in 
the north and north-eastern districts and in the same regions 
lions and leopards survive in fair numbers. Other animals fairly 
numerous are the spotted hyena, long-eared fox, jackal, aard wolf, 
red lynx, wild cat, wild dog and wart hog. Many species of antelope 
are found, mostly in small numbers, including the kudu, hartebeest, 
the sable and roan antelope, the white tailed and the brindled gnu, 
waterbuck, red buck, duiker, blesbok, palla, springbuck (numerous), 
steinbok, grysbok and klipspringer. The Africander breed of 
cattle is a well-marked variety, and a characteristic native domestic 
animal. Whether originally imported from Europe by the Portu- 
guese or brought from the north by Africans is not certain. It is 
not found in a wild state and the auffalo (bos eager) is almost if not 
quite extinct in the Transvaal. Among edentata the ant-bear, 
scaly ant-eater and porcupine are plentiful. The spring hare 
(pedetes capensis) abounds. Baboons and other apes are fairly 
common and there are several species of snakes. The ostrich is 
found in the Marico and Limpopo districts, and more rarely else- 
where; the great kori bustard and the koorhaan are common. 

Insects abound, the greatest pest being the tsetse fly, common in 
the low veld. Six species of tick, including the blue tick common 
throughout South Africa, are found, especially in the low veld, where 
they are the means of the transmission of disease to cattle. Mos- 
quitoes, locusts and ants are also common. 

The baba or cat fish and the yellow fish are plentiful in the rivers 
and the trout has been acclimatized. 

To preserve the native fauna the low country on the Portuguese 
frontier has been made a game reserve. It is nearly 300 m. long 
with an average breadth of 50 m. Other reserves have been con- 
stituted in the north of the province. 

Inhabitants. The population of the Transvaal, on the i;th 
of April 1904, when the first complete census of the country was 
taken, was 1,269,951 (including 8215 British soldiers in garrison), 1 
or 11-342 persons per sq. m. Of these 20-67%, namely 297,277, 
were European or white. Of the coloured population 937,127 
were aboriginals; and 35,547 were of mixed or other coloured 
races. Of thewhites 178,244 (59-95%) were males. The white 
population is broadly divisible into the British and Dutch ele- 
ments, the percentage of other whites in 1904 being but 8-6. 
The Dutch, as their usual designation, Boers, implies, are 
mainly farmers and stock-raisers and are still predominant 
elsewhere than in the Witwatersrand and Pretoria districts. 
They speak the patois of Dutch known as the Taal. The British 
element is chiefly gathered in Johannesburg and other towns on 
the Rand and in Pretoria. The total white population in the 
Witwatersrand and in Pretoria in 1904 was 135,135, and the 
strength of the British in these districts is shown by the fact 
that only 20% was Transvaal born. Of those born outside 
the Transvaal 24-6% came from other British possessions in 
Africa and 24-92% from Great Britain or British colonies other 
than African. Of the non-British or Boer whites Russians 
form 3-01%, Germans 1-62% and Dutch (of Holland) 1-14%. 

The natives are found chiefly in Zoutpansberg district, 

1 For most purposes this military element is omitted in the census 
returns. 



where there were 314,797 at the 1904 census, and the adjoining 
districts of Lydenburg and Waterberg, i.e. in the northern and 
north-eastern region of the country. The natives belong to the 
Bantu negro race and are represented chiefly by Basuto, Bech- 
uana, Bavenda, and Xosa-Zulu tribes. None of these peoples 
has any claim to be indigenous, and, save the Bavenda, all are 
immigrants since c. 1817-1820, when the greater part of the 
then inhabitants were exterminated by the Zulu chief Mosi- 
likatze (see History). After that event Basuto entered the 
country from the south, Bechuana from the west and Swazi, 
Zulu, Shangaan and other tribes from the east and south-east. 

The Basuto, who number 410,020 and form 40% of the total 
population, are now found mostly in the central, northern and north- 
eastern districts, forming in Lydenburg about 67%, and in Zout- 
pansberg about 50% of the inhabitants. The Bechuana, who 
number 64,751, are almost confined to the western and south-western 
districts. 

Next, numerically, to the Basuto and Bechuana peoples are the 
tribes known collectively as Transvaal Kaffirs, of whom there were 
159,860 enumerated at the 1904 census. Altogether the Transvaal 
Kaffirs form 50% of the inhabitants of Waterberg district, 30% of 
Zoutpansberg district and i8%of Middelburg district. Zulus number 
75,601 and form 54% of the population in Wakkerstroom district and 
1 8 % in Standerton district. Elsewhere they are very thinly repre- 
sented. Swazis form more than half the total population of the 
Barberton and Ermelo districts and are also numerous in Wakker- 
stroom. In Barberton, Lydenburg and Zoutpansberg districts 
Shangaan and other east coast tribes are settled, 80,834 being returned 
as born in the Transvaal. The Shangaan are members of a Bantu 
tribe from the Delagoa Bay region who took refuge in the Transvaal 
between 1860 and 1862 to escape Zulu raids. They were for some 
time ruled by a Portuguese, Joao Albasini, who had adopted native 
customs. Since 1873 Swiss Protestant missionaries have lived 
among them and many of the Shangaans are Christians and civilized. 
Several other east coast tribes, such as the Bankuna, are of mixed 
Zulu and Shangaan blood. Among the mixed and other coloured 
races in the census returns figure 1592 Bushmen, 3597 Hottentots 
and 1147 Koranna; these people are found chiefly in the south- 
western regions and are remnants of the true aboriginal population. 

Besides the tribes whose home is in the Transvaal considerable 
numbers of natives, chiefly members of east coast tribes, Cape 
Kaffirs and Zulus, go to the Witwatersrand to work in the gold 
and other mines. In all there were, in 1904, 135,042 Bantus in the 
country born elsewhere. Many east coast natives after working 
in the mines settle in the northern Transvaal. Of the aboriginal 
South Africans in the Transvaal, at the 1904. census, 77-69% were 
born in the Transvaal. Among the aborigines the number of 
females to males was 114 to 100. (See further KAFFIRS; BECHU- 
ANAS; ZULULAND; BUSHMEN; HOTTENTOTS; and for languages, 
BANTU LANGUAGES). 

The number of Asiatics in the Transvaal in April 1904 was 12,320, 
including 904 Malays, natives of South Africa, and 9986 British 
Indians. They were nearly all domiciled in the Witwatersrand and 
in the towns of Pretoria and Barberton, where they are engaged 
mainly in trade. 

Administrative Divisions and Chief Towns. The province 
is divided into sixteen magisterial districts. Zoutpansberg, 
25,654 sq. m.; Waterberg, 15,503 sq. m. ; Lydenburg, 9868 sq. m., 
occupy the north and north-eastern parts of the country and 
include most of the low veld areas. Barberton district, 5106 
sq. m., is east central. Piet Retief district (in the south-east), 
1673 sq. m., lies between Swaziland and Natal. Along the 
southern border, going east to west from Piet Retief, are the 
districts of Wakkerstroom, 2128 sq. m.; Standerton, 1959 
sq. m.; Heidelberg, 2410 sq. m.; Potchefstroom, 4805 sq. m.; 
Wolmaransstad, 2169 sq. m., and, occupying the south-western 
corner of the province, Bloemhof, 3003 sq. m. In the west are 
the districts of Lichtenburg, 4487 sq. m.; Marico, 3626 sq. m. 
and Rustenberg, 9511 sq. m. The central regions are divided into 
the districts of Witwatersrand, 1653 sq. m.; Pretoria, 6525 sq. m.; 
Middelburg, 4977 sq. m.; Carolina, 1877 sq. m.; Ermelo, 2995 
sq. m. and Bethel, 1959 sq. m. It will be seen that twenty 
districts are enumerated, these being the divisions under the 
Boer government and still commonly used. In 1904 Bloemhof 
was officially included in Wolmaransstad; Bethel in Standerton; 
Piet Retief in Wakkerstroom, and Carolina in Ermelo. Each 
district is sub-divided into field-cornetcies, the cornetcies 
being themselves divided, where necessary, into urban and 
rural areas. For parliamentary purposes the districts are 
divided intp single member constituencies. The capital of the 



190 



TRANSVAAL 



[MINERAL RESOURCES 



province, and of the Union is Pretoria, with a population (1904) 
of 36,839 (of whom 21,114 were whites). Johannesburg, the 
centre of the gold-mining industry, had a population, within 
the municipal boundary, of 155,642 (83,363 whites). Other 
towns within the Witwatersrand district are Germiston (29,477), 
Boksburg (14,757) an d Roodepoort-Maraisburg (19,949), 
virtually suburbs of Johannesburg, and Krugersdorp (20,073) 
and Springs (5270), respectively at the western and east ends 
of the district. Besides Pretoria and the towns in the Wit- 
watersrand district, there are few urban centres of any size. 
Potchefstroom, in the south near the Vaal (pop. 9348), is the 
oldest town in the Transvaal. Klerksdorp (4276) is also near the 
Vaal, S.S.W. of Potchefstroom. Middelburg (5085") is the largest 
town on the railway between Pretoria and Delagoa Bay; 
Barberton (2433), the centre of the De Kaap gold-fields, lies on 
the slopes of the Drakensberg overlooking the De Kaap valley. 
Communications. Before 1888 the only means of communication 
was by road. In that year the government sanctioned the building 
of a " steam tramway " a railway in all but name from the 
Boksburg collieries to the Rand gold mines. In 1890 the construc- 
tion of the Transvaal section of the railway to connect Pretoria 
with Delagoa Bay was begun, the line from Lourengo Marques 
having been completed to Komati Poort in December 1887. The 
line to Pretoria was not opened until July 1895. Meantime, in 
September 1892, the Cape railway system had been extended to 
Johannesburg and in December 1895 the through line between 
Durban and Pretoria was completed. Since that date many other 
lines have been buiit. The majority of the railways are the property 
of and are worked by the state. With the exception of a few purely 
local lines they are of the standard South African gauge 3 ft. 6 in. 
The lines all converge on Johannesburg. The following table gives 
the distances from that city to other places in South Africa 1 : 
Inland Centres 

To Pretoria 46 miles. 

Kimberley 310 

Bloemfontein 263 

Bulawayo (via Fourteen Streams) 979 
Salisbury ( ) 1279 

Seaports 

To Cape Town (via Kimberley) . . 957 
(via Bloemfontein) . 1013 

Port Elizabeth 714 

East London 665 

Durban 483 

,, Lourengo Marques (via Pretoria) 396 

Besides the lines enumerated the other railways of importance are: 
(i) A line from Johannesburg eastward via Springs and Breyten 
to Machadodorp on the Pretoria-Delagoa Bay railway. (2) A line, 
68 m. long from Witbank, a station on the Pretoria-Delagoa Bay 
line, to Brakpan on the Springs line. By (l) the distance between 
Johannesburg and Lourenc.o Marques is 364 m., by (2) 370 m. A 
continuation of the Springs-Breyten line eastward through Swaziland 
to Delagoa Bay will give a second independent railway from that 
port to the Rand, some 60 m. shorter than the route via Pretoria, 
while from Breyten a line (90 m. long) runs south and east to Ermelo 
and Piet Relief. (3) A line from Krugersdorp to Zeerust (128 m.). 
(4) A line from Pretoria to Rustenburg (61 m.). (5) A line from 
Pretoria to Pietersburg (177 m.). This line was continued (1910) 
north-west to effect a junction with (6) the " Selati " railway, which, 
starting from Komati Poort, runs north-west and was in 1910 
continued to Leydsdorp. North of the junction with the Pietersburg 
line the railway goes towards the Limpopo. (7) A line from Belfast 
on the Pretoria-Delagoa Bay railway to Lydenburg (65 m.). (8) A 
line from Potchefstroom to Lichtenburg (70 m.). 

There is an extensive telegraphic system linking the towns of 
the province to one another, and, through the surrounding countries, 
with Europe and the rest of the world. There is inland communica- 
tion via Rhodesia with British Central Africa and Ujiji on Lake 
Tanganyika. The telegraph lines within the Transvaal have a 
length of about 3000 m. There is a well-organized postal service 
with about 400 offices. In connexion with the postal services to 
outlying districts there is a public passenger service by mailcarts. 
In the Pietersberg district zebras are occasionally employed. 

Mineral Resources. The Transvaal, the principal gold pro- 
ducing country in the world, is noted for the abundance and 
variety of its mineral resources. The minerals chiefly mined 
besides gold are diamonds and coal, but the country possesses 
also silver, iron, copper, lead, cobalt, sulphur, saltpetre and 
many other mineral deposits. 

Gold. The principal gold-bearing reefs are found along the 
Witwatersrand (" The Rand "). Probably connected with the Rand 

1 For projected routes, shortening the journey between Europe 
and Johannesburg, see the Geog. Journ., Dec. 1910. 



reefs are the gold-bearing rocks in the Klerksdorp, Potchefstroom 
and Venterskroon districts. Other auriferous reefs are found all 
along the eastern escarpment of the Drakensberg and are worked 
in the De Kaap (Barberton) district, on the Swaziland frontier, in 
the Lydenburg district, in the Murchison Range and in other places 
in the Zoutpansberg. Goldfields also exist in the Waterberg and 
on the western frontier in the Marico district (the Malmani fields). 
The total value of the gold extracted from mines in the Transvaal 
up to the end of 1909 was about 246,000,000. 

a. The Witwatersrand and Neighbouring Mines. The Rand reefs, 
first mined in 1886, cover a large area. The main reef, continuously 
traced, measures about 62 m. and runs in an east and west direction. 
The gold is found in minute particles and in the richest ores the 
metal is rarely in visible quantities before treatment. In many 
places the mam reef lies at a great depth and some bore-holes are 
over 5500 ft. deep. The yield of the Rand mines, in 1887 but 
23,000 oz.. rose in 1888 to 208,000 oz. In 1892 the yield was 
1,210,000 oz. : in 1896 it exceeded 2,280,000 oz. and in 1898 
was 4,295,000 oz. The war that followed prevented the proper 
working of the mines. In 1905 when a full supply of labour was 
again available the output was 4,760,000 oz., in which year the 
sum distributed in dividends to shareholders in the Rand mines 
was over 4,800,000. The total output from the Rand mines up 
to the end of 1908 was 56,477,240 oz. (see GOLD, and JOHANNES- 
BURG). The Klerksdorp and Potchefstroom goldfields, known also 
as the Western Rand, were proclaimed in 1887 and up to the close 
of 1908 had yielded 446,224 oz. 

6. The De Kaap (Barberton) Fields. Gold was discovered in this 
district of the Drakensberg in 1875, but it was not until 1884 that 
the fields attracted much attention. The mines are, in general, 
situated on the slopes of the hills and are easily opened up by adits. 
The reefs are narrower than those of the Rand, and the ore is usually 
very hard. The output, 35,000 oz. in 1889, was 121,000 oz. in 
1896, but only 43,000 oz. in 1905. The total production (includ- 
ing the Komati and Swaziland fields) to the end of 1908 was 
1,097,685 oz. 

c. The Lydenburg and other Fields. The Lydenburg fields, re- 
ported to have been worked by the Portuguese in the I7th century, 
and rediscovered in 1869, though lying at an elevation of 4500 
to 5000 ft. are alluvial and the only rich alluvial goldfields in South 
Africa. The ground containing the gold is soil which has escaped 
denudation. Though several large nuggets have been found (the 
largest weighing 215 oz.), the total production is not great, the 
highest output obtained by washing being worth about 300,000 
in one year. Besides the alluvial deposits a little mining is carried 
on, gold being present in the thin veins of quartz which cross the 
sandstone. The chief centres of the fields are Lydenburg, Pilgrims 
Rest and Spitzkop. The total output of the Lydenburg fields up 
to the end of 1908 is estimated at 1,200,000 oz. Farther north, 
in the Zoutpansberg and on its spurs are the little-worked mines 
generally known as the Low Country goldfields. Near Pietersburg 
in the Zoutpansberg is the Eersteling, the first mine worked in the 
Transvaal. Operations began in 1873 but in 1880 the machinery 
was destroyed by the Boers. It was not until 1904 that prospecting 
in the neighbourhood was again undertaken. The fields in the 
Waterberg and along the Malmani river are very small producers. 
The total yield to the end of 1908 of the Zoutpansberg, Low Country 
and other minor fields was 160,535 oz - 

Diamonds. The chief diamond fields are in the Pretoria district. 
The ground was discovered to be diamondiferous in 1897, but it 
was not until 1903, when mining began on the Premier mine, situated 
20 m. north-east of Pretoria, that the wealth of the fields was proved. 
The site of the Premier mine had been recognized as diamond-bearing 
in March 1898. The owner of the land, a Boer named Prinsloo, 
refused to allow experimental spade work, but after the conclusion 
of the Anglo-Boer War in 1902 sold his property for 55,000 to T. 
Cullinan (a Cape colonist and one of the chief contractors in the 
building of Johannesburg), whose faith in the richness of the ground 
was speedily justified. In June 1903 mining began and the diamonds 
found in the first five months realized over 90,000. On the 27th 
of January 1905, the largest diamond in the world, weighing 3025$ 
carats, over ij ft avoirdupois, was found in the mine and named 
the Cullinan. The Premier mine is of the same character as the 
diamond mines at Kimberley (see DIAMOND), and is considerably 
larger. The area of the " pipe " containing blue ground is 
estimated at 350,000 sq. yds. 

Besides the Pretoria fields there are diamondiferous areas (alluvial 
diggings) in the Bloemhof district on the Vaal river north-east of 
Kimberley, and in other regions. In 1898 the output for the whole 
of the Transvaal was valued at 44,000. The output since the 
opening of the Premier mine has been: 1903-1904, 685,720; 
1904-1905, 1,198,530; 1905-1906, 968,229; 1906-1907, 2,203,511; 
1907-1908, 1,879,551; 1908-1909, 1,295,296. 

Coal and other Minerals. There are extensive beds of good coal, 
including thick seams of steam coal near the Rand and other gold- 
fields. Coal appears to have been first discovered in the neighbour- 
hood of Bronkhorst Spruit between the Wilge and Olifants rivers, 
where it was so near the surface that farmers dug it up for their 
own use. In 1887 coal was found at Boksburg in the East Rand, 
and a mine was at once started. The principal collieries are those 



INDUSTRIES] 



TRANSVAAL 



191 



at Boksburg and at Brakpan, also on the East Rand, with a coal 
area of 2400 acres; at Vereeniging and Klerksdorp, near the Vaal; 
at Watervaal, 12 m. north of Pretoria ; and in the Middelburg district, 
between Pretoria and Lourenco Marques. Like that of Natal the 
Transvaal coal burns with a clear flame and leaves little ash. The 
mines are free from gas and fire damp and none is more than 500 ft. 
deep. The output in 1893, the first year in which statistics are 
available, was 548,534 tons (of 2000 ft) ; in 1898 it was 1,907,808 
tons, and for the year ending 3Oth of June 1909 was 3,312,413 tons, 
valued at 851,150. 

Iron and copper are widely distributed. The Yzerberg near 
Marabastad in the Zoutpansberg consists of exceedingly rich iron 
ore, which has been smelted by the nat jrves for many centuries. Silver 
is found in many districts, and mines near Pretoria have yielded 
in one year ore worth 30,000. 

Salt is obtainable from the many pans in the plateaus, notably 
in the Zout(salt)pansberg, and was formerly manufactured in 
considerable quantities. 

Agriculture. Next to mining agriculture is the most important 
industry. At the census of 1904 over 500,000 persons (excluding 
young children), or 37 % of the population, were returned as engaged 
in agriculture. Some 25 % more women than men were so employed, 
this preponderance being due to the large number of Kaffir women 
and the few native men who work in the mealie fields. The chief 
occupation of the majority of the white farmers is stock-raising. 
The high veld is admirably adapted for the raising of stock, its 
grasses being of excellent quality and the climate good. Even 
better pasture is found in the low veld, but there stock suffers in 
summer from many endemic diseases, and in the more northerly 
regions is subject to the attack of the tsetse fly. The banken veld 
is also unsuited in summer for horses and sheep, though cattle thrive. 
Much of the stock is moved from the lower to the higher regions 
according to the season. Among the high veld farmers the breeding 
of merino sheep is very popular. 

The amount of land under cultivation is very small in comparison 
with the area of the province. In 1904 only 951,802 acres, or 1-26% 
of the total acreage was under cultivation, and of the cultivated 
land nearly half was farmed by natives. The small proportion of 
land tilled is due to many causes, among which paucity of popula- 
tions is not the least. Moreover while large areas on the high veld 
are suitable for the raising of crops of a very varied character, in 
other districts, including a great part of the low veld, arable farming 
is impossible or unprofitable. Many regions suffer permanently 
from deficient rainfall ; in others, owing to the absence of irrigation 
works, the water supply is lost, while the burning of the grass at 
the end of summer, a practice adopted by many farmers, tends to 
impoverish the soil and render it arid. The country suffers also 
from periods of excessive heat and general drought, while locusts 
occasionally sweep over the land, devouring every green thing. In 
some seasons the locusts, both red and brown, come in enormous 
swarms covering an area 5 m. broad and from 40 to 60 m. long. 
The chief method employed for their destruction is spraying the 
swarms with arsenic. The districts with the greatest area under 
cultivation are Heidelberg, Witwatersrand, Pretoria, Standerton 
and Krugersdorp. The chief crops grown for grain are wheat, 
maize (mealie) and kaffir corn, but the harvest is inadequate to 
meet local demands. Maize is the staple food of the Kaffirs. 
Since 1906 an important trade has also arisen in the raising of 
mealies for export by white farmers. Oats, barley and millet 
are largely grown for forage. Oats are cut shortly before reaching 
maturity, when they are known as oat-hay. The chief vegetables 
grown are potatoes, pumpkins, carrots, onions and tomatoes. 

Fruit farming is a thriving industry, the slopes of the plateaus 
and the river valleys being specially adapted for this culture. At 
the census of 1904 over 3,032,000 fruit trees were enumerated. There 
were 163,000 orange trees and nearly 60,000 other citrus trees, 
430,000 grape vines, 276,000 pine plants and 78,000 banana plants. 
Oranges are cultivated chiefly in the Rustenburg, Waterberg, 
Zoutpansberg and Pretoria districts, grapes in Potchefstroom, 
Pretoria and Marico, as well as in the Zoutpansberg and Waterberg, 
to which northern regions the cultivation of the banana is confined. 
In the tropical district of the Limpopo valley there is some cultiva- 
tion of the coffee-tree, and this region is also adapted for the growing 
of tea, sugar, cotton and rice. Tobacco is grown in every district, 
but chiefly in Rustenburg. Of the 3,032,000 ft of tobacco grown 
in 1904, Rustenburg produced 884,000 Ib. 

A department of agriculture was established in 1902, and through 
its efforts great improvements have been made in the methods of 
farming. To further assist agriculture a land bank was established 
by the government in 1907 and an agricultural college in 1910. 

Land Settlement. The land board is a government department 
charged with the control of Crown lands leased to settlers on easy 
terms for agricultural purposes. Between 1902 and 1907 about 
550 families were placed on the land, their holdings aggregating 
over 500,000 acres. The Crown lands cover in all about 21,500,000 
acres. Large areas of these lands, especially in the northern districts, 
are used as native reserves. 

Other Industries. There are few manufacturing undertakings 
other than those connected with mining, agriculture and the develop- 
ment of Johannesburg. There is a large factory for the supply of 



dynamite to the gold mines. The building and construction trade 
is an important industry on the Rand, where there are also brick- 
works, iron and brass foundries, breweries and distilleries. There 
are a number of flour mills and jam factories in various centres. 
A promising home industry, started under English auspices after 
the war of 1899-1902, is the weaving by women of rugs, carpets, 
blankets, &c., from native wool. 

Export and Import Trade. Before the discovery of gold the trade 
of the Transvaal was of insignificant proportions. This may be 
illustrated by the duties paid on imports, which in 1880 amounted 
to 20,306. In 1887 when the gold-mining industry was in its infancy 
the duty on imports had risen to 190,792, and in 1897, when the 
industry was fully developed, to i ,289,039. The Anglo-Boer War 
completely disorganized trade, but the close of the contest was marked 
by feverish activity and the customs receipts in 1902-1903 rose to 
2,176,658. A period of depression followed, the average annual 
receipts for the next three years being 1,683,159. In 1908-1909 
they were 1,588,960. 

The chief exports are gold and diamonds. Of the total exports 
in 1908, valued at 33,323,000, gold was worth 29,643,000 and dia- 
monds 1,977,000. Next in value came wool (226,000), horses 
and mules (110,000), skins, hides and horns (106,000), tobacco 
(89,000), tin, coal, copper and lead. The gold and diamonds are 
sent to England via Cape Town; the other exports go chiefly to 
Deiagoa Bay. The imports, valued at 16,196,000 in 1908, include 
goods of every kind. Machinery, provisions, largely in the form 
of tinned and otherwise preserved food, and liquors, clothing, textiles 
and hardware, chemicals and dynamite, iron and steel work and 
timber, and jewelry are the chief items in the imports. Of the 
imports about 50% comes from Great Britain and about 20% from 
British colonies (including other South African states). Half the 
imports reach the Transvaal through the Portuguese port of Lourenco 
Marques, Durban taking 25 % and the Cape ports the remainder. 
There is free trade between the Transvaal and the other British 
possessions in South Africa, and for external trade they all adhere 
to a Customs Union which, "as fixed in 1906, imposes a general 
ad valorem duty of 15% on most goods save machinery, on which 
the duty is 3 %. A rebate of 3 % is granted on imports from Great 
Britain. 

Constitution. The existing constitution dates from 1910. 
The province is represented in the Union Parliament by eight 
senators and thirty-six members of the House of Assembly. 
For parliamentary purposes the province is divided into single- 
member constituencies. Every adult white male British subject 
is entitled to the franchise, subject to a six months' residential 
qualification. 1 There is no property qualification. All electors 
are eligible to the assembly. Voters are registered biennially, 
and every five years there is an automatic redistribution of 
seats on a voters' basis. 

Central Government. At the head of the executive is a provincial 
administrator, appointed by the Union ministry, who holds office 
for five years and is assisted by an executive committee of four 
members elected by the provincial council. The provincial council 
consists of 36 members elected for the same constituencies and 
by the same electorate as are the members of the House of 
Assembly. The provincial council, which has strictly local 
powers, sits for a statutory period of three years. The control 
of elementary education was guaranteed to the provincial 
council for a period of five years from the establishment of 
the Union. 

In May 1903 an inter-colonial council was established to 
deal with the administration of the railways in the Transvaal 
and Orange River Colony (known as the Central South African 
railways), the South African constabulary and other matters 
common to the Orange River and Transvaal colonies. This 
council was presided over by the governor of the Transvaal and 
formed an important part of the administrative machinery. 
By agreement between the two colonies the council was dis- 
solved in 1908. In 1910 the control of the railways passed to 
the harbours and railway board of the Union of South Africa. 

Local Government. The unit of adminfstration is the field 
cornetcy. The semi-military organization of these divisions, 
which existed under the South African republic, has been 
abolished, and field-cornets, who are nominated by the pro- 
vincial government, are purely civil officials charged with the 
registration of voters, births and deaths, the maintenance of 
public roads, &c. The chief local authorities are the municipal 
bodies, many " municipalities " being rural areas centred 
round a small town. The municipal boards possess very 

1 The number of electors at the first registration (1907) was 105,368. 



192 



TRANSVAAL 



[GOVERNM ENTFI NANCE 



wide powers of local government. The Witwatersrand munici- 
palities are for certain purposes combined into one authority, 
and representatives of these municipalities, together with repre- 
sentatives of the chamber of mines, compose the Rand water 
board. The basis of municipal qualification is ownership of 
real property of the value of 100, or the tenancy of premises 
of the value of 300, or annual value of 24. Neither aliens 
nor coloured British subjects can exercise the franchise. 

Finance. In 1883, before the Rand gold mines had been found 
revenue and expenditure were about 150,000; in 1887, when the 
mines were beginning to be developed, the receipts were 668,000 and 
the expenditure 72 1 ,000; in 1889 the receipts had risen to 1,577,000 
and the expenditure to 1,226,000. In 1894 the receipts first 
exceeded two millions, the figures for that year being: revenue 
2,247,000, expenditure 1,734,000. The figures for the four follow- 
ing years were: 

Revenue. Expenditure. 

1895 3.539.00 2,679,000 

1896 4,807,000 4,671,000 

18 97 4,480,000 4,394,000 

1898 3.983,000 3,971,000 

The public debt of the Boer government was 2,500,000. In 
1899 war broke out and the finances of the country were disorganized. 
The accounts of the colony began, for normal purposes, with the 
year ending 3oth of June 1903, and ended in June 1910 on the 
establishment of the Union. In May 1903 a loan of 35,000,000, 
guaranteed by the imperial government and secured on the general 
revenues of the Transvaal and Orange River colonies, was issued 
tx> the extent of 30,000,000, the balance being raised about the 
middle of 1904. This loan bears interest at 3 % per annum, with 
a sinking fund of I %, and as to the 30,000,000 was issued at 
par, the 5,000,000 being put up to tender and realizing an average 
price of 98, IDS. 3d. The principal head in the allocation of this loan 
was the purchase of the railways in'the two colonies at a cost of 
13,520,000, while an additional 5,958,000 was devoted to the 
building of new lines, purchases of rolling stock, &c. The debt of 
the South African Republic was paid off; 542,000 went to make 

food the deficit on the administration for 1901-1902; the sum of 
1,561,000 was paid to burghers of the Cape Colony and Natal as 
compensation for war losses; 3,000,000 was devoted to land settle- 
ment schemes and 2,000,000 to public works other than railways. 
The railways were treated as the common property of both colonies, 
and to administer them and other common services the inter-colonial 
council was created. In addition to the charges enumerated 
5,000,000 were spent out of the loan on " repatriation and compensa- 
tion " of burghers who had suffered during the war. 1 In aoMition 
to the 35,000,000 guaranteed loan of 1903-1904 two small loans 
for land settlement and public works, together amounting to 254,800, 
were issued, and in 1907 an imperial guarantee was given for the 
raising of another loan, of 5,000,000, by the colonial government. 
The act authorizing the loan devoted 2,500,000 to the establishment 
of a land and agricultural bank, and 2,500,000 to railways, public 
works, irrigation and agricultural settlement and development. 
The loan was raised, as to 4,000,000, in January 1909, the average 
price obtained being 96, 33. 7d. 

The chief sources of revenue are customs, mining royalties, 
railways, native revenue (poll tax and passes), posts and tele- 
graphs, stamp and transfer duties, land revenue and taxes on 
trades and professions. A tax of 10% is levied on the annual 
net produce of all gold workings (proclamation of 1902) and the 
government takes 60% of the profits on diamond mines. In 
1907 an excise duty was, for the first time, levied on beer. The 
principal heads of expenditure are on railways and other public 
works, including posts and telegraphs, justice, education, police, 
land settlement and agriculture generally, mines and native 
affairs. Since June 1910 the control of state finance passed 
to the Union parliament, but the Transvaal provincial council 
is empowered to raise revenue for provincial purposes by direct 
taxation and, with the consent of the Union government, to 
borrow money on the sole credit of the province. 

In the five years 1902-1907 the average annual receipts and 
expenditure amounted to 4,500,000, exclusive of the sums 
received and expended on account of the loans mentioned. 
The inter-colonial council received and spent in the four years 
1903-1907 over 21,500,000, including some 3,500,000 paid 
in from revenue by the Transvaal and Orange River colonies 
to make good deficits. Fully two-thirds of the revenue and 

'Besides this 5,000,000 an additional sum of 9,500,000 was 
spent by the imperial government in relieving the necessities of 
those who had suffered during the war, but of this 9,500,000 the 
sum of 2,500,000 was in payment for goods received. 



expenditure of the Council was derived from and spent upon 
the Transvaal, so that had the accounts of the two colonies been 
entirely distinct the figures of the Transvaal budget for 1903- 
1907 would have balanced at about 8,500,000 a year. In July 
1907 when the control of the finances passed into the hands of 
the Transvaal legislature the credit balance on the consolidated 
fund was 960,000. In 1908 the inter-colonial council was 
dissolved, but the railways continued to be administered 
as a joint concern by a railway board on which the governments 
of both colonies were represented. This board in 1910 handed 
over its duties to the harbour and railway board of the Union. 
The Transvaal revenue (apart from railway receipts) in 1908- 
1909 was 5,735,000, the corresponding expenditure 4,524,000. 
The budget figures for 1900-1910 were: revenue 5,943,000; 
expenditure 5 , 23 1 ,000. The diamond revenue yielded 235 ,000 
and the gold profits tax 965,000. The balance handed over 
to the Union government was 1,015,000. 

Justice. The laws are based on Roman-Dutch law, as modified 
by local acts. Courts of first instance are presided over by magis- 
trates, the whole colony being divided into sixteen magisterial 
wards. There is a provincial division of the Supreme Court of 
South Africa sitting at Pretoria (consisting of a judge president 
and six puisne justices) with original and appellate jurisdiction in 
civil and criminal matters. A local division' of the Supreme Court, 
formerly known as the Witwatersrand high court (consisting of 
one or more judges of the Supreme Court) sits permanently at 
Johannesburg and has civil and criminal jurisdiction throughout 
the Rand. Circuit courts are held as occasion requires. 

Police. Pretoria and Johannesburg have their own police forces. 
The rest of the province is policed by the South African constabulary, 
a body 3700 strong, to which is also entrusted customs preventive 
work, fire brigade work and such like functions. 

Education. Since 1910 education other than elementary is under 
the control of the Union parliament. The provincial council is 
responsible for elementary education. At the head of the permanent 
staff is a director of education. School boards and district committees 
are formed, but their functions are almost entirely advisory. In 
accordance with the terms of the Education Act of 1907 of the 
Transvaal colony, state schools are provided for the free instruction 
of all white children in elementary subjects. Attendance at school 
between the ages of 7 and 14 is, with certain exceptions, compulsory. 
The medium of instruction in the lower standards is the mother 
tongue of the children. Above standard III. English is the medium 
of instruction. No religious tests are imposed on teachers and re- 
ligious teaching is confined to undenominational Bible teaching. No 
government grants are given to private schools. (In 1906 members 
of the Dutch community established a " Christian National Educa- 
tion " organization and opened a number of denominational schools.) 
Secondary education is provided in the towns and high schools 
are maintained at Pretoria, Johannesburg and Potchefstroom. 
There are University colleges at Pretoria and Johannesburg. 
Education of the natives is chiefly in the hands of the missionaries, 
but the government gives grants in aid to over 100 schools for natives 
At the census of 1904 the natives able to read formed less than i % 
of the population. At the same census 95 % of the white population 
over 21 were able to read and write; of the whites between the ages 
of 5 and 14 59 % could read and write. 

State schools for white children were established by the Boer 
government, and in the last year (1898) before the British occupation 
there were 509 schools and 14,700 scholars, the education vote 
that year being 226,000. In 1902 the property vested in various 
school committees was transferred to government and control of 
the schools vested in a department of state. In 1909 there were 
670 government elementary schools, with more than 42,000 scholars. 
In 1907-1908 the education vote exceeded 500,000. 

Religion. Of the total population 26-69% are Christians, and 
of the Christians 80% are whites. No fewer than 70% of the 
people, including the bulk of the natives, are officially returned as 
of ' no religion. ' Of the 336,869 Christians 69,738 were natives. 
Nearly half of the white community, 142,540 persons, belong to 
one or other of the Dutch Churches in the Transvaal, but they 
have only 4305 native members. Of Dutch Churches the first and 
chief is the Nederduitsch Hervormde Kerk, founded by the Voor- 
trekkers and originally the state Church. The others are the Neder- 
duitsch Gereformeerde Kerk, an offshoot of the Church of the same 
name at the Cape, and the Gereformeerde Kerk (the " Dopper " 
Church) with some 15,000 members and adherents in the Transvaal 
The Dopper" Church, an offshoot of the Separatist Re- 
formed Church of Holland, is distinguished from the other Dutch 
churches in being more rigidly Calvinistic and " Biblical," and 
in not using hymns. A " Scouts " Church was formed at the end 
of the war of 1899-1902 by burghers who had previously acted as 

National Scouts " and were ostracized by the synods of their former 
Churches. After some years of friction " National Scouts " were 
however readmitted, on terms, to their former membership. 



HISTORY] 



TRANSVAAL 



J 93 



The Anglicans number 67,882 (including 13,033 natives), and are 
19% of the European population. At the head of the community 
is the bishop of Pretoria. Next in numbers according to European 
membership among the Protestant bodies are Presbyterians, 19,821 
(including 1194 natives), and Methodists 37, 812 (including 20,648 
natives). The Lutherans are the chief missionary body. Of a 
total membership of 24,175 only 5770 are European. The Protestant 
European community amounts altogether to 35% of the white 
population. The Roman Catholics number 16,453 (including 2005 
natives) and form 5 % of the European population, and the Hebrews 
15,478 or 5-34% of the European inhabitants. 

Defence. A strong garrison of the British army is maintained 
jn the province, the headquarters of all the imperial military forces 
in South Africa being at Pretoria. These forces are under the 
command of a lieutenant-general, who, however, acts under the 
supreme direction of the governor-general. The Transvaal forms 
a distinct district command under a major-general. 

A volunteer force was established in 1904, for service within the 
Transvaal, or wherever the interests of the country might require. 
The force, disciplined and organized by a permanent staff of officers 
and non-commissioned officers of the regular army, is about 6500 
strong, and consists of a brigade of artillery, four mounted, three 
composite and four infantry corps, a cyclist corps, &c. There are 
also cadet companies some 3000 strong. (F. R. C.) 

HISTORY 

A. Foundation of the Republic. At the beginning of the 
igth century the country now known as the Transvaal was 
inhabited, apparently somewhat sparsely, by Bavenda and other 
Bantu negroes, and in the south-west by wandering Bushmen 
and Hottentots. About 1817 the country was invaded by the 
chieftain Mosilikatze and his impis, who were fleeing from the 
vengeance of Chaka, king of the Zulus. The inhabitants were 
unable to withstand the attacks of the disciplined Zulu warriors- 
or Matabele, as they were henceforth called by whom large 
areas of central and western Transvaal were swept bare. The 
remnants of the Bavenda retreated north to the Waterberg 
and Zoutpansberg, while Mosilikatze made his chief kraal at 
Mosega, not far from the site of the town of Zeerust. At that 
time the region between the Vaal and Limpopo was scarcely 
known to Europeans. In 1829, however, Mosilikatze was 
visited at Mosega by Robert Moffat, and between that date 
and 1836 a few British traders and explorers visited the country 
and made known its principal features. Such was the situation 
when Boer emigrants first crossed the Vaal. 

The causes which led to the exodus of large numbers of 
Dutch farmers from Cape Colony are discussed elsewhere (see 
SOUTH AFRICA and CAPE COLONY). Here it is only necessary 
to state that the Voortrekkers were animated by an intense 
desire to be altogether rid of British control, and to be allowed 
to set up independent communities and govern the natives 
in such fashion as they saw fit. The first party to cross the 
Vaal consisted of 98 persons under the leadership of Louis 
Trichard and Jan van Rensburg. They left Cape Colony in 
1835 and trekked to the Zoutpansberg. Here Rensburg's party 
separated from the others, but were soon afterwards murdered 
by natives. 1 Trichard's party determined to examine the 
country between the Zoutpansberg and Delagoa Bay. Fever 
carried off several of their number, and it was not until 1838 
that the survivors reached the coast. Eventually they pro- 
ceeded by boat to Natal. Meantime, in 1836, another party 
of farmers under Andries Hendrik Potgieter had established 
their headquarters on the banks of the Vet river. Potgieter 
and some companions followed the trail of Trichard's party as 
far as the Zoutpansberg, where they were shown 

rlflgiclcr, i . .. _ _ , * 

gold workings by the natives and saw rings of 
gold made by native workmen. They also ascertained that a 
trade between the Kaffirs and the Portuguese at Delagoa Bay 
already existed. On returning to the Vet, Potgieter learned that 
a hunting party of Boers which had crossed the Vaal had been 
attacked by the Matabele, who had also killed Boer women and 
children. This act led to reprisals, and on the i7th of January 
1837 a Boer commando surprised Mosilikatze's encampment at 
Mosega, inflicting heavy loss on the Matabele without themselves 

1 Two small children were spared and brought up as Kaffirs. In 
1867 they were given over to the Boer government by the Swazis, 
who had acquired them from their captors. 

xxvn. 7 



losing a man. In November of the same year Mosilikatze 
suffered further heavy losses at the hands of the Boers, and 
early in 1838 he fled north beyond the Limpopo, never to 
return. Potgieter, after the flight of the Matabele, issued a pro- 
clamation in which he declared the country which Mosilikatze 
had abandoned forfeited to the emigrant farmers. After the 
Matabele peril had been removed, many farmers trekked 
across the Vaal and occupied parts of the district left derelict. 
Into these depopulated areas there was also a considerable 
immigration of Basuto, Bechuana and other Bantu tribes. 

The first permanent white settlement north of the Vaal was 
made by a party under Potgieter's leadership. That com- 
mandant had in March 1838 gone to Natal, and had 
endeavoured to avenge the massacre of Piet Relief and his com- 
rades by the Zulus. Jealous, however, of the preference shown 
by the Dutch farmers in Natal to another commandant (Gert 
Maritz), Potgieter speedily recrossed the Drakensberg, and in 
November 1838 he and his followers settled by the banks of the 
Mooi river, founding a town named Potchefstroom in honour 
of Potgieter. This party instituted an elementary form of 
government, and in 1840 entered into a loose confederation with 
the Natal Boers, and also with the Boers south of the Vaal, 
whose headquarters were at Winburg. In 1842, however, 
Potgieter's party declined to go to the help of the Natal Boers, 
then involved in conflict with the British. Up to 1845 Pot- 
gieter continued to exercise authority over the Boer communities 
on both sides of the Vaal. A determination to keep clear of 
the British and to obtain access to the outer world through an 
independent channel led Potgieter and a considerable number of 
the Potchefstroom and Winburg burghers in 1845 to migrate 
towards Delagoa Bay. Potgieter settled in the Zoutpansberg, 
while other farmers chose as headquarters a place on the inner 
slopes of the Drakensberg, where they founded a village called 
Andries Ohrigstad. It proved fever-ridden and was abandoned, 
a new village being laid out on higher ground and named Lyden- 
burg in memory of their sufferings at the abandoned settlement. 

Meantime the southern districts abandoned by Potgieter and 
his comrades were occupied by other Boers. These were joined 
in 1848 by Andries W. J. Pretorius (?..), who became com- 
mandant of the Potchefstroom settlers. When the British go- 
vernment decided to recognize the independence of the Transvaal 
Boers it was with Pretorius that negotiations were The Sand 
conducted. On the 1 7th of January 1852 a con- River 
vention was signed at a farm near the Sand Convention. 
river in the Orange sovereignty by assistant commissioners 
nominated by the British high commissioner on the one hand, 
and by Pretorius and other Boers on the other. The first clause 
was in the following terms: 

The assistant commissioners guarantee in the fullest manner, on 
the part of the British government, to the emigrant farmers beyond 
the Vaal river, the right to manage their own affairs, and to govern 
themselves according to their own laws, without any interference 
on the part of the British government, and that no encroachment 
shall be made by the said government on the territory beyond to 
the north of the Vaal river, with the further assurance that the 
warmest wish of the British government is to promote peace, free 
trade, and friendly intercourse with the emigrant farmers now 
inhabiting, or who hereafter may inhabit, that country; it being 
understood that this system of non-interference is binding upon 
both parties. 

At this time there were settled north of the Vaal about 5000 
families of European extraction about 40,000 persons, in- 
cluding young children. They had obtained independence, 
but they were far from being a united people. When Pretorius 
conducted the negotiations which led to the signing of the Sand 
River Convention he did so without consulting the volksraad, 
and Potgieter's party accused him of usurping power and aiming 
at domination over the whole country. However, the volks- 
raad, at a meeting held at Rustenburg on the i6th of March 
1852, ratified the convention, Potgieter and Pretorius having 
been publicly reconciled on the morning of the same day. 
Both leaders were near the end of their careers; Potgieter died 
in March and Pretorius in July 1853. 

Whatever their internal dissensions the Boers were united 



194 



TRANSVAAL 



[THE FIRST REPUBLIC 



in regard to what they considered their territorial rights, and 
in the interval between the signing of the Sand River Convention 
and the death of Pretorius an incident occurred significant 
alike of their claims to jurisdiction over enormous areas and of 
their manner of treating the natives. Within a few weeks 
of the signing of the convention Pretorius had asked the British 
authorities to close the " lower road " to the interior, that is 
the route through Bechuanaland, opened up by Moffat, Living- 
stone and other missionaries. Pretorius alleged that by this 
means the natives were obtaining firearms. At the same time the 
Transvaal Boers claimed that all the Bechuana country belonged 
to them, a claim which the British government of that day 
did not think it worth while to contest. No boundary west- 
ward had been indicated in the Sand River Convention. The 
Barolong, Bakwena and other Bechuana tribes, through whose 
lands the " lower road " ran, claimed however to be independent, 
among them Sechele (otherwise Setyeli), at whose chief kraal 
Kolobeng Livingstone was then stationed. Sechele was 
regarded by the Boers as owing them allegiance, and in August 
1852 Pretorius sent against him a commando (in which Paul 
Kruger served as a field cornet), alleging that the Bakwena were 
harbouring a Bakatla chief who had looted cattle belonging 
to Boer farmers. It was in this expedition that Livingstone's 
house was looted. There was little fighting, but the commando 
carried off between two and three hundred native women 
and children some of whom were redeemed by their friends, 
and some escaped, while many of the children were apprenticed 
to farmers. Sechele's power was not broken, and he appealed 
for British protection, which was not then granted. The 
incident was, however, but the first step in the struggle for the 
possession of that country (see BECHUANALAND). It served to 
strengthen the unfavourable impression formed in England of 
the Transvaal Boers with regard to their treatment of the 
natives; an impression which was deepened by tidings of terrible 
chastisement of tribes in the Zoutpansberg, and by the Appren- 
tice Law passed by the volksraad in 1856 a law denounced in 
many quarters as practically legalizing slavery. 

On the death of Andries Pretorius his son Marthinus W. 
Pretorius (q.v.) had been appointed his successor, and to the 
younger Pretorius was due the first efforts to end the discord 
and confusion which prevailed among the burghers a discord 
heightened by ecclesiastical strife, the points at issue being 
questions not of faith but of church government. In 1856 
a series of public meetings, summoned by Pretorius, was held 
at different districts in the Transvaal for the purpose of dis- 
cussing and deciding whether the time had not arrived for 
substituting a strong central government in place of the petty 
district governments which had hitherto existed. The result 
was that a representative assembly of delegates was elected, 
Pstchcf- empowered to draft a constitution. In December 
stroom this assembly met at Potchefstroom, and for three 
Assembly, weeks was engaged in modelling the constitution 
1856. O f tne country. The name " South African 
Republic " was adopted as the title of the state, and the 
new constitution made provision for a volksraad to which 
members were to be elected by the people for a period of 
two years, and in which the legislative function was vested. 
The administrative authority was to be vested in a president, 
aided by an executive council. It was stipulated that mem- 
bers both of the volksraad and council should be members 
of the Dutch Reformed Church, and of European blood. 
No equality of coloured people with the white inhabitants 
would be tolerated either in church or state. In reviewing 
an incident so important in the history of the Transvaal 
as the appointment of the Potchefstroom assembly it is 
of interest to note the gist of the Complaint among the 
Boers which led to this revolution in the government of the 
country as it had previously existed. In his History of South 
Africa Theal says: " The community of Lydenburg was accused 
of attempting to domineer over the whole country, without any 
other right to pre-eminence than that of being composed of the 
earliest inhabitants, a right which it had forfeited by its opposi- 



tion to the general weal." In later years this complaint was 
precisely that of the Uitlanders at Johannesburg. To conciliate 
the Boers of Zoutpansberg the new-born assembly at Potchef- 
stroom appointed Stephanus Schoeman, the commandant- 
general of the Zoutpansberg district, commandant-general 
of the whole country. This offer was, however, declined by 
Schoeman, and both Zoutpansberg and Lydenburg indignantly 
repudiated the new assembly and its constitution. The execu- 
tive council, which had been appointed by the Potchefstroom 
assembly, with Pretcrius as president, now took up a bolder 
attitude: they deposed Schoeman from all authority, declared 
Zoutpansberg in a state of blockade, and denounced the Boers 
of the two northern districts as rebels. 

Further to strengthen their position, Pretorius and his party 
unsuccessfully endeavoured to bring about a union with the 
Orange Free State. Peaceful overtures having failed, Pretorius 
and Paul Kruger placed themselves at the head of a commando 
which crossed the Vaal with the object of enforcing 
union, but the Free State compelled their with- / 
drawal (see ORANGE FREE STATE). Within the 
Transvaal the forces making for union gained strength Pretolius - 
notwithstanding these events, and by the year 1860 Zoutpansberg 
and Lydenburg had become incorporated with the republic. 
Pretoria, newly founded, and named in honour of the elder 
Pretorius, was made the seat of government and capital of 
the country. The ecclesiastical efforts at unity had not been 
equally successful. The Separatist Reformed Church of Holland 
had sent out a young expositor of its doctrines named Postma, 
who, in November 1858, became minister of Rustenburg. In 
the following year a general church assembly endeavoured 
to unite all the congregations in a common government, but 
Postma's consistory rejected these overtures, and from that 
date the Separatist (or Dopper) Church has had an independent 
existence (see ante, Religion). Paul Kruger, who lived near 
Rustenburg, became a strong adherent of the new church. 

Pretorius, while still president of the Transvaal, had been 
elected, through the efforts of his partisans, president of the 
Orange Free State. He thereupon (in February 1860) obtained 
six months' leave of absence and repaired to Bloemfontein, in 
the hope of peacefully bringing about a union between the two 
republics. He had no sooner left the Transvaal than the old 
Lydenburg party, headed by Cornelis Potgieter, landdrost of 
Lydenburg, protested that the union would be much internal 
more beneficial to the Free State than to the people of Dissen- 
Lydenburg, and followed this up with the contention sloas - 
that it was illegal for any one to be president of the South 
African Republic and the Free State at the same time. At the 
end of the six months Pretorius, after a stormy meeting of the 
volksraad, apparently in disgust at the whole situation, resigned 
the presidency of the Transvaal. J. H. Grobelaar, who had been 
appointed president during the temporary absence of Pretorius, 
was requested to remain in office. The immediate followers of 
Pretorius now became extremely incensed at the action of the 
Lydenburg party, and a mass meeting was held at Potchef- 
stroom (October 1860), where it was resolved that : (a) the 
volksraad no longer enjoyed its confidence; (6) that Pretorius 
should remain president of the South African Republic, and 
have a year's leave of absence to bring about union with the 
Free State; (c) that Schoeman should act as president during 
the absence of Pretorius; (d) that before the return of Pretorius 
to resume his duties a new volksraad should be elected. 

If at this stage of their existence the real ambition of the 
Transvaal Boers was to found a strong and compact republican 
state, their conduct in opposing a scheme of union with the 
Orange Free State was foolish to a degree. The events of the 
year 1860, as well as of all the years that followed down to British 
annexation in 1877, show that licence rather than liberty, a narrow 
spirit of faction rather than patriotism, were the dominant in- 
stincts of the Boer. Had the fusion of the two little republics 
which Pretorius sought to bring about, and from which apparently 
the Free State was not averse, actually been accomplished in 
1860, it is more than probable that a republican state on liberal 



THE FIRST REPUBLIC] 



TRANSVAAL 



195 



lines, with some prospect of permanence and stability, might 
have been formed. But a narrow, distrustful, grasping policy 
on the part of whatever faction might be dominant at the time 
invariably prevented the state from acquiring stability and 
security at any stage of its history. 

The complications that ensued on the action of the Pretorius 
party subsequent to his resignation were interminable and 
complicated. Some of the new party were arraigned for treason 
and fined; and for several months there were two acting 
presidents and two rival governments within the Transvaal. 
At length Commandant Paul Kruger called out the burghers 
of his district and entered into the strife. Having driven 
Schoeman and his followers from Pretoria, Kruger invaded 
Potchefstroom, which, after a skirmish in which three men 
were killed and seven wounded, fell into his hands. He 
then pursued Schoeman, who doubled on his opponent and 
entered Potchefstroom. A temporary peace was no sooner 
secured than Commandant Jan Viljoen rose in revolt and 
engaged Kruger's forces. Viljoen's commando, with which 
Pretorius was in sympathy, was known as the Volksleger, or 
Army of the People. Kruger's force called itself the Staatsleger 
or Army of the State. Pretorius in 1863 resigned his Free State 
presidency and offering himself as mediator (not for the first time) 
succeeded at length in putting a period to the confused series 
of intestine quarrels. In January 1864 a conference, which 
lasted six days, was held between the parties and an agreement 
was reached. This was followed by a new election for president, 
and once more Pretorius was called upon to fill that office. 
Kruger was appointed commandant-general. 

Civil strife for a time was at an end, but the injuries inflicted 
on the state were deep and lasting. The public funds were 
exhausted; taxes were impossible to collect; and the natives 
on the borders of the country and in the mountains of the north 
had thrown off all allegiance to the state. The prestige of the 
country was practically gone, not only with the world outside, 
but, what was of still more moment, with her neighbour the Free 
State, which felt that a federation with the Transvaal, which the 
Free State once had sought but which it now forswore, was an 
The Charge ev *' av ided and not an advantage lost. A charge 
of Slavery frequently laid at the door of the Boers, at that time 
against the and since, was that of enslaving the black races. 
Boers. T\i\s charge was not without some justification. It 

is true that laws prohibiting slavery were in existence, but the 
Boer who periodically took up arms against his own appointed 
government was not likely to be, nor was he, restrained by laws. 
Natives were openly transferred from one Boer to another, and 
the fact that they were described as apprentices by the farmers 
did not in the least alter the status of the native, who to all 
intents and purposes became the property of his master. These 
apprentices, mostly bought from slave traders when little 
children, formed, however, a very small proportion of the native 
population, and after some fifteen years' servitude were usually 
allowed their freedom. Natives enjoying tribal government were 
not enslaved, but nothing could exceed in ferocity the measures 
taken to reduce recalcitrant tribes to submission. Educa- 
tion, as need hardly be said, was in the 'sixties at a very low 
ebb, and nothing approaching the standard of a high school 
existed. The private tutor was a good deal in demand, but 
his qualifications were of the slightest. An unsuccessful 
European carpenter or other mechanic, or even labourer, not 
infrequently occupied this position. At the various churches 
such elementary schools as existed were to be found, but they 
did not profess to teach more than a smattering of the three 
" R's " and the principles of Christianity. 

In 1865 an empty exchequer called for drastic measures, and 
the volksraad determined to endeavour to meet their liabilities 
Zoutpans- an( ^ P r vide for further contingencies by the issue 
berg Native of notes. Paper money was thus introduced, and 
Rising, i n a very short time fell to a considerable discount. 

1865-8. j n tn j s same y ear the farmers of the Zoutpansberg 

district were driven into laagers by a native rising which they 
were unable to suppress. Schoemansdal, a village at the foot 



of the Zoutpansberg, was the most important settlement of the 
district, and the most advanced outpost in European occupation 
at that time in South Africa. It was just within the tropics, and 
was situated in a well-watered and beautiful country. It was 
used as a base by hunters and traders with the interior, and in its 
vicinity there gathered a number of settlers of European origin, 
many of them outcasts from Europe or Cape Colony. They 
earned the reputation of being the most lawless white inhabitants 
in the whole of South Africa. When called upon to go to the 
aid of this settlement, which in 1865-1866 was sore pressed by 
one of the mountain Bantu tribes known as the Baramapulana, 
the burghers of the southern Transvaal objected that the white 
inhabitants of that region were too lawless and reckless a body to 
merit their assistance. In 1867 Schoemansdal and a considerable 
portion of the district were abandoned on the advice of Com- 
mandant-general Paul Kruger, and Schoemansdal finally was 
burnt to ashes by a party of natives. It was not until 1869 that 
peace was patched up, and the settlement arrived at left the 
mountain tribes in practical independence. Meanwhile the 
public credit and finances of the Transvaal went from bad to 
worse. The paper notes already issued had been constituted by 
law legal tender for all debts, but in 1868 their power of actual 
purchase was only 30% compared with that of gold, and by 1870 
it had fallen as low as 25%. Civil servants, who were paid in 
this depreciated scrip, suffered considerable distress. The revenue 
for 1869 was stated as 31,511; the expenditure at 30,836. 

The discovery of gold at Tati led President Pretorius in April 
1868 to issue a proclamation extending his territories on the west 
and north so as to embrace the goldfield and all Efforts to 
Bechuanaland. The same proclamation extended obtains 
Transvaal territory on the east so as to include part Sea P ort - 
of Delagoa Bay. The eastern extension claimed by Pretorius 
was the sequel to endeavours made shortly before, on the initia- 
tive of a Scotsman, to develop trade along the rivers leading to 
Delagoa Bay. It was also in accord with the desire of the Trans- 
vaal Boers to obtain a seaport, a desire which had led them as 
early as 1860 to treat with the Zulus for the possession of St 
Lucia Bay. That effort had, however, failed. And now the 
proclamation of Pretorius was followed by protests on the part 
of the British high commissioner, Sir Philip Wodehouse, as well 
as on the part of the consul-general for Portugal in South Africa. 
The boundary on the east was settled by a treaty with Portugal 
in 1869, the Boers abandoning their claim to Delagoa Bay; that 
on the west was dealt with in 1871. 

The Sand River Convention of 1852 had notdefined the western 
border of the state, and the discovery of gold at Tati to the north- 
west, together with the discovery of diamonds on the Vaal in 
1867, offered Pretorius every inducement to extend his boundary. 
Although to-day the great diamond mines are south of the Vaal 
River, the early discoveries of diamonds were made chiefly on the 
northern bank of the Vaal, near the site of the town now known 
as Barkly West. This territory was claimed by the 
South African Republic, by Barolong and Batlapin 
Bechuanas, by Koranas, and also by David Arnot, on 
behalf of the Griqua captain, Nicholas Waterboer. To settle the 
boundary question an arbitration court was appointed consisting 
of a Transvaal landdrost, A. A. O'Reilly, on behalf of the South 
African Republic, and John Campbell on behalf of the other 
claimants, with Lieutenant-Governor Keate of Natal as referee. 
The judges disagreed, and the final decision, afterwards known 
as the Keate award, was given by the referee on the i7th of 
October 1871. The decision was in favour of Waterboer, who 
had, on the 25th of August 1870, before the appointment of the 
arbitration court, offered his territory to Great Britain, and it was 
understood by all the parties interested that that offer would be 
accepted. The award, admittedly just on the evidence before 
Keate, placed, however, outside the territory of the republic the 
Bloemhof district, in which district Boer farmers were settled, and 
over which the Pretoria government had for some years exercised 
jurisdiction. A few days after the publication of the Keate 
award Sir Henry Barkly, the British high commissioner, issued 
proclamations taking over Waterboer's territory under the 



* 



196 



TRANSVAAL 



[THE FIRST REPUBLIC 



title of Griqualand West (?..) The eastern boundary of the 
new territory was made to include the region between the 
Harts river and the Vaal, in which the diamond diggings 
were situated, but not the Bloemhof district. To this district 
Sir Henry Barkly asserted the British rights, but no steps were 
taken to enforce them and as a matter of fact the Bloemhof 
district continued to be part of the Transvaal. 

The award caused a strong feeling of resentment among the 
Boers, and led to the resignation of President Pretorius and his 
executive. The Boers now cast about to find a man who 
should have the necessary ability, as they said, to negotiate on 
equal terms with the British authorities should any future dis- 
pute arise. With this view they asked Mr (afterwards Sir 
Burgers John) Brand, president, of the Free State, to allow 
becomes them to nominate him for the presidency of the 
President, South African Republic. To this President Brand 
would not consent. He recognized that, even at 
this early stage of their history, the Transvaal Boers were 
filled with the wildest ideas as to what steps they would take 
in the future to counteract the influence of Great Britain. Brand 
intimated to many of the leading Transvaal Boers that in his 
opinion they were embarking on a rash and mistaken policy. 
He urged that their true interests lay in friendship with, not in 
hostility to, Great Britain and the British. Having failed with 
Brand, the Boers invited the Rev. Thomas Francois Burgers, 
a member of a well-known Cape Colony family and a minister 
of the Dutch Reformed Church, to allow himself to be nomi- 
nated. Burgers accepted the offer, and in 1872 was elected 
president. About this time gold reefs were discovered in 
the Zoutpansberg district near Marabastad, and a few gold 
seekers from Europe and Cape Colony began to prospect the 
northern portions of the Transvaal. The miners and prospectors 
did not, however, exceed a few hundred for several years. 

The appointment of Burgers to the presidency in 1872 was 
a new departure. He was able, active and enlightened, but 
he was a visionary rather than a man of affairs or sound 
judgment. Instead of reducing chaos to order and concentrat- 
ing his attention, as Brand had done in the Free State, on 
establishing security and promoting industry, he took up, with 
all its entanglements, the policy of intrigues with native chiefs 
beyond the border and the dream of indefinite expansion. 
In 1875 Burgers proceeded to Europe with the project of raising 
a loan for the construction of a railway to Delagoa Bay. He 
was empowered by the volksraad to raise 300,000, but with 
great difficulty he obtained in Holland the sum of 90,000 only, 
and that at a high rate of interest. With this inadequate sum 
some railway plant was obtained, and subsequently lay for ten 
years at Delagoa Bay, the scheme having to be abandoned for 
want of funds. On his return to the Transvaal in 1876 Burgers 
found that the conditions of affairs in the state was worse than 
ever. The acting-president had in his absence been granted 
leave by the volksraad to carry out various measures opposed 
to the public welfare; native lands had been indiscriminately 
allotted to adventurers, and a war with Sikukuni (Secocoeni), 
a native chief on the eastern borders of the country, was 
imminent. A commando was called out, which the president 
himself led. The expedition was an ignominious failure, and 
many burghers did not hesitate to assign their non-success to 
the fact that Burgers's views on religious questions were not 
sound. Burgers then proceeded to levy taxes, which were never 
paid; to enrol troops, which never marched; and to continue 
the head of a government which had neither resources, credit 
nor power of administration. In 1877 the Transvaal one-pound 
notes were valued at one shilling cash. Add to this condition 
of things the fact that the Zulus were threatening the Transvaal 
on its southern border, and the picture of utter collapse which 
existed in the state is complete. 

B. First Annexation by Great Britain. This condition of 
affairs coincided with the second movement in South Africa for 
a confederation of its various colonies and states, a movement 
of which the then colonial secretary, the 4th earl of Carnarvon, 
was a warm advocate. As to the Transvaal in particular, 



it was felt by Lord Carnarvon " that the safety and prosperity 
of the republic would be best assured by its union with the 
British colonies." Sir Theophilus Shepstone (q.v.) was given a 
commission, dated the 5th of October, 1876, instructing him to 
visit the Transvaal and empowering him, if it was desired by 
the inhabitants and in his judgment necessary, to annex the 
country to the British crown. Sir Theophilus went to Pretoria 
in January 1877, with an escort of twenty-five mounted police, 
and entered into conferences with the president and executive as 
to the state of the country. By this time Burgers was no longer 
blinded by the foolish optimism of a visionary who had woven^ 
finespun theories of what an ideal republic might be. He 
had lived among the Boers and attempted to lead their govern- 
ment. He had found their idea of liberty to be anarchy, their 
native policy to be slavery, and their republic to be a sham. His 
was a bitter awakening, and the bitterness of it found expres- 
sion in some remarkable words addressed to the volksraad : 

" I would rather," said Burgers in March 1877, " be a policeman 
under a strong government than the president of such a state. It is 
you you members of the Raad and the Boers who have lost the 
country, who have sold your independence for a drink. You have 
ill-treated the natives, you have shot them down, you have sold 
them into slavery, and now you have to pay the penalty. . . . We 
should delude ourselves by entertaining the hope that matters 
would mend by-and-by. . . . Do you know what recently happened 
in Turkey? Because no civilized government was carried on 
there, the Great Powers interfered and said, ' Thus far and no 
farther.' And if this is done to an empire, will a little republic 
be excused when it misbehaves? . . If we want justice, we must 
be in a position to ask it with unsullied hands. ..." 

After careful investigation Shepstone satisfied himself that 
annexation was the only possible salvation for the Transvaal. 
He had gone to Pretoria hoping that the Transvaal volksraad 
would accept Carnarvon's federation scheme; but the federation 
proposals were rejected by the raad. Shepstone was willing 
to find some way other than simple annexation out of the diffi- 
culty, but none appeared to present itself. The treasury was 
empty, the Boers refused to pay their taxes, and there was no 
power to enforce them. A public debt of 215,000 existed, and 
government contractors were left unpaid. Sir Theophilus 
Shepstone, finding that the raad would not adopt any remedial 
measures, on the 12th of April 1877 issued a proclamation annex- 
ing the country. The proclamation stated (among other things) : 
" It is the wish of Her Most Gracious Majesty that it [the state] 
shall enjoy the fullest legislative privileges compatible with 
the circumstances of the country and the intelligence of its 
people." The wisdom of the step taken by Shep- BriWsA 
stone has been called in question. For many years Annexation, 
subsequently the matter was so surrounded with** 77 - 
the sophistry of English party politics that it was difficult 
for Englishmen to form any impartial opinion. The history 
of the Transvaal is more complete and better understood to-day 
than it was in 1877, and no one who acquaints himself with the 
facts will deny that Shepstone acted with care and moderation. 
The best evidence in favour of the step is to be found in the 
publicly expressed views of the state's own president, Burgers, 
already quoted. Moreover, the menace of attack on the Zulu 
side was a serious one, however able the Boers may have been 
to meet a foe who fought in the open, and who had been beaten 
by them in previous wars. Even before annexation had occurred, 
Shepstone felt the danger so acutely that he sent a message to 
Cetywayo, the Zulu chief, warning him that British annexation 
was about to be proclaimed and that invasion of the Transvaal 
would not be tolerated. To this warning Cetywayo, who, 
encouraged by the defeat of the Boers at Sikukuni's hands, 
had already gathered his warriors together, replied: "I thank 
my father Somtseu [Shepstone] for his message. I am glad that 
he has sent it, because the Dutch have tired me out, and I 
intended to fight with them . . . and to drive them over 
the Vaal. ..." A still further reason for Shepstone's 
annexation, given by Sir Bartle Frere, was that Burgers had 
already sought alliance with European powers, and Shepstone 
had no reason to doubt that if Great Britain refused to interfere, 
Germany would intervene. Moreover, apart from the attitude 



FIRST ANNEXATION] 



TRANSVAAL 



197 



of President Burgers, which cannot be said to have been one of 
active opposition, a considerable number of the Boers accepted 
the annexation with complacency. Burgers himself left the 
Transvaal a disappointed, heart-broken man, and a deathbed 
statement published some time after his decease throws a lurid 
light on the intrigues which arose before and after annexation. 
He shows how, for purely personal ends, Kruger allied himself' 
with the British faction who were agitating for annexation, and 
to undermine him and endeavour to gain the presidency, urged 
the Boers to pay no taxes. However this may be, Burgers was 
crushed; but as a consequence the British government and not 
Paul Kruger was, for a time at least, master of the Transvaal. 
In view of his attitude before annexation, it was not surprising 
that Kruger should be one of the first men to agitate against 
it afterwards. The work of destruction had gone too far. The 
plot had miscarried. And so Kruger and Dr Jorissen, by whom 
he was accompanied, were the first to approach Lord Carnarvon 
with an appeal for revocation of the proclamation. Lord 
Carnarvon's reply was that the act of annexation was an irrevo- 
cable one. Unfortunately the train of events in England 
favoured the intrigues of the party who wished the annexation 
cancelled. In 1878 Lord Carnarvon resigned, and there were 
other evidences of dissension in the British cabinet. 

Kruger, who since the annexation had held a salaried 
appointment under the British Government, again became one 
of a deputation to England. His colleague was Piet Joubert. 
They laid their case before Sir Michael Hicks Beach (who 
had succeeded Lord Carnarvon) but met with no success. Sir 
Michael, however, in a despatch dated September the i6th 
1878, reiterated the intention of the British cabinet to grant the 
state " to the utmost practicable extent, its individuality and 
powers of self-government under the sovereignty of the queen." 
On the occasion of Kruger's second mission to endeavour to get 
the annexation revoked Sir T. Shepstone determined to dispense 
with his further services as a government servant, and terminated 
the engagement. In the beginning of 1879 Shepstone was 
recalled and Colonel Owen Lanyon, who had served in Bechuana- 
land and was then administrator of Griqualand West, was 
appointed administrator in the Transvaal. In the meantime, 
the Zulu forces which threatened the Transvaal had been turned 
against the British, and the disaster of Isandhlwana occurred. 
Rumours of British defeat soon reached the Transvaal, and 
Agitation encouraged the disaffected party to become bolder 
for lade- in their agitation against British rule. Thus Sir 
peadence. Bartle Frere wrote at the time: " All accounts 
from Pretoria represent that the great body of the Boer 
population is still under the belief that the Zulus are more 
than a match for us, that our difficulties are more than we can 
surmount, and that the present is the favourable opportunity 
for demanding their independence." In April Frere visited 
Pretoria and conferred with the Boers. He assured them that 
they might look forward to complete self-government under the 
Crown, and at the same time urged them to sink political 
differences and join hands with the British against their com- 
mon enemy, the Zulus. The Boers, however, continued to 
agitate for complete independence, and, with the honourable 
exception of Piet Uys, a gallant Boer leader, and a small band of 
followers, who assisted Colonel Evelyn Wood at Hlobani, the 
Boers held entirely aloof from the conflict with the Zulus, a 
campaign which cost Great Britain many lives and 5,000,000 
before the Zulu power was finally broken. In June Sir Garnet 
Wolseley went to South Africa as commander of the forces 
against the Zulus, and as high commissioner " for a time," in 
the place of Sir Bartle Frere, of the Transvaal and Natal. 
Meantime Frere's proposals to fulfil the promises made to grant 
the Boers a liberal constitution were shelved. After the " settle- 
ment " of the Zulu question, Sir Garnet Wolseley proceeded 
to Pretoria and immediately organized an expedition against 
Sikukuni, who throughout the Zulu campaign had been acting 
under the advice of Cetywayo. Sikukuni's stronghold was 
captured and his forces disbanded. 

Sir Garnet Wolseley now assured the Boers at a public gathering 



that so long as the sun shone the British flag would fly at Pretoria. 
In May 1880 he returned to England, having established in the 
Transvaal a legislative council with powers so limited as to con- 
vince many of the Boers that there was no intention of fulfilling 
Shepstone's promises. Meanwhile events in Great Britain had 
once more taken a turn which gave encouragement to the dis- 
affected Boers. Already in November 1879 Gladstone had 
conducted his Midlothian campaign. In one speech, referring 
to Cyprus and the Transvaal, he said: " If those acquisitions 
were as valuab.'e as they are valueless, I would repudiate 
them, -because they were obtained by means dishonourable 
to the character of our country." And in another speech he 
said that the British had insanely placed them selves EHect ot Mr 
in the strange predicament of the free subjects of a Gladstone's 
monarchy going to coerce the free subjects of a. Speeches la 
republic. Expressions such as these were trans- aw/aaA 
lated into Dutch and distributed among the Boers, and they 
exercised a good deal of influence in fanning the agitation already 
going on in the Transvaal. So keenly were the Midlothian 
speeches appreciated by the Boers that the Boer -committee 
wrote a letter of thanks to Gladstone, and expressed the hope that 
should a change in the government of Great Britain occur, 
" the injustice done to the Transvaal might find redress." In 
April 1880, this change in the British Government did occur. 
Gladstone became prime minister, and shortly afterwards 
Frere was recalled. Could events be more auspicious for the 
party seeking retrocession? On being directly appealed to 
by Kruger and Joubert, Gladstone however replied that the 
liberty which they sought might be " most easily and promptly 
conceded to the Transvaal as a member of a South African 
Confederation." This was not at all what was wanted, and the 
agitation continued. Meanwhile in the Transvaal, concurrently 
with the change of prime minister and high commissioner, the 
administrator, Colonel Lanyon, began vigorously to enforce 
taxation among the Boers. Men who would not pay taxes to 
their own appointed governments, and who were daily expecting 
to be allowed to return to that condition of anarchy which 
they had come to regard as the normal order of things, were not 
likely to respond willingly to the tax-gatherer's demands. That 
many of them refused payment in the circumstances which 
existed was natural. 

In November matters were brought to a head by the wagons 
of a farmer named Bezuidenhout being seized in respect of the 
non-payment of taxes, and promptly retaken from 
the sheriff by a party of Boers. Lanyon began to 
recognize that the position was becoming grave, and 
telegraphed to Sir George Colley, the high commissioner of 
South-East Africa, for military aid. This, however, was not 
immediately available, and on the I3th of December the 
Boers in public meeting at Paardekraal resolved once 
more to proclaim the South African Republic, and in the 
meantime to appoint a triumvirate, consisting of Kruger, 
Pretorius and Joubert, as a provisional government. Within 
three days of the Paardekraal meeting a letter was sent to the 
administrator demanding the keys of the government offices. 
Formal proclamation of the republic was made on the i6th of 
December (Dingaan's Day) at Heidelberg. Hostilities forthwith 
began. Meanwhile pressure was put on the British prime 
minister to carry out the policy he had avowed while out of 
office. But it was not until Great Britain was suffering from the 
humiliation of defeat that he was convinced that the time for 
granting that retrocession had arrived. The first shots fired were 
outside Potchefstroom, which was then occupied by a small 
British garrison (see POTCHEFSTROOM). On the zoth of December 
some 240 men under Colonel Anstruther, chiefly belonging to 
the 94th Regiment, while marching from Lydenburg to Pretoria, 
were surprised at Bronkhorst Spruit, and cut up by the Boer 
forces. Half the men were killed and wounded; the other half 
including some officers, were taken prisoners. Captain Elliot, 
one of the prisoners, who had been released on parole, was shot 
dead by Boers while crossing the Vaal, and Captain Lambert, 
another paroled prisoner who accompanied Elliot, was also shot, 



198 



TRANSVAAL 



[FIRST ANNEXATION 



but escaped. Pretoria, Rustenberg, Lydenburg, and other smaller 
towns had been placed in a position of defence under the direc- 
tions of Colonel Bellairs, who remained in command at Pretoria, 
the garrison consisting of a small number of troops and the loyal 
inhabitants. Sir George Colley, with about 1400 men_ marched 
towards the Transvaal frontier, but before reaching it he found, 
on the 24th of January 1881, that the Boers had already invaded 
Natal and occupied Laing's Nek. He pitched his camp at 
Ingogo. Having been defeated at Laing's Nek, and suffered 
considerable loss in an engagement near Ingogo, 
HUJ?I88I. Colley took a force to the top of Majuba, a mountain 
overlooking the Boer camp and the nek. He went 
up during the night, and in the morning was attacked and 
overwhelmed by the Boers (Feb. 27). Of the 554 men who 
constituted the British force on Majuba, 92 were killed and 
134 wounded, Sir George Colley himself being amongst those 
who were slain. 

Ten days previous to the disaster at Majuba Sir Evelyn Wood 
had arrived at Newcastle with reinforcements. On Colley's 
death he assumed command. Negotiations had been opened 
with the Boers before the attack on Majuba and the British 
cabinet refused to allow that disaster to influence their action. 
On the 6th of March a truce was concluded and on the 2ist terms 
of peace were arranged between the Boer triumvirate and Sir 
Evelyn Wood. The most important of these terms were that 
the Transvaal should have complete internal self-government 
under British suzerainty and that a British resident should be 
stationed at Pretoria. Another article reserved to her majesty 
" the control of the external relations of the said state, including 
the conclusion of treaties and the conduct of diplomatic inter- 
course with foreign powers," and the right to march troops 
through the Transvaal. The boundaries of the state were 
defined, and to them the Transvaal was strictly to adhere. 
These terms practically conceded all that the Boers demanded, 
and were never regarded as anything else than surrender either 
by the Boers or the loyalists in South Africa. The agreement 
had hardly been concluded when Sir Frederick Roberts arrived 
at the Cape with 10,000 troops, and after spending forty-eight 
hours there returned to England. 

In the meantime, while the British general was making a 
treaty under the instructions of British ministers on the frontier, 
the beleaguered garrisons of Pretoria, Potchefstroom, and other 
smaller towns were gallantly holding their own. The news of 
the surrender reached Pretoria through Boer sources, and when 
first received there was laughed at by the garrison and inhabi- 
tants as a Boer joke. When the bitter truth was at length 
realized, the British flag was dragged through the dust of Pretoria 
streets by outraged Englishmen. Presently there assembled in 
Pretoria a commission to elaborate the terms of peace. On 
the one side were the Boer triumvirate, on the other Sir Evelyn 
Wood, Sir Hercules Robinson (Frere's successor in the high com- 
missionership), and Sir J. H. de Villiers, chief justice of Cape 
Colony, while President Brand of the Orange Free State gave the 
commission the benefit of his advice. The terms agreed upon 
were drawn up in the form of a convention and signed (Aug. 3). 
The preamble to the Pretoria Convention of 1881 
Cvaventloa. contained in brief but explicit terms the grant of 
'self-government to the Boers, subject to British 
suzerainty. In later years, when the Boers desired to regard 
the whole of this convention (and not merely the articles) as 
cancelled by the London Convention of 1884, and with it the 
suzerainty, which was only mentioned in the preamble, Mr 
Chamberlain, a member of the cabinet of 1880-1885, pointed 
out that if the preamble to this instrument were considered 
cancelled, so also would be the grant of self-government. 

The government of the state was handed over to the 
triumvirate on the 8th of August and was continued in their 
name until May 1883, when Kruger was elected president. 

C. From the Retrocession to i8gg. The retrocession of the 
Transvaal was a terrible blow to the loyalists. The Boers, 
on the other hand, found themselves in better plight than 
they had ever been before. Their native foes had been 



crushed by British forces; their liabilities were consolidated 
into a debt to Great Britain, to be repaid at convenience 
and leisure as a matter of fact, not even interest was paid 
for some time. If ever a small state was well treated by a 
large one, the Transvaal was so in the retrocession of 1881. 
Unfortunately, this magnanimity was forthcoming after 
defeat It appeared as though a virtue had been made of 
a necessity, and the Boers never regarded it in any other 
light. 

The new volksraad had scarcely been returned and the 
Pretoria Convention ratified (Oct. 25) before a system of 
government concessions to private individuals 
was started. These concessions, in so far as they 
prejudiced the commerce and general interests 
of the inhabitants, consisted chiefly in the granting of mono- 
polies. Among the first monopolies which were granted in 1882 
was one for the manufacture of spirituous liquor. The system 
continued steadily down to 1899, by which time railways, 
dynamite, spirits, iron, sugar, wool, bricks, jam, paper and 
a number of other things were all of them articles of monopoly. 
In 1882 also began that alteration of the franchise law which 
subsequently developed into positive exclusion of practically 
all save the original Boer burghers of the country from the 
franchise. In 1881, on the retrocession, full franchise rights 
could be obtained after two years' residence; in 1882 the period 
of residence was increased to five years. Meanwhile the land- 
hunger of the Boers became stimulated rather than checked 
by the regaining of the independence of their country. On 
the western border, where the natives were of less warlike 
character than those on their southern and northern frontiers, 
intrigues were already going on with petty tribal chiefs, and 
the Boers drove out a portion of the Barolongs from their lands, 
setting up the so-called republics of Stellaland and Goshen. 
This act called forth a protest from the isth Lord Derby 
(now secretary of state for the colonies), stating that he could 
not recognize the right of Boer freebooters to set up govern- 
ments of their own on the Transvaal borders. This protest 
had no effect upon the freebooters, who issued one proclamation 
after another, until in November 1883 they united the two 
new republics under the title of the " United States of Stella- 
land." Simultaneously with this " irresponsible " movement 
for expansion, President Kruger proceeded to London to 
interview Lord Derby and endeavour to induce him to dis- 
pense with the suzerainty, and to withdraw other clauses in 
the Pretoria Convention on foreign relations and natives, which 
were objectionable from the Boer point of view. Moreover, 
Kruger requested that the term " South African Republic " 
should be substituted for Transvaal State. 

The result was the London Convention of the 2 7th of Feb- 
ruary 1884. In this document a fresh set of articles was 
substituted for those of the Pretoria Convention of 1881. In 
the articles of the new convention the boundaries were once 
more defined, concessions being made to the Transvaal on the 
Bechuanaland frontier, and to them the republic was bound 
to " strictly adhere." In what followed it must always be 
remembered that Lord Derby began by emphatically rejecting 
the first Boer draft of a treaty on the ground that London 
no treaty was possible except between equal sove- Coavea- 
reign states. Moreover, it is undeniable that Lord a a > ls84 - 
Derby acted as though he was anxious to appear to be 
giving the Boers what they wanted. He would not formally 
abolish the suzerainty, but he was willing not to mention 
it; and though, in substituting new articles for those of the 
Pretoria Convention he left the preamble untouched, he 
avoided anything which could commit the Boer delegates 
to a formal recognition of that fact. On the other hand,, 
he was most indignant when in the House of Lords he was 
accused by Lord Cairns of impairing British interests and 
relinquishing the queen's suzerainty. He declared that he 
had preserved the thing in its substance, if he had not actually 
used the word; and this view of the matter was always officially 
maintained in the colonial office (which, significantly enough, 



FIRST ANNEXATION] 



TRANSVAAL 



199 



dealt with Transvaal affairs) whatever the political party in 
power. Unfortunately, the timid way in which it was done 
made as ineffaceable an impression on Kruger even as the 
surrender after Majuba. Article 4 stated : 

" The South African Republic will conclude no treaty or engage- 
ment with any state or nation, other than the Orange Free State, 
nor with any native tribe to the eastward or westward of the 
Republic, until the same has been approved by her Majesty the 
Queen." 

The other article to which the greatest interest was subse- 
quently attached was art. 14: 

" All persons, other than natives, conforming themselves to the 
laws of the South African Republic (a) will have full liberty, with 
their families, to enter, travel, or reside in any part of the South 
African Republic ; (b) they will be entitled to hire or possess houses, 
manufactories, warehouses, shops and premises; (c) they may carry 
on their commerce either in person or by any agents whom they 
may think fit to employ; (d) they will not be subject, in respect 
of their persons or property, or m respect of their commerce or 
industry, to any taxes, whether general or local, other than those 
which are or may be imposed upon citizens of the said Republic." 

Notwithstanding the precise fixing of the boundaries of 
the republic by the London Convention, President Kruger 
Territorial endeavoured to maintain the Boer hold on Goshen 
Expansion and Stellaland, but the British government on 
Efforts. t hi s p 0m t proved firm, and an expedition set out 
in 1884 under Sir Charles Warren, broke up the freebooters' two 
states, and occupied the country without a shot being fired 
(see BECHUANALAND). The expedition cost Great Britain a 
million and a half, but the attempt at farther extension west- 
wards was foiled, and a little later treaties with Lobenguela 
and the grant to Cecil Rhodes and his co-directors of a 
charter for the British South Africa Company put a check 
on designs the Boers held to expand northward (see RHODESIA). 
On the eastern border a similar policy of expansion was followed 
by the Boers, and in this instance with more success. Follow- 
ing up the downfall of the Zulu power after the British conquest 
in 1879, several parties of Boers began intriguing with the petty 
chiefs, and in May 1884, in the presence of 10,000 Zulus, they 
proclaimed Dinizulu, the son of Cetywayo, to be king of Zulu- 
land (see ZULULAND). As a " reward " for their services to the 
Zulus, the Boers then took over from them a tract of country in 
which they established a "New Republic." In 1886 the 
" New Republic " with limits considerably narrowed, was 
recognised by Great Britain, and the territory became incor- 
porated with the Transvaal in 1888. Their eastern boundary, 
in the teeth of the spirit of the conventions, and with but scant 
observance of the letter, was by this means considerably 
extended. A similar policy eventually brought Swaziland 
almost entirely under their dominion (see SWAZILAND). At the 
same time President Kruger revived the project of obtaining a 
seaport for the state, one of the objects of Boer ambitions since 
1860 (vide supra). Kruger endeavoured to acquire Kosi Bay, 
to the north of Zululand and only 50 m. east of the Swazi 
frontier. Meanwhile, events occurring within the state augured 
ill for the future of the country. In 1884 a concession to a 
number of Hollander and German capitalists of all rights to 
make railways led to the formation of the Netherlands Rail- 
way Company. This company, which was not actually floated 
Economic till 1887, was destined to exercise a disastrous in- 
Deveiop- fluence upon the fortunes of the state. Gold 
meats: GoU digging had hitherto enjoyed in the Transvaal but 
a precarious existence. In 1883 the discovery of 
Hoodie's Reef near the Kaap Valley ltd to a considerable influx 
of diggers and prospectors from the colonies and Europe, and 
by 1884 the Sheba Mine had been opened up, and Barberton, 
with a population of 5000 inhabitants, sprung into existence. 
In 1886 the Rand goldfields, which had just been discovered, 
were proclaimed and Johannesburg was founded. From 
that time the gold industry made steady progress until the 
Rand gold mines proved the richest and most productive 
goldfield in the world. As the industry prospered, so did the 
European population increase. The revenue of the state went 
up by leaps and bounds. At the end of 1886 Johannesburg 

' 



consisted of a few stores and some few thousand inhabitants. 
In October 1896 the sanitary board census estimated the popula- 
tion as 107,078, of whom 50,907 were Europeans. The wealth 
which was pouring into the Boer state coffers exceeded the wildest 
dreams of President Kruger and his followers. Land went up 
in value, and farms, many of them at comparatively remote 
distances from the goldfields, were sold at enormously enhanced 
prices. In fact, so attractive did this sale of land become 
to the Boers that they eventually parted with a third of the 
whole land area of the country to Uitlander purchasers. Yet 
in spite of the wealth which the industry of the Uitlanders 
was creating, a policy of rigid political exclusion and restriction 
was adopted towards them. 

An attempt was made in 1888, after the conference held 
between Cape Colony, the Orange Free State and Natal, to 
induce the Transvaal to enter a customs union. # e / a # ons 
Kruger would have none of it, although by so doing with the rest 
he could have obtained permission for a settlement of South 
at and railway to Kosi Bay. A convention to this At " ca ' 
effect was signed in August 1890, the Transvaal being allowed 
three years in which to take advantage of its provisions. 
Kruger's design at this time was to bring the whole of the 
external trade of the state, which was growing yearly as the gold 
industry developed, through Delagoa Bay and over the Nether- 
lands railway. His hostility towards Great Britain and even 
Cape Colony led him to adopt a commercial policy both narrow 
and prejudicial to the interests of the gold industry. In the 
appointment of F. W. Reitz as president of the Orange Free 
State (January 1889) on the death of Sir John Brand, Kruger 
recognized a new opportunity of endeavouring to cajole the 
Free State. Brand had arranged, in the teeth of the strongest 
protests from Kruger, that the Cape railway should extend 
to Bloemfontein and subsequently to the Vaal river. Kruger 
now endeavoured to control the railway policy of the Free 
State, and induced that republic to agree to a treaty whereby 
each state bound itself to help the other whenever the inde- 
pendence of either should be threatened or assailed, unless 
the cause of quarrel was, in the eyes of the state called in to 
assist, an unjust one (see ORANGE FREE STATE). 

In 1890 a feeling of considerable irritation had grown up 
among the Uitlanders at the various monopolies, but par- 
ticularly at the dynamite monopoly, which pressed 

3 ,. . Oligarchical 

solely and with peculiar seventy upon gold miners. Restrictions. 

Requests for consideration in the matter of the 
franchise, and also for a more liberal commercial policy in 
the matter of railways, dynamite and customs dues, began 
to be made. In response Kruger enacted that the period 
of qualification for the full franchise should now be raised 
to ten years instead of five. He at the same time instituted 
what was called a second chamber, the franchise qualifications 
for which were easier, but which was not endowed with any 
real power. During this year Kruger visited Johannesburg, 
and what was known as " the flag incident " occurred. He 
had by this time rendered himself somewhat unpopular, and 
in the evening the Transvaal flag, which flew over the land- 
drost's house, was pulled down. This incensed Kruger so 
much that for many years he continued to quote it as a reason 
why no consideration could be granted to the Uitlanders. 

By 1892 the Uitlanders began to feel that if they were to 
obtain any redress for their grievances combined constitutional 
action was called for, and the first reform move- 
ment began. The Transvaal National Union was 
formed. This consisted at the outset chiefly of 
mercantile and professional men and artisans. The mining men, 
especially the heads of the larger houses, did not care at this 
juncture to run the risk of political agitation. The Hon. J. 
Tudhope, an ex-minister in the Cape government, was elected 
chairman of the union. The objects of this body were avowed 
from the outset. They desired equal rights for all citizens, the 
abolition of monopolies and abuses, together with the maintenance 
of the state's independence. In the furthering of this policy 
Tudhope was supported by Charles Leonard and his brother 



2OO 



TRANSVAAL 



[RETROCESSION TO 1899 



James Leonard, at one time attorney-general of Cape Colony. 
Both the Leonards, as well as many of their followers, were 
South Africans by birth. They, in common with the great 
bulk of the Uitlanders, recognized that the state had every 
right to have its independence respected. But they asserted 
that a narrow and retrogressive policy, such as Kruger was 
following, was the very thing to endanger that independence. 
The soundness of these views and the legitimacy of Uitlander 
aspirations were recognized by a few Boer officials at Pretoria. 
Some prominent burghers even spoke at Uitlander meetings 
in favour of the Uitlander requests. At a later date, Chief 
Justice Kotze, when on circuit, warned the Boers that in its 
retrogressive action the government was undermining the 
grondwet or constitution of the state. It soon became evident 
that one course, and one only, lay open to President Kruger if 
he desired to avert a catastrophe. It was to meet in a friendly 
spirit those men who had by their industry converted a poor 
pastoral country into a rich industrial one, who represented 
more than half the inhabitants, who paid more than three- 
fourths of the revenue, and who were anxious to join him as 
citizens, with the rights of citizenship. He chose a course 
diametrically opposite. In an interview accorded to seven 
delegates from the National Union, in 1892, he told Charles 
Leonard to " go back and tell your people that I shall never 
give them anything. I shall never change my policy. And 
now let the storm burst." In 1894 there occurred an incident 
which not only incensed the Uitlanders to fury, but called for 
British intervention. A number of British subjects resident in 
Commaa- the Transvaal, in spite of their having no political 
deeriagia- status, were commandeered to suppress a native 
cldeat,l894. rising. This led to a protest, and eventually a visit 
to Pretoria, from Sir Henry Loch the high commissioner. 
In the negotiations which followed, President Kruger at 
length agreed to extend " most favoured nation " privileges to 
British subjects in reference to compulsory military service, 
and five British subjects who had been sent as prisoners 
to the front were released. This result was not, however, 
achieved before President Kruger had done his utmost to 
induce Sir Henry Loch to promise some revision in favour 
of the Transvaal of the London Convention. Following this 
incident came a further alteration in the franchise law, making 
the franchise practically impossible to obtain. At a banquet 
given in honour of the German emperor's birthday in Pretoria 
in January 1895, Kruger referred in glowing terms to the 
friendship of Germany for the Transvaal, which in the future 
was to be more firmly established than ever. This speech was 
public evidence of what was known to be going on behind 

the scenes. The German consul at Pretoria at this 
Flirtation j unc ture as a volatile, sanguine man, with 

visionary ideas of the important part Germany was 
to play in the future as the patron and ally of the South African 
Republic, and of the extent to which the Bismarckian policy 
might go in abetting an anti-British campaign. Whether he 
deceived himself or not, he led President Kruger and the Boers to 
believe that Germany was prepared to go to almost any length in 
support of the Transvaal if any opportunity occurred. His in- 
fluence was an undoubted factor in the Kruger policy of that time. 
The Delagoa Bay railway being at length completed to Pretoria 
and Johannesburg, Kruger determined to take steps to bring 

the Rand traffic over it. The Netherlands railway 
incident began by putting a prohibitive tariff on goods from 

the Vaal river. Not to be coerced in this manner, 
the Rand merchants proceeded to bring their goods on from 
the Vaal by wagon. Kruger then closed the drifts (or fords) 
on the river by which the wagons crossed. He only reopened 
them after the receipt of what was tantamount to an ultimatum 
on the subject from Great Britain. 

In May 1895, on the urgent representations of Sir Henry Loch, 
the British government annexed Tongaland, including Kosi Bay, 
thus making the British and Portuguese boundaries contermi- 
nous on the coast of south-east Africa. In the previous month 
certain native territories between Tongaland and Swaziland had 



been annexed by Great Britain. The Boers, who had failed 
to fulfil the conditions under which they might have secured 
Kosi Bay, nevertheless resented this action, which Boer Road 
took away from them all chance of obtaining a to the Sea 
seaport. Kruger telegraphed that " this annexation Blocted - 
cannot be regarded by this government otherwise than as 
directed against this republic. They must therefore regard it as 
an unfriendly act, against which they hereby protest." The 
protest was unheeded, the British government having realized 
the international complications that might ensue had the 
Transvaal a port of its own. 

At this time the Uitlanders formed a majority of the popula- 
tion, owned half the land and nine-tenths of the property, 
and they were at least entitled to a hearing. When Uitlander 
in August 1895 they forwarded one of their manyfle/orm 
petitions praying for redress of their grievances Movement. 
and an extension of the franchise, their petition, with over 
35,000 signatures, was rejected with jeers and insult. One 
member of the Raad, during a debate in the chamber, called 
upon the Uitlanders to " come on and fight " for their rights 
if they wanted them. The words were but the utterance of 
an individual Raad member, but they were only a shade less 
offensive than those used by Kruger in 1892, and they too 
accurately describe the attitude of the Boer executive. In 
September a meeting of the chambers of mines and commerce 
was held at Johannesburg, and a letter on various matters of 
the greatest importance to the mining industry was addressed 
to the Boer executive. It was never vouchsafed an answer. 
What the next step should be was freely discussed. Some 
urged an appeal to the Imperial government; but others, 
especially men of colonial birth and experience, objected 
that they would be leaning on a broken reed. That men 
who had still the memory of Majuba in their hearts should 
have felt misgiving is not to be wondered at. At this juncturrf 
(October 1895) came overtures to the leading Uitlanders 
from Cecil Rhodes, then prime minister of Cape Colony, 
and from Dr Jameson, leading to the Jameson Raid. To one 
or two men this scheme, subsequently known as The 
the Jameson Plan, had been revealed in the pre- "Jameson 
vious June, but to the majority even of the small pltta -" 
group of leaders it was not known till October or November 
1895. The proposition came in a tempting hour. Rhodes and 
Jameson, after considerable deliberation, came to the conclu- 
sion that they might advantageously intervene between Kruger 
and the Uitlanders. They induced Alfred Beit, who was 
an old personal friend of Rhodes, and also largely interested 
in the Rand gold mines, to lend his co-operation. They then 
submitted their scheme to some of the Uitlander leaders. Be- 
tween them it was arranged that Jameson should gather a 
force of 800 men on the Transvaal border; that the Uit- 
landers should continue their agitation; and that, should 
no satisfactory concession be obtained from Kruger, a com- 
bined movement of armed forces should be made against the 
government. The arsenal at Pretoria was to be seized; the 
Uitlanders in Johannesburg were to rise and hold the town. 
Jameson was to make a rapid march to Johannesburg. Mean- 
while, in order to give Kruger a final chance of making concessions 
with a good grace, and for the purpose of stating the Uitlander 
case to the world, Charles Leonard, as chairman of the 
National Union, issued a historic manifesto, which concluded 
as follows: 

We have now only two questions to consider: (a) What do we 
want? (6) How shall we get it? I have stated plainly what our 
grievances are, and I shall answer with equal directness the question, 
What do we want? We want: (l) the establishment of this republic 
as a true republic; (2) a grondwet or constitution which shall be 
framed by competent persons selected by representatives of the whole 
people and framed on lines laid down by them a constitution which 
shall be safeguarded against hasty alteration; (3) an equitable 
franchise law, and fair representation; (4) equality of the Dutch 
and English languages; (5) responsibility to the heads of the great 
departments of the legislature; (6) removal of religious disabilities; 
(7) independence of the courts of justice, with adequate and secured 
remuneration of the judges; (8) liberal and comprehensive education ; 



RETROCESSION TO 1899] 



TRANSVAAL 



2OI 



(9) efficient civil service, with adequate provision for pay and pension ; 

(10) free trade in South African products. That is what we want. 
There now remains the question which is to be put before you 
at the meeting of the 6th of January, viz. How shall we get it? 
To this question I shall expect from you an answer in plain terms 
according to your deliberate judgment. 

The Jameson conspiracy fared no worse and no better than 
the great majority of conspiracies in history. It failed in its 
immediate object. Jameson did not obtain more than 500 men. 
Johannesburg had the greatest difficulty in smuggling in and 
distributing the rifles with which the insurgents were to be armed. 
The scheme to seize the Pretoria fort had to be abandoned, 
as at the time fixed Pretoria was thronged with Boers. Finally, 
to make confusion worse confounded, Jameson, becoming 
impatient of delay, in spite of receiving direct messages from 
the leaders at Johannesburg teLing him on no account to 
move, marched into the Transvaal. 

The policy of delay in the execution of the plot which the 
Uitlander leaders found themselves compelled to adopt was 
determined by a variety of causes. Apart from the difficulty 
of obtaining arms, a serious question arose at the eleventh 
hour which filled some of the Uitlanders with mistrust. The 
reform leaders in the Transvaal, down to and including the 
Johannesburg rising, had always recognized as a cardinal 
principle the maintenance of the independence of the state. 
From Cape Town it was now hinted that the movement in 
which Jameson was to co-operate should, in Rhodes's view, be 
carried out under the British flag. A meeting of Uitlander 
leaders was hastily summoned on the 2 5th of December. Two 
messengers were that night despatched to interview Rhodes, 
who then gave the assurance that the flag question might be 
left to a plebiscite of the inhabitants of the Transvaal 1 (see 
Blue-book, 1897, 165, p. 21). It was determined nevertheless 
to postpone action; however, on the 2gth of December, Jameson 
started, and the news of his having done so reached Johannes- 
burg from outside sources. A number of leading citizens were 
at once formed into a reform committee. In the absence of 
Collapse of Charles Leonard, who had been sent as one of the 
Jameson delegates to Cape Town to interview Rhodes, 
Raid. Lionel Phillips, a partner in Messrs Eckstein & Co., 
the largest mining firm on the Rand, was elected chairman. 
Phillips had been for three years in succession chairman of the 
chamber of mines, and he had persistently for several years 
tried to induce Kruger to take a reasonable view of the require- 
ments of the industry. Under the supervision of the reform 
committee, such arms as had been smuggled in were distributed, 
and Colonel Frank Rhodes was given charge of the armed men. 
A large body of police was enrolled, and order was maintained 
throughout the town. On the 2nd of January 1896 Jameson, 
who found himself at Doornkop in a position surrounded by 
Boers, surrendered. Jameson and his men were conveyed to 
Pretoria as prisoners, and subsequently handed over to the 
high commissioner (Sir Hercules Robinson, who had succeeded 
Sir Henry Loch in June 1895). 

Significant of the attitude of Germany whose "flirtation" 
with the Transvaal has been noted was an open telegram sent 
by the emperor William II. the day after the surrender of 
TheKalser , s Jameson congratulating Kruger that " without 
Telegram, appealing to the help of friendly powers" he had 
repelled the raiders. The British government rejoined 
by commissioning a flying squadron and by calling attention 
to the London Convention, reserving the supervision of the 
foreign relations of the Transvaal to Great Britain. In Johannes- 

1 Jameson, speaking at Durban on the gth of August 1910, 
declared that the raid was not racial in the sense usually understood, 
but an effort towards federation. During the raid he carried a 
letter containing the names of the proposed new executive, and had 
the raid succeeded it was proposed to make General Lukas Meyer 
(d. 1902) president. Jameson subsequently explained that Rhodes 
and he in designating " an eminent Dutchman " as president of 
" the new provincial republic " had had no communication with 
Meyer on the subject. Neither he (Jameson) nor Rhodes had any 
knowledge of a proposal, to which General Botha had publicly 
referred, that Charles Leonard should be president. (See the Cape 
Times Weekly Edition, Sept. 7, 1910, p. 15.) 



burg meanwhile the Kruger government regained control. 
The whole of the reform committee (with the exception of a 
few who fled the country) were arrested on a charge of high 
treason and imprisoned in Pretoria. In April, at the trial, the 
four leaders Lionel Phillips, Frank Rhodes, J. H. Hammond 
and George Farrar, who in conjunction with Charles Leonard 
had made the arrangements with Jameson were sentenced 
to death, the sentence being after some months' imprisonment 
commuted to a fine of 25,000 each. The rest of the committee 
were each sentenced to two years' imprisonment, 2000 fine 
or another year's imprisonment, and three years' banishment. 
This sentence, after a month's incarceration, was also com- 
muted. The fine was exacted, and the prisoners, with the 
exception of Woolls Sampson and W. D. (Karri) Davies, were 
liberated on undertaking to abstain from politics for three 
years in lieu of banishment. Messrs Sampson and Davies, 
refusing to appeal to the executive for a reconsideration of 
their sentence, were retained for over a year. 

Sir Hercules Robinson was unfortunately in feeble health 
at the time, and having reached Pretoria on the 4th of January, 
he had to conduct negotiations under great physical TheSur- 
disadvantage. He had no sooner learnt of the raid reader of 
in Cape Town than he issued a proclamation through Johaaaes- 
Sir Jacobus de Wet, the British resident at Pretoria, burg ' 
warning all British subjects in Johannesburg or elsewhere from 
aiding and abetting Jameson. This was freely distributed 
among the public of Johannesburg. While in Pretoria the 
high commissioner in the first instance addressed himself to 
inducing Johannesburg to lay down its arms. He telegraphed 
to the reform committee that Kruger had insisted " that 
Johannesburg must lay down arms unconditionally as a 
precedent to any discussions and consideration of grievances." 
On the following day, the 7th of January, Sir Hercules tele- 
graphed again through the British agent, who was then at 
Johannesburg, saying: " That if the Uitlanders do not comply 
with my request they will forfeit all claims to sympathy from 
Her Majesty's government and from British subjects through- 
out the world, as the lives of Jameson and the prisoners are now 
practically in their hands." The* two thousand odd rifles 
which had been distributed among the Uitlanders were then 
given up. With regard to the inducements to this step urged 
upon the reform committee by the high commissioner, it is 
only necessary to say with reference to the first that the 
grievances never were considered, and with reference to the 
second it subsequently appeared that one of the conditions of 
the surrender of Jameson's force at Doornkop was that the lives 
of the men should be spared. It was after the Johannesburg 
disarmament that Kruger had sixty-four members of the 
reform committee arrested, announcing at the same time that 
his motto would be " Forget and forgive." Sir Hercules 
Robinson, in response to a message from Mr Chamberlain, who 
had been secretary of state for the colonies since July 1895, 
urging him to use firm language in reference to reasonable con- 
cessions, replied that he considered the moment inopportune, 
and on the isth of January he left for Cape Town. In 1897 
he was succeeded in the high commissionership by Sir Alfred 
Milner. 

In the period which intervened between the Jameson raid 
and the outbreak of the war in October 1899 President Kruger's 
administration continued to be what it had been; 
that is to say, it was not merely bad, but it 
got progressively worse. His conduct immediately 
after Johannesburg had given up its arms, and while the 
reform committee were in prison, was distinctly disingenuous. 
Instead of discussing grievances, as before the Johannesburg 
disarmament he had led the high commissioner to believe was 
his intention, he proceeded to request the withdrawal of the 
London Convention, because, among other things, " it is in- 
jurious to dignity of independent republic." When Kruger 
found that no concession was to be wrung from the British 
government, he proceeded, instead of considering grievances, 
to add considerably to their number. The Aliens Expulsion 



202 



TRANSVAAL 



[RETROCESSION TO 1899 



and Aliens Immigration Laws, as well as the new Press Law, 
were passed in the latter part of 1896. 

In 1897 a decision of Chief Justice Kotze was overruled by 
an act of the volksraad. This led to a strong protest from 
the judges of the high court, and eventually led to the dis- 
missal of the chief justice, who had held that office for over 
twenty years, and during the whole of that time had been a 
loyal and patriotic friend to his country. An 'industrial 
commission appointed during this year by President Kruger 
fared no better than the high court had done. The commission 
was deputed to inquire into and report on certain of the griev- 
ances adversely affecting the gold industry. Its constitution 
for this purpose was anomalous, as it consisted almost entirely 
of Transvaal officials whose knowledge of the requirements of 
the industry was scanty. In spite of this fact, however, the 
commission reported in favour of reform in various directions. 
They urged, among other things, due enforcement of the liquor 
law, more police protection, the abolition of the dynamite 
concession, and that foodstuffs should be duty free. These 
recommendations made by President Kruger's own nominees 
were practically ignored. In 1898, to strengthen his relations 
with foreign powers, Kruger sent the state secretary, Dr Leyds, 1 
to Europe as minister plenipotentiary, his place on the Transvaal 
executive being taken by Mr Reitz, the ex-president of the 
Free State. At home Kruger continued as obdurate as ever. 
In January 1899 Mr Chamberlain pointed out in a despatch 
to President Kruger that the dynamite monopoly constituted 
a breach of the London Convention. To help the Transvaal 
government out of its difficulty, and to make one more effort 
towards conciliation, the financial houses of Johannesburg 
offered to lend the Transvaal government 600,000 wherewith 
to buy out the dynamite company, and so terminate the scandal 
and bring some relief to the industry. The offer was not 
accepted. Meantime Sir Alfred Milner had also endeavoured 
to induce the Transvaal government to grant the necessary 
reforms, but his efforts were equally unavailing (see MILNER, 
VISCOUNT). In March the Uitlanders, hopeless of ever obtain- 
ing redress from President Kruger, weary of sending petitions 
to the Raad only to be jeered at, determined to invoke inter- 
vention if nothing else could avail, and forwarded a petition to 

n.^, , Queen Victoria. This petition, the outcome of 

Petition to i , TT .. , , 

the Queen. tne second Uitlander movement for reform, was 

signed by 21,000 British subjects, and stated the 
Uitlander position at considerable length. The following extract 
conveys its general tenor: 

The condition of your Majesty's subjects in this state has 
become well-nigh intolerable. The acknowledged and admitted 
grievances, of which your Majesty's subjects complained prior to 
1895, not only are not redressed, but exist to-day in an aggravated 
form. They are still deprived of all political rights, they are denied 
any voice in the government of the country, they are taxed far above 
the requirements of the country, the revenue of which is misapplied 
and devoted to objects which keep alive a continuous and well- 
founded feeling of irritation, without in any way advancing the 
general interest of the state. Maladministration and peculation 
of public moneys go hand in hand, without any vigorous measures 
being adopted to put a stop to the scandal. The education of 
Uitlander children is made subject to impossible conditions. The 
police afford no adequate protection to the lives and property of 
the inhabitants of Johannesburg; they are rather a source of danger 
to the peace and safety of the Uitlander population. 

In response to this appeal, Mr Chamberlain, in a despatch 
dated the loth of May, proposed a conference at Pretoria. 
Six days before Sir Alfred Milner had telegraphed to London 
a summary of the situation, comparing the position of the 
Uitlanders to that of helots and declaring the case for inter- 
vention to be overwhelming. Neither of these despatches 
was made public at the time. But on the very day Mr Cham- 
berlain wrote his despatch the friends of the Transvaal govern- 
ment in Cape Colony and the Orange Free State invited Sir 

1 Dr W. J. Leyds, a Hollander born in Java in 1859, went out to 
the Transvaal in 1884 as attorney-general and was, in 1887, made 
government commissioner for the Netherlands (S. A.) railway. In 
1890 he became state secretary and in that position was regarded as 
Kruger's light-hand man. 



Alfred Milner to meet President Kruger at Bloemfontein, 
hoping to be able to exert pressure on both parties and to 
arrange a settlement as favourable as possible to Bloem- 
the Transvaal. The conference opened on the fonteia 
3ist of May and closed on the sth of June. It no C" fl/ e. 
sooner opened than it was evident that Kruger had come to 
obtain, not to grant, concessions. He offered, it is true, a 
seven years' franchise law in place of the five years' franchise 
which Sir Alfred Milner asked for. But apart from the relief 
suggested being entirely inadequate, it was only to be given 
on certain conditions, one of which was that all future disputes 
which might arise between the Transvaal and the Imperial 
government should 'be referred to a court of arbitration, of 
which the president should be a foreigner. No arrangement 
was possible on such terms. Meanwhile feeling was running 
high at Johannesburg and throughout South Africa. Meetings 
were held in all the large towns, at which resolutions were 
passed declaring that no solution of the Transvaal question 
would be acceptable which did not provide for equal political 
rights for all white men. Sir Alfred Milner urged the home 
government strongly to insist upon a minimum of reform, and 
primarily the five years' franchise; and Mr Chamberlain, 
backed by the cabinet, adopted the policy of the high com- 
missioner. (A. P. H.; F. R. C.) 

D. The Crisis of 1899. A state of extreme diplomatic 
tension lasted all the summer. The British public, in whom 
there had always been the latent desire to retrieve the surrender 
to the Boers which had followed the disaster at Majuba, were 
at last awakened by the ministerialist press to the necessity 
of vindicating British influence in South Africa, and the govern- 
ment soon found that, in spite of a highly articulate Radical 
minority, the feeling of the country was overwhelmingly behind 
them. It was not then realized either by the public or the 
government how seriously, and with what considerable justifi- 
cation, the Boers believed in their ability, if necessary, to 
sweep the British " into the sea." President Kruger had every 
expectation of large reinforcements from the Dutch in the two 
British colonies; he believed that, whatever happened, Europe 
would not allow Boer independence to be destroyed; and he 
had assured himself of the adhesion of the Orange Free State, 
though it was not till the very last moment that President 
Steyn formally notified Sir Alfred Milner of this fact. The 
Boers profoundly despised the military power of Great Britain, 
and there was no reason why they, any more than Germany 
or France, should contemplate the possibility of the empire 
standing together as a whole in such a cause. In England, on the 
other hand, it was thought by most people that if a firm enough 
attitude were adopted Mr Kruger would " climb down," and 
the effect of this error was shown partly in the whole course of 
the negotiations, partly in the tone personally adopted by Mr 
Chamberlain. It was only later that it was seen that if Great 
Britain intended effectually to champion the Uitlander cause, 
the moment for a test of strength had inevitably arrived. 
Negotiations could only bring the conflict a little nearer, delay 
it a little longer, or supply an opportunity to either side to 
justify its action in the eyes of the world. The conditions of 
the problem were such that unless Great Britain were to accept 
a humiliating rebuff, any correspondence, however skilfully 
conducted, was bound to bring into greater prominence the 
standing causes of offence between the two sides. The exchange 
of despatches soon led to a complete impasse. The persistent 
attempt of the South African Republic to assert its full indepen- 
dence, culminating in a formal denial of British suzerainty, 
made it additionally incumbent on Great Britain to carry its 
point as to the Uitlander grievances, while, from Mr Kruger's 
point of view, the admission of the Uitlanders to real political 
rights meant the doom of his oligarchical regime, and appeared 
in the light of a direct menace to Boer supremacy. The fran- 
chise, again, was an internal affair, in which the convention 
gave Great Britain no right to interfere, while if Great Britain 
relied on certain definite breaches of the convention, satisfaction 
for which was sought in the first place in such a guarantee of 



WAR OF 1899-1902] 



TRANSVAAL 



203 



amendment as the Uitlander franchise would involve, the Boer 
answer was an offer of arbitration, a course which Great Britain 
could not accept without admitting the South African Republic 
to the position of an equal. Here was material enough for an 
explosion, even if personal misunderstandings and aggravations, 
adding fuel to the fire, had not naturally occurred (or even been 
deliberately plotted) during the negotiations. But the truth 
was that the Boers thought they stood to gain by fighting, 
while the British, though not expecting war, and acting up till 
the last month or so on the assumption that serious military 
preparations were either unnecessary or sufficiently unlikely 
to be necessary to make them politically inexpedient, had with 
no less confidence committed themselves to a policy which 
was impracticable on peaceful terms. 

After July the tactics of the Boer executive were simply 
directed towards putting off a crisis till the beginning of October, 
when the grass would be growing on the veld, and meanwhile 
towards doing all they could in their despatches to put the 
blame on Great Britain. At last they drafted, on the 27th of 
September, an ultimatum to the British government. But, 
although ready drafted, many circumstances conspired to 
delay its presentation. Meanwhile, the British war office 
began to act. Certain departmental details were despatched 
to South Africa to form a working nucleus for military bases, 
and early in September the cabinet sanctioned the despatch 
to Natal from India of a mixed force, 5600 strong, while two 
battalions were ordered to South Africa from the Mediterranean. 
Sir George White was nominated to the chief command of the 
forces in Natal, and sailed on the i6th of September, while 
active preparations were set on foot in England to prepare 
against the necessity of despatching an army corps to Cape Town, 
In which case the chief command was to be vested in Sir Redvers 
Buller. Fortunately, although the draft of an ultimatum was 
lying in the state secretary's office in Pretoria, the Boers, 
unprepared in departmental arrangements which are necessary 
in large military operations, were unable to take the field with 
the promptitude that the situation demanded. They con- 
sequently forfeited many of the advantages of the initiative. 

The military strength of the two republics was practically 
an unknown quantity. It was certain that, since the troublous 
times of 1896, the Transvaal had greatly increased its arma- 
ments; but at their best, except by a very few, 1 the Boers were 
looked upon by British military experts as a disorganized rabble, 
which, while containing many individual first-class marksmen, 
would be incapable of maintaining a prolonged resistance 
against a disciplined army. As was to be subsequently shown, 
the hostilities were not confined to opposition from the fighting 
strength of the two little republics alone; the British had to 
face Dutch opposition in their own colonies. The total 
fighting strength of the Boer republics is difficult to ascertain 
exactly. General Botha stated that there were 83,000 burghers 
from 15 to 65 years of age on the commando lists. Lord 
Kitchener put the total number of combatants on the Boer 
side at 95,000 (Cd. 1790, p. 13). The British official History of 
the War gave the number as 87,000; another calculation, based 
on the number killed, taken prisoner and surrendered, made 
the total 90,000. In the second (1901) rebellion of the Cape 
Dutch about 8000 joined the burgher forces. The number of 
Boers in the field at any one period was probably little more 
than 40,000. But the fact that it was to a large extent a 
struggle with a nation in arms doubled the numbers of the 
force that the Transvaal executive was able to draw upon. 
The bulk of the Dutch levies were organized on the burgher 
system that is, each district was furnished with a commandant, 
who had under him field-cornets and assistant field-cornets, 
who administered the fighting capacity of the district. Each 
field-cornet, who, with the commandant, was a paid official 
of the state, was responsible for the arms, equipment and 
attendance of his commando. 

1 Lord Wolseley foresaw the strength of the Boers. Writing 
on the I2th of September 1899 he said, " If this war comes off it 
will be the most serious war England has ever had " (see Military 
Life of the Duke of Cambridge, ii. 421). 



The plan of campaign which found favour with the Boers, 
when they determined to put their differences with Great 
Britain to the test by the ordeal of the sword, was to attack 
all the principal British towns adjacent to their own borders; 
at the same time to despatch a field army of the necessary 
dimensions to invade and reduce Natal, where the largest 
British garrison existed. It is not too much to suppose that the 
executive in Pretoria had calculated that the occupation of 
Durban would inspire the entire Dutch nation with a spirit 
of unanimity which would eventually wrest South Africa from 
the British. On paper the scheme had everything to recom- 
mend it as the expedient most likely to bring about the desired 
end. But the departmental executive could not launch the 
Natal invading force as early as had been anticipated, and it 
was not until the gth of October that the ultimatum was pre- 
sented to Sir (then Mr) Conyngham Greene, the British agent 
at Pretoria. The scheduled demands were as follow : 

" a. That all points of mutual difference shall be regulated 
by the friendly course of arbitration, or by what- The 
ever amicable way may be agreed upon by the ultimatum. 
government with Her Majesty's Government. 

" b. That the troops on the borders of this republic 
shall be instantly withdrawn. 

" c. That all reinforcements of troops which have arrived 
in South Africa since the ist of June 1899 shall be removed 
from South Africa within a reasonable time, to be agreed 
upon with this government, and with a mutual assurance 
and guarantee on the part of this government that no 
attack upon or hostilities against any portion of the posses- 
sions of the British Government shall be made by the republic 
during further negotiations within a period of time to 
be subsequently agreed upon between the governments, and 
this government will, on compliance therewith, be prepared 
to withdraw the armed burghers of this republic from the 
borders. 

" d. That Her Majesty's troops now on the high seas shall 
not be landed in any part of South Africa." 

To these demands the Transvaal government required an 
answer within 48 hours. 

There could be only one reply, and on Wednesday, the nth 
of October 1899, at five o'clock p.m., a state of war existed 
between the British government and the two Boer republics. 
On the following day the Boer attack on an armoured train at 
Kraaipan, a railway station in Cape Colony south of Mafeking 
and close to the western frontier of the Transvaal, witnessed 
the first hostile shot of a bloody war, destined to plunge South 
Africa into strife for two years and a half. (H. CH.) 

E. The War of 1899-1902. For the purposes of history 
the South African War may be conveniently divided into 
five distinct periods. The first comprises the Boer 
invasion, terminating with the relief of Ladysmith 
on the 28th of February. The second, the period 
of Boer organized resistance, may be said to have finished 
with the occupation of Komati Poort in October 1900 (a 
month after Lord Roberts's formal annexation of the Trans- 
vaal) and the flight of President Kruger. The third may 
be characterized as a period of transition; it marks the 
adoption jn earnest of a guerrilla policy on the part of the 
enemy, and an uncertain casting about on the part of the British 
for a definite system with which to grapple with an unfore- 
seen development. This phase endured up to the failure of 
the Middelburg negotiations in March 1901. The next stage 
was that which saw the slow building up of the blockhouse 
system and the institution of small punitive columns, and may 
be considered to have extended until the close of 1901. The 
fifth, and last period which, after all other expedients had failed, 
finally brought the residue of uncaptured and unsurrendered 
burghers to submission was the final development of the 
blockhouse system, wedded to the institution of systematic 

driving " of given areas, which operations were in force until 
the 3ist of May 1902, when peace was ratified at Pretoria. 

The first of these periods saw the severest fighting of the 



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[WAR OF I89SHI902 



campaign. It opened with the investment of Mafeking by a 
Transvaal force under P. A. Cronje and the envelopment of 
Kimberley by Free State commandos under General 
Wessels. But these were minor operations. The main 
Boer effort was made in Natal, where their forces were 
commanded by P. J. Joubert, while Lieut.-General Sir George 
White was the British commander-in-chief. The northern part of 
Natal presented two faces of a triangle to the two enemies, the 
short base being formed by the Tugela river. Close to the head of 
the triangle at Dundee and Glencoe was posted a small British 
force under Major-General Sir W. Penn Symons. Against this 
force there advanced a Boer force under Lukas Meyer from the 
east, and, more slowly, the foremost portion of the main Boer 
army from the north, while at the same time other Transvaalers 
descended upon the railway between Glencoe and Ladysmith, and 
the Free Staters from the passes of the Drakensberg advanced 
towards Ladysmith, the British centre of operations at which the 
reinforcements sent from India gathered. On the aoth of Octo- 
ber the Dundee brigade vigorously and successfully attacked 
Talana Hill, and drove back Lukas Meyer, but this success was 
dearly bought. Symons was mortally wounded, and 226 officers 
and men were killed and wounded. Half the mounted men lost 
their way in attempting to pass the enemy's flank and were 
taken, and the brigade, threatened to its left rear by Joubert's 
advance and by the force that had seized the railway, only escaped 
being enveloped by retreating upon Ladysmith, where it arrived 
in an exhausted state on the 26th of October. Meanwhile 
Sir George White had discovered the Boer force on the railway, 
and, though anxious on account of the advance of the Free 
Staters, on the 2ist, stimulated by the news of Talana, he sent 
out a force of all arms under General (Sir John) French to drive 
the Boers from Elandslaagte and so to clear. Symons's line of 
retreat. This was accomplished by French and his subordinate, 
Colonel (Sir) Ian Hamilton, in the action of Elandslaagte on the 
2ist of October (British losses, 258 all ranks). But on the 22nd 
the Free Staters' advance caused the victorious force to be 
recalled to Ladysmith, and the third action north of that town, 
Rietfontein (24th), was only a demonstration to cover the retire- 
ment of the Dundee force. By the 2pth of October all the British 
forces at the front and their reinforcements had fallen in on 
Ladysmith, which the Transvaalers on the north and east and 
the Free Staters on the west side began to invest. Before the 
junction of the two allied wings was complete Sir George White 
attempted by a general attack to break up their line. The 
result of this decision was the battle of Lombard's Kop, outside 
Ladysmith, in which the whole of the available British force was 
engaged. The engagement was disastrous to the British, who 
had undertaken far too comprehensive an attack, and the Natal 
Field Force was obliged to fall back upon Ladysmith with the 
loss of 1500 men, including a large number of prisoners belonging 
to the left column under Lieut. -Colonel F.R.C. Carleton,who were 
cut off at Nicholson's Nek and forced to surrender by a mixed 
force of Transvaalers and Free Staters under Christian de Wet. 
From that day the r61e of the Natal Field Force was changed from 
that of a mobile field army into that of a garrison, and two 
days later it was completely isolated, but not before General 
French had succeeded in escaping south by train, and the naval 
authorities had been induced by Sir George White's urgent 
appeals to send into the town a naval brigade with a few guns 
of sufficient range and calibre to cope with the heavy position 
artillery which Joubert was now able to bring into action against 
the town. 

General Sir Redvers Buller, who had been appointed to the 

supreme command in South Africa as soon as it was perceived 

that war was imminent his force being one army 

Bauer's ,. . . ., ,. . . . , . J 

Arrival. corps in three divisions, the divisional generals being 
Lord Methuen, Sir W. Gatacre and Sir C. F. Clery 
arrived in Cape Town, ahead of his troops, on the day following 
Lombard's Kop. The situation which presented itself was deli- 
cate in the extreme. In Natal practically the whole of the avail- 
able defence force was swallowed up by the steady success of the 
invasion; on the western frontier two British towns were isolated 



and besieged; and Boer commandos were on the point of in- 
vading Cape Colony, where the Dutch population seemed on the 
verge of rebellion. The army corps was about to arrive, practi- 
cally as a whole unit, in South Africa; but it was evident that 
the exigencies of the situation, and the widely divided areas of 
invasion, would at least defer, the execution of the plan which 
had been formed for an invasion of the Orange Free State from 
Cape Colony. The first duty was to effect the relief of the British 
forces which had been rendered immobile, and another duty 
imposed by political circumstances was to relieve Kimberley 
(where Cecil Rhodes was), while the prospect of rebellion forbade 
the complete denudation of the central part of the colony. 
Thus Sir Redvers Buller had no choice but to disintegrate the 
army corps. Clery and some brigades were sent to Natal ; Gatacre 
with less than a brigade, instead of a division, was despatched to 
Queenstown, Cape Colony; while Lord Methuen, with a division, 
was sent off to relieve Kimberley. As November wore on, the 
situation did not improve. Cape Colony was invaded; while in 
Natal a flying column of Boers, pushing down from the Tugela, 
for a short time isolated the newly-arrived force under General 
(Sir) H. J. T. Hildyard, which opposed Joubert's advance on 
Pietermaritzburg at Estcourt. The situation in Natal seemed 
so serious that on the 22nd of November Sir Redvers Buller left 
Cape Town and sailed for Durban. In the meantime Lord 
Methuen had commenced his march to the relief of Kimberley. 
He encountered resistance at Belmont on the 23rd, but attack- 
ing resolutely he drove the Boers out of their strong Failures of 
positions. Two days later he won another action at Methuen 
Enslin. Still persevering he moved on to the Modder, ^dOaMcre. 
where he was seriously opposed by De la Rey and P. A. Cronje, 
the latter having posted down from Mafeking with 2000 men and 
arrived on the previous night. The Boers, who held a river 
line, kept the British attack at bay all day, but eventually fell 
back, relinquishing the position after dark, as their right had been 
turned by General Pole-Carew's brigade. It was a long and 
wearing fight, in which the British lost 485 killed and wounded, 
and what was more serious, Lord Methuen (himself wounded) 
found that his force had exhausted its forward momentum, and 
that he would have to collect supplies and reinforcements on the 
Modder before fighting his next battle. The extent of the opera- 
tions and the gravity of the situation now began to be felt in 
England; every available man was called up from the reserves, 
and the war office made what at the time appeared to be ade- 
quate provision for the waste which it was seen would occur. 
On the 30th of November the mobilization of a sixth division 
was ordered, offers of colonial aid were accepted, and every 
facility provided for local recruiting in the South African ports. 
Thus in the early days of December confidence was considerably 
restored. Buller was arranging for the relief of Ladysmith, 
which had already shown its spirit by two successful sorties 
against the besiegers' batteries. In every theatre the British 
strength was consolidating. But the full significance of the 
situation presented by thfse two small nations in arms had not 
yet been appreciated. The confidence restored by the lull 
during the early part of December was destined to be roughly 
shattered. On the loth of December Gatacre essayed a night 
march and attack upon the enemy's position at Stormberg, and, 
misled by his guides in unknown ground, was himself surprised 
and forced to return with a loss of 719. On the following day 
Lord Methuen delivered an attack upon Cronje's position be- 
tween the Upper Modder river and the Kimberley road, a line of 
kopjes called Spytfontein and Magersfontein. In a night attack 
on Magersfontein hill the Highland brigade came under heavy 
fire while still in assembly formation, and lost its general, A. G. 
Wauchope, and 750 men, and in the battle by day which followed 
the other brigades were unable to retrieve the failure, the total 
losses amounting to about 950. But even this could be suffered 
with equanimity, since Buller was about to bring his own force 
into play, and Buller, it was confidently supposed, would not 
fail. He had collected at Chieveley in Natal a brigade of mounted 
men, four brigades of infantry and six batteries of artillery, and 
he carried with him the trust alike of the army and the nation. 



WAR OF 1899-1902] 



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205 



On the 1 5th of December Buller made his effort and failed. 
Behind the Tugela at Colenso were Louis Botha's forces 
Butler's covering the siege of Ladysmith, and, imperfectly 
Failure. acquainted with the topography, Buller sent a 
Lord Roberts force to turn Botha's left, in conjunction with a 
seat out. f ronta i attack. But the flank attack became 
entangled in mass in a loop of the river and suffered heavily, 
and two batteries that formed part of the frontal attack came 
into action within a few hundred yards of unsuspected Boer 
trenches, with the result that ten guns were lost, as well as 
in all some noo men. Buller then gave up the fight. The full 
nature of the failure was not realized by the British public, nor 
the spirit in which the general had received the finding of fortune. 
He lost heart, and actually suggested to White the surrender of 
Ladysmith, believing this to be inevitable and desiring to cover 
White's responsibility in that event with his own authority; 
but White replied that he did not propose to surrender, and the 
cabinet at home, aware of Buller's despondency, appointed Field 
Marshal Lord Roberts to the supreme command, with Major- 
General Lord Kitchener as his chief of staff. A wave of military 
enthusiasm arose throughout the empire, and as the formation 
of a seventh division practically drained the mother-country of 
trained men, a scheme for the employment of amateur soldiers 
was formulated, resulting in the despatch of Imperial Yeomanry 
and Volunteer contingents, which proved one of the most striking 
features of the South African campaign. Pending the arrival of 
Lord Roberts and reinforcements, the situation in South Africa 
remained at a deadlock: the three besieged towns Mafeking, 
Kimberley and Ladysmith still held their own, but no headway 
was made by the relief columns; all they could do was to stand 
on the defensive. The only bright spot, as far as the British 
were concerned, was to be found in northern Cape Colony, where 
General French, with two cavalry brigades and details, by his 
skilful tactics and wonderful activity kept at arm's length a 
superior force of the enemy in the vicinity of Colesberg, an 
achievement the more noteworthy since he had pitted against 
him both De la Rey and De Wet, two of the three men of military 
genius produced by the war on the Boer side. On the 6th of 
January the Boers in Natal made a desperate attempt to storm 
Ladysmith. The garrison, though already weakened by priva- 
tion and sickness, made a stubborn resistance, and after one of 
the fiercest engagements of the war, repulsed the attack at 
Caesar's Camp and Wagon Hill with severe loss to the enemy, 
itself having 500 casualties. 

When Lord Roberts arrived in Cape Town on the loth of 
January 1900 the three garrisons were still invested, and the 
relieving forces were still maintaining their role of passive resist- 
ance, while at the same time restraining the Dutch in Cape Colony. 
The commander-in-chief's first duty was to create a field army 
out of the tangle of units in Cape Colony. In the meantime, Sir 
Redvers Buller, who had been reinforced by Sir Charles Warren 
and the sth division, essayed a second attempt to cross the 
Tugela, by turning the Boer left. But much time was consumed 
and the plan underwent several modifications before its execu- 
tion began in earnest on the i6th of January. Warren was placed 
in command of the main body, which crossed the Tugela at 
Trichardt's Drift on the I7th and i8th. The mounted troops 
engaged a Boer force north-west of the point of 
passage, but were brought back to take part in a 
general right wheel of the forces of the Tugela, pivoting on 
Trichardt's Drift. But meantime the mobile enemy, whose 
original flank had been turned, had gathered at the new centre 
of gravity, and the upshot of several days' fighting was the 
retreat of the British. They had penetrated the enemy's right 
centre by the seizure of Spion Kop, but the force there 
became the target for the concentrated attacks of the Boers, 
and, after suffering heavily, was withdrawn (Jan. 24, 1900), 
with a loss of 1700 men. 

By the ist of February Lord Roberts had matured his plans 
and begun to prepare for their execution. On the 3rd of February 
he ordered a demonstration against the right of the Boer 
position at Spytfontein-Magersfontein to cover the withdrawal 



Splon Kop. 



of General French and the cavalry from before Colesberg, and 
the concentration of his army at Modder River, disregarding 
another set-back in Natal to Sir Redvers Buller, who had against 
his advice made a third attempt to relieve Ladysmith on the 
5th of February, and failed to make good the purchase which 
he secured across the Tugela (Vaal Krantz). 

Lord Roberts's plan was first to concentrate to his left, taking 
every measure to induce the Boers to believe that the original 
scheme of invasion by the centre would now be re- 
sumed, and in this purpose he succeeded so well that 
his field army with the necessary transport for a 
cross-country march was assembled between the Orange and 
the Modder without serious mishap. Cronje at the new centre 
of gravity was not reinforced, all available Boers drawing down 
towards Colesberg. The concentration effected, Cronje still 
believed that the relief of Kimberley was the object of the 
gathering behind Modder River, and therefore held on to his 
Magersfontein kopje. The relief of Kimberley was indeed 
urgent, for dissensions between Rhodes and the military authori- 
ties had become acute. But to this part of the task only the 
cavalry division assembled under French was assigned. The 
army itself was to force Cronje into the open and then advance 
on Bloemfontein from the west. Roberts began his operations 
on the nth of February. French started from Ramdam (near 
Graspan) eastward on that day, intending to make a wide sweep 
round Cronje's immobile army. Skirmishing with De Wet 
in the first stages of their ride, the cavalry brigades crossed the 
Modder at Klip Drift on the i3th. Cronje sent only detach- 
ments to oppose them, but these detachments were broken 
through by a sword-in-hand charge of the whole division, and 
Kimberley was relieved on the isth. The infantry, meeting 
with great difficulties in its crossing of the Riet at Waterval 
owing to the country and its own unwieldy transport, followed 
ij to 2 days later. But Cronje had now realized his danger, 
and slipped away westward behind French and in p aardc j e/ _ 
front of the leading infantry at Klip Drift. This 
was deflected by Kitchener westward to follow up the Boer 
rearguard, and after some delay the remainder of the infantry, 
at first fronting northwards, swerved westward likewise, while 
French from Kimberley, with such of his men as he could mount 
on serviceable horses, headed off Cronje in the north-west. The 
result, after one premature and costly assault on Cronje's lines 
had been made by Kitchener, was the surrender of 4000 Boers 
at Paardeberg with their leader on the 29th of February, the 
anniversary of Majuba. At the same moment came in news at 
last of the relief of Ladysmith. 

It was part of Roberts's purpose to relieve the pressure in 
Natal by his own operations. Buller began his fourth advance 
on the I4th of February, and though this was n etfe / 0/ 
checked the foothold gained was not abandoned, L a ,i ysl nUb. 
and a fifth and last attempt (Pieter's Hill) was 
successful. Ladysmith was relieved on the 28th of February. 
It had fared worst of all the beleaguered garrisons, and its 
22,000 inhabitants were almost at their last gasp when relief 
came. The casualties from shell-fire had been few, but those 
from sickness were very heavy. Buller's operations, too, had 
cost at Colenso noo men, at Spion Kop 1 700, at Vaalkrantz 400, 
and now in the last long-drawn effort 1600 more over 5000 in 
all. But the tide of war had changed. The Natal invaders 
fell back to the mountains which enclose the north of the colony; 
Oliver and Schoeman retired from Cape Colony before the small 
forces of Gatacre and Clements; and the presidents of the 
republics, realizing that the British Empire was capable of 
more resistance than they had calculated upon, put forward 
feelers aiming at the restoration of the status quo before the 
war. These proposals were rejected by Lord Salisbury: there 
could be no end now but a complete destruction of the Boer 
power. 

The surrender of Cronje and the relief of Ladysmith for the 
time being paralysed the Boer resistance. Two half-hearted 
attempts were made on the 7th and loth of March, at Poplar 
Grove and Driefontein, to stem Lord Roberts's advance upon 



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[WAR OF 1899-1902 



Bloemfontein, President Kruger himself arriving on the scene 
to give confidence to his burghers; but the demoralization was 
so great that neither the military genius of the few 
Capture of nor jjje personal influence of the president could 
footeln. bolster up an adequate resistance, and on the i3th 
of March 1900 Lord Roberts's army marched into the 
Free State capital. This great move was persevered in and 
accomplished, in spite of the fact that at the very outset of the 
cross-country march (February 13) the great body of transport 
which had been collected at Ramdam had been cut off by 
De Wet (who had stayed on the Riet after French had 
shaken him off). It was therefore only made possible at all 
by reducing the rations of the fighting men to a minimum and 
by undertaking the risks of changing the line of communi- 
cation three times. Naturally and necessarily the capture of 
Bloemfontein was followed by a period of reaction. It w,as 
not until the 29th of March that the new railway communi- 
cation recommenced to feed the army. In the meantime 
rebellion had broken out in the Prieska district of Cape Colony, 
which was promptly quelled by Lord Kitchener. The halt at 
Bloemfontein was marked by the publication of proclamations, 
offering protection to the burghers, which, however, the invaders 
had not yet the power to fulfil. The enforced halt was unfor- 
tunate; it not only resulted in a bad outbreak of enteric, but it 
gave the Boers time to recuperate, and by the beginning of April 
they again took the initiative. The death of their commandant- 
general, Piet Joubert, on the 28th of March, seemed to mark a 
change in the fortunes of the Republican army. Christian De 
Wet, who had first come into prominence as the captor of Lord 
Roberts's convoy at Waterval, and was now operating east and 
south-west of Bloemfontein in order to counteract the influence of 
Roberts's numerous flying columns which rode hither and thither 
offering peace, added to his laurels by ambushing Broadwood's 
mounted brigade and horse artillery at Sannah's Post, just 
outside Bloemfontein, on the 3ist of March. Four days later 
he reduced a detachment at Reddersburg, and then went 
south and invested Colonel Dalgety and a mixed force at 
Wepener, which was relieved after ten days by General Hunter's 
Ladysmith division, brought round to Aliwal North from Natal. 
These successes, if they retarded Roberts's progress, at least 
enabled him to rearrange his forces in accordance with the new 
situation at leisure, and to re-establish his trans- 
port, rail and wheeled, and on the ist of May the 
main army moved northwards upon the Transvaal 
capital. The main advance was taken with one cavalry 
and three infantry divisions (the cavalry commanded by 
French, and the infantry divisions by Generals Tucker, Pole- 
Carew and Ian Hamilton). Rundle's division took the right of 
the advance; Methuen and Hvnter moving from Kimberley, 
formed the left. Kelly Kenny, Colvile and Chermside held the 
communications based on Bloemfontein. A flying column de- 
tached from Hunter, under Mahon, in conjunction with Colonel 
H. C. O. Plumer's Rhodesian levies from the north, on the I7th of 
May relieved Mafeking, where Colonel (Lieut. -General Sir) R. S. S. 
Baden-Powell had throughout shown a bold front and by his 
unconventional gaiety as well as his military measures had held 
off the assault until the last. The same day the Natal Field 
Force under Buller moved up into the Biggarsberg and occupied 
Dundee. On the loth of May Lord Roberts had crossed the 
Sand River; on the i2th of May he entered Kroonstad. After 
a halt of eight days at Kroonstad, the main army again moved 
forward, and, meeting but small resistance, marched without a 
halt into Johannesburg, which was occupied on the 3ist of May, 
the Orange Free State having been formally annexed 
^y proclamation three days earlier. On the 3Oth of 
May President Kruger fled with the state archives, 
taking up his residence at Waterval Boven on the Komati Poort 
line. The gold mines were now securely in the possession of the 
British, and on the sth of June Lord Roberts's army occupied the 
capital of the Transvaal practically without resistance, setting 
free about 3000 British prisoners of war detained there. 

It had been anticipated that the occupation of both the 



Relief of 
Mafeklag. 



capitals would have brought the hostilities to a close, but this 
was not the case, and though after the 5th of June regular re- 
sistance was at an end, the army of occupation had 
still to face two years of almost unprecedented par- 
tisan warfare. On the Sth of June Sir Redvers Buller, 
who had made a long halt after the relief of Ladysmith and 
reorganized his army and its line of communication, forced his 
way over Alleman's Nek, and on the following day occupied 
Laing's Nek, the Natal gate to the Transvaal, while the field 
marshal fought a widespread battle against Botha, De la Rey 
and Kemp at Diamond Hill, 20 m. east of Pretoria. The object 
of this action was to push back the Boers from the neighbourhood 
of Pretoria, but no sooner was this done than the ncrth-western 
Transvaal became active, in spite of Hunter's and Baden-Powell's 
advance from Mafeking through this district. As the British 
line of operations now extended eastward from Pretoria, the 
advance of these Boers to the Magaliesberg threatened their 
rearward communications, and as Buller had moved far more 
slowly than the main army there was not as yet an alternative 
line through Natal. Most serious of all was the pressure between 
Bloemfontein and the Vaal, where the Free Staters, under De 
Wet and other commanders, had initiated the guerrilla as soon 
as Botha and the Transvaalers retired over the Vaal and ceased 
to defend them by regular operations. Large forces had been 
left behind during the advance on Johannesburg for 
the protection of the railway and the conquered terri- 
tory, and these were now reinforced from Kimberley 
and elsewhere as well as from detachments of the main army. 
These, under Sir Archibald Hunter and Sir Leslie Rundle, 
successfully herded Prinsloo with 4o Free Staters into the 
Brandwater Basin (July 29) a very satisfactory result, but 
one seriously marred by the escape of De Wet, who soon 
afterwards raided the Western Transvaal and again escaped 
between converging pursuers under Kitchener, Methuen, Smith- 
Dorrien, Ian Hamilton and Baden-Powell. 

Before this Lord Roberts had initiated a movement from 
Pretoria to sweep down to Komati Poort on the Portuguese 
frontier, in which Buller, advancing across country from the 
south, was to co-operate. On the 26th to 27th of August the 
combined forces engaged and defeated Botha in the action of 
Belfast or Bergendal, with the result that the enemy dispersed 
into the bush-veld north of the Middelburg railway. On the 
3oth of August the remainder of the British prisoners were 
released at Nooitgedacht. On the 6th of September Buller, 
crossing the track of the main army at right angles, occupied 
Lydenburg in the bush-veld, and five days later the aged presi- 
dent of the republic took refuge in Lourenco Marques. 
On the I3th of September Barberton was occupied 
by French, and on the 2 sth Komati Poort by 
Roberts's infantry. From October the military operations were 
confined to attempts to reduce guerrilla commandos which had 
taken the field. Mr Kruger, deserting his countrymen, left 
for Europe in a Dutch man-of-war, and General Buller sailed 
for Europe. The Boer leaders definitely decided upon a guerrilla 
and a wearing policy, deliberately dispersed their field army, 
and then swelled and multiplied the innumerable local com- 
mandos. On the 2 5th of the month the ceremony of annexing 
the Transvaal was performed at Pretoria. 

In November the prevailing opinion was that the war was over, 
and Lord Roberts, who had been appointed commander-in-chief 
at home, left South Africa, handing over the command to 
Lord Kitchener. Then followed a long period of groping 
for a means to cope with the development of guerrilla <f ies 
tactics, which for the next six months were at their zenith. L*" 00 """ 
The railway communications were constantly damaged, isolated 
posts and convoys captured, and the raiders always seemed able 
to avoid contact with the columns sent in pursuit. De Wet, after 
escaping from Brandwater Basin, was hunted north-westward, and 
crossed into the Transvaal, where, joining the local guerrilla bands, 
he surrounded an infantry brige.de at Fredrikstad. But, Kalds to 
unable to reduce it, and threatened on all sides, he oeWet 
turned back. On the 6th of November he was severely 
handled and his guns and wagons captured at Bothaville. But 
this misadventure only stimulated him. His emissaries roused the 
Free Staters west of Bloemfontein, and disaffection broke out in. 



WAR OF 1899-1902] 



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207 



Cape Colony to an alarming degree, while, as forerunners of the 
promised invasion, scattered bodies of Free Staters crossed the 
Orange River to swell the rebellion. From Bothaville De Wet made 
for Thaba Nchu, where the Bloemfontein garrison held a cordon of 
posts. These were traversed on the l6th of November and the 
raiders passed on to Bethulie capturing Dewetsdorp and 500 men f.n 
route. Pursued closely and finding the rivers in flood De Wet hid 
some of his men under Kritzinger near the Orange and himself 
doubled back, traversing again the line of posts east of Bloemfontein. 
Kritzinger, Hertzog and bodies of Cape rebels raided Cape Colony 
as soon as they were able to cross the Orange, and Hertzog penetrated 
so far that he exchanged shots on the Atlantic coast with a British 
warship. All that the British forces under Sir Charles Knox and 
, , others could do was to localize the raids and to prevent 

1 s the spread of rebellion. So far, however, energy and 
vigilance made them successful. Botha meanwhile 
held his own in the northern Transvaal, both against forces from 
Pretoria, Middelburg and Lydenburg, and against the Rhodesian 
Field Force under Sir F. Carrington, which had been sent up from 
Beira (by arrangement with the Portuguese) to southern Rhodesia. 
At the close of 1900 the commandos under the direct influence of 
Louis Botha attacked the railway posts on the Middelburg railway 
and captured Helvetia. De la Rey operated in the western Trans- 
vaal, and in concert with Beyers, whose presence in this region was 
not known to the British, he inflicted a sharp reverse on General 
R. A. P. Clements at Nooitgedacht in the Hekpoort valley on the 
1 3th of December. Beyers then slipped away to the east, crossing 
the line between Johannesburg and Pretoria with impunity. Lord 
Kitchener called for more men, and on the 22nd of December the 
war office announced that 30,000 more mounted men would be 
despatched to the seat of war. 

With the opening of 1901 Lord Kitchener tried new schemes. 
He withdrew all his detached garrisons except in the most important 
C eatra- cen tres, and set himself to make his rail way communica- 

]n Policy. t ' ons perfectly secure. He determined to make the 
area of operations a waste, and instituted the concentra- 
tion camps, into which he intended to bring the whole of the non- 
combatant inhabitants of the two republics. He despatched French 
with a large force to clear the south-eastern districts of the Transvaal 
and for the rest maintained a force to watch De Wet, and organized a 
defence force in Cape Colony, while using the residue of his mounted 
men to sweep the country of stock, forage and inhabitants. 
Although there were no ^reat disasters, the new policy was not prolific 
in success. The enemy invariably dispersed before superior forces, 
and the removal of the women and children from the farms did not 
have the effect of disheartening the burghers as had been anticipated 
it rather mended their vitality by relieving them of responsibility 
for their families' welfare. Nor were the Boer leaders destitute of 
comprehensive schemes. Botha arranged to penetrate Natal, De 
Wet to make a second attempt on the Colony, in connexion with 
Hertzog and Kritzinger. On the loth of February De Wet, with 
five guns and 3000 men, carried out his promised invasion of Cape 
Colony. Passing the Blpemfontein-Thaba Nchu line a third time, he 
crossed the Orange to join Hertzog and rouse the Cape Dutch. But 
this invasion failed. By judicious use of the railway Kitchener 
concentrated sufficient troops in the colony to cope with the attempt, 
and, after being hunted for eighteen days, De Wet escaped back 
into the Orange River Colony with the loss of all his guns, munitions 
of war and half his force. In the northern Transvaal a force under 
Sir Bindon Blood cleared the country, but could not prevent Viljoen 
from escaping eastward to join Botha. Botha's activity in the 
south-east caused Kitchener to despatch a lar<je force under French 
thither. This swept the country up to the Swaziland border. But 
Botha escaped. On the 3rd of March, after various raids and adven- 
tures in company with Smuts and Kemp, De la Rey, the lion of the 
western Transvaal, essayed an attack upon Lichtenburg, in which 
he was heavily repulsed. Signs of weakness were now apparent, 
and as a result Louis Botha, acting with the authority of Schalk 
Burger, the representative of President Kruger, opened negotiations 
with Kitchener. A meeting took place at Middelburg, Transvaal, 
on the 28th of February. These negotiations, however, broke down 
mainly over the treatment to be awarded to Cape rebels. 

The hostilities now entered upon a new phase. The establishment 
of a line of defensive posts between Blotmfontein and Ladybrand, 
Blockhouse thou g h De w ?t nad three times traversed it, had given 
Policy Kitchener an idea, and he resolved upon the scheme of 

fencing in areas by chains of blockhouses such as 
those already constructed for the protection of the railways. In 
the meantime, while these posts were under construction, the harrying 
of the commandos by mobile columns was continued. In March 
Babington, pursuing De la Rey after the latter's Lichtenburg mis- 
adventure, captured three guns and six maxims near Ventersdorp. 
In April Plumer occupied Pietersburg, the !ast remaining seat of 
government open to the enemy. Rawlinson captured a laager and 
guns at Klerksdorp, and, though neither De Wet nor De la Rey had 
been brought to book, matters had so far improved in May that 
municipal government was given to Johannesburg, and a certain 
number of mines were allowed to recommence working. Kemp was 
defeated by Dixon at Vlakfontein, after a desperate encounter. 
June brought little of moment, though the Boers scored two minor 



successes, Kritzinger capturing the village of Jamestown in Cape 
Colony, and Miiller reducing a force of Victorians at Wilmansrust, 
south of Middelburg. In July there were further evidences of weak- 
ness on the part of the Boers, and Botha applied for permission to 
communicate with Kruger. This was allowed, but, as Kruger 
advised a continuance of the struggle, the slow course of the war 
continued. In the meantime, the concentration camps were becom- 
ing filled to overflowing, and a steady stream of captures and 
surrenders were reducing the hostile power of the republics. 

In August a proclamation was promulgated formally threatening 
the Boer leaders who should not surrender with permanent banish- 
ment from South Africa, but this proclamation had very little 
effect. Smuts, with a small force from the Magaliesberg, traversed 
Orange River Colony and stimulated the Cape rebels afresh. But 
September showed some slight improvement in the situation in Cape 
Colony, where French was in supreme command. On the 5th 
Scobell captured Lotter, who was subsequently executed for 
murder: though this was balanced a few days later by Smuts's 
successful attack on the iyth Lancers at Tarkastad. In the 
south-eastern Transvaal Botha made a new effort to invade Natal, 
but, although he captured 300 men and three guns in an action 
on the iyth of September at Blood River Poort near Vryheid, his 
plans were rendered abortive by his failure to reduce the posts of 
Mount Prospect and Fort Itala in Zululand, which he attacked on 
the 26th, and he only escaped with difficulty from the converging 
columns sent against him. Desultory fighting continued till the 
close of the year, the balance of success being with the British, 
though on the 3Oth of October Botha, returning from the south-east 
towards Pretoria, defeated Colonel Benson's column at Bakenlaagte, 
Benson being killed. About the same time, the force in front of 
De la Rey and Kemp in the west being depleted to find the troops 
for larger operations, the Boers made a fierce surprise attack on 
Colonel Kekewich's column at Moedville, in which Kekewich was 
wounded and his troops hard pressed for a time. De la Rey next 
attacked part of Methuen's column near Zeerust, but was repulsed 
(Oct. 24). Affairs again took an unsatisfactory turn in Cape 
Colony, and on the 8th of October the whole colony was placed under 
martial law. In November an unsuccessful attempt was made by 
several columns to run De Wet to earth in the Lindley district, 
whither, after his second raid on Cape Colony, he had returned. 
But in December matters improved. The reverse at Bakenlaagte 
was repaired by a force under Bruce Hamilton. This swept the 
south-eastern Transvaal as French had done, and with no better 
effect, for Botha escaped. But the British commander thereupon 
began a constant succession of night marches and raids which practi- 
cally blotted out the resistance in the eastern Transvaal. The 
corps of National Scouts (formed of burghers who had taken the 
oath of allegiance) was inaugurated and the Johannesburg stock 
exchange reopened. By the end of the year the blockhouse system 
was complete, but this phase of the war was destined to close badly 
as De Wet on Christmas Eve captured a large force of Yeomanry 
at Tweefontein, west of Harrismith. 

With 1902 the last phase of this protracted struggle commenced. 
The blockhouse system was practically finished, and Kitchener 
determined upon a new means of harassing the 
enemy, who still had a total of about 25,000 men " 
in the field. But the blockhouses had already begun 
to serve the purpose for which they were designed. In the past 
the mobile columns, of which there were over sixty in the field, 
had always been bound to the railway for supply; now convoys 
could be pushed out to them along whatever blockhouse line they 
touched. In January Bruce Hamilton continued his successful 
night marches, and late in the month General Ben Viljoen was 
captured in the Leydenburg district. The only set-back was the 
descent which Beyers made upon Pietersburg, breaking into the 
concentration camp and carrying off a number of able-bodied 
refugees. Early in February Lord Kitchener commenced his 
first drive, and it was so successful that it was evident that the 
key to the situation had been found. First the country east of 
the line Bloemfontein-Vereeniging was swept four times over, 
then the method was employed in the Transvaal, east and west, 
and finally against the Cape rebels. There were a few small 
reverses, of which De la Rey's successful rush upon Paris's column 
and capture of Lord Methuen was the most important, but when 
some initial mistakes in the composition of the driving lines, 
which robbed the earlier drives of part of their effect, were made 
good, the system worked like a machine. The Boers were at 
last convinced of the futility of any attempt to prolong the 
struggle, and on the 23rd of March the representatives of the 
Boer governments came into Pretoria. Six weeks were spent 
in negotiation, and then a meeting of delegates, under the 
presidency of General Kemp, was held at Vereeniging. 






208 



TRANSVAAL 



[ANNEXATION TO 1911 



As a result of this conference articles of peace were signed at 
Pretoria on the 3ist of May, and the South African war was a 
Peace of history of the past. The terms of peace may be 
vereenigiag. condensed into the following points: (i) Surrender 
of all burghers in the field, with all arms and 
munitions of war; (2) all burghers duly declaring themselves 
subjects of King Edward VII. to be repatriated; (3) no 
burghers who should surrender to be deprived of either their 
liberty or property; (4) no proceedings to be taken against 
burghers for any legitimate acts of war during the period of 
hostilities; (5) the Dutch language to be taught in public schools 
on the request of parents, and to be allowed in courts of law; 

(6) sporting rifles to be allowed upon the taking out of licences; 

(7) the military administration to be superseded by civil adminis- 
tration as soon as possible, the civil administration to lead up to 
self-government; (8) the question of the native franchise not to 
be considered until after the introduction of self-government; 
(9) landed property not to be subjected to any special tax to 
defray the cost of the war; (10) a commission to be formed to 
facilitate the repatriation of the burghers, a grant of 3,000,000 
being given as compensation for the destruction of farms. 

In the whole war the British lost 5774 killed and 22,829 wounded, 
while the Boers lost about 4000 killed. The number of Boer prisoners 
in the hands of the British at the end of the war was about 
40,000. (L.J.*; C.F.A.) 

F. From the Annexation to 1911. On the 4th of July 1900, 
a month after the occupation of Pretoria, a commission was 
issued to Lord Roberts authorizing him to annex the Transvaal. 
The proclamation of annexation was dated the ist of September. 
Lord Roberts held the post of administrator of the colony 
until his departure for England in December following, when 
he was succeeded by Sir Alfred Milner, the high commissioner. 
It was not, however, until March 1901 that Milner, who resigned 
his governorship of Cape Colony, arrived at Pretoria to in- 
augurate a civil administration. 1 Hostilities were still pro- 
ceeding, but in the areas under control Lord Milner (who was 
raised to the peerage in May) speedily set the machinery of 
government in motion. The civil administration of justice 
began in April; in October a reformed judicial system, with 
Sir J. Rose Innes as chief justice, was put into operation; in 
1902 this was followed by the establishment of a supreme 
court. Besides law, the important departments of finance 
and mines were organized, and steps taken to remedy the 
grievances of the commercial and mining classes. Sir David 
Barbour, who had presided over a commission to inquire into 
the concessions granted by the late republic, presented a 
valuable report in June, and suggested a tax of 10 % on the 
profits of the gold mining industry, a suggestion carried out 
a year later (June 1902). Meantime Johannesburg had been 
given a town council, and some of the gold mines permitted to 
restart crushing (May 1901). In November of 1901 the main 
body of the Uitlanders were allowed to return to the Rand. 
The Wor*o/They had fled the country immediately before 
Recoastruv the outbreak of war and had been living at the 
tioa. seaports. While thus caring for the urban areas 

the administration was equally alive to the needs of the country 
districts. A commission which had been appointed to inquire 
into schemes of land settlement reported in June, and this was 
followed "by the creation of a land board in December 1901. 
Lord Milner cherished the ideal of racial fusion by the establish- 
ment of British settlers on a large scale. He also recognized 
the necessity, if agriculture was to be developed, of an extensive 
system of irrigation, and Sir William Willcocks, formerly of the 
Egyptian Irrigation Department, was engaged to draw up a com- 
prehensive scheme, having in view also the needs of the gold mines. 
Another department taken in hand was that of education; and 
the success which attended the opening of schools in the refugee 
camps was most striking. At the time the articles of peace 
were signed at Pretoria, more than 17,000 Boer children were 

1 Milner became at the same time administrator of Orange River 
Colony. Several of the reforms adopted for the Transvaal applied 
to or affected the sister colony. (See ORANGE FREE STATE.) 



being educated in these camps under the supervision 01 Mr 
E. B. Sargant. 

This work of reconstruction was carried out in face of many 
difficulties other than those inherent to the undertaking. More 
than one plot on the part of Boers who had taken the oath of 
allegiance was hatched in Johannesburg, the most serious, 
perhaps, being that of Brocksma, formerly third public prose- 
cutor under the republic. On the i5th of September 1901 
Brocksma and several others were arrested as spies and con- 
spirators. Letters to Dr Leyds and to Dr Krause of a treason- 
able character were found in Brocksma's possession, and being 
found guilty of high treason he was shot (3oth of September). 
Krause, who was then in London, was arrested, tried and 
convicted for attempting to incite to murder, and sentenced to 
imprisonment. In November another conspiracy, to seize 
Johannesburg with the help of General De la Rey,was discovered 
and frustrated. More injurious than plots of this nature was 
the political agitation carried on in Cape Colony and in Great 
Britain. This agitation was directed with particular virulence 
against the high commissioner, whose recall, it was asserted, 
would remove the chief obstacle to peace. Mr J. X. Merriman 
and Mr J. W. Sauer came to England in the summer of 1901 
on a mission from the Cape Africanders, and received much 
encouragement from Radical politicians. Nevertheless, much 
had been done to establish order and restart commerce by the 
time peace was made. 

After the signature of the articles of peace the work of recon- 
struction was accelerated. The end of the military government 
was signalled by the assumption (on the 2ist of June) by Lord 
Milner of the title of governor of the Transvaal and by the 
creation of an executive council. The Boer leaders unreservedly 
accepted British sovereignty. Generals Botha, De Wet and 
De la Rey, however, paid a visit to England (August-September, 
1902) in an unsuccessful endeavour to get the terms of peace 
modified in their favour; they received little encouragement 
from a tour they made on the continent of Europe. On their 
return to South Africa the Boer generals and their colleagues 
aided to some extent in the work of resettlement, but the seats 
offered to the Boers on the executive council were declined. 
The work of repatriation and resettlement was carried out by 
commissioners acting in conjunction with a central advisory 
committee at Pretoria. These supplied the people with food, 
shelter, stock and implements. The burgher and native con- 
centration camps were rapidly broken up; by December 1902 
only 7600 out of 70,000 were left in the burgher camps. 

At this period Mr Chamberlain determined to visit South 
Africa and use his personal influence to help forward the settle- 
ment of the country. After the almost total cessation of 
commerce during the war, there was in the last half of 1902 and 
the beginning of 1903 a great impetus to trade. When Mr 
Chamberlain reached the Transvaal in January 1903 the feeling 
among the British section of the community was optimistic. 
Mr Chamberlain was well received by the Boer leaders; it was, 
however, to the Rand magnates that he turned for financial help. 
That large sums were imperatively needed to accomplish the 
work of reconstruction was apparent. An agreement was 
reached whereby a loan of 35,000,000, guaranteed by the 
imperial government, was to be raised for the benefit of the 
Transvaal and the Orange River Colony; a further loan of 
30,000,000 was to be issued in instalments of 10,000,000 and 
paid into the British exchequer as the Transvaal's contribution 
towards the cost of the war. The first instalment of this loan, 
to be issued in 1904, was guaranteed by the great mining firms 
of Johannesburg. With the proceeds of the first loan the debt 
of the South African Republic was paid off, the Transvaal and 
the Orange River Colony railways were bought by the state, 
and new railways and other public works were undertaken. The 
3,000,000 granted by the articles of peace, and other consider- 
able sums, besides 7,000,000 from the loan, were expended on 
repatriation and compensation. 

The efforts made by the administration to restore the Boers 
to the land, to develop the material resources of the country, 



ANNEXATION TO 1911] 



TRANSVAAL 



209 



and to remove all barriers to the intellectual and moral develop- 
ment of the people, were soon, however, hampered by severe 
_ . commercial depression. One of the least results of 

Economic . ^ 

Depression this depression was that the second war loan 
and Chinese arranged by Mr Chamberlain was never issued, 
Labour. Great Britain finally (in 1906) abandoning all her 
claims. The commercial depression was due to many causes; 
of these the most apparent was the shortage of labour at the Rand 
mines. When work restarted after the war, the mine owners 
offered the Kaffir workmen little more than half the wages paid in 
1898; but this effort at economy was abandoned, and the old rates 
of pay were restored in January 1903. Nevertheless, the labour 
available continued to be very much below the needs of the 
mines. The consequent small gold output meant a serious 
decrease of revenue, which was not compensated for by the heavy 
tax levied on the output of the Premier diamond mine, where 
operations began in 1903. Finally, to enable them to work 
their mines to their full capacity, the Rand houses asked for 
leave to import Chinese labourers. 1 Milner, anxious above 
everything else to obtain sufficient revenue to carry on his work 
of reconstruction, gave his consent to the experiment. The 
home government concurred, and during 1904-1906 over 
50,000 Chinese were brought to the Rand on three-years' in- 
dentures. The objections to the introduction of the Chinese, 
urged in South Africa, in Great Britain and in other parts 
of the British Empire, are discussed under SOUTH AFRICA: 
History, D. ; here it need only be added that in the Transvaal 
the point upon which all parties were agreed was that no new 
racial or economic complications should be permitted; and 
these were guarded against by the restriction of the coolies to 
unskilled labour in the gold mines and by their compulsory 
repatriation. By the introduction of the Chinese the gold 
output from the mines was greatly increased, with the result 
that the Transvaal suffered less than any other part of South 
Africa from the restriction of commerce, which lasted for 
several years. 

The discussions in the legislative council on the Chinese coolie 
question had been accompanied by a demand on the part of the 
Boers that such an important step should not be taken " without 
the constitutional approval of the white people of the Trans- 
vaal"; and after the importation of the coolies had begun, the 
agitation for the grant of representative institutions grew in 
volume. The British government was also of opinion that the 
time was near for the setting up of such institutions, and the 
pending grant of a constitution to the Transvaal was announced 
in parliament in July 1904. Meantime the existing (nominated) 
legislative council was dealing with another and a vital phase 
of the Asiatic question. There were in the Transvaal some 
10,000 British Indians, whose right to " enter, travel or reside " 
in the country was secured by the London convention of 1884. 
Under republican rule these Indians who were mainly small 
shopkeepers, but included some professional men of high stand- 
ing had suffered many restrictions, and their cause had been 
Position of espoused by the British government. Nevertheless, 
British under British rule their situation was in no way 
Indians. improved, and a determination was shown by the 
European inhabitants of the Transvaal further to restrict their 
privileges and at the same time to stop the immigration of 
other Indians. In this matter the Boer and British sections 
of the community were in agreement, and they had the support 
of the Transvaal government and of the other South African 
colonies. The problem was both economic and racial, and 
on both grounds South Africans showed a determination 
to exclude the competition of Indians and other Asiatics. 
Mr Alfred Lyttelton (who had succeeded Mr Chamberlain as 
secretary of state for the colonies) endeavoured to meet the 
wishes of the Transvaal by sanctioning legislation which would 
greatly restrict the immigration of Indians, but he would allow 

1 A careful summary of the facts regarding the shortage of labour 
and of the economic situation in the Transvaal at that time, together 
with the debates in the legislative council, will be found in The 
Annual Register for 1903, from the pen of Mr H. Whates. 



no tampering with the rights of Indians already in the colony. 
In 1907 the royal assent was given to bills restricting the 
immigration of Asiatics and providing for the registration 
of all Asiatics in the country. 

In accordance with the promise made in 1904 a constitution 
for the Transvaal on representative lines was promulgated by 
letters patent on the 3ist of March 1905; but there seit-dovem- 
was already an agitation for the immediate grant menttbe 
of full self-government, and on the accession to Botha 
office of the Campbell-Bannerman administration Mlalstr y- 
in December 1905 it was decided to accede to it. New letters 
patent 2 were issued (December 12, 1906), and the first 
general election (February 1907) resulted in the return of a 
majority belonging to Het Volk, a Boer organization formed 
for political purposes. (See further, SOUTH AFRICA: History, 
D.) Sir Richard Solomon, 3 it was thought, might have formed 
a coalition cabinet, but he was among the defeated candidates. 
Lord Selborne, who had during 1905 succeeded Lord Milner 
as high commissioner and governor of the Transvaal, en- 
trusted General Botha with the formation of a ministry. Botha 
chose as his colleagues Messrs J. C. Smuts (colonial secretary), 
Jacob de Villiers (attorney-general), H. C. Hull (colonial trea- 
surer), J. F. B. Rissik (minister of lands and native affairs) and 
E. P. Solomon (minister of public works). These were all men 
of progressive, in some respects democratic, views, and in thus 
forming his cabinet General Botha showed his determination 
not to be dominated by the " back veld " Boers. Botha was 
strengthened in his attitude by the firm action of the Progressive 
(i.e. the ex-Uitlander) party, which secured 21 seats (out of a 
total of 69) in the legislative chamber, entirely in the Rand and 
Pretoria districts, and was led by Sir George Farrar and Sir 
Percy Fitzpatrick. 4 The government, which obtained an im- 
perial guarantee for a loan of 5,000,000, announced that 
while there would be no wholesale repatriation of Chinese, the 
labour ordinance under which they, were recruited would not be 
renewed, and by February 1910 all the Chinese coolies had 
returned home. At the same time successful efforts were made 
by the ministry to increase the supply of Kaffir labour for the 
mines. In the re-establishment of the field cornets and in 
other directions a return was made to the republican forms of 
administration, and on the education question an agreement 
satisfactory to both the British and Dutch-speaking com- 
munities was reached. Ample facilities were given for the 
teaching of Dutch, but it was provided that no pupil should 
be promoted to a higher standard unless he (or she) was making 
satisfactory progress in the knowledge of English. 

One of the first problems which confronted the Botha ministry 
was the attitude to be adopted towards the other British colonies 
in South Africa. Lord Milner, by the creation of 
an inter-colonial board which administered the 
railways of the Transvaal and Orange River Colony 
and controlled the constabulary of both colonies and in other 
ways (e.g. the inclusion of the Transvaal in the South Africa 
customs union), had endeavoured to pave the way for federation. 
Mr Chamberlain when in South Africa in 1903 had also put 
forward federation as the desired goal. The existence of the 
inter-colonial council hampered, however, the freedom of the 
Transvaal government, and steps were taken to determine it. 

2 The letters patent provided, as to the Chinese coolies, that 
no further licences be issued for the introduction of indentured 
labour, and that none of the contracts be renewed. 

3 Sir Richard Solomon (b. 1850) was attorney-general of Cape 
Colony 1898-1900, attorney-general of the Transvaal 1902, and 
acting lieutenant-governor of the Transvaal 1905. He resigned office 
to contest a seat for the Transvaal parliament. Subsequently 
he was agent-general for the Transvaal in London, and (1910) agent- 
general for the Union of South Africa. . 

4 Sir George Herbert Farrar (b. 1859) was a son of Charles Farrar, 
M.D., of Chatteris, England, and was a member of the Johannesburg 
Reform committee at the time of the Jameson Raid. He served 
in the war of 1899-1902, and was knighted in the last-named year. 
Sir James Percy Fitzpatrick (b. 1862) was a native of Cape Colony. 
He went to the Transvaal in 1884 and became honorary secretary 
to the Johannesburg Reform committee. He was the author of 
The Transvaal from Within; Jock of the Bushveld, &c. 



2IO 



TRANSVERSE RIB TRANSYLVANIA 



Nevertheless, on economic as well as political grounds, the leaders 
of both parties in the Transvaal were prepared to consider 
favourably the proposals put forward by Dr Jameson at the close 
of 1906 for a closer union of all the self-governing colonies, and 
the first direct step to that end was taken at an inter-colonial 
conference held in May 1908. The history of this movement, 
which resulted in the establishment of the Union of South 
Africa on the 3151 of May 1910, is given under SOUTH AFRICA: 
History, D. Apart from this movement the most notable 
events in the Transvaal at this period were the development 
of agriculture, 1 the gradual revival of trade (the output of the 
gold mines in 1909 totalled 30,925,0x20, and at the end of the 
year 156,000 native labourers were employed), and the con- 
tinued difficulty with regard to British Indians. Ministers 
declared their determination to keep the Transvaal a white 
man's country. With the example of Natal before them as a 
warning, it was (they argued) to the whites a question of life 
and death, and unless registration were enforced they could 
not prevent the surreptitious entry of new-comers. Attempts 
at compromise made in 1908 ended in failure. For failing to 
register Mr M. V. Gandhi and other leaders were imprisoned; 
and large numbers of Indians were deported. Notwithstanding 
the remonstrances of the Indian government, the imperial 
authorities could not effectively intervene; a self-governing 
colony (in which whites alone possessed the franchise) must 
be allowed to take its own course. By the end of 1909 it was 
stated that 8000 Indians most of whom claimed the right of 
domicile had been compelled to leave the country, while 2500 
had been imprisoned for failure to comply with the Registration 
Act. The establishment of the Union of South Africa removed 
from the competence of the Transvaal provincial council all 
legislation specially or differentially affecting Asiatics. There- 
upon the Union ministry was urged by the British govern- 
ment to effect a permanent settlement acceptable to all parties. 
The ministry replied (July 23, 1910) that whatever policy 
might be adopted regarding Indians legitimately resident in 
South Africa, unrestricted Indian immigration into the Trans- 
vaal would not be permitted (see Blue-book Cd. 5363). 

When the Union was established General Botha became 
prime minister, two of his colleagues, Messrs Smuts and Hull, 
also joining the Union ministry. A fourth minister Mr 
Rissik was appointed first administrator of the Transvaal 
province, while a fifth minister, Mr E. P. Solomon, became a 
senator of the Union parliament. The elections to the Union 
House of Assembly, held in September, were notable as 
showing the strength of the Progressive (or Unionist) party. 
General Botha was defeated at Pretoria East by Sir Percy 
Fitzpatrick, and at Georgetown a Rand constituency 
Mr Hull was beaten by Sir George Farrar. Both ministers, 
however, subsequently secured seats elsewhere. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. (i) General descriptions, zoology, ethnology, 
economics, &c.: A. H. Keane, The Boer Stales, Land and People 
(1900); Harriet A. Roche, On Trek in the Transvaal (1878); Mrs 
Carey-Hobson, At Home in the Transvaal (2 vols., 1884); H. L. 
Tangye, In New South Africa (1896); J. /E. C. A. Timmerman, 
" Eenige opgaven betreffende de Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek " 
(valuable bibliographies), Tijds. k. ned. Aarde. Cenoots. (Leiden, 
1896); H. Hettema, jun., " Geschiedenis van het grondgebied der 
Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek," Tijds k. ned. Aarde. Cenoots. (1901), 
xviii. ; T. G. Trevor, " The Physical Features of the Transvaal," 
Geog. Journ. (July, 1906) ; W. L. Distant, A Naturalist in the Transvaal 
0892), and Insecta transvaaliensia (1900 seq.); M. R. Collins, 
" Irrigation in the Transvaal," Minutes of P. I. Civil Engineers 
(1906); R. T. A. Innes, " Meteorology in the Transvaal," Journ. 
Scottish Met. Soc. (1909), xv.; D. E. Hutchins, Transvaal Forest 
Report (Pretoria, 1904) ; Transvaal Dept. of Agriculture, Annual Re- 
ports (Pretoria); Transvaal A gricultural Journal (Pretoria, monthly) ; 
British War Office, The Native Tribes of the Transvaal (1905); Short 
History of the Native Tribes of the Transvaal (Native Affairs dept., 
Pretoria, 1905); E. Gottschling, "The Bawenda," Journ. Anthrop. 
Inst (1905), xxxv. ;R. Wessman (trans. Leo Weinthal), The Bawenda 
of the Speloneen (1008); Report on the Census of 1904 (Pretoria, 
1906) ; Reports of the South African Assoc. ; Annual Reports of the 
Iransvaal Chamber of Mines (Johannesburg); L. V. Praagh, The 

1 The government expended over 1,000,000 on a land and agricul- 
ture bank and in 1910 made a grant of 100,000 towards the establish- 
ment of a college of agriculture at Pretoria. 



Transvaal and its Mines (1907); W. Bleloch, The New South Africa 
(1901); J. Buchan, The African Colony (Edinburgh, 1903); L. E. 
Neame, The Asiatic Danger in the Colonies (1907); J. Leclercq, Les 
Boers el leur etat social (Paris, 1900). 

History. For the period from the foundation of the Transvaal 
to 1872 see G. McCall Theal, History of South Africa since 179$ 
(5 vols., 1908 ed.) ; for general summaries consult Sir C. P. Lucas, 
History of South Africa to the Jameson Raid (Oxford, 1899), and 
F. R. Cana, South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union (1909). 
Also H. Kloessel, Die siidafrikanischen Republiken (Leipzig, 
1888); D. Postma, Eenige schetsen voor eene geschiedenis van der 
Trekboeren (Amsterdam, 1897); A. Siedel, Transvaal (Berlin, 1900); 
J. F. v. Oordt, P. Kruger en de opkomst der Zuid-Afrikaansche 
Republiek (Amsterdam, 1898) ; C. J. van der Loo, De Transvaal en 
Engeland(Z\fo\le, iSgSed.);!. Poirier.ie Transvaal 1852-1899 (Paris, 
1900) ; G. Demanche, " La Formation de la nation Boer," Rev. fran- 
(aise (1906), xxxi. For more detailed study, besides the Transvaal 
and British official publications (cf. Williams and Hicks, Selected 
I Official Documents, 1900), see Sir Percy Fitzpatrick, The Transvaal 
from Within (1899) ; A. Aylward, The Transvaal of To-day (Edinburgh, 
1878); R. J. Mann, The Zulus and Boers of South Africa (1879); H. 
Rider Haggard, Cetywayo and his White Neighbours (1882); W. J. 
Leyds, The First Annexation of the Transvaal (1906); A. P. Hillier, 
Raid and Reform (1898) and South African Studies (1900); Report 
of the Trial of the (Johannesburg) Reform Prisoners (1896); Report 
of the Select Committee of the House of Commons on the Jameson 
Raid, Blue-book (165) of 1897; Report of the Select Committee of 



. . . , Rights and Wrongs of the Trans- 

vaal War (1901); Lionel Phillips, Transvaal Problems (1905). 

For the Majuba campaign, see Sir Wm. Butler, Life of Sir George 
Pomeroy Colley (1899), and the British Blue Books C. 2783, C. 
2837, C. 2966 and C. 2950 of 1881. For the war of 1899-1902, see 
the British official History of the War in South Africa (4 vols., 1906- 
1910) ; " The Times " History of the War in South Africa (7 vols., 
1900-1909); C. R. de Wet, Three Years' War (1902); Sir A. Conan 
Doyle, The Great Boer War (1902) ; German army staff, The War 
in South Africa, trans, by Colonel W. H. H. Waters (1904)- L. 
Penning, De Oorlog in Zuid-Afrika (Rotterdam, 1899-1903); 
G. Gilbert, Guerre sud-africaine; H. Langlois, Lessons of Two Recent 
Wars (Eng. trans., 1910); Handbook of the Boer War (1910). 

(F. R. C.) 

TRANSVERSE RIB (Fr. arc doubleau), the term in archi- 
tecture given to the rib of a vault which is carried across the nave, 
dividing the same into bays. Although as a rule it was sunk 
in the barrel vault of the Thermae, it is found occasionally 
below it, as in the Piscina at Baiae and the so-called Baths of 
Diana (Nymphaeum) at Nimes. In the Romanesque and Gothic 
styles it becomes the principal feature of the vault, so much so 
that Scott termed it the master rib (see VAULT). 

TRANSYLVANIA 2 (Lat. Transsilvania; Ger. Siebenburgen; 
Hung. Erdely; Rumanian, Ardeal), a former principality 
(Grossfiirstentum) occupying the extreme eastern portion of the 
kingdom of Hungary. It is bounded by Hungary proper on 
the W. and N., by Bukovina on the N.E. and by Rumania 
on the E. and S., and has an area of about 21,000 sq. m. 

Transylvania has the form of an irregular circle, and is a high 
plateau of a mean altitude of 1000-1600 ft. above sea-level, sur- 
rounded on all sides by mountains. These are known under the 
general name of Transylvanian Mountains (q.v.), which are the south- 
eastern continuation of the Carpathian system, and fill the interior 
of the country with their ramifications. On the west or Hungarian 
side there are comparatively easy passes into the interior, but on 
the east and south frontiers the lofty mountains give Transylvania 
the aspect of a huge natural fortress. Among the highest peaks 
are Negoi (8345 ft.), Bucsecs (8230 ft.), Pietrosu (7544 ft.) and 
Konigstein (7352 ft.). There are numerous valleys, ravines and 
canons in the network of mountains covering the interior of the 
country. The principal plains are: in the valley of the Szamos 
near D6s and Besztercze (Bistritz); in the middle course of the 
Maros the beautiful Hatszeg valley; the fertile Cibin valley around 
Nagy-Szeben; the valley of the Aluta near Csik-Szereda, and the 
one extending from Reps to the Roteturm pass; and lastly the 
beautiful and fertile Burzenland in the vicinity of Brasso. The 
altitude of the valleys generally increases towards the east of Tran- 
sylvania, the lowest depression being found in the western part of the 
Maros valley. Almost in the centre of the country lies a fertile 
plain about 60 m. in length and 50 m. in breadth, called Mezos^g or 



2 The Latin name appears first after the I2th century, and signifies 
" beyond the woods," i.e. from Hungary; the Hungarian and 
Rumanian name both mean " forest land." The German name 
is usually derived from the seven principal fortified towns or 
" burgs," founded by the German colonists, though some authorities 
prefer to connect it with the Cibin Mountains on the south frontier. 



TRANSYLVANIAN MOUNTAINS 



211 



the Transylvania plain. The principal rivers of Transylvania, which 
are either tributaries of the Theiss, or flow direct into the Danube, 
are: the Maros, which rises in the mountains forming the eastern 
wall of Transylvania, and taking first a northern course flows through 
the country from east to west ; its principal affluents are the Gorgeny, 
the Great and Little Kokel or Nagy and Kis Kukiillo, the Strell 
(Sztrigi) and the Cserna on the left, and on the right the Ampoly and 
the Aranyos, which is rich in auriferous sediments. The Aluta (Alt 
or Olt) rises not far from the Maros, but takes a southerly direction 
and pierces the Carpathians at the Roteturm pass, to enter Rumania; 
its principal tributaries in Transylvania are the Vargyas, the 
Homorod, the Cibin and the Burzen. The Szamos, formed by the 
junction of the Great (Nagy) and Little (Kis) Szamos, whose 
principal affluent is the Bistritz; the Zsil or Jiul; and the White 
and the Swift Koros are the other principal rivers. The largest lake 
of Transylvania is the Czeger or Hodosser See, 13 m. long, situated 
near Szamos-Ujvar, while a great number of small but beautiful 
mountain lakes are found. The climate of Transylvania is healthy; 
hot summers alternate with very cold winters, but the rainfall is 
not great. Transylvania abounds in mineral springs of all kinds, 
especially saline and chalybeate, the principal ones being found 
at Borszek, Elopatak, Homorod, Rodna, Tusnad and Zaizon. 

The principal occupations of the inhabitants are agriculture, 
cattle-rearing and mining. Of the total area of Transylvania 22-6% 
is arable land; 16-5% meadows and gardens; 9-5% pastures and 
0-5% vineyards; while 37-3% is covered by forests and 13-5% 
is unproductive soil. The vegetation of Transylvania is luxuriant, 
except of course in the higher mountain zones. Fruits abound, as 
apples, pears, peaches, apricots, plums, cherries, chestnuts and 
almonds; mulberries are also cultivated. The vine flourishes best 
in the valley of the Maros. The chief crop is maize; but wheat, rye 
and other grains, potatoes, saffron, hemp, flax and tobacco are also 
grown. On the boundary mountains the trees are mainly coniferous; 
in the interior oaks, elms, beeches and ashes are conspicuous. 

Bears, wolves, foxes, boars and various varieties of game are 
found, and on some of the mountains the chamois. There is abun- 
dant pasturage on which excellent cattle are reared; and in some 
districts buffaloes are bred for draught purposes. More important 
is the breeding of a sturdy race of horses, thousands of which are 
annually exported. The mountains maintain large flocks of sheep, 
of which two kinds are distinguished with a fine short-stapled 
and a coarse long-stapled wool respectively. Silkworms are bred, 
and some silk is spun; and the export of honey and wax is not 
inconsiderable. Transylvania possesses the richest gold mines in 
Europe, and this metal is also " washed " in some of the streams, 
chiefly by gipsies. The gold is often found in conjunction with 
tellurium (first discovered in Transylvania in 1782) and is extracted 
principally at Nagyag, Kapnik-Banya, Zalatna and Vorospatak. 
In 1900 the value of the gold extracted was 300,000. Silver, 
copper, lead and iron are worked to some profit, while arsenic, alum, 
graphite, marble, porcelain, precious and building stones are also 
found. Coal is mined in the valley of the Zsil, but the abundance 
of timber has retarded its exploitation. Some of the saline springs 
yield salt enough to render their evaporation profitable. The 
principal places where salt is extracted are at Maros-Ujvar, D<5s- 
Akna, Kolozs, Torda and Vizakna. In 1900 the value of the mineral 
products, except salt, was 1,000,000. 

The industry of Transylvania, although not very developed, 
made some progress during the last quarter of the igth century, 
and is mostly in the hands of the " Saxons." The principal branches 
are brewing, distilling, flour-milling, sugar, leather, paper, petroleum- 
refineries, cloth and earthenwares. The production of linen from 
flax and hemp is a home industry throughout Transylvania. The 
commerce is fairly active, and is mainly in cattle, dairy products, 
wood and wooden articles, and petroleum. 

The population in 1900 numbered 2,456,838. Until 1848 the 
chief influence and privileges, as well as the only political rights, 
were divided among the three " privileged nations " of the 
Hungarians, Szeklers and Saxons. The first are the descendants 
of the Magyar conquerors. The Szeklers are of disputed 
origin, but closely akin to the Magyars (see SZEKLERS). 
The Saxons are the posterity of the German immi- 
grants brought by King Geza II. (1141-1161) from Flanders 
and the lower Rhine to cultivate and repeople his desolated 
territories. At first these were known as Teutones, Teutonici 
Hospites and Flandrenses, but since the beginning of the i3th 
century the general name of " Saxons," as tantamount to " Ger- 
mans," has prevailed. They are generally the most advanced 
section of the population. Their literary language is High 
German, but their spoken language is more of the Low German 
character. The Hungarians and Szeklers together number 
814,994, and the Saxons 233,019, but by far the most numerous 
element, though long excluded from power and political equality, 
is formed by the Rumanians, 1,397,282 in number, who are 



spread all over the country. The gipsies of Transylvania, who 
are heard of under a voivode or prince of their own in 1417, 
are estimated at 50,000; many of them have taken to agriculture 
or gold-washing. Jews, Armenians, Bulgarians, Ruthenians 
and Greeks are also represented in the medley of peoples. The 
Magyars are mostly Roman Catholics or Unitarians, the Germans 
Protestants, and the Rumanians adherents of the Greek Church 

Transylvania, which was completely incorporated with Hun- 
gary in 1868, forms since 1876 one of the seven large adminis- 
trative divisions into which Hungary was divided in that 
year. It was. subdivided into fifteen countries, and contains 
the following principal towns: Kolozsvar, Brasso, Nagy- 
Szeben, Maros- Vasarhely, Besztercze, Fogaras, Torda, Segesvar, 
Gyula-Fehervar, Des, Szamos-Ujvar. 

History. Transylvania formed part of the Roman province 
of Dacia. After the withdrawal of the Romans the country 
became for centuries the prey of the various peoples who swept 
across it in their restless migrations. At the beginning of the i ith 
century (1004) Stephen I. of Hungary made himself master 
of the land, which was thenceforward governed as a Hungarian 
province by a voivode. As mentioned above, King Geza II. 
introduced German colonists, who founded Nagy-Szeben (Her- 
mannstadt), and in 1211 King Andreas II. called in the German 
Teutonic orders, who settled in the Burzenland. These 
German colonists were granted special privileges, and founded 
many of the Transylvanian towns. As by the death of King 
Louis II. in 1526 the Hungarian crown fell to the house of 
Austria, the voivode John Zapolya succeeded in rendering him- 
self independent. He and his successors, who were generally 
elected by the people, were supported by the Turks against the 
House of Austria, while the difficult nature of their country pre- 
served them on the other hand from becoming too dependent on 
their powerful allies. After the defeat of the Turks at Vienna in 
1683, their influence in Transylvania waned, and in 1699, by 
the peace of Carlowitz, the Porte acknowledged the suzerainty 
of Leopold I. of Austria over Transylvania. By the Leo- 
poldine diploma of 1691 Leopold had guaranteed the ancient 
rights and laws of the land, and united it formally with the 
Hungarian crown. In 1765 Maria Theresa made it a grand 
principality (Grossfurstentum). The efforts of the Rumanian 
inhabitants to secure recognition as a fourth " nation," and the 
opposition of the non- Magyar population to a closer union with 
Hungary, led to troubles early in the igth century, culminating 
in 1848. In 1849 Transylvania was divided from Hungary by 
an imperial decree, and became an Austrian crown-land; but 
in i86a Transylvania became an autonomous province, with a 
separate Diet, and a high executive power of its own. The Diet 
assembled in Nagy-Szeben in 1863 decreed the complete separa- 
tion from Hungary, the union with Austria, and the recognition 
of the Rumanians as the " fourth nation." But the Hungarian 
government did not recognize this Diet, and the Diet assembled 
at Kolozsvar in 1865, in which the Hungarians had the majority, 
decreed again the union with Hungary. By the compromise 
of 1867 Austria granted the union of Transylvania with Hungary, 
which was completed in 1868. Transylvania lost every vestige 
of autonomy, and was fully and completely incorporated with 
Hungary. Since that time the Magyarization of the principality 
has steadily been carried through, in spite of the bitter protests 
and discontent of both the Saxons and Rumanians. A 
Hungarian university was founded at Kolozsvar in 1872; and 
Hungarian is recognized as the official language. 

See F. Umlauft, Die Lander Osterreich-Ungarns in Wort und Bild, 
vol. xiii. (Vienna, 1881); E. A. Bielz, Siebenbiirgen (srded., Hermann- 
stadt, 1903) ; L. H. Gebhardi, Geschichte des Grossfurstentums Sieben- 
biirgen (Vienna, 1803); S. Szilagyi, Monumenta comitialia regni 
Transsylvaniae, vols. i.-xxi. (Budapest, 1880-1898); F. Teutsch, 
Geschichte der Siebenburger Sachsen (2 vols., 3rd ed., Hermannstadt, 
1899). 

TRANSYLVANIAN MOUNTAINS, the general name of the 
mountain system which surrounds the Transylvanian highland 
or plateau on all four sides, and forms the south-eastern and 
southern continuation of the Carpathian system (?..). At 
the mouths of the Viso and the Golden Bistritza, where the 



212 



TRAP 



Eastern or Wooded Carpathians end, the range of mountains 
divides and sends ramifications in two directions, to the south 
and to the west. These chains which enclose Transylvania, 
giving it the general aspect of a great natural fortress, are the 
most eastern offshoots of the mountain system of central Europe, 
and guard the approach from the east to the great Hungarian 
plain. They slope gently towards the interior of Transylvania, 
but rather abruptly towards Rumania, and while the western 
wall possesses several large and easy passes, the eastern and 
southern walls are much more difficult to cross. 

The eastern wall of the Transylvania quadrilateral is composed 
of two parallel ranges of mountains divided by the valleys of the 
Maros and Aluta. The outer range is composed of the following 
groups: the Gyergyo Mountains (including the Kelemen range) with 
the highest peaks Kelemenhavas (6600 ft.) and Pietrosul (6908 
ft); the Csik Mountains with the highest peaks Nagy-Hagymas 
(5900 ft.) and the volcanic Biidos (3300 ft.) ; and the Bereczk Moun- 
tains with the highest peak Lakocza (5830 ft.). The inner range 
is composed of the following groups: the G6rg6ny Mountains with 
the highest peak Mezohavas (5826 ft.) ; the Hargitta Mountains with 
the highest peak Hargitta (5900 ft.) ; and the Barota Mountains 
with the highest peak Kukukhegy (5120 ft.). Near the mouths of 
the Maros and the Aluta are situated the celebrated Gyorgyo valley, 
one of the most beautiful in the whole Transylvania, and the famous 
Borsz6k valley with its mineral springs. 

The southern wall of the Transylvanian highland is occupied by 
the Transylvanian Alps. They have a length of 230 m., and are 
the highest and wildest mountain range of the whole Transylvanian 
system, resembling the High Tatra in their bold and high peaks, 
their beautiful scenery, and their flora. The Transylvanian Alps 
rise to an altitude of 7200 ft. above the level of the Danubian 
(Rumanian) plain, and are divided into a considerable number of 
groups. From east to west these groups are: the Bodza Mountains 
with the highest peak Csukas (Ciucas, 6424 ft.) ; the Burzenland 
Mountains with the beautiful peaks of Bucsecs (8230 ft.), Konig- 
stein (7352 ft.) and Schuler (5910 ft.); the high Forgaras group, 
extending to the Roteturm pass, and containing Negoi (8345 ft.), 
the highest peak in the Transylvanian mountains, Butyan (8230 ft.) 
and Surul (7482 ft.). West of the Roteturm pass the Transylvanian 
Alps are also known under the name of the Hatszeg Mountains, and 
consist of the following groups: the Cibin Mountains with the highest 
peak Cindrel (7366 ft.); the Paringul Mountains with the highest 
peak Mandra (8260 ft.) ; the Vulkan Mountains, and the Hatszeg 
Mountains proper with the beautiful peak Retiezat (8125 ft.). 
The south-western part of the Transylvanian Alps is formed by the 
Cserna or Ruszka Mountains with the highest peak Verfu Petri 
(8140 ft.) whose offshoots, of a mean altitude of 32004700, known as 
the Banat Mountains, fill the Banat. The southern part of the 
Cserna Mountains, known as the Stretinye Mountains, extend to the 
Danube, and together with the Miroch Mountains, on the right 
side of the Danube, and belonging, therefore, to the Balkan system, 
form the famous gorge of the Iron Gate near Orsova. 

The western and northern wall of the Transylvanian quadrilateral 
do not present the character of an uninterrupted chain of mountains, 
but possess many low and easy passes towards the Hungarian 
plain. Going from south to north the principal groups are: the 
Transylvanian Ore Mountains with the basaltic mass of the Detunata 
(3768 ft.) near Abrudbanya; the Bihar Mountains, with romantic 
scenery and numerous caverns, with the highest peak the Cucurbeta 
(6045 ft.) ; to the east of this group are the Aranyos Mountains with 
the highest peak, the Muntelui Mare (5970 ft.), to the south-west of 
Kplozsvar; then come the Meszes group and the Kraszna Moun- 
tains. The northern wall is formed by the Lapos Mountains with 
the highest peak Ciblesiu (6020 ft.), and the Rodna Mountains with 
the highest peaks Muncsel (5835 ft.), Pietrosu (7544 ft.) and Ineu 
(7484 ft.). 

Inside this mountainous quadrilateral lies the Transylvanian 
highland or plateau, which has a mean elevation of 1000-1600 ft. 
It is improperly called a plateau, for it does not possess anywhere 
extensive plains, but is formed of a network of valleys of various 
sizes, ravines and canons, united together by numerous small moun- 
tain ranges, which usually attain a height of 500-800 ft. above the 
altitude of the valley. 

In the Transylvanian Mountains the principal passes are: the 
Rodna, the Borgo, the Tolgyes and the Be'kas. Then come the 
Gyimes, the Uz and Oitpz, the Bodza or Buzeu, the Tomos or Predeal 
pass, crossed by the railway from Brasso to Bucharest, the famous 
Roteturm pass (1115 ft.) through the narrow gorge of the Aluta, 
crossed by the railway from Nagy-Szeben to Bucharest, the Vulkan, 
the Teregova pass, and the Iron Gate pass, both crossed by the 
railway from Temesvir to Craiova. All those passes lead from 
Transylvania into Rumania. From Transylvania into Hungary 
are the B4nffy-Hunyad pass, crossed by the railway from Nagy- 
V4rad to Kolozsvar, and the defile of the Maros crossed by the 
railway from Arad to Broos. In the interior of Transylvania are 
the Szent-Domokos pass near Csik-Szereda leading from the valley 



of the Aluta to that of the Maros (near their respective mouths), 
and the pass of Csik-Szereda over the Hargitta Mountains. 

TRAP (O. Eng. Ireppe or Iraeppe, properly a step, as that on 
which an animal places its foot and is caught, cf. Ger. Treppe, 
flight of stairs), a mechanical device for the snaring or catching 
anything, and especially wild, animals. Traps for animals 
are of great antiquity, and no savage people has ever been 
discovered, whatever its culture scale, that did not possess 
some variety of snare. In the most primitive form of trap 
no mechanism need be present, e.g. a cavity into which the 
animal walks, as the pitfall of the Arabs and Africans or the 
snow-hole of the Eskimos. Dr O. T. Mason has divided traps 
into three classes: enclosing traps, which imprison the victim 
without injury; arresting traps, which seize the victim without 
killing it, unless it be caught by the neck or round the lungs; 
and killing traps, which crush, pierce or cut to death. 

Enclosing traps include the pen, cage, pit and door-traps. Pen- 
traps are represented by the fences built in Africa into which antt- 
lopes and other animals are driven: and by fish-seines and pound- 
nets. Among cage-traps may be mentioned bird-cones filled with 
corn and smeared with bird-lime, which adhere to the bird's head, 
blinding it and rendering its capture easy; the fish-trap and 
lobster-pot; and the coop-traps, of which the turkey-trap is an 
example. This consists of a roofed ditch ending in a cul-de-sac 
into which the bird is led by a row of corn-kernels. Over the 
further end a kind of coop is built ; the bird, instead of endeavouring 
to retrace its steps, always seeks to escape upward and remains 
cooped. Pitfalls include not only those dug in the earth, at the 
bottom of which knives and spears are often fixed, but also several 
kinds of traps for small animals. One of these consists of a box 
near the top of which a platform is hung, in such a way that, when the 
animal leaps upon it to secure the bait, it is precipitated into the 
bottom of the box, while the platform swings back into place. 
Another kind of pitfall is formed of a sort of funnel of long poles, 
into which birds fall upon alighting on a perfectly balanced bar, 
to which a dish of corn is made fast. The door-traps form a large 
and varied class, ranging in size from the immense cage with sliding 
door in which such beasts as tigers are caught, to the common 
box-trap for mice or squirrels, the door of which falls when the 
spindle upon which the bait is fixed is moved. The box-trap with 
a simple ratchet door, allowing the animal or bird to push under 
the door or wires which fall back and imprison them, is alike an 
enclosing and an arresting trap. There are four general classes of 
arresting traps, the mesh, the set-hook, the noose and the clutch. 
The mesh-traps include the mesh and thong toils used of old for the 
capture of the lion and other large game, and the gill-net in the 
meshes of which fish are caught by the gills. To the set-hook 
division are reckoned the set-lines of the angler, several kinds of 
trawls and the toggle or gorge attached to a line, which the animal, 
bird or fish swallows only to be held prisoner. The noose-trap class 
is a very extensive one. The simplest examples are the common 
slip-noose snares of twine, wire or horsehair, set for birds or small 
mammals either on their feeding grounds or runways, the victim 
being caught by the neck, body or foot as it tries to push through 
the noose. When the noose is used with bait it is generally attached 
to a stout sapling, which is bent over and kept from springing 
back by some device of the " figure-4 " kind. This is constructed 
of three pieces of wood, one of the horizontal spindle on which the 
bait is placed, one of the upright driven into the ground, and the third 
the connecting cross-piece, fitted to the others so loosely that only the 
strain of the elastic sapling keeps the trap together. When the victim 
tries to secure the bait he dislodges the cross-piece and is caught 
by the noose, which is spread on the ground under the bait. The 
Patagonians take the vicuna with one variety o.' this snare, and, 
before the moose (Genius alces) was protected by law in North America, 
even that animal, weighing often 1200 Jb, was caught in snares 
of wire and rope. There are two widely different types of clutch- 
traps: bird-lime and other tenacious substances, and jaw and clap- 
traps. The simplest form of the first is adhesive fly-paper. A 
common practice in Italy is to smear with bird-lime the branches 
in the neighbourhood of a captive owl, which results in the capture 
of numbers of birds, gathered to scold at their common enemy. 
Examples of the clap-trap are the clap-net, consisting of two nets 
laid flat on the ground and attached to cords in such a manner that 
they fly up and close when the draw-cord is pulled by a concealed 
traprter; and the various other spring-traps used by bird-catchers. 
The jaw-traps are the most important class of device for the capture 
of fur-bearing animals, and are the product of civilization. While 
rude specimens are known to have existed in the middle ages, the 
steel-trap as used to-day dates from the middle of the 1 8th century, 
and reached perfection in the latter half of the igth, the " New- 
house," named from the American inventor, having been the first 
trap of high grade. Steel-traps consist of two jaws, with or without 
teeth, which are worked by powerful single or double springs and 
are " sprung " when the victim steps upon the " pan," which is 



TRAPANI TRAPPISTS 



213 



placed between the jaws and attached to a lever. They are made 
in many sizes, from the smallest, designed for rats, to the " Great 
Bear Tamer," weighing over 40 Ib, with jaws of 16 in. in which 
lions, tigers and grizzly bears are trapped. The steel-trap is set and 
concealed in such a manner that the animal must step on its pan 
in passing over it to secure the bait. In trapping such wary animals 
as the sable, marten, mink, otter or beaver, great care is taken to 
obliterate all signs of the trap and of human presence, the scent of 
the hands being neutralized by smoking the traps or avoided by 
the use of gloves. In North America castoreum, musk, asafoetida, 
oil of anise and common fish-oil are used to entice the victims to the 
traps. Trails of some one of these scents are laid from different 
directions to the trap. 

With the clutch-traps must also be reckoned the oldest form of 
steel-trap, now to be seen only in museums, the man-trap, which 
was used first about the middle of the i8th century when the 
systematic preservation of game rendered protection against poachers 
a necessity. Such a trap, from Gloucestershire, is over 6 ft. 
long, has ig-in. serrated jaws and weighs 88 Ib. Another form 
of man-trap, the spring-gun, belongs to the next category, the 
killing traps, which are divided into traps of weight, point and edge. 
The most important of the weight class is the dead-fall, of which 
the typical form consists of a pen over whose narrow entrance one 
or more logs are laid across a lighter log, which is balanced upon a 
spindle necessarily struck by the entering animal, causing the logs 
to fall upon its back. In some cases the bait is attached to the 
spindle itself. The dead-fall was always the favourite trap of the 
American Indians, and is in use among many aboriginal tribes in 
Africa and South America. A slab of stone is often used as a weight. 
The common mouse-trap which kills either by a blow or strangulation 
is a variety of dead-fall. Of point-traps may be mentioned those 
of the impaling and the missile classes. An example of the former 
is the stake or spear placed by Arab and African tribes at the 
bottom of pitfalls for big game. Another impaling trap common in 
Africa is the harpoon down-fall, generally used for the hippopotamus. 
It consists of a heavily weighted harpoon suspended in such a way 
that the animal, passing beneath, breaks a cord and precipitates the 
harpoon upon itself. Another example of impalement is the hawk- 
trap, consisting of a circle of stout sharp wires, in the centre of which 
a live fowl is placed. A bird of prey attempting to secure the fowl 
is impaled upon the wires. Of missile traps the most universal 
are the ancient springbow and its modern representative the spring- 
gun. This is fixed upon stakes, or against a tree, with a line attached 
to the trigger and stretched immediately in front of the muzzle. 
An animal pressing against the string pulls the trigger and discharges 
the piece into its own body. An arrangement of sticks holding the 
bait in front of the muzzle is sometimes substituted for the string. 
Of edge-traps a curious example is the wolf-knife of Western America, 
which consists of a very sharp blade embedded in frozen fat. One 
of the wolves, licking the fat, cuts its tongue and a flow of blood 
ensues, with the result that not only the wolf itself but its com- 
panions become infuriated by the smell and taste, and the wounded 
beast, and often many of the others, are killed and devoured. The 
Alaskan knife-trap for large game consists of a heavy blade attached 
to a lever, which, when released by the animal biting at the bait, 
flies over and kills the victim. 

See Shifts and Expedients of Camp Life, by W. B. Lord (1871); 
Camp Life and the Tricks of Trapping, by W. H. Gibson (1902); 
O. T. Mason, " Traps of the American Indians," Annual Report, 
Smithsonian Institution, for 1901; The Story of the Trapper, by A. C. 
Laut (1903). 

TRAPANI (anc. Drepanum), a city and episcopal see of 
Sicily, capital of the province of the same name, situated on 
the west coast, 3 m. W. of the Monte San Giuliano, which rises 
above it, 121 m. W. by S. of Palermo by rail, and 47 m. direct. 
Pop. (1906), town 47,578, commune 68,986. The ancient 
Drepanum (dpeiravov, a sickle, from the shape of the low spit 
of land on which it stands) seems originally to have been the 
port of Eryx, and never to have been an independent city. 
It is represented by Virgil in the Aeneid as the scene of the death 
of Anchises, but first appears in history as an important Cartha- 
ginian naval station in the First Punic War (about 260 B.C.), 
part of the inhabitants of Eryx being transferred thither. Near 
Drepanum the Roman fleet was defeated in 250 B.C., while 
the struggle to obtain possession of it ended in the decisive 
Roman victory off the Aegates Islands in 241, which led to the 
conclusion of peace (see PUNIC WARS). It continued to be an 
important harbour, but never acquired municipal rights. Under 
the Norman kings, at the time of the first crusade, it became 
a place of importance; while it was a residence of the Aragonese 
kings. In the i6th and i7th centuries it was strongly fortified. 
In 1848 it was the first Sicilian city to rise against the Bourbons. 

No remains of the classical period exist except a portion 
of the mole. There are some fine Gothic and baroque palaces, 



and a few churches with interesting details. The Oratorio 
S. Michele contains wooden groups representing scenes from the 
Passion, executed in the I7th century and used for carrying 
in procession. On the tiled pavement of Sta Lucia is an 
interesting view of Trapani, showing the strong fortifications on 
the land side, which have been demolished to permit of the 
extension of the town in that direction. The Madonna dell' 
Annunziata, about 15 m. east of the town, founded in 1332, is 
now restored to its original style. The adjacent Cappella del 
Cristo Risorto contains a statue of the Virgin and Child in 
marble said to have been brought from Cyprus, to which an 
immense number of valuable offerings have been made, among 
them two bronze candelabra and a model of the city in silver; 
while the statue itself is hung with jewels, necklaces, cameos, 
rings, watches, &c. The modern town is clean and well built, 
with a fine esplanade on the south. It is a harbour of considerable 
importance. It was entered by 144 vessels, representing a 
tonnage of 129,164 in 1906. The imports showed a value of 
276,674, the most important items being wheat, coal and 
timber; while the exports amounted to 143,347, the chief items 
being salt, wine, salt fish and building-stone. There are also 
large salt-pans to the south of the city, extending along the coast 
as far as Marsala, which produce about 200,000 tons of salt 
annually, of which in 1906 121,192 tons were exported, chiefly to 
Norway, Sweden, Canada and the United States. The numerous 
windmills are used for grinding the salt. (T. As.) 

TRAP-BALL, or KNUR AND SPELL (M. Eng. knurre, knot; Dan. 
spil, spindle), an old English game, which can be traced back to 
the beginning of the i4th century, and was commonly played in 
northern England as late as 1825, but has since been practically 
confined to children (bat, trap and ball). It was played with 
a wooden trap, by means of which a ball (knur) of hard 
wood about the size of a walnut was thrown into the air, where 
it was struck by the player with the " trip-stick," a bat con- 
sisting of two parts: the stick, which was of ash or lancewood 
and about 4 ft. long, and the pommel, a piece of very hard 
wood about 6 in. long, 4 in. wide and i in. thick. This was 
swung in both hands, although shorter bats for one hand 
were sometimes used. Originally the ball was thrown into 
the air by striking a lever upon which it rested in the trap; 
but in the later development of the game, usually called knur 
and spell, a spell or trap furnished with a spring was used, 
thus ensuring regularity in the height to which the knur was 
tossed. The object of the game was to strike the knur the 
greatest possible distance, either in one or a series of strokes. 

TRAPEZE, or TRAPESE, a form of swing, consisting of a cross- 
bar suspended by ropes and used for gymnastic exercises, 
acrobatic displays and the like. The name was so applied in 
French (trapeze) from the resemblance of the apparatus to a 
" trapezium " or irregular four-sided figure. The Greek rpairtf tew 
is a diminutive of rpcbrefa, a table, literally a four-footed or 
four-legged object, being a shortened form of rerpawe^ a (rtrpo.-, 
four, and irefa, foot). 

TRAPEZOPHORON, the Greek term (from rpairef a, table, and 
<t>ipfiv, to bear) given to the leg or pedestal of a small side table, 
generally in marble, and carved with winged lions or griffins 
set back to back, each with a single leg, which formed the 
support of the pedestal on either side. In Pompeii there was 
a fine example in the house of Cornelius Rufus, which stood 
behind the impluvium. These side tables were known as 
mensae vasariae and were used for the display of vases, lamps, 
&c. Sometimes they were supported on four legs, the example 
at Pompeii (of which the museums at Naples and Rome contain 
many varieties) had two supports only, one at each end of the 
table. The term is also applied to a single leg with lion's head, 
breast and forepaws, which formed the front support of a 
throne or chair. 

TRAPPISTS, Cistercian monks of the reform instituted 
by Armand J. le B. de Ranee (<?..), abbot of La Trappe, 
1664. La Trappe was a Cistercian abbey near Soligny, in 
the diocese of Sees, in Normandy, founded 1140. It suffered 
grievously from the English wars and from commendatory 



214 



TRAQUAIR TRASIMENE, LAKE 



abbots, so that towards 1650 the community was reduced 
to half a dozen monks who had long ceased to comply 
with the obligations of their state, and were an open scandal 
to the neighbourhood. Armand Jean de Ranee became com- 
mendatory abbot at the age of ten, 1636; and on his con- 
version from a worldly life he began to interest himself in 
his abbey and conceived the project of restoring the monastic 
life therein, 1662. With this object he visited La Trappe, but 
the monks were recalcitrant and threatened his life; through 
the intervention of Louis XIV. he was able to pension them 
off; they were replaced by a community of Cistercians of the 
strict observance, and the monastic buildings, which had 
fallen into ruin, were repaired at de Ranee's expense. He 
himself then entered the novitiate in one of the reformed Cis- 
tercian abbeys, and on his profession he came to La Trappe 
as regular abbot, 1664. But he desired a return to the full 
programme of the primitive Cistercians. His influence with 
Louis XIV. and with the court of Rome secured him a free 
hand in carrying out changes without trammel from the Cis- 
tercian superiors, who looked askance at the project; and he 
was able to persuade his community to adopt a manner of life 
beyond the original Cistercian practice, and far beyond St 
Benedict's rule. Thus they abstained wholly from wine 
and fish, and rarely ate eggs; on certain days they had only 
bread and water, and on two days in the year they went 
barefooted; and they slept in their day clothes: these practices 
are in contradiction to what St Benedict allowed. On the 
other hand manual labour occupied only 35 hours, but the 
church services 7 herein reversing St Benedict's apportioning 
of the time. In short, the Trappist regime is probably the most 
penitential that has ever had any permanence in the Western 
Church. Yet it attracted vocations in such numbers that 
de Ranee had 300 monks under him. Through age and ill 
health he resigned his abbacy in 1695, and died five years 
later. 

During the i8th century La Trappe continued faithful to 
de Ranee's ideas, but the observance spread only into two 
monasteries in Italy. It was the dispersal of the com- 
munity at the French Revolution that turned the Trappists 
into a congregation in the Cistercian order and finally into 
a separate order. Dom Augustine de Lestrange, the novice- 
master at the time of the suppression in 1790, kept twenty 
of the monks together and obtained permission for them 
to settle at Val-Sainte in Fribourg, Switzerland. Here they 
made their life still stricter than that of La Trappe, and postu- 
lants flocked to them in such numbers that in two years' time 
colonies went forth to establish Trappist monasteries in England, 
Belgium, Piedmont, Spain and Canada; and in 1794 Dom 
Augustine was named by the Holy See Father Abbot of all 
these foundations, thus formed into a congregation. In 1817 
they returned to La Trappe, many new foundations were made, 
and by Dom Augustine's death in 1827 there were in all some 
seven hundred Trappist monks. In the course of the century 
three or four congregations arose a Belgiarl, an Italian, and 
two in France each with a vicar subject to the general of the 
Cistercians. In 1892 these congregations were united into a 
single Order of Reformed Cistercians, or of Strict Observance, 
with an abbot-general resident in Rome and independent 
of the general of the Cistercians of the Common Observance. 
In 1898 the Trappists recovered possession of Citeaux, the 
mother-house of the Cistercians, secularized since the Revolu- 
tion, and it was declared by Rome to be the head and mother 
house of the Reformed Cistercians, who thus were recognized 
as the authentic representatives of the primitive Cistercian 
movement. 

The Trappists are a thriving and vigorous order. In 1905 
they had 58 monasteries with 1300 professed choir monks and 
1700 lay brothers. At the time of the recent expulsions (1903) 
they had twenty houses in France, and they have two or three 
in all the countries of western Europe, including England 
(Mount St Bernard, near Leicester) and Ireland (Mount 
Mellery in Waterford and Roscrea); also in the United States 



and in Canada. Besides they have a house in China, with over 
fifty Chinese monks; one each in Japan, Asia Minor, Palestine, 
Bosnia and Dalmatia, and four in various parts of Africa. 
The abbey of Mariannhill in Natal is devoted to the christian- 
izing and civilizing of the Kaffirs; there are numerous stations 
with elementary schools and chapels, and at the abbey is a 
high school and printing-press for books in the Zulu and 
Basuto languages. In heathen countries the Trappists now 
give themselves up to missionary work and the task of 
civilizing the natives. 

The first Trappist nunnery was the abbey of Les Clairet, 
near Chartres, which de Ranee persuaded to adopt his reforms. 
Dom Augustine de Lestrange established another in 1796, and 
now there are fifteen with 350 choir nuns and 500 lay sisters. 
One is in England at Stapehill, near Wimborne, founded in 
1802. The manner of life of the nuns is almost the same as 
that of the monks. 

See the Lives of de Ranee. A minute account of the observance 
is in de Ranee's Reglemens de la Trappe (1701). The beginning of 
the reform is told by Helyot, Histoire des ordres religieux (1718), vol. 
vi. ch. I ; the developments under Dom Augustine de Lestrange are 
described in the supplementary matter in Migne's Dictionnaire des 
ordres religieux (1858). The whole subject is well treated by Max 
Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregationen (1907), vol. i. 48; and in 
Wetzer und Welte, Kirchenlexicon (2nd ed.), and Herzog, Realencyklo- 
piidie (3rd ed.). A realistic and sympathetic picture of Trappist life 
is the redeeming feature of J. Huysman's En route. (E. C. B.) 

TRAQUAIR, SIR JOHN STEWART, IST EARL OF (d. 1659), 
Scottish statesman, was the son of John Stewart, the younger, 
of Traquair in Peeblesshire, of a branch, originally illegitimate, 
of the house of Buchan, and was created Baron Stewart of 
Traquair in 1628 and earl of Traquairin 1633. Hewas appointed 
treasurer depute of Scotland and an extraordinary lord of session 
in 1630, and is said to have given the casting vote against the 
second Lord Balmerino at his trial in 1634, but afterwards 
obtained his pardon. From 1636 to 1641 he held the office of 
lord high treasurer of Scotland, and aided Charles I. in intro- 
ducing the liturgy. He endeavoured to prevent a conflict by 
impressing on the king the necessity of caution and the danger 
of extreme measures against the rioters. He was, however, 
compelled to publish Charles's proclamation enforcing the use of 
the liturgy and forbidding hostile demonstrations on pain of 
treason (1638). This was followed by military measures in which 
Traquair assisted by secretly conveying munitions of war to 
Dalkeith Palace. He was, however, obliged to surrender the 
place with the regalia to the Covenanters (March 1639). 
After the treaty of Berwick he was appointed the king's com- 
missioner to the assembly at Edinburgh (August 1639), and 
he assented in writing to the act abolishing episcopacy, but 
prevented its ratification by adjourning the opening of parlia- 
ment. His apparent double-dealing made him suspected by 
both parties, and in 1641 the Scottish parliament issued a 
warrant for his arrest. In his absence he was sentenced to 
death, but, although the king secured the remission of this 
penalty, he was dismissed from his office of treasurer, and in 
1644, for repairing to the court and opposing the covenant, 
he was declared an enemy to religion and fined 40,000 marks. 
His son, Lord Lin ton, whom he had sent to Montrose with 
a troop of horse, withdrew on the eve of the battle of Philip- 
haugh (September 1645) and it has been supposed that Traquair 
betrayed Montrose's plans to Leslie. He was readmitted to 
parliament in 1646, raised cavalry for the " engagement " 
between the king and the Covenanters, and was captured at 
Preston (1648). He was released by Cromwell in 1654, and died 
on the 27th of March 1659. He was succeeded by his only son 
John (c. 1622-1666), whose descendants held the title until 1861, 
when on the death of Charles, the 8th earl, it became dormant 
or extinct. 

See also Spalding, Memorialls (Spalding Club) ; Sir James Balfour, 
Annals (ed. Haig, 1824); Diet. Nat. Biog. vol. liv. 

TRASIMENE, LAKE (Lat. Trasumenus Locus; Ital. Lago 
Trasimend) , a lake of Umbria, Italy, 12 m. W. from 
Perugia, 843 ft. above sea-level, 30 m. in circumference, and 



TRASS TRAUNSTEIN 



215 



8 m. to 14 m. across. Having no natural outlet, it was formerly 
subject to sudden rises, which occasioned inundations, and 
these in turn malaria. An artificial outlet was completed in 1898 
from the south-east corner of the lake to the Caina, a small 
tributary of the Tiber. The work, which is about 4 m. long, 
cost only about 26,000. It is intended to leave about 2500 
acres of land dry, and to convert another 2800 acres of marshy 
soil into cultivable land. The lake contains three small islands: 
Isola Maggiore, with a monastery, Isola Minore and Isola 
Polvese. Standing on a promontory jutting out into the 
lake is the town of Castiglione del Lago, which possesses a 
castle of the dukes of Cornia, built by Galeazzo Alessi, the 
architect of many of the Genoese palaces. Napoleon I. formed 
a project for draining the lake, which may ultimately be adopted. 
Here Hannibal disastrously defeated the consul C. Flaminius. 
Hannibal left his winter quarters in Cisalpine Gaul in the 
spring of 217 B.C. and crossed the Apennines, probably by the 
pass now known as the Passo dei Mandrioli (from Forli to Bib- 
biena in the upper valley of the Arno). His march was much 
hindered by marshes (probably those in the Arno valley between 
Bibbiena and Arezzo). The Roman army under Flaminius 
was stationed at Arezzo (anc. Arrctium), and Hannibal marched 
past it. Flaminius followed, and Hannibal occupied the 
heights on the north of the lake between Terontola and Tuoro, 
commanding the road from Cortona to Perugia, and also those 
on the east of Tuoro, so that when the Roman army (which 
had encamped the night before outside the entrance to the 
small valley of the brook now called Sanguineto, west of Tuoro), 
unable in the mists of early morning to see the enemy's forces, 
had entered the valley, it was surrounded and there was no 
escape except by forcing a passage. The vanguard succeeded 
in making their egress on the east by Passignano, but the defeat 
of the rest of the army was complete, the Romans losing no 
fewer than 15,000 men. 

See T. Ashby in Journal of Philology (1908), and refs. (T. As.) 

TRASS, the local name of a volcanic tuff occurring in the Eifel, 
where it is worked for hydraulic mortar. It is a grey or cream- 
coloured fragmental rock, largely composed of pumiceous dust, 
and may be regarded as a trachytic tuff. It much resembles 
the Italian puzzolana and is applied to like purposes. Mixed 
with lime and sand, or with Portland cement, it is extensively 
employed for hydraulic work, especially in Holland; whilst 
the compact varieties have been used as a building material 
and as a fire-stone in ovens. Trass was formerly worked 
extensively in the Brohl valley and is now obtained from 
the valley of the Nette, near Andernach. 

TRAO (Serbo-Croatian Trogir; Lat. Tragurium), a seaport 
of Dalmatia, Austria. Pop. (1900) of town and commune, 
17,064. Trau is situated 16 m. W. of Spalato by road, on an 
islet in the Trau channel, and is connected with the mainland 
and the adjoining island of Bua by two bridges. The city 
walls are intact on the north, where a 15th-century fort, 
the Castel Camerlengo, overlooks the sea. Above the main 
gateway the lion of St Mark is carved, and the general aspect 
of Trau is Venetian. Its streets, which are too narrow for 
wheeled traffic, contain many interesting churches and medi- 
eval houses, including the birthplace of the historian Giovanni 
Lucio (Lucius of Trau), author of Deregno Dalmaliae et Croatiae 
(Amsterdam, 1666). The loggia, built by the Venetians, 
is a fine specimen of a 16th-century court of justice; and 
the cathedral is a basilica of rare beauty, founded in 1200 
and completed about 1450. It was thus mainly built during 
the period of Hungarian supremacy; and, in consequence, 
its architecture shows clear signs of German influence. Among 
the treasures preserved in the sacristy are several interesting 
examples of ancient jewellers' work. Trau has some trade in 
wine and fruit. It is a steamship station, with an indifferent 
harbour. 

Tragurium was probably colonized about 380 B.C. by 
Syracusan Greeks from Lissa, and its name is sometimes derived 
from Troghilon a place near Syracuse. Constantine Porphyro- 
genitus writing in the loth century, regards it as a corruption 



of ayyvpiov, water melon, from a fancied similarity 
in shape. He states that Trau was one of the few Dalmatian 
cities which preserved its Roman character. In 998 it sub- 
mitted to Venice; but in 1105 it acknowledged the supremacy of 
Hungary, while retaining its municipal freedom, and receiving, 
in 1108, a charter which is quoted by Lucio. After being 
plundered by the Saracens in 1123, it was ruled for brief 
periods by Byzantium, Hungary and Venice. In 1242 
the Tatars pursued King Bela IV. of Hungary to Trau, but 
were unable to storm the island city. After 1420, when the 
sovereignty of Venice was finally established, Trau played no 
conspicuous part in Dalmatian history. 

See T. G. Jackson, Dalmatia, the Quarnero, and Istria (Oxford, 
1887); E. A. Freeman, Sketches from the Subject and Neighbour 
Lands of Venice (London, 1881); and G. Lucio, Memorie istoriche 
di Tragurio, ora delta Trail (Venice, 1673). 

TRAUN, OTTO FERDINAND, COUNT VON ABENSPERG UNO 
(1677-1748), Austrian field marshal, came of a noble family 
and was born on the 27th of August 1677 at Oldenburg. 
He was sent to Halle to complete his education, but in 1693 
left the university to serve with the Prussian contingent of 
the allied army in the Low Countries. He saw much service 
in the War of the Grand Alliance, and at its close entered the 
imperial army. The War of the Spanish Succession soon followed, 
and Traun served with distinction in Italy and on the Rhine 
till 1709, when he became lieutenant-colonel and aide-de-camp 
to Field Marshal Count Guide Starhemberg (1654-1737) in Spain. 
A year later, for specially distinguished services, he was made 
colonel, and in 1712 chief of a regiment of foot. Soon after 
the close of the war he was again actively employed, and at 
the action of Franca villa in Sicily (June 20, 1719) he received 
a severe wound. For his services in this campaign in southern 
Italy he was promoted General-Feldwachtmeister in 1723. 
In 1727 he became governor of Messina, and in 1733 attained 
the rank of lieutenant field marshal. In 1734 he won a 
European reputation by his defence first of the pass of S. 
Germano and then of the half-ruined fortress of Capua, which 
he surrendered, marching out with the honours of war on the 
3oth of November. He was at once promoted Feldzeugmeister 
and employed in a difficult semi-political command in Hungary, 
after which he was made commander-in-chief in north Italy 
and interim governor-general of the Milanese, in which capacity 
he received the homage of the army and civil authorities on 
the accession of Maria Theresa in 1740. In the following 
year he was made a field-marshal. The Italian campaigns of 
the War of the Austrian Succession were successfully conducted 
by him up to 1743, when, on the death of Field-Marshal Count 
Khevenhiiller (q.v.), he was made the principal military 
adviser of Prince Charles of Lorraine (q.v.), who commanded 
the Austrians in Bohemia and on the Danube. In this capacity 
he inspired the brilliant operations which led up to the passage 
of the Rhine (see AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE) 
and the skilful strategy whereby Frederick of Prussia was 
forced to evacuate Bohemia and Moravia (1744) without a 
battle. Traun's last active service was the command of an 
army which was sent to Frankfurt to influence the election of a 
new emperor to succeed Charles VII. He died at Hermannstadt 
on the 1 8th of February 1748. 

See Biographien k. k. Heerfuhrer, herausgegeben v. d. Direktion 
des k. und k. Kriegsarchiv; Thurheim, F. M. Otto Ferdinand, Graf 
v. Abensperg und Traun. 

TRAUNSTEIN, a town and summer resort of Bavaria, situated, 
at an elevation of nearly 2000 ft., on the river Traun, 73 m. 
by rail S.E. of Munich. Pop. (1905), 7447. It distils 
salt from the brine of Reichenhall, whence (22 m. distant) 
it is brought in pipes. It has an historical museum, four 
churches (three of which are Roman Catholic), two fine foun- 
tains a monument of the war of 1870-71 and one to King 
Maximilian II. There are saline baths and breweries. In 
the vicinity are Empfing, with baths of all kinds and a cold- 
water cure establishment on the Kneipp system. Traunstein 
received civic rights in 1375. 



2l6 



TRAUTENAU TRAVNIK 



TRAUTENAU (Czech Truinov), a town of Bohemia, 120 m. 
E.N.E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 14,777, mostly 
German. It is situated on the Aupa, a tributary of the Elbe, 
at the foot of the Riesengebirge, and possesses a beautiful 
church built in 1283 and restored in 1768. Trautenau is the 
centre of the Bohemian linen industry and has factories for the 
manufacture of paper and for the utilization of the waste products 
of the other mills. Trautenau was founded by German colonists 
invited to settle there by King Otto Kar II. of Bohemia, and 
received a charter as a town in 1340. It was the scene of two 
battles between the Prussians and Austrians on the 27th and 
the 28th of June 1866. 

TRAVANCORE, a state of southern India, in political relation 
with Madras. Area, 7091 sq. m. In 1901 the population 
was 2,952,157, showing an increase of 15% in the preceding 
decade. The state stands sixteenth among the native states 
of India in area and third in population. Travancore extends 
more than 150 m. along the west coast as far as Cape Comorin, 
the southernmost point of the peninsula. The Western Ghats 
rise to an elevation of 8000 ft. and are clothed with primeval 
forest; they throw out spurs towards the coast, along which 
there is a belt of flat country of about 10 m. in width, covered 
with coco-nut and areca palms, which to a great extent constitute 
the wealth of the country. The whole surface is undulating, 
and presents a series of hills and valleys traversed from east 
to west by many rivers, the floods of which, arrested by the 
peculiar action of the Arabian Sea, spread themselves out 
into lagoons or backwaters, connected here and there by arti- 
ficial canals, and forming an inland line of smooth-water communi- 
cation for nearly the whole length of the coast. The chief river 
is the Periyar, 142 m. in length. Other important rivers are 
the Pambai and its tributary the Achenkoil, the Kallada, 
and the Western Tambraparni. Iron is abundant and plum- 
bago is worked. Elephants are numerous, and tigers, leopards, 
bears, bison and various kinds of deer abound in the forests. 
Travancore has an abundant rainfall, with every variety of 
temperature. The principal ports are Alleppi, Quilon and Paravur ; 
but there is no real harbour. The state has a fine system of 
roads, and the Cochin-Shoranur and the Tinnevelly-Quilon 
railways pass through it. The Periyar irrigation project con- 
ducts water through the ghats in a tunnel to irrigate the Madras 
district of Madura, for which compensation of Rs. 40,000 is 
annually paid to Travancore. Trade is large and increasing, 
the chief exports being copra, coir and other coco-nut products, 
pepper, tea, sugar, areca-nuts, timber, hides, coffee, &c. The 
capital is Trivandrum. The revenue is 670,000 ; tribute, 
80,000; military force, 1360 infantry, 61 cavalry and 30 
artillery with 6 guns. The maharaja of Travancore claims 
descent from Cheraman Perumal, the last Hindu monarch 
of united Malabar, whose date is variously given from A.D. 
378 to 825. Though he is a Kshatriya, the succession follows 
the local custom of inheritance through females; consequently 
his sanad of adoption authorizes him to adopt sisters' sons. 
For some generations the rulers have been men of education 
and character, and the state is conspicuous for good adminis- 
tration and prosperity. Education, and female education in 
particular, is more advanced than in any other part of India. 
The two dominant sections of the population are the Namburi 
Brahmins and the Nairs or military caste. Native Christians, 
chiefly of the Syrian rite, form nearly one-fourth of the whole, 
being more numerous than in any Madras district. 

See V. Nagam Aiya, Travancore State Manual (Trivandrum, 
1906). 

TRAVE, a river of north Germany, rising in the Oldenburg 
principality of Liibeck, between Eutin and Ahrensbock. Flowing 
at first southwards through small lakes and marshes, it then 
turns west and, confined within flat and sandy banks, enters 
the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. It now bends 
due south to Oldesloe, from which point it is navigable. 
Hence it takes an easterly course, and, entering the territory 
of the free city of Liibeck, receives from the right the Stecknitz, 
through which and the Stecknitz canal built by the merchants 



of Liibeck in 1398) a direct water communication is maintained 
with the Elbe, and passing the city of Liibeck discharges 
itself into the Baltic at the port of Travemiinde after a course of 
58 m. Its lower course from Liibeck to the sea has been 
dredged to a depth of 25 ft., permitting sea-going vessels to lie 
alongside the wharves and quays. 

TRAVELLER'S TREE, a remarkable tree, native of Mada- 
gascar and Reunion, with a straight stem reaching 30 ft. in 
height and bearing at the top a number of large long-stalked 
leaves which spread vertically like a fan. The leaf has a large 
sheath at the base in which water collects in such quantity as 
to yield a copious draught hence the popular name. The plant 
is known botanically as Rarenala Madagascariensis and belongs 
to the same family as the banana (Musaceae). 

TRAVEMUNDE, a seaport of Germany, in the free state of 
Liibeck, situated on the Baltic, at the mouth of the Trave. 
Pop. (1905), 2017. It has an Evangelical church, dating from 
the end of the isth century, and is a much frequented watering- 
place. There are extensive herring fisheries. Travemiinde 
arose out of a stronghold placed here by Henry the Lion, duke 
of Saxony, in the i2th century to guard the mouth of the Trave, 
and the Danes subsequently strengthened it. It became a town 
in 1317 and in 1329 passed into the possession of the free city 
of Liibeck, to which it has since belonged. Its fortifications 
were demolished in 1807. 

TRAVERSE, in fortification, a mass of earth or other material 
employed to protect troops against enfilade. It is constructed 
at right angles to the parapet manned by the defenders, and is 
continued sufficiently far to the rear to give the protection 
required by the circumstances, which, moreover, determine its 
height. A traverse is sometimes utilized as a casemate. Ordi- 
nary field-works, not less than those of more solid construction, 
require traversing, though if the trenches, instead of being 
continuous, are broken into short lengths, they are traversed 
by the unbroken earth intervening between each length. (For 
traversing in surveying see SURVEYING.) 

TRAVERSE CITY, the county-seat of Grand Traverse county, 
Michigan, U.S.A., on the Boardman river, between Boardman 
Lake and the west arm of Grand Traverse Bay, in the N.W. part 
of the lower peninsula. Pop. (1900), 9407, of whom 2068 were 
foreign-born; (1910, census), 12,115. It is served by the Pere 
Marquette, the Grand Rapids & Indiana and the Manistce 
& North-Eastern railways, and by steamboat line to Chicago 
and other lake ports. The climate, scenery and good fishing 
attract summer visitors. The city has a public library and a 
library owned by the Ladies' Library Association, and is the seat 
of the Northern Michigan Asylum for the Insane (opened 1885). 
There are various manufactures, and in 1904 the total value of 
the factory product was $2,176,903. Traverse City was settled 
in 1847, incorporated as a village in 1881 and chartered as a 
city in 1895. 

TRAVESTY (Fr. travestie, from travestir, to disguise, se 
travestir, to change one's clothes; Lat. trans, across, and tiestire, 
to clothe), a burlesque, particularly a grotesque imitation of a 
serious work of literature or art, in which the subject, characters, 
&c., are retained, but the style, language and treatment generally 
are exaggerated and distorted to excite ridicule (see also 
BURLESQUE). 

TRAVNIK, the capital of a department of the same name in 
Bosnia; situated on the Lasva, a left-hand tributary of the 
Bosna, 44 m. by rail N.W. of Serajevo. Pop. (1895) about 
6000. Travnik is mainly built round a steep mass of rock, 
crowned by an ancient citadel. Several mosques, palaces, 
arcades and a fine bazaar, left among its narrow lanes and wooden 
huts, bear witness to its former prosperity, and there are some 
good modern barracks and public buildings. 

The old name of Travnik, LaSva, was last used in the i8th 
century. It is likely, from the number of Roman remains, 
that Travnik stands near the site of a Roman colony. It was a 
stronghold of the Bogomili during the I5th century, but its 
period of greatness dated from 1686, when the downfall of 
the Turks in Hungary caused the removal of the Bosnian 



TRAWLING, SEINING AND NETTING 



217 



government from Banjaluka, which was dangerously near the 
Hungarian frontier, and the Turkish governors, officially 
styled " valis of Hungary," ruled in Travnik from 1686 to 1850. 

Several interesting villages, none containing more than a few 
hundred inhabitants, are grouped together, near Travnik. Prozor, 
with its ruined citadel, which withstood the Turkish advance until 
the beginning of the i6th century, when almost the whole of Bosnia 
had been enslaved, was then the capital of the princes of Rama, adis- 
trict lying north-west of the Narenta. The thermal station of Kiseljak, 
where the Fojnica and Lepenica rivers meet, is a cluster of old- 
fashioned Turkish villas, with a casino, baths, barracks, hotels 
and park. In 1396, Tvrtko I. of Bosnia 'granted the privilege of 
silver-mining here to the Ragusans. Remains of old workings 
may still be seen. Kresevo, 5 m. N.N.E., is likewise rich in iron, 
cinnabar, quicksilver and the argentiferous load which was worked 
by the Saxons in the middle ages. The citadel of Zahor, or Gradina, 
now a ruin, guarded the mines. Bugojno, on the Vrbas, is a pic- 
turesque place, with a large cattle and horse trade. The Franciscan 
monastery of Fojnica, i8m. east, is the largest and wealthiest founda- 
tion in Bosnia. Its Byzantine church is full of ancient ornaments 
and relics. The archives contain many valuable manuscripts, 
including a charter bestowed on the monks, in 1463 by the Sultan 
Mahomet II. 

TRAWLING, SEINING AND NETTING. The innumerable 
kinds of fishing nets which may be distinguished, if all nets differ- 
ing in details of structure or use be placed in separate classes, 
fall naturally into two main groups, namely stationary nets and 
nets used in motion. The former group contains the most 
primitive nets, though nets of great complexity are now included 
in it; and the simplest fixed nets, themselves derived probably 
from dams of rushes or stones so placed as to lead fish in to a 
" pound " or enclosure, may with some confidence be considered 
as the ancestors of the great otter trawls now shot and towed 
daily from powerful steamers on fishing grounds more than a 
thousand miles from the market they work to supply. The 
more primitive fixed nets are of far less importance than movable 
nets (except in the capture of certain particular species), owing 
to the fact that they are necessarily confined to very shallow water. 
The main types of movable nets may therefore be treated first. 

All nets are constructed in accordance with what is known of the 
habits of the fish they are designed to capture; and as fishes 
may be roughly divided into those spending at least the greater 
part of their lives on or near the sea-bottom and those spending 
a great portion of their lives near the surface, two lines have been 
followed in the development of nets, some being designed to 
work on the bottom, others to work near the surface. The most 
important nets used in the capture of " demersal " or bottom- 
living fishes are trawls; the most important pelagic nets are drift- 
nets. The word trawling * was at one time applied to more than 
one method of fishing, but has, at all events in Europe, now 
become restricted to the operation of a flattened conical net 
or trawl, dragged along the sea-bottom. There are two trawls 
in common use, the beam trawl and the otter trawl. They 
differ in the method adopted for extending the mouth of the 
net. The original form is the beam trawl. 

The beam trawl may be described as a flattened conical net 
whose mouth is kept open when in use by a long beam supported 
The Beam ?* the en ds by iron runners, the trawl-heads. Elm 
Trawl. ' s generally preferred for the beam, selected if possible 
from timber grown just to the proper thickness, that 
the natural strength of the wood may not be lessened by more 
trimming or chipping than is absolutely necessary. If the re- 
quired length and thickness cannot be obtained in one piece, two 
or even three pieces are scarfed together, and the joints secured by 
iron bands. The trawl-heads differ somewhat in form in different 
countries and in different localities. The usual form is heart- 
shaped, the " shoe " or part actually in contact with the ground 
when in use being straight, the after-side straight and sloping 
upwards from the hindmost point or " heel," and then curving 
down in a single unbroken arc, which forms the front of the head, 
to join the shoe. In the Barking pattern the head is stirrup- 
shaped ; but this is now unusual. A square socket is bolted to the 
top of the head (taking the head to be in the position of use) to 
receive the end of the beam, and ring-bolts are put in at the extreme 
front of each head, to hold the ropes or wires by which the trawl 

1 " Trawl " is from O. Fr. trauler, to go hither and thither; 
" troll," now used of drawing a line along the surface of the water 
from a boat, is from the variant O. Fr. trotter, mod. troler, to lead, 
drag about. 



is towed, and, within'the point of the heel, for the purpose of allowing 
the mouth of the net to be seized or lashed to the trawl -head at a 
point close to the ground. The shoe of the trawl-head is in the 
full-sized trawls made of double thickness, to resist wear. 

When the net is spread out in the position it would take up when 
working, the upper part or back has its straight front edge fastened 
to the beam, but the corresponding lower part or belly T . ,. . 
is cut away in such a manner that the front margin 
forms a deep curve extending from the shoe of one trawl-head to that 
of the other, the centre of the curve or " bosom," as it is called, being 
at a considerable distance behind the beam. The usual rule in English 
trawls is for the distance between the beam and the centre of the bosom 
to be about the same as the length of the beam. In French trawls 
this distance is generally much less; but in all cases the beam and 
back of the net must pass over a considerable space of ground when 
the trawl is at work before the fish are disturbed by much of the 
lower margin of the net. This lower edge of the mouth of the trawl 
is fastened to and protected by the " ground-rope," which is made 
of an old hawser " rounded " or covered with small rope to keep 
it from chafing, and to make it heavier. The ends of the ground- 
rope are fastened at each side by a few turns round the back of the 
trawl-heads, just above the shoe, and the rope itself rests on the 
ground throughout its entire curve. The fish which may be dis- 
turbed by it have therefore no chance of escape at either the sides 
or top of the net unless they can pass through the meshes, and as the 
outlet under the beam is a long way past them, and is steadily 
moving on, sooner or later they mostly pass over the ground- 
rope and find their way into the funnel-shaped end of the net, 
from which a small valve of netting prevents their return. 

It must not be supposed, of course, that all fishes entering a trawl 
are retained in it. Numerous investigations have been made into 
the size and number of the various species of fish which get through 
the meshes of the trawl, by lacing small-meshed netting over the 
ordinary net, and examining the fish remaining in this outer net. 
Fish are found to escape all parts of the net, but chiefly the " bat- 
ing*, " i.e. the part of the net where it is narrowing to the " cod 
end " ; and as the chance of escape depends on the size and shape 
of the fish, and the mesh of the net, it is naturally found that the 
maximum size of the individuals which can escape in any numbers 
differs in different species. If small fish are on the ground, the total 
number escaping is, however, in all cases very large, frequently 
greatly exceeding the number caught. This is for the most part 
desirable, the fish being of a size to render them of but little value 
to the fishermen or to the public. It is in any case inevitable, 
since a full-sized trawl made entirely of small-mesh would offer so 
great a resistance to the water as to be unworkable. 

The ground-rope bears directly on the ground, and to 
prevent the possibility of the fish passing under it, the rope 
should have some weight in it so as to " bite " well, or press the 
ground closely. It is, however, always made of old material, so 
that it may break in case of getting foul of rocks or such other 
chance obstruction as may be met with on the generally smooth 
ground where the trawl can only be worked with advantage. If 
in such a contingency the rope were so strong and good as not to 
break, there would be serious danger of the tow-rope snapping, 
and then the whole apparatus might be lost; but the ground-rope 
giving way enables the net to be cleared and hauled up with pro- 
bably no more damage to it than the broken rope and perhaps 
some torn netting. The remaining part of the trawl, extending 
from the bosom to the extreme end, forms a complete bag gradually 
diminishing in breadth to within about the last 10 ft., which part 
is called the " cod or purse," and is closed by a draw-rope or " cod- 
line " at the extremity when the net is being used. To avoid the 
abrasion of the under part of the cod-end pressed by the weight 
of fish against the stones and shells of the sea-bottom, stout pieces 
of old net are laced across beneath it in parallel strips. These 
strips thus trail beneath the trawl and protect it. They constitute 
the" rubbers "or" false belly." The cod-end is the general receptacle 
for the various fishes which enter the net; and when the trawl 
is hauled up and got on board the vessel, the draw-rope is cast off 
and the fish all fall out on the deck. 

It has been mentioned that the body of the net tapers away to 
the entrance to the purse. It is at this point the opening of the 
pockets are placed ; and they are so arranged that the fish poctefs 
having passed into the purse, and then seeking to escape 
by returning along its sides, are pretty sure to go into the pockets, 
which extend for a length of about 15 or 16 ft. along the inner side 
of the body of the net, and there, the more they try to press for- 
ward, the more tightly they become packed, as the pockets gradu- 
ally narrowaway to nothing at their upper or front extremity. These 
pockets are not separate parts of the trawl, but are made by merely 
lacing together the back and belly of the net, beginning close to the 
margin or side nearly on a level with the bosom, and then being carried 
on with slowly increasing breadth backward as far as the entrance 
to the purse. At this point the breadth of the net is divided into 
three nearly equal spaces, the central one being the opening from 
the main body of the net into the purse, or general receptacle for 
the fish, which must all pass through it, and those on each side being 
the mouths of the pockets facing the opposite direction. The central 



218 



TRAWLING, SEINING AND NETTING 



passage has a valve or veil of netting called the " flapper," which 
only opens when the fish press against it on their way into the purse. 
To understand clearly the facilities offered to the fish to enter the 
pockets, it is necessary to remember that the trawl, when at work, 
is towed along, with just sufficient force to expand the net by the 
resistance of the water. But this resistance directly acts only on 
the interior of the body of the net between the pockets and then 
on the purse ; it does not at first expand the pockets, but tends rather 
to flatten them, because they are virtually outside the general 
cavity of the trawl and their openings face the father end of it. 
The water, however, which has expanded the body of the net, then 
passes under or through the flapper or valve, and enters the purse, 
which, being with a much smaller mesh than the rest of the net, 
offers so much resistance that it cannot readily escape in that 
direction ; return currents are consequently formed along the sides, 
and those currents open the mouths of the pockets, which, as 
before mentioned, are facing them; and the fish, in their endeavours 
to escape, and finding these openings, follow the course of the pockets 
until they can go no farther. The whole of the net is therefore 
well expanded, but it is so by the pressure of the water in ont direc- 
tion through the middle, and in the opposite direction at the sides 
or pockets. 

The dimensions of a full-sized beam trawl, such as has been 
described above are from 45 to 50 ft. along the beam and about 
Size and I . ^ t- ' n ' en S t h. Trawls of practically all smaller 
Mesh sizes down to some 30 ft. are to be found, but except 

for shrimp trawls the large sizes predominate almost 
to the exclusion of smaller nets. The trawl-heads support the beam 
at about 3 or 3J ft. above the ground. The meshes of the net 
behind the beam (the square) are about 5 in. from knot to knot, 
when drawn out taut. In the batings, the part of the net in which 
the narrowing mostly occurs, they decrease gradually from 4 to 
about 3 in. ; in cod end they are 2^ in. In the hope of protecting 
the small fish from capture some local authorities enforce within 
their jurisdiction a minimum size of mesh for trawls, as for other 
nets. According to certain recent by-laws of the Lancashire and 
Western Sea Fisheries District Committee, for instance, every 
trawl used in their waters, except for the capture of shrimps and 
certain specified fish, must allow a square wooden gauge of a certain 
size to pass easily through its meshes when these are wet. 
The difficulties in the way of the efficacy of such restriction are 
that a mesh which would allow the escape of fish of but little 
value of one species might allow the escape of very valuable indi- 
viduals of another kind; and that both local and national authori- 
ties alike have powers of jurisdiction over such narrow strips of 
coastal water, that in the absence of an international agreement 
on the matter, the ground affected by the regulations is exceedingly 
small in comparison with the ground untouched. The same remarks 
apply to the similar regulations as to length of beam and circum- 
ference of nets. 

Considerable skill is needed to work a beam trawl successfully. 
A knowledge of the ground and of the direction and time of the 
Working t ' c '? * s essent ' a ''. f r the trawl is towed with the stream, 
the Net. a " ttle f aster tnan it > s running, so that there may be 
just sufficient resistance to expand the net. The regu- 
lation of speed, seeing that beam trawls are worked only from 
sailing vessels, is a matter of difficulty; when, however, there 
is a sufficiency of wind much can be done by an adjustment of the 
length of tow rope. Lowering the trawl is also a matter of diffi- 
culty especially when wind and tide are contrary, as in that case 
the vessel tends to drift over the net: the apparatus is first got into 
position by paying out the rope attached to the trawl-heads in such 
proportions that the beam takes its proper position while close to 
the surface. These ropes, called " bridles, " are some 15 fathoms 
long: they meet and are shackled to the trawl warp, a manilla 
rope of 6 in. circumference, of which 150 fathoms are generally 
carried. The trawl being in proper position, the warp is allowed 
to run out and the trawl lowered to the bottom, the vessel slowly 
moving on meanwhile; usually the length of warp which is below 
the surface in towing is a few fathoms over three times the depth 
of water. The art of shooting the trawl lies in causing it to alight 
on its runners or shoes, with the net freely trailing behind : should 
the net be twisted, or the trawl alight on its beam, the trawl has 
been shot " foul, " and must be hauled and shot again. While towing, 
an experienced fisherman can tell by pressing his hand firmly on the 
warp outside the ship's bulwark whether the progress of the trawl 
over the bottom is satisfactory, any irregular progress over rough 
ground revealing itself in the character of the vibration of the warp. 
_ The trawl usually remains on the 'bottom for a whole tide, or 
six hours, and will in this time have passed over some 15 m. of 
ground. Hauling, a most lengthy and laborious process if carried 
out by hand-windlass, is in practically all modern fishing smacks 
carried out by a small steam capstan, the " steam man " as it is 
frequently called, a most efficient instrument with very compact 
engine housed under a small iron cover on the capstan's top. When 
the trawl comes alongside the heavy beam is secured by its two 
hiads, the net is hauled over the side bit by bit, by hand, until 
the cod end is reached, when a rope is passed round it above the 
bulging end which contains the catch, and then over a " tackle "or 



pulley, and so the cod end is hoisted inboard. The knot of the cod- 
line is untied, and the fish, mixed with various invertebrate animals, 
star-fish and rooted forms (confounded in the one term " scruff ") 
falls to the deck. 

A small trawl is often used from an open boat for shrimping. 
It closely resembles a beam trawl, but has no pockets. The usual 
dimensions of this net are about 15 ft. beam and 20 
total length, of which about 4 ft. are taken by the cod hrlmp 
end. The mesh is about half an inch square, but ' raw '' s ' 
where no restrictions are enforced it decreases to a considerably 
smaller size as the cod end is approached. The beam when in use 
is about a foot and a half above the ground. 

Shank nets are also srmilar to beam trawls in general shape, 
but differ in that the mouth is kept open by a rectangle of wood. 
Frequently the lower margin of the trawl's mouth is . ... 
not in contact with the ground, being attached to a 
bar of wood which is fixed parallel to the bottom of the wooden 
rectangle and a few inches above it. A fish or prawn is 
thus disturbed by the bottom bar of the wood, and either 
jumps over it and below the net and so escapes, or over both bottom 
bar and middle bar into the net. The theory of the net's action 
is that the fish tends most frequently to take the former course, 
the crustacean the latter; and there is some evidence that this is 
partially realized in practice. Shank nets are sometimes worked 
from carts, when they are known as " Trollopers." 

Owing to their fine netting and the very shallow water in which 
they work, shrimp trawls are exceedingly destructive to very small 
fish. Johnstone 1 has found for instance that in a two mile haul 
of a shrimp trawl on the Lancashire coast 567 small plaice are 
caught on an average, beside great numbers of whiting, dabs, 
soles and other fish. In most parts of the English coast regulations 
are in force as to the mesh, size of beam and length of haul cf 
shrimp nets, and shrimpers working on the beach are ordered to 
sort their catch at the water's edge, returning as many young fish 
alive as possible. The proportion saved by these means is not 
known with accuracy ; it is much greater in the case of short hauls 
than in longer ones. A shrimp trawl is usually kept down from half 
an hour to an hour, or when not subject to regulation rather longer. 
It is seldom towed for a longer period than 2 hours, the speed being 
somewhat under two miles per hour on an average, though subject 
to variation. 

The beam trawl has been described at some length because 
its structure is somewhat more simple than that of the trawl 
now in more general use; the importance of the net Decayof 
as an engine of capture has undoubtedly declined Beam 
greatly within the past generation. Some interest- Trawling 
ing figures collected by the British Board of 
Agriculture and Fisheries prove this incontestably. 
In 1893 the number of first-class British sailing from 
trawlers was 2037, and their average net tonnage steamers - 
57-4; in 1900 they numbered 925, with a net tonnage of 
41-1, and from that year up to 1906 (the last year quoted 
in these returns) they never again reached a thousand 
in number or a tonnage of 40 tons net; on the other 
hand, there were in no one of the years quoted as few as 
800 first-class sailing trawlers registered, nor did the average 
tonnage sink below 37, about which figure it remained constant. 
It is obvious therefore that about 1894 beam trawling began to 
decline, and that after a time this decline lost most of its power, 
the number of boats and size of boats having sunk to a condition 
in which they fulfilled a certain function, which for some years 
has remained fixed. The new factors which brought about this 
change went hand in hand. They were the invention of the 
otter trawl and the increasing use of steam in fishing vessels. 
The otter trawl has no rigid and heavy beam, but relies on the 
force with which it is towed through the water to keep it open, 
and it is a far more efficient instrument for the capture of all but 
small flat fish than the beam trawl. Owing to the second of 
these facts its employment inevitably spread, and owing to the 
first a sailing vessel needing at least a moderate breeze to give it 
the requisite speed for keeping a large net open was unsuitable 
for working it. Thus the introduction of the otter trawl un- 
doubtedly hastened the replacement of sails by steam as motive 
power for the great fishing fleets. That the adoption of steam 
would have occurred in any case is almost certain. The con- 
version of drift-net fishing vessels from sail to steam has gone 
on rapidly, though no radical change of gear has taken place, 
and presumably the same would have occurred in the case of 
trawlers had the otter trawl never have introduced. There 
1 Johnstone, British Fisheries, p. 283 (London, 1905). 



TRAWLING, SEINING AND NETTING 



219 



were, for instance, nearly 200 steam fishing vessels of various 
descriptions working from English and Welsh ports in 1883; and 
the desire to exploit new and more distant grounds had un- 
doubtedly become powerful by 1894, and accounted to some 
extent for the increase of steam trawling about that time. Never- 
theless this increase is so sudden, that its occurrence at the 
time of the adoption of the otter trawl can scarcely be a coinci- 
dence. In 1893 there were 480 steam trawlers working from 
English and Welsh ports: in 1899 there were over a thousand. 
The subsequent history of British trawling is dominated by the 
steamers. Garstang has calculated from a study of market 
statistics that a steamer (between the years 1889 and 1898) 
caught on the average between four and seven times as much 
in a year as a sailing smack. Against this competition the smacks 
could not succeed; if it was profitable for the steamers to fish 
they could gradually eliminate the smacks, as has occurred at 
Grimsby. The line fishery also decreased owing to the increas- 
ing transfer of the haddock and some other fisheries to the 
trawlers. The change from masts and sails to steam has, how- 
ever, never been complete. The increased cost of building and 
running steamers made the handling o'f large catches a necessary 
condition of their profitable employment. A sailing trawler 
costs from 500 to 1200 to build: 1000 would probably be a 
fair average. A first-class steam trawler of the present day 
costs 10,000 or more, quite ten times as much, and about 5000 
a year to run; and although the cost was less in the early years 
of steam trawling there was always an approach to these, pro- 
portions. On the other hand their rapidity and independence of 
wind made distance between fishing ground and port of landing 
a matter of minor consequence. These causes, combined with a 
very general belief in the exhaustion of the home-grounds 
there seems no doubt that at all events the catch per vessel 
declined led to the growth in size and power of the steamers, 
which were used for distant waters and the exploitation of new 
grounds. Thus in 1906 there were only 200 more steam trawlers 
than in 1899, but the average tonnage in the same period 
increased from 54. to nearly 62. To this increase in power and 
range of action of the steamers must be attributed the great 
increase in the quantity of trawled fish landed, since the engine 
of capture, the trawl, has changed but little since 1894: but 
another result occurred, namely a partial division of the area 
trawled between sail and steam. The grounds within easy reach 
of the English ports were left chiefly in the hands of the 
" smacks," the catches never being really very great, though 
possessing a high proportion of " prime " (i.e. valuable species of) 
fish. The persistence of Lowestoft and Ramsgate as smack 
ports speak for this. The longer voyages of the smacks, on the 
other hand, were gradually discontinued, and the distant grounds 
besides a multitude of new grounds were opened up by the 
steamers. Grimsby, Hull, Aberdeen, Milford, increased enor- 
mously in importance, and now send vessels to the north of 
Russia, to the coast of Africa and far into the Atlantic. Steam 
trawling died at Yarmouth, the place of its birth; sailing trawlers 
disappeared from Grimsby, one of their greatest strongholds, 
but a port near cheap coal, deep water, and a market for fish 
from more distant grounds. 




FIG. i. Diagrammatic; showing an Otter trawl in use. (For the 
sake of clearness, the size of the otter-boards is exaggerated, and 
the length of the warps and size of the ship diminished.) 



The essential features of the otter trawl are that the mouth is 
kept open by two large wooden boards, whose position when in 
use corresponds to that of the trawl heads in a beam 
trawl no beam being used. The action of these boards Z." e Otter 
resembles that of a kite. A kite dragged through T"J * 
still air, owing to the position ol the point of attach- .** 
ment of the string, takes up an oblique position, in 
which it is acted on by forces in two directions, viz. that exerted 
through the string, pulling forward, and that exerted by the 
resistance of the air in front of the kite, which, being perpendicular 
to the kite's surface, acts in an upward and backward direction. 
The resultant ol these two forces necessarily acts in a direction 
between them, and the kite accordingly ascends. Constrain the 
kite to move in a horizontal plane, and the same forces would cause 
it to move not upwards, but to the side. A trawl board is practically 
a kite made to move on its side. 

The trawl boards resemble massive wooden doors strengthened 
by iron bands. In action they move with their short edges vertical 
and their long edges horizontal, one in each case in contact with 
the sea bottom : the front bottom corner of each board is rounded off, 
so that the board resembles a sleigh runner. Four strong chains, 
which meet in one iron ring, are attached to each board by ring- 
bolts, and to each ring a wire warp, by which the trawl is towed, 
is shackled. The ringbolts are about the same distance from the 
centre of the board, but the two chains attached to the after-ring- 
bolts of the board ate longer than the two fore-chains. The trawl 
board when towed thus takes up an oblique position as regards the 
line in which it is towed, though remaining vertical to the ground. 
The force with which it is towed urges it forward , the resistance of 
the water urges it in a direction perpendicular to its surface, viz. 
backwards and to the side; it accordingly moves in an intermediate 
direction, going forward by tending to diverge from the line of 
towing. Meanwhile the other trawl-board is diverging in a similar 
manner but in the opposite direction, and the mouth of the net, 
being attached to the hinder end of the boards, is thus pulled both 
right and left until stretched to its utmost, and the net is thus 
held open. The margin of the net which forms its upper lip is 
lashed to a rope called the headline : and the resistance of the water 
to the net's progress causes this to assume an arched form, the 
centre of the headline being probably some 10 or 15 ft. from the 
ground. 

It has been calculated by Fulton, who experimented on the 
subject, that the distance between the boards of an otter trawl of 
oo ft. headline is about 60 ft., owing to this arching upwards and 
backwards of the upper margin of the net. The loss in the spread 
of the net is, however, compensated for very largely, as far as certain 
round fish are concerned, by the increase in height of the mouth, 
the fish which are swimming near but not actually on the bottom 
tending to "strike upward when disturbed. Indeed, the raising 
of the headline is accentuated occasionally by glass spheres or 
other buoyant objects to its centre; corks are still used in this way, 
but otherwise the practice has not been generally adopted in 
commercial trawling. 

The earliest use of the otter board appears to have been due to 
Hearder, an electrician and inventor who designed it about 1860. 
It was little used except by amateurs working by steam yachts 
(to whom doubtless the ease with which it could be stowed away 
recommended it), until the late 'eighties, when Danish fishermen 
used otter boards to spread their plaice seines. In 1894 a patent 
was taken out by Scott of Granton for an otter trawl which differed 
from the most modern forms chiefly in possessing rigid bars or brackets 
instead of chains. Chains replaced the bars in the form used by 
Nielsen, a Dane, in 1895. Although numerous variants have since 
arisen, no essential difference in the trawl has been generally adopted. 

The trawl boards, or as they are frequently called " doors, are 
of deal, 8 to 9 ft. long, and 4 to 5 ft. high; they are liberally shod 
and strengthened with iron, and are about 3 in. thick. _ . 
The net is fastened to eyes placed at the top and bottom S f ruct ^ l " 
of the after-end of the board but not to any intermediate fhe Boards 
point. This is to allow the part of the water swirling 
past the board to escape: the entry of the whole of the water 
upon which the net's mouth advances would cause too great a 
resistance. 

Two warps are used, one to each trawl board. These are com- 
posed of wire rope 2\ in. round, and when the trawl is inboard lie 
roiled up .on the separate drums of a steam winch. _. Waros 
As wire can be run off or wound in on either drum 
separately, the adjustment of the lengths is much simplified. In 
the larger trawlers a thousand fathoms of warp is carried on each 
drum, and the warp is designed to stand a breaking strain of 23 
tons. 

The main form of net is that of the beam trawl. We have, 
as in that net, a coarse meshed netting used near the mouth, a 
decrease in size of mesh as the net narrows, and a bag fheNet 
or cod end whose end is fastened by a cod line passed 
through its final meshes. The only essential difference lies in the 
net behind the headline. This has not, as in the beam trawl, a 
straight margin, but a curved one, the pointed sides of the net being 
termed the "top wings" of the trawl, the corresponding parts of 
the bottom being in both trawls the bottom wings. The ground 



220 



TRAWLING, SEINING AND NETTING 



rope resembles that in the beam-trawl, but is in some cases furnished 
with chains or " dangles " or with " bobbins." Bobbins are heavy 
cylindrical wooden rollers, threaded on the wire warp which forms 
the core of the ground rope : they are of two sizes (the larger a foot 
through) placed alternately to ensure freedom of rotation. Their 
object is to surmount or crush obstacles which, by catching the 
ground rope, might capsize the trawl boards and destroy the success 
of the haul; they are accordingly used only on rough ground. 
The chains are fastened to the ground rope in loops, to give it 
weight, and are used on very soft ground to ensure the trawl's 
effectually dislodging the fish. The headline is a rope some 3 in. 
in circumference. 

The meshes are, from knot to knot when drawn taut, from 53 
to nearly 6 in. in the square and wings, 5 to 4^ in. above, and 5 
to rather over 3 in. below in the extreme back of the under batings 
called the " belly," about 2^ in. in the cod end. 

The successful shooting of the net is a matter of great skill. The 
paying out of the net, the lowering of the boards, the running out 
, . . of unequal lengths of the two warps to square the 
tiN tf trawl into proper position and ihe subsequent lowering 
of the whole to the bottom, resemble the corresponding 
operations with the beam trawl. The fore warp is then drawn close 
to the quarter of the vessel and shackled to the after-warp close to 
the vessel's side, and the vessel proceeds on her course at a speed 
of some 2j or 2j m. per hour. The length of haul made varies 
enormously. On a ground where fish is very abundant, as in the 
early days of Iceland fishing, it may be half an hour or less : on the 
Eastern Grounds, off Denmark, where the great English fleets 
usually work, it is about 3 hours. When about to haul, the fore 
warp is released from the shackle and the vessel is immediately 
steered towards the side from which the trawl has been towed, 
while the warps are rapidly wound in; the warps thus speedily 
come to stand at right angles to the vessel. If this were not the 
case they might probably foul the vessel's propeller, with very 
serious and possibly fatal consequences to her safety. The trawl 
boards, having been drawn right up to their powerful iron supports 
or gallows, remain suspended there if the trawl is to be re-shot 
while the net is emptied; they are otherwise lowered between the 
gallows and the bulwark, and secured. The hauling in of the catch 
occurs as in the beam-trawl. Trawlers carry a trawl en each side 
of the deck, and in continuous trawling these are worked alternately. 
On each side of the deck a square enclosure called a pound is made for 
the reception of the fish falling from the cod end, by fitting planks 
turned on their sides into stanchions grooved for their reception. 
The fish is sorted into baskets in the pound, cleaned and packed in 
trunks in ice in the hold or fish-room. 

A noteworthy method of trawling is the custom of 50 or 60 
boats fishing together in a fleet. All these vessels will trawl as 
_. . directed by an " admiral," in proximity to a " mark- 

boat," whose position is known to the owners from 
*' day to day, and the fish is daily fetched to market by 
fast " carriers." There are four such fleets of British vessels work- 
ing in the North Sea. It is also worthy of mention that wireless 
telegraphy has recently been fitted to several German trawlers and 
drifters, which can thus communicate with the fishery protection 
cruisers, who pass on information concerning the fishery, and with 
the shore. The practice will doubtless spread, although as yet the 
distance over which a message can be sent by these vessels is very 
small. 

The use of steam has not only increased the radius of action of 

the vessel, but by facilitating the process of hauling enables trawling 

n .. to be carried out in greater depths. The sailing 

kd vessels rarely work in greater depths than 30 fathoms. 

The steam vessels work frequently (e.g. south of 

Ireland) In over 200 fathoms. Commercial trawling in 500 fathoms 

is not unknown, and the Irish research vessel " Helga " works 

in as much as 800 fathoms. 

The movable nets resembling trawls are seines, from which 
trawls were in all probability developed. The seine is an 
extremely ancient net, used by Phoenicians, Greeks 
and other Mediterranean peoples, the word seine 
being derived from the Greek name (trayriVTi) for the appli- 
ance. In essence it is a long strip of netting with a 
buoyed headline and weighted ground rope. It is taken 
out in a boat some little distance from the shore, paid 
out during the boat's progress, and the lines attached to 
the ends being then brought back to the shore, the net is hauled 
up on the beach. From this simple form, which is still in use 
for the capture of smelts and other small fish, numerous develop- 
ments have occurred. Before mentioning the details of a few 
of the chief of these it may be said that the changes mainly con- 
sist in the formation of a purse or pocket in the middle of the 
net, somewhat resembling the cod end of a trawl, and in the 
working of the net from boats or ships instead of from the sea. 



Seines. 



The boat is anchored during the hauling, the net being drawn to 
it. A net with a wide spread, furnished with a purse, drawn over 
the sea bottom to a boat, is obviously very near a trawl in its 
action. When in the late 'eighties Danish fishermen fastened 
otter boards to their plaice-seines, and allowed the boat to drift, 
the seine was dragged by, not to the boat, and when Petersen 
used a similar arrangement, presently to be described, dragged 
like a trawl, the evolution of a trawl from a seine was practically 
complete. Some such process, with the use of a beam instead 
of otter boards, probably occurred in the past and resulted in the 
beam trawl. 

Pilchard seines, as the most elaborate forms of simple seines, 
may be briefly described. The pilchards approach certain parts of 
the Cornish coast, notably St Ives and Penzance, in pn c hard 
shoals which are eagerly awaited; and when they are seines 
sufficiently near two boats start out on the fishery. 
One carries a short seine, the stop net, which has previously been 
joined to the large seine, and shoots this net as it rows towards 
shore. The other rows along the shore, shooting its net as it goes. 
Ultimately the boats turn to meet each other, and when they do 
so the ends of the long seine are joined, the stop net removed, and 
the circle of netting towed to the beach until its ground rope touches 
the bottom. The p-lchards are then removed at leisure by a 
smaller seine called a tuck-net seine being a word which in the 
west of England is confined to nets worked from the beach. This 
net is very deep in the middle, and as the foot rope is drawn well 
in in hauling, a floor is formed for it as it approaches the boat from 
which it is worked, a simple form of purse or bag resulting. The 
pilchards are dipped out in large baskets. In a good catch this 
process of "tucking" out the fish may be carried on for some days. 
The long seine used may be 200 fathoms long, and is about 6 fathoms 
deep at the ends and 8 fathoms in the middle. The tuck-net is 
about 80 fathoms long, 8 deep at the ends and 10 fathoms in the 
middle. The meshes are larger at the ends or wings than in the 
middle, as in the trawl, bringing a tuck-net from 30 down to 42 
the yard. 

The seine is far more used in the United States than in the British 
Islands, its operations being so successful that complaints have in 
some cases been made that local fisheries for certain purse 
species have been entirely destroyed owing to the Seines 
diminution of the fish which it has brought about. 
It is used in water of any depth, for the purpose of catching mackerel. 
Rings are fastened to the ground rope, and by means of a rope 
passed through these rings the lower margin of the net is drawn 
together, converting the circle of netting into a complete basin- 
shaped purse. The slack of the net is then gradually drawn in, 
the fish collecting in the last of the net (the fullness or " bunt ") 
to be reached. Purse seines are also used in Japan, where there 
is also in use a net which is a combination of seine and pound-net. 
A long wall of netting forms a " leader " to the fish, and ends in 
an oval enclosure formed by a purse seine with incompletely closed 
ends. Two anchored boats, to which the seine is lashed, keep it 
extended. On hauling, the opening is closed and the slack of the 
net hauled into one boat, which approaches the other, until the 
final portion containing the fish is brought to the surface. 

The pockets of seines, though answering the same purpose as 
those of trawls in preventing the escape of the fish, 
resemble not the pockets but the cod end of the latter 
net. In the filets de bceuf of the Mediterranean the 
pocket is a very long bag, trailing behind the arms of 
the seine, and constricted for some distance before joining it. It 
is without " flapper " or other valve. 




(After Drcchscl.) 

FIG. 2. Diagram of a Danish Plaice-seine at work. 

Most efficient pocketed seines are used in Denmark for the capture 
of eels and plaice. In both these nets the depth increases rapidly 
as soon as the extreme wings are left, and is very great in the 



TRAWLING, SEINING AND NETTING 



221 



Danish 
Seines. 



Eel Drag- 
setae. 







middle. Thus when in action but little of the net is vertical; the 
ground and head ropes, though not parallel, tend to become so, 
and the net trails in a curve behind them. Seen from 
above, the whole front margin of the net is semicircular, 
but the net itself is shaped like the hinder part of a trawl : 
in fact, did the headline of a trawl lie not in front but exactly over 
the ground rope, the two nets would be almost identical. 

The eel drag-seine is worked from a boat, in shallow water. 
The extreme ends or wings are attached to two short spars, which 
in use are upright, and each of these is furnished with 
a line top and bottom which meet and are attached 
to the ropes by which the net is hauled in. The total 
length of the net is about 140 ft. from wing to wing, the length 
of the bag 30 ft., the depth at mouth is 20 ft. opening, the depth 
at the ends 6 or 8 ft. 

The eel drift-net resembles the preceding, but is not drawn to 
an anchored boat, but drifts with the boat; it has accordingly 
Bel Drift- to ^ e ma ^e much smaller, its arms being each about 
net 24 ft. or a total length of 50. The wings were some- 

times kept apart by the use of a floating spar, t o the 
ends of which the seine was attached by short ropes, the spar itself 
being towed. A funnel-shaped valve leads into the bag. 

Petersen's trawl was designed by Dr Petersen for use in deep 
water, and for the capture of rapidly moving animals. It is es- 
f sentially a drift-seine of the preceding pattern, worked 
s w ; tn two sma u otter boards instead of a beam, and 
furnished with but a single warp, to which the otter 
boards are attached by shorter ropes or bridles. When used in 
very deep water these are prevented from twisting by attaching 
at the point of their junction with the warp a glass float and a 
leaden weight. This net is undoubtedly highly suitable for great 
depths. It is probably the " trawl " which it has been reported 
has been repeatedly used in the great depth of 2900 fathoms from 
the Norwegian research vessel " Michael Sars," in the course of 
the cruise in the Atlantic carried out in 1910 by Sir John Murray 
and Dr Hjort. It is practically a small otter trawl with the square 
cut out, leaving only wings, back part of batings and cod end, 
which last is envered by a funnel of netting. The meshes, in the 
net first constructed by Dr Petersen, were about a centimetre 
square in the wings and 8 millimetres square in the bag. The arms 
were each 24 ft. long, the bag about 16 ft. The boards were 29 in. 
by 32 in., and J in. thick. Gjass floats are frequently used with 
this trawl, to keep up the headline. 

The Danish plaice-seine resembles the eel-seine in form, but is 
much larger, each arm being about 180 ft. long; the bag is 20 ft. 
Danish ' ong- ^he ^ rag ' ines are a ' so mucn longer, sometimes 

Plaice-seine reacnm g to I2oo fathoms. These nets are worked 
from a very large number of boats, Esbierg being 
the chief North Sea port engaged in the fishery. The vessels 
are yawl rigged, of the size of all but the krgest smacks, and 
each is now furnished with a motor-boat. The boat takes the 
net to a considerable distance from the parent vessel, which is 
anchored, and shoots it in a wide curve. The drag lines are 
then brought back to the smack for hauling. By this method 
plaice are captured alive, and are kept in large floating fish-boxes 
until required. 

Next in importance to trawling among the English fisheries 
is the use of drift-nets for mackerel, herrings and pilchards. 
It is undoubtedly the most common method of net- 
fishing on the coasts of the British islands, but no- 
where is it so general as in Scotland. There are, however, great 
drift fisheries on the eastern and southern coasts of England, 
and an important mackerel fishery mainly at the western end 
of the channel, though owing to a high import duty on mackerel 
levied by France this is now of far less importance. The value 
of the mode of fishing technically known as " drifting or driving " 
will be understood when it is remembered that it is the only 
method by which such fishes as herrings, mackerel and pil- 
chards, which generally swim at or near the surface, can be 
readily caught in the open sea, at any distance from land, and in 
any depth of water, so long as there is sufficient for the floating 
of the nets in the proper position. The term "drift-net" is de- 
rived from the manner in which the nets are worked. They 
are neither fixed nor towed within any precise limits of water, 
but are cast out or " shot " at any distance from the land where 
there are signs of fish, and are allowed to drift in whichever 
direction the tide may happen to take them, until it is thought 
desirable to haul them in. The essential principle of the working 
of the drift-net is that it forms a long wall or barrier of netting 
hanging for a few fathoms perpendicularly in the water, but 
extending for a great length horizontally, and that the fish, 
meeting these nets and trying to pass them, become meshed; 
they force their heads and gill-covers through the meshes, but 



Drift Nets, 



can go no farther; and as the gill-covers catch in the sides of the 
mesh, the fish are unable to withdraw and escape. Whether it 
be mackerel, herring or pilchard, the manner in which the net 
works is the same; the variations which exist relate only to the 
differences in habits and size of the fish sought after. 

The nets used are light cotton nets, each about 30 yards long and 
10 or 12 deep, and when designed for herring have a mesh of about 
an inch square, pilchard nets being smaller and mackerel nets 
larger in mesh. These nets are laced end to end in a long row, 
the whole row, called a "fleet" or "train" of nets being, in the 
case of the large herring boats, as much as 3$ miles long. One of 
the long edges of the net is fastened to a rope corked at regular 
intervals, whose purpose is to keep that part uppermost. This 
edge is called the " back " of the net. The corks are, however, 
not sufficient to keep the whole net from sinking, and this is done 
by buoys called " bowls, " which are attached to the back rope 
at intervals. It is always a matter of uncertainty at what depth 
the fish may be found, and a deal of judgment is needed in deciding 
what length of rope should be used in attaching the buoys. In 
the herring fishery of the English east coast the British boats usually 
work in somewhat shallower water than the foreign drifters, and set 
their nets at about 4 fathoms from the surface, the foreigners, 
lying outside them, using deeper-set nets. It is found convenient 
to colour certain of the bowls distinctively to indicate their position 
in the " fleet. " Otherwise they are coloured to show ownership. 

Drift-net fishing is with rare exceptions only carried on at night. 
The time for beginning is just before sunset, and the nets are then 
got into the water by the time it is dark. A likely place to fish 
is known (though there is much uncertainty in the matter) by signs 
recognizable only to the practised eye. An obvious one is the 
presence of many sea-birds, or of the fish themselves. But besides 
these the appearance and even the smell of the water furnishes 
a guide. In the case of the mackerel these signs have been shown 
by G. E. Bullen (Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc. viii. 269) to be due to 
the character of the microscopic organisms in the water, some of 
which furnish the food of the mackerel, others of which it avoids. 
If fish is believed to be present the vessel is sailed slowly before the 
wind and if possible across the tide; then the net is shot or thrown 
out over the vessel's quarter, the men being distributed at regular 
stations, some hauling up the net from below, others throwing it over 
and taking care that it falls so that the foot is clear of the corked 
back; others, again, looking after the warp which has to be paid 
put at the same time, and seeing that the seizings are made fast to 
it in their proper places. When it is all overboard, and about 15 
or 20 fathoms of extra warp, called the " swing-rope, " given out, 
the vessel is brought round head to wind by the warp being carried 
to the bow; the sails are then taken in, the mast lowered, a small 
mizen set to keep the vessel with her head to the wind, and the regu- 
lation lights are hoisted to show that she is fishing. A few of the 
hands remain on deck to keep a look out, and the vessel and nets 
are left to drift wherever the wind and tide may take them. It is 
very rarely that there is an absolute calm at sea ; and if there is 
the faintest breath of air stirring the fishing boat will of course feel 
it more than the buoys supporting the nets ; she will consequently 
drift faster, and being at the end of the train, extend the whole 
fleet of nets. In rough weather, as the strain may be greater, 
more rope is used. The first net in the train is often hauled after 
an hour to enable the men to judge whether the position is a good 
one. When the whole are hauled, the nets are taken in and the 
fish shaken out in the same orderly way as in shooting, each man 
having his own proper duty. 

The sailing drifter is fast disappearing, giving place to the steam 
drifter. These vessels, though costing far more (2500 to 3000 
against 400 only) catch more fish, have a greater radius of action, 
reach market more quickly and are independent of weather. 
It has been calculated that a thousand square feet of herring 
netting used by a steamer catch 43$ cwt. of herring, while a sailing 
vessel catches 20 cwt. with the same area of netting; and the 
steamer-caught fish, being more quickly delivered, fetches a better 
price. It may be noted that of recent years herring have been 
caught at the bottom in considerable quantities by the trawl. The 
fishing of herring is thus increasing in variety of method, as well 
as in intensity. Such sailing boats as tend to remain are long shore 
boats, and such drifters as have been fitted with petrol motors. 

Stationary nets, being of very small importance relatively 
to the preceding, must be dismissed more shortly. 
They are of four main kinds, viz.: stake nets, 
pound and kettle nets, stow and bag nets, trammel- 
nets and hose nets. 

Stake nets are usually set between tide-marks, or in shallow 
water, and, as their name implies, are kept up by stakes placed 
at intervals. They are generally set across the direction 
of the tide. They act as gill nets, and are chiefly used Stake Nets. 
n America. In some cases a conical bag instead of 
a flat net occupies the space between every two stakes, forming 
a series of simple bag nets. This form is used on the German 
shores of the North Sea. 



222 



TRAY TRAZ-OS-MONTES 



In another modification the net is supported on the stakes, which 
is some 200 ft. long, does not act as a gill net but as a " leader, " 
_ . . and one of its ends passes through a narrow opening 
i' ? v< ' nto a circular enclosure surrounded by a similar 
e "'wall of staked netting. The bag net and fly net 
for the capture of the salmon are merely elaborated forms 
of this type. The pound is roofed by netting, in the fly net, and 
in the bag net, which is floated not staked floored also. It 
is wedge-shaped, narrowing gradually from the entrance end, and 
divided incompletely by oblique internal walls or valves of netting 
into side compartments. 

The bag net just described is practically a floating stake net. 
A simpler form is used in the Elbe, consisting of a pyramidal net 
Stow Nets whose mout h is held open by its sides being attached 
to spars, weighted at one end and buoyed at the other. 
This is the simplest form of stow net. The stow net is used in the 
Thames and Wash ; it is specially designed for the capture of sprats, 
although many young herrings are sometimes caught, and it is worked 
most extensively at the entrance of the Thames. The stow net 
is a gigantic funnel-shaped bag having nearly a square mouth, 
30 ft. from the upper to the lower side, and 21 ft. wide. It tapers 
for a length of about 90 ft. to a diameter of 5 or 6 ft., and further 
diminishes to about half that size for another 90 ft. to the end of 
the net. The whole net is therefore about iSoft. or 60 yards long. 
The upper and lower sides of the square mouth are kept extended 
by two horizontal wooden spars called " balks," and the lower one 
is weighted so as to open the mouth of the net in a perpen- 
dicular direction when it is at work. The size of the meshes varies 
from if in. near the mouth to i in. towards the end, where, 
however, it is again slightly enlarged to allow for the greater 
pressure of the water at that part. The mode of working the net 
is very simple. Oyster smacks are commonly used in this fishery, 
although shrimping boats are also employed in it in the Thames. 
The smack takes up a position at the first of the tide where there 
are signs of fish, or in such parts of the estuary as are frequented 
by the sprats during that part of the season; she then anchors, 
and at the same moment the net is put overboard and so handled 
that it at once takes its proper position, which is under the vessel. 
It is kept there by a very simple arrangement. Four ropes leading, 
one from each end of the two balks, and therefore from the four 
corners of the mouth of the net, are united at some little distance 
in front, forming a double bridle, and a single mooring rope leads 
from this point of union to the vessel's anchor; so that the same 
anchor holds both the vessel and the net. The net is kept at any 
desired distance from the bottom by means of two ropes, one from 
each end of the upper balk to the corresponding side of the smack, 
where it is made fast. The open mouth of the net is thus kept 
suspended below the vessel, and the long mass of netting streams 
away astern with the tide. The strain of this immense bag-net 
by the force of the tide is often very great, but if the vessel drags 
her anchor, the net being made fast to the same mooring, both keep 
their relative positions. Here they remain for several hours till 
the tide slackens, the vessel's sails being all taken in and only 
one hand being left on deck to keep watch. The way in which 
the fish are caught hardly requires explanation. The sprats, 
swimming in immense shoals, are carried by the tide into the open 
mouth of the net and then on to the small end, where they are 
collected in enormous numbers; from this there is no escape, as the 
crowd is constantly increasing, and they cannot stem the strong 
tide setting into the net. The first thing to be done in taking in 
the net is to close the mouth, and this is effected by means of a chain 
leading from the bow of the vessel through an iron loop in the 
middle of the upper balk down to the centre of the lower one, and 
by heaving in this chain the two balks are brought together and 
ultimately hoisted out of the water under the vessel's bowsprit. 
The net is then brought alongside and overhauled till the end is 
reached, and this is hoisted on board. The rope by which it is 
closed having been cast off, the sprats are then measured into the 
hold of the vessel by about three bushels at a time, until the net 
has been emptied. The quantity of sprats taken in this manner 
by many scores of fishing craft during the season, which lasts from 
November to February, is in some years simply enormous; the 
markets at Billingsgate and elsewhere are inundated with them, 
and at last in many years they can only be disposed of at a nominal 
price for manure; and in this way many hundreds of tons are got 
rid of. The stow boats do not generally take their fish on shore, 
but market boats come off to them and buy the fish out of the 
vessel's hold, and carry it away. The mode of working is the same 
in the Solent and the Wash as that we have described in the Thames 
and large quantities of sprats are landed by the Southampton 
boats. 

" Whitebait," or young sprats, mixed with some young herring 
and other small fish, are caught in the Thames by a net which is 
practically nothing else but a very small stow net, and it is worked 
in essentially the same manner. An interesting form of stow net 
is used in the Channels of the Frisian Island, chiefly during the rush 
of the ebb-tide, for the capture of rays (principally Raja clavata, 
the Thornback) which are highly valued by the Dutch. It consists 
of a net shaped like an otter trawl, furnished with otter boards, 



which are attached to ropes passed to the ends of long booms which 
project from the sides of the vessel using the net, and also to the 
two anchors by which the former is anchored. 

The remaining stationary nets to be mentioned partake of the 
nature of traps. The trammel net consists of three nets joined 
together at the top, bottom and sides. The whole T 
system of nets hangs vertical, the head line being J a t m 
buoyed and the ground line weighted. The two outer "'** 
nets are much smaller than the inner net, but of wide-meshed 
netting, whereas the inner net is of very small mesh. Consequently, 
a fish meeting an outer net passes through it, strikes the fine-meshed 
net and forces it before it through one of the meshes of the farther 
wide-meshed net; it is thus in a small pocket from which it cannot 
escape. 

The hose net is a long cylindrical net from which trap-like pockets 
open. The main cavity is kept open by rigid rings. The hose 
nets are set between tide marks, at low water, so that 
the tide runs through them; and they are emptied at Hose Net. 
next low tide. 

While unimportant compared with the huge quantity of fish 
landed from sea-going vessels, the catch of the ip-shore nets 
described is of importance in respect of the kinds of fish taken, 
whitebait and pilchards, for instance, being not otherwise obtained, 
while salmon, though taken in rivers as well as in estuaries and along 
the coast, is very rarely captured at sea. 

AUTHORITIES. Brabazon, The Deep-Sea and Coast Fisheries 
of Ireland (1848); Holdsworth, Deep-Sea Fishing and Fishing 
Boats (London, 1874); Z. L. Tanner, Bulletin United States Fishery 
Commission (1896), vol. xvi.; Garstang, ibid., vol. vi.; Kyle, Journal 
of the Marine^ Biological Association of the United Kingdom, new 
series, vol. vi. (London); Cunningham, ibid., vol. iv. ; Petersen, 
Report of the Danish Biological Association, vol. viii. (Copenhagen, 
1899) ; Hjort, Report on Norwegian Fisliery and Marine Investigation, 
vol. i. (Christiania, 1900); Mittheilungen- Deutscher Seefischer- 
Verein, various numbers; Fulton, Reports of the Scottish Fishery 
Board, igth Report (1900); and in other numbers; Report and 
Minutes of Evidence of the Committee, " appointed to inquire into the 
scientific and statistical investigations now being carried on in rela- 
tion to the fishing industry of the United Kingdom." (London 
1908). (J. O. B.) 

TRAY, a flat receptacle with a raised edge used for a variety 
of purposes, chiefly domestic. The tray takes many forms 
oblong, circular, oval, square and is made in a vast number of 
materials, from papier mache to the precious metals. Duke 
Charles of Lorraine had a pen-tray of rock crystal standing on 
golden feet; Marie -Antoinette possessed a wonderful oval tray, 
silver gilt and enamelled, set with 144 cameos engraved with the 
heads of sovereigns and princes of the house of Austria, and 
their heraldic devices. The tea-tray is the most familiar form; 
next to it comes the small round tray, usually of silver or electro- 
plate, chiefly used for handing letters or a glass of wine. When 
thus employed it is usually called a " waiter." The English 
tea-trays of the latter part of the i8th century were usually oval 
in shape and sometimes had handles; mahogany and rosewood 
were the favourite materials. Sheraton and Shearer, among 
other cabinet-makers of the great English period, are credited 
with trays of this type. These were succeeded in the early 
and mid-Victorian period by trays of japanned iron, which 
possessed no charm but had the virtue of durability. Sheffield 
plate snuffer-trays of satisfying simplicity were made in large 
numbers, and are now much sought after. 

TRAZ-OS-MONTES (i.e. across the Mountains), an ancient 
frontier province in the extreme N.E. of Portugal, bounded on 
the N. and E. by Spain, S. by the river Douro which separates 
it from Beira, and W. by the Gerez, Cabreira and Marao Moun- 
tains, which separate it from Entre-Minho-e-Douto. Pop. 
(1900), 427,358; area, 4,163 sq. m. For administrative purposes 
Traz-os-Montes was divided in 1833 into the districts of Braganza 
(q.v.) and Villa Real (q.v.). The surface is generally moun- 
tainous, although there are tracts of level land in the veigas 
or cultivated plains of Chaves and Miranda do Douro, and in the 
cimas or plateau region of Mogadouro. The highest peak is 
Marao (4642 ft.). The province belongs to the basin of the Douro 
and is chiefly drained by its tributaries the Tua, Tamega and 
Sabor. Its inhabitants belong to the old Portuguese stock, 
and resemble the Spaniards of Galicia in physical type, dialect 
and character. The Paiz do Vinho (see OPORTO) is the chief 
wine-growing district in Portugal; other products are silk, 
maize, wheat, rye, hemp, olive oil and honey. There are 
important mineral springs and baths at Vidago and Pedras 



TREACLE TREASON 



223 



Salgadas. The principal towns are Braganza, Chaves and Villa 
Real. 

TREACLE, the thick viscid syrup obtained in the early 
processes of refining sugar, the uncrystallizable fluid obtained 
in the process of procuring refined crystallized sugar being known 
as " golden syrup " and the drainings from the crude sugar as 
" molasses " (see SUGAR: Manufacture). The word was pro- 
perly and first used for a medical compound of varying ingre- 
dients which was supposed to be a sovereign remedy against 
snake bites or poison generally. A well-known specific was 
Venice treacle, Theriaca Andromachi, a compound of a large 
number of drugs reduced to an electuary, 1 a medicinal com- 
pound prepared with honey, which dissolves in the mouth. 
The old French triacle, of which " treacle," earlier " triacle," is an 
adaptation, is a corruption of theriague, Latin theriaca, Greek 
dr/piaKo. (sc. (t>apfj,a.Ka) , literally drugs used as an antidote against 
the bite of poisonous or wild animals (dripiov, dim, of drjp, wild 
beast). The word " triacle " came to be used ot any remedy 
or antidote. The composition of electuaries with honey or 
syrup naturally transferred the name to the most familiar 
syrup, that obtained from the drainings of sugar. 

TREAD-MILL, a penal appliance introduced by Sir William 
Cubitt in 1818 and intended by him as a means of employing 
criminals usefully. It was a large hollow cylinder of wood 
on an iron frame, round the circumference of which were a 
series of steps about 7? in. apart. The criminal, steadying 
himself by hand-rails on either side, trod on these, his weight 
causing the mill to revolve and compelling him to take each step 
in turn. In the brutalizing system formerly in vogue the 
necessary resistance was obtained by weights, thus condemning 
the offender to useless toil and defeating the inventor's object. 
The tread-mill, however, was subsequently utilized for grinding 
corn, pumping water and other prison purposes. The speed 
of the wheel was regulated by a brake. Usually it revolved at 
the rate of 32 ft. per minute. The prisoner worked for 6 hours 
each day, 3 hours at a time. He was on the wheel for 15 minutes 
and then rested for 5 minutes. Thus in the course of his day's 
labour he climbed 8640 ft. Isolation of prisoners at their work 
was obtained by screens of wood on each side of the mill, con- 
verting the working space into a separate compartment. Each 
prisoner was medically examined before going to the mill. 

By the Prison Act 1865 every male prisoner over 16, sentenced 
to hard labour, had to spend three months at least of his sentence 
in labour of the first class. This consisted primarily of the 
tread-mill, or, as an alternative, the crank. The latter consisted 
of a small wheel, like the paddle-wheel of a steamer, and a handle 
turned by the prisoner made it revolve in a box pa r tly filled with 
gravel. The amount of gravel regulated the hard labour; 
or the necessary resistance was obtained by a brake, by which 
a pressure, usually of 12 Ib, was applied. The prisoner had 
to make 8000 or 10,000 revolutions during his 6 hours' work, 
according to his strength, the number being registered on a 
dial. The crank too, however, was subsequently made to serve 
useful purposes. Both tread-mill and crank have gradually 
been abolished; in 1895 there were 39 tread-mills and 29 cranks 
in use in English prisons, and these had dwindled down to 13 
and 5 respectively in 1901. They are now disused. 

The fundamental idea of Cubitt's invention, i.e. procuring 
rotary motion for industrial purposes by the weight of men 
or animals, is very old. " Tread- wheels," of this type, usually 
consist of hollow cylinders, round the inner surface of which a 
horse, dog or man walks, foothold being kept by slabs of wood 
nailed across at short intervals. 

TREASON (Fr. trahist>n,La,t. troditio), a general term for the 
crime of attacking the safety of a sovereign state or its head. 
The law which punishes treason is a necessary consequence 
of the idea of a state, and is essential to the existence of the state. 
Most, if not all, nations have accordingly, at an early period 
of their history, made provision by legislation or otherwise 
for its punishment. The principle is universal, though its 

'Electuary (Lat. electuarium), is probably derived from Gr. 
v, used in the same sense, from &Xe(x"i to lick out. 



application has led to differences of opinion. What would have 
been a capital crime at Rome under Tiberius may be no offence 
at all in England. It is to the advantage of the state and the 
citizen that what is treason and what is not should be clearly 
defined, so that as little as possible discretionary power, apt 
to be strained in times of popular excitement, should be left 
to the judicial or executive authorities. The importance of 
this was seen by Montesquieu. Vagueness in the crime of 
treason, says he, is sufficient to make the government degen- 
erate into despotism. 2 At the same time, it may be observed 
that despotic governments have not always left the crime un- 
defined. The object of Henry VIII., for instance, was ralher 
to define it as closely as possible by making certain acts treason 
which would not have been so without such definition. In 
both ancient and modern history treason has generally been a 
crime prosecuted by exceptional procedure, and visited with 
afflictive as distinguished from simple punishments (to use the 
terminology of Bentham). 

Roman Law. In Roman law the offences originally falling 
under the head of treason were almost exclusively those com- 
mitted in military service, such as in England would be dealt 
with under the Army Act. The very name perdtiellio, the 
name of the crime in the older Roman law, is a proof of this. 
Perduelles were, strictly, public enemies who bore arms against 
the state; and traitors were regarded as having no more rights 
than public enemies. The Twelve Tables made it punishable 
with death to communicate with the enemy or to betray a citizen 
to the enemy. Other kinds of pcrducllio were punished by 
interdiction of fire and water. The crime was tried before, a 
special tribunal, the duumviri perduellionis, perhaps the earliest 
permanent criminal court existing at Rome. At a later period 
the name of perducllio gave place to that of laesa majeslas, 
deminula or minula majeslas, or simply majeslas. The lex Julia 
majeslalis, to which the date of 48 B.C. has been conjecturally 
assigned, continued to be the basis of the Roman law of treason 
until the latest period of the empire, and is still, with the law of 
perduellio, the basis of the law of British South Africa as to 
treason. The original text of the law appears to have still 
dealt with what were chiefly military offences, such as sending 
letters or messages to the enemy, giving up a standard or 
fortress, and desertion. With the empire the law of majeslas 
received an enormous development, mainly in the reign of 
Tiberius, and led to the rise of a class of professional informers, 
called delatores. 3 The conception of the emperor as divine 4 had 
much to do with this. It became a maxim that treason was 
next to sacrilege 5 in gravity. The law as it existed in the time 
of Justinian is contained chiefly in the titles of the Digest 6 and 
Code 7 " Ad legem Juliam majestatis." The definition given in 
the Digest (taken from Ulpian) is this: " majestatis crimen illud 
est quod adversus populum Romanum vel'adversus securitatem 
ejus committitur." Of treasons other than military offences, 
some of the more noticeable were the raising of an army or levying 
war without the command of the emperor, the questioning of 
the emperor's choice of a successor, the murder of (or con- 
spiracy to murder) hostages or certain magistrates of high rank, 
the occupation of publ'c places, the meeting within the city of 
persons hostile to the state with weapons or stones, incitement 
to sedition or administration of unlawful oaths, release of 
prisoners justly confined, falsification of public documents, and 
failure of a provincial governor to quit his province at the 
expiration of his office or to deliver his army to his successor. 
The intention (voluntas) was punishable as much as an overt 
act (effeclus) . 8 The reported opinions as to what was not treason 

2 Esprit des lois, bk. xii. c. 7. 

3 See Merivale, History of the Romans under the Empire, iii. 467, 
v. 141. 

4 " Principes instar deorum esse " are .the words of Tacitus. 

5 This crime was called laesa majestas divina in later law. 

6 xlviii. 4. 
' ix. 8. 

8 A similar provision was contained in the Golden Bull of Charles 
IV. c. 24. In English law, with the one exception of a statute 
of 1397 (21 Ric. II. c. 3) repealed in the first year of Henry IV., 



224 



TREASON 



show the lengths to which the theory of treason was carried. 
It was not treason to repair a statue of the emperor which had 
decayed from age, to hit such a statue with a stone thrown by 
chance, to melt down such a statue if unconsecrated, to use mere 
verbal insults against the emperor, to fail in keeping an oath 
sworn by the emperor or to decide a case contrary to an imperial 
constitution. Treason was one of the publica judicia, i.e. one of 
those crimes in which any citizen was entitled to prosecute. 
The law deprived the accused in a charge of treason of his 
ordinary remedy for malicious prosecution, and also took from 
him the privilege (which those accused of other crimes generally 
possessed) of immunity from accusation by women or infamous 
persons, from liability to be put to the torture, and from having 
his slaves tortured to make them testify against him (see 
TORTURE). The punishment from the time of Tiberius was 
death (usually by beheading) 1 and confiscation of property, 
coupled with complete civil disability. A traitor could not 
make a will or a gift or emancipate a slave. Even the death of 
the accused, if guilty of treason of the gravest kind, such as 
levying war against the state, did not extinguish the charge, 
but the memory of the deceased became infamous, and his 
property was forfeited as though he had been convicted in his 
lifetime. 

English Law. The law of England as to treason corresponds 
to a considerable extent with Roman law; in fact, treason is 
treated by Blackstone as the equivalent of the crimen laesae 
majestatis. The history of the crime in the two systems agrees 
in this that in both the law was settled by legislation at a com- 
paratively early period, and subsequently developed by judicial 
construction. In both, too, there were exceptional features 
distinguishing this crime from other offences. 2 For instance, 
at common law treason was not bailable (except by the king's 
bench) nor clergyable, could not be cleared by sanctuary, and 
did not admit of accessories before or after the fact, for all were 
principals, nor could a married woman plead coercion by her 
husband. To stand mute and refuse to plead did not save the 
lands of the accused, as it did in felony, so that the peine forte et 
dure (see TORTURE) was unnecessary in treason. These severities 
were due to the conception of treason as a breach of the oath 
of allegiance. Other differences introduced by statute will be 
mentioned later. In some cases a statute simply affirmed the 
common law, as did the Treason Act 1351 to a great extent, 
and as did an act of 1534, depriving those accused of treason of 
the benefit of sanctuary. How far the Roman law was con- 
sciously imitated in England it is impossible to determine. It 
was certainly not adopted to its full extent, for many acts were 
majeslas which were never high treason, even in the most despotic 
periods. Treason was the subject of legislation in many of the 
pre-Conquest codes. The laws of Alfred 3 and jEthelred 4 
punished with death any one plotting against the life of the 
king. The Leges Henrici Primi " 6 put anyone slaying the king's 
messenger in the king's mercy. The crime was shortly defined 
by Glanvill, 6 and at a greater length by Britton, 7 and by 
Bracton, 8 who follows Roman law closely. 

The offence of high treason was not precisely defined by the 
common law (i Hale, 76), and until the passing of the Treason 
Act 1351 depended much on the opinions of the king and his 
judges. That statute appears to be the answer to a petition of 
the Commons in 1348 (i Hale, 87), praying for a definition of the 
offence of accroaching royal power, a charge on which several 
persons notably Gaveston and the Despensers had suffered. 
The offences made high treason by the statute which still remain 

an overt act has always been necessary. The difficulty of proving a 
mere intention is obvious. In French and German law the overt 
act (Attentat or Unternehmen) is as indispensable as in English. 

1 To harbour a fugitive enemy was punishable only by deporta- 
tion, Dig., xlyiii. 19, 40. 

1 The position of treason as a special crime prosecuted by special 
procedure is one common to most legal systems at some period of 
their existence. For instance, in Germany, by a constitution of 
Henry VII. the procedure was to be summary, sine strepitu et 
figura judicii. 

3 c. 4. * v. 30. ' Ixxix. 2. 



xiv. I. 



r cc. 20, 21, 22. 8 de Corona ii8&. 



are these: (i) to compass or imagine 9 the death of the king, 10 
the queen or their eldest son and heir; (2) to violate the king's 
companion, or his eldest daughter unmarried, or the wife of his 
eldest son and heir; (3) to levy war against the king in his realm, 
or be adherent to the king's enemies in his realm, giving them 
aid and comfort in the realm or elsewhere (perduellio) ; (4) to 
slay the chancellor, treasurer, or the king's justices of the one 
bench or the other, justices in eyre, or justices of assize, and all 
other justices assigned to hear and determine, being in their 
places doing their offices. In all cases of treason not specified 
in the statute the justices before whom the case came are to tarry 
without going to judgment until the cause has been showed and 
declared before the king and his parliament whether it ought to 
be judged treason or felony. The statute, so far as it defines the 
offence of high treason, is still law. 

The statute also treated as high treason forgery of the great 
or privy seal, counterfeiting the king's coin and importing 
counterfeits thereof. These offences are now felonies. It also 
defined petty treason (now merged in wilful murder) as the 
slaying of a master by his servant, a husband by his wife, or a 
prelate by a man secular or religious owing him allegiance. 
The act of 1351 protects only the king's life, and its insufficiency 
was supplemented in periods of danger by legislation, often of a 
temporary nature. Under Richard II. many new offences were 
made treason, 11 but the acts creating these new treasons were 
repealed at the earliest opportunity by the parliaments of his 
successors. The reign most prolific in statutory additions to 
the law of treason was that of Henry VIII. Legislation in this 
reign was little more than a register of the fluctuating opinions 
of the monarch. Thus, by one act of 1534 it was treason not to 
believe Mary illegitimate and Elizabeth legitimate; by another 
act of 1 536 it was treason to believe either legitimate; by an act 
of 1543 it was treason not to believe both legitimate. Another 
act of this reign (1545) shows that a class of men like the Roman 
delatores must have been called into existence by all the new 
legislation. The act made it felony to make anonymous charges 
of treason without daring to appear in support of them before 
the king or council. These acts were repealed in 1553 (i Mar. 
st. i. c. i. s. i.) and the act of 1351 was made the standard of 
the offence. 

Besides the acts of 1351 and 1553 the following statutes are still 
in force with respect to the substantive law of treason. By an 
obscurely penned statute of 1495 (11 Hen. VII. c. I. s. i) persons 
serving the king for the time being in war are not to be convicted 
or attainted of treason; see Steph., Dig. Cr. Law (6th ed.), article 
56. This statute has been held not to apply in British South 
Africa. 

By an act of 1571 (13 Eliz. c. 2) as a counterblast to papal attacks 
on the right of Elizabeth to the English crown, it was declared that 
persons using in England papal bulls offering absolution and reconcili- 
ation to persons forsaking their due obedience to the English crown 
should be punishable as traitors. The penalties were abolished in 
1846, but the acts against which the statute was aimed were declared 
to be still unlawful (see Steph., Dig. Cr. Law, 6th ed., p. 45.). 
By an act of 1702 (i Anne st. 2. c. 21 s. 3) it is treason to endeavour 
to hinder the next successor to the crown from succeeding, and by 
the Succession to the Crown Act 1707 it is treason maliciously, 
advisedlv and directly by writing or printing to maintain and 
affirm that any person has a right to the crown otherwise than 
according to the Acts of Settlement and Union, or that the crown 
and parliament cannot pass statutes for the limitation of the succes- 
sion to the crown. 

By an act of 1796, made perpetual in 1817, the definition of treason 
is extended so as to include plots within or without Great Britain 
to cause the death or destruction, or any bodily harm tending to 
the death, destruction, maiming, or wounding, imprisonment or 
restraint of the king, if such plots are expressed by publishing any 
printing or writing, or by any overt act or deed. Since that date 
no new forms of treason have been created. There are many in- 
stances of offences temporarily made treason at different times. A 



9 These words, according to Luders (Law Tracts, note ad fin.}, 
mean to attempt or contrive. 

10 This by act of 1553 includes a queen regnant. 

11 One reason for making offences treason rather than felony was 
no doubt to give the Crown rather than the lord of the fee the right 
to the real estate of the criminal on forfeiture. Had the offences 
been felony the king would have had only his year, day and waste 
on the estate escheating to the lord, as was the case in treason before 
the Statute of Treasons. 



TREASON 



225 



few of the more interesting may be briefly noticed. It was treason 
toattempt to appeal or annul judgments made by parliament against 
certain traitors (1398) ; to break a truce or safe-conduct (1414-1450) ; 
to hold castles, fortresses or munitions of war against the king 
(I55 2 ); to adhere to the United Provinces (1665); to return without 
licence if an adherent of the Pretender (1696); to correspond with 
the Pretender (1701); and to compass or imagine the death of the 
prince regent (1817). In addition to these, many acts of attainder 
were passed at different times. One of the most severe was that 
against Catherine Howard (1541), which went as far as to make it 
treasonable for any queen to conceal her ante-nuptial incontinence. 
Other acts were those against Archbishop Scrope, Owen Glendower, 
Jack Cade, Lord Seymour, Sir John Fenwick, James Stuart and 
Bishop Atterbury. In one case, that of Cromwell, Ireton and 
Bradshaw, an act of attainder was passed after the death of those 
guilty of the treason (1660), and their bodies were exhumed, beheaded 
and exposed. Acts of indemnity were passed to relieve those who 
had taken part in the suppression of rebellion from any possible 
liability for illegal proceedings. Three such acts were passed in the 
reign of William III. (1689-1690). Similar acts were passed after 
the Irish rebellion of 1798. 

The punishment of treason at common law was barbarous in 
the extreme. 1 The sentence in the case of a man was that the 
Punish- offender be ]drawn on a hurdle to the place of execu- 
meat. tion, that there he be hanged by the neck but not till 
he be dead, and that while yet alive he be disembowelled and that 
then his body be divided into four quarters, the head and quarters 
to be at the disposal of the Crown. 2 Until 1790 at common law a 
woman was drawn to the place of execution and there burned. 
In that year hanging was substituted for burning in the case of 
female traitors. In 1814 the part of the sentence relating to 
hanging and to disembowelling was altered to hanging until 
death supervened. Drawing and beheading and quartering 
after hanging were abolished in 1870. There is no legislation 
authorizing the execution of traitors within the walls of a prison 
as in the case of murder (see CAPITAL PUNISHMENT). The act of 
1814 in the case of men enables the Crown, by warrant under the 
sign manual, countersigned by a secretary of state, to change the 
sentence to beheading. Attainder and forfeiture for treason are 
abolished by the Forfeitures Act 1870, except where the offender 
has been outlawed. 3 The maximum penalty for a felony under 
the act of 1848 is penal servitude for life. In every pardon 
of treason the offence is to be particularly specified therein (see 
PARDON). 

Trials for treason in Great Britain and Ireland were at one time 
frequent and occupy a large part of the numerous volumes of the 
State Trials. Some of the more interesting may be mentioned. 
Before the Statute of Treasons were those of Gaveston and the 
Despensers in the reign of Edward II. on charges of accroaching 
the royal power. After the statute were those (some before the 
peers by trial or impeachment, most before the ordinary criminal 
courts) of Empson and Dudley, Fisher, More, the earl of Surrey, 
the duke of Somerset, Anne Boleyn, Lady Jane Grey, Sir Thomas 
Wyatt, Cranmer, the queen of Scots, Sir Walter Raleigh, Straff ord, 
Laud, Sir Henry Vane and other regicides, William Lord Russell, 
Algernon Sydney, the duke of Monmouth, and those implicated in 
the Pilgrimage of Grace, the Gunpowder, Popish, Rye House and 
other plots. Cases where the proceeding was by bill of attainder 
have been already mentioned. Occasionally the result of a trial 
was confirmed by statute. In some of these trials, as is well known, 
the law was considerably strained in order to insure a conviction. 
Since the Revolution there have been the cases of those who took 
part in the risings of 1715 and 1745, Lord George Gordon in 1780, 
Thomas Hardy and Home Tooke in 1794, the Cato Street conspira- 
tors in 1820, Thomas Frost in 1840, Smith O'Brien in 1848, and in 
1903 Arthur Lynch, for adhering to, aiding and comforting the 
king's enemies in the South African war. 4 The bulk of the treason 

1 The exceptional character of the punishment, like that of the 
procedure, may be paralleled from Germany. The punishment 
of traitors by Frederick II. by wrapping them in lead and throwing 
them into a furnace is alluded to by Dante, Inferno, xxiii. 66. 

1 See the sentence in full in Latin in R. v. Walcol, 1696, I Eng. 
Rep. 87. 

3 Proceedings after the death of an alleged traitor might at one 
time have been taken, but only to a very limited extent as compared 
with what was allowed in Roman and Scots law. Coke (4 Rep. 57) 
states that there might have been forfeiture of the land or goods of 
one slain in rebellion on view of the body by the lord chief justice 
of England as supreme coroner. 

4 1903, i K.B. 446. He was sentenced to death. The sentence 
was commuted to penal servitude for life. Lynch was released 
on licence after one year in prison and has since been pardoned. 

XXVII. 8 



trials are reported in Howell's State Trials and the New Series of 
State Trials. The statute of 1351 as interpreted by the judges in 
these cases is still the standard by which an act is determined to be 
treason or not. The judicial interpretation has been sometimes 
strained to meet cases scarcely within the contemplation of the 
framers of the statute; e.g. it became established doctrine that a 
conspiracy to levy war against the king's person or to imprison 
or depose him might be given in evidence as an overt act of compass- 
ing his death, and that spoken words, though they could not in 
themselves amount to treason, might constitute an overt act, and 
so be evidence. Besides decisions on particular cases, the judges 
at different times came to general resolutions which had an appre- 
ciable effect on the law. The principal resolutions were those of 
*397 (confirmed 1398), of 1557, and those agreed to in the case of 
the regicides at the Restoration and reported by Sir John Kelyng. 
The effect of this legislation, according to Sir James Stephen, is 
that such of the judicial constructions as extend the imagining of 
the king's death to imagining his death, destruction or any bodily 
harm tending to death or destruction, maim or wounding, imprison- 
ment or restraint, have been adopted, while such of the constructions 
as make the imagining of his deposition, conspiring to levy war 
against him, and instigating foreigners to invade the realm, have not 
been abolished, but are left to rest on the authority of decided 
cases. The legislation in force in 1878 as to treason and kindred 
offences was collected by the late Mr R. S. Wright and its substance 
embodied in a draft consolidation bill (Parl. Pap. 1878 H. L. 178), 
and in 1879 the existing law was incorporated in the draft criminal 
codes of 1879. The code draws a distinction between treason and 
treasonable crimes, the former including such acts (omitting those 
that are obviously obsolete) as by the Treason Act 1351 and subse- 
quent legislation are regarded as treason proper, the latter including 
the crimes contained in the Treason Felony Act 1848. 

In the words of the draft ( 76) " treason is (a) the act of killing 
Her Majesty, or doing her any bodily harm tending to death or 
destruction, maim or wounding, and the act of imprisoning or re- 
straining her; or (b) the forming and manifesting by an overt act an 
intention to kill Her Majesty, or to do her any bodily harm tending to 
death or destruction, maim or wounding, or to imprison or to restrain 
her; or (c) the act of killing the eldest son and heir-apparent of Her 
Majesty, or the queen consort of any king of the United Kingdom of 
Great Britain and Ireland ; or (d) the forming and manifesting by an 
overt act an intention to kill the eldest son and heir-apparent of 
Her Majesty, or the queen consort of any king of the United Kingdom 
of Great Britain and Ireland; or (e) conspiring with any person to 
kill Her Majesty, or to do her any bodily harm tending to death 
or destruction, maim or wounding, or conspiring with any person 
to imprison or restrain her; or (/) levying war against Her Majesty 
either with intent to depose Her Majesty from the style, honour 
and royal name of the Imperial Crown of the United Kingdom of 
Great Britain and Ireland or of any other of Her Majesty's dominions 
or countries ; or in order by force or constraint to compel Her Majesty 
to change her measures or counsels, or in order to intimidate or over- 
awe both Houses or either House of Parliament ; or (g) conspiring to 
levy war against Her Majesty with any such intent or for any such 
purpose as aforesaid ; or (h) instigating any foreigner with frfrce to 
invade this realm or any other of the dominions of Her Majesty ; or 
(i) assisting any public enemy at war with Her Majesty in such war 
by any means whatsoever; or (j) violating, whether with her consent 
or not, a queen consort, or the wife of the eldest son and heir-apparent 
for the time being of the king or queen regnant." 

No amount of residence abroad exempts a British subject from the 
penalty of treason if he bears arms against the king,* unless he has 
become naturalized as the subject of a foreign state before the 
outbreak of the war in which he bears arms. To become naturalized 
as the subject of an enemy during a war is in itself an act of 
treason. It is well established that an alien resident within British 
territory owes local allegiance to the Crown and may be indicted for 
high treason, and there are numerous instances of prosecution of 
foreigners for treason. Such are the cases of Leslie, bishop of Ross, 
ambassador to Elizabeth from the queen of Scots (1584), the marquis 
de Guiscard in Queen Anne's reign and Gyllenborg, the ambassador 
from Sweden to George I. (1717). Proceedings against ambassadors 
for treason have never gone beyond imprisonment, more for safe 
custody than as a punishment. In 1781 La Motte, a Frenchman 
resident in England, was convicted of holding treasonable communi- 
cations with France, and in Canada American citizens were tried 
for treason for aiding in the rebellion of 1837-1838 (Forsyth, 200). 
Assistance by a resident alien to invaders of British territory is 
high treason even if the territory in question is in military occupation 
by the forces of the foreign power. 6 

Of the modes of trying high treason two are obsolete, viz. (i) 
by appeal in the common law courts, which ceased by Court and 
the effect of statutes between 1322 and 1399 and Place ot 
were finally abolished in 1819; (2) before the con- Trial. 
stable and marshal. The last instance of this mode of trial was an 

6 Aeneas Macdonald's case, 18 St. Tr. 857; R. v. Lynch (1903) 
I K.B. 446 see Mayne, Ind. Cr. Law (1896), pp. 459, 460. 
' De Jager's case (1907) App. Cas. 326. 

5 



226 



TREASON 



award of battle in 1631 in the case of Lord Reay. 1 Four modes of 
trying high treason still remain, viz. impeachment, trial of a peer 
by his peers, trial by court-martial and trial by jury on indictment 
before the High Court or a court of assize or a special commission. 
The offence is not triable at quarter sessions. 

At common law and under the Great Charter a peer, and, by 
an act of 1442, a peeress in right of her husband, are triable for 
treason before the House of Lords, or, when parliament is not sitting, 
in the court of the lord high steward. The last trial of a peer for 
treason was that of Lord Lovat in 1746-1747 (iSHowell'sS/. Tr. 529). 
In the reign of Edward IV., and perhaps later, treason was at 
times tried by martial law. The issue of commissions of martial 
law in time of peace was in 1628 declared illegal by the Petition of 
Right. But the prerogative of the Crown to deal by martial law 
with traitors in time of war or open rebellion within the realm or 
in a British possession still exists. 2 

Treasons committed within the admiralty jurisdiction or out of 
the realm were originally triable only by the admiral or the constable 
and marshal according to the civil law, but were made triable accord- 
ing to the courts of the common law by the Offences at Sea Act 1536, 
and by acts of 1543, 1552' and 1797. Provision is made for the 
trial in British possessions of treasons committed in the admiralty 
jurisdiction (Offences at Sea Act 1806). 

Treasons committed within the realm are tried in the'High Court, 
the central criminal court or another court of assize, or by special 
commission, except in the case of peers. In two acts dealing with 
Ireland (of 1809 and 1833) it was provided that nothing in the acts 
was to take away the undoubted prerogative of the Crown for the 
public safety to resort to the exercise of martial law against open 
enemies and traitors, while actual war or insurrection is raging (see 
MARTIAL LAW).* Treason by persons subject to military law is 
triable by court-martial under the Army Act (1881) ss. 4, 41 (a), 
where the offence cannot with reasonable convenience be tried in a 
civil court, and treason by persons subject to naval discipline by 
court-martial under the Naval Discipline Act (1866) s. 7. The 
procedure in such trials is regulated by the acts. 

In certain cases of treason the procedure on the trial is the same 
as upon a charge of murder. Those cases, which are statutory 
... exceptions from the statutory procedure prescribed 
* for the trial of high treason and misprision thereof, 
are : (a) Assassination or killing of the king, or any heir or successor 
of the king, or any direct attempt against his life or any direct attempt 
against his person whereby his life may be endangered or his person 
may suffer bodily harm (1800, 1814); (b) attempts to injure in any 
manner the person of the king (1842). 

In all other cases of treason the procedure is regulated by acts 
of 1695, 1708 and 1825. A copy of the indictment must be delivered 
to the accused ten days at least before his arraignment, with a list 
of the witnesses for the prosecution (1708) and a list of the petty jury, 
except in the High Court, where the petty jury list is to be delivered 
ten days before the trial (1825). 6 The accused is entitled to be 
defended by counsel, and on application to the court may have two 
counsel assigned to him (1695), a right extended in 1746 to impeach- 
ments for treason. Witnesses for the defence have since 1702 been 
examinable upon oath. The accused may by the Criminal Evidence 
Act 1898 consent to be called as witness for the defence. It' is 
doubtful whether the wife or husband of the accused is a compellable 
witness for the Crown (Archb. Crim. Pleading, 2jrd ed., 398). 

Prosecutions for treason must be begun within three years of the 
offence, except in cases of attempts to assassinate the king. The 
rules as to the indictment are stricter than in the case of felony and 
misdemeanour, much of the modern statutory power of amendment 
not extending to indictments for the graver offence. No evidence 
may be given of any overt act (vote de fail) not expressly stated in the 
indictment. The accused is entitled to peremptory challenge of 
thirty-five of the jurors summoned for the petty jury; but they need 
not now be freeholders. The accused can be "convicted only on his 
own confession in open court, or by the oath of two witnesses either 
both to the same overt act charged, or one to one overt act and the 
other to another overt act of the same treason. If two or more 
treasons of different kinds are charged on the same indictment, one 
witness to prove one treason and another to prove another are not 
sufficient for a lawful conviction. Persons charged with treason are 
not admitted to bail except by order of a secretary of state or by 
the High Court (k.b.d.) or a judge thereof in vacation '(Indictable 
Offences Act 18^.8, s. 23). Witnesses for the defence are examined 
on oath and their attendance is secured in the same way as that of 
witnesses for the Crown (1695, '7)- 

1 A case of treason out of the realm as to which alone the constable 
and marshal had jurisdiction (3 Howell's St. Tr. i). 

* See case of D. F. Marais (1902, App. Cas. 109). 

* There is no trace of recourse to the act of 1552. In 1903 Arthur 
Lynch was tried under the act of 1543 for high treason in South 
Africa, and Lord Maguire in 1645 for treason in Ireland (4 St. Tr. 653). 

4 The decisions of courts of martial law appear not to be review- 
able by ordinary civil courts (re Marais, 1907, App. Cas. 109). 

6 In these respects persons accused of treason are in a better 
position than those accused of felony. 



Misprision of treason consists in the concealment or keeping 
secret of any high treason, (a) This offence was in 1552 declared 
to be high treason (5 and 6 Edw. VI. c. n, s. 8), but the . . 
former law was restored in 1553-1554 (i Mary st. i. c. I m ' s P" slott 
s.i ;i &2 Ph.and Mary c. 10, 5.7). The definition is vague 
and the exact scope of the offence uncertain, but in strictness it does 
not include acts which in the case of felony would constitute an 
accessory after the fact. In the Queensland Code of 1899 (s. 38) 
every person is guilty of a crime who, knowing that any person 
intends to commit treason, does n6t give information thereof with 
all reasonable despatch to a justice or use other reasonable en- 
deavours to prevent the commission of that crime. The procedure 
for the trial of misprision of treason is the same as in the case of high 
treason. The punishment is imprisonment for life and forfeiture 
of the offender's goods and of the profits of his lands during his 
life. (Steph. Dig. Cr. Law, 6th ed., 121, 401.) The forfeitures 
are not abolished by the Forfeitures Act 1870. There is no case of 
prosecution of this offence recorded during the last century. 

The necessity of prosecutions for treason has been greatly 
lessened by a series of statutes beginning in 1744 which provide 
for the punishment as felonies of certain acts which offences 
might fall within the definition of treason, e.g. akin to 
piracies (1744, 18 Geo. II. c. 30), incitement to Treason. 
mutiny (1797), unlawful oaths, including oaths to commit treason 
(1797, 1812), and aiding the escape of prisoners of war (1812). 
By the Treason Act 1842 it is a high misdemeanour, punishable 
by penal servitude for seven years, wilfully to discharge, point, 
aim or present at the person of the king any gun or other arms, 
loaded or not, or to strike at or attempt to throw anything upon 
the king's person, or to produce any firearms or other arms, or 
any explosive or dangerous matter, near his person, with intent 
to injure or alarm him or to commit a breach of the peace. 6 The 
offence is one of the few for which flogging may be awarded. 

By the Treason Felony Act 1848, s. I., it was made a felony 
within or without the United Kingdom to plot (a) to deprive or 
depose the king from the style, &c., of the imperial crown of the 
United Kingdom, (b) to levy war against the king in any part of 
the United Kingdom in order by force or constraint to change 
his measures or counsels or to put force or constraint on or to 
intimidate or overawe either or both houses of parliament, (c) to 
move or stir any foreigner with force to invade the United 
Kingdom or any of the king's dominions. The plot to be within 
the act must be expressed by publishing in printing or writing 
or by an overt act or deed. " Open and advised speaking," 
originally included as an alternative, was removed from the act 
in 1891. For other offences more or less nearly connected with 
treason reference may be made to the articles: LIBEL; OATHS; 
PETITION; RIOT; SEDITION. 

The act of 1848 does not abrogate the Treason Act of 1351, but 
merely provides an alternative remedy. But with the exception 
of the case of Lynch in 1903, all prosecutions in England for offences 
of a treasonable character since 1848 have been for the felony created 
by the act of 1848. The trials under the act, mostly in Ireland, are 
collected in vols. 6, 7 and 8 of the New Series of Stale Trials. The 
procedure in the case of all the offences just noticed is governed by 
the ordinary rules as to the trial of indictable offences, and the 
accused may be convicted even though the evidence proves acts 
constituting high treason. 

Scotland. Treason included treason proper, or crimes against 
the Crown or the state, such as rebellion, and crimes which, 
though not technically treasonable, were by legislation punished 
as treason. Scottish procedure was as a rule less favourable to 
the accused than English. In one matter, however, the opposite 
was the case. Advocates compellable to act on behalf of the 
accused were allowed him by 1587, c. 57, more than a century 
before the concession of a similar indulgence in England. At one 
time trial in absence and even after death was allowed, as in 
Roman law. In the case of Robert Leslie, in 1540, a summons 
after death was held by the estates to be competent, and the 
bones of the deceased were exhumed and presented at the bar of 
the court. 7 The act of 1542, c. 13 (rep. 1906), confined this 
revolting procedure to certain treasons of the more heinous kind. 

8 This act was passed in consequence of a series of assaults on 
Queen Victoria. See 4 St. Tr. N. S. 1382; 7 St. Tr. N. S. 1130, 
and 8 Si. Tr. N. S. i. 

7 In the one instance in England that of Cromwell, Ireton and 
Bradshaw where the bodies of alleged traitors were exhumed after 
death they were not brought to the bar of a court as in Scotland. 



TREASON 



227 



By the Treason Act 1708 trial in absence the last instance of 
which had occurred in 1698 was abolished. The same act 
assimilates the law and practice of treason to that of England 
by enacting that no crime should be treason or misprision in 
Scotland but such as is treason or misprision in England. The 
act further provides for the finding of the indictment by a grand 
jury as in England and that the trial is to be by a jury of twelve, 
not fifteen as in other crimes, before the court of justiciary, or a 
commission of oyer and terminer containing at least three lords 
of justiciary. To slay a lord of justiciary or lord of session sitting 
in judgment, or to counterfeit the great seal, is made treason. 
The act also contains provisions as to forfeiture, ' qualification of 
jurors and procedure, which are not affected by the Criminal 
Procedure (Scotland) Act 1887. The punishment is the same as 
it was in England before the Forfeitures Act 1870, which does not 
extend to Scotland; and attainder and forfeiture are still the 
effects of condemnation for treason in Scotland. 

One or two other statutory provisions may be briefly noticed. 
By acts of 1706 and 1825 the trial of a peer of Great Britain or 
Scotland for treason committed in Scotland is to be by a commission 
from the Crown, on indictment found by a grand jury of twelve. 
Bail in treason-felony is only allowed by consent of the public 
prosecutor or warrant of the high or circuit court of justiciary 
(Treason Felony Act 1848, s. 9). The term lese-majesty was some- 
times used for what was treason proper (e.g. in 1524, c. 4, making 
it lese-majesty to transport the king out of the realm, repealed in 
1906), sometimes as a synonym of leasing-making. This crime 
(also called verbal sedition) consisted in the engendering discord 
between king and people by slander of the king. 2 The earliest 
act against leasing-making eo nomine was in 1524. The reign 
of James VI. was pre-eminently prolific in legislation against this 
crime. It is now of no practical interest, as prosecutions for 
leasing-making have long fallen into desuetude. At one time, 
however, the powers of the various acts were put into force with 
great severity, especially in the trial of the earl of Argyll in 1681. 
The punishment for leasing-making, once capital, is now, by acts 
of 1825 and 1837, fine or imprisonment or both. 

Ireland. The Treason Act 1351 was extended to Ireland by 
Poyning's law, but at the union there were considerable differ- 
ences between the Irish and the English law. The law and 
practice of Ireland as to treason were assimilated to those of 
England by acts of 1821 (i & 2 Geo. IV. c. 24), 1842 (5 & 6 
Viet. c. 51), 1848(11 & 12 Vict.c. 12,3.2), and 1854 (17 & iSVict. 
c. 56). 

Prior to 1854 the provisions as to procedure in the English treason 
acts did not apply to Ireland (Smith O'Brien's case, 1848, 7 St. Tr. 
N. S. l). A series of enactments called the " Whiteboy Acts" 
(passed by the Irish and the United Kingdom parliaments between 
1775 and 1831) was .intended to give additional facilities to the 
executive for the suppression of tumultuous risings, and powers 
for dealing with " dangerous associations" are given by the Criminal 
Law and Procedure (Ireland) Act 1887. Prosecutions for treason 
in Ireland were numerous in 1848. Since that date numerous 
prosecutions have taken place under the Treason Felony Act 1848. 

British Possessions. Numerous temporary acts were passed in 
India at the time of the Mutiny, one of the most characteristic being 
an act of 1858 making rebellious villages liable to confiscation. By 
the Indian Penal Code, s. 121, it is an offence punishable by death 
or transportation for life and by forfeiture of all property to wage or 
attempt to wage war against the king. By s. 125 it is an offence 
punishable by transportation for life (as a maximum) to wage or 
attempt to wage war against any Asiatic government in alliance 
or at peace with the king or to abet the waging of such war. By 
s. 121 A., added in 1870, it is an offence punishable by transportation 
for life (as a maximum) to conspire within or without British India 
to commit an offence against s. 121 or to deprive the king of the 
sovereignty of British India or of any part thereof, or to overawe 
by criminal force or the show of criminal force the government of 
India or any local government in India. Other cognate offences 
are included in the same chapter (vi.) of the Criminal Code. 

The Penal Codes of Canada (1892, ss. 65-73) and New Zealand 
(1893, ss. 77-82) closely follow the provisions of the jEnglish draft 
code of 1879. Prosecutions for treason have been rare in Canada. 
Those of most note were in 1837, after the rebellion (see the Canadian 
Prisoners case, 1839, 9 Ad(olphus) El(les) [731]) and of Riel after 

1 The provisions in the act as to forfeiture (now repealed) were, 
according to Blackstone (Comm. iv. 384), the result of a com- 
promise between the House of Lords, in favour of its continuance 
and the House of Commons, supported by the Scottish nation, 
struggling to secure a total immunity from this disability. 

1 It is called by Hallam " the old mystery of iniquity in Scots 
law.' 



decisions of courts-martial were not reviewable by the ordinary 
courts and are also protected by acts of indemnity. A striking 
feature of colonial legislation is the great number of such acts passed 



the Red Riverrising in 1884 (see Riel v. R. 1885, 10 App. Cas. 
75)- 

The Commonwealth parliament of Australia has not legislated on 
the subject of high treason, which is in Australia governed by the 
laws of the constituent states, i.e. by the law of England as it stood 
when they were colonized, subject to local legislation. In the codes 
of Queensland (1899) and West Australia (1902) the offence is defined 
in a form which is little more than a redrafting of the English statutes. 
The provisions of the Treason Felony Act 1848 have been adapted 
by legislation to New South Wales (1900), Queensland (1899) 
Western Australia (1902) and Tasmania (1868). In Victoria there is 
legislation as to procedure but none as to the substantive law of 
treason. In Mauritius the offence is regulated by the Penal Code 
of 1838, arts. 50761 (Mauritius Laws Revised, 1903, i. 372). 

In the Asiatic colonies treason is defined on the lines of the 
Indian Penal Code, i.e. Ceylon, Straits Settlements, and Hong- 
Kong. 

In the West Indies the law of treason is defined by code in 
Jamaica and in British Guiana (the code superseding the Dutch 
Roman law). 

In South Africa the law of treason is derived through Holland 
from the Roman law. It includes the crimen perduettionis, i.e. 
disturbing the security or independence of the state with hostile 
intent. This is spoken of as high treason, as distinct from the 
cnmen laesae majestaiis, in which the hostile intent need not be 
proved, and from vis publica, i.e. insurrection and riot involving 
danger to public peace and order. By a Cape law of 1853 passed 
during the Griqualand rebellion it is made treason to deliver arms 
or gunpowder to the king's enemies. 

The Treason Felony Act 1848 was also adopted in Natal in 
1868. 

During the South African War of 1899-1902 many trials took 
place for treason, chiefly under martial law, including cases of 
British subjects who had joined the Boer forces. In some cases it 
was contended that the accused had been recognized by the British 
authorities as a belligerent (Louw. 1904, 21 Cape Supreme Court 
Reports, 36). The decisions of the ordinary courts are collected in 
Nathan, Common Law of South Africa, iv. 2425 (London, 1907). The 

' e ordinary 
A striking 

after rebellions and native risings. Instances of such acts occur in 
the legislation of Canada, Ceylon, the Cape of Good Hope, Natal, 
New Zealand, St Vincent and Jamaica. The most important in the 
history of !aw is the Jamaica Act of 1866, indemnifying Governor 
Eyre for any acts committed during the suppression of the rising 
in the previous year. It was finally held that this act protected 
Eyre from being civilly sued or criminally prosecuted in England 
for acts done during the outbreak (Phillips v. Eyre, 1871, L. R. 
6 Q. B. i). The validity of an act passed in 1906 after disturbances 
among the Kaffirs of Natal was unsuccessfully challenged in 1907 
(Tilonko's case, 1907, App. Cas. 93). 

United States. The law is based upon that of England. By 
art. 3, s. 3 of the constitution " treason against the United-States 
shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering 
to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall 
be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses 
to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. The 
Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason ; 
but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or 
forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted." By 
art. 2, s. 4 impeachment for and conviction of treason is a ground 
for removing the president, vice-president and other civil officers. 
The punishment by an act of 1790 was declared to be death by 
hanging. But during the Civil War an act (July 17, 1862) was 
passed, providing that the punishment should be death, or, at 
the discretion of the court, imprisonment at hard labour for not 
less than five years, and a fine of not less than 10,000 dollars to 
be levied on the real and personal property of the offender, in 
addition to disability to hold any office under the United States. 
The act of 1862 and other acts also deal with the crimes of inciting 
or engaging in rebellion or insurrection, criminal correspondence 
with foreign governments in relation to any disputes or contro- 
versies with the United States, or to defeat the measures of the 
government of the United States, seditions, conspiracy, recruiting 
soldiers or sailors and enlistment to serve against the United 
States. The act of 1790 further provides for the delivery to the 
prisoner of a copy of the indictment and a list of the jurors, for 
defence by counsel, and for the finding of the indictment within 
three years after the commission of the treason (see Story, Consti- 
tution of the United States, Rev. Stat. U.S. p. 1041). Treason 
against the United States cannot be inquired into by any state 



228 



TREASURE TROVE TREASURY 



court, but the states may, and some of them have, their own 
constitutions and legislation as to treasons committed against 
themselves, generally following the lines of the constitution 
and legislation of the United States. In some cases there are 
differences which are worth notice. Thus the constitution of Mas- 
sachusetts, pt. i, 25, declares that no subject ought in any case 
or in any time to be declared guilty of treason by the legislature. 
The same provision is contained in the constitutions of Vermont, 
Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Alabama and others. In some states 
the crime of treason cannot be pardoned; in others, as in New 
York, it may be pardoned by the legislature, and the governor 
may suspend the sentence until the end of the session of the 
legislature next following conviction. In some states a person 
convicted of treason is disqualified for exercising the franchise. 
In New York conviction carries with it forfeiture of real estate 
for the life of the convict and of his goods and chattels. 

France. By the Code Penal treason falls under the head of crimes 
against the safety of the state (bk. iii. tit. i. c. i). It is a capital 
offence for a Frenchman to bear arms against France (s. 75) or to 
plot with a foreign power or its agents to commit hostilities or under- 
take war against France whether war follows or not (s. 76), or to 
intrigue with the enemies of the state for facilitating their entry 
into French territory, or to deliver to them French ships or fortresses, 
or to supply them with munitions of war, or aid the progress of their 
arms in French possessions or against French forces by sea or land 
(s.?8). 

Germany. The- Strafgesetzbuch distinguishes between high treason 
(Hochverrat) and treason (Landesverrat). The offences denominated 
high treason are (i) murder or attempt to murder the emperor or a 
federal sovereign in his own state, or during the stay of the offender 
in the sovereign's state (s.8o) ; (2) undertaking to kill, take prisoner, or 
deliver into an enemy's power, or make incapable of government a 
federal sovereign ; to change by violence the constitution of the empire 
or a state thereof or the successor to the throne therein; to incor- 
porate by force the federal territory or the territory of any such 
state with a foreign or another federal state (s. 81). The 
code treats as treason, but does not punish by death, the offences 
included in the French code (ss. 87-89), and under certain cir- 
cumstances punishes alien residents for these offences (s. 91). The 
code also punishes insults on the emperor and federal sovereigns 
(ss. 95, 97) under the name of Majestdtsbeleidigung. 

Italy. Treason in the Penal Code 1888 (tit. i. c. i) includes 
direct acts to subject Italy or any part thereof to foreign domination 
or to diminish its independence or break up its unity (s. 104), to 
bear arms against the state (s. 105)) or intrigue with foreign states 
with the object of their levying war against Italy or helping them 
in such war (s. 106), or to reveal political or military secrets affecting 
the national independence (s. 107). 

Spain. The Spanish code distinguishes between treason (lesa 
majestad) and rebellion (rebelion). Under the former are included 
assassination, or attempts on the life or personal liberty of the king 
(arts. 158, 159), or insults to the king (161, 162), and provisions are 
made as to attacks on the heir or consort of the sovereign (163, 164). 
Under rebellion are included violent attempts to dethrone the king 
or to interfere with the allegiance to him of his forces or any part of 
the realm (243). (W. F. C.) 

TREASURE TROVE, the legal expression for coin, bullion, 
gold or silver articles, found (Fr. trouiie) hidden in the earth, 
for which no owner can be discovered. In Roman law it was 
called thesaurus, and defined as an ancient deposit of money 
(vetus depositio pecuniae) found accidentally. Under the emperors 
half went to the finder and half to the owner of the land, who 
might be the emperor, the public treasury (fiscus) , or some other 
proprietor. Property found in the sea or on the earth has at no 
time been looked on as treasure trove. If the owner cannot be 
ascertained it becomes the property of the finder (see LOST 
PROPERTY). As the feudal system spread over Europe and the 
prince was looked on as the ultimate owner of all lands, his right 
to the treasure trove became, according to Grotius, jus commune 
et quasi gentium, in England, Germany, France, Spain and 
Denmark. In England for centuries the right to treasure trove 
has been in the Crown, who may grant it out as a franchise. It 
is the duty of the finder, and indeed of anyone who acquires 
knowledge, to report the matter to the coroner, who must forth- 
with hold an inquest to find whether the discovery be treasure 
trove or no. Although the taking of the find is not larceny until 
this be done, the concealment is an indictable offence still punish- 
able in practice, and formerly was held " akin both to treason 
and to larceny." In the statute De officio coronatoris 1276 



(4 Edw. I. c. 2) the coroner is enjoined to inquire as to 
treasure trove both as to finders and suspected finders, " and 
that may be well perceived where one liveth riotously and have 
done so of long time." The Coroners Act of 1887 continues this 
power as heretofore. In Scotland the law is the same, but 
the concealment is not a criminal offence ; it is there the duty of 
the king's and lord treasurer's remembrancer, with the aid of the 
local procurator fiscal, to secure any find for the Crown, whose 
rights in this respect have been pushed to some length. Thus in 
1888 a prehistoric jet necklace and some other articles found in 
Forfarshire were claimed by the authorities, though they were 
neither gold nor silver. The matter was finally compromised 
by the deposit of the find in the National Museum. By a treasury 
order of 1886 provision is made for the preservation of suitable 
articles so found in the various national museums and payment 
to the finders of sums in respect of the same. Also if the things 
are not required for this purpose they are to be returned to the 
finder. In India the Treasure Trove Act (16 of 1878) makes 
elaborate provision on the subject. It defines treasure as 
" anything of value hidden in the soil." When treasure over 
Rs. 10 is discovered, the finder must inform the collector and 
deposit the treasure or give security for its custody. Conceal- 
ment is a criminal offence. An inquiry is held upon notice; if 
declared ownerless the finder has three-fourths and the owner of 
the ground one-fourth. The government, however, has the right 
of pre-emption. 

In the United States the common law, following English 
precedent, would seem to give treasure trove to the public 
treasury, but in practice the finder has been allowed to keep it. 
In Louisiana French codes have been followed, so that one-half 
goes to finder and one-half to owner of land. Modern French 
law is the same as this, as it is also in Germany, in Italy and in 
Spain. In the latter country formerly the state had three- 
quarters, whilst a quarter was given to the finder. In Austria 
a third goes to the finder, a third to the owner of the land, and 
a third to the state, and provision is made for the possible 
purchase of valuable antiquities by the state. In Denmark 
treasure trove is known as " treasure of Denmark," and is the 
property of the king alone. In Russia the usage varies. In one 
or two of the governments, in Poland and the Baltic provinces, 
the treasure is divided, between the owner of the land and the 
finder, but throughout the rest of Russia it belongs exclusively 
to the owner of the land. This was also the law amongst the 
ancient Hebrews, or so Grotius infers from the parable of the 
treasure hid in a field (Matt. xiii. 44). 

See Blackstone's Commentaries; Chitty's Prerogatives of the 
Crown; R. Henslowe Wellington, The King's Coroner (1905-1906); 
Rankine on Landowner ship; Murray, Archaeological Survey of the 
United Kingdom (1896), containing copious references to the litera- 
ture of the subject. (F. WA.) 

TREASURY, a place for the storage of treasure (Fr. tresor, 
Lat. thesaurus, Gr. Onaavpos, store, hoard); also that depart- 
ment of a government which manages the public revenue. The 
head of the department was an important official in the early 
history of English institutions. He managed the king's hoard 
or treasury, and under the Med. Latin name of thesaurarius, i.e. 
treasurer, grew into increased importance in times when the main 
object of government seemed to be to fill the king's purse. He 
received the title of lord high treasurer (q.v.) and ranked as the 
third great officer of state. In course of time the English 
treasury grew into two departments of state (see EXCHEQUER). 
Since 1714 the office of lord high treasurer has been in com- 
mission, and his duties Rave been administered by a board, 
consisting of a first lord, a chancellor and four or more junior 
lords. The board itself never meets, except on extraordinary 
occasions, although until the commencement of the ipth century 
it was its practice to meet almost daily to discuss matters of 
financial detail. There were originally separate treasury boards 
for England, Scotland and Ireland, but the English and Scottish 
were united by the act of union, and that of Ireland was joined 
with the English in 1816. The first lord of the treasury (see 
MINISTRY) takes practically no part in the duties of the board, 



TREATIES 



229 



the office being to all intents and purposes a sinecure; it is usually 
held by the prime minister of the day. Indeed from 1783 to 
1885 it was invariably so held, but in the latter year there was a 
departure from the practice, and again in 1887, 1891 and 1895. 
The junior lords of the treasury are also political rather than 
financial officers, acting as assistant whips in the House of Com- 
mons. There are two joint secretaries to the treasury, one of 
whom, the patronage secretary, is merely a political officer, 
acting as chief whip; the other is termed financial secretary and 
'is the chancellor of the exchequer's chief assistant. All the 
above officers are members of the House of Commons and of the 
government. The salaries of the first lord of the treasury and 
of the chancellor of the exchequer are 5000 per annum; of the 
joint secretaries 2000 per annum each; of three of the junior 
lords 1000 per annum each, the other junior lords being unpaid. 
The vast bulk of the work of the treasury department is per- 
formed by the permanent staff, at whose head is the permanent 
secretary and auditor of the civil list, with a salary of 2500 per 
annum. The chancellor of the exchequer (see MINISTRY), as 
finance minister of the Crown, is the officer who is responsible 
to parliament for the carrying out of the business of the treasury. 
He performs practically the ancient duties of under-treasurer 
and presents the annual budget of revenue and expenditure. 

The treasury department of the United States is responsible 
for the finances of the government and the control of the 
currency. Its genesis was a treasury office of accounts estab- 
lished in 1776 for the purpose of examining and auditing 
accounts. In 1779 it was reorganized, but was abolished in 
1781, on the election of Robert Morris as superintendent of 
finances, and in 1789 the present executive department of the 
treasury was established by act of Congress. Its scope is' more 
varied and complex than that of any other United States govern- 
ment department. It is presided over by a secretary, who is 
a member of the cabinet and has a salary of $12,000 per annum. 
He is assisted by three assistant secretaries, two of them having 
salaries of $5000 and the third a salary of $4500. The treasury 
department looks after the revenue administration of the United 
States, and has for this purpose a customs service division and 
an internal revenue division. There is also the division of the 
treasury, in the strictest sense of the word; bureaus of auditing 
and accounting, of currency and of banking and certain miscel- 
laneous bureaus, as the life-saving service, the public health and 
marine hospital service, the supervising architect and the bureau 
of engraving and printing. 

TREATIES. A treaty is a contract between two or more states. 
The Latin term " tractatus," and its derivatives, though of 
occasional occurrence in this sense from the ijth century 
onwards, only began to be commonly so employed, in lieu of 
the older technical terms " conventio publica," or " foedus," 
from the end of the i7th century. In the language of modern 
diplomacy the term " treaty " is restricted to the more impor- 
tant international agreements, especially to those which are the 
work of a congress; while agreements dealing with subordinate 
questions are described by the more general term " convention." 
The present article will disregard this distinction. 

The making and the observance of treaties is necessarily a 
very early phenomenon in the history of civilization, and the 
theory of treaties was one of the first departments of international 
law to attract attention. Treaties are recorded on the monu- 
ments of Egypt and Assyria; they occur in the Old Testament 
Scriptures; and questions arising under ffvv8fjKai and foedcra 
occupy much space in the Greek and Roman historians. 1 

Treaties have been classified on many principles, of which it 
will suffice to mention the more important. A " personal 
treaty," having reference to dynastic interests, is contrasted 
with a " real treaty," which binds the nation irrespectively 

1 For the celebrated treaty of 509 B.C. between Rome and 
Carthage, see Polybius iii. 22; and, on the subject generally, 
Barbeyrac's full but very uncritical Histoire des anciens traitez, 
(1739); Miiller-Jochmus, Geschichte des Volkerrechts im Alterthum 
(1848); E. Egger, tudes historiques sur les traites publics chez les 
grecs et chez les remains (new ed., 1866). 



of constitutional changes; treaties creating outstanding obliga- 
tions are opposed to " transitory conventions," e.g. 
for cession of territory, recognition of independence, 
and the like, which operate irrevocably once for 
all, leaving nothing more to be done by the contracting parties; 
and treaties in the nature of a definite transaction (Rechts- 
geschdft) are opposed to those which aim at establishing a general 
rule of conduct (Rechtssatz). With reference to their objects, 
treaties may perhaps be conveniently classified as (i) political, 
including treaties of peace, of alliance, of cession, of boundary, 
for creation of international servitudes, of neutralization, of 
guarantee, for the submission of a controversy to arbitration; 
(2) commercial, including consular and fishery conventions, 
and slave trade and navigation treaties; (3) confederations for 
special social objects, such as the Zollverein, the Latin monetary 
union, and the still wider unions with reference to posts, tele- 
graphs, submarine cables and weights and measures; (4) relating 
to criminal justice, e.g. to extradition and arrest of fugitive 
seamen; (5) relating to civil justice, e.g. to the protection of 
trade-mark and copyright, to the execution of foreign judgments, 
to the reception of evidence, and to actions by and against 
foreigners; (6) promulgating written rules of international law, 
upon topics previously governed, if at all, only by unwritten 
custom, with reference e.g. to the peaceful settlement of inter- 
national disputes, or to the conduct of warfare. 

It must be remarked that it is not always possible to assign a 
treaty wholly to one or other of the above classes, since many 
treaties contain in combination clauses referable to several of 
them. 

The analogy between treaty-making and legislation is striking 
when a congress agrees upon general principles which are after- 
wards accepted by a large number of states, as, for instance, in 
the case of the Geneva conventions for improving the treatment 
of the wounded. Many political treaties containing " transi- 
tory conventions," with reference to recognition, boundary or 
cession, become, as it were, the title-deeds of the nations to 
which they relate. 2 But the closest analogy of a treaty is to a 
contract in private law. 

The making of a valid treaty implies several requisites, 
(i) It must be made between competent parties, i.e. 
sovereign states. A " concordat," to which the 
pope, as a spiritual authority, is one of the parties, 
is therefore not a treaty, nor is a convention between a state and 
an individual, nor a convention between the rulers of two states 
with reference to their private affairs. Semi-sovereign states, 
such as San Marino or Egypt, may make conventions upon 
topics within their limited competence. It was formally alleged 
that an infidel state could not be a party to a treaty. The 
question where the treaty-making power resides in a given state 
is answered by the municipal law of that state. In Great 
Britain it resides in the executive (see the parliamentary debates 
upon the cession of Heligoland in 1890); sometimes, however, 
it is shared for all purposes, as in the United States, or for certain 
purposes only, as in many countries of the European continent, 
by the legislature, or by a branch of it. (2)There must be an 
expression of agreement. This is not (as in private law) rendered 
voidable by duress; e.g. the cession of a province, though 
extorted by overwhelming force, is nevertheless unimpeachable. 
Duress to the individual negotiator would, however, vitiate the 
effect of his signature. (3) From the nature of the case, the 
agreement of states, other than those the government of which 
is autocratic, must be signified by means of agents, whose 
authority is either express, as in the case of plenipotentiaries, 
or implied, as in the case of e.g. military and naval commanders, 
for matters, such as truces, capitulations and cartels, which are 
necessarily confided to their discretion. When an agent acts 
in excess of his implied authority, he is said to make no treaty, 
but a mere " sponsion," which, unless adopted by his govern- 
ment, does not bind it, e.g. the affair of the Caudine Forks 

2 Cf. Sir Edward Hertslet's very useful collections entitled : 
The Map of Europe by Treaty (4 vols., 1875-1891), and The Map 
of Africa by Treaty (2 vols., 1894). 



230 



TREATIES 



(Livy ix. 5) and the convention of Closter Seven in 1757. (4) 
Unlike a contract in private law, a treaty, even though made in 
pursuance of a full power, is, according to modern views, of no 
effect till it is ratified. It may be remarked that ratification, 
though hitherto not thought to be required for " declarations," 
such as the Declaration of Paris of 1856, was expressly stipulated 
for in the case of those signed at the peace conferences of 1899 
and 1907. (5) No special form is necessary for a treaty, which in 
theory may be made without writing. It need not even appear 
on the face of it to be a contract between the parties, but may 
take the form of a joint declaration, or of an exchange of notes. 
Latin was at one time the language usually employed in treaties, 
and it continued to be so employed to a late date by the emperor 
and the pope. Treaties to which several European powers of 
different nationalities are parties are now usually drawn up in 
French (the use of which became general in the time of Louis 
XIV.), but the treaties of Aix-la-Chapelle of 1748 and 1784 
contain, as does the final act of the congress of Vienna, a protest 
against the use of this language being considered obligatory. 
French is, however, exclusively used in the treaties constitut- 
ing the great " international unions "; and bilingual treaties 
are sometimes accompanied by a third version in French, 
to be decisive in case of alleged variances between the other 
two. A great European treaty has usually commenced 
" In the name of the Most Holy and Indivisible Trinity," 
or, when the Porte is a party, " In the name of Almighty 
God." (6) It is sometimes said that a treaty must have a 
lawful object, but the danger of accepting such a statement 
is apparent from the use which has been made of it by 
writers who deny the validity of any cession of national territory, 
or even go so far as to lay down, with Fiore, that " all should be 
regarded as void which are in any way opposed to the develop- 
ment of the free activity of a nation, or which hinder the exercise 
of its natural rights." (7) The making of a treaty is sometimes 
accompanied by acts intended to secure its better performance. 
The taking of oaths, the assigning of " conservatores pacis " and 
the giving of hostages are now obsolete, but revenue is mortgaged, 
territory is pledged, and treaties of guarantee are entered into 
for this purpose. 

A " transitory convention " operates at once, leaving no duties 
to be subsequently performed, but with reference, to conventions 
Duration. ^ otner kinds questions arise as to the duration of 
the obligation created by them; in other words, as 
to the moment at which those obligations come to an end. This 
may occur by the dissolution of one of the contracting states, 
by the object-matter of the agreement ceasing to exist, by full 
performance, by performance becoming impossible, by lapse of 
the time for which the agreement was made, by contrarius 
consensus or mutual release, by " denunciation " by one party 
under a power reserved in the treaty. By a breach on either 
side the treaty usually becomes, not void, but voidable. A 
further cause of the termination of treaty obligations is a total 
change of circumstances, since a clause " rebus sic stantibus " 
is said to be a tacit condition in every treaty. 1 Such a con- 
tention can only be very cautiously admitted. It has been 
put forward by Russia in justification of her repudiation of 
the clauses of the Treaty of Paris neutralizing the Black Sea, 
and of her engagements as to Batoum contained in the Treaty 
of Berlin. The London protocol of 1871, with a view to 
prevent such abuses, lays down, perhaps a little too broadly, 
" that it is an essential principle of the law of nations that no 
power can liberate itself from the engagements of a treaty, 
nor modify the stipulations thereof, unless with the consent of 
the contracting powers, by means of an amicable arrangement." 
Treaties are in most cases suspended, if not terminated, by the 
outbreak of a war between the contracting parties (though the 
Spanish decree of the 23rd of April 1898 went too far when it 
asserted that the war with the United States had terminated 
" all conventions that have been in force up to the present 
between the two countries "), and are therefore usually revived 
in express terms in the treaty of peace. 

1 Cf. Bynkershoek, Quest, sur pub. vol. ii. ch. 10. 



The rules for the interpretation of treaties are not so different 
from those applicable to contracts in private law as to need here 
a separate discussion. 

Collections of treaties are either (i.) general or (ii.) national. 

i. The first to publish a general collection of treaties was Leibnitz, 
whose Codex juris gentium, containing documents from 1097 to 1497, 
" ea quae sola inter liberos populos legum sunt loco " callecti 
appeared in 1693, and was followed in 1700 by the 
Mantissa. The Corps universel diplomatique du droit des gens of 
J. Dumont, continued by J. Barbeyrac and Rousset in thirteen folio 
volumes, containing treaties from A.D. 315 to 1730, was published in 
1726-1739. Wenck's Corpus juris gentium recentissimi (3 vols. 
8vo, 1781-1795) contains treaties from 1735 to 1772. The 8vo 
Recueil of G. F. de Martens, continued by C. de Martens, Saalfeld, 
Murhard, K. F. Samwer, K. Hopf, F. Stoerk and H. Triepel, com- 
menced in 1791 with treaties of 1761, and is still in progress. The 
series in 1910 extended to eighty-eight volumes; that for 1910 being 
the third of the Nouveau recueil general (23 serie). See also the 
Recueil international des traites de xxf siecle (190^, sqq.), by Descamps 
en Renault, and the following periodical publications: Das Staats- 
archiv, Sammlung der officietten Actenstiicke zur Geschichte der 
Gegenwart (Leipzig, commencing in 1861); Archives diplomatiques 
(Stuttgart, since 1821); Archives diplomatiques, recueil mensuel de 
diplomatie et d'histoire (Paris, since 1861); and Hertslet's British 
and Foreign State Papers, from the Termination of the War of 1814 to 
the Latest Period, compiled at the Foreign Office by the Librarian and 
Keeper of the Papers (London, since 1819, and still in progress). 

ii. The more important collections of national treaties are those 
of MM. Neumann and de Plasson from 1855, and of the commission 
for modern history from 1903, for Austria; Beutner for the German 
Empire, 1883; C. Calvo for " 1'Ame'rique latine, " 1862-1869; 
de Clercq for France, 1864-1908; De Garcia de la Vega for Belgium, 
1850, &c., Lagemans and Breukelman for the Netherlands, 1858, &c. ; 
Soutzo for Greece, 1858; Count Solar de la Marguerite for Sardinia, 
1836-1861; Olivart for Spain, 1890, &c.; Da Castro for Portugal, 
1856-1879; R_ydberg for Sweden, 1877; Kaiser, i86i,andEichmann, 
1885, for Switzerland; Baron de Testa, 1864, &c., Aristarchi Bey 
1873-1874, and Effendi Noradounghian, 1897-1903, for Turkey; 
F. de Martens for Russia (the 9 vols. published 1874-1907 contain 
the treaties made by Russia with Austria, Germany, Great Britain 
and France respectively) ; W. F. Mayers for China, 1877. The 
official publication for Italy begins in 1864 (see also the collection 
by Luigi Palma, 1879, &c.), for Spain in 1843, for Denmark in 1874. 
The treaties of Japan were published by authority in 1899. Those 
of the United States are contained in the Statutes at Large of the 
United States, and in the Treaties, Conventions, etc., between 
the United States of America and Other Powers, 1776-7 pop (Wash- 
ington, 1910); also in the collections of J. Elliott (1834) and H. 
Minot (1844-1850); see also Mr Bancroft Davis's Notes upon the 
Treaties of the United States with other Powers, preceded by a list 
of the Treaties and Conventions with Foreign Powers, chronologically 
arranged and followed by an Analytical Index and a Synoptical 
Index of the Treaties (1873). In England no treaties were pub- 
lished before the I7th century, such matters being thought " not 
fit to be made vulgar. " The treaty of 1604 with Spain was, how- 
ever, published by authority, as were many of the treaties of the 
Stuart kings. Rymer's Foedera was published, under the orders of 
the government, in twenty volumes, from 1704^ to 1732; but for 
methpdical collections of the earlier British treaties we are indebted 
to private enterprise, which produced three volumes in 1710-1713, 
republished witn a fourth volume in 1732. Other three volumes 
appeared in 1772-1781, the collection commonly known as that of 
C. Jenkinson (3 vols.) in 1785 and that of G. Chalmers (2 vols.) in 
!795- The recent treaties made by Great Britain, previously dis- 
persed through the numbers of the London Gazette or embedded in 
masses of diplomatic correspondence presented to parliament at 
irregular intervals, are now officially published as soon as ratified in 
a special 8vo. " Treaty Series " of parliamentary papers commenced 
in 1902. J. Macgregor published (1841-1844) eight volumes of 
commercial treaties, but the great collection of the commercial 
treaties of Great Britain is that of L. Hertslet, librarian of 
the foreign office, continued by his son, Sir Edward Hertslet, 
and later holders of the same office, entitled A Complete Collection 
of the Treaties and Conventions and Reciprocal Regulations at present 
subsisting between Great Britain and Foreign Powers, and of the 
Laws and Orders in Council concerning the same, so far as they 
relate to Commerce and Navigation, the Slave Trade, Post Office, &c., 
and to the Privileges and Interests of the Subjects of the Contracting 
Parties (24 vols., 1820-1907). Sir Edward Hertslet also commenced 
in 1875 a series of volumes containing Treaties and Tariff s regulating 
the Trade between Britain and Foreign Nations, and Extracts of 
Treaties between Foreign Powers, containing the Most Favoured 
Nation Clauses applicable to Great Britain. Both of these publica- 
tions are still continued. He also published, in 1891, Treaties, 
&c., concluded between Great Britain and Persia, and between 
Persia and Foreign Powers; and, in 1896, a similar work on 
treaties with China The treaties affecting British India are 
officially set out, with historical notes, in A Collection of Treaties, 



TREATIES 



231 



Engagements and Sannuds relating to India and Neighbouring 
Countries, by C. V. Aitchison. This work, with the index, extends 
to eight volumes, which appeared at Calcutta in 1862-1866. 
A continuation by A. C. Talbot was published in 1876, and it 
was brought up to date by the government of India in 1909. 
Useful lists of national collections of treaties will be found in the 
Revue de droit international for 1886, pp. 169-187, and in the Marquis 
Olivart's Catalogue de ma bibliotheque (1899-1910). 

It may be worth while to add a list of some of the more impor- 
tant treaties, now wholly or partially in force, some of which are 
List ot discussed under separate headings, especially those 
important to which Great Britain is a party, classified accord- 
TreaOes. j n g to tne j r objects, in the order suggested above. 

i. The principal treaties affecting the distribution of territory 
between the various states of Central Europe are those of 
Westphalia (Osnabruck and Miinster), 1648; Utrecht, 1713; 
Paris and Hubertusburg, 1763; for the partition of Poland, 1772, 
1793; Vienna, 1815; London, for the separation of Belgium 
from the Netherlands, 1831, 1839; Zurich, for the cession of a 
portion of Lombardy to Sardinia, 1859; Vienna, as to Schleswig- 
Holstein, 1864; Prague, whereby the German Confederation 
was dissolved, Austria recognizing the new North German Con- 
federation, transferring to Prussia her rights over Schleswig- 
Holstein, and ceding the remainder of Lombardy to Italy, 1866; 
Frankfort, between France and the new German Empire, 1871. 
The disintegration of the Ottoman Empire has been regulated 
by the Great Powers, or some of them, in the treaties of London, 
1832, 1863, 1864, and of Constantinople, 1881, with reference 
to Greece; and by the treaties of Paris, 1856; London, 1871; 
Berlin, 1878; London, 1883, with reference to Montenegro, 
Rumania, Servia, Bulgaria and the navigation of the Danube. 
The encroachments of Russia upon Turkey, previous to the 
Crimean War, are registered in a series of treaties beginning 
with that of Kuchuk-Kainarji, 1774, and end:'ng with that of 
Adrianople in 1829. The independence of tUe United States of 
America was acknowledged by Great Britain in the treaty of 
peace signed at Paris in 1 7 83 . The boundary between the United 
States and the British possessions is regulated in detail by the 
treaties of Washington of 1842, 1846, 1871, 1903 and 1908. 
The territorial results of the war of 1898 between the United 
States and Spain are registered in the treaty of 1899, and those 
of the Russo-Japanese War in the treaty of Portsmouth of 1905. 
Various causes of possible misunderstanding between Great 
Britain and France were removed by the convention of 1904; 
and a similar treaty was concluded with Russia in 1908. The 
navigation of the Suez Canal is regulated by a treaty of 1888, 
and that of the future Panama Canal by one of 1901. The boun- 
daries of the territories, protectorates and spheres of influence 
in Africa of Great Britain, Germany, France, Italy, Belgium and 
Portugal have been readjusted by a series of treaties, especially 
between the years 1885 and 1894. Switzerland, Belgium, Corfu 
and Paxo and Luxemburg are respectively neutralized by the 
treaties of Vienna, 1815, and of London, 1839, 1864, 1867. A 
list of treaties of guarantee supposed to be then in force, to 
which Great Britain is a party, beginning with a treaty made 
with Portugal in 1373, was presented to parliament in 1859. 
Treaties of alliance were made between Great Britain and 
Japan in 1902 and 1905. 

ii. For the innumerable conventions, to which Great Britain 
is a party, as to commerce, consular jurisdiction, fisheries and 
the slave trade, it must suffice to refer to the exhaustive and 
skilfully devised index to vols. 1-21 of Hertslet's Commercial 
Treaties, published in 1905 as vol. 22 of the series. 

iii. The social intercourse of the world is facih'tated by con- 
ventions, such as those establishing the Latin monetary union, 
1865; the international telegraphic union, 1865; the universal 
postal union, 1874; the international bureau of weights and 
measures, 1875; providing for the protection of submarine 
cables in time of peace, 1884; the railway traffic union, 1890. 
Such treaties, now very numerous, are somewhat misleadingly 
spoken of by recent writers (L. von Stein and F. de Martens) as 
constituting a " droit administratif international." 

iv. For the now operative treaties of extradition to which 



Great Britain is a party, it will be sufficient to refer to the article 
EXTRADITION. It may be observed that all of them, except 
the treaty of 1842, now, however, varied by one of 1889, with 
the United States, are subsequent to, and governed by, the 
provisions of 33 & 34 Viet. c. 52, The Extradition Act 1870. 
Before the passing of this general act it had been necessary to 
pass a special act for giving effect to each treaty of extradition. 
The most complete collection of treaties of extradition is that of 
F. J. Kirchner, L' Extradition, Recueil, &<;. (London, 1883). 

v. General conventions, to which most of the European 
states are parties, were signed in 1883 at Paris for the protection 
of industrial, and in 1886 at Bern for the protection of literary 
and artistic, property, and, from 1899 onwards, a series of general 
treaties, to none of which is Great Britain a party, have been 
signed at the Hague, as the result of conferences, invited by the 
government of the Netherlands, for solving some of the more 
pressing questions arising out of " the conflict of laws." 

vi. Quasi-legislation by treaty has been directed mainly 
to encouraging the settlement of international disputes by 
peaceful methods, and to regulating the conduct of warfare. 

The first peace conference, held at the Hague in 1899, devoted 
much time to producing the generally accepted " Convention for 
the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes." An impor- 
tant achievement of this convention was the establishment at the 
Hague of an international tribunal, always ready to arbitrate 
upon cases submitted to it; and the convention recommended 
recourse not only to arbitration, but also to good offices and 
mediation, and to international commissions of inquiry. This 
convention has now been superseded by the revised and amplified 
edition of it adopted by the second peace conference in 1907. 
The provisions of neither convention are obligatory, but merely 
" facultative," amounting only to recommendations. Great 
efforts were made, especially in 1907, but without success, to 
draf c a generaUy acceptable convention, making resort to arbitra- 
tion compulsory, at any rate with reference to certain classes of 
questions. In the meantime, however, agreements of this nature 
between one power and another have multiplied rapidly within 
the last few years (see ARBITRATION). 

Certain bodies of rules intended to mitigate the horrors of war 
have received the adhesion of most civilized states. Thus the 
declaration of Paris, 1856 (to which, however, the United States, 
Venezuela and Bolivia have not yet formally acceded), prohibits 
the use of privateers and protects the commerce of neutrals; 
the Geneva conventions, 1864 and 1906, give protection to the 
wounded and to those in attendance upon them; the St Peters- 
burg declaration, 1868, prohibits the employment of explosive 
bullets weighing less than 400 grammes; and the three Hague 
declarations of 1899 prohibit respectively (i) the launching of 
projectiles from balloons, (2) the use of projectiles for spreading 
harmful gases, and (3) the use of expanding bullets. The second 
Hague conference, of 1907, besides revising the convention made 
by the first conference, of 1899, as to the laws of war on land, 
produced new conventions, dealing respectively with the opening 
of hostilities; neutral rights and duties in land warfare; the 
status of enemy merchant ships at the outbreak of war; the con- 
version of merchant ships into ships of war; submarine mines; 
bombardment by naval forces; the application of the Geneva 
principles to naval warfare; the rights of maritime capture; the 
establishment of an international prize court; and neutral rights 
and duties in maritime warfare. These conventions, as well as 
a republication of the first Hague declaration, which had in 1907 
expired by efflux of time, have been already largely ratified. 

It were greatly to be wished that the official publication of 
treaties could be rendered more speedy and more methodical 
than it now is. The labours of the publicist would also be much 
lightened were it possible to consolidate the various general 
collections of diplomatic acts into a new Corps diplomatique 
universel, well furnished with cross references, and with brief 
annotations showing how far each treaty is supposed to be still 
in force. 

Literature. In addition to the works already cited in the course 
of this article the following are for various reasons important: 



232 



TREATISE TREBIZOND 



Joh. Lupus, De confederatione principum (Strassburg, 1511, the first 
published monograph upon the subject); Bodinus, Dissertatio 
de contractibus summarum pptestatum (Halle, 1696); Neyron, De vi 
foederum inter gentes (Gottingen, 1778); Neyron, Essai historique 
et politique sur les garanties, &c. (Gottingen, 1797); Wachter, De 
modis tollendi pacla inter gentes (Stuttgart, 1780); Dresch, Ueber 
die Dauer der V olkervertrage (Landshut, 1808) ; C. Bergbohm, Staats- 
vertrage und Cesetze als Quellen des Volkerrechts (Dorpat, 1877); 
Jellinek, Die rechttiche Natur der Statemiertrage (Vienna, 1880); 
D. Donati, Trattati internazionali nel diritto costituzionale (1907); 
Holzendorff, Handbuch des Volkerrechts (1887) vol. iii. ; Fleischmann, 
Volkerrechtsquellen in Auswahl herausgegeben (1905); de Lapradelle, 
Recueil des arbitrages international (1905); J. B. Moore, History 
and Digest of the International Arbitrations to which the United States 
has been a Party (1898) 6 yols. For a list of the principal " con- 
cordats," see Calvo, Droit international theorique et pratique t. i. 
On the history of the great European treaties generally, see the 
Histoire abregee des traites de paix entre les puissances de VEurope, by 
Koch, as recast and continued by Scholl (1817 and 1818), and again 
by Count de Garden in 1848-1859, as also the Recueil manuel of 
De Martens and Cussy, continued by Geffcken. For the peace of West- 
phalia, Putter's Geist des westphdlischen Friedens (1795) is useful; 
for the congress of Vienna Kliiber's Acten des Wiener Congresses 
(1815-1819) and Le Congres de Vienne et les traites de 1815 precede 
des conferences de Dresde, de Prague et de Chatillon, suivi des Congres 
d' Aix-la-Chapelle, Troppau, Laybach et Verone, by Count Angeberg. 
The last-mentioned writer has also published collections of treaties 
relating to Poland, 1762-1862; to the Italian question, 1859; to the 
Congress of Paris, 1856 and the revision of its work by the Conference 
of London, 1871 ; and to the Franco-German War of 1870-71. For 
the treaties regulating the Eastern question see The European Con- 
cert in the Eastern Question, by T. E. Holland (1885) and La Turquie 
et le Tanzimat, by E. Engelhardt (1882-1884). (T. E. H.) 

TREATISE, a written composition, dealing fully and syste- 
matically with the principles of some subject of serious impor- 
tance. The M. Eng. tretis, O. Fr. tretis, or treitis, is a doublet 
of " treaty," which also meant a discourse or account. Both 
words are to be referred to Lat. tractare, to treat, handle, 
frequentative of trahere, tractus, to draw. " Treatise " thus 
would mean, by etymology, something well handled, nicely made. 

TREBIA (mod. Trebbia) , a river of Cisalpine Gaul, a tributary 
of the Padus (Po) into which it falls some 4 m. west of Placentia 
(Piacenza). It is remarkable for the victory gained on its banks 
by Hannibal over the Romans in 218 B.C. The latest investi- 
gations make it clear that Polybius's account, according to which 
the battle took place on the left bank of the river, is to be preferred 
to that of Livy (see W. J. Kromayer in Anzeiger der pliil. hist. 
Klasse der k. Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna, October 14, 
1908). Its valley is followed past Bobbio by the modern 
highroad from Piacenza to Genoa (88 m.) v 

TREBINJE, a town of Herzegovina, situated 9 m. N. E. of 
Ragusa, on the small river TrebinjCica, and on a branch of 
the railway from Metkovic to Castelnuovo, near Cattaro. Pop. 
(1895), about 1700. Trebmje is built in a low-lying oasis among 
the desolate limestone mountains, close to the Dalmatian and 
Montenegrin frontiers. Its half-ruined wall and citadel testify 
to its former strategic importance. Trebinje was built by the 
Slavs, probably on the site of a Roman town laid waste by the 
Saracens in 840. In the tenth century Constantine Porphyro- 
gcnitus mentions it as Terbunia. It commanded the road from 
Ragusa to Constantinople, traversed, in 1096, by Raymond of 
Toulouse and his crusaders. Under the name of Tribunia or 
Travunja (the Trebigne of the Ragusans), it belonged to the 
Servian Empire until 1355. In 1483 it was captured by the 
Turks. 

TREBIZOND (Gr. Trapezus), a city of Asia Minor, situated 
on the Black Sea, near its south-eastern angle. From the time of 
its foundation as a Greek colony to the present day it has always 
been a considerable emporium of commerce, and it was for two 
centuries and a half the capital of an empire. Its importance is 
due to its command of the point where the chief trade route from 
Persia and Central Asia to Europe, over the table-land of Armenia 
by Bayezid and Erzerum, descends to the sea. Its safety also 
was secured by the barrier of rugged mountains (7000 to 8000 ft.) 
which separates its district from the rest of Asia Minor. So 
complete is the watershed that no streams pass through these 
ranges, and there is hardly any communication in this direction 
between the interior of Asia Minor and the coast. For the same 



reason, together with its northern aspect, the climate is humid 
and temperate, unlike that of the inland regions, which are ex- 
posed to great extremes of heat in summer and cold in winter. 
The position which was occupied by the Hellenic and medieval 
city is a sloping table of ground (whence the original name of the 
place, Trapezus, the " Table-land "), which falls in steep rocky 
precipices on the two sides, where two deep valleys, descending 
from the interior, run parallel at no great distance from one 
another down to the sea. The whole is still enclosed by the Byzan- 
tine walls, which follow the line of the cliffs and are carried along 
the sea-face; and the upper part of the level, which is separated 
from the lower by an inner cross wall, forms the castle; while at 
the highest point, where a sort of neck is formed between the 
two valleys, is the keep which crowns the whole. On each side, 
about half-way between the keep and the sea, these ravines are 
crossed by massive bridges, and on the farther side of the western- 
most of these, away from the city, a large tower and other fortifi- 
cations remain. The area of the ancient city is now called the 
Kaleh, and is inhabited by the Turks; eastward of this is the 
extensive Christian quarter, and beyond this again a low promon- 
tory juts northward into the sea, partly covered with the houses 
of a well-built suburb, which is the principal centre of commerce. 
The harbour lies on the eastern side of this promontory, but it 
is an unsafe roadstead, being unprotected towards the north-east 
and having been much silted up, so that vessels cannot approach 
within a considerable distance of the shore. From here the 
caravans start for Persia, and at certain periods of the year long 
trains of camels may be seen, and Persian merchants conspicuous 
by their high black caps and long robes. The route which these 
caravans follow is a chaussee as far as Erzerum, but this in places 
is too much broken to admit of the transit of wheeled vehicles. 
The railway by Batoum to Baku by way of Tiflis has tended 
greatly to turn the channel of commerce from Trebizond into 
Russian territory, since it helps to open the route to Erivan, 
Tabriz and the whole of Persia. The total population of 
the place amounts to about 40,000, of whom 22,000 are 
Moslems and 18,000 Christians. Great Britain and all the 
larger European states have consulates there. 

The vilayet, of which Trebizond is the chief town, consists 
of a long irregular strip of coast country, the eastern half of 
which is deeply indented and mountainous. 

History. The city of Trapezus was a colony of Sinope, but it 
first comes into notice at the time of the Retreat of the Ten 
Thousand, who found repose there. Notwithstanding its com- 
mercial importance, the remoteness of its position prevented it 
from being much known to fame either in the Hellenic or the early 
medieval period; its greatness dates from the time of the fourth 
crusade (1204), when the Byzantine Empire was dismembered 
and its capital occupied by the Latins. During the confusion 
that followed that event Alexius Comnenus escaped into Asia, 
and, having collected an army of Iberian mercenaries, entered 
Trebizond, where he was acknowledged as the legitimate sove- 
reign, and assumed the title of Grand Comnenus. Though only 
twenty-two years of age, Alexius was a man of ability and 
resolute will, and he succeeded without difficulty in making 
himself master of the greater part of the southern coast 
of the Black Sea. The empire thus founded continued to 
exist until 1461, when the city was taken by Mahommed II. 
The cause of this long duration, and at the same time the 
secret of its history, is to be found in the isolated position 
of Trebizond and its district, between the mountains and the 
sea, which has already been described. By this means it was 
able to defy both the Seljuks and the Ottomans, and to maintain 
its independence against the emperors of Nicaea and Constanti- 
nople. But for the same reason its policy was always narrow, so 
that it never exercised any beneficial influence on the world at 
large. It was chiefly in the way of matrimonial alliances that it 
was brought into contact with other states. The imperial 
family were renowned for their beauty, and the princesses of this 
race were sought as brides by Byzantine emperors of the dynasty 
of the Palaeologi, by Western nobles, and by Mahommedan 
princes; and the connexions thus formed originated a variety of 



TREBLE TREBULA 



233 



diplomatic relations and friendly or offensive alliances. The 
palace of Trebizond was famed for its magnificence, the court for 
its luxury and elaborate ceremonial, while at the same time it was 
frequently a hotbed of intrigue and immorality. The Grand 
Comneni were also patrons of art and learning, and in consequence 
of this Trebizond was resorted to by many eminent men, by whose 
agency the library of the palace was provided with valuable 
manuscripts and the city was adorned with splendid buildings. 
The writers of the time speak with enthusiasm of its lofty towers, 
of the churches and monasteries in the suburbs, and especially of 
the gardens, orchards and olive groves. It excited the admir- 
ation of Gonzales Clavijo, the Spanish envoy, when he passed 
through it on his way to visit the court of Timur at Samarkand 
(Clavijo, Historia del gran Tamorlan, p. 84); and Cardinal 
Bessarion, who was a native of the place, in the latter part of 
his life, when the city had passed into the hands of the Mahomme- 
dans, and he was himself a dignitary of the Roman Church, so 
little forgot the impression it had made upon him that he wrote a 
work entitled "The Praise of Trebizond " (' EYKcb/uopTpaTrcf OVVTOS) , 
which exists in manuscript at Venice. Little was known of the 
history of the empire of Trebizond until the subject was taken in 
hand by Professor Fallmerayer of Munich, who discovered the 
chronicle of Michael Panaretus among the books of Cardinal 
Bessarion, and from that work, and other sources of information 
which were chiefly unknown up to that time, compiled his 
Geschichte des Kaiserthums lion Trapezunt (Munich, 1827). From 
time to time the emperors of Trebizond paid tribute to the Seljuk 
sultans of Iconium, to the grand khans of the Mongols, to Timur 
the Tatar, to the Turkoman chieftains, and to the Ottomans; but 
by means of skilful negotiations they were enabled practically to 
secure their independence. We find them also at war with many 
of these powers, and with the Genoese, who endeavoured to 
monopolize the commerce of the Black Sea. The city was several 
times besieged, the most formidable attack being that which 
occurred in the reign of AndronicusL, the second emperor, when 
the Seljuks, under the command of Melik, the son of the great 
sultan Ala-ed-din, first assaulted the northern wall in the direc- 
tion of the sea, and afterwards endeavoured to storm the upper 
citadel by night. They failed, however, in both attempts; and 
in the latter, owing to the darkness, and to the occurrence of a 
violent storm which suddenly swelled the torrents in the ravines, 
their force was thrown into inextricable confusion, and they were 
compelled to abandon their camp and make the best of their 
escape from the country. So great was the strength of the 
fortifications that Mahommed II. might have experienced much 
difficulty in reducing it, had it not been for the pusillanimous 
conduct of David, the last emperor, who surrendered the place 
almost unconditionally. 

Ancient Memorials. Several interesting monuments of this 
period remain at Trebizond in the form of churches in the 
Byzantine style of architecture. One of these is within the area 
of the old city, viz. the church of the Panaghia Chrysokephalos, 
or Virgin of the Golden Head, a large and massive but exces- 
sively plain building, which is now the Orta-hissar mosque. 
On the farther side of the eastern ravine stands a smaller but 
very well proportioned structure, the church of St Eugenius, 
the patron saint of Trebizond, now the Yeni Djuma djami, or 
New Friday mosque. Still more important is the church of 
Haghia Sophia, which occupies a conspicuous position over- 
looking the sea, about 2 m. west of the city. The porches 
of this are handsomely ornamented, and about 100 ft. from 
it rises a tall campanile, the inner walls of which have been 
covered in parts with frescoes of religious subjects, though these 
are now much defaced. But the most remarkable memorial 
of the middle ages that exists in all this district is the monastery 
of Sumelas, which is situated about 25 m. from Trebizond, at 
the side of a rocky glen, at a height of 4000 ft. above the sea. 
Its position is most extraordinary, for it occupies a cavern in 
the middle of the face of a perpendicular cliff 1000 ft. 
high, where the white buildings offer a marked contrast to the 
brown rock which forms their setting. It is approached by a 
zigzag path at the side of the cliff, from which a flight of stone 



steps and a wooden staircase give access to the monastery. The 
valley below is filled with the richest vegetation, the under- 
growth being largely composed of azaleas and rhododendrons. 
An antiquity of 1 500 years is claimed for the foundation of the 
monastery, but it is certain that the first person who raised it 
to importance was the emperor Alexius Comnenus III. of Trebi- 
zond; he rebuilt it in 1360, and richly endowed it. The golden 
bull of that emperor, which became thenceforth the charter of 
its foundation, is still preserved; it is one of the finest specimens 
of such documents, and contains portraits of Alexius himself 
and his queen. The monastery also possesses the firman of 
Mahommed II. by which he accorded ^ his protection to the 
monks when he became master of the country. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. J. Ph. Fallmerayer, Geschichte des Kaiserthums 
von Trapezunt (Munich, 1827); also Fragmente aus dem Orient, vol. i. 
(Stuttgart, 1845); C. Texier.^iie Mineure (Paris, 1862); C. Texier 
and R. P. Pullan, Byzantine Architecture (London, 1864); G. Finlay, 
History of Greece, vol. iv. (Oxford, 1877); H. F. Tozer, Turkish 
Armenia and Eastern Asia Minor (London, 1881). (H. F. T.) 

TREBLE (a doublet of " triple," three-fold, from Lat. triplus, 
triple; cf. " double " from duplus), the term applied, in music, 
to the high or acute part of the musical system, as opposed to 
and distinguished from the " bass," the lower or grave part. 
The middle C is the practical division between the parts. The 
word is also used as equivalent to the " soprano " voice, the 
highest pitch or range of the human voice, but generally it is 
confined to a boy's voice of this quality, " soprano " being used 
of the corresponding female voice. The treble-clef is the G-clef 
on the second line. The origin of this application of the term 
" treble," triplus, threefold, to the highest voice or part is due 
to the fact that in the early plain-song the chief melody was given 
to the tenor, the second part to the alto (discantus) and where a 
third part (triplum) was added it was assigned to the highest 
voice, the soprano or treble. 

TRBUCHET, a medieval siege engine, employed either to 
batter masonry or to throw projectiles over walls. It was 
developed from the post-classical Roman onager (wild ass), 
which derived its name from the kicking action of the machine. 
It consisted of a frame placed on the ground to which a vertical 
frame of solid timber was rigidly fixed at its front end ; through 
the vertical frame ran an axle, which had a single stout spoke. 
On the extremity of the spoke was a cup to receive the projectile. 
In action the spoke was forced down, against the tension of 
twisted ropes or other springs, by a windlass, and then suddenly 
released. The spoke thus kicked the crosspiece of the vertical 
frame, and the projectile at its extreme end was shot forward. 
In the trebuchet the means of propulsion was a counter- weight. 
The axle which was near the top of a high strutted vertical 
frame served as the bridge of a balance, the shorter arm of which 
carried the counter-weight and the longer arm the carrier for the 
shot. An alternative name for the tr6buchet is the mangonel 
(mangonneau) . 

TREBULA, the name of five ancient towns in Italy, (i) 
TREBULA in Samnium, a town of the Caraceni, on the left bank 
of the Sangro, some 20 m. below Castel di Sangrojthe church of 
the Madonna degli Spineti near Quadri marks the site. It 
appears to have been a municipium, but we only know of its 
existence in Hadrian's time. (2) TREBULA in Campania, 
between Saticula and Suessula. The site is probably identical 
with the hills bearing the modern name Tripaola (about 1000 ft. 
above sea level) above the entrance to the valley of Maddaloni. 
It is possibly this Trebula the citizens of which received Latin 
rights in 303 B.C. Its territory extended as far as the Via Appia, 
and its place was taken in imperial times by the Vicus Nova- 
nensis, on the road itself, near Suessula. (3) TREBULA BALLI- 
ENSIS (mod. Treglia), also in Campania, 22 m. north of Capua, 
in the mountains, about 1000 ft. above sea-level. It revolted 
to Hannibal and was reduced to obedience by Fabius. Remains 
of walls, aqueduct and tombs exist. Its territory was men- 
tioned in the projected distributions of land in Cicero's time: 
and its wine was well thought of under Nero. It was a muni- 
cipium. (4) TREBULA MUTUESCA in the Sabine country, 2 m. 



234 



TREDEGAR TREE-CREEPER 



east of the point where the Via Caecilia diverges from the Via 
Salaria. It lies about i m. south-west of the modern Monte- 
leone, and an amphitheatre and other remains are visible. In 
a dedication made there by the consul Mummius in 146 B.C. it 
is spoken of as a views, but when the praefecturae were abolished 
it became a municipium. The post station of Vicus Novus on 
the Via Salaria (mod. Osteria Li Massacci) belonged to its 
territory (see N. Persichetti in Romische Mitteilungen, 1898, 
P- !93)- (s) TREBULA SUFFENAS is generally placed 6 m. south of 
Reate (mod. Rieti) on the Via Quinctia, but is with considerable 
probability identified with Ciciliano, 10 m. east of Tivoli, 2030 ft. 
above sea-level, by Q. Cuntz (Jahreshefle des oesterr. arch. 
Instituts, 1899, ii. 89), who combines the evidence of inscriptions 
and of the description in Martial (v. 71), with a new interpreta- 
tion of the Itineraries. There are remains of an ancient road, 
with substructures in rough polygonal work ascending to it in 
zigzags. (T. As.) 

TREDEGAR, an urban district in the western parliamentary 
division of Monmouthshire, England, on the Sirhowy river, 
24 m. north of Cardiff, on a joint line of the London & North- 
Western and the Rhymney railways. Pop. (1901), 18,497. 
It stands at an elevation of about 1000 ft., and owes its existence 
to the establishment in the beginning of the igth century of the 
works of the Tredegar Iron and Coal Company, which employ 
most of the large industrial population. The place gave the 
title of Baron Tredegar (c. 1859) to Sir Charles Morgan Robinson 
Morgan, Bart. (1792-1875), whose grandfather, Sir Charles 
Gould, Bart., married the heiress of John Morgan of Tredegar 
and changed his name to Morgan. He was M.P. for Brecknock 
in 1835-1847. He married a granddaughter of the ist Lord 
Rodney. His son Godfrey (b. 1830), who succeeded to the 
barony, was created Viscount Tredegar in 1905; he had served 
in the Crimea and taken part in the famous Balaclava charge. 

TREDGOLD, THOMAS (1788-1829), English engineer, was 
born at Brandon, near Durham, on the 22nd of August 1788, and 
at the age of fourteen was apprenticed to a carpenter. In 1808 
he went to Scotland, and after working there as a journeyman 
for five years, obtained employment in London with an architect. 
He began to practice as a civil engineer on his own account in 
1823, but much of his time was devoted to the preparation of 
his engineering text-books, which gained a wide reputation. 
They included Elementary Principles of Carpentry (1820), almost 
the first book of its kind in English; Practical Treatise on the 
Strength of Cast Iron and other Metals (1824) ; Principles of Warm- 
ing and Ventilating Public Buildings (1824); Practical Treatise 
on Railroads and Carriages ( 1825); and The Steam Engine (1827). 
He died in London on the a8th of January 1829. 

TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- ), English 
actor and manager, was born in London, on the I7th of Decem- 
ber 1853, the son of Julius Beerbohm, a London merchant of 
German parentage; his half-brother, Max Beerbohm (b. 1872), 
became well known as a dramatic critic, a miscellaneous writer 
and caricaturist. Taking the stage name of Beerbohm Tree he 
made his first professional appearance in London in 1876. 
After some years of varied experience he made a striking success 
in 1884 as the curate in The Private Secretary, but he was making 
himself well known meanwhile in dramatic circles as an admir- 
able actor in many r&les. In September 1887 he became lessee 
and manager of the Haymarket theatre, London, where his 
representations of melodramatic " character " parts, as in Jim 
the Penman, The Red Lamp, and A Man's Shadow, were highly 
successful. His varied talents as an actor were displayed, 
however, not only in a number of modern dramas, such as H. A. 
Jones's Dancing Girl, but also in romantic parts such as Grin- 
goire, and in the production of so essentially a literary play as 
Henley's Beau Austin; and in classic parts his ability as a come- 
dian was shown in The Merry Wives of Windsor, in which he 
played Falstaff, and as a tragedian in Hamlet; his presentations 
of Shakespeare were notable too as carrying forward the methods 
of realistic staging inaugurated at the Lyceum under Irving. 
In 1897 Mr Tree moved to the new Her Majesty's (afterwards 



His Majesty's) theatre, opening with Gilbert Parker's Seats oj 
the Mighty; but his chief successes were in Stephen Phillips's 
poetical dramas, and in his splendid revivals of Shakespeare 
(especially Richard II. and the Merchant of Venice). The 
magnificence of the mounting, the originality and research shown 
in the " business " of his productions, and his own versatility 
in so many different types of character, made his management 
memorable in the history of the London stage; and on the death 
of Sir Henry Irving he was generally recognized as the leader in 
his profession. His wife (Maud Holt), an accomplished actress, 
and their daughter Viola, were also prominently associated with 
him. In 1907 he took his company to Berlin at the invitation of 
the German emperor, and gave a selection from his repertoire 
with great success. In the same year he established a school of 
dramatic art, for the training of actors, in London; and in this 
and other ways he was prominent in forwarding the interests of 
the stage. He was knighted in 1909. 

TREE (O. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. trae, Swed. trad, tree, Ira, 
timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. 6pDs, oak, and 
dopv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. ddru, 
wood) , the term, applied in a wide sense, to all plants which grow 
with a permanent single woody stem or trunk of some height, 
branching out at some distance from the ground. There is a 
somewhat vague dividing line, in popular nomenclature, between 
" shrubs " and " trees," the former term being usually applied 
to plants with several stems, of lower height, and bushy in 
growth. The various species to which the name " tree " can 
be given are treated under their individual titles, e.g. oak, ash, 
elm, &c. ; the articles FIR and PINE treat of two large groups of 
conifers; general information is provided by the articles PLANTS 
and GYMNOSPERMS; tree cultivation will be found under FORESTS 
AND FORESTRY and HORTICULTURE; and the various types of 
tree whose wood is useful for practical purposes under TIMBER. 
Apart from this general meaning of the word, the chief trans- 
ferred use is that for a piece of wood used for various specific 
purposes, as a framework, bar, &c., such as the tree of a saddle, 
axle-tree, cross-tree, &c. 

TREE-CREEPER, one of the smallest of British birds, and, 
regard being had to its requirements, one very generally distri- 
buted. It is the Cerlhiafamiliaris of ornithology, and is remark- 
able for the stiffened shafts of its long and pointed tail-feathers, 
aided by which, and by its comparatively large feet, it climbs 
the trunks or branches of trees, invariably proceeding upwards or 
outwards and generally in a spiral direction, as it seeks the small 
insects that are hidden in the bark and form its chief food. When 
in the course of its search it nears the end of a branch or the top 
of a trunk, it flits to another, always alighting lower down than 
the place it has left, and so continues its work. Inconspicuous 
in colour for its upper plumage is mostly of various shades of 
brown mottled with white, buff and tawny, and beneath it is of a 
silvery white the tree-creeper is far more common than the 
incurious suppose; but, attention once drawn to it, it can be 
frequently seen and at times heard, for though a shy singer its 
song is loud and sweet. The nest is neat, generally placed in a 
chink formed by a half-detached piece of bark, which secures 
it from observation, and a considerable mass of material is 
commonly used to stuff up the opening and give a sure founda- 
tion for the tiny cup, in which are laid from six to nine eggs of 
a translucent white, spotted or blotched with rust-colour. 

The tree-creeper inhabits almost the whole of Europe as well as 
Algeria and has been traced across Asia to Japan. It is now recog- 
nized as an inhabitant of the greater part of North America, though 
for a time examples from that part of the world, which differed 
slightly in the tinge of the plumage, were accounted a distinct species 
(C. americana) and even those from Mexico and Guatemala (C. mexi- 
cana) have lately been referred to the same. It therefore occupies an 
area not exceeded in extent by that of many passerine birds and 
is one of the strongest witnesses to the close alliance of the so-called 
Nearctic and Palaearctic regions. 

Allied to the tree-creeper, but without its lengthened and stiff 
tail-feathers, is the genus Tichodroma, the single member of which 
is the wall-creeper (T. muraria) of the Alps and some other mountain- 
ous parts of Europe and Asia. It is occasionally seen in Switzerland, 
fluttering like a big butterfly against the face of a rock conspicuous 



TREE-FERN TREE- WORSHIP 



235 



from the scarlet-crimson of its wing-coverts and its white spotted 
primaries. Its bright hue is hardly visible when the bird is at rest, 
and it then presents a dingy appearance of grey and black. It is 
a species of wide range, extending from Spain to China; and, though 
but seldom leaving its cliffs, it nas wandered even so far as England. 
Merrett (Pinax, p. 177) in 1667 included it as a British bird, and the 
correspondence between Marsham and Gilbert White (Proc. Norf. 
and Nona. Nat. Society, ii. 180) proves that an example was shot m 
Norfolk, on the 3Oth of October 1792; while another is reported 
(Zoologist, 2nd series, p. 4839) to have been killed in Lancashire on 
the 8th of May 1872. 

The passerine family Certhiidae contains a number of genera of 
birds to which the general name "creeper" is applied; they occur 
in North America, Europe and Asia, the greater part of Africa, and 
Australia and New Guinea. (A. N.) 

TREE-FERN. In old and well-grown specimens of some of 
the familiar ferns of temperate climates the wide-spreading crown 
of fronds may be observed to rise at a distance often of a good 
many inches above the ground, and from a stem of consider- 
able thickness. The common male fern Lastraea (Filix-mas) 
affords the commonest instance of this; higher and thicker 
trunks are, however, occasionally presented by the royal fern 
(Osmunda regalis), in which a height of 2 ft. may be attained, 
and this with very considerable apparent thickness, due, however, 
to the origin and descent of a new series of adventitious roots 
from the bases of each annual set of fronds. Some tropical 
members and allies of these genera become more distinctly 
tree-like, e.g. Todea; Pteris also has some sub-arboreal forms. 
Oleandra is branched and shrub-like, while Angiopteris and Mar- 
attia may also rise to 2 ft. or more. But the tree-ferns proper 
are practically included within the family Cyatheaceae. This 
includes seven genera (Cyathea, Alsophila, Hemitelia, Dicksonia, 
Thyrsopteris, Cibotium and Balantium) and nearly 300 species, 
of which a few are herbaceous, but the majority arboreal and 
palm-like, reaching frequently a height of 50 ft. or more, Also- 
phila excelsa of Norfolk Island having sometimes measured 60 to 
80 ft. The fronds are rarely simple or simply pinnate, but usually 
tripinnate or decompound, and may attain a length of 20 ft., thus 
forming a splendid crown of foliage. The stem may occasionally 
branch into many crowns. 

The genera are of wide geographical range, mostly within the 
tropics; but South Australia, New Zealand, and the southern Pacific 
islands all possess their tree-ferns. In Tasmania Alsophila australis 
has been found up to the snow-level, and in the humid and mountain- 
ous regions of the tropics tree-ferns are also found to range up to a 
considerable altitude. The fronds may either contribute to the 
apparent thickness of the stem by leaving more or less of their bases, 
which become hardened and persistent, or they may be articulated 
to the stem and fall off, leaving characteristic scars in spiral series 
upon the stem. The stem is frequently much increased in apparent 
thickness by the downgrowth of aerial roots, forming a black coating 
several inches or even a foot in thickness, but its essential structure 
differs little in principle from that familiar in the rhizome of the 
common bracken (Pteris). To the ring or rather netted cylinder 
of fibrovascular bundles characteristic of all fernstems scattered 
internal as well as external bundles arising from these are 
superadded and in a tree-fern the outer bundles give off branches 
to the descending roots from the region where they pass into the 
leaves. 

Tree-ferns are cultivated for their beauty alone; a few, however, 
are of some economic applications, chiefly as sources of starch. 
Thus the beautiful Alsophila excelsa of Norfolk Island is said to be 
threatened with extinction for the sake of its sago-like pith, which 
is greedily eaten by hogs; Cyathea medullaris also furnishes a kind 
of sago to the natives of New Zealand, Queensland and the Pacific 
islands. A Javanese species of Dicksonia (D. chrysotricha) furnishes 
silky hairs, which have been imported as a styptic, and the long 
silky or rather woolly hairs, so abundant on the stem and frond-leaves 
in the various species of Cibotium have not only been put to a 
similar use, but in the Sandwich Islands furnish wool for stuffing 
mattresses and cushions, which was formerly an article of export. 
The "Tartarian lamb," or Agnus scythicus of old travellers' tales 
in China and Tartary, is simply the woolly stock of Cibotium 
Barometz, which, when dried and inverted, with all save four of its 
frond-stalks cut away, has a droll resemblance to a toy sheep. 

TREE FROG. Many different groups of tailless Batrachians 
(see FROG) are adapted to arboreal life, which is indicated by 
expansions of the tips of the fingers and toes, adhesive disks which 
assist the animal in climbing on vertical smooth surfaces. These 
disks do not act as suckers, but adhere by rapid and intense 
pressure of the distal phalanx and special muscles upon the lower 



surface, which is also provided with numerous glands producing 
a viscous secretion. 

The best-known tree frog is the little Hyla arbor ea of continental 
Europe, rainette of the French, Laubfrosch of the Germans, 
often kept in glass cylinders provided with a ladder, which the 
frog is supposed to ascender descend in prevision of the weather. 
But recent experiments conducted on scientific principles show 
that not much reliance can be placed on its prophecies. This 
frog is one of the smallest of European Batrachians, rarely 
reaching 2 in. in length; its upper parts are smooth and shiny, 
normally of a bright grass-green, which may change rapidly 
to yellow, brown, olive or black; some specimens, deprived of the 
yellow pigment which contributes to form the green colour, are 
sky-blue or turquoise blue; the lower parts are granulate and 
white. 

The family Hylidae, of which the European tree frog is the type, 
is closely related to the Bufonidae or true roads, being distinguished 
from them by the presence of teeth in the upper jaw and by the claw- 
like shape of the terminal phalanx of the digits. It is a large family, 
represented by about three hundred species, two hundred and fifty 
of which belong to the genus Hyla, distributed over Europe, temperate 
Asia, North Africa, North and South America, Papua and Australia. 
Close allies of Hyla are the Nototrema of Central and South America, 
in which the female develops a dorsal broad pouch in which the 
young undergo part or the whole of their metamorphoses. The 
genus Phyllomedusa, also from Central and South America, are 
quadrumanous; the inner finger and the toe being opposable to the 
others, and the foot being very similar to the hand. These frogs 
deposit their spawn between the leaves of branches overhanging 
water, into which the tadpoles drop and spend their larval life. 

TREE KANGAROO, any individual of the diprotodont mar- 
supial genus Dendrolagus (see MARSUPIALIA) . Three species are 
inhabitants of New Guinea and the fourth is found in North 
Queensland. They differ greatly from all other members of the 
family (Macropodidae), being chiefly arboreal in their habits, and 
feeding on bark, leaves and fruit. Their hinder limbs are 
shorter than in the true kangaroos, and their fore limbs are longer 
and more robust, and have very strong curved and pointed claws. 
The best-known species, Lumholtz' tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus 
lumholtzi), is found in North Queensland. It was named by 
Professor Collett in honour of its discoverer, who described it as 
living on the highest parts of the mountains, in the densest scrub 
and most inaccessible places. It is hunted by the blacks with 
trained dingoes; the flesh is much prized by the blacks, but the 
presence of a worm between the muscles and the skin renders 
it less inviting to Europeans. 

TREE-SHREW, any of the arboreal insectivorous mammals 
of the genus Tupaia. There are about a dozen species, widely 
distributed over the east. There is a general resemblance to 
squirrels. The species differ chiefly in the size and in colour and 
length of the fur. Nearly all have long bushy tails. Their food 
consists of insects and fruit, which they usually seek for in the 
trees. When feeding they often sit on their haunches, holding 
the food, after the manner of squirrels, between their fore paws. 
The pen-tailed tree-shrew (Ptilocercus lowf) , from Borneo, Sumatra 
and the Malay Peninsula, is the second generic representative of 
the family Tupaiidae. The head and body, clothed in blackish- 
brown fur, are about 6 in. long; the tail, still longer, is black, 
scaled and sparsely haired for the upper two-thirds, while the 
lower third is fringed on each side with long hairs, mostly white. 
One shrew from Borneo and a second from the Philippines have 
been referred to a separate genus under the name Urogale everetli 
and U. cylindrura, on account of their uniformly short-haired, in 
place of varied, tails. (See INSECTIVORA.) 

TREE-WORSHIP. Primitive man, observing the growth and 
death of trees, the elasticity of their branches, the sensitiveness 
and the annual decay and revival of their foliage, anticipated in 
his own way the tendency of modern science to lessen the gulf 
between the animal and the vegetable world. When sober Greek 
philosophers (Aristotle, Plutarch) thought that trees had percep- 
tions, passions and reason, less profound thinkers may be excused 
for ascribing to them human conceptions and supernatural 
powers, and for entertaining beliefs which were entirely rational 
and logical from primitive points of view. These beliefs!..were 



236 



TREE-WORSHIP 



part of a small stock of fundamental ideas into which scientific 
knowledge of causation did not enter, ideas which persist in one 
form or another over a large portion of the world, and have even 
found a place in the higher religions, inevitably conditioned 
as these positive faiths are by the soil upon which they flourish. 1 
In fact, the evidence for tree-worship is almost unmanageably 
large, and since comparative studies do not as yet permit a 
concise and conclusive synopsis of the subject, this article will 
confine itself to some of the more prominent characteristics. 

Numerous popular stories reflect a firmly rooted belief in an 
intimate connexion between a human being and a tree, plant 

or flower. Sometimes a man's life depends upon the 
//umanl./fe. tree anc ^ su ff ers when it withers or is injured, and we 

encounter the idea of the external soul, already found 
in the Egyptian " Tale of the Two Brothers " of at least 3000 years 
ago. Here one of the brothers leaves his heart on the top of the 
flower of the acacia and falls dead when it is cut down. Some- 
times, however, the tree is an index, a mysterious token which 
shows its sympathy with an absent hero by weakening or dying, 
as the man becomes ill or loses his life. These two features very 
easily combine, and they agree in representing a to us 
mysterious sympathy between tree- and human-life, which, as a 
matter of fact, frequently manifests itself in recorded beliefs and 
customs of historical times. 2 Thus, sometimes the new-born 
child is associated with a newly planted tree with which its life is 
supposed to be bound up; or, on ceremonial occasions (betrothal, 
marriage, ascent to the throne), a personal relationship of this 
kind is instituted by planting trees, upon the fortunes of which 
the career of the individual depends. Sometimes, moreover, 
boughs or plants are selected and the individual draws omens of 
life and death from the fate of his or her choice. Again, a man will 
put himself into relationship with a tree by depositing upon it 
something which has been in the closest contact with himself 
(hair, clothing, &c.). This is not so unusual as might appear; 
there are numerous examples of the conviction that a sympathetic 
relationship continues to subsist between things which have once 
been connected (e.g. a man and his hair), and this may be illus- 
trated especially in magical practices upon material objects which 
are supposed to affect the former owner. 3 We have to start then 
with the recognition that the notion of a real inter-connexion 
between human life and trees has never presented any difficulty 
to primitive minds. 

The custom of transferring disease or sickness from men to 
trees is well known. 4 Sometimes the hair, nails, clothing, &c., 
of a sickly person are fixed to a tree, or they are forcibly inserted 
in a hole in the trunk, or the tree is split and the patient passes 
through the aperture. Where the tree has been thus injured, its 
recovery and that of the patient are often associated. Different 
explanations may be found of such customs which naturally 
take rather different forms among peoples in different grades of 

1 In this as in other subjects of comparative religion (see SERPENT- 
WORSHIP), the comparative and historical aspects of the problems 
should not be severed from psychology, which investigates the actual 
mental processes themselves. A naive rationalism or intellectualism 
which would ridicule or deplore the modern retention of " primitive" 
ideas has to reckon with the psychology of the modern average 
mental constitution; a more critical and more sympathetic attitude 
may recognize in religious and in other forms of belief and custom 
the necessary consequences of a continuous development linking 
together the highest and the lowest conceptions of life. 

2 See the evidence collected by E. S. Hartland, The Legend of 
Perseus (1894-1896), ii.; J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough (1900), 
iii. 351 sqq., 391 ; and in general, A. E. Crawley, The Idea of the Soul 
(1909). 

There appears to be a fundamental confusion of association, 
likeness and id_entity, which on psychological grounds is quite 
intelligible. _ It is appropriate to notice the custom of injuring an 
enemy by simply beating a tree-stump over which his name had 
previously been pronounced (A.B. Ellis, The Ewe-speaking Peoples of 
the Slave Coast of West Africa, 1890, p. 98). The folk-lore of the 
" name" is widespread and of great antiquity, and certain features 
of it show that a thing (individual or object) and its name were 
not easily disconnected, and that what affected the one affected 
the other. In this case, by pronouncing the name the tree-stump 
f or all intents and purposes became the enemy. 
4 Hartland ii. 142 sqq. ; Frazer, iii. 26 sqq. 



civilization. Much depends upon the theory of illness. In 
India, for example, when the patient is supposed to be tormented 
by a demon, ceremonies are performed to provide it with a tree 
where it will dwell peacefully without molesting the patient so 
long as the tree is left unharmed. 6 Such ideas do not enter, of 
course, when the rite merely removes the illness and selfishly 
endangers the health of those who may approach the tree. 6 
Again, sometimes it is clearly felt that the man's personality has 
been mystically united with some healthy and sturdy tree, and in 
this case we may often presume that such trees already possessed 
some peculiar reputation. The custom finds an analogy when 
hair, nail-clippings, &c., are hung upon a tree for safety's sake lest 
they fall into the hands of an enemy who might injure the owner 
by means of them. 

In almost every part of the world travellers have observed the 
custom of hanging objects upon trees in order to establish some 
sort of a relationship between the offerer and the tree. 
Such trees not infrequently adjoin a well or are accom- 
panied by sacred buildings, pillars, &c. Throughout 
Europe, also, a mass of evidence has been collected testifying to 
the lengthy persistence of " superstitious " practices and beliefs 
concerning them. The trees are known as the scenes of pilgrim- 
ages, ritual ambulation, and the recital of (Christian) prayers. 
Wreaths, ribbons or rags are suspended to win favour for sick 
men or cattle, or merely for " good luck." Popular belief 
associates the sites with healing, bewitching, or mere " wishing "; 
and though now perhaps the tree is the object only of some vague 
respect, there are abundant allusions to the earlier vitality of 
coherent and systematic cults. 7 Decayed or fragmentary though 
the features may be in Europe, modern observers have found in 
other parts of the world more organic examples which enable us, 
not necessarily to reconstruct the fragments which have survived 
in the higher religions and civilizations, but at least to understand 
their earlier significance. In India, for example, the Korwas 
hang rags on the trees which form the shrines of the village-gods. 
In Nebraska the object of the custom was to propitiate the super- 
natural beings and to procure good weather and hunting. In 
South America Darwin recorded a tree honoured by numerous 
offerings (rags, meat, cigars, &c.) ; libations were made to it, and 
horses were sacrificed. 8 If, in this instance, the Gauchos regarded 
the tree, not as the embodiment or abode of Walleechu, but as the 
very god himself, this is a subtle but very important transference 
of thought, the failure to realize which has not been confined to 
those who have venerated trees. 

Among the Arabs the sacred trees are haunted by angels or by 
jinn; sacrifices are made, and the sick who sleep beneath them 
receive prescriptions in their dreams. Here, as 
frequently elsewhere, it is dangerous to pull a bough. spirits* 
This dread of damaging special trees is familiar: Cato 
instructed the woodman to sacrifice to the male or female deity 
before thinning a grove (De re ruslica, 139), while in the Homeric 
poem to Aphrodite the tree nymph is wounded when the tree is 
injured, and dies when the trunk falls. 9 Early Buddhism decided 
that trees had neither mind nor feeling and might lawfully be cut ; 
but it recognized that certain spirits might reside in them, and 
this the modern natives of India firmly believe. Propitiation is 
made before the sacrilegious axe is laid to the holy trees; loss of 
life or of wealth and the failure of rain are feared should they be 
wantonly cut; and there are even trees which it is dangerous to 
climb. 10 The Talein of Burma prays to the tree before he cuts it 
down, and the African woodman will place a fresh sprig upon the 

6 W. Crooke, The Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India 
(1896), ii. 0.2 sqq.; cf. p. 96, where the demon, the cause of sterility, 
is removed to trees. 

6 Cf . E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture (1903), ii. 149 seq., G. L. 
Gomme, Ethnology in Folk-lore (1892), 141 seq. 

'Hartlandii. 175 sqq.; Gomme, pp. 85, 94 seq., 102 sqq., and 
the literature at the end of this article. 

8 Tylor ii. 223 seq. 

9 See generally Frazer i. 170 sqq., Tylor i. 475 sqq., ii. 219 seq. 
For the survival of the idea of modern Greece, see J. C. Lawson, 
Modern Greek Folk-lore (1910), p. 158 seq. 

10 Crooke ii. 77, 87, 90 sqq. 



TREE-WORSHIP 



237 



stump as a new home for the spirit. In the Gold Coast the silk- 
cotton and odum (poison) trees are especially sacred as the abode 
of the two deities, who are honoured by sacrifices even of human 
victims; these indwelt trees must not be cut, and, since all trees 
of these species are under their protection, they can be felled only 
after certain purificatory ceremonies. 1 In general the evidence 
shows that sacred trees must not be injured unless they (i.e. 
their spirits) have been appeased, or means taken to provide the 
occupant with another abode. That the difference between the 
sacred object and the sacred occupant was not always clearly 
drawn is quite intelligible from those beliefs of much less rudi- 
mentary religions which confuse the unessential with the 
essential. 

Again, when the jungle-races of India clear the forests, they 
leave behind certain trees which are carefully protected lest the 
sylvan gods should abandon the locality (Crooke ii. 90). These 
trees embody the local deities much in the same way as the north 
European homestead had a tree or a small grove for the guardian- 
spirit or " lord of the home," and they resemble the tree tutelary 
genius of old German villages and the Japanese trees which are 
the terrestrial dwelling-places of the guardian of the hamlets. 2 
Such beliefs as these are more significant when trees are associated 
with the spirits of the dead. Trees were planted around graves 
in Greece, and in Roman thought groves were associated with the 
manes of the pious. The Baduyas of the central provinces of 
India worship the souls of their ancestors in groves of Saj trees, 
and this may be supplemented by various modern burial usages 
where the dead are buried in trees, or where the sacred tree of the 
village enshrines the souls of the dead forefathers. Thus among 
the natives of South Nigeria each village has a big tree into which 
the spirits of the dead are supposed to enter; when a woman 
wants a child or when a man is sick, sacrifice is made to it, and 
if the " Big God " Osowo who lives in the sky is favourable the 
request is granted. 3 

Often the tree is famous for oracles. Best known, perhaps, is 
the oak of Dodona tended by priests who slept on the ground. 
Forms of The tall oaks of the old Prussians were inhabited 
Cult. by gods who gave responses, and so numerous are 

the examples that the old Hebrew " terebinth of the teacher " 
(Gen. xii. 6), and the " terebinth of the diviners " (Judg. 
ix. 37) may reasonably be placed in this category. Important 
sacred trees are also the object of pilgrimage, one of the 
most noteworthy being the branch of the Bo tree at Ceylon 
brought thither before the Christian era. 4 The tree-spirits- will 
hold sway over the surrounding forest or district, and the animals 
in the locality are often sacred and must not be harmed. Thus, 
the pigeons at the grove of Dodona, and the beasts around the 
north European tree-sanctuaries, were left untouched, even as 
the modern Dyak would allow no interference with the snake by 
the side of the bush which enshrined a dead kinsman. 5 Sacred 
fires burned before the Lithuanian Perkuno and the Roman 
Jupiter; both deities were closely associated with the oak, and, 
indeed, the oak seems to have been very commonly used for the 
perpetual holy fires of the Aryans. 6 The powers of the tree- 
deities, though often especially connected with the elements, are 
not necessarily restricted, and the sacred trees can form the cen- 
tre of religious, and sometimes, also, of national life. Such deities 
are not abstract beings, but are potent and immediate, and the 
cultus is primarily as utilitarian as the duties of life itself. They 
may have their proper ministrants- (a) the chief sanctuary of 
the old Prussians was a holy oak around which lived priests and a 
high priest known as " God's mouth "; (b) in Africa there are 

1 A. B. Ellis, op. cit. pp. 49 sqq. ; cf. further Frazer i. 180, 182 sqq. 
"Tylor ii. 225; H. M. Chadwick, "The Oak and the Thunder- 
god," Journ. of the Anthrop. Inst. (1900), pp. 30, 32, 43. 

3 C. Partridge, The Cross River Natives (1904), p. 273; cf. further 
Crooke ii. 85, 91 ; Tylor ii. 10 seq. ; Frazer i. 178 sqq. ; J. G. Forlong, 
Faiths of Man, iii. 446. 

4 Tylor ii. 218, and for other examples, pp. 224, 226;W.R. Smith, 
Religion of the Semites (1894), p. 185. 

' Frazer i. 179, cf. 230. 

6 Ibid. 168; see his Lectures on the Early History of the Kingship 
(1905)- PP- 209, 281. 



sacred groves into which the priest alone may enter, and (c) 
among the Kissil-Bashi (or Kizilbashes) of the Upper Tigris and 
Euphrates, the holy tree of the village stands in an enclosure to 
which only the father-priest has access. 7 The trees may be the 
scene of religious festivals, and what sometimes goes with these 
of periodical fairs and markets. Among the Lousiade group in 
British New Guinea the religious feasts are held under the sacred 
tree and a portion is laid aside for the spirit-occupants. That the 
invisible spirit naturally enjoyed only the spiritual part of the 
offerings is a belief which may have been shared by others than 
the African negro. 8 Human sacrifice is known on the Slave Coast 
and in the Punjab; it was practised amopg the Druids, and at 
Odin's grave at Upsala. It is also said that the pollution of old 
Prussian sacred groves and springs by the intrusion of Christians 
was atoned for by human victims. Indeed, to judge from later 
popular custom and tradition, and from the allusion in ancient 
writers, various grisly rites and acts of licentiousness (such as the 
more advanced Hebrew prophets denounced) were by no means 
unusual features in the cults of trees and vegetation. 9 

Although trees have played so prominent a part in the history 
of religions, the utmost caution is necessary in any attempt to 
estimate the significance of isolated evidence and its Forms of 
relation to the contemporary thought. Let it suffice Develop- 
to notice that in West Equatorial Africa the death of meat - 
the sacred tree near the temples leads to the abandonment of the 
village, that in Rome the withering of the sacred fig-tree of 
Romulus in the Forum caused the greatest consternation. One 
can now understand in some measure why so much importance 
should be attached to a venerated tree, but these examples will 
illustrate the different historical and religious conditions which 
require study in any investigation of tree-worship. Unfortunately 
one constantly reaches the point where the ancient writer or 
the modern observer has failed to record the required information. 
Moreover, we do not encounter tree-cults at their rise: in every 
case we arrest the evidence at a certain stage of development. 
It is often impossible to determine why certain trees are sacred; 
sometimes it may be that the solitary tree is the survivor of a 
forest or grove, or it has attracted attention from its curious 
or uncanny form, or again it stands on a spot which has an 
immemorial reputation for sanctity. The persistence of sacred 
localities is often to be observed in the East, where more rudi- 
mentary forms of tree-cults stand by the side of or outlive higher 
types of religion. 10 The evolution of sacred trees and of religious 
beliefs and practices associated therewith have not always 
proceeded along parallel lines. As ideas advanced, the spirits 
associated with trees were represented by posts, idols, or masks; 
altars were added, and the trunk was roughly shaped to represent 
the superhuman occupant. There is reason to believe that the 
last-mentioned transformation has frequently happened in the 
development of iconography. Indeed, the natives of the Antilles 
suppose that certain trees instructed sorcerers to shape their 
trunks into idols, and to instal them in temple-huts where they 
could be worshipped and could inspire their priests with oracles. 11 

7 (a) Chadwick 32; (b) Tylor ii. 224; {c) The Standard, Sept. 19, 
1904. For an African tree-god with priesthood and " wives," 
see Ellis, op. cit. p. 50. 

8 Tylor ii. 216 (citing Waitz, Anthrop. ii. 188). 

9 See Golden Bough, i. 171 seq.; Lucan, Phar. iii. 405; P. H. 
Mallet, Northern Antiquities, i. 113. Chadwick 32; and, for the 
survivals, Golden Bough iii. 345. 

10 So in Asia Minor where a tree hung with rags stands by a rock 
with an ancient " Hittite " representation of the god of vegetation 
(W. M. Ramsay, The Expositor, Nov., 1906, p. 461 seq.). " Hittite " 
religion has long passed away, but the locality preserves its sacred 
character and presents a form of cult older than the " Hittite " 
civilization itself (cf. also the persistence of the veneration of trees 
in Palestine in spite of some four thousand years of history). There 
has not been a reversion to ancient forms of cult in their organic 
entirety, but with the weakening and loss of the positive influences 
in the course of history, there has been no progression, and the 
communities live in simpler conditions and at a simpler stage of 
mental evolution and they are " childlike " rather than " senile " 
or " decadent." 

11 Tylor, ii. 216. Here one may observe: (a) the virtues of the tree 
as a whole will be retained as in the case of the relic of a medieval 
saint in any part of it (cf. ibid. 217; the offshoots of the oak of 



TREFOIL TREITSCHKE 



The development of the beliefs relating to the spirit-occupants 
themselves would take us along quite another line of inquiry. 
When the tree-spirit was conceived to be of human shape the 
numerous stories which associate trees with men or deities of flesh 
and blood would easily arise; and just as Indian natives have 
gods which are supposed to dwell in trees, so in higher religions 
we find a Zeus or a Dionysus Endendros, gods, " occupants of 
trees," who have been identified with one or other of the leading 
members of a recognized pantheon. 1 

The vicissitudes of the old tree-spirits are influenced by the 
circumstances of history. Syrian writers speak of a " king of the 
forest " and of a tall olive tree to the worship of which 
Satan seduced the people. But these " trees of the 
demons " were hewn down by zealous Syrian Chris- 
tians. So also the caliph Omar cut down the tree at Hodaibaya 
visited by pilgrims, lest it should be worshipped, and the Council 
of Nantes (A.D. 895) expressly enjoined the destruction of trees 
which were consecrated to demons. Tradition has preserved 
some recollections of the overthrow of tree-cult in Europe. 
Bonifacius destroyed the great oak of Jupiter at Geismar in Hesse, 
and built of the wood a chapel to St Peter. (A similar continuity 
was maintained near Hebron when Constantine destroyed the 
idols and altars beneath the oak or terebinth of Abraham at 
Mamre and replaced them by a basilica.) On the Heinzenberg 
near Zell the Chapel of Our Lady stands where the old tree 
uttered its complaint as the woodman cut it down; and at Kil- 
dare (dlldara, church of the oak), " Saint " Brigit or Bridget 
built her church under an oak tree. 2 On the other hand, at 
Samosata, the sacred tree worshipped in Christian times, was 
honoured as the wood of Christ's cross, and this growth of a new 
tradition to justify or at least to modify an old survival recurs 
in Palestine where the holy trees, whether adjoining a venerated 
tomb or not, are often connected with the names of saints or 
prophets and sometimes with appropriate traditions. 

It is impossible to do more than indicate the outlines of an intricate 
subject which concerns the course of certain fundamental ideas, 
their particular development so far as trees are concerned, and the 
more accidental factors which have influenced these two lines within 
historical times. Several important aspects have been inevitably 
ignored, e.g. the marriage of trees and tree-spirits, the annual festivals 
at the growth and decay of vegetation, and the evidence for the 
association of prominent deities with tree-spirits. For these features 
and for other general information see especially the works of J. G. 
Frazer (Golden Bough; Lectures on Kingship; Adonis, Attis and 
Osiris; Totemism and Exogamy), other literature cited in the course 
of this article, and the numerous works dealing with primitive 
religious and other customs. Among the most useful monographs 
are those of C. Boetticher, Der Baumkultus d. Hellenen (1856); 
W. Mannhardt, Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbar- 
stamme (1875), Antike Wold- und Feldkulte (1877), and, for intro- 
ductory study, Mrs J. H. Philpot, The Sacred Tree, or the Tree in 
Religion and Myth (1897). \(S. A. C.) 

TREFOIL (Lat. Irifolium, three-leaved plant, Fr. trefle, Ger. 
Dreiblall and Dreiblattbogen), the term in Gothic architecture 
given to the ornamental foliation or cusping introduced in the 
heads of window-lights, tracery, panellings, &c., in which the 
centre takes the form of a three-lobed leaf, one of the earliest 
examples being in the plate tracery at Winchester (1222-1235); 
see QUATREFOIL. 

TREGELLES, SAMUEL PRIDEAUX (1813-1875), English 
theologian, was born at Wodehouse Place, near Falmouth, on 
the 30th of January 1813. His parents were Quakers, and he 
himself for many years was in communion with the (Darbyite) 
Plymouth Brethren, but afterwards became a Presbyterian. 

Dodona; the sacred oak of which the Argo was built) ; also (V) it 
was believed that the divine essence could be made to enter tran- 
substantiated as it were into an image (cf. Rameses II. and his 
idols; see Breasted, Egypt. Hist. Doc. lii. 179, note; and for analo- 
gies see Folk-Lore, viii. 325). 

1 Even the Hebrews knew of the good-will of " Him who dwelt 
in the bush " (Deut. xxxiii. 16), For ideas associating Yahweh 
(Jehovah) with trees, see J. G. Frazer, Anthrop. Essays to E. B. Tylor 
(1907), p. 125 seq. 

4 See Chadwick 33, 35; Frazer, Lectures, 225; and Hartland ii. 
181, 184 (who refers to the tree-worship taken over by St Maree 
and St Etto). Even the temples of Dodona and of Jupiter Capi- 
tolinus stood on the sites of older tree-worship. 



For a while he worked at the ironworks, Neath Abbey, 
Glamorgan, and then set up as a private tutor in Falmouth, 
finally devoting himself to a laborious student life, until he was 
incapacitated by paralysis in 1870. He received the LL.D. 
degree from St Andrews and a pension of 200 from the civil 
list. He died at Plymouth on the 24th of April 1875. 

Most of his numerous publications had reference to his great 
critical edition of the New Testament (1857-1872; see BIBLE; 
New Testament, Textual Criticism). They include an Account 
of the Printed Text of the Greek New Testament (1854), a new edition 
of T. H. Home's Introduction (1860), and Canon Muratorianus: 
Earliest Catalogue of Books of the New Testament (1868). As early 
as 1844 he published an edition of the Book of the Revelation, with 
the Greek text so revised as to rest almost entirely upon ancient 
evidence. Tregelles wrote Heads of Hebrew Grammar (1852), 
translated Gesenius's Hebrew Lexicon, and was the author of a little 
work on the Jansenists (1851) and of various works in exposition 
of his special eschatological views (Remarks on the Prophetic Visions 
of Daniel, 1852, new ed., 1864). 

TR^GUIER, a port of western France, in the department of 
C6tes-du-Nord, 36 m. N.W. of St Brieuc by road. Pop. (1906), 
2605. The port is situated about 5^ m. from the English 
Channel at the confluence of two streams that form the Treguier 
river; it carries on fishing and a coasting and small foreign 
trade. The cathedral, remarkable in having three towers over 
the transept, one of which is surmounted by a fine spire, dates 
from the i4th and isth centuries. It contains the sumptuous 
modern mausoleum of St Yves (d. 1303), a canon of the cathedral, 
the building of which was largely due to him. To the south of 
the church there is a cloister (latter half of the isth century) 
with graceful arcades. There is a statue of Ernest Renan, 
a native of the town. Saw-milling, boat-building and flax- 
stripping are carried on, together with trade in cereals, cloth, 
potatoes, &c. 

Treguier (Trecoruni), which dates from the 6th century, grew 
up round a monastery founded by St Tugdual. In the Qth 
century it became the seat of a bishopric, suppressed in 1790. 

TREILHARD, JEAN BAPTISTE (1742-1810), French revolu- 
tionist, was born at Brives (Correze). In Paris he gained reputa- 
tion as an avocat at the parlement, and was a deputy to the 
states-general in 1789. In the Constituent Assembly he showed 
great capacity in dealing with the reorganization of the Church 
and the nationalization of ecclesiastical property. Ineligible, 
like all the members of the Constituent Assembly, for the Legis- 
lative Assembly, he became president of the criminal tribunal of 
Paris, but failed through lack of firmness. The department of 
Seine-et-Oise elected him to the Convention, where he attached 
himself to the group known as the Mountain (q.v.) and voted for 
the death of Louis XVI. He was a member of the committee 
of public safety, and became president of the Convention on 
the 27th of December 1792. Under the Directory he entered 
the Council of the Five Hundred (of which he was president 
during the month of Nivose, year IV.), was a member of the 
Tribunal of Cassation, plenipotentiary at the Congress of Rastatt, 
and became a director in the year VI. After the coup d'etat 
of 18 Brumaire he became president of the tribunal of appeal 
and councillor of state. He took an important part in drafting 
the civil code, the criminal code, the code" of civil procedure and 
the commercial code. He died on the ist of December 1810, a 
senator and count of the empire. 

See Bonnal de Ganges, " Representants du peuple dignitaires 
par Napoleon . . . Treilhard," in the Revue du monde catholique 
(7th series, vol. iii., 1900) ; Guyot d'Amfreville, Vie de J. B. Treilhard 
(Limoges, 1879). 

TREITSCHKE, HEINRICH VON (1834-1896), German his- 
torian and political writer, was born at Dresden on the isth of 
September 1834. He was the son of an officer in the Saxon 
army who rose to be governor of Konigstein and military gover- 
nor of Dresden. Young Treitschke was prevented by deafness 
from entering the public service. After studying at Leipzig 
and Bonn, where he was a pupil of Dahlmann, he established 
himself as a privatdozent at Leipzig, lecturing on history and 
politics. He at once became very popular with the students, 
but his political opinions made it impossible for the Saxon 
government to appoint him to a professorship. He was at that 



TRELAWNY, E. J. TRELAWNY, SIR J. 



time a strong Liberal; he hoped to see Germany united into a 
single state with a parliamentary government, and that all the 
smaller states would be swept away. In 1863 he was appointed 
professor at Freiburg; in 1866, at the outbreak of war, his 
sympathies with Prussia were so strong that he went to Berlin, 
became a Prussian subject, and was appointed editor of the 
Preussische Jalirbiicher. A violent article, in which he demanded 
the annexation of Hanover and Saxony, and attacked with great 
bitterness the Saxon royal house, led to an estrangement from 
his father, who enjoyed the warm friendship of the king. It was 
only equalled in its ill humour by his attacks on Bavaria in 1870. 
After holding appointments at Kiel and Heidelberg, he was in 
1874 made professor at Berlin; he had already in 1871 become 
a member of the Reichstag, and from that time till his death 
in 1896 he was one of the most prominent figures in the city. 
On Sybel's death he succeeded him as .editor of the Historische 
Zeitschrift. He had outgrown his early Liberalism and become 
the chief panegyrist of the house of Hohenzollern. He did more 
than any one to mould the minds of the rising generation, and he 
carried them with him even in his violent attacks on all opinions 
and all parties which appeared in any way to be injurious to 
the rising power of Germany. He supported the government 
in its attempts to subdue by legislation the Socialists, Poles and 
Catholics; and he was one of the few men of eminence who gave 
the sanction of his name to the attacks on the Jews which began 
in 1878. As a strong advocate of colonial expansion he was also 
a bitter enemy of Great Britain, and he was to a large extent 
responsible for the anti-British feeling of German Chauvinism 
during the last years of the igth century. In the Reichstag 
he had originally been a member of the National Liberal party, 
but in 1879 he was the first to accept the new commercial policy of 
Bismarck, and in his later years he joined the Moderate Conserva- 
tives, but his deafness prevented him from taking a prominent 
part in debate. He died at Berlin on the 28th of April 1896. 

As an historian Treitschke holds a very high place. He 
approached history as a politician and confined himself to those 
periods and characters in which great political problems were 
being worked out: above all, he was a patriotic historian, and 
he never wandered far from Prussia. His great achievement 
was the History of Germany in the Nineteenth Century. The 
first volume was published in 1879, and during the next sixteen 
years four more volumes appeared, but at his death he had only 
advanced to the year 1847. The work shows extreme diligence, 
and scrupulous care in the use of authorities. It is discursive and 
badly arranged, but it is marked by a power of style, a vigour of 
narrative, and a skill in delineation of character which give life to 
the most unattractive period of German history; notwithstanding 
the extreme spirit of partisanship and some faults of taste, it will 
remain a remarkable monument of literary ability. Besides this 
he wrote a number of biographical and historical essays, as well 
as numerous articles and papers on contemporary politics, of 
which some are valuable contributions to political thought. 

The most important of the essays have been collected under the 
title Historische und politische Aufsiitze (4 vols., Leipzig, 1896); 
a selection from his more controversial writings was made under the 
title Zehn Jahre deutscher Kampfe; in 1896 a new volume appeared, 
called Deutsche Kampfe, neue Folge. After his death his lectures 
on political subjects were published under the title Politik. He 
brought out also in 1856 a short volume of poems called Vater- 
Idndische Gedichte, and another volume in the following year. The 
only works translated into English are two pamphlets on the war 
of 1870, What we demand from France (London, 1870), and The Fire- 
test of the North German Confederation (1870). 

See Schiemann, Heinrich v. Treitschkes Lehr- und Wanderjahre, 
1836-1866 (Munich, 1896) ; Gustav Freitag und Heinrich v. Treitschke 
im Briefwechsel (Leipzig, 1900); Deutsche Rundschau (Oct. 1896); 
and article by J. W. Headlam, Hist. Rev. (Dec. 1897). (J. W. HE.) 

TRELAWNY, EDWARD JOHN (1792-1881), English sailor 
and friend of Shelley and Byron, was born in London on the 
I3th of November 1792, the son of an army officer. After a 
short term in the navy and a naval school, he shipped for India, 
but deserted at Bombay. For several years he led an adven- 
turous life in India, but about 1813 returned to England, married 
and settled down. In was early in 1822 that he met Shelley 
and Byron at Pisa and passed nearly every day with one or 



239 

both of them until the drowning of Shelley (q.is.) and Williams 
on the 8th of July. He it was who superintended the recovery 
and cremation of the bodies, snatching Shelley's heart from the 
flames, and who added the lines from the Tempest to Leigh 
Hunt's " Cor Cordium "; and, finally, who supplied the funds 
for Mrs Shelley's return to England. In 1823 he set out with 
Byron for Greece, to aid in the struggle for independence. 
Distressed by his companion's dilatoriness, Trelawny left him 
and joined the insurgent chief Odysseus and afterwards married 
his sister Tersitza. While in charge of the former's fortress 
on Parnassus he was assaulted by two Englishmen and nearly 
killed. Returning to England, he lived for a time in Cornwall 
with his mother and afterwards in London, where his romantic 
associations, picturesque person and agreeable manners made 
him a great social favourite. Permission having been refused 
him to write the life of Shelley, he began an account of his own 
life in the Adventures of a Yotmger Son (1835), followed much 
later by a second part: Recollections of Shelley and Byron 
(1858). This gives an admirable portrait of Shelley, and a less 
truthful one of Byron. He married a third time, but the irregu- 
larity of his life estranged him from his wife, and he died at 
Sompting, near Worthing, on the I3th of August 1881. His 
ashes were buried in Rome by the side of those of Shelley. The 
old seaman in Millais's picture, "The North-West Passage," in 
the Tate Gallery, London, gives a portrait of him. 

See the Letters of Edward J. Trelawny, edited with Introduction 
by H.BuxtonForman, C.B. (1910). 

TRELAWNY, SIR JONATHAN, BART. (1650-1721), English 
prelate, was a younger son of Sir Jonathan Trelawny, bart. 
(1624-1685), a member of a very old Cornish family, and was 
born at Pelynt in Cornwall on the 24th of March 1650. Educated 
at Westminster School and at Christ Church, Oxford, Trelawny 
took holy orders in 1673, and in 1685, his elder brother having 
died in 1680, became third baronet in succession to his father. 
Having rendered good service to James II. during Monmouth's 
rebellion, Trelawny was consecrated bishop of Bristol on the 8th 
of November 1685. He was loyal to King James until the first 
declaration of indulgence in April 1687, when, as a bishop, he 
used his influence with his clergy against the king, and, as a 
Cornish landowner, resisted the attempt to assemble a packed 
parliament. In May 1688 Trelawny signed the petition against 
the second declaration of indulgence, and in the following month 
was imprisoned in the Tower of London with Archbishop San- 
croft and five other bishops, sharing their triumphant acquittal. 
In spite of Burnet's assertion, it is probable that Trelawny did 
not sign the invitation to William of Orange, although he cer- 
tainly welcomed his army into Bristol. Before this James II., 
anxious to regain the bishop's support, had nominated him to 
the see of Exeter; but Trelawny lost nothing, as this appointment 
was almost at once confirmed by William III. Unlike five of 
his colleagues among the " seven bishops," Trelawny took the 
oaths of allegiance to William and Mary; but he was soon 
estranged from the new king and sided with the princess Anne, 
who showed him some favour after she became queen. In 1707 
Trelawny was appointed bishop of Winchester and became 
prelate of the Order of the Garter, but henceforward he took very 
little part in politics. He died at his residence at Chelsea on 
the ipth of July 1721, and was buried at Pelynt. His wife was 
Rebecca (d. 1710), daughter of Thomas Hele of Bascombe, 
Devon, by whom he had a family of six sons and six daughters. 
His eldest son, John, the 4th baronet, died without sons in 1756, 
and the present baronet is descended from the bishop's brother, 
Henry (d. 1702). Another of his sons was Edward Trelawny 
(1690-1754), governor of Jamaica from 1738 to 1752. When 
bishop of Exeter, Trelawny, as visitor of Exeter College, Oxford, 
deprived the rector of his office, a sentence which was upheld on 
appeal by the House of Lords; and when bishop of Winchester 
he completed the rebuilding of Wolvesey Palace. Trelawny is 
the hero, or one of the heroes, of the refrain: 

" And shall Trelawny die, 
Here's twenty thousand Cornishmen 
Will know the reason why." 



240 



TREMATODES 



These words were sung by the men of Cornwall, who seem to 
have assembled during the bishop's short imprisonment in 1688. 
It is probable, however, that a similar threat was heard in 1628, 
when John Trelawny (1592-1665), grandfather of the bishop, was 
imprisoned by the House of Commons for opposing the election 
of Sir John Eliot to parliament. The " Song of the Western 
Men," which contains the above refrain, was composed in 1825 
by R. S. Hawker. 

TREMATODES, or flukes (as they are called from their 
fish-like shape), one of the three classes that compose the phylum 
Platyelmia (q.v.). They are flattened organisms provided with 
two or more suckers, hence their name (TPT/^OTO^TJS, pierced with 



holes), and are exclusively parasitic both in their earlier and 
mature stages of life. Their structure has undergone little de- 
generation in. connexion with this habit, and may be compared 
organ for organ with that of the Planarians (q.v.). The chief 
peculiarities that distinguish Trematodes from their free-living 
allies, the Turbellaria, are the development of adhering organs for 
attachment to the tissues of the host; the replacement of the 
primitively ciliated epidermis by a thick cuticular layer and 
deeply sunk cells to ensure protection against the solvent action 
of the host; and (in one large order) a prolonged and peculiar 
life-history. The only organs that exhibit any sign of degenera- 
tion are those of sense, but in the ectoparasitic Trematodes simple 
eye-like structures are present and perhaps serve as organs of tem- 
perature. The class as a whole is linked to the Turbellaria not 
only by its similarity of structure, but by the intermediation of 
the singular class the Temnocephaloidea (see PLANARIANS), which 
in habit and in organization form an almost ideal annectant 
group. 

External Characters. The body, which varies in length from a 
few millimetres to a couple of feet, is usually oval and flattened. In 
certain genera the margins are infolded either along their whole 
length (the male of Schistostomum haematobium ; fig. 9, A) or anteriorly 
only (Holostomidae). The anterior third of the body is attenuated 
and sharply marked off from the bulbous trunk in Didymozoon. 
Trematodes never exhibit segmentation, though a superficial annula- 
tion may occur, e.g. in Udonella. 

The ventral surface is characterized by one or more suckers and 
apertures. The mouth lies usually in the centre of the anterior 




(From Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii. " Worms, &c.," 
by permission of MacmiUan & Co., Ltd.) 

FIG. I. A Group of Trematodes. 
A, Nematobothrium filarina, two specimens (a and b) from the Tunny. 



and sub-terminal sucker or between two adoral suckers, but in 
Gasterostomum and its allies it is mid-ventral. A second sucker 
of variable size and shape lies behind the oral one. In the ecto- 
parasitic Trematodes this post-oral sucker is a complex disk placed 
near the hinder end and provided with suckerlets, hooks and a 
musculature arising from a special skeleton. In the majority of 
endoparasitic forms it is merely a muscular disk just behind the 
mouth; but in the Aspidocotylea this sucker forms a muscular 
ribbed sole extending over the greater part of the ventral surface 
(fig. ?) 

The anterior and posterior ends of the body are well defined. 
The former is specially modified in a few genera in a manner analogous 
to the " proboscis " of certain Rhabdocoel Turbellaria. Thus in 
the recently discovered arctic genus Prosorhynchus the muscular 
and glandular extremity is protrusible, but in the allied Gasterostomnm 
this organ is represented by a sucker with fimbriated or tentacular 
margins. Another form, Rhopalophorus, has two cephalic tentacles 
that are retractile and covered with hooks. The chief genital pore 
is placed anteriorly between the oral sucker and the ventral one, 
and is posterior only in Holostomidae, Gasterostomidae and a few 
Distomidae. Usually this aperture is median, but occasionally 
asymmetrical. Both male and female gonoducts open through a com- 
mon atrium to the exterior by this pore, but in three bisexual genera 
the male and female ducts are developed in separate individuals 
(Bilharzia, Didymozoon, Koellikeria). A single or paired accessory 
gonopore is met with in many Trematodes just as in certain Turbel- 
laria (e.g. Cylindrostomum, Trigonoporus). This accessory pore is 
not of uniform significance. In ectoparasitic Trematodes it is paired 
and usually ventral (fig. 4 B, ), but the two apertures may run 
into one, and may also open dorsally (Hexacotyle) . In this group, 
the accessory gonopore is the opening of the " vagina," in contradis- 
tinction to the median and atrial opening of the uterus which is a 
" birth-pore." In most endoparasitic Trematodes the accessory 

Eanopore is a median and dorsal structure. It is the opening of 
aurer's canal and is homologous not with that of the vagina " 
just mentioned, but with a totally distinct structure the " yolk- 
receptacle " which in ectoparasitic forms discharges into the gut 
instead of to the exterior (see fig. 3). 

The excretory pore is terminal and posterior in endoparasitic 
forms: paired, anterior and dorsal in the ectoparasitic class. 

Parasitic Habits. The Trematodes with few exceptions select 
a vertebrate for their host. Speaking generally each species of 
parasite has a particular host, upon the blood of which it nourishes 
itself and matures its reproductive organs. This strange partiality is 
now to some extent intelligible. It has been shown in the mammals 
that blood-relationship, in the strict and literal sense, holds good. 
The blood of most species behaves differentially towards precipitants, 
and it is therefore conceivable that when blood is used as 
food and is elaborated into special compounds for the 
nutrition of the reproductive organs of a parasite, these 
specific or larger differences in the blood of animal hosts 
may prevent the ripening of the gonads of a widely diffused 
parasite and only one particular kind of blood prove suitable. 
It would seem that the Trematodes present various degrees 
of such adaptation, for whilst some e.g. the common liver- 
fluke (Distomum hepaticum) mature equally well in the 
bile-ducts of a man as in those of a sheep or rabbit, others 
and in fact the majority are restricted apparently to one 
host. It must, however, be borne in mind that a Trema- 
tode may develop in an " aberrant " manner in one host and 
" normally " in another; and unless we knew the initial 
stock, the two forms would be regarded as distinct species, 
each with its own host. 

The position of the Trematode on its host is of far-reaching 
importance. If ectoparasitic and attached to the skin, 
apertures or gills, the Trematode adopts more elaborate 
adhesive organs and undergoes a less complex development 
than are required for the endoparasitic members of the 
class. The latter are almost invariably swallowed by 
their host in an immature state with its food, and from 
the stomach or intestine they work their way into the 
lungs, liver, body-cavity on blood vessels. These endo- 
parasites have a peculiar larval development, the results of 
which are to increase their numbers and enhance the 
opportunity of their gaining the necessarily remote station 
in some fresh individual host. It is usual to consider the 
ectoparasitic habit as leading up to the endoparasitic one. 
From what we know of the Platyelmia, however, it is 
more probable that the two are quite independent and 
have been evolved separately. 

The influence of Trematodes on their hosts is a varied 
one. Probably all of them secrete an active poison by the 
aid of their glands, but the effects of these substances are not 
readily perceptible. In addition to this, they constitute a 



B, Udonella caligorum, attached to the ova of the copepod Caligus. C, drain upon the blood which may result in anaemia. If pre- 
hpibaella hippoglossi (from Halibut) ; ms, the two adoral suckers with the sent in large numbers they may give rise to obstruction 
mouth (m) between them; ps, ventral sucker; ov, ovary, te testes. D, of the liver-ducts or to inflammation of other tissues. The 



Octobothrium merlangi; ms, oral sucker; int. intestine; sc; posterior suckers; 
yk, yolk-glands. 



most important of the Trematodes in its effect on man is 
Schistostomum (Bilharzia). This parasite is one of the plagues 



TREMATODES 



241 



of Africa. In Egypt 30% of the natives are affected by haematuria 
which arises from congestion of the bladder consequent upon the 
attacks of this animal. The noxious influence of Trematodes is, 
moreover, not confined to their mature phase of life. The rapid 
multiplication that takes place in the larval stage of nearly all 
endoparasitic forms affects the tissues of the " intermediate " host 
in which they live. In most cases this is a mollusc, and the larvae 
bore their way into the most diverse organs, often accumulating to 
such an extent as to give a distinctly orange colour to an otherwise 
colourless tissue, and to cause the demolition of particular structures 
e.g. the liver and gonad. Perhaps the most remarkable of these 
effects is that produced by the larvae of Gasterostomum. These 
organisms live in cockles, oysters and other lamellibranchs and they 
so affect the gonads of these molluscs as to castrate and sterilize 
their host. A different but still more interesting result is produced 
by these Trematode larvae on certain lamellibranchs. The produc- 
tion of pearls by oysters and mussels is common knowledge, but it 
is only recently that the origin of pearls has been traced and admitted 
to be due to inflammation set up by a parasite. In the case of the 
pearl oyster this parasite is a cestode larva, but in the less valuable 
but no less genuine pearl produced by Mytilus, &c., the nucleus is 
a Trematode-larva (Jameson). 

Structure. The anatomical structure of the Trematodes is fairly 
uniform (Braun). The body is enveloped by a thick striated 
protective cuticle which is frequently raised into hooks or spines. 
In Distomum acanthocephalum the cuticle forms circlets of large 
and small hooks at the anterior end, somewhat as in Cestodes. 
The epidermis has lost its connected epithelial character and its 
cilia, and the isolated cells have become sunk inwards retaining their 




va 



FIG. 2. 

A, Fasciola hepatica, from the ventral surface (X 2); the alimen- 
tary and nervous systems only shown on the left side of the figure, 
the excretory only on the right; a, right main branch of the 
intestine; c, a diverticulum ; g, lateral ganglion; n, lateral nerve; 
o, mouth; p, pharynx; s, ventral sucker; cs, cirrus sac; \d, left 
anterior dorsal excretory vessel ; m, main vessel ; v, left anterior 
ventral trunk ; x, excretory pore. 

B, anterior portion more highly magnified (from Marshall and 
Hurst, after Sommer); cs, cirrus sac; d, ductus ejaculatorius; 
/, female aperture; o, ovary; od, oviduct; p, penis; s, shell-gland; 
t, anterior testis; u, uterus; va, i)p, vasa deferentia; vs, vesicula 
seminalis r y, yolk-gland ; yd, its duct. 

C, genital sinus and neighbouring parts (from Sommer) ; p, ventral 
sucker; 6, cirrus sac; c, genital pore; d, evaginated cirrus sac; 
e, end of vagina; /, vasa deferentia; g, vesicula seminalis; /;, duc- 
tus ejaculatorius; i, accessory gland. 

D, a flame-cell from the excretory apparatus, highly magnified 
(from Fraipont). 

E, egg of Fasciola hepatica. ( X 330 : from Thomas.) 



attachment to the innermost cuticular layer by slender processes. 
This layer also forms the attachment for the muscles, of which 
there are two enveloping coats, a circular and a longitudinal 
layer and also dorso-ventral fibres. The muscles are remarkable for 
two reasons. They occasionally exhibit striation and originate from 
large branched cells, the nucleus and unmodified part of which 
form conspicuous elements. The digestive system consists of a 
simple or bifurcated sac, opening through the mouth by means of 
a " pharynx bulbosus," adapted to act primarily as a sucker, and 
secondarily, when drawing blood, as an aspirator. Between the 
blind gut and the cuticle is a reticular branched tissue which forms 
the chief substance of the body. This is the mesenchyma. As 
in other Platyelmia the elements of this tissue undergo the most 
varied differentiation. The main mass of it forms a spongy vacuo- 
lated matrix, but some of the cells become glandular and open by 
pores on the surface of the cuticle, others become "flame-cells 
(fig. 2, D) and canaliculi of the excretory system as in Turbellaria, 
others again muscle-cells. Embedded in the matrix lies the com- 
plex genital apparatus composed usually of both male and female 
reproductive organs (fig. 2, B). The former consist of one pair or 
more of vesicular testes communicating by fine ducts with a vesicula 
seminalis. From this point a glandular tube runs to the genital 
atrium and during the last part of its course is converted into an 
eversible hooked " cirrus " or penis. The female organs consist of 
distinct ovaries and yolk-glands, the ducts of which uniti in the 
neighbourhood of a " shell-gland " or " ootype." Here the two 
elements, ovum and yolk-cells, are surrounded by a shell of operculate 
or of spindle-capped types. Coincidently, to allow of fertilization 
and the escape of excess of yolk, and. of spermatozoa, other accessory 
ducts open at this point. Thus in ectoparasitic Trematodes, the 
paired vagina transmits spermatozoa to the egg : and a canal carries 
off yolk from this point of junction either to the gut for resorption 
or to the exterior for exudation. This duct (Laurer's canal) is 
sometimes rudimentary and ends blindly beneath the skin. The 
fertilized ova, provided with yolk and a shell, are next transferred 
to the " uterus " along which they travel to the exterior. In the 
endoparasitic trematodes the uterus is the only passage by which 
fertilization can be effected, and in cases of cross and self- 
impregnation this duct is physiologically a vagina. Lastly 
the nervous system is well developed and consists of a pair 
of well-marked and interconnected ganglia placed near the anterior 
end and dorsal to the oesophagus. From these ganglia, nerve-tracts 
provided with ganglion-cells are given off. Of these there are three 
on each side of the body : a large ventral tract, smaller lateral 
strands and dorsal ones. From these tracts a plexus of nerve-fibres 
is developed in connexion with the musculature and cuticle. 

The Trematodes are divided into three orders, primarily distin- 
guished by the character of their suckers, viz. : Heterocotylea, 
Aspidocotylea and Malacocotylea. 

Order i. Heterocotylea. Ectoparasitic Trematodes, in which a 
large posterior adhesive apparatus is present and is usually accom- 
panied by a pair of suckers placed anteriorly in relation to the mouth. 
The large posterior organ of attachment is usually wheel-shaped 
and provided with hooks; but the ridges may become separated 





"/sS7ss'ss, 



jFiG. 3. Diagrammatic projections to show the relations of the 
female reproductive ducts; A, in the Malacocotylea; B, in the 
Heterocotylea. The ovary (a) leads into (bb) the oviduct, which is 
joined at (g) by the duct of the yolk-glands (h). In B it is also 
joined by a paired vagina (kk) and by the " vitello-intestinal duct " 
(Laurer's canal), /. (c) Shell-glands; (d) ootype; () uterus; 
(g) median-vitello-duct; (i, t) intestine. 



242 



TREMATODES 



into a number of independent suckers set on a disc or " cotylo- 
phore." Eye-spots are general and the nervous system maintains a 
primitive diffused condition. The excretory system opens to the 
exterior by a pair of dorsal pores at the level of the pharynx. 
The eggs are comparatively few, and development is direct, the 
embryo after reaching its host remaining attached to it for life. 

All the members of this order are parasitic on aquatic vertebrates 
and in rare cases derive their food from a vertebrate host indirectly 
by means of another invertebrate parasite (e.g. Udonella occurs on 
parasitic Crustacea). They are transparent leaf-like organisms and 
may often be found attached to the skin, mouth, nostrils or gills 
of fish; on the skin and bladder of Amphibia; and on those of certain 
Reptilia. Polystomum integerrimum (fig. 5) occurs commonly in 
the " bladder ' of frogs and toads; Diplozoon on the skin of the 
minnow ; Gyrodactylus (figs. 5, 6) on the gills of various fresh-water 
fish ; and a large number of genera occur on the skin, cloaca and gills 
of Elasmobranchs and other marine fish. They ingest the mucus 
and, to some extent, the blood of their host by the aid of a sucking 
pharynx through which the food passes into the bifurcated ali- 
mentary sac and its branched caeca. 

The life-history of this order offers many points of interest. The 
eggs are stalked and provided with chitinoid often operculate shell. 
Each shell contains a single ovum and a mass of yolk-cells. In 
most cases the eggs are attached to the host, but in Polystomum 
the eggs are laid in water. The egg of Gyrodactylus develops in 
the body of the parent. 



n 





-H 

o 

(From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology, pt iv.) 

FIG. 4. Schematic figures of a Heterocotylean Trematode to 
illustrate its structure (after Benham). 



A, Dorsal view showing the ner- 

vous system and digestive 
system; a, mouth; b, 
pharynx; c, d, , gut; i, 
post-genital union of two 
limbs of gut; /, excretory 
pore; g, vaginal pore; h, 
7, k, brain and nerves; /, 
dorsal nerves; m, ventral 
nerves; n, adoral sucker; o, 
posterior sucker; p, hooks 
on posterior sucker; r, 
vitello-intestinal duct. 

B, Ventral view showing the 



reproductive system ; C, 
Cirrus; H, hooks on the ven- 
tral sucker; I, small piece 
of the intestine to show its 
connexion with the repro- 
ductive organs by the 
narrow duct that passes 
from it to the union of the 
vaginae; M, mouth; O, 
ovary; S, oral sucker; SC, 
sucker; SH, shell-gland; 
T, Testis; U, uterus; V, 
vaginal pore; Y, yolk- 
gland. 



The further history of the animal is only known in a few cases. 
Polystomum hatches out six weeks after ovi-position as a minute 
(3 mm. long) larva capable of swimming freely for a short time by 
the aid of five girdles of ciliated cells. If in the course of the first 
twenty-four hours this larva meet with a tadpole it attaches itself 
at once and undergoes further development. If unsuccessful it 
dies. In the former case the larva creeps along the tadpole until 
it reaches the branchial opening into which it darts, fixes its sucker, 
and then throws off its cilia. Its further development takes place 
partly in the branchial chamber and partly in the bladder, which 
it reaches by travelling the whole length of the alimentary canal. 
In the former position the suckers are developed and growth pro- 
ceeds for 8 to ip weeks until the metamorphosis of its host. In the 
bladder it remains for three years before attaining maturity. Some- 
times the Polystomum-\arva. attaches itself to a young tadpole, 
and in that case grows so rapidly as to become mature in five weeks. 
These Polystomum deposit their eggs in the branchial chamber and 
die at the metamorphosis of their host. They differ structurally 



from the normal form in being capable of self-fertilization only, 
and in the shape and details of their spermatozoa. 




permanently 
the develop- 



FIG. 5. 

A, Diplozoon parodoxum; two united specimens. 

B, Polystomum integerrimum. (Xabout 100; after Zeller.) 

C, Microcotyle mormyri. (X?.) 

D, E, Two views of the chitinous framework of a sucker of Axine 

belones; highly magnified (after Lorenz). 

F, Aspidogaster conchicola. (Xabout 25; after Aubert.) 

G, Gyrodactylus elegans. (Xabout 80; after Wagener.) 

The life-history of Diplozoon (fig. 5) is remarkable in that two 
larvae (the so-called Diporpae) unite and fuse 
into an X-shaped organism. Unless this occurs, 
ment of the larvae is soon arrested. 
The ciliated stage is only capable 
of free life for five or six hours, and 
if at the end of that time it has not 
encountered and attached itself to a 
minnow, it dies. If successful, the larva 
throws off its cilia and develops a dorsal 
papilla, a median ventral sucker and an 
additional pair of lateral suckers. Then 
the Diporpa stage is attained. This 
stage is capable of isolated existence for 
two or three months but remains imma- 
ture. Should it, however, encounter 
another Diporpa, the mid-ventral sucker 
of either is applied to the dorsal papilla 
of the other, and complete fusion takes 
place across the junction. The com- 
pound organism now develops two sets 
of inter-connected genitalia and becomes 
a Diplozoon. 

Gyrodactylus produces only one large 
egg at a time and this develops in situ 
into an embryo: but within this embryo 
another appears before the first leaves 
the parent. This anomalous phenomenon 
is still obscure, for we do not yet know 
whether the second embryo is developed 
sexually or asexually from the first. 
Von Lmstow has indeed suggested that 
Gyrodactylus is a larval form capable of 
reproduction by an asexual method. 1 fAfter v. Nordmann. From 

Order 2. Aspidocotylea. Endoparasitic Cambridge Natural Bhtory. 
Trematodes provided with a large vol. ii. " Worms, &c," by per- 
ventral sucker which is almost co-exten- J^ " of M^' 1 ^" & Co- 
sive with the lower surface of the body _ , . 

and is divided into rectangular compart- , FlG - . 6 - Gyrodactylus 
ments. The alimentary sac is simple {""? "<** . the n , ns ol 
and devoid of caeca. The development the Stickleback ; emb. em- 
is direct. b rvo - (Xioo.) 




TREMATODES 



243 



.-a 




Zoology, part iv.) 
FIG. 



These Trematodes occur in the alimentary canal and adjacent 
organs of Mollusca, the gall-bladder of Chimaera, and the intestine 
of Chelonia and of certain fish. Aspidogaster 
conchicola is a form not uncommon in Anodon, 
Unio and certain fresh-water Gastropods. 
When young it is found in the intestine, but 
becomes mature in " Keber's organ " and the 
pericardium. An allied form (A. margarit- 
iferae) occurs in the pericardium of the Ceylon 
pearl-oyster (9). 

This order differs in several points from the 
preceding one. The excretory system is highly 
developed and opens at the posterior ex- 
tremity by a paired muscular bladder. The 
testis is a single compact organ. From the 
oviduct a long duct full of yolk passes back- 
wards almost to the hinder end of the body 
and ends blindly in a globular dilatation just 
below the skin. This structure is regarded 
as the homologue of a canal (Laurer's canal) 
which in the Heterocotylea opens into the 
intestine and so gets rid of the excess of yolk. 
The life-history of the order is almost un- 
known, but at the time of hatching the young 
7. Aspido- Aspidocotylean has an oral sucker at the 
gaster conchicola; anterior extremity and an equally simple 
ventral aspect; a, post-oral one at the other, thus resembling 
mouth ; b, marginal the members of the next order. Subsequently 
sense organs. the body grows backwards and the ventral 

sucker comes to occupy a relatively more 

anterior position. Concomitantly its cavity is sub-divided by 
transverse ridges into a single row and later on into paired rows 
of compartments. A curious form (Stichocotyle) described in an 
immature condition by Cunningham from the lobster and Nor- 
way lobster probably belongs to this order. 

Order 3. Malacocotylea (Distomae, Leuck: Digenea v. Ben.). 
Endoparasitic Trematodes with a variable adhesive apparatus. 
The oral sucker may alone be present (Monostomidae), more usually 
a second is developed on the under surface, but may be mid-ventral 
(Distomidae) or terminal. It is posterior (Amphistomidae), or 
anterior (Gasterostomidae). In addition to these suckers the sides 
of the anterior region may become infolded and give rise to an 
accessory adhesive organ (Holostomidae). In all these families 
spines and glandular papillae may be super-added. The intestinal 
sac has become bifid and is usually devoid of branches. The excretory 
system is highly developed ; the larger collecting ducts are elaborately 
looped and open posteriorly by a single terminal aperture. A canal 
(Laurer's canal) leads from the oviduct or yolk-duct to the dorsal 
surface. The development is indirect. From the egg a larva arises. 
This enters a temporary host. Here it gives rise by a peculiar process 
to numerous individuals of a second larval form, and these usually 
produce a third form from which the minute immature Trematode 
is developed. In this manner a single egg may give rise to a large 
number of sexual individuals. The larvae usually live in Molluscs, 
the mature worm in vertebrates, and the immature but meta- 
morphosed Trematode in either host and also in pelagic and littoral 
marine and fresh-water invertebrates. 

The Malacocotylea occur in all classes of vertebrates. They 
are usually found in the alimentary canal or its appendages but 
occasionally work their way into the serous cavities, nervous system 
and blood vessels. Fourteen species belonging to five genera have 
been found in man, but only one [Schistostomum (Bilharzia) hae- 
matobium] is of serious medical importance, the others being rare 
and occasioned by want of cleanliness and close association with 
infected domestic animals. Domestic animals suffer periodically 
to a much greater extent. The liver-fluke (Distomum hepaticum) 
unlike most Trematodes flourishes in a wide range of hosts and infects 
man, horse, deer, oxen, sheep, pig, rabbit and kangaroo. Sheep, how 
ever, suffer most from this parasite and from the allied D. magnum. 
The former fluke is found in Europe, North Africa, Abyssinia, North 
Asia, South America, Australia and the Hawaiian Islands v the latter 
in the United States. Wet summers are followed by an acute 
outbreak of liver-rot amongst sheep and this, together with the 
effects of other diseases that accompany wet seasons, cause the 
death of vast numbers of sheep, the numbers from both sources being 
estimated in bad years at from ij to 3 millions in England alone. 
The anatomy of Distomum hepaticum is fully described in many 
accessible memoirs [Sommer (10), Marshall and Hurst, Braun (3)]. 
It has been shown that this parasite feeds upon the blood, not the 
bile of its host, though it occurs mainly in the bile ducts. 

The life-histories of the Malacocotylea form the most interesting 
feature of the order. The majority of species are hermaphrodite 
and many are capable of self-impregnation. In these, the male 
organs ripen before the ova and spermatozoa may pass into the 
uterus before the external pore is formed (Looss). A few species, 
however, are bisexual, e.g. Schistostomum (Bilharzia) haematobium 
in which the male is larger than the female and encloses the latter 
in a ventral canal ; Koellikeria filicolle Rud (Distomum okenii, Koll) 
which also occurs in pairs, a large female and a small male being 
found together encysted in the branchial chamber of Brama raji: 



and Didymozoon thynni (Monostomum bipartitum) which occurs 
in pairs fused for the greater part of their length and only free 
anteriorly ; the larger individual is the female. 

The egg consists of a fertilized ovum and a mass of yolk-cells. 
Segmentation takes place during its passage down the uterus. The 
result of this process is a minute ovoid embryo consisting of a solid 
mass of cells surrounded by a follicle of flattened yolk-cells. The 
central masssoon becomes differentiated into an outer epidermal 
and a dermal layer of flat-cells. Some of the central cells remain 
m clumps as " germ-balls," others form a mesenchyma in which 

flame-cells " arise; others again give rise to muscles; and at the 
thicker end of the body, rudiments of the brain and digestive system 
are observable. A pair of " eye-spots " develops immediately over 
the brain. If the egg with its contained embryo falls into water 




(All i"rom Marshall and Hurst, after Thomas.) 

FIG. 8. Five stages in the life-history of Fasciola hepaltca ; all 

highly magnified. 
A, The free-swimming embryo. B, A sp_orocyst containing young 

rediae. C, A young redia, the digestive tract shaded. D, An 

adult redia, containing a daughter-redia, two almost mature 

cercariae, and germs. E, A free cercaria. The letters have 

the same significance throughout. 
c, Nearly ripe cercariae; cc, cystogenous cells; dr, daughter-redia; 

dt, limbs of the digestive tract; /, head-papilla; h, eye-spots; 

h', same degenerating; k', germinal cell; /, cells of the anterior 

row; m, embryo in optical section, gastrula stage; n, pharynx 

of redia ; o, digestive sac ; oe, oesophagus. 
p, Lips of redia; q, collar; r, processes serving as rudimentary 

feet; s, embryos; /, trabecula crossing body-cavity of redia; 

u, glandular cells; v, birth-opening; w, w', morulae; y, oral 

sucker; y', ventral sucker; z, pharynx. 

with the faeces of the host the larva hatches out and swims freely 
for a time. In dry localities or in the absence of the intermediate 
host (usually a mollusc) this larva soon dies. If, however, it en- 
counters the host the larva bores its way in, and attacks the liver, 
mouth or gonad in which it comes to rest. In all Malacocotylea 
except the Holostomidae the ensuing change is a degenerative one. 
The cilia are lost, the eye-spots disappear, the digestive sac vanishes 
and the larva becomes a sac or " sporocyst " full of germ-cells. 
The origin of these cells is a moot point. According to some writers 
(Leuckart) they are derived from undiffetentiated blastomeres, 
other authorities (Thomas, Biehringer, Heckert) trace them 
to the parietal cells of the larva. These cells aggregated in 
masses become the bodies of another generation of larvae within 
the sporocyst. By a series of changes similar to those by which 
the primary larva arose from a segmented egg, so do these secondary 
larvae or " rediae " arise from the germ-cells or germ-balls within 
the sporocyst. The structure of a redia, however, is an advance 
on that of its parent. Though not possessing eyes or cilia, it has 
a pharynx and short straight digestive sac : and its mesenchymatous 
cavities are filled with germ-balls in various stages of development. 



244 



TREMOLITE TRENCH 



The movements and activity of the redia cause it to burst the wall 
of the sporocyst. It escapes into the adjacent tissue and there gives 
rise either to one or more generations of rediae or at once to a new 
type of organism the cercaria. What determines the origin of 
the cercaria rather than a new generation of rediae is unknown. 
It originates from germ-balls by a differentiation similar in general 
to that already described, though profoundly different in detail. 
The cercaria is just visible to the naked eye and has sO\ oval or dis- 
coidal body and usually a long tail of variable form. The tail 
may be a simple hollow muscular process or provided with stiff 
bristles set in transverse rows, or divided into two equally long pro- 
cesses, or finally it may form a large vesicular structure. The body 
contains in miniature all the organs of the adult fluke, including 
the gonads and in addition " eye-spots," a stylet, rod-cells and 
cystogenous cells. The latter structures are only employed for an 
interval before the final host is entered. 

The number of cercariae produced by the pullulating rediae in 
a single water-snail is immense, and as they are emitted at a given 
period or a few successive periods, the snail at these times appears 
enclosed in a cloud of whitish fiocculent matter. The cercaria 
swims freely for a time and either encysts directly on grass or weeds 
or it enters a second host which may be another mollusc, an insect, 
crustacean or fish, and then encysts. In this process it is aided by 
the stylet with which it actively bores its way, throws off its tail 




FlG. 9. 

A, Sckistostomum (Bilharzia) haematobium, the thin female in the 

gynaecophoric canal of the stouter male. ( X 1 5 after Leuckart.) 

B, Distomum macrostomum, showing the digestive and the greater 

part of the genital apparatus with the cirrus protruded. (X 30.) 

C, Snail (Succinea), the tentacles deformed by Leucochloridium. 

(Natural size.) 

D, Leucochloridium removed from the tentacle. (Natural size; after 

Zeller.) 

E, Bucephalus polymorphus. (Highly magnified; after Ziegler.) 

F, Portion of a sporocyst containing Bucephali in process of develop- 

ment. (X about 50; after Lacaze-Duthiers.) 

and then, surrounding itself with the secretion of its cystogenous 
cells, comes to rest. The further development of the cercaria is 
dependent on the weed or animal in which it lies being eaten by the 
final host which is usually a predaceous fish or one of the higher 
vertebrates. When that occurs, the cyst is dissolved and the minute 
fluke works its way down the alimentary canal into some part of 
which it inserts its suckers and commences to feed on the blood of 
its host. Occasionally the fluke migrates into the blood vessels 
and may reach the lungs, kidneys, urethra and bladder. In the 
course of a few months it attains full size and maturity and probably 
in most cases dies in the course of a year after having given rise to 
another generation of larvae. 

A few special cases of this general description of the life-history 
may be mentioned. The liver-fluke (Distomum hepaticum) passes 



through its larval stages in the water snail Limnaea truncatula in 
Europe; in L. oahuensis in the Hawaiian Islands; in L. viator in 
South America and in L. humilis in North America: and is eaten 
by sheep during its encysted stage attached to herbage. Distomum 
macrostomum, which occurs in various birds, produces a very curious 
sporocyst in the body of the snail Succinea putris. This sporocyst 
assumes a branched structure and penetrates into the tentacles 
of the snail (fig. 9, c, d). In this situation it becomes much swollen 
and banded with colours, and produces a large number of ecaudate 
cercariae. The attention of birds is speedily attracted to the snail 
by this appearance and by the peculiar movements which the worm 
executes, and the passage of the parasite into its final host is advan- 
tageously effected. In many cases it appears that only the brilliantly 
coloured tentacle is pecked off by the bird, and as the snail can easily 
regenerate a new one, this in turn becomes infected by a fresh branch 
of the sporocyst ramifying through the snail and thus a new supply 
of larvae is speedily provided (Heckert). 

The life-history of Schistostomum haematobium is still unknown, 
but the difficulty in obtaining developmental stages in any of the 
numerous intermediate hosts that have been tried suggests that 
the ciliated larvae may develop directly in man and either gain 
access to him by the use of impure water for drinking or may 
perforate his skin when bathing. Experiments on monkeys have, 
however, given negative results. 

The life-history of the Holostomidae differs from that of the 
Distomidae in an important regard. These Trematodes live chiefly 
in the intestine of aquatic birds or reptiles. The ciliated larva 
escapes from the egg into the water and enters an intermediate host 
(leech, mollusc, arthropod, batrachian or fish) where it undergoes 
a metamorphosis into a second stage in which most of the adult 
organs are present. In this condition they remain encysted as 
immature flukes until eaten by their final host. 

The cycle of development taken by the Malacccotylea has been 
generally regarded as an alternation of one or more asexual genera- 
tions with a sexual one. The question, however, is complicated 
by the uncertain nature of the germ-cells in the sporocysts and rediae. 
Some authors looking upon these as parthenogenetic ova regard 
the developmental cycle as one composed of an alternation of 
parthenogenetic and of sexual generations. Others again consider 
that the whole cycle is a metamorphosis which, beginning in the 
Heterocotylea as a direct development, has become complicated 
in the Holostomidae by a larval history, and finally in the Mala- 
cocotylea has acquired additional complexity by the intercalation 
of two larval forms, and is thus spread over several generations. 

LITERATURE. R. Leuckart, Die Parasiten des Menschen (1889- 
1894), vol. ii. ; M. Braun, " Trematodes," Klassen u. Ordnungen 
des Tierreichs (1889-1893), vol. iv. (Monograph), and The Animal 
Parasites of Man (London, 1906); W. B. Benham in Lankester's 
Treatise on Zoology (1901), pt. iv. ; A. Heckert, " Untersuchungen 
iiber die Entwicklung und Lebensgeschichte des Distomum macro- 
stomum," Bibliotheca zoologica, Heft 4 (Cassel, 1889) ; J. T. Cunning- 
ham, " On Stichocotyle nephropsis," Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. (1887), 
vol. xxxii. ; A. Lopss, " Die Distomen unserer Fische und Frosche," 
Bibliotheca zoologica (1894), Heft 16; H. L. Jameson, " Pearl-forma- 
tion," Proc. Zoo/. Soc. p. 140 (London, 1902) ; A. E. Shipley and 
J. Hornell, " Parasites of the Pearl Oyster," Report on the Pearl 
Oyster Fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar, The Royal Society (1904), 
pt. ii. pp. 90-98 ; F. Sommer, " Anatomy of Liver-fluke, Zeit. 
f. wiss. Zoologie (1880), vol. xxxiy. ; Thomas, "Development of 
Liver-fluke," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. (1883), vol. xxiii. ; Jagerskiold, 
Fauna arctica. (F. W. GA.) 

TREMOLITE, a member of the amphibole group of rock-form- 
ing minerals (see AMPHIBOLE). It is a calcium and magnesium 
metasilicate, CaMg 3 (Si03)4, crystallizing in the monoclinic system 
with an angle of 55 49' between the perfect prismatic cleavages. 
It occurs sometimes as distinct crystals, but more usually as long 
bladed and fibrous forms. The colour is white or grey, but when 
iron is present it is green, then forming a passage to actinolite. 
The hardness is 53 and the specific gravity 3-0. Tremolite is a 
characteristic mineral of crystalline limestones, especially 
dolomitic limestones, but also occurs as an alteration-product of 
olivine in basic igneous rocks. Typical specimens have long 
been known from the white crystalline dolomite of Campolongo 
in the St Gotthard region, Switzerland, near to which is the 
Tremola Valley, after which the mineral was named in 1796. 
Fine crystals are found in crystalline limestone at Gouverneur, 
Pierrepont and other places in New York, and at several 
localities in Sweden. (L. J. S.) 

TRENCH, RICHARD CHENEVIX (1807-1886), Anglican 
archbishop and poet, was born at Dublin on the gth of September 
1807. He went to school at Harrow, and graduated at Trinity 
College, Cambridge, in 1829. In 1830 he visited Spain. While 
incumbent of Curdridge Chapel near Bishops Waltham in Hamp- 
shire, he published (1835) The Story of Justin Martyr and Other 



TRENCHARD TRENCK 



245 



Poems, which was favourably received, and was followed in 1838 
by Sabbalion, Honor Neale, and other Poems, and in 1842 by 
Poems from Eastern Sources. These volumes revealed the author 
as the most gifted of the immediate disciples of Wordsworth, 
with a warmer colouring and more pronounced ecclesiastical 
sympathies than the master, and strong affinities to Tennyson, 
Keble and Monckton Milnes. In 1841 he resigned his living to 
become curate to Samuel Wilberforce, then rector of Alverstoke, 
and upon Wilberforce's promotion to the deanery of West- 
minster in 1845 he was presented to the rectory of Itchenstoke. 
In 1845 and 1846 he preached the Hulsean lecture, and in the 
former year was made examining chaplain to Wilberforce, now 
bishop of Oxford. He was shortly afterwards appointed to a 
theological chair at King's College, London. In 1851 he estab- 
lished his fame as a philologist by The Study of Words, originally 
delivered as lectures to the pupils of the Diocesan Training School, 
Winchester. His purpose, as stated by himself, was to show that 
in words, even taken singly, " there are boundless stores of moral 
and historic truth, and no less of passion and imagination laid 
up " a truth enforced by a number of most apposite illustra- 
tions. It was followed by two little volumes of similar char- 
acter English Past and Present (1855) and A Select Glossary of 
English Words (1859). All have gone through numerous editions 
and have contributed much to promote the historical study of the 
English tongue. Another great service to English philology was 
rendered by his paper, read before the Philological Society, " On 
some Deficiencies in our English Dictionaries" (1857), which 
gave the first impulse to the great Oxford New EnglishDictionary. 
His advocacy of a revised translation of the New Testament 
(1858) aided to promote another great national undertaking. In 
1856 he published a valuable essay on Calderon,with a translation 
of a portion of Life is a Dream in the original metre. In 1841 he 
had published his Notes on the Parables, and in' 1846 his Notes on 
the Miracles, popular works which are treasuries of erudite and 
acute illustration. 

In 1856 Trench was raised to the deanery of Westminster, 
probably the position which suited him best. Here he instituted 
evening nave services. In January 1864 he was advanced to 
the more dignified but less congenial post of archbishop of Dublin. 
A. P. Stanley had been named, but rejected by the Irish Church, 
and, according to Bishop Wilberforce's correspondence, Trench's 
appointment was favoured neither by the prime minister nor the 
lord-lieutenant. It was, moreover, unpopular in Ireland, and a 
blow to English literature; yet the course of events soon proved 
it to have been most fortunate. Trench could do nothing to 
prevent the disestablishment of the Irish Church, though he 
resisted with dignity. But, when the disestablished communion 
had to be reconstituted under the greatest difficulties, it was 
found of the highest importance that the occupant of his position 
should be a man of a liberal and genial spirit. This was the work 
of the remainder of Trench's life; it exposed him at times to 
considerable misconstruction and obloquy, but he came to be 
appreciated, and, when in November 1884 he resigned his arch- 
bishopric from infirmity, clergy and laity unanimously recorded 
their sense of his " wisdom, learning, diligence, and munificence." 
He had found time for Lectures on Medieval Church History 
(1878); his poetical works were rearranged and collected in two 
volumes (last edition, 1885). He died in London, after a lingering 
illness, on the 28th of March 1886. 

See his Letters and Memorials (2 vols., 1886). 

TRENCHARD, SIR JOHN (16403-1695), English politician, 
belonged to an old Dorset family, his father being Thomas 
Trenchard (i6i5-*i67i), of Wolverton, and his grandfather Sir 
Thomas Trenchard (1582-1657), also of Wolverton, who was 
knighted by James I. in 1613. Born at Lytchett Matravers, 
near Poole, on the 3oth of March 1640, and educated at 
New College, Oxford, John Trenchard entered parliament as 
member for Taunton in 1679, and associated himself with 
those who proposed to exclude the duke of York from the 
throne. He attended some of the meetings held by these 
malcontents and was possibly concerned in the Rye House 
plot; at all events he was arrested in July 1683, but no 



definite evidence was brought against him and he was released. 
When Monmouth landed in the west of England in June 1685 
Trenchard fled from England, but was pardoned through the 
good offices of William Penn and returned home two years later. 
Again he entered parliament, but he took no active part in the 
Revolution of 1688, although he managed to secure the good will 
of William III. He was knighted by the king and made chief 
justice of Chester, and in 1692 he was appointed a secretary of 
state. He and the government incurred much ridicule through 
their failure to prove the existence of a great Jacobite plot in 
Lancashire and Cheshire in which they had been led to 
believe. Sir John died on the 27th of April 1695. His wife was 
Philippa (d. 1743), daughter of George Speke (d. 1690) of White 
Lackington, Somerset. 

Another member of the Trenchard family was the writer, 
JOHN TRENCHARD (1662-1723), erroneously referred to by Macau- 
lay as a son of Sir John Trenchard. Educated at Trinity College, 
Dublin, Trenchard inherited considerable wealth and was thus 
able to devote the greater part of his life to writing on political 
subjects, his point of view being that of a Whig and an opponent 
of the High Church party. His chief works are A Short History of 
Standing Armies in England (1698 and 1731) and The Natural 
History of Superstition (^og). With Thomas Gordon (d. 1750) 
he produced a weekly periodical, The Independent Whig, and 
with the same colleague he wrote a number of letters to the 
London Journal and to the British Journal under the 
pseudonym of Cato. These letters were published in four volumes 
in 1724 and the collection has often been reprinted. Trenchard 
died on the i7th of December 1723. 

TRENCHER (M. Eng. trenchour, trenchere, &c.,O. Fr. trencheoir 
trenchoier, a place on which to cut up food, from trencher, mod. 
trancher, to cut, probably from Lat. truncare, lop, cut off, or from 
trausecare, to cut across), a platter, being a flat piece of wood, in 
its earliest form square, later circular, on which food was carved 
or cut up and served. These wooden " trenchers " took the place 
of earlier ones which were thick slices of coarse bread; these, 
after being soaked with the gravy and juices from the meat and 
other food were eaten or thrown to the alms basket for the poor. 
The wooden trencher went out of use on the introduction of 
pottery and later of porcelain plates. At Winchester College, the 
old square beechwood trenchers are still in use. The potters of 
the 1 8th century made earthenware plates very flat and with a 
shallow rim ; these were known as " trencher plates." " Trencher 
salt-cellars " were the small salts placed near each person for use, 
as opposed to the ornamental " standing " salts. 

For " trench," a ditch, and " entrenchment," see FORTIFICATION 

AND SlEGECRAFT. 

TRENCK, FRANZ, FREIHERR VON DER (1711-1749), Aus- 
trian soldier, was born on the ist of January 1711, of a military 
family. Educated by the Jesuits at Oedenburg, he entered the 
Imperial army in 1728 but resigned in disgrace three years later. 
He then married and lived on his estates for some years. Upon 
the death of his wife in 1737 he offered to raise an irregular corps 
of " Pandours " for service against the Turks, but this offer was 
refused and he then entered the Russian army. But after serving 
against the Turks for a short time as captain and major of cavalry 
he was accused of bad conduct, brutality and disobedience and 
condemned to death, the sentence being commuted by Field 
Marschal Munnich to degradation and imprisonment. After a 
time he returned to Austria, where his father was governor of a 
small fortress, but there too he came into conflict with every one 
and actually " took sanctuary " in a convent in Vienna. But 
Prince Charles of Lorraine, interesting himself in this strange 
man, obtained for him an amnesty and a commission in a corps 
of irregulars. In this command, besides his usual truculence and 
robber manners, he displayed conspicuous personal bravery, 
and in spite of the general dislike into which his vices brought 
him his services were so valuable that he was promoted lieu- 
tenant-colonel (1743) and colonel (1744). But at the battle of 
Soor he and his irregulars plundered when they should have been 
fighting and Trenck was accused (probably falsely) of having 
allowed the king of Prussia himself to escape. After a time he 



246 



TRENDELENBURG 



was brought before a court-martial in Vienna, which convicted 
him of having sold and withdrawn commissions to his officers 
without the queen's leave, punished his men without heed to the 
military code, and drawn pay and allowance for fictitious men. 
Much was allowed to an irregular officer in all these resp&cts, but 
Trenck had far outrun the admitted limits, and above all his 
brutalities and robberies had made him detested throughout 
Austria and Silesia. A death sentence followed, but the com- 
position of the court-martial and its proceedings were thought to 
have been such as from the first forbade a fair trial, and the 
sentence was commuted by the queen into one of cashiering and 
imprisonment. The rest of his life was spent in mild captivity 
in the fortress of Spielberg, where he died on the 4th of October 
1749. 

His cousin, FRIEDRICH, FREIHERR VON DER TRENCK 
(1726-1794), the writer of the celebrated autobiography, was 
born on the i6th of February 1726 at Konigsberg, his father 
being a Prussian general. After distinguishing himself for his 
quickness and imagination at the university of Konigsberg, he 
entered the Prussian army in 1742, and soon became an orderly 
officer on Frederick's own staff. But within a year he fell 
into disgrace because of a love affair whether real or imaginary 
with the king's sister Princess Amalie, and when in 1743 his 
Austrian cousin presented him with a horse and opened a 
correspondence, Frederick had him arrested, a few days after 
the battle of Soor, and confined in the fortress of Glatz, whence 
in 1746 he escaped. Making his way home and thence to Vienna, 
in the vain hope of finding employment under his now disgraced 
cousin, he finally met a Russian general, who took him into the 
Russian service But, receiving news that owing to his cousin's 
death he had become the owner of the family estates, he returned 
to Germany almost immediately He was made a captain of 
Austrian cavalry, but never served, as his time was fully taken 
up with litigation connected with the inherited estates. In 
1754 he visited Prussia, but was there arrested and confined in 
Magdeburg for ten years, making frequent attempts, of incred- 
ible audacity, to escape from the harshness of his gaolers. But 
after the close of the Seven Years' War, Maria Theresa requested 
that he should, as being a captain in her service, be at once 
released. Trenck then spent some years in Aix-la-Chapelle, 
managing an agency for Hungarian wines and publishing a 
newspaper, and on the failure of these enterprises he returned 
to his Hungarian estates. Here he composed his celebrated 
autobiography and many other writings. He visited England 
and France in 1774-1777, and was afterwards employed by the 
government in diplomatic or secret service missions. After the 
death of Frederick the Great he was allowed to enter Prussia, 
and stayed in Berlin for two years. In 1788 he visited Paris, 
where he was the hero of society for a moment; next year he 
returned to Hungary in order to collect his writings in a uniform 
edition, but in 1791 he returned to Paris to be a spectator of the 
Revolution, and after living in safety throughout the Terror he 
was at last denounced as an Austrian spy and guillotined on 
the 25th of July 1794. 

His autobiography, which has been translated into several 
languages, first appeared in German at Berlin and Vienna (13 vols.) 
in 1787. Shortly afterwards a French version, by his own hand, 
was published at Strassburg. His other published works are in 
eight volumes and appeared shortly after the autobiography at 
Leipzig. A reprint of the autobiography appeared in 1910 in 
" Reclam's Universal Series." 

See Wahrmann, Leben und Thaten des Franz, Freiherr von der 
Trenck and Friedrich Freiherrn von der Trencks Leben, Kerker und 
Tod (both published at Leipzig in 1837). 

TRENDELENBURG, FRIEDRICH ADOLF (1802-1872), 
German philosopher and philologist, was born on the 3Oth of 
November 1802 at Eutin, near Liibeck. He was educated at 
the universities of Kiel, Leipzig and Berlin. He became more 
and more attracted to the study of Plato and Aristotle, and his 
doctor's dissertation (1826) was an attempt to reach through 
Aristotle's criticisms a more accurate knowledge of the Platonic 
philosophy (Platonis de ideis et numeris doctrina ex Aristotele 
illustrate.). He declined the offer of a classical chair at Kiel, 



and accepted a post as tutor to the son of an intimate friend of 
Altenstein, the Prussian minister of education. He held this 
position for seven years (1826-1833), occupying his leisure time 
with the preparation of a critical edition of Aristotle's De anima 
(1833; 2nded. by C. Belger, 1877). In 1833 Altenstein appointed 
Trendelenburg extraordinary professor in Berlin, and four years 
later he was advanced to an ordinary professorship. For nearly 
forty years he proved himself markedly successful as an 
academical teacher, during the greater part of which time he had 
to examine in philosophy and pedagogics all candidates for 
the scholastic profession in Prussia. In 1865 he became 
involved in an acrimonious controversy on the interpretation 
of Kant's doctrine of Space with Kuno Fischer, whom he 
attacked in Kuno Fischer und sein Kant (1869), which drew 
forth the reply Anti-Trendelenburg (1870). He died on the 
24th of January 1872. 

Trendelenburg's philosophizing is conditioned throughout by his 
loving study of Plato and Aristotle, whom he regards not as oppon- 
ents but as building jointly on the broad basis of idealism. His 
own standpoint may almost be called a modern version of Aristotle 
thus interpreted. While denying the possibility of an absolute 
method and an absolute philosophy, as contended for by Hegel and 
others, Trendelenburg was emphatically an idealist in the ancient 
or Platonic sense; his whole work was devoted to the demonstration 
of the ideal in the real. But he maintained that the procedure of 
philosophy must be analytic, rising from the particular facts to the 
universal in which we find them explained. We divine the system 
of the whole from the part we know, but the process of reconstruction 
must remain approximative. Our position forbids the possibility 
of a final system. Instead, therefore, of constantly beginning afresh 
in speculation, it should be our duty to attach ourselves to what 
may be considered the permanent results of historic developments. 
The classical expression of these results Trendelenburg finds mainly 
in the Platonico-Aristotelian system. The philosophical question 
is stated thus: How are thought and being united in knowledge? 
how does thought- get at being? and how does being enter into 
thought? Proceeding on the principle that like can only be known 
by like, Trendelenburg next reaches a doctrine peculiar to himself 
(though based upon Aristotle) which plays a central part in his 
speculations. Motion is the fundamental fact common to being 
and thought ; the actual motion of the external world has its counter- 
part in the constructive motion which is involved in every instance 
of perception or thought. From motion he proceeds to deduce 
time, space and the categories of mechanics and natural science. 
These, being thus derived, are at once subjective and objective in 
their scope. It is true matter can never be completely resolved 
into motion, but the irreducible remainder may be treated like the 
jrpwTTj 6\ij of Aristotle as an abstraction which we asymptotically 
approach but never reach. The facts of existence, however, are 
not adequately explained by the mechanical categories. The 
ultimate interpretation of the universe can only be found in the 
higher category of End or final cause. Here Trendelenburg finds 
the dividing line between philosophical systems. On the one side 
stand those which acknowledge none but efficient causes which 
make force prior to thought, and explain the universe, as it were, 
a tergo. This may be called, typically, Democritism. On the other 
side stands the " organic " or teleological view of the world, which 
interprets the parts through the idea of the whole, and sees in the 
efficient causes only the vehicle of ideal ends. This may be called 
in a wide sense Platonism. Systems like Spinozism, which seem 
to form a third class, neither sacrificing force to thought nor thought 
to force, yet by their denial of final causes inevitably fall back into 
the Democritic or essentially materialistic standpoint, leaving us 
with the great antagonism of the mechanical and the organic systems 
of philosophy. The latter view, which receives its first support in 
the facts of life, or organic nature as such, finds its culmination and 
ultimate verification in the ethical world, which essentially consists 
in the realization of ends. Trendelenburg's Naturrecht may, 
therefore, be taken as in a manner the completion of his system, 
his working out of the ideal as present in the real. The ethical end 
is taken to be the idea of humanity, not in the abstract as formulated 
by Kant, but in the context of the state and of history. Law is 
treated throughout as the vehicle of ethical requirements. In 
Trendelenburg's treatment of the state, as the ethical organism in 
which the individual (the potential man) may be said first to emerge 
into actuality, we may trace his nurture on the best ideas of Hellenic 
antiquity. 

Trendelenburg was also the author of the following: Elementa 
logices Aristotelicae (1836; gth ed., 1892; Eng. trans., 1881), a selec- 
tion of passages from the Organon with Latin translation and notes, 
containing the substance of Aristotle's logical doctrine, supplemented 
by Erlauterungen zu den Elementen der Aristotelischen Logik (1842; 
3rd ed. 1876); Logische Untersuchungen (1840; 3rd ed. 1870), and 
Die logische Frage in Hegels System (1843), important factors in 
the reaction against Hegel ; Historische Beitrage zur Philosophic 



TRENT TRENT, COUNCIL OF 



247 



(1846-1867), in three volumes, the first of which contains a history 
of the doctrine of the Categories; Das Naturrecht aufdem Grunde 
der Ethik (1860); Liicken im Volkerrecht (1870), a treatise on the 
defects of international law, occasioned by the war of 1870. A 
number of his papers dealing with non-philosophical, chiefly national 
and educational subjects, are collected in his Kleine Schriften (1871). 

On Trendelenburg's life and work see H. Bonitz, Zur Erinnerung 
an F.A.T. (Berlin, 1872); P. Kleinert, Grabrede (Berlin, 1872); E. 
Bratuschek, Adolf Trendelenburg (Berlin, 1873); C. von Prantl, 
Gedachtniisrede (Munich, 1873); G. S. Morris in the New Englander 
(1874), xxxiii. 

TRENT (Lat. Tridentum; Ital. Trenlo; Ger. Trient), the 
capital of the south or Italian-speaking portion of the Austrian 
province of Tirol, It stands on the left bank of the Adige 
where this river is joined by the Fersina, and is a station on the 
Brenner railway, 35 m. S. of Botzen and 565 m. N. of Verona. 
It has a very picturesque appearance, especially when ap- 
proached from the north, with its embattled walls and towers 
filling the whole breadth of the valley. A conspicuous feature 
in the view is the isolated rocky citadel of Doss Trento (the 
Roman Verruca), that rises on the right bank of the Adige to 
a height of 308 ft. above the city and is now very strongly 
fortified, as are various other positions near Trent giving access 
to Trent from the east (Val Sugana) or the west (valley of 
the Sarca). With its numerous palaces, substantial houses, 
broad streets, and spacious squares, Trent presents the aspect 
of a thoroughly Italian city, and its inhabitants (24,868 
in 1900, including a garrison of over 2000 men) speak Italian 
only it is the centre of the region called Italia Irredenta 
by fervent Italian patriots. The Duomo or cathedral church 
(dedicated to San Vigilio, the first bishop) was built in four 
instalments between the nth and isth centuries, and was 
restored in 1882-1889. More interesting historically is the 
church of Santa Maria Maggiore, built in 1514-1539, and 
the scene of the sessions of the famous Ecumenical Council 
(as to which, see below) which lasted, with several breaks, 
from 1545 to 1563; near it, in the open, a column was erected 
in 1845, on the occasion of the three hundredth anniversary of 
the opening of the Council. To the east of the city rises the 
Castello del Buon Consiglio, for centuries the residence of the 
prince-bishops, but now used as barracks. There is a huge 
town hall, which also houses the museum and the very 
extensive town library. Trent lives rather on its historical 
souvenirs than on its industries, which are not very extensive, 
viticulture, silk-spinning and the preparation of salami (a 
strongly spiced kind of Italian sausage) being the chief. 
Ecclesiastically Trent is a suffragan see of the archbishopric of 
Salzburg. Opposite the railway station a statue of Dante 
was erected in 1896, for he is believed to have visited this 
region about 1304. 

Trent was originally the capital of the Tridentini, and is 
mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary as a station on the great 
road from Verona to Veldidena (Innsbruck) over the Brenner. 
It was later ruled by the Ostrogoths (sth century) and the 
Lombards (6th century) after the conquest of whom by the 
Franks (774) Trent became part of the kingdom of Italy. 
But hi 1027 the emperor Conrad II. bestowed all temporal 
rights in the region on the bishop (the see dates from the 4th 
century) and transferred it to Germany, an event which fixed 
all its later history. The Venetian attacks were finally re- 
pulsed in 1487, and the bishop retained his temporal powers 
till 1803 when they passed to Austria, to which (save 1805-1814, 
when first the Bavarians and then Napoleon held the region) 
they have ever since belonged, the Trentino being annexed 
formally to Tirol in 1814. (W. A. B. C.) 

TRENT, COUNCIL OF. The Council of Trent (1545-1563) 
has a long antecedent history of great significance for the fortunes 
of the Catholic Church. During the isth and the earlier half 
of the i6th century, the conception of an " ecumenical council " 
remained an ideal of which the realization was expected to 
provide a solution for the serious ecclesiastical difficulties which 
were then prevalent. True, the councils of Constance and 
Basel had fallen short of the desired goal; but confidence in 
the unknown quantity persisted and took deeper root as the 



popes of the Renaissance showed themselves less and less 
inclined to undertake the reforms considered necessary in wide 
circles of the Church. The papacy indeed did not recognize 
the jurisdiction of the ecumenical council, and in 1459 Pius II. 
had prohibited any appeal to such a tribunal under penalty of 
excommunication. This, however, had no effect on public 
opinion, and the council continued to be invoked as the supreme 
court of Christianity. So in 1518, for instance, the university 
of Paris demanded the convocation of a general council, to 
which it referred its solemn protest against the papal encroach- 
ments on the privileges of the French Church. Thus, when 
Luther took this very step in the same year, and repeated it 
later, his action was not devoid of precedent. Again in 1529 
the evangelical estates of Germany made a formal appeal in the 
Diet of Spires, and, in the preface to the Augsburg Confession 
of 1530, requested a "general, unfettered council of Christendom." 
The same demand was formulated by Charles V. The emperor 
indeed though, as a statesman, he had found himself in frequent 
opposition to the papal policy of his day had never enter- 
tained the slightest doubt as to the truth of Catholic doctrine, 
and had rendered inestimable services to the Church in the 
perilous years which followed the emergence of Protestantism. 
Still he could not blind himself to the fact that ecclesiastical 
life stood in urgent need of reform; and the only method of 
effecting an alteration in the existing regime was by means of 
a council. Consequently he declared himself in favour of con- 
vening a general assembly of the church a project which he 
pursued with the greatest energy. True, the passive resist- 
ance of the Curia was so stubborn that the decisive step was 
postponed time and again. But the goal was finally attained, 
and this result was essentially the work of Charles. Actually, 
the meeting came too late: the Evangelical Church had gathered 
strength in the interim, and the council failed to exercise 
the decisive influence anticipated on the relations between 
Catholicism and Protestantism. In 1536 its convocation seemed 
imminent. Pope Paul III., who in the conclave had already 
admitted the necessity of a council, convened it on the 2nd of 
June 1 536, for the 23rd of May 1 537, at Mantua. He then altered 
the date to the ist of November of the same year. Later it 
was summoned to meet at Vicenza on the ist of May 1538, only 
to be postponed till the Easter of 1539. Finally, he adjourned 
the execution of the project sine die. Charles met this dilatory 
policy by arranging colloquies between Protestant and Catholic at 
Worms and Regensburg, the result being that the Curia became 
afraid that the emperor might take the settlement of the religious 
question into his own hands. This consideration forced Paul III. 
to compliance, and fresh writs were issued convoking the council, 
first for Whitsuntide, 1542, then for the ist of November of the 
same year. In consequence, however, of the hostilities between 
Charles and the French king Francis I., the conference was so 
scantily attended that it was once more prorogued to the 6th of 
July 1543, before it had come into active existence. Not till the 
peace of Crespy, 1 544, when the emperor showed some disposition 
to attempt an accommodation of the ecclesiastical feud in a 
German Diet, did the pope resolve to translate his numerous 
promises into deeds. The bull Laelare Hierusalem (November 
19, 1544) fixed the meeting of the council for the isth of March 
1545, in Trent, and assigned it three tasks: (i) the pacification of 
the religious dispute by doctrinal decisions, (2) the reform of 
ecclesiastical abuses, (3) the discussion of a crusade against 
the infidels. The selection of the town of Trent, the capital 
of the Italian Tirol, and part of the empire had a two- 
fold motive: on the one hand it was a token of concession to 
the emperor, who wished the synod to be held in his dominions; 
on the other, there was no occasion to fear that an assembly, 
meeting on the southern border of Germany, would fall under 
the imperial influence. 

The opening of the council was deferred once again. To- 
wards the end of May 1545, twenty bishops were collected at 
Trent; but there was no sign of action, and the papal legates 
Del Monte, Corvinus and Reginald Pole delayed the in- 
auguration. The cause of this procrastinating policy was that 



248 



TRENT, COUNCIL OF 



the emperor and the pope were at cross purposes with regard 
to the mode of procedure. In the eyes of Paul III. the council 
was simply the means by which he expected to secure a con- 
demnation of the Protestant heresy, in hopes that he would then 
be in a position to impose the sentence of the Church upon them 
by force. For him the question of ecclesiastical reform pos- 
sessed no interest whatever. In contrast to this, Charles 
demanded that these very reforms should be given precedence, 
and the decisions on points of dogma postponed till he should 
have compelled the Protestants to send representatives to the 
council. The pope, however, alarmed by the threat of a collo- 
quy in Germany, recognized the inadvisability of his dilatory 
tactics, and at last ordered the synod to be opened (December 

13, I54S)- 

Since there was no definite method by which the deliberations 
of ecumenical councils were conducted, special regulations were 
necessary; and those adopted were of such a nature as to assure 
the predominance of the Roman chair from the first. As the 
voting was not to be by nations, as at Constance, but by 
individuals, the last word remained with the Italians, who were in 
the majority. In order to enhance this superiority the legates 
as a rule denied the suffrage to those foreign bishops who desired to 
be represented by procurators; and a number of Italian prelates 
were enabled to make their appearance at Trent, thanks to 
special allowances from the pope. The dispute as to the order 
of precedence among the subjects for deliberation was settled 
by a compromise, and the questions of dogma and ecclesiastical 
abuses were taken simultaneously, the consequence being that 
in the decisions of the council the doctrinal and reformatory 
decrees rank side by side. In pursuance of a precedent estab- 
lished by the last Lateran Council, the sessions were divided into 
two classes: those devoted to discussion (congregationes gener- 
ates), and those in which the results of the discussion were put 
to the vote and formally enacted (sessiones publicae). To 
ensure a thorough consideration of every proposition, and also 
to facilitate the exercise of the papal influence on the proceedings, 
the delegates were split into three groups (congregationes), 
each group debating the same question at the same time. This 
arrangement, however, only endured till 1546. Since these 
sections were only brought into conjunction by the legates, 
and met under their presidency, the pontifical envoys in effect 
regulated the whole course of the deliberations. They claimed, 
moreover, the right of determining the proposals submitted, 
and were throughout in active and constant communication 
with Rome a circumstance which provoked the ban mot of 
the French deputy (1563), that when the rivers were flooded and 
the Roman post delayed the Holy Ghost postponed his descent. 
These precautions nullified any possible disposition on the part 
of the council to enter on dangerous paths; and in addition the 
clause " under reservation of the papal authority " was affixed 
to all enactments dealing with ecclesiastical irregularities- thus 
leaving the pope a free hand with regard to the practical 
execution of any measures proposed. Contrary to the emperor's 
wish, the council began its labours in the region of dogma by 
defining the doctrines of the Church with reference to the most 
important controversial points -a procedure which frustrated 
all his projects for a reconciliation with the Protestants. On 
the 8th of April 1546 the doctrine of the Holy Scriptures and 
tradition (sessio iv.) was proclaimed; on the i7th of June 1546, 
the doctrine of original sin (sessio v.); on the I3th of January 
1547, the doctrine of justification (sessio vi.); and on the 3rd of 
March 1547, the decree concerning the sacraments in general, 
and baptism and confirmation in particular (sessio vii.). On the 
nth of March, however, the council was transferred to Bologna 
on the pretext that an epidemic was raging in Trent (sessio viii.), 
though, at the imperial command, part of the bishops remained 
behind. But on the and of June the council of Bologna 
resolved (sessio x.) to adjourn its labours. The emperor's 
demands that the council should again be removed to Trent 
were vain, till on the 24th of April 1547, the battle of Miihlberg 
decided the struggle with the Schmalkaldic league, formed by 
the Evangelical princes of Germany, in his favour. His hands 



were now free, and he utilized his military successes to balance 
his account with the Church. At the Diet of Augsburg he secured 
the enactment of a modus vivendi, leavened by the Catholic 
spirit, between the adherents of either religion; and this pro- 
visory settlement the so-called Interim of Augsburg was 
promulgated as a law of the empire (June 3, 1548), and declared 
binding till the council should reassemble. The Protestants, 
it is true, received certain concessions the non-celibacy of the 
priesthood and the lay chalice but the Roman hierarchy, the 
old ceremonial, the feast-days and the fasts, were reinstated. 
Since the bishops who had remained in Trent abstained, at the 
emperor's request, from any display of activity qua synod, the 
outbreak of a schism was avoided. But the confusion of 
ecclesiastical affairs had grown worse confounded through the 
refusal of the pope to continue the council, when the death of 
Paul III. (November 10, 1549) gave a new turn to events. 

Pope Julius III., the former legate Del Monte, could not elude 
the necessity of convening the council again, and, though per- 
sonally he took no greater interest in the scheme than his pre- 
decessor in office, caused it to resume its labours on the ist of May 
1551 (sessio xi.), under the presidency of the legate, Cardinal 
Crescentio. The personnel of the synod was, for the most part, 
different; and the new members included the Jesuits, Laynez 
and Salmeron. More than this, the general character of the 
second period of the council was markedly distinct from that 
of its earlier stages. The French clergy had not a single dele- 
gate, while the Spanish bishops maintained an independent 
attitude under the aegis of the emperor, and Protestant deputies 
were on this occasion required to appear at Trent. The German 
Protestants who, in the first phase of the council, had held aloof 
from its proceedings, since to have sent representatives to this 
assemblage would have served no good purpose, had now no 
choice but to obey the imperial will. Charles V. was anxious to 
assure them not merely of a safe conduct, but also of a certain 
hearing. But in this he ran counter to the established facts: 
the Catholic Church had already defined its attitude to the 
dogmas above mentioned, and the Curia showed no inclination 
to question these results by reopening the debate. Thus the 
participation of the Protestants was essentially superfluous, 
for the object they had at heart the discussion of these doc- 
trines on the gound of Holy Writ was from the Catholic stand- 
point an impossible aspiration. The Wurttemberg deputies had 
already submitted a creed, composed by the Swabian reformer 
Johann Brenz, to the council, and Melanchthon was under way 
with a confessio saxonica, when there came the revolt of the 
Elector Maurice of Saxony (March 20, 1 5 5 2) , which compelled the 
emperor to a speedy flight from Innsbruck, and dissolved the 
conclave. Its dogmatic labours were confined to doctrinal 
decrees on the Lord's Supper (sessio xiii. October n, 1551), and 
on the sacraments of penance and extreme unction (November 
2 5i JSS 1 ) sessio xiv.). On the z8th of April 1552, the sittings 
were suspended on the news of the elector's approach. 

Ten years had elapsed before the council reassembled for the 
third time in Trent; and on this occasion the circumstances 
were totally changed. During the intervening period, the 
religious problem in Germany had received such a solution as the 
times admitted by the peace of Augsburg (1555); and the 
equality there guaranteed between the Protestant estates and 
the Catholic estates had left the former nothing to hope from a 
council. Thus the motive which till then had governed the 
emperor's policy was now nullified, as there was no necessity 
for seeking a reconciliation of the two parties by means of a 
conference. The incitement to continue the council came from 
another quarter. It was no longer anxiety with regard to 
Protestantism that exercised the pressure, but a growing con- 
viction of the imperative need of more stringent reforms within 
the Catholic Church itself. Pope Paul IV. (1551-1559), the 
protector of the Inquisition, and the opponent of Philip II. of 
Spain as well as of the emperor Ferdinand, turned a deaf ear to 
all requests for a revival of the synod. The regime of Pius IV. 
(1550-1566) was signalized by an absolute reversal of the 
papal policy: and it was high time. For in France and Spain 



TRENT, COUNCIL OF 



249 



the very countries where the Protestant heresy had been most 
vigorously combated a great mass of discontent had accumu- 
lated; and France already showed a strong inclination to attempt 
an independent settlement of her ecclesiastical difficulties in a 
national council. Pius IV. saw himself constrained to take these 
circumstances into account. On the 2gth of November 1560 he 
announced the convocation of the council; and on the i8th of 
January 1562 it was actually reopened (sessio xvii.). The presi- 
dency was entrusted to Cardinal Gonzaga, assisted by Cardinals 
Hosius, bishop of Ermeland, Seripando, Simonetta, and Marc de 
Altemps, bishop of Constance. The Protestants indeed were also 
invited but the Evangelical princes, assembled in Naumburg, 
withheld their assent a result which was only to be expected. 
In order to enhance the synod's freedom of action, France and 
the emperor Ferdinand required that it should rank as a new 
council, and were able to adduce in support of their claim the 
fact that the resolutions of the two former periods had not 
yet been formally recognized. Pius IV., however, designated it a 
continuation of the earlier meetings. Ferdinand, in addition 
to regulations for the amendment of the clergy and the monastic 
system, demanded above all the legalization of the marriage 
of the priesthood and the concession of the " lay chalice, "as he 
feared further defections to Protestantism. France and Spain 
laid stress on the recognition of the divine right of the episco- 
pate, and its independence with regard to the pope. These 
episcopal tendencies were backed by a request that the bishops 
should reside in their sees a position which Pius IV. acknow- 
ledged to be de iure divino; though, as it would have implied 
the annihilation of the Roman Curia, he refused to declare it 
as such. In consequence of these reformatory aspirations, 
the position of the pope and the council was for a while full of 
peril. But the papal diplomacy was quite competent to shatter 
an opposition which at no time presented an absolutely unbroken 
front, and by concessions, threats and the utilization of political 
and politico-ecclesiastical dissensions, to break the force of the 
attack. In the third period of the council, which, as a result of 
these feuds, witnessed no session from September 1562 to July 
1563, doctrinal resolutions were also passed concerning the Lord's 
Supper sub utraque specie (sessio xxi., July 16, 1562), the sacri- 
fice of the Mass (sessio xxii., September 27, 1562), the sacrament 
of ordination (sessio xxiii., July 15, 1563), the sacrament of 
marriage (sessio xxiv., November n, 1563), and Purgatory, 
the worship of saints, relics and images (December 3, 1563). 
On the 4th of December 1563 the synod closed. 

The dogmatic decisions of the Council of Trent make no 
attempt at embracing the whole doctrinal system of the Roman 
Catholic Church, but present a selection of the most vital 
doctrines, partly chosen as a counterblast to Protestantism, and 
formulated throughout with a view to that creed and its objec- 
tions. From the discussions of the council it is evident that 
pronounced differences of opinion existed within it even on 
most important subjects, and that these differences were not 
reconciled. Hence came the necessity for reticences, equivoca- 
tions and temporizing formulae. Since, moreover, the council 
issued its pronouncements without any reference to the decisions 
of earlier councils, and omitted to emphasize its relation to 
these, it in fact suppressed these earlier decisions, and posed 
not as continuing, but as superseding them. 

The reformatory enactments touch on numerous phases of 
ecclesiastical life administration, discipline, appointment to 
spiritual offices, the marriage law (decretum de reformatione 
matrimonii " Tametsi," sessio xxiv.), the duties of the clergy, 
and so forth. The resolutions include many that marked an 
advance; but the opportunity for a comprehensive and thorough 
reformation of the life of the Church the necessity of which 
was recognized in the Catholic Church itself was not em- 
braced. No alteration of the abuses which obtained in the 
Curia was effected, and no annulment of the customs, so lucra- 
tive to that body and deleterious to others, was attempted. 
The question of the annates, for instance, was not so much as 
broached. 

The Council of Trent in fact enjoyed only a certain appearance 



of independence. For the freedom of speech which had been 
accorded was exercised under the supervision of papal legates, 
who maintained a decisive influence over the proceedings and 
could count on a certain majority in consequence of the over- 
whelming number of Italians. That the synod figured as the 
responsible author of its own decrees (sancta oecumenica et 
generalis tridentina synodtis in\ spiritu sancto legitime con- 
gregata) proves very little, since the following clause reads 
praesidentibus apostolicae sedis legatis; while the legates and the 
pope .expressly refused to sanction an application of the words 
of the Council of Constance universalem ecclesiam repraesentans. 
The whole course of the council was determined by the pre- 
supposition that it had no autonomous standing, and that Its 
labours were simply transacted under the commission and 
guidance of the pope. This was not merely a claim put forward 
by the Roman see at the time: it was acknowledged by the 
attitude of the synod throughout. The legates confined the 
right of discussion to the subjects propounded by the pope, 
and their position was that he was in no way bound by the vote 
of the majority. In difficult cases the synod itself left the 
decision to him, as in the question of clandestine marriages 
and the administration of the Lord's Supper sub utraque specie. 
Further, at the close of the sessions a resolution was adopted, 
by the terms of which all the enactments of the council de morum 
reformatione atque ecclesiaslica discipline, were subject to the 
limitation that the papal authority should not be prejudiced 
thereby (sessio xxv. cap. 21). Finally, every doubt as to the 
papal supremacy is removed when we consider that the Triden- 
tine Fathers sought for all their enactments and decisions the 
ratification (confirmatio) of the pope, which was conferred by 
Pius IV. in the bull Benedictus Deus (January 26, 1564). Again, 
in its last meeting (sessio xxv.), the synod transferred to the 
pope a number of tasks for which their own time had proved 
inadequate. These comprised the compilation of a catalogue 
of forbidden books, a catechism, and an edition of the missal 
and the breviary. Thus the council presented the Holy See 
with a further opportunity of extending its influence and diffus- 
ing its views. The ten rules de libris prohibitis, published by 
Pius IV. in the bull Dominici gregis custodiae (March 24, 1564), 
became of great importance for the whole spiritual life of the 
Roman Catholic Church: for they were an attempt to exclude 
pernicious influences, and, in practice, led to a censorship which 
has been more potent for evil than good. These regulations 
were modified by Leo XIII. in his Constitution Officiorum ac 
munerum (January 24, 1897). Acting on a suggestion of the 
council (sessio xxiv. c. 2; sessio xxv. c. 2), Pius IV. published a 
short conspectus of the articles of faith, as determined at Trent, 
in the bull Injunctum nobis (November 13, 1564). This so- 
called Professio fidei tridentinae, however, goes beyond the 
doctrinal resolutions of the synod, as it contains a number of 
clauses dealing with the Church and the position of the pope 
within the Church subjects which were deliberately ignored 
in the discussions at Trent. In 1877 this confession binding 
on every Roman Catholic priest was supplemented by a pro- 
nouncement on the dogma of papal infallibility. 

The great and increasing need of a manual for the instruction 
of the people gave rise in the first half of the i6th century to 
numerous catechisms. At the period of the council, that com- 
posed by the Jesuit Peter Canisius, father-confessor of the 
emperor Ferdinand, enjoyed the widest vogue. It failed, 
however, to receive the sanction of the synod, which preferred 
to undertake the task itself; and, as that body left its labours 
unfinished, the pope was entrusted with the compilation of a 
textbook. Pius V. appointed a commission (Leonardo Marini, 
Egidio Foscarari, Francisco Fureiro and Murio Calini) under the 
presidency of three cardinals, among them Charles Borromeo; 
and this commission discharged its duties with such rapidity 
that the Catechismus a decreto concilii tridentini ad parochos 
was published in Rome as early as the year 1568. The book is 
designed for the use of the cleric, not the layman. The Missale 
romanum, moreover, underwent revision: also the Breviarium 
romanum, the daily devotional work of the Roman priest. The 



250 



TRENT 



necessity of still further improvements in the latter was forcibly 
urged in the Vatican Council. 

The numerical representation of the Council of Trent was 
marked by considerable fluctuations. In the first session 
(December 13, 1545) the spiritual dignitaries present omitting 
the 3 presiding cardinals consisted of one other cardinal, 4 arch- 
bishops, 21 bishops and 5 generals of orders. On the other hand, 
the resolutions of the synod were signed at its close by the 4 
presidents, then by 2 cardinals, 3 patriarchs, 25 archbishops, 166 
bishops, 7 abbots, 7 generals of orders and 19 procurators of 
archbishops and bishops. In this council as later in the 
Vatican Italy was the dominant nation, sending two-thirds of 
the delegates; while Spain was responsible for about 30, France 
for about 20, and Germany for no more than 8 members. In 
spite of the paucity of its numbers at the opening and the 
unequal representation of the Church, which continued to the last, 
the oecumenical character of the council was never seriously 
questioned. On the motion of the legates, the resolutions were 
submitted to the ambassadors of the secular powers for 
signature, the French and Spanish envoys alone withholding 
their assent. The recognition of the council's enactments was, 
none the less, beset with difficulties. So far as the doctrinal 
decisions were concerned no obstacles existed; but the refor- 
matory edicts adhesion to which was equally required by the 
synod stood on a different footing. In their character of 
resolutions claiming to rank as ecclesiastical law they came into 
conflict with outside interests, and their acceptance by no means 
implied that the rights of the sovereign, or the needs and cir- 
cumstances of the respective countries, were treated with 
sufficient consideration. The consequence was that there 
arose an active and, in some cases, a tenacious opposition to 
an indiscriminate acquiescence in all the Tridentine decrees. 
Under Charles IX. and Henry IV. the situation was hotly 
debated in France: but these monarchs showed as little com- 
plaisance to the representations and protests of the Curia as 
did the French parlement itself; and only those regulations 
were recognized which came into collision neither with the 
rights of the king nor with the liberties of the Gallican Church. 
In Spain, Philip II. allowed, indeed, the publication of the 
Tridentinum, as also in the Netherlands and Naples, but always 
with the reservation that the privileges of the king, his vassals 
and his subjects, should not thereby be infringed. The empire, 
as such, never recognized the Tridentinum. Still it was pub- 
lished at provincial and diocesan synods in the territories of the 
spiritual princes, and also in the Austrian hereditary states. 

In his official confirmation Pius IV. had already strictly 
prohibited any commentary on the enactments of the council 
unless undertaken with his approval, and had claimed for him- 
self the sole right of interpretation. In order to supervise 
the practical working of these enactments, Pius created (1564) 
a special department of the Curia, the Congregalio cardinalium 
concttii tridentini inter pretum', and to this body Sixtus V. en- 
trusted the further task of determining the sense of the conciliar 
decisions in all dubious cases. The resolutiones of the con- 
gregation on disputed points and their declarationes on 
legal questions exercised a powerful influence on the subse- 
quent development of ecclesiastical law. 

The Council of Trent attained a quite extraordinary signifi- 
cance for the Roman Catholic Ch'urch; and its pre-eminence 
was unassailed till the Vaticanum subordinated all the labours 
of the Church in the past whether in the region of doctrine or 
in that of law to an infallible pope. On the theological side 
it fixed the results of medieval scholasticism and gleaned from 
it all that could be of service to the Church. Further, by pro- 
nouncing on a series of doctrinal points till then undecided it 
elaborated the Catholic creed; and, finally, the bold front which 
it offered to Protestantism in its presentation of the orthodox 
faith gave to its members the practical lead they so much needed 
in their resistance to the Evangelical assault. The regulations 
dealing with ecclesiastical life, in the widest sense of the words, 
came, for the most part, to actual fruition, so that, in this direc- 
tion also, the council had not laboured in vain. For the whole 



Roman Catholic Church of the i6th century its consequences 
are of an importance which can scarcely be exaggerated: it 
showed that Church as a living institution, capable of work and 
achievement; it strengthened the confidence both of her members 
and herself, and it was a powerful factor in heightening her 
efficiency as a competitor with Protestantism and in restoring 
and reinforcing her imperilled unity. Indeed, its sphere of 
influence was still more extensive, for its labours in the field 
of dogma and ecclesiastical law conditioned the future evolution 
of the Roman Catholic Church. As regards the position of the 
papacy, it is of epoch-making significance not merely in its 
actual pronouncements on the papal see, but also in its tacit 
subordination to that see, and the opportunities of increased 
influence accorded to it. 

There were three periods of the council, separated by not 
inconsiderable intervals, each of an individual character, con- 
ducted by different popes, but forming a single unity an 
indivisible whole, so that it is strictly correct to speak of one 
Council of Trent, not of three distinct synods. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Sources for the history of the council : Concilium 
tridentinum; diariorum, actorum, epistularum, tractatuum nova 
collectio, ed. Societas Goerresiana. Tom. i. (Diariorum pars j. 
Herculis Severoli commentarius. Angeli Massarelli diaria 1-4, 
collegit S. Merkle), Freiburg (1901). Tom. iv. (Actorum pars i. : 
Monumenta concilium praecedentia ; trium priorum sessiorium 
acta : collegit St Ehses), Freiburg (1904). Till the completion of this 
splendidly planned work, the following deserve especial mention: 

F. le Plat, Mpnumentorum ad historiam concilii tridentini speclan- 
tium amplissima collectio (Loyanu, 1781-1787); G. F. Planck, 
Anecdota ad historiam concilii tridentini pertinentia, 26 fasc. (Gottin- 
gen, 1791-1818); Acta genuina s. oecumenici concilii tridentini ab A. 
Massarello conscripta, ed. A. Theiner (Zagrabiae, 1874); F. v. 
Dollinger, Sammlung von Urkunden zur Geschichte des Konzils von 
Trient, i. i, 2 (Nordlingen, 1876); Id., Beitrdge zur politischen 
kirchlichen, und Kulturgeschichte (3 yols., Regensburg, 1862-1882); 

G. Paleottus, Acta concilii tridentini a 1562 et 1563 usque in finem 
concilii, ed. F. Mendharn (London, 1842); A. v. Druffel, Monumenta 
tridentina (3 parts, Munich, 18841-1887, parts 4 and 5, continued by 
K. Brandi, 1897-1899); Zur Geschichte des Konzils von Trient. 
Aktenstucke aus den osterreichischen Archiven, ed. T. v. Sickel (3 
parts, Vienna, 1870-1872); F. Lainez, Disputationes tridentinae, 
ed. Grisar (2 yols., Innsbruck, 1886); Die romische Kurie und das 
Konzil von Trient unter Pius IV. Aktenstucke zur Geschichte des 
Konzils von Trient, ed. F. Susta (yols. i. ii., Vienna, 1904-1909); 
Canones et decreta concilii tridentini (Rome, 1564; critical edition 
by A. L. Richter, Leipzig, 1853); the most important decisions on 
dogma and ecclesiastical law reprinted by C. Mirbt, Quellen zur 
Geschichte des Papsttums (ed. 2, Tubingen, Nr. 289 sqq. ; p. 202 sqq.). 

LITERATURE. P. Sarpi, Istoria del concilia tridenlino (London, 
1619); Cardinal Sforza Pallavicini, Istoria del concilia di Trento 
(Rome, 1656-1657, a counterblast to the preceding); Brischar, Zur 
Beurteilung der Kontroversen zwischen Sarpi und Pallavicini (1844); 
Salig, Vollstandige Historie des tridentinischen Konzils (Halle, 
1741-1745); Wessenberg, Die grossen Kirchenversammlungen des 
1 5 ten und i6ten Jahrhunderts, vols. iii. and iv. (Constance, 1840); 
L. v. Ranke, Die romischen Pdpste im 16 und 17 Jahrhundert, vol. i. ; 
ibid. Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation, i. (Stuttgart, 
1889); P. Tschackert, s.v. " Trienter Konzil," in Herzog-Hauck, 
Realencyklopad ie fur protestantische Theologie (1908), vol. xx., ed. 3, 
p. 99 sqq. ; G. Kawerau-W. Moeller, Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte, 
iii. 237 sqq. (Tubingen, 1907) ; F. Hergenrother, Handbuch der allge- 
meinen Kirchengeschichte, edition by F. P. Kirsch, Bd. III. p. 188 
seq. (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1909). (C. M.) 

TRENT, the chief river in the midlands of England, the third 
in length in the country, exceeded only by the Thames and 
Severn. It rises in the north of Staffordshire, and discharges 
through the Humber into the North Sea, having a course of 
about 170 m., and a drainage area of 4052 sq. m. The source 
is on Biddulph Moor, which rises to a height of noo ft. The 
course of the river is at first southerly, and it skirts the manu- 
facturing district of the Potteries, passing Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Immediately below this town the valley widens, and the fall 
of the river, from a point 15 m. from the source to the mouth, 
is only 338 ft. Passing Stone, the course becomes south-easterly, 
and the united waters of the Sow and the Penk are received 
on the right. Near Rugeley the direction becomes easterly, and 
near Alrewas the Trent receives the Tame on the right, and turns 
to the north-east. Much of the valley above this point is well 
wooded and picturesque, though the flanking hills are gently 
sloping, and of no great elevation. The river now passes 



TRENTE ET QUARANTE TRENTON 



251 



Burton-upon-Trent, in this part of its course forming the boun- 
dary between Staffordshire and Derbyshiie. The fall from 
Burton to the mouth, a distance of 109 m., is 148 ft. The 
valley opens out as the stream, dividing into several channels 
at Burton and receiving on the left the Dove, enters Derbyshire. 
It then separates that county from Leicestershire and Notting- 
hamshire, receives in quick succession the Derwent (left), 
Soar (right) and Erewash (left), enters Nottinghamshire, and 
passes Nottingham, 8i m. from the mouth. The next important 
town is Newark, which, however, the main channel of the river 
passes at a considerable distance to the west; the Devon joins 
here on the right, and the fall from this point to the mouth, 
a distance of 575 m., is only 18 ft. The valley becomes flat, 
though the river is rather deeply entrenched in some parts. 
Forming the boundary between Nottingham and Lincolnshire, 
the Trent passes Gainsborough (265 m. from the mouth), 
receives the Idle on the left, and, entering Lincolnshire and 
skirting the Isle of Axholme, joins the Yorkshire Ouse near 
Faxfleet. The lower part of the valley resembles the Fens 
in character, and is drained by many artificial channels. The 
northward turn at Newark is of interest inasmuch as it is con- 
sidered that the river from this point formerly flowed towards 
Lincoln, and, following a depression in the escarpment there, 
passed down the valley at present occupied by the Witham to 
the Wash. It is suggested that the waters were diverted to the 
Humber by a stream within that system cutting back southward 
and tapping the Trent in the vicinity of Newark; and in high 
flood the Trent has been known to send water across the low 
parting to the Witham (see Avebury, Scenery of England, 
ch. xi.). The highest tides are felt about 40 m. up river, and 
the phenomenon of an " eagre " (bore or tidal wave) is seen 
rising on spring tides to a height of 4 or 5 ft., ism. above the 
mouth of the river. 

The Trent is navigable for a distance of 94! m. from its junction 
with the Ouse, to a point a short distance above the junction of the 
Derwent, the Trent Navigation Company having a general control 
of the navigation down to Gainsborough, the line of which passes 
through Nottingham by canals. On the river itself there are eight 
locks. Below Gainsborough the navigation is open, and vessels 
drawing 9 ft. can reach this point on spring tides. From the 
Derwent mouth the Trent and Mersey Canal follows the Trent valley 
upward, and gives connexion with the entire inland navigation 
system of the midlands and west of England. Short canals give 
access to Derby and the Erewash valley; the Leicester Navigation, 
following the Soar, connects with the Grand Junction canal; and the 
Grantham Canal carriesa little traffic between that town and Notting- 
ham. The Fossdyke, distinguished as the oldest navigable waterway 
still in use in England, as it was originally of Roman construction, 
connects the Trent with Lincoln and the Witham, and lower down 
the Sheffield and South Yorkshire canal joins the river from the west 
at Keadby. There is also a canal, little used, to Chesterfield. 

TRENTE ET QUARANTE (called also Rouge el Noir), a game 
of French origin played with cards and a special table. It is 
one of the two games played in the gambling rooms at Monte 
Carlo, roulette being the other. The diagram illustrates one 
half of the table, the other half precisely corresponding to it. 
Two croupiers sit on each side, one of them being the dealer; 
behind the two on the side opposite to the dealer a supervisor 
of the game has his seat. Six packs of fifty-two cards each are 
used; these are well shuffled, and the croupier asks any of the 
players to cut, handing him a blank card with which to divide 
the mixed packs. There are only four chances at trente et 
quarante: rouge or noir, known as the grand tableau; couleur or 
inverse, known as the petit tableau. At Monte Carlo the stakes 
are placed on the divisions indicated on the table, the maximum 
being 12,000 francs and the minimum 20 francs which must be 
staked in gold. The dealer, who has placed all the cards before 
him, separates a few with the blank card, takes them in his 
left hand and invites the players to stake with the formula, 
"Messieurs, faites votre jeu!" After a pause he exclaims 
"Le jeu est fait, rien ne va plus!" after which no stake can be 
made. He then deals the cards in a row until the aggregate 
number of pips is something more than thirty, upon which he 
deals a second row, and that which comes nearest to thirty wins, 
the top row being always distinguished as noir, and the lower 



OR 

et ARGENT 




as rouge. In announcing the result the word trenle is always 
omitted, the dealer merely announcing un, trois, quatre, as the 
case may be, though when forty 
is turned up it is described as 
quarante. The words noir and 
inverse are also never used, the 
announcement being rouge gagne 
or rouge perd, couleur gagne or 
couleur perd. Gain or loss over 
couleur and inverse depends upon 
the colour of the first card dealt. 
If this should be also the colour 
of the winning row, the player 
wins. Assuming, for example, 
that the first card dealt is red, 
and that the lower row of the 
cards dealt is nearest to thirty, 
the dealer will announce " Rouge 
gagne et le couleur." If the first 
card dealt is red, but the black 
or top row of cards is nearest Diagram of Half of Trente et 
to thirty, the dealer announces Quarante Table. 

"Rouge perd et le couleur." N, Noir. G, Grand tableau. 
It frequently happens that both R - Rou S e ' * Inverse ' 
rows of cards when added together give the same number. 
Should they both, for instance, add up to thirty-three, the 
dealer will announce " Trois apres," and the deal goes for 
nothing except in the event of their adding up to thirty-one. 
Un apres (i.e. thirty-one) is known as a refait; the stakes are put 
in prison to be left for the decision of the next deal, or if the 
player prefers it he can withdraw half his stake, leaving the 
other half for the bank. Assurance against a refait can be made 
by paying i% on the value of the stake with a minimum of 
five francs. When thus insured against a refait the player is at 
liberty to withdraw his whole stake. It has been calculated 
that on an average a refait occurs once in thirty-eight coups. 
After each deal the cards are pushed into a metal bowl let into 
the table in front of the dealer. When he has not enough left 
to complete the two rows, he remarks " Les cartes passent "; 
they are taken from the bowl, reshuffled, and another deal 
begins. 

TRENTON, a city and the county-seat of Grundy county, 
Missouri, U.S.A., on the E. fork of the Grand River, in the north 
central part of the state, about 100 m. N.E. of Leavenworth. 
Pop. (1890), 5039; (1900), 5396, including 192 foreign-born and 200 
negroes; (1910), 5656. It is served by the Chicago, Rock Island & 
Pacific (which has repair shops here) and the Quincy, Omaha .& 
Kansas City railways. It has a picturesque situation, and is laid 
out over a high uneven bluff. The city is a trading centre for a 
prosperous farming region, and coal is mined in the vicinity. 
Trenton was platted in 1841, became the county-seat in the 
same year, and was incorporated as a town in 1857. In 1893 it 
received a city charter under a general state law. In 1900-1903 
it was the seat of Ruskin College, an institution founded by 
Walter Vrooman (b. 1869), anative of Missouri, and theorganizer 
of the Ruskin Hall Workingmen's College, Oxford, England. 
The college was removed to Glen Ellyn, Illinois, in 1903 and 
after 1906 to Ruskin, Florida. 

TRENTON, the capital of New Jersey, U.S.A., and the county- 
seat of Mercer county, on the eastern bank of the Delaware 
river, about 33 m. N.E. of Philadelphia, and about 59 m. S.W. 
of New York. Pop. (1890), 57,458; (1900), 73,37. of whom 
16,793 were foreign-born (including 4114 Germans, 3621 English, 
3292 Irish, and 1494 Hungarians), and 32,879 were of foreign 
parentage (both parents foreign-born), including 8873 of 
German parentage, 8324 of Irish parentage, 5513 of English 
parentage, and 2243 of Hungarian parentage; (1910 
census), 96,815. Area, 9 sq. m. Trenton is served by 
the Pennsylvania (main line and Belvidere division) and the 
Philadelphia & Reading railway systems, by inter-urban electric 
railways, and by small freight and passenger steamers on the 
Delaware river; the Delaware & Raritan Canal connects with 



252 



TRENTON AND PRINCETON, BATTLES OF 



the Raritan river at New Brunswick. Trenton is at the head 
of navigation on the Delaware river, which falls 8 ft. here. 
Riverside park extends along its water front for about 3 m., 
and on the outskirts of the city lies Cadwalader park (100 
acres), containing a zoological garden. In the centre of the 
city, marking the spot where Washington planted his guns at 
the battle of Trenton, stands the Battle monument, a Roman- 
Doric column of granite, 150 ft. high, hollow and fluted, its 
cap forming an observatory, with a statue of Washington by 
William R. O'Donovan (b. 1844). In Perry Street, mounted on 
a granite pedestal, is the " Swamp Angel," the great gun used 
by Federal troops in the marshes near Charleston, South Carolina, 
during their attack on that city in August 1863. There are 
many buildings in the city which are rich in historic associations. 
Chief among these is the barracks, erected by the colony in 
1758 to mitigate the evils of billeting, and occupied by British 
troops during the Seven Years' War, and at different times by 
British, Hessian and American troops during the War of 
Independence. Other interesting landmarks are " Woodland " 
(formerly called " Bloomsbury Court "), built early in the 
1 8th century by William Trent, and said to have sheltered, at 
various times, Washington, Lafayette and Rochambeau; the 
" Hermitage," erected some time before the War of Inde- 
pendence; and " Bow Hill," in the suburbs of the city, a 
quaint old colonial mansion which for some time before 1822 
was a home of Joseph Bonaparte. Among the public buildings 
are the state capitol, the post office building, the county 
court house, the city hall, the second regiment armoury, 
public library (containing about 42,000 volumes in 1909), 
and the building (1910) given by Henry C. Kelsey to the city 
for the school of industrial arts (founded in 1898). Here also 
are the state normal and model schools (1855), the state 
library, housed in the capitol, the state school for deaf mutes, 
the state home for girls, one of the two state hospitals for the 
insane (opened in 1848), the state arsenal the building being 
the old state prison the state prison (1836), St Francis 
hospital (1874), Mercer hospital (1892), the William McKinley 
memorial hospital (1887), the city hospital, two children's 
day nurseries, the Friends' home, the Union industrial home 
(for destitute children), the Florence Crittenton home (1895), 
the indigent widows' and single women's home (1854), the 
Har Sinai charity society, the home for friendless children, 
and the society of St Vincent de Paul. Trenton is the see of 
Protestant Episcopal and Roman Catholic bishops. 

Trenton is an important industrial centre. Its proximity 
to the coal fields of Pennsylvania and to the great markets of 
New York and Philadelphia, and its excellent transportation 
facilities by rail and by water, have promoted the development 
of its manufactures. The city is the greatest centre for the 
pottery industry in the United States. In 1905 there were 
40 establishments for the manufacture of pottery and terra- 
cotta, employing 4571 labourers; and their total product was 
valued at $5,882,701 or 9-2% of the value of the pottery 
product of the United States, and 18% of the value of all the 
city's factory products, in this year. The chief varieties of this 
ware are vitrified china, belleek china, semi-porcelain, white 
granite and c. c. ware, vitrified porcelain for electrical supplies, 
porcelain bath tubs and tiles, and terra-cotta. Clay for the 
" saggers," or cases in which the wares are fired, is mined in 
the vicinity, but the raw materials for the fine grades of pottery 
are obtained elsewhere. Some pottery was made in Trenton 
by crude and primitive methods near the beginning of the 
igth century, but the modern methods were not introduced 
until 1852, when yellow and Rockingham wares were first made 
here. In 1859 the manufacture of white granite and cream- 
coloured ware was successfully established. The fine exhibits 
from the Trenton potteries at the Centennial Exhibition in 
Philadelphia in 1876 greatly stimulated the demand for these 
wares and increased the competition among the manufacturers; 
and since that date there has been a marked development in 
both the quantity and the quality of the product. In Trenton, 
also, are manufactured iron, steel and copper wire, rope, cables 



and rods the John A. Roebling's Sons Company has an immense 
wire and cable manufactory here iron and steel bridge building 
materials and other structural work, plumbers' supplies (manu- 
factured by the J. L. Mott Company), and machinery of almost 
every character, much of it being exported to foreign countries. 
Much rubber ware is also manufactured. In 1905 Trenton 
contained 312 factories, employing 14,252 labourers, and the 
total value of the factory products was $32,719,945. 

The charter, as amended, provides for a mayor elected for 
two years and a common council of two members from each 
ward elected for two years. Other elected officers are: city 
clerk, comptroller, treasurer, counsel, receiver of taxes, engineer, 
inspector of buildings, overseer of poor, street commissioner and 
sealer of weights and measures. The municipality owns the 
water works and the sewer system; the water supply is obtained 
from the Delaware and is stored in a reservoir having a capacity 
of about 110,000,000 gallons. 

The settlement of Trenton began in 1680 with the erection 
by Mahlon Stacy, a Quaker colonist of Burlington, of a mill 
at the junction of the Assanpink creek 1 with the Delaware river. 
By 1685 a number of colonists had settled at this point, 
which became known as " The Falls " on account of the 
rapids in the Delaware here. In 1714 Stacy sold his plantation 
at "The Falls" to William Trent (c. 1655-1724), speaker of 
the New Jersey Assembly (1723) and chief justice of the colony 
(1723-1724), in whose honour the place came to be called Trent- 
town or Trenton. In 1745 Trenton received a royal charter 
incorporating it as a borough, but in 1750 the inhabitants 
voluntarily surrendered this privilege, deeming it " very pre- 
judicial to the interest and trade " of the community. In 1783 
the New Jersey delegates in Congress proposed that Trenton 
be made the seat of the general government, but as this measure 
was opposed by the Southern delegates, it was agreed that 
Congress, pending a final decision, should sit alternately at 
Annapolis and Trenton. Congress accordingly met in Trenton 
in November 1784, but soon afterwards removed to New York, 
where better accommodation could be obtained. Trenton 
became the capital of the state in 1790, was chartered as a city 
in 1792, and received new charters in 1837, 1866, and 1874. 
The borough of South Trenton was annexed in 1850; the 
borough of Chambersburg and the township of Millham in 
1888; the borough of Wilbur in 1898; and parts of the town- 
ships of Ewing and Hamilton in 1900. 

See The City of Trenton, N.J., a Bibliography (1909), prepared by 
the Trenton Free Library; John O. Raum, History of the City of 
Trenton (Trenton, 1871); George A. Wolf, Industrial Trenton 
(Wilmington, Del., 1900); F. B. Lee, History of Trenton (Trenton, 
1895). 

TRENTON AND PRINCETON, BATTLES OF (1776-1777). 
These battles in the War of American Independence are noted as 
the first successes won by Washington in the open field. 
Following close upon a series of defeats, their effect upon his 
troops and the population at large was marked. After the cap- 
ture of Fort Washington on Manhattan Island, on the i6th of 
November 1776, the British general, Sir William Howe, forced 
the Americans to retreat through New Jersey and across the 
Delaware into Pennsylvania. Howe then went into winter 
quarters, leaving the Hessian general, Rahl, at Trenton on the 
river with a brigade of 1200 men. Although Washington's army 
had dwindled to a mere handful and was discouraged by the 
year's disasters, it could still be trusted for a promising exploit. 
Ascertaining that the Hessians at Trenton were practically 
unsupported, the American general determined to attempt 
their capture. On the night of the 25th of December 1776 
he recrossed the Delaware through floating ice to a point 
9 m. above the enemy, whom he expected to reach at dawn 
of the following day, the 26th. Dividing his force of 2500 men 

1 The name Assanpink is a corruption of an Indian word said 
to mean " place of stone implements." In gravel deposits in and 
near Trenton many stone implements, human skulls and remains 
of extinct animals have been found, and according to some scientists 
they are evidences of Glacial man, a conclusion disputed by others. 
(See AMERICA, vol. i. p. 817.) 



TREPIDATION TRESHAM 



253 



into two divisions under Generals Sullivan and Greene, he 
approached the town by two roads, surprised the Hessian 
outposts, and then rushed upon the main body before it could 
form effectively. The charge of the American troops and the 
fire of their artillery and musketry completely disconcerted the 
enemy. All avenues of retreat being closed and their general 
mortally wounded, the latter to the number of 950 quickly 
surrendered and were marched back into Pennsylvania on the 
same day. The American loss was five or six wounded. 

Elated by this success and eager to beat up the enemy's 
advanced posts at other points, Washington again crossed the 
Delaware on the 3Oth of December and occupied Trenton. 
Hearing of this move Lord Cornwallis at Princeton, 10 m. 
north of Trenton, marched down with about 7000 troops upon 
the Americans on the 2nd of January 1777, and drove them 
across the Assanpink, a stream running east of the town. The 
Americans, who encamped on its banks that night, were placed 
in a precarious position, as the Delaware, with no boats at 
their disposal at that point, prevented their recrossing into 
Pennsylvania, and all other roads led towards the British lines 
to the northward. Washington accordingly undertook a bold 
manoeuvre. Fearing an attack by Cornwallis on the next 
morning, he held a council of war, which confirmed his plan of 
quietly breaking camp that night and taking a by-road to 
Princeton, then cutting through any resistance that might 
be offered there and pushing on to the hills of northern New 
Jersey, thus placing his army on the flank of the British posts. 
His tactics succeeded. At Princeton (q.v.) he came upon three 
British regiments which for a time held him at bay. The 
i7th foot especially, under Colonel Mawhood, twice routed the 
American advanced troops, inflicting severe loss, but were 
eventually driven back toward' Trenton. The other regiments 
retreated north toward New Brunswick, and Washington 
continued his march to Morristown, New Jersey. He had 
broken through Howe's lines and placed himself in an advan- 
tageous position for recruiting his army and maintaining a 
strong defensive in the next campaign. These two affairs 
of Trenton and Princeton put new life into the American cause, 
and established Washington in the confidence of his troops and 
the country at large. 

See W. S. Stryker, The Battles of Trenton and Princeton (Boston, 
1898). 

TREPIDATION (from Lat. trepidare, to tremble), a term 
meaning, in general, fear or trembling, but used technically in 
astronomy for an imagined slow oscillation of the ecliptic, 
having a period of 7000 years, introduced by the Arabian 
astronomers to explain a supposed variation in the precession 
of the equinoxes. It figured in astronomical tables until the 
time of Copernicus, but is now known to have no foundation 
in fact, being based on an error in Ptolemy's determination of 
precession. 

TRESCOT, WILLIAM HENRY (1822-1898), American 
diplomatist, was born in Charleston, South Carolina, on the 
loth of November 1822. He graduated at Charleston College 
in 1840, studied law at Harvard, and was admitted to the bar 
in 1843. In 1852-1854 he was secretary of the U.S. legation 
in London. In June 1860 he was appointed assistant secretary 
of state, and he was acting secretary of state in June-October, 
during General Lewis Cass's absence from Washington, and for a 
few days in December after Cass's resignation. His position 
was important, as the only South Carolinian holding anything 
like official rank, because of his intimacy with President 
Buchanan, and his close relations with the secession leaders 
in South Carolina. He opposed 1 the re-enforcement of Fort 
Sumter, used his influence to prevent any attack on the fort 
by South Carolina before the meeting of the state's convention 
called to consider the question of secession, and became the 
special agent of South Carolina in Washington after his resigna- 

1 His " Narrative. . .concerning the Negotiations between South 
Carolina and President Buchanan in December 1860," written in 
February 1861, edited by Gaillard Hunt, appeared in the American 
Historical Review, xiii. 528-556 (1908). 



tion from the state department in December. He returned to 
Charleston in February 1861; was a member of the state legis- 
lature in 1862-1866, and served as colonel on the staff of General 
Roswell S. Ripley during the Civil War; and later returned 
to Washington. He was counsel for the United States before 
the Halifax Fishery Commission in 1877; was commissioner 
for the revision of the treaty with China in 1880; was minister 
to Chile in 1881-1882 ; in 1882 with General U.S. Grant negotiated 
a commercial treaty with Mexico; and in 1880-1890 was a 
delegate to the Pan-American Congress in Washington. He 
died at Pendleton, South Carolina, his country place, on the 
4th of May 1898. 

His writings include The Diplomacy of the Revolution (1852), An 
American View of the Eastern Question (1854) and The Diplomatic 
History of the Administrations of Washington and Adams (1857). 

TRESHAM, FRANCIS (c. 1567-1605), English Gunpowder 
Plot conspirator, eldest son of Sir Thomas Tresham of Rush ton, 
Northamptonshire (a descendant of Sir Thomas Tresham, 
Speaker of the House of Commons, executed by Edward IV. 
in 1471), and of Muriel, daughter of Sir Thomas Throckmorton 
of Coughton, was born about 1567, and educated at Oxford. 
He was, like his father, a Roman Catholic, and his family had 
already suffered for their religion and politics. He is described 
as " a wild and unstayed man," was connected intimately with 
many of those afterwards known as the Gunpowder Plot con- 
spirators, being cousin to Catesby and to the two Winters, and 
was implicated in a series of seditious intrigues in Elizabeth's 
reign. In 1596 he was arrested on suspicion . together with 
Catesby and the two Wrights during an illness of Queen 
Elizabeth. In 1601 he took part in Essex's rebellion and was 
one of those who confined the Lord Keeper Egerton in Essex 
House on the 8th of February. He was imprisoned and only 
suffered to go free on condition of a fine of 3000 marks paid by his 
father. He was one of the promoters of the mission of Thomas 
Winter in 1602 to Madrid to persuade the king of Spain to 
invade England. On the death of Elizabeth, however, he, 
with several other Roman Catholics, joined Southampton in 
securing the Tower for James I. 

Tresham was the last of the conspirators to be initiated into 
the Gunpowder Plot. According to his own account, which 
receives general support from Thomas Winter's confession, it 
was revealed to him on the i4th of October 1605. Inferior in 
zeal and character to the rest of the conspirators, he had lately 
by the death of his father, on the nth of September 1605, 
inherited a large property and it was probably his financial 
support that was now sought. But Tresham, as the possessor 
of an estate, was probably less inclined than before to embark 
on rash and hazardous schemes. Moreover, he had two brothers- 
in-law, Lords Stourton and Monteagle, among the peers destined 
for assassination. He expressed his dislike of the plan from 
the first, and, according to his own account, he endeavoured 
to dissuade Catesby from the whole project, urging that the 
Romanist cause would derive no benefit, even in case of success, 
from the attempt. His representations were in vain and he 
consented to supply money, but afterwards discovered that 
no warning was to be given to the Roman Catholic peers. All 
the evidence now points to Tresham as the betrayer of the plot, 
and it is known that he was in London within 24 hours of the 
despatch of the famous letter to Lord Monteagle which revealed 
the plot (see GUNPOWDER PLOT). In all probability he had 
betrayed the secret to Monteagle previously, and the method 
of discovery had been settled between them, for it bears the 
marks of a prearranged affair, and the whole plan was admirably 
conceived so as to save Monteagle's life and inform the govern- 
ment, at the same time allowing the conspirators, by timely 
warning, opportunity to escape (see MONTEAGLE, WILLIAM 
PARKER, 4th baron). Tresham avoided meeting any of the con- 
spirators as he had agreed to do at Barnet, on the 29th of 
October, but on the 3ist he was visited by Winter in London, 
and summoned to Barnet on the following day. There he met 
Catesby and Winter, who were prepared to stab him for his 
betrayal, but were dissuaded by his protestations that he knew 



254 



TRESPASS TRESVIRI 



nothing of the letter. His entreaties that they would give up 
the whole project and escape to Flanders were unavailing. 
After the arrest of Fawkes on the night of the 4th Tresham 
did not fly with the rest of the conspirators, but] remained at 
court and offered his services for apprehending them. For 
some days he was not suspected, but he was arrested on the 
1 2th. On the I3th he confessed his share in the plot, and on 
the 29th his participation and that of Father Garnet in the 
mission to Spain. Shortly afterwards he fell ill with a com- 
plaint from which he had long suffered. On the 5th of December 
a copy of the Treatise of Equivocation, in which the Jesuit 
doctrine on that subject was treated, was found amongst his 
papers by Sir Edward Coke (see GARNET, HENRY). From 
the lessons learnt here he had evidently profited. On the pth of 
December he declared he knew nothing about the book, and 
shortly before his death, with the desire of saving his friend, 
he withdrew his statement concerning Garnet's complicity in 
the Spanish negotiations, and denied that he had seen him 
or communicated with him for 16 years. His death took place 
on the 22nd. His last transparent falsehoods had removed 
any thoughts of leniency in the government. He was now 
classed with the other conspirators, and though he had never 
been convicted of any crime or received sentence, his corpse 
was decapitated and he was attainted by act of parliament. 
Tresham had married Anne, daughter of Sir John Tufton of 
Holtfield in Kent, by whom he had two daughters. His estates 
passed, notwithstanding the attainder, to his brother, afterwards 
Sir Lewis Tresham, Bart. 

TRESPASS (O. Fr. trespas, a crime, properly a stepping across, 
from Lat. trans, across, and passus, step, cf. " transgression," 
from transgredi, to step across), in law, any transgression of 
the law less than treason, felony or misprision of either. The 
term includes a great variety of torts committed to land, goods 
or person, distinguished generally by names drawn from the 
writs once used as appropriate to the particular transgression, 
such as in et armis, quare clausunt fregit de bonis asporlatis, de 
uxore abducta cum bonis viri, quare filium et heredem rapuit, &c. 
Up to 1694 the trespasser was regarded, nominally at any rate, 
as a criminal, and was liable to a fine for the breach of the peace, 
commuted for a small sum of money, for which 5 Will, and Mar. 
c. 12 (1693) substituted a fee of 6s. 8d. recoverable as costs 
against the defendant. Trespass is not now criminal except 
by special statutory enactment, e.g. the old statutes against 
forcible entry, the game acts, and the private acts of many 
railway companies. When, however, trespass is carried suffi- 
ciently far it may become criminal, and be prosecuted as assault 
if to the person, as nuisance if to the land. At one time an 
important distinction was drawn between trespass general 
and trespass special or trespass on the case, for which see TORT. 
The difference between trespass and case was sometimes a 
very narrow one: the general rule was that where the injury was 
directly caused by the act of the defendant the proper remedy 
was trespass, where indirectly case. The difference is illustrated 
by the action for false imprisonment: if the defendant 
himself imprisoned the plaintiff the action was trespass; if a 
third person did so on the information of the defendant it 
was case. A close parallel is found in Roman law in the 
actio directa under the lex Aquilia for injury caused directly, 
the actio ulilis for that caused indirectly. One of the reasons 
for the rapid extension of the action on the case, especially that 
form of it called assumpsit, was no doubt the fact that in the 
action on the case the defendant was not allowed to wage his 
law (see WAGER). 

In its more restricted sense trespass is generally used for 
entry on land without lawful authority by either a man, his 
servants or his cattle. To maintain an action for such trespass 
the plaintiff must have possession of the premises. The quantum 
of possession necessary to enable him to bring the action is 
often a question difficult to decide. In most instances the 
tenant can bring trespass, the reversioner only case. Remedies 
for trespass are either judicial or extra-judicial. The most 
minute invasion of private right is trespass, though the damages 



may be nominal if the injury was trivial. On the other hand, 
they may be exemplary if circumstances of aggravation were 
present. Pleading in the old action of trespass was of a very 
technical nature, but the old-fashioned terms alia enormia, 
replication de injuria, new assignment, &c., once of such 
frequent occurrence in the reports, are of merely historical 
interest since the introduction of a simpler system of pleading, 
unless in those American states where the old pleading has 
not been reformed. The venue in trespass was formerly 
local, in case transitory. In addition to damages for trespass, 
an injunction may be granted by the court. The principal 
instances of extra-judicial remedies are distress damage feasant 
of cattle trespassing, and removal of a trespasser without un- 
necessary violence, expressed in the terms of Latin pleading 
by molliter manus imposuit. 

Trespass may be justified by exercise of a legal right, as to serve 
the process of the law, or by invitation or license of the owner, or 
may be excused by accident or inevitable necessity, as deviation 
from a highway out of repair. Where a man abuses an authority 
given by the law, his wrongful act relates back to his entry, and 
he becomes a trespasser 06 initio, that is, liable to be treated as a 
trespasser for the whole time of his being on the land. Mere breach 
of contract, such as refusal to pay for wine in a tavern which a person 
has lawfully entered, does not constitute him a trespasser ab initio. 
A trespass of a permanent nature is called a continuing trespass; 
such would be the permitting of one's cattle to feed on another's land 
without authority. 

In Scots law trespass is used only for torts to land. By the 
Trespass (Scotland) Act 1865 trespassers are liable on summary 
conviction to fine and imprisonment for encamping, lighting fires, 
&c., on land without the consent and permission of the owner. 

TRES TABERNAE (Three Taverns), an ancient village of 
Latium, Italy, a post station on the Via Appia, at the point 
where the main road was crossed by a branch from Antium. 
It is by some fixed some 3 m. S.E. of the modern village 
of Cisterna just before the Via Appia enters the Pontine 
marshes, at a point where the modern road to Ninfa and Norba 
diverges to the north-east, where a few ruins still exist (Grotte 
di Nottola), 33 m. from Rome. It is, however, more probable 
that it stood at Cisterna itself, where a branch road running 
from Antium by way of Satricum actually joins the Via Appia. 
Ulubrae, mentioned as a typical desert village by Roman writers, 
lay in the plain between Cisterna and Sermoneta. Tres 
Tabernae is best known as the point to which St Paul's 
friends came to meet him on his journey to Rome (Acts xxviii. 
15). It became an episcopal see, but this was united with that 
of Velletri in 592 owing to the desertion of the place. 

The name occurs twice in other parts of Italy as the name 
of post stations. 

TRESVIRI, or TRIUMVIRI, in Roman antiquities, a board 
of three, either ordinary magistrates or extraordinary com- 
missioners. 

i. Tresviri capilales, whose duty it was to assist the higher 
officials in their judicial functions, especially criminal, were 
first appointed about 289 B.C., unless they are to be identified 
with the Iresviri nocturni (Livy ix. 46, 3), who were in 
existence in 304. They possessed no criminal jurisdiction or 
jus prensionis (right of arrest) in their own right, but acted 
as the representatives of others. They kept watch over prisoners 
and carried out the death sentence (e.g. the Catilinarian con- 
spirators were strangled by them in the Career Tullianum); 
took accused or suspected persons into custody; and exercised 
general control over the city police. They went the rounds by 
night to maintain order, and had to be present at outbreaks of 
fire. Amongst other things they assisted the aediles in burning 
forbidden books. It 'is possible that they were entrusted by 
the praetor with the settlement of certain civil processes 
of a semi-criminal nature, in which private citizens acted as 
prosecutors (see G. Gotz in Rheinisches] Museum} xxx. 162). 
They also had to collect the sacramenta (deposit forfeited by 
the losing party in a suit) and examined the plea of exemption 
put forward by those who refused to act as jurymen. Caesar 
increased their number to four, but Augustus reverted to three. 
In imperial times most of their functions passed into the hands 
of the praefectus vigilum. 



TREVELYAN TREVIRANUS 



255 



2. Tresviri epulones, a priestly body (open from its first in- 
stitution to the plebeians), assisted at public banquets. Their 
number was subsequently increased to seven, and by Caesar 
to ten, although they continued to be called septemviri, a name 
which was still in use at the end of the 4th century A.D. They 
were first created in 196 B.C. to superintend the epulum Jovis 
on the Capitol, but their services were also requisitioned on 
the occasion of triumphs, imperial birthdays, the dedication 
of temples, games given by private individuals, and so forth, 
when entertainments were provided for the people, while the 
senate dined on the Capitol. 

3. Tresviri monetales were superintendents of the mint. 
Up to the Social War they were nominated from time to time, 
but afterwards became permanent officials. Their number 
was increased by Caesar to four, but again reduced by Augustus. 
As they acted for the senate they only coined copper money 
under the empire, the gold and silver coinage being under the 
exclusive control of the emperor. The official title was " tresviri 
acre argento auro flando feriundo." 

4. Tresviri reipublicae conslituendae was the title bestowed 
upon Octavianus, Lepidus and Antony for five years by the 
lex Titia, 43 B.C. The coalition of Julius Caesar, Pompey and 
Crassus has also been wrongly called a " triumvirate," but 
they never had the title tresviri, and held no office under that 
name. 

See T. Mommsen, Romisches Staatsrecht (1888), ii. 594-601, 638, 
601, 718; J. Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung (1885), iii. 347. 

TREVELYAN, SIR GEORGE OTTO, BART. (1838- ), 
British author and statesman, <Jnly son of Sir Charles Trevelyan, 
was born on the zoth of July 1838 at Rothley Temple, Leicester- 
shire. His mother was Lord Macaulay's sister. He was educated 
at Harrow and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he 
was second in the classical tripos. In 1861 he wrote his 
Horace at the University of Athens, a topical drama in verse, 
parts of which are said to have offended Whewell and lost 
Trevelyan a fellowship. The following year he went out as a 
civil servant to India, where he spent several years. During 
his stay he contributed " Letters of a Competition Wallah " 
to MacmUlan's Magazine (republished 1864). Caumpore, an 
account of that terrible tragedy, was published in 1865. During 
the same year he was elected to parliament for Tynemouth in 
the Liberal interest. In 1867 he wrote The Ladies in Parlia- 
ment, a humorous political brochure in verse. At the general 
election of 1868 he was returned for the Ha wick burghs, which 
he continued to represent until 1886. When the first Gladstone 
ministry was formed, in December 1868, Trevelyan was ap- 
pointed civil lord of the Admiralty, but resigned in July 1870 
on a point of conscience connected with the government Edu- 
cation Bill. He advocated a sweeping reform of the army, 
including the abolition of the purchase of commissions, and 
both in and out of parliament he was the foremost supporter 
for many years of the extension of the county franchise. In 
the session of 1874 he brought forward his Household Franchise 
(Counties) Bill, which was lost on the second reading; it was 
not till ten years later that the agricultural labourer was en- 
franchized. Among other causes which he warmly supported 
were women's suffrage, a thorough reform of metropolitan 
local government, and the drastic reform or abolition of the 
House of Lords. He was also in favour of the direct veto and 
other temperance legislation. In 1876 he published The Life 
and Letters of Lord Macaulay, one of the most admirable and 
most delightful of modern biographies; and in 1880 he published 
The Early History of Charles James Fox. In the latter year he 
was appointed parliamentary secretary to the Admiralty. This 
office he held until May 1882, when, after the assassination 
of Lord Frederick Cavendish, he became for two years chief 
secretary for Ireland. From November 1884 to June 1885 
he was chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. In February 
1886 he became secretary for Scotland, but resigned on the 
26th of March on at.count of his disagreement with some of 
Mr Gladstone's Iris'i Home Rule proposals. The same year 
he succeeded his fi.ther in the baronetcy. At the general 



election of 1886 Sir George Trevelyan lost his seat for 
Hawick. As a representative of the Unionist party he took part 
in the Round Table Conference, and, being satisfied with the 
modifications made by Mr Gladstone in his Home Rule scheme, 
he formally rejoined the Liberal party. In August 1887 he 
re-entered the House of Commons as member for the Bridgeton 
division of Glasgow; and from 1892 to 1895 ne was secretary 
for Scotland. Early in 1897 he resigned his seat in parliament 
and retired into private life. In 1899 he published the first 
volume of. a History of the American Revolution, which was 
completed (3 vols.) in 1905; in the latter year, as Interludes 
in Prose and Verse, he republished his early classical jeux d' esprit 
and Indian pieces. He had married in 1869 Caroline Philips, 
whose father was M.P. for Bury. His eldest son, Charles Philips 
Trevelyan (b. 1870), became Liberal M.P. for the Elland division 
of Yorkshire in 1899, and in 1908 was appointed parliamentary 
secretary to the Board of Education. The third son, George 
Macaulay Trevelyan (b. 1876), became well known as a brilliant 
historical writer, notably with two books on Garibaldi (1907 
and 1909). 

TREVET (or TRIVET), NICHOLAS (c. 1258-0. 1328), English 
chronicler, was the son of Sir Thomas Trevet (d. 1283), a 
judge, and became a Dominican friar. After studying at 
Oxford and in Paris, he spent most of his subsequent years in 
writing and teaching, and died about 1328. His chief work is his 
Annales sex regum Angliae, a chronicle of English history cover- 
ing the period between 1135 and 1307; this is valuable for the 
later part of the reign of Henry III. and especially for that of 
Edward I., who was the author's contemporary. A member of 
the same family was Sir Thomas Trivit (d. 1383), a soldier of 
repute, who saw a good deal of service in France, and died in 
October 1383. 

The Annales were published in Paris in 1668, in Oxford in 1719, 
and were edited by Thomas Hog for the English Historical Society 
in 1845. Manuscripts are at Oxford and in the British Museum. 
Trevet s other historical works are Catalogue regum anglo-saxonum 
durante heptarchia, and Les Cronicles qefrere N. Trevet escript a dame 
Marie (" Marie " was Edward I.'s daughter Mary). From the latter 
Chaucer is believed to have obtained his Man of Law's Tale. Trevet 
also wrote a number of works of a theological and philological 
character. 

TREVI (anc. Trebiae), a town of the province of Perugia, 
Italy, 30 m. S.E. of Perugia and 5 m. S. of Foligno by 
rail. Pop. (1901), 5708. The town stands on a steep hill 
1355 ft. above sea-level. Several of its churches are architec- 
turally interesting, especially the Madonna delle Lacrime (1487) 
outside the town, the elegant early Renaissance architecture 
of which resembles that of the Madonna del Calcinaio at Cortona, 
and most of them (and also the municipal picture gallery) 
contain paintings by artists of the Umbrian school notably 
Lo Spagna, a pupil of Perugino. S. Emiliano has a group of 
three altars decorated with fine sculptures by Rocco da Vicenza 
(1521). The ancient town is believed to have been situated 
13 m. to the north-west, but little is known of it, and no remains 
save inscriptions exist. 

TREVIGLIO, a town of Lombardy, Italy, m the province of 
Bergamo, 14 m. by rail S. by W. of that town, 410 ft. above 
sea-level. Pop. (1901), 5899 (town); 14,897 (commune). It 
has a fine church (S. Martino) containing pictures by Butinone 
and Zenale (1436-1526), both natives of the town, and 
having a lofty campanile of the i3th and i4th centuries. It 
has important silk works, wool-spinning, and other manu- 
factories. It is a junction for Verona, Cremona and Bergamo, 
and steam tramways run to Monza, Lodi, &c. 

TREVIRANUS, GOTTFRIED REINHOLD (1776-1837), Ger- 
man naturalist, was born at Bremen on the 4th of February 
1776. He studied medicine at Gottingen, where he took his 
doctor's degree in 1796, and a year later he was appointed 
professor of medicine and mathematics in the Bremen lyceum. 
He died at Bremen on the i6th of February 1837." 

In the first of his larger works, Biologie; oder die PhilosopMe der 
lebenden Natur, which appeared from 1802-1805, Treviranus^gave 
clear expression to the theory of " descent with modification, 
believed that simple forms (Protists), which he termed " zoophytes, 



256 



TREVISO TREVOR 



were " the primitive types from which all the organisms of the higher 
classes had arisen by gradual development," and he laid down as a 
fundamental proposition " that all living forms are the results of 
physical influences which are still in operation, and vary only in 
degree and direction." Like many after him, he directed attention 
to the influence of the male elements in fertilization as a source of 
variation, but laid emphasis only on the intra-organismal power of 
adaptation to surroundings. Whatever opinion be entertained in 
regard to the priority and the importance of the contribution made 
by Treviranus to the theory ot evolution, it is at least certain that 
he was a learned naturalist and an acute thinker. His most impor- 
tant later work of a synthetic nature was entitled Erscheinungen und 
Gesetze des organischen Lebens (1831). 

His younger brother, LUDOLPH CHRISTIAN TREVIRANUS 
(1779-1864), studied medicine at Jena, and was successively 
professor of medicine at Bremen lyceum (1807), professor of 
natural history at Rostock (1812), professor of botany and 
director of the botanical garden at Breslau (1816), and professor 
of botany at Bonn (1830). 

TREVISO (anc. Tanrisium), a town and episcopal see of 
Venetia, Italy, capital of the province of Treviso, 49 ft. above 
sea-level. Pop. (1901), 16,933 (town); 36,433 (commune). 
It is situated on the plain between the Gulf of Venice and the 
Alps, 1 8 m. by rail N. of Venice, at the confluence of the 
Sile with the Botteniga. The former flows partly round its 
walls, the latter through the town; and it has canal communi- 
cation with the lagoons. It is an old town, with narrow 
irregular colonnaded streets and some interesting old frescoed 
houses. The cathedral of San Pietro, dating from 1141 and 
restored and enlarged in the isth century by Pietro Lombardo, 
with a classical facade of 1836, has five domes. It contains a fine 
" Annunciation " by Titian (1519), an important " Adoration 
of the Shepherds " by Paris Bordone (born at Treviso in 
1500), and frescoes by Pordenone. There are also sculptures 
by Lorenzo and Battista Bregno and others. The Gothic 
church of San Niccolo (1310-1352) contains a fine tomb by 
Tulh'o Lombardo, and a large altarpiece by Fra Marco Pensa- 
bene and others; in the church and adjoining chapter-house are 
frescoes by Tommaso da Modena (1352), some frescoes by whom 
(life of S. Ursula) are also in the Museo Civico. The Monte 
de Pieta contains an " Entombment " by an artist of the school 
of Pordenone (wrongly attributed to Giorgione). The churches 
of S. Leonardo, S. Andrea, S. Maria Maggiore, and S. Maria 
Maddalena also contain art treasures. The Piazza dei Signori 
contains picturesque brick battlemented palaces the Salone 
del Gran Consiglio (1184) and the Palazzo del Commune 
(1268). Treviso is the seat of various manufactures iron- 
works and pottery, macaroni, cotton-spinning and rice-husking, 
paper, printing, brushes, brickyards, flourmills and is the 
centre of a fertile district. 

The ancient Tarvisium was a municipium. It lay off the main 
roads, and is hardly mentioned by ancient writers, though 
Pliny speaks of the Silis as flowing " ex montibus Tarvisanis." 
In the 6th century it appears as an important place and was 
the seat of a Lombard duke. Charlemagne made it the capital 
of a marquisate. It joined the Lombard league, and was in- 
dependent after the peace of Constance (1183) until in 1339 it 
came under the Venetian sway. From 1318 it was for a short 
time the seat of a university. In the isth century its walls 
and ramparts (still extant) were renewed under the direction 
of Fra Giocondo, two of the gates being built by the Lombardi. 
Treviso was taken in 1797 by the French under Mortier 
(duke of Treviso). In March 1848 the Austrian garrison was 
driven from the town by the revolutionary party, but in the 
following June the town was bombarded and compelled to 
capitulate. 

TREVITHlCK, RICHARD (1771-1833), English engineer 
and inventor, was born on the I3th of April in the parish of 
Illogan, Cornwall,. and was the only son of Richard Trevithick 
( 1 735~ 1 797)> manager of the Dolcoath and other important 
Cornish mines. He attended his first and only school at Cam- 
borne, and was in general a slow and obstinate scholar, though 
he showed considerable aptitude for figures. He inherited 
more than the average strength for which his family was 



famous; he stood 6 ft. 2 in. in height, and his feats in wrest- 
ling and in lifting and throwing weights were unexampled in 
the district. At the age of eighteen he began to assist his 
father, and, manifesting great fertility of mechanical invention, 
was soon recognized as the great rival of James Watt in 
improvements on the steam-engine (q.v.). His earliest in- 
vention of importance was his improved plunger pole pump 
(1797) for deep mining, and in 1798 he applied the principle 
of the plunger pole pump to the construction of a water-pressure 
engine, which he subsequently improved in various ways. 
Two years later he built a high-pressure non-condensing steam- 
engine, which became a successful rival of the low-pressure 
steam-vacuum engine of Watt. He was a precursor of George 
Stephenson in the construction of locomotive engines. On 
Christmas Eve 1801 his common road locomotive carried the 
first load of passengers ever conveyed by steam, and on the 
24th of March 1802 he and Andrew Vivian applied for a patent 
for steam-engines in propelling carriages. In 1803 another 
steam vehicle made by him was run in the streets of London, 
from Leather Lane along Oxford Street to Paddington, the 
return journey being made by Islington. He next directed 
his attention to the construction of a steam locomotive for 
tramways, with such success that in February 1804 at Pen-y- 
darran in Wales he worked a tramroad locomotive which was 
able to haul twenty tons of iron; a similar engine was supplied 
to the Wylam colliery (Newcastle) in the following year. In 
1808 he constructed a circular railway in London near Euston 
Square, on which the public were carried at the rate of twelve 
or fifteen miles an hour round Airves of 50 or 100 ft. radius. 
Trevithick applied his high-pressure engine with great success to 
rock boring and breaking, as well as to dredging. In 1806 he 
entered into an engagement with the board of Trinity House, 
London, to lift ballast from the. bottom of the Thames, at 
the rate of 500,000 tons a year, for a payment of 6d. a ton. 
A little later he was appointed to execute a driftway under the 
Thames, but the work was abandoned owing to the water 
breaking in. He then set up workshops at Limehouse, for 
the construction of iron tanks and buoys. He was the first 
to recognize the importance of iron in the construction of 
large ships, and in various ways his ideas also influenced the 
construction of steamboats. In the application of steam to 
agriculture his name occupies one of the chief places. A high- 
pressure steam threshing engine was erected by him in 1812 
at Trewithen, while in the same year, in a letter to the Board 
of Agriculture, he stated his belief that every part of agri- 
culture might be performed by steam, and that such a use of 
the steam-engine would " double the population of the king- 
dom and make our markets the cheapest in the world." In 
1814 he entered on an agreement for the construction of engines 
for mines in Peru, and to superintend their working removed 
to Peru in 1816. Thence he went in 1822 to Costa Rica. He 
returned to England in 1827, and in 1828 petitioned parliament 
for a reward for his inventions, but without success. He died, 
penniless, at Dartford on the 22nd of April 1833. 

A Life of Richard Trevithick, with an account of his Inventions was 
published in 1872 by his third son, Francis Trevithick (1812-1877). 

TREVOR, SIR JOHN (1626-1672), English politician, was a 
son of Sir John Trevor (d. 1673) of Trevelyn, Denbighshire. 
His father was a member of parliament under James I. and 
Charles I., and sat also in the parliaments of Oliver and of 
Richard Cromwell, and was a member of the council of state 
during the Commonwealth. One of his uncles was Sir Sackvill 
Trevor (d. c. 1640), a naval officer, who was knighted in 1604; 
and another was Sir Thomas Trevor (1586-1656), the judge who 
decided in favour of the Crown in the famous case about the 
legality of ship-money, and was afterwards impeached and fined. 
Sir John Trevor was returned to parliament in 1646 as member 
for Flintshire. After filling several public positions under the 
Commonwealth and Protectorate he was a member of the coun- 
cil of state appointed in February 1660 and under Charles II. 
he rose to a high position. Having purchased the office of 
secretary of state he was knighted and entered upon its duties 






TREVOUX TRIAL 



257 



towards the end of 1668, just after he had helped to arrange an 
important treaty between England and France. He married 
Ruth, daughter of the great John Hampden, and died on the 
28th of May 1672. 

His second son, Thomas, Baron Trevor (1658-1730), was 
knighted in 1692 as solicitor-general and in 1695 became attorney- 
general. In 1701 he was appointed chief justice of the common 
pleas, and in 1712 he was created a peer as Baron Trevor of 
Bromham. On the accession of George I. in 1714 he was 
deprived of the justiceship, but from 1726 to 1730 he was lord 
privy seal. Three of his sons succeeded in turn to his barony, 
and a fourth son, Richard Trevor (1707-1771), was bishop of St 
Davids from 1744 to 1752, and then bishop of Durham. Robert, 
4th Baron Trevor and ist Viscount Hampden (1706-1783), 
represented his country at the Hague from 1739 to 1746, during 
which time he maintained a regular correspondence with 
Horace Walpole. He took the additional name of Hampden in 
1754, on succeeding to the estates of that family, and in 1776, 
twelve years after he had become Baron Trevor, he was created 
Viscount Hampden. From 1759 to 1765 he was joint post- 
master-general. He wrote some Latin poems which were pub- 
lished at Parma in 1792 as Poemata Hampdeniana. His second 
son, John Hampden-Trevor (1749-1824), British minister at 
Munich from 1780 to 1783 and at Turin from 1783 to 1798, 
died only three weeks after he had succeeded his brother Thomas 
as 3rd Viscount Hampden, the titles becoming extinct. 

Another member of this family was Sir John Trevor (1637- 
1717), Speaker of the House of Commons (1685). A partisan 
of James II., he was deprived of his office on the accession of 
William III., but in 1690 he was again a member of parliament, 
becoming Speaker for the second time in 1690 and master of the 
rolls in 1693. In 1695 he was found guilty of accepting a 
bribe and was expelled from the House of Commons, but he re- 
tained his judicial position until his death on the 2oth of May 
1717. Through his daughter Anne Sir John was the ancestor of 
the Hills, marquesses of Downshire, and of the family of Hill- 
Trevor, Viscounts Dungannon from 1766 to 1862. 

TRfiVOUX, a town of eastern France, chief town of an arron- 
dissement in the department of Am, 16 m. N. of Lyons on the 
Paris-Lyons railway. Pop. (1906), 1934. The town is situated 
on the slope of the left bank of the Sadne, which is here crossed 
by a suspension bridge and is dominated by two towers, remains 
of a feudal castle of the I2th century. The fortifications date 
from the I4th century, and the church from the same period. The 
law-court is a building of the i7th century, and was once the 
seat of the parlement of Dombes. Trevoux has a sub-prefecture 
and a tribunal of first instance. Gold and silver wire-drawing, 
introduced into the town by Jews in the i4th century, and 
the manufacture of apparatus for wire-drawing, are its chief 
industries. 

Trevoux (Trevos) was hardly known before the nth century, 
after which it was included in the domain of the lords of Thoire- 
Villars, from whom it acquired its freedom. It was bought by 
the Bourbons in 1402, became the capital of the Dombes, and 
had its own mint. In 1603 a well-known printing works was 
established there, from which in the i8th century the Journal 
de Trevouse and a universal dictionary known as the Dictionnaire 
de Trevoux were issued by the Jesuits. 

TRIAL, in English law, the hearing by a court of first instance 
of the issues of fact and law involved in a civil or criminal 
cause. The term is inappropriate to rehearing by an appellate 
court. Trial follows upon the completion of the steps necessary 
to bring the parties before the court and to adjust the issues 
upon which the court is to adjudicate, which may be summed 
up in the term pleading (q.v.). In England the trial is usually 
in open court, and it is rare to try cases in camera, or to attempt 
to exclude the public from the hearing. The essential part of 
the trial is that there should be full opportunity to both sides 
for evidence and argument on the questions in dispute. At 
present in England, as distinguished from the rest of Europe, the 
evidence is ordinarily taken viva voce in court, and affidavits 
and depositions are sparingly accepted, whereas under the 
xxvn. 9 



continental system the bulk of the proofs in civil cases are 
reduced to writing before the hearing. 

The modes of trial have altered with legal development in 
English as in Roman law (see ACTION). Many forms of trial, 
notably those by ordeal, by wager of battle or of law (see 
ORDEAL and WAGER), and by grand assize, have become obso- 
lete, and new forms have been created by legislation in order 
to meet altered circumstances of society. Up to a very recent 
date the tendency of the Roman and English systems was 
in opposite directions. In the former and in systems founded 
on it, such as the Scottish and French, trial by the judge became 
the rule, in the latter trial by judge and jury. In England the 
method of trial of issues of fact arising under the common law 
was by jury and a bench of judges. In truth the trials were the 
sittings of commissioners sent to inquire and report with the 
aid of the neighbourhood on questions of crime and civil wrongs 
in a county; the practice is summed up in the old phrase ad 
quaestionem juris judices respondeant, ad quaestionem facti 
juratores. In courts which administered equity or derived 
their law or procedure from the civil or canon law no jury 
was used, and the judges determined both law and fact. The 
system of trial before a full bench of judges even with a jury 
is now used on the European continent, but has been superseded 
in England by trial before a single judge with a jury except in 
the rare cases of trial at bar. This latter mode of trial is a 
survival of the mode universal iri the superior courts before the 
writ of nisi prius, and is now only used in the king's bench 
division, when claimed by the Crown as of right or in cases 
of unusual importance and difficulty. Recent instances are 
the trial in 1904 of Arthur Lynch for treason in South Africa, 
and in 1905 of questions raised on a petition of right in respect 
of a claim to make the Crown responsible on the conquest of 
the Transvaal for acts of the Transvaal government before or 
during the war. 

The necessity for trial by jury has been removed in many 
cases by legislation and rules of court (see JURY; SUMMARY 
JURISDICTION), and the present English practice is summarized 
in the following statement. 

In the High Court of Justice in England and Ireland several modes 
of trial are now used : 

1. Trial by judge with a jury used in the king's bench division 
and in probate and matrimonial cases. There is a right to have a 
jury as a matter of course in actions of defamation, false imprison- 
ment, malicious prosecution, seduction and breach of promise of 
marriage. In other cases, subject to exceptions to be noted, a jury 
can be obtained on the application of either party. 

2. Trial by a judge without a jury is invariable in the chancery 
division and now common in the other divisions. Cases in the 
chancery division are not tried with a jury unless a special order is 
made (Ord. 36, r. 3); and the High Court in cases in which trial 
without jury could be ordered without consent (1875) still retains the 
power of so trying them, and has also acquired power to direct trial 
without a jury of any issue requiring prolonged examination of 
documents or accounts or scientific or local investigation. 

3. Trial with assessors, usual in admiralty cases (the assessors 
being nautical) but rare in other divisions. 

4. Trial by an official referee in certain cases involving much 
detail (R.S.C.O. 36). In the county court the ordinary mode of trial 
is by the judge alone, but a jury of eight is allowed in certain cases 
on application, and in the admiralty jurisdiction marine assessors 
can be called in. In other local civil courts the trial is often by jury, 
as in the mayor's court of London, sometimes without, as in the 
vice-chancellor's court of the university of Oxford. In all civil 
cases the parties can by a proper submission have a trial before an 
arbitrator selected by or for them. As regards criminal cases the 
right to trial by due process of law before condemnation is given by 
art. 29 of Magna Carta; and the trial must be by jury unless a statute 
otherwise provides (see COURT-MARTIAL; SUMMARY JURISDICTION). 

The parties may be represented by lawyers, solicitor or counsel or 
both, according to the court, in county courts by accredited lay 
agents, or may conduct their case in person. The trial is carried 
on by stating to the court the pleadings if any and by opening the 
plaintiff's case. This is followed by the evidence of the witnesses, 
who are sworn and examined and cross-examined. On the comple- 
*ion of the plaintiff's case and evidence, the defendant's case is stated 
and evidence adduced in support of it. The plaintiff or his lawyer 
has as a rule the reply or last word, though in some courts, described 
as single speech courts, no reply is given. At the conclusion the 
judge sums up the law and facts of the case to the jury, if there 
is one, and their verdict is returned, or if there is no jury 



2 5 8 



TRIANGLE TRIASSIC SYSTEM 



gives judgment, 
involved. 



stating his conclusions on the law and facts 



There remain certain modes of trial not obsolete but rarely used. 
Such are impeachment of the House of Commons before the House 
of Lords ; and in the case of a charge of treason or felony by a person 
having privilege of peerage, trial on indictment before the House 
of Lords, or in vacation before the court of the lord high steward. 
Trials by certificate, by inspection and by record, are obsolete. 

The decisions on a trial at first instance are reviewed by appeal 
(q.v.), or in trial cases heard before a jury by application for a new 
trial, where the judge has not directed the jury correctly as to the 
law or has permitted them to consider inadmissible evidence, or 
the jurors have in their verdict acted without evidence or against 
the weight, i.e. the quality not the quantity of the evidence. Under 
the Criminal Appeal Act 1907 the decisions in criminal trials on 
indictment, whether on matters of law or of fact or on mixed ques- 
tions of law or fact, are reviewable by the court of criminal appeal ; 
but that court has no power to order a retrial of the case before a 
jury. 

Scotland. Jury trial was introduced into Scotland for certain 
classes of civil cases in the igth century but is not much used. In 
criminal cases it is used where summary jurisdiction has not been 
conferred. 

Ireland. The law of Ireland as to trials is in substance the same 
as in England, except as to appeals in criminal cases. 

United States. -In the United States the system of trial is that of 
the English common law as varied by Federal and state legislation. 

(W. F. C.) 

TRIANGLE, in geometry, a figure enclosed by three lines; 
if the lines be straight the figure is called a plane triangle; but 
if the figure be enclosed by lines on the surface of a sphere it is a 
spherical triangle. The latter are treated in TRIGONOMETRY; 
here we summarize the more important properties of plane 
triangles. In a plane triangle any one of the angular points can 
be regarded as the vertex; and the opposite side is called the base. 
The three sides and angles constitute the six elements of a 
triangle; it is customary to denote the angular points by capital 
letters and refer to the angles by these symbols; the sides are 
usually denoted by the lower case letter corresponding to that of 
the opposite angular point. Triangles can be classified according 
to the relative sizes of the sides or angles. An equilateral tri- 
angle has its three sides equal; an isosceles triangle has only two 
sides equal; whilst a scalene triangle has all its sides unequal. 
Also a right-angled triangle has one angle a right angle, the side 
opposite this angle being called the hypothenuse; an obtuse- 
angled triangle has one angle obtuse, or greater than a right 
angle; an acute-angled triangle has three acute angles, i.e. 
angles less than right angles. The triangle takes a prominent 
place in book i. of Euclid; whilst the relation of the triangle 
to certain circles is treated in book iv. (See GEOMETRY: 
Euclidean.) 

The following is a summary of the Euclidean results. The angles 
at the base of an isosceles triangle are equal and conversely ; hence 
it follows that an equilateral triangle is also equiangular and con- 
versely (i. 5, 6). If one side of a triangle be produced then the 
exterior angle is greater than either of the two interior opposite 
angles (i. 16), and equal to their sum (i. 32); hence the sum of 
the three interior angles equals two right angles. (In i. 17 it is 
shown that any two angles are less than two right angles.) The 
greatest angle in a triangle is opposite the greatest side (i. 18, 19). 
On the identical equality of triangles Euclid proves that two tri- 
angles are equal in all respects when the following parts are equal 
each to each (a) two sides, and the included angle (i. 4), three sides 
(i. 8, cor.), two angles and the adjacent side, and two angles and the 
side opposite one of them (i. 26). The mensuration is next treated. 
Triangles on the same base and between the same parallels, i.e. 
having the same altitude, are equal in area (i. 37) ; similarly triangles 
on equal bases and between the same parallels are equal in area 
(i. 38). If a parallelogram and triangle be on the same base and 
between the same parallels then the area of the parallelogram is 
double that of the triangle (i. 41 ). These propositions lead to the 
result that the area of a triangle is one half the product of the base 
into the altitude. The penultimate proposition (i. 47) establishes 
the beautiful theorem, named after Pythagoras, that in a right- 
angled triangle the square on the hypothenuse equals the sum of 
the squares on the other two sides. Two important propositions 
occur in book ii. viz. 12 and 13; these may be stated in the follow- 
ing forms: If ABC is an obtuse-angled triangle with the obtuse 
angle at C and a perpendicular be drawn from the angular point A 
cutting the base BC produced in D, then AB 2 (i.e. square on the side 
subtending the obtuse angle) = BC 2 + CA 2 + 2BCCD (ii. 12); 
in any triangle (with the same construction but with the side AC 
subtending an acute angle B, wehaveAC 2 = AB 2 + BC 2 2CB'BD 
(see TRIGONOMETRY). 



Book iv. deals with the circles of a triangle. To inscribe a circje in 
a given triangle is treated in iv. 4; to circumscribe a circle to a given 
triangle in iv. 5. The centre of the first circle is the intersection of 
the bisectors of the interior angles; if the meet of the bisectors of 
two exterior angles be taken, a circle can be drawn with this point 
as centre to touch two sides produced and the third side ; three such 
circles are possible and are called the escribed circles. The centre 
of the circum circle is the intersection of the perpendiculars from the 
middle points of the sides. Concerning the circum circle we observe 
that the feet of the perpendiculars drawn from any point on its 
circumference to the sides are collinear, the line being called Simson's 
line. We may here notice that the perpendiculars from the vertices 
of a triangle to the opposite sides are concurrent ; their meet is called 
the orthocentre, and the triangle obtained by joining the feet of 
the perpendiculars is called the pedal triangle. Also the lines 
joining the middle point of the sides to the opposite vertices, or 
medians, are concurrent in the centroid or centre of gravity of the 
triangle. There are several other circles, points and lines of 
interest in connexion with the triangle. The most important is 
the " nine point circle," so called because it passes through (a) the 
middle points of the sides; (b) the feet of the perpendiculars from 
the vertices to the opposite sides; and (c) the middle points of the 
lines joining the orthocentre to the angular points. This circle 
touches the inscribed and escribed circles. For the Brocard points 
and circle. Tucker's circles with the particular forms cosine 
circle, triplicate ratio (T.R.) circle, Taylor's circle, McCay's circles, 
&c., see W. J. M'Clelland, Geometry of the Circle; or Casey, Sequel 
to Euclid. 

TRIANGLE, in music (Fr. triangle, Ger. Triangel, Ital. triangolo), 
an instrument of percussion of indefinite musical pitch, consisting 
of a triangular rod of steel, open and slightly curved at one corner. 
The triangle, suspended by a loop, is played by means of a steel 
stick with a wooden handle. Varied rhythmical effects and 
different grades of forte and piano can be obtained. A sort of 
tremolo or roll can be produced by striking each end of the tri- 
angle alternately in rapid succession. When the triangle is 
scored for on a separate staff, the treble clef is used, but it is more 
often included with the bass drum on the bass stave. The tone 
of the triangle is clear and ringing, but it should have no definite 
pitch. The small triangles are the best. Beethoven, Mozart, 
Weber and other great masters employed the instrument. 

TRIASSIC SYSTEM, in geology, the lowest or youngest system 
of the Mesozoic era; it occupies a position above the Permian 
and below the Jurassic system of rocks. The principal forma- 
tions of the type region, Germany, are the Bunter, Muschelkalk 
and Keuper; these were for the first time grouped together 



Hypothetical distribution ']\f = 
ofLndiSea 




under the systematic name " Trias " by F. von Albert! (1834). 
A description of the rocks in these formations will be found 
under their respective headings. For a long time this German 
development of the strata was regarded as typical of the period; 
later, however, the discovery of another more fossiliferous 
phase in the Alps and Mediterranean region, and subsequently 
in Asia and elsewhere, led geologists to take a different view of 
the system as a whole. It was clearly seen that there existed 
two distinct phases of Triassic rock-building, the one con- 
tinental (terrestrial and lagoonal), the other marine (pelagic). 



TRIASSIC SYSTEM 



259 



The original Trias of the " Germanic " area (including Great 
Britain) must be understood as a special local expression of the 
continental Trias, while the thoroughly marine type represents 
the normal aspect of sedimentation. Similarly, the fauna of the 
marine Trias is the standard for comparison with the life of other 
geological systems. The term Trias indicative of the three- 
fold grouping in Germany thus loses its original significance 
when applied to the world-wide deposits of the period; its use, 
however, is continued by general consent. 

Continental Trias. The records of the terrestrial and lagoonal 
conditions during this period are to be found in the coarse conglomer- 
ates, red and mottled sandstones, marls and clays with their accom- 
panying beds of dolomite and limestone, and layers of gypsum, 
anhydrite, rock-salt and coal. The coarser breccias and con- 
glomerates appear to represent ancient screes and shore deposits, 
and in part at least their formation may have been due to torrential 
action. The remarkable oblique bedding in many of the sandstones, 
coupled with the fact that the sand grains are often very perfectly 
rounded, points to the transporting action of wind. Even the 
pebbles occasionally exhibit the dreikanter form, familiar in 
our modern deserts. But the marls, muds and many sandy beds 
were certainly deposited in sheets of water, which were evidently 
shallow and subject to frequent periods of desiccation. Of this 
we have evidence in the great abundance of reptilian foot-prints, 
of rain pits, ripple marks, and sun cracks upon what were once 
surface muds and sands. That the drying up of the water sheets 
repeatedly produced a highly saline condition is shown by the 
common occurrence of rock-salt, gypsum and anhydrite. In short, 
the physical conditions under which the continental Trias was formed 
appear to have been similar to those obtaining at the present day in 
the Caspian region. 

In Europe the earlier deposits of the continental Trias occupy a 
compact area covering nearly the whole of Germany, whence they 
may be followed into central and northern England, Heligoland, 
Upper Silesia and the Vosges. Another tract lay over what are 
now the western Alps and south-east France; also in the Pyrenees, 
Balearic Islands, Sardinia, Sicily and southern Spain, and on to the 
north coast of Africa. In the Carpathians the same rocks appear, 
and they cover a large area in north-east Russia (Tartarian), and 
north-west Siberia. Later, the Muschelkalk limestones point to a 
temporary influx of the sea involving most of the above regions except 
Britain and Russia. Three encroachments of the sea are indicated, 
each followed by a period of excessive evaporation and contraction ; 
these happened in the time of the Roth, the Lower and the Upper 
Muschelkalk. Finally the last influx, that of the Rhaetic Sea, not 
only spread much beyond the limits of the earlier incursions 
but remained as the forerunner of the succeeding Jurassic waters. 
In North America the continental Trias appears with a close 
resemblance to that of western Europe along the Atlantic coastal 
strip from Prince Edward's Island, through New Brunswick, 
Nova Scotia, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, to 
North Carolina. These are the rocks of the Newark series. South- 
wards it may be traced in Honduras, the Andes, Brazil, Argentina 
and Chile. Another large area in the western interior, Wyoming 
and New Mexico, is occupied by "red beds" (600-2000 ft., in 
part Permian) with gypsum and rock-salt. In southern Africa 
the upper part of the Karoo formation appears to represent Triassic 
time the Stormberg beds (Permo-Trias) and the Beaufort beds 
(Rhaetic). In India the Panchet beds of the Gondwana system 
and in New South Wales the Hawkesbury series (Wianametta 
shales with coals and iron-stone, Hawkesbury sandstone, and at 
the base the Narraburra beds) belong to about the same horizon. 
In New Zealand the Otapiri, Wairoa and Oreti series appear to 
contain fossils indicating a transition from Permian to Rhaetic. 

The Marine or Open-sea Trias. This type of Triassic deposit 
is frequentlyreferred to under the titles " Alpine," " Mediterranean " 
or " Pelagic." It first came into notice through the discovery of 
fossils in the neighbourhood of Recoaro and St Cassian on the 
southern side of the Alps, and these rocks were subsequently corre- 
lated with those at Hallstatt on the northern side. On both sides 
of the Alps rocks of this age flank the central core, but they are better 
developed, thicker and less altered towards the east than towards 
the west. In the western Alps Triassic beds can be only dimly 
recognized amongst the masses of schists called the Schistes-lustres 
and Bundnerschiefer. In the eastern Alps, however, although there 
are sandy and conglomeratic members, such as the Werfen beds 
and Lunz sandstone, yet the most striking feature, in contrast with 
the continental Trias, is the prevalence of calcareous and dolomitic 
strata, to which must be added the enormously greater abundance 
of organic remains. The Alpine Trias varies in lithological character 
so rapidly from point to point, and has furthermore been subjected 
to so much dislocation, that great difficulty has been experienced 
in correlating the beds in different areas and in placing them in their 
proper order of sequence. The result of this difficulty has been the 
production of a nomenclature so unwieldy that no attempt at a 
detailed exposition is possible in the space here available. The 
principal members of the Alpine Trias will be found in their correct 



relative positions in the table. One of the most striking aspects 
of the Alpine Trias, on both the northern and southern sides, is 
the great development of dolomite which is so prominent a feature 
in the scenery of southern Tirol (Drei Zinnern, &c.). Some of these 
rocks contain the remains of corals, still more bear the fossils of 
calcareous algae, and although the view originally advanced by 
F. v. Richthofen that they represent Triassic coral reefs has been 
strongly opposed, it still seems to be the most reasonable explanation 
of their origin. The rocks of the marine Trias generally are argilla- 
ceous beds and dark limestones; in the Alpine regions many of the 
latter have been marmorized. The well-known white marble of 
Carrara in the Apuan Mountains is a metamorphosed Triassic lime- 
stone. The same type of Trias occurs also in south Italy (Longo- 
bardian), in Sicily, Barcelona, Balearic Islands, Crete, Bosnia, 
East Hungary, and the Carpathian Mountains by Bukovina and 
Dobrudja. 

The Alpine-Mediterranean Trias sea evidently had a prolongation 
into Western Asia, for in Asia Minor, Armenia and Bokhara rocks 
with closely related fossils have been found. In Central Asia 
Triassic rocks are known in Afghanistan (sandstones with coal), 
Russian Turkestan, and in the Pamir. In India the lower Trias 
of the Salt Range presents the most typical example of the marine 
deposits of this stage. The Himalayan Trias more perfectly repre- 
sents the upper portion of the system. Triassic limestones are found 
also in Kashmir and Hazara, and shales in Baluchistan. The marine 
Trias is known in Burma, Tongking, China and north-east Tibet; 
also in Japan, Siberia and in the arctic regions of Spitsbergen and 
Bear Island. In the Australasiatic region the marine Trias is found 
in the Sunda Islands, Sumatra, Roth and Timor and in New 
Caledonia. 

Climate, Vulcanism. There seems little room for doubt that the 
climate of Triassic times was, over large tracts of the northern 
continental region, dry and arid in character, certain features in 
the flora tending to support this view. On the other hand, the 
southern continental deposits, with Clossopteris and its allies, is 
more suggestive of a moist climate. There is no evidence of the 
glacial condition of the preceding Permian period. The Triassic 
period was one of rest so far as crustal movements were concerned. 
Volcanic activity, however, was exhibited on a large scale in the 
north-western part of North America, the great batholith of the 
Coast Range being nearly 1000 m. long; in British Columbia and 
Alaska large bodies of igneous rock are supposed to belong to this 
period. On the eastern side of the continent the diabase and dolerite 
lava flows, veins and sills of the famous Palisades of the Hudson 
valley belong to the Newark system. In Europe and Asia igneous 
rocks are scarce, but tuffs, porphyrites, &c., occur in the Schlern 
district (Upper Cassian age) and at Falzarego Strasse, Trarenanzes 
(Wengen horizon), in the Alpine region. 

Life of the Triassic Period. The plant life of this period exhibits 
on the whole a closer relationship with the Jurassic than with the 
preceding Palaeozoic formations. Flowering plants are unknown 
in the Triassic deposits and the dominant forms are all gymnosperms, 
the prevailing types being ferns and fern-like plants, cycadeans, 
conifers and equisetums. The Palaeozoic calamites, sigillarias and 
lepidodendrons became extinct early in this period; but in_ the 
southern hemisphere the Glossopteris flora still held on in consider- 
able force. Amongst the ferns were Lepidopteris, Sagenopteris, 
Danaeopteris, with the Carboniferous genera Sphenopteris, Pecopteris 
and others. Eguisetites and Schizoneura became common. Char- 
acteristic conifers were Voltzia, Araucariies, Brachyphyllum. The 
Cycadeans were represented by Pterophyllum, Cycadites, Podozamites, 
&c. Baiera was the representative of the ginkgos. Calcareous 
algae were important rock builders in some of the Triassic seas 
(Gyroporella, Diplopora). Fish remains are not generally common 
in the Trias; teeth and scales are crowded together in the " bone 
beds " in the Rhaetic and between the Keuper and Muschelkalk; 
in the marine Trias of the Alpine region skeletons are much more 
common. They are abundant also in the bituminous shales of the 
Connecticut Valley and in the Hawkesbury series of New South 
Wales. Selachians are represented by species of Hybodus, A crodus and 
Palaeobates; dipnoids by Ceratodus and Cosfordia. The ganoids, with 
Palaeozoic as well as younger forms, include Gyrolepis, Semionotus, 
Didlyopyge, Graphiurus, Belonorhynchus and Pholidopleuras. Bony 
fish were very feebly represented. The amphibian labyrinthpdonts 
(Stegocephalia) were numerous, their bones being found in the 
" bone beds " and in the Bunter and Keuper sandstones and their 
equivalents in North America, South Africa and India (Laby- 
rinthodont, Mastodonsaurus, Trematosaurus, Capitosaurus}. Their 
footprints are often very abundant, e.g. Cheirotherium. The reptiles 
of the Triassic deposits, unlike the amphibians, which are Permian 
in character, show a closer relationship with Jurassic forms; one 
of the most interesting facts in the life-history of the group is the 
development during this period of sea-going forms such as at a 
later geological period played so prominent a part. Early crocodilian 
reptiles are represented by Belodon, Mystriosuchus, Stagonolepis, 
Parasuchus; and Rhyncocephalia by Telerpeton and Hyperodapedon. 
Ichthyopterygians were represented by Mixosaurus, Nothosaurus, 
Cymatosaurus; early dinosaurs (carnivorous) by Zanclodon, 
Anchisaurus, Thecodontosaurus, Palaeosaurus ; the remarkable 
theromorphs (anomodonts), by Elginia, Dicynodon, Geikia, Gordonia. 



26o 



TRIAZINES 



Turtles became well established during this period (Psammochelys, 
Chelyzoon). Of great interest is the discovery of the earliest traces 
of mammals in the Trias of Europe, South Africa and North America. 
The imperfect remains (teeth and jaw-bones) do not admit of any 
certainty in deciphering their relationships. Microlestes from the 
Rhaetic of England and Wurttemberg and Dromatherium from North 
America are perhaps the best known ; Tritylodon from South Africa 
may also be added. Among the lower forms of marine life foramini- 
fera and sponges play a subordinate part. Corals, which with the 
calcareous algae built considerable reefs in some regions, at this time 
began to assume a modern aspect, and henceforth the Hexacorallids 
took the place of the Palaeozoic Tetracorallid forms (Stylophyllum, 
Pinacophyllum, Thecosmilia). Crinoids were locally very numerous 
individually (Encrinus liliiformis, Dadocrinus gracilis). Urchins 
were not very common, but an important change from the Palaeozoic 
to the Mesozoic type of shell took place about thisjtime. Brachiopods 
were important; rostrate forms like Terebrattda and Rhynchonetta 
from this time onward became more prevalent than broad hinged 
genera. Pelecypods were abundant, Myophoria, Halobia, Daonella, 
Pseudomonotis, Avictda, Gervittia and many others. Gasteropods 
also were numerous; at the beginning of the period, as in other 
groups, many Palaeozoic forms lingered on, but one of the main 
changes about this time was the development and expansion of 
siphonostomous forms with canaliculate shells. Quite the most 
important Mollusca were the Cephalopods. In the early Trias 
there still remained a few of the Palaeozoic genera, Orthoceras, 



Hungarites, and forms which linked up the goniatites with tht 
ammonites, which henceforth took the lead in numbers and variety. 
Prionplobus, Aspidites, Celtites, Meekoceras, Tiroliles, Ptychites, 
Tropites, Ceratites, Arcestes, Psiloceras and Flemingites are a few of 
the prominent Triassic genera. The nautiloids were fairly well 
represented, but they exhibit no such marked development from 
Palaeozoic to Mesozoic types as js shown among the ammonoids. 

In the tabulated synopsis of the Triassic system given below it 
has been impossible to include many of the names of groups and 
subordinate divisions. Some of these, such as the term " Noric " 
(Norian), have been used in a variety of ways. A clear account of 
the history of the study of the Trias will be found in K. A. von< 
Zittel's History of Geology and Palaeontology (Eng. trans., London 
1901). 

REFERENCES. The literature of the Trias is very voluminous. 
A full account, with full references as to date of publication, in 
Lethaea Geognostica, ed. by F. Freeh, Theil II.; Das Mesozoicum, 
Bd. i. " Einleitung des Mesozoicum und der Trias" (F. Freeh); 
" Continentale Trias " (E. Philippi and J. Wyspgorski), 1903; 
2nd Lieferung, " Die asiatische Trias " (F. Noetling), 1905; 3rd 
Lieferung, " Die Alpine Trias des Mediterran-Gebietes " (G. von 
Hathaber), Stuttgart, 1905. (J. A. H.) 

TRIAZINES, in organic chemistry, a series of cyclic com- 
pounds, containing a ring system composed of three carbon and 
three nitrogen atoms. Three series are possible, the positions of 



CONTINENTAL TRIAS. 



MARINE TRIAS or THE ALPINE AND INDIAN TYPES. 





German Trias. 


England. 




North Alpine Region. 


South Alpine Region. 


Alpine Zone 
Fossils. 


India. 




America. 




Sandstones 


Rhaetic or 
Penarth 


sl 


Kossen Rhaetic Kossen 




Magalodon 
limestone 








.0 and Clays 
S with Avicula 
contorta 


beds 
White Lias, 
black pa- 


*C 

E"O 


.a beds Dachstein beds 
o Lithoden- Kalk and (Azzarola 
J3 dronKalk Dolomite beds) 


Avicula 
contorta 


and "Hoch- 
gebergskalk " 
in part 




Star Peak 
beds 




06 


per-shales, 


_ C 


06 














Bone bed 


marls 
Bone bed 


ttjl 








Aulacothyris 
limestone 




Sandstones 
with dino- 


LI 


,, Stubensand- 
o. stein 


Red and 
mottled 


* J/ ' 


V 

_, Dachstein 2 



Dachstein 




Sagenites 
beds 




sa u r s of 
Connecticut 


s. 


Hi 

3 


marls with 


M * 


Kalk and -| 


-2 Kalk and 


Turbo 


Coral lime- 






3 




j] 


rock - salt 


V.'SlD 


Coral -a 


o Coral 


(Worthenia) 


stone 


.3 






1 


and gyp- 


2 S*""' 


2 Z limestones c 


.c limestones 


solitarius 




i 






,? Schilfsand- 


sum 


Sen .2 


1 







Halorites 


bj 






stein 


Variously 

i i 


.= 


H 


'S. 




beds 


O 
0, 




V 


% Grenz dolom- 
ite 
jj Lettenkohlen - 


coloured 
sandstones 
and marls 
(with"Wa- 


C J OH 


a Opponitz 
5* e limestone and 
.2 dolomite 


Raibl beds 


Tropites 
subbullatus 


Hauerites 
beds 


o< 
c 

H 

-5 


Taylorville 
beds of Cali- 
fornia 




e sandstein 
j: D olomi t ic 


ter-stones") 
Conglomer- 


'^ % a 


Reingrabner 
y beds and TJ 





Trachyceras 
aonides 


Spiti 
dolomite 








j limestones 
^ and marls 


ate and 
breccia 


LI 


Lunz sand- .0 
stone cs 


liiil 




Daonella 
beds 




Sandstones 
with plants, 




Haupt-Muschel- 
kalk 




c-o c 
^ c .2 


O C u 

- o ^ 
e Reifling M ! - J 
.2 limestone c c 


~o a rtT3. Cassian 
e^-3 g'se beds 
j> o S oj.5 Wengen 


Trachyceras 
aon 
Daonella 


Daonella 
beds 




Richmond, 
Virginia 








jD.SJH 


;| and Part- '5- 


g-2 A g g beds 


lommeli 














"O CJ 


nach beds g -o 


t/5u]Slxi Buchen- 


Protrachyce- 










Anhydrite group, 




(^ M 


"^ S g 


stein 


ras reitzi 








^. 


dolomite and 




: j='C 


(O *^ 

.2 j> *-> 


g beds 










1 

o 

J= 


marls with rock- 
salt and gypsu m 


i 


c c *^* 
rt 13^. 




2 Trinodosus beds 
E (Prezzo lime- 


Ceratites 
trinodosus 


Ptychites 
beds 


2 
'C 


Koipato beds 


fe 




A 


c .| 


"Alpine o 


^ u stone) 






H 




3 
*;-" 


Zellendolomit 




V w VJ 


Muschel- -2 


"g.- (Brachiopod 3 






^i 


* 








<5 s 


J ka'k" 


| limestone) i.3 






I 






Wellenkalk and 




15* 


; (part) 

'5 g" 13 


7.3 Recoaro * u 
"'3 limestone " 


Ihynchenella 
decussata 


Niti lime- 


c 






dolomite 




Z o o 


"" Gutten- 1C 


Sjs Virgloria *o c 




stone 












c 1 " S 


stein beds 06 | 


limestone ^g S 






1 










S v 


o 
J 


/\ ^ 




__ _^_ - _ 


n 










sz 




UJ r^i 




Hedenstro- cu 




Meekoceras 




Upper division 


Upper mot- 


(d<3 


Campil beds 


Campil beds 


Natiria 


emia beds c" 

rt. 


CO 


beds, Idaho 




or Roth 


tled sand- 


.J 






costata 


Prinolobus ^ 










stone 


















Middle division 


Pebble beds 


.5(7! 


2 C "S Seis beds 


Seis beds 


Pseudomono- 


beds 
t/) 


D 




O 


or Hauptsand- 




t^ &" 


Pj-f 




tis clarai 


OtOCCTdS 


g 




C 

ffl 


stein and (Vos- 
gesensandstein) 
Lower division 


Lower mot- 


v- en 

M OJ 


III 






beds "O 
(Permian) ^ 


c 
a 






sandstones with 


tled sand- 


O ^ 


^ 






~z 


1 






occasional oolite 


stone 


s S 








1 








(Rogenstein) 




















TRIAZOLES TRIBALLI 



261 



the various units of the ring system being illustrated in the 
annexed formulae : 

c c c 

C/\C 




C \/ N 

N 5f 

a-Triazines, /3-Triazines, Cyanidines. 

Few simple derivatives of the o-series are known, those which 
have been prepared result by such reactions as the condensation 
of aminoguanidine or a similar type of compound (e.g. semi- 
carbazide) with ortho-diketones (J. Thiele, Ann., 1898, 302, p. 

299): 

/NH-NH 2 OC-CaHs /NH-N^ 

HN:C< + I -> HN:C< >C-C 6 H 6 ; 

\NH 2 OC-C 6 H 6 \N = C^CeHs 

Wolff has obtained a chloro-derivative by the action of potas- 
sium cyanide on diazoacetophenone and subsequent treatment 
with acid. The phen-a-triazines are more numerous, and are 
obtained either by the action of concentrated acids on the 
formazyl compounds (E. Bamberger, Ber., 1893, 26, p. 2786): 
C 6 H 6 N:N- X /N:N 

C 6 H 6 -NH-N^ C \N:C-COC6H 6 ; 

by the reduction of symmetrical acyl-ortho-nitrophenyl hydra - 
zines (e.g.;NOrC 6 H 4 -NH-NH-CHO); or in the form of dihydro 
derivatives by the condensation of aldehydes with ortho-amino- 
azo compounds (H. Goldschmidt and Y. Resell, Ber., 1890, 23, 
p. 487), or from the aminoazo compound and a mustard oil, the 
resulting thiocarbanilido derivative being heated with acetic acid 
(M. Busch, Ber., 1899, 32, p. 2960): 

.N-C(SH):N-C 6 H 6 x.N-C:NC,H 6 

C,H,f -> C7H 6 f +H 2 S. 



C. Harries (Ber., 1895, 28, p. 1223) has also shown that 
as-phenylhydrazino-acetic esters, when heated with formamide 
and substituted formamides under pressure, yield dihydrotri- 
azines: 

C0 8 R 4_R'NH THO ^ CO NR' CH 

CH 2 -N(C 6 H 6 )NH 2 + * CH,-N(C,H 4 )-N 

The phen-a-triazines are yellow-coloured crystalline compounds 
of a somewhat basic character. 

Derivatives of /3-triazines are formed by the action of nitrous 
acid on ortho-aminobenzylamines (M. Busch, Ber., 1892, 25, 
p. 445), or in small quantity by the action of nitrous acid on 
ortho-aminobenzoylphenylhydrazines (A. Konig and A. Reissert, 
Ber., 1899, 32, p. 782), the chief product in this latter reaction 
being an isoindazolone: 

/CH 2 -NHC 6 H S /CHrNH-CeHs /CH 2 -NC,H 6 

C 6 H/ -=>C 6 H 4 < ->C 6 H/ | 

N N=N 



aeHi-c 



NH 8 -HC1 

The best drawn series of the triazines is the symmetrical or 
cyanidine series, members of which result from the condensation 
of acid anhydrides with aromatic amidines (A. Pinner, Ber., 1892, 
25, p. 1624) : 

*KH ^N-C^-CeHa 

-f +(CH 3 co) 2 o^c 6 H 6 .cf >N ; 

\NH 2 X N :CX-CH 3 

or by the condensation of aromatic nitriles with acid chlorides in 
the presence of aluminium chloride (Eitner and Krafft, Ber., 1892, 
25, p. 2263). In using benzoyl chloride in this reaction the con- 
densation is found to proceed better if a little ammonium chloride 
be added : 

or H rxro-r H rori _^ C 6 H 6 -C-C1 OC-CeHs 
2C,H 6 -CN+C 6 H 6 -C N-C(C,H 6 )-N 



N-C(C 6 H 6 ):N 

The cyanidines behave as weak bases. 

Mention may be made here of cyanuric acid, HsCjNaOs, which 

contains the same ring system as the cyanidines. It was first 
prepared by C. Scheele and is formed when urea 
is strongly heated or when cyanuric chloride 
is treated with water. It is usually repre- 
sented by the inset formula and is closely 
related to cyanic acid and cyamelide, the 

relationships existing between the three compounds being shown 

in the diagram (see also A. Hantzsch, Ber., 1906, 39, p. 139): 



HO-C 



N 



Ordinary 
temperature 



Cyanic acid 
CNOH 




temperature 



Cyamelid 
(CNOH) 



HO 



Cyanuric acid 



Decomposes easily 
C0 2 +NH, 

Decomposes with 
difficulty. 




N 



:CH 



NH. 



TRIAZOLES (pyrro-a and jS'-diazoles), in organic chemistry, 
a series of heterocyclic compounds containing the ring complex 
(annexed formula). Derivatives were obtained by J. A. Bladin 
HC=Nx (Ber., 1892, 25, p. 183) by the action of acetic 

| y>NH anhydride on dicyanophenylhydrazine (formed 

N : CH f rom cyanogen and phenylhydrazine), the 

resulting acetyl derivative losing water and yielding phenyl- 
methylcyanotriazole, which, on hydrolysis, gives the free acid. 
By eliminating carbon dioxide, phenylmethyltriazole results. 
In a similar manner, formic acid and dicyanophenylhydrazine 
yields a phenyl-triazole carboxylic acid, in which the phenyl 
group may be nitrated, the nitro group reduced to the amino 
group, and the product oxidized to a triazole carboxylic acid, 
which, by elimination of carbon dioxide, yields the free 
triazole: 
HO 2 C-C=N. 

N:CH/ ft:CH 

They also result when the acidylthiosemicarbazides are strongly 
heated, the mercapto-triazoles so formed being converted into 
triazoles on oxidation with hydrogen peroxide (M. Freund, 
Ber., 1896, 29, p. 2483); by the condensation of hydrazides with 
acid amides; and by the distillation of the tria/olones (see 
below) with phosphorus pentasulphide. The triazoles behave 
as weak bases, the imido-hydrogen being replaceable by metal. 
The keto-dihydrotriazoles or triazolones are obtained by the action 
of hydrazines on acetyl urethane (A. Andreocci, Ber., 1892, 25, p. 225). 
These compounds may be considered as 5-triazolones, a series of 
isomeric 3-triazolones resulting from the condensation of phenyl- 
semicarbazide with aromatic aldehydes in the presence of an 
oxidant. The diketotetrahydrotriazoles, or urazoles, are formed 
by condensing urea derivatives with hydrazine salts, urazole itself 
resulting by the action of urea or biuret on hydrazine or its salts. 
It behaves as a strong acid and on treatment with phosphorus 
pentachloride at high temperatures gives triazole. 

HC=N\ CO-NH\ CO-NH\ 

>NH, | >NH, | >NH. 

HN-CO/ N=CH/ NH-CCK 

5-Triazolone. 3-Triazolone. Urazole. 

Isomeric triazoles of the following constitutions are known: 
HC:N\ N:CH\ N=N\ 

>NH | >NH >NH 

HC:1SK N:CH/ HC:CH/ 

Osotriazole (oa'). Iminotriazole ($3'). o/S-Triazole. 
The osotriazoles are obtained by heating the osazones of orthodike- 
tones with mineral acids; by the action of acetic anhydride on the 
hydrazoximes of orthodiketones, or by condensing diazo-methane 
with cyanogen derivatives (A. Peratones and E. Azzarello, R. Acad. 
Lincei, 1907 [v.], 16, pp. 237, 318). They are feeble bases which 
distil unchanged. The ring is very stable to most reagents. The 
iminobiazoles are formed by conversion of diacylhydrazines into 
iminochlorides which with ammonia or bases yield the required 
triazoles (R. Stoll6, Journ. prak. Chem., 1906 [ii.], 74, pp. i, 13). 
M. Busch (Ber., 1905,38, pp. 856, 4049) has isolated a series of bridged 
ring compounds which he describes as eredo-iminodihydrotriazoTes, 
the triphenyl derivative (annexed formula) being 
\>CH prepared by condensing triphenylaminoguani- 

/ .. din A MM-fVi ff\rm\r t ar-Jrl TK*i nitr !* of fnic Ha c<* 



I vipu | dine with formic acid. The nitrate of this base 
p, JLr_ _ Jl (known as nitron) is so insoluble that nitrates 

may be gravimetrically estimated with its help. 
Tnphenyl- e do- .j^ b | ses combme ' with the alkyl iodides 

'"trSz'ole to yield q uaternaf y ammonium salts. 

TRIBALLI, in ancient geography, a Thracian people whose 
earliest home was near the junction of the Angrus and Brongus 
(the east and west Morava), and included towards the south 
" the Triballian plain " (Herodotus iv. 49), which corresponds 
to the plain of Kossovo in Turkey. In 424 B.C. they were 
attacked by Sitalces, king of the Odrysae, who was defeated and 
lost his life in the engagement. On the other hand, they were 
overcome by the Autariatae, an Illyrian tribe; the date of 



262 



TRIBE TRIBONIAN 



this event is uncertain (Strabo vii. 317). In 376 a large 
band of Triballi crossed Mt Haemus and advanced as far as 
Abdera; they were preparing to besiege the city, when Chabrias 
appeared off the coast with the Athenian fleet and compelled 
them to retire. In 339, when Philip II. of Macedon was return- 
ing from his expedition against the Scythians, the Triballi 
refused to allow him to pass the Haemus unless they received 
a share of the booty* Hostilities took place, in which Philip was 
defeated and nearly lost his life (Justin ix. 3), but the Triballi 
appear to have been subsequently subdued by him. After the 
death of Philip, the Triballi having taken up arms again, Alex- 
ander the Great in 334 crossed the Haemus and drove them 
to the junction of the Lyginus with the Danube. Their king 
Syrmus took refuge in Peuce (Peuke, an island in the Danube), 
whither Alexander was unable to follow him. The punishment 
inflicted by him upon the Getae, however, induced the Triballi 
to sue for peace (Arrian, Anabasis, i. i, 4; 2, 2-4; 4, 6). About 
280 a host of Gauls under Cerethrius defeated the Getae and 
Triballi (Justin xxv. i; Pausanias x. 19, 7). Nevertheless, 
the latter for some fifty years (135-84) caused trouble to the 
Roman governors of Macedonia. In the time of Ptolemy 
their territory is limited to the district between the Ciabrus 
(Tzibritza) and Utus (Vid), in the modern Bulgaria, their chief 
town being Oescus (Otoxos Tpi/SaXXcoi'). Under Tiberius mention 
is made of Treballia in Moesia, and the Emperor Maximin (235- 
237) had been commander of a squadron of Triballi. The name 
occurs for the last time during the reign of Diocletian, who dates 
a letter from Triballis. The Triballi are described as a wild 
and warlike people (Isocrates, Panathenaicus, 227), and in 
Aristophanes (Birds, 1565-1693) a Triballian is introduced as 
a specimen of an uncivilized barbarian. 

See W. Tomaschek, " Die alten Thraker " in Sitzungsberichte 
der k. Akad. der Wissenschaften, cxxviii. (Vienna, 1893). 

TRIBE (Lat. tribus, from tres, three), a word which is believed 
to have originally meant a " third part " of the people, in 
reference to the three patrician orders or political divisions of 
the people of Ancient Rome, the Ramnes, Titles and Luceres, 
representing the Latin, Sabine and Etruscan settlements. Its 
ethnological meaning has come to be any aggregate of families 
or small communities which are grouped together under one 
chief or leader, observing similar customs and social rules, and 
tracing their descent from one common ancestor. Examples 
of such " enlarged families " are the twelve tribes of Israel. In 
general the tribe is the earliest form of political organization, 
nations being gradually constituted by tribal amalgamation. 
(See FAMILY.) 

TRIBERG, a town and health resort of Germany, in the 
grand duchy of Baden, in the Black Forest, pleasantly situated 
on the Gutach and surrounded by well-wooded hills, 2250 ft. 
above the sea, 35 m. by rail S.E. of Oflfenburg. Pop. (1905), 
3717. It has four churches, one of them Anglican. Triberg 
is one of the chief centres of the Black Forest clock-making 
industry. Straw-plaiting, saw-milling, brewing, and the 
manufacture of wooden wares are also carried on, and 
the town has a permanent industrial exhibition. Triberg 
is what is called a Luftkurort, a place to which convalescents 
resort after a course of baths elsewhere. Near the town is the 
fine waterfall formed by the Gutach. Triberg came into the 
possession of Austria in 1654 and into that of Baden in 1806. 

TRIBONIAN, the famous jurist and minister of Justinian, 
was born in Pamphylia in the latter part of the sth century. 
Adopting the profession of an advocate, he came to Constan- 
tinople and practised in the prefectural courts there, reaching 
such eminence as to attract the notice of the emperor Justinian, 
who appointed him in 528 one of the ten commissioners directed 
to prepare the first Codex of imperial constitutions. In the 
edict creating this commission (known as Haec quae) Tribonian 
is named sixth, and is called " virum magnificum, magisteria 
dignitate inter agentes decoratum " (see Haec quae and Summa 
reipublicae, prefixed to the Codex.) When the commission of 
sixteen eminent lawyers was created in 530 for the far more 



laborious and difficult duty of compiling a collection of extracts 
from the writings of the great jurists of the earlier empire, 
Tribonian was made president and no doubt general director of 
this board. He had already been raised to the office of quaestor, 
which at that time was a sort of ministry of law and justice, 
its holder being the assessor of the emperor and his organ for 
judicial purposes, something like the English lord chancellor 
of the later middle ages. The instructions given to these 
sixteen commissioners may be found in the constitution Deo 
auctore (Cod. i. 17, i), and the method in which the work was 
dealt with in the constitution Tanta (Cod. i. 17, 2), great 
praise being awarded to Tribonian, who is therein called ex- 
quaestor and ex-consul, and also as magister officiorum. This 
last constitution was issued in December 533, when the Digest 
was promulgated as a law-book. During the progress of the 
work, in January 532, there broke out in Constantinople a dis- 
turbance in the hippodrome, which speedily turned to a terrible 
insurrection, that which goes in history by the name of Nika, 
the watchword of the insurgents. Tribonian was accused of 
having prostituted his office for the purposes of gain, and the 
mob searched for him to put him to death (Procop. Pers. i. 
24-26). Justinian, yielding for the moment, removed him 
from office, and appointed a certain Basilides in his place. 
After the suppression of the insurrection the work of codifica- 
tion was resumed. A little earlier than the publication of the 
Digest, or Pandects, there had been published another but much 
smaller law-book, the Institutes, prepared under Justinian's 
orders by Tribonian, with Theophilus and Dorotheus, professors 
of law (see Preface to Institutes). About the same time the 
emperor placed Tribonian at the head of a fourth commission, 
consisting of himself as chief and four others Dorotheus, 
professor at Beyrut, and three practising advocates, who were 
directed to revise and re-edit the first Codex of imperial con- 
stitutions. The new Codex was published in November 534 
(see constitution Cordi nobis prefixed to the Codex). With it 
Tribonian's work of codification was completed. But he 
remained Justinian's chief legal minister. He was reinstated 
as quaestor some time after 534 (Procop. Pers. i. 25; Anecd. 
20) and seems to have held the office as long as he lived. He 
was evidently the prime mover in the various changes effected 
in the law by the novels of Justinian (Novellae constituliones) , 
which became much less frequent and less important after death 
had removed the great jurist. The date of his death has been 
variously assigned to 545, 546 and 547. Procopius says 
(Anecd. 20) that, although he left a son and many grandchildren, 
Justinian confiscated part of the inheritance. 

The above facts, which are all that we know about Tribonian, 
rest on the authority of his contemporary Procopius and of the 
various imperial constitutions already cited. There are, however, 
two articles in the Lexicon of Suidas under the name " Tribonianos." 
They appear to be different articles, purporting to refer to different 
persons, and have been generally so received by the editors of 
Suidas and by modern legal historians. Some authorities, how- 
ever, as for instance Gibbon, have supposed them to refer to the 
same person. The first article is unquestionably meant for the 
jurist. It is based on Procopius, whose very words are to some 
extent copied, and indeed it adds nothing to what the latter tells 
us, except the statement that Tribonian was the son of Macedonianus, 
was AirA SiKrj"y6ptav T&V vviipxoiv, and was a heathen and atheist, 
wholly averse to the Christian faith. The second article says that 
the Tribonian to whom it refers was of Side (in Pamphylia), was 
also AirA biKTiybpuv T&V {nr&pxuv, was a man of learning and wrote 
various books, among which are mentioned certain astronomical 
treatises, a dialogue On Happiness, and two addresses to Justinian. 
None of these books relate to law; and the better opinion seems to 
be that there were two Tribonians, apparently contemporaries, 
though possibly some of the attributes of the jurist have been, by 
a mistake of the compilers or transcribers of the Lexicon of Suidas, 
extended to the man of letters of the same name. 

The character which Procopius gives to the jurist, even if touched 
by personal spite, is entitled to some credence, because it is con- 
tained in the Histories and not in the scandalous and secret Anecdota. 
It is as follows: "Tribonian was a man of great natural powers, 
and had attained as high a culture as any one of his time; but he 
was greedy of money, capable of selling justice for gain, and every 
day he repealed or enacted some law at the instance of people who 
purchased this from him according to their several needs. . . . He 



TRIBUNE 



263 



was pleasant in manner and generally agreeable, and able by the 
abundance of his accomplishments to cast into shade his faults 
of avarice " (Pers. i. 24, 25). In the Anecdota Procopius adds as 
an illustration of Justinian's vanity the story that he took in good 
faith an observation made to him by Tribonian, while sitting as 
assessor, that he (Tribonian) greatly feared that the emperor might 
some day, on account of his piety, be suddenly carried up into heaven. 
This agrees with the character for flattery which the minister seems 
to have enjoyed. The_charge of heathenism we find in Suidas is 
probable enough; that is to say, Tribonian may well have been a 
crypto-pagan, like many other eminent courtiers and litterateurs 
of the time (including Procopius himself), a person who, while 
professing Christianity, was at least indifferent to its dogmas and 
rites, cherishing a sentimental recollection of the older and more 
glorious days of the empire. 

In modern times Tribonian has been, as the master workman of 
Justinian's codification and legislation, charged with three offences 
bad Latinity, a defective arrangement of the legal matter in the 
Code and Digest, and a too free handling of the extracts from the 
older jurists included in the latter compilation. The first of these 
charges cannot be denied ; but it is hard to see why a lawyer of the 
6th century, himself born in a Greek-speaking part of the empire, 
should be expected to write Latin as pure as that of the age of 
Cicero, or even of the age of Gaius and the Antonines. To the 
second charge also a plea of guiltv must be entered. The Code 
and Digest are badly arranged according to our notions of scientific 
arrangement. These, however, are modern notions. The ancients 
generally cared but little for what we call a philosophic distribution 
of topics, and Tribonian seems to have merely followed the order 
of the Perpetual Edict which custom had already established, 
and from which custom would perhaps have refused to permit him 
to depart. He may more fairly be blamed for not having arranged 
the extracts in each title of the Digest according to some rational 
principle; for this would have been easy, and would have spared 
much trouble to students and practitioners ever since. As to the 
third complaint, that the compilers of the Digest altered the extracts 
they collected, cutting out and inserting words and sentences at 
their own pleasure, this was a process absolutely necessary according 
to the instructions given them, which were to prepare a compilation 
representing the existing law, and to be used for the actual adminis- 
tration of justice in the tribunals. The so-called Emblemata (inser- 
tions) of Tribonian were therefore indispensable, though, of course, 
we cannot say whether they were always made in the best way. 
Upon the whole subject of the codification and legislation in which 
Tribonian bore a part, see JUSTINIAN. 

Tribonian, from the little we know of him, would seem to have 
been a remarkable man, and in the front rank of the great ones of 
his time. There is nothing to show that he was a profound and 
philosophical jurist, like Papinian or Ulpian. But he was an energetic, 
clear-headed man, of great practical force and skill, cultivated, 
accomplished, agreeable, flexible, possibly unscrupulous, just the 
sort of person whom a restless despot like Justinian finds useful. 
His interest in legal learning is proved by the fact that he had 
collected a vast legal library, which the compilers of the Digest found 
valuable (see const. Tanta). * 

The usual criticisms on Tribonian may be found in the Anti- 
Tribonianus (1567) of Francis Hotman, the aim of which is shown 
by its alternative title, Sive discursus in quo junsprudentiae Tribon- 
ianeae sterilitas et legum patriarum excellentia exhibetur; and an 
answer to them in J. P. von Ludewig, Vita Jusliniani et Theodorae, 
nee non Triboniani. (J. BR.) 

TRIBUNE (Lat. tribunus, connected with tribus, tribe), a 
name assigned to officers of several different descriptions in the 
constitution of ancient Rome. The original tribunes were no 
doubt the commanders of the several contingents of cavalry 
and infantry which were supplied to the Roman army by the 
early gentilician tribes the Tities, the Ramnes and the Luceres. 
In the historical period the infantry in each legion were com- 
manded by six tribunes, and the number six is probably to be 
traced to the doubling of the three tribes by the incorporation 
of the new elements which received the names of Tities secundi, 
Ramnes secundi, Luceres secundi. The tribuni celerum or 
commanders of the horsemen no longer existed in the later times 
of the republic, having died out with the decay of the genuine 
Roman cavalry. 1 So long as the monarchy lasted these tribunes 
were doubtless nominated by the commander-in-chief, the king; 
and the nomination passed over on the establishment of the 
republic to his successors, the consuls. But, as the army 
increased, the popular assembly insisted on having a voice in 
the appointments, and from 362 B.C. six tribunes were annually 
nominated by popular vote, while in 311 the number was raised 

1 In the legends of the foundation of the republic Brutus is repre- 
sented as having exercised authority, when the king was banished, 
merely by virtue of holding the office of tribunus celerum. 



to sixteen, and in 207 to twenty-four, at which figure it remained. 
The tribunes thus elected sufficed for four legions and ranked as 
magistrates of the Roman people, and were designated tribuni 
militum a populo, while those who owed their office to the consuls 
bore the curious title of tribuni rufuli. The name was traced to 
a commander Rutilius Rufus (Liv. 7, 5; and Fest. Ep. 260), but 
was more probably derived from the dress (Mommsen, Staats- 
recht, i, 434). The rights of the assembly passed on to the 
emperors, and " the military tribunes of Augustus " were still 
contrasted with those nominated in the camp by the actual 
commanders. The obscure designation tribunus aerarius 
(tribune of the treasury) had also, in all probability, a connexion 
with the early organization of the army. The officer thus 
designated may have been the levier of the tribulum, the original 
property tax, and was at any rate the paymaster of the troops. 
The soldier who was defrauded of his pay was allowed to exact 
it from this tribune by a very summary process. There was 
still another and important class of tribunes who owed their 
existence to the army. In the long struggle between the patri- 
cian and plebeian sections of the population, the first distinctions 
in the public service to which the plebeians forced their way 
were military, and the contest for admission to the consulate was, 
in large part, a contest for admission to the supreme command 
of the national forces. In 445 B.C., the year in which mixed 
marriages of patricians and plebeians were for the first time 
permitted, power was given to the senate (then wholly patrician) 
of determining from year to year whether consuls or military 
tribunes with consular authority (tribuni militares consulari 
potestate or imperio) should be appointed. But, even when the 
senate decided in favour of electing tribunes, no election was 
valid without the express sanction of the senate superadded 
to the vote of the centuriate assembly. If it happened to be too 
invidious for the senate openly to cancel the election, it was 
possible for the patricians to obtain a decision from the sacred 
authorities to the effect that some religious practice had not 
been duly observed, and that in consequence the appointment 
was invalid. According to tradition, recourse was had to this 
device at the first election, a plebeian having been successful. 
Forty-five years elapsed after the creation of the office before 
any plebeian was permitted to fill it, and it was held by very few 
down to the time at which it was abolished (367 B.C.) and the 
plebeians were fully admitted to the consulate. The number 
of consular tribunes elected on each occasion varied from three 
to six; there was no year without a patrician, and to the patrician 
members were probably confined the most highly esteemed 
duties, those relating to the administration of the law and to 
religion. 

But by far the most important tribunes who ever existed 
in the Roman community were the tribunes of the commons 
(tribuni plebis). These were the most characteristic outcome 
of the long struggle between the two orders, the patrician and 
the plebeian. When in 494 B.C. the plebeian legionaries met 
on the Sacred Mount and bound themselves to stand by each 
other to the end, it was determined that the plebeians should 
by themselves annually appoint executive officers to stand over 
against the patrician officers two tribunes (the very name com- 
memorated the military nature of the revolt) to confront the 
two consuls, and two helpers called aediles to balance the two 
patrician helpers, the quaestors. The ancient traditions con- 
cerning the revolution are extremely confused and contradictory, 
and have caused endless discussions. The commonest story 
is that the masses assembled on the Sacred Mount bound them- 
selves by a solemn oath to regard the persons of their tribunes 
and aediles as inviolable, and to treat as forfeited to Diana and 
Ceres, the plebeian divinities, the lives and property of those who 
offered them insult. That this purely plebeian oath was the real 
ultimate basis of the sanctity which attached to the tribunate 
during the whole time of its existence can hardly be believed. 
The revolution must have ended in something which was deemed 
by both the contending bodies to be a binding compact, although 
the lapse of time has blotted out its terms. The historian 
Dionysius may have been only technically wrong in supposing 



264 



TRIBUNE 



that peace was concluded between the two parties by the fetial 
priests, with the forms adopted by Rome in making treaties 
with a foreign state. If this were fact, the " sacrosanctity " 
of the tribunes would be adequately explained, because all such 
formal foedera were " sacrosanct." But, notwithstanding 
that the plebeians may safely be assumed to have been conscious 
of having to a large extent sprung from another race than the 
patricians and their retainers, it is not likely that the feeling 
was sufficiently strong to permit of the compact taking the form 
of a treaty between alien powers. Yet there must have been 
a formal acceptance by the patricians of the plebeian conditions; 
and most probably the oath which was first sworn by the insur- 
gents was afterwards taken by the whole community, and the 
" sacrosanctity " of the plebeian officials became a part of the 
constitution. There must also have been some constitutional 
definition of the powers of the tribunes. These rested at first 
on an extension of the power of veto which the republic had 
introduced. Just as one consul could invalidate an order of 
his colleague, so a tribune could invalidate an order of a consul, 
or of any officer inferior to him. There was no doubt a vague 
understanding that only orders which sinned against the just 
and established practice of the constitution should be annulled, 
and then only in cases affecting definite individuals. This was 
technically called auxilium. The cases which arose most 
commonly concerned the administration of justice and the 
levying of troops. 

Although the revolution of 494 gave the tribunes a foothold 
in the constitution, it left them with no very definite resources 
against breaches of compact by the patricians. The traditional 
history of the tribunate from 494 to 451 B.C. is obscure, and, so 
far as details are concerned, nearly worthless; but there is a 
thread running through it which may well be truth. We hear 
of attacks by patricians on the newly won privileges, even of 
the assassination of a tribune, and of attempts on the part of 
the plebeians to bring patrician offenders to justice. The 
assembled plebeians attempt to set up a criminal jurisdiction 
for their own assembly parallel to that practised by the older 
centuriate assembly, in which the nobles possess a preponde- 
rating influence. Nay, more, the plebs attempts something like 
legislation; it passes resolutions which it hopes to force the 
patrician body to accept as valid. As to details, only a few are 
worth notice. In the first place, the number of tribunes is 
raised to ten, how we do not know; but apparently some consti- 
tutional recognition of the increase is obtained. Then an altera- 
tion is made in the mode of election. As to the original mode, 
the ancient authorities are hopelessly at variance. Some of 
them gravely assert that the appointment lay with the assembly 
of the curiae the most ancient and certainly the most patrician 
in Rome, even if we allow the view, which, in spite of great 
names, is more than doubtful, that the plebeians were members 
of it at any time when it still possessed political importance. 
The opinion of Mommsen about the method of election is more 
plausible than the others. It was in accordance with the Roman 
spirit of order that the tribunes, in summoning their assemblies, 
should not ask the plebeians to come en masse as individuals, 
and vote by heads, but should organize their supporters in bands. 
The curia was certainly a territorial district, and the tribunes 
may have originally used it as the basis of their organization. 
If tribunes were elected by plebeians massed curiatim, such a 
meeting would easily be mistaken in later times for the comitia 
curiata. At any rate, a change was introduced in 471 by the 
Publilian Law of Volero, which directed that the tribunes should 
be chosen in an assembly organized on the basis of the Servian 
or local tribe, instead of the curia. This assembly was the germ 
of the comitia tributa. The question by what authority the Law 
of Volero was sanctioned is difficult to answer. Possibly the law 
was a mere resolution of the plebeians with which the patricians 
did not interfere, because they did not consider that the mode of 
election was any concern of theirs. In the first period of the 
tribunate the tribunes almost certainly agitated to obtain for 
their supporters a share in the benefits of the state domain. 
And, whatever view may be taken of the movement which led 



to the decemvirate, an important element in it was of a certainty 
the agitation carried on by the tribunes for the reduction of the 
law of Rome to a written code. Until they obtained this it was 
impossible for them effectually to protect those who appealed 
against harsh treatment by the consuls in their capacity of 
judges. 

During the decemvirate the tribunate was in abeyance. It was 
called into life again by the revolution of 449, which gave the 
tribunes a considerably stronger position. Their personal privileges 
and those of the aediles were renewed, while sacrosanctity was 
attached to a body of men called judices decemviri, who seem to 
have been the legal assistants of the tribunes. The road was opened 
up to valid legislation by the tribunes through an assembly summoned 
by them on the tribe-basis (concilium plebis), but in this respect 
they were submitted to the control of the senate. The growth 
of the influence of this assembly over legislation belongs rather 
to the history of the comitia (q.v.) than to that of the tribunate. 
After the Hortensian Law of 287 B.C. down to the end of the republic 
the legislation of Rome was mainly in the hands of the tribunes. 
The details of the history of the tribunate in its second period, from 
449 to 367 B.C., are hardly less obscure than those which belong to 
the earlier time. There was, however, on the whole, undoubtedly 
an advance in dignity and importance. Gradually a right was 
acquired of watching and interfering with the proceedings of the 
senate, and even with legislation. Whether the absolute right of 
veto had been achieved before 367 may well be doubted. But the 
original auxilium, or right of protecting individuals, was, during 
this period,_ undergoing a very remarkable expansion. From for- 
bidding a single act of a magistrate in relation to a single person, 
the tribunes advanced to forbidding by anticipation altacts of a 
certain class, whoever the persons affected by them might prove 
to be. It therefore became useless for the senate or the comitia 
to pass ordinances if a tribune was ready to forbid the magistrates 
to carry them out. Ultimately the mere announcement of such an 
intention by a tribune was sufficient to cause the obnoxious project 
to drop; that _is to say, the tribunes acquired a right to stop all 
business alike in the deliberative assembly, the senate, and in the 
legislative assemblies, the comitia. The technical name for this 
right of veto is intercessio. To what extent the tribunes during 
the time from 449 to 367 took part in criminal prosecutions is matter 
of doubt. The XII. Tables had settled that offenders could only 
be punished in person by the centuries, but tradition speaks of 
prosecutions by tribunes before the tribes where the penalty sought 
was pecuniary. The two main objects of the tribunes, however, 
at the time of which we are speaking were the opening of the con- 
sulate to plebeians and the regulation of the state domain in the 
interests of the whole community. Both were attained by the 
Licinio-Sextian Laws of 367. 

Then a considerable change came over the tribunate. From being 
an opposition weapon it became an important wheel in the regular 
machine of state. The senate became more and more plebeian, and 
a new body of nobility was evolved which comprised both orders 
in the state. The tribunes at first belonged to the same notable 
plebeian families which attained to the consulate. The old friction 
between senate and tribunes disappeared. It was found that the 
tribunate served to fill some gaps in the constitution, and its power 
was placed by common consent on a solid constitutional basis. 
From 367 to 134 B.C. (when Tiberius Gracchus became tribune) the 
tribunate was for the most part a mere organ of senatorial govern- 
ment. As the change made by the Gracchi was rather in the 
practice than in the theory of the tribunate, it will be convenient 
at this point to give a definite sketch of the conditions and privileges 
attaching to the office. 

Even after the difference between patrician and plebeian birth 
had ceased to be of much practical consequence in other directions, 
the plebeian character was a necessity for the tribune. When the 
patricians P. Sulpicius Rufus and, later, P. Clodius (the antagonist 
of Cicero) desired to enter on a demagogic course, they were com- 
pelled to divest themselves of their patrician quality by a peculiar 
legal process. Even the patricians who became so by mere fiat of 
the emperors were excluded from the tribunate. The other necessary 
qualifications were for the most part such as attached to the other 
Roman magistracies complete citizenship, absence of certain 
conditions regarded as disgraceful, fulfilment of military duties. 
The minimum age required for the office was, as in the case of the 
quaestorship, twenty-seven. The tribunate, however, stood outside 
the round of magistracies, the conditions of which were regulated by 
the Villian Law of 180 B.C. The election took place in a purely 
plebeian assembly, ranged by tribes, under the presidency of a tribune 
selected by lot. The tribune was bound by law to see a complete 
set of ten tribunes appointed. Technically, the tribunes were 
reckoned, not as magistrates of the Roman people, but as magistrates 
of the Roman plebs ; they therefore had no special robe of office, no 
lictors, but only messengers (viatores), no official chair, like the curule 
seat, but only benches (subsellia). Their right to summon the plebs 
together, whether for the purpose of listening to a speech (in which 
case the meeting was a contio) or for passing ordinances (comitia 
tributa), was rendered absolute by the "laws under sacred sanction " 



TRIBUNE TRICHINOPOLY 



265 



(leges sacratae), which had been incorporated with the constitution 
on the abolition of the decemvirate. The right to summon the 
senate and to lay business before it was acquired soon after 367, 
but was seldom exercised, as the tribunes had abundant means of 
securing what they wanted by pressure applied to the ordinary 
presidents the consuls or the praetor. When an interregnum came 
about and there were no "magistrates of the Roman people," the 
plebeian tribunes became the proper presidents of the senate and 
conductors of ordinary state business. At the end of the republic 
there were interregna of several months' duration, when the tribunes 
held a position of more than usual importance. A tenure of the 
tribunate did not, until a comparatively late period (probably about 
the time of the Second Punic War), confer a claim to a permanent 
seat in the senate. The candidates for the office were mainly young 
men of good family who were at the beginning of their political 
career, but the office was often filled by older men of ambition who 
were struggling upwards with few advantages. The plebeian aediles 
very soon after 367 became dissociated from the tribunes and asso- 
ciated with the curule aediles, so that in the political hierarchy they 
really ranked higher than those who were originally their superior 
officers. 

The real kernel of the tribune's power consisted in his intercessio, 
or right of invalidating ordinances, whether framed by the senate 
or proposed by a magistrate to the comitia, or issued by a magistrate 
in pursuance of his office. From 367 B.C. down, to the time of the 
Gracchi the power of veto in public matters was, on the whole, used 
in the interests of the aristocratic governing families to check opposi- 
tion arising in their own ranks. A recalcitrant consul was most 
readily brought to obedience by an exercise of tribunician power. 
But, although modern readers of the ancient historians are apt to 
carry away the idea that the tribunate was an intensely political 
office, it is safe to say that the occasions on which tribunes found 
it possible to play a prominent part in politics were extremely few, 
even in the late republic. On the other hand, the tribunes found 
a field for constant activity in watching the administration of justice 
and in rendering assistance to those who had received harsh treat- 
ment from the magistrates. The tribunes were, in fact, primarily 
legal functionaries, and constituted in a way the only court of appeal 
in republican Rome. It was to this end that they were forbidden 
to pass a whole night away from the city, except during the Latin 
festival on the Alban Mount, and that they were expected to keep 
their doors open to suppliants by night as well as by day. They 
held court by day in the Forum close by the Porcian basilica, and 
frequently made elaborate legal inquiries into cases where their help 
was sought. Naturally this ordinary humdrum work of the tribunes 
has left little mark on the pages of the historians, but we hear of 
it not infrequently in Cicero s speeches and in other writings which 
deal with legal matters. According to the general principle of the 
constitution, magistrates could forbid the acts of magistrates equal 
to or inferior to themselves. For this purpose the tribunes were 
deemed superior to all other officers. If a tribune exercised his veto 
no other tribune could annul it, for the veto could not be itself vetoed, 
but it was possible for another tribune to protect a definite individual 
from the consequences of disobedience. The number of the tribunes 
(ten) made it always possible that one might balk the action of 
another, except at times when popular feeling was strongly roused. 
In any case it was of little use for a tribune to move in any important 
matter unless he had secured the co-operation or at least the neutrality 
of all his colleagues. The veto was not, however, absolute in all 
directions. In some it was limited by statute; thus the law passed 
by Gaius Gracchus about the consular provinces did not permit a 
tribune to veto the annual decree of the senate concerning them. 
When there was a dictator at the head of the state, the veto was of 
no avail against him. One of the important political functions of 
the tribunes was to conduct prosecutions of state offenders, par- 
ticularly ex-magistrates. These prosecutions began with a sentence 
pronounced by the tribune upon the culprit, whereupon, exercising 
the right given him by the XII. Tables, the culprit appealed. If 
the tribune sought to inflict punishment on the culprit's person, 
the appeal was to the assembly of the centuries; if he wished for a 
large fine, the appeal was to the assembly of the tribes. As the 
tribune had no right to summon the centuries, he had to obtain the 
necessary meetings through the urban praetor. In the other event 
he himself called together the tribute assembly and proposed a bill 
for fining the culprit. But the forms of trial gone through were 
very similar in both cases. 

It is commonly stated that a great change passed over the tribunate 
at the time of the Gracchi, and that from their day to the end of 
the republic it was used as an instrument for setting on foot political 
agitation and for inducing revolutionary changes. This view is 
an inversion of the facts. The tribunate did not create the agitation 
and the revolutions, but these found vent through the tribunate, 
which gave to the democratic leaders the hope that acknowledged 
evils might be cured by constitutional means, and in the desperate 
struggle to realize it the best democratic tribunes strained the 
theoretic powers of their office to their ruin. For the bad tribunes 
did not hesitate to use for bad ends the powers which had been 
strained in the attempt to secure what was good. But herein the 
tribunate only fared like all other parts of the republican constitution 
in its last period. The consuls and the senate were at least as guilty 



as the tribunes. After a severe restriction of its powers by Sulla 
and a restoration by Pomoey, which gave a twenty years' respite, 
the essential force of the tribunate was merged into the imperial 
constitution, of which indeed it became the principal constituent 
on the civil side. The ten tribunes remained, with very restricted 
functions. The emperors did not become tribunes, but took up 
into their privileges the essence of the office, the " tribunician 
authority." This distinction between the principle of the office 
and the actual tenure of the office was a creation of the late republic. 
Pompey, for example, when he went to the East, was not made 
proconsul of all the Eastern provinces, but he exercised in them a 
"proconsular authority" which was equal to that of the actual 
proconsuls an authority which was the germ of the imperial 
authority on its military side. Similarly the emperor, as civil 
governor, without being tribune, exercised powers of like quality 
with the powers of the tribune, though of superior force. By virtue 
of his tribunician authority he acquired a veto on legislation, he 
became the supreme court of appeal for the empire, and to his person 
was attached the ancient sacrosanctity. Augustus showed the 
highest statesmanship in founding his power upon a metamorphosed 
tribunate rather than upon a metamorphosed dictatorship, upon 
traditions which were democratic rather than upon traditions which 
were patrician and optimate. The tribunes continued to exist till 
a late period, with gradually vanishing dignity and rights; but it 
is not necessary here to trace their decay in detail. 

The name tribune " was once again illuminated by a passing 
glory when assumed by Cola di Rienzi. The movement which he 
headed was in many respects extremely like the early movements 
of the plebeians against the patricians, and his scheme for uniting 
Italy in one free republic was strangely parallel with the greatest 
dream of the Gracchi. 

The history of the tribunate is interwoven with that of Rome, 
and must, to a large extent, be sought for in the same sources. The 
principles attaching to the office are profoundly analysed by 
Mommsen in his Staatsrecht, and are clearly set forth by E. Herzpg 
in his Geschichte u. System der romischen Staatsverfassung (Leipzig, 
1884). (J. S. R.) 

TRIBUNE (med. Lat. tribuna, from classical Lat. tribunal), 
in architecture, the term given to the semicircular apse of the 
Roman basilica, with a raised platform, where the presiding 
magistrate sat; subsequently applied generally to any raised 
structure from which speeches were delivered and to the private 
box of the emperor at the Circus Maximus. In Christian 
basilicas the term is retained for the semicircular recess behind 
the choir, as at S. Clemente in Rome, S. Apollinare in Classe, 
Ravenna, S. Zeno at Verona, S. Miniato near Florence, and other 
churches. The term is also loosely applied to various other 
raised spaces in secular as well as ecclesiastical buildings, in 
the latter sometimes in the place of " pulpit," as in that of the 
refectory of St Martin des Champs at Paris. It is also given 
to the celebrated octagon room of the Uffizi at Florence, and 
sometimes to a gallery or triforium. 

TRIBUTE (Lat. tributum, a stated payment, contribution), 
a sum of money or other valuable thing paid by one state or 
person to another state or person, either as an acknowledgment 
of submission, or as the price of peace or protection. Hence, in 
a secondary sense, an offering to mark respect or gratitude. 
Revenue by means of tribute was one of the most characteristic 
forms of the financial systems of ancient states. In imperial 
Athens large revenues were derived from the states of the 
Delian league (<?..), while in both Carthage and Rome inferior 
or dependent districts and races were laid under contribution 
to a very considerable extent (see FINANCE). 

The word tribute was also applied in the Roman republic to 
(i) certain extraordinary taxes, as opposed to the ordinary vectigalia. 
Such, in particular, were certain property taxes, raised to meet the 
expenses of war. They were levied on all titizens alike, in proportion 
to the extent of a man's fortune, and varied according to the total 
amount of revenue to be raised. (2) To the ordinary stipendium 
or tax of fixed amount paid either in money or in kind, on pro- 
perty, trades, or as a poll-tax, raised in the Roman provinces (see 
PROVINCE). 

TRICHINOPOLY, a city and district of British India, in the 
Madras presidency. The city is on the right bank of the river 
Cauvery, 250 m. by rail S.W. from Madras. Pop. (1901), 
104,721. The fort which forms the nucleus of the city measures 
about i m. by % m.; its defences have been removed. Within 
it rises the Rock of Trichinopoly, 273 ft. above the city, and so 
completely isolated as to provide a remarkable view over the 
surrounding plains. It is ascended by a covered stone staircase, 
entered by a carved gateway, and profusely ornamented. At 



266 



TRICHINOSIS TRICLINIUM 



intervals up this stair are chambers connected with the temple 
on the rock. Buddhist inscriptions and carvings in some of 
them are attributed to the sth or 6th century. Near the foot 
of the rock is a fine masonry tank called the Teppakulam, and 
the palace of the nawab, of which the fine domed audience hall 
is now used as a town-hall. In Trichinopoly is St Joseph's 
first-grade college, maintained by the Jesuit mission and occu- 
pying, among other buildings, a house formerly the residence 
of Clive. Another first-grade college is maintained by the 
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel; it has grown out of 
schools founded by the missionary Schwarz. The Roman Catho- 
lics have a fine cathedral. Trichinopoly is important as a trading 
centre, especially as being a railway junction. It has special in- 
dustries in goldsmiths' work and modelling in pith; the well- 
known Trichinopoly cigars are chiefly manufactured from tobacco 
grown outside the district at Dindigul. Trichinopoly and its 
neighbourhood was the scene of much hard fighting between 
the English and the French during the Carnatic wars between 
1749 and 1761. 

The DISTRICT OF TRICHINOPOLY has an area of 3632 sq. m. 
The surface is generally flat, though diversified by masses of 
crystalline rock, of which the Trichinopoly Rock in the fort is a 
well-known example. The only mountains are the Pachamalais, 
which rise to 2500 ft. and extend into Salem district. The 
Cauvery and its branch, the Coleroon, are the only rivers of any 
importance. The climate is very hot and not liable to great 
variations; the annual average rainfall is about 34 in. The 
principal crops are rice, millets, other food-grains and oil-seeds, 
with a little cotton and tobacco. The main line of the South 
Indian railway traverses the district, with a branch to Erode. 
In 1901 the population was 1,444,770, showing an increase of 
5% in the decade. The district came into the hands of the 
British along with the rest of the Carnatic in 1801. 

See Trichinopoly District Gazetteer (Madras, 1907). 

TRICHINOSIS, or TRICHINIASIS, a disease, in man and other 
animals, caused by infection by the parasite trichina or trichinella 
spiralis. The presence of encysted trichinae in the muscles was 
discovered by Sir James Paget (<?..) in 1835, and they were 
named by Sir R. Owen; but it was not until some years after that 
the clinical characters of the acute disease caused by the invasion 
of the parasite were discovered. This discovery was made in 
1860 by Friedrich von Zenker (1825-1898) on examining the 
abdominal muscles of a patient who died at Dresden with symp- 
toms taken to be those of typhoid fever, the case being after- 
wards accounted one of trichinosis on the post mortem evidence. 
Epidemics of this disease occur from time to time, especially in 
north Germany, from the eating of uncooked swine's flesh, in 
which trichinae are not uncommon. Out of 6329 cases in Ger- 
many during the years 1881 to 1898, 5456 occurred in states 
where raw pork is a common article of food. And, from the 
point of view of public health, the hog is the animal which is the 
main source of infection, others except rats being only rarely 
infested with the parasite. The greatest care is now taken to 
examine the carcases of swine for trichinae, a piece of the dia- 
phragm of every animal being searched with the microscope by an 
inspector specially appointed, and the trichinous hogs being 
condemned. But it has not been found that this microscopic 
examination serves as an effective check; indeed it is apt to create 
a false feeling of security. Over 3 2 % of the German cases of trich- 
inosis between 1881 and 1898 were traced to meat so inspected 
and passed as free from trichinae. In America accordingly 
microscopic examination is not considered to give any guarantee 
of soundness from trichinae, in spite of a government mark 
" inspected and passed " (see B. H. Ransom, Circular 108 of U.S. 
Dep. of Agriculture, 1907). The symptoms in man are occa- 
sioned by the presence of the free parasites in the intestine, by 
the development of young trichinae from the eggs, and most of 
all by the migration of the parasites from the intestinal canal to 
the muscles, where they become quiescent. This cycle occupies 
from four to six weeks. Lime-salts become deposited in the 
capsule, the calcification rendering the cyst visible, and this 
change usually takes five or six months. When consumed in 



small quantity, the parasites may give rise to no marked symp- 
toms, and they are sometimes found accidentally in muscular 
fibre in the bodies of those who had probably experienced no 
definite symptoms from their invasion. In the more acute and 
serious cases, sometimes ending fatally, the early symptoms are 
nausea, failure of appetite, diarrhoea and fever; later, when the 
migration to the muscles begins, there is more fever, stiffness, 
pain and swelling in the limbs, swelling of the eyelids, continued 
exhausting diarrhoea, perspirations and sometimes delirium. 
During convalescence there is desquamation of the cuticle. 
The discovery by T. R. Brown of a marked leucocytosis with an 
extraordinary increase of eosinophiles now enables a diagnosis 
to be made in cases where the symptoms are obscure. If the 
diagnosis be made early in the case, brisk purgatives, parti- 
cularly calomel, are the best treatment; if the parasites are 
already on their way to the muscles, the only thing left to 
do is to support the patient's strength. There need, however, 
be no fear of infection at all if the meat be thoroughly 
cooked and cured before eaten. This is the only effective 
precaution. 

TRICK, a crafty or fraudulent device, deceitful artifice or 
stratagem, hence an exhibition of skill, especially in sleight of 
hand or jugglery, the term being also used of a peculiar trait or 
manner of speech, character or physical habit. A specific use 
is that for the cards played at a single round, which are taken up 
and count towards the winning of the game. The origin of the 
word is ultimately to be found in Lat. Iricae, trifles, hindrances, 
wiles, whence tricari, to delay, shuffle, play tricks, which has also 
given " intricate," " extricate," " intrigue." The M. Eng. 
trichen, to cheat or trick, was adapted from the O. Fr. trickier, 
tree/tier, whence came trecherie, Eng. " treachery," a betrayal 
of faith, perfidy or trickery of the grossest kind. There has been 
also a confusion, which has influenced the meaning and form of 
" trick," with the Dutch trekken, to pull, draw, cf. the South 
African Dutch trek, a journey, migration, properly the action 
of drawing a vehicle or travelling by ox-wagon. " Trick " 
or " tricking " is thus used, in heraldry, as the technical term 
for the drawing of a coat of arms in monochrome, giving the 
tinctures by the conventions of vertical, horizontal or diagonal 
lines, &c. 

TRICLINIUM, in Roman antiquities, a set of three couches 
(lecti) arranged round a four-sided dining table, one side of which 
was left open to provide free access for the attendant slaves. 
These couches were distinguished as the highest (A, lectus 
summus), the middle (B, lectus medius) and the lowest (C, lectus 
imus) ; the guests who reclined on B had A on their left and C on 
their right. Each couch was usually occupied by three persons, 
whose left arm rested on a cushion, the right hand being thus 
disengaged for purposes of eating. The nine places were allotted 
in accordance with strict etiquette. A and B were reserved for 
the guests (B for the most distinguished), C for the host and his 
family. In A and C the chief place was i; in B it was 3, which 





3 | 1 






3 2 i 




I summus 


B 


imus 3 


2 medius 


C A 


medius 2 


3 imus 




summus l 



was consequently the place of honour at the banquet. It was 
called locus consularis (wcm/cos) , probably as being next to the 
host. Another explanation is that, since it was on the open and 
unsupported side of the couch, it was chosen in order that, if 
a consul happened to be present among the guests, he might be 
able to receive communications, sign documents or transact 
business with the least inconvenience. It the locus classicus 
in Horace (Satires, ii. 8, 20-23), which describes the banquet 
given by Nasidienus in honour of Maecenas, the host appears 



TRICOUPIS, C. TRICYCLE 



267 



to have resigned his place to Nomentanus, as being more capable 
of entertaining the guest of the evening. In later republican 
times, after the introduction of round tables of citrus wood, the 
three couches were replaced by one of crescent shape (called 
sigma from the form C of the Greek letter; also stibadium and 
accubitum), which as a rule was only intended to hold five persons. 
The two corner seats (cornua) were the places of honour, that on 
the right being considered superior. The remaining seats were 
reckoned from left to right, so that the least important seat was 
on the left side of the most important. The use of the sigma 
continued till the middle ages. The dining-room itself was also 
called triclinium, and in the houses of wealthy Romans there 
were several triclinia suited to the different seasons of the 
year. 

See Marquardt, Das Prwatleben der Rdmer (1886), p. 302. 

TRICOUPIS (or TRICOUPI), CHARILAOS (1832-1896), 
Greek statesman, was born at Nauplia in 1832. After studying 
law and literature in Athens and in Paris, he was sent to London 
in 1852 as an attache of the Greek legation. By 1863 he had 
risen to be charge d'affaires, but he aimed rather at a political 
than a diplomatic career. In 1865, therefore, after he had 
concluded the negotiations for the cession by Great Britain to 
Greece of the Ionian Islands, he entered the Greek chamber 
of deputies, and in the following year was made foreign minister, 
at the early age of thirty-four. In 1875 he became prime 
minister for a few months, but had no opportunity even to begin 
carrying out the policy which he had in mind. This policy 
was to develop the resources of his country so as to create an 
army and a fleet, and thus to give Greece the power to acquire 
a leading place among the nations of south-eastern Europe. 
It was not until 1882 that he was able to take measures to this 
end. In that year he became prime minister for the third time 
(his second period of office, two years earlier, had lasted only 
for a few months), and at once set about the task of putting 
Greek finance upon a firmer basis, and of increasing the pros- 
perity of the country by making roads, railways and harbours. 
He was defeated at the general election in 1885, but in the 
following year he resumed office, and again took up the labour 
of economic and financial reform. His difficulties were now 
increased by the large expenditure which had been incurred 
for military preparations while he had been out of office as the 
result of the union effected between Bulgaria and eastern 
Rumelia. The Greeks had demanded from Turkey a compensa- 
tion for this shifting of the balance of power, and had prepared 
to enforce their demand by an appeal to arms. The Great 
Powers, however, had interfered, and by blockading the Piraeus 
had compelled Greece to remain quiet. Tricoupis, nevertheless, 
believed that he could in a few years raise the value of Greek 
paper currency to par, and upon that assumption all his calcula- 
tions were based. Unfortunately for himself and his country, 
he was not able to make his belief good. His dexterity in 
finance called forth general admiration, and his schemes for the 
construction of roads and railways met with a certain amount 
of success. But at last he was obliged to recognize that the 
warnings offered to him had been sound. Greece could not 
meet her obligations. Tricoupis tried to make terms with the 
creditors of his nation, but he failed in this also. The first 
taxation which he proposed aroused great hostility, and in 
January 1895 he resigned. At the general election, four months 
later, he and his party were defeated. He at once retired from 
public life, and soon afterwards the disease declared itself 
which eventually proved fatal. He died at Cannes on the 
nth of April 1896. The faults of excessive ambition and of a 
far too sanguine optimism, which marked Tricoupis' character, 
could not prevent him from being regarded, even during his 
lifetime, as the foremost Greek statesman of his time. He was 
not a favourite with the populace, nor was he beloved so much 
as respected by his followers. By nature he was reserved 
his nickname was " the Englishman " and he had no sympathy 
with the arts of the demagogue. But, both in the ranks of his 
own party and by the nation at large, his abilities and his force 
of character were unquestioned. It was his misfortune that the 



circumstances of the time did not allow his wide schemes for the 
benefit of his country to be carried into effect. (H. H. F.) 

TRICOUPIS, SPYRIDION (1788-1873), Greek author and 
statesman, son of the primate of Missolonghi, was born on the 
2oth of April 1788. After studying in Paris and London he 
became private secretary to the fifth earl of Guilford, who 
resided in the Ionian Islands. He was a friend of Lord Byron, 
and pronounced his funeral oration in the cathedral of Misso- 
longhi (1824). During the Greek War of Independence he 
occupied several important administrative and diplomatic posts, 
being a member of the provisional government in 1826 and of 
the national convention at Troezen in 1827, and president of the 
council and minister of foreign affairs in 1832. He was thrice 
Greek minister in London (1835-1838, 1841-1843 and 1850- 
1861), and in 1850 envoy-extraordinary to Paris. After the 
Revohition he became minister of foreign affairs and of public 
instruction, and held portfolios in several subsequent short- 
lived ministries. He died on the 24th of February 1873. 

A collection of his earlier religious and political orations was 
published in Paris in 1836. His chief work is a history of the 
Greek insurrection, 'laropia rijs eXXiji<i;s eTrai/aordo-eus (4 vols., 
London, 1853-1857; 2nd ed., 1862). He also wrote a martial 
poem, 'O 5ij/ios. Doiij/^a n\tirruibv (Paris, 1821). 

TRICYCLE (from prefix tri, three, and Gr. KkXos, circle, 
wheel). The tricycle, as a machine for pleasure riding, has 
steadily diminished in relative importance since the advent 
of the safety bicycle (see CYCLING). In its modern form it is a 
chain-driven rear-driver. The driving axle is provided with 
a differential gear, which allows of both wheels being driven 
whether the tricycle is moving in a straight or in a curved 
path. There are four rows of balls, two near the middle resisting 
the pull of the driving chain and two near the road wheels 
supporting the vertical load. Two types of driving axle are 
in use. In one the axle is supported from a parallel frame 
tube by four short brackets. In the other type, the Starley- 
Abingdon axle, the frame tube is concentric with the axle, and 
the middle portion is enlarged to form a casing for the chain- 
wheel, with two apertures for the chain to pass through. The 
other mechanical details are nearly all similar to those on a 
bicycle. 

Carrier tricycles, for tradesmen's delivery purposes, are made in 
two types, one with an extended wheel base and the carrier behind 
the rider, the other with a single rear driving wheel, the two steering 
wheels and the carrier being mounted in front on a transverse tube 
or frame which is jointed to the rear frame at the steering head. 
The second arrangement gives the simplest possible form of tricycle, 
but it is unsuited for touring purposes. 

Tricars. The tricar or motor tricycle was first made by 
removing the front wheel of a motor bicycle and replacing it 
by a frame carrying two side steering wheels and a seat. With 
a powerful engine this arrangement gives a light vehicle from 
which good performances are obtained on roads with easy 
gradients. On steeper gradients the power must be increased, 
and the belt drive with only one speed is inadequate. The 
modern tricar is on different lines, resembling a small motor 
car on three wheels. The engine is 6 to 10 h.p., preferably 
with two cylinders, air or water cooled, with clutch and gear- 
box giving two or three speeds, sometimes also a " reverse " 
speed. The transmission is usually by a chain from the engine 
shaft to the gear-box, thence by another chain to the rear road 
wheel. The frame or chassis is supported on the three road 
wheels by springs. The steering gear is on the same general 
lines as that of a motor car. The weight of a tricar of 7 to 
10 h.p. is between 700 and 1000 ft. It is a much faster vehicle, 
especially uphill, than a small car of equal price. The rear tire, 
however, is subject to severer working conditions than the two 
driving wheel tires of a small car, and must be of adequate 
strength, or trouble will be frequent. 

The tricar cannot be said to have attained to the same degree 
of trustworthiness and freedom from breakdown as the motor 
bicycle or motor car. The rear tire is difficult to remove, in case 
of puncture. The chain drive, direct from a small chain-wheel on 
the engine shaft, is faulty in principle. The engine shaft running 
often at 2000 revolutions per minute, the chain is necessarily noisy, 



268 



TRIDENT TRIER 



and is subject to continual gradual stretching, necessitating frequent 
readjustment. In all respects, except speed, the tricar is inferior 
to the small car. (A. Sp.) 

TRIDENT (Lat. tridens, tri-, tres, three and dens, tooth), a 
three-toothed or three-pronged fork or spear. It is and has 
been from primitive times the typical instrument for spearing 
fish, the Scottish " leister " (Norw. Ijoster), and was thus taken 
as the badge or emblem of the Greek Poseidon, the god of the 
sea. In Homer (cf. //. xii. 27; Od. Iv. 506 seq.) Poseidon is 
armed with the rpituva (another word is rpiodovs, cf. Find. 
Ol. ix. 45). The trident as the symbol of the sovereignty of 
the sea is found as early as Archilochus (c. 700 B.C.); a more 
familiar example is to be found in Aristophanes (Eq. 839). 
The emblematical figure of Britannia holds the trident as 
mistress of the sea. In the gladiatorial shows of ancient Rome 
the retiarius was armed with a trident as a weapon. 

TRIDYMITE, a mineral consisting of silicon oxide or silica, 
SiOj, but differing from quartz in crystalline form. The 
crystals are small, thin hexagonal plates or scales, which are 
usually twinned together in groups of three; hence the name of 
the mineral, from Greek TpiSvpos, triplet. The apparent hexa- 
gonal plates are themselves pseudo-symmetric twins of optically 
biaxial material, and the exact crystalline form is doubtful. The 
plates are colourless and transparent and have a vitreous lustre. 
The hardness is 7 and the specific gravity 2-3 (that of quartz 
being 2-65). Unlike quartz, it is soluble in a boiling solution 
of sodium carbonate. Tridymite occurs in the cavities of 
acid volcanic rocks (rhyolite, trachyte and andesite); the 
best-known localities are Cerro San Cristobal near Pachuca in 
Mexico, the Euganean Hills near Padua, and the Siebengebirge 
on the Rhine. Probably identical with tridymite is the form 
of silica known as asmanite, found in the meteorite which 
fell at Breitenbach in the Erzgebirge, Bohemia. (L. J. S.) 

TRIER (French Trhes), an ancient city of Germany, formerly 
the capital of an archbishopric and electorate of the empire, 
and now the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop and the chief 
town of a governmental department in the Prussian province 
of the Rhine. Pop. (1885) 33,019, (1905) 46,709 (86% Roman 
Catholics). It is situated on the right bank of the Moselle, 
about 6 m. from the frontier of Luxemburg and 69 m. S.W. of 
Coblenz, on the main lines of railway from Coblenz to Metz and 
from Cologne to Saarbriicken. The city lies in a fertile valley 
shut in by vine-clad hills, and the picturesque red sandstone 
buildings of the old town are interspersed with orchards and 
gardens. On the north, east and south boulevards with gardens 
follow the line of the medieval walls, which have mostly 
disappeared. The Roman city extended much farther south 
and east. 

Trier contains more important Roman remains than any 
other place in northern Europe. Perhaps the oldest remains are 
some of the piers and buttresses of the bridge over the Moselle, 
which may date from about 28 B.C. The well-preserved 
amphitheatre just outside the modern town to the south-east 
was probably built in the reign of Trajan or Hadrian. Its 
eastern side is built into the hill, its longer diameter is 76 yds., 
and it accommodated seven or eight thousand spectators. In 306 
the emperor Constantine the Great caused multitudes of Prankish 
prisoners to be thrown to the beasts here, and in 313 made a 
similar spectacle of the captive Bructeri. The most remarkable 
Roman building in Trier is the Porto, Nigra, the north gate of 
the city, a huge fortified gateway, 115 ft. long, 7 S to 93 ft. high 
and 29 ft. deep, built of sandstone blocks blackened with age 
(whence the name), and held together with iron clamps. The 
age of this building is very uncertain; it has been assigned to 
dates ranging from the ist to the 4th century A.D. It is also 
called the Simeonstor, after a Greek hermit who inhabited it. 
On his death in 1035 Archbishop Poppo converted the gate into 
two churches, one above the other, but all the additions except 
the apse have now been removed. In the south-east corner of 
the city are the picturesque ruins of the Roman imperial palace, 
and near the bridge are the extensive substructures of the 4th- 
century Roman baths, 660 ft. in length. On the Constantins- 



platz stands the magnificent brick basilica, probably of the age 
of Constantine, though the south and east walls are modern. 
Having been converted into a palace for the Prankish kings and 
their deputies, it passed in 1197 to the archbishops, and was 
restored (1846-1856) and turned into a Protestant church. The 
adjoining barracks were formerly the elector's palace. Another 
Roman basilica forms the nucleus of the cathedral. Built 
under the emperors Valentinian I. and Gratian as a quadri- 
lateral hall with four huge granite columns (now removed) in 
the centre, it was converted into a church about the close of 
the 4th century, and restored by Bishop Nicetius about 550. 
It is the most important pre-Carolingian church in Germany. 
Archbishop Poppo and his successors in the nth and i2th 
centuries extended the cathedral westwards and added an 
apse at each end. The vaulting of the nave and aisles and 
the beautiful cloisters were added in the I3th century. In the 
vaults are buried twenty-six archbishops and electors. Among 
the monuments are those of the electors Richard von Greiffen- 
klau (d. 1531) and Johann von Metzenhausen (d. 1540), fine 
examples of German Renaissance work. The most famous 
of the relics preserved in the cathedral is the " Holy Coat of 
Trier," believed by the devout to be the seamless robe of the 
Saviour, and said to have been discovered and presented to 
the city by the empress Helena. Since 1512 it has been periodi- 
cally exhibited. The exhibition of 1844, which was attended 
by more than a million pilgrims, aroused protests, resulting 
in the formation of the sect of German Catholics (q.v.). In 
1891 nearly two million pilgrims viewed the coat, and eleven 
miraculous cures were claimed. 

The cloisters connect the cathedral with the church of Our 
Lady (Liebfrauenkirche), a beautiful building in the form of a 
circle intersected by a cross, with a lofty vault, built 1127- 
1 143, and said to be the oldest Gothic church in Germany. 

The earliest churches were without the walls. Of these St 
Matthias in the south, now represented by a 12th-century 
building, has a Christian cemetery of the Roman age. 

In the market-place is the market cross, said to date from 
958, and a beautiful Renaissance fountain, the Petersbrunnen, 
erected in 1595. Close by are the Steipe or Rotes Haus, formerly 
the town hall, of the i$th century, and the Frankenturm or 
propugnaculum, of the loth century, said to be the oldest stone 
domestic building in Germany. 

The Provincial Museum (1885-1889) contains many Roman 
and medieval antiquities. The town library contains about 
100,000 volumes, including some valuable examples of early 
printing. Among its most treasured MSS. are the codex aureus, 
a copy of the gospels presented to the abbey of St Maximin 
by Ada, a reputed sister of Charlemagne, and the codex Egberti 
of the toth century. 

At Igel near Trier is a very remarkable Roman column, 
83 ft. high, adorned with sculptures. It dates from the 2nd 
century, and was the family monument of the Secundini. 
At Nennig is a fine Roman mosaic pavement. 

The industries of Trier include iron-founding, dyeing and 
the manufacture of machinery. There is a school of viticulture 
and a very considerable trade in Moselle wines, especially during 
the annual auctions. 

History. Trier had had two periods of greatness, firstly as 
the favourite residence of Constantine the Great and his suc- 
cessors in the west, and secondly as the capital of a powerful 
spiritual electorate. 

The Treveri or Treviri, from whom the city derived its name, 
were one of the most powerful tribes among the Belgae, and 
according to Julius Caesar, who conquered them in 56 B.C., 
possessed the best cavalry in Gaul. Attempts have been made 
to show that they were of German origin (see BELGAE), but 
although they were doubtless subject to Germanic influences, 
they spoke a Celtic language. Their chiefs, Indutiomarus, who 
raised a rebellion against the Romans in 54 B.C., and his suc- 
cessor Cingetorix have Celtic names, and St Jerome, who had 
lived in Trier, declares that their language in his day (c. 370) 
resembled that of the Galatians. An insurrection under Julius 



TRIESTE 



269 



Florus in A.D. 21 was soon quelled. The Roman city, Augusta 
Treverorum, was probably fortified by Augustus about 14 B.C., 
and organized as a colony about A.D. 50 in the reign of Claudius, 
but is not mentioned before the war of Civilis in 69 (Tacitus, 
Hist. iv.). At first the Treveri resisted the appeal of Civilis 
and his Batavi to join the revolt, and built a defensive wall 
from Trier to Andernach, but soon after the two Treverans, 
Tutor and Classicus, led their fellow tribesmen, aided by the 
Lingones (Langres), in the attempt to set up a " Gallic empire." 
After a brief struggle the rebels were overthrown at Trier by 
Cerealis, and 113 senators emigrated to Germany (70). Towards 
the end of the 3rd century, the inroads of the Franks having 
been repelled by the emperor Probus, the city rapidly acquired 
wealth and importance. Mainly on account of its strategic 
position, Diocletian on his reorganization of the empire made 
Trier the capital not only of Belgica Prima, but of the 
whole " diocese " of Gaul. For a century, from Maximian to 
Maximus (286-388), it was (except under Julian, who preferred 
to reside in Paris) the administrative centre from which Gaul, 
Britain and Spain were ruled, so that the poet Ausonius could 
describe it as the second metropolis of the empire, or " Rome 
beyond the Alps." Constantine the Great, who generally 
resided here from 306 to 331, and his successors also, beautified 
the city with public works, and villas arose upon the hill-sides. 

The Church added a lustre of a different kind. Legend 
associated Trier with the martyrdom of part of the Theban 
legion (c. 286) and with the relics found by St Helena in the 
Holy Land. St Agritius (d. 332) is the first historical bishop. 
Four great saints of the 4th century are connected with the 
city. It was the scene of the first banishment of St Athanasius 
in 336. A baseless legend relates that he composed the Qui- 
cunque Vult while hiding here in a cistern. St Ambrose, one 
of the greatest sons of Trier, was born here about 340. St 
Jerome's mind was first seriously directed to religion while 
studying at Trier about 370, and St Martin of Tours came in 
385 to plead with the tryant Maximus for the lives of the 
heretic Priscillian and his followers. 

The Franks, who had thrice previously sacked the city, 
gained permanent possession of it about 455. Although some 
Prankish kings resided here, it gradually yielded place to Metz 
as a Prankish capital. The great bishop St Nicetius (528-566), 
who was banished for rebuking the vices of king Clotaire I. 
and eulogized by the poet Venantius Fortunatus, repaired 
the cathedral, and built a splendid castle for himself. The 
city passed to Lorraine in 843, and to the East Prankish king- 
dom in 870. It was sacked by the Northmen in 88 1. Hetti, 
who occupied the see from 814 to 847, is said to have been 
the first archbishop of Trier, and Radbod acquired the rights 
of the counts of Trier in 898, thus founding the temporal power 
of the see. Robert claimed in vain the right to crown the 
German king Otto I. in 936, on the ground of the priority of 
his see, and in the loth century Archbishop Dietrich I. obtained 
the primacy over Gaul and Germany. 

The temporal power of the archbishops was not gained 
without opposition. The German kings Otto IV. and Conrad IV. 
granted charters to the city, which however admitted the 
jurisdiction of ;ts archbishop, Baldwin of Luxemburg, in 1308. 
This prince, a brother of the emperor Henry VII., ruled from 
1307 to 1354, and was the real founder of the power of Trier. 
His predecessor Diether III. of Nassau had left his lands heavily 
encumbered with debt. Baldwin raised them to great pros- 
perity by his energy and foresight, and chiefly as a result of 
the active political and military support he rendered to the 
emperors Henry VII., Louis the Bavarian and Charles IV. 
enlarged his dominions almost to their ultimate extent. He 
assumed the title of archchancellor of Gaul and Aries (or Bur- 
gundy), and in 1315 admitted the claim of the archbishop of 
Cologne to the highest place after the archbishop of Mainz 
among the spiritual princes of the empire. Thenceforward 
the elector of Trier held the third place in the electoral college. 
After Baldwin's death the prosperity of Trier was checked 
by wars and disputes between rival claimants to the see, and in 



1456 the estates united for the purpose of restoring order, 
and secured the right of electing their archbishops. 

Throughout the middle ages the sancta civitas Trevirorum 
abounded in religious foundations and was a great seat of 
monastic learning. The university, founded in 1473, existed until 
1797. The elector Richard von Greiffenklau (1467-1531) 
successfully opposed the Reformation, and inaugurated the 
exhibitions of the holy coat, which called forth the denuncia- 
tions of Luther, but have continued since his day to bring wealth 
and celebrity to the city. In the latter half of the i6th century 
the direction of education fell into the hands of the Jesuits. 

During the Thirty Years' War the elector Philip Christopher 
von Sotern favoured France, and accepted French protection 
in 1631. The French in the following year expelled both 
Spaniards and Swedes from his territories, but in March 1635 
the Spaniards recaptured Trier and took the elector prisoner. 
He remained in captivity for ten years, but was reinstated by 
the French in 1645 and confirmed in his possessions by the 
peace of Westphalia. The French again temporarily took 
Trier in 1674 and 1688. 

The last elector and archbishop, Clement Wenceslaus (1768- 
1802), granted toleration to the Protestants in 1782, established 
his residence at Coblenz in 1786, and fled from the French 
in 1794. By the peace of Luneville in 1801 France annexed 
all the territories of Trier on the left bank of the Rhine, and 
in 1802 the elector abdicated. A new bishopric was created for 
the French department of the Sarre, of which Trier was the 
capital. The Treveran territories on the right bank of the 
Rhine were secularized and given to Nassau- Weilburg in 1803, 
and in 1814 nearly the whole of the former electoral dominions 
were given to Prussia. A bishopric was again founded in 
1821, with nearly the same boundaries as the old archbishopric, 
but it was placed under Cologne. The area of the former 
electoral principality was 3210 sq. m.,and its population in the 
i8th century was from 250,000 to 300,000. Roughly speaking, 
it was a broad strip of territory along the lower Saar and the 
Moselle from its confluence with that river to the Rhine, with a 
district on the right bank of the Rhine behind Ehrenbreitstein. 
The chief towns in addition to Trier were Coblenz, Cochem, 
Beilstein, Oberwesel, Lahnstein and Sayn. Far more extensive 
was the territory under the spiritual authority of the arch- 
bishop which included the bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun, 
and after 1 7 7 7 also those of Nancy and St Die. 

See E. A. Freeman's article "Augusta Treverorum" in the British 
Quarterly Review for July 1875; Hettner, Das romische Trier (Trier, 
1880) ; J. N. von Wilmowsky, Der Dom zu Trier in seinen drei 
Hauptperioden (Trier, 1874); S. Beissel, Geschichte der trierer 
Kirchen (Trier, 1888) ; " Gesta Treverorum " (ed. G. Waitz), in Man. 
Germ, hist, viii.,xxiv. ; J. N. von Hontheim, Historia trevirensis diplo- 
matica et pragmatica (3 vols., Augsburg, 1750); Marx, Geschichte des 
Erzstifts Trier (5 vols., Trier, 1858-1864); Leonardy, Geschichte des 
trierischen Landes und Volkes (Saarlouis, 1871); Woerl, Fuhrer durch 
die Stadt Trier (8th ed., Leipzig, 1898). (A. B. Go.) 

TRIESTE (Ger. Triesl; Slav. Trst; the Roman Tergesle, 
q.v.), the principal seaport of Austria. 367 m. S.W. of 
Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 132,879, of which three-fourths 
are Italians, the remainder being composed of Germans, Jews, 
Greeks, English and French. Trieste is situated at the north- 
east angle of the Adriatic Sea, on the Gulf of Trieste, and is 
picturesquely built on terraces at the foot of the Karst hills. 
The aspect of the town is Italian rather than German. It is 
divided into the old and the new town, which are connected by 
the broad and handsome Via del Corso, the busiest street in the 
town. The old town, nestling round the Schlossberg, the hill 
on which the castle stands, consists of narrow, steep and 
irregular streets. The castle, built in 1680, is believed to occupy 
the site of the Roman capitol. The new town, which lies on 
the flat expanse adjoining the crescent-shaped bay, partly on 
ground that has been reclaimed from the sea, has large and 
regularly built streets, and several large squares adorned with 
artistic monuments. The cathedral of San Giusto was formed 
as it now stands by the union in the i4th century of three 
adjacent early Christian buildings of the 6th century; 



270 



TRIFORIUM 



the tower incorporates portions of a Roman temple. The 
church of Santa Maria Maggiore, built in 1627-1682, is a charac- 
teristic specimen of Jesuit architecture; the church of Sant' 
Antonio Nuovo, built in 1827-1849, is in the Greek style, as also 
the Greek Orthodox church, built in 1782, which is one of the 
handsomest Byzantine structures in the whole of Austria. 
Among the most prominent secular buildings are: the 
Tergesteo, a huge edifice containing a cruciform arcade roofed 
with glass, where the exchange is established, besides numerous 
shops and offices; the town-hall, rebuilt in 1874, with the 
handsome hall of the local Diet; the imposing old exchange, 
now the seat of the chamber of commerce; the palatial offices 
of the Austrian Lloyd, the principal shipping company; the 
commercial and nautical academy, with its natural history 
museum, containing the complete fauna of the Adriatic Sea; 
and finally the municipal museum, Revoltella, are all worth 
mentioning. The Museo Lapidario contains a collection of 
Roman antiquities found in or near the town. It is an open-air 
museum, installed in a disused burial-ground, and is situated 
near the castle. The Arco di Riccardo, which derives its 
name from a popular delusion that it was connected with 
Richard Coeur-de-Lion, is believed by some to be a Roman 
triumphal arch, but is probably an arch of a Roman aqueduct. 

At the head of the industrial establishments of Trieste stand the 
two ship-building yards of the Austrian Lloyd and of the Stabili- 
mento Tecnico Tnestino, which are the largest of their kind in 
Austria. The Stabilimento Tecnico is also fitted up for the con- 
struction of war-ships. They are equipped with all the latest technical 
innovations, and employ over 5000 workmen. Petroleum refineries, 
iron-foundries, chemicals, soap-boiling, silk-spinning and the pro- 
duction of ships' fittings, as marine steam boilers, anchors, chains, 
cables, are the other principal branches of industry. Several marble 
quarries are worked in the neighbourhood, and there are some large 
cement factories. Good wine, fruit and olive oil are the most 
important natural products of the country round Trieste. 

The great importance of Trieste lies in its trade. It is the first 
port of Austria, and the principal outlet for the over-sea trade of 
the monarchy. It may be said nearly to monopolize the trade of 
the Adriatic, and has long eclipsed its ancient rival Venice. It owes 
its development to its geographical situation in the north-east angle 
of the Adriatic Sea at the end of the deeply indented gulf, and to 
its harbour, which was more accessible to large vessels than that of 
Venice. Besides, it was declared a free imperial port in 1719, and 
was therefore released from the obstructions to trade contained in 
the hampering legislation of the period. It was deprived of this 
privilege in 1891, when only the harbour was declared to be outside 
the customs limit. But during the last thirty years of the igth 
century the increase in its trade was the lowest in comparison 
with the increase in the other great European ports. This 
was due in the first place to the lack ofadequate railway communica- 
tion with the interior of Austria, to the loss of part of the Levant 
trade through the development of the Oriental railway system, to 
the diversion of traffic towards the Italian and German ports, and 
finally to the growing rivalry of the neighbouring port of Fiume, 
whose interests were vigorously promoted by the Hungarian govern- 
ment. But in the 2Oth century a more active policy was inaugur- 
ated. New and direct services were started to East Africa, Central 
America and Mexico; the service to India and the Far East, as well 
as that to the Mediterranean ports, was much improved ; and lastly, 
Trieste was made the centre of the large emigration from Austria 
to America by the inauguration (June 1904) of a direct emigrant 
service to New York. But the most important measure, designed 
to give a great impetus to the trade of Trieste, and to the over-sea 
trade of Austria generally, was the construction of the so-called 
second railway connexion with Trieste, begun in 1901. This measure 
provided for the construction of a railway over the Tauern Mountains 
between Schwarzach in Salzburg and Mollbrucken in Carinthia; 
and of a railway over the Karawanken between Trieste and Klagen- 
furt, with a branch to Villach. The total length of both lines is 
100 m. The Karawanken railway, a direct connexion with Bohemia 
and the northern industrial provinces of Austria, is calculated to 
counteract the gravitation of traffic towards the German ports; 
while the Tauern railway constitutes the shortest route to the 
interior of Austria and to the south of Germany. By the new line 
the distance between Salzburg, for instance, and Trieste, is lessened 
by 160 m. 

In order to accommodate the increase in traffic resulting from the 
above improvements, important works for the extension and develop- 
ment of the harbour were undertaken, and part of them were com- 
pleted in 1910. The capacious harbour, consisting of two parts, 
the old and the new, is protected by extensive moles and breakwaters. 
The new harbour was constructed in 1867-1883, at a cost of 
1,500,000. The new additions to the harbour, which are 



situated at the south end, were designed to give more than 
double the receiving capacity of the port, and were estimated 
to cost 3,625,000. The bulk of the over-sea trade of Trieste 
is done with the Levant, Egypt, India and the Far East, 
Italy, Great Britain and North and South America. Its most 
important trade by land, besides Austria, is done with Germany, 
Trieste being the entrep&t for Germany's commerce with India 
and the Mediterranean countries. The principal articles imported 
are cotton and cotton goods, coffee, coal, cereals, hides, fruit and 
tobacco ; the principal articles exported are wool and woollen goods, 
sugar, paper, timber, machinery and various manufactured goods. 

About 4 m. north-west of Trieste on the very edge of the sea 
is the famous castle of Miramar, built in 1854-1856 in the Norman 
style, for the archduke Maximilian, the ill-fated emperor of 
Mexico. It belongs now to the emperor of Austria, and its 
beautiful gardens are open to the public. About 4 m. north- 
east of Trieste is the village of Opcina, which possesses an obelisk 
1 146 ft. high, from which a beautiful view is obtained. 

The town of Trieste, with its adjoining territory of a total 
area of 36 sq. m., forms a separate Austrian crown land. It 
had in 1900 a population of 178,672, of which 77 % were Italians, 
18% Slovenes and 5% Germans. The municipal council of 
Trieste constitutes at the same time the local Diet of the 
crown land, and is composed of 54 members. To the Reichsrat 
Trieste sends five deputies. Trieste is the seat of a Roman 
Catholic bishop, and the seat of the administration for the 
Kiistenland or littoral, composed of the crown lands of Trieste, 
Gorz and Gradisca, and Istria. 

History. At the time of the foundation of Aquileia by the 
Romans, the district which now includes Trieste was occupied 
by Celtic and Illyrian tribes ; and the Roman colony of Tergeste 
(<?..) does not seem to have been established till the reign of 
Vespasian. After the break-up of the Roman dominion Trieste 
shared the general fortunes of Istria and passed through various 
hands. From the emperor Lothair it received an independent 
existence under its count-bishops, and it maintained this 
position down to its capture by Venice in 1203. For the next 
1 80 years its history consists chiefly of a series of conflicts with 
this city, which were finally put an end to by Trieste placing 
itself in 1382 under the protection of Leopold III. of Austria. 
The overlordship thus established insensibly developed into 
actual possession; and except in the Napoleonic period (1797- 
1805 and 1809-1813) Trieste has since remained an integral part 
of the Austrian dominions. It was an imperial free port from 
1719 until 1891. The harbour was blockaded by an Italian 
fleet from May until August 1848. During the Italian and 
Hungarian revolutions Trieste remained faithful to Austria, and 
received the title of Citta Fedelissima. In 1867 Trieste and 
the adjoining territory was constituted into a separate crown 
land. In 1888 a monument was erected in commemoration of 
the sooth anniversary of the connexion of the town with 
Austria. 

Giulio Caprin, Trieste (Bergamo, 1906) ; Mainati's Croniche ossia 
memorie star.- sacro- profane di Trieste. (7 vols., Venice, 1817 
1818); Lowenthal, Gesch. der Stadt Triest (Trieste, 1857); Delia 
Croce, Storia di Trieste (ibid., 1879); Scussa, Storia cronografica di 
Trieste (ibid., new ed., 1885-1886); Neumann-Spallart, Osterreichs 
maritime Entwicklung und die Hebung von Triest (Stuttgart, 1882); 
Die osterreich-ungarische Monarchic: Das Kiistenland (Vienna, 
1891); Montanelli, // Movitnento storico della popolazione di Trieste 
( J 9O5) ; Hartleben, Fuhrer durch Triest und Umgebung (sth ed., 
Vienna, 1905). 

TRIFORIUM, an architectural term, the origin of which is 
unknown but probably derived from " thoroughfarum," as it 
was used as a passage from one end of the building to the other. 
The derivation from Lat. tres, tri, three, and/cm, door, entrance, 
does not seem appropriate. The earliest examples are those 
in the pagan basilicas, where it constituted an upper galley for 
conversation and business; in the early Christian basilicas it 
was usually reserved for women, and the same applied to those 
in the Greek Byzantine Church. In Romanesque and Gothic 
buildings it is either a spacious gallery over the side aisles or 
is reduced to a simple passage in the thickness of the walls; in 
either case it forms an important architectural division in the 



TRIGLYPH TRIGONOMETRY 



271 



nave of the cathedral or church, and being of less height gives 
more importance to the ground storey or nave arcade. In 
consequence of its less height it was usually divided into two 
arches, which were again subdivided into two smaller arches 
and these subdivisions increased the scale. On account of the 
richness of its mouldings and carved ornament in the sculpture 
introduced in the spandrils, it became the most highly 
decorated feature of the interior, the triforium at Lincoln being 
one of the most beautiful compositions of Gothic architecture. 
Even when reduced to a simple passage it was always a highly 
enriched feature. In the isth-century churches in England, 
when the roof over the aisles was comparatively flat, more 
height being required for the clerestory windows, the triforium 
was dispensed with altogether. In the great cathedrals and 
abbeys the triforium was often occupied by persons who came 
to witness various ceremonies, and in early days was probably 
utilized by the monks and clergy for work connected with the 
church. 

From the constructive point of view, the triforium sometimes 
served very important functions, as under its roof exist arches and 
vaults carried from the nave to the outer wall, to which they trans- 
mitted the thrust of the nave vault; even when the flying buttress 
was frankly adopted by the Gothic architect and emphasized by its 
architectural design as an important feature, other cross arches were 
introduced under the roof to strengthen it. 

TRIGLYPH (Gr. rptis, three, and 7\v<f>ri, an incision or 
carving), an architectural term for the vertically channelled 
tablets of the Doric frieze, so called because of the angular 
channels in them, two perfect and one divided the two 
chamfered angles or hemiglyphs being reckoned as one. The 
square sunk spaces between the triglyphs on a frieze are called 
metopes. 

TRIGONOMETRY (from Gr. rplyuvov, a triangle, \ikrpov, 
measure), the branch of mathematics which is concerned with the 
measurement of plane and spherical triangles, that is, with 
the determination of three of the parts of such triangles when 
the numerical values of the other three parts are given. Since 
any plane triangle can be divided into right-angled triangles, 
the solution of all plane triangles can be reduced to that of 
right-angled triangles; moreover, according to the theory of 
similar triangles, the ratios between pairs of sides of a right- 
angled triangle depend only upon the magnitude of the acute 
angles of the triangle, and may therefore be regarded as functions 
of either of these angles. The primary object of trigonometry, 
therefore, requires a classification and numerical tabulation 
of these functions of an angular magnitude; the science is, 
however, now understood to include the complete investigation 
not only of such of the properties of these functions as are 
necessary for the theoretical and practical solution of triangles 
but also of all their analytical properties. It appears that the 
solution of spherical triangles is effected by means of the same 
functions as are required in the case of plane triangles. The 
trigonometrical functions are employed in many branches of 
mathematical and physical science not directly concerned 
with the measurement of angles, and hence arises the importance 
of analytical trigonometry. The solution of triangles of which 
the sides are geodesic lines on a spheroidal surface requires the 
introduction of other functions than those required for the 
solution of triangles on a plane or spherical surface, and there- 
fore gives rise to a new branch of science,which is from analogy 
frequently called spheroidal trigonometry. Every new class 
of surfaces which may be considered would have in this ex- 
tended sense a trigonometry of its own, which would consist in 
an investigation of the nature and properties of the functions 
necessary for the measurement of the sides and angles of triangles 
bounded by geodesies drawn on such surfaces. 

HISTORY 

Trigonometry, in its essential form of showing how to deduce 
the values of the angles and sides of a triangle when other angles 
and sides are given, is an invention of the Greeks. It found 
its origin in the computations demanded for the reduction of 
astronomical observations and in other problems connected 



with astronomical science; and since spherical triangles 
specially occur, it happened that spherical trigonometry was 
developed before the simpler plane trigonometry. Certain 
theorems were invented and utilized by Hipparchus, but material 
progress was not recorded until Ptolemy collated, amended 
and developed the work of his predecessors. In book xi. 
of the Almagest the principles of spherical trigonometry are 
stated in the form of a few simple and useful lemmas; plane 
trigonometry does not receive systematic treatment although 
several theorems and problems are stated incidentally. The 
solution of triangles necessitated^ the construction of tables of 
chords the equivalent of our modern tables of sines; Ptolemy 
treats this subject in book i., stating several theorems relating 
to multiple angles, and by ingenious methods successfully 
deducing approximate results. He did not invent the idea 
of tables of chords, for, on the authority of Theon, the principle 
had been stated by Hipparchus (see PTOLEMY). 

The Indians, who were much more apt calculators than the 
Greeks, availed themselves of the Greek geometry which came from 
Alexandria, and made it the basis of trigonometrical calculations. 
The principal improvement which they introduced consists in the 
formation of tables of half-chords or sines instead of chords. Like 
the Greeks, they divided the circumference of the circle into 360 
degrees or 21,600 minutes, and they found the length in minutes 
of the arc which can be straightened out into the radius to be 3438. 
The value of the ratio of the circumference of the circle to the 
diameter used to make this determination is 62832 : 20000, or 
1 = 3-1416, which value was given by the astronomer Aryabhata 
(476-550) in a work called Aryabhaiya, written in verse, which 
was republished ' in Sanskrit by Dr Kern at Leiden in 1874. The rela- 
tions between the sines and cosines of the same and of complementary 
arcs were known, and the formula sin Ja = V(i7i9(3438-cosa)| 
was applied to the determination of the sine of a half angle 
when the sine and cosine of the whole angle were known. In the 
Surya-Siddhanta, an astronomical treatise which has been translated 
by Ebenezer Bourgess in vol. vi. of the Journal of the American 
Oriental Society (New Haven, 1860), the sines of angles at an interval 
of 3 45' up to 90 are given; these were probably obtained from 
the sines of 60 and 45 by continual application of the dimidiary 
formula given above and by the use of the complementary angle. 
The values sin I5 = 89o', sin 7 3o' = 449', sin 3 45' = 225' 
were thus obtained. Now the angle 3 45' is itself 225'; thus the 
arc and the sine of j*j of the circumference were found to be the 
same, and consequently special importance was attached to this 
arc, which was called the right sine. From the tables of sines of 
angles at intervals of 3 45' the law expressed by the equation 
sin (n + 1.225') -sin (78.225') = sin (71.225') 

-sin (tt-i 

was discovered empirically, and used for the purpose of recalculation. 
Bhaskara (fl. 1150) used the method, to which we have now returned, 
of expressing sines and cosines as fractions of the radius ; he obtained 
the more correct values sin 3 45' = 100/1529, cos 3 45' =466/467, 
and showed how to form a table, according to degrees, from 
the values sin 1 = 10/573, cos I " = 6568/6569, which are much 
more accurate than Ptolemy's values. The Indians did not apply 
their trigonometrical knowledge to the solution of triangles; 
for astronomical purposes they solved right-angled plane and 
spherical triangles by geometry. 

The Arabs were acquainted with Ptolemy's Almagest, and they 
probably learned from the Indians the use of the sine. The cele- 
brated astronomer of Batnae, Albategnius (q.v.), who died in A.D. 
929-930, and whose Tables were translated in the I2th century by 
Plato of Tivoli into Latin, under the title De scientia stellar-urn, 
employed the sine regularly, and was fully conscious of the advantage 
of the sine over the chord; indeed, he remarks that the continual 
doubling is saved by the use of the former. He was the first to 
calculate sin <j> from the equation sin <#>/cos <t> = k, and he also made 
a table of the length of shadows of a vertical object of height 12 for 
altitudes 1, 2, ... of the sun; this is a sort of cotangent table. 
He was acquainted not only with the triangle formulae in the Alma- 
gest, but also with the formula cos a=cos b cos c + sin 6 sin c cos A 
for a spherical triangle ABC. Abu'1-Wafa of Bagdad (b. 940) 
was the first to introduce the tangent as an independent function: 
his " umbra " is the half of the tangent of the double arc, 
and the secant he defines as the " diameter umbrae." He em- 
ployed the umbra to find the angle from a table and not merely 
as an abbreviation for sin/cos; this improvement was, however, 
afterwards forgotten, and the tangent was reinvented in the 1 5th 
century. Ibn Yunos of Cairo, who died in 1008, showed even more 
skill than Albategnius in the solution of problems in spherical 
trigonometry and gave improved approximate formulae for the 
calculation of sines. Among the West Arabs, Geber (q.v.), who lived 

1 See also vol. ii. of the Asiatic Researches (Calcutta). 



272 



TRIGONOMETRY 



at Seville in the nth century, wrote an astronomy in nine books, 
which was translated into Latin in the I2th century by Gerard of 
Cremona and was published in 1534- The first book contains a 
trigonometry which is a considerable improvement on that in the 
Almagest. He gave proofs of the formulae for right-angled spherical 
triangles, depending on a rule of four quantities, instead of Ptolemy's 
rule of six quantities. The formulae cos B=cos b sin A, cos c = 
cot A cot B, in a triangle of which C is a right angle had escaped the 
notice of Ptolemy and were given for the first time by Geber. 
Strangely enough, he made no progress in plane trigonometry. 
Arrachel, a Spanish Arab who lived in the I2th century, wrote a 
work of which we have an analysis by Purbach, in which, like the 
Indians, he made the sine and the arc for the value 3 45' coincide. 

Georg Purbach (1423-1461), professor of mathematics at Vienna, 
wrote a work entitled Tractatus super propositiones Ptolemaei de 
sinubus et chordis (Nuremberg, 1541). This treatise consists of a 
development of Arrachel's method of interpolation for the calcula- 
tion of tables of sines, and was published by Regiomontanus at 
the end of one of his works. Johannes Miiller (1436-1476), known 
as Regiomontanus, was a pupil of Purbach and taught astronomy 
at Padua ; he wrote an exposition of the Almagest, and a more im- 
portant work, De triangulis planis et sphericis cum tabulis sinuum, 
which was published in 1533, a later edition appearing in 1561. 
He reinvented the tangent and calculated a table of tangents for 
each degree, but did not make any practical applications of this table, 
and did not use formulae involving the tangent. His work was the 
first complete European treatise on trigonometry, and contains 
a number of interesting problems; but his methods were in some 
respects behind those of the Arabs. Copernicus (1473-1543) gave 
the first simple demonstration of the fundamental formula of 
spherical trigonometry ; the Trigonomelria Copernici was published by 
Rheticus in 1542. George Joachim (1514-1576), known as Rheticus, 
wrote Opus palatinum de triangulis (see TABLES, MATHEMATICAL), 
which contains tables of sines, tangents and secants of arcs at 
intervals of 10* from o to 90. His method of calculation depends 
upon the formulae which give sin no. and cos no. in terms of the sines 
and cosines of ( i)a and (n 2)0; thus these formulae may be 
regarded as due to him. Rheticus found the formulae for the sines 
of the half and third of an angle in terms of the sine of the whole 
angle. In 1599 there appeared an important work by Bartholomew 
Pitiscus (1561-1613), entitled Trigonometriae seu De dimensione 
triangulorum; this contained several important theorems on the 
trigonometrical functions of two angles, some of which had been 
given before by Finck, Landsberg (or Lansberghe de Meuleblecke) 
and Adriaan van Roomen. Francois Viete or Vieta (1540-1603) 
employed the equation (2 cos J<#>) 3 3(2 cos Jtf>)=2 cos <j> to solve 
the cubic x* 3a*x=a*b(a> $6); he obtained, however, only one 
root of the cubic. In 1593 Van Roomen proposed, as a problem for 
all mathematicians, to solve the equation 

45? -3795:v 3 +95634y' i - +945y 41 -45> |43 +/ 5 = C. 
Vieta gave y = 2 sin jrf, where C=2 sin </>, as a solution, and also 
twenty-two of the other solutions, but he failed to obtain the 
negative roots. In his work Ad angulares sectiones Vieta gave 
formulae for the chords of multiples of a given arc in terms ofthe 
chord of the simple arc. 

A new stage in the development of the science was commenced 
after John Napier's invention of logarithms in 1614. Napier also 
simplified the solution of spherical triangles by his well-known 
analogies and by his rules for the solution of right-angled triangles. 
The first tables of logarithmic sines and tangents were constructed 
by Edmund Gunter (1581-1626), professor of astronomy at Gresham 
College, London; he was also the first to employ the expressions 
cosine, cotangent and cosecant for the sine, tangent and secant 
of the complement of an arc. A treatise by Albert Girard (1590- 
l6 34)t published at_the Hague in 1626, contains the theorems which 
give areas of spherical triangles and polygons, and applications of 
the properties of the supplementary triangles to the reduction of 
the number of different cases in the solution of spherical triangles. 
He used the notation sin, tan, sec for the sine, tangent and secant 
of an arc. In the second half of the I7th century the theory of 
infinite series was developed by John Wallis, Gregory, Mercator, 
and afterwards by Newton and Leibnitz. In the Analysis per 
aequationes numero terminorum infinitas, which was written before 
1669, Newton gave the series for the arc in powers of its sine; from 
this he obtained the series for the sine and cosine in powers of the 
arc ; but these series were given in such a form that the law of the 
formation of the coefficients was hidden. James Gregory discovered 
in 1670 the series for the arc in powers of the tangent and for the 
tangent and secant in powers of the arc. The first of these series 
was also discovered independently by Leibnitz in 1673, and published 
without proof in the Acta eruditorum for 1682. The series for the 
sine in powers of the arc he published in 1693; this he obtained by 
differentiation of a series with undetermined coefficients. 

In the 1 8th century the science began to take a more analytical 
form; evidence of this is given in the works of Kresa in 1720 and 
Mayer in 1727. Friedrich Wilhelm v. Oppel's Analysis triangulorum 
(1746) was the first complete work on analytical trigonometry. 
None of these mathematicians used the notation sin, cos, tan, which 
is the more surprising in the case of Oppel, since Leonhard Euler 




had in 1744 employed it in a memoir in the Acta eruditorum. Jean 
Bernoulli was the first to obtain real results by the use of the symbol 
V i; he published in 1712 the general formula for tan IKJ> in 
terms of tan 4>, which he obtained by means of transformation of 
the arc into imaginary logarithms. The greatest advance was, 
however, made by Euler, who brought the science in all essential 
respects into the state in which it is at present. He introduced 
the present notation into general use, whereas until his time the 
trigonometrical functions had been, except by Girard, indicated 
by special letters, and had been regarded as certain straight lines 
the absolute lengths of which depended on the radius of the circle 
in which they were drawn. Euler's great improvement consisted 
in his regarding the sine, cosine, &c., as functions of the angle only, 
thereby giving to equations connecting these functions a purely 
analytical interpretation, instead of a geometrical one as heretofore. 
The exponential values of the sine and cosine, De Moivre's theorem, 
and a great number of other analytical properties of the trigono- 
metrical functions, are due to Euler, most of whose writings are to 
be found in the Memoirs of the St Petersburg Academy. 

Plane Trigonometry. 

I. Imagine a straight line terminated at a fixed point O, and 
initially coincident with a fixed straight line OA , to revolve round 0, 
and finally to take up any 
position OB. We shall sup- ConP" 
pose that, when this revolv- otA " 
ing straight line is turning J. aay ,. 
in one direction, say that *** 
opposite to that in which the hands of 
a clock turn, it is describing a positive 
angle, and when it is turning in the other 
direction it is describing a negative 
angle. Before finally taking up the 
position OB the straight line may have 
passed any number of times through the 
position OB, making any number of 
complete revolutions round O in either 
direction. Each time that the straight 
line makes a complete revolution round O we consider it to have 
described four right angles, taken with the positive or negative sign, 
according to the direction in which it has revolved; thus, when it 
stops in the position OB, it may have revolved through any one of 
an infinite number of positive or negative angles any two of which 
differ from one another by a positive or negative multiple of four 
right angles, and all of which have the same bounding lines OA and 
OB. If OB' is the final position of the revolving line, the smallest 
positive angle which can have been described is that described by 
the revolving line making more than one-half and less than the whole 
of a complete revolution, so that in this case we have a positive angle 
greater than two and less than four right angles. We have thus 
shown how we may conceive an angle not restricted to be less than 
two right angles, but of any positive or negative magnitude, to be 
generated. 

2._Two systems of numerical measurement of angular magnitudes 
are in ordinary use. For practical measurements the sexagesimal 
system is the one employed : the ninetieth part of a right ... ... 

angle is taken as the unit and is called a degree; the vj 
degree is divided into sixty equal parts called minutes; 
and the minute into sixty equal parts called seconds; *f '" . 
angles smaller than a second are usually measured as 
decimals of a second, the "thirds," "fourths," &c., not MagaH 
being in ordinary use. In the common notation an angle, for 
example, of 120 degrees, 17 minutes and 14-36 seconds is written 
120 17' 14-36". The decimal system measurement of angles 
has never come into ordinary use. In analytical trigonometry the 
circular measure of an angle is employed. In this system the unit 
angle or radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an 
arc equal in length to the radius. The constancy of this angle 
follows from the geometrical propositions (l) the circumferences 
of different circles vary as their radii ; (2) in the same circle angles at 
the centre are proportional to the arcs which subtend them. It 
thus follows that the radian is an angle independent of the particular 
circle used in defining it. The constant ratio of the circumference 
of a circle to its diameter is a number incommensurable with unity, 
usually denoted by IT. We shall indicate later on some of the 
methods which have been employed to approximate to the value 
of this number. Its value to 20 places is 3-14159265358979323846; 
its reciprocal to thesame number of places is 0-31830988618379067153. 
In circular measure every angle is measured by the ratio which it 
bears to the unit angle. Two right angles are measured by the 
number ir, and, since the same angle is 180, we see that the number 
of degrees in an angle of circular measure B is obtained from the 
formula i8oX0/x. The value of the radian has been found to 41 
places of decimals by Glaisher (Proc. London Math. Soc. vol. iv.) ; 
the value of I/IT, from which the unit can easily be calculated, is 
;ivento 140 places of decimals in Crunerts Archiv (1841), vol. i. To 10 
lecimal places the value of the unit angle is 57 17' 44-8062470964". 
The unit of circular measure is too large to be convenient for 
practical purposes, but its use introduces a simplification into the 
series in analytical trigonometry, owing to the fact that the size of 



TRIGONOMETRY 



-273 



Definition 



an angle and the angle itself in this measure, when the magnitude of the 
angle is indefinitely diminished, are ultimately in a ratio of equality. 

3. If a point moves from a position A to another position B on a 
straight line, it has described a length AB of the straight line. It 
. . is convenient to have a simple mode of indicating in 
Port'ns of wmcn direction on the straight line the length AB has 
in Infinite been described; this may be done by supposing that a 
straight P om t moving in one specified direction is describing 
Line. a positive length, and whe'n moving in the opposite 

direction a negative length. Thus, if a point moving 
from A to B is moving in the positive direction, we consider the 
length AB as positive; and, since a point moving from B to A is 
moving in the negative direction, we consider the length BA as 
negative. Hence any portion of an infinite straight line is con- 
sidered to. be positive or negative according to the direction in 
which we suppose this portion to be described by a moving point ; 
which direction is the positive one is, of course, a matter of 
convention. 

If perpendiculars AL, BM be drawn from two points, A, B on 
any straight line, not necessarily in the same plane with AB, the 

length LM, taken with the positive or negative sign 

** according to the convention as stated above, is called 

Lin the projection of AB on the given straight line; the 

projection of BA being ML has the opposite sign to the 

projection of AB. If two points A,^B be joined by a 
number of lines in any manner, the algebraical" sum of the projec- 
tions of all these lines is LM that is, the same as the projection of 
AB. Hence the sum of the projections of all the sides, taken in 
order, of any closed polygon, not necessarily plane, on any straight 
line, is zero. This principle of projections we shall apply below to 
obtain some of the most important propositions in trigonometry. 

4. Let us now return to the conception of the generation of an 
angle as in fig. i. Draw BOB' at right angles to and equal to AA'. 

We shall suppose that the direction from A' to A is the 
positive one for the straight line AOA', and that from 
metrical B ' to B for BOB'. Suppose OP of fixed length, equal 
Functions. to ^A, and let PM, PN be drawn perpendicular to 
A 'A, B'B respectively; then OM and ON, taken with 
their proper signs, are the projections of OP on A 'A and B'B. The 

ratio of the projection 
of OP on B'B to the 
absolute length of OP is 
dependent only on the 
magnitude of the angle 
POA, and is called the 
sine of that angle; the 
ratio of the projection 
of OP on A 'A to the 
length OP is called the 
cosine of the angle POA . 
The ratio of the sine of 
an angle to its cosine 
is called the tangent of 

PIG, 2 . the angle, and that of the 

cosine to the sine the 

cotangent of the angle ; the reciprocal of the cosine is called the secant, 
and that of sine the cosecant of the angle. These functions of an angle 
of magnitude a are denoted by sin a, cos a, tan a, cot a, sec a, cosec a 
respectively. If any straight line RS be drawn parallel to OP, 
the projection of RS on either of the straight lines A 'A, B'B can 
be easily seen to bear to RS the same ratios which the correspond- 
ing projections of OP bear to OP; thus, if a be the angle which 
RS makes with A 'A , the projections of RS on A' A , B'B are RS cos o 
and RS sin a respectively, where RS denotes the absolute length 
RS. It must be observed that the line SR is to be considered as 
parallel not to OP but to OP", and therefore makes an angle TT + O 
with A' A ; this is consistent with the fact that the projections of SR 
are of opposite sign to those of RS. By observing the signs of the 
projections of OP for the positions P, P', P", P" of P we see that the 
sine and cosine of the angle POA are both positive; the sine of the 
angle P'OA is positive and its cosine is negative; both the sine and 
the cosine of the angle P'OA are negative ; and the sine of the angle 
P"OA is negative and its cosine positive. If o be the numerical 
value of the smallest angle of which OP and OA are boundaries, we 
see that, since these straight lines also bound all the angles 2ir-t-o, 
where n is any positive or negative integer, the sines and cosines 
of all these angles are the same as the sine and cosine of a. Hence 
the sine of any angle 2nv+a is positive if a is between o and IT 
and negative if a is between IT and 2v, and the cosine of the same 
angle is positive if a is between o and |T or |T and 2* and negative 
if a is between |TT and iSx. 

In fig. 2 the angle POA is o, the angle P"'OA is o, P'OA is 
T a, P"OA is T+O, FOB is |T a. By observing the signs of the 
projections we see that 

sin( a) = sin a, sin(T a)=sin a, sin (ir+o) = sin o, 
cos( o)=cos a, COS(T o) = cos a, COS(T+U) = coso, 

sin(|ir a) =cos a, cos(|ir a) =sin o. 
Also sin(|ir+a) =sin(ir |ir o) = sin(jT a) = cosa, 

COS(|T-|-O) = cos(ir |T a) = cos(|ir a) = sin a. 




From these equations we have tan( a) = tan a, tan(7r o) = 
tan a, tan(+a) = tan o, tan(Jr a) =cot o, tan (Jir+o) = 
cot a, with corresponding equations for the cotangent. 

The only angles for which the projection of OP on B'B is the 
same as for the given angle POA ( a) are the two sets of angles 
bounded by OP, OA and OP', OA ; these angles are 27nr+a and 
2nir+(ir o), and are all included in the formula fjr+( i) r a, 
where r is any integer; this therefore is the formula for all angles 
having the same sine as o. The only angles which have the same 
cosine as o are those bounded by OA, OP and OA, OP", and these 
are all included in the formula 2nira. Similarly it can be shown 
that nir+o includes all the angles which have the same tangent 
as a. 

From the Pythagorean theorem, the sum of the squares of the 
projections of any straight line upon two straight lines at right 
angles to one another is equal to the square on the . .. 
projected line, we get sin 2 a+cos 2 a = i, and from this ?' ; 
by the help of the definitions of the other functions we Trirono- 
deduce the relations i + tan 2 o = sec 2 o, I + cot 2 o = metrical 
cosec 2 a. We have now six relations between the six Fmnctloas. 
functions;^ these enable us to express any five of these 
functions in terms of the sixth. The following table shows the 
values of the trigonometrical functions of the angles o, |T, *, ITT, 2ir, 
and the signs of the functions of angles between these values ; / 
denotes numerical increase and D numerical decrease : 



Angle . . 


o 


O...|?r 


IT 


I*..* 


TT 


7r...|ir 


I* 


|T...2T 


2T 


Sine . 
Cosine 
Tangent . 
Cotangent 
Secant 
Cosecant . 


o 
i 



00 

I 

00 


+ / 

+D 
+1 
+D 

+1 
+D 


i 
o 

00 

00 

I 


+D 

-I 

-D 
-I 
-D 

+1 


O 

O 

00 

I 

00 


-/ 

-D 

+1 

+D 

-I 

-D 


I 

o 

00 

o 

OO 

I 


-D 
+1 
-D 
-I 
+D 
-I 


O 
I 
O 

8 
i 

8 



The correctness of the table may be verified from the figure by con- 
sidering the magnitudes of the projections of OP for different 
positions. 

The following table shows the sine and cosine of some angles for 
which the values of the functions may be obtained geometrically : 







sine 


cosine 






IT 

12 


15 


V6 V2 


V6+V2 

4 


75 


h* 


4 


IT 


18 


Vs-i 


VIO+2V5 


72 


2 


IO 




4 


4 




s* 


7T 

"6 


30 


i 

2 


2 


60 


"3* 


IT 
1 


36 


Vio 2VJ5 


4 


54 


ft- 


4 






i 


i 






7T 


45 


-12 


~V2 


45 


I 

TT 


4 




cosine 


sine 




4 



These are obtained as follows, (i) \ir. The sine and 
cosine of this angle are equal to one another, since sin Values of 
JT=COS (|ir Jir) ; and since the sum of the squares Trlgono- 
of the sine and cosine is unity each is l/V 2. (2) |ir and Jir. n ^ etrk ^ 1 
Consider an equilateral triangle; the projection of one l ~ uact 
side on another is obviously half a side; hence the cosine lrson ' e 
of an angle of the triangle is | or cos ir = |, and from "X es - 
this the sine is found. (3) T/IO, jr/5, 2ir/5, 3Yi- In the triangle 
constructed in Euc. iv. 10 each angle at the base is fjr, and the 
vertical angle is ir. If a be a side and b the base, we have by 
the construction a(a b)=V; hence 2& = a(V5 i); the sine 
of ir/io is b/2a or i(V5 i), and cos JTT is a/2b J (V5 + l). 
(4) j'j.x, yjjir. Consider a right-angled triangle, having an angle JTT. 
Bisect this angle, then the opposite side is cut by the bisector 
in the ratio of V3 to 2; hence the length of the smaller segment 
is to that of the whole in the ratio of V3 to V3+2, therefore 
tan jVH V3/(V3+2)j tan Jir or tan i 1 5 ir = 2-V3. and from this 
we can obtain sin -j^ir and cos j'jTr. 

5. Draw a straight line OD making any angle A with a fixed 
straight line OA, and draw OF making 
an angle B with OD, this p la 
angle being measured posi- S!ng 
lively in the same direction _ , 
as A; draw FE a perpen- < s ' ne 
dicular on DO (produced i{ 
necessary). The projection , 

of OF on OA is the sum of T Aa s' es - 
the projections of OE and EF on OA . P 
Now OE is the projection of OF on DO, 
and is therefore equal to OF cos B, and EF is the projection of OF 



ere ce of 




274 



TRIGONOMETRY 



on a straight line making an angle + Jjr with OD, and is therefore 
equal to OF sin B ; hence 

OF cos (A +B) =OE cos A +EF cos (\*+A) 

= OF (cos A cos B sin A sin B), 
or cos (/I +5) =cos A cos 5 sin A sin 5. 

The angles A, B are absolutely unrestricted in magnitude, and thus 
this formula is perfectly general. We may change the sign of B, thus 

cos (A B) =cos A cos ( B) sin A sin ( B), 
or cos (.4 B) =cos A cos B+sin 4 sin B. 

If we projected the sides of the triangle OEF on a straight line making 
an angle +Jir with OA we should obtain the formulae 
sin (A B) =sin A cos Bcos A sin B, 

which are really contained in the cosine formula, since we may put 
Jjr-BforB. The formulae 



//( 
tan (A 



tan 



tan B 



, co t 



cot<4cotB=Fi 




are immediately deducible from the above formulae. The equations 
sin C+sin D = 2 sin \(C+D) cos %(C-D), 
sin C sin D=2 sin |(C D) cos J(C+.D), 
cosD+cos C = 2 cos %(C-\-D) cos J(C D), 
cos > cos C = 2 sin KC+D) sin |(C P), 

may be obtained directly by the method of projections. Take 
two equal straight lines OC, OD, making angles C, D, with OA, 
and draw OE perpendicular to CD. The angle which OE makes 
with OA is %(C+D) and that which 
DC makes is J(ir-t-C+.D) ; the angle 
COE is j(C D). The sum of the pro- 
jections of OD and DE on OA is equal 
to that of OE, and the sum of the 
projections of OC and CE is equal to 
that of OE; hence the sum of the pro- 
jections of OC and OD is twice that of 
OE, or cos C+cos D=2 cos |(C+>) 
cos %(C-D). The difference of the 

A projections of OD and OC an 04 

p IG . is equal to twice that of ED, hence 

we have the formula cos D cos C 

= 2 sin J(C+D) sin \(C D). The other two formulae will 
te obtained by projecting on a straight line inclined at an angle 
+ iir to OA. 

As another example of the use of projections, we will find the sum 

of the series cos o+cos (<z+/3)+cos (a+2/3)+ . . . +cos (a+n-i(3). 

Suppose an unclosed polygon each angle of which 

s = ft to be inscribed in a circle, and let A, 4,, At, 

. . ., A n be n + l consecutive angular points; 
iriunnuui.ai P be the diameter of the circle; and suppose a 
Progression. stra 'S nt ' me drawn making an angle a with AAi, then 
' o+/3, a+2/3, . . . are the angles it makes with A\ AI, 
At, AS, . . .; we have by projections 

A A n cos (a+j 1/3) =AAi [cos a+ cos a+/3+... + cosa+(n 1)/3), 
also AAi = T> sin /9, AA n = D sin Jn/3; 

hence the sum of the series of cosines is 

cos (a+^ i /S) sin JjS cosec J/3. 

By a double application of the addition formulae we may obtain 
the formulae 

sin (Ai+At+A 3 )=sin AI cos At cos 4 3 
+cos AI sin 4 2 cos 4 3 +cos A\ cos 42 sin A 3 

sin 4i sin 42 sin 4 3 ; 

cos (4i+4 2 +4 3 ) =cos 4i cos 42 cos 4 3 

cos AI sin At sin At sin 4i cos At sin 4 3 

sin AI sin 4j cos 4 3 . 
We can by induction extend these formulae to the case of n angles. 
Assume sin (4!+4 2 + . . . +4 n ) =Si-S 3 +S 6 - . . . 



Series of 
Cosines la 



' et 



Formulae for 
Sine and 
Cosine of 
Sum of 
Angles. 



where S r denotes the sum of the products of the sines of r of the 

angles and the cosines of the remaining n r angles; then we have 

sin (A,+A t + . . . +A n +A^ =cos X+i(5,-S,+5,- . . .) 

+sin A^StSt+St . . .). 
I he right-hand side of this equation may be written 

(5i cos /l^n-l-5o sin 4^i) (5 3 cosy4^n-f5 2 sin^4 + i)+ . . ., 
or S'i-5',+ . . . 

where S' r denotes the quantity which corresponds for n+i angles 
to 5, for n angles ; similarly we may proceed with the cosine formula. 
The theorems are true for n = 2 and n = 3; thus they are true 
generally. The formulae 
Formulae cos 2 A - cos 2 A sin* A = 2 cos 2 4 1 = 12 sin 2 A , 



for Multiple 

aodSub- sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A, 

Multiple 

Angles. 



tan zA = 



2 * a 



A < 
I -tan 2 A 

sin $A =3 sin A 4 sin 3 A, cos j,A =4 cos 3 A 3 cos A, 
sin nA =n cos-i A sin A -" (n ~' ) | (n ~ 2) cos"-' A sin 8 A + . . . 



cos 



A sin- A, 



cos nA =cosM 



n ^ ^ 



cos"" 2 A sin 2 A + . . . 



may all be deduced from the addition formulae by making the 
angles all equal. From the last two formulae we obtain by division 



n tan A - 






= 3 ta " A ~ 



In the particular case of n = 3 we have tan 3^ = a " . 

I 3 l-3.Il A 

The values of sin \A, cos J^4, tan \A are given in terms of cos A 
by the formulae 




where #> is the integral part of A/2ir, gthe integral part of A/2ir+$, 

and r the integral part of A ITT. 

Sin j.4, cos \A are given"in terms of sin A by the formulae 
2 sin M = (-i)*'(l+sin4)* + (-l)'(l-sin4)i, 
2 cos \A =(-i)*'(i +sin 4)*- (-i)'(i -sin 4)*, 

where ' is the integral part of A/2ir+l and q' the integral part of 
A/ar-i. 

6. In any plane triangle ABC we will denote the lengths of the 
sides BC, CA, AB by a, b, c respectively, and the angles BAG, ABC, 
ACB by A, B, C respectively. The fact that the projec- 
tions of b and c on a straight line perpendicular to the Properties 
side a are equal to one another is expressed by the equa- of ' r ' aa g les - 
tion b sin C = c sin B; this equation and the one obtained 
by projecting c and a on a straight line perpendicular to a 
may be written a/sin A=b/sin B = c/sin C. The equation 
a = b cos C+c cos B expresses the fact that the side a is equal to 
the sum of the projections of the sides b and c on itself; thus we 
obtain the equations 

a = b cos C+c cos Bl 
b = c cos A -j-o cos C p 
c = o cos B+6cos 4J 

If we multiply the first of these equations by a, the second by 
b, and the third by c, and add the resulting equations, we obtain 
the formula 6 2 +c 2 -a 2 = 2&c cos A or cos A =(i 2 +c 2 -o 2 )/2&c, 
which gives the cosine of an angle in terms of the sides. From this 
expression for cos A the formulae 

(s-b)(s-c) 
- -- 



tan \A 




where s denotes 5(a+&+c), can be deduced by means of the 
dimidiary formula. 

From any general relation between the sides and angles of a 
triangle other relations may be deduced by various methods of 
transformation, of which we give two examples. 

o. In any general relation between the sines and cosines of the 
angles A, B, C of a triangle we may substitute pA-\-qB-\-rC, 
rA+pB+qC, qA+rB+pC for A, B, C respectively, where 
p, q, r are any quantities such that p+q+r+l is a positive or 
negative multiple of 6, provided that we change the signs of all the 
sines. Suppose p-{-q-\-r-\-l =6n, then the sum of the three angles 
2nir-(pA+qB+rC),2m r -(rA+pB+qC),2mr-(qA+rB+pC)\sir; 
and, since the given relation follows from the condition A+B + C 
= TT, we may substitute for A, B, C respectively any angles of 
which the sum is IT; thus the transformation is admissible. 

0. It may easily be shown that the sides and angles of the 
triangle formed by joining the feet of the perpendiculars from the 
angular points A, B, C on the opposite sides of the triangle ABC 
are respectively a cos A, b cos B, c cos C, ir 2A, v2B, ir 2C; 
we may therefore substitute these expressions for a, b, c, A, B, C 
respectively in any general formula. By drawing the perpendiculars 
of this second triangle and joining their feet as before, we obtain a 
triangle of which the sides are a cos A cos aA, b cos B cos 2B, 
c cos C cos 2C and the angles are &,A ir, 4B IT, 4.C IT; we 
may therefore substitute these expressions for the sides and angles 
of the original triangle; for example, we obtain thus the formula 

A _a 2 cos 2 A cos 2 2A -6 2 cos 2 B cos 2 2B-c 2 cos 2 C cos 2 2C 
2bc cos B cos C cos 2B cos 2C 

This transformation obviously admits of further exten- 

sion. Solution of 

(i) The three sides of a triangle ABC being given, Triangles. 
the angles can be determined by the formula 

L tan \A =io+J1og (s 5)+| log (s c) } log i i log (so) 
and two corresponding formulae for the other angles. 



TRIGONOMETRY 



275 



(2) The two sides a, b and the included angle C being given, the 
angles A, B can be determined from the formulae 



and Escribed 
Circles of a 
Triangle. 



L tan JG4-B)=log ( o _)_l O g (a+b) +L cot JC, 
and the side c is then obtained from the formula 
log c=log a+Z, sin CL sin A. 

(3) The two sides a, b and the angle A being given, the value of 
sin B may be found by means of the formula 

L sin B=Z, sin A +log b log a; 

this gives two supplementary values of the angle B, if b sin A < a. 
'If b sin A > o there is no solution, and if b sin A= a there is one 
solution. In the case b sin A < a, both values of B give solutions 
provided 6 > o, but the acute value only of B is admissible if b < a. 
The other side c can be then determined as in case (2). 

(4) If two angles A, B and a side a are given, the angle C is de- 
termined from the formula C = ir A B and the side b from the 
formula log 6= log a+Z, sin BL sin 4. 

The area of a triangle is half the product of 

Areas o a gjjg ; nto tne perpendicular from the opposite 

. . angle on that side; thus we obtain the expressions 

laterals T % sin A > !*(*-<*) (s-b)(s-c)}\ for the area of a 

triangle. A large collection of formulae for the area 

of a triangle are given in the Annals of Mathematics for 1885 by 

M. Baker. 

Let a, 6, c, d denote the lengths of the sides. AB, BC, CD, DA 
respectively of any plane quadrilateral and A-}-C = 2a; we may 
obtain an expression for the area 5 of the quadrilateral in terms of 
the sides and the angle a. 

We have 2S = ad sin A+bc sin(2a A) 

and J(a 2 +<P-6 2 -c 2 )=o<2 cos A-bc cos (?.aA); 

hence 4^ 2 + ?(a 2 +^ 2 b 2 c z ) 2== <i 2 d 2 -\-b 2 c 2 - L 2abcd cos 2a. 
If 2S = a + b+c +d, the value of 5 may be written in the form 

S=ls(s-a)(s-b')(s-c)(s-d)-abcdcos 2 a}L 

Let R denote the radius of the circumscribed circle, r of the in- 
scribed, and ri, r 2 , r 3 of the escribed circles of a triangle 
Radii of Clr- ABC; the values of these radii are given by the follow- 
cumscrlbed, ; n g formulae : 
Inscribed R = abc ^ s = a/2 s ; n A ^ 

r = S/s = (sa)tan %A =4^? sin \A sin JB sin JC, 
ri=S/(s a) =s tan \A =\R sin \A cos jB cos JC. 

Spherical Trigonometry. 
7. We shall throughout assume such elementary propositions in 
spherical geometry as are required for the purpose of the investiga- 
tion of formulae given below. 

A spherical triangle is the portion of the surface of a sphere 
bounded by three arcs of great circles of the sphere. If BC, CA, 
AB denote these arcs, the circular measure of the 
ofSohertcal an g' es subtended by these arcs respectively at the 
Trlansfle centre of the sphere are the sides a, b, c of the spherical 
triangle ABC; and, if the portions of planes passing 
through these arcs and the centre of the sphere be drawn, the angles 
between the portions of planes intersecting at A,B, C respectively 
are the angles A, B, C of the spherical triangle. It is not necessary 
to consider triangles in which a side is greater than IT, since we may 
replace such a side by the remaining arc of the great circle to 
Associated wmcn '* belongs. Since two great circles intersect 
Triangles. eacn otrl er in two points, there are eight triangles of 
which the sides are arcs of the same three great circles. 
If we consider one of these triangles .4BC as the fundamental 
one, then one of the others is equal in all respects to ^4BC, 
and the remaining six have each one side equal to, or common with, 
a side of the triangle ABC, the opposite angle equal to the corre- 
sponding angle of ABC, and the other sides and angles supple- 
mentary to the corresponding sides and angles of ^4BC. These 
triangles may be called the associated triangles of the fundamental 
one ABC. It follows that from any general formula containing 
the sides and angles of a spherical triangle we may obtain other 
formulae by replacing two sides and the two angles opposite to them 
by their supplements, the remaining side and the remaining angle 
being unaltered, for such formulae are obtained by applying the 
given formulae to the associated triangles. 

If A', B', C' are those poles of the arcs BC, CA, AB respectively 
which lie upon the same sides of them as the opposite angles A, B, C, 
then the triangle A'B'C' is called the 
polar triangle of the triangle j4BC. The 
sides of the polar triangle are TT A, 
r B, ir C, and the angles v a, 
itb, TTC. Hence from any general 
formula connecting the sides and angles 
of a spherical triangle we may obtain 
another formula by changing each side 
into the supplement of the opposite 
jangle and each angle into the supple- 
ment of the opposite side. 

8. Let O be the centre of the sphere 
on which is the spherical triangle 
^4BC. Draw ^4Z. perpendicular to OC 
and AM perpendicular to the plane 




FIG. 5. 



OBC. Then the projection of OA on OB is the sum of the 
projections of OL, LM, MA on the same straight line. Since 
AM has no projection on any straight line in the p aa j a . 
plane OBC, this gives angles. mental 

OA cos c = OL cos a-\-LM sin a. Equations 

Now OL = OA cos b, LM = AL cos C = OA sin b cos C; between 
therefore cos c = cos a cos 6+sin a sin b cos C. Sides and 

We may obtain similar formulae by interchanging the Angles. 
letters a, b, c, thus 

cos a=cos 6 cos c+sin b sin c cos A 1 
cos 6 = cos c cos <z+sin c sin a cos B C (i) 

cos c =cos a cos 6-j-sin a sin b cos C } 

These formulae (i) may be regarded as the fundamental equations 
connecting the sides and angles of a spherical triangle; all the other 
relations which we shall give below may be deduced analytically 
from them; we shall, however, in most cases give independent proofs. 
By using the polar triangle transformation we have the formulae 

cos A = cos B cos C+sin B sin C cos a ) 

cos B = cos C cos A +sin C sin A cos 6 > (2) 

cos C= cos A cos B+sin A sin B cos c ) 

In the figures we have AM = AL sin C = r sin b sin C, where r 

denotes the radius of the sphere. By drawing a perpendicular 

from A on OB, we may in a similar manner show that AM = 

r sin c sin B, 

therefore sin B sin c =sin C sin 6. 

By interchanging the sides we have the equation 

sin A sin B sin C 

= K 



sin a sin b sin c 



(3) 
If we eliminate cos b 



we shall find below a symmetrical form for k. 
between the first two formulae of (i) we have 

cos a sin 2 c = sin b sin c cos A +sin c cos c sin a cos B; 
therefore cot a sin c = (sin b/sin a) cos A +cos c cos B 

= sin B cot A +cos c cos B. 
We thus have the six equations 

cot a sin 6 = cot A sin C+cos 6 cos C 
cot b sin o = cot B sin C+cos a cos C 
cot b sin c cot B sin A +cos c cos 
cot c sin b = cot C sin A +cos b cos 
cot c sin a=cot C sin B+cos a cos 
cot a sin c=cot A sin B+cos c cos 
When C Jir formula (i) gives 

cos c = cos a cos b 
sin b sin B sin c ) 
sin a=sin A sin c \ 
tan o = tan A sin 6 = tan c cos B) 
tan b = tan B sin a = tan c cos A ( 
cos c = cot A cot B 



(4) 



and (3) gives 
from (4) we get 



The formulae 
and 



cos A =cos A sin B I 
cos B=cos b sin A I 



(a) 
(ft) 

(T) 
W 
(r) 



follow at once from (a), (0), (7). These are the formulae which are 
used for the solution of right-angled triangles. Napier gave 
mnemonical rules for remembering them. 

The following proposition follows easily from the theorem in 
equation (3) : If AD, BE, CF are three arcs drawn through A, B, C 
to meet the opposite sides in D, E, F 
respectively, and if these arcs pass 
through a point, the segments of the 
sides satisfy the relation sin BD sin CE 
sin AF=sin CD sin AE sin BF; and 
conversely if this relation is satisfied 
the arcs pass through a point. From 
this theorem it follows that the three 
perpendiculars from the angles on the 
opposite sides, the three bisectors of 
the angles, and the three arcs from 
the angles to the middle points of the opposite sides, each pass 
through a point. 

9. If D be the point of intersection of the three Formulee 
bisectors of the angles A, B, C, and if DE be drawn for Sine 
perpendicular to BC, it may be shown that BE and Cosine 
= i(a + c-Z>) and C = i(o + 6-c), and that of Half 
the angles BDE, ADC are supplementary. We have Angles. 

sin c sin ADB sin 6 sin ADC .< c -51/1 
also 5TT = = nr- ' ^n = m' therefore sin 2 \A 
sin BD sin %A sin CD sin %A 

sin BD sin CD sin CDE sin BDE 




-- : r : 

sin o sin c 

sin i(a+c-6), and sin 



T> . . 
But sin 



... , 
therefore 



CD sin C>E = sin C = sin |(a+6-c); 

l(g+c b) sin %(q+b c) ) j , , 

sin & sin " - f (5) 

Apply this formula to the associated triangle of which ir A, 
ir B, C are the angles and v a, v b, c are the sides; we obtain 

c-a)sin|(a+6+c)) i 
sin b sin c ) 



the formula cos : 



. A (sir 
m-= j- 

la to t 
igles an 
A _ ( sin 

'2~ I 



' 



276 



TRIGONOMETRY 



tan 



(7) 



By division we have 

i sin J(a+c b) sin J(a+& c) ) J 
! sin i(b-^ca) sin J(a+6+e) ) 
and by multiplication 

sin A = 2Jsin (a+6+c) sin J(6+c a)sin J(c+a 6) sin J(a+6 c)[J 
sin b sin c = |l cos 2 a cos 2 6 cos'c +2 cos a cos jcoscjj sin b sin c. 
Hence the quantity k in (3) is 

(i cos 2 o cos 2 6 cos 2 c+2 cosacos b cos cjS/sina sin 6 sin c. (8) 
Of Half- Apply the polar triangle transformation to the formulae 
sides. (5), (6), (7) (8) and we obtain 

a. (cos^A+C-B) cos JQ4+B-C)i 
( sin B sin C ) 

cos J(B+C .4) cos JM+B + C ) J . 

(10) 



cos- = 



(9) 



tan 



a ( 
2~ ( 



-cos 



sin B sin C ) 

-A) cos |Q4 +B + CM 



(n) 
cos J(/l+C'-.0) cos $(A+H-L > ^ ' 

If k' = {i cos'X cos 2 B cos'C 2 cos A cosBcosC)J/siny4 sinBsinC, 
we have. kk' = I (12) 

10. Let be the middle point of AB ; draw ED at right angles to 
p AB to meet AC in D; then DE 

bisects the angle A DB. 
Let CF bisect the angle 
DCB and draw FG per- 
pendicular to BC, then 




Delambre's 
Formulae. 



AFCG=90-JC. 

From the triangle CFG we have 
cos CFG = cos CG sin FCG, and 
B from the triangle FEB cos FB = 
cos B sin FB. Now the angles 
CFG, EFB are each supplementary 
to the angle DFB, therefore 

jC = sinJ(.<4+B)cos2 l c. (13) 

Also sin CG = sin CFsin CFG and sin B = sin BF sin EFB; 
therefore sinj(a 6)cosJC = sinJ(.<4 B)sinjc. (14) 

Apply the formulae (13), (14) to the associated triangle of which 
a, TT b, TC, A, IT B, ic C are the sides and angles, we then 
have 

B)sinlc (15) 

cosjC. (16) 

The four formulae (13), (14), (15) (16) were first given by Delambre 
in the Connaissance des Temps for 1808. Formulae equivalent to 
these were given by Mollweide in Zach's Monatliche Correspondenz 
for November 1 808. They were also given by Gauss ( Theoria motus, 
1809), and are usually called after him. 

II. From the same figure we have 

Napier 1 * tan FG = tan FCG sin CG = tan FBG sin BG; 

Analogies, therefore cotJCsinJ(a 6)tanJ(.4 B)sinJ(a+&), 

MA r>\ sin i(a 6) ,_ . . 

or tanJl4-B)= sin |^ +6) cotJC. <'?) 

Apply this formulae to the associated triangle (T a, b, rc, vA, 
B, TT C), and we have 



If we apply these formulae (17), (18) to the polar triangle, we have 

,. sin \(A B) . 

n Jc (19) 



n Jc. (20) 

The formulae (17), (18), (19), (20) are called Napier's " Analogies "; 
they were given in the Mirif. logar.*canonis descriptio. 

12. If we use the values of sin Ja, sin Jft, sin Jc, cos Ja, cos J6, 
cos Jc, given by (o), (10) and the analogous formulae obtained by 

interchanging the letters we obtain by multiplication 

... . . .. c _^ 

cos JacosJ6sinC=cosJccosJ(.(4+B C) V . 
sin Jasin Jisin C = cos JccosJ(.4+B + C) ) 

These formulae were given by Schmiesser in Crelle's Journ., vol. x. 
The relation sin b sin c+cos b cos c cos A=sin B sin C 

cos B cos C cos a was given by Cagnoli in his Trigonometry (1786), 
and was rediscovered by Cayley (Phil. Mag., 1859). 
It follows from (i), (2) and (3) thus: the right-hand 
side of the equation equals sin B sin C+cos a (cos A 

sin B sin C cos a) =sin B sin C sin 2 a+cos a cos A, and this is equal 

to sin b sin c + cos A (cos a sin b sin c cos A) or sin b sin c + 

cos 6 cos c cos A. 



13. The formulae we have given are sufficient to determine three 
parts of a triangle when the other three parts are given ; moreover 



such formulae may always be chosen as are adapted , 

to logarithmic calculation. The solutions will be unique zjr* " 

except in the two cases (i) where two sides and the angle '" aa x ies - 



opposite one of them are the given parts, and (2) where two angles 
and the side opposite one of them are given. 

Suppose a, b, A are the given .parts. We determine B from the 
formula sin B = sin b sin A /sin a; this gives two 
supplementary values of B, one acute and the other 
obtuse. Then C and c are determined from the 
equations 



cot ^ - B) > tan *- 



Now tan JC, tan Jc, must both be positive; hence A B and a 6 
must have the same sign. We shall distinguish three cases. First, 
suppose sin 6<sin a; then we have sin B<sin A. Hence A lies 
between the two values of B, and therefore only one of these values 
is admissible, the acute or the obtuse value according as a is greater 
or less than b; there is therefore in this case always one solution. 
Secondly, if sin 6>sin a, there is no solution when sin b sin A > sin a; 
but if sin 6 sin ^4<sin a there are two values of B, both greater 
or both less than A. If a is acute, ab, and therefore A B, is 
negative; hence there are two solutions if A is acute and none if A 
is obtuse. These two solutions fall together if sin b sin A= sin a. 
If a is obtuse there is no solution unless A is obtuse, and in that 
case there are two, which coincide as before if sin b sin A =sin a. 
Hence in this case there are two solutions if sin b sin A <_sin a and 
the two parts A , a are both acute or both obtuse, these being coinci- 
dent in case sin b sin A = sin a ; and there is no solution if one of the 
two A, a, is acute and the other obtuse, or if sin 6 sin A>sin a. 
Thirdly, if sin 6 = sin a then B=A or v = A. If a is acute, a b is 
zero or negative, hence A B is zero or negative ; thus there is no 
solution unless A is acute, and then there is one. Similarly, if a 
is obtuse, A must be so too in order that there may be a solution. 
If a = b = %ir, there is no solution unless .4 = Jx, and then there 
are an infinite number of solutions, since the values of C and c become ' 
indeterminate. 

The other case of ambiguity may be discussed in a similar manner, 
or the different cases may be deduced from the above by the use of 
the polar triangle transformation. The method of classification 

according to the three cases sin & sin a was given by Professor 

Lloyd Tanner (Messenger of Math., vol. xiv.). 

14. If r is the angular radius of the small circle inscribed in the 
triangle ^4BC, we have at once tan r = tan \A sin (s a), where 
2s = a+b+c; from this we can derive the formulae 

tan r = n cosec s = %N sec \A sec JB sec JC = Radii of 

sin a sin |B sin JC sec \A (21) Circles 

where n, N denote the expressions Related to 

[sin s sin (s-a) sin (s-b) sin (i-c))J, Triangles. 

j cos 5 cos (SA) cos (5 B) cos (S C)|J. 

The escribed circles are the small circles inscribed in three of the 
associated triangles; thus, applying the above formulae to the 
triangle (a, JT b, irc, A, vB, v Q, we have for r\, the radius 
of the escribed circle opposite to the angle A , the following formulae 
tan fi=tan \A sin s n cosec (s a) = %Nsec \A cosec JB cosec JC 
= sin a cos ^B cos jC sec J.4. (22) 

The pole of the circle circumscribing a triangle is that of the 
circle inscribed in the polar triangle, and the radii of the two circles 
are complementary ; hence, if R be the radius of the circumscribed 
circle of the triangle, and 1?!, R 2 , R the radii of the circles circum- 
scribing the associated triangles, we have by writing Jrr R for r, 
%-ir Ri for TI, va for A, &c., in the above formulae 
cot R = cot Jacos (S A) \n cosec Ja cosec J6 cosec $c=-N sec 5 
= sin A cos J6 cos Jc cosec Ja (23) 

cot /?i = cot Ja cos S = Jn cosec Ja sec J6 sec \c = N sec (SA) 

= sin A sin Jft sin Jc cosec Ja. (24) 

The following relations follow from the formulae just given: 
2tanJ? =cotri+cotr 2 +cotr 3 cotr, 
2tan.Ri =cot r -j-cot r 2 +cot rs cot r t , 
tan r tan r\ tan r 2 tan r a = n 2 , sin 2 5 = cot r tan ri tan r 2 tan r s , 
sin 2 (sa) =tan r cot r\ tan r 2 tan r a . 

15. If = ./4+B + C IT, it may be shown that 
multiplied by the square of the radius is the area of 
the triangle. We give some of the more important 
expressions for the quantity E, which is called the 
spherical excess. 

We have 



Formulae 
for 

Spherical 
Excess. 



hence 



cos \(A + B) 

sin \C 
sin \(C - E) 

sin \C 

sin %C - sin \(C - E) 



cos j(a + 6) sin \(A + B) __ cos J(a - b) 

COS jC COS JC COS Jc 

cos J(a + b) , cos J(C - E) cos J(a - b). 

cos Jc a cos JC ~" ' cos \c ' 



sin JC +sin J(C ) 



cos J(o -f b) 
+ cos ji(a + b) ' 



TRIGONOMETRY 



277 



therefore 



tan^(C-E) =tlin & tan i( J ~ c 



Similarly tan IE tan 2 J(C-) =tan |(s-a) tan |0-Z>); 
therefore 

tan JE = {tan Js tan J(.s a) tan K$ &) tan $(s c)ji (25) 
This formula was given by J. Lhuilier. 

Also sin JCcos JE-cos ^C sin. |= cos ^ (a 1 + ^ sin *C; 

COS gC 

i ^ i r^ i i ^-- i 1-* cos 4 (a &) 
cos JC cos JE+sm JC sin | = ^ lg cos JC; 

whence, solving for cos JE, we get 

, l+cos o+cos b -(-cos c 

cos JE = ! - 1 ! - nr"^ i (26) 

4 cos ja cos J6 cos Jc 

This formula was given by Euler (Nova acra, vol. x.). If we find 
sin JE from this formula, we obtain after reduction 



sin JE = ; 



2 cos \a cos Jft cos Ji 
a formula given by Lexell (Ada Petrop., 1782) 

CVr\m f-h* *iniiatir\nc f o T ^ foo^ ftt\ ftA\ \\rf 



formula given by Lexell (Ada Petrop., 1782). 

From the equations (21), (22), (23), (24) we obtain the following 
formulae for the spherical excess : 
sin 2 jE = tan R cot RI cot RI cot R$ 

4(cot ri+cot >-2+cot 



; hence cos j = cos M N sec j<z. 



(cot r cot n+cot r 2 +cot r 3 ) (cot r+cot n cot r 2 +cotr 3 )X 

(cot r+cot n+cot r 2 +cot r,). 

The formula (26) may be expressed geometrically. Let M, N be 
the middle points of the sides AB, AC. Then we find cos MN 

i +cos a+cos 6+cos c 
4 cos 56 cos jC 

A geometrical construction has been given for E by Gudermann 
(in Crelle's Journ., vi. and viii.). It has been shown by Cornelius 
Keogh that the volume of the parallelepiped of which the radii of 
the sphere passing through the middle points of the sides of the 
triangle are edges is sin i E. 

16. Let ABCD be a spherical quadrilateral inscribed 

'* ,in a small circle; let a, b, c, d denote the sides AB, BC, 

oadri CD> DA respectively, and *, y the diagonals AC, BD. 

It can easily be shown by joining the angular points 

Inscribed of the Quadrilateral to the pole of the circle that 

la Small A + C = B +P' , ll , we . use the last expression in (23) 

Circle e radii of the circles circumscribing the triangles 

BAD, BCD, we have 
sin A cos Ja cos jo" cosec j;y = sin C cos j6 cos jC cosec Jy; 



whence 



sin C 



cos \b cos \c cos \a cos {d 



This is the proposition corresponding to the relation A-\-C = trlor a. 
plane quadrilateral. Also we obtain in a similar manner the theorem 

sin \x sin Jy 



sin B cos j6~sin A cos {d' 

analogous to the theorem for a plane quadrilateral, thac the diagonals 
arc proportional to the sines of the angles opposite to them. Also 
the chords AB, BC, CD, DA are equal to 2 sin Ja, 2 sin J6, 2 sin %c, 
2 sin %d respectively, and the plane quadrilateral formed by these 
chords is inscribed ^in the same circle as the spherical quadrilateral ; 
hence by Ptolemy's theorem for a plane quadrilateral we obtain 
the analogous theorem for a spherical one 

sin \x sin Jy = sin \a sin Jc+sin j& sin \d. 

It has been shown by Remy (in Crelle's Journ., vol. iii.) that for 
any quadrilateral, if z be the spherical distance between the middle 
points of the diagonals, 

cos o+cos 6+cos c+cos <i =4 cos J* cos \y cos \z. 
This theorem is analogous to the theorem for any plane quadrilateral, 
that the sum of the squares of the sides is equal to the sum of the 
squares of the diagonals, together with twice the square on the 
straight line joining the middle points of the diagonals. 

A theorem for a right-angled spherical triangle, analogous to the 
Pythagorean theorem, has been given by Gudermann (in Crelle's 
Journ., vol. xlii.). 

Analytical Trigonometry. 

17. Analytical trigonometry is that branch of mathematical 
analysis in which the analytical properties of the trigonometrical 
Peiiodl- functions are investigated. These functions derive their 
city of importance in analysis from the fact that they are the sim- 
Fuactioas. P^ est sin g 1 y periodic functions, and are therefore adapted 
to the representation of undulating magnitude. The 
sine, cosine, secant and cosecant have the single real period 2ir; i.e. 
each is unaltered in value by the addition of 2ir to the variable. 
The tangent and cotangent have the period jr. The sine, tangent, 
cosecant and cotangent belong to the class of odd functions; that 
is, they change sign when the sign of the variable is changed. The 
cosine and secant are even functions, since they remain unaltered 
when the sign of the variable is reversed. 



The theory of the trigonometrical functions is intimately connected 
with that of complex numbers that is, of numbers of the form 
*+ty(i = V -i). Suppose we multiply together, by the connexion 
rules of ordinary algebra, two such numbers we have wlia Taeory 
(xi + tyi) (xt + ty 2 ) = (xiXiyiyt) + i(#iy 2 + * 2 yi). of Complex 
We observe that the real part and the real factor of the Qaaautles. 
imaginary part of the expression on the right-hand side of this 
equation are similar in form to the expressions which occur in the 
addition formulae for the cosine and sine of the sum of two angles ; 
in fact, if we put Xi = n cos : , y^ = n sin 0i, * 2 = f z cos 2 , 
yi r 2 sin 2 , the above equations becomes 

ri(cos 0i+t sin 0j) Xr 2 (cos 2 + 1 sin 2 ) = n r 2 (cos0i+0 2 + 1 sin 0!+0 2 ). 

We may now, in accordance with the usual mode of representing 
complex numbers, give a geometrical interpretation of the meaning 
of this equation. Let Pi be the 
point whose co-ordinates referred 
to rectangular axes Ox, Oy are xj, 
yi ; then the point PI is employed 
to represent the number Xi+iyi. 
In this mode or representation 
real numbers are measured along 
the axis of x and imaginary ones 
along the axis of y, additions 
being performed according to the 
parallelogram law. The points 
A, AI represent the numbers =t i, 
the points a, Oi the numbers t. 
Let P 2 represent the expression 
*2+ty 2 and P the expression 
(*i+'yi)(x 2 +iy 2 ). The quanti- 
ties ri, 0], r 2 , 2 are the polar 
coordinates of PI and P 2 respec- 
tively, referred to O as origin 
and Ox as initial line; the above 
equation shows that n r 2 and 
0i+02 are the polar co-ordinates 
of P; hence OA : OPi : : OP 2 - OP 
and the angle POP 2 is equal to ' IG ' 8 ' 

the angle PiOA. Thus we have the following geometrical construc- 
tion for the determination of the point P. On OP 2 draw a triangle 
similar to the triangle O^Pi so that the sides OP 2 , OP are homo- 
logous to the sides OA, OPi, and so that the angle POP 2 is positive; 
then the vertex P represents the product of the numbers repre- 
sented by PI, P 2 . If x 2 +ty2 were to be divided by Xi+iyi the 
triangle OP'P 2 would be drawn on the negative side of P 2 , similar 
to the triangle OA PI and having the sides OP', OP 2 homologous 
to OA, OPi, and P' would represent the quotient. 

1 8. If we extend the above to n complex numbers by continual 
repetition of a similar operation, we have 

(cos 0i + t sin 0i) (cos 2 + t sin 2 ) . . . (cos n + i sin n ) * Molvre '* 
= cos (0! = 2 + . . . + n ) + t s in (0i + 2 + . . . +0 B ). " 

If 0i = 2 = . . . =0 n =0 1 , this equation becomes (cos 0+t sin 0)" 
= cos M0+i sin M0; this shows that cos +t sin is a value 
of (cos n0+t sin n9). If now we change into 8/n, we see 

that cos 0/n+t sin 0/n is a value of (cos + t sin 0)n; raising 
each of these quantities to any positive integral power m, 

cos me/n+i sin m0/n is one value of (cos 0+t sin 0)?. Also 




cos ( mS/n) + 1 sin (m6/ri) = 



cos m8/n + 1 sin m8/n' 

hence the expression of the left-hand side is one value of (cos + 
i sin 0)-"'". We have thus*De Moivre's theorem that cos ke+i sin k8 
is always one value of (cos 0+i sin 0)*, where k is any rational 
number. This theorem can be extended to the case in which k is 
irrational, if we postulate that a value of (cos 0+t sin 0)* denotes 
the limit of a sequence of corresponding values of (cos 0+t sin 0)*,, 
where hi, fe. . .k,. . . is a sequence of rational numbers of which k 
is the limit, and further observe that as cos &0+i sin k8 is the limit 
of cos &s0+t sin k,0. 

The principal object of De Moivre's theorem is to enable us to 
find all the values of an expression of the form (0+16)""", 
where m and n are positive integers prime to each other. _ 
If a = r cos 0, b = r sin 0, we require the values of '" enKoots 
r"" (cos 0+t sin )/. One value is immediately fur- J"V*2*** 
nished by the theorem ; but we observe that since the O nafl "v- 
expression cos 0+t sin 6 is unaltered by adding any multiple of 
2jrto 0, the n/mth power of r mln (cos mj+asr/n+i sin j.9+2S7r/) 
is o+tfc, if i is any integer; hence this expression is one of the 
values required. Suppose that for two values Si and S 2 of s the 
values of this expression are the same; then we must have 
m.0+25iir/re TB.0+2j 2 7r/n; a multiple of 2jr, or Sist must be 
a multiple of n. Therefore, if we give s the values o, I, 2,. . . I 
successively, we shall get n different values of (0+16)""", and these 
will be repeated if we give s other values; hence all the values of 



TRIGONOMETRY 



are obtained by giving s the values o, i, 2, ... n i 
in the expression r ml " (cos m . + 2sir/n + i sin m.O + 2sir/n), 
where r = (a 2 +6 2 )i and 0= arc tan 6/a. 

We now return to the geometrical representation of the complex 
numbers. If the points Bi, 5 2 , B 3 ,...B n represent the expres-; 

sion x+iy, (x+iy) 2 , (x+iy) 3 , ' 
. . . (x-\-iy) n respectively, the 
triangles OABi, O5iJ5 2 , . . . 
O5n_iB are all similar. Let 
(x+ty)" = a+tb, then the con- 
verse problem of finding the 
nth root of a-\-ib is equivalent 
to the geometrical problem of 
describing such a series of tri- 
angles that OA is the first side 
of the first triangle and OB n 
the second side of the wth. 
Now it is obvious that this 
geometrical problem has more 
solutions than one, since any 
number of complete revolutions 
round O may be made in travel- 
ling from Bi to B n . The first 
solution is that in which the 
vertical angle of each triangle 
is B n OA jn; the second is that 
in which each is (B n OA +2ir)/, 
in this case one complete revo- 
lution being made round O; the third has (B n OA +4?r)/n for the 
vertical angle of each triangle; and so on. There are n sets of 
triangles which satisfy the required conditions. For simplicity 
we will take the case of the determina- 
tion of the values of (cos + 1 sin 0)i. 
Suppose B to represent the expression 
cos 0+ t sin 0. If the angle AOPi is |0, 
PI represent the root cos |0+t sin J0; 
the angle AOB is filled up by the angles 
of the three similar triangles AOPi, 
PiOpi, piOB. Also, if P 2 , P 3 be such 
that the angles PiOP 2 PiOP 3 are fa-, f * 
respectively, the two sets of triangles 
AOPi, PiOps, p 3 OB and AOP,, PsOpt, 
piOB satisfy the conditions of similarity 
and of having OA, OB for the bounding 
sides; thus Pi, PS represent the roots 
J(0+2ir), cos f(0+4a-)+i sin 




FIG. 9. 




cos J(0+27r)+i sin _ 

respectively. If B coincides with A, the problem is reduced to 
that of finding the three cube roots of unity. One will be repre- 
sented by A and the others by the two angular points of an 
equilateral triangle, with A as one angular point, inscribed in the 
circle. 

The problem of determining the values of the nth roots of unity 
is equivalent to the geometrical problem of inscribing a regular 
The th polygon of n sides in a circle. Gauss has shown in his 
Knots of Disquisitiones arithmeticoe that this can always be done 
Unity ky the compass and ruler only when n is a prime of the 
form 2 f +i. The determination of the nth root of 
any complex number requires in addition, for its geometrical 
solution, the division of an angle into n equal parts. 

19. We are now in a position to factorize an expression of 
Factoriza- the form_ *" (a+tb). Using the values which we 
tlons. have obtained above for (o+t6)' /n , we have 



If 6=0, = 

* I 



"^ I X^~T I COS 

5=0 L \ 

I, this becomes 



(0 



f= 



s = {n 1 / ,, \ 

(x-i)(x+i)P (x* - 2x cos =^ r +i)( even). (2) 

S=i \ / 



+i (nodd). (3) 
' 

If in (i) we put a= i, 6 = 0, and therefore = ir, we have 



(neven). (4) 

fa odd). (5) 



X+I= 




(X+1)P 
5=0 



Also x*" 2x"y cos nB+y* 1 



= (x" y n cos tie+i sin nff) (x n y cos nO i sin nff) 

0+2SV . e+2SK\ 

x 31 cos - =tisin - - I 
n n J 






Airy and Adams have given proofs of this theorem which do not 
involve the use of the symbol t (see Camb. Phil. Trans., vol. xi). 

A large number of interesting theorems may be derived from De 
Moivre's theorem and the factorizations which we have 
deduced from it; we shall notice one of them. 

In equation (6) put y = l/x, take logarithms, and then * 

differentiate each side with respect to x, and we get 



Theorem. 



_ 

~ 



_ 

it 2 " 2 cosn6+x~^ n ~ s=0 



Put x 2 = a/b, then we have the expression 



(a 2 - ft 2 ) (a 2 " - 2a"6" cos n8 + 6 2 ") 
for the sum of the series 



5=0 



a 2 -2a& cos 0+ 



20. Denoting the complex number x+iy by z, let us consider 
the series l+z+z 2 /2 ! + . . . +z"/! + . . . This series converges 
uniformly and absolutely for all values of z whose _ 
moduli do not exceed an arbitrarily chosen positive '" ejr " 
number R. Consequently the function (z), defined P a f ntlal 
as the limiting sum of the above series, is continuous Se " es 
in every finite domain. The two series representing (zi) and (zj), 
when multiplied together give the series represented by (01+22). 
In accordance with a known theorem, since the series for (zi) (35) 
are absolutely convergent, we have (zi)X(z2) = (21+22). 
From this fundamental relation, we deduce at once that j(z)j" 
= E(nz), where n is any positive integer. The number (i), the 
sum of the convergent series 1 + 1 + 1/21+1/3!..., is usually 
denoted by e; its value can be shown to be 2-718281828459. ... It 
is known to be a transcendental number, i.e. it cannot 6e the root 
of any algebraical equation with rational coefficients; this was first 
established by Hermite. Writing z = i, we have (n)=e n , where 
n is a positive integer. If z has as_ a value a positive fraction p/q, 

he real positive 
hence E(p/q) 



, 

we find that \E(p/g)}" = E(p)=e*>; hence E(p/q) is the real positive 
value of e"'". Again E(-p/g)XE(p/q)=E(o) = l, hence E(-plq) 
is the real positive value of e"*!*. It has been thus shown that for 



any real and rational number x, the value of E(x) is the principal 
value of e*. This result can be extended to irrational values of *, 
if we assume that e x is for such a value of x defined as the limit of 
the sequence e 11 , e",. . ., where xi, x*,. . . is a sequence of rational 
numbers of which * is the limit, since E(XI), E(x 2 ) . . ., then 
converges to (*). 

Next consider (i +z/m) m , where m is a positive integer. We have 
by the binomial theorem, 



I \ /"g \ ' 

-- nr)7\+--- + (m) 






lies between, and i+ (++. . . +*-/) 

hence the product equals iB^.s i/2tn where 0, is such that 
o<0,< i. 
We have now 



s.s 



' 2m 



m il 2 
+ [i-* m J^ 



where 



z"> z 2 ( z 

n + . . .+^-i -] I+03- + 
P. ^m\ 2m ( " 3 r ^ 



Since the series for (z) converges, s can be fixed so that for all 
values of m>s the modulus of z'+'/fc + i)! + . . . +z m /ml is 
less than an arbitrarily chosen number |. Also the modulus of 
i+03Z/i + ...+0 m z- 2 /(z-2)! is less than that of i+i|z|/l! 
+ |z| 2 /2! +..., or of e mod ', hence mod R,<%t+(i/2m). 
mod (zV)<e, if m be chosen sufficiently great. It follows that 
lim m _ 00 (i+z/n)'"=(z), where z is any complex number. To 
evaluate (z), write i+x/m = p cos <t>, y/m=p sin <j>, then 



TRIGONOMETRY 



279 



(z) = lim m _co {p m (cos m<t>-\-i sin m<t>)\, by De Moivre's theorem. 

-m ^ i j -{ } i i I -^ t we hcivG lim o m 

\ ml ( m(V+*/V0 2 ) 

. Let r be a fixed number 



less than V*+*/Vl> then lim m _co 



lies 



between i and linim-m j i-| ^-5 f , or between i and e 2 ' 2rt ; hence 

since r can be taken arbitrarily large, the limit is i. The limit of 
m<j> or m tan~ l {y/(x+m)\ is the same as that of my/(x+m) which 
is y. Hence we have shown that (z) =e*(cos y+i sin y). 

21, Since E(x+iy)i I (cos y+sin y, we have cos y+i sin y 
= E(iy), and cos y i sin y=E(iy). Therefore cos y = i{(iy) 
+E(-iy)\, sin y = %i\E(iy)-E(-iy)\; and using 
Exponential the serjes d e fi nec l by (i'y) and (-iy), we find that 



Values of 
Trigono- 
metrical 
Functions. 



cos y = i - y 2 /2 ! + y 4 /4! - . 



y = y 



/3 ! 



+ y 5 /5 !.., where y is any real number. These 
are the well-known expansions of cos y, sin y in powers 
of the circular measure y. Where z is a complex number, 
the symbol e z may be defined to be such that its principal value 
is E(z) ; thus the principal values of e' v , tr*" are E(iy), E(iy). 
The above expressions for cos y, sin y may , then be written 
cos y = %( e ivJf-e- iv ), sin y = Jt(e' e~' v ). These are known as 
the exponential values of the cosine and sine. It can be shown 
that the symbol e? as defined here satisfies the usual laws of 
combination for exponents. 

22, The two functions cos z, sin z may be defined for all com- 
plex or real values of z by means of the equations cos y = j((z) + 
, ,i__t (-z)),sinz = (k)((z)-(-z)),whereE(z)represents 
the sum-function of I + z+ z 2 /2! + . . . + z"/re! + . . . 
For real values of z this is in accordance with the 
ordinary definitions, as appears from the series obtained 
above for cos y, sin y. The fundamental properties of 
cos z, sin z can be deduced from this definition. Thus 
sin z=E(z). cos zi sin z=( iz); therefore 
cos 2 z+sin 2 z = (iz). ( iz) = i. Again cos (Zi+z 2 ) is given by 



Analytical 
Definitions 
of Trigono- 
metrical 
Functions. 

COS 



|(zz 2 )E(Z2)j, whence we have cos (zi+z 2 ) = cos Zi cos z 2 
sin Zi sin Z 2 . Similarly, we find that sin (z 1 +z 2 ) =sin Zi cos Zj + 
cos Zi sin z 2 . Again the equation (z) = l has no real roots except 
z=o, for e">i, if z is real and >o. Also E(z) = i has no com- 
plex root a+i0, fot o if) would then also be a root, and (20) = 
(a+i/3)(o iff) = 1, which is impossible unless a = o. The roots 
of E(z) = i are therefore purely imaginary (except z = o); the 
smallest numerically we denote by 2 iv, so that (2iV) = i. We 
have then (2tVr) = |(2tV)) r = i, if r is any integer; therefore 
2iirr is a root. It can be shown that no root lies between 2iVr and 
2(r+i)zV; and thus that all the roots are given by z== t 2Vr. 
Since (y+2iV) = (z)(2zV) =(z), we see that (z) is periodic, 
of period 2iV. It follows that cos z, sin z are periodic, of periods 2ir. 
The number here introduced may be identified with the ratio of the 
circumference to the diameter of a circle by considering the case of 
real values of z. 

23. Consider the binomial theorem 

Expansion 

of Powers 

of Sines 

and Cosines 

I" Series of p uttinga = 

Sines and 

Cosines of (2 COS 0)" = 

Multiple 

Arc. 

+ n(n-i).^(n-r+i) 2cos(w _ 2r)9+ 




When n is odd the last term is 2 

and when re is even it is n( - n ~ ' 

i ! 



cose, 



If we put a=e l9 , 6= e~' fl , we obtain the formula 






+(-i)^*- I )-- r -f- r + I >acoB(ii-.2r)a. . . 



(-i);- 



in! 



when re is even, and 

(-l)^ n ~ I )(2sin9)"= 2sinn0-re . 2sin(re 2)0+ -2 sin (re 4 

sin0 



when n is odd. These formulae enable us to express any positive 
integral power of the sine or cosine in terms of sines or cosines of 
multiples of the argument. There are corresponding formulae when 
n is not a positive integer. 

Consider the identity log(l -/>x)+log(l -qx) = Expansion 
log(lp+qx+pqx*'). Expand both sides of this of Sines and 
equation in powers of x, and equate the coefficients of Cosines of 
X", we then get Multiple 




t., j % n _ 4J j 2 i 

(/>+<?)" W+. 



Sines and 
Cosines of 
Arc. 



If we write this series in the reverse order, we have 




when n is odd. If in these three formulae we put p = e^, g = e-< 9 , we 
obtain the following series for cos nO : 

2 cos n8 = (2 cos e)"-n(2 cos e)"- i + n ^"7 (2 cos e)-<- . . 




when n is any positive integer; 



+ . ..+(-i)2 2 - 1 cos"9 
when n is an even positive integer ; 






cos ^- 



n-1 



. ..+(-l) 2 2 -l cos "9 

when n is odd. If in the same three formulae we put 
2= e-' e , we obtain the following four formulae: 



(8) 



(9) 



(- 1)22 cos n9 = (2 sin 9)"- 




(2 sin 



B-l 

( i) 2 2 sin n0 = the same series (n odd); 

- ' 

cos 8, = I 



(n) 



. 
sm 6 9 



+ .. . +2"~ l sin "0 (n even) ; 



sin n9 = re 



.3! ~ 5! 

+(-i)Ta lrt m(odd). 

Next consider the identity 



(12) 
(13) 



I - qx I - (p + q)x + pqx 1 ' 

Expand both sides of this equation in powers of x, and equate the 
coefficients of x"~ l , then we obtain the equation 

"- l -(n-2)(p+q)- 3 pq 



If, as before, we write this in the reverse order, we have the series 
(-if' [n (t2) to? -2^ (to) ' te) 3 B - 3 

pq) ^ + ... + (- ^(p + fl ) > 






28o 



TRIGONOMETRY 



when n is even, and 



n-3 



when n is odd. If we put p = e i9 , q e ie , we obtain the formulae 
sinnfl = sin0 j (2 cose)"- 1 - (n -2) (2 cos 9)"" 3 + ^" ~ 3 ffi ~^ (2 cos9)"~ 5 



where n is any positive integer ; 



/ 
(-1) 



( 2 -2 2 ) . , n(*-2 2 )(n 2 -4 2 ). 
-- s - - 3 s - - 1 - z6 



-i) 2 (2 cos 0)-> (n even); 




+ (-i) r ~(2 cos 0)"- 1 (n odd). (16) 

If we put in the same three formulae p = e lfl , q=e~ t9 , we obtain 
the series 



-2 
2 



L sm ^ n n 2! 



; (17) 



( i) 2 cos n0 = the same series (n odd); 



, 
cos 9 n sin 



(19) 



(20) 



. . . + ( i) 2 (2 sin 0)"~' f ( even); 
cos n0 = cos j i j sin 2 0+- ^1 ^sin 4 . . . 

+ (2 sin0)-' |(nodd). 

We have thus obtained formulae for cos nO and sin nd both in 
ascending and in descending powers of cos and sin 0. Vieta ob- 
tained formulae for chords of multiple arcs in powers of chords of 
the simple or complementary arcs equivalent to the formulae (13) 
and (19) above. These are contained in his work Theoremata ad 
angulares sectiones. Jacques Bernoulli found formulae equivalent to 
(12) and (13) (Mem. de I' Academie des Sciences, 1702), and trans- 
formed these series into a form equivalent to (10) and (n). Jean 
Bernoulli published in the Acta eruditorum for 1701, among other 
formulae already found by Vieta, one equivalent to (17). These 
formulae have been extended to cases in which n is fractional, nega- 
tive or irrational; see a paper by D. F. Gregory in Camb. Math. 
Journ. vol. iv., in which the series for cos nO, sin in ascending 
powers of cos and sin are extended to the case of a fractional 
value of n. These series have been considered by Euler in a 
memoir in the Nova acta, vol. ix., by Lagrange in his Calcul des 
fonctions (1806), and by Poinsot in Recherches sur I' analyse des 
sections angulaires (1825). 

The general definition of Napierian logarithms is that, if 



24. 



then 



x+iy = \og (a+ib). Now we know that 
os y+ie* sin y; hence ex cos y-a, e" sin y 
=b ' or * = ("+&*)*- y = arc tan 6/o'*r, where m 
'is an integer. If 6 = p, then m must be even or odd 
according as a is positive or negative ; hence 

log. 0+iJ) =log. (o j + &)%+ i (arc tan b/a2mr) 
or log. (a+ii) =log. (o 2 +6 2 )i+ i (arc tan b/a^2n+r), 

according as a is positive or negative. Thus the logarithm of any 

complex or real quantity is a multiple-valued function, the differ- 

H b lie ence Detween successive values being 2iri; in particular, 

yP e ' <f the most general form of the logarithm of a real positive 

quantity is obtained by adding positive or nega- 

tive multiples of 2iri to the arithmetical logarithm. On 

this subject, see De Morgan's Trigonometry and Double Algebra, 

ch. iv., and a paper by Professor Cayley in vol. ii. of Proc. London 

Math. Soc. 

25. We have from the definitions given in 21, cos iy = 
$(ey+e-y) and sin iy = \i(ey e-y). The expressions, \(ey+e-y), 
\(ey e-y) are said to define the hyperbolic cosine and sine of y and 
are written cosh y, sinh y; thus cosh y = cos iy, sinh y= i sin iy. 
The functions cosh y, sinh y are connected with the rectangular 
hyperbola in a manner analogous to that in which the cosine and 



sine are connected with the circle. We may easily show from the 
definitions that 

cos*(x+iy)+siri'(x-\-iy) = I, 
cosh 2 y sinh 2 y = I ; 

cos(x+iy) =cos * cosh yi sin x sinh y, 

sin(x+ty) =sin x cosh y+i cos x sinh y, 

cosh(o + /3) =cosh o cosh /3+sinh o sinh 0, 

sinh (a + 0) =sirih o cosh j3+cosh o sinh jl 

These formulae are the basis of a complete hyperbolic trigonometry. 
The connexion of these functions with the hyperbola was first 
pointed out by Lambert. 

26. If we equate the coefficients of n on both sides of equation 
(13), this process requiring, however, a justification of its validity, 
we get 



must lie between the values 
may also be written in the form 



to flowers 

|T. This equation of Id Sine. 




when x lies between 

By equating the coefficients of n 2 on both sides of equation (12) 
we get 



_ 

o 2 3-5 3 3-5-7 
which may also be written in the form 



4 



(22) 



(arc sin x)* = 3. ,- 2> . ...,.,, 
3 2 3-5 3 3-5-7 4 
when x is between =*= I . Differentiating this equation with regard 
to x, we get 

arc sin x 



3" '3-5 '35-7 
if we put arc sin * = arc tan y, this equation becomes 

arc tan y = T j j i+- jTT^H "4 ( jT 2) +( (23) 

This equation was given with two proofs by Euler in the Nova acta 
for 1793. 

It can be shown that if mod x< I, then for any such real or 
complex value of x, a value of log. (i+*) is given by the sum of 
the series x 1 * 2 /2 +* 3 /3 ... 

We then have 



1 \ a ii^ = v-(- J- 4- 4- Gregory's 

2 6 I x 357 Series. 

put iy for x, the left side then becomes zjlog (i+oO log (i iy)| 
or i arc tan y =*= mis ; 

5 ,,7 
2-4- 

3 ' 5 7 + 

The series is convergent if y lies between i ; if we suppose arc 
tan y restricted to values between Jir, we have 



hence 



arc tan ynir=y 



arc tan y=y 



(24) 



which is Gregory's series. 

Various series derived from (24) have been employed to calculate 
the value of ir. At the end of the I7th century ir was calculated 
to 72 places of decimals by Abraham Sharp, by means 
of the series obtained by putting arc tan y = ir/6, Sertes * Br 
y = l/V3 in (24). The calculation is to be found in Calculation 
Sherwin's Mathematical Tables (1742). About the same ' 
time J. Machin employed the series obtained from the equation 
4 arc tan J arc tan ,,fa = Jir to calculate ir to 100 decimal 
places. Long afterwards Euler employed the series obtained from 
Jir = arc tan 3+ arc tan J, which, however, gives less rapidly- 
converging series (Introd., Anal, infin. vol. i.). T. F. de Lagny 
employed the formula arc tan i/V3=ir/6 to calculate ir to 127 
places; the result was communicated to the Paris Academy in 
1719. G. Vega calculated ir to 140 decimal places by means of the 
series obtained from the equation Jir = 5 arc tan $+2 arc tan y 3 . 
The formula Jir = arc tan |+arc tan t+arc tan i was used by 
J. M. Z. Dase to calculate irto 200 decimal places. W. Rutherford 
used the equation ir = 4 arc tan J arc tan , J + arc tan 5"^. 

If in (23) we put y = J and $, we have 

ir = 8 arc tan 3+4 arc tan ^ =2-4 



a rapidly convergent series for ir which was first given by Hutton 
in Phil. Trans, for 1776, and afterwards by Euler in Nova acta for 
1793. Euler gives an equation deduced in the same manner from 
the identity T = 2o arc tan $ +8 arc tan / 9 . The calculation of ir has 
been carried out to 707 places of decimals ; see Proc. Roy. Soc. vols. 
xxi. and xxii.; also CIRCLE. 



TRIGONOMETRY 



281 



27. We shall now obtain expressions for sin x and cos x as 
infinite products of rational factors. We have 

x . x+ir . x . x+ir 

Factorlza- sin x = 2 sin rsm = 2 3 sin-sin - 

lion of Sloe 

aodCoslae. sJn X+2 *sin X+3r - 

4 ' 4 

proceeding continually in this way with each factor, we obtain 

, . X . 3C-T-T . X + 2TT . X + nIlT 

sin x = 2"~ l sin -sin sin - . . .sin , 



where n is any positive integral power of 2. Now 

. x+rir . x+n rir . x+rir . rirx . .fir . ,x 

sin - sin - = sm - sin - = sm 2 -- sin 2 -, 

n n n n n n 

and sin 

Hence the above may be written 

, . x / . IT . x\ I . 2ir . . x\ 
sin x = 2 n sm-lsirr - sin 2 - I Ism 2 -- sm 2 rl ... 
n \ n n/ \ n n/ 

(. , for . , x\ x 
sm 2 --sm 2 -Jcos-, 

where k = Jn = i. Let x be indefinitely small, then we have 

2**~^ TT 27T klT 

i =---81^ -sin 2 -...sin'-; 

hence 

. x x f sin 2 x/n\ / sin 2 */ \ / sin 2 x/n \ 
sin * = n s,n- cos - (i -ftrffc) (i -.. 2lr/n j . - . (i -3^^ 

We may write this 

. x x I sin 2 x/n\ / sin 2 x/n \ _ 
sin z = n sm - cos - ^i-gy^ . . (i -^ mr/n ) R, 

where R denotes the product 

(sin 2 x/n \ I _ sin 8 x/n \ f ^ sin 2 x/n \ 
"sin 2 m + iT/n/ V~sin 2 m+2K/nJ ' ' \ I ~sin 2 k*/n} ' 



and m is any fixed integer independent of n. It is necessary, when 
we make n infinite, to determine the limiting value of the quantity 



R; then, since the limit of 



sin m*]n . 



n sin x/n cos xjn 



is unity, we have 



. sin x , , . 
is and that of 



The modulus of R i is less than 

V~*~sin 2 m-r-iT/n/ \ I+ sin 2 m+2*/n) '" V+sin 2 kit In) "'' 

where /> = mod. sin x/n. Now e P i >i+Ap 1 , if A is positive; 
hence mod. (R i) is less than exp. jp^cosec 2 m + iv/n+ ... + 
cosec 2 kv/n) i, or than exp. ip 2 2 |i/(7n-|-i) 2 + . - + !/#) i, or 
than exp. (p 2 n 2 /4m 2 ) i. Now p 2 = sin 2 a/n.cosh 2 jfJ/n+cos 2 a/n. 
sinh 2 0/n, if x = a+ifl; or p 2 = sin 2 o/n+sinh 2 0/n. Hence 
lim B=01 P 2 n 2 = o 2 +/S 2 , lim B = <>> pn = mod. x. It follows that 

moc K=< (R i) is between o and exp. {(mod. 4) 2 / xnf ) i , and 

the latter may be made arbitrarily small by taking m large enough. 
It has now been shown that sin x = x(i A^/?r 2 )(i * 2 /2V) ... 
(i xP/mtir 2 ) (i+m), where mod. e m decreases indefinitely as m is 
increased indefinitely. When m is indefinitely increased this 
becomes 



This has been shown to hold for any real or complex value of x. 
The expression for cos x in factors may be found in a similar manner 

, ., . T 2x $ir2x 
by means of the equation cos x = 2 sin cos " , or may 

be deduced thus 



cos x = 



(26) 

If we change x into ix, we have the formulae for sinh x, cosh * as 
infinite products 




/ r 2 \ " = " / 

h+iJT-*)- cosh x = p I 1 
n=0 V 



In the formula for sin * as an infinite product put * = lir, we 

, 7T I T 7 ^ 5 

then get ' - J 2 ^> 4 4 6 ' ' " we stop a '' ter 2n " actors m tne 
numerator and denominator, we obtain the approximate equation 

I= 2 2 2 .4 2 .6 2 ... (2n) 2 ( 2n + I ) 

2.4.6. . . 2tl : 

or 1 , , 2ni = * nir ' where n is a large integer. This ex- 
pression was obtained in a quite different manner by Wallis (Arith- 
metica infinitorum, vol. i. of Opp.). 
28. We have 

Series for 
Cot, Cosec, 
Tan and 
Sec. 

or cos y+sin y cot x 



Equating the coefficients of the first power of y on both sides we 
obtain the series 



COt 



From this we may deduce a corresponding series for cosec x, for, 
since cosec x = cot %x cot *, we obtain 

1 -5=B+- 



i i i 

'~ - 



By resolving into factors we should obtain in a similar 

manner the series 

2 2 2 2 2 +...,(29) 



IT 2X JT + 2X ' 3ir 2X 3x4-2* ' SIT 2X 5X+2X 




These four formulae may also be derived from the product formulae 
for sin x and cos x by taking logarithms and then differentiat- 
ing. Glaisher has proved them by resolving the expressions for 
cos x/sin x and I /sin x ... as products into partial fractions (see 
Quart. Journ. Math., vol. xvii.). The series for cot * may also be 
obtained by a continued use of the equation cot * = J|cot %x+ 
cot i(*+x) ) (see a paper by Dr Schroter in Schlomilch's Zeitschrift, 
vol. xiii.). 

Various series for x may be derived from the series (27), (28), 
(29), (30), and from the series obtained by differentiating them 
one or more times. For example, in the formulae (27) 

and (28), by putting x = ir/n we get 

f Series for 

Tr = ntan-ii- I - * i * f ^derived 

n( n I^n + l 2n l^2n + l' ' ' V fromSerles 

r _.x( I I I i ) for Cot and 

n sin i i -{- - .. i . ~ r I i . ( ; Cosec. 



ni 
If we put n=3, these become 



2 \ ' 2 4 
By differentiating (27) we get 




put* 

These series, among others, were given by Glaisher (Quart. Journ. 
Math. vol. xii.). 

/ x*\ / x ! \ 

29. We have sinh rx = irxP 1 1 +r) , cosh irx = P(i+, -J-iVV 

if we differentiate these formulae after taking loga- 
rithms we obtain the series 

Certain 

Series. 




These series were given by Kummer (in Crelle's Journ. vol. xvii.) 

The sum of the more general series 1 2 n+x 2 n + 22n + x *>+.f+ x 2 n 

+ . . . , has been found by Glaisher (Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., vol. vii.) 

If U m denotes the sum of the series ;+;+T+ . . ., V m that 



282 



TRIGONON TRILOBITES 



of the series rs+rs+-r^+..., and W m that of the series 
* o o 

Sums of -s-T^+rs-rs-l-..., we obtain by taking loga- 

Powers of * * 3 ' 

Reciprocals rithms in the formulae (25) and (26) 

ot Natural / x \> , I ... /x\ I ., /x\ . 

Numbers. log (x cosec x) = t/ 2 ^-j +- [7 4 (^ - j + - Z7, ^-j + . . . , 

, , T . /2X\ 2 I /2X\ * . I T , /2X\ 

log (sec x) = V, (-) +-V< (-) +-F 6 (-)+...; 



and differentiating these series we get 
i i Ui U t 



In (31) x must lie between =*=* and in (32) between 
equation (30) in the form 



(31) 

(32) 
= iir. Write 



sec ~-r i 
"* I 



and expand each term of this series in powers of x 2 , then we get 

'IT 7T 7T^ 

where x must lie between 1^. By comparing the series (31), (32), 
(33) with the expansions of cot x, tan x, sec x obtained otherwise, 
we can calculate the values of Ui, U t ... F 2 , V t ... and Wi, W 8 
When U a has been found, V may be obtained from the formula 

For Lord Brounker's series of *-, see CIRCLE. It can be got at once 
Continued b V putting = 1,6=3, =5.... in Euler's 
Factors 
/or IT. 



+b-a+c-b+" 
Sylvester gave (Phil. Mag., 1869) the continued fraction 



which is equivalent to Wallis's formula for jr. This fraction was 
originally given by Euler (Comm. Acod. Petropol. vol. xi.) ; it is 
also given by Stern (in Crelle's Journ. vol. x.). 

30. It may be shown by means of a transformation of the series 

. sin x , xx 2 x 2 x 3 

Continued for cos x and 5 that tan x = :;- = -^ -^-^ -7^... 
Fractions 



, , r n T . 

for Tiigono- This mav "* a ' so eas y shown as follows. Let 
metrical y = cos V*, and let y', y*... denote the differential 
Functions, coefficients of y with regard to x, then by forming these 
we can show that $xy"-\-2y'+y = o, and thence by 
Leibnitz's theorem we have 



Therefore ,= - 2 - 




hence zVx cot Vx= 2 



Replacing Vx by x we have tan x=-j-^ - -r-^-. . . 

Euler gave the continued fraction 

n tan x (n 1 I ) tan'.r (n 2 4) tan 2 * (n 2 9) tan'x 
tciri 71 .v ' . . . j 

*5 ~~ / ^ 

this was published in Mem. de I'ocod. de St Petersb. vol. vi. Glaisher 
has remarked (Mess, of Math. vols. iv.) that this may be derived 
by forming the differential equation 

(i x 2)j<m-M) ( 2m _|_ i) x y*i+l) -J- ( n * _ fH 2 )jlC") = O, 

where y = cos (n arc cos x), then replacing x by cos x, and proceeding 
as in the former case. If we put n =o, this becomes 

tan'x 
7 + 
whence we have 

X X? 4.X^ Q K^ fJ^X^ 

arctan *= f+ J+ 5+ F-"+5HF7T-" 

31. It is possible to make the investigation of the properties of the 
simple circular functions rest on a purely analytical basis other than 
_ ! the one indicated in 22. The sine of x would be 

Analytical defined as a function such that, if x= I -77 - ^-, 
Treatment J 0> U - JTJ 



_ tan x tan'x 4 tfln'x 
= i + 3+ 5+ 



Treatment 

of Circular then 

Functions. 



s ; n x . tne quantity * would be defined to 
} 2 



/I fa 
i (. _ 5Y- We should then have 

n d * 

\~ x= \ V (i -f\' Now change the variable in the integral 

to z, where y 2 +z 2 = i, we then have | x = j z . / y _ z2 y and 



z must be defined as the cosine of x, and is thus equal to 
sin (iir x), satisfying the equation sin 2 x+cos 2 x = l. 
Next consider the differential equation 
dy dz 



This is equivalent to 



hence the integral is 

yV(i z 2 )+zV(i >*)= a constant. 
The constant will be equal to the value u of y when z = o; 
whence yV(i z 2 )+zV(i y 2 )=. 

The integral may also be obtained in the form 





j v(i-y 2 ) = ~' loge ' "^ ~ 



and sin -y = sin a cos /3+cos a sin /3, 
cos 7 = cos a cos ft sin a sin ft, 

the addition theorems. By means of the addition theorems and 
the values sin iir = i, cos JT=O we can prove that sin (^ir+x) = 
cos x, cos (|TT-|-X) = sin x; and thence, by another use of the 
addition theorems, that sin (TT+X) = sin x cos (ir+x) = cos x, 
from which the periodicity of the functions sin x, cos x follows: 

We have also 

J 'V V.' 

whence log e | V(i y 2 ) + iy) + log, j \'(i z 2 ) + iz| = a constant. 
Therefore j V(i - y 2 )| + ij{V(l - z 2 )-hz) = V(i - 2 ) + '. 
since =y when z = o; whence we have the equation 

(cos a + i sin a) (cos /3 + i sin /3) = cos (a + ft) + t sin (o + ft), 
from which De Moivre's theorem follows. 

REFERENCES. Further information will be found in Hobson's 
Plane Trigonometry, and in Chrystal's Algebra, vol. ii. For further 
information on the history of the subject, see Braunmuhl's Vor- 
lesungen iiber Geschichte der Trigonometrie (Leipzig, 1960). (E. W. H.) 

TRIGONON, a small triangular harp, occasionally used 
by the ancient Greeks and probably derived from Assyria or 
Egypt. The trigonon is thought to be either a variety of the 
sambuca or identical with it. A trigonon is represented on one 
of the Athenian red-figured vases from Cameiros in the island 
of Rhodes, dating from the 5th century B.C., which are preserved 
in the British Museum. The triangle is here an irregular one, 
consisting of a narrow base to which one end of the string was 
fixed, while the second side, forming a slightly obtuse angle with 
the base, consisted of a wide and slightly curved sound-board 
pierced with holes through which the other end of the strings 
passed, being either knotted or wound round pegs. The 
third side of the triangle was formed by the strings themselves, 
the front pillar, which in modern European harps plays such an 
important part, being always absent in these early Oriental 
instruments. A small harp of this kind having 20 strings 
was discovered at Thebes in 1823. (K. S.) 

TRIKKALA (anc. Trika), a town of Greece, capital of the 
department of Trikkala, and the see of an archbishop, 38 m. 
W. of Larissa. In winter, when great numbers of Vlach herds- 
men take up their quarters in the town, its population exceeds 
that of Larissa. It has the appearance of a Mussulman 
town on account of its mosques (only two of which are in use) 
and it is a centre of trade in wheat, maize, tobacco and 
cocoons. The town was in ancient times a celebrated seat of 
the worship of Aesculapius. Pop. (1889), 14,820; (1907) 17,809; 
of the department, 90,548. 

TRILEMMA (Gr. rpeis, three, Xij/z/ia, something taken), in 
logic, an argument akin to the dilemma (q.v.), in which there are 
three possibilities. By getting rid of two, the third is proved, 
provided the original three exhaust the number. The terms 
" tetralemma " (four possibilities) and " polylemma " (many) 
have also been used. 

TRILOBITES, extinct Arthropoda, formerly classified with 
the Crustacea, but of late years relegated to the Arachnida 
(q.v.), which occurred abundantly in seas of the Cambrian and 
Silurian periods, but disappeared entirely at the close of the 
Palaeozoic epoch. Both their origin and the causes which 
led to their extinction are quite unknown. Widely diver- 
gent forms make their appearance suddenly in the Cambrian 
period amongst the earliest known fossils; and the high per- 
fection of structure to which they had at that time attained 



TRIM TRIMMER 



283 



implies the antecedent existence of much simpler types, and refers 
the origin of life to a date immeasurably distant from that at 
which we have actual proof of the existence of animal and 
vegetable organisms. 

However different in structure Trilobites may be, they all agree 
in possessing a head-shield usually semi-circular in 'shape, which 
results from the fusion of apparently five segments, and bears, 
except in some blind forms, a pair of large reniform compound eyes 
like those of the king-crab (Xiphosura). This head-shield is suc- 
ceeded by a varying number of free segments, each of which con- 
sists of a medium convex tergal piece and a pair of arched lateral 
plates, the pleura, of which there is one on each side. The terga and 
pleura of each individual segment overlap those of the segment 
that serially succeeds it. The mid-region of the body, composed 
of jointed segments, is followed by a larger or smaller region con- 
sisting of fused segments and termed the pygidium or caudal shield, 
which in some cases is as large as the head-shield itself, in other 
cases much smaller. When the pygidium is large and composed 
of many segments, the number of free body segments is correspond- 
ingly reduced, and vice versa. It is with respect to this number of 
segments that respectively constitute the pygidium and the mid- 
region of the body that Trilobites differ most markedly from each 
other; and it is a singular fact that the extremes in structural 
organization in this particularto be met with in the Trilobita are 
found side by side in strata of Cambrian age. In Paradoxides, 
for example, there are about twenty freely movable segments 
followed by a very short and small pygidium, whereas in Agnostus 
the freely movable segments are reduced to two and the pygidium 
is as large as the cephalic shield. In this genus the number of 
segments composing the pygidium is obscured, as also it is in the 
genus Illaenus, which has as many as ten movable segments pre- 
ceding the large semi-circular pygidium; but in such forms as 
Ogygia and Asaphus, which have about eight free segments, the 
sutural lines on the pygidium indicate that it is composed of about 
a dozen or more segments. Somewhat resembling Agnostus is 
Microdiscus, with four movable segments and a large pygidium 
consisting of about five fused segments, the lines of union between 
the latter being clearly indicated. 

The tergal and pleural elements of the pygidium are generally 
well marked. They are also well marked on the cephalic shield, 
the tergal elements being represented by a median axial elevated 
area showing indistinct signs of segmentation, and a lateral unseg- 
mented plate, the gena, which carries the eyes. _The postero- 
lateral angles of the gena are commonly produced into spiniform 
processes, which may project backwards beyond the middle of the 
body as in Paradoxides, or considerably beyond its posterior termina- 
tion as in Trinucleus or Ampyx. The latter is further remarkable 
for having the median area of the head-shield, theflabellum, produced 
into an anteriorly directed spike. 

For many years only the dorsal surface of Trilobites was known, 
nothing having been ascertained of the ventral surface and appen- 
dages. Comparatively recently, however, specimens have been 
obtained with the ventral surface exposed, revealing the number 
and structure of the limbs. A pair of the latter was articulated 
to the sides of a moderately wide dorsal plate on each segment of 
the body, and similar limbs were attached to the ventral surface 
of the head-shield behind the mouth. Each of these limbs was two- 
branched, the external branch consisting of a slender fringed flagellum 
possibly respiratory in function, and the inner of a normal jointed 
ambulatory leg. These two branches arose from a common basal 
segment or coxa, the inner surface of which was produced into a 
strong process underlying the external area. In the region of the 
mouth the basal segments were armed with teeth and subserved the 
purpose of mastication. As in all Arachnida there is only a single 
pair of appendages in front of the mouth, and these were one- 
branched, long and filiform and acted as antennae. Under the 
pygidium or caudal shield the appendages were much shortened, 
and their main branch consisted of broader and flatter segments than 
those of the preceding limbs. 

Such was the structure of the appendages in Trilobites belonging 
to the genus Triarthrus; but considering the great structural differ- 
ences that obtain between Triarthrus and many other genera, it 
would be rash to assume that there were not corresponding differ- 
ences in the structure of the limbs. It must not indeed be assumed 
that those of the first pair were in all cases antenniform. 

It is probable that no satisfactory classification of the Trilobites 
will be proposed until the limbs of most of the genera have been 
examined. Up to the present time all attempts to arrange the 
genera in natural and definable groups have failed to meet with 
general approval ; and this criticism must be extended to Beecher's 
subdivision of the class into three orders, named Hypoparia, 
Proparia and Opisthoparia, based upon the form and position 
of a groove, the so-called genal suture, which marks the lateral 
portion of the head-shield. In the majority of Trilobites this 
groove passes backwards from the anterior or anterolateral edge 
of this plate to its posterior or ppstero-lateral border, dividing it 
into an inner portion continuous with the flabellum and fused tergal 
regions, and an outer portion bearing the eye. Those genera, like 



Paradoxides, Olenus, Asaphus, Phillipsia and others, in which 
this groove cuts the posterior edge of the head-shield on the inner 
side of its angle are referred to the Opisthoparia; those, like Dalman- 
ites and Phacops, in which it cuts the lateral border in front of the 
posterior angle, belong to the Proparia. But in certain genera, 
like Conocoryphe, Calymmene and Triarthrus, it cuts the margin 
of the head-shield so close to the posterior angle that the distinction 
between the two groups practically breaks down. To the Hypoparia 
belongs a comparatively small number of genera, like Trinucleus 
and Aquastus, in which this groove or genal suture is beneath the 
margin of the head-shield and does not appear upon its upper 
surface. 

In external form Trilobites are not unlike Isopod Crustaceans, 
especially the terrestrial species commonly called " woodlice "; 
and until the nature of their appendages was known, it was 
thought by some authorities that the two groups might be re- 
lated. Like the woodlice they were capable of rolling themselves 
up into a ball, many specimens having been found fossilized 
in this state, with the pygidium pressed tightly against the 
head-shield. There is very little doubt that they lived at the 
bottom of the sea, feeding upon worms or other soft marine 
organisms, crawling slowly about the sandy or muddy bottom 
and burying themselves beneath its surface when danger 
threatened. That these animals were widely distributed in 
former times is proved by their occurrence at the present day 
in palaeozoic fossiliferous strata both of the northern hemi- 
sphere and of Australia; and despite the fact that their remains 
have not been found in rocks of the Mesozoic or Kainozoic 
epochs, it was conceived to be possible that living specimens 
might be dredged from the sea-floor during the exploration 
of the ocean depths undertaken by the " Challenger " expedi- 
tion. Needless to say this faint hope was not borne out by 
results. (R. I. P.) 

TRIM, a market town and the county town of Co. Meath, 
Ireland, on the upper waters of the Boyne, 30 m. N.W. by W. 
from Dublin on a branch of the Midland Great Western railway. 
Pop. (1901), 1513. The county buildings are here; monthly 
fairs are held, and there is considerable trade in corn and flour; 
but the chief interest of the town lies in its historical associations 
and remains, enhanced by a beautiful situation. It was the 
seat of a very early bishopric. A Norman tower, called the 
Yellow Steeple, is supposed to mark the site of St Patrick's 
Abbey of St Mary. Two gates remain from the old town walls. 
King John's Castle (incorrectly so called, as this monarch only 
resided here on the occasion of a visit) was originally founded 
by Hugh de Lacy in 1173, but a later date is assignable to the 
greater part of the magnificent moated building, of which the 
keep, flanking turrets, drawbridge, portcullis and barbican, 
still testify to its former strength, which was augmented by its 
frontage to the river. Other smaller fortified buildings are 
Talbot's and Scurlogstown Castles; the former erected by Sir 
John Talbot, lord lieutenant of Ireland in 1415 afterwards 
earl of Shrewsbury, the latter dating from 1180. About a mile 
east of the town, the ruins of the abbey of St Peter and St Paul 
occupy both banks of the river. These include the transitional- 
Norman cathedral on the north bank, and a castle, guarding the 
crossing of the river, on the south, together with a chapel and 
other remains. North of the town ruins may be seen of a Domini- 
can friary of the I3th century. The tower of the old parish 
church dates from 1449. In the annals of Trim many famous 
names have a place; Humphrey of Gloucester and Henry of 
Lancaster were imprisoned here by Richard II. before Henry 
came to the throne; and Richard, duke of York, and father of 
Edward IV. held court at the castle, where also several Irish 
parliaments met until the middle of the isth century, and a 
mint was established in 1469. The residence in a house in 
Dublingate Street of the famous duke of Wellington is com- 
memorated by a Corinthian column and statue. Trim is 
governed by an urban district council. It was incorporated by 
Edward III., and returned two members to the Irish parliament 
until the Union in 1800. 

TRIMMER, JOSHUA (1795-1857), English geologist, was 
born at North Cray in Kent, on the nth of July 1795. He 
was son of Joshua Kirby Trimmer of Brentford, and grandson 



284 



TRIMONTIUM TRINIDAD 



of Mrs Sarah Trimmer (1741-1810), authoress of the Story of 
the Robins (1786). At the age of nineteen he was sent to North 
Wales to manage a copper-mine for his father; subsequently 
he was placed in charge of a farm in Middlesex, where he acquired 
a knowledge of and an interest in soils; in 1825 he became mana- 
ger (for his father) of slate quarries near Bangor and Carnarvon, 
and in this district he remained for many years. He discovered 
the marine shells in the drift of Moel Tryfaen. During the 
years 1850-1854 he was engaged on the Geological Survey, 
and surveyed parts of the New Forest in Hampshire. He died 
in London on the i6th of September 1857. 

He published memoirs on the Origin of the Soils which cover the 
Chalk of Kent; On the Geology of Norfolk, as Illustrating the Laws of 
the Distribution of Soils (1847); and Proposals for a Geological 
Survey, specially directed to Agricultural Objects (1850); in this 
respect he was a pioneer in agricultural geology. He was author 
also of a useful work Practical Geology and Mineralogy (1841). 
Obituary by J. E. Portlock, in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. (1858). 

TRIMONTIUM, the name of a Roman fort at Newstead, near 
Melrose, Scotland, close under the three Eildon Hills (whence 
the name trium montium). It was an advanced post of the 
Romans towards Scotland both about 80 A.D. and after, and 
again (after an interval of evacuation) from about A.D. 140-180. 
Excavations during the last four years have yielded finds 
of almost unique importance. These include the foundations 
of several successive forts, one above the other, which throw 
much light on the character of the Roman military post; an 
unparalleled collection of Roman armour, including ornate 
helmets, and a good series of coins and datable pottery. The 
whole illustrate the history of the Roman army and that of 
Roman Scotland very remarkably and to an extent equalled by 
no Scottish site as yet explored. 

See the report published for the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 
bytheexcavatorMrJamesCurle. (F. J. H.) 

TRINCOMALEE, a town and former naval station on the 
north-east coast of Ceylon, 100 m. N.E. by N. of Kandy. Pop. 
(1901), 11,295. It is built on the north side of the bay of Trin- 
comalee, on the neck of a bold peninsula separating the inner 
from the outer harbour. There is a lighthouse on the extremity 
of Foul Point at the southern side of the bay, and another on 
the summit of Round Island. The inner harbour is landlocked, 
with a safe anchorage and deep water close to the principal 
wharves; the outer harbour has an area of about 4 sq. m. 
with a depth of about 70 fathoms. With its magnificent 
harbour one of the five or six greatest natural harbours in 
the world it used to be the headquarters of the admiral com- 
manding on the East Indian station, with a garrison of infantry 
and British artillery. The breadth of the streets and esplanades 
somewhat atones for the mean appearance of the houses, but 
the town generally has a gloomy and impoverished aspect. 
Pearl oysters are found in the lagoon of Tambalagam to the 
west of the bay. A steamer from Colombo calls weekly with 
and for passengers and cargo. Average annual rainfall, 62$ in.; 
average temperature, 81-2 F. Some tobacco, rice, and palm are 
grown in the district. 

Attention was directed to the importance of Trincomalee as a 
naval base in 1896, when a commission of officers recommended 
its being turned into a modern fortress. The work was com- 
menced in 1898 and finished in 1904. All the batteries were 
rebuilt and fitted with modern appliances. The whole area 
was connected with cable and telephone communication, and 
armed with the latest type of guns; and the fortress was supposed 
to be impregnable; but in the following year the station was 
abandoned, the naval yard closed, and the military garrison 
withdrawn. A man-of-war is still kept in Trincomalee Harbour, 
to work the defences. 

The town was one of the first settlements of the Tamil race 
in Ceylon, who at a very early;period erected on a height at the 
extremity of the peninsula, now crowned by Fort Frederick, a 
temple dedicated to Konatha, or Konasir, named the " temple of 
a thousand columns." The building was desecrated and 
destroyed in 1622, when the town was taken by the Portuguese, 
who made use of the materials for the erection of the fort. The 



town was successively held by the Dutch (1639), the French 
(1673), the Dutch (1674), the French (1782), and the Dutch 
(1783). After a siege of three weeks it surrendered to the 
British fleet in 1795, and with other Dutch possessions in Ceylon 
was formally ceded to Great Britain by the Treaty of Amiens in 
1802. 

THING, a market town in the Watford parliamentary divi- 
sion of Hertfordshire, England, 315 m. N.W. by W. from London 
by the London and North Western railway. Pop. of urban 
district (1901), 4349. It lies on the western slope of the Chil- 
tern Hills, close to the entrance to a narrow valley which pierces 
them, and forms one of the highways through them to London, 
carrying the railway, the Grand Junction Canal, and a main 
road. The church of St Peter and St Paul shows fine Per- 
pendicular work, especially in the ornate interior of the nave. 
Industries include straw-plaiting and the weaving of canvas 
and silk. The Rothschild Museum, erected in 1889, contains an 
extensive natural history collection. Living wild animals are 
also kept in a neighbouring paddock and cages. The road 
which passes through Tring and along the face of the hills 
represents the ancient Icknield Way, and there may have been 
a Romano-British village on the site of Tring. 

TRINIDAD, the most southerly and, with the exception 
of Jamaica, the largest of the British West Indian Islands. 
Pop. (1901), 236,397. It is situated 6 m. E. of the coast of 
Venezuela, between 10 3' and 10 50' N. and 60 39' and 62 W. 
Its average length is 48 m., its breadth 35 m. and its area 1754 
sq. m. In shape it is almost square, but it throws off two 
peninsulas westward from its north and south' corners. Corozal 
Point projecting from its north-western and Icacos Point from 
its south-western extremity enclose the Gulf of Paria. To 
the west of Corozal Point lie several islands, of which Chaca- 
chacare, Huevos Monos and Monos Caspar Grande are the 
most important. The surface is level or undulating, excepting 
in the north and south where there are ranges of hills, with 
eastern and western axes, prolongations of the Venezuelan 
coast ranges. Of these the northern is the more elevated 
ridge, its highest point being Tucuche Peak (3100 ft.). The 
southern hills attain an elevation of 600 ft. A small ridge 
runs east to west by south through the centre of the island, 
from Manzanilla Point to San Fernando, having an isolated 
elevation in Mt Tamana (1028). The hills of the northern and 
southern ranges are furrowed by innumerable ravines, and 
are clad to their summits with dense forests. There are 
numerous small streams, none navigable, and all flowing either 
east or west. 

In its geology, as well as in its flora and fauna. Trinidad differs 
little from the mainland, with which it was probably at one time 
connected. There are four mineral springs and several mud 
volcanoes, but the two most striking natural featuresare the Maracas 
Falls, and the Pitch Lake. The Maracas Falls are situated at the head 
of a valley of the same name, to the north-east of Port of Spain, 
where the river leaps in a foaming torrent over a sheer wall of rock, 
312 ft. high. The Pitch Lake lies some 38 m. by water south-east of 
the capital, in the ward of La Brea. It is circular in form, about 
3 m. in circumference, and 104 acres in extent. Underground forces 
acting on the pitch cause it to rise in unequal masses, which are 
rounded off like huge mushrooms, separated from one another by 
narrow fissures, in which the rainwater collects and forms pools. 
Near the centre of the lake the pitch is always soft and can be 
observed bubbling up in a liquid state. When the sun is hot the 
lightest footfall leaves an impression and the pitch emits an unplea- 
sant odour. The soil of the surrounding district is charged with 
asphalt, but is very fertile, while the road to the neighbouring port 
of La Brea, running on a bed of asphalt, moves slowly towards the 
sea like a glacier The lake is worked by a company which exports 
the asphalt to the United States; paying royalty to the local govern- 
ment on every ton exported. 

The mountain range which runs along the north coast is formed 
of clay-slates, micaceous and talcose schists, and crystalline and 
compact limestones, constituting the group called the Caribbean 
series, the age of which is unknown. The rest of the island is 
composed of Cretaceous, Tertiary and Quaternary strata. The 
Cretaceous beds rise to the surface in the centre and are flanked to 
north and south by the later deposits. Owing to the rarity of 
satisfactory sections the relations of the various divisions of the 
Tertiary formation are still somewhat obscure; but they are grouped 
by J. B. Harrison into (i) Nariva and San Fernando beds, = Eocene 



TRINIDAD 



285 



and Oligqcene; (2) Naparima marls = Miocene and (3) Moruga 
series = Pliocene and Pleistocene. The Naparima marls consist 
of a lower division containing Globigerina and an upper division with 
Radiolaria and diatoms and are clearly of deep-sea origin. The 
bitumen of the Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits appears to have 
been formed by the decomposition of vegetable matter. Salses or 
mud volcanoes occur upon the island, but there is no evidence of true 
volcanic action in Tertiary or recent times, except the presence 
of occasional bands of pumiceous earth in some of the Tertiary 
deposits, and the pumice in these cases was probably derived from 
a distance. 

The presence of oil in large quantities in Trinidad had been sus- 
pected for many years, and early in the 2Oth century the govern- 
ment undertook a geological survey to determine the probabilities 
of an industry. This survey revealed the presence of a series of 
anticlines at payable depths in the southern division of the island, 
and experimental borings by three companies at La Brea and Point 
Fortin in the south-west and Guayaguayare in the south-east proved 
the presence of oil in large quantities. In 1910 the commercial 
exploitation of Trinidad oil was being rapidly pushed forward. 

The soil of the island is exceedingly rich, and well adapted to 
the growth of tropical products, especially of sugar and cocoa, which 
are its staples. The planting of new lands is rapidly progressing, 
the greater part of the unsold crown lands (various blocks of which 
have been formed into forest or water reserves) being covered with 
forests, containing a valuable supply of timber. Poisonous and 
medicinal herbs grow everywhere. Owing to the variety of its 
resources, Trinidad has suffered less from general depression than 
the other islands in the British West Indies. It exports cocoa, 
sugar, rum, molasses, coffee, tobacco, coco-nuts, fruit, timber, dye- 
woods, balata gum, india-rubber and asphalt. Large quantities 
of tonga-beans, the produce of the mainland, are cured in bond at 
Port of Spain. The manufacture of bitters (Angostura and others) 
is an important industry, as is also the raising of stock. In addition 
Trinidad has a large carrying trade with the neighbouring republics, 
and rivals St Thomas (q.v.) as a centre of distribution for British 
and American merchandise through the West Indies and Venezuela. 

Lying in the tract of the trade winds and being practically a part 
of the mainland, Trinidad is immune from the vicissitudes of climate 
to which the other Antilles are exposed. It is never visited by 
hurricanes and its seasons are regular, wet from May to January, 
with a short dry season in October known as the Indian summer 
and lasting usually about four weeks, and dry from end of January 
to middle of May. The average annual rainfall is 66-26 in. and 
the mean temperature is 78-6 F. A volunteer force was established 
in 1879, and now consists of infantry, garrison artillery and three 
companies of Light Horse stationed in Port of Spain, San Fernando 
and St Joseph. Elementary education is given chiefly in the 
state-aided schools of the different denominations, but there are a 
number of entirely secular schools managed by the government. 
The Presbyterian schools are conducted by a Canadian mission. 
Instruction is free, but in some few schools fees are paid. Agricul- 
ture is a compulsory subject in all the primary schools. Higher 
education is provided by the Queen's Royal College, a secular 
institution, to which the Presbyterian Naparima College and the 
Roman Catholic St Mary's College are affiliated. Attached to these 
colleges are four scholarships of the annual value of 150 for four 
years, tenable at any British university. The religious bodies, both 
Christian and pagan are exceedingly numerous. The Roman 
Catholics (with an archbishop at Port of Spain) and the Anglicans, 
with the bishop of Trinidad at their head, are the more powerful 
bodies. Of the inhabitants of the island, one-third are East Indians. 
Immigration from India is conducted under government control, 
and the prosperity of Trinidad is largely due to the contract labour 
obtained under this system. Of the rest the upper classes are 
Creoles of British, French and Spanish blood, while the lower classes 
are of pure or mixed negro origin, with a few Chinese. English is 
spoken in the towns and in some of the country districts, but in 
the north and generally in the cocoa-growing areas a French patois 
prevails, and in several districts Spanish is still in use. English 
money is legal tender, as also is the United States gold currency. 
Accounts are kept in dollars by the general public, but in sterling 
by the government. There is a complete system of main and local 
roads constructed or under construction; there are about 90 m. 
of railways, and practically all the towns of any size can be reached 
from Port of Spain by rail. Steamers ply daily between Port of 
Spain and the islands at the northern entrance to the Gulf of Paria 
and between San Fernando (the southern terminus of the railway) 
and the south-western ports of the island, while two steamers of the 
Royal Mail Company under contract connect Port of Spain with the 
other parts of Trinidad and Tobago. Port of Spain is also in direct 
communication with Southampton. 

The colony (Trinidad and Tobago) is administered by a 
governor assisted by an executive council and a legislative 
council of twenty members of whom ten are officials sitting 
by virtue of office and ten are unofficials nominated by the 
Crown. Port of Spain, the capital, is situated on the west 
coast on the shores of the Gulf of Paria. It is considered one 



of the finest towns in the West Indies, its streets are regular 
and well shaded, its water supply abundant, and an excellent 
service of tramways connects the various quarters of the town. 
It has two cathedrals, a fine block of public buildings containing 
the principal government departments, the courts of justice and 
the legislative council chamber, many other large government 
buildings, a public library, and many good shops, while one of 
its most beautiful features is its botanical garden, in which the 
residence of the governor is situated. The harbour is an open 
roadstead, safe and sheltered, but so shallow that large ships 
have to He at anchor half a mile from the jetties. It is, never- 
theless, the place of shipment not only for the produce of the 
entire island but also for that of the Orinoco region. The popu- 
lation is about 55,000. The other towns are San Fernando 
(pop. 7613), also on the Gulf of Paria, about 30 m. south of the 
capital; and Arima (pop. 4076), an inland town 16 m. by rail east 
of Port of Spain. 

Trinidad was discovered by Columbus in 1496. It remained 
in Spanish possession (although its then capital, San Jose de 
Oruna, was burned by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1595) until 1797, 
when a British expedition from Martinique caused its capitula- 
tion. It was finally ceded to Great Britain by the Treaty of 
Amiens in 1802. 

See F. Eversley, The Trinidad Reviewer (London, 1900); Stark's 
Guide-book and History of Trinidad (London); the Journal of the 
Royal Colonial Institute, passim; and for geology, G. P. Wall and 
J. G. Sawkins, Report on the Geology of Trinidad (London, 1860); 
J. B. Harrison and A. J. Jukes-Browne, " The Oceanic Deposits 
of Trinidad " (British West Indies), Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 
(London, 1899), Iv. 177-189; R. J. L. Guppy, " The Growth of Trini- 
dad, " Trans. Canadian Inst. (1905), viii. 137-149, with plate. The 
last paper gives a list of all the more important works and papers 
on the geology of the island. 

TRINIDAD, an uninhabited island in the South Atlantic, 
680 m. E. of the coast of Espirito Santo, Brazil, in 20 30' S. 
29 30' W., 4 m. long by 2 broad. It is of volcanic formation, 
and has springs of fresh water. As a possible coaling and tele- 
graph station in mid-ocean, it formed a subject of contention 
between Brazil and Great Britain in 1895. The dispute was 
settled in favour of Brazil, which claimed on the ground of its 
discovery by Tristan da Cunha early in the i6th century, 
while Great Britain relied on its occupation by the astronomer 
Halley in the name of England in the year 1700. About 30 m. 
east are the three islets of Martin Vaz so named from the 
Portuguese mariner who discovered them about 1510. 

TRINIDAD, a city and the county-seat of Las Animas county, 
Colorado, U.S.A., in the south part of the state, about 100 m. S. 
of Pueblo. Pop. (1890) 5523; (1900) 5345 (659 foreign-born); 
(1910) 10,204. Trinidad is served by the Denver & Rio Grande, 
the Colorado & Southern, the Colorado & Wyoming, and 
the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe railways and by electric 
railways to the neighbouring coal-mining towns. The city is 
regularly laid out on a hilly site, on both sides of the Purgatory 
(or Las Animas) river, near a picturesque canyon and mountain 
district, including the Stonewall Valley, and at the foot of the 
Raton Mountains, of which the highest peak, Fisher's (or 
Raton) Peak (9586 ft.), is 10 m. south of Trinidad. The city has a 
Carnegie library, a Federal building, an opera house, an amuse- 
ment park, and the San Rafael hospital, under the charge of the 
Sisters of Charity. A steam heating plant pipes heat to many 
shops, offices and residences. Trinidad is in a coal and coke and 
stock-raising region, and alfalfa, frijole and sugar beets are 
produced in large quantities in the surrounding region, much 
of which is irrigated. Dry farming has been successfully carried 
on at an experiment farm, established in 1906, 12 m. north of the 
city. Trinidad has railway shops, foundry and machine shops, 
and coking ovens, ships large quantities of coal, has a wool- 
scouring mill, and various manufactures. The municipality 
owns and operates the waterworks. Trinidad was incorporated 
as a town in 1876, and in 1879 became a city of the second 
class. 

TRINIDAD, a town near the southern coast of Cuba, in 
Santa Clara Province, about 45 m. south-east of Cienfuegos, 
and 3 m. from its seaport, Casilda, which lies due south. 



286 



TRINITARIANS TRINODA NECESSITAS 



Pop. (1907), 11,197. There is a small local railway, not con- 
nected (in 1909) with the central trunk line of the island. The 
city lies on the slope of La Vigia hill (900 ft.) amid higher moun- 
tains, and on the banks of the Jayoba (San Juan) river. The 
streets are narrow, broken and tortuous, and the general 
aspect of the town is medieval. There are some attractive 
buildings and a very fine market square. The fine scenery 
in the neighbourhood, and the climate, which is possibly the 
healthiest in Cuba, make the place a favourite resort for natives 
and foreigners. Casilda (pop. in 1907, 1246) has a land- 
locked, shallow harbour; but Masio Bay, a trifle farther distant, 
accommodates larger craft; and there are excellent deep-water 
anchorages among the quays off the coast. The Manati river 
is navigable for about 7 m. inland, and is used as an outlet 
for sugar and molasses crops. These and honey are the 
chief exports; tobacco and various vegetables and fruits are 
of minor importance. Trinidad is one of the seven original 
cities of Cuba established by Diego Velasquez. It was founded 
in 1514 on the coast, but after being attacked by pirates was 
removed inland. It was thrice sacked by English buccaneers 
in 1642, 1654 and 1702; and in the following years, up to and 
for a time after the peace of Utrecht (1713), it maintained ships 
and soldiers. Indeed, throughout the first half of the i8th 
century it was on a continuous war footing against English 
corsairs, making reprisals on British ships and thriving at the 
same time on a large contraband trade with Jamaica and other 
foreign colonies. In 1818 Casilda was opened to legal commerce 
under the national and foreign flags. 

TRINITARIANS, a religious order founded in 1198 by St 
John of Matha and St Felix of Valois, for the liberation of 
Christian prisoners and slaves from captivity under the Moors 
and Saracens. The two founders went to Rome and there 
obtained the approbation of Innocent III., 1198. The rule 
was the Augustinian, supplemented by regulations of an 
austere character. The habit was white, with a red and blue 
cross on the breast. The Trinitarians are canons regular, but 
in England they were often spoken of as friars. The first 
monastery and head house of the order was at Cerfroy near 
Soissons. Among the earliest recruits were some Englishmen, 
and the first to go on the special mission of the order were two 
Englishmen, who in 1200 went to Morocco and returned thence 
to France with 186 liberated Christian captives. This success 
excited great enthusiasm and led to the diffusion of the order 
all over Western Christendom. At the beginning of the i8th 
century there were still 250 houses, and it is stated that there 
had been 800; this, however, includes 43 in England, where 
Dugdale says he could find traces only of a dozen: so that 
the high figures are probably apocryphal. The first house 
in England was at Mottenden, in Kent, founded in 1224. The 
ordinary method of freeing captives was by paying their ransom 
and for this purpose vast sums of money were collected by the 
Trinitarians; but they were called upon, if other means failed, to 
offer themselves in exchange for Christian captives. Many 
thousands were liberated by their efforts. In the I7th century 
a reform called the Barefooted Trinitarians was initiated, which 
became a distinct order and is the only one that survives. 
There are now less than 500 members. Their headquarters are 
at San Crisogono in Rome. They devote themselves to the 
ransoming of negro slaves, especially children, and a great 
district in Somaliland has been since 1904 entrusted to them 
as a field for missionary work. There were Trinitarian nuns 
and a Third Order. 

The chief modern book on the Trinitarians is Deslandres, L'Ordre 
franc,ais des Trinitaires (2 yols. 1903). Sufficient information 
will be found in Helyot, Histoire des ordres religieux (1714), vol. ii. 
chs. 45-50; and in Max Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregationen (1907), 
ii. 57- (E. C. B.) 

TRINITY HOUSE, CORPORATION OF, an association of 
English mariners which originally had its headquarters at Dept- 
ford in Kent. In its first charter, received from Henry VIII. 
in 1514, it was described as the "guild or fraternity of the 
most glorious and undividable Trinity of St Clement." The first 



master appointed was the founder of the corporation, Sir Thomas 
Spert, comptroller of the navy to the king, and commander of 
the " Harry Grace de Dieu." Deptford having been made a 
royal dockyard by Henry VIII., and being the station where 
outgoing ships were supplied with pilots, the corporation rapidly 
developed its influence and usefulness. By Henry VIII. it was 
entrusted with the direction of the new naval dockyard. From 
Elizabeth, who conferred on it a grant of arms in 1573, it received 
authority to erect beacons and other marks for the guidance of 
navigators along the coasts of England. In 1604 a select 
class, was constituted called Elder Brethren, the other 
members being called Younger Brethren. By the charter of 
1609 the sole management of affairs was conferred on the Elder 
Brethren; the Younger Brethren, however, having a vote in 
the election of master and wardens. The practical duties 
of the fraternity are discharged by the acting Elder Brethren, 
13 in number, of whom 2 are elected from the royal navy 
and ii from the merchant service; but as a mark of honour 
persons of rank and eminence are admitted as honorary Elder 
Brethren. In 1647 the corporation was dissolved by parliament, 
but it was reconstructed in 1660, and the charter was re- 
newed by James II. in 1685. In 1687 a by-law of the Trinity 
House for the first time required an agreement in writing 
between the master and crew of a ship. A new hall and alms- 
houses were erected at Deptford in 1765; but for some time 
the offices of the corporation had been transferred to London, 
where for a while they had a house in Water Lane, Lower 
Thames Street, and in 1795 their headquarters were removed 
to Trinity House, Tower Hill, built from' the designs of Samuel 
Wyatt. By an act of 1836 they received powers to purchase 
from the Crown, as well as from private proprietors, all 
interests in coast lights. For the maintenance of lights, buoys, 
&c., they had power to raise money by tolls, the surplus being 
devoted to the relief of old and indigent mariners or their near 
relatives. In 1853 the control of the funds collected by the 
corporation was transferred to the board of trade, and the 
money over which the brethren were allowed independent 
control was ultimately reduced to the private income derived 
from funded and trust property. Their practical duties in 
erection and maintenance of lighthouses, buoys and beacons 
remain as important as ever. Similar functions are carried 
out by the Northern Lighthouse Board and the Irish Lighthouse 
Board, for Scotland and Ireland respectively. They have 
also the care and supervision of pilots. Other Trinity Houses 
established under charter or act of parliament for the appoint- 
ment and control of pilots are at Hull and Newcastle. The 
Elder Brethren of Trinity Masters also act as nautical assessors 
in the high court of admiralty. The corporation has a large 
wharf and repair shop at the mouth of the river Lea, where 
most of the work in connexion with buoying the Thames is 
carried out. 

See W. H. Mayo, Trinity House, London, Past and Present 
(London, 1905) ; C. R. B. Barrett, The Trinity House of Deptford 
Strand (1893). 

TRINITY SUNDAY, the Sunday next after Whitsunday. A 
festival in honour of the Trinity had been celebrated locally at 
various dates before Pope John XXII. in 1334 ordered its 
general observance on the octave of Whitsunday. According 
to Gervase of Canterbury, it had been introduced into England 
by Thomas Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, in 1162. It has, 
however, never been reckoned among the great festivals of the 
Church. From Trinity Sunday onwards all Sundays until the 
close of the ecclesiastical year are reckoned as " after Trinity." 
In the Roman Church these Sundays are also reckoned as " after 
Pentecost." In the latter case they are described as dominicae 
trinitatis, not to be confused with dominicae post trinitalis; e.g. 
Dominica sexta post trinitatis is the same as Dominica seplima 
trinitalis. 

TRINODA NECESSITAS, the name used by modern historians 
to describe the threefold obligation of serving in the host 
(fyrd), repairing and constructing bridges (bryc-geweorc), and 
the construction and maintenance of fortresses (burhbot), to 



TRINOVANTES TRIPHENYLMETHANE 



287 



which all freeholders were subject in Anglo-Saxon times. The 
obligations are usually mentioned in charters as the sole excep- 
tions to grants of immunities; sometimes, however, a fourth obli- 
gation (singulare praetium contra alium) is reserved, as in the 
charter granted by Wiglaf of Mercia on the 28th of December 
831 (Cod. dip. i. 294). Ceolwulf's charter of 822 to Arch- 
bishop Wilfred is remarkable, as the military service is there 
restricted to expeditiones contra paganos ostes (ibid. i. 272). 
The threefold obligation is first mentioned in a Latin charter 
(expeditione pontis arcisue constructione) of doubtful authen- 
ticity, which professes to have been granted by Eadbald of 
Kent in A.D. 616 (Cod. dip. v. 2), but it is not until the 8th 
century that it appears in documents which are generally 
admitted to be genuine. Although there were correspond- 
ing obligations in the Prankish Empire which were called by 
Charles the Bald (antiquam et aliarum gentium consuetudinem) , 
Stubbs held that the arguments which refer them to a Roman 
origin want both congruity and continuity. 

The phrase " trinoda necessitas " is not to be found in the Anglo- 
Saxon laws and charters; and Selden was probably the first historian 
of eminence who used it. " These three exceptions," he says, " are 
noted by the term of a three-knotted necessity in an old charter 
wherein King Cedwalla granted to Wilfrid, the first bishop of 
Shelsey in Sussex, the village of Paganham." This charter is an 
nth-century copy of a lost original, but the words to which Selden 
referred are plainly written as trimoda necessitas not trinodanecessitas. 
Du Cange gives two examples of the word trimoda in medieval Latin, 
in which language it meant "triple"; but he cites no medieval 
example of trinoda; and in classical Latin the form is unknown, 
while trinodis (ter-nodus, " triple-knotted ") occurs only rarely 
(Ovid. Her. iv. 115; Fast. i. 575). 

See Du Cange, Glossarium ; W. Stubbs, The Constitutional History 
of England, i. 86, 87; J. M. Kemble, Codex anglo-saxonicus, passim; 
Selden, English Janus (London, 1682), p. 43; Walter de Gray 
Birch, Cartttlarium saxonicum, passim; Facsimiles of Ancient 
Charters in the British Museum, pt. iv. Cotton MS. Augustus, 
ii. 86. (G. J. T.) 

TRINOVANTES (commonly Trinobanles), a powerful British 
tribe about 50 B.C.-A.D. 50 dwelling north and north-east 
of London, rivals and neighbours of the Catuvellauni. When 
Caesar invaded Britain 54 B.C. they joined him against their 
domestic rivals and it is possible (though not certain) that 
half a century after Caesar's departure they succumbed to 
them. Certainly they were conquered by Rome in A.D. 43 
and joined in Boadicea's revolt in 61. In the tribal division 
of Roman Britain given by Ptolemy their land included Camulo- 
dunum (Colchester), but nothing more is known of them. But 
their name plays a part in medieval legends and romances. 
There it was interpreted as Troy Novant, the " new Troy," 
and connected with the names of the Trojans Brutus and 
Corineus who were reputed to have given their names to 
Britain and Cornwall. (F. J. H.) 

TRIOLET, one of the fixed forms of verse invented in medieval 
France, and preserved in the practice of many modern litera- 
tures. It consists of eight short lines on two rhymes, arranged 
abaaabab, and in French usually begins on the masculine 
rhyme. The first line reappears as the fourth line, and the 
seventh and eighth lines repeat the opening couplet; the first 
line, therefore, is repeated three times, and hence the name. 
No more typical specimen of the triolet could be found than 
the following, by Jacques Ranchin (c. 1690): 

" Le premier jour du mois de mai 
Fut le plus heureux de ma vie : 
Le beau dessein que je formais, 
Le premier jour du mois de mai ! 
Je vous vis et je vous aimais. 
Si ce dessein vous plut, Sylvie, 
Le premier jour du mois de mai 
Fut le plus heureux de ma vie." 

This poem was styled by Menage " the king of triolets." ' The 
great art of the triolet consists in using the refrain-line with 
such naturalness and ease that it should seem inevitable, 
and yet in each repetition slightly altering its meaning, 
or at least its relation to the rest of the poem. The triolet 
seems to have been invented in the i3th century. The earliest 
example known occurs in the Cleomades of Adenez-le-Roi 



(1258-1297). The medieval triolet was usually written in lines 
of ten syllables, and the lightness of touch 'in the modern speci- 
mens was unknown to these perfectly serious examples. One 
of the best-known is that of Froissart, " Mon cceur s'ebat 
en odorant la rose." The rules are laid down in the Art el 
Science de Rhethorique (1493) of Henry de Croi, who quotes 
a triolet written in words of one syllable. According to 
Sarrasin, who introduces the triolet as a mourner in his Pompe 
funebre de Voiture, it was that writer who " remis en vogue " 
the ancient precise forms of verse, " par ses balades, ses trio- 
lets et ses rondeaux, qui par sa mort (1648) retournaient 
dans leur ancien decri." Boileau threw scorn upon the deli- 
cate art of these pieces, and mocked the memory of Clement 
Marot because he " tourna des triolets," but Marmontel 
recognized the neatness and charm of the form. They 
continued to be written in France, but not by poets of much 
pretension, until the middle of the I9th century, when there 
was a great revival of their use. 

The earliest triolets in English are those of a devotional 
nature composed in 1651 by Patrick Carey, a Benedictine 
monk at Douai, where he probably had become acquainted 
with what Voiture had made a fashionable French pastime. 
In modern times, the triolet was re-introduced into English 
by Robert Bridges, in 1873, with his 

" When first we met, we did not guess 

That Love would prove so hard a master; 

Of more than common friendliness 

When first we met we did not guess. 

Who could foretell the sore distress, 

This irretrievable disaster, 

When first we met? we did not guess 

That Love would prove so hard a master." 

Since then the triolet has been cultivated very widely in 
English, most successfully by Austin Dobson, whose " Rose 
kissed me to-day," " I intended an Ode " and " In the School 
of Coquettes " are masterpieces of ingenuity and easy grace. 
In later French literature, triolets are innumerable; perhaps 
the most graceful cycle of them is " Les Prunes," attached 
by Alphonse Daudet to his Les Amoureuses in 1858; and there 
are delightful examples by Theodore de Banville. In Germany 
the triolet has attracted much attention. Those which had 
been written before his day were collected by Friedrich Rass- 
mann, in 1815 and 1817. But as early as 1795 an anthology 
of triolets had been published at Halberstadt, and another 
at Brunswick in 1796. Rassmann distinguished three species 
of triolet, the legitimate form (which has been described 
above), the loose triolet, which only approximately abides 
by the rules as to number of rhymes and lines, and single- 
strophe poems which more or less accidentally approach the 
true triolet in character. The true triolet was employed by 
W. Schlegel, Hagedorn, Riickert, Platen and other romantic 
poets of the early igth century. In many languages the 
triolet has come into very frequent use to give point and 
brightness to a brief stroke of satire; the French newspapers 
are full of examples of this. The triolet always, or at 
least since medieval times, has laboured under a suspicion of 
frivolity, and Rivarol, in 1788, found no more cutting thing to 
say of Conjon de Bayeux than that he was " si recherche pour 
le triolet." But in the hands of a genuine poet who desires 
to record and to repeat a mood of graceful reverie or pathetic 
humour, the triolet possesses a very delicate charm. 

See Friedrich Rassmann, Sammlung triolettischer Spiele (Leipzig, 
1817). (E. G.) 

TRIPHENYLMETHANE, (C 6 H 6 ) 3 CH, a hydrocarbon, impor- 
tant as being the parent substance of several series of exceedingly 
valuable dyestuffs, e.g. rosanilines and malachite greens derived 
from aminotriphenylmethanes, and aurins and phthaleins de- 
rived from oxytriphenylmethanes. It is obtained by condensing 
benzal chloride with mercury diphenyl (Kekule and Fran- 
chimont, Ber., 1872, 5, p. 907); from benzal chloride or benzo- 
trichloride and zinc dust or aluminium chloride; from chloroform 
or carbon tetrachloride and benzene in the presence of aluminium 
chloride; and deamidating di- and tri-aminotriphenylmethane 



TRIPOD TRIPOLI 



with nitrous acid and alcohol (0. and E. Fischer, Ann., 1881, 206, 
p. 152). The last reaction is most important, for it established the 
connexion between this hydrocarbon and the rosanilines. Tri- 
phenylmethane is a white crystalline solid, melting at 92 and 
boiling at 358. It separates from benzene and thiophene with 
one molecule of the " solvent of crystallization." On oxidation 
it gives triphenylcarbinol, (C 6 H 6 )3C-OH, and reduction with 
hydriodic acid and red phosphorus gives benzene and toluene. 
It combines with potassium to give (CeEU^CK, which with 
carbon dioxide gives potassium triphenylacetate, (CsHs^C-CC^K. 
Fuming nitric acid gives a paratrinitro substitution derivative 
which on reduction gives paraleucaniline; the salt of the carbinol 
formed on oxidizing this substance is the valuable dye rosaniline. 

Considerable interest is attached to the remarkable series of 
hydrocarbons obtained by Gomberg (Ber., iqoo, 33, p. 3150, et seq.) 
by acting on triphenylraethane chloride (from triphenylmethane 
carbinol and phosphorus pentachloride, or from carbon tetra- 
chloride and benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride) and 
its hpmologues with zinc, silver or mercury. Triphenylmethane 
chloride yields triphenylmethyl ; ditolylphenylmethyl and tritolyl- 
methyl have also been prepared. They behave as unsaturated 
compounds, combining with oxygen to form peroxides and with 
the halogens to form triarylmethane halides. Triphenylmethyl 
also combines with ethers and esters, but the compounds so formed 
are unsaturated. In the solid state triphenyl is colourless, crystal- 
line and bimolecular. It was thought that it might be identical 
with hexaphenylethane, but the supposed synthesis of this sub- 
stance by Ullmann and Borsum (Ber., 1902, 35, p. 2877) appeared 
to disprove this, although it showed that triphenylmethyl readily 
isomerized into their product, under the influence of catalysts. 
A.E. Tschitschibabin (Ber., 1908, 41, p. 2421), however, has shown 
that Ullmann and Borsum's preparation was para-benzhydrol- 
tetraphenylmethane (CeHs) a CH-CHi-C(CH 6 )i; and the view that 
solid triphenylmethyl is hexaphenylethane has much in its favour. 
Another remarkable fact is that these substances yield coloured 
solutions in organic solvents; triphenylmethyl gives a yellow solu- 
tion, whilst ditolylphenyl and tritolylmethyls give orange solutions 
which on warming turn to a violet and to a magenta, the changes 
being reversed on cooling. Several views have been published to 
explain this fact. A summary is given by Tschitschibabin (Journ. 
prak. Chem., 1907 (ii.), 74, p. 340). It appears probable that the 
solutions contain a quinonoid modification (see Gomberg and Cone, 
Ann., 1909, 370, p. 142). 

TRIPOD (Gr. Tptjrous, Lat. Iripus), in classical antiquities, 
any " three-footed " utensil or article of furniture. The name 
is specially applied to the following: (i) A seat or table 
with three legs. (2) A stand for holding the caldron used for 
boiling water or cooking meat; when caldron and stand were 
made in one piece, the name was given to the complete ap- 
paratus. (3) A sacrificial tripod, or altar, the most famous of 
which was the Delphic tripod, on which the Pythian priestess 
took her seat to deliver the oracles of the god, the seat 
being formed by a circular slab on the top, on which a branch 
of laurel was deposited when it was unoccupied by the priestess. 
Another well-known tripod was the " Plataean," made from 
a tenth part of the spoils taken from the Persian army after 
the battle of Plataea. This consisted of a golden basin, sup- 
ported by a bronze serpent with three heads (or three serpents 
intertwined), with a list of the states that had taken part 
in the war inscribed on the coils of the serpent. The golden 
bowl was carried off by the Phocians during the Sacred War; 
the stand was removed by the emperor Constantino to Con- 
stantinople, where it is still to be seen in the Atmeidan (hippo- 
drome), but in a damaged condition, the heads of the serpents 
having disappeared. The inscription, however, has been almost 
entirely restored (see Frazer on Pausanias, v. 299 seq.). 
Such tripods were usually of bronze and had three " ears " 
(rings which served as handles). They also frequently had a 
central upright as support in addition to the three legs. Tripods 
are frequently mentioned in Homer as prizes in athletic 
games and as complimentary gifts, and in later times, highly 
decorated and bearing inscriptions, they served the same purpose. 
They were also used as dedicatory offerings to the gods, and 
in the dramatic contests at the Dionysia the victorious choregus 
(a wealthy citizen who bore the expense of equipping and 
training the chorus) received a crown and a tripod, which 
he either dedicated to some god or set upon the top of a 



marble structure erected in the form of a small circular temple 
in a street in Athens, called the " street of tripods," from the 
large number of memorials of this kind. One of these, the 
" monument of Lysicrates," erected by him to commemorate 
his victory in a dramatic contest in 335 B.C. is still in existence 
(see Frazer, ii. 207). 

See C. O. Muller, De tripode delphico (1820); F. Wieseler, Ueber 
den delphischen Dreifuss (1871); E. Reisch, Griechische Weih- 
geschenke (1890), and his article " Dreifuss " in Pauly-Wissowa, 
Realencyclopadie der classischen Alteriumsunssenschaft, v. pt. 2. (1905). 

TRIPOLI, a Turkish vilayet (regency) of North Africa. It 
is bounded N. by the Mediterranean (between 11 40' and 
25 12' E.) and has a coast-line of over noo m. Tripoli 
comprises at least five distinct regions Tripoli proper, the 
Barca plateau (Cyrenaica), the Aujila oases, Fezzan (q.v.) 
and the oases of Ghadames and Ghat which with the inter- 
vening sandy and stony wastes occupy the space between 
Tunisia and Egypt, extend from the Mediterranean south- 
wards to the Tropic of Cancer, and have a collective area of 
about 400,000 sq. m., with a population estimated at from 
800,000 to 1,300,000. Towards the south and east the frontiers 
are undefined. But on the west side the conventional line 
laid down by agreement with France in 1886 was more accurately 
determined in 1892, when the terminal point on the Mediter- 
ranean was shifted from Borj-el-Biban to Ras Ajir, 18 m. to 
the south-east, in 33 12' N. 11 40' E. From this point the 
line passes along the Wad Magla and across the Erg (sand) 
dunes in such a way as to leave Ghadames to Turkey. In 
consequence of frontier collisions the boundary as far as 
Ghadames was precisely defined in 1910. South of that point 
the rival claims of France and Turkey remained in dispute. 

For some distance east of Tunisia the seaboard is low and 
sandy, and is often regarded as a part of the Sahara, which, 
however, begins only some 80 m. farther south, 
beyond the Jebels Nefusi, Yefren and Ghurian 
(Gharian). The " Jebel," as this system is locally 
called, terminates eastwards in the Tarhona heights of the Horns 
(Khoms) coast district, has a mean altitude of about 2000 ft. and 
culminates in the Takut (Tekuk) volcano (2800 ft.) nearly 
due south of the capital. It is not a true mountain range, 
but rather the steep scarp of the Saharan plateau, which encloses 
southwards the Jefara coast plains, and probably represents 
the original coast-line. The Ghurian section is scored in places 
by the beds of intermittent coast streams, and on its lower 
slopes is clothed with a rich sub-tropical vegetation. South 
of these escarpments, the vast Hammada el-Homra, the " Red 
Hammada," an interminable stony table-land covering some 
40,000 sq. m., occupies the whole space between Tripoli proper 
and the Fezzan depression. The now uninhabited and water- 
less Hammada formerly drained through several large rivers, 
such as the Wadis Targelat (Uani, Kseia), Terrgurt, Sofejin, 
Zemzem and Bel, north-eastwards to the Gulf of Sidra (Syrtis 
major). Southwards the table-land is skirted by the Jebel 
Welad Hassan, the Jebel es-Suda, the Jebel Morai-Yeh, and 
other detached ranges, which have a normal west to east trend 
in the direction of the Aujila oases, rising a little above ihe level 
of the plateau, but falling precipitously towards Fezzan. 
The Jebel es-Suda (Black Mountains), most conspicuous of 
these ranges, with a mean altitude of 2800 ft., takes its name 
from the blackened aspect of its limestone and sandstone rocks, 
which have been subjected to volcanic action, giving them the 
appearance of basalt. Eastwards this range ramifies into the 
two crescent-shaped chains of the Haruj el-Aswad and Haruj 
el-Abiad ("Black" and "White" Haruj), which rise some 
700 ft. above the Red Hammada, and enclose an extensive 
Cretaceous plateau. Rocks of Cretaceous age cover, indeed, 
an immense area of the northern part of the vilayet, recent 
eruptive rocks being represented by the lavas and ashes of the 
craters of Takut and Manterus. The later palaeozoic formations 
occur in Fezzan. 

Beyond the barren Ghadama district in the north of the 
Hammada the dreary aspect of the wilderness is broken by 



TRIPOLI 



289 



several tracts under grass, corn and date-palms, and containing 
some permanent reservoirs in the beds of the Wadis Sofejin 
and Zemzem, where the plateau falls from a mean height of 
2000 ft. to looo and 530 ft. respectively. But it again rises 
rapidly southwards to a somewhat uniform level of 1600 or 
1700 ft., and here the main caravan route from Tripoli to 
Murzuk and Lake Chad traverses for a distance of fully 130 m. 
a monotonous region of sandstone, underlying clays, marls, 
gypsum and fossiliferous silicious deposits. In its northern 
section this part of the Hammada, as it is locally called in a 
pre-eminent sense, is relieved by a few patches of herbage, 
scrub and brushwood, with a little water left in the rocky 
cavities by the heavy showers which occasionally fall. 

North-eastwards the Neddik pass over the Jebel Moral- Yeh 
leads down to the remarkable chain of low-lying oases, which, 
from the chief member of the group, is commonly 
Aa i" a called the Aujila depression. Collectively the oases 
"' present - the aspect of a long winding valley, which 
is enclosed on the north side by the southern escarpments of the 
Barca plateau, expands at intervals into patches of perenniaj 
verdure and shallow saline basins, and extends from the Wadi 
el-Fareg, near the Gulf of Sidra, through the Bin Rassam, Aujila, 
Jalo, Faredgha, and Siwa oases, to the Natron lakes and the dried-up 
branch of the Nile delta known as the Bahr bila-Ma (waterless river). 
The whole region presents the aspect of a silted-up marine inlet, 
which perhaps in Pliocene times penetrated some 300 m. south-east- 
wards in the direction of the Nile. Nearly all the fossil shells found 
in its sands belong to the fauna now living in the Mediterranean, 
and Siwa is 98 ft. below sea-level. This is true also of its eastern 
extensions, Sittra (80) and the Birket el-Kerun in the Fayum (141). 
But Aujila and Jalo stand 130 and 296 ft. respectively above sea- 
level, so that the idea entertained by the explorer Gerhard Rohlfs 
of transforming the chain of oases into a marine gulf, and thus 
converting the Barca plateau into an island or peninsula in the midst 
of the Mediterranean waters, and in fact flooding the Libyan desert, 
must share the fate of Colonel Francois Roudaire's equally visionary 
scheme in respect of the Western Sahara. 

The Barca plateau, which consists largely of strata of tertiary 
formation, falls in terraces down to the Aujila depression, and 
presents an unbroken rampart of steep cliffs towards 
The Barca t | le Mediterranean, is by far the most favoured region 
Plateau. Q f t jj e v ji a y e t. Its many natural advantages of climate, 
soil and vegetation led to the establishment of several Greek colonies, 
the oldest and most famous of which was that of Cyrene (q.v.), 
dating from about 630 B.C. From this place the whole region took 
the name of Cyrenaica (q.v.) and was also known as Pentapolis, from 
its "five cities" of Cyrene, Appllonia, Arsinoe, Berenice and Barca. 
The elevated plateau of Cyrenaica, which encloses the Gulf of Sidra on 
the west, is separated southwards by the Aujila depression from the 
Libyan desert, and projects northwards far into the Mediterranean, 
might seem, like the Atlas region in the west, to belong geologically 
rather to the European than to the African mainland. It has a 
mean altitude of considerably over 2000 ft., and in the Jebel Akhdar 
(Green Mountains) attains a height of nearly 3500 ft. East- 
wards the Barca uplands merge gradually in the less elevated 
Marmarica plateau, which nowhere rises more than 1800 ft. above 
sea-level, and disappears altogether in the direction of the Nile 
delta. The most easterly spot on the coast belonging to Tripoli is 
the head of the Gulf of Solum; from this point the frontier line 
separating the regency from the Egyptian dominions runs south 
so as to leave the Siwa oasis on the Egyptian side of the line. 

South of the Aujila depression the land rises steadily to a height of 
nearly 1200 feet in the Kufra oases, which lie between 21 and 24 E., 
north of the Tropic of Cancer and due east of Fezzan. 
i Kufra .p^e g rol ,p consists of five distinct oases in the heart of 
Oases. t j le Libyan desert Taizerbo, Zighen, Bu-Zeima, 
Erbena and Kebabo which extend for a distance of 200 m. north- 
west and south-east, and have a collective area of 7000 sq. m. and a 
population of 6000 or 7000 Arabo-Berber nomads. Good water is ob- 
tained in abundance from the underground reservoirs, which lie within 
a few feet of the surface, and support over a million date-palms. 
Kufra, that is, " Infidels " (in reference to the now extinct pagan 
Tibu aborigines), is a centre of the Senussite brotherhood, whose 
zawyo. (convent) at Jof, in Kebabo, ranks in importance with that 
of Jarabub, their chief station in Cyrenaica. This circumstance, 
together with the great fertility of the group and its position midway 
on the caravan route between Cyrenaica and Wadai, imparts excep- 
tional importance to these oases. Formerly the Turks did not exer- 
cise authority in Kufra, the influence of the Senussi being paramount. 
Kufra, moreover, is outside the limits usually assigned to Tripoli. 
But in 1910 Ottoman troops were in occupation of the oases. 

Ghat stands 2400 feet above the sea, on the Wadi Aghelad in 

the Igharghar basin, and consequently belongs, not to the Fezzan 

. depression, but to the Saharan plateau. The Aghelad, or 

" Passage," trends north to the lasawan valley along the 

east foot of the Tasili plateau, that is, the divide between the waters 

xxvn. 10 



which formerly flowed north to the Mediterranean, west to the 
Atlantic, and south to the Niger and Chad basins. Ghat, which is 
skirted eastwards by the Akakus range, is a sandy plain dotted 
over with clumps or groves of date-palms. In the centre is an open 
space where is held a great annual fair, and to this, combined with 
its position on one of the caravan routes across the desert, the oasis 
all its importance. For several years, at the end of the 



and beginning of the 2Oth centuries, the only caravan route used from 
the Niger countries to Tripoli was by way of Ghat, disturbances 
in Bornu and raids by Tuareg having closed all other routes. 
There is, in the oasis, a population of perhaps 10,000, nearly all 
Ihajenen Tuareg, about half of whom live in the town of Ghat 
(350 m. south of Ghadames and 250 south-west of Murzuk), which 
appears to be a relatively modern place, successor to Rapsa, a great 
commercial centre and military station under the Roman Empire. 

Ghadames, on the contrary, is ancient, being the Cydamus of the 
Garamantes, the capture of which by L. Cornelius Balbus Minor 
led to the overthrow of their empire. The oasis, . . 
which stands on the cretaceous Tinghert plateau 300 m. 
south-west of Tripoli, and 1200 ft. above the sea, is enclosed by 
a circular rampart over 3 m. in circumference. The town, which 
occupies the south-west corner of the enclosure, has a population 
of about 7000. Owing to its perennial springs and artesian wells, 
the oasis yields an abundance of dates, figs, apricots and vegetables, 
besides some wheat, barley and millet. It occupies a highly advan- 
tageous position at the converging-point of several caravan routes, 
and has extensive trading relations with the markets of Tripoli, 
Tunisia and the Sudan. 

Climate. The climate of Tripoli is very variable ; cold nights often 
succeed warm days. The rainfall in the northern regions varies 
from 5 in. to 15 in. a year December, January and February being 
the rainy season. The mean temperature on the coast lands is 68; 
it is very much higher in the Hammada, where rain seldom falls. 

Flora and Fauna. The flora in the greater part of the regency is 
Saharan, the date-palm being the characteristic tree. The gum- 
yielding acacia, the tamarisk, sapan, mastic and pistachio are found 
m the wadis, and ski (wormwood) grows in clusters on the stony 
plateaus. In the Barca plateau and in parts of the coast belt the 
flora is more varied, resembling that of the Mediterranean countries 
generally. In these regions the laurel, myrtle and other evergreens 
are fairly common, and the oak, cypress, pine, carob and other 
trees occur, notably the olive, found also in the oases. Other fruit 
trees are the almond, fig, pomegranate, quince and apricot. Vines 
flourish in a few districts. 

The larger wild animals are scarcely represented in Tripoli. The 
wild boar is found in Jebel Akhdar, the hyena, fox and jackal in 
the deserts. The mouflon, gazelle, hares, rabbits and marmots are 
among the commoner animals. Reptiles include the horned viper 
and the gecko. The characteristic animal is the camel, found only 
in the domesticated state. Horses and cattle are bred, but the horses 
are not numerous; goats and a fat-tailed variety of sheep are kept 
in large numbers. Birds include the ostrich, vultures, hoopoes, 
wood pigeons and doves. Bees are numerous and honey forms an 
article of export. 

The explorations of Henri Duveyrier, Victor Largeau, Erwin 
von Bary and H. S. Cowper during the second half of the ipth 
century showed that Tripoli was not only inhabited lahabi- 
by primitive man, but was the seat of a flourishing taats. 
Neolithic culture, comparable to and in many respects resem- 
bling that of Iberia, Brittany and the British Isles. As in 
other parts of Mauretania, many now arid and uninhabitable 
wastes are strewn with monolithic and other remains, which 
occur in great variety of form and in vast numbers, as many as 
10,000, chiefly of the menhir type, having been enumerated in 
the Mejana steppe alone. All kinds of megalithic structures 
are found dolmens and circles like Stonehenge, cairns, under- 
ground cells excavated in the live rock, barrows topped with 
huge slabs, cup stones, mounds in the form of step pyramids, and 
sacrificial altars. Most remarkable are the " Senams," or tri- 
lithons of the Jebel Ms!d and other districts, some still standing, 
some in ruins, the purpose of which has not been determined. 
They occur either singly or in rows, and consist of two square 
uprights 10 ft. high standing on a common pedestal and supporting 
a huge transverse beam. In the Terrgurt valley " there had been 
originally no less than eighteen or twenty megalithic trilithons, 
in a line, each with its massive altar placed before it " (Cowper). 
There is reason to believe that the builders of these prehistoric 
monuments are represented by the Berber people, who still 
form the substratum, and in some places the bulk, of the in- 
habitants of Tripoli proper. But even here the Berbers have 
for the most part been driven to the Ghurian and Tarhona 
uplands by the Arab nomads, who now occupy the Jefara flats 



290 



TRIPOLI 



about the capital, and are in almost exclusive possession of 
Cyrenaica, Marmarica, and the Aujila oases. In Fezzan the 
Saharan Berbers (Tinylkum Tuareg) are dominant, but are 
here largely intermingled with Negro or Negroid intruders 
from the Sudan. But even in the uplands many of the Berbers 
have been Arabized, and Cowper describes the people of the 
Tarbona heights as " pure-bred Arabs." Other early intruders 
are the Jews, some of whom arrived from Egypt in the time of 
the Ptolemies, and still lead the life of troglodytes in the lime- 
stone caves of the Ghurian escarpments. They are also 
numerous in the large towns, where there are also colonies of 
Turks, and Maltese, Italian, Cretan and other South European 
traders and artisans. 

On the other hand, no trace can be now detected either of 
the Greeks who colonized Cyrenaica in the ;th century B.C., 
Tripoli and or f the Phoenicians who at a still earlier date 
other founded the three great cities of Oea, Sabrata and 
Towns. Leptis Magna (q.v.), from which the western region 
projecting seawards between the two Syrtes took the name 
of Tripolitana. Later, when Oea, which stood between 
the two others, was made the capital of the province it was 
called Tripolis, the " Three Cities," as it were, rolled into one, 
and this name it has retained since Roman times, being now 
distinguished from the Tripolis of Syria as West Tripolis, the 
Tarabulus el-Gharb of the Turks and Arabs. Tripoli (q.v.), 
the capital of the province, is thus one of the oldest places in 
the world, and no doubt owes its stability in large measure to 
its position over against Sicily at the northern terminus of 
three great historic caravan routes, one of which runs due south 
to Lake Chad through Fezzan and Bilma, that is, across the 
narrowest part of the Sahara; another runs south-west through 
Ghadames and Ghat to Timbuktu and Kano, and the third 
south by east through Sokna to Wadai and Darfur. East 
of Tripoli are the small seaports of Horns (Khoms) and 
Lebda. 

In Barca the largest town is Bengazi (q.v.) , the ancient Berenice, 
at the southern extremity of a headland which formerly enclosed 
a spacious natural haven on the north-east side of the Gulf 
of Sidra. But the harbour has been partly filled up by the 
ruins of a large fortress, and is inaccessible to vessels drawing 
over 6 or 7 ft. East of Bengazi are Merj, the ancient Barca 
(q.v.), and the exposed roadstead of Derna (q.v.). Marsa-Susa, 
the ancient Apollonia, lies under the Ras Sem headland, and 
was the emporium of the neighbouring city of Cyrene (Ain 
Shahat-Grenna). The Turkish government displayed much 
activity in this fertile and healthy district in the period 1897- 
1903. To it were removed many of the Moslem inhabitants 
of Crete dissatisfied with the autonomous regime established 
in that island in 1898. 

Agriculture and Trade. Tripoli proper is purely an agricultural 
and trading country; it possesses no manufactures of importance, 
nor exploited mineral wealth save salt. The uncertainty of the rain- 
fall, the apparent increasing poverty of the soil and the heavy 
taxation of the peasants reduced agriculture at the close of the igth 
century to a lower point than theretofore recorded. The cultivation 
of wheat was largely supplanted by that of barley the staple food 
of the peasantry, whilst esparto grass, a fibre growing wild in the 
rural districts within the cereal zone, acquired the chief place among 
local exports. The importation of foreign flour, begun in 1881, 
assumed large dimensions in providing for the deficiencies occasioned 
by ever-recurring failures of the wheat and barley harvests. Besides 
wheat and barley the principal products of the country are esparto 
grass, olives, saffron, figs and dates these last being perhaps the 
finest in North Africa. Fruit also is abundant in certain parts, 
including oranges and lemons, and so are many kinds of vegetables. 
There is a lucrative sponge fishery, a monopoly of Greek traders, 
over 100 barques being engaged in the industry. 

Trade, before the suppression of the oversea slave traffic, was 
largely in negroes, brought across the Sahara with other Sudan 
produce, for the Turkish market. It now consists chiefly in the 
export of esparto, barley in years of plenty, eggs, cattle, sponges, 
mats and henna, all articles of local production, and, from Central 
Africa, ivory, ostrich feathers, tanned goat-skins and a little gold 
dust. The cattle go mainly to Malta, the esparto, barley, eggs and 
ivory mostly to England, the feathers to Paris and London, and the 
skins to Nejfc York. The henna and mats are sent to Turkey, 
Egypt, Tunis and Malta. The exports of esparto grass vary with 



the success or failure of the cereal crops; thus in 1903 the value of 
barley exported was 70,800, and of esparto 76,400. In 1904 
the exports of barley fell to 3,200 and those of esparto rose to 
126,000. From Bengazi hundreds of thousands of sheep are 
exported to Egypt, Malta and Crete. With Egypt there is an 
overland as well as sea trade. The caravan trade, which in the forty 
years ending 1901 had an annual average value of 114,000, is so 
costly that only articles yielding considerable profit can be carried; 
the desert trade is, moreover, being deflected to the Niger and the 
Guinea coast. Tripoli imports, chiefly, food-stuffs (flour, rice, 
sugar, tea) cotton goods, tobacco, metals and hardware About 
two-thirds of the imports are from Great Britain. Exclusive of 
Bengazi the value of trade, imports and exports combined, was for 
the last thirty years of the igth century some 770,000 per annum. 
The trade of Bengazi and Derna, chiefly with Great Britain and 
Malta, largely increased at the beginning of the 2Oth century. For 
the five years 1902-1906 the average annual value of imports was 
214,000, of exports 455,700. From these ports the chief exports 
are sheep and goats, oxen, wool and skins, barley and camels the 
last sent overland to Alexandria. Food-stuffs, tea, olive oil and 
cotton goods are the chief imports. There is an active contraband 
trade with Greece and Malta in firearms and gunpowder. 

Barley is the chief food of the people both in Tripoli proper and 
in Bengazi. The nomad Arabs possess thousands of camels, cattle 
and sheep. They weave rough woollen garments, make reed matting, 
carpets of alternative strips of woven goat and woven camel hair, 
and manufacture butter. Olive and date-palm trees are cultivated 
in large numbers. Tea has become a favourite beverage both in 
the regency and with the Sudanese. Tea, sugar and cottons form 
the staple articles of exchange with the Sudanese for their produce. 

Communications. The town of Tripoli is connected by telegraph 
cable with Malta, and telegraph lines run inland from that town to 
Murzuk, Bengazi, Derna and other towns in the regency, and to 
Gabes in Tunisia. A wireless telegraphic apparatus connects Derna 
and Rhodes. There are regular sailings between Malta and Tripoli 
and between Tunis and Tripoli. Italian vessels also call regularly 
at Bengazi and Derna. The shipping trade is mostly in the hands 
of Italians who have more than half the total tonnage and French, 
British shipping coming third. Inland communication is almost 
entirely by camel caravans. 

, Administration. Thewi/j or governor-general, who exercises chief 
authority both civil and military, is appointed by the sultan of 
Turkey and holds office at his majesty's pleasure. The system of 
government, executive and judicial, resembles that of other Turkish 
provinces, but with some modifications in the direction of local 
autonomy. Bengazi or Barca is a separate sub-province with an 
administration responsible direct to Constantinople. Revenue is 
derived chiefly from customs, tithes and a poll tax called verghi. 
Owing to expenditure on the army, some 10,000 Turkish troops being 
stationed in the regency, the receipts from revenue are generally 
below the cost of administration. The receipts in the period 1900- 
1905 averaged about 150,000 a year and the expenditure 170,000, 
of which amount some 100,000 was on military requirements. 

History. The early history of Cyrenaica and Tripoli is 
distinct though similar. Cyrenaica was first colonized by 
Greeks, afterwards it fell under the sway of the Ptolemies 
and from them passed to the Romans (see CYRENAICA). Tripoli, 
on the other hand, was originally a Phoenician colony (vide ante, 
Towns). Later it was dependent on Carthage and followed 
its fortunes. From the Romans the province received its 
present name. In the sth century both Tripoli and Cyrenaica 
were conquered by the Vandals, whose power was destroyed 
by the Byzantine general Belisarius in the following century. 
In the middle of the 7th century the whole country was overrun 
by the Arabs, and Christianity gave place to Islam. From this 
period, for many centuries, Tripoli was subject to the successive 
rulers of Tunisia. It was pillaged in 1146 by the Normans of 
Sicily. In 1321 the Beni Ammar established an independent 
dynasty, which lasted with an interval (1354-1369), during 
which two sovereigns of the Beni Mekki reigned, until 1401 
when Tripoli was reconquered by the Tunisians. In 1510 
Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain took Tripoli, and in 1528 it 
was given to the knights of St John, who were expelled in 1553 
by the Turkish corsairs Dragut and Sinan. Dragut, who 
afterwards fell in Malta, lies buried in a much venerated fcubba 
close to one of the mosques. After his decease the connexion 
between Tripoli and Constantinople seems to have been con- 
siderably weakened. But the Tripolitan pirates soon became 
the terror and scourge of the Mediterranean; half the states 
of Europe seem at one time or other to have sent their fleets 
to bombard the capital. In 1714 Ahmed Pasha Caramanli 
achieved practical independence and he and his descendants 



TRIPOLI 



291 






governed Tripoli as a regency, the claims of the Porte being 
recognized by the payment of tribute, or " presents." In 
the early part of the igth century the regency, owing to its 
piratical practices, was twice involved in war with the United 
States. In May 1801 the pasha demanded from America an 
increase in the tribute ($83,000) which the government of that 
country had paid since 1796 for the protection of their com- 
merce from piracy. The demand was refused and a naval 
force was sent from America to blockade Tripoli. The war 
dragged on for four years, the Americans in 1803 losing the 
frigate " Philadelphia," the commander (Captain William 
Bainbridge) and the whole crew being made prisoners. The 
most picturesque incident in the war was the expedition under- 
taken by William Eaton (g.v.), with the object of replacing 
upon the Tripolitan throne an exiled pasha, elder brother of 
the reigning sovereign, who had promised to accede to all the 
wishes of the United States. Eaton at the head of a motley 
assembly of 500 men marched across the desert from Alexandria, 
and with the aid of American ships succeeded in capturing 
Derna. Soon afterwards (June 3, 1805) peace was con- 
cluded, the reigning pasha relinquishing his demands but 
receiving $60,000 (about 12,000) as ransom for the "Phila- 
delphia " prisoners. In 1815, in consequence of further out- 
rages, Captains Bainbridge and Stephen Decatur, at the head 
of an American squadron, again visited Tripoli and forced 
the pasha to comply with the demands of America. In 1835 
the Turks took advantage of a civil war to reassert their direct 
authority, and since that date Tripoli has been an integral 
part of the Ottoman Empire, rebellions in 1842 and 1844 being 
unsuccessful. After the occupation of Tunisia by the French 
(1881) the Turks increased their garrison in Tripoli considerably. 
After the Anglo-French agreement of 1889 recognizing the 
central Sahara as within the French sphere, various disputes 
arose as to the extent of the Tripolitan hinterland, which the 
French endeavoured to circumscribe (see TUNISIA). The French, 
on their part, believed that their opponents in Wadai and else- 
where in the central Sudan received support from the Turks. 

The khfuan (ikhwdn) or semi-religious semi-political Moslem 
fraternities are powerful in Tripoli. The most remarkable is 
that of the Senussites. The explorers Rohlfs, Nachtigal and 
Duveyrier found their passage barred by Senussite agents. 
(See SENUSSI.) 

AUTHORITIES. Sir R. L. Playfair, Bibliography of the Barbary 
States, pt. i., " Tripoli and the Cyrenaica " (London, 1892); H. M. 
de Mathuisieulx, A trovers la Tripolitaine (Paris, 1903) ; Sheik el 
Hachaichi, Voyage au pays des Senoussia a travers la Tripolitaine 
(Paris, 1903) ; G. de Martino, Cirene e Cartagine (Bologna, 1908) ; 
A. Medana, // Vilayet di Tripoli di Barberia nett" anno 1902 (Italian 
Foreign Office, Rome, 1904) ; G. Rohlfs, Von Tripolis nach Alex- 
andrien (Bremen, 1871); and Kufra: Reise von Tripolis nach der 
Oase Kiifra (Leipzig, 1881); M. Bisson, La Tripolitaine et la Tunisie 
(Paris, 1881); M. Fournel, La Tripolitaine, &c., (Paris, 1887); 
F. Borsari, Geografia, &c., della Tripolitania, &c. (Naples, 1888); 
H. S. Cowper, Tlie Hill of lite Graces (London, 1897); " Notes on a 
Journey in Tripoli," Geographical Journal (February, 1896); and 
" Further Notes on the Tripoli Hill Range," Geographical Journal 
(June, 1897) ; P. V. de Regny, " La Tripolitania," in La Rassegna 
italiana for 1908; F. W. and H. W. Beechey, Proceedings of the 
Expedition to Explore the Northern Coast of Africa from Tripoli 
Eastwards (London, 1828). Admiral W. H. Smyth's Mediterranean, 
(London, 1854), contains a description of the coast. The Letters 
(London, 1819) of Richard Tully, consul at Tripoli from 1783 to 
1793. throw a strange and vivid light on Tripolitan life during the 
1 8th century. See also the British Foreign Office reports on the 
trade of Tripoli and Bengazi and consult the bibliography under 
CYRENAICA. (A.H.K. ; F.R..C.) 

TRIPOLI (Tarabulus el-Gharb, i.e. Tripoli of the West), capital 
of the Turkish vilayet of Tripoli, North Africa, situated in 
32 53' 40" N. and 13 n' 32" E. on a promontory stretching 
out into the Mediterranean and forming a small crescent-shaped 
bay which shelters the harbour from the north winds. Its 
crenellated enceinte wall has the form of an irregular pentagon. 
A line of small ancient forts is supposed to protect one side of 
the harbour, and the citadel the other. This citadel, dating 
from the time of the Spanish occupation, now serves as the 
residence of the governor. The harbour has a depth of water 



varying from 15 to 24 ft.; steamers drawing 21 ft. can anchor 
inside, but shoals render the entry difficult. At the quayside 
the depth of water is from 2 to 5 ft. only. The desert almost 
touches the western side of the city, while on the east is the 
verdant oasis of Meshia, where are still to be seen the tombs 
of the Caramanlian sultanas and the twelve-domed fcubba of 
Sidi Hamonda. The aspect of the city is picturesque; the 
houses (many possessing beautiful gardens) rise in terraces 
from the seashore. The Turkish quarter contains numerous 
mosques whose minarets and cupolas break the monotony 
of the flat-roofed and whitewashed houses. The Grand 
mosque and the Pasha mosque (originally a church built by the 
Spaniards) both have octagonal minarets. By the harbour 
are several houses built in European style, but the general 
aspect of the city is Oriental. Many of the streets are arcaded; 
the suks or markets are the scene of much animation. Near 
the port stands a Roman triumphal arch. This arch, quadri- 
frontal in form, is made entirely of white marble, the blocks 
being held together with cramps, and is richly embellished 
with sculpture. It was begun in the reign of the emperor 
Antoninus, according to a still unmutilated dedicatory inscrip- 
tion, and finished in that of Marcus Aurelius. In the arch, 
now partly buried in debris, a cabaret has been installed. 

A few small manufactures of carpets and silks as well as 
" Cordova leather " are carried on, but Tripoli is essentially 
a trading town, being the chief Mediterranean gateway to the 
Sahara. The population, about 60,000, is very mixed 
Berber, Arab, Turk, Jew, Maltese, Italian and Negro. The 
Maltese inhabitants number about 4000, the Italians 1000 and 
the Jews 8000. The local trade is almost entirely in the hands 
of the Jews and Maltese; the shipping in the port is largely 
Italian. 

See H. M. de Mathuisieulx, A travers la Tripolitaine (Paris, 1903). 

TRIPOLI, or TARABULUS (anc. Tripolis), the chief town 
of a sanjak of the same name in the Beirut vilayet of Syria, 
situated about 2 m. inland from its port, al-Mina. The ancient 
Phoenician city, which we know only by its Greek name of 
Tripolis, was the seat in Persian times of the federal council 
of Sidon, Tyre and Aradus, each of which cities had its 
separate quarter in the " triple town." In the 2nd and 
ist centuries B.C., under Seleucid and Roman influences suc- 
cessively, it struck autonomous coins. These are succeeded 
by imperial coins ranging from 32 B.C. to A.D. 221. About 
450, and again in 550, it was destroyed by earthquake. The 
Arabs took it in 638 after a prolonged siege, the inhabi- 
tants withdrawing by sea. Moawiya recruited the population 
by a colony of Jews and gave it fortifications and a garrison 
against the naval attacks of the Greeks, who, notwithstanding, 
retook it for a brief space in the time of Abdalmalik. It was 
again taken by the Greeks in the war of 966-69 and was 
besieged by Basil II. in 995, after which date it was held by a 
garrison in the pay of the Fatimite caliphs of Egypt, who treated 
the city with favour and maintained in it a trading fleet. At 
this time, according to the description of Nasir Khosrau, who 
visited it in 1047, it lay on the peninsula of Al-Mma, bathed on 
three sides by the sea, and had about 20,000 inhabitants and 
important industries of sugar and paper-making. Of the great 
sea-walls and towers there are still imposing remains. From 
this date till it was taken by the crusaders, after a five years' 
siege, in 1109, the ruling family was that of 'Ammar, which 
founded a library of over 100,000 volumes. Under the crusaders 
Tripoli continued to flourish, exported glass to Venice, and had 
4000 looms. In 1289 it was taken and destroyed by the sultan 
Kola'un of Egypt, and a new city was begun on the present site, 
which rapidly rose to importance. Its medieval prosperity 
has obliterated most relics of remoter antiquity. Tripoli 
had a troubled existence during the period of Ottoman 
weakness (the i8th and early igth centuries), being frequently 
in dispute between the pasha of Aleppo and the rebel pashas 
of Acre. After the Egyptian conquest of Syria it was made 
the capital of a province in 1834; but in 1840 it reverted to 
the minor position which it now holds. It is connected by a 



292 



TRIPOLITSA TRISTAN 



carriage road with Horns and by a steam tramway with Beirut, 
and is the natural outlet of the upper Orontes valley; but its 
inland trade has been greatly damaged by the Horns-Aleppo 
railway. From its own district, however, it exports silk, 
tobacco, oil, soap, sponges, eggs and fruit, and is a prosperous 
and growing place with a large Christian element in its popu- 
lation (about 30,000, the port-town included). It is served 
regularly by the Levantine lines of steamers. (D. G. H.) 

TRIPOLITSA, officially Tripolis, a town of Greece, capital 
of the nomarchy of Arcadia, and the seat of an archbishop, 
situated in a plain over 2,000 ft. above sea-level, 22 m. 
S.W. of Argos. The name has reference to the three ancient 
cities of Mantineia, Pallantium and Tegea, of which Tripolitsa 
is the modern representative. It does not stand on any ancient 
site. Before the war of independence it was the capital of the 
Morea and the seat of a pasha, with about 20,000 inhabitants; 
but in 1821 it was taken and sacked by the insurgents, and in 
1825 its ruin was completed by Ibrahim Pasha. The town 
has since been rebuilt, and contains 10,789 inhabitants (1907). 

TRIPTOLEMUS, in Greek mythology, the inventor of agri- 
culture, first priest of Demeter, and founder of the Eleusinian 
mysteries. His name is probably connected with the " triple 
ploughing" (rpls, iroXeic), recommended in Hesiod's Works 
and Days and celebrated at an annual festival. It may 
be noted that in some traditions he is called the son of 
Dysaules (possibly identical with diaulos, the " double furrow " 
traced by the ox), and that, according to the Latin poets (e.g. 
Virgil, Georgics, i. 19), he is the inventor of the plough. 1 
Later, as the god of ploughing, he is confounded with Osiris, 
and on a vase-painting at St Petersburg he is represented 
leaving Egypt in his dragon-drawn chariot on his journey 
round the world. According to the best known Attic legend 
(Apollodorus, i. 5, 2) Triptolemus was the son of Celeus, king of 
Eleusis, and Metaneira. Demeter, during her search for her 
daughter Persephone, arrived at Eleusis in the form of an 
old woman. Here she was hospitably received by Celeus, 
and out of gratitude would have made his son Demophon 
immortal by anointing him with ambrosia and destroying his 
mortal parts by fire; but Metaneira, happening to see what was 
going on, screamed out and disturbed the goddess. Demophon 
was burnt to death, and Demeter, to console his parents, took 
upon herself the care of Triptolemus, instructed him in everything 
connected with agriculture, and presented him with a wonder- 
ful chariot, in which he travelled all over the world, spreading 
the knowledge of the precious art and the blessings of civiliza- 
tion. In another account (Hyginus, Fab. 147) Triptolemus 
is the son of Eleusinus, and takes the place of Demophon in 
the above narrative. Celeus endeavoured to kill him on his 
return, but Demeter intervened and forced him to surrender 
his country to Triptolemus, who named it Eleusis after his 
father and instituted the festival of Demeter called Thes- 
mophoria. In the Homeric hymn to Demeter, Triptolemus 
is simply one of the nobles of Eleusis, who was instructed by 
the goddess in her rites and ceremonies. The Attic legend of 
Eleusis also represented him as one of the judges of the under- 
world. His adventures on his world-wide mission formed the 
subject of a play of the same name by Sophocles. In works 
of art Triptolemus appears mounted on a chariot (winged 
or drawn by dragons, symbols of the fruitfulness of the earth), 
with Demeter and Persephone handing him the implements of 
agriculture. His attributes were a sceptre of ears of corn, 
sometimes a drinking-cup, which is being filled by Demeter. 
His altar and threshing-floor were shown on the Rarian plain 
near Eleusis; hence he is sometimes called the son of Rarus. 

See the Homeric hymn to Demeter, 153, 474; Ovid, Metam. 
v. 642-661; Virgil, Georgirs. i. 19, and Servius ad loc.', Hyginus, 
Astronom. ii. 14; Dion Halic. i. 12; Preller, Griechische Mythologie 
(4th ed., 1894). 

TRIPTYCH (Gr. Tpiirrvxos, three-fold, made in three layers, 
rpi-, rpeis, three; irrux'7, a fold, irrvcata>, to fold, double over), 

1 Other suggested derivations are from rptfiu, ai>X<u (AXai), the 
" grain crusher," or from irt>\tiuK (= " triple fighter," see DEMETER). 




a painting, carving or other decorative design, executed on 
three compartments or panels, so constructed that the 
two wings may fold on hinges over the centre-piece; the 
backs of the wing-pieces are often also painted, carved or 
otherwise decorated. The subject of the side-pieces are usually 
appropriate and subsidiary to, that of the centre. The trip- 
tych is most frequently designed as an altar-piece. An earlier 
use of the term is for a set of three wooden or ivory writing- 
tablets, hinged or otherwise fastened together, the central 
tablet being waxed on both sides for the impression of the 
stilus or writing implement, the outer tablets only on the 
inside. The three tablets thus formed a small book. 

TRISECTRIX, a curve which is a variety of the limacon 
(q.v.) of Pascal, and named from its 
property of trisecting an angle. The polar 
equation is r=i + 2 cos 6 and the form 
of the curve is shown in the figure. To 
trisect an angle by means of this curve, o v 
describe a circle with centre O and radius 
OE, and let the given angle which is to be 
trisected be laid off from OE and cut the 
circle at S; let the chord ES cut the tri- 
sectrix in J. Then OJ trisects the given angle. 

TRISTAN, or TRISTRAM, one of the most famous heroes of 
medieval romance. In 'the earlier versions of his story he is the 
son of Rivalin, a prince of North West Britain, and Blancheflor, 
sister to King Mark of Cornwall. Rivalin is .killed in battle, 
and Blancheflor, after giving birth to a son, dies of grief. The 
boy is brought up as his own by Roald, or Rual, seneschal of 
the kingdom, who has him carefully trained in all chivalric and 
courtly arts. With the possible exception of Horn, Tristan is 
by far the most accomplished hero in the whole range of knightly 
romance; a finished musician, linguist and chess-player, no 
one can rival him in more knightly arts, in horsemanship or 
fencing. He has, besides, the whole science of " venerie " 
at his finger-tips; in fact Tristan is the " Admirable Crichton " 
of medieval romance, there is nothing he cannot do, and that 
superlatively well it must be regretfully admitted that he is 
also a most accomplished liar! Attracted by his gifts, pirates 
from the North Sea kidnap the boy, but terrified by the storms 
which subsequently beset them, put him ashore on the coast of 
Cornwall, whence he finds his way to the court of his uncle 
King Mark. Here we have a first proof of his talent for 
romancing; for alike to two pilgrims who show him the road 
and to the huntsmen of Mark's court (whom he instructs in 
the rightful method of cutting up and disposing the quarry), 
Tristan invents different, and most detailed, fictions of his land 
and parentage. He becomes a great favourite at court, and 
when Roald, who has sought his young lord far and wide, at 
last reaches Tintagel, Mark welcomes the revelation of Tristan's 
identity with joy. Cornwall is at this time in subjection to 
the king of Ireland, Gormond, and every third year must pay 
tribute; the Irish champion, Morolt, brother to the queen, 
arrives to claim his toll of thirty youths and as many maidens. 
The Cornish knights (who in Arthurian romance are always 
represented as hopeless cowards), dare not contest his claim 
but Tristan challenges him to single combat, slays him and 
frees Cornwall from tribute. Unfortunately he himself has 
been wounded in the fight, and that by a poisoned weapon; 
and none but the queen of Ireland, Is61t, or Iseult, possessed 
the secret of healing. Tristan causes himself to be placed in 
a boat with his harp, and committed to the waves, which carry 
him to the shores of Ireland. There he gives himself out for 
a minstrel, Tantris, and as such is tended and healed by Queen 
Iseult and her daughter of the same name. When recovered 
he makes a plausible excuse for leaving Ireland (pretending he 
has left a wife in his native land) and returns to Cornwall. 
His uncle receives him with joy, but- the barons of the court 
are bitterly jealous and plot his destruction. They persuade 
Mark that he should marry, and Tristan, who has sung the 
praises of the princess Iseult, is despatched to Ireland to demand 
her hand, a most dangerous errand, as .Gorrriond, incensed at 



TRISTAN 



293 









the death of Morolt, has sworn to slay any Cornish knight 
who sets foot in Ireland. Tristan undertakes the mission, 
though he stipulates that he shall be accompanied by twenty 
of the barons, greatly to their disgust. His good fortune, 
however, does not forsake him; he lands in Ireland just as a 
fierce dragon is devastating the country, and the king has pro- 
mised the hand of the princess to the slayer of the mpnster. 
Tristan achieves this feat, but, overcome by the venom exhaled 
from the dragon's tongue, which he has cut out, falls in a swoon. 
The seneschal of the court, a coward who has been watching 
for such an opportunity, cuts off the dragon's head, and, pre- 
senting it to the king, claims the reward, much to the dismay 
of Iseult and her mother. Suspecting that the seneschal is 
not really the slayer of the dragon, mother and daughter go 
secretly to the scene of the combat, find Tristan, whom they 
recognize as the minstrel, Tantris, and bring him back to the 
palace. They tend him in secret, but one day, through the 
medium of a splinter from his sword, which had remained fixed 
in Mor61t's skull, and been preserved by the queen, the identity 
of Tantris and Tristan is made clear. The princess would slay 
him, but is withheld by her mother, who sees they have need 
of Tristan's aid to unmask the seneschal. This is done in the 
presence of the court; Tristan is pardoned, formally declares 
his errand, and receives the hand of Iseult for his uncle King 
Mark. 

Tristan and Iseult set sail for Cornwall, Iseult accompanied 
by her waiting-woman, Brangaene (who, in some versions, is 
also a kinswoman), to whose care the queen, skilled in magic 
arts, confides a love-potion. This is intended to be drunk 
by king and queen on their bridal night and will ensure their 
undying love for each other. Unhappily, on the voyage, by 
some mistake (accounted for in different ways), Tristan and 
Iseult drink the love drink, and are forthwith seized with a 
fatal passion each for the other. From this moment begins 
a long-drawn-out series of tricks and subterfuges, undertaken 
with the view of deceiving Mark, whose suspicions, excited by 
sundry of his courtiers, from time to time get beyond his control, 
and are as often laid to rest by some clever ruse on the part of 
his nephew, or his wife, ably seconded by Brangaene. In the 
poems, Mark is, as a rule, represented in a favourable light, a 
gentle, kindly man, deeply attached to both Tristan and Iseult, 
and only too ready to allow his suspicions to be dispelled by 
any plausible explanation they may choose to offer. At the 
same time the fact that the lovers are the helpless victims of 
the fatal force of a magic spell is insisted upon, in order that 
their career of falsehood and deception may not deprive them 
of sympathy. 

One episode, in especial, has been most charmingly treated 
by the poets. Mark, in one of his fits of jealousy, banishes 
Tristan and Iseult from the court; the two fly to the woods, 
where they lead an idyllic life, blissfully happy in each other's 
company. Mark, hunting in the forest, comes upon them 
sleeping in a cave, and as Tristan, who knows that the king is 
in the neighbourhood, has placed his sword between them, is 
convinced of their innocence. Through a cleft in the rock 
a ray of light falls upon Iseult's face, Mark stops up the crevice 
with his glove (or with grass and flowers), and goes his way, 
determined to recall his wife and nephew. He does so, and 
the same drama of plot and counter-plot is resumed. Event- 
ually Mark surprises the two under circumstances which leave 
no possible room for doubt as to their mutual relation; Tristan 
flies for his life and takes refuge with Hoel, duke of Britanny. 
After some time, hearing nothing of Queen Iseult, and believing 
himself forgotten, he weds the duke's daughter, Iseult of the 
white hand, but weds her only in name, remaining otherwise 
faithful to Iseult of Ireland. Later on he returns to Cornwall 
in disguise, and has more than one interview with his mistress. 
Ultimately, while assisting his brother-in-law in an intrigue 
with the wife of a neighbouring knight, Tristan is wounded 
by a poisoned arrow; unable to find healing, and being near 
to death, he sends a messenger to bring Queen Iseult to his 
aid; if successful the ship which brings her is to have a white 



sail, if she refuses to come, a black. Iseult of the white hand 
overhears this, and when the ship returns, bringing Iseult to 
her lover's aid, either through jealousy or by pure inadvertence 
(both versions are given), she tells Tristan that the sail is black, 
whereon, despairing of seeing his love again, the hero turns 
his face to the wall and dies. Iseult of Ireland lands to find 
the city in mourning for its lord; hastening to the bier, she 
lays herself down beside Tristan, and with one last embrace 
expires. (One dramatic version represents her as finding the 
wife seated by the bier, and ordering her away, " Why sit ye 
there, ye who have slain him ? Arise, and begone ! ") The 
bodies are sent to Cornwall, and Mark, learning the truth, has 
a fair chapel erected and lays them in tombs, one at each side 
of the building, when a sapling springs from the heart of Tristan, 
and reaching its boughs across the chapel, makes its way into 
the grave of Iseult. However often the tree may be cut down 
it never fails to grow again. (In some versions it is respectively 
a vine and a rose which grow from either tomb and interlace 
midway.) 

We need have little wonder that this beautiful love-story 
was extremely popular throughout the middle ages. Medieval 
literature abounds in references to Tristan and Iseult, and their 
adventures were translated into many tongues and are found 
depicted in carvings and tapestries. Probably the story was 
first told in the form of short lais, each recounting some special 
episode, such as the lai known as the chewefemlle; how old 
these may be it is impossible to say. Professor Zimmer, in his 
examination of the story, sees reason to believe that the main 
incidents may repose on a genuine historic tradition, dating 
back to the Qth or loth century, the period of Viking rule in 
Ireland. The name of Iseult's father, Gormond, is distinctly 
Scandinavian; she, herself, is always noted for her golden hair, 
and it is quite a misrendering of the tradition to speak of her 
as a dark-haired Irish princess. In the German tradition 
she is die lichte, Iseult of Britanny die schwarze Is61t; 
it is this latter who is the Celtic princess. The name Tristan 
is now generally admitted to be the equivalent of the Pictish 
Drostan, and on the whole, the story is now very generally 
allowed to be of insular, probably of British, origin. 

Some time in the i2th century the story was wrought into 
consecutive poems. The latest theory, championed with 
great skill by M. Bedier, is that there was one poem, and one 
only, at the root of the various versions preserved to us, and 
that that poem, composed in England, probably by an Anglo- 
Norman, was a work of such force and genius that it determined 
for all time the form of the Tristan story. The obvious objection 
to this view is that a work of such importance, composed at 
so comparatively late a date, is scarcely likely to have perished 
so completely as to leave no trace; if there were one poet 
held as an authority, the name of that poet would surely have 
been mentioned. Moreover the evidence of the author of the 
principal Tristan poem preserved to us points in another 
direction. This poet was an Anglo-Norman named Thomas; 
and, although little over 3000 lines of his poem have been 
preserved, we have three translations; a German, by Gottfried 
von Strassburg; a Scandinavian, by a certain Brother Robert; 
and an English, by Thomas, sometimes identified with Thomas 
of Ercildoune, though this is doubtful. With the help of the 
extant fragments and these translations We can form a very 
good idea of the character and content of Thomas's work, a 
task now rendered far more easy by M. Bedier's skilful recon- 
struction (cf. vol. i. of his edition of Thomas). It was certainly 
a work of great merit and charm. As authority Thomas cites 
a certain Breri, who has now been identified with the Bleheris 
quoted as authority for the Grail and Gawain stories, and the 
Bledhericus referred to by Giraldus Cambrensis as Jamosus 
illejabidator. This is what Thomas says: 

" Seignurs, cest cunte est mult divers, 

E pur go 1'uni par mes vers 

E di en tant cum est mester 

E le surplus voil relesser. 

Ne vol pas trop en uni dire! 

Ici diverse la matvre. 



294 



TRISTAN DA CUNHA 



Entre ceus qui solent cunter 
E del cunte Tristran parler, 
II en cuntent diversement : 
O'i en ai de plusur gent. 
Asez sai que chescun en dit 
E co qu'il unt mis en escrit, 
Mes sulun go que j'ai o'i 
Nel dient pas sulun Br6ri 
Ky solt les gestes e les cuntes 
De tuz les reis, de tuz les cuntes, 
Ki orent este en Bretaingne." 

(THOMAS, i. 377). 

These are not the words of a man who is following a complete 
and authoritative poem; judging from the context of the other 
references to Bleheris he was rather a collector and versifier 
of short episodic tales, and it seems far more natural to under- 
stand Thomas as having wrought into one complete and con- 
secutive form the various poems with which the name of Breri 
was associated, than to hold that that, or a similar, work had 
already been achieved by another. 

Thomas's work, fortunately, fell into the hands of a true 
poet in the person of Gottfried von Strassburg, whose Tristan 
und Isolde is, from a literary point of view, the gem of medieval 
German literature. Gottfried is a far greater master of style than 
Wolfram von Eschenbach, and his treatment of some of the 
episodes, notably the sojourn in the woods, is most exquisite. 
He did not live to complete his poem, but happily he carried 
it up to the point where the original fragments li^gin, so that 
we can judge very fairly what must have been the effect of 
the whole, the style of the two poets being very similar. Inspir- 
ing as the Tristan story is, it seems improbable that it 
should have been handled, and that within a comparatively 
short period, by three writers of genius, and that of these three 
the first, and greatest, should have utterly disappeared! The 
translators of Thomas do not fail to quote him as their source, 
why then has no one quoted the original poet? 

Besides the version of Thomas, we have a fragment by a 
certain Beroul, also an Anglo-Norman, and a German poem 
by Eilhart von Oberge, both of which derive from a common 
scurce. There also exists in two manuscripts a short poem, 
La Folie Tristan, relating how Tristan, disguised as a fool, visits 
the court of King Mark. This poem is valuable, as, presuming 
upon the sufficiency of his disguise, Tristan audaciously gives 
a resume of his feats and of his relations with Iseult, in this 
agreeing with the version of Thomas. The "Gerbert" con- 
tinuation of the Perceval contains the working over of one of 
two short Tristan poems, called by him the Luite Tristran; 
the latter part, probably a distinct poem, shows Tristan, in the 
disguise of a minstrel, visiting the court of Mark. Here the 
tradition is more in accordance with Beroul. 

Besides the poems, we possess the prose Tristan, an enormous 
compilation, akin to the prose Lancelot, where the original 
story, though still to be traced, is obscured by a mass of later 
Arthurian adventures. The interest here centres in the 
rivalry between Tristan and Lancelot, alike as knights and 
lovers, and in the later redaction, ascribed to Helie de Borron, 
the story is spun out to an interminable length. 

Certain points of difference between the poetical and the 
prose versions should be noted. Tristan is here the son of 
Meliadus, king of Loonois; his father does not die, but is de- 
coyed away by an enchantress, and the mother, searching for 
her husband, gives birth to her child in the forest and dies. 
Meliadus marries again, and the second wife, jealous of Tristan, 
tries to kill him. Mark has another nephew, Andret, who is 
Tristan's enemy throughout the romance. Mark himself 
is a cowardly, treacherous and vindictive character. Some 
of the early printed editions follow the original version of 
Tristan's death, now found in one manuscript only (B.N. 103), 
the majority represent him as having been stabbed in the back by 
Mark in the presence of the queen, as we find in Malory, who 
drew the larger portion of his compilation from the prose 
Tristan. It should be noted that Tristan is never more than 
superficially connected with Arthur, an occasional visitor 
at his court; though in its later form ranked among the 



Arthurian romances, the Tristan is really an independent 
story, and does not form a part of the ordinary cyclic redaction. 
The Italian prose text, La Travola ritonda differs from the 
French in adhering to the original version, and is classed by 
N. Bedier among the derivatives from Thomas. Like the 
story of Perceval that of Trigtan has been made familiar to 
the present generation by Richard Wagner's noble music 
drama, Tristan und Isolde, founded upon the poem of Gottfried 
von Strassburg; though, being a drama of feeling rather than 
of action, the story is reduced to its simple elements; the 
drinking of the love-potion, the passion of the lovers, their 
discovery by Mark and finally their death. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Thomas, Roman de Tristan, ed. J. Bedier (2 vols., 
Societe des anciens textes frangais, 1902, 1905) ; Beroul, Roman de 
Tristan (ed.E. Muret.same series, I9O3);E. Kolbing, Die nordische und 
dieenglischeVersionder Tristansaga (1877, 1883), pt. i., Tristrams Saga, 
pt. ii., Sir Tristrem. " La Folie Tristan " was published by F. Michel 
in his Tristan (1835), a collection of all the extant fragments of 
Tristan poems; " Tristan Menestrel " from the Perceval, ed. J. L. 
Weston and J. B6dier (Romania, vol. xxxv., Oct. 1906). Gottfried's 
Tristan und Isolde has been several times published ; the best editions 
are those of Bechstein (1890) and Golther (1889); modern German 
versions by Kurz, Simrock and Hertz; English prose rendering, J. L. 
Weston, 2 vols. (Arthurian Romances, No. ii.). Cf. also Piquet, 
L'Originalite de Gottfried de Strassburg (1905). Eilhart von Oberge, 
Tristan, ed. Lichtenstein (1877); La Tavola ritonda, ed. Polidori, 
(3 vols., 1864-1865). There is no modern edition of the prose romance, 
but a detailed analysis of the contents, compiled from the numerous 
manuscripts in the Paris Library, was published by E. Loseth in 
Le Roman en prose de Tristan (1890). The general reader will find 
Gaston Paris's study of the legend in Poemes et legendes du moyen 
age most interesting; also Joseph B<;dier's popular retelling of the 
tale Tristan et Iseult. For Wagner's version cf. J. L. Weston, 
Legends of the Wagner Drama. For an exhaustive study of the 
Tristan legend and literature, see the recent work by Professor 
Golther; also an examination of the Welsh fragments by Ivor John 
in the Grimm Library. (J. L. W.) 

TRISTAN DA CUNHA, the general name for a group of 
three small volcanic islands belonging to Great Britain, situated 
in the South Atlantic, the summit of the largest being in 
37 5' 50" S., 12 16' 40" W. They are about 2000 m. W. of the 
Cape of Good Hope and about 4000 m. N.E. of Cape Horn 
and lie somewhat north of a line drawn between the two capes. 
St Helena lies about 1500 m. N.N.E. of the group. The 
islands rise from the submarine elevation which runs down 
the centre of the Atlantic and on which are likewise situated 
Ascension, St Paul's Rocks and the Azores; the average 
depth on this ridge is from 1600 to 1700 fathoms, while depths 
of 3000 fathoms are found on each side of it. The depth 
between the islands is in some places over 1000 fathoms. 

Tristan, the largest and northernmost island, has an area of 16 
sq. m., is nearly circular in form, about 7 m. in diameter, and has 
a volcanic cone (7640 ft.), usually capped with snow, in the centre. 
Precipitous cliffs, 1000 to 2000 ft. in height, rise directly from the 
ocean on all sides, except on the north-west, where there is an irregular 
plain, 100 ft. above the sea, and 2j m. in length and | m. in breadth. 
A stream crosses the northern end of the plateau, falling over the 
cliff edge in a fine cascade. The crater of the central cone contains 
a fresh- water lake about 150 yds. in diameter. This and other 
crater lakes are said never to be frozen over. 

Inaccessible Island, the westernmost of the group, is about 20 m. 
from Tristan. It is quadrilateral in form, the sides being about 
2 m. long, and its area is about 4 sq. m. The highest point (1840 ft.) 
is on the west side; all round there are perpendicular cliffs about 
1000 ft. in height. At the base of the cliffs in some places are 
narrow fringes of beach a few feet above the sea-level. 

Nightingale Island, the smallest and most southern of the group, 
is 10 m. from Inaccessible Island. Its area is not more than I sq.m. 
Its coasts, unlike those of the other two islands, are surrounded by 
low cliffs, from which there is a gentle slope up to two peaks, the 
one iioo ft., the other 960 ft. high. There are two small islets 
Stoltenkoff (325 ft.) and Middle (150 ft.) and several rocks adjacent 
to the coast. 

The rocks of Tristan da Cunha are felspathic basalt, dolerite, 
augite-andesite, sideromelane and palagonite; some specimens 
of the basalt have porphyritic augite. 1 The caves in Nightingale 
Island indicate that it has been elevated several feet. On almost 

1 On the occurrence in Tristan da Cunha of rock of continental 
type (gneiss) see E. H. L. Schwarz of the Geological Survey, Cape 
Colony, in the Transactions South African Philosoph. Soc,. No. 16 of 
1905. 



TRISTAN DA CUNHA 



295 



all sides the islands are surrounded by a broad belt of kelp, the 
gigantic southern seaweed (Macrocystis pyrifera), through which a 
boat may approach the rocky shores even in stormy weather. There 
is no good anchorage in rough weather. 

The beaches and lower lands are covered with a dense growth of 
tussock grass (Spartina arundinacea) , 8 to IO ft. in height. It 
shelters vast numbers of penguins (Eudyptes chrysocoma), which 
there form their rookeries. There is one small tree (Phylica nitida), 
which grows in detached patches on the lower grounds. Indepen- 
dently of introduced plants, fifty-five species have been collected in 
the group, twenty-nine being flowering plants and twenty-six ferns 
and lycopods. A majority of the species are characteristic of the 
present general flora of the south temperate zone rather than any 
particular part of it : botanically the group is generally classed with 
the islands of the Southern Ocean. A finch (Nesospiza acunhae), 
a thrush (Nesocichla eremita), and a water-hen (Gallinula nesiotis) 
are the only land birds the first two being peculiar to the islands. 
In addition to the penguins numerous other sea birds nest on the 
islands, as petrels, albatrosses, terns, skuas and prions. One or 
two land shells, a few spiders, several Coleoptera, a small lepidopter 
and a few other insects are recorded, but no Orthoptera or Hymenop- 
tera. There appear to have been no indigenous mammals or reptiles. 
Seals frequent Nightingale and Inaccessible Islands, and the whale 
(Balaena australis) is found in the adjacent waters. 

The prevailing winds are westerly. December to March is the 
fine season. The climate is mild and on the whole healthy, the 
temperature averaging 68 Fahr. In summer, 55 in winter some- 
times falling to 40. Rain is frequent ; hail and snow fall occasionally 
on the lower grounds. The sky is usually cloudy. The islands have 
a cold and barren appearance. The tide rises and falls about 4 ft. 

History. The islands were discovered in 1506 by the Por- 
tuguese admiral Tristan, or more correctly Tristao da Cunha, 1 
after whom they are named, during a voyage to India. There- 
after the islands (which were uninhabited) were occasionally 
visited by outward bound ships to the Indies. Dutch vessels 
brought back reports on the islands in 1643, and in 1656 Van 
Riebeek, the founder of Cape Town, sent a ship from Table 
Bay to Tristan to see if it was suitable for a military station, 
but the absence of a harbour led to the project being abandoned. 
Later in the i7th century ships were sent from St Helena by 
the English East India Company to Tristan to report on a 
proposed settlement there, but that project also came to naught. 
A British naval officer who visited the group in 1760 gave 
his name to Nightingale Island. John Patten, the master 
of an English merchant ship, and part of his crew lived on 
Tristan from August 1790 to April 1791, during which time they 
captured 5600 seals; but the first permanent inhabitant was 
one Thomas Currie, who landed on the island in 1810. At 
this time American whalers frequented the neighbouring waters 
and, in the same year, an American named Lambert " late of 
Salem, mariner and citizen thereof " and a man named Williams 
made Tristan their home. Lambert declared himself sovereign 
and sole possessor of the group (which he renamed Islands of 
Refreshment) " grounding my right and claim on the rational 
and sure ground of absolute occupancy." Lambert's sovereignty 
was short lived, as he and Williams were drowned while out 
fishing in May 1812. Currie was joined, however, by two 
other men and they busied themselves in growing vegetables, 
wheat and oats, and in breeding pigs. War having broken out 
in this year between the United States and Great Britain the 
islands were largely used as a base by American cruisers sent 
to prey on British merchant ships. This and other considera- 
tions urged by Lord Charles Somerset, then governor of Cape 
Colony, led the British government to authorize the islands 
being taken possession of as dependencies of the Cape. The 
formal proclamation of annexation was made on the i4th of 
August 1816. A small garrison was maintained on Tristan until 

1 Tristan da Cunha (ft. 1460-1540) was nominated first viceroy 
of Portuguese India in 1504, but was unable to serve owing to 
temporary blindness; in 1506 he was placed in command of a fleet 
which operated on the east coast of Africa and in the Indies, Alphonso 
d'Albuquerque (q.v.) having charge of a squadron under da Cunha. 
After discovering the islands which now bear his name, da Cunha 
landed in Madagascar, subsequently visiting Mozambique, Brava 
(where he reduced the Arab power) and Sokotra, which he conquered. 
He also distinguished himself in the Indies in various actions. In 
1514 he was ambassador to Pope Leo X. to pay homage for the new 
conquests of Portugal, and was, later on, made a member of the 
Portuguese privy council. 



November of the following year. At their own request William 
Glass (d. 1853), a corporal in the Royal Artillery, with his wife 
and two children and two masons were left behind, and thus 
was begun the present settlement. From time to time additional 
settlers arrived or shipwrecked mariners decided to remain; 
in 1827 five coloured women from St Helena were induced to 
migrate to Tristan to become the wives of the five bachelors 
then on the island. Later coloured women from Cape Colony 
married residents in the island. Other settlers are of Dutch, 
Italian and Asiatic origin. Thus the inhabitants are of mixed 
blood, but the British strain greatly predominates. Over the little 
community Glass (1817-1853) ruled in patriarchal fashion. Be- 
sides raising crops, the settlers possessed numbers of cattle, sheep 
and pigs, but their most lucrative occupation was seal fishing. 
The island was still frequented by American whalers, and in 1856 
out of a total population of about 100 twenty-five emigrated to 
the United States. The next year forty-five of the inhabitants 
removed to Cape Colony; whither the younger or more restless 
members of the community have since gone or else taken to a 
seafaring life. The inhabitants had of necessity made their 
settlement on the plain on the north-west of Tristan; here a 
number of substantial stone cottages and a church were built. 
It is named Edinburgh in memory of a visit in 1867 by the duke 
of Edinburgh. In October 1873 the islands were carefully 
surveyed by the " Challenger," which removed to Cape Town 
two Germans, brothers named Stoltenhoff, who had been living 
on Inaccessible Island since November 1871. This was the 
only attempt at colonization made on any save the main island 
of the group. 

After the death of Glass the head of the community for some 
time was an old man-of-war's man named Cotton, who had 
been for three years guard over Napoleon at St Helena; Cotton 
was succeeded by Peter William Green, a native of Amsterdam 
who settled in the island in 1836. During Green's " reign " 
the economic condition of Tristan was considerably affected 
by the desertion of the neighbouring seas by the whalers; this 
was largely due to the depredations of the Confederate cruisers 
" Alabama " and " Shenandoah " during the American Civil 
War, many whaling boats being captured and burnt by them. 
As a result the number of ships calling at Tristan considerably 
diminished and trade languished. In 1880 the population 
appears to have attained its maximum 109. In 1885 a serious 
disaster befell the islanders, a lifeboat which went to take pro- 
visions to a ship in the offing was lost with all hands fifteen 
men and only four adult males were left on the island. At 
the same time a plague of rats survivors of a shipwrecked 
vessel wrought much havoc among the crops. Plans were 
made for the total removal of the inhabitants to the Cape, but 
the majority preferred to remain. Stores and provisions were 
sent out to them by the British government. The ravages of the 
rats have rendered impossible the growing of wheat; the 
wealth of the islanders now consists in their cattle, sheep, 
potatoes and apple and peach trees. The population in 1897 
was only 64; in 1901 it was 74, and in 1909, 95. They manage 
their own affairs without any written laws, the project once 
entertained of providing them with a formal constitution 
being deemed unnecessary. The inhabitants are described as 
moral, religious, hospitable to strangers, well mannered and 
industrious, healthy and long lived. They are without in- 
toxicating liquors and are said to commit no crimes. They 
are daring sailors, and in small canvas boats of their own building 
voyage to Nightingale and Inaccessible islands. They knit 
garments from the wool of their sheep; are good carpenters and 
make serviceable carts. From time to time ministers of the 
Church of England have lived on the island and to their efforts 
is mainly due the education of the children. In 1906 the 
islanders passed through a period of distress owing to great 
mortality among the cattle and the almost total failure of 
the potato crop. The majority again refused, however, to desert 
the island, though offered allotments of land in Cape Colony. 
Similar proposals had been made and declined several times 
since the question was first mooted in 1886. In 1905 a lease of 



296 



TRISTAN L'HERMITE TRIUMPH 



Nightingale, Inaccessible and Gough islands, for the purpose 
of working the guano deposits, was granted by the British 
government. 

Cough Island. Gough Island or Diego Alvarez lies in the South 
Atlantic in 40 20' S., 9 44' W., and is 250 m. S.S.E. of Tristan 
da Cunha and some 1500 m. west by south of Cape Town. It is of 
volcanic origin, is rugged and mountainous, the highest peak 
rising to 4380 ft. The island is about 8 m. long by 4 m. broad and 
has an area of 40 sq. m. Precipitous cliffs, from 200 to 1000 ft. high, 
characterize the coast. They are divided by picturesque valleys, 
which, in some instances, have been cut down to sea-level and 
afford landing-places. Streams fall over the cliffs into the sea in 
fine cascades. The island is visited by vast numbers of penguins 
and contains valuable guano deposits. It is also the home of 
numerous seals. The rainfall is heavy and vegetation abundant. 
The island is believed to have been discovered by the Portuguese 
in the i6th century. Originally called Diego Alvarez, it derives 
its other name from a Captain Gough, the commander of a British 
ship which visited it in 1731. It has been claimed as a British 
possession since the annexation of Tristan da Cunha. In 1904 
Gough Island was visited by the Antarctic exploring ship " Scotia ' 
of the Bruce expedition, which discovered a rich marine fauna, 
two new buntings and three new species of plants. It has no 
permanent population. 

A comprehensive account of Tristan da Cunha appeared in The 
Cape Times (January-March 1906), in a series of articles by W. 
Hammond Tooke, the commissioner sent to the islands by the 
Cape government in 1904. See also Transactions of the Linnean 
Society for 1819 (contains a report of an ascent of the summit by 
Captain Dugald Carmichael in 1817); A. Earle, Narrative of a . . . 
Residence in New Zealand . . . together with a Journal of a Residence 
in Tristan d'Acunha (London, 1832); Mrs K. M. Barrow, Three 
Years in Tristan da Cunha (London, 1910); H. N. Moseley, Notes 
by a Naturalist on the "Challenger' (new ed., London, 1892); 
F. and G. Stoltenhoff, " Two Years on Inaccessible," in Cape 
Monthly Mag. (December 1873). Among papers relating to Tristan 
da Cunha published by the British government, see especially 
reports issued in 1897, 1903, 1906 which gives a detailed account 
of the island and islanders and 1907. For the discovery of Tristan 
see The Commentaries of the Great Afonso Dalboquerque (Hakluyt 
Society's Series, 1875, vol. 53). For Gough Island, see R. N. R. 
Brown of the " Scotia " expedition, " Diego Alvarez or Gough 
Island," in Scottish Geog. Mag. (August 1905); Brown and others, 
" The Botany of Gough Island," in Journ. Linnean Soc. (Botany) 
(1905), and The Voyage of the " Scotia " ch. xii. (London, 1906). 
The Africa Pilot, pt. ii. (5th ed., 1901), contains descriptions both 
of Tristan da Cunha and Gough Island. 

TRISTAN L'HERMITE, FRANfOIS (1601-1655), French 
diamatist, was born at the chateau de Soliers in the Haute 
Marche about 1601. His adventures began early, for he killed 
his enemy in a duel at the age of thirteen, and was obliged to 
flee to England. The story of his childhood and youth he 
embroiders in a burlesque novel, the Page disgracie. He was in 
succession poet to Gaston d'Orleans, to the duchesse de Chaulnes 
and the duke of Guise. He died on the 7th of September 1655. 
His first tragedy, Mariamne (1636), was also his best. It was 
followed by Penthee (1637), La Mart de Seneque (1644), La 
Mart de Crispe (1645) and the Parasite (1653). He was also the 
author of some admirable lyrics. Three of his best plays are 
printed in the Theatre franQais of 1737. 

TRITHEMIUS, JOHANNES (1462-1516), German historian 
and divine, was born at Trittenheim on the Moselle, on the ist 
of February 1462. His name was originally " von Heidenberg," 
but according to the fashion of the times he adopted the name 
of his birthplace. After an unhappy childhood, he studied at 
Heidelberg, and at the age of twenty entered the Benedictine 
monastery of Sponheim near Kreuznach, of which, in 1485, 
he became abbot. He established an excellent library, and 
through his strict discipline and consummate scholarship soon 
raised the monastery to an educational institution of a high 
order. In 1506 he resigned, and was appointed soon after 
abbot of the monastery of St Jakob at Wiirzburg; and in this 
city he died on the I3th of December 1516. Trithemius was, 
though an accomplished scholar, untrustworthy as a chronicler, 
and his Annales hirsaugienses (1514), Annales de origine Fran- 
corum, as well as his Chronologia mystlca (1516) are, on this 
account, of doubtful value. More reliance can, however, be 
placed on his De scriptoribus ecclesiasticis (1404) and the Catalogus 
illustrium virorum Germaniae (1491). He also wrote a fanatical 
book against sorcery, Antipalus maleficiorum (1508). 



See Silbernagel, J. Trithemius (1868; 2nd ed., 1885); Schneegans. 
Abt Joh. Trithemius und Kloster Sponheim (1882); and F. X. 
Wegele, in Allgemeine deutsche Biographic. 

TRITON, in Greek mythology, son of Poseidon and Amphi- 
trite, the personification of the roaring waters. According to 
Hesiod (Theog. 930), he dwelt with his parents in a golden 
palace in the depths of the sea. The story of the Argonauts 
places his home on the coast of Libya. When the Argo was 
driven ashore on the Lesser Syrtes the crew carried the vessel 
to Lake Tritonis, whence Triton, the local deity, guided them 
across to the Mediterranean (Apollonius Rhodius iv. 1552). 
He was represented as human down to the waist, with the tail 
of a fish. His special attribute was a twisted seashell, on which 
he blew to calm or raise the waves. Its sound was so terrible, 
when loudly blown, that it put the giants to flight, who imagined 
it to be the roar of a mighty wild beast (Hyginus, Poet, astronom. 
ii. 23). When Misenus, the trumpeter of Aeneas, challenged him 
to a contest of blowing, Triton in his jealousy flung him into the 
sea. In course of time Triton became the name for individuals 
of a class, like Pan and Silenus, and Tritons (male and 
female) are mentioned in the plural, usually as forming the 
escort of marine divinities. The beings called Centauro-Tritons 
or Ichthyocentaurs were of a triple nature, with the forefeet of a 
horse in addition to the human body and fish tail. Pausanias 
(ix. 21) gives a detailed description of the ordinary Triton. It 
is probable that the idea of Triton owes its origin to the 
Phoenician fish-deities. 

See Preller, Griechische Mythologie (4th ed., 1894); F. R. Dressier, 
Triton und die Tritonen (Wurzen, 1892). 

TRIUMPH (triumphus) , amongst the ancient Romans, the 
highest honour bestowed upon a victorious general. Originally 
it was only granted on certain conditions, which were subse- 
quently relaxed in special cases. Only those who had held the 
.office of dictator, consul or praetor were entitled to the distinc- 
tion; the war must have been brought to a definite conclusion, 
resulting in an extension of the boundaries of the state; at least 
5000 of the enemy must have been slain; the victory must have 
been gained over a foreign enemy, victories in civil war or over 
rebels not being counted. The power of granting a triumph 
rested with the senate, which held a meeting outside the city 
walls (generally in the temple of Bellona) to consider the claims 
put forward by the general. If they were considered satisfactory 
special legislation was necessary to keep the general in possession 
of the imperium on his entry into the city. Without this, his 
command would have expired and he would have become a 
private individual the moment he was inside the city walls, 
and would have had no right to a triumph. Consequently 
he remained outside the pomoerium until the special ordinance 
was passed; thus Lucullus on his return from Asia waited outside 
Rome three years for his triumph. 

The triumph consisted of a solemn procession, which, starting 
from the Campus Martius outside the city walls, passed through 
the city to the Capitol. The streets were adorned with garlands, 
the temples open, and the procession was greeted with shout's 
of lo triumphe I At its head were the magistrates and senate, 
who were followed by trumpeters and then by the spoils, 
which included not only arms, standards, statues, &c., but also 
representations of battles, and of the towns, rivers and moun- 
tains of the conquered country, models of fortresses, &c. Next 
came the victims destined for sacrifice, especially white oxen 
with gilded horns. They were followed by the prisoners who 
had not been sold as slaves but kept to grace the triumph; 
when the procession reached the Capitol they were taken off 
to prison and put to death. The chariot which carried the 
victorious general (triumphator) was crowned with laurel and 
drawn by four horses. The general was attired like the Capi- 
toline Jupiter in robes of purple and gold borrowed from the 
treasury of the god; in his right hand he held a laurel branch, 
in his left an ivory sceptre surmounted by an eagle. Above 
his head the golden crown of Jupiter was held by a slave who 
reminded him in the midst of his glory that he was a mortal 
man. Last came the soldiers shouting lo triumphe and singing 



TRIUMPHAL ARCH 



PLATE I. 




Photo, Bmfils. 



FIG. i.- -ARCH OF HADRIAN, ATHENS. 



FIG. 2. ARCH OF TRAJAN, BENEVENTO. 




Photo, Alinari. 

FIG. 3. ARCH OF TRAJAN, ANCONA. 

XXVII. 206. 



Photo, Anderson. 



FIG. 4. ARCH OF TITUS, ROME. 



PLATE II. 



TRIUMPHAL ARCH 





TRIUMPHAL ARCH TRIVANDRUM 



297 



songs both of a laudatory and scurrilous kind. On reaching the 
temple of Jupiter on the Capitol, the general placed the laurel 
branch (in later times a palm branch) on the lap of the image 
of the god, and then offered the thank-offerings. A feast of 
the magistrates and senate, and sometimes of the soldiers and 
people, concluded the ceremony, which in earlier times lasted 
one day, but in later times occupied several. Generals who 
were not allowed a regular triumph by the senate had a right 
to triumph at the temple of Jupiter Latiaris on the Alban Mount. 
Under the empire only the emperors celebrated a triumph, 
because the generals commanded under the auspices of the 
emperors (not under their own) merely as lieutenants (legati); 
the only honour they received was the right of wearing the 
triumphal insignia (the robes of purple and gold and the wreath 
of bay leaves) on holidays. After the time of Trajan, when all 
consuls were allowed to wear the triumphal dress on entering 
office and in festal processions, the only military reward for a 
successful general was a statue in some public place. The last 
triumph recorded is that of Diocletian (A.D. 302). A naval or 
maritime triumph was sometimes allowed for victories at sea, 
the earliest being that celebrated by C. Duilius in honour of 
his victory over the Carthaginians in 260 B.C. 

See Mommsen, Romisches Staatsrecht (1887), i. 126-136; 
Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung (1884), ii. 582-593; H. A. 
Goll, De triumphi romani origins, permissu, apparatu, via 
(1854); S. Pcine, "De ornamentis triumphalibus " (1885), in C. E. 
Ascherson's Berliner Studien, ii. 

TRIUMPHAL ARCH, the term given to arches erected to 
commemorate some special victory, but here extended to include 
those built as memorial arches to some benefactor of the Roman 
Empire, such as those at Rimini, Ancona and Benevento; 
arches erected as monumental entrances to towns, as at Nimes 
and Autun; arches on bridges, as at Chamas in France and 
Alcantara in Spain; and lastly those which preceded the entrance 
to a forum or sacred enclosure, or formed part of a colonnaded 
street, as in Syria. There is every reason to suppose that in 
early times in Greece and Etruria temporary erections, such as 
those of the present day, were set up on the occasion of the public 
entry, after a great victory, of some emperor or general; but the 
Romans would seem to have been the first to erect such struc- 
tures in stone or marble, to enrich them with sculpture, and to 
raise aloft on their summit the quadriga or four-horsed chariot 
with statues and trophies. The time involved in the construc- 
tion of such a memorial, and more especially that which would 
be required for its enrichment with sculpture, rendered it im- 
possible that they should be set up on the occasion of the trium- 
phal entry itself, and it is known that the arch of Titus was not 
erected till some time after his death by his successor Domitian. 
There is always some difficulty in deciding between triumphal 
and memorial arches, as they were virtually similar in design, 
equally enriched with sculpture, generally surmounted with a 
quadriga and statues, and as a rule were isolated structures. 
The earlier arches were pierced with a single arch and were 
comparatively simple in design, being decorated by pilasters 
or semi-detached columns only; the existence of chariots and 
statues on their summit is known only from coins or gems, on 
which such features are always shown. The arch of Titus in 
Rome (fig. 4), A.D. 81, is the first one enriched with bas-relief 
sculpture, in this case representing the triumphs of Titus with 
the seven-branched candlestick and the golden table brought 
from Jerusalem. The next sculptural arch of triumph is that 
built at Benevento (fig. 2) in South Italy (A.D. 112) by Trajan, 
recording the Dacian victories. The triumphal arch (fig. 5) 
of Septimius Severus (A.D. 203) has a central and two side 
arches, the bas-reliefs on it representing the Parthian victories; 
and the last important arch in Rome is that of Constantine 
(fig. 6), which had also three arches, and was embellished 
with bas-reliefs, representing the Dacian victories, which were 
taken from the arch of Trajan on the Via Appia and others of 
Constantine's time, representing the conquest of Maxentius. 

Passing to other countries, we have the triumphal arches at 
St Remy and at Orange (fig. 8) ; those at Carpentras and Cavail- 
lon, also in France, which were probably of later date, as possibly 



also the triple arch at Reims. The triumphal arch with three 
arches at Fano in Italy is said to have been commenced by 
Augustus, but completed by Constantine, who probably added 
the two side arches and decorated it with inferior sculpture. 
At Timgad (Thamugada) ?n North Africa is a triumphal arch 
with central and two side arches, probably of Hadrian's time, 
and one with triple arches at Sbeitla (Suffetula), also in North 
Africa, and another example at Saintes in France, built on a 
bridge. 

Of memorial arches the earliest are the examples of Rimini 
(fig. 7) and Aosta, erected to Augustus, and later the arch at 
Ancona (fig. 3) erected to Trajan (A.D. 112) as a record of the 
construction of the port there. At Pola, in Istria, is an archway 
erected in memory of the Sergii. Of less important examples 
in Rome are the arches of Dolabella (A.D. 10), Drusus (A.D. 23), 
Gallienus (A.D. 262), the silversmith's arch (A.D. 204); in Verona, 
the Porta dei Borsari and the Porta de Leoni, erected by 
Gallienus (A.D. 265) ; at Aix-les-Bains in France, an arch of late 
3rd century; and at Lambessa, in North Africa, the arches of 
Commodus (A.D. 187) and of Septimius Severus (A.D. 200). 
In Spain there are two monumental arches erected by Trajan 
at Alcantara, in the centre of the bridge built by him (A.D. 108), 
and the arch of Santiago* at Merida; a third example exists in 
the Arco di Bara at Tarragona. 

Quadriportal archways are those which were built in the centre 
of four cross roads, such as the arch of Janus in Rome, built 
by Constans (A.D. 350), the arch of Caracalla at Tebesse 
(Thevesti) in North Africa, and many examples in Syria, of 
which the arch at Ladikiyah (Laodicea ad Mare) is in perfect 
preservation. 

The colonnaded streets in Syria were entered through magnifi- 
cent archways, of which the finest examples are those at Palmyra 
and Gerasa. As entrance gateways to towns there are many 
examples which were sometimes built as memorial arches, but 
formed'part of the city walls, such as the entrance gate at Susa 
in Italy, erected in memory of Augustus (8 B.C.), decorated with 
reliefs of the Suovetaurelia (sacrifices); the Porte d'Avroux 
and Porte St Andre at Autun, and the Porte d'Auguste at 
Nimes, in France; the Porte d'Auguste at Perugia in Italy 
and the Porta Nigra at Treves in Germany; to these should be 
added the three entrance gateways to the palace of Spalato 
(A.D. 303), one of these, the Porta Aurea, or Golden Gate, 
showing in its enriched design certain decadent forms which 
led to the Byzantine and Renaissance styles; lastly there are 
the arched entrances to sacred or civil enclosures, such as the 
example at Sbeitla (SuffetuFa) in North Africa, the arch of 
Hadrian at Athens (fig. i), built to his memory by his successors, 
and the archway of the Propylaea at Damascus. 

The triumphal arch found no place in medieval architecture, 
but in Renaissance works there are many examples, of which the 
triumphal entrance arch of King Alfonso at Naples (A.D. 1470) 
comes first. Of isolated structures, there are in Paris the Porte 
St Martin (1647), St Denis (1684), arch of Carrousel in the 
Tuileries (1808), and the Arc de 1'Etoile in the Champs Elysees, 
completed in 1830; in Berlin the Brandenburger Thor (1790); 
in Munich the Siegesthor (1843) ar >d Metzger Thor (1880); in 
Milan the Arch of Peace, commenced by Napoleon in 1807 
and completed in 1857 by the Austrians (an interesting example, 
as it still preserves the chariot and horses and statues which 
formerly crowned all triumphal arches); and in London the 
Marble Arch, originally built in front of Buckingham Palace, 
but removed to the north-east angle of Hyde Park in 
1843, and the Wellington Arch at Hyde Park Corner, without 
the statue of the duke on horseback, afterwards set up at 
Aldershot. (R. P. S.) 

TRIVANDRUM, or TREVANDRUM, a city of southern India, 
capital of the state of Travancore, situated 2 m. from the sea- 
coast. Pop. (1901), 57,882. It is the residence of the maharaja, 
and contains an observatory and a museum, besides several 
other fine buildings. The chief fame of the place, however, 
centres upon the shrine of Sri Ananta Padmanabhaswami, 
a great resort of pilgrims, round which the city grew up. The 



298 



TRIVET TROGLODYTES 



best houses and chief public buildings stand on hilly terraces. 
The city contains the maharaja's college, a Sanskrit college, 
a high school, a school for girls, an industrial school of arts, 
and a hospital and medical school. There is little trade, but a 
speciality of wood-carving. Trivandrum has a small seaport, 
but the vessels that touch here have to anchor at some consider- 
able distance from the shore, and the port itself is not fitted 
for any great commercial development. 

TRIVET, a small metal tripod for holding cooking vessels 
near a fire. The word is also applied to a round, square or oval 
openwork plate, usually of steel or brass, fixed to the bars of a 
grate by a socket for keeping hot plates, dishes, or food. 

TRIVIUM (Lat. for cross-road, i.e. where three roads meet, 
from tres, three, and via, road), in medieval educational systems, 
the curriculum which included grammar, rhetoric and logic. 
The trivium and the quadrivium (arithmetic, music, geometry 
and astronomy) together made up what are known as the 
seven liberal arts (see EDUCATION: Schools). From the word 
in its original sense is derived the adjective " trivial " (post- 
Aug. Lat. trivialis), that which can be seen at the cross-roads, 
i.e. unimportant, commonplace. In botany and zoology the 
" trivial " name is the adjectival name which follows the genus 
name in a binominal system of nomenclature, as canina, perennis, 
in Rosa canina, Bellis perennis. 

TRNOVO, or TIRNOVO, an episcopal city and the capital of a 
department of Bulgaria; 124 m. E.N.E. of Sofia, on the river 
Yantra, and on the Sofia- Varna railway, at the junction of the 
branch line from Rustchuk. Pop. (1906), 12,171. The city 
consists of two divisions the Christian quarter, situated 
chiefly on a high rocky plateau, and the so-called Turkish 
quarter, on the lower ground; but many of the Turkish inhabi- 
tants emigrated after 1878. On the Tsarevetz Hill above the 
city are the remains of the ancient citadel. The Husarjaini 
mosque is used as a military powder and dynamite factory. In 
the Christian quarter there are some interesting churches of 
the middle ages, notably that of the Forty Martyrs, in which 
the Bulgarian tsars were crowned. Numerous antiquarian 
remains have also been discovered. There are a gymnasium 
and a high-class girls' school. The city possesses large dye- 
works, and important manufactures of copper utensils. 

Trnovo was the ancient capital of Bulgaria, and from 1186 
until its capture by the Turks, I7th of July 1394, the residence 
of the Bulgarian tsars. From the beginning of the i3th century 
it was also the seat of the patriarchate of Bulgaria, until the 
suppression of the patriarchate in 1767. In 1877 it was taken 
from Turkey by the Russians, and in 1879 Prince Alexander of 
Battenberg was here elected prince of Bulgaria. On the 5th 
of October 1908 the independence of Bulgaria was proclaimed 
here by King Ferdinand, in the church of the Forty Martyrs. 

TROCHAIC (from Gr. rpoxaios, Tpoxcuicos; Lat. trochaeus), 
the name of a metre very commonly used by the Greeks 
and Romans in their tragedies and comedies. Its character- 
istic foot is a trochee consisting of two syllables, one long, 
one short (-j). The usual form, in which the Greeks employed 
the measure, was the trochaic tetrameter catalectic, the scheme 
of which is as follows: 



v 


o 


v 


\J 


\J 


u 


w 

















u w 




u w 




\J V -3 








\J w 


- w 


uo 


wu 


w 


u 


o u 



The trochaic metre is rapid in movement and breathless, and 
is generally used to depict strong emotions or to tell an exciting 
narrative. It is, however, very closely related to the ordinary 
iambic metre; in fact, by subtracting the first foot and a half 
of the longer line, we find ourselves left with a pure iambic line 
as used by the tragedians. 

In modern times, the trochaic measure has been adopted by 
the prosody of England, Germany and Scandinavia. The 
swift and hurrying movement of it, which we see reflected in 
its derivation, as the Greek name is certainly to be traced back 



to the verb rpextiv, to run, has made it a favourite with our 
lyrical poets. In the early English writers on versification 
the foot is called a trocheus. 

TROCHU, LOUIS JULES (1815-1896), French general, was 
born at Palais (Belle-Ile-en-Mer) on the i2th of March 1815. 
Educated at St Cyr he received 'a commission in the Staff Corps 
in 1837, was promoted lieutenant in 1840, and captain in 1843. 
He served as a captain in Algeria under Marshal Bugeaud, who, 
in recognition of his gallantry in the battles of Sidi Yussuf 
and Isly, made him his aide-de-camp and entrusted him with 
important commissions. He was promoted major in 1845, and 
colonel in 1853. He served with distinction throughout the 
Crimean campaign, first as aide-de-camp to Marshal St Arnaud, 
and then as general of brigade, and was made a commander of 
the Legion of Honour and general of division. He again 
distinguished himself in command of a division in the Italian 
campaign of 1859, where he won the grand cross of the Legion of 
Honour. In 1866 he was employed at the ministry of war 
in the preparation of army reorganization schemes, and he 
published anonymously in the following year L'Armee frangaise 
en 1867, a work inspired with Orleanist sentiment, which ran 
through ten editions in a few months and reached a twentieth 
in 1870. This brochure brought him into bad odour at court, and 
he left the war office on half -pay, and was 'refused a command 
in the field at the outbreak of the Franco-German War. After 
the earlier disasters in 1870, he was appointed by the emperor 
first commandant of the troops of Chalons camp, and soon 
afterwards (Aug. 17) governor of Paris and commander-in- 
chief of all the forces destined for the defence of the capital, 
including some 120,000 regular troops, 80,000 mobiles, and 
330,000 National Guards. He worked energetically to put 
Paris in a state of defence and throughout the siege showed 
himself a master of the passive defensive. At the revolution 
of the 4th of September he became president of the government 
of national defence, in addition to his other offices. His 
" plan " for defending the city raised expectations doomed to 
disappointment; the successive sorties made under pressure of 
public opinion were unsuccessful, and having declared in one 
of his proclamations that the governor of Paris would never 
capitulate, when capitulation became inevitable he resigned 
the governorship of Paris on the 22nd of January 1871 to General 
Vinoy, retaining the presidency of the government until after 
the armistice in February. He was elected to the National 
Assembly by eight departments, and sat for Morbihan. In 
October he was elected president of the council general for 
Morbihan. In July 1872 he retired from political life, and in 
1873 from the army. He published in 1873 Pour la verite el 
pour la justife, in justification of the government of national 
defence, and in 1879 L' Armee fran$aise en iSjg, par un qfficier 
en relraiie, a sort of supplement to his former work of 1867. He 
died at Tours on the 7th of October 1896. 

TROGEN, a neat and clean little town in the Ausser Rhoden 
half of the Swiss canton of Appenzell. By light railway it 
is 6 m. from St Gall, or by carriage road 7 m. from Heiden (the 
chief goats' whey cure resort in the canton), or 9 m. from Alt- 
statten in the Rhine valley. It is built on the side of a steepish 
hill, and in 1900 had 2496 inhabitants, mostly Protestant and 
German-speaking. In the square before the parish church the 
Lands gemeinde or primitive democratic assembly of Ausser 
Rhoden meets in the even years (in other years at Hundwil, 
not far from Herisau) on the last Sunday in April. Like other 
towns in Appenzell, Trogen is engaged in the manufacture (in 
the houses of the workpeople) of embroidery and muslins. 

TROGLODYTES (TporyXoWrai, from rp6yy\n, hole, 56w, creep), 
" cave-dwellers," a name applied by ancient writers to different 
tribes in various parts of the world. Strabo speaks of them 
in Moesia, south of the Danube (vii. 318), in the Caucasus 
(xi. 506), but especially in various parts of Africa from Libya 
(xvii. 828) to the Red Sea. The troglodyte Ethiopians of 
Herodotus (iv. 183) in inner Africa, very swift of foot, living on 
lizards and creeping things, and with a speech like the screech 
of an owl, have been identified with the Tibbus of Fezzan. 



TROGON--TROGUS, G. P. 



299 



According to Aristotle (Hist. An. viii. 12) a dwarfish race of 
Troglodytes dwelt on the upper course of the Nile, who possessed 
horses and were in his opinion the Pygmies of fable. But the 
best known of these African cave-dwellers were the inhabitants 
of the " Troglodyte country " (T/xo7Xo6uTuo7) on the coast 
of the Red Sea, as far 'north as the Greek port of Berenice, of 
whom an account has been preserved by Diodorus (iii. 31) and 
Photius (p. 454 Bekker) from Agatharchides of Cnidus, and 
by Artemidorus in Strabo (xvi. 776). They were a pastoral 
people, living entirely on the flesh of their herds, or, in the season 
of fresh pasture, on mingled milk and blood. But they killed 
only old or sick cattle (as indeed they killed old men who could 
no longer follow the flock), and the butchers were called " un- 
clean "; nay, they gave the name of parent to no man, but only 
to the cattle which provided their subsistence. This last point 
seems to be a confused indication of totemism. They went 
almost naked; the women wore necklaces of shells as amulets. 
Marriage was unknown, except among the chiefs a fact which 
agrees with the prevalence of female kinship in these regions in 
much later times. They practised circumcision or a mutilation 
of a more serious kind. Their burial rites were peculiar. The 
dead body, its neck and legs bound together with withies of 
the shrub called paliurus, was set up on a mound, and pelted with 
stones amidst the jeers of the onlookers, until its face was com- 
pletely covered with them. A goat's horn was then placed above 
it, and the crowd dispersed with manifestations of joy. It is 
supposed that the Horim or Horites, the aboriginal inhabitants 
of Mount Seir, if their name is correctly interpreted "cave- 
dwellers," were a kindred people to the Troglodytes on the 
other side of the Red Sea. 

TROGON, a word apparently first used as English 1 by 
G. Shaw (Mus. Levcrlanum, p. 177) in 1792, and now for many 
years accepted as the general name of certain birds forming 
the family Trogonidae of modern ornithology. The trogons 
are birds of moderate size: the smallest is hardly bigger than a 
thrush and the largest less bulky than a crow. In most of them 
the bill is very wide at the gape, which is invariably beset by 
recurved bristles. They seize most of their food, whether 
caterpillars or fruits, on the wing, though their alar power is not 
exceptionally great, their flight being described as short, rapid 
and spasmodic. Their feet are weak and of a unique structure, 
the second toe, which in most birds is the inner anterior one, 
being reverted, and thus the trogons stand alone, since in all 
other birds that have two toes before and two behind it is the 
outer toe that is turned backward. The plumage is very remark- 
able and characteristic. There is not a species which has not 
beauty beyond most birds, and the glory of the group culminates 
in the quezal (q.v.). But in others golden green and steely blue, 
rich crimson 2 and tender pink, yellow varying from primrose 
to amber, vie with one another in vivid coloration, or contrasted, 
as happens in many species, with a warm tawny or a sombre 
slaty grey to say nothing of the delicate freckling of black and 
white, as minute as the markings of a moth's wing the whole 
set off by bands of white, producing an effect hardly equalled 
in any group. The plumage is further remarkable for the large 
. size of its contour-feathers, which are extremely soft and so 
loosely seated as to co'me off in scores at a touch, and there 
is no down. The tail is generally a very characteristic feature, 
the rectrices, though in some cases pointed, being often curiously 
squared at the tip, and when this is the case they are usually 

1 Trogonem (the oblique case) occurs in Pliny (H. N. x. 16) as 
the name of a bird of which he knew nothing, save that it was 
mentioned by Hylas, an augur, whose work is lost ; but some 
would read Trygonem (turtle-dove). In 1752 Mohring (Av. Genera, 
p. 85) applied the name to the " Curucui " (pronounced " Suruqua," 
vide Bates, Nat. Amazons, i. 254) o_f Marcgrav (Hist. not. Brasiliae, 
p. 21 1), who described and figured it in 1648 recognizably. In 1760 
Brisson (Ornithologie, iv. 164) adopted Trogon as a generic term, 
and, Linnaeus having followed his example, it has since been 
universally accepted. 

2 Anatole Bogdanoff determined the red pigment of the feathers 
of Pharomacrus auriceps to be a substance which he called " zooxan- 
thine " (Comptes rendus, Nov. 2, 1857, xlv. 690). 



barred ladder-like with white and black. 3 According to J. 
Gould, they are larger and more pointed in the young than in 
the old, and grow squarer and have the white bands narrower at 
each succeeding moult. He also asserts that in the species 
which have the wing coverts freckled, the freckling becomes 
finer with age. So far as has been observed, the nidifkation 
of these birds is in holes of trees, wherein are laid without any 
bedding two roundish eggs, generally white, but certainly in one 
species (quezal) tinted with bluish green. 

The trogons form a very well-marked family, belonging to the 
coraciiform birds, and probably to be placed in that assemblage 
near the colics (see MOUSE BIRD) and swifts (q.v.). The remains 
of one, T. gallicus, have been recognized by A. Milne-Ed-wards 
(Ois. foss. de la France, ii. 395, pi. 177, figs. 18-22) from the Miocene 
of the Allier. This fortunate discovery seems to account for the 
remarkable distribution of the trogons at the present day. While 
they chiefly abound, and have developed their climax of magnifi- 
cence, in the tropical parts of the New World, they yet occur in 
the tropical parts of the Old. The species now inhabiting Africa, 
forming the group Hapaloderma, can hardly be separated generi- 
cally from those of the Neotropical Trogon, and the difference 
between the Asiatic forms, if somewhat greater, is still comparatively 
slight. It is plain then that the Trogons are an exceptionally 
persistent type; indeed in the whole class few similar instances 
occur, and perhaps none that can be called parallel. The extreme 
development of the type in the New World just noticed also furnishes 
another hint. While in some of the American trogons (Pharo- 
macrus, for instance) the plumage of the females is not very much 
less beautiful than that of the males, there are others in which 
the hen birds retain what may be fairly deemed a more ancient 
livery, while the cocks flaunt in brilliant attire. Now the plumage 
of both sexes in all but one 4 of the Asiatic trogons, Harpactes, 
resembles rather that of the young and of those females of the 
American species which are modestly clothed. The inference from 
this fact would seem to be that the general coloration of the Trogons 
prior to the establishment, by geographical estrangement, of the 
two types was a russet similar to that now worn by the adults of 
both sexes in the Indian region, and by a portion only of the 
females in the Neotropical. The Ethiopian type, as already said, 
very closely agrees with the American, and therefore would be 
likely to have been longer in connexion therewith. Again, while 
the adults of most of the American trogons (Pharomacrus and 
Euptilotis excepted) have the edges of the bill serrated, their young 
have them smooth or only with a single notch on either side near 
the tip, and this is observable in the Asiatic trogons at all ages. 
At the same time the most distinctive features of the whole group, 
which are easily taken in at a glance, but are difficult to express 
briefly in words, are equally possessed by both branches of the 
family, showing that they were in all likelihood for the possibility 
that the peculiarities may have been evolved apart is not to be 
overlooked reached before the geographical sundering of these 
branches (whereby they are now placed on opposite sides of the 
globe) was effected. 

About sixty species of trogons are recognized, which J. Gould 
in the second edition of his Monograph of the family (1875) divides 
into seven genera. Pharomacrus, Euptilotis and Trogon inhabit 
the mainland of tropical America, no species passing to the north- 
ward of the Rio Grande nor southward of the forest district of 
Brazil, while none occur on the west coast of Peru or Chile. Priono- 
telus and Tmetotrogon, each with one species, are peculiar respectively 
to Cuba and Haiti. The African form Hapaloderma has two 
species, one found only on the west coast, the other of more general 
range. The Asiatic trogons, Harpactes (with eleven species accord- 
ing to the same authority), occur from Nepal to Malacca, in Ceylon, 
and in Sumatra, Java and Borneo, while one species is peculiar 
to some of the Philippine Islands. (A. N.) 

TROGUS, GNAEUS POMPEIUS, Roman historian from the 
country of the Vocontii in Gallia Narbonensis, nearly contem- 
porary with Livy, flourished during the age of Augustus. His 
grandfather served in the war against Sertorius with Pompey, 
through whose influence he obtained the Roman citizenship; 
hence the name Pompeius, adopted as a token of gratitude to 
his benefactor. His father served under Julius Caesar in the 
capacity of secretary and interpreter. Trogus himself seems 
to have been a man of encyclopaedic knowledge. He wrote, 
after Aristotle and Theophrastus, books on the natural history 
of animals and plants, frequently quoted by the elder Pliny. 
But his principal work wa's Historiae Philippicae in forty-four 

3 In the trogon of Cuba, Prionotelus, they are most curiously 
scooped out, as it were, at the extremity, and the lateral pointed 
ends diverge in a way almost unique among birds. 

4 Or two species if N. macloti be more than a local form of H. 

reinwardti. 



300 



TROIA TROLLHATTAN 



books, so called because the Macedonian empire founded by 
Philip is the central theme of the narrative. This was a general 
history of the world, or rather of those portions of it which came 
under the sway of Alexander and his successors. It began 
with Ninus, the founder of Nineveh, and ended at about the 
same point as Livy (A.D. 9). The last event recorded by the 
epitomator Justin (q.v.) is the recovery of the Roman standards 
captured by the Parthians (20 B.C.). He left untouched Roman 
history up to the time when Greece and the East came into 
contact with Rome, possibly because Livy had sufficiently treated 
it. The work was based upon the writings of Greek historians, 
such as Theopompus (also the author of a Philippica), Ephorus, 
Timaeus, PoJybius. Chiefly on the ground that such a work 
was beyond the powers of a Roman, it is generally agreed that 
Trogus did not gather together the information from the leading 
Greek historians for himself, but that it was already combined 
into a single book by some Greek (very probably Timagenes 
of Alexandria). His idea of history was more severe and less 
rhetorical than that of Sallust and Livy, whom he blamed for 
putting elaborate speeches into the mouths of the characters 
of whom they wrote. Of his great work, we possess only the 
epitome by Justin, the prologi or summaries of the 44 books, and 
fragments in Vopiscus, Jerome, Augustine and other writers. 
But even in its present mutilated state it is often an important 
authority for the ancient history of the East. Ethnographical 
and geographical excursuses are a special feature of the work. 

Fragments edited by A. Bielowski (1853); see also.A.H.L.Heeren, 
De Trogi P.fontibus et auctoritate (prefixed to C. H. Frotscher's 
edition of Justin); A. Enmann on the authorities used by Trogus 
for Greek and Sicilian history (1880); A. von Gutschmid, Uber die 
Fragmente des Pompeius Trogus (1857); M. Schanz, Geschichte der 
rdmischen Litteratur (2nd ed., 1899), ii., where all that is known of 
Timagenes is given; Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature, 
258; and article JUSTIN. 

TROIA, a town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, in the 
province of Foggia, situated 1440 ft. above sea-level, 7 m. N.W. 
of the station of Giardinetto-Troia, which is 16 m. S.W. of Foggia. 
Pop. (1901), 6674. Troia occupies the site of the ancient Aecae, 
1 2 m. S. of Luceria, on the Via Traiana, a town which fell to 
Hannibal after the victory of Cannae, but was won back by the 
Romans in 214. Under the empire it appears to have become 
a colony. Troia was itself founded in 1017 by the Greek prefect 
Basilius Bugianus. The cathedral dates from 1107, but the 
upper part of the facade with its curious sculptures, fine rose- 
window and polychromatic decoration, the choir apse and the 
interior were restored early in the I3th century. The latter 
has been somewhat spoilt by recent decorations. The bronze 
doors, partly in relief and partly in niello, of 1119 and 1127 
respectively, were cast in Beneventum by Oderisius Berardus. 
The small domed church of S. Basilio has an ambo of 1 1 58. 

TROILUS, in Greek legend, son of Priam (or Apollo) and 
Hecuba. His father, when upbraiding his surviving sons for 
their cowardice, speaks in the Iliad (xxiv. 257) of Tro'ilus as 
already slain before the action of the poem commences. Accord- 
ing to a tradition drawn from other sources and adopted by 
Virgil (Aen. i. 474), when a mere boy he fell by the hand of 
Achilles. In another account, he was dragged to death by his 
own horses. His death formed the subject of a lost tragedy by 
Sophocles. There is no trace in classical writers of the story of 
Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida, the materials for which were 
derived from Chaucer's poem of the same name, Lydgate's 
History, Sege, and Destruction of Troy, Caxton's Recuyell of the 
Historyes of Troy (trans, from Norman French of Raoul le 
Fevre), Chapman's translation of Homer, and perhaps a play on 
the subject by Dekker and Chattle. 

TROITSK, a town of eastern Russia, in the government of 
Orenburg, situated in a fertile steppe, 315 m. N.E. of Orenburg, 
and 77 m. S. of Chelyabinsk, on the Siberian highway. Pop. 
(1885), 18,497; Oooo), 2 3, 2 93- It has grown rapidly in modern 
times. The Troitskiy fort, erected in 1743, became a centre for 
trade with the Kirghiz steppe and Turkestan, and in that trade 
Troitsk is now second only to Orenburg. Cotton, silk, and 
especially horses and cattle are imported, while leather, cotton, 



woollen and metal wares are exported. An active trade in corn 
for the Ural gold mines is carried on. The place has ironworks 
and tanneries. 

TROLLE, HERLUF (1516-1565), Danish naval hero, was born 
on the i4th of January 1516 at Lillo. At the age of nineteen 
Trolle went to Vor Frue Skele at Copenhagen, subsequently 
completing his studies at Wittenberg, where he adopted the 
views of Melanchthon, with whom he was in intimate corre- 
spondence for some years. His marriage with Brigitte, the 
daughter of Lord Treasurer Mogens Gjoe, brought him a rich 
inheritance, and in 1557 he took his seat in the senate. Both 
Christian III. and Frederick II. had a very high opinion of 
Trolle's trustworthiness and ability and employed him in 
various diplomatic missions. Trolle was, indeed, richly 
endowed by nature, and his handsome face and lively manners 
made him popular everywhere. His one enemy was his wife's 
nephew Peder Oxe, the subsequently distinguished finance 
minister, whose narrow grasping ways, especially as the two 
men were near neighbours, did not contribute towards family 
harmony. It was Trolle whom Frederick II. appointed to 
investigate the charges of malversation brought against Oxe. 
Both Trolle and his wife were far renowned for their piety and 
good works, and their whole household had to conform to their 
example or seek service elsewhere. A man of culture, moreover, 
he translated David's 3ist Psalm into Danish verse. He also 
promoted literature and learning by educating poor students 
both at home and abroad, endowing Latin schools and encourag- 
ing historical research. In 1559 Trolle was appointed admiral 
and inspector of the fleet, a task which occupied all his time and 
energy. In 1563 he superseded the aged Peder Skram as 
admiral in chief. On the icth of May he put to sea with twenty- 
one ships of the line and five smaller vessels and, after uniting 
with a Lubeck squadron of six liners, encountered, off the 
isle of Gland, a superior Swedish fleet of thirty-eight ships under 
Jacob Bagge. Supported by two other Danish ships Trolle 
attacked the Swedish flagship "Makalos" (Matchless), then 
the largest battleship in northern waters, but was beaten off 
at nightfall. The fight was renewed at six o'clock the following 
morning, when the " Makalos " was again attacked and forced 
to surrender, but blew up immediately afterwards, no fewer 
than 300 Lubeck and Danish sailors perishing with her. But 
the Swedish admiral was captured and the remnant of the 
Swedish fleet took refuge at Stockholm. Despite the damage done 
to his own fleet and flagship " Fortuna " by this great victory, 
Trolle, on the I4th of August, fought another but indecisive 
action with a second Swedish fleet under the famous Swedish 
admiral Klas Horn, and kept the sea till the i3th of October. 
Trolle spent the winter partly at his castle of Herlufsholm com- 
pleting his long cherished plan of establishing a school for all 
classes, and partly at Copenhagen equipping a new fleet for the 
ensuing campaign. On the ist of June 1565 he set sail with 
twenty-eight liners, which were reinforced off Femern by five 
Lubeck vessels. Klas Horn had put to sea still earlier with a 
superior fleet and the two admirals encountered off Fehmarn on 
the 4th of June. The fight was severe but indecisive, and both 
commanders finally separated to repair their ships. Trolle had 
been severely wounded in the thigh and shoulder, but he would 
not let the ship's surgeon see to his ihjuries till every one else 
had been attended to. This characteristic act of unselfishness 
was his undoing, for he died at Copenhagen on the 2 5th of June, 
seventeen days after they had put him ashore. 

TROLLHATTAN, a town of Swed&n in the district (Ian) of 
Elfsborg, 45 m. by rail N. by E. of Gothenburg. Pop. 6000. 
It lies on the left (east) bank of the Gota at the point where that 
river descends 108 ft. in the course of nearly a mile by the famous 
falls of Trollhattan (six in number) and several rapids. The 
scenic setting of the falls is not striking, but the great volume 
of water, nearly 18,000 cub. ft. per second, renders them most 
imposing. The narrowed river here surrounds several islands, 
on either side of one of which (Toppo) are the first falls of the 
series, Toppo and Tjuf. These are 42 ft. in height. The water- 
power is used in rolling-mills, a cellulose factory and other works. 



TROLLOPE 



301 



Several " giant's caldrons '' are seen in the exposed bed of a 
former channel. Below the falls are valuable salmon fisheries. 
To the east of the river the Berg canal, part of the Gb'ta canal 
system, ascends in a series of eleven new locks (Akersvass) 
completed in 1844. An old series of locks (1800) is in use for 
small vessels. There are also ruins of an abortive attempt 
made to lock the falls in 1755. (See GOTA.) 

TROLLOPE, ANTHONY (1815-1882), English novelist, was 
born in London, on the 24th of April 1815. His father, Thomas 
Anthony Trollope (1780-1835), a barrister who had been fellow 
of New College, Oxford, was reduced to poverty by unbusiness- 
like habits and injudicious speculation, and in 1829 Anthony's 
mother, FRANCES MILTON TROLLOPE (1780-1863), went with her 
husband to the United States to open a small fancy-goods shop 
in Cincinnati. The enterprise was a failure, but her three years' 
stay in that country resulted in a book on the Domestic Manners 
of the Americans (1832), of which she gave an unflattering 
account that aroused keen resentment. Returning to England 
her husband was compelled to flee the country in order to escape 
his creditors, and Mrs Trollope thereafter supported him in 
Bruges until his death by her incessant literary work. She 
published some books of travel, most of which are coloured by 
prejudice, and many novels, among the best known of which are 
The Vicar of Wrexhill (1837) and the Widow Barnaby (1839), 
studies in that vein of broad comedy in which lay her peculiar 
gift. She wrote steadily for more than twenty years, until her 
death, at Florence, on the 6th of October 1863. (See Frances 
Trollope, her Life and Literary Work, by her daughter-in-law 
1895.) Her eldest son THOMAS ADOLPHUS TROLLOPE (1810- 
1892), was educated at Winchester and Oxford, and spent 
most of his life in Italy. He wrote a number of works on Italian 
subjects, among them Homes and Haunts of Italian Poets (1881), 
in collaboration with his second wife, Frances Eleanor Trollope, 
herself a novelist of no mean ability. He was a voluminous 
author, and perhaps the quantity of his work has obscured 
its real merit. Among his novels are La Beata (1861)* Gemma 
(1866), and The Gar slangs of Garstang Grange (1869). (See his 
autobiography, What I Remember 1887.) 

Anthony Trollope was the third son. By his own account few 
English men of letters have had an unhappier childhood and 
youth. He puts down his own misfortunes, at Harrow, at 
Winchester, at Harrow again, and elsewhere, to his father's 
pecuniary circumstances, which made his own appearance dirty 
and shabby, and subjected him to various humiliations. But it 
is permissible to suspect that this was not quite the truth, and 
that some peculiarities of temper, of which in after life he had 
many, contributed to his unpopularity. At any rate he seems to 
have reached the verge of manhood as ignorant as if he had had 
no education at all. After an experience as usher in a private 
school at Brussels he obtained, at the age of nineteen, by favour 
(for he could not pass even the ridiculous examination then 
usual) a position in the London post office. Even then his 
troubles were not over. He got into debt; he got into ridiculous 
entanglements of love affairs, which he has very candidly 
avowed; he was in constant hot water with the authorities; 
and he seems to have kept some very queer company, which 
long afterwards stood him in good stead as models for some of 
his novels. At last in August 1841 he obtained the appointment 
of clerk to one of the post office surveyors in a remote part of 
Ireland with a very small salary. This, however, was practically 
quadrupled by allowances; living was cheap; and the life suited 
Trollope exactly, being not office work, which he always hated, 
but a kind of travelling inspectorship. In the discharge of his 
duties he evinced a business capacity quite unsuspected by his 
former superiors. Here he began that habit of hunting which, 
after a manner hardly possible in later conditions of official work, 
he kept up for many years even in England. Within three years 
of his appointment he became engaged to Rose Heseltine, whom 
he had met in Ireland but who was of English birth. They 
were married in June 1844. His headquarters had previously 
been at Banagher; he was now transferred to Clonmel. 

Trollope had always dreamt of novel-writing, and his Irish 



experiences seemed to supply him with promising subjects. 
With some assistance from his mother he got published his first 
two books, The Macdermots of Ballycloran (1847) and The Kellys 
and the O'Kellys (1848). Neither was in the least a success, 
though the second perhaps deserved to be, and a third, La 
Vendee (1850), besides being a much worse book than either, 
was equally a failure. Trollope made various literary attempts, 
but for a time ill fortune attended all of them. Meanwhile 
he was set on a new kind of post office work, which suited him 
even better than his former employment a sort of roving com- 
mission to inspect rural deliveries and devise their extension, first 
in Ireland, then throughout the west of England and South Wales. 
That he did good work is undeniable; but his curious conception 
of official duty, on his discharge of which he prided himself 
immensely, is exhibited by his confessions that he "got his hunt- 
ing out of it," and that he felt " the necessity of travelling miles 
enough " he was paid by the mileage " to keep his horses." 
It was during this work that he struck the vein which gave him 
fortune and fame. A visit to Salisbury Close inspired him with 
the idea of The Warden (1855). It brought him little immediate 
profit, nor was even Barchester Towers, which followed in 1857, 
very profitable, though it contains his freshest, his most original, 
and, with the exception of The Last Chronicle of Barset, his best 
work. The two made him a reputation, however, and in 1858 
he was able for the first time to sell a novel, The Three Clerks, for 
a substantial sum, 250. A journey on post office business to 
the West Indies gave him material for a book of travel, The 
West Indies and the Spanish Main (1859), which he frankly 
and quite truly acknowledges to be much better than some 
subsequent work of his in the same line. From this time his 
production, mainly of novels, was incessant, and the sums which 
he received were very large, amounting in one case to as much as 
3525 for a single book, and to nearly 70,000 in the twenty years 
between 1859 and 1879. All these particulars are given with 
great minuteness by himself, and are characteristic. The full 
high tide of his fortunes began when the Cornhill Magazine 
was established. He was asked at short notice to contribute 
a novel, and wrote in 1861 Framley Parsonage, which was 
extremely popular; two novels immediately preceding it, The 
Bertrams (1859) and Castle Richmond Ci86o1 had been much 
less successful. 

As it will be possible to notice few of his other works, the list 
of them, a sufficiently astonishing one, may be given here: Doctor 
Thome (1858); Tales of All Countries (3rd series 1863); Orley Farm; 
North America (1862); Rachael Ray (1863); The Small House at 
Allington, Can You Forgive Her? (1864); Miss Mackenzie (1865); 
The Belton Estate (1866); The Claverings, Nina Balatka, The Last 
Chronicle of Barset (1867); Linda Tressel (1868); Phineas Finn, 
He Knew He Was Right (1869); The Struggles of Brown, Jones and 
Robinson, the Vicar of Bullhampton, An Editor s Tales, The Com- 
mentaries of Caesar (1870); Sir Harry Hotspur of Humblethwaite, 
Ralph the Heir (1871); The Golden Lion of Granpere (1872); The 
Eustace Diamonds, Australia and New Zealand (1873); Phineas 
Redux, Harry Heathcote of Gangoil, Lady Anna (1874) ; The Way We 
Live Now (1875) ; The Prime Minister (1876) ; The American Senator 
(1877); Is He Popenjoy? So^lth Africa (1878); John Caldigate, An 
Eve for an Eye, Cousin Henry, Thackeray (1879); The Duke's Children, 
Cicero (1880); Ayala's Angel, Dr Wortle's School (1881); Frau Froh- 
mann, Lord Palmerston, The Fixed Period, Kept in the Dark, Marion 
Fay (1882); Mr Scarborough's Family, The Land Leaguers (1883); 
and An Old Man's Love (1884), and several volumes of short stories. 

How this enormous total was achieved in spite of official 
work (of which, lightly as he took it, he did a good deal, and 
which he did not give up for many years), of. hunting three 
times a week in the season, of whist-playing, of not a little 
going into general society, he has explained with his usual 
curious minuteness. He reduced novel-writing to the con- 
ditions of regular mechanical work so much so that latterly 
he turned out 250 words every quarter of an hour, and wrote 
at this rate three hours a day. He divided every book before- 
hand into so many days' work and checked off the amount 
as he wrote. 

A life thus spent could not be very eventful, and its events 
may be summed up rapidly. In 1858 he went to Egypt on 
post office business, and at the end of 1859 he got himself 



302 



TROMBA MARINA TROMBONE 



transferred from Ireland to the eastern district of England. 
Here he took a house, at Waltham. He took an active part 
in the establishment of the Fortnightly Review in 1865; he was 
editor of St Paul's for some time after 1867; and at the end of 
that year he resigned his position in the post office. He stood 
as a parliamentary candidate for Beverley and was defeated ; he 
received from his old department special missions to America 
and elsewhere he had already gone to America during the Civil 
War. He went to Australia in 1871, and before going broke up 
his household at Waltham. When he returned he established 
himself in London, and lived there until 1880, when he removed 
to Harting, on the confines of Sussex and Hampshire. He had 
visited South Africa in 1877 and travelled elsewhere. He died 
of paralysis on the 6th of December 1882. 

Of Trollope's personal character it is not necessary to say much. 
Strange as his conception of official duty may seem, it was 
evidently quite honest and sincere, and, though he is said to have 
been as an official popular neither with superiors nor inferiors, 
he no doubt did much good work. Privately he was much liked 
and much disliked a great deal of real kindness being accom- 
panied by a blustering and overbearing manner, and an egotism, 
not perhaps more deep than other men's, but more vociferous. 
None of his literary work except the novels is remarkable for 
merit. His Caesar and Cicero are curious examples of a man's 
undertaking work for which he was not in the least fitted. 
Thackeray exhibits, though Trollope appears to have both 
admired Thackeray as an artist and liked him as a man, grave 
faults of taste and judgment, and a complete lack of real criticism. 
The books of travel are not good, and of a kind not good. Nina 
Balatka and Linda Tressel stories dealing with Prague and 
Nuremberg respectively were published anonymously and as 
experiments in the romantic style. They have been better 
thought of by the author and by some competent judges than 
by the public or the publishers. The Struggles of Brown, Jones 
and Robinson was still more disliked, and is certainly very bad 
as a whole, but has touches of curious originality in parts. 
Trollope seldom creates a character of the first merit; at the 
same time his characters are always alive. Dr Thorne, Mr 
Harding, who has the courage to resign his sinecure 
in The Warden, Mr Crawley, Archdeacon Grantley, 
and Mrs Proudie in the same ecclesiastical series, are 
distinct additions to the personae of English fiction 
After his first failures he never produced any 
thing that was not a faithful and sometimes a very 
amusing transcript of the sayings and doings of 
possible men and women. His characters are never 
marionettes, much less sticks. He has some 
irritating mannerisms, notably a trick of repetition 
of the same form of words. He is sometimes absolutely vulgar 
that is to say, he does not deal with low life, but shows, though 
always robust and pure in morality, a certain coarseness of 
taste. He is constantly rather trivia), and perhaps nowhere 
out of the Barset series (which, however, is of itself no in- 
considerable work) has he produced books that will live. The 
very faithfulness of his representation of a certain phase of 
thought, of cultivation, of society, uninformed as it is by 
any higher spirit, in the long run damaged, as it had first 
helped, the popularity of his work. But, allowing for all this 
it may and must still be said that he held up his mirror 
steadily to nature, and that the mirror itself was fashioned 
with no inconsiderable art. 

Trollope wrote an' Autobiography, edited by his son Henry M. 
Trollope in 1883, explaining his literary methods with amusing 
frankness. See also Sir L. Stephen's Studies of a Biographer (1898), 
James Bryce's Studies in Contemporary Biography (1903), and 
Henry James's Partial Portraits (1888). 

TROMBA MARINA, or MARINE TRUMPET (Fr. trompetle 
marine; Ger. Marine Trompete, Trompetengeige, Nonnengeige, 
Tympanischiza or Trummscheit), a triangular bowed instru- 
ment about 6 ft. in length, which owes its characteristic timbre 
to the peculiar construction of the bridge. The tromba marina 
consists of a body and neck in the shape of a truncated 



cone resting on a triangular base. In the days of Michael 
Praetorius (1618), the length of the Trummscheit was 7 ft. 3 in. 
and the three sides at the base measured 7 in., tapering to 
2 in. at the neck. These measurements varied considerably, 
as did also the shape of the body and the number of strings. 
In some cases the base of the body was left open, and in others 
there were sound-holes. The bridge, from its curiously irregular 
shape, was known as the " shoe "; it was thick and high at 
the one side on which rested the string, and low and narrow 
at the other which was left loose so that it vibrated against 
the belly with every movement of the bow, producing a trumpet- 
like timbre. It is to thisfeature, in conjunction with its general 
resemblance in contour to the marine speaking-trumpet of the 
middle ages, that the name of the instrument is doubtless due. 

There was at first but one string, generally a D violoncello string, 
which was not stopped by the fingers in the usual way, but played 
only in harmonics by lightly touching it with the thumb at the nodal 
points. The heavy blow, similar to that of the violoncello, is used 
between the highest positions of the left hand at the nodal points and 
the nut of the head. In a Trummscheit in the collection of the Kgl. 
Hochschule, at Charlottenburg (No. 772 in catalogue) the frets are 
lettered A,D,F,A,D,F,G,A,B,C,D. Sometimes an octave string, 
half the length of the melody string, and even two more, respectively 
the twelfth and the double octave, not resting on the bridge but 
acting as sympathetic strings, were added to improve the timbre by 
strengthening the pure harmonic tones without increasing the blare 
due to the action of the bridge. In Germany, at the time when the 
trumpet was extensively used in the churches, nuns often substituted 
the tromba marina, whence the name Nonnengeige. In France, 
the Grande Ecurie du Roi comprised five trumpets-marine and 
cromornes among the band in 1662, when the charge was mentioned 
for the first time in the accounts; and in 1666 the number was 
increased to six. The instrument fell into disuse during the first 
half of the i8th century, and was only to be seen in the hands of 
itinerant and street musicians. (K. S.) 

TROMBONE (Fr. trombone, Ger. Posaune, Ital. Irombono), 
an important member of the brass wind family of musical 
instruments formerly known as sackbut. The trombone is 
characterized by the slide, consisting of two parallel cylindrical 
tubes, over which two other cylindrical tubes, communicating 
at their lower extremities by means of a short semicircular 




FIG. i. Tenor Trombone (Besson & Co.). 

pipe, slip without loss of air. The outer tube, therefore, slides 
upon the inner, and as it is drawn downwards by the right 
hand opens a greater length of tube proportional to the depth 
of pitch required. When the slide is closed the instrument is 
at its highest pitch. To the upper end of one of the inner tubes 
is fastened the cup-shaped mouthpiece and to the end of the 
other tube is fixed the bell-joint. This joint, on the proper 
proportions of which depend in a greater measure the acoustic 
properties of the trombone, consists of a length of tubing with 
conical bore widening out into a large bell and doubled back 
once upon itself in a plane at right angles to that of the slide. 
The bell-joint is strengthened by two or three stays, and 
the slide also has two, one between the inner immovable tubes 
and the other on the outer sliding tubes, by means of which 
the slide is drawn out and pushed in. 

Sound is produced on the trombone, as on the horn, by 
means of the lips stretched like a vibrating reed across the 
cup mouthpiece from rim to rim; the acoustic principles in- 
volved are the same for both instruments. By overblowing, 
i.e. by the varying tension of the lips and pressure of breath, 
the harmonic series is obtained, which is effective between 
the second and the tenth harmonics, the fundamental being 
but rarely of practical use. 

There are seven positions of the slide on the trombone, each 



TROMBONE 



33 



giving a theoretical fundamental tone and its upper partials a 
semitone lower than the last, and corresponding to the seven 
shifts on the violin and to the seven positions on valve instru- 
ments. These seven positions are found by drawing out the slide 
a little more for each one, the first position being that in which 
the slide remains closed. The performer on the trombone is 
just as dependent on an accurate ear for finding the correct 
positions as a violinist. 

The table of harmonics for the seven positions of the tenor 
trombone in Bb is appended; they furnish a complete chromatic 
compass of two octaves and a sixth. 

Position I. 
(with closed slide). 



II. 
III. 

IV. 
V. 

VI. 
VII. 



These notes represent all the notes in practical use, although it 
is possible to produce certain of the higher harmonics. The instru- 
ment being non-transposing, the notation represents the real 
sounds. 

The four chief trombones used in the orchestra are the following : 




The Alto in E flat or F. HF 



1 



The Tenor-Bass in B flat. 



The Bass in F or G 



-ET 



1 



or(^) 



to 



IE 



J 



(with double slide in E flat). : 



The Contra-Bass in B flat. 
An octave below the Tenor-Bass. 







-to 



8"" bassa 

The compass given above is extreme and includes the notes 
obtained by means of the slide; the notes in brackets are very 
difficult; the fundamental notes, even whefl they can be played, are 
not of much practical use. The contra-bass trombone, although 
not much in request in the concert hall, is required for the Nibelungen 
Ring, in which Wagner has scored effectively for it. 

The quality of tone varies greatly in the different instruments 
and registers. The alto trombone has neither power nor richness 
of tone, but sounds hard and has a timbre between that of a trumpet 
and a French horn. The tenor and bass have a full rich quality 
suitable for heroic, majestic music, but the tone depends greatly 
on the performer's method of playing; the modern tendency to 
produce a harsh, noisy blare is greatly to be deplored. 

Besides the slide trombone, which is most largely used, there are 
the valve trombones, and the double-slide trombones. The former 



are made in the same keys as the instruments given above and are 
constructed in the same manner, except that the slide is replaced by 
three pistons, which enable the performer to obtain a greater technical 
execution; as the tone suffers thereby and loses its character- 
istic timbre, the instruments have never become popular in England. 




FIG. 2. 

The double-slide trombone (fig. 2) patented by Messrs Rudall Carte 
& Co. but said to have been originally invented by Halary in 1830 
is made in Bb, G bass and Eb contrabass. In these instruments 
each of the branches of the slide is made half the usual length. 
There are four branches instead of two and the two pairs lie one 
over the other, each pair being connected at the bottom by a semi- 
circular tube and the second pair similarly at the top as well. The 
usual bar or stay suffices for drawing out both pairs of slides simul- 
taneously, but as the lengthening of the air column is now doubled 
in proportion to the shift of the slide, the extension of arm for the 
lower positions is lessened by half, which increases the facility of 
execution but calls for greater nicety in the adjustment of the slide, 
more especially in the higher positions. 

The history of the evolution of the trombone from the buccina 
is given in the article on the Sackbut (q.v.), the name by which 
the earliest draw or slide trumpets were known in England. 
The Germans call the trombone Posaune, formerly buzaun, 
busine, pusin or pusun in the poems and romances of the I2th 
and i3th century, words all clearly derived from the Latin 
buccina. The modern designation " large trumpet " comes 
from the Italian, in which tromba means not only trumpet, 
but also pump and elephant's trunk. It is difficult to say 
where or at what epoch the instrument was invented. In 
a psalter (No. 20) of the nth century, preserved at Boulogne, 
there is a drawing of an instrument which bears a great 
resemblance to a trombone deprived of its bell. Sebastian 
Virdung, Ottmar Luscinius, and Martin Agricola say little 
about the trombone, but they give illustrations of it under 
the name of busaun which show that early in the i6th century 
it was almost the same as that employed in our day. It would 
not be correct to assume from this that the trombone was not 
well known at that date in Germany, and for the following 
reasons. First, the art of trombone playing was in the I5th 
century in Germany mostly in the hands of the members of 
the town bands, whose duties included playing on the watch 
towers, in churches, at pageants, banquets and festivals, and 
they, being jealous of their privileges, kept the secrets of their art 
closely, so that writers, such as the above, although acquainted 
with the appearance, tone and action of the instrument would 
have but little opportunity of learning much about the method 
of producing the sound. Secondly, German and Dutch trombone 
players are known to have been in request during the 1 5th century 
at the courts of Italian princes. 1 Thirdly, Hans Neuschel of 
Nuremberg, the most celebrated performer and maker of his day, 
had already won a name at the end of the isth century for the 
excellence of his " Posaunen," and it is recorded that he made 
great improvements in the construction of the instrument in I4Q8, 2 
a date which probably marks the transition from sackbut to 
trombone, by enlarging the bore and turning the bell-joint 
round at right angles to the slide. Finally in early German 
translations of Vegetius's De re militari (1470) the buccina 
is described (bk. in., 5) as the trumpet or posaun which is 
drawn in and out, showing that the instrument v/as not only 
well known, but that it had been identified as the descendant of 
the buccina. 

By the i6th century the trombone had come into vogue in England, 
and from the name it bore at first, not sackbut, but shakbusshe, it 

1 E. Van der Straeten, Les Musiciens neerlandais p. 26. 

2 See G. von Retberg " Zur Gesch. d. Musik-instrumente " in 
Anzeiger fur Kunde der deutschen Vorzeit p. 241. (Nuremberg, 1860), 
See also letters from Jorg Neuschell 1540-1545 in Monatsheftef. 
Musikwissenschaft, ix. p. 149 seq. 



34 



TROMP 



is evident that the instrument had been introduced from Spain and 
not from France (where it bore the name of saquebute), as some 
have assumed from the more frequent use of the word sackbut. 
The band of musicians in the service of Henry VIII. included ten 
sackbut players, and under Elizabeth, in 1587, there were six 
English instrumentalists then enjoyed a certain reputation and 
were sought for by foreign courts; thus in 1604 Charles III. of 
Lorraine sought to recruit his sackbut players from English bands. 1 
Praetorius 2 classes the trombones in a complete family, the relative 
tonalities of which were thus composed: I -Alt-Posaun, 4 Gemeine 
rechte Posaunen, 2 Quart-Posaunen, i Octav-Posaun eight in all. 
The Alt-posaun was in D. With the slide closed, it gave the first of 
the accompanying harmonics: 



"3: 






^E 



4- 

The gemeine rechte Posaunen, or ordinary trombones, were 
Without using the slide they gave the subjoined sounds : 

A 



in 



A. 



The Quart-Posaun was made either in E, the fourth below the 
gemeine rechte Posaun, or in D, the lower fifth. In the latter case 
it was exactly an octave below the Alt-Posaun. The Octav-Posaun 
was in A. It was, constructed in two different fashions: either it 
had a length double that of the ordinary trombone, or the slide 
was shortened, the length of the column of air being still maintained 
by the adaptation of a crook. The first system, which was invented 
by Hans Schreiber four years before the work of Praetorius appeared, 
gave the instrumentalist a slide by which he* could procure in the 
lower octave all the sounds of the ordinary trombone. The second 
system, which Praetorius had known for years, was distinguished 
from the first, not only by modifications affecting the form, but also 
by a larger bore. Mersenne 3 calls the trombone trompette harmo- 
nique, or tuba tractilis. He describes carefully the seven positions 
and gives the diatonic scale for the first octave, but he does not, 
like Praetorius, mention the pitch of the trombones in use in his 
day. He established this fact, however, that it was customary in 
France, as in Germany, to lower the instrument a fourth below the 
pitch of the ordinary trombone by means of a tortil, a kind of crook 
with a double turn that was fitted between the bell and the slide, 
" in order," he said, " to make the bass to hautbois concerts." 
This system, so simple and rational, might have been expected 
always to serve for the basis of the technique of the instrument; 
but from the middle of the i8th century the art of playing the trom- 
bone became the object of purely empiric teaching. Owing to the 
decline in the popularity of the trombone during the 1 8th century 
in England, France, Germany and Italy, writers of that period 
are sometimes at a loss to describe the working and effect of theslide, 
as were the early 16th-century authors. J. J. Eisel, and after him 
Jacob Lotter, whose work is a rechauffe of Eisel's, mention four 
principal positions, " the others not being of much importance." 
The lowering of the pitch effected by means of these four positions, 
however, is almost equal to that of the seven positions of the modern 
trombone. The tenor or ordinary trombone is given as an example. 
It stood in the first position in A. The second position, equal to the 
modern third produced the harmonic series of the fundamental G 
one tone lower than the first position. The third position gave F 
again a tone lower and corresponding to our sixth position. The 
fourth position, which extended so far outward "that the arm could 
hardly reach it," gave E as fundamental. The intermediate semitones, 
instead of being considered as positions, are treated as accidentals, 
lowering or raising any note obtained in one of the positions by draw- 
ing out, or pushing in, the slide approximately an extra two-fingers 
breadth. It would not be correct to state without qualification that 
four positions only were used on the trombone in the i8th century. 

Samuel VVesley, who has left notes on the scales of various instru- 
ments, in his own hand (Add MS. 35011 fol. 166 Brit. Mus.), has 
added under the scales of the trombones bass, tenor and alto 
the remark " sacbut or double trumpet, the scale of which is 
wanting." 

Of all wind instruments the trombone has perhaps been least 
modified in form; changes have occasionally been attempted, but 
for the most part with only trifling success. The innovation which 
has had the most vogue dates from the end of the l8th century; 
it consisted in bending the tube of the bell in a half circle 
above the head of the executant, which produced a very bizarre 
effect. It also gave rise to very serious inconveniences : by destroy- 
ing the regularity of the proportions of the bell it prejudicially 
affected the quality of tone and intonation of the instrument. For 
a long time the curved bell with its serpent's mask known as the 



Bucin a term borrowed from the French in this instance was 
maintained in military music, and it is not so very long since it 
was completely given up. By giving a half turn more to the bell 
tube its opening was directed to the back of the executant ; but this 



1 See A. Jacquot, La Musique en Lorraine, p. 6l. 

2 Organographia (Wolfenbuttel, 1619). 
1 Harmonic universelle (Paris, 1636). 




FIG. 3. Contrabass Trombone (Boosey & Co.). 

form, in fashion for a little while about 1830, was not long adhered 
to, and the trombone reassumed its primitive form, which is still 
maintained. As appears from a patent deposited by Stolzel and 
Bliimel at Berlin on the I2th of April 1818 the application of ventils 
or pistons was then made for the first time. 4 The ventils, at first 
two in number, effected a definite lengthening of the instrument. 
The first augmented the length of the tube by a tone, lowering by 
as much the natural harmonics. The second produced a similar 
effect for a semitone, and the simultaneous employment of the two 
pistons resulted in the depression of a tone and a half. The principle, 
therefore, of the employment of ventils or pistons is the same as 
that which governs the use of slides (see VALVES). Notwithstanding 
the increased facility obtained by the use of pistons, they are very 
far from having gained the suffrage of all players: many prefer 
the slide, believing that it gives a facility of emission that they can- 
not obtain with a piston trombone. The flat tonalities having been 
preferred for military music since the beginning of the igth century 
the pitch of each variety of trombones has been raised a semitone. 
At present six trombones are more or less in use, viz. the alto 
trombone in F, the alto in Eb (formerly in D), the tenor in Bb 
(formerly in A), the bass in G, the bass in F (formerly in E), the bass 
in Eb (formerly in D), and the contrabass in B|>. This transposition 
has no reference to the number of vibrations that may be officially 
or tacitly adopted as the standard pitch of any country or locality. 
A trombone an octave lower than the tenor has recently been re- 
introduced into the orchestra, principally by Wagner. The different 
varieties just cited are constructed with pistons or slides, as the 
case may be. 

Further information on the trombone will be found in the mono- 
graphs by the Rev. F. W. Galpin, "The Sackbut: its Evolution and 
History," Proc. Mus. Assoc. (1906-1907); by Victor Mahillon, Le 
Trombone, son histoire, sa theorie, sa construction (Brussels, London, 
1907). Before his recent death Professor George Case had in 
preparation an important work on the trombone. (V. M.; K. S.) 

TROMP, the name of two famous Dutch admirals. 

i. MARTIN HARPERTZOON TROMP (1597-1653) was born 
at Brielle, South Holland, in 1597. At the age of eight he 
made a voyage to the East Indies in a merchantman, but was 
made prisoner and spent several years on board an English 
cruiser. On making his escape to Holland he entered the 
navy in 1624, and in 1637 was made lieutenant-admiral. 
In February 1639 he surprised, off the Flemish coast near 
Gravelines, a large Spanish fleet, which he completely destroyed, 
and in the following September he defeated the combined fleets 
of Spain and Portugal off the English coast achievements 
which placed him in the first rank of Dutch naval commanders. 
On the outbreak of war with England Tromp appeared in 
the Downs in command of a large fleet and anchored off Dover. 
On the approach of Blake he weighed anchor and stood over 
towards France, but suddenly altered his course and bore down 
on the English fleet, which was much inferior to his in numbers. 
In the engagement which followed (May 19, 1652) he had 
rather the worst of it and drew off with the loss of two ships. 
In November he again appeared in command of eighty ships 
of war, and a convoy of 300 merchantmen, which he had under- 
taken to guard past the English coast. Blake resolved to 
attack him, and, the two fleets coming to close quarters near 
Dungeness on the 3oth of November, the English, after severe 
losses, drew off in the darkness and anchored off Dover, retiring 
next day to the Downs, while Tromp anchored off Boulogne 

4 This was mentioned in the Leipzig Allg. musik. Ztg. (1815), 
the merit of the invention being assigned to Heinrich 'StSlzel of 
Pless in Silesia. 



TROMSO TROON 



305 



till the Dutch merchantmen had all passed beyond danger. 
The statement that he sailed up the Channel with a broom 
at his masthead in token of his ability to sweep the seas is 
probably mythical. In the following February (1653), while 
in charge of a large convoy of merchantmen, he maintained 
a running fight with the combined English fleets under Blake, 
Penn and Monk off Portland to the sands of Calais, and, 
though baffling to some extent the purposes of the English, 
had the worst of the encounter, losing nine ships of war and 
thirty or forty merchantmen. On the 3rd of June he fought 
an indecisive battle with the English fleet under Richard 
Dean in the Channel, but the arrival of reinforcements under 
Blake on the following day enabled the English to turn 
the scale against him and he retired to the Texel with the loss 
of seventeen ships. Greatly discouraged by the results of the 
battle, the Dutch sent commissioners to Cromwell to treat 
for peace, but the proposal was so coldly received that war was 
immediately renewed, Tromp again appearing in the Channel 
towards the end of July 1653. In the hotly contested conflict 
which followed with the English under Monk on the 2gth Tromp 
was shot by a musket bullet through the heart. He was buried 
with great pomp at Delft, where there is a monument to his 
memory in the old church. 

2. CORNELIUS VAN TROMP (1620-1691), the second son of 
the preceding, was born at Rotterdam on the gth of September 
1629. At the age of nineteen he commanded a small squadron 
charged to pursue the Barbary pirates. In 1652 and 1653 
he served in Van Galen's fleet in the Mediterranean, and 
after the action with the English fleet off Leghorn on the 
I3th of March 1653, in which Van Galen was killed, Tromp 
was promoted to be rear-admiral. On the i3th of July 1665 
his squadron was, by a hard stroke of ill-fortune, defeated by 
the English under the duke of York. In the following year 
Tromp served under De Ruyter, and on account of De 
Ruyter's complaints of his negligence in the action of the sth 
of August he was deprived of his command. He was, however, 
reinstated in 1673 by the stadtholder William, afterwards 
king of England, and in the actions of the 7th and of the 
I4th of June, against the allied fleets of England and France, 
manifested a skill and bravery which completely justified his 
reappointment. In 1675 he visited England, where he was 
received with honour by King Charles II. In the following 
year he was named lieutenant-admiral of the United Provinces. 
He died at Amsterdam, on the 2gth of May 1691, shortly 
after he had been appointed to the command of a fleet against 
France. Like his father he was buried at Delft. 

See H. de Jager, Het Ceslacht Tromp (1883). 

TROMSO, a seaport of Norway, capital of the ami (county) 
and slift (diocese) of the same name on the north-western coast. 
Pop. (1900), 6955. It stands on the eastern shore of a low fertile 
islet between Kvalo and the mainland, in 69 38' N., 18 55' E. 
(the latitude is that of Disco, Greenland). The vegetation of 
the island (mountain ash and birch) is remarkably luxuriant. 
The buildings, mostly of wood, include the town-hall and a 
museum, which contains a good zoological collection. Sealskins 
and other furs, and whale and seal oil, are exported, and the 
herring fishery is very productive. Imports are coal, textiles, 
salt, grain and flour. Mean temperature of year 36-4 F.; 
February 25; July 51-8., Tromso was founded in 1794. A 
number of Lapps usu illy encamp in the neighbouring Tromsdal 
during summer. Thi coast scenery, with its islands and snowy 
mountains, is wild ai i beautiful. 

TRONCHET, FRA1 018 DENIS (1726-1806), French jurist, 
was born in Paris <n the 23rd of March 1726. He was an 
avocat at the parlen ent of Paris, and gained a great reputation 
in a consultative capacity. In 1789 he was elected deputy to 
the states-general, .n the Constituent Assembly he made him- 
self especially consp cuous by his efforts to obtain the rejection 
of the jurisdiction o the jury in civil cases. In the king's trial, 
he was chosen by Louis as counsel for the defence, and per- 
formed this difficult and dangerous task with high ability and 
courage. During the Directory he was deputy at the Council 



of the Ancients, where he unsuccessfully opposed the resolution 
that judges be nominated by the executive directory. Under 
the Consulate he was president of the tribunal of cassation, and 
collaborated in preparing the final scheme for the civil code. 
He had a marked influence on the code, and succeeded in 
introducing common law principles in spite of the opposition of 
his colleagues, who were deeply imbued with Roman law. He 
died on the loth of March 1806, being the first senator of the 
empire to be buried in the Pantheon. 

See Frangois de Neufchateau, Discours sur Tronchet (Paris, 
undated); Coqueret, Essai sur Tronchet (Caen, 1867). 

TRONDHJEM, or THRONDHJEM (sometimes written in the 
German form Drontheim), a city and seaport of Norway, chief 
town of the slift (diocese) of Trondhjem and the ami (county) 
of South Trondhjem, 384 m. by rail N. of Christiania. Pop. 
(1900), 38,156. It lies on the south side of the broad Trondhjem 
Fjord on a low peninsula between the fjord and the River Nid, 
its situation, though picturesque, lacking the peculiar beauty 
of that of Christiania or Bergen. The latitude is ,63 26' N., 
that of southern Iceland. In front of the town is the islet of 
Munkholm, formerly a monastery and now a fortress; on the 
high ground to the east is the small stronghold of Christiansten. 
The houses are principally of wood, and the streets are wide, 
as a precautipn against the spreading of fire. The principal 
building is the cathedral, standing finely on a slightly elevated 
open site, and dating in part from the close of the nth century, 
but chiefly belonging to the I2th and i3th centuries (c. 1161- 
1248). Its extreme length is 325 ft. and its extreme breadth 
124 ft.; but in the I4th, I5th and i7th centuries it suffered 
greatly from repeated fires, and after the last of these the nave 
was completely abandoned and soon became a heap of ruins. The 
whole building, however, had been extensively and judiciously 
restored, and is the finest church in Norway and the scene of 
the coronation of the Norwegian sovereigns. It is crucifoim, 
with a central tower, and has an eastern octagon which may 
have been copied from the corona of Canterbury Cathedral, 
as Eystein, archbishop of Trondhjem (1160-1188) and an 
active builder, was in England during his episcopate. The 
cathedral contains rich work in Norman style, and also much 
that is comparable with the best Early English. In the 
museums at Trondhjem there are interesting zoological and 
antiquarian collections, also exhibits illustrative of the fisheries 
and other industries. The port, which has regular communica- 
tion with all the Norwegian coast towns Hull, Newcastle, 
Hamburg, &c. carries on an extensive trade in timber, oil, 
fish, copper, &c. The industries include shipbuilding, saw- 
milling, wood-pulp and fish-curing works and machine shops. 
Imports (coal, grain, salt, machinery, &c.) come chiefly from 
Great Britain. A considerable portion of the exports pass 
into Sweden by the Meraker railway. 

Trondhjem, originally Nidaros, was founded by Olaf Tryg- 
gvason, who built a royal residence and a church here in 996. 
It was made an archbishopric in 1152. The city attained its 
highest development about the latter half of the i3th century, 
by which time it had become an important pilgrimage centre 
and had as many as fifteen churches. It sustained frequent 
sieges, as well as devastating conflagrations. Its importance 
declined about the time of the Reformation when it ceased to 
be a resort of pilgrims. 

TROON, a police burgh, seaport and watering-place of 
Ayrshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 4764. It is situated 6 m. N. by 
W. of Ayr, and 35m. S.W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South- 
western railway. It has the best natural harbour in the 
county, with over a mile of quayage, a breakwater 3000 ft. 
long, and two graving docks. Shipbuilding is the leading 
industry, and there is a rope and sail factory. The town contains 
a public hall and library and reading-room. The municipality 
controls the waterworks and gasworks. Fullarton House, 
i m. south-east, is a seat of the duke of Portland; and at 
Auchans, about 3 m. west, Susannah, countess of Eglinton, in 
1773 entertained Dr Johnson. Adjoining this estate stands 
the ruined castle of the Dundonalds. 



306 



TROOP TROPINE 



TROOP (an adaptation of Fr. troupe, O. Fr. trope; cf. Ital. 
troppa, Iruppa; Med. Lat. truppus; the origin is doubtful; 
suggestions have been made that it represents a German 
conception of Latin lurba, crowd, or is an adaptation of Norw. 
torp, flock), a company or assemblage of persons, the term being 
usually applied in the plural to a body of soldiers of varying 
strength and of different arms. Specifically, a " troop " is one 
of the smaller units into which a regiment of horse-soldiers is 
divided, forming a subdivision of a squadron. Roughly speak- 
ing, it consists of sixteen files, and does not exceed from 30 to 
40 sabres; in some armies, however, a maximum limit of 60 
sabres are found (see CAVALRY). For the military ceremony 
known as " trooping of the colours," see COLOURS, MILITARY. 

TROPHY (Gr. rpmaiov, from rptir<a, put to flight; Lat. 
tropaeum), in classical antiquities, in the strict sense a memorial 
of victory set up on the field of battle at the spot where the enemy 
had been routed. It consisted of captured arms and standards 
hung upon a tree (preferably an olive or an oak) and booty 
heaped up at its foot, dedicated to the god to whom the victory 
was attributed, especially Zeus Tropaeus. If no suitable tree 
was at hand, a lopped trunk was fixed in the ground on an 
eminence. The tree or tr,unk bore an inscription containing 
the names of the god and the combatants, a list of the booty 
and of the chief incidents of the battle or the entire war. In 
the case of a naval victory the trophy, composed of the beaks of 
ships (sometimes an entire ship), was generally set up on the 
nearest beach and consecrated to Poseidon. It was regarded as 
a sacrilege to destroy a trophy, since it was dedicated to a god; 
but, on the other hand, one that had fallen to pieces through 
lapse of time was not restored, to prevent feelings of resentment 
being kept alive. For the same reason trophies of stone or 
metal were forbidden by law, although this rule was not always 
observed. To facilitate reconciliation with their conquered 
foes, neither the Macedonians nor the Romans in early times 
erected such trophies. The usual custom was to take home 
the spoils, and to use them for decorating public buildings and 
private houses. The first example of a trophy set up after the 
Greek fashion occurs in 121 B.C., when Domitius Ahenobarbus 
celebrated his victory over the Allobroges in this manner. 
Although instances are not uncommon in later times, the Romans 
still showed a preference for setting up the memorials of vic- 
tory in Rome rather than on the field of battle. These were 
decorated with the spoils, and were themselves called trophies; 
such were the trophies of Marius recording his victories over 
Jugurtha and the Cimbri and Teutones. In later republican 
and imperial times enormous columns, on which the chief 
incidents of a battle or war were represented in bas-relief, 
were frequently erected, the most famous and most perfect 
example being the column of Trajan (see ROME: Archaeology, 
" The Imperial Forums "). 

TROPIC-BIRD, so called of sailors from early times, 1 because 
as W. Dampier (Voyages, i. 53) among many others testifies, 
it is " never seen far without either Tropick "; hence, indulging 
a pretty fancy, Linnaeus bestowed on it the generic term, con- 
tinued by modern writers, of Phaelhon, in allusion to its attempt 
to follow the path of the sun. 2 There are certainly three well- 
marked species of this genus, but their respective geographical 
ranges have not yet been definitely laid down. All of them can 
be easily known by their totipalmate condition, in which the 

1 More recently sailors have taken to call it " Boatswain-bird " 
a name probably belonging to a very different kind. (See SKUA.) 

2 Occasionally, perhaps through violent storms, tropic-birds 
wander very far from their proper haunts. In 1700 Leigh, in his 
Nat. Hist. Lancashire (i. 164, 195, Birds, pi. i., fig. 3), described and 
figured a " Tropick Bird " found dead in that county. Another is 
said by Mr Lees (Zoologist, 2nd series, p. 2666) to have been found 
dead at Cradley near Malvern apparently before 1856 (J. H. Gurney, 
jun., op. tit., p. 4766) which, like the last, would seem (W. H. 
Heaton, op. cit., p. 5086) to have been of the species known as 
P. aethereus. Naumann was told (Rhea, i. 25) of its supposed 
occurrence at Heligoland, and Colonel Legge (B. Ceylon, p. 1174) 
mentions one taken in India 170 m. from the sea. The case cited 
by Degland and Gerbe (Ornith. europeenne, ii. 363) seems to be that 
of an albatross. 



four toes of each foot are united by a web, and by the great 
length of the two middle tail-quills, which project beyond the 
rest, so as to have gained for the birds the name of " Rabijunco," 
" Paille-en-queue "and" Pijlstaart "among mariners of different 
nations. These birds fly to a great distance from land and seem 
to be attracted by ships, frequently hovering round or even 
settling on the mast-head. Their flight is performed by rapid 
strokes, unlike the action of other long-winged sea-fowl, and they 
are rarely seen on the water. 

The yellow-billed tropic-bird, P. flavirostris or candidus, 
appears to have habitually the most northerly, as well, perhaps, 
as the widest range, visiting Bermuda yearly to breed there, 
but also occurring numerously in the southern Atlantic, the 
Indian, and a great part of the Pacific Ocean. In some islands 
of all these three it breeds, sometimes on trees, which the other 
species are not known to do. However, like the rest of its 
congeners, it lays but a single egg, and this is of a pinkish white, 
mottled, spotted, and smeared with brownish purple, often so 
closely as to conceal the ground colour. This is the smallest of 
the group, and hardly exceeds in size a large pigeon; but the 
spread of its wings and its long tail make it appear more bulky 
than it really is. Except some black markings on the face 
(common to all the species known), a large black patch partly 
covering the scapulars and wing-coverts, and the black shafts 
of its elongated rectrices its ground colour is white, glossy as 
satin, and often tinged with roseate. Its yellow bill readily 
distinguishes it from its larger congener P. aethereus, but that 
has nearly all the upper surface of the body and wings closely 
barred with black, while the shafts of its elongated rectrices 
are white. This species has a range almost equally wide as 
the last; but it does not seem to occur in the western part of 
the Indian Ocean. The third and largest species, the red-tailed 
tropic-bird, P. rubricauda or phoenicurus, not only has a red 
bill, but the elongated and very attenuated rectrices are of a 
bright crimson red, and when adult the whole body shows a 
deep roseate tinge. The young are beautifully barred above 
with black arrow-headed markings. This species has not been 
known to occur in the Atlantic, but is perhaps the most 
numerous in the Indian and Pacific oceans, in which last great 
value used to be attached to its tail-feathers to be worked into 
ornaments. 3 

That the tropic-birds form a distinct family, Phaethontidae, 
of the Steganopodes (the Dysporomorphae of Huxley), was originally 
maintained by Brandt, and is now generally admitted, yet it cannot 
be denied that they differ a good deal from the other members of 
the group 4 ; indeed St G. Mivart in the Zoological Transactions 
(x. 364) hardly allowed Fregala and Phaethon to be stcganopodous 
at all ; and one curious difference is shown by the eggs of the latter, 
which are in appearance so wholly unlike those of the rest. The 
osteology of two species has been well described and illustrated 
by Alph. Milne-Edwards in A. Grandidier's fine Oiseaux de Mada- 
gascar (pp. 701-704, pis. 279-2810). (A. N.) 

TROPINE, C 8 H, 5 NO, a base formed together with tropic acid, 
CgHioOs, in the hydrolysis of the alkaloid atropine (K. Kraut, 
Ann., 1863, 128, p. 280; 1865, 133, p. 87). It crystallizes 
in plates which melt at 63 C. and boil at 233 C.; it is very 
hygroscopic and easily soluble in water. It is an optically 
inactive, strongly alkaline tertiary base. On heating with 
sodium in amyl alcoholic solution it it sransformed into a stereo- 
isomer, identical with the i^-tropine obtained by hydrolysing 
tropa-cocaine with hydrochloric acid. U possesses alcoholic 
properties, since it forms esters, the s >-called " tropelnes." 
On distillation with caustic baryta or so( a lime it decomposes 
into methylamine and tropilidine, CyHg (A. Ladenburg, Ann. 
1883, 217, p. 74), the same hydrocarbon being also obtained 
when it is destructively methylated, a cer ain amount of tropi- 
line, CrHioO, being produced simultaneously When heated 
with fuming hydrochloric acid to 150-180 C. it yields tro- 
pidine, CjHisN, and with hydriodic acid similarly forms an 

8 A fourth species, P. indicus, has been described from the Gulf 
of Oman, but doubt has been expressed as to its validity (Legge, 
pp. 1173, 1174). 

4 Sulidae (Gannet), Pelecanidae (Pelican), Plotidae (Snake-bird). 
Phalacrocoracidae (Cormorant,) and Fregatid;ie (Frigate-bird). 



TROPPAU--TROSSACHS, THE 



307 



i i 

NMe CHOH 

I 



I I 
NMe CO 

I I 



NMe 

I 



H 2 C-CH CH 2 H 2 C-CH CH 2 H 2 C-CH-CO 2 H 



iodo-compound, CgHisNIj, which, on reduction with zinc and 
hydrochloric acid, is converted into hydrotropidine, C 8 Hi 5 N. 
It yields various oxidation products. With an alkaline solu- 
tion of potassium permanganate it yields tropigenine, CrHuNO; 
with chromic acid in the presence of acetic acid it yields 
tropinone, CsHisNO; and with chromic acid in the presence 
of sulphuric acid it yields tropinic acid, C 6 HnN(CO2H)2. 

Tropidine, CsHnN, is a liquid having an odour resembling that 
of conine. It is a strong tertiary base, and is an unsaturated 
compound, forming addition products with the halogen acids. 
Hydrotropidine, C 8 Hi 6 N, is also a liquid. Its hydrochloride on dis- 
tillation loses methyl chloride and yields norhydrotropidine, 
C 7 Hi 3 N, a compound which is a secondary base, and whose hyclro- 
chloride when distilled over zinc dust yields a-ethylpyridine. 
Tropinic acid, C 6 HnN(CO 2 H) 2 , obtained as above, is inactive; it 
was resolved by J. Gadamer (Arch. Pharm., 1901, 239, p. 663) 
by means of its cinchonine salt. It is a dibasic acid, and the 
methiodide of its dimethyl ester on fusion with caustic alkalis 
yields n-adipic acid. It is apparently a derivative of N methyl 
pyrrollidine, since it may be oxidized ultimately to N methyl 
succinimide. Tropigenine, C;HuNO, is a secondary base. 

The most important of the oxidation products of tropine is 
tropinone, CaHuNO, which is a ketone containing the grouping 
-~CH 2 -CO-CH 2 since it yields a di-isonitroso derivative, a dibenzal 
derivative, and also forms mono- and di-oxalic esters. It is. a 
strong base and has a powerful reducing action. Its constitution 
is determined by the above facts and also because tropinic acid 
on destructive methylation yields a diolefine dicarboxylic acid 
which on reduction is converted into n-pimelic acid. These data 
point to tropine possessing an unbranched chain of seven carbon 
atoms and incidentally determine the constitution of the other 
various oxidation products, &c. (R. Willstiitter, Ber., 1895-1901). 
These compounds may consequently be represented as 

H 2 C CH CH 2 H 2 C-CH CH 2 H 2 C-CH-CH 2 -CO 2 H H 2 C-CH CH 2 

iNMe CH 
I I 
CH CH 

Tropine Tropinone Tropinic acid Tropidine. 

On the synthesis of tropine, see R. Willstatter, Ber., 1901, 34, 

PP- JS . 3 l6 3- 

Tropic acid, C 9 H 10 O3, the other decomposition product of atropine, 
is a saturated hydroxy-acid which is readily converted into atropic 
acid, CjHsO 2 , by dehydrating agents. This latter acid is shown 
by all its reactions to be C 6 H 6 C(:CH 2 )-CO 2 H, a fact which is 
confirmed by its synthesis from acetophenone by the action of 
phosphorus pentachloride, followed by the decomposition of the 
resulting chloride with an alcoholic solution of potassium cyanide 
and subsequent hydrolysis of the nitrile so formed. These results 
show that tropic acid must be either C6H 6 -CH(CH 2 OH)-CO 2 H or 
C 6 H 6 C-(OH)(CH3)-CO 2 H, and since the latter compound has been 
prepared from acetophenone by the addition of the elements of 
hydrocyanic acid, followed by subsequent hydrolysis and is an 
isomer of tropic acid, it follows that tropic acid must be represented 
by the former of the two formulae. Hence the alkaloid atropine, 
being a tropine-tropate, must have the annexed formula 

H 2 C-CH CH 2 CH 2 OH 

III I 

NMe CH-O-CO-CH 

H 2 C-CH--CH 2 C,H 6 

Atropine. 

TROPPAU (Polish, Oppava; Czech, Opava), the capital of 
the Austrian duchy and crown land of Silesia, 180 m. N.E. of 
Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 26,725. It is situated on the Oppa 
river, close to the Prussian frontier, and is a well-built town with 
extensive suburbs. The industries comprise the manufacture 
of cloth, industrial machines, sugar-refining, jute fabrics and 
brewing. Troppau was founded in the i3th century; but 
almost its only claim to historical mention is the fact that 
in 1820 the monarchs of Austria, Russia and Prussia met here 
to deliberate on the tendencies of the Neapolitan revolution. 
This congress of Troppau, however, left nearly the whole 
matter to be considered and decided at Laibach. The former 
principality of Troppau is now divided between Austria and 
Prussia, the latter holding the lion's share. 

TROPPAU, CONGRESS OF, a conference of the allied sove- 
reigns or their representatives to discuss a concerted policy with 
regard to the questions raised by the revolution in Naples of 
July 1820. At this congress, which met on the 2oth of October 



1820, the emperor Alexander I. of Russia and Francis I. of 
Austria were present in person; King Frederick William III. 
of Prussia was represented by the crown prince (afterwards 
Frederick William IV.). The three eastern powers were 
further represented by the ministers responsible for their 
foreign policy: Austria by Prince Metternich, Russia by Count 
Capo d'Istria, Prussia by Prince Hardenberg. Great Britain, 
on the other hand, which objected on principle to the suggested 
concerted action against the Neapolitan Liberals, sent no 
plenipotentiary, but was represented by Lord Stewart, ambas- 
sador in Vienna. France, too, though her policy was less clearly 
defined, had given no plenary powers to her representatives. 
Thus from the very first was emphasized that division within 
the concert of the powers which the outcome of the congress 
was to make patent. 

The characteristic note of this congress was its intimate 
and informal nature; the determining fact at the outset was 
Metternjch's discovery that he had no longer anything to fear 
from the " Jacobinism " of the emperor Alexander. In a three 
hours' conversation over a cup of tea at the little inn he had 
heard the tsar's confession and promise of amendment: 
" Aujourd'hui je deplore tout ce que j'ai dit et fait entre les 
annees 1814 et 1818 . . . Dites-moi ce que vous voulez de 
moi. Je le ferai " (Metternich to Esterhazy, Oct. 24, 1820, 
F. 0. Austria Dom. Sep.-Dec. 1820). His failure to convert 
Castlereagh to his views was now of secondary importance; 
the " free " powers being in accord, it was safe to ignore the 
opinions of Great Britain and France, whose governments, what- 
ever their goodwill, were fettered by constitutional forms. 

In a series of conferences to which the representatives of 
Great Britain and France were not admitted, on the excuse that 
they were only empowered to " report," not to " decide " was 
drawn up the famous preliminary protocol signed by Austria, 
Russia and Prussia on the igth of November. The main 
pronouncement of the " Troppau Protocol " is as follows: 
" States which have undergone a change of government due 
to revolution, the result of which threaten other states, ipso 
facto cease to be members of the European Alliance, and 
remain excluded from it until their situation gives guarantees 
for legal order and stability. If, owing to such alterations, 
immediate danger threatens other states the powers bind 
themselves, by peaceful means, or if need be, by arms, to 
bring back the guilty state into the bosom of the Great 
Alliance." 

No effort was made by the powers to give immediate effect 
to the principles enunciated in the protocol; and after its 
promulgation the conferences were adjourned, it being 
decided to resume them at Laibach in the following January 
(see LAIBACH). 

For authorities see the bibliography to ch. i. " The Congresses," 
by W. Alison Phillips, in the Cambridge Mod. Hist. x. 787. 

TROSSACHS, THE (Gaelic, " the bristled country," a crude 
allusion to its physical features), a defile in the south-west of 
Perthshire, Scotland. It is a narrow, beautifully wooded glen, 
of no great depth, extending from Loch Achray to Loch Katrine, 
and continued thence by a strip on the north-eastern shore to a 
point above the now submerged Silver Strand opposite to Ellen's 
Isle a total distance of i\ m. It is situated 8 m. W. of Callander 
and 5 m. N. of Aberfoyle, with both of which places there is 
daily communication by coach during the tourist season. It 
lies between the steep green slopes of Ben Venue (2393 ft.) 
on the S.W. and the precipitous craigs of Ben A'an (1750 ft.) 
on the N.E. Characterized by lovely scenery, owing to its 
harmonious blending of wood, water, rock and hill, the region has 
been famous ever since the appearance of Sir Walter Scott's The 
Lady of the Lake and Rob Roy. Before the construction of the 
road that now winds through the pass, Sir Walter says that the 
only access to the lake was by means of a ladder formed out of 
the branches and roots of trees. A rustic pier has been built 
at the Trossachs end of Loch Katrine for the convenience of 
tourists, and a large hotel stands on the northern shore of Loch 
Achray, near the beginning of the pass. 



3 o8 



TROTZENDORFF TROUBADOUR 



TROTZENDORFF (or TROCEDORTTUS), VALENTIN FRIED- 
LAND (1490-1556), German educationist, called Trotzendorff 
from his birthplace, near Gorlitz, in Prussian Silesia, was born 
on the i4th of February 1490, of parents so poor that they could 
not keep him at school. The boy taught himself to read and 
write while herding cattle; he made paper from birch bark 
and ink from soot. When difficulties were overcome and he was 
sent for education to Gorlitz, his mother's last words were 
" Stick to the school, dear son." The words determined his 
career: he refused all ecclesiastical promotion, and lived and 
died a schoolmaster. He became a distinguished student, 
learned Ciceronian Latin from Peter Mossellanus and Greek from 
Richard Croke, and after graduation was appointed assistant 
master in the school at Gorlitz. There he also taught the rector 
and other teachers. When Luther began his attack on indul- 
gences, Trotzendorff resigned his position and went to study 
under Luther and Melanchthon, supporting himself by private 
tuition. Thence he was called to be a master in the school at 
Goldberg in Silesia, and in 1524 became rector. There he re- 
mained three years, when he was sent to Liegnitz. He re- 
turned to Goldberg in 1531 and began that career which has 
made him the typical German schoolmaster of the Reformation 
period. His system of education and discipline speedily attracted 
attention. He made his best elder scholars the teachers 
of the younger classes, and insisted that the way to learn 
was to teach. He organized the school in such a way that the 
whole ordinary discipline was in the hands of the boys themselves. 
Every month a " consul," twelve " senators " and two " cen- 
sors " were chosen from the pupils, and over all Trotzendorff 
ruled as " dictator perpetuus." One hour a day was spent in 
going over the lessons of the previous day. The lessons were 
repeatedly recalled by examinations, which were conducted 
on the plan of academical disputations. Every week each 
pupil had to write two " exercitia styli," one in prose and the 
other in verse, and Trotzendorff took pains to see that the 
subject of each exercise was something interesting. The fame 
of the Goldberg School extended over all Protestant Germany, 
and a large nurrber of the more famous men of the following 
generation were taught by Trotzendorff. He died on the aoth 
of April 1556. 

See Herrmann, Merkwurdige Lebensgeschichle eines beruhmten 
Schulmanns, V. F. Trotzendorffs (1727); Frosch, V. F. Trotzendorff, 
Rektor zu Goldberg (1818); Pinzger, V. F. Trotzendorff (with the 
Goldberg portrait, and a complete list of his writings, 1825); 
Koehler, V. F. Trotzendorff, ein biographischer Versuch (1848). 
The biographical facts appear to be derived from a funeral or 
memorial oration delivered by Balthasar Rhau in the university of 
Wittenberg on the isth of August 1564, and published in an edition 
of Trotzendorffs Rosarium (1565). 

TROUBADOUR, the name given to the poets of southern 
France and of northern Spain and Italy who wrote in the langtte 
d'oc from the i2th to the i4th centuries. In Provencal the word 
is spelt trobaire or Irovador, and is derived from the verb Irobar, 
to find, or to invent (Fr. Ir owner}. The troubadour was one who 
invented, and originally improvised, poetry, who " found out " 
new and striking stanzaic forms for the elaborate lyrics he com- 
posed. In later times, the word has been used for romantic and 
sentimental persons, who dress in what is supposed to be 
medieval fashion, and who indite trivial verses to the sound of 
a lute; but this significance does less than justice to the serious 
artistic aims of the original and historic troubadours of 
Provence. 

The earliest troubadour of whom anything definite is known is 
Guilhem IX. (b. 1071), ccunt of Poitiers and duke of Aquitaine, 
whose career was typical of that of his whole class, for, according 
to his Provencal biographer, " he knew well how to sing and make 
verses, and for a long time he roamed all through the land to 
deceive the ladies." The high rank of this founder of the 
tradition was typical of its continuation; by far the largest 
number of the tioubadours belonged to the noble class, while no 
fewer than twenty-three of their number were reigning princes. 
Among them is a king of England, Richard I., who is believed 
to have written in langite d'oil as well as in langue d'oc, and who 



has left at least one canzo, that written in prison, which is of 
remarkable beauty. These noble troubadours were distinguished 
by their wealth and independence from those who made their 
song their profession, and who wandered from castle to castle 
and from bower to bower. But whether dependent or indepen- 
dent, the poets exercised a social influence which was extremely 
remarkable, and had been paralleled by nothing before it in the 
history of medieval poetry. They had great privileges of speech 
and censure, they entered into questions of politics, and above 
all they created around the ladies of the court an atmosphere of 
cultivation and amenity which nothing had hitherto approached. 
The troubadour was occasionally accompanied in his travels 
by an apprentice or servant, called a joglar, whose business was 
to provide a musical setting for the poet's words; sometimes it 
was not the troubadour himself, but his joglar, who sang the 
songs. It was a matter of jealous attention to the troubadour 
to keep his name and fame clear of the claims of the joglar, who 
belonged to a lower caste; although it is true that some poets 
of very high talent rose from being joglars and attained the 
rank of troubadours. The latter were looked upon with deep 
admiration, and their deeds and sayings, as well as their verses, 
were preserved and were even embroidered with fiction. 

There were recognized about four hundred troubadours, during 
the whole period in which they flourished, from Guilhem de 
Poitiers down to Guiraut Riquier (c. 1230-1294). Several MS. 
collections of biographies have been preserved, and from these 
we gain some idea of the careers of no fewer than 1 1 1 of the poets. 
In this respect, the troubadours possess an immense advantage 
over the trouveres of northern France, of whose private life very 
little is any longer known. Early in the living history of the 
troubadours their personal adventures came to be thought 
worthy of record. One of themselves, Uc of St Cyr (c. 1200- 
1240), interested himself in " the deeds and words of goodly men 
and women," and in the collection of lives he seems to claim to 
be, in several instances, the biographer. At the beginning of 
the i4th century it became the practice to preface the MS. works 
of each poet by a life of him, and even where the text seems to 
be quite independent, it is noticeable that there is little variation 
in the biography. One late troubadour, Rambaud of Orange, 
left a commentary on his own poems, and Guiraut Riquier 
one on those of a fellow troubadour, Guiraut of Calanson (1280). 
All this proves the poetry of Provence to have passed early into 
the critical stage, and to have been treated very seriously by 
those who were proficient in it. This is further shown by the 
respect with which the Provencal poets are mentioned by Dante, 
Petrarch and the authors of the Novelle Critiche. 

The principal source of the lives of the troubadours is a col- 
lection, evidently written by various hands, which was made to- 
wards the middle of the Ijtn century. Of these we have said that 
Uc of Saint Cyr was certainly one of the authors. Another source 
of information is the Vies des plus celebres et anciens poetes pro- 
vencaux, published by Jehan de Notredame or Nostradamus, in 
1575. This work professed to be founded on the MSS. of a learned 
monk, who was librarian of the monastery of St Honorat, in the 
island of L6rins, and died there in 1408. He was known by no 
other name than that of the Monk of the Golden Isles. This book, 
unfortunately, lies under more than a suspicion of forgery. Nostra- 
damus no doubt possessed valuable documents, but he did not 
hesitate to deal with them in a highly fantastic way. His Vies des 
pobtes has yet to be examined by careful and searching criticism. 
Even the genuine biographies, and they are numerous and above 
suspicion, are often embroidered with fantastic and whimsical 
statements which make a severe demand upon the credulity of a 
modern reader. 

The verse form most frequently employed by the troubadours 
was the sirventes, a term which is earliest met with in the second 
half of the i2th century. The early critics believed this word 
to be derived from servir, and to mean that the poem was made 
by a servant; but Paul Meyer has contested this derivation, and 
holds that a sirventes is a poem composed by a sirvent, that is 
to say a soudoyer or paid man-at-arms. The troubadours 
also employed the ballada, which was a song with a long refrain, 
not much like the formal ballade of the north of France; the 
pastourella; and the alba. This last took its name from the cir- 
cumstance that the word alba (dawn) was repeated in each 



TROUBADOUR 



309 



stanza. This was a morning-song, as the serena, a later inven- 
tion, was an evensong. The planh was a funeral elegy, com- 
posed by the troubadour for the obsequies of his protector, or 
for those of the lady of his devotion. Most interesting of all, 
perhaps, was the tenson, which was a lyrical dialogue between 
two persons, who discussed in it, as a rule, some point of amorous 
casuistry, but sometimes matters of a religious, metaphysical or 
satirical nature. The notion that the troubadours cultivated 
epic or dramatic poetry is now generally discarded; they were 
in their essence lyrical (see PROVENCAL LITERATURE). 

The biographies of the troubadours, which, in spite of their 
imperfection and conventionality of form, throw an unparalleled 
light upon medieval literary life, may perhaps be most conveni- 
ently treated in connexion with the courts at which each group 
of them flourished. It is in Poitou that we trace them first, 
where Guilhem, count of Poitiers, who reigned from 1087 to 
1127, was both the earliest patron and the earliest poet of the 
school. This prince was the type of medieval gallantry, sudden 
and violent in arms, brilliant and impudent in wit, with women 
so seductive as to be esteemed irresistible. He led an army of 
300,000 men in the crusade of 1101, being then thirty years of 
age; he returned in dismal disarray, supported in his defeat by 
the arts of love and song. His levity was the wonder and delight 
of his contemporaries; William of Malmesbury, who speaks much 
of him, tells us of Guilhem's project to found a religious house 
at Niort for the worship of Venus. Guilhem of Poitiers was 
handsome, bold and of easy access; Gottfried of Vendome says 
that he moved among other men as a god among mortals for 
the beauty of his body and the magnanimity of his soul. The 
surviving poems of the great count are simple in form ; he does not 
attempt the technical subtleties of later poets; but he laboured 
at the art, and he was anxious to be thought a professional, not 
an amateur writer. His songs are highly personal and betray 
the author's variety, sensuality, wit and skill as a versifier. 

The son of the earliest of the troubadours is known neither as a 
poet nor as a patron of poets, but the daughter of Guilhem IX. 
carried on her father's tradition. This was Eleanor of Guienne, 
at whose court Bernart of Ventadour rose to eminence. 
This poet was an exception to the rule that the troubadours 
belonged to the princely class. He seems to have been the son 
of a kitchen-scullion in the castle of Eble II., viscount of Venta- 
dour. Eble was himself a poet, valde gratiosus in cantilenis, 
but his compositions have wholly disappeared; he was early 
impressed, we know not how, by the talents of his serving- 
boy, and he trained him to be a poet. The wife of Eble, the 
viscountess Agnes of Montlucon, who was extremely beautiful, 
encouraged the suit of the youthful Bernart; indeed, they had 
secretly loved one another from their childhood. The poems which 
this passion inspired are among the most admirable lyrics which 
have come down to us from the middle ages. The husband at 
last discovered the intrigue between his wife and the poet, and 
exiled Bernart from Ventadour, although, as it would seem, 
without violence. The troubadour took shelter with Eleanor, 
of Guienne, who became in 1152 the queen-consort of Henry II. 
of England, himself a protector of poets. It has been supposed 
that Bernart accompanied the royal pair to London. He after- 
wards proceeded to the court of Raymond V. at Toulouse, where 
he is said to have remained until the death of that prince in 
1194, when he withdrew to a cloister at Dalou in Poitou. He 
must at that time have been a very old man. 

The son of Henry II., Henry Curtmantle, was the patron of 
another eminent troubadour. Bertran de Born, viscount of 
Hautefort in Perigord, had become a vassal of England by the 
marriage of Eleanor. He is the member of his class about whom 
we possess the most exact historical information. Dante saw 
Bertran de Born in hell, carrying his severed head before him 
like a lantern, and compared him with Achitophel, who excited 
the sons of David against their father. This referred to the 
subtle intrigues by which the troubadour had worked on the 
jealousy existing between the three sons of the king of England. 
The death of Prince Henry (1183) produced from Bertran de 
Born two planks, which are among the most sincere and beautiful 



works in Provencal literature. The poet was immediately 
afterwards besieged in his castle of Hautefort by Richard Cceur 
de Lion, to whom he became reconciled and whom he accom- 
panied to Palestine. He grew devout in his old age, and died 
about 1205. As a soldier and a condottiere, as the friend and 
enemy of kings, and as an active factor in the European politics 
of his time, Bertran de Born occupies an exceptional position 
among the troubadours. 

There were poetesses in the highly refined society of Provence, 
and of these by far the most eminent was Beatrix, countess of 
Die, whose career was inextricably interwoven with that of 
another eminent and noble troubadour, Rambaut III., count 
of Orange, who held his court at Courthezon, a few miles south 
of Orange. Rambaut said that since Adam ate the apple no 
poet had been born who could compete in skill with himself, 
but his existing lyrics have neither the tenderness nor the 
ingenuity of those of his illustrious lady-love. The poems of 
Beatrix are remarkable for a simplicity of form rare among the 
poets of her age. One of the earliest troubadours, Cercamon, 
was at the court of Guilhem IX. of Poitiers, and was the master 
of perhaps the most original of all the school, namely the illus- 
trious Marcabrun (c. 1120-1195), f r m whose pen some forty 
poems survive. He was a foundling, left on the door-step of 
a rich man in Gascony, and no one knew anything about his 
descent. Marcabrun was an innovator and a reformer; to him 
the severity of classical Provencal style is mainly due, and 
he was one of the first to make use of that complexity and 
obscurity of form which was known as the trobar clus. He was 
also original in his attitude to love; he posed as a violent 
misogynist " I never loved and I was never loved " and he 
expressed, in the accents of amorous poetry, an aversion to 
women. " Famine, pestilence and war do less evil upon earth 
than the love of woman " is one of his aphorisms. He was in 
the service of Richard Cceur de Lion, and after 1167 in that of 
Alfonso II. of Aragon. Marcabrun was the object of much 
dislike and attack, and it is said that he was murdered by 
Castellane of Guian, whom he had satirized. This, however, 
is improbable, and it is rather believed that Marcabrun survived 
to a great age. For one of his contemporaries he mitigated 
the severities of his satiric pen; he expresses great affection for 
" that sweet poet," Jaufre Rudel, prince of Blaye, whose heart 
turned, like the disk of a sunflower, towards the Lady of Tripoli. 
Little else than that famous adventure is known about the 
career of this ultra-romantic troubadour, except that he went 
as a crusader to the Holy Land, and that his surviving poems, 
which are few in number, have so mystical a tone that 
Jaufre Rudel has been suspected of being a religious writer who 
used the amorous language of his age for sanctified purposes, 
and whose " Princess Far-away " was really the Church of 
Christ. If so, the statement that he died in the arms of the 
Lady of Tripoli would merely mean that he passed away, 
perhaps at Antioch, in the odour of sanctity. Peire d' Alveona 
(Peter of Auvergne), like Marcabrun, was of mean birth, son 
of a tradesman in Clermont-Ferrand, but he was handsome and 
engaging, and being the first troubadour who had appeared in 
the mountain district, " he was greatly honoured and feted by 
the valiant barons and noble ladies of Auvergne." ..." He was 
very proud and despised the other troubadours." It is believed 
that Peire's poems were produced between 1158 and 1180. He 
flourished at the court of Sancho III., king of Castile, and 
afterwards at that of Ermengarde, viscountess of Narbonne. 

It is doubtless owing to the vehement and repeated praise 
which was given by Dante, in the Inferno and elsewhere, to 
Arnaut Daniel that this name remains the most famous among 
those of the troubadours. Yet not very much is known of the 
personal history of this poet.- He was a knight of Riberac, in 
Perigord, and he attached himself as a troubadour to the 
court of Richard Cosur de Lion. Dante had been made ac- 
quainted with the highly complicated and obscure verse of 
Arnaut Daniel by Guido Guinicelli, and thus to the historian 
of literature a most valuable link is provided between medieval 
and modern poetry. Dante calls Daniel the " smith," the 



310 



TROUBADOUR 



finished craftsman, of language, and it is evident that it was 
the brilliant art of the Provencal's elaborated verse which 
delighted the Italian. In the De vulgari eloquentia Dante 
returned to the praise of Arnaut Daniel, as the greatest of all 
those who have sung of love, and Petrarch was not less enthu- 
siastic. His invention of forms of verse (see SESTINA), in par- 
ticular, dazzled the great Italians. But the seventeen sirvenles 
which have survived scarcely sustain the traditional idea of 
the supremacy of Arnaut Daniel as a poet, while their lack of 
historical and personal allusions deprives them of general 
interest. Dante was curiously anxious to defend Arnaut 
Daniel as being a better artist than his immediate rival, Giraut 
de Bornelh, whose " rectitude " Dante admits, in the sense 
that Giraut was a singer of gnomic verses of a high morality, 
but prefers the poetry of Daniel; critical posterity, however, 
has reversed this verdict. Giraut came from the neighbourhood 
of Limoges, passed over into Spain about 1180, and became 
famous in the courts of Pedro II. of Aragon and other Spanish 
monarchs. He disappears about 1230. There is a curious 
anecdote of his having incurred the hatred or the cupidity of 
, the viscount of Limoges, who robbed him of his library and then 
burned his house to the ground. Giraut laments, in his poems, 
the brutality of the age and the lawlessness of princes. A 
troubadour of the same district of south-western France was 
Arnaut de Mareuil, to whom is attributed the introduction into 
Provencal poetry of the amatory epistle. He settled at the 
courts of Toulouse and Beziers, where he sang, in mystical 
terms, his passion for the countess Adalasia, in whose affections 
he had a dangerous rival in the person of Alfonso II., king of 
Aragon. Arnaut de Mareuil fled for his life to Montpellier, 
where he found a protector in Count William VIII., but he 
continued to address his siruentes to Adalasia. As that princess 
died in 1199, and as no planh to her memory is found among 
the works of Arnaut de Mareuil, it is conjectured that by that 
time he was already dead. 

Peire Vidal of Toulouse was the type of the reckless and 
scatterbrained troubadour. His biographer says that he was 
" the maddest man in all the world." His early life was a series 
of bewildering excursions through France and Spain, but he 
settled down at last at Marseilles, where he made a mortal 
enemy of Azalais, the wife of Viscount Barral de Baux, from 
whom he stole a kiss (1180). Vidal fled to Genoa, but he con- 
tinued to address the viscountess in his songs. At the entreaty 
of her husband, Azalais forgave the poet, and Peire Vidal 
returned to Marseilles. He committed a thousand follies; 
among others, being in love with a lady called Louve (she-wolf), 
the poet dressed himself as a wolf, and was hunted by a pack 
of hounds in front of the lady's castle. Starting on a crusade, 
he stopped at Cyprus, where a Greek girl was presented to him 
as being of the imperial family. He married her, assumed 
the title of emperor, and carried a throne about with him from 
camp to camp. According to a late poem, his eccentric adven- 
tures closed in Hungary about the year 1215. Folquet of Mar- 
seilles was a troubadour of Italian race, the son of a merchant 
of Genoa; Dante met Folquet in paradise, and gives an interest- 
ing notice of him. He was a rival with Peire Vidal for the 
favours of the beautiful Azalais; and he was one of the trouba- 
dours who gathered around the unfortunate Eudoxia, empress 
of Montpellier, until the close of her singular and romantic 
adventure (1187). He wrote a very touching planh on the 
death of the viscount Barral de Baux in 1192. Soon after 
this, disgusted with love, Folquet took holy orders, became the 
abbot of the rich Cistercian house of Torronet in Provence, 
and in 1205 became bishop of Toulouse. Here he threw in his 
lot with Simon de Montfort and disgraced himself by his fanatic 
rage against the Albigenses, of whom a contemporary says that 
he slew 500,000 persons, acting " more like Antichrist than like 
an envoy of Rome." Folquet died in 1231 in the abbey of 
Grandselve, in his diocese. It is in the sinientes of Folquet 
that critics have seen the earliest signs of that decadence which 
was so rapidly to destroy Provencal poetry. 

Gaucelm Faidit came from Uzerche, in the Limousin. He 



seems to have been a wandering minstrel of gay and reckless 
habits, and to have been accompanied by a light-o'-love, Guil- 
lelma Monja, who was the object of much satire and ridicule. 
In Gaucelm we probably see, if we can credit his story, the 
troubadour at his lowest social level. He made, however, 
Maria of Ventadour, who was probably a scion of the princely 
and neighbouring house of that name, the object of his songs, 
and he addresses her in strains of unusual pathos and delicacy. 
Gaucelm Faidit ultimately proceeded to Italy, to the court of 
the marquis Boniface of Montferrat, a prince who greatly 
encouraged the troubadours and who in 1201 undertook the 
conduct of a crusade. Gaucelm, who was still celebrating the 
perfections of Maria of Ventadour, accompanied him to the 
East. He wrote several canzones in the Holy Land and Syria, 
returned safely to Uzerche, and disappears about 1240. We 
possess sixty of his poems. Another troubadour, Raimbaut of 
Vaquieres, passed the greater part of his life at the same court 
of Montferrat; he devoted himself to the Lady Beatrix, sister 
of the marquis. It is believed that he died in the Holy Land 
in 1207. The most celebrated of the Italian troubadours was 
Sordello, born at Mantua, at the beginning of the i3th century, 
who owes his fame rather to the benevolence of later poets, 
from Dante to Robert Browning, than to the originality of his 
adventures or the excellence of his verse. 

We have now mentioned the troubadours who were most 
famous in their own time, and on the whole modern criticism has 
been in unison with contemporary opinion. There are, however, 
still one or two names to be recorded. The English historian 
of the troubadours, Dr Hueffer, gave great prominence to the 
writings of a poet who had previously been chiefly heard of in 
connexion with a romantic adventure, Guillem de Cabestanh 
(or Capestang). This was a knight of Roussillon, who made 
love to Seremonda, countess of Castel-Roussillon. The lady's 
husband, meeting the poet out hunting, slew him in a paroxysm 
of jealousy and, having cut out his heart, had it delicately 
cooked and served to his wife's dinner. When Seremonda had 
eaten her lover's heart, her husband told her what she had done, 
and she fainted away. Coming to her senses she said: " My 
Lord, you have served to me so excellent a dish that I will never 
eat of another," and she threw herself out of window and was 
killed. The importance of this story lies in the fact that the 
cruelty of the count of Castel-Roussillon was the cause of 
universal scandal in all good society. Feeling grew so strong 
that the surrounding nobles rose against the murderer, with 
Alfonso, king of Spain, at their head, hunted him down and 
killed him. The bodies of the lady and the troubadour were 
buried side by side, with great pomp, in the cathedra] of Per- 
pignan, and became the objects of pilgrimage. Doubt has, 
of course, been thrown on the veracity of this romantic story, 
but at all events it testifies to the fact that the troubadour 
enjoyed, or was expected to enjoy, all the privileges of toleration 
and exemption. A burlesque or satiric troubadour, who 
disregarded the laws of gallantry and wrote satires of great 
virulence against the ladies and their lovers, remains anony- 
mous, and is spoken of as the monk or prior of Montaudon. 

The classic period of the troubadours lasted until about 1210, 
and was contemporaneous with the magnificence of the nobles 
of the south of France. The wealth and cultivated tastes of 
the seigneurs, and the peace which had long surrounded them, 
led them into voluptuous extravagances and sometimes into 
a madness of expenditure. From this the troubadours reaped 
an immediate advantage, but when the inevitable reaction 
came they were the first to suffer. The great cause, however, 
of the decadence and ruin of the troubadours was the struggle 
between Rome and the heretics. This broke out into actual 
war in June 1209, when the northern barons, called to a crusade 
by Pope Innocent III., fell upon the Albigenses and pillaged 
Beziers and Carcassonne. Most of the protectors of the trouba- 
dours were, if not heretics, indulgent to the heretical party, 
and shared in their downfall. The poets, themselves, were not 
immediately injured, and no doubt their habits and their art 
kept them immune from the instant religious catastrophe, 



TROUBRIDGE TROUSERS 



but the darkness began to gather round them as the ruin of 
Languedoc became more and more complete, culminating with 
the siege of Toulouse in 1218. The greatest name of this period, 
which was the beginning of the end, is that of Peire Cardenal, 
of Le Puy. He was protected by Jacme I., king of Aragon, 
having apparently fled from Narbonne and then from Toulouse 
in order to escape from the armies of Simon de Montfort. He 
was the inventor and the principal cultivator of the moral 
or ethical sirventes; and he was the author of singularly out- 
spoken satires against the clergy, continuing the tradition of 
Marcabrun. The biographer of Cardenal certifies that he lived 
to be nearly one hundred years of age. Another and a still 
more violent troubadour of this transitional time was Guillem 
Figueira, the son of a Toulouse tailor, an open heretic who 
attacked the papacy with extraordinary vigour, supported and 
protected by Raimon II. Figueira was answered, strophe by 
strophe, by a female troubadour, Gormonda of Montpellier. 
The ruin of the southern courts, most of which belonged to the 
conquered Albigensi party, continued to depress and to exas- 
perate the troubadours, whose system was further disintegrated 
by the establishment of the Inquisition and by the creation of 
the religious orders. The genial and cultured society of 
Provence and Languedoc sank rapidly into barbarism again, 
and there was no welcome anywhere for secular poets. 

The last of the French troubadours was Guiraut Riquier (c. 
1230-1294), who was born at Narbonne, and addressed his 
earliest poems to Phillippa of Anduza, the viscountess of that 
city. She does not seem to have encouraged poetry, and 
Guiraut Riquier left Narbonne, first appealing to St Louis, 
without success. He then turned to Spain, and found protection 
at the court of Alfonso X. the Learned. This monarch, himself 
a great poet, welcomed the crowd of troubadours who were 
now flying from the troubles of southern France. It was the 
ambition of Alfonso to be himself a troubadour, but the Pro- 
vencal pieces which bear his name are now attributed to Riquier 
and to Nat de Mons; the king's genuine poems are those written 
in Galician. Riquier remained in the court of Castile until 
about 1279, when he returned to France and settled in Rodez 
with the count of that town, Henri II. This prince was almost 
the last seigneur in the south or centre of France who gathered 
a school of poets around him, and at Rodez the troubadours 
enjoyed for a few years their latest gleams of success and recog- 
nition. Riquier, in a sirventes of about 1285, gives pathetic 
expression to his sense of the gathering darkness, which makes 
it useless and almost unbecoming for a troubadour to practise 
his art, while of himself he mournfully confesses: " Song should 
express joy, but sorrow oppresses me, and I have come into the 
world too late." Guiraut Riquier passed away about 1294, and 
left no successor behind him. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. F. Diez, Leben und Werke det Troubadours 
(Zwickau, 1829, 2nd ed. revised by K. Bartsch, Leipzig, l_882_); 
Die Poesie der Troubadours, 2nd ed., revised by K. Bartsch (Leipzig, 
1883) ; C. Chabaneau, Lex Biographies des troubadours (Toulouse, 
1885). [This forms tome x. of the Histoire generate de Languedoc.} 
F. Raynouard, Choix des poesies originates des troubadours (6 vols., 
Paris, 1816-1821); Manuel Mila y Fontenals, Los Trwadores en 
Espana (Barcelona, 1861, 2nd ed., revised, Barcelona, 1889); 
Paul Meyer, Les Dernier s troubadours de la Provence (Paris, 1871); 
Francis Hueffer, The Troubadours (London, 1878); A. Restori, 
Letteratura provenzale (Milan, 1891); C. Appel, Provenzalische 
chrestomathie (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1903) ; Joseph Anglade, Les Trouba- 
dours (Paris, 1908). Various editions of the life and works of 
separate troubadours have been published Guilhem IX. of Poitiers, 
by A. Jeanroy (Toulouse, 1905) ; Bertram de Born, by A. Thomas 
(Toulouse, 1888) ; Peire Vidal.by K. Bartsch (Berlin, 1857) ; Cercamon, 
by Dejeanne (Toulouse, 1905); Giraut de Bornelh, by A. Kolsen 
(Halle, 1907-1908) ; Peire of Auvergne, by Zetiker (Erlanger, 1900) ; 
Sordello, by Cesare de Lollis (Halle, 1896); Guiraut Riquier by 
Joseph Anglade (Paris, 1905); Arnaut Daniel, by U. A. Canallo 
(Halle, 1883). Editions of Bernard de Ventadour, by M. C. Appel, 
and of Marcabrun, by Dr Dejeanne, had been undertaken in 
1908. (E. G.) 

TROUBRIDGE, SIR THOMAS, BART. (c. 1758-1807), English 
admiral, was educated at St Paul's School, London, and entered 
the navy in 1 7 73 . Having seen some service in the East Indies, he 
was taken prisoner by the French in 1794, but his captivity was 



only a short one and in February 1707 he commanded his ship, 
the " Culloden," at the battle of Cape St Vincent. In the follow- 
ing July he assisted Nelson in the unsuccessful attack on Santa 
Cruz, and in August 1798, when getting into position for the 
attack on the French fleet, the " Culloden " ran aground and was 
consequently unable to take any part in the battle of the Nile. 
He then served in the Mediterranean and was created a baronet 
in 1799; from 1801 to 1804 he was a lord of the admiralty, being 
made a rear-admiral just before his retirement. In 1805 
Troubridge was given a command in the East and he went out 
in the " Blenheim." In January 1807 in this ship, an old and 
damaged one, he left Madras for the Cape of Good Hope, but off 
the coast of Madagascar the " Blenheim " foundered in a cyclone 
and the admiral perished. His only son, Sir Edward Thomas 
Troubridge, bart. (d. 1852), entered the navy in 1797 and was 
present at the battle of Copenhagen. From 1831 to 1847 he was 
member of parliament for Sandwich and from 1835 to 1841 he 
was a lord of the admiralty. His son, Sir Thomas St Vincent 
Hope Cochrane Troubridge, bart. (1815-1867), entered the army 
in 1834, and was severely wounded at the battle of Inkerman. 

TROUGHTON, EDWARD (1753-1835), English instrument 
maker, was born in the parish of Corney in Cumberland in 
October 1753. He joined his elder brother John in carrying 
on the business of making mathematical instruments in Fleet 
Street, London, and continued it alone after his brother's 
death, until in 1826 he took W. Simms as a partner. He died in 
London on the I2th of June 1835. 

Troughton was very successful in improving the mechanical 
part of most nautical, geodetic and astronomical instruments, but 
complete colour-blindness prevented him from attempting ex- 
periments in optics. The first modern transit circle was con- 
structed by him in 1806 for Stephen Groombridge; but Troughton 
was dissatisfied with this form of instrument, which a few years 
afterwards was brought to great perfection by G. von Reichenbach 
and J. G. Repsold, and designed the mural circle in its place. The 
first instrument of this kind erected at Greenwich in 1812, and 
ten or twelve others were subsequently constructed for other 
observatories; but they were ultimately superseded by Troughton's 
earlier design, the transit circle, by which the two co-ordinates 
of an object can be determined simultaneously. He also made 
transit instruments, equatorials, &c.; but his failure to construct 
an equatorial mounting of large dimensions, and the consequent 
lawsuit with Sir James South, embittered the last years of his 
life. 

TROUSERS, the name given to the article of dress worn 
by men, covering each leg separately and reaching from the 
waist to the foot. The word in its earlier forms is always 
found without the second r, e.g. trouses, trouzes, trooze, cf. the 
Lowland Scots word " trews," and is an adaptation of the French 
trousses, trunk-hose, breeches, the plural of trousse, a bundle, 
pack, truss, from trousser, to pack, bundle up, tuck, tie up, 
girth, of which the origin is doubtful. In English the word 
" trousers," when it first appears, was used of the leg-garments 
of the Irish, who wore their breeches or trunk-hose and stockings 
in one piece, a custom to which there are many allusions in 
17th-century literature. Knee-breeches and top-boots for 
out-of-door wear or stockings for indoor use lasted till the 
beginning of the igth century as the regular costume for men. 
Pantaloons, loose trousers reaching to above the ankle, were 
worn in Venice by the poorer classes in the i7th century (for 
the origin of the name see PANTALOON). The characters of 
the Italian comedy made the style of garment familiar in France, 
but it was only seen in the fantastic costumes of the ballet. 
During the reign of Louis XVI. loose pantaloons became fashion- 
able for the morning deshabille of men. Their adoption by the 
supporters of the Revolution was the origin of the name of 
sans-culottes applied to the revolutionaries. Beau Brummel, 
in England, was probably the first to make the " pantaloon " 
popular. A striking feature of his dress were the tight-fitting 
black trousers reaching to the ankle, where they were buttoned. 
From this developed the true trousers, cut over the boot at the 
instep, at first open at the bottom and fastened by loops, later 
strapped tight under the boot. It is said that the duke of 
Wellington introduced this latter form after the Peninsular 
War. They were not recognized as correct for evening wear, 



3 I2 



TROUT TROUVERE 



and strong opposition was taken against them by the clergy 
and at the universities (see COSTUME). 

TROUT (Salmo trulta), a fish closely related to the salmon. 
Most modern ichthyologists agree in regarding the various North 
European forms of trout, whether migratory or not, as varieties 
or races of a highly variable and plastic species, to be 
distinguished from the salmon by a few more or less constant 
characters, the most readily ascertainable of which resides in 
the smaller scales on the back of the caudal region of the body, 
these being 14 to 16 (rarely 13) in an oblique series between the 
posterior border of the adipose fin and the lateral line, and in 
the greater length of the folded anal fin as compared to the 
depth of the caudal peduncle. The gill-rakers are also usually 
fewer, 16 to 18 on the anterior branchial arch. The young 
may be distinguished from salmon-parr by the greater length 
of the upper jaw, the maxillary bone, extending beyond the 
vertical of the centre of the eye, and in specimens 6 in. 
long often to below the posterior of the eye. The young are 
brown or olive above, silvery or golden below, with more or 
less numerous black and red spots in addition to the parr marks, 
and, contrary to what is observed in the salmon, black spots 
are usually present below the lateral line. Except for the 
gradual disappearance of the parr marks, this coloration is 
retained in the form known as the brook trout or brown trout 
(S. fario), which is non-migratory, and varies much in size 
according to the waters it inhabits, in some brooks not growing 
to more than 8 in., whilst in larger rivers and lakes it may 
attain a weight of 20 Ib or more. The coloration of the young 
is more strongly departed from in the races known as sea trout 
(S. trutta) and sewin (5. eriox or cambricus), anadromous forms 
resembling the salmon in habits, and assuming in the sea a 
silvery coat, with, however, as a rule, more black spots on the 
sides below the lateral line. 

The principal British races of trout are the following: the 
northern sea trout (S. trutta, sensu stricto), silvery, losing the 
teeth on the shaft of the vomer in the adult, and migratory 
like the salmon; the southern sea trout (S. eriox or cambricus), 
similar to the preceding, but with the hind margin of the gill- 
cover more or less produced, the lower bone (suboperculum) 
projecting beyond the end of the upper (operculum) ; the brown 
trout (S. fario), non-migratory, usually retaining the teeth on 
the shaft of the vomer, brown or olive with black and red spots, 
rarely more silvery, with numerous black spots; the Lochleven 
trout (S. levenensis), distinguished from the preceding by a more 
silvery coloration, frequent absence of red spots and a pink 
or red flesh; the estuary trout (S. gillivensis and S. orcadcnsis), 
large brown trout living in salt water without assuming the 
silvery coloration; the Gillaroo trout (S. stomachicus) , in which 
the membranes of the stomach are conspicuously thicker than 
in the other trout, more so in adult examples than in young 
ones. But all these forms are ill-defined and subject to such 
variations when transported from one locality to another as to 
render their recognition a matter of insuperable difficulty. 
The' instability of the characters on which 5. levenensis is based 
has been conclusively shown by the experiments conducted by 
Sir James Maitland at Howietoun. Large specimens of migra- 
tory trout are often designated as bull-trout, but no definition 
has ever been given by which this form could be established, 
even as a race. 

Other European varieties are the trout of the Lake of Geneva 
(5. lemanus), of the Lake of Garda (S. carpio), of Dalmatia 
(S. dentex), of Hungary (S. microlepis), of the Caspian Sea 
(S. caspius), &c. The size of trout varies much according to 
the waters in which they live, the anadromous forms nearly 
equalling the salmon in this respect, specimens of over 4 ft. and 
weighing up to 50 Ib being on record. 

The habitat of S. trutta extends over the whole of Europe, 
the Atlas of Morocco and Algeria, Transcaucasia, Asia Minor 
and northern Persia. By the agency of man the species has 
been thoroughly established in Tasmania and New Zealand, 
where it thrives in an extraordinary manner, and attains a very 
Urge size. 



I Closely allied species are found in North America, west of 
the Rocky Mountains,. the best known being the rainbow trout 
(S. irideus or shasta), which has been introduced into many 
parts of Europe as well as the eastern states of North America, 
New Zealand and South Africa. It is more hardy than the 
English trout, and accommodates itself in almost stagnant waters, 
and has thus proved a success in many ponds which were 
regarded as fit for coarse fish only; but in many places it has 
caused disappointment by going down to the sea, whence it is 
not known ever to return. It is a handsome trout, bluish or 
purplish above, silvery or golden below, more or less profusely 
spotted with black on the body and fins, and with an orange 
or red lateral band. Its range extends from Alaska to North 
Mexico. The rainbow trout merges into a larger form, S. 
gairdneri, which resembles the British sea trout. 

A remarkable European trout is ihe short-snouted trout, 
S. obtusirostris, a non-migratory species from Dalmatia, 
Herzegovina, Bosnia and Montenegro. It has a small mouth 
with a feeble dentition, resembling that of the grayling. A 
closely allied form, S. ohridanus, has recently been discovered 
in Macedonia. (G. A. B.) 

TROUVERE, the name given to the medieval poets of 
northern and central France, who wrote in the langue d'oil or 
langue d'.oui. The word is derived from the French verb trouver, 
to find or invent. The trouveres flourished abundantly in the 
1 2th and i3th centuries. They were court-poets who devoted 
themselves almost exclusively to the composition and recitation 
of a particular kind of song, for which the highest society cf 
that day in France had an inordinate fondness. This poetry, 
the usual subject of which was some refinement of the passion 
of love, was dialectical rather than emotional. As Jeanroy 
has said, the best trouveres were those who " into the smallest 
number of lines could put the largest number of ideas, or at 
least of those commonplaces which envelop thought in its 
most impersonal and coldest form." The trouveres were not, 
as used to be supposed, lovers singing to their sweethearts, 
but they were the pedants and attorneys of a fantastic tribunal 
of sentiment. This was more monotonous in the hands of the 
trouveres than it had been in those of the troubadours, for the 
latter often employed their art for purposes of satire, religion, 
humour and politics, which were scarcely known to the poets of 
the northern language. 

The established idea that the poetry of the trouveres was 
entirely founded upon imitation of that of the troubadours, 
has been ably combated by Paul Meyer, who comes to the con- 
clusion that the poetry of the north of France was essentially 
no less original than that of the south, The passage of Raoul 
Glaber, in which he says that about the year 1000 southern 
men began to appear in France and in Burgundy, " as odd in 
their ways as in their dress, and having the appearance of 
jongleurs," is usually quoted, but although this is valuable 
contemporary evidence, it proves neither what these " jon- 
gleurs " brought from the south nor what the poets of the north 
could borrow from them. The first appearance of trouveres 
seems to be much later than this, and to date from 1137, when 
Eleonore of Aquitaine, who was herself the granddaughter of 
an illustrious troubadour, arrived in the court of France as the 
queen of Louis VII. It is recorded that she continued to speak 
her native language, which would be the Poitiers dialect of the 
langue d'oc. She was queen for fifteen years (1137-1152), 
and this, no doubt, was the period during Which the southern 
influence was strongest in the literature of northern France. 
There is not any question that the successive crusades tended to 
produce relations between the two sections of poetical literature. 
The great mass of the existing writings of the trouveres deals 
elaborately and artificially with the passion of love, as it had 
already been analysed in the langue d'oc. But those who are 
most inclined to favour the northern poets are obliged to con- 
fess that the latter rarely approach the grace and delicacy 
of the troubadours, while their verse shows less ingenuity 
and less variety. The earliest trouveres, like Cuene de Bethune 
and Huges de Berze, in writing their amatory lyrics, were 



TROUVILLE 



3*3 



certainly influenced by what troubadours had written, espe- 
cially when, like Bertrand de Born, these troubadours were men 
who wandered far and wide, under the glory of a great social 
prestige. We should know more exactly what the nature of 
the Provencal influence was if the songs of all the trouveres 
who flourished before the middle of the I2th century had not 
practically disappeared. When we become conscious of the 
existence of the trouveres, we find Cuenede Bethune in possession 
of the field, a poet of too much originality to be swept 
away as a mere imitator. At the same time, even Paul Meyer, 
who has been the great asserter of the independence of the poetry 
of northern France, is obliged to admit that if, at the end of the 
1 2th century and throughout the I3th, several literary centres 
were formed where an amatory poetry, full of conventional 
grace, was held in high honour, it was because several princely 
courts in the south had set the example. In this sense it 
cannot be denied that the whole art of the trouveres was 
secondary and subsidiary to the art of the troubadours. 

The poetical forms adopted by the trouveres bore curious 
and obscure names, the signification of which is still in some 
cases dubious. As a rule each poem belonged to one of three 
classes, and was either a rotruenge, or a serventois, or an estrabot. 
The rotruenge was a song with a refrain; the serventois was, in 
spite of its name, quite unlike the sirventes of the troubadours 
and had a more ribald character; the estrabot was allied to the 
strambotto of the Italians, and was a strophaic form " composed 
of a front part which was symmetrical, and of a tail which could 
be varied at will " (Gaston Paris). But scholars are still un- 
certain as to the positive meaning of these expressions, and as 
to the theory of the verse-forms themselves. 

The court poetry of the trouveres particularly flourished under 
the protection of three royal ladies. Marie, the regent of 
Champagne, was the practical ruler of that country from 1181 
to 1197, and she encouraged the minstrels in the highest degree. 
She invited Ricaut de Barbezieux to her court, rewarded the 
earliest songs of Gace Brule, and discussed the art of verse 
with Chretien of Troyes. Her sister, Aelis or Alice, welcomed 
the trouveres to Blois; she was the protector of Gautier d'Arras 
and of Le Chatelain de Couci. A sister of the husbands of these 
ladies, another Aelis, who became the second queen of Louis VII. 
in 1160, received Cuene de Bethune in Paris, and reproved 
him for the Picard accent with which he recited his poetry. 
At the end of the i2th century we see that the refinement and 
elegance of the court-poets was recognized in the north of 
France by those who were responsible for the education of 
princes. A trouvere, Gui de Ponthieu, was appointed tutor 
to William III. of Macon, and another, Philippe of Flanders, to 
Philippe Auguste. The vogue of the trouveres began during 
the third crusade; it rose to its greatest height during the fourth 
crusade and the attack upon the Albigenses. The first forty 
years of the i3th century was the period during which the 
courtly lyrical poetry was cultivated with most assiduity. At 
first it was a purely aristocratic pastime, and among the prin- 
cipal trouveres were princes such as Thibaut IV. of Navarre, 
Louis of Blois and John, king of Jerusalem. About 1230 the 
taste for court poetry spread to the wealthy bourgeoisie, espe- 
cially in Picardy, Artois and Flanders. Before its final decline, 
and after the courts of Paris and Blois had ceased to be its 
patrons, the poetry of the trouveres found its centre and enjoyed 
its latest successes at Arras. It was here that some of the 
most original and the most skilful of all the trouveres, such as 
Jacques Bretel and Adam de la Halle, exercised their art. 
Another and perhaps still later school flourished at Reims. 

About 1280, having existed for a century and a half, the 
poetical system suddenly decayed and disappeared; the very 
names of the court-poets were forgotten. During this time the 
song, chanson, had been treated as the most dignified and 
honourable form of literature, as Dante explains in his De 
vulgari eloquentia. But the song, as the trouveres under- 
stood it, was not an unstudied or emotional burst of verbal 
melody; it was, on the contrary, an effort of the intelligence, 
a piece of wilful and elaborate casuistry. The poet was 



invariably a lover, devoted to a married lady who was not his 
wife, and to whose caprices he was bound to submit blindly and 
patiently, in an endless and resigned humility. The progress 
of this conventional courtship was laid down according to certain 
strict rules of ceremonial; love became a science and a religion, 
and was practised by the laws of precise etiquette. 

The curious interest of the trouveres, for us, lies in the fact 
that during an age when the northern world was ignorant and 
brutal, sunken in a rude sensuality, the trouveres advanced a 
theory of morals which had its absurd and immoral side, but 
which demanded a devotion to refinement and a close attention 
to what is reserved, delicate and subtle in personal conduct. 
They were, moreover, when the worst has been admitted about 
their frigidity and triviality, refiners of the race, and they did 
much to lay the foundation of French wit and French intelli- 
gence. The trouveres have not enjoyed the advantage of the 
troubadours, whose feats and adventures attracted the notice 
of contemporary biographers. Little is known about their 
lives, and they pass across the field of literary history like a 
troop of phantoms. Close students of this body of somewhat 
monotonous poetry have fancied that they detected a personal 
note in some of the leaders of the movement. It is certainly 
obvious that Cuene (or Conon) de Bethune had a violence of 
expression which gives life to his chansons. The delicate 
grace of Thibaut of Champagne, the apparent sincerity of Le 
Chatelain de Couci, the descriptive charm of Moniot of Arras, 
the irony of Richard of Fournival, have been celebrated by 
critics who have perhaps discovered differences where none 
exist. It is more certain that Adam de la Halle, the hunchback 
of Arras, had a superb gift of versification. The rondel 
(published in E. de Coussemaker's edition, 1872) beginning 
" A Dieu courant amouretes, 

Car je m'en vois 
Souspirant en terre estrange ! " 

marks perhaps the highest point to which the delicate, frosty 
art of the trouveres attained. Music took a prominent place 
in all the performances of the trouveres, but in spite of the 
erudition of de Coussemaker, who devoted himself to the sub- 
ject, comparatively little is known of the melodies which they 
used. But enough has been discovered to justify the general 
statement of Tiersot that " we may conclude that the musical 
movement of the age of the trouveres was derived directly from 
the most ancient form of popular French melody." A pre- 
cious MS. in the Faculty of Medicine of Montpellier contains the 
music of no fewer than 345 part-songs attributed to trouveres, 
and an examination of these enables a " pitiless arranger " 
to divine the air, the primitive, simple and popular melody. 

The principal authorities on the poetry and music of the trou- 
veres are : H. Binet, Le Style de la lyrique courtoise en France aux xii me 
et xiii"" siecles (Paris, 1891) ; Gaston Paris, Les Origines de la poesie 
lyrique en France au moyen age (Paris, 1892); A. Jeanroy, Les Ori- 
gines de la poesie lyrique en France au moyen Age (Paris, 1889); 
Julian Tiersot, Histoire de la chanson populaire en France; E. de 
Coussemaker, Art harmonique aux xii me et xiii m ' sihles (Paris, 1865). 
The works of the principal trouveres have been edited: those of 
Le Chatelain de Coucy by F. Michel (1830); of Adam de la Halle 
by E. de Coussemaker (1872) ; of Conon de Bethune by Wallenskold 
(Helsingfors, 1891); of Thibaut IV., king of Navarre, by P. Tarb6 
(1851). (E. G.) 

TROUVILLE, a seaside town of north-western France, in the 
department of Calvados, on the English Channel, 34 m. N.E. 
of Caen by rail. Pop. (19061, 5684. Trouville is situated on 
the slopes of well-wooded hills at the mouth of the Touques 
on its right bank opposite Deauville. Its fine stretches of sand 
and excellent bathing, a spacious casino and beautiful villas, are 
among the attractions which make it the most frequented French 
resort on the channel. Deauville is well known for its race- 
course and villas, exceeding those of Trouville in luxury, but 
except during the race fortnight in August (la grande quinzaine) 
it is quiet and comparatively deserted. The port shared with 
Deauville and formed by the Touques is entered by a channel 
between jetties with a depth at high tide of i8| ft. This leads 
on the one side to a tidal harbour, on the other to an outer and 
an inner basin. Timber, coals and cement are imported. The 



TROVER TROY AND TROAD 



London & South Western Railway Company have a daily 
steamboat service from Havre to Trouville in connexion with their 
Southampton and Havre boats. Besides trawling and the 
provisioning of ships, in which Deauville is also engaged, 
Trouville carries on boat-building and has rope and briquette 
works. 

TROVER (0. Fr. trover, to find, mod. trouver), or " trover and 
conversion," the name of a form of action in English law no 
longer in use, corresponding to the modern action of conversion. 
It was brought for damages for the detention of a chattel, and 
differed from detinue in that the latter was brought for the 
return of the chattel itself. The name trover is due to the action 
having been based on the fictitious averment in the plaintiff's 
declaration that he had lost the goods and that the defendant 
had found them. The necessity for this fictitious averment 
was taken away by the Common Law Procedure Act 1852. 
An action of trover lay (as an action of conversion still lies) 
in every case where the defendant was in possession of a chattel 
of the plaintiff and refused to deliver it up on request, such re- 
fusal being prima facie evidence of conversion. The damages 
recoverable are usually the value of the chattel converted. In 
an action for detention of a chattel (the representative of the old 
action of detinue), the plaintiff may have judgment and exe- 
cution by writ of delivery for the chattel itself or for its value 
at his option. An action for conversion or detention must be 
brought within six years. The corresponding action in Scots 
law is the action of spuilzie. It must be brought within three 
years in order to entitle the pursuer to violent profits, 
otherwise it prescribes in forty years. 

TROWBRIDGE, a market town in the Westbury parliamen- 
tary division of Wiltshire, England, g~;\ m. W. by S. of London 
by the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 
11,526. It is unevenly built on a slope at the foot of which 
flows the Biss or Mere, a tributary of the Avon. The parish 
church of St James is a fine Perpendicular building, with a lofty 
spire, and a beautiful open-work roof over the nave. It was 
rebuilt on the original plan in 1848. George Crabbe, the poet, 
was rector from 1813 to 1831. 

Trowbridge (Trubrig, Trobrigg, Trowbrigge) was probably 
mentioned in Domesday under the name of Straburg, a manor 
held by one Brictric together with Staverton and Trowle, now 
both included within its limits. The first reference to the 
"town" of Trowbridge occurs early in the i6th century; 
previous to that date mention is made of the manor and castle 
only. The latter, round which the town probably grew up, 
is said to have been built by the de Bohuns, who obtained 
possession of the manor by marriage with the daughter of 
Edward de Sarisbury. Later it passed to William de Longespee, 
son of Henry II., to the Lancasters, to the protector Somerset 
(by grant of Henry VIII.) and then to the Rutlands, and Trow- 
bridge is now a non-corporate town. In 1200 John granted a 
weekly market on Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday; also a 
yearly fair on the 24th, 25th and 26th of July, on which days 
it continued to be held until at the end of the i8th century 
it was changed to the 5th, 6th and 7th of August. The 
manufacture of woollen cloths has long been the staple trade of 
Trowbridge. It was introduced before the i6th century, for 
Leland, writing in the reign of Henry VIII., says: " The town 
flourisheth by drapery." In 1731 the trade was of some note, 
and by 1813 had attained such proportions that the whole area 
of the castle site was sold for the erection of dyeworks, cloth 
manufactories and other industrial buildings. 

TROWEL (Med. Eng. truel, O. Fr. truellc, Low Lat. truella, a 
variant of trulla, diminutive of trua, stirring spoon, ladle, 
Gr. Topvvrj, from the root far, to turn round and round; cf. 
ropeuj, borer), a tool or implement, varying in shape according 
to the use to which it is put, but consisting of a blade of iron 
or steel fitted with a handle. The bricklayers' or plasterers' 
trowel, used for mixing, spreading and smoothing the mortar or 
plaster, has a flat, triangular, oval or rectangular blade; the 
gardeners' trowel, for digging plants, laying or mixing mould, 
&c., has a semi-cylindrical blade. Highly ornamental trowels 



made of, or decorated with, the precious metals are presented 
to royal, official or other personages who formally lay the 
foundation stones of buildings. 

TROY, JEAN FRANQOIS DE (1679-1752), French painter, 
was born at Paris in 1679. He received his first lessons from his 
father, himself a skilful portrait painter, who afterwards sent 
his son to Italy. There his amusements occupied him fully 
as much as his studies; but his ability was such that on his return 
he was at once made an official of the Academy, and obtained a 
large number of orders for the decoration of public and private 
buildings, executing at the same time a quantity of easel pictures 
of very unequal merit. Amongst the most considerable of his 
works are thirty-six compositions painted for the hotel of De 
Live (1729), and a series of the story of Esther, designed for the 
Gobelins whilst De Troy was director of the school of France at 
Rome (1738-1751) a post which he resigned in a fit of irritation 
at court neglect. He did not expect to be taken at his word, 
and was about to return to France when he died on the 24th of 
January 1752. The life-size painting (Louvre) of the " First 
Chapter of the Order of the Holy Ghost held by Henry IV.," in 
the church of the Grands Augustins, is one cf his most complete 
performances, and his dramatic composition, the " Plague at 
Marseilles." is widely known through the excellent engraving of 
Thomassin. The Cochins, father and son, Fessard, Galimard, 
Bauvarlet, Herisset, and the painters Boucher and Parrocel, 
have engraved and etched the works of De Troy. 

TROY and TROAD. I. The Troad The Troad (h Tpoxis), 
or the land of Troy, the north-western promontory of Asia Minor. 
The name " Troad " is never used by Homer who calls the 
land, like the city, Tpoii? but is already known to Herodotus. 
The Troad is bounded on the N. by the Hellespont and the 
westernmost part of the Propontis, on the W. by the Aegean 
Sea and on the S. by the Gulf of Adramyttium. The eastern 
limit was variously defined by ancient writers. In the widest 
acceptation, the Troad was identified with the whole of western 
and south-western Mysia, from the Aesepus, which flows into the 
Propontis, a little west of Cyzicus, to the Caicus, which flows into 
the Aegean south of Atarneus. But the true eastern boundary 
is undoubtedly the range of Ida, which, starting from near the 
south-east angle of the Adramyttian Gulf, sends its north-western 
spurs nearly to the coast of the Propontis, in the region west of 
the Aesepus and east of the Granicus. Taking Ida for the eastern 
limit, we have the definition which, as Strabo says, best corre- 
sponds with the actual usage of the name Troad. Ida is the 
key to the physical geography of the whole region; and it is 
the peculiar character which this mountain-system imparts to 
the land west of it that constitutes the real distinctness of the 
Troad from the rest of Mysia. Nature has here provided Asia 
Minor with an outwork against invaders from the north-west; 
and as the Troad was the scene of the struggle between Agamem- 
non and Priam, so it was in the Troad that Alexander won the 
battle which opened a path for his further advance. 

Natural Divisions. The length of the Troad from north to south 
taking a straight line from the north-west point, Cape Sigeum 
(Yeni Snehr), to the south-west point, Cape Lectum (Baba Kale) 
is roughly 40 m. The breadth, from the middle point of the west 
coast to the main range of Ida, is not much greater. The whole 
central portion of this area is drained by the Menderes (anc. 
Scamander), which rises in Ida and is by far the most important 
river of the Troad. The basin of the Menderes is divided by hills into 
two distinct parts, a southern and a northern plain. The southern 
anciently called the Samonian plain is the great central plain 
of the Troad, and takes its modern name from Bairamich, the 
chief Turkish town, which is situated in the eastern part of it near 
Ida. From the north end of the plain the Menderes winds in large 
curves through deep gorges in metamorphic rocks, and issues into 
the northern plain, stretching to the Hellespont. This is the plain 
of Troy, which is 7 or 8 m. long, and 2 or 3 m. broad on the average. 
The hills on the south are quite low, and towards the east the 
acclivities are in places so gentle as to leave the limits of the plain 
indefinite. Next to the basin of the Menderes, with its two plains, 
the best marked feature in the river-system of the Troad is the 
valley of the Tuzla (anc. Satniois). The Tuzla rises in the western 
part of Mt Ida, south of the plain of Bairamich, from which 
its valley is divided by hills; and, after flowing for many miles 
almost parallel with the south coast of the Troad, from which, at 



TROY AND TROAD 



Assus, it is less than a mile distant, it enters the Aegean about 
10 m. north of Cape Lectum. Three alluvial plains are comprised 
in its course. The easternmost of these, into which the river 
issues from rugged mountains of considerable height, is long and 
narrow. The next is the broad plain round Assus, which was a 
fertile source of supply to that city. The third is the plain at the em- 
bouchure of the river on the west coast. This was anciently called 
the Halesian ('AXiiuioc) plain, partly from the maritime salt-works 
at Tragasae, near the town of Hamaxitus, partly also from the hot 
salt-springs which exist at some distance from the sea, on the 
north side of the river, where large formations of rock-salt are also 
found. Maritime salt-works are still in operation at the mouth 
of the river, and its modern name (Tuzla = salt) preserves the 
ancient association. A striking feature of the southern Troad is 
the high and narrow plateau which runs parallel with the Adra- 
myttian Gulf from east to west, forming a southern barrier to the 
valley of the Tuzla. This plateau seems to have been formed by 
a volcanic upheaval which came late in the Tertiary period, and 
covered the limestone of the south coast with two successive flows 
of trachyte. The lofty crag of Assus is like a tower standing 
detached from this line of mountain-wall. The western coast is of 
a different character. North of the Tuzla extends an undulating 
plain, narrow at first, but gradually widening. Much of it is 
covered with the valonia oak (Quercus aegilops), one of the most 
valuable products of the Troad. Towards the middle of the west 
coast the adjacent ground becomes higher, with steep acclivities, 
which sometimes rise into peaks; and north of these, again, the 
seaboard subsides towards Cape Sigeum into rounded hills, mostly 
low. 

Natural^ Products. The timber of the Troad is supplied chiefly 
by the pine forests on Mt Ida. But nearly all the plains and 
hills are more or less well wooded. Besides the valonia oak, the 
elm, willow, cypress and tamarisk shrub abound. Lotus, galingale 
and reeds are still plentiful, as in Homeric days, about the streams 
in the Trojan plain. The vine, too, is cultivated, the Turks making 
from it a kind of syrup and a preserve. In summer and autumn 
water-melons are among the abundant fruits. Cotton, wheat and 
Indian corn are also grown. The Troad is, indeed, a country highly 
favoured by nature with its fertile plains and valleys, abundantly 
and continually irrigated from Ida, its numerous streams, its fine 
west seaboard, and the beauty of its scenery. Under Turkish rule, 
the natural advantages of the land suffice to mitigate the poverty 
of the sparse population, but have scarcely any positive result. 

Early History. In the Homeric legend, with which the story 
of the Troad begins, the people called Troes are ruled by a 
king Priam, whose realm includes all that is bounded by " Lesbos, 
Phrygia, and the Hellespont " (//. xxiv. 544), i.e. the whole 
" Troad," with some extension of it, beyond Ida, on the north- 
west. According to Homer, the Achaeans under Agamemnon 
utterly and finally destroyed Troy, the capital of Priam, and 
overthrew his dynasty. But there is an Homeric prophecy 
that the rule o^er the Troes shall be continued by Aeneas and 
his descendants. From the " Homeric " hymn to Aphrodite, 
as well as from a passage in the 2oth book of the Iliad (75-353) 
a passage probably later than the bulk of the book it is certain 
that in the yth or 6th century B.C. a dynasty claiming descent 
from Aeneas reigned in the Troad, though the extent of their 
sway is unknown. The Homeric tale of Troy is a poetic creation, 
for which the poet is the sole witness. The geographical com- 
pactness of the Troad is itself an argument for the truth of the 
Homeric statement that it was once united under a strong king. 
How that kingdom was finally broken up is unknown. Thracian 
hordes, including the Treres, swept into Asia Minor from the 
north-west about the beginning of the 7th century B.C., and 
it is probable that, like the Gauls and Goths of later days, 
these fierce invaders made havoc in the Troad. The Ionian 
poet Callinus has recorded the terror which they caused farther 
south. 

Greek Settlements. A new period in the history of the Troad 
begins with the foundation of the Greek settlements. The 
earliest and most important of these were Aeolic. Lesbos and 
Cyme in Aeolis seem to have been the chief points from which 
the Aeolic colonists worked their way into the Troad. Command- 
ing positions on the coast, such as Assus and Sigeum, would 
naturally be those first occupied; and some of them have been 
in the hands of Aeolians as early as the roth century B.C. It 
appears from Herodotus (v. 95) that about 620 B.C. Athenians 
occupied Sigeum, and were resisted by the Aeolic colonists from 
Mytilene in Lesbos, who had already established themselves in 
that neighbourhood. Struggles of this kind may help to account 



for the fact noticed by Strabo, that the earlier colonies had often 
migrated from one site in the Troad to another. Such changes 
of seat have been, he observes, frequent causes of confusion 
in the topography. 

The chief Greek towns in the Troad were Ilium in the north, 
Assus in the south and Alexandria Troas in the west. The site 
of the Greek Ilium is marked by the low mound of Hissarlik 
(" place of fortresses ") in the Trojan plain, about 3 m. from 
the Hellespont. Exactly at what date it was founded on the 
top of earlier remains is uncertain (perhaps the 7th century); 
but it was not a place of any importance till the Hellenistic age. 
When Xerxes visited the Trojan plain, he " went up to the 
Pergamon of Priam," and afterwards sacrificed to the Ilian 
Athena (Herod, vii. 42). Ilion is mentioned among the towns 
of the Troad which yielded to Dercyllidas (399 B.C.), and as 
captured by Charidemus (359 B.C.)- It possessed walls, but was 
a petty place, of little strength. In 334 B.C. Alexander, on 
landing in the Troad, visited Ilium. In their temple of Athena 
the Ilians showed him arms which had served in the Trojan War, 
including the shield of Achilles. Either then, or after the battle 
of Granicus, Alexander directed that the town should be enlarged, 
and should have the rank of " city," with political independence, 
and exemption from tribute. The battle of Ipsus (301 B.C.) 
added north-western Asia Minor to the dominions of Lysimachus, 
who executed the intentions of Alexander. He gave Ilium a wall 
5 m. in circumference, incorporating with it some decayed towns 
of the neighbourhood, and built a handsome temple of Athena. 
In the 3rd century B.C. Ilium was the head of a federal league 
(K.OIVOV) of free Greek towns, which probably included the 
district from Lampsacus on the Hellespont to Gargara on the 
Adramyttian Gulf. Twice in that century Ilium was visited by 
Gauls. On the first occasion (278 B.C.) the Gauls, under Lutarius, 
sought to establish a stronghold at Ilium, but speedily abandoned 
it as being too weak. Forty years later (218 B.C.) Gauls were 
brought over by Attalus I. to help him in his war against Achaeus. 
After deserting his standard they proceeded to pillage the towns 
on the Hellespont, and finally besieged Ilium, from which, how- 
ever, they were driven off by the troops of Alexandria Troas. 
At the beginning of the 2nd century B.C. Ilium was in a state of 
decay. As Demetrius of Scepsis tells us, the houses " had not 
even roofs of tiles," but merely of thatch. Such a loss of pros- 
perity is sufficiently explained by the incursions of the Gauls 
and the insecure state of the Troad during the latter part of the 
3rd century. The temple of the Ilian Athena, however, retained 
its prestige. In 192 B.C. Antiochus the Great visited it before 
sailing to the aid of the Aetolians. In 190 B.C., shortly before 
the battle of Magnesia, the Romans came into the Troad. At 
the moment when a Roman army was entering Asia, it was 
politic to recall the legend of Roman descent from Aeneas. 
Lucius Scipio and the Ilians were alike eager to do so. He 
offered sacrifice to the Ilian Athena; and after the peace with 
Antiochus (189 B.C.) the Romans annexed Rhoeteum and Gergis 
to Ilium, " not so much in reward of recent services, as in memory 
of the source from which their nation sprang." The later history 
of Ilium is little more than that of Roman benefits. A disaster 
befell the place in 85 B.C., when Fimbria took it, and left it in 
ruins; but Sulla presently caused it to be rebuilt. Augustus, 
while confirming its ancient privileges, gave it new territory. 
Caracalla (A.D. 211-217) visited Ilium, and, like Alexander, paid 
honours to the tomb of Achilles. In the 4th century, as some 
rhetorical " Letters " of that age show, the Ilians did a profitable 
trade in attracting tourists by their pseudo-Trojan memorials. 
After the 4th century the place is lost to view. But we 
find from Constantine Porphyrogenitus (911-959) that in his 
day it was one of the places in the Troad which gave names 
to bishoprics. 

Other Ancient Sites. Many classical sites in the Troad have been 
identified with more or less certainty. (For ALEXANDRIA TROAS 
and Assus, see separate articles. Neandria seems to be rightly 
fixed by F. Calvert at Mount Chigri, a hill not far from Alexandria 
Troas, remarkable for the fine view of the whole Troad which it 
commands. Cebrene has been conjecturally placed in the eastern 
part of the plain of Bairamich. Palaeoscepsis was farther east 



316 



TROY AND TROAD 



on the slopes of Ida, while the new Scepsis was near the site of 
Bairamich itself. At the village of Kulakli, a little south of the 
mouth of the Tuzla, some Corinthian columns and other fragments 
mark the temple of Apollo Smintheus (excavated in 1866 by Pullan) 
and (approximately) the site of the Homeric Ghryse, Colonae was 
also on the west coast, opposite Tenedos. Scamandria occupied 
the 'site of Eneh, in the middle of the plain of Bairamich, and 
Cenchreae was probably some distance north of it. The shrine 
of Palamedes, mentioned by ancient writers as existing at a town 
called Polymedium, has been discovered by J. T. Clarke on a site 
hitherto unvisited by any modern traveller, between Assus and 
Cape Lectum. It proves to have been a sacred enclosure (temenos) 
on the acropolis of the town; the statue of Palamedes stood on a 
rock at the middle of its southern edge. Another interesting 
discovery has been made by Clarke, viz. the existence of very 
ancient town walls on Gargarus, the highest peak of Ida. 

(R. C. J.;D. G. H.) 

II. The Site of Troy. Troy is represented now by the important 
ruins on and about the mound of Hissarlik which underlie those 
already referred to as surviving from the Hellenistic Ilion. 
Hissarlik is situated about 35 m. both from the Dardanelles 
and from Yeni Keui, which lies on the Aegean coast north of 
Besika Bay. The famous academic dispute concerning the pre- 
cise site, which began about A.D. 160 with Demetrius of Scepsis, 
may now be regarded as settled. After the full demonstration, 
made in 1893, that remains of a fortress exist on the mound of 
Hissarlik, contemporary with the great period of Mycenae, and 
larger than the earlier acropolis town first identified by Schliemann 
with Ilion, no reasonable person has continued to doubt that this 
last site is the local habitation of the Homeric story. The rival 
ruins on the Bali Dagh have been shown to be those of a small 
hill fort which, with another on an opposite crag, commanded 
the upper Menderes gorge. It is inconceivable that this fort 
should have been chosen by poets, generally familiar with the 
locality, as the scene of the great siege, while in the plain between 
it and the sea there had lain from time immemorial, and lay still 
in the Mycenaean age, a much more important settlement with 
massive fortified citadel. 

No site in the Troad can be brought into complete accordance 
with all the topographical data to be ingeniously derived from 
the text of Homer. The hot and cold springs that lay just 
without the gate of " Troy " (//. xxii. 147) are no more to be 
identified with Bunarbashi, which wells out more than a mile 
from the Bali Dagh ruins, than with the choked conduits, opened 
by Schliemann in 1882, to the south of Hissarlik. But the 
broader facts of geography are recognizable in the modern plain 
of the Menderes. The old bed of that river is the Scamander, 
and its little tributary, the Dumbrek Su, is the Simois. In their 
fork lies Hissarlik or Troy. In sight of it are, on the one side, 
the peak of Samothrace (xiii. 11-14); on the other, the mass of 
the Kaz Dagh Ida (viii. 52). Hissarlik lies in the plain (xx. 216) 
less than 4 m. both from the Hellespontine and the Aegean 
coasts, easily reached day by day by foes from the shore, and 
possible to be left and regained in a single night by a Trojan 
visiting the camp of the Greeks (vii. 381-421). 

In summarizing what has been found to exist on the mound of 
Hissarlik in the excavations undertaken there since 1870, it is not 
advisable to observe the order of the finding, since Schliemann's 
want of experience and method caused much confusion and error 
in the earlier revelations. No certainty as to the distinction of 
strata or their relative ages was possible till Wilhelm Dorpfeld 
obtained entire control in 1891, after the original explorer's death. 
There are in all nine strata of ancient settlement. 

1. On the virgin soil of the hillock, forming the core of the 
mound, scanty remains appear of a small village of the late Aegean 
neolithic period, at the dawn of the Bronze Age, contemporary 
with the upper part of the Cnossian neolithic bed. This includes 
what were originally supposed by Schliemann to be two successive 
primitive settlements. Thin walls of rough stones, bonded with 
mud, are preserved mainly in the west centre of the mound. No 
ground plan of a house is recoverable, and there is no sign of an 
outer fortress wall. In this stratum were found implements in 
obsidian and other stones, clay whorls, a little worked ivory, and 
much dark monochrome pottery, either of a rough grey surface or 
(in the finer examples) treated with resin, highly hand-polished, 
and showing simple geometric decoration, which was incised and 
often filled in with a white substance. 

2. Superposed on these remains, where they still exist, but 
comprehending a much larger area, lies a better constructed and 
preserved settlement. This has been twice rebuilt. It was enclosed 



by a massive fortress wall of rudely squared Cyclopean character, 
showing different restorations, and now destroyed, except on the 
south side of the mound. Double gates at the south-east and 
south-west are well-preserved. The most complete and most im- 
portant structures within the citadel lie towards the north. These 
are two rectangular blocks lying north-west to south-east, side by 
side, of which the southern and larger shows a megaron and vesti- 
bule of the type familiar in " 'Mycenaean " palaces, while the 
smaller seems a pendant to the larger, like the " women's quarters " 
at Tiryns and Phylakopi (see AEGEAN CIVILIZATION). Other 
blocks, whose plans are difficult to bring into inter-relation in their 
present state of ruin, are scattered over the area, but mainly in the 
south-west. This is the fortress proclaimed by Schliemann in 1873 
to be the Pergamos ot Troy. But we know that, while his identifi- 
cations of Homeric topographical details in these ruins were fanciful, 
a much larger fortress succeeded to this long before the period 
treated of in the Iliad. The settlement in the second stratum 
belongs, in fact, to a primitive stage of that local civilization which 
preceded the Mycenaean; and it is this latter which is recalled 
by the Homeric poems. The pottery of the second stratum at 
Hissarlik shows the first introduction of paint, and of the slip and 
somewhat fantastic forms parallel to those of the pre-Mycenaean 
style in the Cyclades. The beaked vases, known as schnabelkannen, 
are characteristic, and rude reproductions of human features are 
common in this ware, which seems all to be of native fabrication. 
Bronze had come into use for implements, weapons and utensils; 
and gold and silver make up a hoarded treasure found in the 
calcined ruins of the fortification wall near one of the gates. But 
the forms are primitive and singular, and the workmanship is 
very rude, the pendants of the great diadems being cut out of very 
thin plate gold. Disks, bracelets and pendants, snowing advanced 
spiraliform ornament, found mainly in 1878, and then ascribed 
to this same stratum, belong undoubtedly to a higher one, the 
sixth or " Mycenaean." Rough fiddle-shaped idols, whorls, a little 
worked ivory and some lead make up a find, of whose early period 
comparison of objects found elsewhere leaves no sort of doubt. 
This treasure is now deposited in Berlin. 

3, 4, 5. This primitive " Troy " suffered cataclysmal ruin (traces 
of conflagration are everywhere present), and Hissarlik ceased for 
a time to have any considerable population. Three small village 
settlements, not much more than farms, were successively erected 
on the site, and have left their traces superposed one on another, 
but they yielded no finds of importance. 

6. The mound, however, stood in too important a relation to 
the plain and the sea to remain desolate, and in due time it was 
covered again by a great fortress, while a city spread out below. 
The latter has not yet been explored. The remains of this period 
on the acropolis, however, have now been examined. A portion 
of them was first distinguished clearly by Dorpfeld in 1882, but 
owing to the confusion caused by Schliemann's drastic methods of 
trenching, the pottery and metal objects, really belonging to this 
stratum, had come to be confused with those of lower strata; and 
some grey monochrome ware, obviously of Anatolian make, was 
alone referred to the higher stratum. To this ware Schliemann 
gave the name " Lydian," and the stratum was epoken of in his 
Troja (1884) as the " Lydian city." 

In 1893, however, excavations were carried out on the south of 
the mound in the hitherto undisturbed ground outside the limits 
of the earlier fortress; and here appeared a second curtain wall of 
massive ashlar masonry showing architectural features which 
characterize the " Mycenaean " fortification walls at Mycenae itself, 
and at Phylakopi in Melos. With this wall was associated not only 
the grey ware, but a mass of painted potsherds of unmistakably 
" Mycenaean " character; and further search in the same stratum 
to west and east showed that such sherds always lay on its floor 
level. The inevitable inference is that here we have a city, 
contemporary with the mass of the remains at Mycenae, which 
imported " Mycenaean " ware to supplement its own ruder products. 
The area of its citadel is larger than the citadel of the second stratum ; 
its buildings, of which a large megaron on the south-west and 
several houses on the east remain, are of much finer construction 
than those which lie lower. This was the most important city 
yet built on the mound of Hissarlik. It belonged to the " Mycen- 
aean " a-ge, which precedes the composition of the Homeric poems, 
and is reflected by them. Therefore this is Homer's Troy. 

Its remains, however, having been obliterated on the crown of 
Hissarlik, almost escaped recognition. When some centuries later 
a third important city, the Hellenistic 1 Ilion, was built, all the 
accumulation on the top of the mound was cut away and a terrace 
made. In this process the then uppermost strata of ruins wholly 
vanished, their stones being taken to build the new city. The 
Mycenaean town, however, which had been piled stage upon stage 
to the summit, descended on the south side a little down the face 
of the mound; and the remains of its fortifications and houses at 
that point, lying below the level cut down to by the Hellenistic 
terrace-makers, were covered by the depositing of rubbish from the 
crown and again built over. Thus we find them now on the 
southern slope of the mound only, but have no difficulty in estimat- 
ing their original extent. Many tombs and a large lower city of 
this era will doubtless be explored ere long. 



TROY AND TROAD 



7. To " Mycenaean " Troy succeeded a small unfortified settle- 
ment, which maintained itself all through the Hellenic age till the 
Homeric enthusiasm of Alexander the Great called a city again into 
being on Hissarlik. 

8. The Hellenistic Ilion, however, has left comparatively little 
trace, having been almost completely destroyed in 85 B.C. by 
Fimbria. Portions of fortifications erected by Lysimachus are 
visible both on the acropolis (west face chiefly) and round the lower 
city in the plain. A small Doric temple belongs to the foundation 
of this city, and a larger one, probably dedicated to Athena, seems 
to be of the Pergamene age. Of its metopes, representing Helios 
and a gigantomachia, important fragments have been recovered. 
Coins of this city are not rare, showing Athena on both faces, and 
some inscriptions have been recovered proving that Hellenistic 
Ilion was an important municipality. 

9. Lastly about the Christian era, arose a Graeco-Roman city, 
to which belong the theatre on the south-east slope of the hill 
and the ornate gateway in the same quarter, as well as a large 
building on the south-west and extensive remains to north-east. 
This seems to have sunk into decay about the 5th century A.D. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. J. F. Lechevalier, Voyage de la Troade (1802); 
Choiseul-Gouffier, Voyage pittoresque (1809); Dr Hunt and Professor 
Carlyle, in Walpole's Travels (1817); O. F. v. Richter, Wallfahrten 
jm Morgenlande (1822); W. M. Leake, Journal of a Tour in Asia 
Minor (1824); Prokesch v. Osten, Denkwurdigkeiten aus dem Orient 
(1836) ; C. Fellows, Excursion in Asia Minor (1839) ; C. Texier, Asie 
Mineure (1843) ; R. P. Pullan, Principal Ruins of Asia Minor 
(1865); P. B. Webb, Topographic de la Troade (1844); H. F. Tozer, 
Highlands of Turkey (1869); R. Virchow, Landeskunde der Troas, 
in Trans. Berlin Acad. (1879); H. Schliemann, Troy (1875); Ilios 
(1880); Troja (1884); Reise der Troas (1881); W. Dorpfeld, Troja 
(1892) and Troja und Ilios (1902); C. Schuchhardt, Schliemann' s 
Excavations (Eng. trans., 1891); P. Gardner, New Chapters in Greek 
History (1892). (D. G. H.) 

III. The Legend of Troy. According to Greek legend, the oldest 
town in the Troad was that founded by Teucer, who was a son of 
the river Scamander and the nymph Idaea. Tzetzes says that the 
Scamander in question was the Scamander in Crete, and that Teucer 
was told by an oracle to settle wherever the " earth-born ones " 
attacked him. So when he and his company were attacked in the 
Troad by mice, which gnawed their bow-strings and the handles 
of their shields, he settled on the spot, thinking that the oracle was 
fulfilled. He called the town Sminthium and built a temple to 
Apollo Smintheus, the Cretan word for a mouse being sminthius. 
In his reign Dardanus, son of Zeus and the nymph Electra, daughter 
of Atlas, in consequence of a deluge, drifted from the island of 
Samothrace on a raft or a skin bag to the coast of the Troad, where, 
having received a portion of land from Teucer and married his 
daughter Batea, he founded the city of Dardania or Dardanus on 
high ground at the foot of Mt Ida. On the death of Teucer, 
Dardanus succeeded to the kingdom and called the whole land 
Dardania after himself. He begat Erichthonius, who begat a son 
Tros by Astyoche, daughter of Simois. On succeeding to the throne, 
Tros called the country Troy and the people Trojans. By Callirrhoe, 
daughter of Scamander, he had three sons Ilus, Assaracus and 
Ganymede. From Ilus and Assaracus sprang two separate lines 
of the royal house the one being Ilus, Laomedon, Priam, Hector; 
the other Assaracus, Capys, Anchises, Aeneas. Ilus went to Phrygia, 
where, being victorious in wrestling, he received as a prize from the 
king of Phrygia a spotted cow, with an injunction to follow her and 
found a city wherever she lay down. The cow lay down on the hill 
of the Phrygian Ate; and here accordingly Ilus founded the city of 
Ilion. It is stated that Dardania, Troy and Ilion became one city. 
Desiring a sign at the foundation of Ilion, Ilus prayed to Zeus and 
as an answer he found lying before his tent the Palladium, a wooden 
statue of Pallas, three cubits high, with her feet joined, a spear in 
her right hand, and a distaff and spindle in her left. Ilus built a 
temple for the image and worshipped it. By Euiydice, daughter 
of Adrastus, he had a son Laomedon. Laomedon married Strymo, 
daughter of Scamander, or Placia, daughter of Atreus or of Leucippus. 
It was in his reign that Poseidon and Apollo, or Poseidon alone, 
built the walls of Troy. In his reign also Heracles besieged and took 
the city, slaying Laomedon and his children, except one daughter 
Hesione and one son Podarces. The life of Podarces was granted 
at the request of Hesione; but Heracles stipulated that Podarces 
must first be a slave and then be redeemed by Hesione; she gave 
her veil for him; hence his name of Priam (Gr. vplaaBai, to buy). 
Priam married first Arisbe and afterwards Hecuba, and had fifty 
sons and twelve daughters. Among the sons were Hector and Paris, 
and among the daughters Polyxena and Cassandra. To recover 
Helen, whom Paris carried off from Sparta, the Greeks under 
Agamemnon besieged Troy for ten years. At last they contrived 
a wooden horse, in whose hollow belly many of the Greek heroes 
hid themselves. Their army and fleet then withdrew to Tenedos, 
feigning to have raised the siege. The Trojans conveyed the 
wooden horse into Troy; in the night the Greeks stole out, opened 
the gates to their friends, and Troy was taken. 

See Homer, //. vii. 452 seq., xx. 215 seq., xxi. 446 seq ; Apollo- 
dorus ii. 6, 4, iii. 12; Diodorus iv. 75, v. 48; Tzetzes, Schol. on 
Lycophron, 29, 72, 1302; Conon, Narrat. 21; Dionysius Halicarn. 



Antiq. Rom. i. 68 seq. The Iliad deals with a period of fifty-one 
days in the tenth year of the war. For the wooden horse, see 
Homer, Od. iv. 271 seq.; Virgil, Aen. ii. 13 seq. 

The Medieval Legend. The medieval romance of Troy, the 
Roman de Troie, exercised greater influence in its day and for 
centuries after its appearance than any other work of the same class. 
Just as the chansons de geste of the loth century were the direct 
ancestors of the prose romances which afterwards spread throughout 
Europe, so, even before Heliodorus and Achilles Tatius, there were 
quasi-histories, which reproduced in prose, with more or less exact- 
ness, the narratives of epic poetry. Long previous to the 'Hpuinfa of 
Flavius Philostratus (fl. 3rd century A.D.) the Trojan War had been 
the subject of many a prose fiction,"dignified with the title of history; 
but to remodel the whole story almost in the shape of annals, and 
to give a minute personal description of the persons and characters 
of the principal actors, were ideas which belonged to an artificial 
stage of literature. The work of Philostratus is cast in the form of 
a dialogue between a Phoenician traveller and a vine-grower at 
Eleus, and is a discourse on twenty-six heroes of the war. A ficti- 
tious journal (Ephemeris), professing to give the chief incidents of the 
siege, and said to have been written by Dictys of Crete, a follower 
of Idomeneus, is mentioned by Sui'das, and was largely used by 
John Malalas and other Byzantine chroniclers. This was abridged 
in Latin prose, probably in the 4th century, under the title of Dictys 
Cretensis de hello Troja.no libri VI. It is prefaced by an introductory 
letter from a certain L. Septimius to Q. Aradius Rufinus, in which 
it is stated that the diary of Dictys had been found in his tomb at 
Cnossus in Crete, written in the Greek language, but in Phoenician 
characters. The narrative begins with the rape of Helen, and in- 
cludes the adventures of the Greek princes on the return voyage. 
With Dictys is always associated Dares, a pseudo-historian of more 
recent date." Old Greek writers mention an account of the destruc- 
tion of the city earlier than the Homeric poems, and in the time of 
Aelian (2nd century A.D.) this Iliad of Dares, priest of Hephaestus 
at Troy, was believed to be still in existence. Nothing has since 
been heard of it; but an unknown Latin writer, living between 400 
and 600, took advantage of the tradition to compile Daretis Phrygii 
de excidio Trojae historia, which begins with the voyage of the Argo. 
It is in prose and professes to be translated from an old Greek manu- 
script. Of the two works that of Dares is the later, and is inferior 
to Dictys. The matter-of-fact form of narration recalls the poem- 
of Quintus Smyrnaeus. In both compilations the gods and every- 
thing supernatural are suppressed; even the heroes are degraded. 
The permanent success, however, of the two works distinguishes 
them among apocryphal writings, and through them the Troy legend 
was diffused throughout western Europe. The Byzantine writers 
from the 7th to the I2th century exalted Dictys as a first-class 
authority, with whom Homer was only to be contrasted as an in- 
ventor of fables. Western people preferred Dares, because his history 
was shorter, and because, favouring the Trojans, he flattered the 
vanity of those who believed that people, to have been their ancestors. 
Many MSS. of both writers were contained in old libraries; and they 
were translated into nearly every language and turned into verse. 
In the case of both works, scholars are undecided whether a Greek 
original ever existed (but see DICTYS CRETENSIS). The Byzantine 
grammarian, Joannes Tzetzes (fl. I2th century), wrote a Greek hexa- 
meter poem on the subject (Iliaca). In 1272, a monk of Corbie 
translated " sans rime L'Estoire de Troiens et de Troie (de Dares) du 
Latin en Roumans mot a mot " because the Roman de Troie was 
too long. Geoffrey of Waterford put Dares into French prose; and 
the British Museum has three Welsh MS. translations of the same 
author works, however, of a much later period. 

The name of Homer never ceased to be held in honour; but he 
is invariably placed in company with the Latin poets. Few of those 
who praised him had read him, except in the Latin redaction, in 
upo verses, by the so-called Pindarus Thebanus. It supplied the 
chief incidents of the Iliad with tolerable exactness and was a text- 
book in schools. 

For a thousand years the myth of descent from the dispersed 
heroes of the conquered Trojan race was a sacred literary tradition 
throughout western Europe. The first Franco-Latin chroniclers 
traced their history to the same origin as that of Rome, as told by the 
Latin poets of the Augustan era ; and in the middle of the 7th century 
Fredegarius Scholasticus (Rer. gall, script, ii. 461) relates how one 
party of the Trojans settled between the Rhine, the Danube and 
the sea. In a charter of Dagobert occurs the statement, " ex nobilis- 
simo et antique Trojanorum reliquiarum sanguine nati." This 
statement is repeated by chroniclers and panegyrical writers, who 
also considered the History of Troy by Dares to be the first of national 
books. Succeeding kings imitated their predecessors in giving 
official sanction to their legendary origin: Charles the Bald, in a 
charter, uses almost the same words as Dagobert, " ex praeclaro 
et antique trojanorum sanguine nati." In England a similar 
tradition had been early formulated, as appears from Nennius's 
Historia britonum and Geoffrey of Monmouth. The epic founder 
of Britain was Brutus, son, or in another tradition, great-grandson, 
of Aeneas, in any case of the royal house of Troy. The tradition, 
repeated in Wace's version of Geoffrey, by Matthew Paris and others, 
persisted to the time of Shakespeare. Brutus found Albion un- 
inhabited except by a few giants. He founded his capital on the 



TROY 



banks of the Thames, and called it New Troy. Otto Frisingensis 
(l2th century) and other German chroniclers repeat similar myths, 
and the apocryphal hypothesis is echoed in Scandinavian sagas. 
About 1050 a monk named Bernard wrote De excidio Trojae, and in 
the middle of the I2th century Simon Chevre d'Or, canon of the 
abbey of Saint-Victor, Paris, followed with another poem in leonine 
elegiacs on the fall of the city and the adventures of Aeneas, in which 
the Homeric and Virgilian records were blended. 

We now come to a work on the same subject, which in its own day 
and for centuries afterwards exercised an extraordinary influence 
throughout Europe. About the year 1184 Benoit de Sainte-More 
(q.v.) composed a poem of 30,000 lines entitled Roman de Troie. 
It forms a true Trojan cycle and embraces the entire heroic history 
of Hellas. The introduction relates the story of the Argonauts, 
and the last 2680 verses are devoted to the return of the Greek chiefs 
and the wanderings of Ulysses. With no fear of chronological 
discrepancy before his eyes, Benoit reproduces the manners of his 
own times, and builds up a complete museum of the I2th century 
its arts, costumes, manufactures, architecture, arms, and even 
religious terms. Women are repeatedly introduced in unwarranted 
situations; they are spectators of all combats. The idea of personal 
beauty is different from that of the old Greeks; by Benoit good 
humour, as well as health and strength, is held to be one of its chief 
characteristics. The love-pictures are another addition of the 
modern writer. The author speaks enthusiastically of Homer, 
but he derived his information chiefly from the pseudo-annals of 
Dictys and Dares, more especially the latter, augmented by his own 
imagination and the spirit of the age. It is to Benoit alone that 
the honour of poetic invention is due, and in spite of its obligation 
for a groundwork to Dictys and Dares we may justly consider the 
Roman de Troie as an original work. From this source subsequent 
writers drew their notions of Troy, mostly without naming their 
authority and generally without even knowing his name. This is 
the masterpiece of the pseudo-classical cycle of romances: and in 
the Latin version of Guido delle Colonne it passed through every 
country of Europe. 

The De hello trojano of Joseph of Exeter, in six books, a genuine 
poem of no little merit, was written soon after Benoit 's work or 
about the years 1187-1188. At first ascribed to Dares Phrygius 
and Cornelius Nepos, it was not published as Joseph's until 1620 at 
Frankfort. It was directly drawn from the pseudo-annalists, but 
the influence of Benoit was considerable. Of the same kind was 
the Troilus of Albert of Stade (1249), a version of Dares, in verse, 
characterized by the old severity and affected realism. But these 
Latin works can only be associated indirectly with Benoit, who had 
closer imitators in Germany at an early period. Herbort of Fritzlar 
reproduced the French text in his Lied von Troye (early I3th century), 
as did also Konrad von Wiirzburg (d. 1287) in his Buck von Troye 
of 40,000 verses, which he himself compared to the " boundless 
ocean." It was completed by an anonymous poet. To the like 
source may be traced a poem of 30,000 verses on the same subject 
by Wolfram von Eschenbach ; and Jacques van Maerlant reproduced 
Bench's narrative in Flemish. The Norse or Icelandic Trojumanna 
saga repeats the tale with some variations. 

In Italy Guido dellfi Colonne, a Sicilian, began in 1270 and finished 
in 1287 a prose Historia trojana, in which he reproduced the Roman 
de Troie of Benoit, and so closely as to copy the errors of the latter 
and to give the name of Peleus to Pelias, Jason's uncle. As the 
debt was entirely unacknowledged, Benoit at last came to be con- 
sidered the imitator of Guido. The original is generally abridged, 
and the vivacity and poetry of the Anglo-Norman trouvere disappear 
in a dry version. The immense popularity of Guido's work is shown 
by the large number of existing MSS. The French Bibliotheque 
Nationale possesses eighteen codices of Guido to thirteen of Benoit, 
while at the British Museum the proportion is ten to two. Guido's 
History was translated into German about 1392 by Hans Mair of 
Nordlingen. Two Italian translations were made: by Filippo Ceffi 
(1324) and by Matteo Beliebuoni (1333). In the I4th and the 
commencement of the I5th century four versions appeared in England 
and Scotland. The best known is the Troy Book, written between 
1414 and 1420, of John Lydgate, who had both French and Latin 
texts before him. An earlier and anonymous rendering exists 
at Oxford (Bodleian MS. Laud Misc. 595). There is the Cesl Hystor- 
iale of the Destruction of Troy (Early Eng. Text Soc., 1869-1874), 
written in a northern dialect about 1390; a Scottish version (isth 
century) by a certain Barbour, not the poet, John Barbour; and 
The Seege of Troy, a. version of Dares (Harl. MS. 525 Brit. Mus.). 
The invention of printing gave fresh impetus to the spread of Guido's 
work. The first book printed in English was The Recuyell of the 
Hystoryes of Troye, a translation by Caxton from the French of 
Raoul Lefevre. The Recueil des histoires de Troyes was " compose 
par venerable homme Raoul le Feure prestre chappellain de mon 
tres redoupte seigneur monseigneur le due Phelippe de Bourgoingne 
en 1'an de grace 1464," but probably printed in 1474 by Caxton or 
Colard Mansion at Bruges. It is in three books, of which the first 
deals with the story of Jupiter and Saturn, the origin of the Trojans, 
the feats of Perseus, and the first achievements of Hercules; the 
second book is wholly taken up with the " prouesses du fort Hercu- 
lez " ; the third, " traictant de la generalle destruction de Troyes 
qui vint a 1'ocasion du rauissement de dame Helaine," is little else 



than a translation of that portion of Guido delle Colonne which 
relates to Priam and his sons. Two MSS. of the Recueil -in the 
Bibliotheque Nationale wrongly attribute the work to Guillaume 
Fillastre, a voluminous author, and predecessor of Lefevre as secre- 
tary to the duke. Another codex in the same library, Histoire 
ancienne de Thebes et de Troyes, is partly taken from Orosius. The 
Bibliotheque Nationale possesses an unpublished Histoire des 
Troyens et des Thebains jusqu'a 'la mart de Turnus, d'apres Orose, 
Chide et Raoul Lefebre (early i6th century), and the British Museum 
a Latin history of Troy dated 1403. There were also translations 
into Italian, Spanish, High German, Low Saxon, Dutch and Danish; 
Guido even appeared in a Flemish and a Bohemian dress. 

Thus far we have only considered works more or less closely 
imitated from the original. Boccaccio, passing by the earlier tales, 
took one original incident from Benoit, the love of Troilus and 
the treachery of Briseida, and composed Filostrato, a parable of his 
own relations with the Neapolitan princess who figures in his 
works as Fiammetta. This was borrowed by Chaucer for his Boke 
of Troilus and Cresside, and also by Shakespeare for his Troilus 
and Cressida (1609). One reason why the Round Table stories of 
the I2th and I3th centuries had a never-ceasing charm for readers 
of the two following centuries was that they were constantly being 
re-edited to suit the changing taste. The Roman de T,-oie experi- 
enced the same fate. By the I3th century it was translated into 
nrose and worked up in those enormous compilations, such as the 
Mer des histoires, &c., in which the middle ages studied antiquity. 
It reappeared in the religious dramas called Mysteries. Jacques 
Millet, who produced La Destruction de Troie la Grande between 
1452 and 1454, merely added vulgar realism to the original. Writers 
of chap-books borrowed the story, which is again found on the stage 
in Antoine de Montchretien's tragedy of Hector (1603) a last 
echo of the influence of Benoit. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The Troy legend is dealt with in the elaborate 
work of A. Joly, Benoit de Sainte-More et le Roman de Troie (1870- 
1871) ; G. Korting, Der altfranz. Roman de Troie (1883) ; F. Settegast, 
Benoit de Ste-More (Breslau, 1876) ;G. C.Frommann.T/erfcorU 1 . Fritzlar 
u. Benoit de Ste-More (Stuttgart, 1837); R. Jackel, Dares Phrygius 
u. Benoit de Ste-More (Breslau, 1875); E. Juste, Sur I'origine des 
po'emes attrib. d Homere et sur les cycles epiques de I'antiq. et du 
Moyen-Age (Brussels, 1849); J. A. Fuchs, De varietate fabularum 
troicarum quaestiones_ (Cologne, 1830); H. Dunger, Die Sage vom 
trojan. Kriege (Leipzig, 1869); G. Korting, Dictys u. Dares (Halle, 
1874); H. Dunger, Dictys Septimius (Dresden, 1878); L. Havet, 
" Sur la date du Dictys de Septimius," Rev. de philol. (1878); F. 
Meister, " Zur Ephem. belli Troiani yon Dictys," Philologus (1879); 
R. Earth, Guido de Columna (Leipzig, 1877); A. Mussafia, " Sulle 
versione Italiane della Storia Troiana," Sitz. d. k. Akad. Wien (1871), 
vol. Ixvii., and " Ueber d. span. Versionen " (ibid., 1871), vol. Ixix. ; 
A. Pey, Essai sur li romans d'Eneas (1856). See also J. J. 
Jusserand, De Josepho Exoniensi (1877); E. Gorra, Testi inediti 
di storia trojana (Turin, 1887); A. Graf, Roma nella memoria et 
mile imaginazioni del media evo (Turin, 1882); Le Roman de Troie, 
ed. L. Constans (Soc. d. anc. textes fr. Paris, 1904); H. L. Ward, 
Catalogue of Romances (1883), vol. i.; W. Greif, " Die mittel- 
alterlichen Bearbeitungen der Trojanersage," in E. Stengel's 
Aiisgaben und Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiete der romanischen Phil- 
ologie (Marburg, 1886); A. N. Wesselofsky, Mat. et recherches pour 
seruir a I'histoire du roman et de la nouiielle (Petersburg, 1889); R. 
Dernedde, Ueber die den altfranzosischen Dichtern bekannten epischen 
Stoffe aus dem Alterthum (1887). 

TROY, a city and the county-seat of Rensselaer county, New 
York, U.S.A., at the head of tidewater on the eastern bank 
of the Hudson river, opposite the mouth of the Mohawk, about 
6 m. N. of Albany and about 148 m. N. of New York City. 
Pop. (1880), 56,747; (1890), 60,956; (1900), 60,651, of whom 
14,384 were foreign-born (7348 being Irish, 1796 German and 
1498 English) and 400 were negroes; (1910, census), 76,813. 
Troy is served by the Boston & Maine, the New York Central & 
Hudson River and the Delaware & Hudson railways, and by inter- 
urban electric lines connecting with Saratoga and Lake George 
on the north, Albany on the south and Schenectady and the cities 
of the populous Mohawk Valley on the west; it is at the head 
of river steamboat navigation on the Hudson, and has water 
communication by means of the Erie and Champlain canals 
with the Great Lakes and Canada. The site is a level oblong 
tract extending along the Hudson for 7 m. and reaching back a 
mile or so from the river to highlands which rise to a height 
of 400 ft., with Mt Ida (240 ft. above tidewater) forming a 
picturesque background. The older part of the city and the 
principal business and manufacturing district occupies the low 
lands; the newer part, chiefly residential, is built upon the 
heights. The northern part of the city was the village of 
Lansingburg (pop. 1900, 12,595) until 1901, when with parts of 
the towns of Brunswick and North Greenbush it was annexed to 



TROY TROVES 



Troy. Opposite Troy on the west bank of the Hudson, and 
connected with it by bridges, are Cohoes, VVatervliet and 
Waterford. Industrially and commercially they virtually form a 
part of Troy. Troy is the seat of Rensselaer Polytechnic Insti- 
tute, founded in 1824 by Stephen van Rensselaer as a " school 
of theoretical and practical science," incorporated in 1826, and 
reorganized in 1849 as a general polytechnic institute. It is 
the oldest school of engineering in the country, and has always 
maintained a high rank of efficiency. The large gifts (about 
$1,000,000) to the school made by Mrs Russell Sage in 1907 
enabled it to add courses in mechanical and electrical engineer- 
ing to its course in civil engineering. The institute had 
55 instructors and 650 students in 1910. The Emma Willard 
School, founded as the Troy Female Seminary in 1821 by Mrs 
Emma Willard (I787-I87O), 1 is one of the oldest schools for 
women in the United States. Other educational institutions 
include Troy Academy (1834), a non-sectarian preparatory 
school; La Salle Institute (conducted by the Brothers of the 
Christian Schools); St Joseph's Academy (Roman Catholic) 
and St Peter's Academy (Roman Catholic). Noteworthy 
buildings of a public and semi-public character include the post 
office, the public library, containing in 1910 43,500 volumes, 
the Troy Savings Bank building, the city hall, the Rensselaer 
county court house, a Y.M.C.A. building and St Paul's Episcopal, 
the Second Presbyterian and St Mary's (Roman Catholic) 
churches. An area of 175 acres is comprised in the city's parks, 
the largest of which are Prospect Park and Beman Park. In 
Oakwood cemetery, 400 acres, are the grave of General George 
H. Thomas, and a monolithic shaft to the memory of General 
John Ellis Wool (1784-1869), who served with distinction in 
the War of 1812 and in the Mexican War, and in the Civil 
War commanded for a time the Department of Virginia. In 
Washington Square there is a Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument, 
93 ft. high. Altro Park, on an island a short distance down 
the river, is a pleasure resort in summer. 

Two rapid streams, Poesten Kill and Wynants Kill, flowing 
into the Hudson from the east, through deep ravines, furnish 
good water-power, which, with that furnished by the state dam 
across the Hudson here, is utilized for manufacturing purposes. 
In 1905 the value of Troy's factory product was $31,860,829. 
Of this $11,271,708 was the value of collars and cuffs (89-5% 
of the value of the total American product), an industry which 
gave employment to 49-3% of the wage-earners in Troy, and 
paid 42-1% of the wages. Closely allied with this industry \vas 
shirt-making, with an output valued at $4,263,610. Troy is 
the market for a fertile agricultural region, and the principal 
jobbing centre for a large district in north-eastern New York 
and eastern Massachusetts. 

The site of Troy was part of the Van Rensselaer manor grant 
of 1629. In 1659 it was bought from the Indians, with the 
consent of the patroon, by Jan Barentsen Wemp, and several 
families settled here. In 1707 it passed into the hands of Derick 
van der Heyden, who laid out a large farm. During this early 
period it was known variously as Ferryhook, Ashley's Ferry 
and Van der Hey den's Ferry. In 1777 General Philip Schuyler 
established his headquarters on Van Schaick's Island in the 
Mohawk and Hudson, then the principal rendezvous of the army 
which later met Burgoyne at Saratoga. After the close of the 
war there was an influx of settlers from Rhode Island, Connecticut, 
New Hampshire and Vermont; a town was laid out on the Van 
der Heyden farm, and in 1789 the name of Troy was selected 
in town meeting; and in 1791 the town of Troy was formed from 
part of Rensselaerwyck. The county-seat was established here 
in 1793, and Troy was incorporated as a village in 1794 and was 
chartered as a city in 1816. The first newspaper, The 

1 Emma Hart was born in Berlin, Connecticut, became a teacher 
in 1803, and in 1809 married Dr John Willard of Middlebury. 
Vermont, where she opened a boarding school for girls in 1814. 
In 1819 she wrote A Plan for Improving Female Education, submitted 
to the governor of New York state; and in 1821 she removed to 
Troy. Her son took charge of the school in 1838. She prepared 
many textbooks and wrote Journal and Letters from France and 
Great Britain (1833). See the biography (1873) by John Lord. 



Farmer's Oracle, began publication in 1797. In 1812 a steamboat 
line was established between Troy and Albany. Troy benefited 
financially by the War of 1812, during which contracts for army 
beef were filled here. The opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 
contributed greatly to Troy's commercial importance. During 
the Civil War army supplies, ammunition and cannon, and the 
armour-plate and parts of the machinery for the " Monitor " 
were made here. The first puddling works were opened in 1839, 
and Troy was long the centre of the New York iron and steel 
industry; in 1865 the second Bessemer steel works in the United 
States were opened here. Troy has three times been visited by 
severe conflagrations, that of June 1820 entailing a loss of about 
$1,000,000, that of August 1854 about the same, and that of 
May 1862, known as " the Great Fire," the destruction of over 
500 buildings, and a property loss of some $3,000,000. 

See Arthur J. Weise, History of the City of Troy (Troy, 1876), and 
Troy's One Hundred Years (Troy, 1891). 

TROY, a city and the county-seat of Miami county, Ohio, 
U.S.A., on the west bank of the Great Miami river, about 65 m. 
W. of Columbus. Pop. (1890), 4494; (1900), 5881 (234 foreign- 
born); (1910), 6122. Troy is served by the Cleveland, Cin- 
cinnati, Chicago & St Louis and the Cincinnati, Hamilton & 
Dayton railways, and by the Dayton & Troy and the Spring- 
field, Troy & Piqua electric inter-urban lines. The Miami 
and Erie Canal, formerly important for traffic, is now used only 
for power. The principal public buildings include the court 
house and the city hall, and there are a public library (housed 
in the city hall) and a children's home. Troy is situated in a 
good general farming region, of which tobacco is an important 
crop; and there are various manufactures. The municipality 
owns and operates the waterworks and electric-lighting plant. 
The first settlement was made in 1807, and Troy was first 
chartered as a city in 1890. 

TROVES, a town of France, capital of the department of Aube, 
104 m. E.S.E. of Paris on the Eastern railway to Belfort. Pop. 
(1906), 51,228. The town is situated in the wide alluvial plain 
watered by the Seine, the main stream of which skirts it on the 
east. It is traversed by several small arms of the river, and the 
Canal de la Haute-Seine divides it into an upper town, on the 
left bank, and a lower town on the right bank. The streets are, 
for the most part, narrow and crooked. It is surrounded by a 
belt of boulevards, outside which lie suburbs. The churches of 
the town are numerous, and especially rich in stained glass of 
the Renaissance period, from the hands of Jean Soudain, Jean 
Macadre, Linard Gonthier and other artists. 

St Pierre, the cathedral, was begun in 1208, and it was not until 
1640 that the north tower of the fagade was completed. With a 
height to the vaulting of only 98 ft. it is less lofty than other impor- 
tant Gothic cathedrals of France. It consists of an apse with seven 
apse chapels, a choir with double aisles, on the right of which are the 
treasury and sacristy, a transept without aisles, a nave with double 
aisles and side chapels and a vestibule. The west facade belongs 
to the i6th century with the exception of the upper portion of the 
north tower; the south tower has never been completed. Three 
portals, that in the centre surmounted by a fine flamboyant rose 
window, open into the vestibule. The stained glass of the interior 
dates mainly from the igth and i6th centuries. The treasury 
contains some fine enamel work and lace. The church of 
St Urban, begun in 1262 at the expense of Pope Urban IV., 
a native of the town, is a charming specimen of Gothic 
architecture, the lightness and delicacy of its construction rivalling 
that of churches built a century later. The glass windows, the 
profusion of which is the most remarkable feature of the 
church, date, for the most part, from the years 1265 to 1280. 
The church of La Madeleine, built at the beginning of the I3th 
century, and enlarged in the l6th, contains a rich rood-screen by 
Giovanni Gualdo (1508) and fine stained-glass windows of the l6th 
century. The church of St Jean, though hidden among old houses, 
is one of the most picturesque in Troyes. The choir is a fine example 
of Renaissance architecture and the church contains a high altar 
of the 1 7th century, stained glass of the l6th century and many other 
works of art. St Nicholas is a building of the l6th century with a 
beautiful vaulted gallery in the interior. The church of St Pantaleon 
of the l6th century and that of St Nizier, mainly of the same 
period, contain remarkable sculptures and paintings. St Remi 
(i4th, I5th and i6th centuries) and St Martin-es-Vignes (i6th and 
I7th centuries), the latter notable for its 17th-century windows, 
are also of interest. The old abbey of St Loup is occupied by a 



320 



TROYON 



museum contajning numerous collections. The H6tel Dieu of the 
l8th century is remarkable for the fine gilded iron railing of its 
courtyard. Most of the old houses of Troyes are of wood, but some 
of stone of the l6th century are remarkable for their beautiful and 
original architecture. Amongst the latter the hdtels de Vauluisant, 
de Mauroy and de Marisy are specially interesting. The prefecture 
occupies the buildings of the old abbey of Notre- Dame-aux-Nonnains ; 
the H6tel-de-ville dates from the I7th century; the savings bank, the 
theatre and the lycee are modern buildings. A marble monument 
to the Sons of Aube commemorates the war of 1870-^71. 

Troyes is the seat of a bishop and a court of assize. Its public 
institutions include a tribunal of first instance, a tribunal of com- 
merce, a council of trade arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and 
a branch of the Bank of France. A lycee, an ecclesiastical college, 
training colleges for male and female teachers, and a school of hosiery 
are its chief educational institutions. There are also several learned 
societies and a large library. The dominant industry in Troyes 
is the manufacture of cotton, woollen and silk hosiery, which is 
exported to Spain, Italy, the United States and South America; 
printing and dyeing of fabrics, tanning, distilling, and the manufac- 
ture of looms and iron goods are among the other industries. The 
market gardens and nurseries of the neighbourhood are well known. 
There is trade in the wines of Burgundy and Champagne, in industrial 
products, in snails and in the dressed pork prepared in the town. 

History. At the beginning of the Roman period Troyes 
(Augustobona) was the principal settlement of the Tricassi, from 
whose name its own is derived. It owed its conversion to 
Christianity to Saints Savinian and Potentian, and in the first 
half of the 4th century its bishopric was created as a suffragan 
of Sens. St Loup, the most illustrious bishop of Troyes, occu- 
pied the episcopal seat from 426 to 479. He is said to have per- 
suaded Attila, chief of the Huns, to leave the town unpillaged, 
and is known to have exercised great influence in the Church of 
Gaul. The importance of the monastery of St Loup, which he 
founded, was overshadowed by that of the abbey of nuns known as 
Notre-Dame-aux-Nonnains, which possessed large schools and 
enjoyed great privileges in the town, in some points exercising 
authority even over the bishops themselves. In 892 and 898 
Troyes suffered from the depredations of the Normans, who on 
the second occasion reduced the town to ruins. In the early 
middle ages the bishops were supreme in Troyes, but in the loth 
century this supremacy was transferred to the counts of Troyes 
(see below), who from the nth century were known as the counts 
of Champagne. Under their rule the city attained great pros- 
perity. Its fairs, which had already made it a prominent com- 
mercial centre, flourished under their patronage, while the canals 
constructed at their expense aided its industrial development. 
In the 1 2th century both the counts and the ecclesiastics joined 
in the movement for the enfranchisement of their serfs, but it 
was not till 1230 and 1242 that Thibaut IV. granted charters to 
the inhabitants. A disastrous fire occurred in 1188; more 
disastrous still was the union of Champagne with the domains 
of the king of France in 1304, since one of the first measures of 
Louis le Hutin was to forbid the Flemish merchants to attend 
the fairs, which from that time declined in importance. For a 
short time (1410-1425), during the Hundred Years' War, the 
town was the seat of the royal government, and in 1420 the 
signing of the Treaty of Troyes was followed by the marriage of 
Henry V. of England with Catherine, daughter of Charles VI., in 
the church of St Jean. In 1429 the town capitulated to Joan 
of Arc. The next hundred years was a period of prosperity, 
marred by the destruction of half the town by the fire of 1524. 
In the i6th century Protestantism made some progress in Troyes 
but never obtained a decided hold. In 1562, after a short occu- 
pation, the Calvinist troops were forced to retire, and on the 
news of the massacre of St Bartholomew fifty Protestants 
were put to death. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 
1685 was a severe blow to the commerce of Troyes, which 
was not revived by the re-establishment of the former fairs 
in 1697. The population fell from 40,000 to 24,000 between 
the beginning of the i6th century and that of the igth century. 

See T. Boutiot, Histoire de Troyes et de la Champagne mtridionale 
(4 vols., Troyes, 1870-1880); R. Koechlin and J. J. Marquet de 
Vasselot, La Sculpture a Troyes et dans la Champagne meridionale au 
setzteme slide (Paris, 1900). (R. TR.) 

COUNTS OF TROYES. The succession of the counts of Troyes 
from the 9th to the loth century can be established in the 



following manner. Aleran, mentioned in 837, died before the 
25th of April 854. Odo (orEudes) I. appears as count on the 25th 
of April 854, and seems to have been stripped of his dignities 
in January 859. Raoul, or Rudolph, maternal uncle of King 
Charles the Bald, was count of Troyes in 863 and 864, and died 
on the 6th of January 866. Odo I. seems to have entered again 
into possession of the countship of Troyes after the death of 
Raoul, and died himself on the loth of August 871. Boso, 
afterwards king of Provence, received the countship in ward 
after the death of Odo I. A royal diploma was granted at his 
request, on the 2gth of March 877, to the abbey of Montier-la- 
Celle in Troyes. Odo II., son of Odo I., became count of Troyes 
on the 25th of October 877. Robert I., brother of Odo II., 
was count from 879. He married Gisla, sister of kings 
Louis III. and Carloman, and was killed by the Northmen in 886. 
Aleaume, nephew of Robert I., is mentioned in 893. Richard, 
son of the viscount of Sens Gamier, is styled count of Troyes 
in a royal diploma of the loth of December 926. He was living 
in 931. Herbert I., already count of Vermandois, succeeded 
Richard, and died in 943. Robert II., one of the five sons of 
Herbert of Vermandois, is called count of Troyes in an act of 
the 6th of August 959, and died in August 968. Herbert II. the 
Old, younger brother of Robert II., succeeded him and died 
between 980 and 983. Herbert III. the Young, nephew and 
successor of Herbert II., died in 995. Stephen I., son and 
successor of Herbert III., was alive in 1019. His successor 
was his cousin, Odo II., count of Blois. From the nth 
century the counts of Troyes, whose domains increased remark- 
ably, are commonly designated by the name of counts of 
Champagne. 

See H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, Histoire des dues et des comtes 
de Champagne (1859), vol. i.; F. Lot, Les Derniers Caroiingiens, 
(1891), pp. 370-377; A. Longnon, Documents relatifs au comte de 
Champagne et de Brie (1904), ii. 9, note. (A. Lo.) 

TROYON, CONSTANT (1810-1865), French painter, was 
born on the z8th of August 1810 at Sevres, near Paris, where 
his father was connected with the famous manufactory of 
china. Troyon was an animal painter of the first rank, and 
was closely associated with the artists who painted around 
Barbizon. The technical qualities of his methods of painting 
are most masterly; his drawing is excellent, and his composi- 
tion always interesting. It was only comparatively late in 
life that Troyon found his metier, but when he realized his 
power of painting animals he produced a fairly large number 
of good pictures in a few years. Troyon entered the ateliers 
very young as a decorator, and until he was twenty he laboured 
assiduously at the minute details of porcelain ornamentation ; and 
this kind of work he mastered so thoroughly that it was many 
years before he overcame its limitations. By the time he reached 
twenty-one he was travelling the country as an artist, and 
painting landscapes so long as his finances lasted. Then when 
pressed for money he made friends with the first china manu- 
facturer he met and worked steadily at his old business of 
decorator until he had accumulated enough funds to permit him 
to start again on his wanderings. 

Troyon was a favourite with Roqueplan, an artist of dis- 
tinction eight years his senior, and he became one of his pupils 
after receiving certain tuition from a painter, now quite unknown, 
named Riocreux. Roqueplan introduced Troyon to Rousseau, 
Jules Dupre, and the other Barbizon painters, and in his pictures 
between 1840 and 1847 he seemed to endeavour to follow in 
their footsteps. But as a landscapist Troyon would never 
have been recognized as a thorough master, although his work 
of the period is marked with much sincerity and met with a 
certain success. It may be pointed out, however, that in one 
or two pure landscapes of the end of his life he achieved qualities 
of the highest artistic kind; but this was after lengthy experience 
as a cattle painter, by which his talents had become thoroughly 
developed. 

In 1846 Troyon went to the Netherlands, and at the Hague 
saw Paul Potter's famous " Young Bull." From the studies 
he made of this picture, of Cuyp's sunny landscapes, and 



TRUCE OF GOD 



321 



brandt's noble masterpieces he soon evolved a new method 
of painting, and it is only in works produced after this time 
that Troyon's true individuality is revealed. When he became 
conscious of his power as an animal painter he developed with 
rapidity and success, until his works became recognized as 
masterpieces in Great Britain and America, as well as in all 
countries of the Continent. Success, however, came too late, 
for Troyon never quite believed in it himself, and even when 
he could command the market of several countries he still 
grumbled loudly at the way the world treated him. Yet he 
was decorated with the Legion of Honour, and five times 
received medals at the Paris Salon, while Napoleon III. was 
one of his patrons; and it is certain he was at least as 
financially successful as his Barbizon colleagues. 

Troyon died, unmarried, at Paris on the zist of February 
1865, after a term of clouded intellect. All his famous pictures 
are of date between 1850 and 1864, his earlier work being 
of comparatively little value. His mother, who survived him, 
instituted the Troyon prize for animal pictures at the Ecole 
des Beaux Arts. Troyon's work is fairly well known to the 
public through a number of large engravings from his pictures. 
In the Wallace Gallery in London are " Watering Cattle " 
and " Cattle in Stormy Weather "; in the Glasgow Corporation 
Gallery is a "Landscape with Cattle"; the Louvre contains 
his famous " Oxen at Work " and " Returning to the Farm "; 
while the Metropolitan Museum of Art and other galleries in 
America contain fine examples of his pictures. His " Vallee de 
la Toucque, Normandy," is one of his greatest pictures; and 
at Christie's sale-room in 1902 the single figure of a cow in a 
landscape of but moderate quality fetched 7350. Emile van 
Marcke (1827-1891) was his best-known pupil. 

See H. Dumesnil, Constant Troyon: Souvenirs intimes (Paris, 
1888); A. Hustin, "Troyon," L' 'Art, pp. 77 and 85 (Paris, 1889); 
Albert Wolff, " Constant Troyon," La Capitate de I' art (Paris, 1886); 
D. C. Thomson, The Barbizon School of Painters (London, 1890); 
" Constant Troyon," The Art Journal (1893), p. 22. (D. C. T.) 

TRUCE OF GOD, an attempt of the Church in the middle 
ages to alleviate the evils of private warfare. Throughout 
the 9th and icth centuries, as the life-benefices of the later 
Carolingian kings were gradually transformed into hereditary 
fiefs, the insecurity of life and property increased, for there 
was no central power to curb the warring local magnates. The 
two measures which were adopted by the Church to remedy 
these conditions the pax ecclesiae or Dei and the treuga or 
treva Dei^-a.re usually both referred to as the Truce of God, 
but they are distinct in character. The latter was a develop- 
ment of the former. 

The pax ecclesiae is first heard of in the year 990 at three 
synods held in different parts of southern and central France 
at Charroux, Narbonne and Puy. It enlisted the immediate 
support of the regular clergy, particularly the vigorous congrega- 
tion of Cluny, and of William V. of Aquitaine, the most powerful 
lord of southern France, who urged its adoption at the Councils 
of Limoges (994) and Poitiers (999). The peace decrees of 
these various synods differed considerably in detail, but in 
general they were intended fully to protect non-combatants; 
they forbade, under pain of excommunication, every act of 
private warfare or violence against ecclesiastical buildings 
and their environs, and against certain persons, such as clerics, 
pilgrims, merchants, women and peasants, and against cattle 
and agricultural implements. With the opening of the nth 
century, the pax ecclesiae spread over northern France and 
Burgundy, and diocesan leagues began to be organized for its 
maintenance. The bishop, or count, on whose lands the peace 
was violated was vested with judicial power, and was directed, 
in case he was himself unable to execute sentence, to summon 
to his assistance the laymen and even the clerics of the diocese, 
all of whom were required to take a solemn oath to observe 
and enforce the peace. At the Council of Bourges (1038), 
the archbishop decreed that every Christian fifteen years 
and over should take such an oath and enter the diocesan 
militia. The idea that peace is a divine institution seems to 

XXVII. II 



have given rise to a new name for the peace, the pax Dei, 
or peace of God. 

The treuga or treva Dei, the prohibition of every act of 
private warfare during certain days, goes back at least to the 
Synod of Elne, held in the Pyrenees in 1027, which suspended 
all warfare from noon on Saturday till prime on Monday. 
Like the pax ecclesiae it found ardent champions in the 
regular clergy, especially in Odilo (962-1049), the fifth abbot 
of Cluny, and soon spread over all France. It penetrated 
Piedmont and Lombardy in 1041 and Normandy in 1042. 
By this time the truce extended from the Wednesday evening 
to the Monday morning in every week and also, in most 
places, lasted during the seasons of Lent and Advent, the 
three great vigils and feasts of the Blessed Virgin, and those 
of the twelve apostles and a few other saints. The treuga Dei 
was decreed for Flanders at the Synod of Therouanne (1063) 
and was instituted in southern Italy in 1089, probably through 
Norman influence. The bishop of Liege introduced it in Ger- 
many in 1082, and three years later a synod held at Mainz 
in the presence of the emperor Henry IV. extended it to the 
whole empire. It does not appear to have secured a firm 
footing in England, although its general provisions were in- 
corporated in the laws of the land (1130-1154). The popes 
took the direction of the matter into their own hands towards 
the end of the nth century as they realized the necessity of 
promoting peace among Christians in order to unite them 
successfully in the crusades against the Mahommedans; and the 
first decree of the Council of Clermont (1095), at which Urban II. 
preached the first crusade, proclaimed a weekly truce for all 
Christendom, adding a guarantee of safety to all who might 
take refuge at a wayside cross or at the plough. The Truce 
of God was reaffirmed by many councils, such as that held at 
Reims by Calixtus II. in 1119, and the Lateran councils of 
1123, 1139 and 1179. When the treuga Dei reached its most 
extended form, scarcely one-fourth of the year remained for 
fighting, and even then the older canons relating to the pax 
ecclesiae remained in force. The means employed for its en- 
forcement remained practically the same: spiritual penalties, 
such as excommunication, special ecclesiastical tribunals, 
sworn leagues of peace, and assistance from the temporal 
power. The Council of Clermont prescribed that the oath 
of adherence to the truce be taken every three years by all 
men above the age of twelve, whether noble, burgess, villein 
or serf. The results of these peace efforts were perhaps sur- 
prisingly mediocre, but it must be borne in mind that not only 
was the military organization of the dioceses always very 
imperfect, but feudal society, so long as it retained political 
power, was inherently hostile to the principle and practice 
of private peace. The Truce of God was most powerful in the 
1 2th century, but with the I3th its influence waned as the 
kings gradually gained control over the nobles and substituted 
the king's peace for that of the Church. 

A few bishops, notably Gerard of Cambrai (1013-1051), seem 
from the first to have opposed the peace laws of the Church 
as encroaching on royal authority, but the lay rulers usually 
co-operated with the ecclesiastical authorities in encouraging 
and maintaining the Truce of God. In fact, the emperor 
Henry II. and the French king Robert the Pious discussed 
the subject of universal peace under church auspices at 
Monzon in 1023. By the I2th century, however, the eccle- 
siastical measures had proved ineffectual in coping with 
private warfare, and secular rulers sought independently to 
diminish the number and atrocity of private wars within 
their own domains. The provisions of the Truce of God were 
often incorporated bodily in municipal and district statutes 
such as the laws of Barcelona (1067). The emperor Henry IV. 
approved (1085) the extension of the truce to the whole land, 
and in 1 103 royal laws entirely prohibiting private warfare in 
the empire replaced the Truce of God. In France royalty ac- 
quired little by little a preponderant influence over feudalism and 
used its increased prestige to substitute for the Truce of God the 
peace of the state. Louis VI., Louis VII. and Philip Augustus 



322 



TRUCK TRUFFLE 



gradually obtained recognition not only from the petty lords 
of their own domain but from most of the magnates of the king- 
dom. Thanks to the moral support and material resources 
which it found in the ecclesiastical lords of central and northern 
France, and to the growing popular desire for the suppression 
of feuds, royalty was able to support its pretension to the 
general government of the kingdom. Confirming what was 
doubtless an older custom, Philip Augustus decreed the 
quarantaine-le-roi, which suspended every act of reprisal for 
at least forty days; and in 1257 Louis IX. absolutely forbade 
all private wars in the crown lands. By the beginning of 
the i4th century the royal authority had sufficient force to 
ensure the maintenance of the Landesfriede. In England, 
where the Truce of God does not seem to have acquired a firm 
footing, state law against private warfare obtained practically 
from the time of the Norman conquest. At least from Henry I. 
it became an axiom that the law of the' king's court stood 
above all other law and was the same for all. 

See L. Hubert!, Studien zur Rechtsgeschichte der Gottesfrieden und 
Landfrieden, Bd. i. Die Friedens-Ordnungen in Frankreich (Ansbach, 
1892); A. Luchaire, " La Paix et la trgve de Dieu," in E. Lavisse's 
Histoirede France, II. 2, pp. 133-138 (Paris, 1901); E. Se'michon, La 
Paix et la Irene de Dieu (2nd ed. 1869); E. Mayer, Deutsche und 
franzosische Verfassungsgeschichte (1899), vol. i.; J. Fehr, Der Gottas- 
fricde und die katholische Kirche des Mittelallers (Augsburg, 1861); 
A. Kluckhohn, Geschichte des Gottesfriedens (Leipzig, 1857); K. J. 
von Hefele, Gonciliengeschichte, 2nd ed., vol. 4; Du Cange, Glossarium, 
s.v. Treuga. The principal French documents on the subject are 
published in Huberti's book, and those of Germany, Italy and 
Aries are edited by L. Weiland in the Monumenta Germaniae his- 
torica, conslituliones i. 596 sqq. (C. H. HA.) 

TRUCK, (i) A name for barter, or commodities used in barter 
or trade. The word came into English from the French troq, 
mod. troc; troquer, to barter, is borrowed from Spanish trocar, 
for which several origins have been suggested, such as a Low 
Latin travicare, the supposed original of " traffic " (?..), or 
some latinized form of Greek rpoTros, turn; it may, on the other 
hand, be connected with the Greek rpoxos, wheel. " Truck," 
in this sense, is chiefly used now in the sense of the payment 
of the wages of workmen in kind, or in any other way than the 
unconditional payment of money, a practice known as the 
" truck system." Colloquially, " truck " is used in the general 
sense of " dealing," in such expressions as " to have no truck 
with anyone." The " truck system " has taken various forms. 
Sometimes the workman has been paid with " portion of that 
which he has helped to produce," whether he had need of it 
or not, but the more usual form was to give the workman the 
whole or part of his wages in the shape of commodities suited 
to his needs. There was also a practice of paying in money, 
but with an express or tacit understanding that the workman 
should resort for such goods as he required to shops or stores 
kept by his employer. The truck system led in many cases 
to grave abuses and was made illegal by the Truck Acts, 
under which wages must be paid in current coin of the realm, 
without any stipulations as to the manner in which the same 
shall be expended. (See LABOUR LEGISLATION.) (2) From 
the Late Latin trochus, wheel, Greek rpoxfo, we get " truck " 
in the sense of a wheeled vehicle, such as the hand-barrows 
used for carrying luggage at a railway station; and the 
word is used generally for all that portion of railway rolling- 
stock which is intended for the carriage of goods (see RAILWAYS : 
Rolling-stock). The term is also used of a circular disk of 
wood at the top of a ship's mast, generally provided with 
sheaves for the signal halyards. 

TRUCKLE, a verb meaning to submit servilely or fawningly 
to another's bidding, to yield in a weak, feeble or contemptible 
way. The origin is the " truckle bed," a small bed on wheels 
which could be pushed under a large one. In early times 
servants or children slept in such beds, placed at the foot of 
their masters' and parents' bed, but the name first appears as 
a university word, and was derived direct from Latin trochlea, 
a wheel or pulley-block, Greek rpoxfo, wheel (rp'extiv, to run). 

TRUEBA, ANTONIO DE (1810-1889), Spanish novelist, 
was born on the 24th of December 1819 at Montellano (Biscay), 



where he was privately educated. In 1835 he was sent to 
learn business at Madrid; but commerce was not to his taste, 
and, after a long apprenticeship, he turned to journalism. 
In 1851 he hit the popular taste with El Cid Campeador and 
El Libra de los cantares; for the next eleven years he was absorbed 
by journalistic work, the best of his contributions being issued 
under the titles of Cuentos populares (1862), Cuentos de color 
de rosa (1864), and Cuentos campesinos (1865). The pleasant 
simplicity and idyllic sentimentalism of these collections 
delighted an uncritical public, and Trueba met the demand 
by supplying a series of stories conceived in the same ingenuous 
vein. In 1862 he was appointed archivist and chronicler 
of the Biscay provinces; he was deprived of the former post 
in 1870, but was reinstated after the restoration. He died at 
Bilbao on the icth of March 1889. 

TRUFFLE (from Med. Fr. trufle, a variant of truffe, generally 
taken to be for tafie, from Lat. tuber, an esculent root, a tuber, 
cf. Ital tartufo, truffle, from Lat. torae tuber; another Ital. form 
tartufola gave Ger. Tartojfel, dissimilated to Karto/el, potato), 
the name of several different species of subterranean fungi 
which are used as food. The species sold in English markets 
is Tuber aestivum; the commonest species of French markets is 
T. melanosporum, and of Italian the garlic-scented T. magna- 
tum. Of the three, the English species is the least desirable, 
and the French is possibly the best. The truffle used for 
Perigord pie (pate de foie gras) is T. melanosporum, regarded 
by some as a dark variety of our British species, T. brumale. 
When, however the stock of T. melanosporum happens to be 
deficient, some manufacturers use inferior species, such as the 
worthless or dangerous Choeromyces meandriformis. Even the 
rank and offensive Scleroderma vulgare (one of the puff- 
ball series of fungi) is sometimes used for stuffing turkeys, 
sausages, &c. Indeed, good truffles, and then only T. 
aestivum, are seldom seen in English markets. The taste 
of T. melanosporum can be detected in Perigord pie of good 
quality. True and false truffles can easily be distinguished 
under the microscope. 

Tuber aestivum, the English truffle, is roundish in shape, covered 
with coarse polygonal warts, black in colour outside and brownish 
and veined with white within; its average size is about that of a 
small apple. It grows from July till autumn or winter, and prefers 
beech, oak and birch woods on argillaceous or calcareous soil, and 
has sometimes been observed in pine woods. It grows gregari- 
ously, often in company with T. brumale and (in France and Italy) 
T. melanosporum, and sometimes appears in French markets with 
these two species as well as with T. mesentcricum. The odour of 
T. aestivum is very strong and penetrating; it is generally esteemed 
powerfully fragrant, and its taste is considered agreeable. The 
common French truffle, T. melanosporum, is a winter species. It 
is a valuable article of commerce and is exported from France in 
great quantities. The tubers are globose, bright brown or black 
in colour, and rough with polygonal warts; the mature flesh is 
blackish grey, marbled within with white veins. It is gathered in 
autumn and winter in beech and oak woods, and is frequently seen 
in Italian markets. The odour of T. melanosporum is very pleasant, 
especially when the tubers are young, then somewhat resembling 
that of the strawberry; with age the smell gets very potent, but is 
never considered really unpleasant. The common Italian truffle, 
T. magnatum, is pallid ochreous or brownish buff in colour, smooth 
or minutely papillose, irregularly globose, and lobed; the interior 
is a very pale brownish liver colour veined with white. It grows 
towards the end of autumn in plantations of willows, poplars 
and oaks, on clayey soil. Sometimes it occurs in open cultivated 
fields. The odour of the mature fungus is very potent, and is like 
strong garlic, onion or decaying cheese. T. brumale, referred to 
above, grows in Britain. It is a winter truffle, and is found chiefly 
under oaks and abele trees from October to December. It is black 
in colour, globose, more or less regular in shape, and is covered with 
sharp polygonal warts; the mature flesh is blackish grey marbled 
with white veins. The odour is very strong and lasts a long time; 
the taste is generally esteemed agreeable. Choeromyces meandri- 
formis, which occurs in Britain, is sometimes sold for T. magnatum, 
the colour of the flesh of both species being somewhat similar. 
Scleroderma vulgare, the " false truffle," is extremely common on 
the surface of the ground in woods, and is gathered by Italians 
and Frenchmen in Epping Forest for the inferior dining-rooms of 
London where continental dishes are served. It is a worthless, 
offensive, and possibly dangerous fungus. A true summer truffle, 
T. mesentericum, found in oak and birch woods on calcareous clay 
soil, is frequently eaten on the Continent. It is esteemed equal 



TRUJILLO TRUMBALL 



323 



to T. aestivum, of which it is regarded as a variety and probably 
grows in Britain. Another edible species, T. macrosporum, also 
grows in Britain, in clayey places under young beeches and oaks, on 
the borders of streams and roads, and sometimes in fields ; more rarely 
it grows in plantations of willow and poplar. It has a strong scent 
of onions or garlic somewhat similar to T. aestivum, but it is less 
esteemed on account of its toughness and its small size. 

Terfezia leonis, a famous truffle of Italy, Algeria, Sardinia, &c., 
resembles externally a potato. It grows in March, April and May. 
Some persons eat it in a raw state, sliced and dipped in oil or egg. 
It is not scented, and its taste is generally considered insipid or soapy. 
Melanogaster variegatus, an ally of the puff-balls, and therefore (like 
Scleroderma) not a true truffle, is sometimes eaten in England and 
France. It has been, and possibly still is, occasionally sold in 
England under the name of red truffle." It is a small ochreous- 
brown species with a strong aromatic and pleasant odour of bitter 
almonds. When the plant is eaten raw the taste is sweet and 
sugary, but when cooked it is hardly agreeable. The odour belong- 
ing to many truffles is so potent that their places of growth can be 
readily detected by the odour exhaled from the ground. Squirrels, 
hogs and other animals commonly dig up truffles and devour them, 
and pigs and dogs have long been trained to point out the places 
where they grow. Pigs will always eat truffles, and dogs will do so 
occasionally; it is therefore usual to give the trained pig or dog a 
small piece of cheese or some little reward each time it is successful. 
Truffles are reproduced by spores, which serve the same pur- 
pose as seeds in flowering plants; in true truffles the spores are borne 
in transparent sacs (asci), from four to eight spores in each ascus. 
The asci are embedded in vast numbers in the flesh of the truffle. 




Spores of the Chief European Truffles. (Enlarged 500 diameters.) 

1, Tuber aestivum. 5, T. magnatum. 

2, T. brumale. 6, Choeromyces meandriformis. 

3, T. melanosporum. 7, Scleroderma vulgare. 

4, T. mesentericum. 8, Melanogaster variegatus. 

In false truffles the spores are free and are borne on minute spicules 
or supports. The spores of the chief European truffles, true and false, 
enlarged five hundred diameters, are shown in the accompanying 
illustration. Many references to truffles occur in classical authors. 
The truffle Elaphomyces variegatus was till quite recent times used, 
under the name of Hart's nut or Lycoperdon nut, on account of its 
supposed aphrodisiac qualities. 

TRUJILLO, or TEUXILLO, a seaport on the Atlantic coast 
of Honduras, in 15 54' N. and 86 5' W. Pop. (1905), 
about 4000. The harbour, an inlet of the Bay of Honduras, 
is sheltered on the north by the promontory of Cape Honduras; 
it is deep and spacious, but insecure in westerly winds. Maho- 
gany, dye-woods, sarsaparilla, cattle, hides and fruit are ex- 
ported; grain, flour, hardware and rum are imported. Trujillo 
was founded in iS 2 4> and became one of the most prosperous 
ports of the new world, and the headquarters of a Spanish 
naval squadron. During the iyth century it was frequently 
and successfully raided by buccaneers, and thus lost much of 
its commerce. Still more has in modern times been diverted 
to Puerto Cortes and the Bay Islands. 

TRUJILLO, or TRUXILLO, a city of northern Peru, the 
see of a bishopric, and capital of the department of Libertad, 
about 315 m. N.N.W. of Lima and ij m. from the Pacific coast, 
in lat. 8 7' S., long. 79 9' W. Pop. (1906, estimate), about 
6500. The city stands on the arid, sandy plain (Mansiche, 
or Chimu), which skirts the coast from Paita south to 
Santa, a few miles north of the Moche or Chimu river, and 
at the northern entrance to the celebrated Chimu Valley. 
North and east are the ruins of an old Indian city commonly 
known as the Grand Chimu, together with extensive aqueducts 
and reservoirs. The city is partly enclosed by an old adobe 
wall built in 1686, and its buildings are in great part also 
constructed of adobe. The public institutions include a 



university, two national colleges, one of which is for girls, an 
episcopal seminary, a hospital and a theatre. 

Trujillo was once an important commercial centre and the 
metropolis of northern Peru, but the short railways running 
inland from various ports have taken away its commercial 
importance. The port of Salaverry (with which Trujillo 
is connected by rail) is about 10 m. south-east, where the 
national government has constructed a long iron pier. Rail- 
ways also extend northward to Ascope and eastward to Laredo, 
Galindo and Menocucho, and a short line runs from Roma, 
on the Ascope extension, to the port of Huanchaco. The only 
important manufactures of Trujillo are cigars and cigarettes. 

Trujillo was founded in 1535, by Francisco Pizarro, who gave 
it the name of his native city in Spain. Its position on the 
road from Tumbez to Lima gave it considerable political and com- 
mercial importance, and some reflection of that colonial distinc- 
tion still remains. It suffered little in the War of Independence, 
but was occupied and plundered by the Chileans in 1882. 

Of the ancient aboriginal city, or group of towns, whose 
ruins and burial-places cover the plain on every side of Trujillo, 
comparatively little is definitely known. The extent of these 
ruins, which cover an area 12 to 15 m. long by 5 to 6m. wide, 
demonstrate that it was much the largest Indian city on the 
southern continent. The principal ruins are 4 m. north of 
Trujillo, but others lie more to the eastward and still others 
southward of the banks of the Moche. The great aqueduct, 
which brought water to the several large reservoirs of the 
city, was 14 m. long and in some places in crossing the Chimu 
Valley it had an elevation of 60 ft. 

The name of Grand Chimu is usually given to the ruined city, 
this being the title applied to the chief of the people, who were called 
the Chimu, or Yuncas. They were a race wholly distinct from the 
Incas, by whom they were finally conquered. They spoke a different 
language and had developed an altogether different civilization, 
and it is not unreasonable to presume that they were related to some 
earlier race of southern Mexico. Specimens of skilfully wrought 
ornaments of gold and silver, artistically made pottery, and finely 
woven fabrics of cotton and wool (alpaca), have been found in their 
huacas, or burial-places. Bronze was known to them, and from it 
tools and weapons were made. Their extensive irrigation works 
show that they were painstaking agriculturists, and that they were 
successful ones may be assumed from the size of the population 
maintained in so arid a region. Since the Spanish conquest their 
huacas have been opened and rifled, and many of the larger masses 
of ruins have been extensively mined in search of treasure, but 
enough still remains to impress upon the observer the magnitude 
of the city and the genius of the people who built it. Nothing is 
known of their history or of their political institutions, but these 
remains of their handiwork bear eloquent testimony that they had 
reached a degree of development in some respects higher even than 
that of the Incas. 

See E. G. Squier, Peru (New York, 1877) ; and Charles Wiener, 
Perou et Bolivie (Paris, 1882). 

TRUJILLO, a town of Spain, in the province of Caceres; 
on a hill 25 m. east of Caceres, and on the river Tozo, a sub- 
tributary of the Tagus. Pop. (1900), 12,512. The surround- 
ing country is rugged, but produces wheat, wine, oils 'and fruit, 
besides livestock of all sorts, and much phosphorite. There 
are valuable forests close to the town. In the oldest part of 
Trujillo are the remains of a castle said to be of Roman origin, 
but rebuilt by the Moors and restored in modern times. The 
Julia tower is also said to be Roman, like much of the fortifi- 
cations. The Roman name for the town was Turgalium. 
The principal parish church, Santa Maria, is a fine Gothic 
structure of the isth century. Trujillo was a town of impor- 
tance in the middle ages. Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru, 
was born here about 1471, and built a palace, which still stands, 
in the main square of the town. 

TRUMBALL, SIR WILLIAM (1630-1716), English politician, 
was a grandson of William Trumball (d. 1635), who was for 
sixteen years English resident at Brussels and afterwards a 
clerk of the privy council. Educated at St John's College, 
Oxford, young Trumball became a fellow of All Souls and 
settled down as a practising lawyer in Oxford and in London. 
He was made chancellor of the diocese of Rochester and was 
sent to Tangier on public business in 1683, one of his companions 



TRUMBULL, J. H. TRUMBULL, JONATHAN 



324 

on this errand being the diarist Pepys. In 1684 Trumball 
was knighted by Charles II. and in 1685 he was sent as envoy 
to France, where he worked hard on behalf of the English 
Protestants there who were threatened by the Revocation of the 
Edict of Nantes. In 1685 he became a member of Parliament, 
in 1687 he went as ambassador to Constantinople, and in 1694 
he was made a lord of the treasury. From May 1695 untu " 
December 1697 he was a secretary of state under William III. 
He died on the I4th of December 1716. His son, William 
Trumball (1708-1760), had an only daughter, who became the 
wife of the Hon. Martin Sandys. She was thus the ancestress 
of the later marquesses of Downshire. 

Many of Trumball's letters are in the British Museum and in the 
Record Office, London. Trumball was on friendly terms with 
Pierre Bayle and with Dryden, whom he advised to translate Virgil. 
He was also very intimate with Pope, whom he influenced in several 
ways, especially in urging him to make a translation of Homer. 

TRUMBULL, JAMES HAMMOND (1821-1897), American 
scholar, was born in Stonington, Connecticut, on the 2oth of 
December 1821. He studied at Yale, but ill-health prevented 
his graduation. He was state librarian in 1854-1855, assistant- 
secretary of state of Connecticut in 1847-1852 and in 1858- 
1861, and secretary of state in 1861-1866; and was a prominent 
member of the Connecticut Historical Society, of which he 
was president in 1863-1889, the National Academy of Science, 
to which he was elected in 1872, and of other learned societies. 
He died in Hartford on the 5th of August 1897. He wrote 
Historical Notes on some Provisions of the Connecticut Statutes 
(1860-1861) and The True Blue Laws of Connecticut (1876), 
and edited The Colonial Records of Connecticut (3 vols., 1850- 
1859). He is better known, however, as a student of the Indian 
dialects of New England. 

He edited Roger Williams's Key to the Language of America (1866), 
and wrote The Composition of Indian Geographical Names (1870), 
The Best Methods of Studying the Indian Languages (1871), Indian 
Names of Places in ... Connecticut with Interpretations (1881) and 
other works on similar subjects. 

TRUMBULL, JOHN (1750-1831), American poet, was born 
in what is now Watertown, Connecticut, where his father was a 
Congregational preacher, on the 24th of April 1750. At the 
age of seven he passed his entrance examinations at Yale, but 
did not enter until 1763; he graduated in 1767, studied law there, 
and in 1771-1773 was a tutor. In 1773 he was admitted to the 
bar, in 1773-1774 practised law in Boston, working in the law- 
office of John Adams, and after 1774 practised in New Haven. 
He was state attorney in 1789, a member of the Connecticut 
Assembly in 1792 and 1800, and a judge of the Superior Court 
in 1801-1819. The last six years of his life were spent in 
Detroit, Michigan, where he died on the loth of May 1831. 
While studying at Yale he had contributed in 1769-1770 ten 
essays, called " The Meddler," imitating The Spectator, to the 
Boston Chronicle, and in 1770 similar essays, signed " The 
Correspondent " to the Connecticut Journal and New Haven 
Post Boy. While a tutor he wrote his first satire in verse, The 
Progress of Dulness (1772-1773), an attack in three poems on 
educational methods of his time. His great poem, which ranks 
him with Philip Freneau and Francis Hopkinson as an American 
political satirist of the period of the War of Independence, was 
McFingal, of which the first canto, " The Town-Meeting," 
appeared in 1776 (dated 1775). This canto, about 1500 lines, 
contains some verses from " Gage's Proclamation," published 
in the Connecticut Courant for the 7th and the i4th of August 
1775; it portrays a Scotch Loyalist, McFingal, and his Whig 
opponent, Honorius, evidently a portrait of John Adams. This 
first canto was divided into two, and with a third and a fourth 
canto was published in 1782. After the war Trumbull was a 
rigid Federalist, and with the " Hartford Wits " David Hum- 
phreys, Joel Barlow and Lemuel Hopkins, wrote the Anarchiad, 
a poem directed against the enemies of a firm central government. 

See the memoir in the Hartford edition of Trumbull's Poetical 
Works (2 vols., 1820) ; James Hammond Trumbull's The Origin of 
" McFingal " (Morrisania, New York, 1868) ; and the estimate in 
M. C. Tyler's Literary History of the American Revolution (New York 
1897). 



TRUMBULL, JOHN (1756-1843), American artist, was born 
at Lebanon, Connecticut, on the 6th of June 1756, the son of 
Jonathan Trumbull (1710-1785), governor of Connecticut. 
He graduated at Harvard in 1773, served in the War of Inde- 
pendence, rendering a particular service at Boston by sketching 
plans of the British works, and was appointed second aide-de- 
camp to General Washington and in June 1776 deputy adjutant- 
general to General Gates, but resigned from the army in 1777. 
In 1780 he went to London to study under Benjamin West, but 
his work had hardly begun when the news of the arrest and 
execution of Major Andre, who was deputy adjutant-general in 
the English army, suggested the arrest of Trumbull as having 
been an officer of similar rank in the Continental army; he was 
imprisoned for seven months. In 1784 he was again in London 
working under West, in whose studio he painted his " Battle 
of Bunker Hill " and " Death of Montgomery," both of which 
are now in the Yale School of Fine Arts. In 1785 Trumbull 
went to Paris, where he made portrait sketches of French 
officers for " The Surrender of Cornwallis," and began, with 
the assistance of Jefferson, " The Signing of the Declaration 
of Independence," well-known from the engraving by Asher B. 
Durand. These paintings, with " The Surrender of Burgoyne," 
and " The Resignation of Washington," were bought by the 
United States government and placed in the Capitol at Wash- 
ington. Trumbull's " Sortie from Gibraltar " (1787), owned by 
the Boston Athenaeum, is now in the Boston Museum of Fine 
Arts, and a series of historical paintings, the " Trumbull Gallery," 
by far the largest single collection of his works (more than 50 
pictures), has been in the possession of Yale College since 1831, 
when Trumbull received from the college an annuity of $1000. 
His portraits include full lengths of General Washington (1790) 
and George Clinton (1791), in the city-hall of New York 
where there are also full lengths of Hamilton and of Jay; and 
portraits of John Adams (1797), Jonathan Trumbull, and Rufus 
King (1800); of Timothy Dwight and Stephen Van Rensselaer, 
both at Yale; of Alexander Hamilton (in the Metropolitan 
Museum of Art, New York City, and in the Boston Museum of 
Fine Arts, both taken from Ceracchi's bust) ; a portrait of him- 
self painted in 1833; a full length of Washington, at Charleston, 
South Carolina; a full length of Washington in military 
costume (1792), now at Yale; and portraits of President and 
Mrs Washington (1794), in the National Museum at Washington. 
Trumbull's own portrait was painted by Stuart and by many 
others. In 1794 Trumbull acted as secretary to John Jay in 
London during the negotiation of the treaty with Great Britain, 
and in 1796 he was appointed by the commissioners sent by the 
two countries the fifth commissioner to carry out the seventh 
article of the treaty. He was president of the American Academy 
of Fine Arts in 1816-1825. He died in New York on the loth 
of November 1843. 

See his Autobiography (New York, 1841) ; J. F. Weir, John Trum- 
bull, A brief Sketch of His Life, to which is added a Catalogue of his 
Works (New York, 1901); and John Durand, "John Trumbull," 
American Art Review, vol. ii. pt. 2, pp. 181-191 (Boston, 1881). 

TRUMBULL, JONATHAN (1710-1785), American political 
leader, was born at Lebanon, Connecticut, on the 1 2th of October 
1710. He graduated at Harvard in 1727, and began the study 
of theology, but in 1731 engaged in business with his father. 
He next studied law, was elected to the Assembly in 1773, and 
held public office almost continuously afterward. He served 
for seven years in the Assembly, being Speaker for three years, 
for seventeen years as county judge of Windham county, for 
twenty-two years (after 1740) as governor's assistant, for two 
years as deputy-governor (1767-1769), and for three years 
(1766-1769) as chief justice of the colony. In 1769 he was 
elected governor and continued in office until his voluntary 
retirement in 1784. During the War of Independence he was 
a valued counsellor of Washington. The story that the term 
" Brother Jonathan," a sobriquet for the United States, origi- 
nated in Washington's familiar form of addressing him seems to be 
without any foundation. After the war Trumbull was a strong 
Federalist. He died in Lebanon on the I7th of August 1785. 



TRUMBULL, L. TRUMPET 



325 



His public papers have been printed in the Massachusetts Histori- 
cal Society's Collections, 5th series, vols. ix.-x. (Boston, 1885-1888), 
and yth series, vols. ii.-iii. (1902). See I.W. Stuart, Life of Jonathan 
Trumbull, sen. (Boston, 1859). 

His son JONATHAN (1740-1809) graduated at Harvard in 1759, 
served in the War of Independence as paymaster-general of 
the northern department in 1775-1778 and as a military secre- 
tary of Washington in 1778-1783, and was a member of the 
national House of Representatives in 1789-1795, serving as 
Speaker in 1791-1793, and of the United States Senate in 1795- 
1796; he was lieutenant-governor of Connecticut in 1796-1798, 
and governor in 1798-1809. Another son, JOSEPH (1737-1778), 
was a member of the first Continental Congress (1774-1775), 
became commissary-general of stores of the Continental army 
in July 1775 and commissary -general of purchases in June 1777, 
resigned in August 1777, and from November 1777 to April 
1778 was commissioner for the board of war. A grandson of 
the first Jonathan, JOSEPH (1782-1861), was a Whig represen- 
tative in Congress in 1834-1835 and in 1839-1843, and was 
governor of Connecticut in 1849-1850. 

TRUMBULL, LYMAN (1813-1896), American jurist and 
political leader, was born at Colchester, Connecticut, on the 
1 2th of October 1813, and was a grandson of Benjamin Trumbull 
(1735-1820), a Congregational preacher and the author of a 
useful Complete History of Connecticut (2 vols., 1818). He 
taught in Georgia, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 
1837. Removing to Belleville, Illinois, in the same year, he was 
elected to the state House of Representatives as a Democrat in 
1840, and in 1841-1843 was secretary of state of Illinois. In 
1848-1853 he was a justice of the state Supreme Court, and in 
1855-1873 was a member of the United States Senate. Elected 
as an Anti-Nebraska Democrat, he naturally joined the Re- 
publicans, and when this party secured control in the Senate 
he was made chairman of the important judiciary committee, 
from which he reported the Thirteenth Amendment to the 
Constitution of the United States abolishing slavery. Through- 
out the Civil War he was a trusted counsellor of the president. 
In the impeachment trial of President Andrew Johnson he was 
one of the seven Republicans who voted to acquit, and he after- 
wards returned to the Democratic party. After 1873 he 
practised law in Chicago, was the Democratic candidate for 
governor of Illinois in 1880, became a Populist in 1894, and 
defended the railway strikers in Chicago in the same year. He 
died in Chicago on the 25th of June 1896. 

TRUMP (i) (O. Fr. Irompe), originally the name of a musical 
instrument, of which " trumpet " is a diminutive; the term is 
now chiefly used in the sense of the sound of a trumpet, or a 
sound resembling it, such as is' made by an elephant. It 
has been usually accepted that the Romanic forms (cf . Span, and 
Port, trompa) represent a corruption of Latin tuba, tube. On the 
other hand a distinct imitative or echoic origin is sometimes 
assigned. (2) In the sense of a playing card belonging to the 
suit which beats all other cards of other suits for the period 
during which its rank lasts, " trump " is a corruption of 
" triumph." The name was first used of a game of cards, also 
known as " ruff," which was the parent of the modern game of 
whist. There are traces in English of an early confusion with 
a term meaning to deceive or trick, cf. " trumpery," properly 
deceit, imposture, hence idle talk, gossip, now chiefly used as 
an adjective, worthless, trivial. This is an adaptation of French 
iromper, to deceive, which, according to the generally received 
explanation, meant " to play on the trumpet," se tromper de 
quelqu'un being equivalent to play with a person, hence to 
cheat. 

TRUMPET (Fr. trompette, clairon; Ger. ,Trompete, Klarino, 
Trummet; Ital. fromba, trombetla, clarino), in music, a brass wind 
instrument with cup-shaped mouthpiece and a very character- 
istic tone. It consists of a brass or silver tube with a narrow 
cylindrical bore except for the bell joint, forming from f to J of 
the whole length, which is conical and terminates in a bell of 
moderate diameter. The tube of the trumpet is doubled round 
upon itself to form a long irregular rectangle with rounded 



corners. A tuning slide consisting of two U-shaped cylindrical 
tubes fitting into each other is interpolated between the bell 
joint and the long cylindrical joint to which the mouthpiece is 
attached. The mouthpiece consists of a hemispherical cup with 
a rim across which the lips stretch. The shape of the cup, and 
more especially of the bottom, in which is pierced a hole com- 
municating with the main bore, is of the greatest importance on 
account of its influence on the tone quality and on the production 
of the higher harmonics (see MOUTHPIECE). The shallower and 
smaller the cup the more easily are the higher harmonics pro- 
duced; the sharper the angle at the bottom of the cup the more 
brilliant and incisive is the timbre, given, of course, the correct 
style of blowing. The diameter of the cup varies according to 
the pitch and to the lip-power of the player who chooses one to 
suit him. See HORN for the laws governing the acoustic proper- 
ties of brass tubes and the production of sound by means of the 
lips stretched like a vibrating membrane across the mouthpiece., 
There are three principal kinds of trumpets: (i) the natural trumpet, 
mainly used in cavalry regiments, in which the length of the tube 
and pitch are varied by means 
of crooks; (2) the slide and 
double-slide trumpets, in 
which a chromatic compass is 
obtained, as in the trombone, 
by double tubes sliding upon 
one another without loss of 
air; (3) the valve trumpet, 
similar in its working to all 
other valve instruments. The 




FIG. I. Military Trumpet in F 
(Besson). 



first and second of these alone give the true trumpet timbre; the 
tone of the valve trumpet approximates to that of the cornet, 
nevertheless, it is now almost universally used. 

In the trumpet the notes of the harmonic series from the 3rd tp 
the loth or i6th upper partials are produced by the varied tension 
of the lips and pressure of breath called overblowing. The funda- 
mental and the second harmonic are rarely obtainable, and are 
therefore left out of consideration; the next octave from the 4th 
to the 8th harmonics contains only the 3rd, 5th and minor 7th, and is 
therefore mainly suitable for fanfare figures based on the common 
chord. The diatonic octave is the highest and its upper notes are 
only reached by very good players on trumpets of medium pitch. 
Examination of the scoring for the trumpet before any satisfactory 
means of bridging over the gaps in the compass had been found, 
shows how little the composers, and especially Bach, allowed them- 
selves to be daunted by the limited resources at their disposal. 
A curious phenomenon has been observed 1 in connexion witn the 
harmonic series of the trumpet, when the instrument is played by 
means of a special clarino mouthpiece (a shallow one enabling the 
performer to reach the higher harmonics), in which the passage at 
the bottom of the cup inaugurated by the sharp angle (known as 
the grain in French) is prolonged in cylindrical instead of conical 
bore for a distance of about 10 cm. (4 in.) right into the main 
tube. This peculiar construction of the mouthpiece, which might 
be considered insignificant, so upsets the acoustic properties of 
the tube that extra notes can be interpolated between the legitimate 
note? of the harmonic series thus: 




678 
The black notes represent the extra notes, which in the next 
octave transform the diatonic into a chromatic scale. 

This phenomenon may perhaps furnish an explanation of some 
peculiarities in the scoring of Bach and other composers of his 
day, and also in accounts of certain performances on the trumpet 
which have read 2 as fairy tales. It is probable that the clarino 
mouthpiece was one of the secrets of the gilds which has remained 
undiscovered till now. D. J. Blaikley writes 3 : " I had an oppor- 
tunity yesterday of trying the trumpet mouthpiece as described by 
Mahillon with the ' grain ' or ' throat,' as we would call it, ex- 
tended for about 10 cm. and terminating abruptly. With such a 
mouthpiece, used by itself without any trumpet, I could easily get 



notes from 




that is to say, that a continuous 



glide ranging over that compass can be made, the pitch at any 
moment being determined by the lip-pressure, rather than by the 
small air-column. When such a distorted mouthpiece is fitted to a 



1 See V. Mahillon, La Trompette, son histoire, so, theorie, sa con- 
struction (Brussels and London, 1907, pp. 29-30). 

2 See Fetis, Biographie universelle des musiciens, " Fantini." 

3 Letter to the present writer, 6th of February 1909. 



326 



TRUMPET 



trumpet, we have a resonator whose proper tones are disturbed 
and all the notes sounded are capable of being much modified in 
pitch by the lips. For instance, we may regard the ' d ' as either 
No. 4 sharpened or No. 5 flattened, merely by lip-action, and other 
notes in the same way." 

The compass of the three kinds of trumpets in real sounds is 
as follows : 

For the natural trumpet with crooks 



e 



For the slide or double-slide trumpet with all chromatic semitones 




This instrument is a non-transposing one, the music being sounded 
as written. 

For the valve trumpet n 



The material of which the tube is made has nothing to do with 
the production of that brilliant quality of tone by which the trumpet 
is so easily distinguished from every other mouthpiece instrument; 
the difference is partly due to the distinct form given to the basin of 
the mouthpiece, as stated above, but principally to the proportions 
of the column of air determined by the bore. The difference in 
timbre between trumpet and trombone is accounted for by the wider 
bore and differently shaped mouthpiece of the latter instrument. 

Tonguing, both double and triple, is used with great effect on the 
trumpet: this device consists in the articulation with the tongue 
of the syllables te-ke or ti-ke repeated in rapid succession for groups 
of two or four notes and of te-ke-ti for triplets. 

We have no precise information as to the form which the 
lituus, one of the ancestors of the modern trumpet, assumed 
during the middle ages, and it is practically unrepresented in the 
miniatures and other antiquities, though there is a miniature 
in the Bible, presented in 850 to Charles the Bald, which places 
the lituus in the hands of one of the companions of King David. 
We are not, however, warranted in concluding from this that the 
Etruscan instrument was in use in the pth century. The lituus 
or cavalry trumpet of the Romans seems to have vanished with 
the faU of the Roman Empire, for although the name occasion- 
ally finds a place in Latin vocabularies, the instrument and 
name are both unrepresented in the development of musical 
instruments of western Europe: its successor, the cavalry 
trumpet of the isth and succeeding centuries, was evolved from 
the straight busine, an instrument traced, by means of its name no 
less than by the delicate proportions of its tube and the shape of 
the bell, to the Roman buccina (q.v.). The straight busines, if 
we may judge from the presentments made by various artists, 
were not ah 1 made with bores of the same calibre, some having 
the wider bore of the trombone, others that of the trumpet. 
They abound in the illuminated MSS. of the nth to the i4th 
centuries. The uses to which they are put, as the instruments of 
angels, of heralds, of trumpeters on horseback and on foot, at 
court banquets and functions of state, form additional proof of 
their identity. Fra Angelico (d. 1455) painted angels with 
trumpets having either straight or zigzag tubes, the shortest 
being about 5 ft. long. The perfect representation of the 
details, the exactness of the proportions, the natural pose of the 
angel players, suggest that the artist painted the instrument 
from real models. 

The credit of having bent the tube of the trumpet in three 
parallel branches, thus creating its modern form, has usually 
been claimed for a Frenchman named Maurin (1498-1515). But 
the transformation was really made much earlier, probably in 
the Low Countries or north Italy; in any case it had already been 
accomplished in the bas-reliefs of Luca della Robbia intended to 
ornament the organ chamber of the cathedral of Florence where 
a trumpet having the tube bent back as just described is very 
distinctly figured. From the beginning of the i6th century we 
have numerous sources of information. Virdung 2 cites three 

1 In the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris, reproduced in facsimile 
by Count Auguste de Bastard (Paris, 1883). 

8 Musica getutscht und auszgezogen (Basel, 1511). 



kinds of mouthpiece instruments the Felttrumet, the Clareta, and 
the Thurner Horn; unfortunately he does not mention their 
distinctive characters, and it is impossible to make them out by 
examination of his engravings. Probably the Felttrumet and 
the Clareta closely resembled each other; but the compass of the 
former, destined for military signals, hardly went beyond the 
eighth proper tone, while the latter, reserved for high parts, was 
like the clarino (see below). The Thurner Horn was probably a 
kind of clarino or clarion used by watchmen on the towers. The 
Trummet and the Jager Trommet are the only two mouthpiece 
instruments of the trumpet kind cited by Praetorius. 3 The first 
was tuned in D at the chamber pitch or " Cammerton," but with 
the help of a shank it could be put in C, the equivalent of the 
" chorton " D, the two differing about a tone. Sometimes the 
Trummet was lowered to B and even Bb. The Jager Trommet, 
or " trompette de chasse," was composed of a tube bent several 
times in circles, like the posthorn, to make use of a comparison 
employed by Praetorius himself. His drawing does not make it 
clear whether the column of air was like that of the trumpet; 
there is therefore some doubt as to the true character of the instru- 
ment. The same author further cites a wooden trumpet (holzern 
Trommet} , which is no other than the Swiss Alpenhorn or the Nor- 
wegian luur. The shape of the trumpet, as seen in the bas-reliefs 
of Luca della Robbia, was retained for more than three hundred 
years: the first alterations destined to revolutionize the whole 
technique of the instrument were made about the middle of the 
1 8th century. Notwithstanding the imperfections of the trumpet 
during this long period, the performers upon it acquired an 
astonishing dexterity. 

The usual scale of the typical trumpet, that in D, is 

"*&= 




678 




10 11 12 13 14 15 16 
Praetorius exceeds the limits of this compass in the higher range, 
for he says a good trumpeter could produce the subjoined notes. 
This opinion is shared by Bach, 
who, in a trumpet solo which 
ends the cantata " Der Himmel 
lacht," wrote up to the twentieth 
harmonic. So considerable a com- 
pass could twit be reached by one 17 18 19 20 21 
instrumentalist: the trumpet part had therefore to be divided, and 
each division was designated by a special name. 4 The part that was 
called principal went from the fifth to the tenth of these tones. The 
higher region, which had received the name of " clarino," was 
again divided into two parts: the first began at the eighth proper 
tone and mounted up towards the extreme high limit of the com- 
pass, according to the skill of the executant; the second, beginning 
at the sixth proper tone, rarely went beyond the twelfth. Each of 
these parts was confided to a special trumpeter, who executed it 
by using a larger or a smaller mouthpiece. Some of the members 
of the harmonic series also received special names; the fundamental 
or first proper note was called Flatter grab, the second Grobstimme, 
the third Faulstimme, the fourth Mittelstimme. 

Playing the clarino differed essentially from playing the military 
trumpet, which corresponded in compass to that called principal. 
Compelled to employ very small mouthpieces to facilitate the 
emission of very high sounds, clarino players could not fail to alter 
the timbre of the instrument, and instead of getting the brilliant 
and energetic quality of tone of the mean register they were only 
able to produce more or less sonorous notes without power and 
splendour. Apart from this inconvenience, the clarino presented 
numerous deviations from just intonation. Hence the players of 
that time failed to obviate the bad effects inevitably resulting from 
the natural imperfection of the harmonic scale of the trumpet 
in that extreme part of its compass; in the execution, for instance, 
of the works of Bach, where the trumpet should give sometimes 

the instrumentalist could 
only command the eleventh 
proper tone, which is neither 
the one nor the other of 

these. Further, the thirteenth proper tone, for which 
is written, is really too flat, and but little can be done 
to remedy this defect, since it entirely depends upon the 
laws of resonance affecting columns of air. 



. f ,and sometimes 





3 Organographia (Wolfenbuttel, 1619). 

4 Musicus aiiro&i&oKTos oder der sick selbst informirende Musicus 
(Eisel, Erfurt, 1738). 



TRUMPET 



327 



Since the abandonment of the clarino (about the middle of the 
I8th century) our orchestras have been enriched with trumpets 
that permit the execution of the old clarino parts, not only with 
perfect justness of intonation, but with a quality of tone that is 
not deficient in character when compared with the mean register 
of the old principal instrument. The introduction of the clarinet 
or the so-called little clarino, although it is a wood wind instrument 
played with a reed, is one of the causes which led to the abandon- 
ment of the older instrument and may explain the preference given 
by the composers of that epoch to the mean register of the trumpet. 
The clarino having disappeared before Mozart's day, he had to 
change the trumpet parts of Handel and Bach to allow of their 
execution by the performers of his own time. It was now that 
crooks began to be frequently used. Trumpets were made in F 
instead of in D, furnished with a series of shanks of increasing 
length for the tonalities of E, Et>, D, Db, C, B, B\>, and sometimes 
even A. 

The first attempts to extend the limited resources of the instru- 
ment in its new employment arose out of Hampel's Inventions- 
Horn, in which, instead of fixing the shanks between the mouth- 
piece and the upper extremity, they were adapted to the body 
of the instrument itself by a double slide, upon the two_branches 
of which tubes were inserted bent in the form of a circle and 
gradually lengthened as required. This system was applied to 
the trumpet by Michael Woegel (born at Rastatt in 1748), whose 
" invention trumpet " had a great success, notwithstanding the 
unavoidable imperfection of a too great disparity in quality of tone 
between the open and closed sounds. It is a curious fact that 
the sackbut or early trombone was merely a trumpet with a slide, 
or a draw trumpet, and that it was known as such in England, 
Scotland, Spain, Holland and Italy. Yet as soon as the powerful 
family of tenor and bass trombones had been created, the slide 
trumpet seems to have lost its identity and to have become merged 
in the alto trombone from which it differed mainly in the form of 
the bent tube. The slide trumpet appears to have been re-invented 
in the i8th century according to Johann Ernst Altenburg, or as some 




FIG. 2. Modern Slide Trumpet F to C (Besson). 

writers put it, " the slide was adapted to it from the trombone." 
It was mentioned in 1700 by Kuhnau. 1 Any one wishing to be 
convinced of this re-incarnation may compare the modern slide- 
trumpet with the original slide-trumpet or alto sackbut in the 
Grimiani Breviary? a MS. of the isth century, and with E. van der 
Straeten's reproduction * of an old engraving by Galle and Stradan 
from the Encomium Musices in which the forms are identical except 
that in the modern slide-trumpet the bell reaches the level of the 
U-shaped bottom of the slide. 




(From the Encomium Musices.) 

FIG. 3. Slide Trumpet i6th century. 

The slide trumpet is still used in England in a somewhat modified 
form. The slide is a short one allowing of four positions. In 1889 
a trumpet was constructed by Mr W. Wyatt with a double slide 
which gave the trumpet a complete chromatic compass. This 
instrument, which has the true brilliant trumpet tone, requires 
delicate manipulation, for the shifts are necessarily very short. 
About 1760 Kolbel, a Bohemian musician, 4 applied a key to the 
bugle, and soon afterwards the trumpet received a similar addition. 
By opening this key, which is placed near the bell, the instrument 
was raised a diatonic semitone, and by correcting errors of intona- 
tion by the tension of the lips in the mouthpiece the following 
diatonic succession was obtained. 

This invention was 

a f improved in 1801 by 
[ \ Weidinger, 6 t r u m- 
peter to the imperial 
court at Vienna, who increased the number of keys and thus made 

1 Der musikalische Quacksalber, p. 83. 

2 Brit. Mus. Facsimile, 61, pi. 9. 

3 La Musique aux Pays-Bas, vi. 252. 

* Versuch einer Anleitung zur heroisch-musikalischen Trompeter- 
und Pauker-Kunst, p. 12 (Halle, 1795). 

6 See Allg. musikal. Ztg. (November 1802), p. 158; (January 1803) 
p. 245; and E. Hanslicks, Gesch. des Concertwesens in Wien (1869), 
p. 119. 






the trumpet chromatic throughout its scale. 6 The instrument 
shown in fig. 4 is in G; the keys are five in number, and as 
they open one after another or in combination it is possible 
to connect the second proper tone with the third by chromatic 
steps, and thus produce the following succession : 



3: 4. 



-i 



The number of keys was applied to fill up the 
gaps between the extreme sounds of the interval 
of a fifth; and a like result was arrived at more 
easily for the intervals of the fourth, the major 
third, &c., furnished by the proper tones of 3, 4, 
5, &c. But, though the keyed trumpet was a 
notable improvement on the invention trumpet, 
the sounds obtained by means of the lateral 
openings of the tube did not possess the qualities 
which distinguish sounds caused by the resonance 
of the air-column vibrating in its entirety. But 
in 1815 Stolzel made a genuine chromatic trumpet 
by the invention of the Ventile or piston. 7 The 
natural-trumpet is now no longer employed except 
in cavalry regiments. 8 It is usually in Eb. The 
bass trumpet in Et>, which is an octave lower, is 
sometimes, but rarely, used. Trumpets with 
pistons are generally constructed in F, with crooks 
S_ L E ^ d .!t >^Germany A trumpets in ^the FlG 4 ._ Keyed 




Trumpet. 



high Bb with a crook in A are very often 

used in the orchestra. They are easier for 

cornet a piston players than the trumpet in F. A quick change 

trumpet in Bt> with combined tuning and transposing slides, for 

changing into the key of A, known as the " Proteano " trumpet, 




Ttamcosina Slide TuninoSlidt 

FIG. 5. Proteano Trumpet in Bb and A (Besson). 

has been patented by Messrs Besson & Co. The transposing slide 
always remains at the correct length, and change of the tuning 
slide does not necessitate readjustment of the former. This com- 
bination slide is fitted to the ordinary valve trumpet as well as to 
the trumpet with " enharmonic " valves. Mahillon constructed 
for the concerts of the Conservatoire at Brussels trumpets in the 
high D, an octave above the old trumpet in the same key. They 
permit the execution of the high trumpet parts of Handel and J. S. 
Bach. The bass trumpet with pistons used for Wagner's tetralogy 
is in Eb, in unison with the ordinary trumpet with crooks of D 
and C; but, when constructed so as to allow of the production of 
the second proper tone as written by this master, this instrument 
belongs rather to the trombones than to the trumpets. 

(V. M.; K. S.) 

TRUMPET, SPEAKING AND HEARING. The speaking trum- 
pet, though some instrument of the kind appears to have been 
in earlier use, is connected in its modern form with the name of 
Athanasius Kircher and that of Sir Samuel Morland, who in 
1670 proposed to the Royal Society of London the question of 



6 Robert Eitner made a curious confusion between the keyed 
and valve trumpets (Klappen-und Ventil-Trompete). In an article 
entitled Wer hat die Ventil-Trompete erfunden? (Monatshefte 
fur Musikwissenschaft, p. 41, Berlin, 1881) he deprives Stolzel of the 
credit of the invention of the valve in favour of Weidinger, ridicul- 
ing the notion that the keyed and the valve trumpets were not one 
and the same thing. Following up the idea in his Tonkiinstler 
Lexikon, he leaves out Stolzel's name and ascribes to Weidinger the 
invention of the valve, with a reference to his article. 

7 For this ingenious mechanism, see VALVE ; also Gottfried 
Weber, Uber Ventilhorn und Trompete mil 3 Ventilen, Caecilia 
xvii. 73-104 (Mainz, 1835); and Allg. musikal. Ztg. xxiii. 411 
(Leipzig, 1821); also A. Ung, " Verbesserung der Trompete und 
ahnlicher Instrumente," ibid. (1815), xviii. 633. 

8 For accounts of the early use of the trumpet as a signalling and 
cavalry instrument in the British army, see Sir Roger Williams, 
A Brief Discourse of War,p. 9, &c. (London, 1590); Grose, Military 
Antiquities, ii. 41 ; Sir S. D. Scott, The British Army, ii. 380^-400 
(London, 1868) ; and H. G. Farmer, Memoirs of the Royal Artillery 
Band (London, 1904). 



TRUMPETER TRURO, IST BARON 



the best form for a speaking trumpet. Lambert, in the Berlin 
Memoirs for 1763, seems to have been the first to give a theory 
of the action of this instrument, based on an altogether imaginary 
analogy with the behaviour of light. In this theory, which is 
still commonly put forward, it is assumed that sound, like light, 
can be propagated in rays. This, however, is possible only when 
the aperture through which the wave-disturbance passes into 
free air is large compared with the wave-length. If the fusiform 
mouth of the speaking trumpet were half a mile or so in radius, 
Lambert's theory might give an approximation to the truth. 
But with trumpets whose aperture is only a foot in diameter at 
the most the problem is one of diffraction. 

In the hearing trumpet, the disturbance is propagated along the 
converging tube much in the same way as the tide-wave is propa- 
gated up the estuary of a tidal river. In speaking and hearing 
trumpets alike all reverberation of the instrument should be 
avoided by making it thick and of the least elastic materials, and 
by covering it externally with cloth. (See SOUND.) 

TRUMPETER, or TRUMPET-BIRD, the literal rendering in 
1747, by the anonymous English translator of De la Condamine's 
travels in South America (p. 87), of that writer's " Oiseau 
trompette " (Mem. de I'Acad. des Sciences, 1745, p. 473), a bird, 
which he says was called " Trompetero " by the Spaniards of 
Maynas on the upper Amazons, from the peculiar sound it utters. 
He added that it was the " Agami " of the inhabitants of Para 
and Cayenne, 1 wherein he was not wholly accurate, since those 




(After Mitchell.) 

White-winged Trumpeter (Psophia leucoptera). 
birds are specifically distinct, though, as they are generically 
united, the statement may pass. But he was also wrong, as 
had been P. Barrere (France equinoxiale, p. 132) in 1741, in 
identifying the " Agami " with the " Macucagua " of Marcgrav, 
for that is a Tinamou (q.v.); and both still more wrongly 
accounted for the origin of the peculiar sound just mentioned, 
whereby Barrere was soon after led (Ornith. Spec. Novum, pp. 
62, 63) to apply to the bird the generic and vulgar names of 
Psophia and " Petteuse," the former of which, being unfortu- 
nately adopted by Linnaeus, has ever since been used, though 
in 1766 and 1767 Pallas (Miscellanea, p. 67, and Spicilegia, 
iv. 6), and in 1768 Vosmaer (Descr. du Trompette Amtricain, 
p. 5), showed that the notion it conveys is erroneous. Among 
English writers the name " Trumpeter " was carried on by 
Latham and others so as to be generally accepted, though an 
author may occasionally be found willing to resort to the native 
" Agami," which is that almost always used by the French. 

P. L. Sclater and O. Salvin in their Nomenclator (p. 141) admit 
6 species of Trumpet-Birds: (l) the original Psophia crepitans of 
Guiana; (2) P. napensis of eastern Ecuador (which is very likely 



1 Not to be confounded with the " Heron Agami " of Buffon 
(Oiseaux, ii. 382), which is the Ardea agami of other writers. 



the original "Oiseau trompette" of De la Condamine); (3) P. 
ochroptera from the right bank of the Rio Negro ; (4) P. leucoptera 
from the right bank of the upper Amazons; (5) P. viridis from the 
right bank of the Madeira: and (6) P. obscura from the right bank 
of the lower Amazons near Para. And they have remarked in the 
Zoological Proceedings (1867, p. 592) on the curious fact that the 
range of the several species appears to be separated by rivers, a 
statement confirmed by A. R. Wallace (Geogr. Distr. Animals, ii. 
358) ; and in connexion therewith it may be observed that these 
birds have short wings and seldom fly, but run, though with a 
peculiar gait, very quickly. A seventh species P. cantatrix, from 
Bolivia, has since been indicated by W. Blasius (Journ. f. Ornith., 
1884, pp. 203-210), who has given a monographic summary of the 
whole group very worthy of attention. The chief distinctions 
between the species lie in colour and size, and it will be here enough 
to describe briefly the best known of them, P. crepitans. This is 
about the size of a large barndoor fowl; but its neck and legs are 
longer, so that it is a taller bird. The head and neck are clothed 
with short velvety feathers; the whole plumage is black, except 
that on the lower front of the neck the feathers are tipped with 
golden green, changing according to the light into violet, and that 
a patch of dull rusty brown extends across the middle of the back 
and wing-coverts, passing into ash-colour lower down, where they 
hang over and conceal the tail. The legs are bright pea-green. 
The habits of this bird are very wonderful, and it is much to be 
wished that fuller accounts of them had appeared. The curious 
sound it utters, noticed by the earliest observers, has been already 
mentioned, and by them also was its singularly social disposition 
towards man described; but the information supplied to Buffon 
(Oiseaux, iv. 496-501) by Manoncour and De la Borde, which 
has been repeated in many works, is still the best we have of the 
curious way in which it becomes semi-domesticated by the Indians 
and colonists and shows strong affection for its owners as well as 
for their living property poultry or sheep though in this re- 
claimed condition it seems never to breed. 2 Indeed nothing can 
be positively asserted as to its mode of nidification ; but its eggs, 
according to C. E. Bartlett, are of a creamy white, rather round, 
and about the size of bantams'. C. Waterton in his Wanderings 
(Second Journey, chap, iii.) speaks of falling in with flocks of 200 
or 300 " Waracabas," as he called them, in Demerara, but added 
nothing to our knowledge of the species; while the contributions 
of Trail (Mem. Wern. Society, v. 523-532) and as Dr Hancock 
(Mag. Nat. History, 2nd series, vol. ii. pp. 490-492) as regards its 
habits only touch upon them in captivity. 

To the trumpeters must undoubtedly be accorded the rank of a 
distinct family, Psophiidae; but like so many other South-American 
birds they seem to be the less specialized descendants of an ancient 
generalized group perhaps the common ancestors of the Rallidae 
and Gruidae. The structure of the trachea, though different from 
that described in any Crane (q.v.), suggests an early form of the 
structure which in some of the Gruidae is so marvellously developed, 
for in Psophia the windpipe runs down the breast and belly im- 
mediately under the skin to within about an inch of the anus, 
whence it returns in a similar way to the front of the sternum, 
and then enters the thorax. Analogous instances of this forma- 
tion occur in several other groups of birds not at all allied to the 
Psophiidae. (A. N.) 

TRUNK (Fr. tronc, Lat. truncus, cut off, maimed), properly 
the main stem of a tree from which the branches spring, espe- 
cially the stem when stripped of the branches; hence, in a 
transferred sense, the main part of a human or animal body 
without the head, arms or legs. It is from this last sense that 
the term " trunk-hose " is derived. These were part of the 
typical male costume of the i6th century, consisting of a pair 
of large puffed and slashed over-hose, reaching from the 
waist to the middle of the thigh, the legs clad in the long hose 
being thrust through them; the upper part of the body was 
covered by the jerkin or jacket reaching to the thigh (see 
COSTUME). The word " trunk " as applied to the elongated 
proboscis of the elephant is due to a mistaken confusion of 
French trompe, trump, with " trunk " meaning the hollow stem 
of a tree. A somewhat obscure meaning of French tronc, i.e. an 
alms-box, has given rise to the general use of " trunk " for a 
form of travellers' luggage. 

TRURO, THOMAS WILDE, IST BARON (1782-1855), lord 
chancellor of England, was born in London on the 7th of July 

1 In connexion herewith may be mentioned the singular story told 
by Montagu (Orn. Diet., Suppl. Art. " Grosbeak, White-winged "), 
on the authority of the then Lord Stanley, afterwards president of the 
Zoological Society, of one of these birds, which, having apparently 
escaped from confinement, formed the habit of attending a poultry- 
yard. On the occasion of a pack of hounds running through the 
yard, the trumpeter joined and kept up with them for nearly three 
miles! 



TRURO TRUST COMPANY 



329 



1782, being the second son of Thomas Wilde, an attorney. 
He was educated at St Paul's School and was admitted an 
attorney in 1805. He subsequently entered the Inner Temple 
and was called to the bar in 1817, having practised for two 
years before as a special pleader. Retained for the defence of 
Queen Caroline in 1820 he distinguished himself by his cross- 
examination and laid the foundation of an extensive common 
law practice. He first entered parliament in the Whig interest 
as member for Newark (1831-1832 and 1835-1841), afterwards 
representing Worcester (1841-1846). He was appointed solicitor- 
general in 1839, and became attorney-general in succession to 
Sir John (afterwards Baron) Campbell in 1841. In 1846 he 
was appointed chief justice of the common pleas, an office 
he held until 1850, when he became lord chancellor, and was 
created Baron Truro of Bowes, Middlesex. He held this latter 
office until the fall of the ministry in 1852. He died in London 
on the nth of November 1855. His son Charles (1816-1891) 
succeeded as 2nd baron, but on the death of his nephew the 
3rd baron in 1899 the title became extinct. 

Lord Truro was the uncle of JAMES PLAISTED WILDE, BARON 
PENZANCE (1816-1899), wno was appointed a baron of the 
court of exchequer in 1860, and was .judge of the court 
of probate and divorce from 1863 to 1872. In 1875 he was 
appointed dean of the court of arches, retiring in 1899. He was 
created a peer in 1869, but died without issue, and the title 
became extinct. 

TRURO, the chief town of Colchester county, Nova Scotia, 
on the Salmon river, near the head of Cobequid Bay, 61 m. 
from Halifax by rail. Pop. (1901), 5993. It is an important 
junction on the Intercolonial and Midland railways, and the 
thriving centre of a lumbering and agricultural district. There 
are numerous local industries, such as engine and boiler works, 
carriage factory and milk-condensing factory. It also contains 
the county buildings and the provincial normal school. The 
Victoria (or Joseph Howe) Park in the vicinity is of great 
natural beauty. 

TRURO, an episcopal city and municipal borough in the 
Truro parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, n m. N. 
of Falmouth, on the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901), 
11,562. It lies in a shallow valley at the junction of the small 
rivers Kenwyn and Allen in Truro river, a branch creek of the 
great estuary of the Fal. It is built chiefly of granite, with 
broad streets, through the chief of which there flows a stream 
of water. The episcopal see was founded in 1876, covering the 
former archdeaconry of Cornwall in the diocese of Exeter; the 
area including the whole of the county of Cornwall, with a 
small portion of Devonshire. The cathedral church of St Mary 
was begun in 1880 from the designs of John Loughborough 
Pearson, and is among the most important modern ecclesiastical 
buildings in England. The architect adopted the Early English 
style, making great use of the dog-tooth ornament. The form 
of the church is cruciform, but it is made irregular by the 
incorporation, on the south side of the choir, of the south aisle 
of the parish church, this portion retaining, by Act of Parlia- 
ment of 1887, all its legal parochial rights. The design of the 
cathedral includes a lofty central and two western towers with 
spires, and a rich west front and south porch; with a cloister 
court and octagonal chapter-house on the north. Among other 
noteworthy modern institutions may be mentioned the theo- 
logical library presented by Bishop Phillpotts in 1856, housed 
in a Gothic building (1871). The grammar school possesses 
exhibitions to Exeter College, Oxford. Truro has considerable 
trade in connexion with the tin mines of the neighbourhood. 
There are tin-smelting works, potteries, and manufactures 
of boots, biscuits, jam and clothing. Small vessels can lie 
at the quays, though the harbour is dry at low water; but 
large vessels can approach within three miles of the city. The 
borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. 
Area, 1127 acres. 

At the time of the Domesday Survey Truro (Trueret, Treurok, 
Treueru) was a comparatively small manor held by Jovin of 
Count Robert of Mortain. Its municipal charter dates from 



Richard Lucy the chief justiciar who held the demesne 
lands and under whom the free burgesses had apparently a 
grant of sake and soke, toll and team and infangenethef. Regi- 
nald earl of Cornwall, by an undated charter, added to these 
privileges exemption from the jurisdiction of the hundred and 
county courts and from toll throughout the county. Henry II. 
confirmed the grant of his uncle the said Reginald. In 1304 
Truro was constituted a coinage town for tin. In 1378 the 
sheriff reported that the town was so impoverished by pesti- 
lence, hostile invasions and intolerable payments made to 
the king's progenitors that it was almost uninhabited and 
wholly wasted. A similar complaint was preferred in 1401 in 
consequence of which the fifteenth and tenth amounting to 
12 was for the three years ensuing reduced to 503. The 
charter of incorporation granted in 1589 provided for a mayor, 
recorder and steward and a council of twenty capital burgesses 
and four aldermen. Under it the mayor and burgesses were to 
enjoy the liberties of infangenethef, utfangenethef, sake, soke, 
toll, team, thefbote, backberindthef and ordelf; also freedom 
from toll passage, pontage, murage, fletage, picage, anchorage, 
stallage, lastage and tollage of Horngeld throughout England 
except in London ; they were, moreover, to be entitled in respect 
of their markets to pontage, keyage, &c. The assize of bread 
and ale and wine and view of frankpledge were also granted 
and a court of piepowder was to regulate certain specified 
fairs. In 1835 the number of aldermen was increased to six. 
From 1295 to 1885 Truro enjoyed separate parliamentary 
representation, returning two members. The charter of 1589 
provided that the burgesses should have power by means of 
the common council to elect them. Such was the procedure 
from 1589 to 1832 when the burgesses recovered the privilege. 
Under the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885 the representa- 
tion of Truro was merged in the county. No fairs or markets 
are mentioned prior to 1589 when two markets, on Saturdays 
and Wednesdays, were provided, also three fairs. Both markets 
and two of the three fairs are held. 

See Victoria County History: Cornwall; Canon Donaldson, 
Bishopric of Truro (1902). 

TRUSS (from O. Fr. trusser, trosser, terser, trousser, to pack, 
bind, gird up, Low Lat. tortiare, formed from tortus, twisted, 
torquere, to twist; cf. " torch " and " trousers," also trousseau, 
a bride's outfit, literally a small pack or bundle), a pack or 
bundle, applied specifically to a quantity of hay or straw tied 
together in a bundle. A truss of straw contains 36 Ib, of old 
hay 56 Ib, of new hay 60 Ib. A load contains 36 trusses. The 
term is also used generally of a supporting frame or structure, 
especially in the construction of a roof or a bridge. It is thus 
used as the name of a surgical appliance, a belt with an elastic 
spring keeping in place a pad used as a support in cases of 
hernia (q.v.). 

TRUST COMPANY, the name given to a form of fiduciary 
corporation, originally adopted in the United States under 
state laws to accomplish financial objects not specially provided 
for under the national banking system. The function which 
gives a trust company its name is to execute trusts for indi- 
viduals, estates and corporations. In the United States, 
however, these functions have been extended to include many 
of those of commercial banks receiving deposits payable on 
demand and subject to check. The relations between trust com- 
panies and their depositors are based, however, upon different 
principles from those between the bank and its client (see BANKS 
AND BANKING). The larger trust companies prefer deposit 
accounts which, even when subject to check, are not actively 
drawn upon. The fact that they pay interest on such deposits 
absolves them from the obligation to extend accommodation 
by way of loans, except upon collateral security. Hence out 
of the difference in their relations with depositors grows a differ- 
ence in the character of their investments, which are usually 
in loans on stock exchange securities and not on commercial 
paper discounted. In New York they are prohibited from 
directly discounting commercial paper, but not from buying 
it. The rate of interest paid on demand deposits is usually 



330 



TRUST AND TRUSTEES 



2% for small accounts, and 3% for large accounts; for time 
deposits it is sometimes more. 

In the administration of estates icr private individuals, the 
trust company has taken the place to a large extent of individual 
attorneys. The trust company has the advantage of corporate 
responsibility, which involves continuous life, and of proper offices, 
fire-proof safes, and special employees in each department devoting 
their time and attention exclusively to their special functions. 
Investments for estates are limited by law, like savings bank invest- 
ments, to certain classes of securities, and a trust company has 
little temptation to violate such laws. It is customary, moreover, 
for investments of trust funds to be made by authority of the board 
of directors, thus protecting the estate against the uncertainties 
of individual judgment. 

The trust company has found a special field in America as agent 
of railway and industrial corporations in the issue, transfer and 
exchange of securities. For these purposes it has an organized 
system, tested by experience, more perfect in its operation and less 
expensive than each corporation could organize for itself separately. 
As trustee for the bondholders under a railway mortgage, for instance, 
it becomes the duty of the trust company, in case of default in pay- 
ment of interest on the bonds, to take steps to foreclose the mortgage 
and protect the bondholders. Trust companies have sometimes 
been named as receivers of failed banks. 

The big industrial combinations in America have contributed to 
the business of the trust companies as registrars or transfer agents for 
capital stock, agents for the issue of bonds and payment of interest 
thereon, agents for underwriting and distributing new securities, 
and depositories of securities and cash under plans of reorganization 
or while held in escrow. In the case of the reorganization of the 
tobacco companies, in the autumn of 1904, securities aggregating 
about $600,000,000 passed through the hands of the trust company 
charged with the work ; and while this was the largest single opera- 
tion of its kind, it is typical of many similar operations resulting 
from the activity in the creation of new companies in America which 
bring business to trust companies. 

The attractions offered by the trust company to the non-commer- 
cial depositor by the payment of interest on his deposit built up 
the deposit balances of trust companies rapidly after 1896. Their 
competition in this respect with national banks soon led to an effort 
to compel trust companies to keep cash reserves against their 
deposits. This demand was resisted for a while, but in 1903 a rule 
was made by the New York Clearing House requiring trust companies 
to keep certain reserves. The alternative was to withdraw from 
the Clearing House, and this all but a few did. The New York 
legislature, however, at the session of 1906, passed an act requiring 
trust companies in New York city to establish within fixed dates 
reserves of 15% of their deposits, of which only 5% was required 
to be currency, 5 % might be on deposit in another banking institu- 
tion, and 5 % might be kept in certain classes of bonds. 

The experience of the panic of 1907 developed several weaknesses 
in the position of the trust companies, and in New York led a special 
commission appointed by Governor Hughes to recommend much 
stronger reserves. The fact that the trust companies relied upon 
the national banks to meet the heavy demands upon them for cur- 
rency doubled the strain imposed on the national banks of New 
York city, and the isolation of the trust companies through their 
withdrawal from the Clearing House in 1903 made it difficult to 
bring about co-operation in support of those which were subjected 
to severe runs. Between the 22nd of August and the igth of Decem- 
ber 1907 the deposits of the trust companies of New York declined 
by the sum of more than $275,000,000 while deposits in national 
banks increased about $50,000,000. 

The number, resources and activities of trust companies have 
shown a rapid development. In New York the general law under 
which companies can be formed without a special act dates only 
from 1887, out several companies ante-date this law. The following 
figures 1 from reports made to the comptroller of the currency speak 
for themselves: 



Trust Companies of the United States. 


30th June. 


Number. 


Capital. 


Individual Deposits. 






$ 


$ 


1891 


171 


79,292,889 


355.330.o8o 


1897 


251 


106,968,253 


566,922,205 


1900 


290 


126,930,845 


,028,232,407 


1901 


334 


137.361,704 


,271,081,174 


1902 


417 


179-732,581 


,525,887,493 


1903 


531 


232,807,735 


,589,398,796 


1904 


585 


237,745.488 


,600,322,325 


i95 


683 


243.133,622 


,980,856,737 


1906 


742 


268,384,337 


2,008,937,790 


1907 


794 


276,146,081 


2,061,623,035 



1 The table, it may be observed, represents only the number of 
companies reporting and not the number actually in existence. 
Kirkbride and Sterrett, for example, give the number of trust 
companies in the United States on the 1st of January 1905 as 1427, 
or more than twice the number given here for 1905. On this point 
the comptroller of the Treasury in 1905 said: " In order to obtain 
this information [from institutions other than national banks] the 
comptroller is necessarily dependent upon the courtesy of officers of 
different states, and upon individual banks in states the laws of 
which states do not provide for compilation of data of this character 
. . . Each year one or more states formerly without adequate 
provision for obtaining and compiling reports of banks incorporated 
under their laws, have through legislative enactment, placed such 
banks under the supervision of an official whose duty it is to 
receive and tabulate the reports so required, which information 
is placed at the disposal of the comptroller. Every year this office 
is thereby enabled to publish official, and hence more reliable 
statistics. ..." 



Approximately half of the deposits in United States trust companies 
are in the" state of New York, the number of such companies in New 
York about the joth of June 1907, being 88, with a capital of 
$67,850,000, and deposits of $1,020,678,220. The next highest 
states in amount of deposits were Pennsylvania, with 328 companies, 
with capital of $103,953,067 and deposits of $381,397,305; and 
Massachusetts, with 46 companies, with capital of $16,677,000 
and deposits of $179,278,436. 

See Kirkbride and Sterrett, The Modern Trust Company (New 
York, 1905). (C. A. C.) 

TRUST and TRUSTEES, in the law of equity. In Roman 
and English law alike that legal relation between two or more 
persons implied in the word trust was of comparatively late 
growth. The trust of English law is probably based upon a 
combination of the Roman conceptions of usus and fideicom- 
missum. To usus is perhaps due the name as well as the idea 
of that right over property, co-ordinate with the right of the 
nominal owner, possessed by the person having the use. To 
fideicommissum appears to be due the name as well as the idea 
of that confidence reposed in another which is the essence of 
the modern trust. Usus was in Roman law a personal servitude, 
or right of one person over the land of another, confined to his 
personal wants and without the right to the produce and 
profits which ususfructus carried. It has little in common 
with the use of English law but the name and the conception 
of a dual ownership. The fideicommissum is more important 
(see ROMAN LAW). By the legislation of Justinian the law of 
legala was practically assimilated to that of fideicommissa. 
The only thing that distinguished the one from the other was 
the mode in which the gift was made: if by words of direct 
bequest it was a legatum, if by precatory words, a fideicom- 
missum. It may be noticed, as an illustration of the course 
afterwards taken by the law in England, that fideicommissa in 
favour of the Church were so far favoured over others that if 
paid over by mistake they could not be recovered. In addition 
to usus and fideicommissum, the Roman division of ownership 
into quiritary and bonitary (to use words invented at a later 
time) may perhaps to some extent have suggested the English 
division into legal -and equitable estate. The two kinds of 
ownership were amalgamated by Justinian. The gradual manner 
in which the beneficiary became subject to the burdens attaching 
to the property of which he enjoyed the benefit was a feature 
common to both the Roman and the English system. 

Use in Early English Law. The use or trust 2 is said to have 
been the invention of ecclesiastics well acquainted with Roman 
law, the object being to escape the provisions of the laws against 
Mortmain by obtaining the conveyance of an estate to a friend on 
the understanding that they should retain the use, i.e. the actual 
profit and enjoyment of the estate. Uses were soon extended to 
other purposes. They were found valuable for the defeat of creditors, 
the avoiding of attainder and the charging of portions. A use had 
also the advantage of being free from the incidents of feudal tenure : 
it could be alienated inter vivos by secret conveyance, and could be 
devised by will. In many cases the feoffee * to uses, as he was called, or 
the person seised to the use of another, seems to have been specially 



2 Use seems to be an older word than trust. Its first occurrence 
in statute law is in 7 Ric. II. c. 12, in the form oeps. In Littleton 
" confidence " is the word employed. The Statute of Uses seems 
to regard use, trust and confidence as synonymous. According to 
Bacon, it was its permanency that distinguished the use from the 
trust. 

3 Feoffment, though the usual, was not the only mode of convey- 
ance to uses. The preamble of the Statute of Uses mentions fines 
and recoveries, and other assurances. 



TRUST AND TRUSTEES 



chosen on account of his rank and station, which would enable 
him to defy the common law and protect the estate of his cestui 
que use, or the person entitled to the beneficial enjoyment. The 
act of I Ric. II. c. 9 was directed against the choice of such persons. 
This alienation of land in use was looked upon with great disfavour 
by the common law courts, in whose eyes the cestui que use was only 
a tenant at will. Possibly the ground of their refusal to recognize 
uses was that the assizes of the king's court could only be granted 
to persons who stood in a feudal relation to the king. The denial 
of the right followed the denial of the remedy. The use was on the 
other hand supported by the court of chancery, and execution of 
the confidence reposed in the feoffee to uses was enforced by the 
court in virtue of the general jurisdiction which as a court of con- 
science it claimed to exercise over breach of faith. Jurisdiction was 
no doubt the more readily assumed by ecclesiastical judges in favour 
of a system by which the Church was generally the gainer. A double 
ownership of land thus gradually arose, the nominal and ostensible 
ownership the only one acknowledged in the courts of common 
law and the beneficial ownership protected by the court of chan- 
cery. The reign of Henry V. to a great extent corresponds with that 
of Augustus at Rome, as the point of time at which legal recognition 
was given to what had previously been binding only in honour. The 
means of bringing the feoffee to uses before the court was the writ 
of subpoena, said to have been invented by John de Waltham, 
bishop of Salisbury and master of the rolls in the reign of Richard II. 
By means of this writ the feoffee to uses could be compelled to answer 
on oath the claim on his cestui que use. The doctrine of the court 
of chancery as to the execution of a use varied according as there 
was transmutation of possession or not. In the former case it was 
unnecessary to prove consideration; in the latter, generally a case 
of bargain and sale, the court would not enforce the use unless it 
was executed in law that is, unless there was a valuable considera- 
tion, even of the smallest amount. Where no consideration could 
be proved or implied, the use resulted to the feoffor. This theory 
led to the insertion in deeds (especially in the lease of the lease 
and release period of conveyancing) of a nominal consideration, 
generally five shillings. Lands either in possession, reversion or 
remainder could be granted in use. Most persons could be feoffees 
to uses. The king and corporations aggregate were, however, 
exceptions, and were entitled to hold the lands discharged of the use. 
On the accession of Richard III., who from bis position of authority 
had been a favourite feoffee, it was necessary to pass a special 
act (i Ric. III. c. 5), vesting the lands of which he had been feoffee 
either in his co-feoffees or, in the absence of co-feoffees, in the cestui 
que use. The practical convenience of uses was so obvious that it 
is said that by the reign of Henry VII. most of the land in the king- 
dom was held in use. The freedom of uses from liability to forfeiture 
for treason must have led to their general adoption during the Wars 
of the Roses. 1 The secrecy with which a use could be transferred, 
contrary as it was to the publicity required for livery of Seisin 
(q.v.) at common law, led to the interference of the legislature on 
several occasions between the reign of Richard II. and Henry VIII., 
the general tendency of the legislation being to make the cestui 
que use more and more subject to the burdens incident to the owner- 
ship of land. One of the most important statutes was the Statute 
of Mortmain (15 Ric. II. .c. 5), forbidding evasion of the Statute 
De Religiosis of Edward I. by means of feoff ments to uses. Other 
acts enabled the cestui que use to transfer the use without the 
concurrence of the feoffee to uses (l Ric. III. c. l), made a writ of 
formedon maintainable against him (i Hen. VII. c. l), rendered his 
heir liable to wardship and relief (4 Hen. VII. c. 17), and his lands 
liable to execution (19 Hen. VII. c. 15). At length in 1535 the 
famous Statute of Uses (27 Hen. VIII. c. 10) was passed. 2 The 
preamble of the statute enumerates the mischiefs which it was 
considered that the universal prevalence of uses had occasioned, 
among others that by fraudulent feoffments, fines, recoveries and 
other like assurances to uses, confidences and trusts lords lost their 
feudal aids, men their tenancies by the curtesy, women their dower, 
manifest perjuries in trials were committed, the king lost the profits 
of the lands of persons attaintad or enfeoffed to the use of aliens, 
and the king and lords their rights of year, day and waste, and of 
escheats of felons' lands. To remedy this state of things it was 
enacted, inter alia, that, where any person was seised of any here- 
ditaments to the use, confidence or trust of any other person by 
any means, the person having such use, confidence or trust should 
be seised, deemed and adjudged in lawful seisin, estate and posses- 
sion of such hereditaments. Full legal remedies were given to 
the cestui que use by the statute. He was enabled to distrain 
for a rent-charge, to have action, entry, condition, &c. The effect 
of this enactment was to make the cestui que use the owner at law 
as well as in equity (as had been done once before under the excep- 
tional circumstances which led to I Ric. III. c. 5), provided that 



1 The use, as in later times the trust, was, however, forfeited to 
the Crown on attainder of the feoffee or trustee for treason. 

2 It was adopted in Ireland exactly a century later by 10 Car. I. 
c. i (Ir.). The law of uses and trusts in Ireland is practically the 
same as that in England, the main differences being in procedure 
rather than in substantive law. 



the use was one which before the statute would have been enforced 
by the court of chancery. For some time after the passing of 
the statute an equitable as distinct from a legal estate did not 
exist. But the somewhat narrow construction of the statute by 
the common law courts in Tyrrel's case 3 (1557) enabled estates 
cognisable only in equity to be again created. In that case it was 
held that a use upon a use could not be executed; therefore in a 
feoffment to A and his heirs to the use of B and his heirs to the 
use of C and his heirs only the first use was executed by the statute. 
The use of B being executed in him, that of C was not acknowledged 
by the common law judges; but equity regarded C as beneficially 
entitled, and his interest as an equitable estate held for him in 
trust, corresponding to that which B would have had before the 
statute. The position taken by the Court of Chancery in trusts 
may be compared with that taken in Mortgage (q.v.). The Judicature 
Act 1873, while not going as far as the Statute of Uses and com- 
bining the_ legal and equitable estates, makes equitable rights 
cognisable in all courts. From the decision in Tyrrel's case dates 
the whole modern law of uses and trusts. In modern legal language 
use is restricted to the creation of legal estate under the Statute 
of Uses, trust is confined to the equitable estate of the cestui que 
trust or beneficiary. 

Uses since 1535. The Statute of Uses is still the basis of con- 
veyancing. A grant in a deed is still, after the alterations in the 
law made by the Conveyancing Act 1 88 1, made " to and to the 
use of A." The statute does not, however, apply indiscriminately 
to all cases, as only certain uses are executed by it. It does not 
apply to leaseholds or copyholds, or to cases where the grantee to 
uses is anything more than a mere passive instrument, e.g. where 
there is any direction to him to sell the property. The seisin, too, 
to be executed by the statute, must be in another than him who 
has the use, for where A is seised to the use of A it is a common law 
grant. The difference is important as far as regards the doctrine 
of Possession (q.v.). Constructive possession is given by a deed 
operating under the statute even before entry, but not by a common 
law grant, until actual receipt of rent by the grantee. The operation 
of the Statute of Uses was supplemented by the Statute of Inrol- 
ments and that of Wills (see WILL). The Statute of Inrolments 
(27 Hen. VIII. c. 16) enacted that no bargain and sale should pass 
a freehold unless by deed indented and enrolled within six months 
after its date in one of the courts at Westminster or with the custos 
rotulorum of the county. As the statute referred only to freeholds, 
a bargain and sale of a leasehold interest passed without enrolment. 
Conveyancers took advantage of this omission^ (whether intentional 
or not) in the act, and the practical effect of it was to introduce a 
mode of secret alienation of real property, the lease and release, 
which was the general form of conveyance up to 1845. _(See CON- 
VEYANCING.) Thus the publicity of transfer, which it was the 
special object of the Statute of Uses to effect, was almost at once 
defeated. In addition to the grant to uses there were other modes 
of conveyance under the statute which are now obsolete in practice, 
viz., the covenant to stand seised and the bargain and sale. Under 
the statute, as before it, the use has been found a valuable means 
of limiting a remainder to the person creating the use and of making 
an estate take effect in derogation of a former estate by means of 
a shifting or springing use. At common law a freehold could not 
be made to commence in fuluro; but this end might be attained by 
a shifting use, such as a grant (common in marriage settlements) 
to A to the use of B in fee simple until a marriage, and after the 
celebration of the marriage to other uses. An example of a springing 
use would be a grant to A to such uses_ as B should appoint and in 
default of and until appointment to C in fee simple. The difficulty 
of deciding where the seisin was during the suspension of the use 
led to the invention of the old theory of scintilla juris, or continued 
possibility of seisin in the grantee to uses. This theory was abolished 
by 23 & 24 Viet. c. 38, which enacted that all uses should take effect 
by force of the estate and seisin originally vested in the person 
seised to the uses. The most frequent instances of a springing use 
are powers of appointment, usual in wills and settlements. There 
has been much legislation on the subject of powers, the main effect 
of which has been to give greater facilities for their execution, release 
or abandonment, to aid their defective execution, and to abolish 
the old doctrine of illusory appointments. 

Trusts. A trust in English law is defined in Lewin's Law of 
Trusts, adopting Coke's definition of a use, as " a confidence 
reposed in some other, not issuing out of the land, but as a thing 
collateral, annexed in privity to the estate of the land, and to the 
person touching the land, for which cestui que trust has no 
remedy but by subpoena in Chancery." The term trust or trust 
estate is also used to denote the beneficial interest of the cestui 
que trust. The term truster is not used, as it is in Scotland, to 
denote the creator of the trust. A trust has some features in 
common with contract (q.v.); but the great difference between 
them is that a contract can only be enforced by a party or one 
in the position of a party to it, while a trust can be, and generally 
Dyer's Reports, 1553. 



332 



TRUST AND TRUSTEES 



is, enforced by one not a party to its creation. It has more 
resemblance to fideicommissum. But the latter could only 
be created by a testamentary instrument, whilst a trust can be 
created either by will or inter vivos; nor was there any trace in 
Roman law of that permanent legal relation which is suggested 
by the position of trustee and cestui que trust. The heir, too, in 
Roman law was entitled, from A.D. 70 to the reign of Justinian, 
to one-fourth of a hereditas fideicommissaria as against the 
beneficiary, while the very essence of the trust is its gratuitous 
character. Trusts may be divided in more than one way, 
according to the ground taken as the basis of division. One 
division, and perhaps the oldest, as it rests on the authority of 
Bacon, is into simple and special, the first being where the trust 
is simply vested in a trustee and the nature of the trust left to 
construction of law, the second where there is an act to be per- 
formed by the trustee. Another division is into lawful and 
unlawful, and corresponds to Bacon's division into intents or 
confidences and frauds, covins, or collusions. A third division 
is into public and private. A division often adopted in modern 
textbooks and recognized by parliament in the Trustee Act 1850, 
is into express, implied and constructive. An express trust is 
determined by the person creating it. It may be either executed 
or executory, the former where the limitations of the equitable 
interest are complete and final, the latter where such limitations 
are intended to serve merely as minutes for perfecting the settle- 
ment at some future period, as in the case of marriage articles 
drawn up as a basis of a marriage settlement to be in conformity 
with them. An implied trust is founded upon the intention of 
the person creating it; examples of it are a resulting trust, a 
precatory trust, and the trust held by the vendor on behalf of the 
purchaser of an estate after contract and before conveyance. \ 
In this case the vendor is sometimes called a trustee sub modo 
and the purchaser a cestui que trust sub modo. A constructive 
trust is judicially created from a consideration of a person's 
conduct in order to satisfy the demands of justice, without 
reference to intention. The distinction between an implied 
and a constructive trust is not always very consistently main- 
tained. Thus the position of a vendor towards a purchaser 
after contract is sometimes called a constructive trust. The 
present law governing trusts rests upon the doctrines of equity 
as altered by legislation. The law was consolidated by the 
Trustee Act 1893 and some subsequent amending statutes. 
Its great importance has led to its becoming one of the most 
highly developed departments of equity. 

Who may be a Trustee or Cestui que Trust. The modern trust is 
considerably more extensive in its operation than the ancient use. 
Thus the Crown and corporations aggregate can be trustees, and 
personalty can be held in trust. Provision is made by the Municipal 
Corporations Act 1882, for the administration of charitable and 
special trusts by municipal corporations. There are certain persons 
who for obvious reasons, even if not legally disqualified, ought not 
to be appointed trustees. Such are infants, lunatics, persons 
domiciled abroad, felons, bankrupts and cestuis que truslent. The 
appointment of any such person, or the falling of any existing trustee 
into such a position, is generally ground for application to the court 
for appointment of a new trustee in his place. Any one may be 
a cestui que trust except a corporation aggregate, which cannot 
be a cestui que trust of real estate without a licence from the Crown. 
For the Public Trustee, see below. 

Creation and Extinction of the Trust. A trust may be created 
either by act of a party or by operation of lav/. Where a trust is 
created by act of a party, the creation at common law need not be 
in writing. The Statute of Frauds altered the common law by 
enacting that all declarations or creations of trusts or confidences 
of any lands, tenements or hereditaments shall be manifested and 
proved by some writing, signed by the party who is by law enabled 
to declare such trust, or by his last will in writing, or else they shall 
be utterly void and of none effect. Trusts arising or resulting by 
implication or construction of law are excepted, and it has been 
held that the statute applies only to real estate and chattels real, 
so that a trust of personal chattels may still be declared by parol. 
The declaration of a trust by the Crown must be by letters patent. 
Trusts created by will must conform to the requirements of the Will 
Act (see WILL). Except in the case of charitable trusts, the cestui 
que trust must be a definite person. A trust, for instance, merely 
for keeping up family tombs is void. Alteration of the trust estate 
by appointment of a new trustee could up to 1860 only be made 
where the instrument creating the trust gave a power to so appoint, 



or by order of the court of chancery. But now by s. 10 of the 
Trustee Act 1893 (superseding Lord St Leonards's Act of 1860 
and the Conveyancing Act 1881), the surviving or continuing trustee 
or trustees, or the personal representative of the last surviving or 
continuing trustee, may nominate in writing a new trustee or new 
trustees. On such appointment the number of trustees may be 
increased. Existing trustees may by deed consent to the discharge 
of a trustee wishing to retire. Trust property may be vested in 
new or continuing trustees by a simple declaration to that effect. 
Also a separate set of trustees may be appointed for any part of 
the property held on distinct trusts. Trusts created by operation 
of law are those which are the effect of the application of rules of 
equity. They include resulting and constructive trusts. A result- 
ing trust is a species of implied trust, and consists of so much of 
the equitable interest as is undisposed of by the instrument creating 
the trust, which is said to result to thecreatorand his representatives. 
An example is the purchase of an estate in the name of the purchaser 
and others, or of others only. Here the beneficial interest is the 
purchaser's. An example of a constructive trust is a renewal of 
a lease by a trustee in his own name, where the trustee is held to 
be constructively a trustee for those interested in the beneficial 
term. Besides being duly created, it is necessary for the validity 
of the trust that it should be a lawful one. An unlawful trust is 
one which contravenes the policy of the law in any respect. Examples 
of such trusts are trusts for a corporation without licence, for a 
perpetuity, and for purposes subversive of morality, such as trusts 
for illegitimate children to be hereafter born. Superstitious uses 
also fall under this head. There are also certain trusts which are 
avoided by statute under particular circumstances, such as settle- 
ments in fraud of creditors (see BANKRUPTCY). Thelaw cannot be 
evaded by attempting to constitute a secret trust for an unlawful 
purpose. If an estate be devised by words prima facie carrying 
the beneficial interest, with an understanding that the devisee will 
hold the estate in trust for such a purpose, he may be compelled 
to answer as to the secret trust, and on acknowledgment or proof 
of it there will be a resulting trust to the heir-at-law. In the case 
of an advowson suspected to be held for the benefit of a Roman 
Catholic patron, there is a special enactment to the same effect 
(see QUARE IMPEDIT). The rules' of equity in charitable trusts 
are less strict than those adopted in private trusts. Charitable 
trusts must be lawful, e.g. they must not contravene the Statutes 
of Mortmain; but a wider latitude of construction is allowed in 
order to carry out the intentions of the founder, and they will not 
be allowed to fail for want or uncertainty of objects to be benefited. 
The court, applying the doctrine of cy pres (q.v.), will, on failure of 
the original ground of the charity, apply the funds as nearly as 
possible in the same manner. On this principle gifts originally made 
for purely charitable purposes have been extended to educational 
purposes. Further, trustees of a charity may act by a majority, but 
ordinary trustees cannot by the act of a majority (unless specially 
empowered so to do) bind a dissenting minority or the trust property. 
A trust estate is subject as far as possible to the rules of law applic- 
able to a legal estate of a corresponding nature, in pursuance of 
the maxim, -" Equity follows the law." Thus trust property is 
assets for payment of debts, may be taken in execution, passes to 
creditors in bankruptcy, and is subject -to dower and curtesy, to 
the rules against perpetuities, and to the Statutes of Limitation. 
This assimilation of the legal and equitable estates has been produced 
partly by judicial decisions, partly by legislation. A trust is extin- 
guished, as it is created, either by act of a party or by operation 
of law. An example of the former mode of extinction is a release 
by deed, the general means of discharge of a trustee when the pur- 
poses of the trust have been accomplished. Extinction by operation 
of law takes place when there is a failure of the objects of the trust : 
e.g. if the cestui que trust die intestate without heirs or next of 
kin, the property, by the Intestates Estates Act 1884, escheats in the 
same manner as if it were a legal estate in corporeal hereditaments. 
Equitable interests in real estate abroad are as a rule subject to 
the lex loci rei sitae, and an English court has no jurisdiction to 
enforce a trust or settle a scheme foV the administration of a charity 
in a foreign country. An English court has, however, jurisdiction 
to administer the trusts of a will as to the whole real and personal 
estate of a testator, even though only a very small part of the estate, 
and that wholly personal, is in England. This was decided by the 
House of Lords in a well-known case in 1883 (Ewing v. Orr-Ewine, 
L.R. 9, A.C. 34). 

Rights and Duties of the Trustee. The principal general properties 
of the office of trustee are these: (i) A trustee having once accepted 
the trust cannot afterwards renounce. (2) He Cannot delegate it, 
but an inconvenience which formerly attached to dealings with 
trustees and trust property, in consequence partly of this rule, and 
partly of the liability of persons dealing with trustees to see that 
money paid to them was properly applied, was largely obviated 
by s. 17 of the Trustee Act 1893 (replacing s. 2 of the Trustee Act 
1888), which in effect provides that a trustee may appoint a solicitor 
to be his agent to receive and give a discharge for any money or 
valuable consideration or property receivable by the trustee under 
the trust, by permitting the solicitor to have the custody of and 
to produce a deed having in the body thereof or endorsed thereon a 



TRUST AND TRUSTEES 



333 



receipt for the consideration money or other consideration, the deed 
being executed or the endorsed receipt being signed by the trustee; 
and a trustee is not chargeable with breach of trust by reason only 
of his having made or concurred in making any such appointment; 
and the producing of any such deed by the solicitor is a sufficient 
authority to the person liable to pay for his paying to the solicitor 
without the solicitor producing any separate or other direction or 
authority in that behalf from the trustee. (3) In the case of co- 
trustees the office must be exercised by all the trustees jointly. 
(4) On the death of one trustee there is survivorship: that is, the 
trust will pass to the survivors or survivor. (5) One trustee shall 
not be liable for the acts of his co-trustee. (6) A trustee shall derive 
no personal benefit from the trusteeship. The office cannot be 
renounced or delegated, because it is one of personal confidence. 
It can, however, be resigned, and legislation has given a retiring 
trustee large powers of appointing a successor. The liability of one 
trustee for the acts or defaults of another often raises very difficult 
questions. A difference is made between trustees and executors. 
An executor is liable for joining in a receipt pro forma, as it is not 
necessary for him to do so, one executor having authority to act 
without his co-executor; a trustee can show that he only joined 
for conformity, and that "another received the money. The rule 
of equity by which a beneficiary who consented to a breach of trust 
was liable to indemnify the trustees to the extent of his interest 
has taken definite statutory shape in s. 45 of the Trustee Act 1893 
(replacing s. 6 of the Trustee Act 1888), which enacts that when a 
trustee commits a breach of trust at the instigation or request, or 
with the consent in writing of a beneficiary, the High Court may, 
if it thinks fit, and notwithstanding that the beneficiary is a married 
woman entitled for her separate use and restrained from anticipation, 
make such order as to the court seems just for impounding all or 
any part of the interest of the beneficiary in the trust estate by way 
of indemnity to the trustee. The rule that a trustee is not to benefit 
by his office is subject to some exceptions. He may do so if the 
instrument creating him trustee specially allows him remuneration, 
as is usually the case where a solicitor is appointed. The main duties 
of trustees are to place the trust property in a proper state of security, 
to keep it (if personalty) in safe custody, and to properly invest and 
distribute it. A trustee must be careful not to place himself in 
a position where his interest might clash with his duty. As a rule 
hecannot safely purchase from his cestui que trust while the fiduciary 
relation exists between them. Investments by trustees demand 
special notice. The Trustee Act 1893 has consolidated the law on 
this point, and provides, as it were, a code or charter of investment 
authorizing trustees, unless expressly forbidden by the instrument 
(if any) creating the trust, to invest trust funds m various modes, 
of which the more important are as follows: In any of the parlia- 
mentary stocks or public funds or government securities of the 
United Kingdom; on real or heritable securities in Great Britain 
or Ireland; in stock of the Bank of England or the Bank of Ireland; 
in India 35% stock and India 3% stock; in any securities, the 
interest of which is for the time being guaranteed by parliament; 
in consolidated stock created by the London County Council; in 
the debenture or rent-charge or guaranteed or preference stock of 
any railway company in Great Britain or Ireland incorporated by 
special act of parliament, and having during each of the ten years last 
past before the date of investment paid a dividend at the rate of 
not less than 3% on its ordinary stock; in the debenture stock of 
any railway company in India, the interest on which is paid or 
guaranteed by the secretary of state in council of India; in the " B " 
annuities of the Eastern Bengal, the East Indian and the Sind, Pun- 
jab and Delhi railways; and also in deferred annuities comprised 
in the register of holders of annuity Class D, and annuities comprised 
in the register of annuitants Class C of the East Indian Railway 
Company; in the stock of any railway company in India upon which 
a fixed or minimum dividend in sterling is paid or guaranteed by 
the secretary of state in council of India, or upon the capital of which 
the interest is so guaranteed; in the debenture or guaranteed or 
preference stock of any company in Great Britain or Ireland estab- 
lished for the supply of water for profit, and incorporated by special 
act of parliament or by royal charter, and having during each of 
the ten years last past before the date of investment paid a dividend 
of not less than 5% per annum on its ordinary stock; in nominal 
or inscribed stock issued, or to be issued, by the corporation of any 
municipal borough having, according to the returns of the last census 
prior to the date of investment, a population exceeding 50,000; or 
by any county council under the authority of any act of parliament 
or provisional order; in any of the stocks, funds or securities for the 
time being authorized for the investment of cash under the control 
or subject to the order of the High Court. Trustees may from time 
to time vary any such investments for others of an authorized nature. 
The statutory power to invest on real securities does not, of course, 
authorize the purchase of realty; but by s. 5 of the Trustee Act 1893 
a power to invest in real securities (in the absence of express provision 
to the contrary) authorizes investment on mortgage of leasehold 
property held for an unexpired term of not less than 200 years and 
not subject to a greater rent than one shilling a year, or to any right 
of redemption or condition of re-entry except for non-payment of 
rent. 



The position of trustees in respect of what was frequently an undue 
personal responsibility for the administration of their trust has 
been much improved by s. 8 of the Trustee Act 1888 (not repealed 
by the Trustee Act 1893) and s. 3 of the Judicial Trustees Act 1896. 
Sub-section (l) of the former enactment (with some omissions) runs 
as follows: " In any action or other proceeding against a trustee 
or any person claiming through him, except where the claim is 
founded upon any fraud or fraudulent breach of trust to which 
the trustee was party or privy, or is to recover trust property, or 
the proceeds thereof still retained by the trustee, or previously 
received by the trustee and converted to his use, the following 
provisions shall apply: (a) All rights and privileges conferred by 
any statute of limitations shall be enjoyed in the like manner and 
to the like extent as if the trustee or person claiming through him 
had not been a trustee or person claiming through him. (6) If the 
action or other proceeding is brought to recover money or other pro- 
perty, and is one to which no existing statute of limitations applies, 
the trustee or person claiming through him shall be entitled to the 
benefit of, and be at liberty to plead the lapse of time as a bar to 
such action or other proceeding in the like manner and to the like 
extent as if the claim had been against him in an action of debt for 
money had and received." The statutory period of limitation which 
trustees are thus permitted to plead is the six years fixed as the 
period of limitation for actions of debt by the Limitation Act 1623. 
It has been decided on the above section that in the case of a breach 
of trust consisting of an improper investment of the trust funds, 
time begins to run in favour of the trustee from the date of the 
investment. Sub-section (3) of the Judicial Trustees Act 1896 
provides that " if it appears to the court that a trustee, whether 
appointed under that act or not, is or may be personally liable for 
any breach of trust, whether the transaction alleged to be a breach 
of trust occurred before or after the passing of that act, but 
has acted honestly and reasonably, and ought fairly to be excused 
for the breach of trust and for omitting to obtain the directions 
of the court in the matter in which he committed such breach, then 
the court may relieve the trustee either wholly or partly from personal 
liability for the same." Owing to the generally reduced rate of 
interest obtainable for money invested on trust securities, the court 
has in several instances, and even as against defaulting trustees, 
charged them with interest at 3% per annum (instead of 4%, which 
was formerly the recognized rate) upon sums found due from them 
to the trust estate. 

Under the old law trustees could not safely advance on mortgage 
more than two-thirds of the actual value of agricultural land or 
one-half of the value of houses. This " two-thirds rule " is now 
made statutory by s. 8 of the Trustee Act 1893, which enacts that 
" A trustee lending money on the security of any property on which 
he can lawfully lend shall not be chargeable with breach of trust 
by reason only of the proportion borne by the amount of the loan 
to the value of the property at the time when the loan was made, 
provided that it appears to the court that in making the loan the 
trustee was acting upon a report as to the value of the property 
made by a person whom he reasonably believed to be an able 
practical surveyor or valuer instructed and employed independently 
of any owner of the property, whether such surveyor or valuer carried 
on business in the locality where the property is situate or elsewhere, 
and that the amount of the loan does not exceed two equal third 
parts of the value of the property as stated in the report, and that 
the loan was made under the advice of the surveyor or valuer ex- 
pressed in the report." The same section protects trustees for not 
investigating the lessor's title when lending on the leasehold security, 
and for taking a shorter title than they might be otherwise entitled 
to on the purchase or mortgage of any property, if they act with 
prudence and caution. By s. 9 (replacing s. 5 of the Trustee Act 
1888) trustees who commit a breach of trust by lending more than 
the proper amount on any property are excused from making good 
any more than the excess of the actual loan over the sum which they 
might have properly lent in the first instance. 

Rights and Duties of the Cestui que Trust. These may be to a 
great extent deduced from what has been already said as to the 
correlative duties and rights of tfie trustee. The cestui que trust 
has a general right to the due management of the trust property, 
to proper accounts and to enjoyment of the profits. He can as a 
rule only act with the concurrence of the trustee, unless he seeks a 
remedy against the trustee himself. 

Judicial Trustees. The Judicial Trustees Act 1896, inaugurated 
a semi-official system of trusteeship which was new in England, 
but had been known in Scotland for upwards of 150 years. The 
general scope of the act is indicated by s. I (l), which runs as follows: 
" Where application is made to the court by or on behalf of the 
person creating or intending to create a trust, or by or on behalf 
of a trustee or beneficiary, the court may, in its discretion, appoint 
a person (in this act called a judicial trustee) to be a trustee of that 
trust, either jointly with any other person or as sole trustee, and if 
sufficient cause is shown, in place of all or any existing trustees." 
The act and the rules made under it (the Judicial Trustees Rules 
1897) provide that judicial trustees shall be under the control and 
supervision of the court as officers thereof, and may be paid for their 
services out of the trust property. The trust accounts are to be 



334 



TRUSTS 



audited annually, and a report thereon made to the court, which 
has power to order inquiries into transactions connected with the 
administration of the trust. A judicial trustee may be required 
to give security, and in any case has to keep the trust account with 
a bank approved by the court, and deposit title-deeds and other 
documents of title in such custody as the court directs. Communica- 
tions between judicial trustees and the court with reference to their 
duties are permitted to be made with little or no formality, and 
strict proof of facts may be waived in proper cases. The act may, 
in short, be described as an attempt to provide for an official check 
upon the administration of trusts, while avoiding the formality and 
expense incident to the procedure in an administration action. 

Public Trustee. A step further was taken by the Public Trustee 
Act 1906, which established the office of public trustee. By the 
act he is a corporation sole, with perpetual succession and an official 
seal and may sue and be sued under his official title. He may, if 
he thinks fit, act in the administration of estates of small value; 
as custodian trustee, or as an ordinary trustee ; he may be appointed 
a judicial trustee, or administrator of a convict's property. The 
law of trusts generally is applicable to him and he can act either 
alone or jointly with other persons. He has an absolute discretion 
as to whether he will accept or not any trust, but cannot decline 
acceptance on the ground only of the small value of the trust pro- 
perty. He cannot accept any trust which involves the management 
or carrying on of a business, except in certain cases authorized under 
rules appended to the act. He cannot accept a trust under a deed 
of arrangement for the benefit of creditors, nor of an insolvent estate, 
nor one exclusively for religious or charitable purposes. His powers 
and duties are dealt with by the act under three headings: (l) In 
the administration of small estates. On the application of any person 
entitled to apply to the court (i.e. the High Court, and as respects 
trusts within its jurisdiction, the county court) for an order for 
administration of any estate, the gross value of which is proved to 
the satisfaction of the public trustee to be less than 1000, he may 
administer the estate, and must do so if the persons beneficially 
entitled are persons of > small means, unless he sees good reason for 
refusing. By declaration in writing signed and sealed by him the 
trust property other than stock vests in him, and the right to transfer 
or call for the transfer of any stock forming part of the estate, pro- 
vided that he does not exercise the right of himself transferring stock 
without the leave of the court; this general provision also does 
not apply to copyhold, in respect of which he has the same powers 
to convey them as if he had been appointed under s. 33 of the Trustee 
Act 1893. Power is given to the court to order, for reasons of 
economy, that an estate being administered by the court be adminis- 
tered by the public trustee. (2) As custodian trustee. The public 
trustee, if he consents to act, may be appointed custodian trustee on 
an application to the court, or by the testator, settlor or other creator 
of any trust or by a person having power to appoint new trustees. 
When he is so appointed the trust property is transferred to him 
as if he were the sole trustee, but the management of the trust 
property and any discretionary power remain vested in the other 
trustees. His relations with the managing trustees are further 
defined by the act. (3) As an ordinary trustee. The public trustee 
may be appointed trustee, executor, &c., of any will or settlement 
or instrument of any date either under his official title or other 
sufficient designation. In a will a sentence to the following effect 
would be sufficient. " I appoint the Public Trustee executor and 
trustee of this my will." Where the public trustee has been ap- 
pointed a trustee of any trust, a co-trustee may retire from the trust 
under s. II of the Public Trustee Act 1893 notwithstanding that 
there are not more than two trustees, and without such consents 
as are required by that section. The consolidated fund of the United 
Kingdom is liable to make good all sums required to discharge any 
liability which the public trustee, if he were a private trustee, would 
be personally Kable to discharge, except where neither the public 
trustee nor his officers has contributed to it, and which neither he 
nor any of his officers could by reasonable diligence have averted. 
A person aggrieved by any act or omission or decision of the public 
trustee in relation to any trust may apply to the court, and the court 
may make such order in the matter as it sees fit. The act contains 
provisions for the investigation and audit of trust accounts, which 
may take place on the application of any trustee or beneficiary; 
if the parties do not agree upon a solicitor and public accountant 
for the purpose, they are appointed by the public trustee, who has 
entire discretion over the source from which the expenses are to 
be defrayed. The fees payable under the act are fixed by the 
Public Trustee (Fees) Order; they are of two kinds: fees on capital 
and fees on income. The object of the department is not to make 
a profit, but merely to pay expenses. Full information as to the 
machinery and procedure of the office and the requirements necessary 
to obtain the services of the public trustee are obtainable on applica- 
tion to the Public Trustee Office, Clement's Inn, London. 

Scotland. The history of the law differs considerably from that 
of England, though perhaps the position of the Scottish trustee is 
now not very different from that of the trustee in England. The 
Statute of Uses did not apply to Scotland, since neither that nor 
any similar legislation was necessary in a system in which law and 
equity were administered by the same tribunals. Trusts seem to 
have existed from time immemorial, and have been frequently 



regulated by statute. The policy of the English Statute of Frauds 
was no doubt intentionally imitated in the Act 1696, c. 25, enacting 
that no action of declarator of trust should be sustained as to any 
deed of trust made for thereafter, except upon a declaration or back- 
bond of trust lawfully subscribed by the person alleged to be trustee 
and against whom or his heirs or assignees the declarator should 
be intended, or unless the same were referred to the oath of the 
party simpliciter. The act does not apply to all cases, but only to 
those in which by the act of parties documents of title are in the 
name of a trustee, but the beneficial interest in another. The 
person creating the trust is called the truster, a term unknown in 
England. On the other hand the term cestui que trust is unknown 
in Scotland. The office of trustee is prima facie gratuitous, as in 
England, it being considered to fall under the contract of mandate. 
Some of the main differences between English and Scottish law 
are these. There is no presumption in Scotland of a resulting trust 
in favour of a purchaser. A trust which lapses by the failure of a 
beneficiary goes to the Crown as ultimus heres. The office of trustee 
is not a joint office, therefore there is no right of survivorship, and 
on the death of a trustee the survivors are incompetent to act, unless 
a certain number be declared or presumed to be a quorum, or the 
office be conferred on trustees and the accedors and survivors of 
them. Sometimes the concurrence of one trustee is rendered 
absolutely necessary by his being named sine qua non. The Court 
of Session may appoint new trustees, but generally appoints a judicial 
factor. There has been a considerable amount of legislation, chiefly 
in the direction of extending the powers of trustees and of the court 
in trust matters. The powers of investment given to trustees are 
much the same as those allowed in England. 

United States. In New York and many other States uses and 
trusts have been abolished (with certain exceptions), and every 
estate, subject to those exceptions, is deemed a legal right cognis- 
able in courts of law. Some of these exceptions are implied trusts 
and express trusts to sell land for the benefit of creditors, to sell, 
mortgage or lease lands for the benefit of legatees, or for the purpose 
of satisfying any charge thereon, to receive the rents and profits 
of lands and apply them to the use of any person during the life of 
such person or any shorter term, or to receive such rents and profits, 
and accumulate the same within the limits allowed by the law. 
Some states allow the creation of trusts (other than those arising 
by implication or operation of law) only by means of will or deed. 
Where the trust is of real estate, the deed must generally be registered. 
Forms of deeds of trust are given in the Statutes of Virginia and 
other states. The English doctrine of cy pres is being adopted in 
many states. A public trustee as a corporation sole exists in some 
states. A trustee under American law is generally entitled to 
compensation for his services. Spendthrift trusts, i.e. those under 
which the enjoyment of income bequeathed by will in such a way 
as to prevent creditors of the beneficiary from reaching.it before it 
gets into his hands, are generally supported (Nichols v. Eaton, 
91 United States Reports, 713). A " voting trust " is a concerted 
transfer of their shares in a corporation by a majority of the share- 
holders to trustees to hold and vote on them for a specified period 
for the purpose of securing the adoption or continuance of a certain 
line of corporate action. Any shareholder may recede from such 
an arrangement and reclaim his stock. 

AUTHORITIES. The principal authority is Lewin'sLotu of Trusts; 
other treatises are those of Godefroi and Underhill. For American 
Law see Perry On Trusts. The principal authority on charitable 
trusts is Tudor. For the history may be consulted Bacon, Law 
Tracts; Reading, On the Statute of Uses; Gilbert, On Uses; Sanders, 
On Uses and Trusts; Spence, Equitable Jurisdiction, i. 435; Digby, 
Hist, of the Law of Real Property, chs. vi., vii. 

TRUSTS, in Economics. The word " trusts," as used here, 
includes all those aggregations of capital engaged in productive 
industry that, by virtue of their industrial strength, have or 
are supposed to have some monopolistic power. Legal mono- 
polies, as such, and natural monopolies are excluded, although 
it is frequently true that the trusts are aided by and sometimes 
control natural monopolies. Trusts are here considered to be 
identical with the so-called " capitalistic monopolies." As 
" trusts " started in America, the subject will be considered 
here first from the point of view of American experience. 

While it is probably true that trusts are a product of evolu- 
tion, it is desirable to analyse and explain that conception in 
some detail if we are to understand their industrial significance. 
Competition, especially among industries managed on a great 
scale, often makes modern business unprofitable. Commercial 
men have been thus compelled in some way to modify former 
methods of doing business. So long as most industries were run 
on a small scale, the differences in the ability and the facilities 
of the various competitors were so great that only those at the 
lower end of the scale of excellence were forced out of the busi- 
ness this to the general advantage of industrial society. The 



TRUSTS 



335 



great mass of producers remained vigorously competing with 
one another, some making larger, others smaller profits, but all 
except a few at the lower margin making at least a living. 
Under modern business conditions competitors are often, rela- 
tively speaking, few in number, of substantially equal ability, 
and controlling substantially equal facilities for managing the 
business economically. Consequently, in such circumstances, 
modern competition differs greatly from that form which was 
familiar to the earlier economists. Among competitors of 
such great resources, the struggle may last long after the 
business has become unprofitable to all before any will fail. 
Among competitors so nearly equal in strength, the entire 
industry may be very seriously injured by competition before 
enough are forced out to affect materially the severity of the 
competition. 

The dictum of Stephenson, that " where combination is 
possible, competition is impossible," has a much wider appli- 
cation now than in the early days of railways. The modern 
facilities for the transportation of goods, for the rapid trans- 
mission of intelligence by fast mail, and especially for the in- 
stantaneous exchange of information by the telegraph and 
telephone, have made it possible to manage easily a large busi- 
ness, however widely separated its different plants or estab- 
lishments may be. In the middle of the igth century or there- 
abouts, on account of the lack of these facilities, management 
of such institutions would often have been impossible. Many 
of the advantages of combinations are entirely dependent 
upon these modern facilities, and on that account these facilities 
may be said to be an occasion, if not a cause, of the trusts. 

If the product of an industry is of such a nature that its 
quality is substantially uniform and can be readily tested by 
Two Kinds purchasers, especially if the goods are such that 
of Trust they are ordinarily sold in large quantities, the 
industries, competition between rival establishments must 
almost of necessity be a competition in price. Sugar refining, 
oil refining, the distilling of spirits, the manufacture of salt, 
are such industries. The standard quality is readily tested, 
and the manufacturer who can offer the standard product 
at the lowest price effects a sale. Industries manufacturing 
comparatively inexpensive articles for the retail trade, put them 
up in packages which become well known to customers; and those 
industries whose goods are sold under brands or trade-marks, 
or in some other form so that they are familiar to buyers, afford 
an example of competition of an entirely different kind. When 
the reputation of a certain brand of goods of this nature 
becomes established, consumers make no further efforts to -test 
its quality, and the retail price often becomes a customary 
price. If a manufacturer of such goods finds his trade injured 
by a rival, his most effective means of competition will often be, 
not a lowering of the price, but an increase of the outlay on 
advertising. Soap, baking-powder, photographic cameras for 
general use, and of late years certain brands of coffee, patent 
medicine, and other drugs of similar nature, are examples 
of this class. Those industries in which the competition becomes 
a matter of cutting of prices can by combination remove rivals 
from the field, and then put prices up to a remunerative rate. 
Competitors in industries of the second class by combination can 
save many of the costs of selling, and thus without any increase 
in the price of the product may save enough of the cost to make 
the business profitable. 

Some of the advantages of combination over competition which 
have led to the organization of trusts may be enumerated : 

I. The cost of selling may be greatly lessened. As has been 
intimated, competition in the case of industries of the second class 
Savings name d above leads to very expensive advertising in 
from Com- or der to effect sales. An examination of the pages of 
blnailon. an Y f the American magazines, with a thought as to the 
amount charged for the use of these advertising pages 
(from one hundred to as high as even four hundred dollars, or from 
20 to 80, per page for a single insertion in some of the magazines 
with the largest circulation) will convince one of the cost of such 
competitive advertising. The expense involved in making attrac- 
tive show-windows in stores or shops, and in calling the attention 
of the public to popular wares by posters scattered about the 



country and by legends painted on rocks, on buildings along the 
lines of railways, &c., are other common examples. 

2. The salaries of commercial travellers, together with their 
hotel and travelling expenses, are of a similar nature. This com- 
petitive advertising in many cases does not increase to any note- 
worthy extent the consumption of the products in question, but 
merely attracts customers from one manufacturer to another. 
Combination among establishments that do this costly advertising 
saves a large part of the expense without lessening materially the 
quantity of goods sold. 

3. If different manufacturing establishments, scattered through- 
out the country, are brought under one management, it will be 
possible for orders for goods to be received at one central office, and 
then to be distributed to the federated establishments, so that goods 
can be despatched to customers in each case from the nearest 
establishment. In this way freight expenses may be very greatly 
lessened, cross freights over the same territory being substantially 
eliminated. A single establishment supplying all of its customers 
would often be compelled to deliver much longer distances at greatly 
increased expense. 

4. The entire profit of an establishment frequently depends upon 
the skill of the manager. When many different establishments 
are organized into one, it is possible to select the most skilful manager 
of all and to put him in charge of the combination, thus securing 
in many cases, if the trust includes practically all of the establish- 
ments in the entire industry, the ablest manager in the country 
for them all. It is of course true that as an establishment increases 
in size, or as a combination increases the number of its branches, 
especially if they are widely scattered, it becomes impossible for 
the manager to give his personal supervision to the details of manage- 
ment of each institution. An executive officer of the highest skill, 
however, will so select his subordinates, so direct their work, and 
so infuse into them his own spirit, that, under careful inspection, 
comparatively little will be lost from his inability to be present 
personally in each separate establishment. In the larger combina- 
tions frequent reports, often daily, are made from each concern, 
giving in detail the quantity of the output, the quality of the goods, 
the exact cost of the different processes of manufacture; so that it 
is possible to compare continually each of them with all of the others; 
to detect the special weakness of each, and in this way to remedy 
any slight defects in any one establishment, and to bring all nearly 
up to the highest level of productive capacity. 

5. Each business manager is likely to have some special excellence 
in his methods of management. One will be particularly skilful 
in the technique of manufacturing; another in the organization 
of the business; a third in selling goods, and so on. By combining 
many establishments into one, it is possible so to distribute this 
managerial skill that each superintendent will be given the depart- 
ment for which he is peculiarly fitted, and the whole establishment 
will thus get the benefit, not merely of the best executive ability at 
the head, but also of the best managing skill at the head of each 
separate department. In many cases it is probable that as much is 
saved in this way as in any other. 

6. Besides this distribution of skill of the managers.it is sometimes 
equally beneficial to distribute the various products of the combina- 
tion among the different plants. For example, in the manufacture 
of hoop and bar iron the products are turned out in great varieties 
of size, probably from seventy-five to a hundred. Wholesale dealers 
in sending their orders to the mills are likely to call for from ten to 
fifty different kinds. If these orders go to an establishment which 
has but one large mill, it may be necessary, in order to execute the 
order, to change the rolls in the mill several times, causing thus a 
waste of power, of time and of energy. If several establishments 
are combined, each can be equipped for certain sizes. When, in 
these circumstances, a large order is received, to each establishment 
will be sent that part of the order which it is especially equipped 
to fulfil, and thus, without any changes of rolls or stoppage of 
machinery, the separate sizes can be made. The same principle 
holds of course in nearly all lines of work, in some to a greater degree 
than in others; but in the manufacture of hoop and bar iron a saving 
from this source amounting to from a dollar to a dollar and a half, 
or from 43. to 6s., per ton is sometimes made. 

7. The advantage of unifying in one establishment the manu- 
facture of products somewhat allied in nature appears also in selling 
goods. If customers can buy all of the various kinds of related 
goods in one establishment, much of their time and energy will be 
saved. Some of the larger combinations, therefore, in order to 
make this saving for their customers and thus to be sure of retaining 
their orders, add to their plant facilities for making products which 
a smaller establishment could hardly manufacture. For example, 
the Distilling Company of America, which controls probably 90% 
of the entire product of corn spirits, found it to its advantage to 
add to its plant several rye distilleries, and to purchase a number 
of the leading brands of whiskies for consumption as beverages, 
in order that they might supply the needs along different lines of 
practically all dealers in spirits and whiskies, in this way saving 
for themselves -many customers who otherwise might have been lost. 

8. The mere size of an establishment and its ability to supply 
at any time on short notice any order, however large, gives it also 
an advantage in retaining custom. A concern that controls only 



TRUSTS 



from 5 to 10% of the entire output of a country in any special line 
of goods might at times find it impossible to supply goods promptly. 
Large customers who might thus be embarrassed are more ready 
to deal regularly with an establishment controlling 75 to 90% ol 
the output, if they can in this way be sure of having their orders 
attended to promptly. It is stated that the American Sugar Refin- 
ing Company on this account has been able to secure, with consider- 
able regularity, one-sixteenth of a cent a pound more on its refined 
sugars than the independent refiners, the latter being frequently 
compelled to cut their prices to that extent in order to make sales. 

9. Owing to the fact that the introduction of goods into new 
markets, especially into foreign markets, is a matter of time, ex- 
penditure of energy, and of money, the large establishment with 

treat capital has in this particular also a decided advantage. The 
tandard Oil Company, and American Tobacco Company, and other 
similar establishments, have thus been able to open up new markets 
in Europe, in Japan, China and other portions of the Far East more 
readily by far than individual producers along those lines could 
have done. This stimulus to the foreign trade acts also beneficially 
to the domestic trade, inasmuch as the exportation of part of the 
product tends to keep prices somewhat higher at home, and as the 
added demand for the raw material influences its price, thus creates 
a demand for labour along many lines. 

10. The combination also frequently saves for its stockholders 
considerable sums from its wiser dealing with credits, and this in 
a way also that is beneficial to the entire business community. 
When competition is very severe among different establishments, 
the managers, in order to increase their sales, will not inirequently 
grant credit somewhat unwisely. The combination controlling a 
large part of the market is not so tempted, and moreover has the 
power to bring needed pressure to bear upon delinquent debtors 
more readily, so that losses from bad debts are much less frequent. 

Besides the special savings that serve as reasons for the forma- 
tion of combinations, certain special favours at times lead to 
their formation. 

1. The protective tariff is most frequently cited as such a favour. 
By the protection which a protective duty gives against foreign 

competition, it doubtless often furnishes the occasion 
' for the formation of trusts. If a large amount of capital 
lvo " rs * is tempted into the industry through the profits pro- 
mised by the tariff, and therefore competition among 
the various establishments becomes fierce, it is much 
easier for them to form a combination with the certainty of good 
profits, provided the domestic competition can be overcome, if they 
are certain that foreign competition also is to be excluded. On 
the other hand, it would hardly be right to speak of the tariff as in 
this case the direct cause. In other industries not protected by 
the tariff the same fiwce competition leads to the formation of 
combinations. The tariff is simply an encouraging condition. The 
removal of the tariff would not destroy the combination unless it 
destroyed the industry at the same time; but, on the other hand, the 
removal of a protective tariff might very easily prevent the abuses of 
exorbitant prices which might be exacted by a combination pro- 
tected by the tariff. 

2. It is doubtless true that combinations have a good many times 
been encouraged by special discriminating rates of freight granted 
by the railways or other transportation agencies. There is, of 
course, a certain economic advantage to the railways in having 
goods despatched in large quantities by consigners who are able 
to supply their own cars, loading and unloading facilities, &c. Rail- 
ways on that account often prefer to deal with large firms, and, 
other things being equal, are willing to give them some special rates. 
These concerns also are likely to have rather better credit than 
the smaller ones, so that dealing with them ensures prompt pay 
and cheaper collection of accounts. The competition among the 
different railways also for the freights which an important customer 
can furnish leads to cutting of the rates in their favour. These 
special rates, however, whether justified from the business point 
of view or not, are beyond any question from the social point of 
view, often a very grave injury. A manufacturer who receives 
these_ special favours can build up a business substantially monopol- 
istic in its extent, whereas his rival of equal or even of greater ability, 
and equally skilful as a manufacturer, would be ruined if he did not 
receive like rates. The injustice of such discriminations and their 
evil effects on the community have been recognized by legislatures 
and courts in America, and they are practically universally for- 
bidden. It remains beyond question true that they are, notwith- 
standing, very frequently granted. 

In recent years in the United States there can be little question 
that the formation of the great combinations has been much 
Promotion encoura g e d by the opportunities, which promoters 
' were able to seize, of making for themselves large 
profits. The movement towards combination was so fully 
recognized and the advantages in many cases so palpable, that a 
well-informed and skilful promoter was often able to persuade 
a large proportion of the manufacturers in some special industry 
to combine. In preparing the plan for such combination, the 



promoter has in many cases seen to it that he himself first 
bought the properties which he could very shortly turn over 
to the combination at high rates of profit; or else he has been 
able to persuade the new corporation to issue large amounts of 
stock, of which considerable proportions were given to him in 
return for his services. It has been true in many cases that these 
securities have been speculative in nature, but nevertheless the 
promoter has often reaped in this way large rewards. The possi- 
bility of this profit has doubtless stimulated his activity in urging 
the combinations. 

Associated with the promoter in the organization of these com- 
binations have usually been bankers or other financiers who stood 
ready, for an amount of stock or other promised profit 
sufficiently large to compensate them for their risk, Uader- 
to furnish to the combinations cash sufficient to start wrlter - 
the business and to provide other needed capital. Usually the 
form of underwriting employed has been this: A promoter engaged 
in the formation of a combination and needing a certain fixea sum 
in cash, would make an arrangement with a bank to sell to it at 
a price agreed upon such portions of a named amount of stock as 
were not disposed of to other customers before a certain fixed date. 
For example, the bank might agree to furnish one million dollars 
in cash (200,000) in return for say four millions of stock (800,000), 
or to purchase itself at a fixed price all the remainder of the $4,000,000 
stock unsold at the date agreed upon, the bank itself to become the 
sales agent. In those circumstances the bank would naturally 
use its best endeavours to sell the four millions of stock to other 
customers at the price agreed upon, say twenty-five dollars, or 5, 
per share. So far as it failed of disposing of the entire amount, it 
would take the remainder itself. For taking these risks, naturally 
the bank has almost invariably asked a very high commission, and 
not infrequently it has been asserted that the managers of the banks 
have been given a special bonus for themselves privately, in addition 
to the rates of profits granted the bank. 

These large amounts of stock that are paid to the promoter and 
the financier for the purpose of bringing about the organization 
of a large trust, lead, of course, to what is called over--.. _ 
capitalization. What the proper basis of capitalization ' , j 
for a manufacturing industry should be, is a matter that :J apl 
cannot perhaps easily be determined by a definite prin- **" 
ciple which shall be applicable in every case. The laws that have 
been most strict on the subject attempt to limit the capitalization to 
the " actual cash value " of the business, by that being understood 
at times simply the cost of the plant itself with the running cash 
capital needed. On the other hand, most business men think that 
it is a wiser plan, and on the whole equally just, to capitalize a 
business on the basis of its earning capacity, regardless of what 
the plant may have cost. When, as has been frequently the case 
of late years, in addition to this cash value of the plant and the cash 
itself which may have been paid in, large sums of stock are issued 
also for properties which may be in themselves highly over-valued, 
and for the services of the promoter, the financier and others, we 
can see that the capitalization must be far above what may ordinarily 
be considered a paying basis. On the other hand, if the element 
of ntonopoly enters into the business to any noteworthy extent, the 
prices of the product may be kept so high that fair dividends may 
be paid even on this high capitalization. That the tendency towards 
increasing the capital has been very strong there can be no question, 
and a penalty is apt to be paid for this somewhat reckless financiering. 
As soon as a slight depression in business comes, so that it is perfectly 
evident not merely that dividends cannot be paid on the common 
stock, but that in all probability both the deferred stock and the 
bonds, if any have been issued, will also have to go without 
interest, it may be necessary to reorganize many of these combina- 
tions and to start them anew on a much lower capitalization. 

When the person organizing the combination is himself 
an active business man, and has the intention of himself 
directing the affairs of the combination, another The 
element besides that of personal profit very fre- industrial 
quently enters into the problem. Most strong Maaa s r - 
men like to take responsibility and to be dominant in 
affairs. When, owing to the advantages of combination 
that have been enumerated above, the prospect of a virtual 
monopoly seems certain, provided due skill in management 
is exercised, it is natural that the manager should wish to bring 
about the combination in order that he may himself have the 
satisfaction of being in substantially absolute control of the 
entire industry in a country, or possibly even in the world. 
The ambition thus to dominate in a great industry is akin to 
that of a statesman, and there can be little question that 
his pride of power and the desire to control the destinies of 
others has been a more or less conscious element in the formation 



TRUSTS 



337 



of many of the most successful and most skilfully managed 
combinations. 

1. The form of combination which has ordinarily been 
first adopted has been some kind of agreement with reference 
The Forms to maintaining prices, or to paying wages, or to 
ofCom- dividing the territory for the distribution of the 
bination. p ro duct, or similar questions. Experience has 
shown that, generally speaking, such agreements are not likely 
to be kept in good faith for a long period. 

2. In order to make the combination more permanent in its 
nature, the form of the trust, technically so called, was adopted. 
Under this form of combination, the stockholders of the various 
constituent companies of the trust place their stock in the hands 
of a small board of trustees, giving to these trustees an irrevo- 
cable power of attorney to vote the stock as they see fit, or in 
accordance with specific instructions given at the beginning. The 
title to the stock itself remains in the original holder, with the 
right to sell or pledge or dispose of it as he sees fit, but without 
the power of recalling his right to vote. In return for this 
stock thus deposited with the trustees, the trustees have ordi- 
narily issued trust certificates, which are in themselves negoti- 
able and take the place of the stock. Inasmuch as the holding 
of the voting power of the majority of the stock of each of the 
different constituent companies gave to the trustees absolute 
power of election of directors, and consequently the power of 
guiding harmoniously the affairs of all of the plant entering into 
the combination regardless of the will of the stockholders, the 
United States courts held that the corporations entering into 
such an agreement had gone beyond their powers, and that such 
a trust was illegal. Owing chiefly to these hostile decisions of 
the courts, this form of trust was abandoned, and new forms, 
which still, however, leave the power of unified direction in the 
hands of a few men, were adopted. 

3. After the trusts were declared illegal, it was usual, when a 
combination was formed, to organize a new corporation which 
bought all of the properties of the constituent members of the 
trust. These constituent companies then dissolved, and the one 
great corporation owning all of the properties remained. 

4. The form that now seems to be much in favour approaches 
in its general nature more closely to that of the original trust. 
Under this form a corporation is organized for the special 
purpose of buying and owning all, or a controlling share, of the 
stocks of each one of the constituent companies. The separate 
companies are then managed technically independently, the 
dividends of the separate corporations are all paid to the parent 
corporation as the stockholder owning all of the stocks, and these 
dividends are the source of profits of the new corporation. The 
officers in this parent corporation, of course, vote the stocks of 
the separate companies, and thus absolutely control. 

From the savings which it is possible for the combinations 
to make, it would seem possible for them to pay higher rates 
of wages to those remaining in their employment 
and Wages tnan it was possible for the constituent companies 
to do. In certain instances, especially when the 
combination has first been made, wages have been increased. 
On the whole, however, it is probable that as yet the wage- 
earners have succeeded in getting an increase of wages in cir- 
cumstances substantially similar to those under which their 
wages would be increased by single corporations. An increase 
of wages comes only through pressure on their part. Under a 
prosperous condition of industry it is possible, without materially 
lowering profits, to increase the wages. 

Certain classes of employes, especially superintendents and 
commercial travellers, are less needed by the combinations, and 
consequently the total sum of wages paid to these classes by the 
combination is less than that formerly paid by the constituent 
companies. On the other hand, the number of employes of 
these classes being less than before, the average wage has, in 
certain cases at least, been increased. Owing to the fact that 
competitive selling is in certain cases largely done away with, 
it has in some, perhaps in many, cases been possible for fewer 
travelling salesmen, of less skill and with lower wages, to do the 



Prices. 



work than before the combination, so that not merely has the 
total expense been lessened, but also the average salary paid to 
those retained in the business. 

In case of disputes arising between the combination and the 
operatives, the position of the combination is stronger than that 
of an individual corporation. It is possible to close one or two 
works where troubles have arisen, and to transfer orders to the 
other works without any material injury to the business, provided 
the closing of the one or two establishments is not for too long a 
period. Such instances have occurred. On the other hand, 
labour organizations are also rapidly increasing in strength, 
and their leaders are of the opinion that within a comparatively 
short time they will be so thoroughly organized in all of the chief 
industries that a strike can be instituted and supported not 
merely in one or two establishments, but throughout the entire 
industry. Whenever this condition of affairs shall have been 
reached, the employes will be substantially on an equality with 
their employers in such cases of conflict, so that the advantage 
now resting with the combination will be largely removed. In 
certain industries this condition seems already to have been 
reached. 

From the sources of savings that were enumerated before, it 
is evident that it would be possible for a combination either to 
increase the prices paid for raw materials, or to lower 
the prices of its finished products. Experience, how- 
ever, seems to show beyond question that whenever the combina- 
tions are powerful enough to secure a monopolistic control it has 
usually been the policy to increase the prices above those which 
obtained during the period of competition preceding the forma- 
tion of the combination. Inasmuch, however, as an attempt 
to increase prices to any great extent, so as to secure very high 
profits, would certainly result in tempting new capital into the 
field, it has been the general experience that prices have either 
been increased only comparatively little after the combination 
was formed, or else that competition entering the field has com- 
paratively soon forced a lowering of prices to substantially the 
former competitive rates. It should be noted, however, that 
inasmuch as combinations have very frequently been formed 
only after a period of competition so fierce that practically all 
the competitors were running at a loss, it is hardly just to speak 
of a combination placing its prices above " competitive rates " 
unless one defines what is meant exactly by that expression. 
Whenever they have put their prices above the competitive 
rates existing just before the combination, it may mean that 
they have put their prices back to rates that will allow medium 
profits instead of losses, and not above rates that would be 
normal in the case of small competitors. 

It will have been noted from what has been said that the 
excellences of the combination consist largely in the savings 
that have already been enumerated. The evils are: 
(i) The losses to investors through the acts of the . 

promoters and financiers at the time of the organiza- 
tion of the combinations, and through the speculation in the 
stocks which is at times carried on by the directors of the com- 
binations themselves. (2) The losses to the wage-earners from 
the power that sometimes exists of forcing wages rather lower 
than it would be possible for a single corporation or manufacturer 
to do, and also from the discharge of certain classes of employes 
whose services are no longer needed, such as commercial travellers. 
It should be remarked of the latter case, however, that the 
injury is a personal one to those men that are discharged, but 
that it results in a saving to the community, and, therefore, 
presumably to the wage-earning class as a whole in the long 
run. (3) A further injury at times to the consumer arises, as 
has been suggested, from the increase in price. Other evils 
come through the power that is sometimes exercised by combina- 
tions in the corruption of legislatures; in the control over 
industries of such a nature that it tends to destroy the spirit of 
individual activity and independence on the part of many 
persons who would otherwise enter business independently; and 
evils also come through the increased force of any improper or 
dishonourable business practices, since this added force for evil 



TRUSTS 



is given to any combination by virtue of its greater influence in 
the community. It is not intended to convey the impression 
that managers of combinations are less moral than other business 
men, but merely that whenever they are dishonourable in their 
practices the influence reaches more widely. 

The chief remedies for these evils enumerated would seem 
to be more rigid laws with reference to the methods of incorpora- 
tion and to the responsibility of directors to stockholders and 
to the public. This can perhaps best be brought about through 
greater publicity in both of these directions, probably under the 
inspection of government officials. The other line of remedies 
would seem to be the removal of special favours granted to these 
combinations either by the government or by railways or other 
bodies so situated that they can distribute favours to the larger 
combinations. 

The movement towards consolidation of industries in the 
United States began to be noticeable soon after the Civil War 
The (1861-65), but it had not reached noteworthy 

Movement proportions, excepting in connection with the rail- 
Towards ways, until within the last twenty years of the 
consoiida- Igt jj centur y. During the later years many con- 
solidations were made, the largest number during 
the years 1898-1900. From what has been said earlier, it 
is evident that certain classes of industries, especially those 
that require the investment of fixed capital to large amounts, 
are especially adapted for combination. Very little tendency 
towards consolidation is found in the farming industry, 
and, relatively speaking, little in industries that require the 
investment of but small capital. It is perhaps, however, not 
too much to say that in nearly all lines of industry which from 
their nature are adapted for consolidation combinations more 
or less firm have been made during the last few years. It is 
probable that as time passes we shall have many of these 
combinations reorganized, and that in many lines of industry 
there will be further consolidation of present combinations. 

Experience has shown that when combinations are made in 
industries that from their nature do not seem well suited for 
consolidation, failure follows. In many individual instances 
corporation lawyers, who have had much practice in forming 
combinations, advise their clients in lines of business especially 
fitted for competition not to enter a combination, but to remain 
independent, assuring them that an individual is able to compete 
in such lines of industry with any combination, however large. 
Such advice, of course, would not be given were the industry one 
which was well adapted for consolidation. 

Great Britain. The tendency towards consolidation has been 
for several years very noticeable in Great Britain, although the 
form has been rather that of a pool or ring than that 
a trust or f a single large corporation. In the 
coal and milling industries there have been agree- 
ments; and, particularly in London and other distributing 
centres, these selling combinations have been able at times to 
control the market. This has also been true with reference to 
certain kinds of provisions, such as the bacon imported from 
Denmark. 

Of late years there has been a marked tendency towards the 
formation of large corporations that buy up a very large pro- 
portion of competing manufacturing plant, and in this way secure 
at least a temporary monopoly of the market. The Salt Union 
was formed along these lines, but this has not proved successful, 
owing probably to the fact that new sources of supply were dis- 
covered. The dyeing industries in Bradford and in Yorkshire 
have been consolidated, so that in certain respects they have 
an absolute monopoly of the business, and in most directions of 
over 90% of it. The calico printers, the fine cotton spinners, 
the thread manufacturers, the bleachers, and others connected 
with the cotton manufacturing industries in Great Britain, have 
nearly all been brought together into large corporations which 
control from 90% upwards of the entire business. Similar 
combinations in cement, wall-paper, soap, tobacco and other 
trades have been formed. Most of these large corporations 
have been in existence for such a short time that one cannot yet 



judge accurately regarding their permanent success. Many of 
them seem to have been over-capitalized and their dividends 
have not always met shareholders' anticipations. There has 
been no active popular movement against consolidation in Eng- 
land, and the government has passed no laws opposed to it. 
Parliament, however, has passed stringent amendments to the 
Companies Acts, changes enforcing publicity regarding the 
organization of all limited liability companies and their methods 
of management. The amended law is expected to prevent most 
of the abuses of the combinations. 

Germany. Germany seems to be peculiarly the home of 
combinations so far as Europe is concerned. In 1897 Liefmann, 
writing regarding combinations in Germany, was able to mention 
combinations which were international in their scope in forty- 
one different branches of industry. Of combinations that were 
confined to Germany alone he mentioned 345, although many 
of them were in the same line of industry; for example, he found 
80 combinations in different branches of the iron industry, 82 
in the chemical industries, 38 in the textiles, and so on. Of that 
number he thought that definite information could be secured, 
but he was of the opinion that very many more of less impor- 
tance existed, and had excluded from his reckoning all of those 
that were purely local, as for example those among the breweries 
in the different cities, as well as those among firms engaged merely 
in trade. The form of combination in Germany is ordinarily 
that merely of contracts among independent establishments 
(Cartels, Kartells) regulating the amount of output for each> and 
in certain cases also the prices. As in Austria and in France, a 
central selling bureau for all the members of the combination 
is frequently found. The most successful combinations have 
been those among the coal-miners in western Germany and the 
four or five in the leading branches of iron manufacture, also in 
western Germany. Others of somewhat similar rank have been 
organized, one, for example, in the sugar industry, which includes 
both refiners and producers, and another among the manufac- 
turers of spirits. The former, following that among the Austrian 
sugar manufacturers, is somewhat peculiar in that the refiners 
guarantee to the producers of raw sugar a fixed price for their 
output so far as the sugar is intended for the home market, the 
refiners expecting to recoup themselves from the consumers 
through the monopolistic power which they possess. The law 
does not seem to be hostile to these combinations. Contracts 
that are immoral in their nature are, of course, non-enforceable. 
But the courts have, on the whole, not taken an attitude inimical 
to the larger combinations, and the government seems at times 
to have been inclined to favour them. In one or two cases where 
the government is itself a producer, as of soda, it is a member of 
a combination. Indeed, a Prussian minister in a speech in the 
Landtag has expressed himself favourably regarding the coal 
and iron combinations. The facts seem to show that the coal 
combination, at any rate, has used its power of fixing prices in 
a conservative way, and it has at times held prices somewhat 
lower than they probably would have been had free competition 
existed in that industry. So long as the combinations are 
managed conservatively, and so long as the government is 
able to secure a careful supervision over them, it is not to be 
expected that there will be much hostility in Germany on the 
part of the government. 

France. The number of combinations in France is probably 
much less than in Great Britain or Germany. In the penal 
code there has been a provision for many years against monopoly 
brought about by unfair means, and in one or two rather promi- 
nent instances there seem to have been convictions under this 
article. Consequently, the agreements that have been made, 
so far as they are intended to control prices, are usually kept 
secret. There have been, however, notably in the case of the 
iron industries, agreements made among the leading manufac- 
turers, under which the proportion of output assigned to each 
was fixed. A single selling bureau has also in such cases been 
established, which receives all orders and fixes the prices for all 
of the different establishments concerned. So far this form of 
organization, although in certain localities it seems to have 



TRUXTUN TRYON, SIR G. 



339 



secured monopolistic power has not been successfully attacked 
in the courts. For several years it has been supposed that a 
similar agreement existed among the sugar refiners. They 
themselves, however, acknowledge only an agreement regarding 
the amount of the output which shall be assigned to each, and 
deny any agreement as to prices. Of course an agreement 
regarding output would be likely to have a material effect 
upon prices. Somewhat similar combinations exist among the 
petroleum refiners, the porcelain makers, and some few others. 
The government has taken no active steps in the matter, but 
popular opinion seems to be awakening somewhat. 

Austria. In Austria the development of combinations has 
been very marked. The most successful combination, on the 
whole, as well as one of the earliest, has been that of the iron 
industry. The sugar industry, however, including both refiners 
and producers of the raw sugar,' and the petroleum industry, 
are also combinations of great power. The form of these com- 
binations is ordinarily that of an agreement regarding both out- 
put and prices. In some instances a central selling bureau fixes 
the prices, in others the market is divided, while in others still 
other forms of agreements of many kinds which serve to secure 
a monopoly are found. The movement has spread very rapidly 
indeed, until, in the opinion of many writers in Austria, 
practically all branches of industry, in which agreements for the 
lessening of competition will prove advantageous, are now 
largely controlled by combinations. The courts of Austria have, 
on the whole, shown themselves hostile to the movement. Con- 
tracts for the division of the market, for the assignment of fixed 
proportions of the entire output to different establishments, the 
fixing of prices, &c., are declared void and will not be enforced 
by the courts. This adverse action, however, does not seem 
to have affected very materially the tendency towards combina- 
tion, although it has perhaps tended somewhat to encourage 
the formation of large corporations which should purchase all 
of the separate plant in any one industry. This tendency, again, 
is checked by the fact that the corporation law requires publicity 
in business, and that the taxes are heavier on corporations than 
on private firms, both as regards the legal rate and the certainty 
of collection. A government commission has recommended 
recognition of the combinations by law and their careful super- 
vision and regulation by government authority. (J. W. J.) 

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A. Berglund, The United States Steel Corporation (New York, 
1907) i G. L. Bolen, Plain Facts as to the Trusts and the Tariff (New 
York, 1902); J. B. Clark, The Control of Trusts (New York, 1901), 
The Problem of Monopoly (1904); W. M. Collier, The Trusts; what 
can we do with them? what can they do for us? (1900) ; W. W. Cook, 
The Corporation Problem (1891); J. P. Davis, Corporations: a 
Study of the Origin and Development of Great Business Combinations 
(New York, 1905) ; E. Dolleans, L Accaparement (Paris, 1902) ; 
J. R. Dos Passos, Commercial Trusts (New York, 1901) ; L. Duchcsne, 
L'Avenement du regime syndical a Verniers (Paris, 1908) ; T. Duim- 
chen, Die Trusts und die Zukunft der Kulturmenschlieit (Berlin, 
1903) ; R. T. Ely, Monopolies and Trusts (New York, 1900) ; G. 
Fagniez, Corporations et Syndicats (Paris, 1904) ; C. Genart, Les 
Syndicats industriels (Ghent, 1896) ; A. P. C. Griffin, A List of Books 
relating to Trusts (Washington, 1902) ; E. von Halle, Trusts in the 
United States (New York, 1895) ; F. W. Hirst, Monopolies, Trusts 
and Kartells (1905); J. W. Jenks, The Trust Problem (New York, 
I 93); L- Liefman, Die Unternehmerverbande (Leipzig, 1897); 
H. D. Lloyd, Wealth against Commonwealth (New York, 1894) ! 
D. H. Macgregor, Industrial Combination (1906); H. W. Macrosty, 
The Trust Movement in British Industry (1907) ; F. Pierce, The 
Tariff and the Trusts (1907); W. Z. Ripley (editor), Trusts, Pools 
and Corporations (New York, 1905) ; P. de Rousiers, Les Industries 
monopolisms aux Etats- Unis (Paris, 1898); I.M.Tarbell, The History 
of the Standard Oil Company (1905). 

TRUXTUN, THOMAS (1755-1822), American naval officer, 
was born at Jamaica, Long Island, on the i7th of February 
1755. He went young to sea, and during the War of Indepen- 
dence was first persuaded to serve in a royal ship. But having 
been wounded in an action with a privateer manned by his 
countrymen, it is said that he declared he would never fight 
them again. Henceforth he commanded a succession of priva- 
teers sent out to cruise against British trade and transports 
the " St. James," the " Mars," the " Independence." He had 
the reputation of being uniformly successful in all engagements 



with British vessels. When the independence of the United 
States was recognized he returned to trade with a high reputation 
as a seaman. He was the author of a treatise on longitude and 
latitude, of a " System of masting a 44-gun frigate," and was 
an advocate for the foundation of a national navy. When the 
United States navy was reconstituted in 1798 he was one of 
the original corps of six captains. During the last years of the 
i8th and first of the ipth century American commerce was sub- 
ject to much intolerable interference on the part of the French as 
well as of the British naval officers. It was against the first that 
Truxtun rendered the services which have made him a prominent 
personage in the history of the United States navy. In February 
1799 he was captain of the United States " Constellation" (36) 
and on the igth of that month he captured the French " LTnsur- 
gente " (36). In the following year, and while still in command 
of the" Constellation," he fought the French " Vengeance" (40), 
and drove her into Curacao. The crippled state of his own ship, 
which had lost her mainmast, prevented him from taking 
possession of the enemy. In 1802 he was to have sailed in com- 
mand of the squadron sent against the Barbary pirates, but a 
difference having occurred between him and the navy depart- 
ment in regard to the appointment of a captain to his flagship, 
his remonstrance against the official decision of the authorities 
was treated as a resignation, which it was apparently not 
meant to be, and he was not employed any further. He died at 
Philadelphia on the 5th of May 1822. 

TRYON, DWIGHT WILLIAM (1849- ), American artist, 
was born at Hartford, Connecticut, on the I3th of August 1849. 
At the age of twenty-five he left his position as a clerk in a Hart- 
ford publishing house tc devote himself entirely to art, and two 
years afterwards went to Paris, where he became a pupil of the 
ficole des Beaux Arts, under J. de la Chevreuse, Charles Daubigny 
and A. Guillemet. A skilful landscape painter, New England 
provided his best subjects. He first exhibited at the Salon in 
1 88 1, and in the same year returned to the United States, 
settling first in New York City; in 1882-1886 he was director of 
the Hartford School of Art, and in 1886 became professor of 
art at Smith College. He became a member of the Society of 
American Artists (1882), a National Academician (1891), and 
a member of the American Water Color Society. He won 
numerous medals and prizes at important exhibitions, among 
his pictures being " Daybreak," " Moonlight " and " Early 
Spring, New England." 

TRYON, SIR GEORGE (1832-1893), British admiral, a younger 
son of Thomas Tryon, of Bulwick Park, Northamptonshire, 
was born on the 4th of January 1832. He entered the navy in 
1848, on board Lord Dundonald's flagship on the North Ameri- 
can station; was subsequently in the " Vengeance" with Lord 
Edward Russell in the Black Sea; was landed for service with the 
naval brigade; and was made a h'eutenant in November, but dated 
back to the 2ist of October 1854. From 1855 to 1858 he was in 
the " Royal Albert " flagship of Sir Edmund Lyons; and from 
1858 to 1860 in the royal yacht, which gave him his promotion 
to commander on the 25th of October 1860. From 1861 to 1864 
he was commander of the " Warrior," the first British sea-going 
ironclad; from 1864 to 1866 he commanded the " Surprise" gun- 
vessel in the Mediterranean; and was promoted to be captain 
on the nth of April 1866. In 1867 he was sent out as director 
of transports and store ships for the Abyssinian expedition, a 
post which involved a great deal of hard work in a sweltering and 
unhealthy climate. He discharged his duties exceedingly well, 
but his health broke down, and he returned to England a helpless 
invalid. From 1871 to 1873 he was private secretary to Mr 
Goschen, then first lord of the admiralty; and from 1874 to 1877 
commanded the " Raleigh " in India with the Prince of Wales, 
and later in the Mediterranean. In the years 1878-1881 
he had command of the " Monarch," one of the Mediterranean 
fleet under Sir Geoffrey Hornby and Sir Beauchamp Seymour, 
afterwards Lord Alcester. He was subsequently for two years 
secretary of the admiralty; and for three years more, on his 
promotion in April 1884 to the rank of rear-admiral, commander- 
in-chief on the Australian station. On his return in June 1887 



34 



TRYON, T. TRYPANOSOMES 



he was made K.C.B.; afterwards he was for three years super- 
intendent of reserves, in which capacity it fell to him to com- 
mand one of the opposing fleets during the summer manoeuvres, 
when he showed marked ability and originality of ideas. In 
1889 he was promoted to be vice-admiral; and in August 1891 
was appointed to command the Mediterranean fleet, which 
under him following the example of his old chief, Sir Geoffrey 
Hornby became very distinctly an evolutionary and, in that 
sense, experimental squadron. Some of his methods were 
afterwards said to be dangerous; but those which were most 
severely criticized do not appear to have had anything to do 
with the lamentable accident which ended Tryon's career. On 
the 22nd of June 1893, the fleet being then off Tripoli on the 
coast of Syria, in two columns, Tryon made the signal to invert 
the course, the ships turning inwards in succession. By a 
fatal error, the psychological cause of which has never been 
explained, he ignored the patent fact that the two columns were 
so near each other that the manoeuvre, as ordered, must entail 
the most serious risk, if not certainty, of collision. And, in fact, 
the two leading ships did come into collision, with the result 
that the " Victoria," Tryon's flagship, was cut open and sank 
in a few minutes. Tryon and 358 officers and men were 
drowned. 

See the Life, by Rear-Admiral C. C. Penrose-FitzGerald. 

TRYON, THOMAS (1634-1703), English humanitarian, was 
born at Bilbury near Cirencester on the 6th of September 1634. 
He had but little schooling, spending his youth first in spinning 
and carding and then as a shepherd. In 1652 he went to 
London, apprenticed himself to a hatter, and accepted his 
master's Anabaptist principles until he read the works of 
Jacob Behmen. He now lived a very ascetic life, though he 
married and became a prosperous merchant. In 1682 he began 
to publish his views in support of vegetarianism and abstinence 
from alcohol and tobacco. He detested war, and in this and 
his mysticism resembled the early Quakers. He died on the 
2ist of August 1703. 

His best known book, The Way to Health (1691), which much 
impressed Benjamin Franklin, was a second edition of Health's 
Grand Preservative; or, The Women's Best Doctor (London, 1682). 
He wrote on many other subjects, e.g. the education of children, 
the treatment of negro slaves, the way to save wealth, and dreams 
and visions. Some scanty autobiographical memoirs were pub- 
lished in 1705. 

TRYON, WILLIAM (1720-1788), American colonial governor, 
was born at Norbury Park, Surrey, England, in 1729. In 
1757, when he was a captain of the First Foot Guards, he married 
a London heiress with a dower of 30,000. In 1764 he was 
appointed lieutenant-governor of North Carolina, upon Arthur 
Dobbs's death in 1 765 became governor pro tern., and in December 
of the same year received his commission as governor. Like 
many other pre-Revolutionary officials in America, he has 
generally been pictured by American writers as a tyrant. In 
reality, however, he seems to have been tactful and considerate, 
an efficient administrator, who in particular greatly improved 
the colonial postal service, and to have become unpopular 
chiefly because, through his rigid adherence to duty, he obeyed 
the instructions of his superiors and rigorously enforced the 
measures of the British government. By refusing to allow 
meetings of the Assembly from the i8th of May 1765 to the 3rd 
of November 1766, he prevented North Carolina from sending 
representatives to the Stamp Act Congress in 1765. To lighten 
the stamp tax he offered to pay the duty on all stamped paper 
on which he was entitled to fees. With the support of the 
law-abiding element he suppressed the Regulator uprising in 
1768-71, caused partly by the taxation imposed to defray the 
cost of the governor's fine mansion at New Bern (which Tryon 
had made the provincial capital), and executed seven or eight 
of the ringleaders, pardoning six others. From 1771 nominally 
until the 22nd of March 1780 he was governor of New York. 
While he was on a visit to England the War of Independence 
broke put, and on the igth of October 1775, several months 
after his return, he was compelled to seek refuge on the sloop of 



war " Halifax " in New York Harbour, but was restored to 
power when the British took possession of New York City in 
September 1776, though his actual authority did not extend 
beyond the British lines. In 1777, with the rank of major- 
general, he became commander of a corps of Loyalists, and in 
1779 invaded Connecticut and. burned Danbury, Fairfield 
and Norwalk. In 1780 he returned to England, and in 1782 
was promoted to be lieutenant-general. He died in London on 
the 27th of January 1788. 

See Marshal D. Haywood, Governor William Tryon and his 
Administration in the Province of North Carolina (Raleigh, North 
Carolina, 1903). 

TRYPANOSOMES, or HAEMOFLAGELLATES, minute Pro- 
tozoan parasites, characterized by the possession of one or two 
flagella and an undulating membrane, and specially adapted 
for life in the blood of a vertebrate. 1 Of late years considerable 
progress has taken place in our knowledge of these organisms, 
research upon them having been stimulated by the realization 
of their extreme importance in medical parasitology. Not only 
has the number of known forms been greatly multiplied, but 
the study of the biology and life-history of the parasites has 
been attended in some cases with remarkable and unexpected 
results. 

Historical. The first observation of a trypanosome is usually 
ascribed to Valentin (55), who in 1841 announced his discovery of 
certain amoeboid parasites in the blood of a trout. In the two or 
three years following several other observers recorded the occur- 
rence of similar haematozoa in various fishes. The generic name 
of Trypanosoma was conferred by Gruby in 1843 upon the well- 
known parasite of frogs. E. Ray Lankester (18) subsequently 
described this same form (under the name of Undulina ranarum) 




A B 

(From Lankester.) 

FIG. i. 2 Undulina ranarum, Lankester, 1871. In B the nucleus 

is shown. 

and was the first to indicate the presence of a nucleus in the 
cell-body. To Mitrophanow (1883-1884) and Danilewsky 
(1885-1889) we owe the first serious attempts to study the com- 
parative anatomy of these haematozoa. Trypanosomes were 
first met with in cases of disease by Griffith Evans, who in 1880 
found them in the blood of horses suffering from surra in India. 
In 1894 (Sir) David Bruce discovered the celebrated South 
African parasite (T. brucei) in cattle and horses laid low with 
nagana or the tsetse-fly disease; and this worker subsequently 
demonstrated, in a brilliant manner, the essential part played 
by the tsetse-fly in transmitting the parasites. The credit 
for first recognizing a trypanosome in human blood, and 
describing it as such, must undoubtedly be assigned to 
G. Nepveu ( 1 898) . Trypanosomes were next seen in human blood 

1 Trypanophis, although lacking (so far as is known) a haemal 
habitat, is included here, since it is undoubtedly closely related to 
Trypanoplasma . 

2 The illustrations in this article are from H. M. Woodcock's 
" Trypanosomes," in the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science. 



TRYPANOSOMES 



Occurrence, 



in Senegambia in IQOI, in a European suffering from intermittent 
fever. Forde discovered the parasites, but was uncertain of 
their nature; he shewed them to E. Button, who (n) gave 
this form the name of Trypanosoma gambiense. A year later 
A. Castellani (6) found the organisms (most probably the same 
species) in the cerebro-spinal fluid of patients suffering from 
sleeping-sickness in Uganda; and it has since been conclusively 
proved by Sir David Bruce and D. Nabarro (4) that they are 
the true cause of that dreadful malady. 

More important, from the standpoint of protozoology, than 
these interesting medical discoveries have been the investi- 
gations by A. Laveran and F. Mesnil (20-24), L. Leger (30-35), 
S. Prowazek (47), F. Schaudinn (50) and others, upon numerous 
tolerated (i.e. non-pathogenic) forms; these researches supply, 
indeed, practically all the material facts on which to base an 
account of the Haemoflagellates at the present day. 

Trypanosomes are harboured by members of all the chief 
classes of vertebrates with the exception of cyclostomes. By 
far the greater number of hosts are furnished by 
' fishes, birds and mammals. Among batrachians 
the parasites have been found, up till now, only in frogs; and 
among reptiles their occurrence has only been observed in one 
or two solitary instances (T. damoniae, fig. 3 J). Data with 
regard to the frequency with which individual species occur, 
in any kind of host, are as yet somewhat scanty; in one or two 
cases the parasites are fairly common, T. leurisi, for example, 
being met with in a considerable percentage of sewer-rats 
throughout the world. 

In considering the occurrence of Trypanosomes in mammals, 
careful distinction must be drawn between natural or true 
hosts, which are tolerant of the parasites, and casual ones, 
which are unaccustomed and unadapted to them. A Trypano- 
some usually produces markedly harmful effects upon gaining 
an entry into animals which have never been, by their dis- 
tribution, liable to its invasion previously. Such a state of 
affairs is produced by the march of civilization into the " hinter- 
lands " of the various colonies, when man, together with the 
numerous domesticated animals which accompany him, is 
brought into proximity to big game, &c., and, what is equally 
important, into the zone of the particular blood-sucking insects 
which prey upon the same. 

Very many of the common domestic mammals can be suc- 
cessfully infected (either thus accidentally or else on purpose) 
with different " pathogenic " Trypanosomes, to which they 
succumb more or less readily, but they cannot be regarded as 
the natural hosts of those Trypanosomes. In dealing with 
disease-causing forms, the more narrowly the original source 
of the parasite concerned is defined, the closer do we get to the 
true vertebrate host or hosts. In the case of the nagana- 
parasite, various Antilopidae (e.g. the gnu, bushbuck and 
koodoo) can certainly lay a strong claim to the honour. 
The capybara, again, is most probably the native host of T. 
equinum of mal de caderas of horses in South America. Simi- 
larly with regard to the many other pathogenic Trypanosomes 
now known, there is undoubtedly, in each case, some indi- 
genous wild animal tolerant of that particular form, which serves 
as a " latent source of supply " to strange mammals. 

The transmission of the parasites from one vertebrate in- 
dividual to another is effected, in the great majority of cases, 1 
Trans- by a blood-sucking invertebrate, and by this means 
miss/on; alone. The " carrier " of a Trypanosome of warm- 
Aiteraatioo blooded vertebrates is, in all instances so far de- 
sts ' scribed, an insect, generally a member of the Dip- 
tera; in the case of parasites of cold-blooded vertebrates the 
same role is usually played by an ichthyobdellid leech (piscine 
forms), but possibly, now and again, by an Ixodes (amphibian 
or reptilian forms). 

Until lately it remained quite uncertain, however, whether 
the invertebrate merely conveys the Trypanosomes or whether 

1 Trypanosoma equiperdum, the cause of dourine in horses and 
asses, is apparently only conveyed by the act of coitus. This direct 
mode of transmission is most likely a secondary acquirement. 



it is a true alternate host, one i.e. in which definite stages of 
the parasite's life-cycle are undergone. Schaudinn (50), who 
investigated certain avian Trypanosomes, considered the latter 
view to be correct, and believed that the carrier in this in- 
stance a gnat is indeed the definitive host, i.e. the one in which 
sexual conjugation occurs. Many other workers have since 
studied the subject and, so far as the parasites of fishes are 
concerned, there can be little doubt, thanks to the researches 
of E. Brumpt (50), L. Leger (32, 33) and others, that leeches are 
true alternate hosts for these forms, in which certain phases 
of the life-cycle are normally undergone. 

We cannot write quite so confidently with regard to the 
relation of the various pathogenic Trypanosomes to Tsetse- 
flies (Glossinae). In the first place experiment has shown 
that .biting-flies, other in all probability than the true, natural 
hosts, may at times transmit the parasites as it were 
accidentally, if, after feeding on an infected animal, they are 
allowed to bite a fresh one within a limited time. One very 
helpful factor in determining which is the principal carrier of 
any form is the coincidence of the zone of a particular insect 
with that of any disease. By this means it has been ascertained 
with practical certainty that, among the family of Tsetse- 
flies (Glossinae) for instance, at least four species are the natural 
carriers of different Trypanosomes. Of these perhaps the 
best-known is G. palpalis, of Equatorial Africa, whose bite 
transmits the human parasite (T. gambiense). Nevertheless, 
the fact, commented upon by several observers, that even here 
an infected fly is only infectious for a comparatively short 
period suggests that this species of fly, at any rate, is not the 
true alternate host in which the life-cycle of that particular 
Trypanosome is completed. However, indications furnished 
by Koch (i6a) point in this connexion to G.ftisca. Lastly, 
before leaving this interesting and important subject, 
F. Stuhlmann's work (540) on developmental phases of T. 
brucii, the nagana parasite in G. fusca and G. tachinoides, does 
render it probable that the pathogenic forms also have true 
invertebrate hosts. 

Schaudinn had fully described the relations of certain avian 
Trypanosomes to their invertebrate host, Culex pipiens (females). 
The distribution of the parasites in the gnat is closely Habitat: 
connected with the process of digestion. The Try- Effects on 
panosomes ultimately overrun practically all parts Hostl 
of the body, sometimes not even the ova escaping. Thus 
true hereditary infection of a succeeding generation of gnats 
may be brought about. The life of the parasites while in 
the insect is characterized by an alternation of active periods, 
during which multiplication goes on, with resting-periods, when 
the Trypanosomes become attached to the epithelial cells of 
the host. According to S. Prowazek (47), the behaviour of 
T. lewisi in a louse (Haemalopinus) is, in its main features, 
similar. 

On gaining an entry into the blood of a vertebrate the 
organisms pass rapidly into the general circulation, and are thus 
carried all over. Considering them first in a tolerant host, the 
trend of observation is to show that they are never abundant, 
but on the contrary usually somewhat scarce. One reason for 
this scarcity is to be sought in connexion with the fact that 
multiplicative stages are very rarely met with, at any rate in 
the general circulation. The parasites are frequently more 
numerous in the spleen, bone-marrow, kidneys, &c., than else- 
where, and it has been found that multiplication goes on rather 
more actively in the capillaries of these organs. 

The Trypanosomes, in the active phase, are of course always 
free in the blood plasma (interglobular). In the majority of 
cases it is very uncertain whether they actually come into 
relation with the blood corpuscles or not. Schaudinn has 
stated, however, that Trypanomorpha becomes, in certain phases, 
attached to a red blood-corpuscle (ectoglobular), and, in others, 
penetrates inside one and eventually destroys it (endoglobular) ; 
while his other avian parasite, Trypanosoma ziemanni, appar- 
ently draws up into itself the white corpuscle (leucocyte) to 
which it becomes attached. In addition, there are two or three 



342 



TRYPANOSOMES 




obervations to hand which shew that piscine, amphibian and 
mammalian Trypanosomes may also become attached. Prob- 
ably most forms possess a resting, attached phase at some period 
or other, in the invertebrate, if not in the vertebrate host. 

Considering now the Trypanosomes in an unaccustomed, 
mammalian host, they may either remain infrequent or rare 
(sometimes, indeed, being unnoticed until shortly before death), 
or, on the other hand, they may soon become numerous and go 
on increasing (fig. 2). In the latter case the disease is acute 

and rapidly fatal; in the former 
^ k more chronic and lasts much 
longer, often several months. 
The main features of trypano- 
somosis, or illness caused by a 
I Trypanosome, show a general 
agreement, whichever variety is 
considered; one symptom may 
be, of course, more marked than 
another in any particular case. 
Death is due either to weakness 
and emaciation (in chronic cases), 
(After Dofleb.) or to b i ocking of the cerebral 

feJaum 2 W^rinTinThe <*- b >; ^ parasites (where 
blood of a rat eight days after these are abundant), or to dis- 
inoculation. organization of the nervous 

a, Parasites. system (paraplegic and sleeping- 

6, Blood-corpuscles. sickness cases). 

In post-mortem examination, the most obvious pathological 
lesion is hypertrophy of the spleen, which may be very pro- 
nounced; the lymphatic glands in the neck, inguinal region, 
&c., are also often greatly swollen. These are undoubtedly the 
organs which react most strongly to the parasites, and their 
enlarged condition is to a great extent due to their enhanced 
activity in elaborating blood-corpuscles and leucocytes to cope 
with the enemy. Ingestion and dissolution of the Trypano- 
somes by phagocytes has frequently been observed; and it is 
probable also that the haematopoietic organs secrete some 
substance which exerts a harmful action on the parasites, and 
causes them to undergo involution and assume weird-looking 
" amoeboid " and " plasmodial " forms. 

A peculiar feature in the behaviour of the parasites, which 
is most probably caused by unfavourable biological conditions 
Aggiomera- in the host, is that known as agglomeration. The 
ttoa, process is readily brought about artificially by the 

addition of sera or chemical solutions to blood containing the 
parasites. Agglomeration consists in the grouping or union 
together of several Trypanosomes around a common centre; 
this leads to the formation of rosette-like clusters, or even of 
large masses composed of several rosettes. The end by which 
the parasites join is typically, in the case of Trypanosoma, the 
non-flagellate (anterior) end. If a favourable change in the 
surrounding medium sets in, the Trypanosomes are able to 
undergo the reverse process, namely disagglomeration; the 
parasites liberate themselves and the rosette is dissolved. 

Trypanosomes vary greatly with regard to size; even in one and 
the same species this variation is often noticeable, especially under 



Morphology, 



different conditions of life. The common Trypanosoma 



rotatoriumol frogs (fig. 4, A and B) is, taking it all in 
all, one of the largest forms so far described. Its length (inclusive 
of the flagellum) varies from 40-60 ju, while its greatest width 
(including the undulating-membrane) is from 8-30 it; in the very 
wide individuals breadth is gained more or less at the expense of 
length. Conversely, T. gambiense, the human parasite (fig. 3 C), is 
one of the smallest forms known, its average size being about 21-23 M 
by iJ-2 M. 

There is equally great diversity in respect of form. Typically, 
the body is elongated and spindle-shaped ; it is usually more or less 
curved or falciform (fig. 3, A-D), and tends to be slightly compressed 
laterally. It may be, however, anything from extremely slender 
or vermiform (fig. 3, H) to squat and stumpy (fig. 3, G, 4, A). 
Moreover, apart from the fact that a full-grown adult, ready to 
divide, is in many cases much plumper than a young adult (cf. 
T. lewisi, fig. 6, A and B), there can be no doubt that considerable 
polymorphism also sometimes occurs (e.g. T. rotatorium). In many 
cases, at any rate, this indicates a difference in sexuality; and it is 
particularly necessary to bear this factor in mind when considering 



the avian Trypanosomes, where, perhaps, the extremes of form 
are to be met with. That one and the same species may appear 
entirely different in different phases of the life-history is manifest 
on comparing, for instance, the chief " forms " of Trypanosoma 




FIG. 3. Representative Mammalian, Avian and Reptilian Trypano- 
somes, to illustrate the chief morphological characters. 

A, Trypanosoma lewisi, after Bradf . and Plimmer. 

B, T. brucei, after Lav. and Mesnil. (X2OOO.) 

C, T. gambiense (blood, T-fever), after Bruce and Nabarro. 

D, T. equinum, after Lav. and Mesnil. (X2ooo.) 

E, Trypanomorpha (Trypanosoma) noctuae, after Schaud. 

F, Trypanosoma avium, after Lav. and Mesnil. 

G, Hanna's Trypanosome from Indian pigeons. 
H, T. ziemanni, after Schaud. 

J, T. damonia, after Lav. and Mesnil. (X2ooo.) 

c.g, Chromatoid grains; v, vacuole; l.s, fold or striation. 

ziemanni described by Schaudinn. The asexual or indifferent 
type (fig. 3, H) is extremely thread-like, greatly resembling, in fact, 
a Spirochaete; on the other hand, both male and female individuals 
have the form of a very wide spindle. 

In Trypanoplasma and Trypanophis there are two flagella, 
inserted into the body very close to the anterior end (fig. 4, F and G). 
One flagellum is entirely free and directed forwards; the other at 
once turns backwards and is attached to the convex or dorsal side 
of the body for the greater part of its length. In all other Trypano- 
somes there is only one flagellum, which is invariably attached to 
the body in the same manner as the posterior one of biflagellate 
forms. This flagellum, however, is most probably not to be con- 
sidered homologous in all cases. (See Woodcock, loc. cit.) 

In Trypanomorpha (fig. 3, E), which is to be derived from a Her- 
petomonadine type, the single, anterior flagellum of the ancestral 
parasite has been drawn backwards along one side of the body 
and now originates in the posterior half. Hence in this genus the 
end bearing the free part of the flagellum is the anterior one. The 
genus Trypanosoma, in which are included at present the great 
majority of Trypanosomes, is rather to be regarded as derived from 
a Heteromastigine ancestor, such as Trypanoplasma, by the loss 
of the anterior flagellum. Hence in this type the single flagellum 
represents the posteriorly-directed one of Trypanoplasma, and the 
end at which it becomes free is the hinder end. The point of origin 
of the flagellum in Trypanosoma is usually near the anterior end, 
but may vary considerably (cf. figs.) ; and its free portion may be 
very short or lacking. 

Along the dorsal side runs the characteristic fin-like expansion 
of the body, the undulating-membrane, which is the organella 
principally concerned in locomotion. This always begins at the 
place where the attached flagellum emerges from the body; and its 
tree edge is really constituted by the latter, which forms a flagellar 
border. The membrane is usually more or less sinuous in outline, 
and is sometimes thrown into broad folds (fig. 3, F and J). Distally 
it thins away concurrently with the body. 



TRYPANOSOMES 



343 



The body appears to be in all cases naked. A differentiation of 

the peripheral cytoplasm in the form of an ectoplasmic layer has 

been described in one or two instances, and it seems 

probable that in most Trypanosomes there is such a 

Structure. J a y eri although only poorly developed, as a rule, around 

the body generally. On the other hand, the undulating-membrane 

is largely if not entirely an ectoplasmic development. This is 

usually much clearer and more hyaline than the general cytoplasm. 

In many forms deep-staining grains or granules, of a chromatoid 

nature and of varvmg size, are to be seen in the cytoplasm. In 




only is there an intimate correspondence in this respect between 
the two principal organellae, but the flagellar apparatus itself is 
really of nuclear origin and remains closely connected with the 
kinetonucleus (cf. fig. 7). In most cases, however, little beyond 
the position and general appearance of the nuclei has been so far 
made known. The trophonucleus is usually situated somewhere 
about the middle of the -body. The kinetonucleus is typically near 
the anterior end; but in a few instances it lies more centrally 
(e.g. T. inopinatum, T. rotatorium, fig. 4, A-C) ; in Trypanomorpha 
it is in the posterior half of the body (fig. 3, E). 

In certain forms the occurrence of prominent myo- 
nemes or muscle-nbrillae has been described, and, more- 
over, a nuclear origin assigned to them also. In Try- 
panomorpha they are confined to the undulating-membrane 
(fig. 3i E), but in other cases Trypanosoma ziemanni, 
T. lewisi, T. brucei, and T. soleae they are arranged 
laterally, half running down each side of the body (fig. 
4, J). In Trypanoplasma borreli there is only a single 
myoneme on either side. 

All Trypanosomes are capable of binary longitudinal 
fission, and this appears to be the chief method of multi- 
plication. The division of the nuclear appa- 
ratus is the first to take place (fig. 5, A). The JHaI "P" ca - 
kinetonucleus more often .leads the way, but tloa ' 
sometimes either kinetonucleus or trophonucleus may do 
so indifferently. The duplication of the flagellum begins 
at its proximal end, that which is in relation with the 
kinetonucleus. Until recently the process has been con- 
sidered as an actual longitudinal splitting of the flagellum, 
following upon the separation of the two daughter-kineto- 
nuclei. Both Schaudinn (in the case of Trypanomorpha) 
and Prowazek (in the case of Trypanosoma lewisi and 
T. brucei), have found, however, that the new flagellum is 
developed quite independently and laid down alongside the 
old one. It is at present somewhat uncertain, therefore, 
in what cases actual splitting occurs. The same applies 
equally to the formation of the undulating-membrane. 
If the flagellar border splits, the membrane doubtless 
divides also; but where the flagellum is a new formation 
the membrane will be too. The division of the cytoplasm 
in most forms is equal or sub-equal, and two approximately 
equal daughter-Trypanosomes result (fig. 5, C). In some 
instances (e.g. T. equinum, T. equiperdum) the longitudinal 
fission is apparently multiple, three or even four descen- 
dants being produced simultaneously. 



FIG. 4. Representative Amphibian and Piscine Trypanosomes. 
A,B, Trypanosoma rotatorium, after Lav. and Mesnil. (X 2000.) 

C, T. inopinatum, after Serg. (X 1000.) 

D, T. karyozeukton, after Dutt. and Todd. (X 1000.) 

E, T. nelspruitense, after Lav. and Mesnil. (X 2000.) 
F,G, Trypanoplasma borreli (living and stained), after Leger. 
H, T. cyprini, after Plehn. 

J, Trypanosoma soleae, after Lav. and Mesnil. (X 2000.) 

K, T. granulosum, after Lav. and Mesnil. (X 2000.) 

L, T. remaki, var. magna, after Lav. and Mesnil. (X 2000.) 





h, Clear zone or halo around kineto- 

nucleus. 
ch, Chain of chromatic rodlets run- 

ning from trophonucleus to 

kinetonucleus. 



a.fl. Anterior flagellum; 
p.fl, Posterior flagellum ; 
l.s. Longitudinal striations (myo 

nemes) ; 
v, Cytoplasmic vacuole. 



niost cases these granules are, if not confined to, chiefly distributed 
in the posterior (flagellate) half of the body (figs. 3, B, D and E, 4, E 
and G). In certain Trypanosomes a well-defined, usually oval vacuole 
is often, though not constantly, to be observed, situated at a varying 
distance from the anterior end (figs. 3 and C, G, 4, F). There is no 
reason to doubt that this vacuole is a normal cell-constituent, for 
it has been described in parasites in quite normal surroundings 
and conditions. 

A Trypanosome always possesses two distinct nuclear bodies, 
one the trophonucleus, regulating the trophic life of the cell, the other, 
the kinetonucleus, directing its locomotor activities. The recent 
investigations of Schaudinn and Prowazek (n. c) have shown 
that, in some forms at any rate, the finer structure and detailed 
development of the nuclear apparatus is extremely complex. Not 



(After Lav. and Mesnil.) 
FIG. 5. Stages in Binary Longitudinal Fission of 

Trypanosoma brucei. 

T. lewisi differs from most Trypanosomes in that the 
cytoplasm divides in a very unequal manner (fig. 6). 
The process is more comparable to budding, since the 
larger or parent-individual may produce, successively, more 
than one " daughter "; moreover, the daughter-individuals 
may subdivide before separating, the whole family remain- 
ing attached by the non-nagellate (anterior) end (fig. 6, F). 
In this type of division it may be noted that the kinetonucleus 
comes to lie alongside the trophonucleus, or even passes to the 
other side of it (i.e. nearer the flagellar end). Easily derivable from 
this method is the other one characteristic of T. lewisi, viz. seg- 
mentation. The chief difference is that in the latter no parent- 
individual is distinguishable, a rosette of many equal daughter- 
parasites being formed. 

The small Trypanosomes resulting from either of these modes 
of division differ from typical adults by their stumpy, pyriform 
shape, the position of the kinetonucleus near the flagellar end of 
the body, and the absence, during the first part of their youth, 
of an undulating-membrane. At this period they have, in fact, what 
may be termed a " pseudo-Herpetomonadine " aspect. These young 
individuals can themselves multiply by equal binary fission, giving 



344 



TRYPANOSOMES 



rise to little fusiform parasites; with growth, these gradually assume 
the adult appearance. 

Comprehensive researches (1905, seq.) have made it evident 
that Trypanosomes have a much more varied and complex develop- 
D I merit and life-history than was previously supposed. 
meat a a This has now been found to be the case in widely- 
... . differing parasites, occurring in. widely-different hosts. 
' The following examples have been investigated: 
Trypanosoma lewisi (also, but much less completely, T. brucei), 1 
among mammalian forms, described by Prowazek (47) ; T. ziemanni 
and Trypanomorpha noctuae, among ayian parasites, described by 
Schaudinn (50) ; Trypanosoma inopinatum, among batrachian 
forms, described by A. Billet (la and 2), T. barbatulae and Trypano- 
plasmo. varium, described by L<5ger (32 and 33), and T. borreli, by 




(A-E, after Lav. and Mesnil; F, alter Wasiel and Senn.) 

FIG. 6. Unequal Division and " Budding " process in T. lewisi. 
m, Parent-individual ; d, Daughter-individual ; d', Daughter- 
individual dividing. (X 2000.) 

G. Keysselitz (16), from fishes; also several other piscine Trypano- 
somes have their development phases in leeches worked on by 
Brumpt (50). In addition, a Trypanosome whose vertebrate host 
is yet unknown (T. grayi) has been studied in detail by Minchin 
(410). 

It is impracticable here to consider fully all the various develop- 
mental phases and modifications of the life-cycle described as occur- 
ring in the above parasites. In view, however, of the great interest 
excited by Schaudinn's work on avian parasites, as well as on 
account of the far-reaching importance of his conclusions to the 
study of the Haematozoa, a brief summary of his celebrated research 
is necessary. 

According to Schaudinn's account, he was dealing with two 
separate Trypanosome parasites of the Little Owl (Athene noctua), 
viz. Trypanomorpha (Trypanosoma) noctuae and Trypanosoma 
(Spirochaete) ziemanni. The latter organism, in certain phases, 
very closely resembles a Spirochaete. In the blood of the owl 
resting, intracellular phases of both parasites alternate with active 
trypaniform ones; and, when in the former condition, Schaudinn 
considers that the parasites are identical with what have been 
formerly regarded as distinct Haemosporidia, Halteridium and a 
Leucocytozoon respectively. In other words, he considers that 
these two Haemosporidian forms are really only phases in the 
life-history of particular Trypanosomes. To this life-cycle belongs 
the formation of sexual individuals and their conjugation on arrival 
m the gnat (Culex) ; the process is described as agreeing in the main, 
in both cases, with what has already been made known by Mac- 
Callum for another species of Halteridium. The male gametes, 
it may be noted, are said to possess the essential characters of a 
Trypanosome. The motile copula or ookinete formed in the gnat gives 

1 T. brucei has also been studied in a Tsetse-fly (G. fusca) by 
Stuhlmann (540). 



rise to one of three types of Trypanosome individual: indifferent, 
male or female. The development of an indifferent ookinete into 
an indifferent Trypanosome is shown in fig. 7, from which it will be 
seen that the cytological details are very complex. The indifferent 
parasites exhibit an alternation of resting, attached phases with 
active periods, during which they multiply actively and become 
very abundant in the insect. The male forms, which are very 
small and the homologues of the microgametes developed in the 
blood, appear to die off soon. The female Trypanosomes, on the 
other hand, grow to a large size, laying up a store of reserve nutri- 
ment. They are very sluggish and do not divide. They are the 
most resistant to unfavourable conditions of environment, and are 
able, by a process of parthenogenesis, to give rise to ordinary, 
indifferent forms again, which can repopulate the gnat. 

So far as regards the remarkable connexion between Trypanosomes 
and Haemosporidia indicated by Schaudinn, this has met with a 
great deal of criticism on the part of Novy and McNeal among 
others, and it must be admitted that up to 1909 no definite corrobora- 
tion can be said to have been brought forward. Again, the spiro- 
chaetiform Trypanosoma (T. ziemanni) described may have 
been really a true Spirochaete, i.e. a Bacterium. In short, it is 
quite possible Schaudinn did not sufficiently distinguish between 
the life-cycles of four distinct parasites of the Little Owl : a Trypano- 
some, a Spirochaete, a Halteridium and a Leucocytozoon; though, 
on the other hand, this is by no means proved. However this 
may be, the research of subsequent workers e.g. Brumpt (5a), 
Leger (32, 33), Keysselitz (16), Prowazek (47), Minchin (4ib) and 
others has undoubtedly shown that much of Schaudinn's scheme 
of the life-history of a Trypanosome is well-founded. It is certain, 
for instance, that the three types of form which he discovered, 
viz. indifferent, male or female, can be recognized in many cases, 
often in the vertebrate, but always more sharply differentiated in 
the invertebrate. Moreover, it is very probable that conjugation 
occurs soon after the arrival of the parasites in their specific inverte- 
brate host; and this act may perhaps give rise to an aflagellar 
copula, which is gregariniform and comparable to an ookinete. 
Different investigators, it may be noted, have described various 




H 



(After Schaudinn.) 

FIG. 7. Development of an Ookinete (of Halteridium) into an 

indifferent Trypanosome (Trypanomorpha). 

A-D shows the formation of the two nuclear elements (tropho- 
nucleus and kinetonucleus) from the definitive nucleus (synkaryon) 
of the ookinete. 

E-H shows the formation of the myonemes and the flagellar border 
(flagellum) of the undulating membrane, by means of a greatly 
elongated nuclear-spindle. 

t.c, Trophonuclearcentrosome. 

m, Myonemes. 

f.b, Flagellar border of undu- 
lating-membrane (3rd 
axial spindle). 

c. 3 , Its proximal centrosome 



t.chr, 

k.chr, 

c, 

a.s, 



chromo- 



t, 
k, 
k.c, 



Trophonuclcar 

some. 

Kinetonuclear do. 
Centrosomic granule. 
First axial spindle. 
a.s 3 , Second and third do. 
Trophonucleus. 
Kinetonucleus. 
Kinetonuclear centrosome. 



(its distal one vanishing 
as such). 



TRYPANOSOMES 



345 



complicated nuclear changes and divisions undergone by Trypano- 
somes; these are considered, in many cases, to represent some kind 
of parthenogenesis. 

A very interesting modification of the life-cycle of a Trypanosome 
which must be mentioned has been made known by Minchin, in 
his account of T. grayi, in a tsetse-fly (G. palpalis). Unfortunately 
the vertebrate host of this form is not yet known. Certain indi- 
viduals of a particular character form definite rounded cysts in 
the rectum of the fly; in this condition, the only sign of Trypanosome 
structure is afforded by the two nuclei, which remain separate. 
These cysts are doubtless for dispersal by way of the anus, and the 
vertebrate host is in all likelihood infected by the mouth and ali- 
mentary canal. This reveals a quite novel mode by which infection 
with a Trypanosome may be brought about; so far, however, 
T. grayi remains the only known example. 

As remarked in the section on morphology, the Trypanosomes 
Classifies- as a whole are preferably regarded as including 
tioa. t wo entirely distinct groups, Monadina and Hetero- 

mastigia. 

SUB-ORDER MONADINA 

Family: Trypanomorphidae, Woodcock. Haemoflagellates de- 
rived from a uniflagellate, Herpetompnadine form, in which the 
point of insertion of the single (anterior) flagellum into the body 
has travelled backwards from the anterior end for a greater or less 
distance, the flagellum itself having become, concurrently, attached 
to the body for a portion of its length by means of an undulating 
membrane. 

Genus Trypanomorpha, Woodcock, 1906. With the characters 
of the family. The only species yet known is the type species, 
T. noctuae (Celli and San Felice). [Syn. Trypanosoma n. (C. & 
S.F.), SchaMd.=Halteridium n. (C. & S.F.)]. See figs. 3, E, 7. 
Vertebrate host, Athene noctua, Little Owl; invertebrate host, 
Culex pipiens. 

There are, in addition, other forms, which are probably to be 
placed in this family, but which are not yet sufficiently well known 
for their systematic position to be settled. It is, for instance, quite 
likely that certain Herpetomonadine parasites described by L6ger 
(29, 34) from various blood-sucking insects are really only stages 
in the life of a Haemoflagellate. Some of these are placed by 
Leger in a newly discovered genus, Crithidia. 

SUB-ORDER HETEROMASTIGINA 

Family: Trypanosomatidae, Doflein. Flagellates, in the great 
majority of instances haemal parasites, derived from a biflagellate, 
Bodo-Vke. type, in which the posteriorly-directed (trailing) flagellum 
is always present and attached to the body by an undulating 
membrane, of which it constitutes the thickened edge. The other, 
the anterior flagellum, may or may not persist. 

Genus Trypanoplasma, Lav. and Mesnil, 1902. The anterior 
flagellum is present. Both flagella are inserted close together, 
near the anterior end of the body. Two sub-groups may be distin- 
guished. In one, exemplified by T. borreli (fig. 4, F and G) from the 
rudd and minnow, the anterior flagellum is well-developed, and 
the free parts of both are of about equal length. In the other, 
exemplified by T. cyprini (fig. 4, H) from carp, the anterior flagellum 
is much shorter than the free part of the posterior one, and evidently 
tending to disappear. Known invertebrate hosts for different 
species are Hemiclepsis and Piscicola, leeches. 

Genus Trypanophis, Keysselitz, 1904. The body resembles that 
of Trypanoplasma in general appearance, but the locpmotor appa- 
ratusdoes not appear to be so well-developed, especially in T. grobbeni. 
The anterior flagellum is longer than the free part of the posterior 
one. The species included are not, so far as is known, haemal 
parasites. T. grobbeni occurs in the coelenteric cavity of various 
Siphonophora. 

An interesting form, " Trypanoplasma " intestinalis, which re- 
sembles both the above genera, occurs in the alimentary canal of 
Box hoops. Probably this is not a haemal parasite, and lacks an 
alternate host. 

Genus Trypanosoma, Gruby, 1843. (Principal synonyms: Un- 
dulina. Lank., 1871; Herpetomonas, Kent, 1880, only in part; 
Paramoecioides, Grassi, 1881; Haematomonas, Mitrpphan, 1883.) 
There is no anterior flagellum. The point of insertion of the at- 
tached (posterior) flagellum into the body, and, consequently, the 
commencement of the undulating membrane may be almost any- 
where in the anterior half of the body, but is usually near the 
extremity. 

Among the more important and better-known forms are the 
following : 

Parasitic in mammals: T. lewisi (Kent), the well-known natural 
Trypanosome of rats (figs. 3, A, 6, A) ; T. brucii, Plim. and Bradf., 
the cause of nagana among cattle, horses, &c., in South Africa 
(fig. 3, B) ; T. evansi, Steel, the cause of surra to horses in Indp- 
Burmah; T. equiperdum, Dofl., the cause of dpurine in horses in 
Algeria and other regions of the Mediterranean littoral ; T. equinum, 
Voges, causing mal de caderas or " hip-paraplegia " in South 
America (fig. 3, D) ; T. theileri, Lav., a very large form, the cause of 



falziektfi or bile-sickness to cattle in the Transvaal; and T. gam- 
tense, Dutton (syn. T, ugandense, Castellani, T. castellanii, Kruse), 
the cause of human trypanosomosis in central Africa, which 
becomes sleeping-sickness when the organisms penetrate into the 
cerebro-spinal fluid (fig. 3, C). 

Parasitic in birds: T. avium (Danil., Lav. emend.), probably the 
form to which Danilewsky's original investigations related, para- 
sitic in owls and (according to Novy and McNeal) also in other birds 
(fig. 3, F) ; T. johnstoni, Dutt. and Todd, a very spirochaetiform 
type, from little birds (Estrelda) in Senegambia; and Hanna's 
peculiar wide species from Indian birds, with a remarkably tapering 
anterior end (fig. 3, G). Lastly, there is T. ziemanni, Lav., [syn. 
Spirochaete z. (Lav.), Schaud, " Haemamoeba " z., Lav., the " Leuco- 
cytozpon " of Danil.], from various owls, and Culex pipiens, whose 
life-history has been described by Schaudinn (fig. 3, H). (As above 
mentioned, this form may not be a true Trypanosome.) 

Only one reptilian form is well known, T. damoniae, Lav. and 
Mesn., from a tortoise, Damonia reevesii (fig. 3, J). Parasitic in 
batrachia: T. rotalorium, Mayer (syn. Amoeba r., Mayer, July 
1843, T. sanguinis, Gruby, November 1843, Undulina ranarum, 
Lank., 1871), the best-known parasite of frogs, which exhibits 
remarkable polymorphism (fig. 4, A and B) ; T. mesa and T. karyo- 
zeukton, Dutt. and Tpdd, even larger than T. r. (fig. 4, D), with 
peculiar cytological differentiation, may be only sub-species; T. 
inopinatum, Sergent, and T. nelspruitense, Lav., also from frogs 
(fig. 4, C). Parasitic in fishes: T. remaki, Lav. and Mesnil, from 
pike, a relatively small form (fig. 4, L); T. barbatulae, L6ger, from 
loach; T. granulosum, Lav. and Mesnil, a very long vermiform 
parasite, from eels (fig. 4, K) ; T. soleae, Lav. and Mesnil, from soles, 
with a relatively small flagellum (fig. 4, J); and T. scyllii and T. 
rajae, from those Elasmobranchs, both very large forms, described 
by Lav. and Mesnil. 

Undoubtedly closely allied to the Haemoflagellates, although 
no actual trypaniform phase has yet been observed, are the 
important parasites usually known as the " Leish- Thg 
man-Donovan " bodies, without some consideration Leishmta- 
of which an account of the Haemoflagellates would Doaovaa- 
hardly be complete. These bodies are constantly 
found in certain tropical fevers (e.g. dum-dum fever, 
kala-azar) particularly prevalent throughout Indo-Burma, of 
which they are generally held to be the cause. They were 
discovered by W. Leishman in 1900, but before his first account 
of them (36) was published they were also seen quite inde- 
pendently by C. Donovan. Moreover, organisms very similar 
to these (morphologically, indeed, the two sorts appear scarcely 
distinguishable) are found in various sores or ulcers (e.g. 
Delhi boil, Oriental sore, " bouton d'Alep ") to which people 
in different parts of the East are liable. These were first 
described by J. H. Wright (58). 

The chief distinction between the parasites in the two cases is 
in their habitat. In the one case they are entirely restricted to 
the neighbourhood of the boil or ulcer, whereas in the other there 
is a general infection of the body, the organisms spreading to all 
parts and being met with in the spleen, liver, bone-marrow, &c., 
and (rarely) in the peripheral circulation. The parasites are either 
free or intracellular. In the latter case they invade cells of a 
leucocytic or phagocytic character as a rule; Leishman's form 
is particularly abundant in large macrophageal cells originating 
from the vascular endothelium of the spleen (fig. 8, I. M). 

The parasites themselves are very minute and usually ovoid 
or pyriform in shape (fig. 8, I. a), the latter being, perhaps, the most 
typical. The splenic type is somewhat smaller than Wright's 
parasite; the former, when pear-shaped, is from 33 to 4 M in length 
by ij to 2 fi in width, the latter being about 4 n by 3 ft (fig. 8, III.). 
The body is probably not limited by any distinct membrane. The 
cytoplasm is finely granular and fairly uniform in character. 
The most interesting point about the morphology is the fact that two 
chromatic bodies, of very unequal size, are almost invariably to 
be recognized. The larger nuclear body, which corresponds to the 
trophonucleus of a Trypanospme, is usually round or oval; the 
smaller one, representing a kinetonucleus, has the form either of 
a little rod or of a round grain, and is generally separate from the 
larger nucleus. 

The parasites multiply in two ways (a) by binary fission, 
and (b) by multiple division or segmentation. The principal 
stages in the first method are well known (fig. 8, I. 6); they offer 
strong resemblance to the process in Piroplasma. Multiple division 
has not yet been so satisfactorily made out. It appears to con- 
form more or less to the radial or rosette type of multiplication, 
enlarged rounded parasites, with a varying number of nuclei (up 
to about eight) uniformly arranged near the periphery, having been 
often noticed (fig. 8, I. c and IV. b). The details of the process are 
somewhat differently described, however, by different observers. 

Laveran and Mesnil (27) gave the name Piroplasma donovani to 



TRYPANOSOMES 



Irishman's form, 1 and there is no doubt that the parasites are 
closely allied to that type of organism. This does not, however, 
preclude in any way the supposition that they equally with 
certain other Haemosporidia represent, nevertheless, only a phase 
of a complete life-cycle; and this supposition has in fact been 
definitely proved to be true by the work of Rogers (48). Rogers 
cultivated the parasites obtained from cases of kala-azar in 
artificial media, and found that what were unmistakably flagellate 




FIG. 8. 

I. Piroplasma (Leishmania) donovani, Lav. and Mesnil. 

a, Typical pear-shaped or oval forms; b, various stages in longi- 
tudinal division; c, nuclear division preparatory to multiple 
fission; d, endoglobular forms, in red blood-corpuscles 
(P = pigment grains) ; e, bacillary form of the parasite in a 
corpuscle; M, large macrophageal cell with many parasites 
(after Donovan). 

II. Uninuclear leucocyte (L) containing several parasites (after Lav. 

and Mesnil). 

III. P. (Heleosoma) tropicum (Wright). 

a, Single individuals; 6, dividing forms (from Mesnil, mostly 
after Wright). 

IV. P. donovani in cultures of different ages. 

a, Ordinary forms of varying sizes; b c, stages in multiple division; 

d, binary fission; e, /, g, flagellate forms (after Rogers), 
stages developed in the cultures at different intervals (fig. 8, IV. e, 
j, g). These forms were elongated and spindle-like; and to one end 
of the body, near which the smaller nuclear element was situated, 
a well-developed flagellum was attached. Since then many other 
workers have obtained similar stages [see Leishman and Statham 
(38), Christophers (7)]; but however slender and Trypanosome- 
like the flagelliform parasites may appear, up till now no indica- 
tions of an undulating membrane have been seen, and the kineto- 
nuclear element is never far from the insertion of the flagellum. 

Nevertheless, the general appearance and structure of these 
motile forms so greatly resemble that of a Herpetomonad, or of 
the " pseudo-Herpetomonadine " forms of a Trypanosome which 
are obtained in cultures, that it cannot be doubted that the " Leish- 
man-Donovan-Wright " bodies are closely connected with the 
Haemoflagellates. That being so, it is quite possible that, in normal 
conditions and circumstances, these parasites also possess, at some 
period of the life-cycle, a trypaniform phase. Nothing definite is 
yet known with regard to the transmission of the parasites by an 
alternate invertebrate host, although there is presumptive evidence 
in favour of this supposition. 2 

A word or two must be said in conclusion with reference to 
. the supposed connexion of the Spirochaetae with the 

Supposed ... . 

Connexion Trypanosomes. In Schaudinn s great memoir he 

oftheSpiro- regarded Trypanosoma ziemanni as possessing, in 

chaetae with certain phases, the actual characteristics of a 

paoo- Spirochaete as then known; and, further, he was 

inclined to think that other Spirochaetae (e.g. S. 

obermeieri of relapsing fever) were also only phases in the 

1 R. Ross (49), regarding the parasites as a quite different kind 
of Sporozoan, termed them Leishmania; and Wright named his 
variety from tropical ulcers Heleosoma tropicum. 

2 Patton (Sci. Mem. India, No. 27, 1907) has brought forward 
evidence to show that the bed-bug (Cimex macrocephalus) is the 
invertebrate host. 



life-cycle of a particular Haemoflagellate. As a result of his 
more recent investigations on S. plicalilis (the type-species of 
Ehrenberg) and other forms (51), he finds, however, that this 
is not the case, but that the organisms exemplified by S. 
plicatilis are to be widely separated from the Trypanosomes, 
and placed rather with the Bacteria. In addition, it is most 
probable that, at any rate, certain other spirilliform parasites, 
e.g. S. balbianii, S. refringens, agree fundamentally in structure 
with the type-species. . 

On the other hand, evidence has lately been brought forward 
to show that certain parasites which greatly resemble a Spiro- 
chaete are really related to the Trypanosomes. This is the case 
with the celebrated organism first described by Schaudinn 
and E. Hoffmann (52) from essential syphilitic lesions, and 
now known as Treponema (Spirochaete) pallida, Schaud. 
F. Krzysztalowicz and M. Siedlecki have published an important 
account (17) of this parasite, which they consider possesses a 
true trypaniform phase, and for which they have proposed 
the name Trypanosoma luis. This view requires, however, 
corroboration. Nevertheless the resemblance between the 
biology of this organism in relation to syphilis (as regards 
mode of infection, habitat, &c.) and that of Trypanosoma 
equiperdum, the cause of dourine or " horse-syphilis," may 
not be without significance. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. A comprehensive review of the Haemoflagel- 
lates and allied parasites, considered up to the end of 1905, has been 
published by (i) H. M. Woodcock, Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. (1906), 50, 
p. 150. The principal original papers referred to are: (10) A. 
Billet, " Culture d'un trypanosome de la grenouille chez une 
hirudinee," &c., C. r. ac. sci. (1904), 139, p. 574; (2) " Sur le 
Trypanosoma inopinatum de la grenouille verte d'Algerie et sa 
relation possible avec les Drepanidium," C. r. soc. mot. (1904), 
57, p. 161, figs; (3) J. R. Bradford and H. G. Plimmer, "The 
Trypanosoma brucei, the organism found in Nagana or the Tsetse- 
fly disease," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. (1902), 45, p. 449, with pis.; 
(4) D. Bruce, D. Nabarro and E. D. Greig (various reports on 
sleeping-sickness and other trypanosomoses in Uganda), Roy. Soc. 
Comm. (1903-1905), Nos. I, 4 and 5; (5) E. Brumpt, " Contribu- 
tion & 1'etude de 1'evolution des hemogregarines et des trypano- 
somes," C. r. soc. biol. (1904), 57, p. 165; (50) idem," On the mode 
of transmission and development of Trypanosomes and Trypano- 
plasms in leeches," C. r. soc. biol. (1906), 60, pp. 160, 162; and op. 
cit. (1906), 61, p. 77; (6) A. Castcllam, " Trypanosoma and Sleeping- 
sickness," Rep. Sleeping-sickness Comm. Roy. Soc. (1903), Nos. I and 2; 
(7) S.R.Christophers, "Reports on a parasite found in persons suffering 
from enlargement of the spleen in India," Sci. Mem. India (1904- 
1905), Nos. 8, II and 15; (8) Danilewsky, " Recherches sur la parasito- 
logie comparee du sang des oiseaux (Kharkoff, 1888-1889); (9) 
D. Doflein, Die Protozoen als Parasiten Una Krankheitserreger, 
(Jena [G. Fischer], 1901); (10) C. Donovan, "Human Piro- 
plasmosis," Lancet (1904), p. 744, I pi.; (n) E. Dutton, "Note 
on a Trypanosoma occurring in the Blood of Man," Brit. Med. 
Journ. (1902), p. 881; (12) Dutton and J. L. Todd, " First Report 
of the Trypanosomiasis Expedition to Senegambia, 1902," Mem. 
Livpl. Sch. Trap. Med. (1903) n; (13) Gruby, "Recherches et 
observations sur une nouvelje espece d'Hematozoaire (Trypano- 
soma sanguinis) " C. r. ac. sci. (1843), 17, p. H34. also Ann. sci. 
nat. (1844), 3, i. p. 105, figs.; (14) W. Hanna, "Trypanosoma in 
Birds in India," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. (1903), 47, p. 433, i pi.; 
(15) G. Keysselitz, " Vber Trypanophis grobbem (Trypanosoma 
grobbeni, Poche)," Arch. Protistenk. (1904), 3, p. 367, figs.; (16) idem, 
" Generations- und Wirthswechsel von trypanoplasma borreli, Lav. 
u. Mesnil," op. cit. 7, p. I, figs. ; (160) R. Koch, " Mittheilungen iiber 
den Verlauf der deutschen Expedition ... in Ostafrika," Deutsch. 
med. Wochensch. (1906), app., p. 51; op. cit. (1907), p. 49; (17) F. 
Krzysztalowicz and M. Siedlecki, " Contribution a 1'etude de la 
structure et du cycle evolutif de Spirochaete pallida, Schaud.," 
Bull. Ac. Cracovie (i95). p. 713, i pi.; (18) E. R. Lankester, "On 
Undulina, the type of a new group of Infusoria," Quart. Journ. Mic. 
Sci. (1871), 1 1, p. 387, figs. ; (19) " The Sleeping-sickness," Quart. Rev. 
(July 1904), p. 113, figs.; (20) A. Laveran, "Sur un nouveau 
trypanosome des bovides," C. r. ac. sci. (1902), 134, p. 512; 
(21) idem, " Sur un trypanosome d'une chouette," C. r. soc. biol. 
(!9 O 3). 55. P- 528, figs.; (22) idem, " Sur un nouveau trypanosome 
d'une grenouille," op. cit. (1904), 57, p. 158, figs.; (23) Laveran 
and F. Mesnil, " Recherches morphologiques et experimentales 
sur le trypanosome des rats, Tr. lewisi (Kent)," Ann. tnst. Pasteur 
(1901), 15, p. 673, 2 pis. ; (24) idem, "Des Trypanosomes des poissons," 
Arch. Protistenk. (1902), i, p. 475, figs.; (25) idem, " Recherches 
morphologiques et experimentales sur le trypanosome du Nagana 
ou maladie de la mouche tse-tse," Ann. inst. Past. (1902), 16, p. i, 
figs.; (26) idem, Trypanosomes et trypanosomiases (Paris [Masson 
et Cie], 1904); (27) idem, " Sur un protozoaire nouveau (Piroplasma 



TSAIDAM TSANA 



347 



donovani. Lav. et Mesn.) parasite d'une fieVre de 1'Inde, " C. r. ca. 
sci. (1903), 137, p. 957, figs,; (28) idem, " Sur la nature bacteYienne 
du pritendu trypanosome des huitres, T. balbianii, " C. r. soc. 
biol. (1901), 53, p. 883; (there are numerous other papers by these 
authors in the C. r. ac. sci. and the C. r. soc. biol. from 1900 
onwards); (29) L. Leger, "Sur un flage!16 parasite de I' Anopheles 
maculipennis," C. r._ soc. biol. (1902), 54, p. 354, figs. ^(30) idem, 
" Sur la morphologic du trypanoplasma des vairons," C. r. ac. 
sci. (1904), 138, p. 824; (31) idem, " Sur la structure et les affinites 
des trypanoplasmes " (1904), t. c. p. 856, figs.; (32) idem, " Sur les 




(1904), t. c. p. 345; (34) idem, " Sur les affinity's de VHerpetomonas 
subulata et la phylogcnie des trypanosomes " (1904), t. c. p. 615; 
(35) idem, " Sur la presence d'un trypanoplasma intestinal chez les 
poissons," op. cit. (1905), 58, p. 511; (36) W. Leishman, "On the 
possibility of the occurrence of trypanosomiasis in India," Brit. Med. 
Journ. (1903), i. 1252, figs.; (37) idam, " Note on the nature of the 
parasitic bodies found in tropical splenomegaly," op. cit. (1904), i. 
303 ; (38) Leishman and Statham, " The development of the Leishman 
body in cultivation," Journ. Army Med. Corps (1905), 3, 14 pp., I pi. ; 
(39) J. Lignieres, " Contribution 4 1'etude de la trypanosomose des 
equidiSs sud-americains' connue sous le nom de Mai de Caderas," 
Rec. med. vet. (8) (1903), 10, p. 51, 2 pis. ; (40) A.F.Mayer, " Spici- 
legium pbservationum anatomicarum de organo electrico in raiis 
anelectrias et de haematozois," (Bonn, 1873), 18, pp., pis.; (41) F. 
Mesnil, F. Nicolle and P. Remlinger, " Sur le protozoaire du bouton 
d'Alep," C. r. soc. biol. (1904), 57, p. 167; (410) E. A. Minchin, 
" On the occurrence of encystation in Trypanosoma grayi," &c., Proc. 
Roy. Soc. (1907), 79 B,p. 35.; (416) idem (with Gray and Tulloch), 
" Glossina palpalis in relation to Trypanosoma gambiense," &c., 
op. cit. (1906), 78 B, p. 242, 3 pis.; (42) Mitrophanow, " Beitrage 
zur Kenntniss der Hamatozen," Biol. Centbl. (1883), 3. p. 35, figs.; 
(43) G. Nepveu, " Sur un trypanosome dans le sang de 1'homme," 
C. r. soc. tool. (1898), 50, p. 1172; (44) F. G. Novy and W. I. 
McNeal, " On the Trypanosomes of Birds," Journ. Inf. Dis. (1905), 
2, p. 256, pis.; (45) W. S. Perrin, " The life-history of Trypanosoma 
balbianii" Proc. Roy. Soc. (1905), 76 B, p. 367, figs., also in Arch. 
Protistenk. (1906), 7 pis.; (46) M. Plehn, " Trypanoplasma cyprini, 
n. sp.," Arch. Protistenk. (1903), 2, p. 175, I pi.; (47) S. Prowazek, 
" Studien tiber Saugethiertrypanosomen," Arb. kais. Gesundheits- 
amte (1905), 22, 44 pp., pis.; (48) L. Rogers," On the development 
of flagellated organisms (Trypanosomes) from the spleen Protozoic 
parasites of cachexial fevers and Kala-azar," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. 
(1904), 48, p. 367, i pi.; 149) R. Ross, " Notes on the bodies recently 
described by Leishman and Donovan, " Brit. Med. Journ. (1903), i. 
1261, 1401, figs. ; (50) F. Schaudinn, " Generations- und Wirthswechsel 
bei Trypanosoma und Spirochaete," Arb. kais. Gesundheitsamte 
(1904), 20, p. 387, figs.; (51) idem, " Zur Kenntniss der Spirochaete 
pallida," Deutsch. med. Wochenschr. (1905), No. 42, p. 1665; (52) 
Schaudinn and E. Hoffmann, " Vorlaufiger Bericht iiber das Vor- 
kommen von Spirochaeten in syphilitischen Krankheitsproducten , " 
Arb. kais. Gesundheitsamte (1905), 22, p. 527; (53) E. and E. Sergent, 
" Sur un trypanosome nouveau parasite de la grenouille verte," C. r. 
soc. biol. (1904), 56, p. 123, fig. ; (54) idem, " Hemamibes des oiseaux 
et moustiques ' Generations alternantes,' de Schaudinn," op. cit. 
( I 95) 5 8 > P- 57; (54o) F. Stuhlmann, " Beitrage zur Kenntniss 
derTsetsefliege,"&c., Arb. kais. Gesundheitsamte (1907), 26, p. 83, 
4 P.' 8 '. (55) Valentin, " (Jber ein Entozoon im Blute von Salmo 
fario, " Mutter's Arch., $\, -p. 435; (56) O. Voges, " Mai de Caderas," 
Zeitschr. Hyg. (1902), 39, p. 323, I pi.; (57) Wasielewsky and 
G.Senn, " Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Flagtllaten des Rattenblutes," 
op. cit. (1900), 33, p. 444, pis. (58); J. H. Wright, "Protozoa in a 
case of tropical ulcer (Delhi sore), " Journ. Med. Research, Boston 
(1903), 10, p. 472, pis. (H. M. Wo.) 

TSAIDAM, or more correctly TSADUM, a depression, or self- 
contained shallow basin in the N.E. of Tibet, crossed by 37 N. 
and stretching from 92 to 97. It is separated from the high 
plateau of Tibet by the Burkhan-Buddha range, and on the 
N.E. it is bounded by the eastward continuation of the Astin- 
tagh ranges, which there consist of four, namely, the lower and 
upper ranges, and a subsidiary chain flanking the lower range 
on the north and another subsidiary chain flanking the upper 
range on the south (see KUEN-LUN). 

The valleys which divide the east ranges of the Kuen-Lun system 
terminate, or rather merge in, the sandy desert basin of Tsaidam; 
amongst them the Kakir valley between the upper Astin-tagh and 
the Akato-tagh and the Kum-kol valley between the Kalta-alagan 
and the range I. of the Arka-tagh (see KUEN-LUN). Tsaidam lies 
at an altitude of 11,400 ft. or about 3000 ft. lower than the Kum- 
kol lakes, and receives from the valley in which they lie the river 
Chulak-akkan or Tsagan tokhoy, which rises probably on the north 
slope of the Shapka-monomakha Mountain, one of the culminating 
summits in the region north of the Arka-tagh range. " It is very 
possible that the north-west of Tsaidam, which is perfectly 



unknown, is broken up into several separate basins. The south-east 
part of the same great expanse also appears to consist of several 
smaller basins rather than of one single great basin, each possessing 
its own salt lake; but then these smaller basins are undoubtedly 
separated from one another by remarkably low and insignificant 
thresholds or swellings. " l The north-east part of the basin con- 
sists of a network of basins, which admit of being grouped in four 
divisions Sartang or Serteng, Makhai, Tsadam or Tsaidam, and 
Kurlyk or Tosun. _The characteristic feature of each of these is 
that which is found in so many of the valleys of the Tibetan border- 
land, namely, a pair of linked lakes, one containing salt water and 
the other fresh water. The only inhabitants of Tsaidam are Mongols 
Sartang Mongols in the north and Tajinur Mongols in the south. 
The south-east part of the region is drained by the Holuzun-nor or 
Bam-gol, an affluent of the upper Hwang-ho or Yellow River of 
China. The Sartang basin is drained by the Khalting-gol and its 
tributary the Holuin-gpl, which rise in the Humboldt and Ritter 
Mountains and empty into the lake of Sukhain-nor. 

TSANA, a lake of North-East Africa, chief reservoir of the 
Abai or Blue Nile. Tsana lies between 11 36' and 12 16' 
N. and 37 2' and 37 40' E., filling a central depression in 
the Abyssinian highlands. It is about 5690 ft. above the sea, 
but from 2500 to 3000 ft. below the mountain plateau which 
encircles it. Its greatest length is 47 m., its greatest breadth 
44 m., and it covers, approximately noo sq. m., having a drain- 
age area, including the lake surface, of some 5400 sq. m. In 
shape it may be compared to a pear, the stem being repre- 
sented by the escaping waters of the Abai. The shores of the 
lake are well denned, generally flat, and bordered by reeds, 
but at places the mountains descend somewhat abruptly into 
the water. Elsewhere the land rises in gentle undulations, 
except at the moufhs of the larger tributary streams, where 
are alluvial plains of considerable size. At the south-east 
end the lake forms a bay about eleven miles long, and from 
three to eight miles across, and from this bay the Abai issues. 
The whole of the coast-line is considerably indented and many 
narrow promontories jut into the lake. The island of Dek 
(8 m. long by 4 broad) is in the south-western part of the lake. 
Near it is the smaller island of Dega, whilst numerous islets 
fringe the shores. 

Lake Tsana is fed by three large rivers and by many petty streams. 
The chief tributary is the Abai, which enters the lake at its south- 
west corner through a large papyrus swamp. This river, and the 
Abai or Blue Nile which issues from the lake, are regarded as one and 
the same stream and a current is observable from the inlet to the 
outlet. Next in importance of the affluents are the Reb and 
Gumara, which run m parallel courses and enter the lake on its 
eastern side. The outlet of the lake is marked by openings in a rocky 
ledge, through which the water pours into a lagoon-like expanse. 
Thence it issues by two or three channels, with a fall of about 5 ft. 
in a succession of rapids. These channels unite within a couple 
of miles into one river the Abai with a width of 650 ft. After 
passing a large number of rapids in the first sixteen miles of its 
course the Abai enters a deep gorge by a magnificent fall the 
Fall of Tis Esat the water being confined in a channel not more 
than 20 ft. across and falling 150 ft. in a single leap. The gorge is 
spanned by a stone bridge built in the I7th century. From this 
point the Abai makes its way through the mountains to the plains 
of Sennar, as described in the article NILE. 

The average annual rainfall in the Tsana catchment area is 
estimated at 3J ft., and the volume of water received by the lake 
yearly at 6,572,000,000 of cubic metres. More than half of this 
amount is lost by evaporation, the amount discharged into the river 
being placed at 2,924,000,000 cubic metres. The seasonal altera- 
tion of the lake level is not more than 5 ft. The rainy season lasts 
from the beginning of June to the end of September. During this 
period the discharge from the lake is, it appears, little greater than 
in the dry season, the additional water received going to raise the 
lake level. Thus the rise in the Blue Nile, in its lower course, would 
seem to be independent of the supply it derives from its source. 

Tsana has been identified with the Coloe Palus of the ancients, 
which although placed 12 too far .south by Ptolemy was 
described by him as a chief reservoir of the Egyptian Nile and 
the source of the Astapos, which was certainly the Blue Nile. In 
1625 it was visited by the Portuguese priest Jeronimo Lobo, 
and in 1771 by James Brucs. Dr. Anton Stecker, in 1881, 
made a detailed examination of the lake, enabling the carto- 
graphers to delineate it with substantial accuracy. By the 
Portuguese of the I7th century the lake was styled Dambia, 

1 Sven Hedin, Scientific Results of a Journey in Central Asia, 
, iii. 344 (Stockholm, 1905-1907). 



TSAR TSCHAIKOVSKY 



and this name in the slightly altered form of Dembea was in 
use until towards the close of the igth century. By many 
Abyssinians the lake is called Tana, but the correct Amharic 
form is Tsana. 

See NILE and ABYSSINIA, and the authorities there cited. The 
British Blue Book, Egypt, No. 2, 1904, contains a special report 
(with maps) upon Lake Tsana by Mr C. Dupuis, of the Egyptian 
Irrigation Service. In the Boll. soc. geog. italiana for December 
1908 Captain A. M. Tancredi gives the results (also with maps) of an 
Italian expedition to the lake. (W. E. G. ; F. R. C.) 

TSAR, or CZAR, the title commonly given both abroad and 
in Russia itself to the sovereign of Russia, whose official style 
is, however, " Emperor and Autocrat " (Imperator i Samov- 
lastityel). In its origin the word tsar seems to have connoted 
the same as imperator, being identical with the German Kaiser 
in its derivation from the Latin Caesar. In the old Slavonic 
Scriptures the Greek /3acriXeus is always translated tsar, and 
this title was also given to the Roman Emperor. The old 
Russian title for a sovereign was knyaz, prince, or veliky knyaz, 
grand prince. The title tsar was first adopted by the Slavonic 
peoples settled in the Balkan peninsula, who were in close 
touch with the Eastern emperor; thus it was used by the medieval 
Bulgarian kings. It penetrated into Russia as a result of the 
growing intercourse between old Muscovy and Constantinople, 
notably of the marriage alliances contracted by Russian princes 
with the dynasty of Basil the Macedonian; and it was assumed 
by the Muscovite princes who revolted from the yoke of the 
Mongols. The other tsars were gradually ousted by those of 
Moscow, and the modern Russian emperors inherit their title 
of tsar from Ivan III. (1462-1505), or perhaps rather from 
his grandson Ivan IV. (1533-1584) who was solemnly crowned 
tsar in 1547. 

Throughout, however, the title tsar was used, as it still is in popular 
parlance, indifferently of both emperors and kings, being regarded 
as the equivalent of the Slavonic krol or kral (Russ. korol, Magyar, 
kirdly), a king, which had been adopted from the name of Charle- 
magne (Germ. Karl, Lat. Carolus Magnus). Thisuse being equivocal, 
Peter the Great, at the peace of Nystad (Novembers, 1721), 
assumed the style of imperator, an exotic word intended to 
symbolize his imperial dignity as the equal of the western emperor. 
This new style was not, however, recognized by the powers until 
the time of Catherine II., and then only on the express understanding 
that this recognition did not imply any precedency or superiority 
of the Russian emperor over other sovereigns. Henceforth, what- 
ever popular usage might be, the title tsar was treated officially 
as the equivalent of that of king. Thus the Russian emperor is 
tsar (king) of Poland and of several other parts of his dominions. 
Thus, too, the prince of Bulgaria, on assuming the royal style, 
took the title of tsar of Bulgaria. 

The title ." White Tsar, applied to the Russian emperor and 
commonly quoted as though it had a poetic or mystic meaning, 
is a translation of a Mongol word meaning " independent " (cf. the 
feudal " blanch tenure, " i.e. a tenure free from all obligation of 
personal service). 

The wife of the tsar is tsaritsa. In former times the title 
tsarevich (king's son) was borne by every son of a tsar; but the 
word has now fallen out of use. The heir to the throne is known 
as the tsesarevich or cesarevich (q.v.), i.e. son of Caesar, the other 
Imperial princes bearing the old Russian title of veliky knyaz (grand 
duke; q.v.). 

TSARITSYN, a town of Russia, in the government of Saratov, 
situated on the right bank of the Volga, where it suddenly 
turns towards the south-east, 40 m. distant from the Don. 
Pop. (1900), 67,650. Tsaritsyn is the terminus of a railway 
which begins at Riga and, running south-eastwards, intersects 
all the main lines which radiate from Moscow to the south. 
It is also connected by rail with Kalach on the Don, where 
merchandise from the Sea of Azov is disembarked. Corn 
from middle Russia for Astrakhan is transferred from the rail- 
way to boats at Tsaritsyn; timber and wooden wares from 
the upper Volga are unloaded here and sent by rail to Kalach ; 
and fish, salt and fruits sent from Astrakhan by boat up the 
Volga are here unloaded and despatched by rail to the interior 
of Russia. The town has grown rapidly since the completion 
of the railway system, and has a large trade in petroleum 
from Baku. Tsaritsyn is also the centre of the trade in the 
mustard of Sarepta, Dubovka and the neighbourhood. The 
fisheries are important. The buildings of the town include 



a public library, and the church of St John (end of i6th 
century), a fine specimen of the architecture of its period. Here 
are iron, machinery and brick works, tanneries, distilleries, 
and factories for jam, mustard and mead. Market gardening 
is an important industry. 

A fort was erected here in the, i6th century to prevent the 
incursions of the free Cossacks and runaway serfs who gathered 
on the lower Volga, as also the raids of the Kalmucks and Cir- 
cassians. In 1606 Tsaritsyn took part in the rising in favour 
of the false Demetrius, and Stenka Razin took the town in 
1670. The Kalmucks and Circassians of the Kuban attacked 
it repeatedly in the I7th century, so that it had to be fortified 
by a strong earthen and palisaded wall, traces of which are 
still visible. 

TSARSKOYE SELO, a town of north Russia, in the govern- 
ment of St Petersburg, and an imperial residence, 1 5 m. by rail 
south of the capital. Pop. (1885), 15,000; (1897), 22,353. 
The town stands on the Duderhof Hills and consists (i) of 
the town proper, surrounded by villages and a German colony, 
which are summer resorts for the inhabitants of St Petersburg; 
and (2) of the imperial parks and palaces. The former is built 
on a regular plan, and its houses nearly all stand in gardens. 
The cathedral of St Catherine is a miniature copy of that at 
Constantinople. The imperial parks and gardens cover 1680 
acres; the chief of them is the " old " garden, containing 
the " old palace," built (1724) by Rastrelli and gorgeously 
decorated with mother-of-pearl, marbles, amber, lapis lazuli, 
silver and gold; the gallery of Cameron adorned with fine 
statues and entrance gates; numerous pavilions and kiosks; 
and a bronze statue (1900) of the poet Pushkin. A second 
palace, the Alexander, was built by Catherine II. in 1792, 
and has in its park an historical museum and an arsenal. 

When Peter the Great took possession of the mouth of the 
Neva, a Finnish village, Saari-mois, stood on the site now 
occupied by the town, and its Russified name Sarskaya was 
changed into Tsarskoye when Peter presented it to his wife 
Catherine. It was especially embellished by the tsaritsa 
Elizabeth. Under Catherine II., a town, Sophia, was built 
close by, but its inhabitants were transferred to Tsarskoye 
Selo under Alexander I. The railway connecting the town 
with St Petersburg was the first (1838) to be constructed 
in Russia. 

TSCHAIKOVSKY, PETER ILICH (1840-1893), Russian com- 
poser, born at Votkinsk, in the province of Vyatka, on the 7th 
of May 1840, was the son of a mining engineer, who shortly after 
the boy's birth removed to St Petersburg to assume the duties of 
director of the Technological Institue there. While studying 
in the school of jurisprudence, and later, while holding office 
in the ministry of justice, Tschai'kovsky picked up a smattering 
of musical knowledge sufficient to qualify him as an adept 
amateur performer. But the seriousness of his musical aspira- 
tion led him to enter the newly founded Conservatorium of 
St Petersburg under Zaremba, and he was induced by Anton 
Rubinstein, its principal, to take up music as a profession. He 
therefore resigned his post in the ministry of justice. On quitting 
the Conservatorium he was awarded a silver medal for his thesis, 
a cantata on Schiller's " Ode to Joy." In 1866 Tschaikovsky 
became practically the first chief of the recently founded Moscow 
Conservatorium, since Serov, whom he succeeded, never took 
up his appointment. In Moscow Tschaikovsky met Ostrovskiy, 
who wrote for him his first operatic libretto, The Vojeeoda. 
After the Russian Musical Society had rejected a concert 
overture written at Rubinstein's suggestion, Tschaikovsky in 
1866 was much occupied on his Winter Day Dreams, a symphonic 
poem, which proved a failure in St Petersburg but a success at 
Moscow. In 1867 he made an unsuccessful debut as conductor. 
Failure still dogged his steps, for in January 1869 his Vojeeoda 
disappeared off the boards after ten performances, and sub- 
sequently Tschaikovsky destroyed the score. The Romeo and 
Juliet overture has been much altered since its production by 
the Russian Musical Society in 1870, in which year the composer 
once more attempted unsuccessfully an operatic production, 



TSCHUDI 



349 



St Petersburg rejecting his Undine. In 1871 Tscha'ikovsky 
was busy on his cantata for the opening of the exhibition in 
celebration of the bicentenary of Peter the Great, his opera 
The Oprischnik, and a textbook of harmony, which latter was 
adopted by the Moscow Conservatorium authorities. At 
Moscow in 1873 his incidental music to the Snow Queen failed, 
but some success came next year with the beautiful quartet in F. 
During these years Tschaikovsky was musical critic for two 
journals, the Sovremennaya Lietopis and the Russky Vestnik. 
On the death of Serov he competed for the best setting of 
Polovsky's Wakula the Smith, and won the first two prizes. 
Yet on its production at St Petersburg in November 1876 this 
work gained only a succes d'cstime. Since then it has been much 
revised, and is now known as The Little Shoes. Meanwhile 
the Second Symphony and the Tempest fantasia had been heard, 
and the pianoforte concerto in B flat minor completed. This 
was first played by von Billow in Boston, Massachusetts, some 
time later, and was entirely revised and republished in 1889. 
At last something like success came to Tschaikovsky with the 
production of The Oprischnik, in which he had incorporated 
much of the best of The Vojevoda. The Third or Polish 
Symphony, four sets of songs, the E-flat quartet (dedicated to 
the memory of Lamb), the ballet " The Swan Lake," and the 
" Francesca da Rimini " fantasia, all belong to the period of the 
late 'seventies the last being made up of operatic fragments. 
Tschaikovsky in 1877 first began to work on the opera of Eugen 
Onegin. With the production of this work at the Moscow 
Conservatorium in March 1879 real success first came to him. 
The story, by Pushkin, was a familiar one, and the music of 
Tschaikovsky was not so extravagant in its demands as had 
been the music of his earlier operas. 

Meanwhile the more personal side of the composer's career 
had been given a romantic touch by his acquaintance with 
his lifelong benefactress, Mme von Meek, and his deplorable 
fiasco of a marriage. In 1876 he had aroused the interest of 
Nadezhda Filaretovna von Meek (1831-1894), the wife (left 
a widow in 1876) of a wealthy railway engineer and contractor. 
She had a large fortune and she began by helping the com- 
poser financially in. the shape of commissions for work, but in 
1877 this took the more substantial shape of an annual allow- 
ance of 600. The romance of their association consisted in 
the fact that they never met, though they corresponded with 
one another continually. In 1890 Mme von Meek (who died 
two months after the composer, of progressive nervous decline), 
imagining herself apparently a pure delusion to be ruined, 
discontinued the allowance; and though Tschaikovsky was then 
no longer really in need of it, he failed to appreciate the patho- 
logical reason underlying .Mme von Meck's condition of 
mind, and was deeply hurt. The wound remained unhealed, 
and the correspondence broken, though on his death-bed her 
name was on his lips. Her connexion with his life was one of 
its dominating features. His marriage was only a brief and 
misguided incident. Tschaikovsky married Antonina Ivanovna 
Milyukova on the 6th of July 1877, but the marriage rapidly 
developed into a catastrophe, through no fault of hers but 
simply through his own abnormality of temperament; and it 
resulted in separation in October. He had become taciturn to 
moroseness, and finally quitted Moscow and his friends for St 
Petersburg. There he fell ill, and an attempt to commit 
suicide by standing chin-high in the river in a frost (whereby 
he hoped to catch his death from exposure) was only frustrated 
by his brother's tender care. 

With his brother, Tschaikovsky went to Clarens to recuperate. 
He remained abroad for many months, moving restlessly from 
one place to another. In 1878 he accepted (but later resigned) 
the post of director of the Russian musical department at the 
Paris Exhibition, completed his Fourth Symphony and the 
Italian Capriccio, and worked hard at his " 1812 " overture, 
more songs, the second pianoforte concerto, and his " Liturgy 
of St Chrysostom," an interesting contribution to the music of 
the Eastern Church. The work was confiscated for some time 
by the intendant of the imperial chapel, on the ground that it 



had not received the imprimatur of his predecessor Bortniansky 
in due accordance with a ukaz of Alexander I. Bortniansky 
was dead, but his successor was obstinate. Finally the work 
was saved from destruction by an official order. Tschaikovsky 
returned only for a short time to Moscow. Thence he went 
to Paris. In 1879 he wrote his Maid of Orleans (produced in 
1880) and his first suite for orchestra. In 1881 died Nicholas 
Rubinstein to whose memory Tschaikovsky dedicated the trio 
in A minor. During the next five years Tschaikovsky travelled, 
and worked at Manfred and Hamlet, the operas Mazeppa and 
Charodaika, the Mozartian suite and the fine Fifth Symphony. 
During a great part of the time he lived in retirement at Klin, 
where his generosity to the poor made him beloved. His 
operas The Queen of Spades and the one-act lolanthe were feeble 
by comparison with his earlier works; more effective, however, 
were the ballets Sleeping Beauty and Casse-noisette. In 1893 
Tschaikovsky sketched his Sixth Symphony, now known as the 
Pathetic, a work that has done more for his fame in foreign 
lands than all the rest of his works. This was the year in which 
the composer conducted a work of his own at Cambridge on the 
occasion of his receiving the honorary degree of Doctor of 
Music. In the same year, on the 6th of November, he died 
from an attack of cholera at St Petersburg. 

Tschaikovsky's work is unequal. In dramatic compositions 
he lacked point precisely as Anton Rubinstein lacked point. 
But in the invention of broad, sweeping melody Tschaikovsky 
was far ahead of his compatriot. Among his songs and smaller 
pianoforte works, as in his symphonies and quartets, are passages 
of exquisite beauty. The best of Tschaikovsky's work is more 
distinctly Russian than that of most of his compatriots; it is 
not German music in disguise, as is so much of the music by 
Rubinstein and Glazounow, and it is not incoherently ferocious, 
like so much of the music by Balakirev. 

See Mrs Rosa Newmarch's Tchaikovsky (1900) supplemented in 
1906 by her condensed English edition of the Life and Letters, 
which appeared in Russian in 1901 in three volumes, edited by 
Modeste Tschaikovsky, the composer's brother. 

TSCHUDI, or SCHUDY, the name of one of the most distin- 
guished families of the land of Glarus, Switzerland. It can be 
traced back as a peasant, not a noble, race to 1289, while after 
Glarus joined the Swiss Confederation in 1352 various members 
of the family held high political offices at home, and were 
distinguished abroad as soldiers and in other ways. 

In literature, its most eminent member was GILES or AEGIDIUS 
TSCHUDI (1505-1572), who, after having served his native land 
in various offices, in 1558 became the chief magistrate mlandam- 
mann, and in 1559 was ennobled by the emperor Ferdinand, to 
whom he had been sent as ambassador. Originally inclined to 
moderation, he became later in life more and more devoted to 
the cause of the counter-Reformation. It is, however, as the 
historian of the Swiss Confederation that he is best known; 
by incessant wanderings and unwearied researches amongst 
original documents he collected material for three great works, 
which therefore can never wholly lose their value, though his 
researches have been largely corrected by those of more recent 
students. In 1538 his book on Rhaetia, written in 1528, was 
published in Latin and in German De prisca ac vera Alpina 
Rhaetia, or Die uralt wahrhaftig Alpisch Rhatia. The historical 
reputation of Giles Tschudi has suffered very much owing to 
recent researches. His inventions as to the early history of the 
Swiss Confederation are described under TELL. His statements 
and documents relating to Roman times and the early history of 
Glarus and his own family had long roused suspicion. Detailed 
examination of late years has proved beyond the shadow of a 
doubt that he not merely claimed to have copied Roman inscrip- 
tions that never existed, and amended others in a most arbitrary 
fashion, but that he deliberately forged a number of documents 
with a view to pushing back the origin of his family to the 
roth century, thus also entirely misrepresenting the early history 
of Glarus, which is that of a democratic community, and not (as 
he pretended) that of a preserve of several aristocratic families. 
Tschudi's historical credit is thus hopelessly ruined, and no 



350 



TSENG KUO-FAN TSETSE-FLY 



document printed or historical statement made by him can 
henceforward be accepted without careful verification and 
examination. These discoveries have a painful interest and 
importance, since down to the latter part of the igth century 
Swiss historical writers had largely based their works on his 
investigations and manuscripts. 

For a summary of these discoveries see G. v. Wyss in the Jahrbuch 
of the Historical Society of Glarus (1895), vol. xxx., in No. I (1894), 
of the Anzeiger f. schweizerische Geschichte, and in his Geschichte d. 
Historiographie in d. Schweiz (1895), pp. 196, 201, 202. The original 
articles by Vogelin (Roman inscriptions) appeared in vols. xi., xiv. 
and xv. (1886-1890) of the Jahrbuch f. schweizer Geschichte, and 
that by Schulte (Glarus) in vol. xviii. (1893) of the same periodical. 
For the defence, see a weak pamphlet, Schulte u. Tschudi (Coire, 
1898), by P. C. v. Planta. 

Tschudi's chief works were not published until long after his 
death. The Beschreibung Galliae Comatae appeared under Gallati's 
editorship in 1758, and is mainly devoted to a topographical, historical 
and antiquarian description of ancient Helvetia and Rhaetia, the 
latter part being his early work on Rhaetia revised and greatly 
enlarged. This book was designed practically as an introduction 
to his magnum opus, the Chronicon helveticum, part of which (from 
1001 to 1470) was published by J. R. Iselin in two stately folios 
( I 734~ I 73^); the rest consists only of rough materials. There exist 
two rather antiquated biographies of Tschudi by I. Fuchs (2 vols., 
St Gall, 1805) and C. Vogel (Zurich, 1856), but his extensive 
complete correspondence has not yet been printed. 

Subjoined is a list of other prominent members of the family. 
DOMINIC (1596-1654) was abbot of Muri and wrote a painstaking 
work, Origo et genealogia gloriosissimorum comitum de Habsburg 
(1651). JOSEPH, a Benedictine monk at Einsiedeln, wrote a 
useful history of his abbey (1823). The family, which became 
divided in religious matters at the Reformation, also includes 
several Protestant ministers: JOHN HENRY (1670-1729), who 
wrote Beschreibung des Lands Glarus (1714); JOHN THOMAS 
(1714-1788), who left behind him several elaborate MSS. on the 
local history of Glarus; and JOHN JAMES (1722-1784), who 
compiled an elaborate family history from 900 to 1500, and an 
account of other Glarus families. JOHN Louis BAPTIST (d. 1784), 
who settled in Metz and contributed to the Encyclopedic, and 
FREDERICK (1820-1886), the author of Das Thierleben der Alpen- 
welt (1853), were distinguished naturalists. Among the soldiers 
may be mentioned CHRISTOPHER (1571-1629), a knight of Malta 
and an excellent linguist, who served in the French and Spanish 
armies; while the brothers Louis LEONARD (1700-1779) and 
JOSEPH ANTHONY (1703-1770) were in the Neapolitan service. 
VALENTINE (1499-1555), the cousin f Giles, was, like the latter, 
a pupil of Zwingli, whom he afterwards succeeded as pastor of 
Glarus, and by his moderation gained so much influence that 
during the thirty years of his ministry his services were attended 
alike by Romanists and Protestants. The best-known member 
of the family in the igth century was IWAN (1816-1887), author 
of an excellent guide-book to Switzerland, which appeared first 
(1855) under the name of Sckweizerfuhrer, but is best known 
under the title (given in 1872 to an entirely recast edition) of 
Der Tourist in der Schweiz. (W. A. B. C.) 

TSENG KUO-FAN (1811-1872), Chinese statesman and 
general, was born in 1811 in the province of Hunan, where he 
took in succession the three degrees of Chinese scholarship. 
In 1843 he was appointed chief literary examiner in the province 
of Szechuen, and six years later was made junior vice-president 
of the. board of rites. When holding the office of military 
examiner (1851) he was compelled by the death of his mother 
to retire to his native district for the regulation mourning. At 
this time the Taiping rebels were overrunning Hunan in their 
conquering career, and had possessed themselves of the cities 
and strongholds on both shores of the Yangtse-kiang. By a 
special decree Tseng was ordered to assist the governor of the 
province in raising a volunteer force, and on his own initiative 
he built a fleet of war junks, with which he attacked the rebels. 
In his first engagement he was defeated, but, happily for him, 
his lieutenants were more successful. They recovered the 
capital, Chang-sha, and destroyed the rebel fleet. Following up 
these victories of his subordinates, Tseng recaptured Wuchang 
and Hanyang, near Hankow, and was rewarded for his success 



by being appointed vice-president of the board of war. In 
1853 other triumphs led to his being made a baturu (a Manchu 
order for rewarding military prowess), and to his being decorated 
with a yellow riding-jacket. Meanwhile, in his absence, the 
rebels retook Wuchang and burnt the protecting fleet. The tide 
quickly turned, however, and Tseng succeeded in clearing the 
country round the Poyang lake, and subsequently in ridding the 
province of Kiangsu of the enemy. His father died in 1857, 
and after a brief mourning he was ordered to take supreme 
command in Cheh-kiang, and to co-operate with the governor of 
Fukien in the defence of that province. Subsequently the rebels 
were driven westwards, and Tseng would have started in pursuit 
had he not been called on to clear the province of Ngan-hui of 
rebel bands. In 1860 he was appointed viceroy of the two Kiang 
provinces and Imperial war commissioner. At this time, and for 
some time previously, he had been fortunate in having the active 
support of Tso Tsung-t'ang, who at a later period recovered 
Kashgar for the emperor, and of Li Hung-Chang. Like all true 
leaders of men, he knew how to reward good service, and when 
occasion offered he appointed the former to the governorship of 
Cheh-kiang and the latter to that of Kiangsu. In 1862 he was 
appointed assistant grand secretary of state. At this time the 
Imperial forces, assisted by the " Ever-victorious Army," had 
checked the progress of the rebellion, and Tseng was able to carry 
out a scheme which he had long formulated of besieging Nanking, 
the rebel headquarters. While Gordon, with the help of Li 
Hung-Chang, was clearing the cities on the lower waters of the 
Yangtse-kiang, Tseng drew closer his besieging lines around the 
doomed city. In July 1864 the city fell into his hands, and he 
was rewarded with the rank and title of marquis and the right 
to wear the double-eyed peacock's feather. After the suppres- 
sion of the Taipings the Nienfei rebellion, closely related to the 
former movement, broke out in Shantung, and Tseng was sent 
to quell it. Success did not, however, always attend him on this 
campaign, and by Imperial order he was relieved of his command 
by Li Hung-Chang, who in the same way succeeded him in the 
viceroyalty of Chihli, where, after the massacre of Tientsin (1870), 
Tseng failed to carry out the wishes of his Imperial master. 
After this rebuff he retired to his viceroyalty at Nanking, where 
he died in 1872. 

Tseng was a voluminous writer. His papers addressed to the 
throne and his literary disquisitions are held in high esteem by the 
scholars of China, who treasure as a memorial of a great and un- 
corrupt statesman the edition of his collected works in 156 books, 
which was edited by Li Hung-Chang in 1876. (R. K. D.) 

TSETSE-FLY (Tsetse, an English rendering of the Bantu 
nsi-nsi, a fly), a name applied indiscriminately to any one of the 
eight species of Glossina, a genus of African blood-sucking 
Diptera (two- winged flies, see DIPTERA), of the family Muscidae. 
Tsetse-flies are of great economic and pathological importance 
as the disseminators of tsetse-fly disease (nagana) and sleeping 
sickness. These maladies are caused by minute unicellula 
animal parasites (haematozoa) of the genus Trypanosoma (see 
TRYPANOSOMES) ; and recent investigations have shown that, 
under normal conditions, the particular species of Trypanosoma 
concerned (T. brttcei, in the case of nagana, and T. gambiense in 
that of sleeping sickness) are introduced into the blood of sus- 
ceptible animals or man only by the bite of one or other of the 
species of tsetse. (See PARASITIC DISEASES). The names of the 
recognized species of tsetse-flies are as follows: Glossina palpalis 
(see fig.); G. pallicera; G. morsitans; G. tachinoides', G. 
pallidipes; G. longipalpis', G. fusca; and G. longipennis. A ninth 
so-called species, described in 1905 from specimens from Angola, 
is not really distinct from G. palpalis but appears to be identical 
with the sub-species G. palpalis wellmani. 

In appearance tsetse are somewhat narrow-bodied flies, with a 
prominent proboscis, which projects horizontally in front of the head, 
and with the wings in the resting position closed flat one over the 
other like the blades of a pair of scissors (see fig., B). The latter 
characteristic affords an infallible means for the recognition of 
these insects, since it at once serves to distinguish them from any 
blood-sucking flies with which they might otherwise be confused. The 
coloration of tsetse-flies is sombre and inconspicuous; the brownish 



TSHI TUAM 



35 1 



or greyish-brown thorax usually exhibits darker longitudinal 
markings, and when the insect is at rest the abdomen or hinder half 
of the body is entirely concealed by the brownish wings. In some 
species the abdomen is of a paler colour and marked with sharply 
denned, dark brown bands, which are interrupted on the middle 
line. The length of the body, exclusive of the proboscis, which 
measures about a line to a line and a half, varies according to the 
species from 6 or 8 millimetres in the case of G. tachinoides, to 
about 1 1 millimetres in that of G. fusca or longipennis ; the closed 




HJ.E.TEFIZI 



wings, however, project beyond the body and thus increase its 
apparent length. G. palpalis, the disseminator of sleeping sickness 
(see fig.), is about 95 millimetres in length and is the darkest of 
all the tsetse-flies, though the dark brown abdomen has pale lateral 
triangular markings and usually at least an indication of a pale 
longitudinal median stripe. In all tsetse-flies the proboscis in the 
jiving insect is entirely concealed by the palpi, which are grooved 
in their inner sides and form a closely fitting sheath for the piercing 
organ; the base of the proboscis is expanded beneath into a large 
onion-shaped bulb, which is filled with muscles. The head of the 
insect contains a muscular pharynx by means of which the blood 
from the wound inflicted by the proboscis (labium) is pumped into 
the alimentary canal and the so-called sucking-stomach. The tip 
of the proboscis is armed with a complicated series of chitinous 
teeth and rasps, by means of which the fly is enabled to pierce the 
skin of its victim ; as usual in Diptera the organ is closed on the upper 
side by the labrum, or upper lip, and contains the hypopharynx or 
common outlet of the paired salivary glands, which are situated in 
the abdomen. The proboscis of tsetse-flies is without the paired 
piercing stilets (mandibles and maxillae) possessed by other blood- 
sucking Diptera, such as the female horse-flies and mosquitoes. 

For the anatomy of the tsetse see E. A. Minchin, Proc. Roy. Soc. 
Ixxvi. 531-547- 

Tsetse-flies are restricted to Africa, where they occur in suitable 
localities throughout the greater portion of the tropical region, 
although not found either in the Sahara or in the veld country of 
the extreme south. For practical purposes the northern limit of 
Glossina, as at present known, may be shown on the map by drawing 
a line from Cape Verde to the Nile a little to the south-east of El 
Obeid, and thence to the coast of Somaliland at 4 N. ; while the 
southern boundary of the genus may similarly be represented by 
the Cunene river, in the south of Angola, and a line thence to the 
north-eastern end of St Lucia lake, in Zululand. Within the area 
thus defined tsetse-flies are not found continuously, however, but 
occur only in small tracts called" belts " or " patches," which, since 
cover and shade are necessities of life to these insects, are always 
situated in forest, bush or banana plantations, or among other shady 
vegetation. In South and Central Africa, at any rate, " fly-belts " 
are usually met with in damp, hot, low-lying spots on the margins 
of water-courses, rivers and lakes, and seldom far from water of some 
kind. It appears, however, that in this respect the habits of the 
different species show a certain amount of variation; thus, while 
G. palpalis exhibits an especial fondness for water and haunts more 
or less dense cover at the water's edge, recent observations in German 
East Africa show that G. fusca is in no way connected with water, 
but is much more frequently encountered at a distance from it. 
Similarly; the oft-repeated assertion that there is a definite connexion 
between tsetse-flies and big game, especially the buffalo (Bubalus 
caffer), in that the former are dependent upon the latter for their 
continued existence, is certainly not true as regards G. palpalis, 
although in South Africa there can be no question that the ex- 
termination of big game has been followed or accompanied by the 
disappearance of tsetse from many localities in which they formerly 
abounded. 



As a rule tsetse-flies are most active during the warmer hours of 
the day, but they frequently bite at night, especially by moonlight. 
The blood-sucking habit is common to both sexes, and the abdomen, 
being capable of great expansion, is adapted for the periodical 
ingestion of an abundant food-supply. The act of feeding, in which 
the proboscis is buried in the skin of the victim nearly up to the 
bulb, is remarkably quick, and in thirty seconds or less the abdomen 
of the fly, previously flat, becomes swollen out with blood like a 
berry. Stuhlmann's experiments with G. fusca show that the 
insect is able to ingest considerably more than (sometimes 
more than twice) its own weight of blood, which would 
appear to be the only food, and must be drawn from the 
tissues of a victim. Specimens of G. fusca, even though 
fasting and kept for days in absolutely dry air, could never 
be induced to imbibe water, sugar-cane juice or extra- 
vasated blood. The reproduction of tsetse-flies is highly 
remarkable; instead of laying eggs or being ovovivi- 
parous the females deposit at intervals of about a fortnight 
or three weeks a single full-grown larva, which forthwith 
buries itself in the ground to a depth of several centi- 
metres, and assumes the pupal state. The practical 
importance of this peculiar life-history is very great, 
since larvae thus protected cannot easily be destroyed. 
It is important to note that although sleeping sickness 
(of which the chief foci are at present the Congo Free 
State and Uganda) has hitherto been associated with one 
particular species of Glossina, it has been shown experi- 
mentally both that other tsetse-flies are able to transmit 
the parasite of the disease, and that G. palpalis can convey 
kindred parasites which are fatal to domestic animals. 
Since, moreover, it is believed that at least five species 
of Glossina are carriers of nagana, it may well be that 
all tsetse-flies can disseminate both nagana and sleeping 
sickness. (E. E. A.) 

TSHI, TCHWI, CHI, or Oji, a group of Negro peoples of the 
Gold Coast (q.v.). The chief of these are the Ashanti, Fanti, 
Akim and Aquapem. Their common language is the Tshi, 
from which they gain their family name. 

TSU-SHIMA (" the island of the port "), an island belonging 
to Japan, situated about midway between Korea and the island 
of Iki, so that the two islands were used as places of call in former 
times by vessels plying between Japan and Korea. Tsu-shima 
lies about 34 20' N., 129 20' E. The nearest point of the 
Korean coast is 48 m. distant. It has an area of 262 sq. m. and a 
population of 39,000. It is divided at the waist by a deep sound 
(Asaji-ura), and the southern section has two hills, Yatachi-yama 
and Shira-dake, 2130 ft. and 1680 ft. high respectively, while 
the northern section has Ibeshi-yama and Mi-take, whose heights 
are 1128 ft. and 1598 ft. The chief town is Izu-hara. The 
Mongol armada visited the island in the i3th century and com- 
mitted great depredations. In 1861 an attempt was made by 
Russia to obtain a footing on the island. The name of the battle 
of Tsu-shima is given to the great naval engagement of the 27th 
and 28th of May 1905, in which the Russian fleet under Admiral 
Rozhdestvensky was defeated by the Japanese under Admiral 
Togo. 

TUAM, a market town and episcopal city of Co. Galway, 
Ireland, 20 m. directly N.N.E. of Galway on the Limerick & 
Sligo branch of the Great Southern & Western railway. Pop. 
(1901), 3012. Anabbey was founded here towards the end of the 
5th century, and in the beginning of the 6th an episcopal see by 
St Jarlath. The Protestant archbishopric of Tuam was lowered 
to a bishopric on the death of Archbishop Power Le Poer Trench 
in 1839, and united with that of Killala and Achonry. It is, 
however, a Roman Catholic archbishopric. The Protestant 
cathedral is also the parish church, and was to a great extent re- 
built c. 1 86 1 from plans by Sir Thomas Deane. Only the chancel 
of the old church remains, but its red sandstone arch is a remark- 
ably fine example of Norman work; it dates from the middle of 
the 1 2th century. The modern Roman Catholic cathedral is 
Perpendicular in style and cruciform in plan. The interior is 
elaborately decorated. The cross of Tuam, re-erected in modern 
times, bears inscriptions in memory of Turlogh O'Conor, king of 
Ireland, and O'Hoisin, successively (1128) abbot of St Jarlath's 
Abbey and archbishop (1152) of Tuam, when the see was raised. 
St Jarlath's Roman Catholic college, usually called the New 
College, is a seminary founded in 1814 for the education of priests. 
To the west are the* archbishop's palace and a convent of 



352 



TUAREG TUAT 



Presentation nuns. The town has a considerable retail trade, 
and is a centre for the disposal of agricultural produce. Tuam 
received its first charter from James I. Before the union in 
1800 it returned two members to the Irish Parliament. 

TUAREG, or TAWAREK (more properly Tawarik, the collective 
form of tarki, from Arabic terek, to give up), the name given 
to the western and central Saharan Berber peoples, in reference 
possibly to their abandonment of Christianity or their early 
home in Mauretania. They call themselves Imoshagh (" the 
noble people "), another form of Amazigh. They inhabit the 
desert from Tuat to Timbuktu and from Fezzan to Zinder. The 
Tuareg country covers about 1,500,000 sq. m., less than 
3000 acres of which are cultivated. There are only some half- 
dozen commercial places in the whole Sahara to which the 
Tuareg resort. These are the centres from which the trade routes 
radiate, Wargla, Timbuktu, Ghat, Ghadames, Murzuk and 
Insalah. 

The Tuareg, at any rate the noble class, are regarded as among 
the purest of the Berber stocks, but with the adoption of Islam 
they have become largely Arabized in manners and customs, 
though the nomad Tuareg preserve in singular purity the Tama- 
shek dialect of the Berber language. Their general colour is the 
reddish yellow of southern Europeans, the uncovered parts of 
the body being, however, darker through exposure. Their hair 
is long, black, and silky, beards black and thin; eyes black, some- 
times blue; noses small; hands delicate, but bodies muscular. 
They are a tall people, the chiefs being especially noted for their 
powerful build. They dress generally in a black tunic (some 
tribes wear white), trousers girt with a woollen belt, and wear as 
turban a cloth called litham, the end of which is drawn over the 
face, allowing nothing to be seen but the eyes and the tip of the 
nose. The purpose of this is to protect the throat and lungs from 
the sand. These cloths are dark blue or white: the former being 
worn most by the nobles, the latter by the common people. To 
this difference of colour is due the terms " black " and " white " 
Tuareg. The Tuareg seldom remove their masks or face-cloths. 
Even abroad they wear them, and have been seen so dressed in 
the streets of Paris. The Arabs call them " People of the 
Veil." 

The Tuareg are divided into five main tribes or confederations 
of tribes: the Azgar (Asjer) about Ghat and Ghadames; the Kelui 
around Air; the Hoggar (Ahaggar) in the mountains of that name 
and in the centre of the Sahara; the Awellimiden in the desert north 
and east of Timbuktu; and the Arrerf Ahnet, a recent offshoot 
of the Hoggars living in the Adrar'n Ahnet region north-west of 
the Hoggar massif. Owing to their nomadic life their political 
organization is not so democratic as that of other Berber peoples; 
chiefs and the members of the popular assembly are nominally 
elective; practically, however, the office of chief is hereditary in 
a ruling family. On a chief's death the office goes, with the approval 
of the tribesmen, to the eldest son of his eldest sister, in no case 
to any of his sons. The Tuareg are nominally Mahommedans, and 
belong to the Malikite section of the Sunnites. The Senussite 
sect, however, has many adherents, but more because of the Tuareg 
hatred of foreigners than from devoutness. A very few perform, 
by way of Tripoli, the pilgrimage to Mecca. They have not many 
mosques, and these are merely small stone enclosures a few feet 
high, with a niche at one end towards Mecca. There are a number 
of desert monasteries, huge camps pitched in a circle. Here the 
marabout lives surrounded by his followers, shifting the " monas- 
tery " as the requirements of his flocks compel. In these 
monasteries many Tuareg children receive their education. 

Socially the Tuareg are divided into five classes, viz.: Thaggaren 
or nobles; Marabouts or priests; Imghad or serfs; Ireghenaten or 
cross-breeds; and the slaves. The nobles are all pure-blooded, and 
provide the tribal chiefs. They do no manual work, but almost 
live in the saddle, either convoying those caravans which have paid 
blackmail for safe passage, or making raids on trade-routes or even 
outlying Arab settlements. Before the French occupation they 
sometimes penetrated into the very heart of Algeria and Tunisia. 
Among the Imghad serfdom is hereditary, and whole tribes are 
vassals to the nobles. They cannot be sold or freed like slaves, 
though they may be inherited. Most of them have practical inde- 
pendence and act as " squires " to the nobles on their pillaging 
expeditions. The cross-breeds are the descendants of mixed 
marriages between the nobles and serfs. These follow their mother's 
status. The slaves are chiefly Sudanese negroes. They are well 
treated and are practically members of the Tuareg family, but the 
Tuareg never intermarry with them. The Tuareg weapons are 
a straight two-edged sword about 4 ft. long, a dagger bound 



to the left forearm by a leather ring, and a slender iron lance some 
9 ft. long barbed for about a foot. On his right arm the Tuareg 
warrior wears a heavy stone to give increased weight to his lance 
and sword-play or to parry blows. Muskets are common, no noble 
or freedman being without one. Besides this the Tuareg carry 
leathern shields. In hunting, wooden missiles like boomerangs 
are used. Among the low-caste hill tribes of Hoggar bows and 
arrows are the only weapons. 

Little is known of the history of the Tuareg. The name is that 
given them by the Arabs. They are the descendants of those 
Berbers who were driven into the desert by the great Arab invasion 
of North Africa in the nth century. Ibn Khaldun in the I4th 
century locates them to the south and west of Tunisia. They were 
constantly at war with the Arabs on the north, and the Negro peoples 
of the Sudan on the south. For their relations with the French, 
with whom they came into contact after the conquest of Algeria, 
see SAHARA. 

AUTHORITIES. H. Duveyrier, Les Touaregs du Nord (Paris, 
1864); Lieut. Hourst, The Exploration of the Niger (Eng. trans., 
London, 1898), pp. 199-249; W. J. Harding King, A Search for 
the Masked Tuaregs (London, 1903) ; M. Benhazera, Six Mois 
chez les Touareg du Ahaggar (Algiers, 1908); Lieut. C. Jean, 
Les Touareg du sud-est: I'A'ir, leur role dans la politique saharienne 
(Paris, 1909) ; E. Doutte, Magie el religion dans I'Afrique du nord 
(Algiers, 1909) ; " Essai de transcription methodique des noms de 
lieux touareg " in Bull. soc. geog. d'Alger (1908). 

TUAT, a Berber word l sometimes applied generally to all the 
oases in the western part of the Algerian Sahara, i.e. between 
2 W. and 2^ E. 26 and 30 N., sometimes restricted to a par- 
ticular group which borders the east side of Wad Mzaud between 
265 and 275 N. According to the first usage Tuat includes the 
oases of Gurara in the north and Tidikelt in the south with the 
important centre of Insalah. The three groups are spoken of col- 
lectively by the French as the Tuat archipelago. The district is 
comparatively fertile, being formed of recent alluvium extending 
along the base of the Tademait plateau (Cretaceous) , and produces 
dates and some cereals and vegetables. The wadi Saura (known 
in its lower course as the Messaud), formed by the junction of the 
wadis Zusfana and Ghir, marks the north-western boundary of 
the oases. After the winter rains in the Atlas it carries a consider- 
able body of water in its upper course, but lower down its channel 
is choked by sand. Works were undertaken (1909) by the French 
to keep open the channel as it passes Tuat proper. At Gurara 
water is obtained from springs brought to the surface by the 
outcrop of impervious Devonian rocks. There is an extensive 
sebkha or salt lake at Gurara. The oases support a comparatively 
large population. The separate ksurs or hamlets, of which the 
district is said to contain over 300, are in Tuat proper placed close 
together. The political centre of Tuat is the oasis of Timmi, 
which has some forty ksurs. All the ksurs are strongly fortified, 
the walls of the citadels being of immense thickness. The whole 
region has been formed into an -administrative unit known as 
lerritoire des oasis sahariennes, and comprising a native commune 
subdivided into the annexes of Tuat, Gurara and Tidikelt. In 
1906 the commune had a population of 134 Europeans and 
49,873" natives, of whom 112 enjoyed municipal rights. There 
were four places with over 2000 inhabitants: Adrar (Timmi), 
2686, and Zaniet-Kunta, 3090 , in Tuat ; Insalah, 2837, in Tidikelt ; 
and Timimun, 2330, in Gurara. Nine other places had between 
looo and 2000 inhabitants. By race (excluding the troops) 
there were 19,654 Arabs, 5470 Berbers, 4374 negroes, 191 Jews 
(professing Islam) and 19,412 persons of mixed blood. The 
district is of importance as commanding the routes southwards 
to Timbuktu from both Morocco and Algeria, and it is thus a 
great centre of trade. The oases appear to have been inhabited 
from a very early period. According to tradition numbers of 
Jews migrated thither in the 2nd century A.D. They were the 
predominant element in the oases when the conquests of Sidi 
Okba drove the Zenata south (7th century). These Berbers 
occupied Tuat and, to a large extent, absorbed the Jewish popu- 
lation. The Arabs took possession of the oases in the loth century 
and imposed Islam upon the people. Thereafter the region was 
governed by Zenata Berbers or by Arab chieftains. In the I4th 

1 The etymology of the word is doubtful; it is used in the sense 
of an inhabited district hence an oasis. 

1 By a clerical error the native population in the census returns 
is given as 60,497. 



TUBA 



353 



century the sultan of Morocco occupied the oases, which remained 
in political dependence upon Morocco. In the 1 7th century, how- 
ever, the sovereignty of the sultan had become almost nominal 
and this state of quasi-independence continued. The treaty of 
1845 between Morocco and France left the question of the 
possession of Tuat, Gurara and Tidikelt unsettled. After the 
murder in 1881 of the members of the Flatters mission a French 
expedition sent into the Sahara a measure concerted at Insalah, 
several of the Tuat headmen sought Moroccan protection, fearing 
the vengeance of France. A chief calling himself the Moroccan 
pasha established himself at Timmi, but Morocco took no active 
step to assert her sovereignty. In 1899 a French scientific 
mission, under Colonel Flamand, was despatched to the oasis of 
Tidikelt. The French were attacked by the natives (Dec. 28, 
1899), whom they defeated, and the next day Insalah was occu- 
pied. This was the beginning of a serious campaign in which the 
French suffered severe losses, but by March 1901 the whole of the 
fortified places in the three oases had been captured. To cut off 
the oases from Morocco the town of Igli, 140 m. north-west of 
Gurara, was also annexed by the French (April 5, 1900). Igli 
(pop. 1057 in 1906) occupies an important position, being placed 
at the junction of the wadi Zusfana and the wadi Ghir. The 
French were not, however, left in peaceable possession of their 
newly acquired territory. Attacks by the nomad tribes, Moroccan 
and others, were made on the line of communications, and 
during 1903 the French troops suffered serious losses. To punish 
the tribes the town of Figig was bombarded by the French 
(June 8, 1903). On the 2nd of September following a band of 
nomads attacked, at a place called El Mung'ar, the escort of a 
convoy going to Taghit. After maintaining the fight 7^ hours 
the French were reinforced and their enemies drew off. Out of 
115 combatants the French lost 38 killed and 47 wounded. 

To consolidate their position the French authorities deter- 
mined to connect the oases with the Algerian Sahara proper by 
carriage roads and railways. One road goes north-east to El 
Golea, 150 m. distant from Insalah; another north from Igli to a 
post called Beni Ounif, 2$ m. south of Figig, to which point the 
railway from Ain Sefra, in the Oranese Sahara, was carried in 
1903. The continuation of this railway to Igli was begun in the 
folio wing year. 

Major A. G. Laing visited the Tuat territory in 1825 on his way 
to Timbuktu, but his papers were lost. The next European to visit 
Tuat was Gerhard Ronlfs, who described his explorations and 
investigations in Tagebuch seiner Reise durch Marokko nach Tuat, 
1864 (Gotha, 1865) and Reise durch Marokko . . . Exploration 
der Oasen von Tafilet, Tuat und Tidikelt . . . (Bremen, 1868). 
A. G. P. Martin's Les Oasis sahariennes (Algiers, 1908) gives an 
account of the history and economic condition of the oases. Consult 
also Commandant E. Laquiere, Les Reconnaissances du General 
Serviere dans les oasis sahariennes (Paris, 1902), a valuable mono- 
graph by an officer who took part in the operations in 1900-1901 ; 
E. F. Gautier, Sahara aleerien (Paris, 1908), and various contribu- 
tions by G. B. M. Flamand in LaGeographie andAnnales geographiques 
for IQOO, Comptes rendus (1902), Bull. geog. hist, et descriptive (1903), 
&c. (F. R. C.) 

TUBA, in music. The tubas bombardon, helicon, eupho- 
nium (Fr. tuba, sax-tuba, bombardon; Ger. Tuben, Tenor-bass, 
Bombardon, Kontrabasstuba, Helikon;Ital. basstuba, bombardone) 
are a family of valved instruments of powerful tone forming 
the tenor and bass of the brass wind. In the orchestra these instru- 
ments are called tubas; in military bands euphonium (tenor), 
bombardon and helicon (bass). 

The modern tubas owe their existence to the invention of valves 
or pistons ( Ger. V 'entile) by two Prussians, Stolzel and Bliimel, in 
181 5. The tubas are often confounded with the baritone and bass 
of the saxhorns, being like them the outcome of the application of 
valves to the bugle family. There is, however, a radical difference 
in construction between the two types: given the same length 
of tubing, the fundamental octave of the tubas is an octave lower 
than that of the saxhorns, the quality of tone being besides 
immeasurably superior. This difference is entirely due to the 
proportions of the truncated cone of the bore and consequently 
of the column of air within. By increasing the calibre of the 
bore in proportion to the length of the tube it was found that the 
fundamental note or first sound of the harmonic series was easily 

XXVII. 12 



obtained in a full rich quality, and by means of the valves, with 
this one note as a basis, a valuable pedal octave is obtained, 
absent in the saxhorns. Prussia has not adopted these modifica- 
tions; the bass tubas with large calibre, which have long been 
introduced into the military bands of other countries and retained 
in that country, are founded on the original model invented in 




BBb Bombardon or Contrabass Tuba (Besson). 
1835 by Wieprecht and Moritz, a specimen of which is preserved 
in the museum of the Brussels Conservatoire. The name " bass 
tuba " was bestowed by Wieprecht upon his newly invented bass 
with valves, which had the narrow bore afterwards adopted by 
Sax for the saxhorns. The evolution of the modern tubas took 
place between 1835 and 1854 (see VALVES). 

The instruments termed Wagner tubas are not included among 
the foregoing. The Wagner tubas are really horns designed for 
Wagner in order to provide for the Nibelungen Ring a complete 
quartet having the horn timbre. The tenor tuba corresponds 
to the tenor horn, which it outwardly resembles, having its tube 
bent in rectangular outline and being played by means of a funnel- 
shaped mouthpiece. The bore of the Wagner tenor and tenor- 
bass tubas, in Bb and F, is slightly larger than in the horn, but 
much smaller than in the real tubas. The bell, funnel-shaped 
as in the German tubas, is held to the right of the performer, 
the valves being fingered by the left hand. There are four 
valves, lowering the pitch respectively i tone, 5 tone, 13 tone, 
2 tones (or 2 tones). The harmonic series is the same for both 
instruments, the notation being as for the horn in C. 



C. 



B flat Tenor. 



Real Sounds. 



F Bass. 



-a> *" 



: hmsr 



N.B. The black notes are difficult to obtain strictly in tune as 
open notes. 

By means of the valves the compass is extended downwards 
an octave for each instrument. The timbre of the tenor tuba is 
only slightly more metallic and less noble than that of the French 
horn with valves. Many motives in the Ring are given out by 
the quartet of horns and Wagner tubas. 

The modern tuba finds its prototype as well as the origin of the 
name in the Roman tuba (the Greek salpinx), definite information 
concerning which is given by Vegetius. 1 Compared with the other 
military service instruments of the Romans, the buccina and cornu, 
the tuba was straight and was used to sound the charge and retreat, 
and to encourage and lead the soldiers during action; it was sounded 
at the changing of the guard, as the signal to begin and leave off 
work, &c. The tuba is represented, together with the buccina and 
cornu, on Trajan's column in the scenes described by Vegetius. 

During the middle ages the tuba was as great a favourite as the 
busine (see BUCCINA and TRUMPET), from which it may readily 
be distinguished by its marked conical bore and absence of bell. 
It is recorded that King Frederick Barbarossa gave an order on 
the I4th of January 1240 in Arezzo for four tubas of silver and for 
slaves to be taught to play upon them. 2 During the middle ages 
the Latin word tuba is variously translated, and seems to have 
puzzled the compilers of vocabularies, who often render it by trumba 
(Fr. trompe). (K. S.) 



1 De re militari, iii. 5 and ii. 7. 

2 Dr Alwin Schultz, Hofisches Leben, i. 560, note 3. 



354 



TUBE TUBERCULOSIS 



TUBE (Lat. tuba), a pipe or hollow cylinder. Tubes play 
an. important part in engineering and other works for the 
conveyance of liquids or gases, and are made of diverse materials 
and dimensions according to the purpose for which they are 
intended, metal pipes being of the greatest consequence. Accord- 
ing to the process of manufacture metal tubes may be divided 
into seamed and seamless. One of the earliest uses of seamed 
wrought-iron tubes was for gun-barrels, and formerly these 
were made by taking a strip of wrought iron, bending it so 
that the edges overlapped and then welding by hammering, 
with or without the aid of grooved swages. The development 
of gas lighting increased the demand for tubes, and in 1824 
James Russell introduced the butt-welded tube, in which the 
edges of the skelp are not made to overlap, but are brought into 
closest possible contact and the welding is effected in a double 
swage, having corresponding grooves of the diameter of the 
tube required; this method required no mandrel as did those 
previously in use. The following year saw another improve- 
ment in making these pipes, when Cornelius Whitehouse effected 
a butt weld by drawing the bent skelp through a die. Stronger 
tubes are obtained by using grooved rollers instead of a die, 
the skelp being mounted on a mandrel. This is the method 
commonly adopted at the present day for making this class 
of tube. Seamed tubes, especially of copper and brass, are 
made by brazing or soldering the edges of the skelp. Another 
method is to bend the edges so that they interlock, the contact 
being perfected by rolling. Seamless tubes, which are stronger 
than those just described, are made by drawing a bloom of 
the metal perforated by an axial hole or provided with a 
core of some refractory material, or, in certain cases, by forcing 
the plastic metal by hydraulic pressure through an appropriate 
die. The seamless steel tube industry is now of great dimen- 
sions owing to the development of steam engineering. Another 
type of seamless tube is the cast-iron tube, usually of large 
diameter and employed for gas and water mains; these pipes 
are made by casting. 

TUBERCULOSIS. The word " tuberculosis," as now used, 
signifies invasion of the body by the tubercle bacillus, and is 
applied generally to all morbid conditions set up by the presence 
of the active parasite. The name is derived from the " tubercles " 
or " little lumps " which are formed in tissues invaded by the 
bacillus; these were observed and described long before their 
real nature or causation was known. (For an account of the 
organism, which was discovered by Koch in 1882, see PARASITIC 
DISEASES.) The bacillus attacks every organ and tissue of the 
body, but some much more frequently than others. The 
commonest seats of tuberculous disease are the lungs, lymphatic 
glands, bones, serous membranes, mucous membranes, intestines 
and liver. Before the discovery of the bacillus its effects in 
different parts of the body received separate names and were 
classified as distinct diseases. For instance, tuberculosis of 
the lung was called " consumption " or " phthisis," of the 
bones and lymphatic glands " struma " or " scrofula," of the 
skin " lupus," or the intestinal glands " tabes mesenterica." 
Some of these names are still retained for convenience, but the 
diseases indicated by them are known to be really forms of 
tuberculosis. On the other hand, there are " tubercles " 
which are not caused by the tubercle bacillus, but by some other 
source of irritation, including various parasitic organisms, 
some of which closely resemble the tubercle bacillus. To these 
forms of disease, which are not as yet well understood, the 
term pseudo-tuberculosis has been given. Lastly, the word 
" tubercular " is still sometimes applied to mere lumpy erup- 
tions of the skin, which have no connexion with tuberculosis 
or pseudo-tuberculosis. 

Pathology. The effects of tuberculosis on the structures 
attacked vary greatly, but the characteristic feature of the 
disease is a breaking-down and destruction of tissue. Hence the 
word " phthisis," which means " wasting away " or " decay," 
and was used by Hippocrates, accurately describes the morbid 
process in tuberculosis generally, as well as the constitutional 
effect on the patient in consumption. According to the most 



recent views, the presence and multiplication of the bacilli 
excite by irritation the growth of epithelioid cells from the 
normal fixed cells of the tissue affected, and so form the tubercle, 
which at first consists of a collection of these morbidly grown 
cells. In a typical tubercle there is usually a very large or 
" giant " cell in the centre, surrounded by smaller epithelioid 
cells, and outside these again a zone of leucocytes. The bacilli 
are scattered among the cells. In the earliest stages the tubercle 
is microscopic, but as several of them are formed close together 
they become visible to the naked eye and constitute the condi- 
tion known as miliary tubercle, from their supposed resem- 
blance to millet seeds. In the next stage the cells forming the 
tubercle undergo the degenerative change known as " casea- 
tion," which merely means that they assume in the mass an 
appearance something like cheese. In point of fact, they die. 
This degeneration is believed to be directly caused by a toxin 
produced by the bacilli. The further progress of the disease 
varies greatly, probably in accordance with the resisting power 
of the individual. In proportion as resistance is small and pro- 
gress rapid the cheesy tubercles tend to soften and break down, 
forming abscesses that burst when superficial and leave ulcers, 
which in turn coalesce, causing extensive destruction of tissue. 
In proportion as progress is slow the breaking-down and "de- 
structive process is replaced by one in which the formation of 
fibrous tissue is the chief feature. It may be regarded as Nature's 
method of defence and repair. In tuberculosis of the lungs, 
for instance, we have at one end of the scale acute phthisis or 
" galloping consumption," in which a large part or even the 
whole of a lung is a mass of caseous tubercle, or is honeycombed 
with large ragged cavities formed by the rapid destruction of 
lung tissue. At the other end we have patches or knots of 
fibrous tissue wholly replacing the original tubercles or enclos- 
ing what remains of them. Such old encapsuled tubercles may 
undergo calcareous degeneration. Between these extremes 
come conditions which partake of the nature of both in all 
degrees, and exhibit a mixture of the destructive and the healing 
processes in the shape of cavities surrounded by fibrous tissue. 
Such intermediate conditions are far more common than either 
extreme; they occur in ordinary chronic phthisis. The term 
" fibroid phthisis " is applied to cases in which the process is 
very chronic but extensive, so that considerable cavities are 
formed with much fibrous tissue, the contraction of which draws 
in and flattens the chest-wall. Tuberculosis commonly attacks 
one organ or part more than another, but it may take the form 
of an acute general fever, resembling typhoid in its clinical 
features. " Acute miliary tuberculosis " is a term generally 
used to indicate disseminated infection of some particular organ 
usually the lungs or one of the serous membranes in which 
the disease is so severe and rapid that the tubercles have not 
time to get beyond the miliary state before death occurs. 
Tuberculosis is exceedingly apt to spread from its original seat 
and to invade other organs. The confusing multiplicity of 
terms used in connexion with this disease is due to its innumer- 
able variations, and to attempts to classify diseases according 
to their symptoms or anatomical appearances. Now that the 
cause is known, and it has become clear that different forms 
of disease are caused by variations in extent, acuteness and 
seat of attack, the whole subject has become greatly simplified, 
and many old terms might be dropped with advantage. 

Tuberculosis in the Lower Animals. Most creatures, including 
worms and fishes, are experimentally susceptible to tuber- 
culosis, and some contract it spontaneously. It may be called 
a disease of civilization. Domesticated animals are more sus- 
ceptible than wild ones, and the latter are more liable in 
captivity than in the natural state. Captive monkeys, for 
instance, commonly die of it, and of birds the most susceptible are 
farmyard fowls, but it is practically unknown in animals in the 
wild state. In cattle coming chiefly from the plains (United 
States Bureau of Animal Industry Reports, 1900-1905) the number 
found diseased was only 0-134% in 28,000,000. Of the domesti- 
cated animals, horses and sheep are least, and cattle most, 
affected; pigs, dogs and cats occupy an intermediate position. 



TUBERCULOSIS 



355 



The percentage of tuberculous animals recorded at the slaughter- 
houses of Berlin in 1892-1893 was as follows: Cows and oxen, 
15-1; swine, 1-55; calves, o-n; sheep, 0-004. Similar records at 
Copenhagen in 1890-1893 give the following result: Cows and 
oxen, 17-7; swine, 15-3; calves, 0-2; sheep, 0-0003. The order 
of the animals is the same, and it is confirmed by other slaughter- 
house statistics; but the discrepancies between the figures 
indicate considerable variation in frequency, and only allow 
general conclusions to be drawn. A striking fact is the compara- 
tively small amount of tubercle in calves. It shows, as Nocard 
has pointed out, that heredity cannot play an important part 
in the transmission of bovine tuberculosis. The infrequency of 
the disease in sheep is attributed to the open-air life they lead, 
and no doubt that is an important factor. The more animals 
and persons are herded together and breathe the same air in a 
confined and covered space, the more prevalent is tuberculosis 
among them. Stefansky found the disease in 5% of the rats 
caught in Odessa, and Lydia Rabinowitch obtained similar 
results in rats caught in Berlin. But there are evidently degrees 
of natural resistance also. Horses are more confined than 
cattle in the United Kingdom, yet they are far less affected; 
and on the other hand, cattle running free in the purest air may 
take the infection from others. Professor McEacharn of Montreal 
states that he has seen tuberculosis prevalent in ranch cattle, 
few of which were ever under a roof, ranging on the foothills of 
the Rocky Mountains in Montana. In cows and monkeys 
the lungs are chiefly affected; in horses and pigs the intestine 
and abdominal organs. 

The relation between human and animal tuberculosis has 
been much debated. The bacillus in man very closely resembles 
that found in other mammalia, and they were considered 
identical until Koch threw doubt on this view at the 
British Congress on Tuberculosis in 1901. The British govern- 
ment thereupon appointed a royal commission to inquire 
into the relations of human and animal tuberculosis. The 
second interim report of the commission was issued in 1907, 
and the conclusions arrived at in it are: " That there seems to 
be no valid reason for doubting the opinion, never seriously 
doubted before 1901, that human and bovine bacilli belong to 
the same family. On this view the answer to the question, 
Can the bovine bacillus affect man? is obviously in the 
affirmative. The same answer must also be given to those who 
hold the theory that human and bovine tubercle bacilli are 
different in kind, since the ' bovine kind ' are readily to be found 
as the causal agents of many fatal cases of human tuberculosis." 
The commission also found that there is an essential unity not only 
in the nature of the morbid processes induced by -human and 
bovine tubercle bacilli, but also in the 
morphological characteristics exhibited 
by the tubercle bacilli which cause these 
processes. . The conclusions of the 
members of the Paris Congress on 
Tuberculosis, held in 1905, are: " That 
human tuberculosis can be transferred 
to the bovine animal, and that what is 
termed the bacillus of bovine origin can 
be discovered in the human subject, and 
that there is a possibility that they may 
be varieties of one species." 

The distribution of tuberculosis is 
universal, and it is coincident with 

Distribution the existence of the human race in the habitable 
and regions of the globe. Its comparative absence in 

Mortality. t jj e Arctic regions seems more due to the sparsity 
of population than to climatic effect. Indeed, it has been 
shown that climate has much less effect in its prevalence 
than has been formerly thought to be the case, the con- 
clusion of Hirsch being that " the mean level of the tem- 
perature has no significance for the frequency or rarity of 
phthisis in any locality." The nature of the occupations and 
the density of population in any given area tend to its increase 
or otherwise, and the comparative immunity enjoyed by 



uncivilized races is due to their open-air life and to the sanitary 
advantages derived from the comparatively frequent changes of 
the sites of their camps and villages. Segregation of these races 
in fixed areas has shown an increased incidence of tuberculosis, 
and when living under civilized conditions they fail to exhibit 
any natural immunity. Altitude has an apparent influence 
on the frequency of phthisis, the rarity of the disease at high 
altitudes in Switzerland having been demonstrated, and a like 
protective influence is enjoyed by certain elevated districts 
in Mexico, notwithstanding the insanitary conditions of the 
towns thereon. The protection afforded by the altitude is 
alleged to be due to the dryness of the atmosphere, its freedom 
from impurities and the increased solar radiation. While no 
race is exempt from tuberculosis, certain races afford a greater 
case incidence. E. Baldwin states that the mortality from con- 
sumption in recently immigrated races in the United States is 
much greater than in those of longer residence. It was found 
that among those whose mothers were of foreign birth the rate 
was in Russians 71-8, Germans 167, Scottish 172-5, French 
187-7 an( l Irish 33Q-6, while in native-born Americans it was 
1 1 2-8. The well-known susceptibility of the Irish has been 
attributed to the moisture of the climate, under-feeding, and the 
residual inferiority of a population drained by the emigration 
of a large number of able-bodied adults. That there is some 
added factor is shown by the fact that the above mortality of 
339 in those having Irish mothers, in 1901, was greater by 31% 
than that of the Irish in Ireland at the same period. The Jews 
are said to show a relative immunity, but the matter requires 
further investigation. The factor which seemingly has the 
most constant influence on the mortality from tuberculosis 
is density of population. A high rate of mortality occurs in 
connexion with overcrowding and bad ventilation in cities, and 
it is proved that the death-rate from this disease is considerably 
lower in the country than in the towns. In addition, when we 
consider that it does not occur in epidemics or at certain 
seasons, but is constantly active, it will easily be seen that no 
other disease is so destructive to the human race. At the 
Tuberculosis Congress, held in Paris in 1905, it was stated by 
Kayserling that one-third of all deaths and one-half the sickness 
amongst adults in Germany was due to tuberculosis. 

In 1908 the mortality from all forms of tuberculosis in England 
and Wales was, according to the registrar-general's returns, 
56,080, less by 3455 than the average of the previous five years, 
being equal to 10-8% of the mortality from all causes, while in 
Ireland in 1909 14% of the total mortality was assigned to it. 

The following table gives the comparative mortality from 
pulmonary tuberculosis for certain fixed years together with the 
estimated population of certain selected countries: 





Estimated Population in Years. 


Mortality from 
Pulmonary Tuberculosis. 


1892. 


I9OO. 


1907. 


1892. 


1900. 


1907. 


England and Wales 
Ireland .... 
German Empire . 
France .... 
Norway .... 
Italy .... 
Holland .... 
Belgium .... 
Switzerland . 


29,760,842 
4,633,808 
47.I 2 5,446 
38,360,000 

2,010,000 
30,665,662 
4,645,660 

6,195-355 
3,002,263 


32,249,187 
4,468,501 
52,624,706 
38,9OO,OOO 
2,211,300 
32,346,366 

5-159,347 
6,693,548 

3,299,939 


34,945-600 
4,377,064 

61,994,743 
39,222,000 
2,305,700 
33,776,087 
5,709,755 
7,317,561 
3-525,290 


43,323 
10,048 
113,720 
31,080 
3,358 
39,715* 
8,906 
10,491 
5,785 


42,987 
10,076 
108,827 
34,357 
4,249 
41,733* 
8,451 
9,"7 
6,692 


39,839 
8,828 

97-555 
40,304 

4.656 
41,968* 
7-403 

7,377 
6,063 



* In Italy the mortality given is for all forms of tuberculosis. 

We thus see there is a general tendency to decrease in the death- 
rate, with the possible exception of France and Norway. In England 
the decrease has been most marked, having fallen from 3457 per 
million living in 1851-1860, or 15-6% of all deaths, to 1583 per 
million living, or a mortality of 10-8 % of the death-rate from all 
causes for all ages and sexes. 
Death-rate of Tuberculosis per million living in England and Wales, 





1860. 


1870. 


1880. 


1890. 


I9OO. 


1908. 


Males 
Females .... 
Both Sexes 


3300 
3300 
3300 


3300 
3000 
3150 


2900 
2500 
2700 


2700 

2IOO 
24OO 


22OO 
I&OO 
1900 


l800 
1350 
1583 



TUBERCULOSIS 



In English counties containing populations of 100,000 or over the 
highest rates were in 1908 London, 1806; Lancashire, 1848; 
Northumberland, 1947; Carnarvonshire, 2025; and Carmarthen- 
shire, 2328 per million living. Of the fifteen counties in England 
and Wales with the highest tuberculosis mortalities, no fewer than 
seven are Welsh. Cardiganshire, with 2270 for both sexes, has a 
rate nearly double that of England. 

According to the United States census of 1900, the death-rate 
from tuberculosis in the area chosen for registration which embraced 
ten registration states, namely, Connecticut, Maine, District of 
Columbia, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Hampshire, New Jersey, 
New York, Rhode Island and Vermont, and 153 registration cities 
outside these states, was: . 





Number of Deaths from 
Tuberculosis. 


Death-rate per 100,000. 


1890 
1900 


48,236 
54-898 


245-4 
190-5 



i by phthisis at ages under 5 years, more liable at the age of 5-20, and 
again less liable at subsequent ages." These observations, it must 
be noted, refer only to consumption. The comparative immunity 
of the very young does not extend to all forms of tuberculous disease. 
On the contrary, tuberculosis of the bowels and mesenteric glands 
(tabes mesenterica), tuberculous peritonitis and tuberculous men- 
ingitis are pre-eminently diseases of childhood. The tables at foot of 
page show in detail the relative incidence of pulmonary phthisis at 
different ages, and the steady diminution of the disease in England 
and Wales since 1850. 

Occupation has a marked influence on the prevalence of pul- 
monary tuberculosis. The comparative mortality figures for vanous 
occupations are taken from the supplement to the registrar-general's 
6sth annual Report, and show the incidence of pulmonary phthisis, 
agriculturists being taken at 100 for purposes of comparison. 
Occupied Males: England and Wales. 



The returns of the mortality statistics of the United States for the 
year 1908 cover an area of 17 states, the district of Columbia and 
74 registration cities, representing an aggregate population of 
45,028,767, or 51-8 % of the total estimated population of the United 
States. 

Mortality from Tuberculosis in the United States in given areas. 



Annual 
Average, 
1901-1905. 


Tuberculosis 
(all forms) , 
62,833- 


Pulmonary 
Phthisis, 

S5,25i- 


Number Tuberculosis fall 
forms) per 100,000 of the 
population, 103-2. 


1904 

1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 


66,797 
65,352 
75,512 
176,650 
78,289 


58,763 
56,770 
65,341 
66,374 
67,376 


201-6 
193-6 
184-2 
183-6 
173-9 



In the United States tuberculosis of the lungs forms from 86 to 87 % 
of all cases. The death-rate, as we see, is steadily decreasing. It 
is, however, difficult to estimate the ravages of the disease in that 
country owing to the fact that rather less than half the United 
States is still unprovided with an adequate system of registration. 

The following was the death-rate from tuberculosis (all forms) per 
100,000 of the population of the chief cities of the United States 
during 1908: 



Highest. 
Tin miner . 
Copper miner . 
Scissors maker 
File maker . 
General shopkeeper 
Brush maker 



. 816 
574 
533 
387 
387 
325 



Furrier 316 

Printer 300 

Chimney sweep . . . 284 
Hatter . . 280 



156 
158 
159 
165 
194 

'97 



Lowest. 

Coal miner .... 89 
Chemical manufacturer 98 
Carpenter, joiner . . 150 
Artist . . . 
Blacksmith . 
Worsted manufacturer 
Baker . . . 
Bricklayer . 
Cotton manufacturer . 

Tailor 248 

The high incidence in the first group will be seen chiefly to affect 
those occupations where there is dust (scissors and file makers and 
furriers). The high mortality amongst general shopkeepers can 
onjy be ascribed_ to continuous indoor occupation. Coal miners 
enjoy an unexplained immunity. 

Dr Von Korosy has tabulated the result of seventeen years' 
observation in Budapest, which is an excessively tuberculous town. 
His figures include both males and females above fifteen years of 
age, and extend to 106,944 deaths. The field of observation is 
evidently very different from those which furnished the statistics 
already given. His results are: (i) Males printers 606, butlers 
520, shoemakers 494, dyers 493, millers 492, joiners 485, tinkers 
and locksmiths 484, masons 467, labourers 433, tailors 418, bakers 
398, drivers 370, servants 360, carpenters 339, officials 336, 
butchers 333, innkeepers 272, merchants 253, lawyers 205, physicians 
1 1 8, capitalists 106; (2) Females servants 353, day labourers 
(? char-women) 333, washerwomen 314, gardeners 269, capitalists 
42. The inmates of lunatic asylums, who are classed among the 



New Orleans 298-3 

Sacramento, California .... 294-3 

Washington 264-0 

Baltimore 249-9 

Jersey City 241-1 

New York 234-4 

Philadelphia 234-1 

Saratoga Springs, New York . . 232-2 

Indianapolis 222-6 

Boston, Massachusetts .... 219-1 

St Louis 188-3 

Chicago 180-7 

Kansas City 172-9 

Cleveland, Ohio 142-4 

Pittsburg, Pennsylvania . . . 139-2 

Detroit 122-5 

St Paul, Minnesota . . . .111-8 

The returns in the United States show a 
high rate of mortality from tuberculosis 
amongst the coloured population, the 
negro being particularly susceptible to 
pulmonary _ phthisis; the death-rate from 
this cause is nearly double that amongst 
whites. 

Age and Sex. The most complete in- 
formation under this heading is derived 
from the English records. "In both 
sexes," says Dr Tatham, " the real 
liability to phthisis begins somewhere 
between the fifteenth and the twentieth 
year. Among males it attains its maxi- 
mum at age 45-55, when it reaches 3173 
per million living. Among females it 
attains its maximum (2096) at age 35-45. 
In both sexes the rate rapidly declines 
after _the attainment of its maximum. 
Practically the incidence of pulmonary 
phthisis is upon the ages from 15 to 
75. years, ^very old people and young 
children being comparatively exempt. Ac- 
cording to recent experience, females seem 
to be rather less liable than males to death 



ENGLAND AND WALES 

Tuberculous Phthisis. Mortality in several Periods, 1851-1899. 

Annual Rate per Million Living. 

MALES. 





AGES. 


Period. 


All 


Under 






















Ages. 


5 
Years. 


5 


10 


15 


20 


25 


35 


45 


55 


65- 


1851-1860 


2579 


1329 


525 


763 


2399 


4052 


4031 


4004 


3830 


3231 


2389 


1861-1870 


2467 


990 


431 


605 


2190 


3883 


4094 


4166 


3861 


3297 


2024 


1871-1880 


2209 


783 


340 


481 


1675 


3092 


3699 


4120 


3860 


3195 


1924 


1881-1885 


1927 


584 


274 


372 


1381 


2467 


3246 


3726 


3567 


2937 


1800 


1886-1890 


1781 


521 


234 


3i8 


1212 


2222 


2842 


3436 


3446 


2904 


1845 


1891-1895 


1634 


467 


197 


260 


1075 


2O26 


2548 


3268 


3205 


2686 


1572 


1896-1899 


1521 


403 


140 


195 


908 


1841 


2341 


3110 


3173 


2627 


1530 


1900-1904 


H79 


366 


149 


182 


799 


1643 


2147 


2811 


3130 


2560 


1309 


1903-1907 


1385 


359 


138 


163 


743 


1472 


2022 


2573 


2945 


2498 


1316 


1908 


1310 


205 


134 


161 


676 


I8 5 8 


2114 


1964 


2OOO 


1830 


1061 



FEMALES. 





AGES. 


Period. 


All 


Under 






















Ages. 


5 
Years. 


5 


10 


15 


20 


25 


35 


45 


55 


65- 


1851-1860 


2774 


1281 


620 


1293 


3516 


4288 


4575 


4178 


3121 


2383 


1635 


1861-1870 


2483 


947 


477 


1045 


3"2 


3967 


4378 


3900 


2850 


2065 


1239 


1871-1880 


2028 


750 


375 


846 


2397 


3140 


3543 


3401 


2464 


1777 


1093 


1881-1885 


1738 


553 


350 


749 


2006 


2596 


3070 


2927 


2197 


1541 


995 


1886-1890 


1497 


483 


307 


658 


1626 


2075 


2552 


2563 


1936 


1490 


966 


1891-1895 


1303 


421 


260 


56i 


1428 


1740 


2155 


2305 


1742 


1294 


800 


1896-1899 


1141 


334 


201 


410 


1165 


1547 


1862 


2096 


1597 


1242 


787 


1900-1904 


1042 


316 


203 


417 


IOO2 


1274 


1593 


1807 


1481 


1136 


670 


1903-1907 


975 


308 


194 


391 


959 


"94 


1488 


1643 


1382 


1075 


666 


1908 


931 


229 


192 


441 


1270 


1438 


1761 


1407 


1156 


945 


654 



TUBERCULOSIS 



357 



Heredity. 



" unoccupied," suffer excessively from tubercle. According to Dr 
Mott, pathologist to the London County Council, tuberculous lesions 
are found in more than one-third of the bodies of inmates examined 
post mortem. The majority contract the disease in the asylums. 

Medical opinion has undergone a great change with regard 
to the influence of heredity. The frequent occurrence of con- 
sumption among members of the same family used to be ex- 
plained by assuming the existence of a tuberculous "diathesis" 
or inherent liability to consumption which " ran in families " 
and was handed down from one generation to another. As 
the real nature of the disease was not understood, the inherited 
diathesis was regarded as a sort of latent or potential consumption 
which might develop at any time and could hardly be avoided. 
The children of consumptive parents had the " seeds " of the 
disease in them, and were thought to be doomed with more or 
less certainty. Great importance was therefore attached to 
heredity as a factor in the incidence of tuberculosis. The 
discovery that it is caused by a specific parasitic infection placed 

the question in a different light, and led to a more 

careful examination of the facts, which has resulted 
in a general and increasing tendency to minimize or deny the 
influence of heredity. At the Berlin Congress on Tuberculosis 
in 1899 Virchow pronounced his disbelief in the theory on patho- 
logical grounds. " I dispute this heredity absolutely," he said. 
" For a course of years I have been pointing out that if we ex- 
amine the bodies of infants newly born, who have had no life 
apart from the mother, we find no tuberculosis in them. I am 
convinced that what looked like tuberculosis in the newly 
born was none of it tuberculosis. In my opinion there is no 
authenticated case of tubercle having been found in a dissected 
newly-born infant." Observations on animals similarly tend 
to disprove the existence of congenital tuberculosis (Nocard). 
The theory that the germs may remain latent in the offspring of 
tuberculous parents (Baumgarten) is unsupported by evidence. 
The occurrence of disease in such offspring is ascribed to 
infection by the parents, and this view is confirmed by the 
fact that the incidence in consumptive families is greater on 
female children, who are more constantly exposed to home 
infection, than on the male (Squire). The statistical evidence, 
so far as it goes, points in the same direction. It is even 
denied that the children of consumptives are specially pre- 
disposed. 

Recognition of the communicability of tuberculosis has 
directed attention to the influence of conditions in which people 

live massed together in close proximity. The pre- 
Deasityot valence of the disease in large centres of popula- 
andove* ^ on nas already been noted, and the influence of 
crowding, aggregation is no doubt considerable; but it does 

not always hold good. The distribution in England 
and Wales does not correspond with density of population, 
and some purely rural districts have a very high mortality. 
Broadly, however, the rural counties have a low mortality, and 
those containing large urban populations a high one. In France 
in the department of the Oise, in purely industrial villages, 
the mortality from pulmonary phthisis is from 56 to 61 per 
10,000; in a village in which part of the population worked in 
the fields and part in factories the mortality was 46 per 10,000; 
and in purely agricultural villages it ranged from o to 10 per 
10,000. 

The following table is taken from the Supplement to the Registrar- 
General's 65th Report for England and Wales : 



diseases in relation to overcrowding, the same authority found that 
" while associated with overcrowding is a tendency of the population 
to die from disease generally, this tendency is especially manifested 
in the case of phthisis, and is not manifested in the case of every 
disease." 

Other Conditions. Poverty, insufficient food and insanitary 
dwellings are always more or less associated with overcrowding, 
and it is difficult to distinguish the relative influence of these 
factors. An. analysis of 553 deaths Ji Edinburgh according 
to rentals in 1899 gave these results: under 10, 230; from 
10 to 20, 190; above 20, 106 (Littlejohn) ; but the corre- 
sponding population is not stated. An investigation of selected 
houses in Manchester gave some interesting results (Coates). 
The houses were divided into three classes: (i) infected and 
dirty; (2) infected but clean; (3) dirty but not infected; infected 
meaning occupied by a tuberculous person. Dust was taken 
from all parts of the rooms and submitted to bacteriological 
tests. The conclusions may be summarized thus: The effects 
of overcrowding were not apparent; a large cubic space was found 
to be of little avail if the ventilation was bad; the beneficial 
effects of light and fresh air were markedly shown even in the 
dirtiest houses; ordinary cleanliness was found not sufficient 
to prevent accumulation of infectious material in rooms occupied 
by a consumptive; no tuberculous dust was found in dirty 
houses in which there was no consumption. The upshot is to 
emphasize the importance of light and air, and to minimize 
that of mere dirt. This is quite in keeping with earlier in- 
vestigations, and particularly those of Dr Tatham on back-to- 
back houses. Darkness and stuffiness are the friends of the 
tubercle bacillus. 

So much has the question of cleanliness, and of housing in a sani- 
tary district, to do with the prevalence of the disease, that the follow- 
ing table taken from the Report of the Registrar-General for Ireland 
for the year 1909 shows the marked class incidence in all forms of 
tuberculosis. 

Distribution of Tuberculosis Mortality by Classes in Ireland, ipop. 





All forms of 
Tuberculosis. 


Pulmonary 
Phthisis. 


Other forms of 
Tuberculosis. 


Professional and independent 
class 
Middle class, civil service and 
smaller officials .... 
Large traders, business mana- 
gers 
Clerks 


I-4I 
1-82 

i-59 

2-Q2 


0-64 
1-30 

I-O4 
2>77 


, '77 
0-52 
o-55 

O'CQ ' 


Householders in 2nd-class 
localities 
Artisans 
Petty shopkeepers and other 
traders 
Domestic servants .... 
Coach and car drivers, and 
vanmen 
Hawkers, porters and labourers 


2-52 

2-94 

3-85 
i-3i 

4-24 
4-83 


1-85 
2-23 

3-00 
1-04 

3-06 

2-88 


O-67 
0-71 

0-85 
0-27 

1-18 
1-95 



In relation to the last two classes the effect of exposure and also of 
alcoholic excess must be added to overcrowding and privation. 
The low rate noticeable for domestic servants must be ascribed to 
the better food and housing they enjoy while in situations. In 
Hamburg the mortality was 10-7 per 10,000 in those whose income 
rose above 3500 marks, 39-3 where the income was 900 to 1200 marks, 
and 60 per 10,000 where the income fell below that figure. 

It is now generally accepted that tubercle bacilli may enter 
the body by various paths. At the International Congress on 
Tuberculosis held in Vienna in 1907 Weichselbaum summarized 
the channels of infection in pulmonary tuberculosis as follows: 





All occupied Males. 


Occupied Males (London). 


Occupied Males 
(industrial districts). 


Occupied Males 
(agricultural districts). 


All Causes .... 
Tuberculous Phthisis. 


1900-1902. 


1890-1892. 


1900-1902. 


1890-1892. 


1900-1902. 


1890-1892. 


1900-1902. 


1890-1892. 


IOO 
IOO 


119 

122 


119 
156 


H3 

183 


121 

"5 


156 
147 


72 
71 


86 
90 



It will be noted that the rate in the agricultural districts is low 
compared to the industrial districts or purely urban district chosen. 
There is obviously a close relation between density of population 
and the prevalence of phthisis. Comparing phthisis with other 



(i) By inhalation directly into the bronchioles and pulmonary 
alveoli, or by way of the bronchial glands through the blood 
and lymph channels into the lung. (2) Through the mucous 



358 



TUBERCULOSIS 



membrane of the nose, mouth or tonsils into the neighbour- 
ing lymphatic glands, and thence through the blood or lymph 
into the lungs. (3) By ingestion of tubercle bacilli 
infection. into the lower P art f the gastro-intestinal tract 
in the food; thence the bacilli may pass through 
the lining membrane, infect the neighbouring glands and 
pass by the blood or lymph stream to the lungs. (4) By 
penetration of other mucous membranes (such as the conjunctival 
or urogenital) or through the skin. (5) Possible, though very 
rare, placental infection. 

Tubercle bacilli may not produce any anatomical lesion at 
the point of entrance, or they may remain latent for a very 
long time; and it has been experimentally proved that they may 
pass through mucous membranes and leave no trace of their 
progress. As reported to the Royal Commission, the introduction 
of bacilli into the alimentary canal is not necessarily followed 
by the development of tuberculosis. The writings of Von 
Behring have led to renewed attention being paid to intestinal 
infection, particularly through the milk supply. Von Behring 
suggests that the bacillus itself may become modified in the 
human body. 

Measures for the prevention of tuberculosis may be divided 
into two classes: (i) general; (2) special. Great attention 
_ . has been paid to the latter since the infectious 
"'nature of the disease was established. The former 
include all means by which the conditions of life are improved 
among the mass of the people. The most important of these 
are probably housing and food supplyj The reduction of the 
disease recorded in England is attributed to the great changes 
which have gradually taken place in such conditions since, say, 
1850. Wages have been raised, food cheapened, housing im- 
proved, protection afforded in dangerous trades, air spaces 
provided, locomotion increased, the ground and the atmo- 
sphere have been cleaned and dried by sanitary means. In 
addition to these general measures is the provision of consump- 
tion hospitals, which act by segregating a certain amount of 
disease. Yet all these things, beneficial as they may be, do 
not wholly account for the reduction, for, if the records can be 
trusted, it was in progress before they had made any way or had 
even been begun. This observation, coupled with the appar- 
ently general tendency to diminution among civilized races, 
suggests the operation of some Jarger agency. The theory 
of acquired resistance, which has been already mentioned, would 
explain the diminution; and it is also in keeping with other 
facts, such as the great susceptibility of savage races, which have 
not been long exposed to tuberculosis, and the results of labora- 
tory experiments in artificial immunity. The point is of great 
importance, and deserves careful attention; for if the theory 
be correct, the special measures for preventing tuberculosis, 
which are occupying so much attention, may eventually have 
unexpected results. Their general aim is the avoidance of 
infection, and they include (i) the provision of special institu- 
tions hospitals, sanatoria and dispensaries; (2) the prevention 
' of spitting; (3) the notification of consumption; (4) the 
administrative control of tuberculosis in animals; (5) the 
dissemination of popular knowledge concerning the nature of 
the disease. 

The greatest stress is laid upon the prevention of spitting, 
because the germs are contained in the sputum of consumptive 
persons, and are scattered broadcast by expectoration. The 
sputum quickly dries, and the bacilli are blown about with the 
dust. There is no question that infection is so conveyed. The 
Manchester scientific experiments, mentioned above, are only 
one series out of many which prove the infectivity of dust in 
the proximity of consumptive persons, and they are confirmed 
by actual experience. Several cases are recorded of healthy 
persons having contracted the disease after occupying rooms in 
which consumptive persons had previously lived. It is a 
legitimate inference that spitting in public is an important 
means of disseminating tuberculosis, though it may be noticed 
that international prevalence by no means corresponds with 
this disgusting practice, which is a perfect curse in Great 



Britain, and far more common both there and in the United 
States than on the continent of Europe. Prohibition of spitting 
under a statutory penalty is attended with certain difficulties, 
as it is obviously impossible to make any distinction between 
tuberculous and other persons; but it has been applied in New 
York and elsewhere in America, and some local authorities in 
Great Britain have adopted by-laws to check the practice. 
Another means of controlling dangerous sputa is more practi- 
cable, and probably more effective, namely, the use of pocket 
spittoons by consumptive persons. Convenient patterns are 
available, and their use should always be insisted on, both in 
public and in private. The most effective way of destroying 
the sputa is by burning. For this purpose spittoons of papier 
mache and of turf have been successfully used in the Vienna 
hospitals (Schrotter). When glass spittoons are used the 
contents can be sterilized by disinfectants and passed down the 
drain. 

Notification is of great service as an aid to practical measures 
of prevention. It has been applied to that purpose with good 
results in several cities and states in America, and in some towns 
in Great Britain. New York has made the most systematic 
use of it. Voluntary notification was adopted there in 1894, 
and in 1897 it was made compulsory. The measures linked with 
it are the sanitary supervision of infected houses, the education 
of the people and the provision of hospitals. In England, 
Manchester has led the way. Voluntary notification was 
adopted there in 1899: it was at first limited to public institu- 
tions, but in 1900 private practitioners were invited to notify 
their cases, and they heartily responded. In Sheffield notifi- 
cation was made compulsory by a local act in 1904 for a limited 
period, and was found so valuable that the period was extended 
in 1910. The objects aimed at are to visit homes and instruct 
the household, to arrange and provide disinfection, to obtain 
information bearing on the modes of infection, to secure bacterio- 
logical examination of sputum, and to collect information to 
serve as a basis of hospital provision. Disinfection is carried 
out by stripping off paper, previously soaked with a solution 
of chlorinated firne (\\ oz. to the gallon), and washing the 
bare walls, ceiling, floor and everything washable with the same 
solution. This is found effective even in very dirty houses. 
In clean ones, where the patients have not been in the habit 
of spitting about the rooms, it is sufficient to rub the walls with 
bread-crumb and wash the rest with soap and water. Clothing, 
bedding, &c., are disinfected by steam. The advantages of 
these sanitary measures are obvious. Notification is no less 
important as a step towards the most advantageous use of 
hospitals and sanatoria by enabling a proper selection of patients 
to be made. It is compulsory throughout Norway, and is 
being adopted elsewhere, chiefly in the voluntary form. In 
1908 the Prevention of Tuberculosis (Ireland) Act was passed, 
which conferred on local authorities the right to make notifi- 
cation compulsory in their districts, and provided that certain 
sections of the Public Health (Ireland) Act 1878 and the Infec- 
tious Diseases Prevention Act 1890 should apply to tuberculosis. 
By this act also the county councils were enabled to establish 
hospitals and dispensaries for the treatment of tuberculosis 
and were empowered to borrow money or levy a poor rate for 
the erection of sanatoria for the treatment of persons from their 
respective counties suffering from the disease. 

The prevalence of tuberculosis in cattle is of importance from 
the point of view of prevention of the probability that abdominal 
tuberculosis, which is a very fatal form of the disease in young 
children, and has not diminished in prevalence like other forms, 
is caused by the ingestion of tuberculous milk. Whether it 
be so or not, it is obviously desirable that both meat and milk 
should not be tuberculous, if it can be prevented without undue 
interference with commercial interests. Preventive measures may 
be divided into two classes. They may deal merely with the sale 
of meat and milk, or they may aim at the suppression of bovine 
tuberculosis altogether. The former is a comparatively easy 
matter, and may be summed up in the words " efficient inspec- 
tion." The latter is probably impracticable. If practicable, 



TUBERCULOSIS 



359 



\ 



it would be excessively costly, for in many herds one half the 
animals or even more are believed to be tuberculous, though 
not necessarily the sources of tuberculous food. Unless the 
danger is proved to be very much greater than there is any reason 
to suppose, " stamping out " may be put aside. Efficient 
inspection involves the administrative control of slaughter- 
houses, cowsheds and dairies. The powers and regulations 
under this head vary much in different countries; but it would 
be useless to discuss them at length until the scientific question is 
settled, for if the reality of the danger remains doubtful, oppres- 
sive restrictions, such as the compulsory slaughter of tuberculous 
cows, will not have the support of public opinion. Whatever 
measures may be taken for the public protection, individuals 
can readily protect themselves from the most serious danger 
by boiling milk; and unless the source is .beyond suspicion, 
parents are recommended, in the present state of knowledge, 
so to treat the milk given to young children. 

A great deal has been done in most countries for the dis- 
semination of popular knowledge by forming societies, holding 
conferences and meetings, issuing cheap literature, and so 
forth. It is an important item in the general campaign against 
tuberculosis, because popular intelligence and support are the 
most powerful levers for setting all other forces in motion. 
In Ireland, where an attempt had been made to deal with the 
question by arousing the interest of all classes, tuberculosis 
exhibitions have been held in nearly every county, together 
with lectures and demonstrations organized by the Women's 
National Health Association; and an organized attempt was 
made in the autumn of 1910 in England, by a great educational 
campaign, to compel the public to realize the nature of the 
disease and the proper precautions against it. 

The improved outlook in regard to the arrest or so-called 
" cure " of tuberculosis is mainly derived from the improved 
Diagnosis methods of diagnosis, thus enabling treatment to 
""I be undertaken at an earlier and therefore more 

Treatment. f avoura bl e stage of the disease. The physical signs 
in early stages of the lung . affection are often vague and 
inconclusive. A means of diagnosis has therefore been 
sought in the use of tuberculin. The methods are three: (i) 
The subcutaneous injection method of Koch; (2) the cutaneous 
method of Von Pirquet; (3) the conjunctiva! method of Wolff- 
Eisner and Calmette. The first method depended on the re- 
action occurring after an injection of " old tuberculin." It is 
unsuitable in febrile conditions, and has now been relegated to 
the treatment of cattle, where it has proved invaluable. In 
Von Pirquet's method a drop of old tuberculin diluted with 
sodium chloride is placed on a spot which has been locally 
scarified. The presence of tuberculosis is demonstrated by a 
local reaction in which a hyperaemic papule forms, surrounded 
by a bright red zone. Reaction occurs in tuberculosis of the 
bones of joints and skin. Von Pirquet in 1000 cases obtained 
a reaction in 88% of the tuberculous, and 10% of those clinically 
non-tuberculous. In the latter there may have been latent 
cases of tuberculosis. In the conjunctiva! or opthalmo-reaction 
of Calmette and Wolff-Eisner the instillation of a drop of a 
dilute solution of tuberculin into the conjunctiva is followed 
in the tuberculous subject by conjunctivitis. The reaction 
generally appears in from 3 to 12 hours, but may be delayed to 
48. In a series of cases observed by Audeoud a positive 
reaction was obtained in 95% of 261 obviously tuberculous 
cases and in 8-3 % of 303 cases which presented no clinical 
symptoms. Very advanced cases fail to react to any of these 
tests, as do general miliary tuberculosis and tuberculous menin- 
gitis. As well as the three methods mentioned above the 
occurrence of a " negative phase " in the phagocytic power 
of the leucocytes following an injection of Koch's tuberculin 
T.R. may be said to be diagnostic of tuberculosis. Another 
valuable aid in diagnosis is that of the X-rays. By their help 
a pulmonary lesion may be demonstrated long before the physical 
signs can be obtained by ordinary examination. 

To discuss at all fully the treatment of the various forms of 
tuberculosis or even of consumption alone would be quite 



beyond the scope of this article. It must suffice to mention 
the more recent points. The open-air treatment of consump- 
tion has naturally attracted much attention. Neither the 
curability of this disease nor the advantages of fresh air are new 
things. Nature's method of spontaneous healing, explained 
above, has long been recognized and understood. There are, 
indeed, few diseases involving definite lesions which exhibit a 
more marked tendency to spontaneous arrest. Every case, 
except the most acute, bears signs of Nature's effort in this 
direction; and complete success is not at all uncommon, even 
under the ordinary conditions of life. Perhaps it was not always 
so: the ominous character popularly attributed to consumption 
may once have been justified, and the power of resistance, as 
we see it now, may be the result of acquired immunity or of the 
gradual elimination of the susceptible. However this may be, 
the natural tendency to cure is undoubtedly much assisted 
by the modern system of treatment, which makes pure air its 
first consideration. The principle was known to Sydenham, 
who observed the benefit derived by consumptives from horse 
exercise in the open air; and about 1830 George Boddington 
proposed the regular treatment of patients on the lines now 
generally recognized. The method has been most systematically 
developed in Germany by the provision of special sanatoria, 
where patients can virtually live in the open air. The example 
has been followed in other countries to a certain extent, and a 
good many of these establishments have been provided in 
Great Britain and elsewhere; but they are, for the most part, 
of a private character for the reception of paying patients. 
Germany has extended these advantages to the working classes 
on a large scale. This has been accomplished by the united 
efforts of friendly and philanthropic societies, local authorities, 
and the state; but the most striking feature is the part played 
by the state insurance institutes, which are the outcome of the 
acts of 1889 and 1899, providing for the compulsory insurance of 
workpeople against sickness and old age. The sanatoria have 
been erected as a matter of business, in order to keep insured 
members off the pension list, and they are supported by the sick 
clubs affiliated to the institutes. They number forty-five, 
and can give three months' treatment to 20,000 patients in the 
year. The clinical and economic results are said to be very 
encouraging. In about 70% of the cases the disease has been 
so far arrested as to enable the patients to return to work. 

In England, where more than 14 millions of the population 
belong to friendly societies, it is estimated that the sick pay of 
consumptive members costs three times as much as the average 
sick pay to members dying of other causes. An effort has been 
made by the National Association for the Establishment and 
Maintenance of Sanatoria for Workers Suffering from Tuber- 
culosis to establish such sanatoria, together with training for 
suitable work during convalescence, the gradual resumption of 
wage-earning being resumed while in touch with the medical 
authorities. 

The important features of the sanatorium treatment are life 
in the open air, independently of weather, in a healthy situation, 
rest and abundance of food. The last has been carried to rather 
extravagant lengths in some institutions, where the patients are 
stuffed with food whether they want it or not. The sanatorium 
movement on the German model is rapidly extending in all 
countries. For those who are able to do so advantage may be 
taken of the combined sanatorium and sun treatment. In 
certain high altitudes in Switzerland, which are favoured by a 
large amount of sunshine and a small percentage of moisture, 
much benefit has been derived from the exposure of the un- 
clothed body to the sun's rays. The power of the sun in high 
altitudes is so great that the treatment can be continued even 
when the snow is on the ground. Not only is the sun-treatment 
applicable to pulmonary tuberculosis, but also to the tuber- 
culosis of joints, even in advanced cases. The treatment has to a 
great extent replaced surgical procedure in tuberculosis of 
joints, but it requires to be persevered in over a considerable 
period of time. It should be remembered that the benefits of 
fresh air are not confined to sanatoria. If the superstitious 



3 6 



TUBEROSE TUBINGEN 



dread of the outer air, particularly at night, could be abolished 
in ordinary life, more would be done for public health than by 
the most costly devices for eluding microbes. Not only con- 
sumption, but the other respiratory diseases, which are equally 
destructive, are chiefly fomented by the universal practice of 
breathing vitiated air in stuffy and overheated rooms. The 
cases most suitable for the treatment are those in an early 
stage. Other special institutions for dealing with consumption 
are hospitals, in which England is far in advance of other 
countries, and dispensaries; the latter find much favour in 
France and Belgium. 

In Great Britain the pioneer work as regards the establish- 
ment of tuberculosis dispensaries was the establishment of the 
Victoria Dispensary for Consumption in Edinburgh in 1887, 
where the procedure is similar to that in Dr Calmette's dispen- 
saries in France. In connexion with the dispensary home visits 
are made, patients suitable to sanatoria selected, advanced cases 
drafted to hospitals, bacteriological examinations made, 
cases notified under the voluntary system, and the families 
of patients instructed. There is an urgent need for the multi- 
plication of such dispensaries throughout the United Kingdom. 
The recent act providing for the medical inspection of schools 
has done much to sort out cases of tuberculosis occurring in 
children, and to provide them with suitable treatment and 
prevent them from becoming foci for the dissemination of the 
disease. In Germany special open-air schools, termed forest- 
schools, are provided for children suffering from the disease, 
and an effort is being made in England to provide similar 
schools. 

Of specific remedies it must suffice to say that a great many 
substances have been tried, chiefly by injection and inhalation, 
and good results have been claimed for some of them. The most 
noteworthy is the treatment by tuberculin, first introduced by 
Koch in 1890, which, having sunk into use as a diagnostic 
reagent for cattle, received a new lease of life owing to the valu- 
able work done by Sir Almroth Wright on opsonins. The 
tuberculins most in use are Koch's " old " tuberculin T.O., 
consisting of a glycerin broth culture of the tubercle bacilli, 
and Koch's T.R. tuberculin, consisting of a saline solution of the 
triturated dead tubercle bacilli which has been centrifuged. 
This latter is much in use, the dosage being carefully checked 
by the estimation of the tuberculo-opsonic index. The injections 
are usually unsuitable ^o very advanced cases. Marmorek's 
serum, the serum of horses into which the filtered young cul- 
tures of tubercle bacilli have been injected, and in which a 
tuberculo-toxin has been set free, has proved very successful. 
Behring's Tulase is a tuberculin preparation formed by a pro- 
cess of treating tubercle bacilli with chloral, and Bereneck's 
tuberculin consists of a filtered bouillon culture treated with 
orthophosphoric acid. The variety of cases to which these 
treatments are suitable can only be estimated from a careful 
consideration of each on its own merits. 

In the treatment of tuberculous lesions, the surgeon also 
plays his part. Tuberculosis is specially prone to attack the 
spongy bone-tissue, joints, skin (lupus) and lymphatic glands 
especially those of the neck. Recognizing the infective nature 
of the disease, and knowing that from one focus the germs may 
be taken by the blood-stream to other parts of the body, and so 
cause a general tuberculosis, the surgeon is anxious, by removing 
the primary lesion, to cut short the disease and promote imme- 
diate and permanent convalescence. Thus, in the early stage 
of tuberculous disease of the glands of the neck, for instance, 
these measures may render excellent service, but when the 
disease has got a firm hold, nothing short of removal of the 
glands by surgical operation is likely to be of any avail. The 
results of this modern treatment of tuberculous disease of the 
skin and of the lymphatic glands has been highly gratifying, 
for not only has the infected tissue been completely removed, 
but the resulting scars have been far less noticeable than they 
would have been had less radical measures been employed. 
One rarely sees now a network of scars down the neck of a child, 
showing how a chain of tuberculous glands had been allowed to 



work out their own cure. A few years ago, however, such con- 
ditions were by no means unusual. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. " Tuberculosis," in Allbutt and Rotteston's System 
of Medicine (1909); A. Ransome, Milroy Lectures; " Tuberculosis," 
in Osier's Modern Medicine (1907); Second Interim Report of the 
Royal Commission on Tuberculosis (1907) ; Report, by C. Theodore 
Williams and H. Timbre!! Bulstrode, of the International Congress 
on Tuberculosis held at Paris in 1905; Alexander Foulerton, Milroy 
Lectures (1910); Sir Thomas Oliver, Diseases of Occupation; Arthur 
Newsholme, The Prevention of Tuberculosis (1908) ; Douglas Powell, 
" Lecture on the Prevention of Consumption," Journ. San. Inst. 
(Aug. 1904) ; Calmette and Gudrin, " Origine intestinale de la tuber- 
culose pulmonaire," Annales de I'institut Pasteur, vol. xix. No.io; 
D. Muller, " Milk as a source of infection in Tuberculosis," Journ. 
Compar. Path, and Therapeutics, vol. xix. (H. L. H.) 

TUBEROSE. The cultivated tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa) 
is a plant allied to the Mexican agaves, and is a native of the 
same country. The tuberous root-stock sends up a stem 3 ft. 
in height, with numerous lanceolate leaves and terminal racemes 
of waxy white funnel-shaped very fragrant flowers. Each flower 
is about 1 1 in. long, with a long tube and a six-parted limb. 
The stamens are six in number, emerging from the upper part 
of the tube, and bear linear anthers. The ovary is three- 
celled, and the ovoid fruit is crowned by the persistent flower. 
The plant is largely grown in the United States and at the 
Cape of Good Hope for export to England, as it is found that 
imported bulbs succeed better than those grown in the United 
Kingdom. The double-flowered form is that principally grown. 
Cultivated plants require a rich soil, considerable heat, and, at 
first, abundance of water. 

TUBINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttem- 
berg, picturesquely situated on the hilly and well-wooded banks 
of the Neckar, at its junction with the Ammer and Steinlach, 
22 m. south of Stuttgart by road and 43 m. by rail. Pop. 
(1905), 16,809. The older town is irregularly built and un- 
attractive, but the newer suburbs are handsome. The most 
conspicuous building is the old ducal castle of Hohentiibingen, 
built in 1507-1535 on a hill overlooking the town, and now con- 
taining the university library of 460,000 volumes, the observa- 
tory, the chemical laboratory, &c. Among the other chief 
buildings are the quaint old Stiftskirche (1460-1483), a Gothic 
building containing the tombs of the rulers of Wurttemberg, 
the new aula and numerous institutes of the university, all 
of which are modern, and the town-hall dating from 1435 and 
restored in 1872. The university possesses a very important 
library. A monument was erected in 1873 to the poet Johann 
Ludwig Uhland (1787-1862), who was born and is buried here, 
and another, in 1881, to the poet Johann Christian Friedrich 
Holderlin (1770-1843). Tubingen's chief claim to attention 
lies in its famous university, founded in 1477 by Duke Eber- 
hard of Wurttemberg. Melanchthon was a lecturer here 
(1512-1518). The university adopted the reformed faith in 
1534, and in 1537 a Protestant theological seminary, a resi- 
dential college the so-called Stift was incorporated with 
it. In 1817 a Roman Catholic theological faculty was added, 
with a seminary called the Konvikt, and there are now also 
faculties of law, medicine, philosophy, poh'tical economy and 
natural science. The leading faculty has long been that of 
theology, and an advanced school of theological criticism, 
the founder and chief light of which was F. C. Baur, is known 
as the Tubingen school. The university was attended in 1908 
by 1891 students and had a teaching staff of over 100. The 
commercial and manufacturing industries of the town are slight. 
Printing, book-selling, the manufacture of surgical and scientific 
instruments, chemicals, gloves and vinegar, and the cultivation 
of hops, fruit and vines are among the leading occupations of 
the inhabitants. The country in the neighbourhood of Tubingen 
is very attractive; one of the most interesting points is the former 
Cistercian monastery of Bebenhausen, founded in 1185, and 
now a royal hunting-chateau. 

Tubingen is mentioned as a strong fortress in 1078, and was 
ruled from 1148 by counts palatine. In 1342 it was purchased 
by the count of WUrttemberg, whose descendants afterwards 
acquired the title of duke. The treaty of Tubingen is the name 



TUBUAI TUCSON 



given in German history to an arrangement made in 151 
between Duke Ulrich and his subjects, by which the latte 
acquired various rights and privileges on condition of relievin 
the former of his debts. The town was captured by the Swabia: 
League in 1519, by Turenne in 1647, and again in 1688 by th 
French, who destroyed the walls. 

See Eifert, Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt und Universita 
Tubingen (Tubingen, 1849) ; Maier, Die Musenstadt Tubingen (Ttibin 
gen, 1904); Tubingen und seine Um.ge.bung (Tubingen, 1887-1889). 

TUBUAI, or AUSTRAL ISLANDS, an archipelago in the south 
Pacific Ocean, between 21 49' and 27 41' S., 144 22' and 154 
51' W., to the south of the Society Islands, with a total land area 
of no sq. m., belonging to France. They form a curved broken 
chain from north-west to south-east which includes four principa 
islands: Tubuai (area 40 sq. m.), Vavitao or Ravaivai, Rurutu 
or Oheteroa, Rapa or Oparo, and Rimitara, with Maretiri or the 
Bass Islands, and other islets. Tubuai, Vavitao and Rapa are 
volcanic and reach considerable elevations (2100 ft. in Rapa) 
The islands are well watered and fertile, producing coco-nut 
palms, arrowroot and bananas; but they lie too far south for the 
bread fruit to flourish. The natives belong to the Polynesian 
race; they were once much more numerous than now, the present 
population not exceeding 2000. A Tahitian dialect is spoken in 
the western islands; in Rapa, however, which with the Bas: 
Islands lies detached from the rest, to the south, the language is, 
akin to that of the Rarotongans in the Cook Islands. There are 
remarkable ancient stone platforms and walls, massively built, on 
the summits of some of the peaks in Rapa; they resemble the 
terraces in Easter Island (Rapanui), which is believed to have 
been peopled from Rapa. The scattered islands of the Tubuai 
archipelago were discovered at different times'. Captain Cook 
visited Rurutu in 1769 and Tubuai in 1777; Rapa was discovered 
by George Vancouver in 1791, Vavitao perhaps in 1772 by the 
Spaniards who attempted to colonize Tahiti, and certainly by 
Captain Broughton in 1791. The islands never attracted much 
attention from Europeans, and the French protection and sub- 
sequent annexation were carried out spasmodically between the 
middle of the igth century and 1889. 

TUCKER, ABRAHAM (1705-1774), English moralist, was born 
in London, of a Somerset family, on the 2nd of September 1705, 
son of a wealthy city merchant. His parents dying during his 
infancy, he was brought up by his uncle, Sir Isaac Tillard. In 
1721 he entered Merton College, Oxford, as a gentleman com- 
moner, and studied philosophy, mathematics, French, Italian 
and music. He afterwards studied law at the Inner Temple, but 
was never called to the bar. In 1727 he bought Betchworth 
Castle, near Dorking, where he passed the remainder of his life. 
He took no part in politics, and wrote a pamphlet, " The Country 
Gentleman's Advice to his Son on the Subject of Party Clubs " 
(1755), cautioning young men against its snares. In 1736 Tucker 
married Dorothy, the daughter of Edward Barker of East 
Betchworth, cursitor baron of the exchequer. On her death in 
1754, he occupied himself in collecting together all the letters that 
had passed between them, which, we are told, he transcribed twice 
over under the title of " The Picture of Artless Love." From 
this time onward he occupied himself with the composition of 
his chief work, The Light of "Nature Pursued., of which in 1763 he 
published a specimen under the title of " Free Will." The stric- 
tures of a critic in the Monthly Review of July 1763 drew from him 
a pamphlet called Man in Quest of Himself, by Cuthbert 
Comment (reprinted in Parr's Metaphysical Tracts, 1837), " a 
defence of the individuality of the human mind or self." In 
1765 the first four volumes of his work were published under the 
pseudonym " Edward Search." The remaining three volumes 
appeared posthumously. His eyesight failed him completely 
in 1771, but he contrived an ingenious apparatus which enabled 
him to write so legibly that the result could easily be transcribed 
by his daughter. In this way he completed the later volumes, 
which were ready for publication when he died on the 2oth of 
November 1774. 

His work embraces in its scope many psychological and more 
strictly metaphysical discussions, but it is chiefly in connexion with 
ethics that Tucker s speculations are remembered. In some impor- 



tant points he anticipates the utilitarianism afterwards systematized 
by Paley, who expresses in the amplest terms his obligations to his 
predecessor. " Every man's own satisfaction " Tucker holds to 
be the ultimate end of action; and satisfaction or pleasure is one 
and the same in kind, however much it may vary in degree. This 
universal motive is further connected, as by Paley, through the 
will of God, with the " general good, the root where out all our rules 
of conduct and sentiments of honour are to branch." 

The Light of Nature was republished with a biographical sketch 
by Tucker's grandson, Sir H. P. St John Mildmay (1905), 7 vols. 
(other editions 1834, 1836, &c.), and an abridged edition by W. 
Hazhtt appeared in 1807. See James Mackintosh, Dissertation 
on the Progress of Ethical Philosophy (Edinburgh, 1832) ; and specially 
bir Leslie Stephen, English Thought in the i8th Century, iii. 119-130. 
TUCKER, CHARLOTTE MARIA (1821-1893), English author, 
who wrote under the pseudonym "A.L.O.E." (a Lady of England) , 
was born near Barnet, Middlesex, on the 8th of May 1821, the 
daughter of Henry St George Tucker (1771-1851)^ distinguished 
official of the East India Company. From 1852 till her death she 
wrote many stories for children, most of them allegories with an 
obvious moral, and devoted the proceeds to charity. In 1875 she 
left England for India to engage in missionary work, and died at 
Amritsar on the 2nd of December 1893. 

TUCKER, JOSIAH (1712-1799), English economist and divine, 
the son of a small Welsh farmer, was born at Laugharne, Carmar- 
thenshire, in 1712. He was educated at St John's College, 
Oxford, and became successively a curate and rector in Bristol. 
This led him to take considerable interest in politics and trade, and 
during the greater portion of a long life he poured out a succession 
of pamphlets on these matters. He was appointed dean of 
Gloucester in 1758. He died on the 4th of November 1799, and 
was buried in Gloucester Cathedral. His Important Questions 
on Commerce (1755) was translated into French by Turgot. 

TUCSON (possibly from Piman styuk-son, " dark or brown 
spring," pronounced Tooson), a city and the county-seat of Pima 
county, Arizona, U.S.A., on the Santa Cruz river, in the S.E. part 
of the state, about 130 m. S.E. of Phoenix. Pop. (1880), 
7007; (1890), 5150; (1900), 7531 (2352 foreign-born, chiefly from 
Mexico); (1910), 13,193. It is served by the Southern Pacific and 
the Twin Buttes railways, the latter connecting with the mines of 
the Twin Buttes district, about 27 m. south by east, and with the 
Randolph lines in Mexico. The city lies about 2360 ft. above the 
sea in a broad valley sheltered by mountains 5000-9000 ft. high. 
Its climate, characteristic of southern Arizona, attracts many 
invalids and winter visitors. Tucson is the seat of the university 
of Arizona (1891; non-sectarian, coeducational), which is organ- 
ized under the Morrill Acts; in 1909 it 'had 40 instructors and 201 
students. At Tucson also are a desert botanical laboratory 
'owning a tract of some 1000 acres about i m. west of the 
city) established by the Carnegie Institution of Washington, St 
foseph's Academy (Roman Catholic); a Roman Catholic cathe- 
dral; the Tucson Mission (Presbyterian), a boarding school for 
Indians, the San Xavier Mission for Indians (Roman Catholic) 
and a Carnegie library. In 1900 Tucson became the see of a 
toman Catholic bishop. The surrounding country is arid and 
unproductive except where irrigated; but the soil is very rich, 
and Tucson is the centre of one of the oldest farming and ranching 
districts of the state. The Southern Pacific railway has division 
leadquarters and repair shops here. 

Tucson is first heard of in history in 1699, conjecturally, as an 
ndian rancheria or settlement; and in 1763 certainly as a msita, 
n that year temporarily abandoned, of the Jesuit mission of 
San Xavier del Bac, founded between 1720 and 1732, 9 m. south 
f what is now Tucson; in 1776 it was made a presidio (San 
Uigustin del Tugison), or military outpost, and although a few 
paniards may possibly have lived there before, the foundation 
f Tucson as a Spanish town dates from this time. It was never 
fter abandoned during the Indian wars. In 1848 it had 760 in- 
abitants. The abandonment by the Mexicans in 1848 of the mis- 
ion towns of Tamacacori (a visita of Guevavi, a mission founded 
n the first third of the i8th century) and the presidio at Tubac 
established before 1752) increased its importance. Tucson lay 
vithin the territory acquired by the United States by the Gadsden 
'urchase in 1853; it was occupied by the United States in 1856. 
"ort Lowell, 7 m. north-east of the city, was built as a protection 



362 



TUCU MAN TUDOR (FAMILY) 



against the Apache Indians in 1873; it was abandoned in 1891. 
In the earlier days of Territorial history Tucson was the political 
centre of Arizona. Here were held in August 1856 a convention 
that demanded a Territorial government from Congress, another 
in April 1860 that organized a provisional government indepen- 
dently of Congressional permission, and others in 1861 that 
attempted to cast in the lot of Arizona with the Confederate 
states. Tucson was occupied by the Confederates in February 
1862 and by the Union forces in May. It was the Territorial 
capital from 1867 to 1877. Its prosperity fluctuated with the 
fortunes of the surrounding mining country. Tucson was 
incorporated as a town in 1877, and chartered as a city in 1883. 

TUCUMAN, a northern province of Argentina, bounded N. by 
Salta, E. by Santiago del Estero, S. and W. by Catamarca. Area, 
8926 sq. m. Pop. (1895), 215,742; (1-904, estimated) 263,079. 
The Sierra de Aconquija is on the western frontier of the province 
and there is also broken country in the north, but in the east the 
country is flat, alluvial and very fertile. The only large river is 
the Sali, or Dulce, which receives a large number of small streams 
from the Sierra de Aconquija and flows through Santiago del 
Estero to the Porongos lagoons on the frontier of Cordoba. The 
exports are sugar, rum (aguardiente), timber, hides, leather, 
fruit and Tafi cheese made in an upland valley of the Aconquija. 

TUCUMAN, or SAN MIGUEL DE TUCUMAN, a city of Argentina, 
capital of the province of Tucuman, on the right bank of the 
Sali, or Dulce river, 780 m. by rail N.W. of Buenos Aires, in lat. 
26 50' S., long. 64 35' W. Pop. (1895), 34,305; (1904, esti- 
mated) 5 s ,000. The climate is warm and enervating, with no great 
seasonal variation during the year except in the rainfall, which 
falls almost wholly between September and April. The tempera- 
ture averages about 67, with a maximum of 104. Malarial 
diseases, especially " chucho " (fever and ague), are common. 
Tucuman is laid out in regular squares, and still retains many of 
its old characteristics, low buildings enclosing large courts 
(patios), with large rooms, thick walls, and tile roofs. The more 
noteworthy edifices and institutions of Tucuman are the 
" matriz " church, Merced church, cabildo, national college, 
normal school, the Belgrano theatre, hospital, public library, 
courts of justice, post office, and sundry charitable institutions. 

Tucuman was founded in 1565 by Diego Villaruel at the con- 
fluence of the Sali and Monteros rivers, but frequent inundations 
led to a removal to its present site in 1585. In i68oit succeeded 
Santiago del Estero as the capital of the province of Tucuman, 
then under the government of the Spanish viceroy at Lima. 
The province of Tucuman then extended from Jujuy south to 
Cordoba. In 1776 the viceroyalty of La Plata was created and 
Tucuman was transferred to its jurisdiction. In 1816 a conven- 
tion of delegates from the La Plata provinces met in Tucuman 
and signed (July gth) an act of independence, which formally 
dissolved all ties with the mother country. 

TUDELA, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Navarre, 
on the Saragossa-Logrono and Tudela-Tarazona railways, and 
on the right bank of the river Ebro, which is here joined by its 
tributary the Queiles. Pop. (1900), 9499. The Ebro is here 
crossed by a massive and ancient bridge of 19 arches. Most of 
the public buildings, such as the town-hall, bull-ring, hospitals 
and schools, are modern; but there is a Romanesque collegiate 
church, Santa Maria, which was founded in 1135 and consecrated 
in 1 188. This church is one of the most perfect in northern Spain, 
the sculptured doorways and cloisters being especially fine. 
There are many sawmills in the town, and an active timber 
trade; the manufactures of cloth, linen, spirits, preserved fruit, 
pottery, &c., and the trade in grain, wine and oil are of less 
importance. Tudela, the Roman Tutela, was occupied by the 
Moors in the 8th century, and taken from them by Alphonso I. 
of Aragon in 1114. The town was an episcopal see from 17 83 
to 1851. In 1808 the Spanish forces under Generals Castanos 
and Palafox were twice defeated here by the French under 
Marshal Lannes. 

TUDOR (FAMILY). The house of Tudor, which gave five 
sovereigns to England, is derived by all the Welsh genealogists 
from Ednyfed Vychan of Tregarnedd in Anglesey, who is named 



in 1232 as steward of Llywelyn, prince of North Wales, and seven 
years later, as an arbitrator in a convention to which Davydd, 
the son of Llywelyn, was a party. His pedigree has been traced 
from Marchudd ap Cynan and beyond him, according to the 
veracious Lewys Dwnn, from Brutus, the great-grandson of 
Aeneas. Gronw, or Gronwy, one pf his younger sons, had Tre- 
castell for his portion. Tudor, son of Gronw, who lived to be 
called Tudor Hen or the old Tudor, founded the Carmelite friary 
in Bangor and was grandfather of Tudor Vychan ap Gronw of 
Trecastell, who is said to have assumed the style of a knight, 
and to have had that rank confirmed to him by Edward III. 

This Tudor Vychan was the father of four sons, of whom the 
eldest, Gronw Vychan, was in favour with the Black Prince and 
with Richard II. He was forester of Snowdon and steward of 
the bishop of Bangor's lordship in Anglesey. He died in 1382, 
an infant son being heir to his lands in Penmynydd, whose sister 
carried them to her husband Gwylym ap Gmffydd of Penrhyn. 
Gronw Vychan,, whom a bard calls " a pillar of the court: the 
ardent pursuer of France," was probably the warrior whose 
effigy remains in the church at Penmynydd. 

Gronw's brothers Gwylym and Rhys served Richard II. as 
captains of archers. Their youngest brother, Meredydd ap 
Tudor, escheator of Anglesey in 1392 and, like Gronw, an officer 
of the household of the bishop of Bangor, is said to have slain 
a man and fled to the wild country about Snowdon. He was the 
father of Owen ap Meredydd, commonly called Owen Tudor, a 
squire who appears at the court of the infant king Henry VI. 
By all accounts he was a goodly young man: the chroniclers 
dwell upon the beauty which attracted the queen mother. She 
gave the handsome squire a post in her household. About 142801 
1429, it must have been common knowledge that the presump- 
tuous Welshman and the daughter of Charles VI. of France were 
living as man and wife. There is no direct evidence for their 
marriage. An act had but lately been passed for making it a 
grave offence to marry with the queen dowager without the 
royal consent: this act is said to have been afterwards cut out 
from the statute book. Richard III. denounced his rival 
Richmond as the son of a bastard, but it must be remembered 
that Richard was ready to foul the memory of his own mother 
in order to say the same of the young Edward V. But no one 
yet has found time or place of Owen Tudor's marriage with 
Catherine of France. 

Five children were born to them, the sons being Edmund and 
Jasper and another son who became a monk. In 1436, a date 
which suggests that Bedford had been Owen's protector, the 
influence of Gloucester was uppermost. In that year the queen 
dowager was received within Bermondsey Abbey, where she died 
in the following January. Her children were taken from her, 
and Owen Tudor " the which dwelled with the said queen" was 
ordered to come into the king's presence. He had already seen 
the inside of Newgate gaol, and he would not obey without a safe 
conduct. When he had the safe conduct sent him he came up 
from Daventry and went at once to sanctuary at Westminster, 
whence even the temptations of the tavern would not draw him. 
Allowed to go back to Wales, he was retaken and lodged again in 
Newgate. He broke prison again, with his chaplain and his 
man, the sheriffs of London having a pardon in 1438 for the escape 
from gaol of " Owen ap Tuder, esquire," and he returned to his 
native Wales. When Henry VI. came of full age he made some 
provision for his step-father, who took the red rose and fought 
manfully for it. But Mortimer's Cross was his last battle 
(Feb. 4, 1460/1). He fell into the hands of the Yorkists, who 
beheaded him in Hereford market place and set up his head 
on the market cross. Thither, they say, came a mad woman 
who combed the hair and washed the face of this lover of a queen, 
setting lighted wax torches round about it. 

His eldest son Edmund of Hadham, born about 1430 at 
Hadham in Herts, one of his mother's manors, was brought up 
with his brothers by the abbess of Barking until he was about 
ten years old. The king then took them into his charge. Edmund 
was a knight in 1449 and in 1453 ne was summoned as earl of 
Richmond, his patent, dated the 6th cf March 1452/3, giving 



TUDOR FLOWER TUFF 



him precedence next to the dukes. He was declared of legiti- 
mate birth, and in 1455 the royal favour found him a wife in the 
Lady Margaret, daughter of John Beaufort, duke of Somerset. 
But he died the next year, and his only child, afterwards 
Henry VII., was born on the 28th of January 1456/7, three 
months after his death. 

Edmund's younger brother, Jasper Tudor, survived him many 
years. Jasper was knighted in 1449 and, about the date of 
Edmund's patent, was created earl of Pembroke. He bore the 
royal arms of France and England, differenced with a blue border 
charged with the royal martlets of the Confessor's fabulous shield, 
and the same was formerly to be seen upon his Garter stall-plate 
of 1459. He fought at St Albans in 1455 for the king who had 
advanced him, and two years later we find him strengthening the 
defences of Tenby. In 1460 he seized and took Denbigh, where 
the queen joined him after Northampton. He shared the defeat 
in 1461 at Mortimer's Cross, where his father the Welsh squire 
was taken and beheaded, and left the country in 1462. In 1465 
he made a last descent upon Wales, to be driven off by William 
Herbert, who was rewarded with his earldom of Pembroke, 
already forfeited by attainder. But he was an obstinate and 
loyal partisan. He came back again with Warwick in 1470 and 
was hurrying to join the queen when Tewkesbury was fought 
and lost. After many adventures he carried off his young 
nephew Richmond to Brittany. The two came back together in 
1485. After Bosworth, Jasper was created duke of Bedford and 
restored to his earldom, the earl-marshalship being given him in 
1492. He lived to fight at Stoke in 1487 against Lincoln and 
Simnel his puppet and to be one of the leaders of the host that 
landed in France in 1492. He died in 1495 leaving no issue by 
his wife Catherine, the widow of the second duke of Buckingham 
and a daughter of Richard Widvile, Earl Rivers. But his bastard 
daughter Ellen is said to have been mother of Stephen Gardiner, 
bishop of Winchester. (O.BA.) 

TUDOR FLOWER, or CRESTING, an architectural ornament 
much used in the Tudor period on the tops of the cornices of 
screen work, &c., instead of battlements. It consists generally 
of a flat, upright leaf standing on stems. 

TUDOR PERIOD, in architecture, the later development of 
medieval architecture which followed the Perpendicular and, 
although superseded by the Elizabethan and the Renaissance 
styles, still retained its hold on English taste, portions of the 
additions to the various colleges of Oxford and Cambridge being 
still carried out in the Tudor style down to the middle of the i8th 
century. In church architecture the principal examples are 
Henry VII. 's Chapel at Westminster (1503), King's College 
Chapel, Cambridge, and St George's Chapel, Windsor; and the 
old schools at Oxford; and in domestic work, Eltham Palace, 
Kent; Oxburgh Hall, Norfolk; King's College, Aberdeen; Layer 
Marney Hall, Essex; the manor house at East Barsham, Norfolk; 
and Ford's Hospital, Coventry. It was a further debasement of 
the Perpendicular style, and the four-centred arch was its 
principal feature; some of the most remarkable examples of the 
bow- window belong to this period; the mouldings are more 
spread out and the foliage becomes more natural. 

TUFF (ItaUw/o), a rock consisting of volcanic ashes, the ejecta- 
menta of craters in a state of eruption. The products of a 
volcanic eruption may be classified into three groups: (a) steam 
and other gases, (6) lavas, (c) ashes. The ashes have not been 
burnt in any way though they resemble cinders in appearance: 
they are merely porous, slaggy pieces of lava which have been 
tossed into the air by outbursts of steam and have become 
vesicular by the expansion of the gases within them while they 
were still plastic. 

Among the loose beds of ash which cover the slopes of many 
volcanoes, three classes of materials are represented. In addition 
to true ashes (a) of -the kind above described, there are lumps of 
the old lavas and tuffs (t) forming the walls of the crater, &c., and 
which have been torn away by the violent outbursts of steam, 
pieces of sedimentary rocks (c) from the deeper parts of the vol- 
cano, which were dislodged by the rising lava, and are often 
intensely baked and recrystallized by the heat to which they 



have been subjected. In some great volcanic explosions nothing 
but materials of the second kind were emitted, as at Bandaisan 
in Japan in 1888. There have been many eruptions also at which 
the quantity of broken sedimentary rocks mingled with the ashes 
is very great; as instances we may cite the volcanoes of the Eifel 
and the Devonian tuffs, known as " Schalsteins," in Germany. 
In the Scotch coalfields some old volcanoes are plugged with 
masses consisting entirely of sedimentary debris: in such a case 
we must suppose that no lava was ejected, but the cause of the 
eruption was the sudden liberation and expansion of a large 
quantity of steam. These accessory or adventitious materials, 
however, as distinguished from the true ashes, tend to occur in 
angular fragments; and when they form a large part of the mass 
the rock is more properly a " volcanic breccia " than a tuff. The 
ashes vary in size from large blocks twenty feet or more 
in diameter to the minutest impalpable dust. The large masses 
are called " bombs "; they have mostly a rounded, elliptical 
or pear-shaped form, owing to rotation in the air while they 
were still viscous. Many of them have ribbed or nodular sur- 
faces, and sometimes (at Volcano and Mont Pele) they have a 
crust intersected by many cracks like the surface of a loaf of 
bread. Any ash in which they are very abundant is called an 
agglomerate (q.v.). 

In those layers and beds of tuff which have been spread out 
over considerable tracts of country and which are most frequently 
encountered among the sedimentary rocks, smaller fragments 
preponderate greatly and bombs more than a few inches in dia- 
meter may be absent altogether. A tuff of recent origin is 
generally loose and incoherent, but the older tuffs have been, in 
most c^ses, cemented together by pressure and the action of 
infiltrating water, making rocks which, while not very hard, are 
strong enough to be extensively used for building purposes (e.g. in 
the neighbourhood of Rome). If they have accumulated sub- 
aerially, like the ash beds found on Etna or Vesuvius at the present 
day, tuffs consist almost wholly of volcanic materials of different 
degrees of fineness with pieces of wood and vegetable matter, 
land shells, &c. But many volcanoes stand near the sea, and the 
ashes cast out by them are mingled with the sediments that are 
gathering at the bottom of the waters. In this way ashy muds or 
sands or even in some cases ashy limestones are being formed. 
As a matter of fact most of the tuffs found in the older forma- 
tions contain admixtures of clay, sand, and sometimes fossil 
shells, which prove that they were beds spread out under 
water. 

During some volcanic eruptions a layer of ashes several feet 
in thickness is deposited over a considerable district, but such 
beds thin out rapidly as the distance from the crater increases, 
and ash deposits covering many square miles are usually very 
thin. The showers of ashes often follow one another after longer 
or shorter intervals, and hence thick masses of tuff, whether of 
subaerial or of marine origin, have mostly a stratified character. 
The coarsest materials or agglomerates show this least distinctly; 
in the fine beds it is often developed in great perfection. 

Apart from adventitious material, such as fragments of the 
older rocks, pieces of trees, &c., the contents of an ash deposit 
may be described as consisting of more or less crystalline igneous 
rocks. If the lava within the crater has been at such a tempera- 
ture that solidification has commenced, crystals are usually 
present. They may be of considerable size like the grey, rounded 
leucite crystals found on the sides of Vesuvius. Many of these 
are very perfect and rich in faces, because they grew in a medium 
which was liquid and not very viscous. Good crystals of augite 
and olivine are also to be obtained in the ash beds of Vesuvius and 
of many other volcanoes, ancient and modern. Blocks of these 
crystalline minerals (anorthite, olivine, augite and hornblende) 
are common objects in the 1 tuffs of many of the West Indian 
volcanoes. Where crystals are very abundant the ashes are 
called " crystal tuffs." In St Vincent and Martinique in 1902 
much of the dust was composed of minute crystals enclosed in 
thin films of glass, because the lava at the moment of eruption 
had very nearly solidified as a crystalline mass. Some basaltic 
volcanoes, on the other hand, have ejected great quantities of 



TUGELA TUGGURT 



black glassy scoria which, after consolidation, weather to a red 
soft rock known as palagonite; tufis of this kind occur in Iceland 
and Sicily. In the Lipari Islands and Hungary there are acid 
(rhyolitic) tuffs, of pale grey or yellow colour, largely composed of 
lumps and fragments of pumice. Over a large portion of the sea 
bottom the beds of fine mud contain small, water-worn, rounded 
pebbles of very spongy volcanic glass; these have been floated 
from the shore or cast out by submarine volcanoes, and may have 
travelled for hundreds of miles before sinking; it has been proved 
by experiment that some kinds of pumice will float on sea- water 
for more than a year. The deep sea-deposit known as the " red 
clay " is largely of volcanic origin and might be suitably described 
as a " submarine tuff-bed." 

For petrographical purposes tuffs are generally classified according 
to the nature of the volcanic rock of which they consist; this is 
the same as the accompanying lavas if any of these were emitted 
during an eruption, and if there is a change in the kind of lava which 
is poured out, the tuffs also indicate this equally clearly. Rhyolite 
tuffs contain pumiceous, glassy fragments and small scoriae with 
quartz, alkali felspar, biotite, &c. In Iceland, Lipari, Hungary, 
Nevada, New Zealand, recent tuffs of this kind occur. The broken 
pumice is clear and isotropic, and when the particles are very small 
they have often crescentic, sickle-shaped, or biconcave outlines, 
showing that they are produced by the shattering of a vesicular 
glass; this is sometimes described as ash-structure. In the ancient 
rocks of Wales, Charnwood, the Pentland Hills, &c., similar tuffs 
are known, but in all cases they are greatly changed by silicification 
(which has filled them with opal, chalcedony and quartz) and by 
devitrification. The frequent presence of rounded corroded quartz 
crystals, such as occur in rhyolitic lavas, helps to demonstrate their 
real nature. Trachyte luffs contain little or no quartz but much 
orthoclase and oligoclase felspar with often biotite, augite and 
hornblende. In weathering they often change to soft red or yellow 
" clay-stones, " rich in kaolin with secondary quartz. Recent 
trachyte tuffs are found on the Rhine (at Siebengebirge), in Ischia, 
near Naples, Hungary, &c. Andesitic tuffs are exceedingly common. 
They occur along the whole chain of the Cordilleras and Andes, 
in the West Indies, New Zealand, Japan, &c. In the Lake district, 
North Wales, Lome, the Pentland Hills, the Cheviots and many 
other districts of Britain, ancient rocks of exactly similar nature 
are abundant. In colour they are red or brown; their scoriae 
fragments are of all sizes from huge blocks down to minute granular 
dust. The cavities are filled up with many secondary minerals, 
such as calcite, chlorite, quartz, epidote, chalcedony : but in micro- 
scopic sections the nature of the original lava can nearly always be 
made out from the shapes and properties of the little crystals which 
occur in the decomposed glassy base. Even in the smallest details 
these ancient tuffs have a complete resemblance to the modern ash 
beds of Cotopaxi, Krakatoa and Mont Pelee. Basaltic tuffs are also 
of wide spread occurrence both in districts where volcanoes are 
now active and in lands where eruptions have long since ended. In 
the British Isles they are found in Skye, Mull, Antrim and other 
places, where there are Tertiary volcanic rocks; in Scotland, Derby- 
shire, Ireland among the carboniferous strata; and among the still 
older rocks of the lake district, southern uplands of Scotland and 
Wales. They are black, dark green or red in colour; vary greatly 
in coarseness, some being full of round spongy bombs a foot or more 
in diameter, and, being often submarine, may contain shale, sand- 
stone, grit and other sedimentary material, and are occasionally 
fossiliferous. Recent basaltic tuffs are found in Iceland, the 
Faeroes, Jan Mayen, Sicily, Vesuvius, Sandwich Islands, Samoa, &c. 
When weathered they are filled with calcite, chlorite, serpentine 
and, especially where the lavas contain nepheline or leucite, are 
often rich in zeolites, such as analcite, prehnite, natrolite, scolecite, 
chabazite, heulandite, &c. Ultra-basic tuffs are by no means fre- 
quent; thein characteristic is the abundance of olivine or serpentine 
and the scarcity or absence of felspar. In this class the peridotite, 
breccias or kimberlites of the diamond-fields of South Africa may 
perhaps be placed (see DIAMOND). The principal rock is a dark 
bluish green serpentine (blue-ground) which when thoroughly 
oxidized and weathered becomes a friable brown or yellow mass 
(the " yellow-ground "). Besides olivine and augite (chrome 
diopside) there occur crystals of hypersthene, brown mica, garnet 
(Cape ruby), magnetite, ilmenite and kyanite, together with crystal- 
line blocks of garnet, augite and olivine (which some petrographers 
have_called eclogites). Many lumps of shale are embedded in the 
breccia, and some have supposed that the diamonds are due to the 
ultra-basic magma dissolving carbon, which subsequently crystal- 
lized as the rock cooled down. Many of the crystals are broken, 
and as the rock fragments also are angular, rather than rounded, 
the kimberlite is more properly an ultra-basic breccia than a tuff. 

In course of time other changes than weathering may overtake 
tuff deposits. Sometimes they are involved in folding and become 
sheared and cleaved. Many of the green slates of the lake district 
in Cumberland are fine cleaved ashes. In Charnwood forest also 
the tuffs are slaty and cleaved. The green colour is due to the large 
development of chlorite. Among the crystalline schists of many 



regions green beds or green schists occur, which consist of quartz, 
hornblende, chlorite or biotite, iron oxides, felspar, &c., and are 
probably recrystallized or metamorphosed tuffs. They often 
accompany masses of epidiorite and hornblende-schists which are 
the corresponding lavas and sills. Some chlorite-schists also are 
probably altered beds of volcanic tuff. The " Schalsteins " of 
Devon and Germany include many cleaved and partly recrystallized 
ash-beds, some of which still retain their fragmental structure though 
their lapilli are flattened and drawn out. Their steam cavities are 
usually filled with calcite, but sometimes with quartz. The more 
completely altered forms of these rocks are platy, green chloritic 
schists ; in these, however, structures indicating their original volcanic 
nature only sparingly occur. These are intermediate stages between 
cleaved tuffs and crystalline schists. 

Tuffs are not of much importance in an economic sense. The 
peperino, much used at Rome and Naples as a building stone, is a 
trachyte tuff. _Puzzuolana also is a decomposed tuff, but of basic 
character, originally obtained near Naples and used as a cement, 
but this name is now applied to a number of substances not always 
of identical character. In the Eifel a trachytic, pumiceous tuff 
called trass (q.v.) has been extensively worked as a hydraulic mortar. 

(J- S. F.) 

TUGELA (" Startling "), a river of south-east Africa, the 
largest in Natal. It drains, with its tributaries, an area of about 
8000 sq. m. The river valley is some 190 m. in length, the river, 
which has an exceedingly sinuous course is fully 300 m. long. It 
rises, at an altitude of nearly 11,000 ft. in the Drakensberg 
mountains on the eastern face of the Mont aux Sources, down 
which it leaps in a nearly perpendicular fall of 1800 ft. 

The river, which starts its race to the ocean with a north-east 
course, soon bends more directly east, and, with many windings 
north and south, maintains this general direction across the table- 
land of north Natal until its junction with the Buffalo river, when 
it turns south. On its northern bank in its upper course are the 
heights of Spion Kop and Vaal Kranz, and on its southern bank, 
56 m. east in a direct line from its source, is the village of Colenso, 
all three places being the scene of ineffectual attempts (Dec. 1899- 
Feb. 1900) by the British troops under General Sir Redvers Buller 
to dislodge the Boers who blocked the road to Ladysmith. Below 
Colenso are more waterfalls, and above the river is Pieter's Hill, 
the storming of which by the British, on the 27th of February 1900 
at length led to the relief of Ladysmith. Six miles lower down the 
Tugela Deceives the Klip, which rises in the Drakensberg near Van 
Reenen's Pass and flows by Ladysmith. Another northern tributary 
is the Sunday's river, which rises in the Biggarsberg. From the 
south the river is increased by several affluents, the chief being 
the Mooi (Beautiful) river. The Tugela-Mooi confluence is 44 m. 
south-east of Colenso at the base of the Biggarsberg. Seven miles 
farther down the Tugda joins the Buffalo river, the united 
stream retaining, however, the name Tugela. The Buffalo has 
its origin in the Drakensberg near Majuba Hill and flows south with, 
also, a general trend to east. In its course, which is very winding, 
it receives numerous tributaries, one of them being the Ingogo, 
a small stream whose name recalls the fight on its banks on the 
8th of February 1 88 1, between British and Boers. The chief 
affluents are the Ingagani (from the south-west) and the Blood 
(from the north-east), the last-named so called after the defeat of 
the Zulu king Dingaan, on the l6th of December 1838, by the Boers 
under Andries Pretorius, when the river ran red with the blood of 
the Zulus. Eighteen miles in a direct line below the Blood con- 
fluence is Rorke's Drift, or ford across the river, and some 12 m. 
south-east of the drift is the hill of Isandhlwana, both places 
rendered famous in the Zulu War of 1878-79. The junction with 
the Tugela is 30 m. in a direct line, farther south, the Buffalo river 
in that distance passing through a wooded and hilly region. 

Below the confluence of the two streams the Tugela flows south- 
east in a deep channel between lofty cliffs, or through wild, stone- 
strewn valleys until it reaches the narrow coast belt. Its mouth is 
nearly closed by a sand bar, formed by the action of the ocean. 
The Tugela is thus useless for navigation. About 6 m. above the 
mouth are two forts, Pearson and Tenedos, built by the British in 
1879, during the war with the Zulus, to guard the passage of the river. 
Generally fordable in the winter months, the Tugela is, after the 
heavy rains of summer, a deep and rapid river. It is crossed, some 
5 m. above the forts, by a railway bridge the longest bridge 
in South Africa. From the junction of the Blood river with the 
Buffalo, that stream and subsequently the Tugela form the boundary 
between Natal and Zululand. 

TUGGURT, a town in the Wadi Ghir, Algerian Sahara, 127 m. 
S. of Biskra. Tuggurt, which has a population (1906) of 2073, 
was formerly surrounded by a moat, which the French filled up. 
The town is entered by two gates. Just within the northern gate 
is the market place, which contains the chief mosque. The 
surrounding oasis is very fertile. It has about 9000 inhabitants 
and contains about 200,000 date palms. From Tuggurt a road 
75 m. long leads across the desert north-east to El Wad (q.v.). 



TUG-OF- WAR TULA 



365 



Some 1 2 m. south-west at the desert end of the Wadi Ghir is the 
oasis and town of Temacin (pop. 2120), one of the chief centres of 
the Mussulman fraternity of Tidianes. 

TUG-OF-WAR, a contest between two teams composed of one 
or more persons, each team striving to pull the other in its own 
direction by means of a rope held by the hands alone. Some 
rules allow the " anchor-men," who hold the ends of the rope, to 
fasten it to their persons. A ribbon or handkerchief is tied 
round the middle of the rope, and others at a distance, usually, 
of one yard on each side of it. That team loses which allows 
itself to be pulled more than one yard from its original position. 
The British army teams are usually composed of ten men each, 
but the number varies in different parts of the world. The rules 
of the modern Olympic Games recognize teams of five. When 
a tug-of-war takes place out of doors the men, or at least the 
" anchors," are allowed to dig holes in the ground for their feet; 
when indoors cleats are bolted to the floor as braces. 

TUGUEGARAO, a town and the capital of the province of 
Cagayan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the Grande de Cagayan 
River, about 60 m. from its mouth. Pop. (1903), 16,105. Many 
of Tuguegarao's buildings government, religious, business and 
residential are of stone or brick. There are a Dominican college 
for boys, a convent school for girls, and good public schools, 
including a high school. The river is navigable to Tuguegarao for 
vessels of light draught ; the Cagayan Valley is the great tobacco- 
producing region of the Philippines; and Tuguegarao is an im- 
portant shipping point for tobacco. Local business is largely in 
the hands of Chinese merchants; Spanish and German companies 
control the exportation of tobacco. The town was settled in 
1774, and the old church and bell tower are still standing. The 
local dialects are Cagayan, and, of less importance, Ilocano and 
Tagalog. 

TUKE, the name of an English family, several generations of 
which were celebrated for their efforts in the cause of philan- 
thropy. 

WILLIAM TUKE (1732-1822) was born at York on the 24th of 
March 1732. His name is connected with the humane treatment 
of the insane, for whose care he projected in 1792 the Retreat at 
York, which became famous as an institution in which a bold 
attempt was made to manage lunatics without the excessive 
restraints then regarded as essential. The asylum was entirely 
under the management of the Society of Friends. Its success 
led to more stringent legislation in the interests of the insane. 

His son HENRY TUKE (1755-1814) co-operated with his father 
in the reforms at the York Retreat. He was the author of 
several moral and theological treatises which ha ve^. been 
translated into German and French. 

Henry's son SAMUEL TUKE (1784-1857), born at York on the 
3istof July 1784, greatly advanced the cause of the amelioration 
of the condition of the insane, and devoted himself largely to 
the York Retreat, the methods of treatment pursued in which 
he made more widely known by his Description of the Retreat near 
York, &c. (York, 1813). He also published Practical Hints on 
the Construction and Economy of Pauper Lunatic Asylums (1815). 
He died at York on the I4th of October 1857. 

Samuel's son JAMES HACK TUKE (1810-1896) was born at 
York on the I3th of September 1819. He was educated at the 
Friends' school there, and after working for a time in his father's 
wholesale tea business, became in 1852 a partner in the banking 
firm of Sharpies and Co., and went to live at Hitchin in Hertford- 
shire. For eighteen years he was treasurer of the Friends' Foreign 
Mission Association, and for eight years chairman of the 
Friends' Central Education Board. But he is chiefly remem- 
bered for his philanthropic work in Ireland, which was in a 
great measure the result of a visit to Connaught in 1847, and 
of the scenes of distress which he there witnessed. In 1880, 
accompanied by W. E. Forster, he spent two months in the 
West of Ireland distributing relief which had been privately 
subscribed by Friends in England. Letters descriptive of the 
state of things he saw were published in The Times, and in his 
pamphlet, Irish Distress and its Remedies (1880), he pointed out 
that Irish distress was due to economic rather than political 



difficulties, and advocated state-aided land purchase, peasant 
proprietorship, light railways, government help for the fishing and 
local industries, and family emigration for the poorest peasants. 
From 1882 to 1884 he worked continuously in Ireland super- 
intending the emigration of poor families to the United States 
and the Colonies. The failure of the potato crop in Ireland 
in 1885 again called forth Tuke's energy, and on the invita- 
tion of the government, aided by public subscription, he pur- 
chased and distributed seed potatoes in order to avert a famine. 
To his reports of this distribution and his letters to The Times, 
which were reprinted under the title The Condition of Donegal 
(1889), were due in a great measure the bill passed for the con- 
struction of light railways in 1889 and the Irish Land Act which 
established the Congested Districts Board in 1891. He died 
on the I3th of January 1896. 

See Report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons (1815- 
1816); Dr Conolly, Treatment of the Insane without Mechanical 
Restraints (1856) ; Dr Hack Tuke, Chapters in the History of the Insane 
in the British Isles (1882). 

DANIEL HACK TUKE (1827-1895), younger brother of James 
Hack Tuke, was born at York on the igth of April 1827. In 
1845 he entered the office of a solicitor at Bradford, but in 1847 
began work at the York Retreat. Entering St Bartholomew's 
Hospital in London in 1850, he became a member of the Royal 
College of Surgeons in 1852, and graduated M.D. at Heidelberg 
in 1853. In 1858, in collaboration with J. C. Bucknill, he 
published a Manual of Psychological Medicine, which was for 
many years regarded as a standard work on lunacy. In 1853 
he visited a number of foreign asylums, and later returning to 
York he became visiting physician to the York Retreat and the 
York Dispensary, lecturing also to the York School of Medicine 
on mental diseases. In 1859 ill health obliged him to give up 
his work, and for the next fourteen years he lived at Falmouth. 
In 1875 he settled in London as a specialist in mental diseases. 
In 1880 he became joint editor of the Journal of Mental Science. 
He died on the 5th of March 1895. 

Among his works were Illustrations of the Influence of the Mind 
on the Body (1872); Insanity in Ancient and Modern Life (1878); 
History of the Insane in the British Isles (1882); Sleepwalking and 
Hypnotism (1884); Past and Present Provision for the Insane Poor 
in Yorkshire (1889); Dictionary of Psychological Medicine (1892). 

TUKULOR (TUCULERS), the name, by some said to be the 
French tout-couleur, for the negro half-castes of Senegal, who are 
principally of Fula-Wolof descent. By others the word is 
identified with Tacurol, an old name of the country, which took 
the form of Tacurores in the Portuguese writers of the i6th 
century. The Tukulor are settled chiefly in the Damga, Futa, 
Toro and Dimar districts of Senegal, and are remarkable for 
their fanaticism as Mahommedans. An intelligent, energetic and 
fierce people, they offered strenuous opposition to the conquest of 
their country by the French in the latter half of the i9th century. 

TULA, a government of central Russia, bounded by the govern- 
ments of Moscow on the N., Ryazan on the E., Tambov and 
Orel on the S., and Kaluga on the W. Area, 11,950 sq. m.; pop. 
(1906 estimate), 1,662,600. It is intersected from S.W. to N.E. 
by a gently undulating plateau, 950 to 1020 ft. in altitude, which 
separates the drainage area of the Oka from that of the Don. 

The government is divided into twelve districts, the chief towns 
of which are Tula, Bogoroditsk, Alexin, Byelev, Epifan, Efremov, 
Kashira, Krapivna, Novosil, Odoyev, Chern and Venev. Only 
2.4% of the aggregate area is considered as unavailable for cultiva- 
tion, the remainder being distributed as follows: peasants, 48!%; 
nobility, 325%; other private landowners, II %; crown, towns, &c., 
2 %. Agriculture is the chief occupation. Petty trades and 
domestic industries (e.g. the making of tea-urns, brass wares, har- 
moniums, &c.) have always flourished. The principal factory 
establishments are machinery works, hardware factories, flour-mills, 
sugar works and distilleries. Coal is extracted, as also pyrites 
and iron ore. Metallurgy is a growing industry. 

Before the Slav immigration the territory of Tula was 
inhabited by Mordvinians in the north and by Meshcheryaks 
in the south. The Slavs who occupied the Oka were soon 
compelled to pay tribute to the Khazars. Subsequently the 
territory on the Oka belonged to the principality of Chernigov. 
In the I4th century part fell under the rule of Ryazan and 



3 66 



TULA TULIP 



Moscow, while the rest was under Lithuanian dominion till the 
1 5th century. 

TULA, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same 
name, 1 20 m. by rail S. of Moscow, in the broad but low, marshy 
and unhealthy valley of the Upa. Pop. (1882), 63,500; (1901), 
109,352. It is an old town of Old Russia, but its growth began 
only towards the end of the i8th century after the manufacture 
of arms had commenced. The chief branch of industry is the 
making of rifles; next in importance comes the manufacture of 
samovars (tea-urns). Tula is an episcopal see of the Orthodox 
Greek Church. The public buildings include two cathedrals and 
an industrial museum. 

The town is first mentioned in 1 147 ; but its former site seems to 
have been higher up the Tulitsa. Its wooden fort was replaced in 
1514-1521 by a stone kreml, or citadel, which still exists. Tsar 
Boris Godunov founded a gun factory here in 1595, and in 
1632 a Dutchman, Winius, established an iron foundry. Tsar 
Michael Alexis and Peter the Great, especially the last-named, 
took great interest in the gun factories, and large establishments 
were built in iyo5'and 1714. 

TULCEA, or TULTCHA, the capital of the department of Tulcea, 
Rumania, on the right bank of the Danube, 42 m. from its mouth 
at Sulina. Pop. (1900), 18,800; including many Russians, Turks, 
Greeks and Jews. There is no railway within 20 m., and the sur- 
rounding country is barren and desolate. The principal commerce 
is in fish and grain. Wool is also exported to France, and hides 
to Turkey. Sheep-farming is carried on among the mountains. 

TULIP (Tulipaj, a genus of bulbous herbs belonging to the 
Liliaceae. The species are found wild along the northern shores of 
the Mediterranean, in the Levant, Armenia, Caucasus, Northern 
Africa, Persia, and sporadically across North and Central Asia to 
Japan. The cup-shaped flowers have six regular segments in 
two rows, as many free stamens, and a three-celled ovary with a 
sessile stigma, which ripens into a leathery many-seeded capsule. 
The species are numerous, and are distinguished one from another 
by the scales of the bulb being woolly or smooth on the inner 
surface, by the character of the flower-stalks, by the filaments 
being hairy or otherwise, and by other characters. Owing to 
the great beauty of the flowers they have been favourites in Euro- 
pean gardens for two or three centuries, and have been crossed 
and recrossed till it has become almost impossible to refer the 
plants to their original types. The early flowering " Van Thol " 
tulips, the segments of which are mostly scarlet with yellow 
edges, are derived from T. suaveolens, a native of the Caspian 
region. T. Gesneriana, a native of Armenia and central Russia, 
is the origin of some of the later flowering varieties. T. pubes- 
cens, which is probably a hybrid between the two species just 
named, is the source of some of the early flowering kinds known 
as Pottebakker, &c. T. oculus-solis and T. Clusiana are lovely 
species, natives of southern Europe, and T. silvestris, with elegant 
yellow flowers, is a doubtful native of England. More recently, 
owing to the exertions of Russian naturalists, a large number of 
new species have been discovered in Turkestan, and introduced 
into Europe. Some of these are very beautiful, and render it 
probable that by intercrossing with the older species still further 
difficulties will be presented in the way of identification. These 
difficulties are further enhanced by the fact that, quite apart from 
any cross-breeding, the plants, when subjected to cultivation, 
vary so greatly in the course of two or three years from the original 
species from which they are directly descended that their parent- 
age is scarcely recognizable. This innate power of variation has 
enabled the florist to obtain, and ultimately to " fix," so many 
remarkable varieties. At the present day tulips of all kinds are 
much more extensively grown than at any previous period. 
Not only are millions of bulbs cultivated in Holland for export 
every year, but thousands are now also grown for the same 
purpose in the Channel Islands, more particularly in Guernsey. 
Of late years tulips have become very popular in America, and 
an extensive trade is now done between the U.S.A. and 
Europe. The enormous prices once given for rare varieties 
of tulip bulbs no longer obtain, though, even now, two and 
three guineas are asked for special bulbs. It must, how- 



ever, be remembered that the " tulipomania " of the i7th 
century was really a form of gambling, in which admiration of 
the flower and interest in its culture were very secondary matters. 
Tulips were introduced into the Low Countries in the i6th 
century from Constantinople and the Levant. 

The florists' varieties of tulips, whkh have sprung from Tulipa 
Gesneriana, are arranged in separate classes named bizarres, 
bybloemens and roses, according to their colour and marking. 
Tulips are readily raised from seeds, and the seedlings when they 
first flower (after about 7 years cultivation) are of one colour 
that is, they are self-coloured. Judged by the florists' rules, 
they are either good or bad in form, and pure or stained (white or 
yellow) at the base; the badly formed and stained flowers are 
thrown away, while the good and pure are grown on, these being 
known as " breeder " tulips. The breeder bulbs and their offsets 
may grow on for years producing only self-coloured flowers, but 
after a time, which is varied and indefinite, some of the progeny 
" break," that is, produce flowers with the variegation which is 
so much prized. The flower is then said to be " rectified "; it is 
a bizarre when it has a yellow ground marked with purple or 
red, a bybloemen when it has a white ground marked with violet 
or purple, or a rose when it has a white ground marked with rose 
colour. One of the most important of the properties of a fine 
florists' tulip is that the cup should form, when expanded, from 
half to a third of a hollow ball, the six divisions of the perianth 
being broad at the ends, and smooth at the edges, so that the 
divisions may scarcely show on indenture. Another is that the 
ground colour should be clear and distinct, whether white or 
yellow. The least stain at the base of the flower, technically 
called the " bottom," would render a tulip comparatively value- 
less. What are called " feathered " flowers are those which have 
an even close feathering, forming an unbroken edging of colour 
all round, " flamed " flowers being those which have a beam or 
bold mark down the centre, not reaching to the bottom of 
the cup. 

Tulips flourish in any good garden soil that has been deeply dug 
or trenched and manured the previous season. To secure perfect 
drainage and greater warmth a fair quantity of sand or grit should 
be present. Fresh manure should be avoided, but the remains from 
an old hot-bed or mushroom bed may be incorporated. The best 
time to plant is in September and October, the bulbs being buried 
about 6 in. deep and the same distance apart. The best effects 
are produced in formal beds by planting the same variety in each, 
to secure the plants being of the same height and in flower simul- 
taneously. In mixed flower borders, mixed varieties may be 
planted. After planting the space between the rows of tulips may 
be planted with such plants as forget-me-nots, wallflowers, silenes, 
violas, double white arabis, polyanthuses, &c., to obtain beautiful 
colour combinations in spring. 

Propagation. Tulips are usually increased by offsets, which most 
varieties produce in fairly large numbers. These are taken off and 
sown in drills, like seed. They are usually strong enough to flower 
the third year from this sowing. Some varieties produce offsets 
sparingly and must be increased by seed a slow and uncertain 
method. New varieties are raised from seed. (The colour variation 
in the flowers of seedlings is discussed above.) Seeds are sown in 
boxes or cold frames, in light sandy soil, and the young plants are 
allowed to remain undisturbed until the second year. They are then 
lifted and treated like offsets, being sown thinly in beds out of doors. 
They usually flower in about the seventh year. The soil in which 
tulips are propagated should be sandy, free working and thoroughly 
drained. A warm sheltered position is a necessity. 

Cultivation Out of Doors. Planting is best effected during Sep- 
tember, October and early November. It is usual thoroughly to 
dig and manure the ground in preparation. Holes 6 to 8 in. apart 
and 5 in. deep are then made with a dibber. Sometimes a little loose 
earth or sand is put in to the depth of about I in., and the bulbs laid 
singly thereon, the holes being closed by the dibber and the whole 
raked over. Valuable varieties are planted at about the same depth, 
with a trowel, a little sand being placed around them. 

Unless seed is required, the young capsules should be removed as 
soon as the perianth has withered, to conserve the strength of the 
bulb. The plants should be left until the leaves begin to wither, 
unless it becomes necessary to lift them to make way for other plants. 
When lifted they should be laid thinly in a well shaded, airy spot to 
dry. The tops can then be removed and the bulbs sorted and stored 
thinly in trays in a cool dry place. Rare bulbs may be wrapped 
singly in tissue paper for storing. 

In Pots and Forcing. The early flowering varieties should be 
potted _ as early in September as practicable, later batches for 
succession being potted during October. Pots 5 and 6 in. in diameter 



TULIP-TREETULLE 



367 



are the most convenient. The tops should be covered with J in. of 
soil, and about half an inch left for water. The soil should be a 
light and fairly rich compost, comprising about 2 parts loam, I part 
decayed manure or horse droppings that have been thoroughly 
sweetened, I part leaf mould and half a part of sand. Pot firmly, 
and plunge the pots in several inches of ashes out of doors, to protect 
the bulbs from frost. As soon as growth commences at the top and 
a fair amount of roots are formed they may be introduced into gentle 
heat, in batches according to the need and the amount of stock 
available. For market a slightly different method is adopted. 
The bulbs are placed in long shallow boxes, plunged in soij or 
ashes in the open air, and are later introduced as required into 
heat in semi-darkness, and are afterwards transferred to benches 
in the forcing houses where they flower. Bulbs which have been 
forced are of no further value for that particular purpose. If 
planted in borders and shrubberies, however, they will continue to 
bear fairly good blossoms in the open air for several seasons. 

Varieties. The following varieties are among the most useful for 
bedding and pot culture. 

Early Single Flowering Kinds: 



Name. 


Colour. 


Height. 


Due van Thol 


Various 


6 in. 


Adelaine 


Rose Carmine 


7 


Artus 


Dark Scarlet 


8 


Bacchus 


Dark Crimson 


7 


Belle Alliance 


Crimson Scarlet .... 


8 


Canary Bird 


Yellow 


IO-I2 


Chrysolora . 


Yellow 


q 


Cottage Maid 


Pink and White .... 


7 

12 


Duchess de Parma . 


Orange Crimson .... 


IO 


Gold Finch .... 


Golden Yellow .... 


12 


Joost van Vondel 


Crimson, flaked White . 


9 


Keisers Kroon . 


Scarlet and Yellow, superb 






flower 


10 


La Reine .... 


White (when forced) and Pink. 


9 


Lac van Rhijn . 


Rosy Violet 


9 


Ophir d'Or .... 


Golden Yellow 


8 


Pottebakker . . . 


Scarlet, White, Yellow vars. . 


12 


Primrose Queen 


Primrose 


9 


Proserpine . . . . 


Rosy Carmine, superb flower . 


9 


Rose Gris de lin 


White and Pink 


9 


Thomas Moore . 


Terra-cotta 


9 


White Hawk . . . 


Pure White 


IO 


Yellow Prince 


Yellow 


8 



Early Double Flowering Kinds: 



Name. 


Colour. 


Height. 


Due van Thol 
Alba Maxima 
Couronne d'Or . 
Gloria Soils . 
Imperator rubrorum 
La Candeur .... 
Leonardo da Vinci . 
Tournesol . . . . 


Red, edged Yellow 
Pure White . 
Yellow and Orange 
Orange Crimson . 
Crimson Scarlet 
Pure White . 








6ii 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
8 
8 


i. 


Crimson and Gold . 
Scarlet and Yellow . 







Late Single Flowering Kinds: 

These are tall-growing hardy kinds, suitable for herbaceous 
borders where they can be left undisturbed. With them may be 
associated what are now popularly known as " Darwin " tulips, 
beautiful long-stemmed kinds with self colours, and the " Cottage " 
or " May-flowering " tulips, all easily grown in ordinary garden soil. 



Name. 


Colour. 


Name. 


Colour. 


Bouton d'Or 
Caledonia . 
Columbus . 

Fulgens . 


Golden Yellow. 
Orange Scarlet. 
Yellow and 
Vermilion. 
Violet Crimson. 


Gesneriana 
Gesneriana 
lutea 
Picotee 
The Fawn. 


Bright Scarlet. 

Yellow. 
White.edgedPink. 
Dove Colour. 



Parrot Tulips. This late flowering group is supposed to be derived 
from the curious green and yellow striped T. mridiftora. The flowers 
are mostly heavy and drooping, petals brightly coloured, the edges 
being curiously notched and waved. 



Name. 


Colour. 


Name. 


Colour. 


Rubra Major 
MarkGraaf . 
Perfecta . . 


Dark Red. 

Yellow, striped 
Scarlet. 
Yellow, Scarlet 
and Green. 


Lutea Major . 
MonstreRouge 


Yellow, Crimson 
and Green. 
Crimson. 



TULIP-TREE, Liriodendron lulipifera (Nat. Ord. Magno- 
liaceae), a North American tree of great beauty, with peculiarly 
four-lobed, truncate leaves and solitary tulip-like sweet-scented 
flowers, variegated with green, yellow and orange. It is hardy in 
England, but while young it requires protection from cold, cutting 
winds. In habit it resembles a somewhat stiff-growing plane 
tree, and becomes fully as large. It does not flourish in the atmo- 
sphere of towns. It thrives best in deep sandy loam, and is 
propagated by seeds. 

TULL, JETHRO (1674-1741), English agricultural writer and 
farmer, was born at Basildon, Berkshire, in 1674, probably in 
March. He entered St John's College, Oxford, in 1691, and was 
called to the bar at Gray's Inn in 1699 but never practised. In 
that year he married and began farming on his father's land at 
Howberry, near Wallingford, and here about 1701 he invented 
and perfected his machine drill and began experiments in his new ' 
system of sowing in drills or rows sufficiently wide apart to allow 
for tillage by plough and hoe during almost the whole period of 
growth. In 1709 he moved to a farm near Hungerford and from 
1711 to 1714 travelled in France and Italy, making careful 
observations of the "methods of agriculture in those countries 
which aided and confirmed his theories as to the true use of manure 
and the importance of " pulverizing " the soil. He did not publish 
any account of his agricultural experiments or theories until 1731, 
when his Horse-hoeing Husbandry appeared. This was followed 
by The Horse-hoeing Husbandry, or an Essay on the Principles of 
Tillage and Vegetation, by J. T., in 1733. He was attacked in the 
agricultural periodical The Practical Husbandman and Farmer 
and accused of plagiarizing from such earlier writers as Sir A. 
Fitzherbert, Sir Hugh Plat (1552-1611?), Gabriel Plattes (fl. 
1638) and John Worlidge (fl. 1669-1698). Tull answered in 
various smaller works forming additions to his main work. He 
died on the 2ist of February 1741. 

Many editions of his Horse-hoeing Husbandry were published sub- 
sequently, and in 1822 William Cobbett edited it. It was translated 
into French, notably by H. L. Duhamel Dumonceau (1700-1782), 
the naturalist and agriculturalist, in 1753-1757 (see AGRICULTURE). 

TULLAMORE, a market town and the county town of King's 
County, Ireland, on the Grand Canal and a branch of the Great 
Southern & Western railway, by which it is 58 m. W. by S. 
of Dublin. Pop. (1901), 4639. The town is the seat of the 
county assizes, has a court house and other county buildings, 
and is governed by an urban district council. There is con- 
siderable trade in agricultural produce, and brewing and distilling 
are carried on. Charleville park is a fine demesne, and there 
are several small ruined castles in the neighbourhood, notably 
Shragh Castle, dating from 1588. 

TULLE, a town of central France, capital of the department 
of Correze, 58 m. S.S.E. of Limoges by rail. Pop. (1906), 
of the town, 11,741; of the commune, 17,245. The town 
extends along the narrow valley of the Correze, its streets 
here and there ascending the hill-slopes on either side 
by means of stairways. Tulle is the seat of a bishop. 
Of its 12th-century cathedral, once attached to an abbey, 
only the porch and nave remain, the choir and transept 
having been destroyed in 1793, but there is a tower of the 
1 3th century with a fine stone steeple of the I4th century. 
The neighbouring cloister (i2th and I3th century) has been 
restored. The abbot's house (isth century) has a carved door- 
way and well-preserved windows. Other curious old houses 
are to be seen in the vicinity of the cathedral. The prefecture 
of Tulle is a sumptuous building of 1869 surrounded by gardens. 
The town has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a 
Iyc6e for boys, training colleges for both sexes, a chamber of 
commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. Its principal 
industry is the manufacture of small-arms, established in 1690, 
and now carried on by the state under the direction of the 
artillery authorities. At its busiest times the factory has 
employed 3000 hands. The well-known cascades of Gimel 
formed by the Montane are near Tulle. 

Tulle (Tutela) owed its importance in the middle ages to the 
abbey of St Martin, founded in the 7th or 8th century. The 



3 68 



TULLE TULSI DAS 



abbacy was raised to the rank of bishopric in 1317. The town 
was taken by the English in 1346 and was subsequently ravaged 
by the Black Death. It was again conquered by the English 
in 1369; but, when the inhabitants succeeded in freeing them- 
selves, they were exempted from all imposts by Charles V. 
The Protestants tried in vain to seize Tulle in 1577, but were 
successful in 1585. 

TULLE, a term restricted in England to a fine bobbin-net of 
silk, used for veils, scarves, millinery purposes, and trimmings 
of ladies' dresses, &c. The French used the word to mean all 
machine-made lace the basis of which is the intertwisted net- 
work made on the bobbin-net machine. The word is derived 
from the town of Tulle in France. 

TULLOCH, JOHN (1823-1886), Scottish theologian, was born 
at Bridge of Earn, Perthshire, in 1823, and received his university 
education at St Andrews and Edinburgh. In 1845 he became 
minister of St Paul's, Dundee, and in i849of Kettins,jin Strath- 
more, where he remained for six years. In 1854 he was appointed 
principal of St Mary's College, St Andrews. The appointment 
was immediately followed by the appearance of his Burnet prize 
essay on Theism. At St Andrews, where he held also the post 
of professor of systematic theology and apologetics, his work 
as a teacher was distinguished by several features which at that 
time were new. He lectured on comparative religion and treated 
doctrine historically, as being not a fixed product but a growth. 
From the first he secured the attachment and admiration of 
his students. In 1862 he was appointed one of the clerks of the 
General Assembly, and from that time forward he took a leading 
part in the councils of the Church of Scotland. In 1878 he was 
chosen moderator of the Assembly. He did much to widen 
the national church. Two positions on which he repeatedly 
insisted have taken a firm hold first, that it is of the essence of 
a church to be comprehensive of various views and tendencies, 
and that a national church especially should seek to represent 
all the elements of the life of the nation; secondly, that sub- 
scription to a creed can bind no one to all its details, but only 
to the sum and substance, or the spirit, of the symbol. For 
three years before his death he was convener of the church 
interests committee of the Church of Scotland, which had to 
deal with a great agitation for disestablishment. He was also 
deeply interested in the reorganization of education in Scotland, 
both in school and university, and acted as one of the temporary 
board which settled the primary school system under the Educa- 
tion Act of 1872. He died at Torquay on the i3th of February 
1886. 

Tulloch's best-known works are collections of biographical 
sketches of the leaders of great movements in church history, such 
as the Reformation and Puritanism. His most important book, 
Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy (1872), is one in which 
the Cambridge Platonists and other leaders of dispassionate thought 
in the I7th century are similarly treated. He delivered the second 
series of the Croall lectures, on the Doctrine of Sin, which were 
afterwards published. He also published a small work, The Christ 
of the Gospels and the Christ of History, in which the views of Renan 
on the gospel history were dealt with; a monograph on Pascal for 
Blackwood s Foreign Classics series ; and a little work, Beginning 
Life, addressed to young men, written at an earlier period. 

See the Life by Mrs Oliphant. 

TULLUS HOSTILIUS, third legendary king of Rome (672- 
640 B.C.). His successful wars with Alba, Fidenae and Veii 
shadow forth the earlier conquests of Latian territory and the 
first extension of the Roman domain beyond the walls of Rome. 
It was during his reign that the combat between the Horatii 
and Curiatii, the representatives of Rome and Alba, took place. 
He is said to have been struck dead by lightning as the punish- 
ment of his pride. 

Tullus Hostilius is simply the duplicate of Romulus. Both 
are brought up among shepherds, carry on war against Fidenae 
and Veii, double the number of citizens, organize the army, 
and disappear from earth in a storm. As Romulus and Numa 
represent the Ramnes and Tities, so, in order to complete the 
list of the four traditional elements of the nation, Tullus was 
made the representative of the Luceres, and Ancus the founder 
of the Plebs. The distinctive event of this reign is the destruc- 



tion of Alba, which may be regarded as an historical fact. But 
when and by whom it was destroyed is uncertain probably at 
a later date, by the Latins, and not by the Romans, who would 
have regarded as impious the destruction of their traditional 
mother-country. 

See Livy i. 22-31; Dion. Halic. Hi. 1-35; Cicero, de Republica, ii. 
ly. For a critical examination of the story see Schwegler, Romische 
Geschichte, bk. xii. ; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, Credibility of early Roman 
History, ch. n; W. Ihne, Hist, of Rome, vol. i.; E. Pais, Storia di 
Roma, vol. i. (1898) ; O. Gilbert, Geschichte und Topographic der Stadt 
Rom im Altertum, ii. (1885); G. F. Schomann, " De Tullo Hostilio 
rege romano " in his Opuscula, i. 18-49; a' 30 ROME: Ancient 
History. 

TULSA, a city (and co-extensive township) and the county- 
seat of Tulsa county, Oklahoma, U.S.A., on the Arkansas river, 
about no m. N.E. of Guthrie. Pop. (1900), 1390; (1907), 
7298 (638 negroes) ; (1910) 18,182. Tulsa is served by the Atchi- 
son, Topeka & Santa Fe, the St Louis & San Francisco, the 
Midland Valley, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Arkansas 
Valley & Western railways. The city is situated on the old 
boundary line between Indian Territory and Oklahoma Territory, 
where the boundaries of the Cherokee, Creek and Osage nations 
intersected. It is on an elevation from the rolling prairie, which 
commands a fine view over the valley of the Arkansas. Tulsa 
is the'seat of Henry Kendall College (Presbyterian , 1 894) , removed 
hither from Muskogee in 1907; it was named in honour of Henry 
Kendall (1815-1892), who from 1861 until his death was secre- 
tary of the board of Home Missions of the Presbyterian Church. 
The city is a trading centre for a rich oil, gas and coal region 
and a grain, cotton and live-stock country. Natural gas is used 
for manufacturing purposes; among the manufactures are glass 
and cotton-seed oil products. Tulsa was founded in 1887, was 
first chartered as a city in 1902, and in 1908 adopted a commission 
form of government. 

TULSl DAS (1532-1623), the greatest and most famous of 
Hindi poets, was a Sarwariya Brahman, born, according to 
tradition, in A.D. 1532, during the reign of Humayun, most 
probably at Rajapur in the Banda District south of the Jumna. 
His father's name was Atma Ram Sukal Dube; that of his mother 
is said to have been Hulasi. A legend relates that, having been 
born under an unlucky conjunction of the stars, he was aban- 
doned in infancy by his parents, and was adopted by a wandering 
sadhu or ascetic, with whom he visited many holy places in the 
length and breadth of India; and the story is in part supported 
by passages in his poems. He studied, apparently after having 
rejoined his family, at Sukarkhet, a place generally identified 
with Sorori in the Etah district of the United Provinces, but 
more probably the same as Varahakshetra 1 on the Gogra River, 
30 m. W. of Ajodhya (Ayodhya). He married in his father's 
lifetime, and begat a son. His wife's name was Ratnawali, 
daughter of Dinabandhu Pathak, and his son's Tarak. The 
latter died at an early age, and Tulsl's wife, who was devoted 
to the worship of Rama, left her husband and returned to her 
father's house to occupy herself with religion. Tulsi Das followed 
her, and endeavoured to induce her to return to him, but in vain; 
she reproached him (in verses which have been preserved) with 
want of faith in Rama, and so moved him that he renounced 
the world, and entered upon an ascetic life, much of which was 
spent in wandering as a preacher of the necessity of a loving faith 
in Rama. He first made Ajodhya (the capital of Rama and near 
the modern Fyzabad) his headquarters, frequently visiting dis- 
tant places of pilgrimage in different parts of India. During 
his residence at Ajodhya the Lord Rama is said to have appeared 
to him in a dream, and to have commanded him to write a 
Ramayana in the language used by the common people. He 
began this work in the year 1574, and had finished the third 
book (Aranya-kand), when differences with the VairagI Vaish- 
navas at Ajodhya, to whom he had attached himself, led him to 
migrate to Benares, where he settled at Asl-gha^. Here he died 

* This is the view of Baijnath Das, author of the best life of Tulsi 
Das. At Soron there is no tradition connecting it with the poet. 
Varahakshetra and Sukar-khet have the same meaning (Varaha = 
Sukara, a wild boar). 



TULSI DAS 



369 



in 1623, during the reign of the emperor Jahangir, at the great 
age of 91. 

The period of his greatest activity as an author synchronized 
with the latter half of the reign of Akbar (1556-1605), and the 
first portion of that of Jahangir, his dated works being as follows: 
commencement of the Ramayan, 1574; Ram-satsai, 1584; 
Pdrbati-mangal, 1586; Ramagya, 1598; Kabitta Ramayan, 
between 1612 and 1614. A deed of arbitration in his hand, 
dated 1612, relating to the settlement of a dispute between the 
sons of a land-owner named Todar, who possessed some villages 
adjacent to Benares, has been preserved, and is reproduced in 
facsimile in Dr Grierson's Modern Vernacular Literature of 
Hindustan, p. 51. Todar (who was not, as formerly supposed, 
Akbar's finance minister, the celebrated Raja Todar Mall) was 
his attached friend, and a beautiful and pathetic poem 1 by 
Tulsi on his death is extant. He is said to have_been resorted 
to, as a venerated teacher, by Maharaja Man Singh of Jaipur 
(d. 1618), his brother Jagat Singh, and other powerful princes; 
and it appears to be certain that his great fame and influence as 
a religious leader, which remain pre-eminent to this day, were 
fully established during his lifetime. 

Tulsi's great poem, popularly called Tulsi-krii Ramayan, but 
named by its author Rdm-charit-mdnas, "_the Lake of Rama's 
deeds," is perhaps better known among Hindus in upper India than 
the Bible among the rustic population in England. Its verses are 
everywhere, in this region, popular proverbs; an apt quotation from 
them by a stranger has an immediate effect in producing interest 
and confidence in the hearers. As with the Bible and Shakespeare, 
his phrases have passed into the common speech, and are used by 
every one (even m Urdu) without being conscious of their origin. 
Not only are his sayings proverbial: his doctrine actually forms the 
most powerful religious influence in present-day Hinduism; and, 
though he founded no school and was never known as a guru or 
master, but professed himself the humble follower of his teacher, 
Narhari-Das, 2 from whom as a boy in Sukar-khet he heard the tale 
of Rama's doings, he is everywhere accepted as an inspired and 
authoritative guide in religion and conduct of life. 

The poem is a rehandling of the great theme of Valmiki, but is m 
no sense a translation of the Sanskrit epic. The succession of events 
is of course generally the same, but the treatment is entirely different. 
The episodes introduced in the course of the story are for the most 
part dissimilar. Wherever Valmiki has condensed, Tulsi Das has 
expanded, and wherever the elder poet has lingered longest, there his 
successor has hastened on most rapidly. It consists of seven 
books, of which the first two, entitled " Childhood " (Bdl-kand) and 
" Ayodhya " (Ayddhya-kand), make up more than half the work. 
The second book is that most admired. The tale tells of King 
Dasarath's court, the birth and boyhood of Rama and his brethren, 
his marriage with Sita, daughter of Janak king of Bideha, his volun- 
tary exile, the result of Kaikeyi's guile and Dasarath's rash vow, 
the dwelling together of Rama and Sita in the great central Indian 
forest, her abduction by Ravan, the expedition to Lanka and the 
overthrow of the ravisher, and the life at Ajodhya after the return 
of the reunited pair. It is written in pure Baiswari or Eastern 
Hindi, in stanzas called chaup&is, broken by dohas or couplets, with 
an occasional sorafha and chhandthe latter a hurrying metre of 
many rhymes and alliterations. Dr Grierson well describes its 
movement: . . . 

" As a work of art, it has for European readers prolixities and 
episodes which grate against occidental tastes, but no one can read 
it in the original without being impressed by it as the work of a great 
genius. Its style varies with each subject. There is the deep 
pathos of the scene in which is described Rama's farewell to his 
mother: the rugged language depicting the horrors of the battle- 
field a torrent of harsh sounds clashing against each other and 
reverberating from phrase to phrase; and, as occasion requires, a 
sententious, aphoristic method of narrative, teeming with similes 
drawn from nature herself, and not from the traditions of the schools. 
His characters, too, live and move with all the dignity of an heroic 
age. Each is a real being, with a well-defined personality. Rama, 
perhaps too perfect to enlist all our sympathies; his impetuous and 
loving brother Lakshman; the tender, constant Bharat; Sita, the 
ideal of an Indian wife and mother; Ravan, destined to failure, and 
fighting with all his demon force against his destiny the Satan of 
the epic all these are characters as lifelike and distinct as any in 
occidental literature." 

A manuscript of the Ayodhyd-kdnd, said to be in the poet s own 
hand, exists at Rajapur in Banda, his reputed birthplace. One 
of the Bal-kdnd, dated Sambat 1661, nineteen years before the poet s 



1 See Indian Antiquary, xxii. 272 (1893). 

2 Narhari-Das was the sixth in spiritual descent from Ramanand, 
the founder of popular Vaishnavism in northern India (see article 
HINDOSTANI LITERATURE). 



death, and carefully corrected, it is alleged by Tulsi Das himself, 
is at Ajodhya. Another autograph is reported to be preserved 
at Malihabad in the Lucknow district, but has not, so far as known, 
been seen by a European. Other ancient MSS. are to be found at 
Benares, and the materials for a correct text of the Ramayan are 
thus available. Good editions have been published by the Khadga 
Bilas press at Bankipur (with a valuable life of the poet by Baijnath 
Das), and by the Ndgarl Pracharini Sabhd at Allahabad (1903). 
The ordinary bazar copies of the poem, repeatedly reproduced by 
lithography, teem with interpolations and variations from the poet s 
language. An excellent translation of the whole into English was 
made by the late Mr F. S. Growse, of the Indian Civil Service (sth 
edition, Cawnpore, 1891). 

Besides the " Lake of Rama's deeds," Tulsi Das was the author 
of five longer and six shorter works, most of them dealing with the 
theme of Rama, his doings, and devotion to him. The former are 
(i) the DdhdbaK, consisting of 573 miscellaneous doha and sora(ha 
verses; of this there is a duplicate in the Ram-satsai, an arrange- 
ment of seven centuries of verses, the great majority of which occur 
also in the DohabaK and in other works of Tulsi; (2) the Kabitta 
Ramayan or Kabittabafi, which is a history of Rama in the kabitta, 
ghanaksharl, chhappal and sawaiya metres; like the Ram-charit- 
mdnas, it is divided into seven kaifds or cantos, and is devoted to 
setting forth the majestic side of Rama's character; (3) the Gtt- 
Rdmayan, or Gitabatl, also in seven kdyds, aiming at the illustration 
of the tender aspect of the Lord's life; the metres are adapted for 
singing; (4) the Krishndwali or Krishna gltabaK, a collection of 6 1 
songs in honour of Krishna, in the Kanauji dialect : the authenticity 
of this is doubtful ; and (5) the Binay Pattrikd, or " Book of petitions, ' 
a series of hymns and prayers of which the first 43 are addressed 
to the lower gods, forming Rama's court and attendants, and the 
remainder, Nos. 44 to 279, to Rama himself. Of the smaller com- 
positions the most interesting is the Vairagya Sandtpani, or " Kind- 
ling of continence," a poem describing the nature and greatness of 
a holy man, and the true peace to which he attains. This work has 
been translated by Dr Grierson in the Indian Antiquary, xxii. 
198-201. 

Tulsi's doctrine is derived from Ramanuja through Ramanand. 
Like the former, he believes in a supreme personal God, possessing 
all gracious qualities (saguna), not in the quality-less (nirguna) 
neuter impersonal Brahman of Sankaracharya ; this Lord Himself 
once took the human form, and became incarnate, for the blessing of 
mankind, as Rama. The body is therefore to be honoured, not 
despised. The Lord is to be approached by faith (bhakti)-dis- 
interested devotion and surrender of self in perfect love, and all 
actions are to be purified of self-interest in contemplation of Him. 
" Show love to all creatures, and thou wilt be happy; for when thou 
lovest all things, thou lovest the Lord, for He is all in all." The 
soul is from the Lord, and is submitted in this life to the bondage 
of works (karma) ; " Mankind, in their obstinacy, keep binding them- 
selves in the net of actions, and though they know and hear of the 
bliss of those who have faith in the Lord, they attempt not the only 
means of release. Works are a spider's thread, up and down which 
she continually travels, and which is never broken; so works lead a 
soul downwards to the Earth, and upwards to the Lord." The bliss 
to which the soul attains, by the extinction of desire, in the supreme 
home, is not absorption in the Lord, but union with Him in abiding 
individuality. This is emancipation (muklf) from the burthen of 
birth and rebirth, and the highest happiness. 3 

Tulsi, as a Smarta Vaishnava and a Brahman, venerates the 
whole Hindu pantheon, and is especially careful to give Siva or 
Mahadeva, the special deity of the Brahmans, his due, and to point 
out that there is no inconsistency between devotion to Rama and 
attachment to Siva (Ramayan, Lankdkdnd, Doha 3). But the 
practical end of all his writings is to inculcate bhakfi addressed to 
Rama as the great means of salvation emancipation from the 
chain of births and deaths a salvation which is as free and open 
to men of the lowest caste as to Brahmans. 

The best account of Tulsi Das and his works-is contained in the 
papers contributed by Dr Grierson to vol. xxii. of the Indian Anti- 
quary (1893). In Mr Growse's translation of the Ram-charit- Manas 
will be found the text and translation of the passages in the Bhakta- 
mdla of Nabhaji and its commentary, which are the main original 
authority for the traditions relating to the poet. Nabhaji had himself 
met Tulsi Das ; but the stanza in praise of the poet gives no_ facts 
relating to his life.; these are stated in the fikd or gloss of Priya Das, 
who wrote in A.D. 1712, and much of the material is legendary 
and untrustworthy. Unfortunately, the biography of the poet, 
called GSsaln-charitra, by Benimadhab Das, who was a personal 
follower and constant companion of the Master, and died in 
1642, has disappeared, and no copy of it is known to exist. In the 
introduction to the edition of the Ramayan by the Nagari Pracharini 
Sabha all the known facts of Tulsi's life are brought together and 
critically discussed. For an exposition of his religious position, 

3 The summary given above is condensed from the translation 
by Dr Grierson, at pp. 229-236 of the Indian Antiquary, vol. xxii., 
of the fifth sarga of the Satsat, in which work Tulsl unfolds his 
system of doctrine. 



37 



TULU TUMOUR 



and this place in the popular religion of northern India, see Dr Grier- 
son's paper in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Jul; 



pp. 447-4 66 - 



, July 1903, 



.L.) 



TULU, or TULUVA, a language of the Dravidian family, found 
chiefly in the South Kanara district of Madras. It has no litera- 
ture, nor has it been adopted for official use even where it is 
spoken by the majority of the population. In 1901 the total 
number of speakers of Tulu exceeded half a million. 

TUMBLER, that which " tumbles," i.e. falls or rolls over or 
down. The O. Eng. tumbiare, of which Mid. Eng. tumblere is a 
frequentative form, appears also in Du. tuimelen, Ger. taumeln, 
to stagger, tumble about; Fr. tomber, to fall, is Teutonic in 
origin. As applied to a person, "'tumbler " is another word 
for an acrobat, one who shows his agility by turning somer- 
saults, standing on his head, walking or dancing on his hands, 
&c. It is interesting to note that Herodias' daughter Salome is 
described as a tumbestere in Harl. MS., 1701, f. 8, quoted by 
Halliwell (Diet, of Archaic Words), and in the margin of 
Wycliffe's Bible (Matt. xiv. 6) tumblide is given as a variant 
of daunside (danced). Similarly, in early pictures of her 
dancing before Herod, she is represented sometimes -as stand- 
ing on her head. The common drinking-glass known as a 
" tumbler," which now is the name given to a plain cylindrical 
glass without a stem or foot, was originally a glass with a 
rounded or pointed base, which could only stand on being 
emptied and inverted (see DRINKING VESSELS, Plate I., fig. 3). 

TUMBLE-WEED, a botanical term for a plant which breaks 
loose when dry, and is blown about, scattering its seeds by the 
way. 

TUMKUR, or TOOMKOOR, a town and district of southern 
India, in the west of Mysore state. The town has a station on 
the Madras & Southern Mahratta railway, 43 m. N.W. from 
Bangalore. The area of the district is 4158 sq. m. It consists 
chiefly of elevated land intersected by river valleys. A range 
of hills rising to nearly 4000 feet crosses it from north to south, 
forming the waterparting between the systems of the Krishna 
and the Cauvery. The principal streams are the Jayamangala 
and the Shimsha. The mineral wealth of Tumkur is consider- 
able; iron is obtained in large quantities from the hill-sides; 
and excellent building-stone is quarried. The slopes of the 
Devaray-durga hills, a tract of 18 sq. m., are clothed with forests, 
in which large game abounds, including tigers, leopards, bears 
and wild hog. The climate of Tumkur is equable and healthy; 
the annual rainfall averages 39 in. 

The population in 1901 was 679,162, showing an increase of 
17% in the decade. The cultivated products consist chiefly of 
millets, rice, pulses and oil seeds. The chief industries are the 
making of coarse cotton cloths, woollen blankets and ropes. 

TUMMEL, a river of Perthshire, Scotland. Discharging from 
Loch Rannoch, it flows eastward to a point near the Falls of 
Tummel, where it bends to the S.E., a direction which it maintains 
until it falls into the Tay, just below Logierait, after a course of 
58 m. from its source in Stob Ghabbar (3565 ft.). Its only 
considerable affluent is the Garry, 24 m. long, an impetuous 
river which issues from Loch Garry (25 m. long, \ m. wide, and 
1334 ft. above the sea). About midway in its course the Tum- 
mel expands into Loch Tummel (2$ m. long, ^ m. wide, 128 ft. 
deep, and 500 ft. above the sea), between which and the con- 
fluence with the Garry occur the Pass and Falls of the Tummel, 
which are rather in the nature of rapids, the descent altogether 
amounting to 15 ft. The scenery throughout this reach is most 
picturesque, culminating at the point above the eastern extremity 
of the loch, known as Queen Victoria's View. The chief places 
of interest on the river are Kinloch Rannoch; Dunalastair, a 
rocky hill in well-wooded grounds, the embellishment of which 
was largely due to Alexander Robertson of Struan (1670-1749), 
the Jacobite and poet, from whom the spot takes its name 
("the stronghold of Alexander"); Foss; Faskally House 
(beautifully situated on the left bank); Pitlochry; and Ballin- 
luig. 

TUMOUR (Lat. tumor, a swelling), a term applied, from the 
earliest period of medical literature, to any swelling of which 



the nature and origin were unknown. Thus used in its most 
literal sense, the word is of purely clinical derivation and has no 
pathological significance of any kind. Consequently a very 
heterogeneous collection of swellings have been described as 
tumours, including such diverse conditions as an abscess, a tuber- 
cular gland, the enlarged spleen of malaria or a cancer. With 
the progress of bacteriology and the improved technique of 
histology it has been found possible, however, to separate these 
various " swellings " into certain groups: (i) Inflammatory or 
Infective Tumours; (2) Tumours due to Hypertrophy; (3) 
Cysts; (4) Spontaneous Tumours, or Tumours proper. The 
tendency of modern convention is to restrict the use of the term 
" tumour " to the last group, but for the sake of completeness 
it is necessary to touch briefly on the distinguishing features of 
the first three groups. 



i. Inflammatory or 
laracteristics which 



or Infective Tumours. These have certain 
characteristics which separate them sharply from other classes of 
tumour. In the first place all of them are due to the irritative action 
of some micro-organism (see PATHOLOGY). Inflammation due to 
microbial action always follows a typical course. First, a number of 
wandering cells derived from the blood, the lymph or the connective 
tissues make their way to the site of irritation, and thus produce the 
red, painful swelling with which every one is familiar. A struggle 
now ensues between these cells and the invading bacteria; if the 
victory rests with the former, the inflammation gradually subsides, 
and the swelling disappears in course of time. But if the bacteria 
gain the upper hand a number of the cells are killed, undergo lique- 
faction and are converted into pus, so that an abscess results. Thus 
an inflammatory swelling may be solid or fluid according to the 
severity of the irritant. The common inflammatory bacteria 
staphylococcus and streptococcus cause suppuration in the 
majority ot cases, but there area few organisms such as streptothrix, 
spirochaeta pallida, and in many instances the tubercle bacillus, 
which set up an inflammation of an extremely chronic type, rarely 
progressing to the formation of pus, but leading rather to the develop- 
ment of a hard, solid mass of very slow growth, that may persist 
for months or even years. 

To the naked eye these solid inflammatory swellings may closely 
simulate the spontaneous tumours with which they have been often 
confused, but a microscopical examination will correct the mistake 
in nearly every case. For the minute structure of the infective 
tumours, whatever their situation, is almost identical; they consist 
merely of an irregular collection of inflammatory cells; and this 
of itself is sufficient to mark them off quite distinctly from the group 
of tumours proper, which, as will presently be seen, vary widely 
in structure according to the tissue from which they spring, and show 
a resemblance to the parent type at once characteristic and peculiar. 
To this statement there is one exception, for a form of malignant 
tumour, known as a sarcoma, may bear a very deceptive likeness 
to an inflammatory swelling. 

2. Hypertrophic Tumours. A tissue or organ is said to be hyper- 
trophied when it is increased in size but remains normal in structure. 
The most familiar example is the hypertrophy of the skeletal muscles 
that follows increased use, or the hypertrophy of the heart muscle 
which helps to compensate the faulty action of the valves. But 
neither of these constitutes a hypertrophic tumour. For an instance 
of this we must turn to the enlargement of the spleen that occurs in 
malaria and certain forms of anaemia, of the thyroid gland in goitre, 
and of the lymphatic glands in Hodgkin's disease. In each of these 
conditions there is merely an increase of apparently normal tissue, 
and from a microscopical examination of the hypertrophied organ 
it would be impossible to say that it was other than healthy. 

The enlargement of the spleen and of the thyroid in these cases are 
overshadowed by certain changes in the blood and in the nervous 
system which constitute a distinct disease; but in Hodgkin's disease 
there are no specific symptoms apart from the swelling of the glands, 
and it has been suggested that this may be due either to the action 
of some micro-organism which has hitherto escaped detection, or to 
a widely diffused growth of a sarcomatous type. If the former 
supposition be correct these glandular swellings must be classed 
with the infective tumours; if the latter they should be regarded 
as spontaneous tumours. There is, at present, no agreement on 
this point, and they have, therefore, been described here as hyper- 
trophic tumours. 

3. Cysts. A cyst may be defined as a collection of fluid sur- 
rounded by a wall or capsule. The nature of the fluid varies accord- 
ing to the site and origin of the cyst; the cyst-wall is usually composed 
of a tough layer offibrous tissue. Cysts arise by the dilatation of a 
pre-existing space with fluid ; and when, as often happens, the cyst- 
wall is tensely stretched by the pressure of the fluid within, they may 
easily be mistaken for solid tumours. 

The number and variety of cysts are very great, and they are only 
mentioned here on account of the errors in diagnosis for which they 
are often responsible. For further details the reader should consult 
the special textbooks. 



TUMOUR 



37 1 



4. Spontaneous Tumours, or Tumours Proper (synonyms: Neoplasm, 
New Growth). The following definition of a spontaneous tumour 
suggested by Ziegler is perhaps the most satisfactory: "A neo- 
plasm or tumour is a new formation of tissue, which is atypical 
in structure, serves no useful purpose to the whole economy, and the 
growth of which has no typical termination. " In this definition 
the words " new formation of tissue " exclude the cystic swellings; 
the attribute " atypical in structure " excludes hypertrophies; 
and the final clause " the growth of which has no typical termina- 
tion " excludes all swellings of an inflammatory nature which pro- 
gress, however slowly, towards either suppuration or resolution 
and recovery. 

These tumours arise by the exaggerated and abnormal prolifera- 
tion of a single cell, or a group of cells. They increase in size solely 
by the multiplication of their own cells, and the only contribution 
which the surrounding tissues make to the progress is the formation 
of a " stroma, " or supporting framework of fibrous tissue; and even 
that is wanting in many cases. Inasmuch as the newly-formed 
cells of the tumour take on the likeness of the parent from which they 
are sprung, it follows that the minute structure of such a tumour, 
whatever its situation, will be a more or less exact copy of that of 
the tissue whence it originated. A tumour growing from the skin 
will therefore imitate the cell-structure of the normal skin; the 
resemblance of a breast tumour to the healthy breast is often so 
close as to make it a hard task to distinguish the one from the other; 
whilst the similarity of bony and cartilaginous tumours to true 
bone and cartilage is evident to all. 

This imitation of the parent type by the spontaneous tumours 
is one of their most remarkable characteristics, and provides a 
reliable criterion by which they may be separated from the inflamma- 
tory new growths, which are all built up on the same general plan. 
Consequently it is almost always possible to determine the origin 
of a tumour from an examination of its histological appearances; 
and conversely we know that an epithelial tumour will never spring 
from a connective tissue nor a connective tissue tumour from an 
epithelium. 

Another outstanding feature of the neoplastic tumours is that they 
lead an entirely independent existence subject to none of the 
restraints to which the normal cell must needs submit. These 
normal cells are, indeed, possessed of certain limited powers of 
multiplication, by which they are enabled to replace the slight loss 
of tissue which the wear and tear of life perpetually entails; or, 
again, they can on occasion make good a greater loss of substance, 
as in the healing of an ulcer, or the regeneration of a skin wound. 
But these powers are confined within certain well-marked bounds, 
which may not be transgressed. Contrast with this the tumour 
cell, emancipated from all control and owning to no restraint. It 
is true that the simple tumours often remain stationary after attain- 
ing a certain size, but the general tendency of all tumours is towards 
persistent and unlimited growth, and the cancer cell continues its 
career unchecked by everything save death. 

The spontaneous tumours are seen in every tissue and organ of 
the body, though in some they are relatively infrequent. Nor 
are they confined to man, for they have been found throughout the 
vertebrate kingdom. It is often stated that a higher state of 
civilization has inflicted on European races a greater susceptibility 
to tumour formation. As to this, reliable evidence is hard to obtain, 
but such a statement would seem to be only partially true, and the 
apparent immunity of certain native races is to some extent due to 
lack of sufficient observations. 

It is usual to separate these tumours into two groups: the Non- 
malignant, Innocent or Benign, and the Malignant or Cancerous. Of 
these two groups the latter are the more familiar and have attracted 
much more attention and study than the former, on account of 
the danger to life which they involve, but in point of numbers 
they are greatly outweighed by the first group. Two or more non- 
malignant tumours, of the same or different varieties, are often 
found in the same individual; but with the cancers this is a rare 
occurrence, and such growths are usually single. 

The non-malignant tumours are usually rounded in shape. In 
size they vary enormously; a fibroid tumour may be as small as a 
pea; a fatty tumour may weigh forty pounds. Often they cease 
growing after attaining a certain size, but there are very many 
exceptions to this, and it is seldom possible to predict the subsequent 
course of one of these growths. They possess, however, four con- 
stant characteristics by which they may be distinguished from the 
malignant variety. 

1. A non-malignant tumour, whatever its size, remains localized 
to the part from which it originates. It is not an " infiltrating " 
growth, that is to say it does not eat its way into the surrounding 
tissues, but rather pushes them aside, and so may be called "expan- 
sive. " Moreover, it is separated from them by a thin but usually 
well-marked layer of fibrous tissue known as the " capsule " of the 
tumour, which seems to be formed as the result of a slight inflamma- 
tion that the presence of the tumour always causes among the 
healthy tissues surrounding it, and may be regarded as a protest on 
their part against the invasion of the tumour. 

2. Non-malignant tumours are not of themselves dangerous to 
life. They may, however, cause a great deal of pain and even 



death, when situated in some sensitive or delicate organ. For 
instance, a small tumour may cause intense pain by pressing on a 
nerve, or dropsical swelling of a limb by obstructing a vein, or death 
from suffocation by blocking the larynx. Nevertheless it remains 
true that any evil effects are due not to the nature of the tumour, 
but to its situation, whereas a cancer causes death whatever its 
position. 

3. These tumours never reproduce themselves in distant parts of 
the body. More than one may be present in the same individual, 
but each arises independently, and the widespread dissemination so 
typical of a cancerous growth is never seen. 

4. An innocent growth never recurs after operation. The 
boundaries of the growth are so well defined that complete removal 
is usually easy, and the operation is a simple and satisfactory 
proceeding. 

Malignant Tumours, or Cancers. There are two varieties of 
malignant tumour: the Sarcomata, arising from the connective 
tissues; the Carcinpmata, arising from epithelial tissues. It is 
customary to describe them both as cancers. The main features 
of these tumours are as follows : 

1. The Infiltrating Nature of a Malignant Tumour. A cancer 
follows a course very different from that of an innocent tumour. Its 
growth has no appointed termination, but continues with unabated 
vigour until death ; moreover, it is more rapid than that of the innocent 
tumours, and so does not permit of the formation of a capsule by 
the neighbouring tissues. In consequence such a tumour shows 
no well-defined boundary, but from its margin fine tendrils of cancer 
cells make their way in all directions into the surrounding parts, 
which gradually become more and more involved in the process. 
Thus a cancer of the breast will attack both the skin covering it and 
the underlying muscle and bone ; a cancer of the intestine will eat its 
way into the liver, spleen and kidney, until these organs become to 
a great extent replaced by cancer cells, and can no longer perform 
their proper functions. 

2. Formation of Secondary Growths, or Metastases. In addition 
to this spread of growth by direct extension, another characteristic 
of malignant tumours is a tendency to dissemination, that is, to 
reproduce themselves in various parts of the body far removed from 
the original site; so that it is not unusual to find after death that a 
cancer of the breast has given rise to secondary, or metastatic, 
deposits in the lymphatic glands, the lungs, the ribs and other 
bones, the brain and the abdominal organs. These secondary 
deposits are due to the tumour cells making their way through the 
walls of the small lymph and blood vessels and becoming detached 
by the force of the circulation, by which they are carried to some 
distant part of the body, there to continue their career of uncon- 
trolled growth. 

The sarcomata and carcinomata differ somewhat as regards 
the path of dissemination. The former are vascular tumours, well 
supplied with blood-vessels ; consequently dissemination usually 
occurs by way of the blood-stream rather than by the lymphatic 
circulation, and the commonest site for the secondary deposits 
of sarcoma is the lung. The carcinomata are less vascular, and the 
tendency of the growth is to invade the small lymph channels, 
so that the first signs of metastases are to be looked for in the 
lymphatic glands; at a later date these deposits may be spread 
throughout the body, particularly in the liver and other abdominal 
organs, the lungs and the bones. 

The formation of metastases is of the utmost importance from 
a clinical point of view, as the success of an operation depends on 
the removal of all the secondary deposits as well as of the original 
growth. For instance, a few months after the first appearance 
of a cancer of the breast the axillary lymph glands will be found 
to be hard and enlarged. This means that some of the cells of the 
primary growth have been carried in the lymph stream to these 
glands, and have begun to grow there; consequently any operation 
for the removal of the cancer of the breast must include the removal 
of these glands. If the breast tumour only be taken away the growth 
will continue unchecked in the glands. It is a matter of great 
difficulty to determine by the naked eye or the touch whether a 
gland is infected or not. In many cases where there is no evident 
enlargement the microscope will show the presence of cancer 
cells; and a certain opinion can only be given after a microscopical 
examination. 

In operations for cancer of the breast or tongue the modern 
practice is to regard the lymphatic glands of the axilla or neck 
respectively as infected in every case, however early it be, and to 
remove them accordingly. In other parts of the body where the 
glands are inaccessible, the only solution of the difficulty is to urge 
the removal of the tumour at the earliest possible moment, before 
lymphatic infection has had time to occur. 

The frequency and rapidity of metastasis formation varies 
greatly. As a general rule cancer of the breast is more liable than 
other forms of growth to be followed by widespread secondary 
deposits. On the other hand, in cases of cancer of the skin secondary 
infection is usually confined to the neighbouring lymphatic glands, 
and seldom occurs in any of the internal organs. 

3. Termination of Malignant Tumours. In one or two well 
authenticated cases a malignant tumour has disappeared of its 



372 



TUMOUR 



own accord without any treatment, and a natural cure may be said 
to have occurred. But these form such an infinitesimal proportion 
of the whole that they do not affect the general truth of the statement 
that the universal tendency of a malignant tumour is to cause 
death. 

Although the separation of the new growths into two groups is 
supported by certain fairly definite characteristics, both clinical and 
histological, yet it seems likely that the difference between them is 
one of degree rather than of kind. There is every reason to believe 
that the same perverted impulse may give rise either to an innocent 
or a cancerous growth, the issue depending in part on the intensity 
of the impulse, and in part on the resisting powers of the tissues in 
which the incipient tumour cells lie. Such a hypothesis is supported 
by the analogy of the microbial infections, where the final outcome 
of life or death depends no less on the defensive mechanism of the 
individual than on the virulence of the infecting organism. Again, 
it is beyond doubt that occasionally a tumour, which for years has 
been void of the least taint of malignancy, may become converted 
into an active cancer. Moreover, certain tumours seem to lie on the 
border line, for example, rodent ulcers and cancers of the parotid 
gland. These are malignant in that they are undoubtedly infiltrating 
tumours, they are innocent in that they never form metastatic 
deposits. Therefore it seems that malignancy or the reverse is not 
to be regarded as an absolute and constant attribute of any par- 
ticular tumour or class of tumours, but rather as an expression of 
the balance struck in the conflict between the opposing forces of the 
tumour and its host. 

Histology of Tumours ^On examining a microscopical preparation 
of an epithelial tumour it is found to be built up of two distinct 
elements. There are the epithelial cells, which form the essential 
part of the tumour; there is a network of fibrous connective-tissue 
cells, which acts as a supporting framework to the epithelial 
elements, and is known as the stroma of the tumour. This twofold 
structure is seen in all the epithelial tumours, both non-malignant 
and malignant, and in the case of the latter it is a general rule that 
the greater the proportion of epithelial to connective-tissue elements 
the faster will the tumour grow. On the other hand in the connective- 
tissue tumours (with the exception of the sarcomata) this compound 
structure is absent and there is only one type of cell present ; thus a 
fatty tumour consists merely of fat cells ; a bony tumour of bone cells, 
and so on. 

To understand clearly the differences and likenesses that obtain 
between the malignant and the non-malignant new growths it is 
necessary to compare the histology of the two groups. 

Figs, la, ib represent an innocent tumour (adenoma) of the breast. 
Figs. 2d, 2& a cancer (spheroidal-celled carcinoma) of the breast. 
Fig. 3 an innocent tumour (papilloma) of the skin. Fig. 4 a cancer 
of the skin. 




FIG. la. Diagram to show the relations of an innocent tumour 
(adenoma) of the breast. 

a, Tumour; 6, normal breast tissue; c, underlying muscular tissue. 




FIG. 16. Microscopical appearances of an adenoma of the breast. 
(Drawn from an actual specimen. X 200). 

a, Tumour cells ; 6, fibrous connective tissue. 

In the adenoma the individual cells bear the closest resemblance 
to the glandular cells of the normal breast from which they are 
derived. In addition they tend to follow the normal very closely 
in their arrangement, so that at times it is difficult or impossible to 



decidt which is tumour and which is healthy breast substance. 
Finally the growth is surrounded by a well defined capsule of fibrous 
tissue. 




FIG. 2a. Diagram to show the relations of a malignant tumour 
(spheroidal cell carcinoma) of the breast. Note the indrawing of 
the nipple by the growth and the infiltration of the underlying 
muscle. 

a, Tumour ; b, normal breast tissue ; c, muscle. 




FIG. 26. Microscopical appearances of a carcinoma of the breast. 
(Drawn from an actual specimen. X 200). 

a, Tumcur cells; b, stroma. 

In the carcinoma, the individual resemblance is present, though 
less conspicuous, as many of the cells are irregular in size and shape. 
But the similarity of the arrangement is very hard to make out or 
even absent. The cells are arranged in disorderly masses ; they are 
not enclosed by any semblance of a capsule, but tend to transgress 
their proper boundaries and invade the underlying muscles. Figs. 
3 and 4 show analogous changes in an innocent and in a malignant 
tumour of the skin. 




FIG. 3. Non-malignant tumour (papilloma) of the skin. The 
tumour is formed by an outward proliferation of the cells of the 
epidermis, but these cells show no tendency to invade the underlying 
connective tissue or muscle. (Semidiagrammatic. X 150.) 

a, Normal skin. d, Muscular tissue. 

b, Epithelium or epidermis. e, Papilloma. 

c, Connective tissue. 

Speaking generally it may be said that the cells of an adenoma 
are fully differentiated and typical of the normal, whereas the cells 
ot a carcinoma show less perfect differentiation, are in some degree 
atypical and resemble rather the actively growing cells found at an 
any stage of embryonic life. But it is in the cells of a sarcoma that 
the widest departure from type is seen. A sarcoma is a malignant 
growth arising from connective tissue, but the resemblance to adult 



TUMOUR 



373 



connective tissue is almost non-existent and the cells are essen- 
tially of an embryonic type. These differences between the 
innocent and the malignant cell bear out the well-established phy- 
siological rule that the less the functional development of a cell or 
tissue the greater its power of growth. The primitive impulse 
is growth, which gives place at a later stage to the development of 
function. 




FIG. 4. Malignant tumour (epithelioma, squampus-celled 
carcinoma) of the skin. The cells of the epidermis have proli- 
ferated both outwardly and inwardly and have invaded and re- 
placed the underlying tissues. An ulcer has been formed on the 
surface by the necrosis of the superficial cells. (Semidiagrammatic. 
X 150.) 

In theory it is always possible to distinguish with certainty between 
an innocent tumour and a cancer by means of the microscope. In 
practice this is, unfortunately, not the case. There are some 
tumours whose histological appearances seem to be on the border- 
line between the two conditions, and often these are the very cases 
in which the clinical features give no direct clue to their nature. 
In such circumstances it is only by taking into consideration every 
detail, both clinical and pathological, that an opinion can be formu- 
lated, and even then it remains to some extent a matter of guess- 
work. 

The Causation of Tumours. An enormous number of suggestions 
as to the causation of tumours have been put forward from time 
to time. Many of these were at the outset quite untenable, and 
reference can only be made here to the more important. 

First in point of time came Virchow's hypothesis that tumours 
arise as the direct result of irritation or injury. Many examples of 
such a sequence of events are familiar to everybody. A cancer of 
the lip or tongue will often follow the irritation of a clay pipe or a 
jagged tooth ; a tumour of the breast is often attributed to a blow. 
But, on the other hand, there must be innumerable instances in 
which such a cause of irritation has not been followed by a tumour; 
and it is necessary to discount the natural anxiety of mankind to 
seek a cause for every unexplained occurrence, so that a slight injury 
which under ordinary circumstances would be forgotten is branded 
as the undoubted cause of any tumour that may subsequently make 
its appearance. As a complete explanation Virchow's hypothesis is 
insufficient, but it is quite probable that irritation may have an 
accessory or predisposing influence in tumour formation, and that 
it may be enough finally to upset the balance of a group of cells, 
which for some other reason were already hovering on the brink of 
abnormal growth. 

There is one peculiar form or irritation that demands special 
attention, that is exposure to the X rays. It is beyond doubt that 
exposure to these rays will cause cancerous ulceration of the skin; 
though what is the constituent of the rays that produces this effect 
is not known. Fortunately the danger can be obviated by the use 
of rubber gloves. 

Cohnheim's Hypothesis of Embryonic Remnants. According to 
Cohnheim more cells are produced in embryonic life than are required 
for the development of the body, and a remnant is left unappro- 
priated. Owing to their embryonic nature, these cells possess an 
exaggerated power of proliferation, and if at a later period of life 
this should be roused into activity by some mechanical or other 
form of stimulus, their rate of growth will outstrip that of the 
adult cells and a tumour will develop. As with Virchow's so with 
Cohnheim's hypothesis. It is at best only a partial explanation 
which may be applicable to a small proportion of tumours; and it 
could never account for X-ray cancer, or the inoculability of mouse 
cancer. 

The Parasitic hypothesis is still a matter of keen debate. In 
some degree cancel with its localized primary growth and widespread 
secondary deposits resembles certain infective diseases of microbial 
origin, such as pyaemia, where from a small primary site of infection 
the bacteria become disseminated throughout the body. From this 
analogy it was argued that tumour formation was due to the activity 



of some parasite. But if the mode of dissemination of a cancer and 
of a micro-organism be carefully examined this analogy is found to 
be false. When a micro-organism lodges in a gland or other part 
of the body, by its irritative action it stimulates the cells of that gland 
to increased activity, and any swelling that occurs is produced by 
the proliferation of those cells. But when a group of cancer-cells 
is deposited in a glar.d the subsequent growth arises entirely from 
the multiplication of those cancer-cells, and the gland cells take no 
part whatever in its formation. 

A very large number of organisms both animal and vegetable have 
been described as occurring in tumours ; and some of these have been 
cultivated on artificial media outside the body; but to none of them 
can any direct causal relationship with cancer be attributed. One 
of the best authenticated, a small coccus, known as Micrococcus 
neoformans can certainly be cultivated from many tumours malig- 
nant and innocent, and it has been suggested that it may be respon- 
sible for the slight inflammatory changes that occur in the neighbour- 
hood of most new growths. The final and critical test of the con- 
nexion of an organism with some diseased condition is the production 
of a similar condition in animals by inoculation of that organism, 
and this experiment has signally failed with all the suggested cancer 
parasites. Another very cogent argument against the infective 
hypothesis is the fact that although tumours of identical structure 
are found throughout the vertebrate king'dom, it has never yet been 
found possible artificially to transmit these tumours from one species 
to another. If they were of an infective nature it is almost incon- 
ceivable that the gap between two allied species should be such an 
insuperable bar to transmission. 

Quite recently Borrel of the Pasteur Institute has stated that 
certain animal parasites from the skin are often to be found buried 
in the cell masses of cancers of the skin and breast, and he thinks 
that these parasites may be the carriers of some as yet unknown 
cancer virus, just as the mosquito is the carrier of malaria. 

Ribbert has suggested that tumour formation may be due to 
" alteration of tissue tension." In his opinion the various cells of 
the body are normally held in a state of equilibrium by some con- 
dition of mutual interdependence amongst themselves. Should 
this equilibrium be disturbed some of these cells may escape from 
the controlling influence usually exercised upon them by their 
neighbours, and become endowed with greatly enhanced powers of 
growth. 

Adami considers that every cell possesses two distinct properties, 
a property of function and a property of growth, and he regards 
these as incompatible, that is to say, a cell cannot at the same time 
be carrying out a specific function and also undergoing active growth. 
He believes that on occasion some of these cells may abandon their 
" habit of work " and assume a " habit of growth," and this will 
lead to the development of a tumour. 

Neither of the two latter explanations brings us very much nearer 
the solution of the question they merely place the unknown factor 
one step farther back; but they serve to emphasize the biological 
aspect of the problem. At the present time the general weight of 
evidence seems to favour the idea that tumour formation is due to 
some intrinsic cause, whereby the normal processes of growth are 
disturbed, rather than to any extrinsic cause such as microbial 
infection. Therefore it is from a careful study of the laws of growth, 
and from research directed along broad biological lines that the best 
results are to be looked for in the future. 

Classification of Spontaneous Tumours. So little is known as to 
the nature of these tumours that a satisfactory classification on a 
scientific basis is not yet within reach. The following is merely 
suggested as convenient : 

I. Connective-tissue Tumours. 
Innocent. Malignant. 

Lipoma (fatty tumour). 

Fibroma (fibrous tumour). Sarcoma. 

Myoma (muscular tumour). Endothelioma. 

Osteoma (bony tumour). 
Chondroma (cartilaginous tumour). 
Odontoma (tumour in connexion with teeth). 
Myxoma (mucoid tumour). 
Neuroma (tumour in connexion with nerves). 
Glioma (neuroglial tumour). 
Endothelioma (endothelial tumour). 
Angioma (tumour composed of blood vessels). 



II. Epithelial Tumours. 



Innocent. 

Papilloma. 

Adenoma. 



Malignant. 
Carcinoma. 
Rodent Ulcer. 



I. Connective-tissue Tumours} Lipoma (fig. 5). Of the connec- 
tive-tissue group the fatty tumours are the most common. They 
often .arise from the layer of fat beneath the skin, and a usual 
site for these subcutaneous lipomata is the back of the trunk, 
though at times they are found on the limbs and elsewhere. They 



1 Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 14, 15 and 17 have been redrawn from Bland 
Sutton's Tumours, by permission; figs. IO, II, 12 and 13 are from 
Rose & Carless, Surgery, by permission. 



374 



TUMOUR 



are soft, painless swellings, sometimes of great size; though usually 
single, as many as a dozen may be present in the same individual. 
Lipomata are also found in the abdominal cavity, growing from the 
subperitoneal layer of fat. 




FIG. 5. Lipoma of the palm. 

What is known as a diffuse lipoma (fig. 6) consists of a generalized 
overgrowth of the subcutaneous fat of the neck, and this may be 
so extensive as to obliterate the outline of the jaw. 




FIG. 6. Diffuse lipoma of the neck. 

Fibroma (fig. 7). Of tumours containing fibrous tissue, by far 
the most important are the fibroids of the uterus. A better name 

for these tumours would be 
Fibromyomata, as they always 
contain a varying proportion 
of muscle fibres. They origi- 
nate in the wall of the uterus, 
but generally come to project 
either internally into the 
cavity of the uterus, or ex- 
ternally into the peritoneal 
cavity; and often their sole 
connexion with the uterine 
wall is a stalk or pedicle 
formed from the capsule of 
the tumour. Fibromyomata 
of the uterus are most com- 
mon from 35 to 45 years of 
age; in girls under 20 they 
are almost unknown. They 
may attain a great size and 
are often multiple. They 
seem to be equally common 
in married and unmarried 
FIG. 7. Uterus in sagittal section women. Not every fibroid is 
showing interstitial and submucous a source of danger or discom- 
fibroids. fort, for in the majority of 

cases they are discovered by 
chance or not until after death. On the other hand they may give 




rise to severe symptoms, and that in many different ways. First, 
they may cause haemorrhage prolonged over years so that the 
health is entirely ruined. Secondly, they may become inflamed 
and septic, and lead to severe blood-poisoning. Next, for some 
unknown reason, a fibroid tends to prevent conception, whilst, 
should pregnancy occur, labour is greatly impeded. Finally, it 
seems to be established that a fibroid may occasionally become 
converted into a sarcoma. 

Examples of pure fibrous tissue tumours are the small multiple 
growths of the subcutaneous tissue, known as Painful subcutaneous 
nodule, and the irregular outgrowth from the gum known as Epulis. 

A Myoma is composed of unstriped muscle fibres. It is a rare 
tumour sometimes found in the oesophagus, stomach and bladder. 

Osteoma (fig. 8). Bony tumours not infrequently arise from the 
bones of the head or face. They grow very slowly, and are so hard 




FIG. 8. Osteoma of the left frontal sinus (seen from below). 



that surgical removal may be very difficult. They also occur as 
irregular outgrowths from the bones of the limbs, and are then known 
as Exostoses (fig. 9). A common site for these is the inner and lower 
end of the femur, at the point of attachment of the adductor muscle, 
and such a tumour seems to originate from an ossification of the 
tendon of this muscle. 





FIG. 9. Exostosis of the femur 
produced by the ossification of the FIG. 10. Multiple chondromata 
tendon of the adductor magnus. O f the fingers. 

Chondroma (fig. 10). Cartilaginous tumours are often found in 
children and young people growing from the bones of the limbs 
in the neighbourhood of the joints. They are frequently multiple, 
especially in the hands and feet. These tumours grow slowly 
and are quite painless. Should removal be necessary, it is usually 
an easy matter. 

Odontoma. Several varieties of this tumour have been described 
arising in connexion with the teeth and due to delayed or faulty 
development. They may cause great deformity of the jaw. 

A Myzoma is composed of loose, gelatinous connective tissue 
similar to that found in the umbilical cord. Some nasal polypi 
seem to be of this nature, but true myxomatous tumours are rare. 
It is, however, not uncommon for a fibroma or a sarcoma to be 
converted by degeneration into myxomatous-like tissue. 

Neuroma, A pure neuroma is very_ uncommon, but a tumour 
known as a Pseudo-neuroma (fig. n) is often found in the course 
of a nerve. This is formed by a localized overgrowth of the fibrous 
tissue of the nerve sheath. 

Glioma. This variety of tumour arises from the neuroglia, the 



TUMOUR 



375 




supporting tissue of the brain and spinal cord. Consequently 
gliomata are only found in these two structures. 

Endothelioma. Of late years a 
small class of tumour has been 
described as originating apparently 
from the endothelium lining the 
lesser blood and lymph channels. 
Many of the recorded examples 
have been connected with the 
mouth, the tongue, the palate or 
the parotid gland. Some of these 
tumours are quite innocent, others 
are typically malignant. 

An Angeioma consists of a mesh- 
work ot Dlood-vessels bound to- 
gether by a small amount of fat 
and fibrous tissue.. Two varieties 
are described: (a) The simple 
naevus, or port-wine stain, scarcely 
deserves to be called a tumour. It 
appears as a reddish-blue discolour- 
ation of the skin due to over 
FIG. II. Pseudo-neuroma : growth and dilatation of the under- 
fibrous tumour growing from lying blood-vessels. This condition 
nerve sheath, and causing the j s most commonly found on the 
fibres to be stretched over it. { ace or scalp, and may be of 

congenital origin. (b) In the 

cavernous naevus the vascular hypertrophy is on a larger scale, and 
may produce a definite pulsating tumour. Here, again, the head 
is the usual situation. 

Sarcoma. This is the malignant type of the connective-tissue 
tumour. The general arrangement of a sarcoma shows a mass of 

atypical cells loosely bound to- 
gether by a small amount of 
connective tissue. The cells 
vary greatly in size and shape 
in different tumours, and in 
accordance with the prevailing 
type the following varieties of 
sarcoma have been described: 
(i.) round-cell sarcoma, ({{.) 
spindle-cell sarcoma, (iii.) mela- 
notic sarcoma, (iv.) myeloid sar- 
coma. The first two groups 
contain the great majority of 
all sarcomata, and may occur 
in almost any part of the body, 
but they are especially liable to 
attack the bones (fig. 12). A 
sarcoma of bone may be either 
periosteal when it grows from 
the periosteum covering the 
outer surface of the bone, or 
endosteal when it lies in the 
medullary cavity. A peculiar 
form of sarcoma is found in 
the parotid and other salivary 
glands. The cells are usually 
spindle - shaped, and among 
them lie scattered masses of 
cartilage and fibrous tissue. 




FlG. 12. Ossifying periosteal 
sarcoma of fibula. 



These tumours are seldom very 
malignant, and dissemination 
is rare (fig. 13). The melanotic 
sarcoma is of a brown or black colour owing to the presence of 
granules of pigment (melanin) in and among the tumour cells. A 
melanotic sarcoma may arise from a pigmented wart or mole, or 




FIG. 13. Malignant tumour of the parotid gland. 

from the pigmented layers of the retina. The primary growth 
is usually small, but dissemination occurs with great rapidity 



throughout the body. The myeloid sarcoma, or myeloma (fig. 14), is 
composed of very large cells like those of bone-marrow from which 
it is probably derived. It is only found in the interior of bones, 
chiefly in those of the arm and leg. The degree of malignancy is 
low, dissemination never occurs, and recurrence after operation 
is rare. 




FIG. 14. Lower end of a femur in longitudinal section, showing a 
myeloma. 

II. Epithelial Tumours. 

Papilloma. The familiar example of a papilloma is the simple 
wart, which is formed by a proliferation of the squamous epithelium 
of the skin (fig. 3). It ^ ^-.,. ^r ^ 

seems probable that some 
warts are of an infective 
nature, for instances of 
direct contagion are not 
uncommon. Occasionally 
warts are pigmented, and 
are then liable to be the 
seat of a melanotic sar- 
coma. Papillomata are 
also found in the bladder 
(fig. 15), as long delicate 
filaments growing from 
the bladder wall. These 
consist of a connective- 
tissue core covered by a 
thin layer of epithelium. 

A denoma. (Figs, i a 
and 1 6). The glandular 
tumours are of very com- 
mon occurrence in the 
breast, the ovary and 
the intestinal canal. The 
structure -of an adenoma 
of the breast has already 
been described (vide supra), and the structure of other adenomata 
is on the same general plan. The main features of an innocent 
glandular tumour are: (a) the presence of a rounded, painless 
swelling with a well-defined margin; (b) the swelling is freely 
movable in the surrounding tissues, and if it lies close beneath the 
skin it is not attached thereto; (c) there is no enlargement of the 
neighbouring lymphatic glands. 

Carcinoma. The following varieties of carcinoma are described : 

i. Squamous-cell carcinoma (fie. 4), arising from those parts of the 
body covered by squamous epithelium, namely the skin, the mouth, 
the pharynx, the upper part of the oesophagus and the bladder. 

ii. Spheroidal-cell carcinoma (figs. 20 and 26), arising from 
spheroidal epithelium, as in the breast, the pylorus, the pancreas, 
the kidney and the prostrate. 

iii. Columnar-cell carcinoma (figs. 16 and 17), arising from columnar 
epithelium, as in the intestine. 

The general histology of these tumours corresponds to that of a 
spheroidal-cell carcinoma already described (vide supra), the only 
variation between the three groups being in the shape of the cells. 
The clinical characteristics of a carcinoma, whatever its situation, 
are: (a) the presence of a swelling which has no well defined 
margin, but fades away into the surrounding tissues to which it is 
fixed; (b) when the tumour lies near the skin (e.g. a carcinoma 




FIG. 15. Villous papilloma of the 
bladder. 



376 



TUMULUS TUNDRA 



of the breast) it becomes fixed to this at an early date; (c) the 
tumour is painful and tender, the degree of pain varies widely, 





FIG. 17. Cancer of 



(Redrawn from Ziegler's Pathological Anatomy, by permission of Macmfllan & Co.) 
FIG. 16. Section through advancing margin of columnar; 
cancer of stomach. 

and in the early stages there may be none ; 
(d) the neighbouring lymphatic glands 
soon become enlarged and tender, show- 
ing that they are the seat of metastatic 
deposits; (e) in squamous carcinoma of 
the skin, ulceration speedily occurs. 

Rodent Ulcer. This shows itself as a 
slowly progressing ulceration of the skin, 
and is especially common on the face near 
the eye or ear. The condition is one of 
purely local malignancy, and dissemination 
does not occur. It is believed to be a 
carcinoma of the sebaceous glands of the 
skin. (L. C.*) 

TUMULUS, a Latin word meaning a 
heap or mound, also used in classical 
writings in the secondary sense of a 
grave. In Roman epitaphs we meet 
with the formula tumulum faciendum 
curairit, meaning the grave and its 
. monument; and on the inscribed 
thlcofoT monumental stones placed over the 

early Christian graves of Gaul and 

Britain the phrase in hoc lumido jacet expresses the same idea. 
But among archaeologists the word is usually restricted 
in its technical modern application to a sepulchral mound 
of greater or less magnitude. The mound may be of earth, 
or of stones with a covering of earth, or may be entirely 
composed of stones. In the latter case, if the tumulus of stones 
covers a megalithic cist or a sepulchral chamber with a passage 
leading into it from the outside, it is often called a dolmen. 
(See STONE MONUMENTS, BARROW and CAIRN.) The custom of 
constructing sepulchral tumuli was widely prevalent throughout 
the prehistoric ages and is referred to in the early literature 
of various races as a fitting commemoration of the illustrious 
dead. Prehistoric tumuli are found abundantly in almost all 
parts of Europe and Asia from Britain to Japan. They occur 
with frequency also in northern Africa, and in many parts of 
North and South America the aboriginal populations have 
practised similar customs. Sepulchral tumuli, however, vary 
so^ much in shape and size that the external appearance is no 
criterion of age or origin. In North America, especially in the 
Wisconsin region, there are numerous mounds made in shapes 
resembling the figures of animals, birds or even human forms. 
These have not been often found to be sepulchral, but they are 
associated with sepulchral mounds of the ordinary form, some 
of which are as much as 300 ft. in diameter and oo ft. in height. 



Perhaps the largest tumulus on record is the tomb of Alyattes, 
king of Lydia, situated near Sardis, constructed in his own life- 
time, before 560 B.C. It is a huge mound, 1180 ft. in diameter 
and 200 ft. high. In south-eastern Europe, and especially 
in southern Russia, the sepulchral tumuli are very numerous 
and often of great size, reaching occasionally to 400 ft. in cir- 
cumference and over 100 ft. in height. These are mostly of the 
period of the Greek colonies of the Tauric Chersonese, dating 
from about the sth century B.C. to about the 2nd century A.D., 
and their contents bear striking testimony to the wealth and 
culture of the people who reared them. 

AUTHORITIES. Dunca.nMcPherson,M.D.,AntiquitiesofKerlchand 
Researches in the Cimmerian Bosphorus (London, 1857) ; CyrusThomas, 
" Burial Mounds of the Northern Sections of the United States," 
Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Smithsonian 
Institution (Washington, 1887); Kondakoff, Tolstoi and Reinach, 
Antiquitis de la Russie meridionale (Paris, 1891). (J. AN.) 

TUN, a town in the province of Khorasan, Persia, situated 
about 150 m. S. of Nishapur in 34 N., 58 7' E., at an elevation 
of 1 200 ft. The town, which has a population of 70x30, is sur- 
rounded by a wall, 20 ft. in height, raised on a high rampart 
of mud. It has three gates, handsome bazaars, good caravan- 
serais and numerous large gardens and fields producing opium, 
tobacco and cotton. Some silk is also grown. 

TUNBRIDGE WELLS, a municipal borough and inland 
watering-place of England, chiefly in the Tonbridge parliamen- 
tary division of Kent, but extending into the eastern division 
of Sussex, 345 m. S.E. by S. of London by the South Eastern 
& Chatham railway, served also by a branch of the London 
Brighton & South Coast line. Pop. (1891), 29,296; (1901), 
33)373- It owes its popularity to its chalybeate spring and its 
beautiful situation in a hilly wooded district. The wells are 
situated by the Parade (or Pantiles), a walk associated with 
fashion since the time of their discovery. It was paved with 
pantiles in the reign of Queen Anne. Reading and assembly 
rooms adjoin the pump-room. The town is built in a 
picturesquely irregular manner, and a large part of it consists 
of districts called " parks " occupied by villas and mansions. 
On Rusthall Common about a mile from the town is the 
curiously shaped mass of sandstone known as the Toad Rock, and 
a mile and a half south-west is the striking group called the High 
Rocks. The Tunbridge Wells sanatorium is situated in grounds 
sixty acres in extent. Five miles south-east of Tunbridge Wells 
is Bayham Abbey, founded in 1200, where ruins of a church, a 
gateway, and dependent buildings adjoin the modern Tudor 
mansion. Three miles south, in Sussex, the village of Frant stands 
on a hill which is perhaps the finest of the many view-points in 
this district, commanding a wide prospect over some of the 
richest woodland scenery in England. The vicinity of Tun- 
bridge Wells is largely residential. To the north lies the urban 
district of SOUTHBOROUGH (pop. 6977). There is a large trade in 
Tunbridge ware, which includes work-tables, boxes, toys, &c., 
made of hard woods, such as beech, sycamore, holly, and cherry, 
and inlaid with mosaic. Tunbridge Wells was incorporated 
in 1889, and is governed by a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 coun- 
cillors. Area, 3991 acres. 

The town owes its rise to the discovery of the medicinal springs 
by Dudley, Lord North, in 1606. Henrietta Maria, wife of 
Charles I., retired to drink the waters at Tunbridge Wells after 
the birth of her eldest son Charles. Soon after the Restoration 
it was visited by Charles II. and Catherine of Braganza. It 
was a favourite residence of the princess Anne previous to her 
accession to the throne, and from that time became one of the 
chief resorts of London fashionable society. In this respect 
it reached its height in the second half of the i8th century, 
and is specially associated with Colley Gibber, Samuel Johnson, 
Cumberland the dramatist, David Garrick, Samuel Richardson, 
Sir Joshua Reynolds, Beau Nash, Miss Chudleigh and Mrs 
Thrale. The Tunbridge Wells of that period is sketched with 
much graphic humour in Thackeray's Virginians. 

TUNDRA (a Russian word, signifying a marshy plain), in 
physical geography, the name applied to the treeless and often 
marshy plains which border the arctic coasts of Europe, Asia 



TUNGABHADRA TUNGSTEN 



377 



and North America. The Russian tundra, apart from the 
arctic conditions of climate and flora, may be compared with the 
steppes farther south. 

TUNGABHADRA, a river of southern India, the chief tributary 
of the Kistna. It is formed by the junction of two streams, 
the Tunga and the Bhadra, which both rise in Mysore in the 
Western Ghats. The united river for nearly all its course 
forms the boundary between Madras and the dominions of the 
nizam of Hyderabad. On its right bank stood the capital of 
the ancient Hindu dynasty of Vijayanagar, now a wilderness of 
ruins. From of old its waters have been utilized for irrigation. 
Near its confluence with the Kistna it supplies the Kurnool- 
Cuddapah Canal. A project has been recently under con- 
sideration to dam the river higher up, and there construct an 
artificial lake that would have an area of 160 sq. m., the cost 
of this scheme being roughly estimated at nearly 6,000,000. 

T'UNG-CHOW, a sub-prefectural city in Chih-li, the metro- 
politan province of China, on the banks of the Peiho in 39 54' N. 
116 41' E., 12 m. E. of Peking. Its population is estimated 
at about 50,000. 

T'ung-Chow marks the highest point at which the Peiho is navi- 
gable, and here merchandise for Peking is transferred to a canal. 
The city, which is faced on its eastern side by the river, and on 
its other three sides is surrounded by populous suburbs, is 
upwards of 3 m. in circumference. The walls are about 45 ft. 
in height and about 24 ft. wide at the top. They are being 
allowed to fall into decay. Two main thoroughfares connect the 
north and south gates and the east and west gates. The place 
derives its importance from the fact that it is the port of Peking. 
Like most Chinese cities, T'ung-Chow has appeared in history 
under various names. By the founder of the Han dynasty 
(206 B.C.) it was called Lu-Hien; with the rise of the T'ang 
dynasty (618 A.D.) its name was changed to Huan-Chow; and at 
the beginning of the i2th century, with the advent of the Kin 
dynasty to power, Huan-Chow became T'ung-Chow. It was at 
T'ung-Chow that Sir Harry Parkes, Sir Henry Loch and their 
escort were treacherously taken prisoners by the Chinese when 
they were sent forward by Lord Elgin to negotiate terms of 
peaee after the troubles of 1860. During the Boxer outbreak 
in 1900 T'ung-Chow was occupied by the allied armies, and a 
light railway connecting the city with Peking was constructed 
by German military engineers. 

TUNGSTEN [symbol W, atomic weight 184-0 (O=i6)], a 
metallic chemical element found in the minerals wolfram, an iron 
and manganese tungstate, scheelite, a calcium tungstate, stol- 
zite, a lead tungstate, and in some rarer minerals. Its presence 
in scheelite was detected by Scheele and Bergman in 1781, and 
in 1783 Juan, Jose and d'Elhuyar showed the same substance 
occurred in wolfram; they also obtained the metal. Tungsten 
may be prepared from wolfram by heating the powdered ore 
with sodium carbonate, extracting the sodium carbonate with 
water, filtering and adding an acid to precipitate tungstic acid, 
H 2 WO4. This is washed and dried and the oxide so obtained 
reduced to the metal by heating with carbon to a high tempera- 
ture (Hadfield, Journ. Iron and Steel Inst., 1903, ii. 38). On a 
small scale it is obtained by reducing the trioxide in a current 
of hydrogen, or the chloride by sodium vapour, or the oxide with 
carbon in the electric furnace; in the last case the product is 
porous and can be welded like iron. In the form of a powder, 
it is obtained by reducing the oxide with zinc and extracting 
with soda, or by dissolving out the manganese from its alloys 
with tungsten. The metal may be used uncombined, but large 
quantities of ferrotungsten are made in the electric furnace; other 
alloys are prepared by acting on a mixture of the oxides with 
aluminium. Tungsten has been applied in the manufacture of 
filament electric lamps. The metal has a crystalline structure, 
and melts at about 2800. The powdered metal burns at a red 
heat to form the trioxide; it is very slowly attacked by moist 
air. It combines with fluorine with incandescence at ordinary 
temperatures, and with chlorine at 250-300; carbon, silicon, 
and boron, when heated with it in the electric furnace, give 
crystals harder than the ruby. It is soluble in a mixture of nitric 



and hydrofluoric acids, and the powdered metal, in aqua regia, 
but slowly attacked by sulphuric, hydrochloric and hydrofluoric 
acids separately; it is also soluble in boiling potash solution, 
giving a tuastate and hydrogen. 

Tungsten dioxide, WO 2 , formed on reducing the trioxide by hydro- 
gen at a red heat or a mixture of the trioxide and hydrochloric 
acid with zinc, or by decomposing the tetrachloride with water, 
is a brown strongly pyrophoric powder, which must be cooled in 
hydrogen before being brought into contact with air. It is slightly 
soluble in hydrochloric and sulphuric acids, giving purple solutions. 
It dissolves in potash, giving potassium tungstate and hydrogen, 
and is readily oxidized to the trioxide. 

Tungsten trioxide, WO 3 , occurs in nature as wolframine, a yellow 
mineral found in Cumberland, Limoges, Connecticut and in North 
Carolina. It is prepared as shown above, or by other methods. 
It is a canary-yellow powder, which becomes a dark orange on 
heating; the original colour is regained on cooling. On exposure to 
light it assumes a greenish tinge. A crystalline form was obtained 
by Debray as olive-green prisms by igniting a mixture of sodium 
tungstate and carbonate in a current of hydrochloric acid gas, 
and by Nordenskjold by heating hydrated tungstic acid with borax. 
Partial reduction of tungsten trioxide gives blue or purple-red 
products which are intermediate in composition between the dioxide 
and trioxide. Tungsten trioxide forms two acids, tungstic acid, 
H 2 WO 4 , and metatungstic acid, H 2 W 4 Oi 3 ; it also gives origin to 
several series of salts, to which the acids corresponding are 
unknown. Thus we have salts of the following types MjO(WO s ), 
where n = i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and also (M 2 O) m (WO,) n , where 
M, n = 2, 5; 3, 7; 4, 3; 5, 12; M standing for a monovalent metal. 
The (M 2 O)5(WO 3 )i 2 or MioW^Ou salts are called paratungstates. 
Tungstic acid, H 2 WO 4 , is obtained as H 2 WO 4 -H 2 O by precipitating 
a tungstate with cold acid; this substance has a bitter taste and 
its aqueous solution reddens litmus. By using hot acid the yellow 
anhydrous tungstic acid is precipitated, which is insoluble in water 
and in all acids except hydrofluoric. It may be obtained in a 
flocculent form by exposing the hexachloride to moist air. Meta- 
tungstic acid, _ H 2 W 4 Oi 3 -7H 2 O, is obtained by decomposing the 
barium salt with sulphuric acid or the lead salt with hydrochloric 
acid. It forms yellow octahedra, which become anhydrous at 
100, and are converted into the trioxide on ignition. It is readily 
soluble in water, and on boiling the aqueous solution a white hydrate 
is first deposited which after a time is converted into the trioxide. 
Graham obtained a colloidal tungstic acid by dialysing a dilute 
solution of sodium tungstate and its equivalent of hydrochloric 
acid; on concentrating in a vacuum a gummy product is obtained, 
which still remains soluble after heating to 200 , but it is converted 
into the trioxide on heating to redness. When moistened it becomes 
adhesive. The solution has a bitter taste and does not gelatinize, 
even under the influence of boiling acids. 

Of the salts, the normal tungstates are insoluble in water with 
the exception of the alkaline tungstates; they are usually amorphous, 
but some can be obtained in the crystalline form. The meta- 
tungstates of the alkalis are obtained by boiling normal tungstates 
with tungstic acid until the addition of hydrochloric acid to the 
filtrate gives no precipitate. The most important tungstate is 
the so-called tungstate of soda, which is sodium paratungstate, 
NaioWi 2 O-28H 2 O. This salt is obtained by roasting wolfram with 
sodium carbonate, lixiviating, neutralizing the boiling filtrate with 
hydrochloric acid and crystallizing at ordinary temperatures. 
The salt forms large monoclinic prisms; molecules containing 25 
and 21 H 2 O separate from solutions crystallized at higher tempera- 
tures. The salt is used as a mordant in dyeing and calico printing, 
and also for making textiles non-inflammable. Several other 
sodium tungstates are known, as well as potassium and ammonium 
tungstates. Many salts also occur in the mineral kingdom: 
for example, scheelite is CaWO4, stolzite is PbWO4, farberite is 
FeWO 4 , wolfram is (Fe,Mn)WO 4 , whilst htibnerite is MnWO 4 . 

By partial reduction of the tungstates under certain conditions 
products are obtained which are insoluble in acids and alkalis and 
present a bronze-like appearance which earned for them the name 
of tungsten bronzes. The sodium compound was first obtained 
by Wpihler on reducing sodium tungstate with hydrogen; coal-gas, 
zinc, iron or tin also effect the reduction. It forms golden cubes 
which are unattacked by alkalis or by any acid except hydrofluoric. 
It appears to be a mixture of which the components vary with the 
materials and methods used in its production (Philipp, Ber., 1882, 
15, p. 499). A blue bronze, Na^iWsOis, forming dark blue cubes 
with a red reflex, is obtained by electrolysing fused sodium para- 
tungstate; a purple-red variety, Na 2 W 3 O9, and a reddish yellow 
form result when sodium carbonate and sodium tungstate are 
heated respectively with tungsten trioxide and tinfoil. Similar 
potassium tungsten bronzes are known. 

Tungstic acid closely resembles molybdic acid in combining with 
phosphoric, arsenious, arsenic, boric, vanadic and silicic acids to 
form highly complex acids of which a great many salts exist. 
Of the phpsphotungstic acids the most important is phosphoduo- 
decitungstic acid, H 3 PWi2O 4 o-nH 2 O, obtained in quadratic pyra- 
mids by crystallizing mixed solutions of orthophosphoric and 



378 



TUNGUSES 



metatungstic acids. Two sodium salts, viz. NajHPWijOwnHiO and 
NaaPWi 2 O-rtHjO, are obtained by heating sodium hydrogen 
phosphate with a tungstate. The most important silicotungstic 
acids are silicodecitungstic acid HsWioSiOae-sh^O, tungstosilicic 
acid, HsWuSiO42-2oH 2 O, and silicoduodecitungstic or silicotungstic 
acid, HWijSiO-29H 2 O. On boiling gelatinous silica with ammo- 
nium polytungstate and evaporating with the occasional addition 
of ammonia, ammonium silicodecitungstate is obtained as short 
rhombic prisms. On adding silver nitrate and decomposing the 
precipitated silver salt with hydrochloric acid, a solution is obtained 
which on evaporation in a vacuum gives the free acid as a glassy 
mass. If this be dissolved in water and the solution concentrated, 
some silicic acid separates and the filtrate deposits triclinic prisms 
of tungstosilicic acid. Silicotungstic acid is obtained as quadratic 
pyramids from its mercurous salt which is prepared from mercurous 
nitrate and the salt formed on boiling gelatinous silicic acid with 
a polytungstate of an alkali metal. 

Pertungstic Acid, HWO 4 . The sodium salt, NaWO 4 -H 2 O, is 
obtained by evaporating in a vacuum the product of boiling a 
solution of sodium paratungstate with hydrogen peroxide. Its 
solution liberates chlorine from hydrochloric acid and iodine from 
potassium iodide. 

Halogen Compounds. Although the trioxide is soluble in hydro- 
fluoric acid, evaporation of the solution leads to the recovery 
of the oxide unchanged. A double salt of the oxyfluoride, viz. 
2KF-WO 2 F 2 -H 2 O, is obtained as crystalline scales by dissolving nor- 
mal potassium tungstate in hydrofluoric acid and adding potassium 
hydroxide till a permanent precipitate is just formed. Other 
oxyfluorides are known. The hexafluoride, WF, is a very active 
gaseous compound, which attacks glass and metals, obtained from 
tungsten hexachloride and hydrofluoric acid (Ruff and Eisner, 
Ber., 1905, 38, p. 742). Oxyfluorides of the formulae WOF 4 and 
WO 2 F 2 are also known. Tungsten forms four chlorides, viz. 
WC1 2 , WC1,, WC1 S , WC1 8 . The dichloride, WC1 2> is an amorphous 
grey powder obtained by reducing the hexachloride at a high 
temperature in hydrogen, or, better, by heating the tetrachloride 
in a current of carbon dioxide. It changes on exposure to air 
and dissolves slightly in water to give a brown solution, the insoluble 
portion gradually being converted into an oxide with evolution of 
hydrogen. The tetrachloride, WCU, is obtained by partial reduction 
of the higher chlorides with hydrogen; a mixture of the penta- 
and hexa-chloride is distilled in a stream of hydrogen or carbon 
dioxide, and the pentachloride which volatilizes returned to the 
flask several times. This gives the tetrachloride as a greyish- 
brown crystalline powder. It is very hygroscopic and with cold 
water gives the oxide and hydrochloric acid. On heating it gives 
the di-and penta-chlorides. At a high temperature hydrogen 
reduces it to the metal partly in the form of a black pyrophoric 
powder. The pentachloride, WCU, is obtained as a product in 
the preparation of the tetrachloride. It forms black lustrous 
crystals, or when quickly condensed, a dark green crystalline 
powder. It melts at 248 and boils at 275-6; the vapour density 
corresponds to the above formula. It is more hygroscopic than 
the tetrachloride; and when treated with much water the bulk 
is at once decomposed into the blue oxide and hydrochloric acid, 
but an olive-green solution is also produced. The hexachloride, 
WC1, is obtained by heating the metal in a current of dry chlorine 
in the absence of oxygen or moisture, otherwise some oxychloride 
is formed ; a sublimate of dark violet crystals appear at first, but 
as the hexachloride increases in quantity it collects as a very dark 
red liquid. When perfectly pure, the hexachloride is stable even 
in moist air, but the presence of an oxychloride brings about 
energetic decomposition; similarly water has no action on the 
pure compound, but a trace of the oxychloride occasions sudden 
decomposition into a greenish oxide and hydrochloric acid. It melts 
at 275 ,and boils at 346-7 (759-5 mm.). Vapour density deter- 
minations indicate that dissociation occurs when the vapour is 
heated above the boiling point. 

Several oxychlorides are known. The monoxychloride, WOC1, 
is obtained as red acicular crystals by heating the oxide or dioxy- 
chloride in a current of the vapour of the hexachloride, or from the 
trioxide and phosphorus pentachloride. It melts at 210-4 an d 
boils at 227-5 forming a red vapour. Moist air brings about the 
immediate formation of a yellowish crust of tungstic acid. The 
dioxychloride, WO 2 C1 2 , is obtained as a light lemon-yellow sublimate 
on passing chlorine over the brown oxide. It is unaffected by moist 
air or cold water, and even when boiled with water the decom- 
position is incomplete. Tungsten combines directly with bromine 
to give, when the bromine is in excess, the penta- and not a hexa- 
bromide. This substance forms crystals resembling iodine, which 
melt at 276 and boil at 333. It slowly evolves bromine on stand- 
ing, and is at once decomposed by water into the blue oxide and 
hydrobromic acid. The dibromide, WBr 2 , is a non-volatile bluish- 
black powder obtained by reducing the pentabromide with hydrogen. 
By passing bromine vapour over red-hot tungsten dioxide a mixture 
of WO 2 Br 2 and WOBr, is obtained, from which the latter can be 
removed by gently heating when it volatilizes. The dioxybromide 
forms light red crystals or a yellow powder ; it volatilizes at a red 
heat, and is not acted upon by water. The monoxybromide 



forms brownish-black needles, which melt at 277 and boil at 
327-5; it is decomposed by water. The di-iodide is obtained as 
green metallic scales on passing iodine over red-hot tungsten. 

Tungsten disulphide, WSj, is obtained as soft black acicular 
crystals by the action of sulphur, sulphuretted hydrogen or carbon 
bisulphide on tungsten. The trisulphide, WSs, is obtained by 
dissolving the trioxide in ammonium sulphide or by passing 
sulphuretted hydrogen into a solution of a tungstate and precipitat- 
ing by an acid in both cases. When dry it is a black mass which 
yields a liver-coloured powder. It is sparingly soluble in cold water, 
but is easily dissolved: by potassium carbonate or ammonia. By 
dissolving it in a hydrosulphide a sulphotungstate is produced; 
these salts can also be obtained by passing sulphuretted hydrogen 
into a solution of a tungstate. 

A nitride, WzNa, is obtained as a black powder by acting with 
ammonia on the oxy tetrachloride or hexachloride; it is insoluble 
in sodium hydroxide, nitric and dilute sulphuric acids; strong 
sulphuric acid , however, gives ammonia and tungstic acids. Ammonia 
does not react with tungsten or the dioxide, but with trioxide 
at a red heat a substance of the formula WsHeNjOj is obtained, 
which is insoluble in acids and alkalis and on ignition decomposes, 
evolving nitrogen, hydrogen and ammonia. Phosphorus combines 
directly with the metal to form WjP<; another phosphide, W 2 P, 
results on igniting a mixture of phosphorus pentoxide and tungsten 
trioxide. 

The atomic weight has been determined by many investigators; 
the chief methods employed being the analysis and synthesis of 
the trioxide and the analysis of the hexachloride. The former was 
employed by Pennington and Smith and Desi (Zeit. anorg. Ghent., 
1895, 8, pp. 198, 205) who obtained the value 183-42. 

TUNGUSES, a widespread Asiatic people, forming a main 
branch of the Mongol division of the Mongol-Tatar family. 
They are the Tung-hu of the Chinese, probably a corrupt form 
of tonki or donki, that is, " men " or " people." The Russian 
form Tungus, wrongly supposed to mean " lake people," appears 
to occur first in the Dutch writer Massa (1612); but the race 
has been known to the Russians ever since they reached the 
Yenisei. The Tungus domain, covering many hundred thou- 
sand square miles in central and east Siberia and in the Amur 
basin, stretches from the Yenisei eastwards to the Pacific, where 
it occupies most of the seaboard between Korea and Kamchatka. 
It also reaches the Arctic Ocean at two points, in the Nisovaya 
tundra, west of the Khatanga River, and in a comparatively 
small enclosure in the Yana basin over against the Lyakhov 
(New Siberia) Archipelago. But the Tunguses proper are 
chiefly centred in the region watered by the three large eastern 
tributaries of the Yenisei, which from them take their names of 
the Upper, Middle or Stony, and Lower Tunguska. Here the 
Tunguses are known to the Samoyedes by the name of Aiya 
or " younger brothers," implying a comparatively recent immi- 
gration (confirmed by other indications) from the Amur basin, 
which appears to be the original home both of the Tunguses 
and of the closely allied Manchus. The Amur is still mainly 
a Tungus river almost from its source to its mouth : the Oroches 
(Orochus), Daurians, Birars, Golds, Manegrs, Sanagirs, Ngat- 
kons, Nigidals, and some other aboriginal tribes scattered along 
the main stream and its affluents the Shilka, Sungari and 
Usuri are all of Tungus stock and speech. On the Pacific 
the chief subdivisions of the race are the Lamuts, or " sea 
people," grouped in small isolated hunting communities round 
the west coast of the Sea of Okhotsk, and farther south the 
Tazi between the Amur delta and Korea. The whole race, 
exclusive of Manchus, numbers probably little more than 50,000, 
of whom some 10,000 are in the Amur basin, the rest in Siberia. 

The Tungus type is essentially Mongolic, being characterized by 
broad flat features, small nose, wide mouth, thin lips, small black 
and somewhat oblique eyes, black lank hair, dark olive or bronze 
complexion, low stature, averaging not more than 5 ft. 4 in.; 
they are distinguished from other Mongolic peoples by the square 
shape of the skull and the slim, wiry, well-proportioned figure. 
This description applies more especially to the Tunguska tribes, 
who may be regarded as typical Tunguses, and who, unlike most 
other Mongols, betray no tendency to obesity. They are classed 
by the Russians, according to their various pursuits, as Reindeer, 
Horse, Cattle, Dog, Steppe and Forest Tunguses. A few have 
become settled agriculturists; but the great bulk of the race are 
still essentially forest hunters, using the reindeer both as mounts 
and as pack animals. Nearly all lead nomad lives in pursuit of 
fur-bearing animals, whose skins they supply to Russian and Yakut 
traders in exchange for provisions, clothing and other necessaries 



TUNIC TUNICATA 



379 



of life. The picturesque and even elegant national costume shows 
in its ornamentation and general style decided Japanese influence, 
due no doubt to long-continued intercourse with that nation at 
some period previous to the spread of the race from the Amur 
valley to Siberia. Many of the Tungus tribes have been baptized, 
and are, therefore, reckoned as " Greek Christians "; but Russian 
orthodoxy has not penetrated far below the surface, and most of 
them are still at heart Shamanists and nature-worshippers, secretly 
keeping the teeth and claws of wild animals as idols or amulets, 
and observing Christian rites only under compulsion. But, whether 
Christians or pagans, all alike are distinguished above other Asiatics, 
perhaps above all other peoples, for their truly noble moral qualities. 
All observers describe them as "cheerful under the most depressing 
circumstances, persevering, open-hearted, trustworthy, modest yet 
self-reliant, a fearless race of hunters, born amidst the gloom of 
their dense pine forests, exposed from the cradle to every danger 
from wild beasts, cold and hunger. Want and hardships of every 
kind they endure with surprising fortitude, and nothing can 
induce them to take service under the Russians or quit their solitary 
woodlands " (Keane's Asia, p. 479). Their numbers are steadily 
decreasing owing to the ravages of small-pox, scarlet fever, and 
especially famine, their most dreaded enemy. Their domain is also 
being continually encroached upon by the aggressive Yakuts from 
the north and east, and from the south by the Slavs, now settled 
in compact bodies in the province of Irkutsk about the upper course 
of the Yenisei. It is remarkable that, while the Russians often show 
a tendency to become assimilated to the Yakuts, the most vigorous 
and expansive of all the Siberian peoples, the Tunguses everywhere 
yield before the advance of their more civilized neighbours or 
become absorbed in the surrounding Slav communities. In the 
Amur valley the same fate is overtaking the kindred tribes, who 
are disappearing before the great waves of Chinese migration from 
the south and Russian encroachments both from the east and 
west. 

See L. Adam, Grammaire de la langue toungouse (Paris, 1874); 
C. Hickisch, Die Tungusen (St Petersburg, 1879); L. Schrenck, 
Reisen und Forschungen im Amurlande (St Petersburg, 1881-1891); 
Mainov, Niekolorya dannyia (Irkutsk, 1898). 

TUNIC (0. Eng. lunice, tunical, taken, before the Norman con- 
quest, directly from Lat. tunica, of which the origin is unknown), 
properly the name given in Latin to the principal undergarment 
of men and women, answering to the chiton (x""o)^) of the 
Greeks, and covered by the outer garment, the palla (Gr. I(MTU>V) , 
in the case of women, and by the peculiar Roman garment, the 
toga, in the case of men. The male tunica differed from the 
Xntav in usually having short sleeves (see further COSTUME: 
Ancient Greek and Roman). The term, more often in the form 
" tunicle " (Lat. dim. tunicula), is applied, in ecclesiastical 
usage, to a vestment worn over the alb by the sub-deacon in 
the celebration of the Mass. In general current usage it is used 
of any loose short garment, girt at the waist and reaching 
from the neck to some distance above the knee. It is thus 
the name of the fatigue coat of a soldier of the British army. 
There are numerous uses of " tunic " or " tunica " in anatomy, 
zoology and botany in the sense of a covering or integument. 

TUNICATA. This group of marine animals was formerly 
regarded as constituting, along with the Polyzoa and the 
Brachiopoda, the invertebrate class Molluscoidea. It is now 
known to be a degenerate branch of the Chordata, and to be 
more nearly related to the Vertebrata than to any group of the 
Invertebrata. The Tunicata are found in all seas, from the 
littoral zone down to abyssal depths. They occur either fixed 
or free, solitary, aggregated or in colonies. The fixed forms are 
the " simple " and " compound " Ascidians. The colonies are 
produced by budding and the members are conveniently known 
as Ascidiozooids. Some Tunicata undergo alternation of genera- 
tions, and most of them show a retrograde metamorphosis in 
their life-history. 

HISTORY ' 

More than two thousand years ago Aristotle gave a short account 
of a simple Ascidian under the name of Tethyum. Schlosser and 
Ellis, in a paper on Botryllus, published in the Philosophical Tran- 
sactions of the Royal Society for 1756, first brought the compound 
Ascidians into notice; but it was not until the commencement of 
the igth century, as a result of the careful anatomical investigations 
of G. Cuvier (l) upon the simple Ascidians and of J. C. Savigny (2) 
upon the compound, that the close relationship between these two 



1 Only the more important works can be mentioned here. For a 
more detailed account of the history of the group and a full biblio- 
graphy see (17) and (35) in the list of works at the end of this article. 



groups of the Tunicata was conclusively demonstrated. Lamarck 
(3) in 1816 instituted the class Tunicata, which he placed between 
the Radiara and the Verities in his system of classification. The 
Tunicata included at that time, besides the simple and the compound 
Ascidians, the pelagic forms Pyrosoma, which had been first made 
known by F. Peronjn 1804, and Salpa, described by P. Forskal in 1775. 

A. v. Chamisso, in 1819, made the important discovery that Salpa 
in its life-history passes through the series of changes which were 
afterwards more fully described by J. J. S. Steenstrup in 1842 as 
" alternation of generations "; and a few years later Kuhl and Van 
Hasselt's investigations upon the same animal resulted in the 
discovery of the alternation in the directions in which the wave of 
contraction passes along the heart and in which the blood circulates 
through the body. It has since been found that this observation 
holds good for all groups of the Tunicata. In 1826 H. Milne- 
Edwards and Audouin made a series of observations on living 
compound Ascidians, and amongst other discoveries they found 
the free-swimming tailed larva, and traced its development into the 
young Ascidian. 

In 1845 Carl Schmidt (6) first announced the presence in the test 
of some Ascidians of " tunicine," a substance very similar to cellu- 
lose, and in the following year Lowig and A. v. Kolliker (7) confirmed 
the discovery and made some additional observations upon this 
substance and upon the structure of the test in general. T. H. 
Huxley (8), in an important series of papers published in the 
Transactions of the Royal and Linnean Societies of London from 1851 
onwards, discussed the structure, embryology and affinities of the 
pelagic_ Tunicates Pyrosoma, Salpa, Doliolum and Appendicularia. 
These important forms were also investigated about the same time 
by C. Gegenbaur, C. Vogt, H. Muller, A. Krohn and F. S. Leuckart. 
The most important epoch in the history of the Tunicata is the date 
of the publication of A. Kowalevsky's celebrated memoir upon the 
development of a simple Ascidian (9). The tailed larva had been 
previously investigated; but its minute structure had not been 
sufficiently examined, and the meaning of what was known of it had 
not been understood. It was reserved for Kowalevsky in 1866 to 
demonstrate the striking similarity in structure and in development 
between the larval Ascidian and the vertebrate embryo. He showed 
that the relations between the nervous system, the notochord and 
the alimentary canal are the same in the two forms, and have been 
brought about by a very similar course of embryonic development. 
This discovery clearly indicated that the Tunicata are closely allied 
to Amphioxus and the Vertebrata, and that the tailed larva repre- 
sents the primitive or ancestral form from which the adult Ascidian 
has been evolved by degeneration, and this led naturally to the view 
usually accepted at the present day, that the group is a degenerate 
side-branch from the lower end of the phylum Chordata, which 
includes the Tunicata (Urochorda), Balanoglossus, &c. (Hemichorda), 
Amphioxus (Cephalochorda) and the Vertebrata. Kowalevsky's 
great discovery has since been confirmed and extended to all other 
groups of the Tunicata by C. v. Kupffer (12), A. Giard (13 and 15), 
and others. 

In 1872 H. Fol (14) added largely to the knowledge of the Appen- 
diculariidae, and Giard (15) to that of the compound Ascidians. The 
most important additions which have been made to the latter since 
have been those described by Von Drasche (16) from the Adriatic 
and those discovered by the " Challenger " and other expeditions 
(17). The structure and the systematic arrangement of the simple 
Ascidians have been mainly discussed of recent years by J. Alder and 
A. Hancock (18), C. Heller (19), H. de Lacaze-Duthiers (20), M. 
Traustedt (21), L. Roule, R. Hartmeyer, C. P. Sluiter, W. Michaelsen 
and W. A. Herdman (17, 22). In 1874 Ussoff (23) investigated the 
minute structure of the nervous system and of the underlying gland 
(first discovered by Hancock), and showed that the duct communi- 
cates with the front of the branchial sac or pharynx by an aperture 
in the dorsal (or " olfactory ") tubercle. In 1880 C. Julin (24) 
drew attention to the similarity in structure and relations between 
this gland and the hypophysis cerebri of the vertebrate brain, and 
insisted upon their homology. M. M. Metcalf has since added to 
our knowledge of these structures. The Thaliacea have of late 
years been the subject of several very important memoirs. The 
researches of F. Todaro, W. K. Brooks (25), W. Salensky (26), 
O. Seeliger, Korotneff and others have elucidated the embryology, 
the gemmation and the life-history of the Salpidae; and K. Grobben, 
Barrois (27), and more especially Uljanin (28), have elaborately 
worked out the structure and the details of the complicated life- 
history of the Doliolidae. Finally, we owe to the successive 
memoirs of J. Hjort, O. Seeliger, W. E. Ritter, E. van Beneden, 
C. Julin, C. P. Sluiter, R. Hartmeyer and others the description 
of many new forms and much information as to the development 
and life-history of the group. 

The new forms described from Puget Sound and Alaska have 
drawn renewed attention to the similarity of the tauna in that region 
of the North Pacific and the fauna of north-west Europe. There 
is probably a common circumpolar Tunicate fauna which sends 
extensions downwards in both Atlantic and Pacific. As the result 
of the careful quantitative work of the German Plankton expedi- 
tion, A. Borgert thinks that the temperature of the water has more 
to do with both the horizontal and the vertical distribution of pelagic 



3 8o 



TUNICATA 



Tunicata in the sea than any other factor. It is probable that the 
occasional phenomenal swarms of Doliolum which have been met 
with in summer in the North Atlantic are a result of the curious 
life-history which, in favourable circumstances, allows a small 
number of budding forms to produce from the numerous minute 
buds an enormous number of the next generation. The great 
increase in the number of species known from nearly all seas 
during the last twelve or fifteen years of the iQth century enables 
us now to form a truer estimate of the geographical distribution of 
the group than was possible when the " Challenger " collections 
were described, and shows that the Tunicata at least give no support 
to the " bi-polar theory " of the distribution of animals. 

ANATOMY 

As a type of the Tunicata, Ascidia mentula, one of the larger 
species of the simple Ascidians, may be taken. This species is 

E t raal f un d il most of the 
i-har<-t..r* European seas, in shal- 
Cl " ncle "' low water. It has an 
irregularly ovate form, of a dull 
grey colour, and is attached to 
some foreign object by one end 
(fig. i). The opposite end of the 
body has a terminal opening sur- 
rounded by eight rounded lobes. 
This is the mouth or branchial 
aperture, and it indicates the 
anterior end of the animal. About 
half-way back from the anterior 
end is the atrial or cloacal aperture, 
surrounded by six lobes and placed 
upon the dorsal edge. \Vhen the 
Ascidian is living and undisturbed, 
water is being constantly drawn 
in through the branchial aperture 
and passed out through the atrial. 
If coloured particles be placed in 
the water near the apertures, they 
are seen to be sucked into the body 
through the branchial aperture, 
and after a short time some of 
"'/ them are ejected with considerable 
force through the atrial aperture. 
The current of water passing in 
is for respiratory purposes, and it 
also conveys food into the animal. 
The atrial current is mainly the 
water which has been used in respi- 
ration, but it also contains all 
excretions from the body, and at 
times the ova and spermatozoa or 
the embryos. 

The outer grey part of the body, 

F IG . i. Ascidia mentula, from which is attache . d a * r "far its 

the right side ^^ &&<& two. 

at Atrial aperture; br, bran- tures> j s the "test." This is a 

chial aperture; /, test. fj rm gelatinous cuticular secretion 

upon the outer surface of the 

ectoderm, which is a layer of flat cells. Although at first produced 
as a cuticle, the test soon becomes organized by the migration into 
it of cells derived from the mesoderm. A. Kowalevsky has shown 
that cells of the mesenchyme of the larva make their way through 





(From Herdman, " C/tallenger " Report.) 

FIG. 2. Diagrammatic section of part of Mantle and Test of an 

Ascidian, showing the formation of a vessel and the structure of 
the test. 

m, Mantle. blc, Bladder cell. me, Mantle cells. 

e, Ectoderm. s, s', Blood sinus in mantle y, Septum of ves- 

tc, Test cell. being drawn out sel. 

tm, Matrix. into test. 



the ectoderm to the exterior during the metamorphosis, and 
become the first cells of the young test. Some of the cells in the 
adult test may, however, be ectodermal in origin (see fig. 2). 
These test cells may remain as rounded or fusiform or stellate cells 
embedded in the gelatinous matrix, to which they are constantly 
adding by secretions on their surfaces; or they may develop 
vacuoles which become larger and fuse so that each cell has an 
ovate clear cavity (a bladder cell), surrounded by a delicate film 
of protoplasm with the nucleus still visible at one point; or they 
may form pigment granules in the protoplasm ; or, lastly, they may 
deposit carbonate of lime, so that one or several of them together 
produce a calcareous spicule in the test. Only the unmodified 
test cells and the bladder cells are found in Ascidia mentula (fig. 3). 




(From The Cambridge Natural History, vol. vii., " Fishes, &c." By permission of 
Macmillan & Co., Ltd.) 

FIG. 3. Section through the surface layer of Test of Ascidia 

mentula (X 50). 

bl, Bladder cells; tc, test cell; tk, terminal knobs of vessels; 
v, vessels of test. 

Calcareous spicules are found chiefly in the Didemnidae amongst 
compound Ascidians; but pigmented cells may occur in the test of 
almost all groups of Tunicata. The matrix in which these structures 
are embedded is usually clear and apparently homogeneous ; but in 
some cases it becomes finely fibrillated, especially in the family 
Cynthiidae. It is this matrix which contains tunicine. At one 
point on the left side near the posterior end a tube enters the test, 
and then splits up into a number of branches, which extend in all 
directions and finally terminate 
in rounded enlargements or bulbs, 
situated chiefly in the outer layer 
of the test. These tubes are known 
as the " vessels " of the test, and 
they contain blood. Each vessel 
is bounded by a layer of ectoderm 
cells lined by connective tissue 
(fig. 4, B), and is divided into two 
tubes by a septum of connective 
tissue. The septum does not 

extend into the terminal bulb, .-~>=a>-^. 

and consequently the two tubes y 

communicate at their ends (fig. PI G 4 

4, A). The vessels are formed by A A , f n 

an outgrowth of a blood sinus B Diagrammatic transverse sec- 

(derived originally from the bias- J> f , 

tocoele of the embryo) from the Ectoderm 

body wall (mantle) into the test / Connective tissue. 

the wall of the sinus being formed s , The t t b 

by connective tissue and pushing ' s eDtum 

out a covering of ectoderm in ft Terminal hnlh 

front of it (fig. 2, s'). The test is ' *' ' lmal bulb> 

turned inwards at the branchial and atrial apertures to line two 

funnel-like tubes the branchial siphon leading to the branchial 

sac, and the atrial siphon leading to the atrial or peribranchial 

cavity. 

The body wall, inside the test and the ectoderm, is formed of a 
layer (the somatic layer of mesoderm) of connective tissue, enclosing 
muscle fibres, blood sinuses, and nerves. This layer (the mantle) 
has very much the shape of the test outside it, but at the two 
apertures it is drawn out to form the branchial and 




atrial siphons (fig. 



In the walls of these siphons 



Mantle, 



. 5). . ..... _ ------ _. -------- r ------ 

the muscle fibres form powerful circular bands, the Bo y Wa " 
sphincter muscles. Throughout the rest of the mantle a ^ d j t , ody 
the bands of muscle fibres form a rude irregular net- Cav "' es ' 
work. They are numerous on the right side of the body, and almost 
totally absent on the left. The muscles are all formed of very long 
fusiform non-striped fibres. The connective tissue of the mantle 
is chiefly a clear gelatinous matrix, containing cells of various 
shapes; it is frequently pigmented, giving brilliant red or yellow 
colours to the body, and is penetrated by numerous lacunae, in which 
the blood flows. Inside the mantle, in all parts of the body, except 
along the ventral edge, there is a cavity the atrial or peribranchial 
cavity which opens to the exterior by the atrial aperture. This 
cavity is lined by a layer of cells derived originally from the ectoderm' 



1 According to E. van Beneden and Julin (30) only the outer 
wall of the atrium is lined with epiblast, the inner wall being derived 
from the hypoblast of the primitive branchial sac. 



TUNICATA 



and directly continuous with that layer through the atrial 
aperture (fig. 6) ; consequently the mantle is covered both 

externally and internally by 
,/ ectodermal cells. 

There is no true body 
cavity or coelom in the 
mesoderm ; and yet the Tuni- 
cata are Coelomata in their 
structure and affinities, al- 
though it is very doubtful 
whether the enterocoele 
which has been described in 
the development is really 
found. In any case the 
coelom if formed is after- 
wards suppressed, and in 
the adult is only represented 
by the pericardium and its 
derivatives and the small 
cavities of the renal and re- 
productive organs. 

The branchial aperture 
(mouth) leads into the bran- 
chial siphon 
(buccal cavity or 

Neighbour- St 9 m d . a eum >' 
lag 0/sa as .?nd this opens 
into the anterior 
end of a very large cavity (the 
branchial sac) which extends 
nearly to the posterior end 
of the body (see figs. 5 and 
6). This branchial sac is 
an enlarged and modified 
pharynx, and is therefore 
properly a part of the ali- 
mentary canal. The oeso- 
phagus opens from it far back 
on the dorsal edge (see below) . 
The wall of the branchial sac 
is pierced by a large number 
of vertical slits the stig- 
mata placed in numerous 
transverse rows (secondary or 
subdivided gill-slits). These 
slits place the branchial sac 
in communication with the 
peribranchial or atrial cavity, 
which lies outside it (fig. 6). 
Between the stigmata the 
wall of the branchial sac is 
traversed by blood-vessels, 
which are arranged in three 
regular series (fig. 7) (i) the 
transverse vessels, which run 
horizontally round the wall 
I. ov. 



; 




br, 

a. 

brs, 

dl. 

dt, 

end, 

h, 



FIG. 5. Diagrammatic dissection 
of A. mentula to show the anatomy. 
at, Atrial aperture. 

Branchial aperture. 

Anus. 

Branchial sac. 

Dorsal lamina. 

Dorsal tubercle. 

Endostyle. 

Heart. 

Intestine. 

Mantle. 

Nerve ganglion. 

Oesophagus. 

Oesophageal aperture. 

Ovary. 

Peribranchial cavity. 

Rectum. 

Stomach. 

Test. 

Tentacles. 

Vas deferens. 

Subneural gland. 



m, 

ng, 

oe, 

tea, 

ov, 

pbr, 

r, 

st, 

t, 

tn. 

vd, 

ngl, 



all. 




and open at their dorsal and ventral ends into large longi- 
tudinal vessels, the dorsal and ventral sinuses; (2) the fine 
longitudinal vessels, which run vertically between adjacent trans- 
verse vessels and open into them, and which bound the stigmata; 
and (3) the internal longitudinal bars, which run vertically in 



I. 




it 



I'v 



B 



(From Herdman, " Challenger " Report.) 

of Ascidia from inside. 



FIG. 7. A, Part of branchial 
B, Transverse section of same. 
tr, Transverse vessel. 
cd, Connecting duct. 
hm, Horizontal membrane. 
il, Internal longitudinal bar. 

(A and B are drawn to different scales.) 



Iv, Fine longitudinal vessels. 
p,p', Papillae. 
sg, Stigmata. 



Ventral 



Iv. 



(From The Cambridge Natural History, vol. vii., " Fishes, &c." By permission of 
Macmillan & Co., Ltd.) 



a plane internal to that of the transverse and fine longitudinal 
vessels. These bars communicate with the transverse vessels 
by short side branches where they cross, and at these points are 
prolonged into the lumen of the sac in the form of hollow papillae. 
The edges of the stigmata are richly set with cilia, which drive the 
water from the branchial sac into the peribranchial cavity, and so" 
cause the currents that flow in through the branchial aperture and 
out through the atrial. 

Along its ventral edge the wall of the branchial sac is continuous 
externally with the mantle (fig. 6), while internally it is thickened 
to form two parallel longitudinal folds bounding a p 
groove, the " endostyle " or ventral furrow (figs. 5, Eaaostyie. 
6, 8, end.) corresponding to the hypopharyngeal groove of Amphioxus 
and the median part of the thyroid gland of Vertebrata. The 
endoderm cells which line the endostyle are greatly enlarged at the 
bottom, where they bear very long cilia, and on parts of the sides 
of the furrow so as to form projecting glandular pads (fig. 8, gl.). 
It is generally sup- ~*n&- 

posed that this organ 

is a gland for the pro- 
duction of the mucous 
secretion which is 
spread round the edges 
of the branchial sac 
and catches the food 
particles in the pass- 
ing current of water. 
It has, however, been 
pointed out that there 
are comparatively few 
gland cells in the epi- 
thelium of the endo- 
style, and that it is 
possible that this fur- 
row is merely a ciliated 
path along which the 



br. 




., 
mucous ^secretion (pro- sty i e; 



FlG.6. Semi-diagrammatictransversesectionoL4.sci<Ztti,passingthrough duced in part by the bands; 



, 
the atrial aperture, seen from anterior surface, left side uppermost. 



At, Atrial aperture. mb, 

all, Atrial lobe. ov, 

Brs, Branchial sac. pbr, 

d, Cloaca. r, 

con, Connective. ren, 

dbls, Dorsal blood-sinus. sg, 

dl, Dorsal lamina. sph, 

end, Endostyle. t, 

gd, Genital ducts. tr, 

ii'. Intestine. ty, 

Iv, Interstigmatic vessel. vbls, 

m, Mantle, 



Muscle-bundles. 

Ovary. 

Peribranchial cavity. 

Rectum. 

Renal vesicles. 

Stigmata. 

Atrial sphincter. 

Test. 

Transverse vessel. 

Typhlosole. 

Ventral blood-sinus. 



gla 



nd 5 ) 



FIG. 8. Transverse section of the endo- 

style of an Ascidian. 
br., Branchial sac; end., lips of endo- 
glandular tracts; m.b., muscle 
pbr., peribranchial cavity; sg., 



13 stigma; v.v, ventral vessel. 



subneural 

conveyed posteriorly 

along the ventral edge of the branchial sac. There are sensory bipolar 

cells in the lateral walls of the endostyle. At its anterior end the 

edges of the endostyle become continuous with the 

right and left halves of the posterior of two circular 

ciliated ridges the peripharyngeal bands which run 

parallel to one another round the front of the branchial sac. The 

dorsal ends of the posterior peripharyngeal band bend posteriorly 

(enclosing the epibranchial groove), and then join to Dorsa / 

form the anterior end of a fold which runs along the /, am / na . 

dorsal edge of the branchial sac as far as the oeso- 

phageal aperture. This fold is the dorsal lamina (figs. 5, 6, dl). 



TUNICATA 



_ , 

Subneural 

"" 



Dorsal 
Tubercle, 



It probably serves to direct the stream of food particles entangled 
in a string of mucus from the anterior part of the dorsal lamina to 
the oesophagus. In many Ascidians this organ, instead 
of being a continuous membranous fold as in A. mentula, 
Laagaets. j g representec i by a ser ies of elongated triangular pro- 
cesses the dorsal languets one attached in the dorsal median 
line opposite to each transverse vessel of the branchial sac. The 
anterior peripharyngeal band is a complete circular ridge, having 
no connexion with either the endostyle or the dorsal lamina. In 
front of it lies the prebranchial zone, which separates the branchial 
sac behind from the branchial siphon in front. The prebranchial 
zone is bounded anteriorly by a muscular band the posterior 
edge of the sphincter muscle which bears a circle of long delicate 
_ / processes, the tentacles (figs. 5, 9, 10, tn). These project 
' inwards at right angles so as to form a network across 
the entrance to the branchial sac. Each tentacle consists of con- 
nective tissue covered with epithelium (endoderm), and contains 

two or more cavities which are 
continuous with blood sinuses in 
the mantle. In the 
a , median , ine near 

the anterior end of the 
body, and embedded in the mantle 
on the ventral surface of the nerve 
ganglion, there lies a small glandular 
mass the subneural gland which, 
as Julin has shown (24), there is 
reason to regard as the homologue 
of the hypophysis cerebri of the 
vertebrate brain. Julin and E. van 
Beneden have suggested that the 
function of this organ may possibly 
be renal. The subneural gland, which 
was first noticed by Hancock, com- 
municates anteriorly, as Ussoff (23) 
pointed out, by means of a narrow 
duct with the front of the branchial 
sac (pharynx). The opening of the 
duct is enlarged to form a funnel- 
shaped cavity, which may be folded 
upon itself, convoluted, or even 
broken up into a number of smaller 
openings, so as to form 
a complicated projec- 
tion, called the dorsal 
tubercle, situated in the dorsal part 
of the prebranchial zone. (fie. a). 

FIG 9. Diagrammatic sec- The dorsal tubercle in A mentula is 
tion through anterior dorsal somewhat horseshoe-shaped (fig. 
part of A. mentula showing 10); it varies in form in most Asci- 
the relations of the nerve dians according to the genus and 
ganglion, subneural gland, &c. species, and in some cases in the 

individual also. The function of the 
neural gland must still be regarded 
as doubtful. The secretion is formed 
by the degeneration and disintegra- 
tion of cells proliferated from the 
walls of the duct or its branches, 
and no concretions are found. The 
ciliated funnel of the dorsal tubercle 

is a sense-organ, innervated by a large nerve from the ganglion; 
it may be a sense-organ for testing the quality of the water entering 
the branchial sac. 

The single elongated ganglion in the median dorsal line of the 
mantle between the branchial and atrial siphons is the only nerve- 
., centre in A. mentula and most other Tunicata. It is the 

Syste degenerate remains of the anterior part of the cerebro- 

spinal nervous system of the tailed larval Ascidian (see 
below). The posterior or spinal part has entirely disappeared in 
most Tunicata. It persists, however, in the Appendiculariidae and 
traces of it are found in some Ascidians (e.g. Clavelina). The ganglion 
gives off distributory nerves at both ends, which run through the 
Sense- mant 'e to the neighbourhood of the apertures, where 
Onraos tney Divide and subdivide. The only sense-organs are 
the pigment spots between the branchial and atrial lobes, 
the tentacles at the base of the branchial siphon, the dorsal tubercle, 
and possibly the languets or dorsal lamina. These are all in a lowly 
developed condition. Nerve-endings have also been found in the 
endostyle, the peripharyngeal bands and other parts of the wall of 
the pharynx. The larval Ascidians, on the other hand, have well- 
developed intracerebral optic and otic sense-organs; and in some 
of the pelagic Tunicata otocysts and pigment spots or eyes are found 
in connexion with the ganglion. Atrial tentacles (which may also 
be sensory) have now been found in a number of the gregarious 
Cynthiidae and Polystyelidae. 

The mouth and the pharynx (branchial sac) have already been 

Aliment* described. The remainder of the alimentary canal 

Canal ls a bent ^ ube which in A - mentula and most other 

', , Asc 'dians lies embedded in the mantle on the left 

side of the body, and projects into the peribranchial cavity. The 



\ oesophagus leaves the branchial sac in the dorsal middle line 
near the posterior end of the dorsal lamina (see fig. 5, tea) It 
is a short curved tube which leads ventrally to the Targe fusiform 
thick-walled stomach. The intestine emerges from the ventral end 
of the stomach, and soon turns anteriorly, then dorsally, and then 




, Nerve. 
n', Myelon. 

pp, Peripharyngeal band. 
sgl, Subneural gland. 
sgd, Its duct. 

t, Test lining branchial 
siphon. 




FlG. 10. Dorsal Tubercle and neighbouring organs of A. mentula. 

Lettering as before. 

egr, Epibranchial groove; z, prebranchial zone, 
posteriorly so as to form a curve the intestinal loop open pos- 
teriorly. The intestine now curves anteriorly again, and from this 
point runs nearly straight forward as the rectum, thus completing 
a second curve the rectal loop open anteriorly (see fig. 5). The 
wall of the intestine is thickened internally to form the typhlosole, 
a pad which runs along its entire length. The anus opens into the 
dorsal part of the peribranchial cavity near to the atrial aperture. 
The walls of the stomach are glandular; and a system of delicate 
tubules with dilated ends, which ramifies over the outer wall of the 
intestine and communicates with the cavity of the stomach by means 
of a duct, is probably a digestive gland. 

A mass of large clear vesicles which occupies the rectal loop, and 
may extend over the adjacent walls of the intestine, is a renal organ 
without a duct. Each vesicle is the modified remains 
of a part of the primitive cpelom or body cavity, and is Excretory 
formed of cells which eliminate nitrogenous waste Or s aas - 
matters from the blood circulating in the neighbouring blood 
lacunae and deposit them in the cavity of the vesicle, where 
they form a concentrically laminated concretion of a yellowish or 
brown colour. These concretions contain uric acid, and in a large 
Ascidian are very numerous. The nitrogenous waste products are 
thus deposited and stored up in the renal vesicles in place of being 
excreted from the body. In other Ascidians the renal organ may 
differ from the above in its position and structure; but in no case 
has it an excretory duct, unless the subneural gland is to be regarded 
as an additional renal organ. 

The heart is an elongated fusiform tube placed on the ventral 
and posterior edge of the stomach, in a space (the pericardium) 
which is part of the original coelom or body cavity, the 
rest of which exists merely in the form of lacunae and 8 ' 00 '' 
of the cavities of the reproductive organs and renal Vascular 
vesicles in the adult Ascidian. The wall of the heart is*'*? 801 aaa 
formed of a layer of epithelio-muscular cells, the inner * 

ends of which are cross-striated; and waves of contraction pass 
along it from end to end, first for a certain number of beats in one 
direction and then in the other, so as to reverse the course of 
circulation periodically. At each end the heart is continued into 
a vessel (see fig. 1 1), which is merely a large sinus or lacuna lined with 
a delicate endothelial layer. The sinus leaving the ventral end of 
the heart is called the branchio-cardiac vessel, 1 and the heart itself 
is merely the differentiated posterior part of this sinus and is there- 
fore a ventral vessel. The branchio-cardiac vessel, after giving off 
a branch which, along with a corresponding branch from the cardio- 
visceral vessel, goes to the test, runs along the ventral edge of the 
branchial sac externally to the endostyle, and communicates 
laterally with the ventral ends of all the transverse vessels of the 
branchial sac. The sinus leaving the dorsal end of the heart is called 
the cardio-visceral vessel, and this, after giving off to the test the 
branch above mentioned, breaks up into a number of sinuses, which 
ramify over the alimentary canal and the other viscera. These 
visceral lacunae finally communicate with a third great sinus, the 



1 On account of the periodic reversal of the circulation none of the 
vessels can be called arteries or veins. 



TUNICATA 



383 



viscero-branchial vessel, which runs forward along the dorsal edge 
of the branchial sac externally to the dorsal lamina and joins the 
dorsal ends of all the transverse vessels of the branchial sac. Besides 
these three chief systems, there are numerous lacunae in all parts 

dorsal 
at. _ Jxx 




onl 



vv. ventral 
FlG. II. Diagram of the Blood Circulation in an Ascidian. The" 

test is solid black. 

at, Atrial aperture. da, Dorsal aorta. 

br. Branchial aperture. ht, Heart. 

bv, Branchio-visceral vessel. vv, Ventral or branchio-cardiac 

cv, Cardio-visceral system. vessel. 

of the body, by means of which anastomoses are established between 
the different currents of blood. All these blood spaces and lacunae 
are to be regarded as derived from the blastocoele of the embryo, 
and not, as has been usually supposed, from the coelom (30). When 
Course of * ne heart contracts ventro-dorsally the course of the 
Circulation, circulation is as follows : the blood which is flowing 
' through the vessels of the branchial sac is collected in 
an oxygenated condition in the branchio-cardiac vessel, and, after 
receiving a stream of blood from the test, enters the heart (ht). 
It is then propelled from the dorsal end of the heart into the 
cardio-visceral vessels, and so reaches the test and digestive and 
other organs; then, after circulating in the visceral lacunae, it passes 
into the branchio-visceral vessel in an impure condition, and is 
distributed to the branchial vessels (fig. 1 1 , da) to be purified again. 
When the heart on the other hand contracts dorso-ventrally, this 
course of the circulation is reversed. As the test receives a branch 
from each end of the heart, it follows that it has afferent and efferent 
vessels whichever way the blood is flowing. In some Ascidians the 
vessels in the test become very numerous and their end branches 
terminate in swollen bulbs close under the outer surface of the test. 
In this way an accessory respiratory organ is probably formed in 
the superficial layer of the test. The blood corpuscles are chiefly 
colourless and amoeboid ; but in most if not all Ascidians there are 
also some pigmented corpuscles in the blood. These are generally 
of an orange or reddish- brown tint, but may be opaque white, dark 
indigo-blue, or even of other colours. Precisely similarly pigmented 
cells are found throughout the connective tissue of the mantle and 
other parts of the body. 

A. mentula is hermaphrodite, and the reproductive organs lie, 
with the alimentary canal, on the left side of the body. The ovary 
is a ramified gland which occupies the greater part of 
the intestinal loop (see fig. 5). It contains a cavity 
O aas which, along with the cavities of the testis, is derived 
from a part of the original coelom, and the ova are 
formed from its walls and fall when mature into the cavity. The 
oviduct is continuous with the cavity of the ovary and leads forwards 
alongside the rectum, finally opening near the anus into the peri- 
branchial cavity. The testis is composed of a great number of 
delicate branched tubules, which ramify over the ovary and the adja- 
cent parts of the intestinal wall. Those tubules terminate in ovate 
swellings. Near the commencement of the rectum the larger tubules 
unite to form the vas deferens, a tube of considerable size, which 
runs forwards alongside the rectum, and, like the oviduct, terminates 
by opening into the peribranchial cavity close to the anus. The 
lumen of the tubules of the testis, like the cavity of the ovary, is a 
part of the original coelom, and the spermatozoa are formed from the 
cells lining the wall. In some Ascidians reproductive organs are 
present on both sides of the body, and in others (Polycarpa) there 
are many complete sets of both male and female systems, attached 
to the inner surface of the mantle on both sides of the body and 
projecting into the peribranchial cavity. 1 

EMBRYOLOGY 2 AND LIFE-HISTORY 

We owe to W. E. Castle (1896) the most complete account which 
has yet been given of the early stages of development in an Ascidian. 
His careful study of the cell lineage in Cipna has made it clear that 
some of the conflicting statements of his predecessors arose from 
incorrect orientation of the embryos. One of the most important 
of his conclusions is that the mesoderm of Ascidians, and probably 
that of the archaic Vertebrates, is derived from both primary 
layers, ectoderm and endoderm. Further, he finds that dona 
produces both ova and spermatozoa at the same time, but self- 
fertilization very rarely occurs. The eggs are laid just before dawn, 



1 For structure of other forms, see below. 

2 For reproduction by gemmation see under " Classification " 
below. 



and the larva is hatched during the following night. The test cells 
adhering to the young homogeneous test have, it is now well known, 
no connexion with the cells found later in the adult test. The larvae 
are free-swimming for from one to several days. They avoid the 
light. The spermatozoon enters at the ventral hemisphere, and that 
point determines the median plane and the posterior end of the 
embryo. The ventral is the animal pole. The cleavage is from 
the beginning bilateral. The first cleavage plane is vertical, and 
separates the right and left halves of the embryo. The four smaller 
dorsal cells with yolk give rise to the endodermal hemisphere; the 
four larger, more protoplasmic, cells form the ventral ectodermal 
hemisphere. The cells of the latter hemisphere divide more rapidly, 
and form the future aboral surface. When the dorsal hemisphere 
has twenty-two cells the ventral has fifty-four. The gastrulation 
is a combination of epiboly and invagination. The ventral ectoderm 
grows over, so as to envelop the dorsal hemisphere, while the latter 
sinks down and becomes saucer-shaped. In the centre of the dorsal 
surface ten cells form the future endoderm. Round these comes a 
ring of cells, the chordamesenchyme ring, from which the notochord 
and mesenchyme arise. Outside this ring is a row of cells, the 
neuro-muscular ring. The more anterior of these cells form the 
medullary plate, the more posterior the longitudinal musculature 
of the larva. The remainder of the cells (in the 112-cell stage) form 
ectoderm. By growth at the anterior end the blastopore gets pushed 
posteriorly, and the anterior chorda cells are covered up, and come 
to lie in the dorsal wall of the archenteron, sixteen cells in two rows, 
one over the other. The blastopore closes in the posterior part of 
the dorsal surface. In front of it is the medullary plate, with a con- 
tinuation backwards at the sides of the blastopore. This region 
forms the trunk of the larva, the part posterior to it being drawn out 
to form the tail. The chorda cells pass back into the tail, while the 
mesenchyme cells shift forwards into the trunk. The muscle cells, 
derived from the neuro-muscular ring, lie behind the blastopore, 
and form the muscles of the tail. The closure of the medullary 
canal takes place from the blastopore forwards, and then the nerve 
cord is grown over by ectoderm. After closure of the blastopore 
the mesenchyme cells lie as lateral masses in the trunk; later they 
become the blood corpuscles and the mantle cells, &c. 

Castle also discusses some important theoretical questions. He 
points out that, in dona at least, the chorda-mesenchyme ring takes 
part along with endoderm in the primary invagination, and so 
belongs to the primary endoderm; while the rest of the mesoderm, 
the muscle cells of the neuro muscular ring, are carried in by a 
secondary invagination, and belong to the outer layer of the young 
gastrula, or primary ectoderm. He considers that the chorda must 
be regarded as a mesodermal organ. He agrees with former obser- 
vers in seeing no trace of enterocoele formation, and he doubts 
whether any Chordata are Enterocoela. He does not believe in 
distinguishing those Metazoa with a mesoderm from those with a 
" mesenchyme." He considers that embryology gives no support 
to the Annelid hypothesis as to the origin of Chordates. 

A long-continued discussion as to the origin, nature and fate of 
certain cells, the " testa-zellen," which make their appearance 
between the young embryo and its follicle (fig. 12), has ended in 




(After Pizon.) 

FIG. 12. Portion of Mature Ovum of Ascidian, showing 
F, follicle, and/, r, " test-cells." 

practical agreement that these small cells are derived from the 
follicle-cells, and have nothing to do with the test. In Salpa, how- 
ever, certain follicle-cells enter the embryo, and perform important 
functions in guiding the development for a time. 

In most Ascidians the eggs are fertilized in the peribranchial 
cavity, and undergo most of their development before leaving the 
parent; in some cases, however, the eggs-are laid, and jni ; _ 
fertilization takes place in the surrounding water. The 
segmentation is complete and regular (fig. 13, A) and results in 
the formation of a spherical blastula, which then undergoes 
invagination (fig. 13, B). The embryo elongates, and the blastopore 
or invagination opening comes to be placed on the dorsal edge near 
the posterior end (fig. 13, C). The hypoblast cells lining the 
archenteron are columnar in form, while the epiblast cells are more 
cubical (fig. 13, B, C, D). The dorsal surface of the embryo now 
becomes flattened and then depressed to form a longitudinal groove, 
extending forwards from the blastopore to near the front of the body. 
This " medullary groove " now becomes converted into a closed 



TUNICATA 



canal by its side walls growing up, arching over, and coalescing in 
the median dorsal line (fig. 13, D). This union of the laminae 
donates to form the neural canal commences at the posterior end 
behind the blastopore and gradually extends forwards. Conse- 
quently the blastopore comes to open into the posterior end of the 
neural canal (fig. 13, D), while the anterior end of that cavity remains 




of 



Neurenteric canal. 
Ocular organ of larva. 
Gelatinous investment 

embryo. 

Muscle cells of tail. 
Mesenteron. 
Mesoderm cells. 
Cerebral vesicle at anterior 

end of neural canal. 



(After Kowalevsky.) 

FIG. 13. Stages in the Embryology of a Simple Ascidian. 
A to F, Longitudinal vertical sections of embryos, all placed 
with the dorsal surface uppermost and the anterior end at the right. 

A, Early blastula stage, during segmentation. 

B, Early gastrula stage. 

C, Stage after gastrula, showing commencement of notochord. 

D, Later stage, showing formation of notochord and of neural 
canal. 

E, Embryo showing body and tail and completely formed neural 
canal. 

F, Larva just hatched ; end of tail cut off. 

G, Transverse section of tail of larva 
adp, Adhering papillae of larva, nee, 
at, Epiblastic (atrial) involution, oc, 
au. Auditory organ of larva. g, 
ar, Archenteron. 

be, Blastocoele. m, 

bp, Blastopore. mes, 

ch, Notochord. me, 

ep, Epiblast. nv, 

hy, Hypoblast. 
nc, Neural canal. 

open to the exterior. In this way the archenteron communicates 
indirectly with the exterior. The short canal leading from the 
neural canal to the archenteron is known as the neurenteric canal 
(fig. 13, D, nee). Previous to this stage some of the hypoblast cells 
at the front edge of the blastopore and forming part of the dorsal 
wall of the archenteron (fig. 13, C, ch) have become separated off, 
and then arranged to form an elongated band, two cells wide, under- 
lying the posterior half of the neural canal (fig. 13, D, E, ch). This is 
the origin of the notochord. Outgrowths from the sides of the 
archenteron give rise to laterally placed masses of cells, which are 
the origin of the mesoblast. These masses show no trace of meta- 
meric segmentation. The cavities (reproductive and renal vesicles) 
which are formed later in the mesoblast represent the coelom. 
Consequently the body cavity of the Tunicata is a modified form 
of enterocoele. The anterior part of the embryo, in front of the 
notochord, now becomes enlarged to form the trunk, while the 
posterior part elongates to form the tail (fig. 13, E). In the trunk 
the anterior part of the archenteron dilates to form the mesenteron, 
the greater part of which becomes the branchial sac; at the same 
time the anterior part of the neural canal enlarges to form the 
cerebral vesicle, and the opening to the exterior at the front end of 
the canal now closes. In the tail part of the embryo the neural 
canal remains as a narrow tube, while the remains of the wall of the 
archenteron the dorsal part of which becomes the notochord are 



converted into lateral muscle bands (fig. 13, G) and a ventral cord 
of cells, which eventually breaks up to form blood corpuscles. 
As the tail grows longer, it becomes bent round the trunk of the 
embryo inside the egg-membrane. About this period the epiblast 
cells begin to form the test as a cuticular deposit upon their outer 
surface. The test is at first devoid of cells and forms a delicate 
gelatinous investment, but it shortly afterwards becomes cellular 
by the migration into it of test 'cells formed by proliferation from 
the epiblast. 1 

The embryo is hatched about two or three days after fertilization, 
in the form of a tadpole-like larva, which swims actively through 
the sea by vibrating its long tail. The anterior end of 
the body is provided with three adhering papillae (fig. 13, Larval 
F, odp.) in the form of epiblastic thickenings. In the Stage. 
free-swimming tailed larva the nervous system, formed from the 
walls of the neural canal, becomes considerably differentiated. The 
anterior part of the cerebral vesicle remains thin-walled (fig. 13, F), 
and two unpaired sense-organs develop from its wall and project into 
the cavity. These are a dorsally and posteriorly placed optic organ, 
provided with retina, pigment layer, lens and cornea, and a ventrally 
placed auditory organ, consisting of a large spherical partially 
pigmented otolith, attached by delicate hair-like processes to the 
summit of a hollow crista acoustica (fig. 13, F, au). The posterior 
part of the cerebral vesicle thickens to form a solid ganglionic mass 
traversed by a narrow central canal: this becomes the ganglion of 
the adult Ascidian. The wall of the neural canal behind the cerebral 
vesicle becomes differentiated into an anterior thicker region, placed 
in" the posterior part of the trunk and having a superficial layer of 
nerve fibres, and a posterior narrower part which traverses 
the tail, lying on the dorsal surface of the notochord, and gives off 
several pairs of nerves to the muscles of the tail. Just in front of the 
anterior end of the nervous system a dorsal involution of the epiblast 
breaks through into the upturned anterior end of the mesenteron and 
thus forms the mouth opening. Along the ventral edge of the mesen- 
teron, which becomes the branchial sac, the endostyle is formed as 
a narrow groove with thickened side walls. It probably corresponds 
to the median portion of the thyroid body of Vertebrata. A curved 
outgrowth from the posterior end of the mesenteron forms the alimen- 
tary canal (oesophagus, stomach and intestine), which at first ends 
blindly. An anus is formed later by the intestine opening into the 
left of two lateral epiblastic involutions (the atria), which rapidly 
become larger and fuse dorsally to form the peribranchial cavity. 
Outgrowths from the wall of the branchial sac meet these epiblastic 
involutions and fuse with them to give rise to the first formed pair 
of stigmata, which thus come to open into the peribranchial cavity ; 
and these alone correspond to the gill clefts of Amphioxus and the 
Vertebrata. 




FIG. 14. Sketches of Ascidian Larvae. 
A, Ascidia; S, Styela; M, Anurella; C, Compound Ascidian. 

Fig. 14 shows a few characteristic forms of Ascidian " tadpoles," 
or free-swimming larvae. A and S are typical simple Ascidians; 
M is the aberrant tailless form found in some Molgulidae ; and C is the 
larva of a typical compound Ascidian. 

After a short free-swimming existence the fully developed tailed 
larva fixes itself by its anterior adhering papillae to some foreign 
object, and then undergoes a remarkable series of retro- 
gressiye changes, which convert it into the adult -"", 
Ascidian. The tail atrophies, until nothing is left but Aauti p orm 
some fatty cells in the posterior part of the trunk. The 
adhering papillae disappear and are replaced functionally by a 
growth of the test over neighbouring objects. The nervous system 
with its sense organs atrophies until it is reduced to the single small 
ganglion, placed on the dorsal edge of the pharynx, and a slight 
nerve cord running for some distance posteriorly (van Beneden and 
Julin). Changes in the shape of the body and a further growth and 
differentiation of the branchial sac, peribranchial cavity and other 
organs now produce gradually the structure found in the adult 
Ascidian. 

The most important points in connexion with this process of 
development and metamorphosis are the following: (i) In the 

1 Some of the first test cells are also probably derived from the 
epithelium of the egg follicle. 



TUNICATA 



385 



Ascidian embryo all the more important organs (e.g. notochord, 
neural canal, archenteron) are formed in essentially the same 
manner as they are in Amphioxus and other Chordata. (2) The 
free-swimming tailed larva possesses the essential characters of the 




(From The Cambridge Natural History, vol. vii., " Fishes, &c." By permission of 

MacmiUan & Co., Ltd.) 
FIG. 15. Metamorphosis of an Ascidian (modified from 

Kowalevsky and others). 

A, Free-swimming tailed larva. B, The metamorphosis larva 
attached. C, Tail and nervous system of larva degenerating. 
D, Further degeneration and metamorphosis of larva into E, the 
young fixed Ascidian. 

at, Atrial invagination. m, Mouth. 

ch, Notochord. mes, Mesenteron. 

hy, Hypoblast cells. nc. Neural canal. 

i. Intestine. 

mi, Neural vesicle with sense-organs. 



structure of 







original 
It has 



(From The Cambridge Natural History, vol. vii., " Fishes," &c. By permission of 
Macmillan & Co., Ltd.) 

FIG. 16. Sketch of the chief kinds of Tunicata found in the sea. 
xxvn. 13 



Chordata, inasmuch as it has a longitudinal skeletal axis (the noto- 
chord) separating a dorsally placed nervous system (the neural 
canal) from a ventral alimentary canal (the archenteron) ; and 
therefore during this period of its life-history the animal belongs 
to the Chordata. (3) The Chordate larva is more highly organized 
than the adult Ascidian, and therefore the changes by which the 
latter is produced "from the former may be regarded as a process of 
degeneration (3:). The important conclusion drawn from all this 
is that the Tunicata are the degenerate descendants of a group of 
primitive Chordata (see below). 

CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERS OF GROUPS 
ORDER i. LARVACEA 

Free-swimming pelagic forms provided with a large locomotory 

appendage (the tail), in which there is a skeletal axis (the urochord). 

A relatively large test (the " house ") is formed with characters 

great rapidity as a secretion from the ectoderm; it is ofLarvacea 

merely a temporary structure, which is cast off and 

replaced by another. The branchial sac is simply an enlarged 

pharynx with two ventral cili- 
ated openings (stigmata) leadin 

to the exterior. There is no 

separate peribranchial cavity. 

The nervous system consists of 

a large dorsally placed ganglion 

and a long nerve cord, which 

stretches backwards over the 

alimentary canal to reach the 

tail, along which it runs on 

the left side of the urochord. 

The anus opens ventrally on 

the surface of the body in 

front of the stigmata. No 

reproduction by gemmation or 

metamorphosis is known in the 

life-history. 

This is one of the most inter- 
esting groups (fig. 16) of the 

Tunicata, as it 

shows more c 

pletely than any of 

the rest the char- 

, acters of the 
ancestral forms, 
undergone little or no 
degeneration, and con- 
sequently corresponds 
more nearly to the tailed- 
larval condition than to 
the adult forms of the 

other groups. The order 

includes a single family, in " House," seen from right sTdei 
the Appendiculariidae, magnified six times. The arrows 
all the members of which indicate the course of the water. 

e " x, Lateral reticulated parts of 
^ occur it jjQiigQ " 

on the surface of the sea 

in most parts of the world. They possess the power to form 
with great rapidity an enormously large investing gelatinous 
layer (fig. ll), which corresponds to the test of other groups. 
This was first described by von Mertens and by him named 
" Haus." It is only loosely attached to the body and is 
frequently thrown off soon after its formation and again 
reformed. H. Lohmann has made a careful study of the 
mode of formation of this " house " from certain large ecto- 
derm cells, the " oikoplasts," and he considers that it 
probably fulfils the following functions: Its complicated 
apparatus of passages with partial septa form a finely 
perforated network, through which a relatively large volume 
of water is strained so as to entrap microscopic food particles; 
it helps in locomotion by its hydrostatic effect, and it is also a 
protection to the animal, which may escape from enemies by 
throwing off the house, which is many times its own size. 
The tail in the Appendiculariidae is attached to the ventral 
surface of the body (fig. 18), and usually points more or 
less anteriorly. The supposed traces of vertebration in the 
muscle bands and the nerve cord are probably artifacts, 
and do not indicate true metameric segmentation. Near the 
base of the tail there is a distinct elongated ganglion 
(fig. 18, ng'). The anterior (cerebral) ganglion has connected 
with it an otocyst, a pigment spot, and a tubular process 
opening into the branchial sac and representing the dorsal 
tubercle and associated parts of an ordinary Ascidian. The 
branchial aperture or mouth leads into the branchial sac or 
pharynx. There are no tentacles. The endostyle is 
short. There is no dorsal lamina, and the peripharyn- 
geal bands run dorsally and posteriorly. The wall of the 
branchial sac has only two ciliated apertures (fig. 19). 
They are homologous with the primary stigmata of the typical 
Ascidians and the gill clefts of vertebrates. They are placed 

5 




(After Fol.) 

FIG. 17. Oikopleuro, cophocerca 



3 86 



TUNICATA 



far back on the ventral surface, one on each side of the 
middle line, and lead into short funnel-shaped tubes which 
open on the surface of the body behind the anus (fig. 18, at). 
These tubes correspond to the right and left atrial involutions 

P'f 




tes 



Fig. 1 8. Semi-diagrammatic view of Appendicularia from the 
right. 



a, Anus. ov, 

at, One of the atrial apertures, pp, 

app, Tail. ng, 

br, Branchial aperture. ng', 

brs, Branchial sac. ng", 

dt, Dorsal tubercle. 

end, Endostyle. so, 

h, Heart. 

', Intestine. sg, 

m. Muscle band of tail. 

n, Nerve cord in body. st, 

n', Nerve cord in the tail. tes, 

oe, Oesophagus. u, 

ot, Otocyst. u'. 



Ovary. 

Peripharyngeal band. 
Cerebral ganglion. 
Caudal ganglion. 
Enlargement of nerve cord 

in tail. 
Sense-organ (tactile) on 

lower lip. 
Ciliated aperture in 

pharynx. 
Stomach. 
Testis. 
Urochord. 
Its cut end. 



which, in an ordinary Ascidian, fuse to form the peribranchial 
cavity. The heart, according to Lankester, is formed of two 
cells, which are placed at the opposite ends and connected by 
delicate contractile protoplasmic fibrils. The large ovary and testis 
are placed at the posterior end of the body. The remainder of the 
structural details can be made out from figs. 18 and 19. 



A-* 



r -ec. 




Tail 



n ''ii ch 

FIG. 19. Transverse Section of Oikopleura; anterior part of body 
and tail. 

At, Atrial passage. n. Nerve. 

b.s, Blood sinus. n.ch, Notochord. 

br.s, Branchial sac (pharynx). R, Rectum. 

ec, Ectoderm. sg, Stigma. 

en, Endoderm. t, Test. 



The family Appendiculariidae comprises amongst others the 
following genera: Oikopleura (Mertens), and Appendicularia 
(Cham.), in both of which the body is short and compact and the 
tail relatively long, while the endostyle is straight; Megalocercus 
(Chun) containing M. abyssorum, a huge deep-sea form from the 
Mediterranean (30 mm. long); Fritillaria (Quoy and Gaimard), in 
which the body is long and cornposed of anterior and posterior 
regions, the tail relatively short, the endostyle recurved, and an 
ectodermal hood is formed over the front of the body; and 
Kowalevskia (Fol), a remarkable form described by Fol (14), in 
which the heart and endostyle are said to be absent, while the 
branchial sac is provided with four rows of ciliated tooth-like 
processes. 

ORDER II. THALIACEA 

Free-swimming pelagic forms which may be either simple or 
compound, and the adult of which is never provided with a tail or 
a notochord. The test is permanent and may be either _. 
well developed or very slight. The musculature of 
the mantle is in the form of more or less complete circular bands, 
by the contraction of which locomotion is effected. The branchial 
sac has either two large or many small apertures, leading to a single 
peribranchial cavity, into which the anus opens. Blastogenesis 
takes place from a ventral endostylar stolon. Alternation of 
generations occurs in the life-history, and may be complicated by 
polymorphism. The Thaliacea comprises two groups Cyclomyaria 
and Hemimyaria. 

Sub-order I. Cyclomyaria. 

Free-swimming pelagic forms which exhibit alternation of genera- 
tions in their life-history but never form permanent colonies. The 
body is cask-shaped, with the branchial and atrial aper- 
tures at the opposite ends. The test is more or less well c n* r *<* ers 
developed. The mantle has its musculature in the form ' 
of circular bands surrounding the body. The branchial "V*- 
sac is fairly large, occupying the anterior half or more of the body. 
Stigmata are usually present in its posterior part only. The peri- 
branchial cavity is mainly posterior to the branchial sac. The 
alimentary canal is placed ventrally close to the posterior end of the 
branchial sac. Hermaphrodite reproductive organs are placed 
ventrally near the intestine. 

This group forms one family, the Doliolidae, including three 
genera, Doliolum (Quoy and Gaimard), Dolchinia (Korotneff) and 
Anchinia (C. Vogt). 

Doliolum, of which about a dozen species are known from various 
seas, has a cask-shaped body, usually from I to 2 cm. in length. 
The terminal branchial and atrial apertures (fig. 20) are 
lobed and the lobes are provided with sense organs. _ .* 
The test is very slightly developed and contains no ' 
cells. The mantle has eight or nine circular muscle bands sur- 
rounding the body. The most anterior and posterior of these 
form the branchial and atrial sphincters. The wide branchial 
and atrial apertures lead into large branchial and peribranchial cavi- 
ties, separated by the posterior wall of the branchial sac, which is 
pierced by stigmata; consequently there is a free passage for the 
water through the body along its long axis, and the animal swims by 
contracting its ring-like muscle bands, so as to force out the contained 
water posteriorly. Stigmata may also be found on the lateral walls of 
the branchial sac, and in that case there are corresponding anteriorly 
directed diverticula of the peribranchial cavity. There is a distinct 
endostyle on the ventral edge of the branchial sac and a peripharyn- 
geal band surrounding its anterior end, but there is no representative 
of the dorsal lamina on its dorsal edge. The oesophagus commences 
rather on the ventral edge of the posterior end of the branchial 
sac, and runs backwards to open into the stomach, which is followed 




aii 



end 



br* 



FlG. 20. Doliolum denticulatum, sexual generation, from 

the left side. Lettering as for fig. 1 8. 

m 1 m*, Muscle bands. pbr, Peribranchial cavity. 

ng, Nerve ganglion. all, Atrial lobes. 

sg, Stigmata. so. Sense organs. 

sgl, Subneural gland. brl, Branchial lobes. 



TUNICATA 



387 



by a curved intestine opening into the peribranchial cavity. The 
alimentary canal as a whole is to the right of the middle line. The 
hermaphrodite reproductive organs are to the left of the middle line 
alongside the alimentary canal. They open into the peribranchial 
cavity. The ovary is nearly spherical, while the testis is elongated, 
and may be continued anteriority for a long distance. The heart 
is placed in the middle line ventrally, between the posterior end of 
the endostyle and the oesophageal aperture. The nerve ganglion 
lies about the middle of the dorsal edge of the body, and gives off 
many nerves. Under it is placed the subneural gland, the duct of 
which runs forward and opens into the anterior end of the branchial 
sac by a simple aperture, surrounded by the spirally twisted dorsal 
end of the peripharyngeal band (fig. 20., dt). 

The ova of the sexual generation produce tailed larvae; these 
develop into forms known as " nurses," which are asexual, and are 
characterized by the possession of nine muscle bands, 
IDlTl an auditor y sac on the lef t side of the body, a ventrally- 
' placed stolon near the heart, upon which buds are pro- 
duced and a dorsal outgrowth near the posterior end of the body. 
The nurse after producing the buds becomes a degenerate form with 
very wide muscle bands. The buds' give rise eventually to the sexual 
generation, which is polymorphic, having three distinct forms, in two 
of which the reproductive organs remain undeveloped. The buds 
while still very young migrate from their place of origin on the stolon, 
divide by fission, and become attached to the dorsal outgrowth of 
the body of the nurse, where they develop. The three forms pro- 
duced are as follows. (l) Nutritive forms (trophozooids), which 
remain permanently attached to the nurse and serve to provide 
it with food; they have the body elongated dorso-ventrally, and the 
musculature is very slightly developed. (2) Foster forms (phoro- 
zooids), which, like the preceding, do not become sexually mature, 
but, unlike them, are set free as cask-shaped bodies with eight muscle 
bands and a ventral outgrowth, which is formed of the stalk by which 
the body was formerly united to the nurse. On this outgrowth 
the (3) forms (gonozooids) which become sexually mature are attached 
while still young buds, and after the foster forms are set free these 
reproductive forms gradually attain their complete development 
and are eventually set free and lose all trace of their connexion 
with the foster forms. They resemble the foster forms in having a 
cask-shaped body with eight muscle bands, but differ in having no 
outgrowth or process, and in having the reproductive organs fully 
developed. 1 

Anchinia, of which only one species is known, A. rubra, from the 
Mediterranean, has the sexual forms permanently attached to 
Anchinia P or ti ns of the dorsal outgrowth from the body of the 
unknown nurse. The body is elongated dorso-ventrally. 
The test is well developed and contains branched cells. The mus- 
culature is not so well developed as in Doliolum. There are two 
circular bands at the anterior end and two at the posterior, and two 
on the middle of the body. The stigmata are confined to the 
obliquely placed posterior end of the branchial sac. The alimentary 
canal forms a U-shaped curve. The reproductive organs are placed 
on the right side of the body. The life-history is still imperfectly 
known. As in the case of Doliolum the sexual generation is poly- 
morphic, and has three forms, two of which remain in a rudimentary 
condition so far as the reproductive organs are concerned. In 
Anchinia, however, the three forms do not occur together on one 
stolon or outgrowth, but are produced successively, the reproductive 
forms of the sexual generation being independent of the " foster 
forms " (see Barrois, 27). 

Sub-order 2. Hemimyaria. 

Free-swimming pelagic forms which exhibit alternation of genera- 
tions in their life-history and in the sexual condition form colonies. 
Characters ^"^ e D dy is more or less fusiform, with the long axis 
ofHemi- antero-posterior, and the branchial and atrial apertures 
myarla. nearly terminal. The test is well developed. The 
musculature of the mantle is in the form of a series of 
transversely-running bands, which do not form complete indepen- 
dent rings as in the Cyclomyaria. These transverse muscles are 
probably to be regarded as branchial and atrial sphincters which 
have spread over the body. The branchial and peribranchial 
cavities form a continuous space in the interior of the body, opening 
externally by the branchial and atrial apertures, and traversed 
obliquely from the dorsal and anterior end to the ventral and pos- 
terior by a long narrow vascular band, which represents the dorsal 
lamina, the dorsal blood-vessel, and the neighbouring part of the 
dorsal edge of the branchial sac of an ordinary Ascidian. The 
alimentary canal is placed ventrally. It may either be stretched 
out (ortho-enteric) so as to extend for some distance anteriorly, or 
as is more usual be concentrated (caryo-enteric) to form along with 
the reproductive organs a rounded opaque mass near the posterior 
end of the body known as the visceral mass or " nucleus." The 
embryonic development is direct, no tailed larva being formed. 

This sub-order contains one family, the Salpidae, includingthesingle 

Salpldae. S enus Solpa (Forskal), which, however, may be divided 

into two well-marked groups of species (i) those, such as 

o. pinnata, in which the alimentary canal is stretched out along the 

1 For further details see Uljanin (28) and Neumann, Doliolum, 
in Deutsch. Tief-See Exped. (Jena, 1905). 



ventral surface of the body, and (2) those, suchasS.fusiformis (fig. ai, 

A), in which the alimentary canal forms a compact globular mass, the 

nucleus," near the posterior end of the body. About fifteen species 





gen 



ffin 



A B 

FIG. 21. Salpa runcinata-fusiformis. 

A, Aggregated form : em, Embryo; gem, Gemmiparous stolon; m, 
Mantle; vise, Visceral mass (nucleus). B, Solitary form: 1-9, 
Muscle bands. Lettering as before. 

altogether are known; they are all pelagic forms and are found in 

nearly all seas. Each species occurs in two forms the solitary 

asexual (proles solitaria) and the 

aggregated sexual (proles gregaria) 

which are usually quite unlike one 

another. The solitary form (fig. 21, 

B) gives rise by internal gemmation 

to a complex tubular stolon, which 

contains processes from all the more 

important organs of the parent body 

and which becomes segmented into 

a series of buds or embryos. As 

the stolon elongates, the embryos 

near the free end which have become 

advanced in their development are 

set free in groups, which remain 

attached together by processes of the 

test, each enclosing a diverticulum 

from the mantle so as to form . .,...,,. t v , L , 

" chains " (fig. 22). Each member solitary form of Salpa demo- 

of the chain is a Salpa of the sexual cratica-mucronata, showing a 

or aggregated form, and when mature chain of embryos nearly ready 

may either still attached to its to be set free. 

neighbours or separated from them gem, Young aggregated Salpae 

(fig. 21, A) produce one or several forming the chain. 

embryos, which develop into the st, Stolon. 

solitary Salpa. Thus the two forms m, M uscle band of the mantle. 

alternate regularly. 

The more important points in the structure of a typical Salpa are 
shown in fig. 23. The branchial and atrial apertures are at opposite 
ends of the body, and each leads into a large cavity, e, H 
the branchial and peribranchial sacs, which are in free $, 
communication at the sides of the obliquely-running ' saypa - 
dorsal lamina or " gill." The test is well developed and adheres 
closely to the surface of the mantle. The muscle bands of the 
mantle do not completely encircle the body. They are present 

dl ' "<'* 
'< ' ' f i J f 1 f '' 7 8 ? '" " 

t f : ^^g4ffg^gS^"feasy a aft at 




FIG. 22. Posterior part of 




end' 



"st 



FIG. 23. Semi-diagrammatic representation of Salpa 

from left side. Lettering as before. 

emb, Embryo. /', Thickening of test over nucleus. 

m, Mantle. . dl, Gill or branchia. 

/, Languet. i-n, Muscle bands of mantle. 

dorsally and laterally, but the majority do not reach the ventral 
surface. In many cases neighbouring bands join in the median 
dorsal line (fig. 21). The anterior end of the dorsal lamina is pro- 
longed to form a prominent tentacular organ, the languet, projecting 
into the branchial sac. The nerve ganglion (which represents the 
janglion of the Ascidian along with the subneural gland), dorsal 
amina, peripharyngeal bands and endostyle, are placed in their 



388 



TUNICATA 



usual positions ; but in place of any distinct subneural gland there 
are two lateral neural glandular masses first described by Metcalf. 
These have no connexion with the ciliated funnel, but open by lateral 
ducts into the branchial cavity. Median and lateral eyes are also 
found in connexion with the ganglion. The large spaces at the sides 
of the dorsal lamina (often called the gill or branchia of Salpa), by 
means of which the cavity of the branchial sac is placed in free com- 
munication with the peribranchial cavity, are to be regarded as 
gigantic stigmata formed by the suppression of the lateral walls of 
the branchial sac. Fig. 23 represents an aggregated or sexual Salpa 
which was once a member of a chain, since it shows a testis and a 
developing embryo. The ova (always few in number, usually only 
one) appear at a very early period in the developing chain Salpa, 
while it is still a part of the gemmiparous stolon in the body of the 
solitary Salpa. This gave rise to the view put forward by Brooks 
(25), that the ovary really belongs to the solitary Salpa, which is 
therefore a female producing a series of males by asexual gemmation, 
and depositing in each of these an ovum, which will afterwards, when 
fertilized, develop in the body of the male into a solitary or female 
Salpa. This idea would of course entirely destroy the view that 
Salpa is an example of alternation of generations. The sexual or 
chain Salpa, although really hermaphrodite, is always protogynous; 
i.e. the female elements or ova are produced at an earlier period 
than the male organ or testis. This prevents self-fertilization. 
The ovum is fertilized by the spermatozoa of an older Salpa be- 
longing to another chain, and the embryo] is far 
Development ac j vance( j m ; ts development before the testis is formed. 
Follicular cells, known as kalymmocytes, migrate into 
the ovum and for a time play an important part in moulding the 
development and nourishing the blastomeres. At an early period 
in its development a part of the embryo becomes separated off, 
along with a part of the wall of the cavity in which it lies, to form 
the " placenta," in which the embryonic and the maternal blood 
streams circulate in close proximity (or actually coalesce during one 
period) and so allow of the passage of nutriment to the developing 
embryo. At a somewhat later stage a number of cells placed at the 
posterior end of the body alongside the future nucleus become filled 
up with oil-globules to form a mass of nutrient material the elaeo- 
bfast which is used up later on in the development. Many sugges- 
tions have been made as to the homology of the elaeoblast. The 
most probable is that it is the disappearing rudiment of the tail 
found in the larval condition of most Ascidians. 

Addendum. 

The family Octacnemidae includes the single remarkable genus 
Octacnemus, found during the " Challenger " expedition, and first 
_. described by Moseley (29). It is now known in both a 

solitary and an aggregated form, and was regarded by 
Herdman as a deep-sea representative of the pelagic 
Salpidae, possibly fixed ; or, better, as related to the primitive fixed 
forms from which Salpidae have been derived. Metcalf, however, 
has shown that the aggregated form of 0. patagoniensis, which he has 
described, is more nearly related to the Clavelinidae amongst 
Ascidiacea. The body is somewhat discoid, with its margin pro- 
longed to form eight tapering processes (fig. 24), on to which the 
muscle bands of the mantle are continued. The alimentary canal 

- At 




FIG. 24. Octacnemus. 
A, Solitary form (after Herdman). B, Aggregated form (after 

Metcalf). 

a, Anus. m, Mouth. 

At, Atrial aperture. as, Oesophagus. 

br.s, Branchial sac. p.br, Peribranchial cavity. 

g.s, Gill slit. st, Stolon. 



forms a compact nucleus (fig. 24, A) ; the endostyle is very short ; 
and the dorsal lamina is also reduced. The reproduction and life- 
history are entirely unknown. Octacnemus bythius was found by the 
" Challenger " expedition in the South Pacific at depths of 1070 and 
2160 fathoms, and Metcalf has since described a new species, 0. 
patagoniensis from 1050 fathoms off the Patagonian coast, in which 



there is an aggregated form (fig. 24, B) consisting of individuals united 
by a stolon composed of test and body-walls. 
ORDER III. ASCIDIACEA 

Fixed or free-swimming simple or compound Ascidians which in 
the adult are never provided with a tail and have no trace of a 
notochord. The free-swimming forms are colonies, the . Miace 
simple Ascidians being always fixed. The test is perma- ' 
nent and well developed ; as a rule it increases with the age of the 
individual. The branchial sac is large and well developed. Its 
walls are perforated by numerous slits (stigmata) opening into 
the peribranchial cavity, which communicates with the exterior by 
the atria! aperture. Many of the forms reproduce by gemination, 
and in most of them the sexually-produced embryo develops into a 
tailed larva. 

The Ascidiacea includes three groups the simple Ascidians, the 
compound Ascidians and the free-swimming colonial Pyrosoma. 
Sub-Order l. Ascidiae simplices. 

Fixed Ascidians which are solitary and very rarely reproduce by 
gemmation; if colonies are formed, the members are not buried in 
a common investing mass, but each has a distinct test 
of its own. No strict line of demarcation can be drawn * 
between the simple and the compound Ascidians, and sc ' 
one of the families of the former group, the Clavelinidae (the 
social Ascidians), forms a transition from the typical simple 
forms, which never reproduce by gemmation, to the compound forms, 
which always do. The Ascidiae Simplices may be divided into the 
following families: 

Family I., Clavelinidae. Simple Ascidians which reproduce by 
gemmation to form small colonies in which each ascidiozooid has a 
distinct test, but all are connected by a common blood system, and 
by prolongations of " epicardiac tubes " from the branchial sacs. 
Buds formed on stolons which are vascular outgrowths from the 
posterior end of the body, containing prolongations from the ecto- 
derm, mesoderm and endoderm of the ascidiozooid. Branchial sac 
not folded; internal longitudinal bars usually absent; stigmata 
straight; tentacles simple. This family contains, amongst others, 
the following three genera: Ecteinascidia (Herdman), with internal 
longitudinal bars in branchial sac ; Clavelina (Savigny), with intestine 
extending behind branchial sac; and Perophora (Wiegmann), with 
intestine alongside branchial sac. 

Family II., Ascidiidae. Solitary fixed Ascidians with gelatinous 
test ; branchial aperture usually eight-lobed, atrial aperture usually 
six-lobed. Branchial sac not folded; internal longitudinal bars 
usually present ; stigmata straight or curved ; tentacles simple. This 
family is divided into three sections: 

Sub-family I, Hypobythinae. Branchial sac with no internal 
longitudinal bars. One genus, Hypobythius (Moseley). 

Sub-family 2, Ascidinae. Stigmata straight. Many genera, of 
which the following are the more important: Ciona (Fleming), 
dorsal languets present; Ascidia (Linnaeus, = Phallusia, Savigny), 
dorsal lamina present (see figs. I to 10); Rhodosoma (Ehrenberg), 
anterior part of test modified to form operculum; Abyssasciaia 
(Herdman), intestine on right side of branchial sac. 

Sub-family 3, Corellinae. Stigmata curved. Three chief 
genera: Corella (Alder and Hancock), test gelatinous, body sessile; 
Corynascidia (Herdman), test gelatinous, body pedunculated ; 
Chelyospma (Brod. and Sow.), test modified into horny plates. 

Family III., Cynthiidae. Solitary fixed Ascidians, usually 
with leathery test; branchial and atrial apertures both four-lobed. 
Branchial sac longitudinally folded (fig. 26) ; stigmata straight ; 
tentacles simple or compound. This family is divided into three 
sections : 

Sub-family I, Styelinae. Not more than four folds on each side 
of branchial sac (fig. 26, S) tentacles simple. The more important 
genera are: Styela (Macleay), stigmata normal, and Bathyoncus 
(Herdman), stigmata absent or modified. 





(After Herdman, " Challenger " Report.) 

FIG. 25. Culeolus willemoesi. 
A, Entire body, natural size. B, Part of branchial sac magnified. 

brf, Slight fold of branchial sac. 

at, Atrial aperture. i I, Internal longitudinal bar. 

br, Branchial aperture. mh, Mesh. 

ped, Peduncle. sp, Calcareous spicules in vessels. 

tr, Transverse vessels. 



TUNICATA 



389 



Sub-family 2, Cynthinae. More than eight folds in branchial 
sac (fig. 26, C) ; tentacles compound ; body sessile. The chief genus 
is Cynthia (Savigny), with a large number of species. 

Sub-family 3, Bolteninae. More than eight folds in branchial 
sac; tentacles compound; body pedunculated (fig. 25, A). The 
chief genera are: Boltenia (Savigny), branchial aperture four-lobed, 
stigmata normal; and Culeolus (Herdman), branchial aperture 
with less than four lobes, stigmata absent or modified (fig. 25, B). 
This last is a deep-sea genus discovered by the " Challenger " 
expedition (see 17). 

Family IV., Molgulidae. Solitary Ascidians, sometimes not 
fixed; branchial aperture six-lobed, atrial four-lobed. Test usually 
incrusted with sand. Branchial sac longitudinally folded ; stigmata 
more or less curved, usually arranged in spirals ; tentacles compound. 
The chief genera are: Molgula (Forbes), with distinct folds in the 
branchial sac, and Eugyra (Aid. and Hanc.), with nc distinct folds, 
but merely broad internal longitudinal bars in the branchial sac. 
In some of the Molgulidae (genus Anurella, Lacaze-Duthiers, 20) 
the embryo (fig. 14, M) does not become converted into a tailed 
larva, the development being direct, without metamorphosis. The 
embryo when hatched assumes gradually the adult structure, and 
never shows the features characteristic of larval Ascidians, such as 
the urochord and the median sense-organs. Bourne has described 
an aberrant Molgulid, Oligolrema, from the Loyalty Islands, with 
a reduced branchial sac and enlarged pinnate muscular branchial 
lobes, apparently used for catching food! 




D:L. 



End 



A: 



ra. 



... iv... 





c. 



FIG. 26. Diagrams showing Transverse Sections of Typical 
Branchial Sacs. 

A, Unfolded type. S, Styela, with four folds on each side. 
C, Cynthia, with eight folds on one side and seven on the other. 
D.L., Dorsal lamina; End, endostyle; I, II, &c., folds. 




FIG 27. Types of Stomach amongst Compound Ascidians. 
P, Plain. F, Folded. A, Areolated. 

i, Intestine; as, oesophagus; st, stomach. 

Figs. 26 and 27 illustrate some details of structure of branchial 
sac and of stomach in various simple and compound Ascidians, 
which are made use of in classification, and in the definitions of 
genera and larger groups. 

Sub-Order 2. Ascidiae Compositae. 

Fixed Ascidians which reproduce by gemmation, so as to form 
colonies in which the ascidiozooids are buried in a common invest- 
Compountl ln & mass and have no separate tests. This is probably 
Astidlaas a somewna t artificial assemblage formed of two or 
three groups of Ascidians which produce colonies in 
which the ascidiozooids are so intimately united that they possess 
a common test or investing mass. This is the only character which 
distinguishes them from the Clavelinidae, but the property of repro- 
ducing by gemmation separates them from the rest of the Ascidiae 
Simplices. The Ascidiae Compositae may be divided into seven 
families, which fall into two well-marked groups: (i) the Chalaro- 
somata, including the first five families, with extended body, divided 
into two or three regions, and more nearly related to the Clavelinidae ; 
and (2) the Pectosomata, including the Botryllidaeand Polystyelidae, 
with a compact body, not divided into regions, and evidently related 
to the Cynthiidae amongst simple Ascidians. 

Family I., Distomidae. Ascidiozooids divided into two regions, 



thorax and abdomen; testes numerous; vas deferens not spirally 
coiled. The chief genera are : Distoma (Gaertner) ; Distaplia (Delia 
Valle); Colella (Herdman), forming a pedunculated colony (see fig. 
28, A) in which the ascidiozooids develop incubatory pouches, 
connected with the peribranchial cavity, in which the embryos 
undergo their development (17); and Chondrostachys (Macdonald). 

Family II., Coelocormidae. Colony not fixed, having a large 
axial cavity with a terminal aperture. Branchial apertures five- 
lobed. This includes one species, Coelocormus huxleyi (Herdman), 
which is, in some respects, a transition form between the ordinary 
compound Ascidians (e.g. Distomidae) and the Ascidiae Luciae 
(Pyrosoma) . 

Family III., Didemnidae. Colony usually thin and incrusting 
test containing stellate calcareous spicules. Testis single, large; 




(After Herdman, " Challenger " Report.) 

Fit;. 28. Colonies of Ascidiae Compositae. (Natural size.) 

A, Colella quoyi. D, Botryllus, showing arrangement 

B, Leptoclinum neglectum. of ascidiozooids in circular 

C, Pharyngodictyon mirabile. systems, each of which has a 

central common cloaca. 

vas deferens spirally coiled. The chief genera are Didemnum 
(Savigny), in which the colony is thick and fleshy and there are 
only three rows of stigmata on each side of the branchial sac; 
and Leptoclinum (Milne-Edwards), in which the colony is thin 
and incrusting (fig. 28, B) and there are four rows of stigmata on 
each side of the branchial sac. 

Family IV., Diplosomidae. Test reduced in amount, rarely 
containing spicules. Vas deferens not spirally coiled. In Diplosoma 
(Macdonald), the most important genus, the larva is gemmiparous. 

Family V., Polyclinidae. Ascidiozooids divided into three 
regions thorax, abdomen and post-abdomen. Testes numerous; 
vas deferens not spirally coiled. The chief genera are: Pharyngo- 
dictyon (Herdman), with stigmata absent or modified, containing 
one species, Ph. mirabile (fig. 28, C), the only compound Ascidian 
known from a depth of 1000 fathoms; Polyclinum (Savigny), with 
a smooth-walled stomach; Aplidium (Savigny), with the stomach 
wall longitudinally folded (fig. 27); and Amaroucium (Milne- 
Edwards), in which the ascidiozooid has a long post-abdomen and 
a large atrial languet. 

Family VI., Botryllidae. Ascidiozooids having the intestine 
and reproductive organs alongside the branchial sac. Dorsal lamina 
present; internal longitudinal bars present in branchial sac. The 
chief genera are: Botryllus (Gaertn. and Pall.), with simple stellate 
systems (fig. 28, D), and Botrylloides(Mi\ne- Edwards), with elongated 
or ramified systems. It is well known that in the family Botryllidae, 
amongst compound Ascidians, the ectodermal vessels containing 



a. 




a 



(After Pizon .) 



FIG. 29. Young Colony of Botryllus, showing Buds and Ampullae. 
a, Ampullae; B2 Bj, 84, Successive generations of buds; 
e, Stomach; i, Intestine; up, Vessels of the test. 



39 



TUNIC AT A 



blood, which ramify through the common test and serve to connect 
the vascular systems of the various members of the colony, have 
numerous large ovate dilatations, the ampullae, upon their terminal 
twigs (fig. 29). Various functions have been assigned to these 
ampullae in the past, and Bancroft has shown that in addition to 
acting as storage reservoirs for blood, organs for the secretion of 
test matrix, ana accessory organs of respiration, they are also organs 
for blood propulsion. The ampullae execute co-ordinated pulsations, 
the co-ordination being due to variations in the blood-pressure. 
It was actually found that the ampullae could keep up the circula- 
tion for some time in a portion of a colony independently of the 
hearts of the ascidiozooids. All the hearts in a colony of Botryllus 
contract simultaneously and in the same direction. The reversal 
of the circulation may be regarded as due to the engorgement of 
the ampullae in the superficial parts of the colony. These when 
distended overcome the resistance of the heart's action, and cause 
it to stop and then reverse. 

Family VII., Polystyelidae. Ascidiozooids not grouped in sys- 
tems. Branchial and atrial apertures four-lobed. Branchial sac 
may be folded; internal longitudinal bars present. The chief 
genera are : Thylacium (Carus), with ascidiozooids projecting above 
general surface of colony ; Goodsiria (Cunningham), with ascidiozooids 
completely imbedded in investing mass; and Chorizocormus (Herd- 
man), with ascidiozooids united in little groups which are connected 
by stolons. Several of the species show transitions between the 
other Polystyelidae and the Styelinae amongst simple Ascidians. 

Gemmation and Growth of Colonies. A number of new obser- 
vations have been made in recent years upon the budding of com- 
pound Ascidians, some of which are very puzzling and contradictory 
in their results. Metschnikoff, Kowalevsky, Giard, Hjort, Fizon, 
Seeliger, Ritter, van Beneden and Julin have all in turn added to 
our knowledge of the details of development and life-history, of 
the various processes of gemmation and of the formation of colonies. 
It is impossible as yet to reconcile all the conflicting accounts, but 
the following points at least seem pretty clear. 

Gemmation may be very different in its details in closely related 
compound Ascidians. There are, however, two main types of 
budding, to one or other of which most of the described methods 
may be referred. There is first the " stolonial " or " epicardiac " 
type, seen in the Chalarosomata, typically in Distomidae and 
Polyclinidae, and comparable with the gemmation in Clavelinidae, 
Pyrosomidae and Thaliacea outside this group. Secondly, there 
is the " parietal " or " peribranchial " type, seen in the Pectoso- 
mata, typically in the Botryllidae. The remarkable process of 
gemmation seen in the families Didemnidae and Diplosomidae may 
probably be regarded as a modification of the stolonial type. The 
double embryo in the Diplosomidae is probably to be interpreted 
as precocious budding (rather than as embryonic fission), due to 
acceleration in development (tachygenesis). The type of budding, 
and even details such as the length of the stolon, have much to do 
with differences in the nature and appearance of the colonies pro- 
duced. The stolon, which has a wall continuous with the body-wall 
of the parent, contains an endodermal element in the form of the 
so-called " epicardium," and also a prolongation of the ovary, or 
at least a string of migrating germ-cells, so that the reproductive 
elements are also handed on. Still, it is clear from recent researches 




(After Pizon.) 

FIG. 30. Young buds of Botryllus sectioned to show the separation 

of the branchial (vb) from the peribranchial (cp) cavities. 

ov, Dorsal tube. gh, Germ cells. 

m, Mesoderm cells. ect, Ectoderm. 

that the development of the bud (blastozooid) and that of the embryo 
(oozooid) do not proceed along parallel lines. It is impossible to 
harmonize the facts of gemmation with the germ-layer theory, 



and attempts to explain budding in Ascidians as a process of re- 
generation, by which the organs of the parent or their germ-layers 
give rise to the corresponding organs in the bud, have signally failed. 

Figs. 29 and 30 show the buds in the Botryllidae, after Pizon, 
who has followed day by day the changes of growth in young colonies 
of Botryllidae, tracing the rise of successive generations of buds 
and the degeneration of their parents. The buds are parietal, 
arising from the walls of the peribranchial cavities (fig. 29), and at 
an early period they acquire the structure shown in fig. 30, where 
there are two vesicles undergoing further subdivision and differentia- 
tion, but investigators still differ as to whether the inner, which 
gives rise to the branchial sac and alimentary canal, is not produced 
along with the outer from the ectoderm of the parent. 

A remarkable case of polymorphism has been found by M. Caullery 
in the buds of the compound Ascidian Colella. Some of the buds 
have an abundant store of reserve materials in their , 
outer layer of cells, while others are without this supply. J! 
The former are placed deeply in the stalk, develop slowly, g y .. 
and probably serve to regenerate the colony when the ^^ 
head portion has been removed or has died down. In c" rnja ^/ _ 
these cases where the ectoderm has taken on the function , , 
of storing the reserve material, it is found that all the 
organs of the bud are formed from the cells of the endodermic vesicle. 
The first ascidiozooid of the colony produced by the tailed larva 
does not form sexual reproductive organs, but reproduces by gemma- 
tion so as to make a colony. Thus there is alternation of generations 
in the life-history. In the most completely formed colonies (e.g. 
Botryllus) the ascidiozooids are arranged in groups (systems or 
coenobii), and in each system are placed with their atrial apertures 
towards one another, and all communicating with a common 
cloacal cavity which opens to the exterior in the centre of the system 
(fig. 28, D). 

Sub-Order J. Ascidiae Luciae. 

Free-swimming pelagic colonies having the form of a hollow cylinder 
closed at one end. The ascidiozooids forming the colony are em- 
bedded in the common . , 
test in such a manner , sl 
that the branchial Luclae - 
apertures open on the outer surface 
and the atrial apertures on the 
inner surface next to the central 
cavity of the colony. The ascidi- 
ozooids are produced by gemmation 
from a rudimentary larva (the 
cyathozooid) developed sexually. 

This sub-order includes a single 
family, the Pyrosomidae, contain- 
ing one well*- marked 
genus, Pyrosoma 
(Pcron), with half a 

, . rr^t At/ilia. 

dozen species. 1 hey 
are found swimming near the sur- 
face of the sea, chiefly in tropical 
latitudes, and are brilliantly phos- 
phorescent. A fully developedPyro- 
soma colony may be from an inch 
or two to upwards of twelve feet in 
length. The shape of the colony 
is seen in fig. 31. It tapers slightly 
towards the closed end, which is 
rounded. The opening at the 
opposite end is reduced m size by 
the presence of a membranous 
prolongation of the common test 
(fig. 31, B). The branchial aper- 
tures of the ascidiozooids are placed 
upon short papillae projecting from 
the general surface, and most of 
the ascidiozooids have long conical 
processes of the test projecting 
outwards beyond their branchial 

apertures (figs. 31, 32 and 33). A, Side view of entire colony. 
There is only a single layer of B J nd view of open extremity, 
ascidiozooids in the Pyrosoma 

colony, as all the fully developed ascidiozooids are placed 
with their antero-posterior axes at right angles to the surface 
and communicate by their atrial apertures with the central 
cavity of the colony (fig. 32). Their dorsal surfaces are turned 
towards the open end of the colony. The more important points 
in the structure of the ascidiozooid of Pyrosoma are shown in fig. 33. 
A circle of tentacles, of which one, placed ventrally (fig. 33, tn), 
is larger than the rest, is found just inside the branchial aperture. 
From this point a wide cavity, with a few circularly placed muscle 
bands running round its walls, leads back to the large branchial 
sac, which occupies the greater part of the body. The stigmata 
are elongated transversely and crossed by internal longitudinal 
bars. The dorsal lamina is represented by a series of eight languets (/). 
The nerve ganglion (on which is placed a small pigmented sense 
organ), the subneural gland, the dorsal tubercle, the peripharyngeal 



structure 
* 




FIG. 31. Pyrosoma elegans. 
(Natural size.) 



TUNICATA 



39 1 



bands, and the endostyle are placed in the usual positions. On 
each side of the anterior end of the branchial sac, close to the 
peripharyngeal bands, is a mass of rounded gland cells which are 
the source of the phosphorescence. The alimentary canal is placed 




.yaa 



(Partly after Savigny.) 
FIG. 32. Part of a Longitudinal Section through wall of Pyrosoma, 

showing arrangement of ascidiozooids, magnified. 
at, Atrial apertures. em, Embryos in various stages. 

br, Branchial apertures. t, Test. 

asc, Young ascidiozooid of a future t.p, Processes of test, 
colony produced by budding br.s, Branchial sac. 
from cy, cyathozooid. y.as, Young ascidiozooid. 

posteriorly to the branchial sac, and the anus opens into a large 
peribranchial (or atrial) cavity, of which only the median posterior 
part is shown (p.br.) in fig. 33. The reproductive organs are developed 
in a diverticulum of the peribranchial cavity, and consist of a lobed 
testis and a single ovum at a time. The development takes place 
in a part of the peribranchial cavity (fig. 32, em). The segmentation 
, is meroblastic, and an elongated embryo is formed on 
Development the gurface of a mass of yolk The em bryo, after the 

^' formation of an alimentary cavity, a tubular nervous 

system, and a pair of laterally placed atrial tubes, divides 
into an anterior and a posterior part. The anterior part then segments 
into four pieces, which afterwards develop into the first ascidiozooids 
of the colony, while the posterior part remains in a rudimentary 
condition, as the " cyathozooid "; it eventually atrophies. As the 
four ascidiozooids increase in size, they grow round the cyatho- 
zooid and soon encircle it (fig. 32, asc and cy). The cyathozooid 
absorbs the nourishing yolk upon which it lies, and distributes it 




Its 

(Partly after Keferstein.; 
FlG. 33. Mature Ascidiozooid of Pyrosoma, from left side. 
Lettering as before. 

c.m, Cellular mass, the seat of m.b, Muccle band. 

phosphorescence. n.gl, Subneural gland. 

c.m', Posterior cellular mass. pig, Pigment spot on ganglion. 

g.s, Gemmiparous stolon. t.p, Process of test. 



to the ascidiozooids by means of a heart and system of vessels which 
have been meanwhile formed. When the cyathozooid atrophies 
and is absorbed, its original atrial aperture remains and deepens 
to become the central cavity of the young colony, which now consists 
of four ascidiozooids placed in a ring, around where the cyathozooid 
was, and enveloped in a common test. The colony gradually 
increases by the formation of buds from these four original ascidio- 
zooids. 

PHYLOGENY 

The accompanying diagram (fig. 34) shows graphically the probable 
origin and course of evolution of the various groups >f Tunicata, 
and therefore exhibits their relations to one anothe . 
much more correctly than any system of lineai Ha y'Z ea y 
classification can do. The ancestral Proto-Tunicata are here 
regarded ' as an offshoot from the Proto-Chordata the common 




ancestors of the Tunicata (Urochorda), Amphioxus (Cephalochorda) 
and the Vertebrata. The ancestral Tunicata were probably free- 
swimming forms, not very unlike the existing Append iculariidae, 
and are represented in the life-history of nearly all sections of the 
Tunicata by the tailed larval stage. The Larvacea are the first 
offshoot from the ancestral forms which gave rise to the two lines 
of descendants, the Proto-Thaliacea and the Proto-Ascidiacea. 
The Proto-Thaliacea then split into the ancestors of the existing 
Cyclomyaria and Hemimyaria. The Proto-Ascidiacea gave up 
their pelagic mode of life and became fixed. This ancestral process 
is repeated at the present day when the free-swimming larva of 
the simple and compound Ascidians becomes attached. The Proto- 
Ascidiacea, after the change, are probably most nearly represented 
by the existing genus Clavelina. They have given rise directly 
or indirectly to the various groups of simple and compound Ascidians 
and the Pyrosomidae. These groups form two lines, which appear 
to have diverged close to the position of the family Clavelinidae. 
The one line leads to the more typical compound Ascidians, and 
includes the Polyclinidae, Distomidae, Didemnidae, Diplosprr. idae, 
Coelocormidae, and finally the Ascidiae Luciae or Salpiformes. 
The second line gave rise to the simple Ascidians, and to the Botryl- 
lidae and Polystyelidae, which are, therefore, not closely allied to 
the other compound Ascidians. The later Proto-Ascidiacea were 
probably colonial forms, and gemmation was retained by the Clave- 
linidae and by the typical compound Ascidians (Distomidae, &c.) 
derived from them. The power of forming colonies by budding 
was lost, however, by the primitive simple Ascidians, and must, 
therefore, have been regained independently by the ancestral forms 
of the Botryllidae and the Polystyelidae. If this is a correct inter- 
pretation of the course of evolution of the Tunicata, we arrive at 
the following important conclusions. (l) The Tunicata, as a whole, 
form a degenerate branch of the Proto-Chordata; (2) the Ascidiae 
Luciae (Pyrosoma) are much more closely related to the typical 
compound Ascidians than to the other pelagic Tunicata, viz. the 
Larvacea and the Thaliacea ; and (3) the Ascidiae Compositae form 
a polyphyletic group, the sections of which have arisen at several 
distinct points from the ancestral simple Ascidians. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. (i) Cuvier, " Mern. s. les Ascidies," &c., in Mem. 
d. Mus. ii. 10 (Paris, 1815); (2) Savigny, Memoires sur les animaux 
sans vertebres, pt. ii. fasc. i. (Paris, 1816); (3) Lamarck, Hist. not. 
d. anim. sans vertebres (ist ed., Paris, 1815-1823); (4) O. F. Miiller, 
Zoo/, danica. (1806), vol. iv. ; (5) Milne-Edwards, " Observ. s. les 
Ascidies Composees," &c., in Mem. Acad. Set. vol. xviii. (Paris, 1842) ; 
(6) Schmidt, Zur vergl. Physiol. d. wirbellos. Thiere (Brunswick, 
1845); (7) Lowig and Kolliker, " De la Compos., &c., d. Envel. d. 
Tun.," in Ann. Sc. Nat., 1846 (Zool.), 3rd series, vol. v. ; (8) Huxley, 
Phil. Trans. (1851); (9) Kowalevsky, " Entwickel. d. einf. Ascid.," 
in Mem. St Petersb. Acad. Sc. (1866), 7th series, vol. x. ; (10) J. P. 
van Beneden, " Rech. s. 1'Embryolog., &c., d. Asc. Simp.," in Mem. 
acad. roy. belg. (1847), vol. xx. ; (ii) Krohn, in Wiegmann and 

1 By Dohrn and others their point of origin is placed considerably 
farther up on the stem of the Chordata, thus causing the Tunicata 
to be regarded as very degenerate Vertebrata (see 31). 



392 



TUNICLE TUNIS 



Muller's Archiv (1852); (12) Kupffer, Arch. f. mikr. Anal. (1869, 
1872); (13) Giard, "Etude d. trav. embryolog. d. Tun., &c., ' in 
Arch. zoo/, exper. (1872), vol. i.; (14) Fol, " Etudes sur les appendi- 
culaires du d^troit de Messine," in Mem. soc. phys. hist. nat. Geneve, 
vol. xxi.; (15) Giard, " Recherches s. 1. Asc. Comp.," in Arch. zoo/. 
exper. (1872), vol. i. ; (16) Von Drasche, Die Synascidien der Bucht 
von Rovigno (Vienna, 1883); (17) Herdman, "Report upon the 
Tunicata of the ' Challenger ' Expedition," pt. i. in Zoo/. ' Chall." 
Exp (1882), vol. vi.; pt. ii. in Zoo/. " Chall. Exp. (1886), vol. xiv.; 
pt. iii. in Zoo/. " Chall." Exp. (1889), vol. xxvii.; (18) Alder and 
Hancock, in Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (1863, 1870); (19) Heller, 
" Untersuch. u. d. Tunic, d. Adriat. Meeres," in Denkschr. d. k. Akad. 
Wiss. (1875-1877); (20) Lacaze-Duthiers, " Asc. simp. d. c8tes d. 
1. Manche, in Arch. zoo/, exper. (1874, 1877); (21) Traustedt, in 
Vidensk. medd. naturh. For. (Copenhagen, 1881-1884); (22) Herd- 
man, " Notes on British Tunicata, &c.," in Journ. Linn. Soc. Zoo/. 
(1880), vol. xv. ; (23) Ussoff, in Proc. imp. soc. nat. hist. (Moscow, 1876), 
vol. xviii.; (24) Julin, " Rech. s. 1'org. d. asc. simp.," in Arch. d. 
biol. (1881), vol. ii. ; (25) Brooks, " Development of Salpa," in Bull. 
Mus. Comp. Zoo/, iii. 291 (Harvard); (26) Salensky, Ztschr. /. wiss. 
Zoo/. (1877); (27) Barrois, Journ. d. I'anat. et phys. (1885), vol. xxi.; 




; (30) E. 

Tuniciers," in Arch. d. Biol. (1886), vol. vi.; (31) Dohrn, " Studien 
zur Urgesch. der Wirbelth." in Mitth. zoo/. Stat. Neapel; (32) 
Herdman, " Revised Classification," Journ. Linn. Soc. (1891), vol. 
xxiii.; (33) Herdman, Descriptive Catalogue of Australian Tunicata 
(1899); (34) Brooks, The Genus Salpa (1893); (35) Seeliger, Bronn's 
Thier-Reich Tunicata. (W. A. HE.) 

TUNICLE (Lat. tunicella), a liturgical vestment of the Christian 
church, proper to subdeacons. It is practically the same vest- 
ment as the dalmatic (q.v.). 

TUNING FORK, a small bar of cast steel with tolerably 
denned edges, bent into a fork with two prongs, with a handle 
of the same metal extending from the bend of the fork and 
serving as a sound-post to transmit the vibrations to any 
resonance board or body convenient for reinforcing the sound. 
The fork is set in vibration by striking one of the prongs against 
a hard substance, or pressing the prongs together if they are 
light ones, or if heavy drawing a bow across. The tuning 
fork was invented by John Shore, royal trumpeter in 1711, 
sergeant trumpeter at the entry of George I. in 1714, and lutanist 
to the Chapel Royal in 1715. It is used for determining musical 
pitch (see PITCH), and also in certain physical experiments 
(see SOUND). 

TUNIS, capital of Tunisia, the largest city in North Africa 
outside Egypt, in 36 48' N., 10 12' E. Tunis is situated on 
an isthmus between two salt lakes, the marshy Sebkha-el- 
Sejumi to the south-west, and the shallow el-Bahira (little sea), 
or Lake of Tunis, to the north-east. An artificially deepened 
channel through the Bahira into the Gulf of Tunis has converted 
the city into a seaport (see below). North-west and south-west 
the city is commanded by hills, on which are forts, that on 
Sidi bel Hassan to the south dating from the middle ages. The 
city, which was iormerly strongly fortified, is built in the shape 
of an amphitheatre, with the kasbah, or citadel, at its highest 
point. The old town (Medina), the walls of which have in 
great part disappeared, lies between two suburbs, the Ribat-el- 
Sowika on the north and the Ribat Bab-el-Jezira on the south. 
These suburbs were also surrounded by a wall, now pulled 
down, leaving the gates of the city isolated. An outer wall, 
however, encloses the Medina and its suburbs. Beyond the 
Bab-el-Bahar (sea-gate), now called Porte de France, on the 
level ground by the Bahira, is the marine town, or Quartier 
Franc, built since the French occupation in 1881. No attempt 
has been made by the French to modernize the ancient city. 

The European Quarter. From the landing stage a short street 
leads into the broad Avenue Jules Ferry or de la Marine running 
east to west and ending in the Place de la Residence, on the 
north side of which is the Roman Catholic cathedral and on 
the south side the palace of the French resident-general, with 
a large garden. The main thoroughfare is continued west- 
wards by the Avenue de France, which leads to the Porte de 
France. Beyond the gate is the small Place de la Bourse, 
in which is the British consulate. From the Porte electric 
trams run to the harbour and also in a circle round the native 
city. From the Place de la Residence cross-roads run north 



and south. The northern road, the Rue de Rome, led to the 
Gare du Nord, the station for Carthage, Goletta and La Marsa. 
This line was replaced in 1908 by an electric tramway built 
along the northern bank of the canal connecting Tunis and 
Goletta. The southern road, the Rue-es-Sadikia, leads to the 
Gare du Sud, the station for Susa, Kairawan, &c., and also for 
Algiers. The Avenue Jules Ferry is intersected by a north-to 
south street running in a straight line over two miles. The 
northern section is called the Avenue de Paris; the southern 
Avenue de Carthage. By these avenues, served by electric 
trams, access is gained to the suburbs of the city. In the 
Avenue de France or Avenue Jules Ferry are the chief hotels 
and cafes, the casino-theatre, the principal banks and the 
finest shops. In the Rue d'ltalie, running south from the 
Avenue de France, are the post office, market buildings, and 
French Protestant church. There is an English church in the 
Rue d'Espagne. Behind the cathedral is a disused cemetery 
with a chapel, where the Christian slaves are supposed to have 
worshipped. The coffins in the vaults have been removed to 
the Chapel of St Louis at Carthage. Among them was that 
of M. de Lesseps, French consul-general (d. 1832), father of 
the maker of the Suez Canal. Next to the cemetery is the old 
Greek church. North of the Avenue de France is a district, 
inhabited chiefly by Maltese, which has obtained the name of 
Malta-es-Segheira (Little Malta). 

The Native Town. To the visitor from Europe the attraction 
of Tunis lies in the native city, where, in the Rue al Jezira, 
along which runs electric trams, he can see hundreds of camels 
in the morning bearing charcoal to market; where he may 
witness the motley life of the bazaars, or, by the Bab-Jedid, 
watch the snake-charmers and listen to the Moorish story- 
tellers. Christians are forbidden to enter the mosques. From 
various points the traveller can look over the city, with its great 
citadel, its many minarets and its flat-topped houses. Many 
of the dwellings of the richer residents are adorned with arcades, 
the marble columns of which were taken from the ruins of 
Carthage. The Porte de France is the threshold of the ancient 
city. Two narrow streets climb the hill towards the citadel. 
That to the right, the Rue de la Kasbah, opens into a small 
square (Suk-el-Islam or Place de la Kasbah), on the left of which 
is the Dar-el-Bey (palace of the bey), while beyond it rise the 
walls of the citadel. That to the left leads to the chief mosque 
of the city, the Jamaa-al-Zeituna (mosque of the Olive Tree), 
founded in A.D. 698. It has many domes and a spacious cloister, 
and its central court can be seen from the neighbouring streets. 
Attached to the mosque is a college attended by several hun- 
dreds of Moslem youths. The Dar-el-Bey contains numerous 
rooms beautifully decorated in the Moorish style of the i8th 
century; and the judgment hall has a domed roof adorned with 
the delicate arabesque plaster-work known as Nuksh hadida. 
The kasbah, which forms the western side of the Suk-el-Islam, 
includes within the circuit of its walls a mosque built about 
A.D. 1232 by Abu Zakariya the Hafsite. Of the ancient kasbah 
nothing but the walls remain, the old buildings having been 
demolished to make way for barracks for the French troops. 
Besides being a fortress the kasbah formerly contained a palace 
of the beys, barracks for janissaries and bagnios for the Christian 
slaves. When in July 1535 the Spaniards under Charles V. 
attacked Tunis, the Christians in the kasbah, said to number 
10,000, rose against their keepers and helped to secure the 
victory of the emperor. The Spaniards during their occupancy 
of Tunis strengthened the kasbah and built an aqueduct to 
supply it with water. Immediately north of the kasbah are 
the buildings of the Sadiki College, and north of the college is 
the Palais de Justice, a building completed in 1901. It stands 
between the line of the ancient wall and the enceinte. Its walls 
are decorated with faience taken from an ancient Tunisian 
palace. North-east of the Palais de Justice, which like the 
Sadiki College is built in the Moorish style, rises the great dome, 
surrounded by smaller cupolas, of the largest mosque in the 
city, that named after Sidi Mahrez, a renowned saint of the 
5th century of the Mahommedan era, whose tomb makes it a 



TUNISIA 



393 



sanctuary for debtors. East of the mosque, which dates from 
the 1 7th century, and just without the inner city walls, here 
demolished, is the Protestant cemetery of St George, used during 
the I7th, i8th and the greater part of the igth centuries. Here 
are buried several British consuls. Here also was the grave 
of John Howard Payne, author of " Home, Sweet Home " and 
consul for the United States, who died at Tunis in 1852. In 
1883 the body was disinterred and removed to America, but a 
monument has been placed on the spot similar to that erected 
over the new tomb at Washington. 

The Bazaars. The native city to the north of the Rue de la 
Kasbah includes the Jewish quarter and the synagogue. The 
Jews of Tunis adopt a special costume, the women wearing gaily 
coloured vests and close-fitting white trousers. Beyond the Jewish 
quarter, in the Ribat-el-Soweika, is the Place el Halfa-Ouine, 
a favourite rendezvous of the poorer Moslem population, wherein 
are many native cafe's. South of the Rue de la Kasbah is the bazaar 
quarter. Here the streets are very narrow and tortuous, some 
being vaulted and many covered in with planking. They are 
known as suks (markets), and each suk is devoted to one particular 
trade. Beyond paving the streets the French have made no altera- 
tion in the suks, which retain their original character unimpaired. 
The shops consist of small cubes, open in the front, in which the 
trader squats cross-legged amidst his wares. The principal suks 
are el-Attarin (market of the perfumers), el-Farashin (carpets and 
cloths), el-Serajin (saddlery) and el-Birka (jewelry). The suk 
el-Birka was formerly the slave market. Near by are the green- 
tiled domes and walls enriched with rose-coloured marbles of the 
mausoleum of the beys. 

Public Institutions, &c. Tunis is furnished with well-equipped 
hospitals and a large asylum for aged people kept by the Little 
Sisters of the Poor. The principal educational establishments, 
besides that of the mosque of the Olive Tree, are the Sadiki College, 
founded in 1875, for free instruction in Arabic and European 
subjects, the Lyc6e Carnot in the Avenue de Paris, formerly the 
College of St Charles (founded by Cardinal Lavigerie), open to Chris- 
tians and Moslems alike, and the normal school, founded in 1884 
by the reigning bey, for the training of teachers in the French 
language and European ideas. The Dames de Sion have a large 
establishment for the teaching of small children of both sexes, 
and there is a secondary school for girls. All the schools are well 
attended. About a mile and a half north of the centre of the 
European quarter, on the slopes of a hill rising 270 ft., is the Pare 
du Belvedere covering some 240 acres and commanding extensive 
views. Water is supplied to the city, with its numerous fountains, 
from Jebel Zaghwan (vide infra) by the Roman aqueduct repaired, 
at a cost of half a million sterling, by the bey Mahommed al-Sadik 
(d. 1882). 

The Port. The canal which traverses the shallow Bahira, and 
connects Tunis with the Mediterranean, is nearly seven miles long. 
By means of breakwaters it is continued beyond the coast-line 
and is at its mouth 328 ft. wide. It has a uniform depth of 21 i ft., 
but its width within the lake is reduced to 98 ft. In the centre, 
however, the canal is widened to 147 ft. to allow vessels to pass. 
There is a harbour at the entrance (see GOLETTA). That at the 
Tunis end of the canal is 1312 ft. long by 984 ft. broad, and is of 
the same depth as the canal. The canal was begun in 1885 and was 
opened to navigation in June 1893. An additional basin, south- 
east of the main harbour, was opened in 1905 and is used for the 
exportation of phosphates. Of the ships using the harbour more 
than half are French, and one-third Italian, British vessels coming 
next. British goods, however, are largely carried in French bottoms, 
and next to France the United Kingdom and Malta take most of 
the trade of the port. The exports are chiefly phosphates and 
other minerals, cereals, olive oil, cattle, hides, sponges and wax. 
The imports are cotton goods, flour, hardware, coal, sugar, tea, 
coffee, &c. The figures of trade and shipping are included in those 
of the trade of the regency (see TUNISIA), of which Tunis and Goletta 
take about a third. 

Population. The population of the city at the census of 1906 
was returned at 227,519. The " natives " Arabs, Berbers, 
" Moors," Turks and negroes were estimated at 100,000, 
Tunisian Jews at 50,000, French 18,000, Italians 52,000, Maltese 
6000, Greeks 500 and Levantines 1000. The French language 
is predominant in the European quarter. 

Environs: The Bardo Palace, Zaghwan, &c. The environs of 
Tunis are picturesque and afford many beautiful views, the finest 
being from the hill on the south-east, crowned by a French fort, 
and from the Belvedere already mentioned. About a mile and 
a quarter from the Bab Bu Saadun, the north-west gate of the city, 
is the ancient palace called the Bardo, remarkable for the " lion 
court," a terrace to which access is gained by a flight of steps guarded 
by marble lions, and for some apartments in the Moorish style. 
The finest of these apartments, containing beautiful arabesque 



plaster work, formed the old Harem, and are now part of the Muse'e 
Alaoui, which occupies a considerable portion of the Bardo. In 
this museum M. Paul Gauckler, the director of the department 
of art and antiquities in the Tunisian government, has formed a 
magnificent collection of Carthaginian and Roman antiquities, 
especially Roman mosaics. In the Muse'e Arabe, which occupies 
an adjacent small palace built about 1830, are treasures illustrative 
of the Arab-Berber or Saracenic art of Tunisia. 

South-east of the city, along the valley of the Wadi Melain, 
are hundreds of large stone arches, magnificent remains of the 
Roman aqueduct from Zaghwan to Carthage. At Zaghwan (38 m. 
by rail from Tunis), over the spot whence the spring which supplies 
the aqueduct issues from the hill, are the ruins of a beautiful Temple 
of the Waters. The spring is now diverted direct into the aqueduct 
and is not visible at the surface. Between Zaghwan and Tunis, 
and accessible by the same railway, is Wadna, the Roman Uthina, 
where, besides numerous other ruins, are the fairly preserved 
arches of a large amphitheatre. The ruins of Carthage (q.v.) lie 
a few miles north of Goletta. 

History. Tunis is probably of greater antiquity than Car- 
thage, of which city however it became a dependency, being 
repeatedly mentioned in the history of the Punic Wars. Strabo 
speaks of its hot baths and quarries. The importance of Tunis 
dates from the Arab conquest, when, as Carthage sank, Tunis 
took its place commercially and politically. It became the 
usual port for those going from the sacred city of Kairawan to 
Spain, and was one of the residences of the Aghlabite dynasty 
(800-909). In the loth century it suffered severely, being 
repeatedly pillaged in the wars of the Fatimite caliphs Al-Qaim 
and Abu Tahir Isma'il el Mansur with the Sunnite leader Abu 
Yazid and the Zenata Berbers.. 

For its later fortunes, see TUNISIA, of which regency, since the 
accession of the Hafsites, Tunis has been the capital. 

TUNISIA (Regency of Tunis), a country of North Africa, 
under the protection of France, bounded N. by the Mediter- 
ranean, W. by Algeria, E. by Tripoli and S. by the Sahara. 
Tunisia reaches farther north than any other part of Africa, 
Ras-al-Abiadh (Cape Blanc) 1 being in 37 20' N. On the south 
the boundary of the Tunisian Sahara is undetermined, but it 
may be roughly placed at 31 N. This would give, therefore, 
a greatest length of something like 440 m. The country lies 
between 11 40' E. and 7 35' E. The average length is about 
300 m., and the average breadth 150 m.; consequently the area 
may be estimated at 50,000 sq. m. (For map, see ALGERIA.) 

Physical Features. Geographically speaking, Tunisia is merely 
the eastern prolongation of the Mauretanian projection of northern 
Africa, of that strip of mountainous, fertile and fairly well-watered 
country north of the Sahara desert, which in its flora and its fauna, 
and to some extent in its human race, belongs rather to Europe 
than to Africa. Tunisia is divided into the following four fairly 
distinct regions: 

i. On the north and north-west the Aures mountains of Algeria 
are prolonged into Tunisia, and constitute the mountainous region 
of the north, which lies between the Majerda river and the 
sea, and also includes the vicinity of the city of Tunis and the 
peninsula of the Dakhelat el Mawin, which terminates in Ras 
Addar (Cape Bon). This first division is called by the French 
" the Majerda Mountains." It includes within its limits the once 
famous district of the "Kroumirs," 2 a tribe whose occasional 
thefts of cattle across the frontier gave the French an excuse to 
invade Tunisia in 1881. The highest point which the mountains 
attairr in this division of Tunisia is about 4125 ft., near Ain Draham 
in Kroumiria. The country, however, about Bizerta is very 
mountainous, though the summits do not attain a greater altitude 
than about 3000 ft. The district between Bizerta and the Gulf of 
Tunis is a most attractive country, resembling greatly the mountain- 
ous regions of South Wales. It is well watered by streams more 
or less perennial. The principal river, the Majerda, is formed by 
the junction of the Wad Malleg and the Wad Kkallad. It and its 

1 It is possible that Ras-ben-Sekka, a little to the west of Cape 
Blanc, may be actually the most northerly point. 

2 The French seem systematically unable to master certain sounds 
foreign to their own language, or sounds which they suppose to be 
foreign. Thus the " w,' though constantly represented in French 
by ou," is continually changed by them into " v " when they 
transcribe foreign languages, just as the Greek x and the German 
and Scottish " ch " is almost invariably rendered by the French 
in Algeria and Tunis as " kr." Add to this the insertion of vowel 
sounds where they are lacking in the Arabic and you derive from the 
real word Khmir the modern French term of Kroumir. In like 
manner sebkha, a salt lake, is constantly written by the French as 
sebkra. 



394 



TUNISIA 



tributaries rise in the Majerda and Aures mountains. Flowing 
north-east the Majerda forms an extensive plain in its lower course, 
reaching the sea near the ruins of Utica. Vegetation is abundant, 
and recalls that of the more fertile districts of southern Spain and 
of Italy. On the higher mountains the flora has a very English 
character, though the actual species of plants may not be the 
same. 

2. The central plateau region, stretching between the Maierda 
valley and the mountains of Gafsa. The average elevation of this 
country is about 2000 ft. The climate, therefore, in parts is ex- 
ceedingly cold and bleak in winter, and as it is very wind-swept 
and parched in summer by the terrible qibli or " sirocco " it is 
much less attractive in appearance than the favoured region on the 
northern littoral. Although it is almost always covered with some 
kind of vegetation, trees are relatively rare. A few of the higher 
mountains have the Aleppo pine and the juniper; elsewhere only 
an infrequent wild terebinth is to be seen. In these two regions 
the date palm is never met with growing naturally wild. Its pre- 
sence is always due to its having been planted by man at some time 
or another, and therefore it is never seen far from human habitations. 
These central uplands of Tunisia in an uncultivated state are covered 
with alfa or esparto grass; but they also grow considerable amounts 
of cereals wheat in the north, barley in the south. The range of 

the Saharan Atlas of Algeria divides (roughly speaking) into two 
at the Tunisian frontier. One branch extends northwards up 
this frontier and north-eastwards across the central Tunisian 
table-land, and the other continues south-eastwards between Gafsa 
and the salt lakes of the Jerld. The greatest altitudes of the whole of 
Tunisia are attained on this central table-land, where Mt Sidi 
Ali bu Musin ascends to about 5700 ft. About 30 m. south of the 
city of Tunis is the picturesque mountain of Zaghwan, approxi- 
mately 4000 ft. in altitude, and from whose perennial springs 
comes the water-supply of Tunis to-day as it did in the time of the 
Carthaginians and Romans. North-east of Zaghwan, and nearer 
Tunis, is the Jebel Resas, or Mountain of Lead, the height of which 
is just under 4000 ft. 

3. The Sahel. This well-known Arab term for coast-belt (which 
in the plural form reappears as the familiar " Swahili " of Zanzibar) 
is applied to a third division of Tunisia, viz. the littoral region 
stretching from the Gulf of Hammamet to the south of Sfax. It 
is a region varying from 30 to 60 m. in breadth, fairly well watered 
and fertile. In a less marked way this fertile coast region is con- 
tinued southwards in an ever-narrowing belt to the Tripplitan 
frontier. This region is relatively flat, in some districts slightly 
marshy, but the water oozing from the soil is often brackish, and 
in places large shallow salt lakes are formed. Quite close to the 
sea, all along the coast from Hammamet to Sfax, there are great 
fertility and much cultivation ; but a little distance inland the country 
has a rather wild and desolate aspect, though it is nowhere a desert 
until the latitude of Sfax has been passed. 

4. The Tunisian Sahara. This occupies the whole of the southern 
division of Tunisia, but although desert predominates, it is by no 
means all desert. At the south-eastern extremity of Tunisia there 
is a clump of mountainous country, the wind-and-water-worn 
fragments of an ancient plateau, which for convenience may be 
styled the Matmata table-land. Here altitudes of over 3000 ft. are | 
reached in places, and in all the upper parts of this table-land there 
is fairly abundant vegetation, grass and herbage with low junipers, 
but with no pine trees. Fairly high mountains (in places verging 
on 4000 ft.) are found between Gafsa and the salt lakes of the 
Jerid. 

These salt lakes are a very curious feature. They stretch with 
only two short breaks in a line from the Mediterranean at the Gulf 
of Gabes to the Algerian frontier, which they penetrate for a con- 
siderable distance. They are called by the French (with their 
usual inaccuracy of pronunciation and spelling) " chotts " ; the 
word should really be the Arabic shot, an Arab term for a broad 
canal, an estuary or lake. These shats however are, strictly speak- 
ing, not lakes at all at the present day. They are smooth de- 
pressed areas (in the case of the largest, the Shat el Jerid, lying 
a few feet below the level of the Mediterranean), which for more 
than half the year are expanses of dried mud covered with a thick 
incrustation of white or grey salt. This salt covering gives them 
Th Sh a t a distance the appearance of big sheets of water. 
*' During the winter, however, when the effect of the rare 
winter rains is felt, there may actually be 3 or 4 ft. of water in these 
shats, which by liquefying the mud makes them perfectly impassable. 
Otherwise, for about seven months of the year they can be crossed 
on foot or on horseback. It would seem probable that at one time 
these shats (at any rate the Shat el Jerid) were an inlet of the 
Mediterranean, which by the elevation of a narrow strip of land on 
the Gulf of Gabes has been cut off from them. It is, however, 
a region of past volcanic activity, and these salt depressions may 
be due to that cause. Man is probably the principal agent at the 
present day in causing these shats to be without water. All round 
these salt lakes there are numerous springs, gushing from the sandy 
hillocks. Almost all these springs are at a very hot temperature, 
often at boiling point. Some of them are charged with salt, others 
are perfectly fresh and sweet, though boiling hot. So abundant is 



their volume that in several places they form actual ever-flowing 
rivers. Only for the intervention of man these rivers would at all 
times find their way into the adjoining depressions, which they 
would maintain as lakes of water. But for a long period past the 
freshwater streams (which predominate) have been used for 
irrigation to such a degree that very little of the precious water is 
allowed to run to waste into the lake basins; so that these latter 
receive only a few salt streams, which deposit on their surface the 
salt they contain and then evaporate. This abundant supply of 
fresh warm water maintains oases of extraordinary luxuriance in 
a country where rain falls very rarely. Perennial streams of the 
description referred to are found between the Algerian frontier 
and Gabes on the coast. The town at Gabes itself is on the fringe 
of a splendid oasis, which is maintained by the water of an ever- 
running stream emptying itself into the sea at Gabes after a course 
of not more than 20 m. 

All this region round the shats has been called the " Jerid " 
from the time of the Arab occupation. " Jerid " means in Arabic 
a "palm frond" and inferentially "a palm grove." . , . 
The fame of this Belad-el-Jerid, or "Country of the ' " e Je " a - 
Date Palms," was so exaggerated during the I7th and i8th centuries 
that the European geographers extended the designation from this 
small area in the south of Tunisia to cover much of inner Africa. 
With this country of Jerid may be included the island of Jerba, 
which lies close to the coast of Tunisia in the Gulf of Gabes. The 
present writer believes that the date palm was really indigenous 
to this district of the Jerid, as it is to countries of similar descrip- 
tion in southern Morocco, southern Algeria, parts of the Tripoli- 
taine, Egypt, Mesopotamia, southern Persia and north-western 
India; but that north of the latitude of the Jerid the date did not 
grow naturally in Mauretania, just as it was foreign to all parts of 
Europe, in which, as in true North Africa, its presence is due to 
the hand of man. To some extent it may be said that true North 
Africa lies to the north of the Jerid country, which, besides its 
Saharan, Arabian and Persian affinities, has a touch about it of 
real Africa, some such touch as may be observed in the valley of 
the Jordan. In the oases of the Jerid are found several species of 
tropical African mammals and two or three of Senegalese birds, 
and the vegetation seems to have as much affinity with tropical 
Africa as with Europe. In fact, the country between the Matmata 
highlands and the strait separating Jerba from the mainland is 
singularly African in the character and aspect of its flora. To the 
south of the Jerid the country is mainly desert vast unexplored 
tracts of shifting sand, with rare oases. Nevertheless, all this 
southern district of Tunisia bears evidence of once having been 
subject to a heavy rainfall, which scooped out deep valleys in the 
original table-land, and has justified the present existence of im- 
mense watercourses watercourses which are still, near their origin, 
favoured with a little water. 

Hot and mineral springs may be almost said to constitute one of 
the specialities of Tunisia. They offered a singular attraction to 
the Romans, and their presence in remote parts of the ... 
country no doubt was often the principal causeof Roman s " e 
settlement. Even at the present day their value is p * s ' 
much appreciated by the natives, who continue to bathe in the ruined 
Roman baths. The principal mineral springs of medicinal value 
are those of Korbus and Hammam Lif (of remarkable efficacy in 
rheumatic and syphilitic affections and certain skin diseases), 
of the Jerid and Gafsa, of El Hamma, near Gabes, and of various 
sites in the Kroumir country. 

Climate. The rainfall in the first geographical division is pretty 
constant, and may reach a yearly average of about 22 in. Over 
the second and third divisions the rainfall is less constant, and its 
yearly average may not exceed 17 in. The mean annual tempera- 
ture at Susa is 75 F., the mean of the winter or rainy season 
60 and of the hot season 97. At Tunis the temperature rarely 
exceeds 90, except with a wind from the Sahara. The prevailing 
winds from May to September are east and north-east and during 
the rest of the year north-west and east. A rainy season of about 
two months usually begins in January; the spring season of verdure 
is over in May ; summer ends in October with the first rains. Violent 
winds are common at both equinoxes. In the Tunisian Sahara 
rain is most uncertain. Occasionally two or three years may pass 
without any rainfall; then may come floods after a heavy down- 
fall of a few weeks. Perhaps if an average could be struck it would 
amount to 9 or 10 in. per annum. 

[Geology. The greater part of Tunisia is composed of sandstones, 
marls and loosely stratified deposits belonging to the Pliocene and 
Quaternary periods. The oldest strata, consisting of gypsiferous 
marls, are referred to the Muschelkalk and show an alternation 
of lagoon with marine conditions. The Lias and Oolite forma- 
tions are well represented, but the Sequanian and Kimmeridgian 
subdivisions are absent. Lower Cretaceous rocks, consisting of 
thick limestones, shales and marls, occur in Central Tunisia. The 
fossils show many notable affinities with those in the Lower Cre- 
taceous of the Pyrenees. Limestones and marls represent the stages 
Cenomanian to Upper Senonian. The fossils of the Cenomanian 
have affinities with those in the Cenomanian of Spain, Egypt, 
Madagascar, Mozambique and India. The Senonian consists of a 



TUNISIA 



395 



central facies with Micraster peini; a meridional facies with 
Ostrea; and a northern facies developed round Tunisia with large 
forms of Inoceramus and echinoids. Phosphatic deposits are well 
developed among the Lower Eocene rocks. The Middle Eocene 
is characterized by the presence of Ostrea bogharensis and the Upper 
Eocene by highly fossiliferous sandstones and marls. The Oligocene 
and Miocene formations are present, but the Upper Miocene is 
confined to the coast. Quaternary deposits cover much of the desert 
regions. 1 ] 

Minerals. Coal has been discovered in the Khmir (" Kroumir ") 
country, but the principal mines at present worked in Tunisia are 
those of copper, lead and zinc. Zinc is chiefly found in the form of 
calamine. Iron is worked in the Kef district. Valuable deposits 
of phosphates are present, chiefly in the south-west of Tunisia, in 
the district of Gafsa. Marble is found in the valley of the Majerda 
(at Shemtu), at Jebel Ust (about 35 m. south of Tunis), and at 
Jebel Dissa, near Gabes. The marbles of Shemtu are the finest 
pink Numidian marbles, which were much esteemed by the Cartha- 
ginians and Romans. It has been sought to work again the ancient 
quarries of Shemtu, but it was found that the marble had been 
spoilt by ferruginous and calcareous veins. 

Flora. The flora of Tunisia is very nearly identical with that of 
Algeria, though it offers a few species either peculiar to itself or not 
found in the last-named country. On the whole its character is 
less Saharan than that of parts of Algeria, for the influences of the 
desert do not penetrate so far north in Tunisia as they do in Algeria. 
There are very few patches of real forest outside the Khmir country, 
though it is probable that in the time of the Romans the land was 
a good deal more covered with trees than at the present day. 
Some authorities, however, dispute this, in a measure, by saying 
that it was not naturally forested, and that the trees growing 
represented orchards of olives or other fruit trees planted by the 
Romans or romanized Berbers. But in the Majerda Mountains 
there are dense primeval forests lingering to the present day, and 
consisting chiefly of the cork oak (Quercus ruber), and two other 
. species of oak (Quercus mirbeckii and Q. kermes), the pistachio or 
terebinth tree, the sumach (Rhus pentaphila), and other species of 
Rhus which are widely spread. In the mountains of Khmiria and 
the central plateau there are also the alder, the poplar, the Aleppo 
pine, the caroub, the tamarisk, the maple, the nettle-tree, several 
willows and junipers. The jujube-tree (Zizyphus) is found at 
various places along the eastern littoral. The retama shrub is met 
with in sandy districts, especially in the Sahara, but also right 
up to the north of Tunisia. The wild olive, the wild cherry, two 
species of wild plums, the myrtle, the ivy, arbutus, and two species 
of holly are found in the mountains of Khmiria, at various sites at 
high elevation near Tunis and Bizerta, and along the mountainous 
belt of the south-west which forms the frontier region between 
Tunisia and Algeria. The present writer, riding up to these 
frontier mountains from the thoroughly Saharan country round 
Gafsa, found himself surrounded by a flora very reminiscent of 
Switzerland or England. On the other hand, the flora of the shat 
region, of the south-eastern littoral, and of the Kerkena islands 
opposite Sfax, is thoroughly Saharan, with a dash, as it were, in 
places of an African element. The date palm grows wild, as has 
been already related, in Jerba. The only other species of palm 
found wild in Tunisia is the Chamaerops humilis, or dwarf palm, 
which is found on the mountains of the north at no very great 
altitude. The wild flowers of the north of Tunisia are so extremely 
beautiful during the months of February, March and April as to 
constitute a distinct attraction in themselves. 2 



1 See L. Pervinquiere, L'Etude geologique de la Tunisie centrals 
(Paris, 1903) ; G. Rolland, " Carte geologique du littoral nord de 
la Tunisie," Bull. soc. geol. de la France (1888), vol. xvii. ; H. H. 
Johnston, "A Journey through the Tunisian Sahara," Geog. Journ. 
(1898), vol. xi.; Carte geologique de la regence de Tunis, I : 800,000 
with notes (Tunis, 1892). 

2 List of Plants commonly met with in northern Tunisia : 



Adonis microcarpa, DC. 
Nigella damascena, L. 
Fumaria spicata, L. 
Cistus halimifolius, L. 
Silene rubella, L. 
Oxalis cernua, Thunb. 
Geranium tuberosum, L. 
Malva sylvestris, L. 
Tetragonolobus purpureus, Moench 
Retama retam, Webb. 
Fedia cornucopiae, Gaertn. 
Helichrysum Stoechas, DC. 
Centaurea (Seridia), sp. 
Urospermum Dalechampi, Desf. 
Scorzonera alexandrina, Boiss. 
Stachys hirta, L. 
Stachys, sp. not identified. 
Anagallis collina, Schousb. 
Convolvulus tricolor, L. 
Solznanthus lanatus, DC. 



Lycium europaeum, L. 
Solanum sodomaeum, L. 
Celsia cretica, L. 
Linaria, sp. allied to L. reflexa, 

Desf. 

Linaria triphylla, L. var. 
Orobanche, sp. 
Trixago apula, Stev. 
Cynomorium coccineum. 
Plantago albicans, L. 
TLuphorbia serrata, L. 
Ophrys fusca, Link. 
Orchis papilionacea, L. 
Romulea bulbocodium, Sebast. and 

Mauri. 

Gladiolus byzantinus, Mill. 
Ornithogalum umbellatum, L. 
A Ilium roseum, L. 
Asphodelus fistulosus, L. 
Muscari comosum, Mill, 



Fauna. The fauna of Tunisia at the present day is much im- 
poverished as regards mammals, birds and reptiles. In 1880 the 
present writer saw lions killed in the north-west of Tunisia, but 
by 1902 the lion was regarded as practically extinct in the regency, 
though occasional rumours of his appearance come from the Khmir 
Mountains and near Feriana. Leopards of large size are still 
found in the north-west of central Tunisia. The cheetah lingers 
in the extreme south of the Jerid; so also does the caracal lynx. 
The pardine lynx is found fairly abundantly in the west of Tunisia 
in the mountains and forest. The striped hyena is scattered 
over the country sparsely. The genet and the common jackal 
are fairly abundant. The common ichneumon is rare. The zorilla, 
another purely African species, is found in the south of Tunisia. 
The Barbary otter is present in the Majerda and in some of the 
salt lakes. The Tunisian hedgehog is peculiar to that country and 
to Algeria. There is a second species (Erinaceus deserti) which 
is common to all North Africa. In the south of Tunisia, especially 
about the shats, the elephant-shrew (Macrpscelides) is found, an 
animal of purely African affinities. Tunisia does not appear to 
possess the Barbary ape, which is found in Algeria and Morocco. 
Natives of Morocco and of the Sahara oases occasionally bring 
with them young baboons which they assert are obtained in various 
Sahara countries to the south and south-west of Tunisia. These 
baboons appear to belong to the Nubian species, but they cannot 
be considered indigenous to any part of Tunisia. The porcupine 
and a large Octodont rodent (Ctenodactylus) , the jerboa (two species), 
the hare, and various other rodents are met with in Tunisia. The 
wild boar inhabits the country, in spite of much persecution at 
the hands of " chasseurs." The forested regions shelter the hand- 
some Barbary red deer, which is peculiar to this region and the 
adjoining districts of Algeria. In the extreme south, in the Sahara 
desert, the addax antelope is still found. The hartebeest appears 
now to be quite extinct; so also is the leucoryx, though formerly 
these two antelopes were found right up to the centre of Tunisia, 
as was also the ostrich, now entirely absent from the country. In 
the marshy lake near Mater (north Tunisia), round the mountain 
island of Jebel Ashkel, is a herd of over 50 buffaloes; these are 
said to resemble the domestic (Indian) buffalo of the Levant and 
Italy, and to have their origin in a gift of domestic buffaloes from 
a former king of Naples to a bey or dey of Tunis. Others again 
assert the buffaloes to have been there from time immemorial; in 
which case it is very desirable that a specimen should be submitted 
for examination. [An allied form with gigantic horns is found 
fossil in Algeria.] They are the private property of the bey, who 
very properly preserves them. Far down in the Sahara, to the 
south of Tunisia, the Arabs report the existence of a wild ass, ap- 
parently identical with that of Nubia. Roman mosaics show 
representations not only of this ass, but of the oryx, hartebeest, 
and perhaps of the addax. The dorcas gazelle is still common 
in the south of Tunisia ; but perhaps the most interesting ruminant is 
the magnificent udad, or Barbary sheep, which is found in the sterile 
mountainous regions of south Tunisia. The birds have been ably 
illustrated by Mr Whitaker in the Ibis magazine of the British 
Ornithological Union. They are, as a rule, common to the south 
Mediterranean region. A beautiful little bird almost peculiar to the 
south of Tunisia and the adjoining regions of Algeria, is a species 
of bunting (Fringilla), called by the Arabs bu-habibi. 3 This little 
bird, which is about the size of the linnet, has the head and back 
silvery blue, and the rest of the plumage chocolate red-brown. 
It is of the most engaging lameness, being fortunately protected 
by popular sentiment from injury. It inhabits the Jerid, and ex- 
tends thence across the Algerian frontier. Among reptiles the 
Egyptian cobra seems to be indigenous in the south, where also 
is found the dreaded horned viper. Some nine or ten other species 
of snakes are present, together with an abundance of lizards, 
including the Varanus, and most species of Mediterranean tortoises 
are represented. The coasts are very rich in fish, and the tunny 
fisheries of the north are one of the principal sources from which 
the world's supply of tunny is derived. 

Inhabitants. The natives of Tunisia at the present day 
belong mainly to two stocks, which may be roughly classified as 
the Berber (q.v.) and the Arab (?..), about two-thirds being 
of Berber and the remaining third of Arab descent. But the 
Berbers of to-day are little more than an incomplete fusion of 
some four earlier and once independent stocks. These four 
divisions taken in the order of their assumed priority of invasion 
or habitation are: (i) the " Neanderthal " type, which is found 
in the districts of the shats and the adjoining Matmata 
table-land in the south, and in the " Kroumir " country of the 



Echium sericeum, Vahl. 
Echium maritimum, Willd. 
Anchusa italica, Retz. 



Arum italicum. Mill. 
Lagurus ovatus, L. 



To this list should also be added the common wild tulip, the 
Italian cyclamen, the common scarlet poppy, the fennel, wild carrot 
and many varieties of thistle, some of gorgeous colouring. 

3 " Father of my friend." 



TUNISIA 



north-west; 1 (2) ordinary Berbers, dolichocephalous, and of 
brown complexion, found over the greater part of Tunisia, espe- 
cially in the east and south centre; (3) the short-headed Berbers, 
found in part of the Matmata country, part of the Sahara, the 
island of Jerba, the Cape Bon Peninsula, and the vicinity of 
Susa, Kairwan, and Sfax; (4) Berbers of a blond type, that 
is to say, with a tendency to brown or yellow moustaches, 
brown beard and head hair, and grey eyes. These are met with 
in the west and north-west of Tunisia, and in one patch on the 
coast of the Cape Bon Peninsula, near Nabeul. 

The Arabs of more or less unmixed descent are purely nomads. 
They are met with in a long strip of country south of the Majerda, 
between the Algerian frontier and the sea-coast north of Susa; 
also inland, to the south-west of Susa, and near Kef; also in 
another long strip between the vicinity of Sfax on the north and 
the Jerld on the south. They are descended from the second 
Arab invasion which began in the nth century (see History). 
The extreme south of Tunis is ranged over by Berber Tawareq 2 
or Tamasheq. Berber dialects are still spoken in Tunisia in the 
island of Jerba, in the Matmata country, and in the Tunisian 
Sahara. Elsewhere to a remarkable degree the Arabic language 
has extinguished the Berber tongue, though no doubt in vulgar 
Tunisian a good many Berber words remain. Short vocabu- 
laries of the Berber spoken in the Tunisian Sahara have been 
published by Sir H. H. Johnston in the Geog. Journ. (1898), 
vol. xi., and by Mr G. B. Michell in the Journ. African Soc. 
(1903). The Berbers are organized in tribes with purely 
democratic government and laws of their own, which are 
not those of the Koran. 

On the north-eastern littoral of Tunisia the population is very 
mixed. The inhabitants of the Cape Bon Peninsula show 
evident signs of Greek blood arising from Greek invasions, 
which began in prehistoric times and finished with the downfall 
of the Byzantine Empire in North Africa. The presence of the 
Romans, and the constant introduction of the Italians, first 
as slaves, and quite recently as colonists, has also added an 
Italian element to the north Tunisian population. But from 
the fact that the bulk of the Tunisian population belongs to the 
Iberian section of the Berbers, and to this being no doubt the 
fundamental stock of most Italian peoples, the intermixture of 
the Italianized Berber with his African brother has not much 
affected the physique of the people, though it may have slightly 
tinged their mental characteristics. 

The Phoenicians have left no marked trace of their presence; 
but inasmuch as they were probably of nearly the same race 
as the Arabs, it would not be easy to distinguish the two types. 
Arab and Berber have mingled to some extent, though no 
considerable fusion of the two elements has taken place. In 
fact, it is thought by some French students of the country that 
the Arab element will probably be eliminated from Tunisia, as it 
is the most unsettled. It is considered that these nomads will 
be gently pushed back towards the Sahara, leaving cultivable 
Tunisia to the settled Berber stock, a stock fundamentally one 
with the peoples of Mediterranean Europe. 

The inhabitants of the coast towns belong, in large part, to 
the class generally known as " Moors." The pure Turks and 
the Kuluglis (sons of Turkish fathers by Moorish women or 
slave girls) are no longer numerous. Among the " Moors " 
the descendants of the Andalusian refugees form an exclusive 
and aristocratic class. 

The present population of Tunisia numbers approximately 
2,000,000, and consists of: 

Berbers, more or less of pure race, say . . . 620,000 
Arabs, . . . 500,000 

Mixed Arab and Berber peoples, say .... 520,000 

\ In this Matmata country are the celebrated Troglodytes, people 
living in caves and underground dwellings now, much as they did 
in the days when the early Greek geographers alluded to them. 
See " A Journey in the Tunisian Sahara," by Sir H. H. Johnston, 
in the Geog. Journ. (June 1898). 

1 Tawareq (Tuareg) is the Arab designation of the Libyan or 
Desert Berbers. It is the plural form of Tarqi, " a raider." The 
Tawareq call themselves by some variant of the root Masheq 
Tamasheq, Imoshagh, &c. 



" Moors " (chiefly the population of the principal 
cities, of mixed Roman, Berber, Spanish, Moor 
and Christian races), say 110,000 

Sudanese negroes and natives of Morocco, Tripoli 

and Turkey, say 40,000 

Jews (mostly natives of Tunis, indeed, some 
descended from families settled at Carthage 
before the destruction of Jerusalem) . . . 68,000 

Europeans (Christians) 3 163,000 

Towns. Besides the capital, Tunis, the chief towns of Tunisia are 
Sfax, Susa and Kairwan. These places are noticed separately, as 
are also Goletta (formerly the port of Tunis), Bizerta (a naval port 
and arsenal), Kef, Porto Farina, and the ruins at Carthage and 
Sbeitla (Sufetula). Other towns of Tunisia are, on the east coast, 
Nabeul, pop. about 5000, the ancient Neapolis, noted for the mild- 
ness of its climate and its pottery manufactures; Hammamet with 
3700 inhabitants; Monastir (the Ruspina of the Romans), a walled 
town with 5600 inhabitants and a trade in cereals and oils; Mahdiya 
or Mahdia (q.ii. ; in ancient chronicles called the city of Africa and 
sometimes the capital of the country) with 8500 inhabitants, the 
fallen city of the Fatimites, which since the French occupation has 
risen from its ruins, and has a new harbour (the ancient Cothon or 
harbour, of Phoenician origin, cut out of the rock is nearly dry but 
in excellent preservation); and Gabes (Tacape of the Romans, 
Qabis of the Arabs) on the Syrtis, a group of small villages, with an 
aggregate population of 16,000, the port of the Shat country and 
a d6p6t of the esparto trade. The chief town of the Majerda basin 
is Beja (pop. 5000), the ancient Vaga, an important corn market. 
The principal mosque at Beja was originally a Christian basilica, 
and is still dedicated to Sidna Aissa (our Lord Jesus). Gafsa, in 
the south of Tunisia, is a most interesting old Roman town, with 
hot springs. It is in railway communication with Sfax. West of 
Gafsa are immense beds of phosphates. Almost all the towns of 
Tunisia were originally Roman or romanized Berber settlements; 
consequently the remains of Roman buildings form a large part of 
the material of which their existing structures are composed. 

Antiquities and Art. The principal Roman and other ruins 
in the regency are the aqueducts near the capital (Tunis) and 
the temple at Zaghwan, described under Tunis city; the great 
reservoir near Carthage (q.v.) ; the amphitheatre at El Jem (see 
SUSA) ; the temples and other ruins of Sbeitla (q.v.) ; the ruins of 
Dugga, near Tebursuk, in the north-west of the regency (the 
amphitheatre of Dugga, the ancient Thugga, is a magnificent 
spectacle); the baths, amphitheatre and temples of Feriana 
(the ancient Thelepte); the whole route between Feriana 
(which is in the south of Tunisia, 33 m. north-west of Gafsa) 
and Tebessa in Algeria is strewn on both sides with Roman 
ruins; the old houses and other ruins at and near Thala; the 
baths and other ruins of Gafsa; the baths at Tuzer, El Hamma 
and Gabes. There is an interesting Phoenician burial-ground 
near Mahdia. There are Roman ruins, scarcely known, in the 
vicinity of Beja and the country of the Mogods (the district 
behind Cape Serrat). In short, Tunisia is as much strewn with 
Roman remains as is Italy itself. 

Saracenic art has perhaps not attained here the high degree 
it reached in western Algeria, Spain and Egypt; still it presents 
much that is beautiful to see and worthy to be studied. One of 
the most ancient, as it is one of the loveliest fragments, strange 
to say, is found at Tuzer, in the Jerld, the mahrab of a ruined 
mosque. 4 There are some very beautiful doorways to mosques 
and other specimens of Moorish art at Gabes. Examples 
of this art found at Tunis and Kairwan have been noticed under 
those headings. But the visible remains of Saracenic art in 
Tunis and its vicinity are of relatively recent date, the few 
mosques which might offer earlier examples not being open to 
inspection by Christians. It may be noted, however, as a 
general condition that the native towns and villages of Tunisia, 
where they have not been spoiled by the shocking tastelessness 
of Mediterranean Europe, are exceedingly picturesque, and 
offer exceptional attractions to the painter. 

Industries. Agriculture is the principal industry. Oats, wheat 
and barley are the chief crops in the north. In the central region 



3 Of recent introduction for the most part, consisting (census of 
1906) of 81,156 Italians, 34,610 French, 10,330 Maltese, about 
1000 Greeks and the remainder British, German, Austrian, &c. 
The French army of occupation (20,360 men) is not included in 
these figures. 

4 Since this was written the mahrab in question has been removed 
to Paris. 



TUNISIA 



the olive is largely cultivated, in the south the date-palm. Viti- 
culture is also of importance; almonds, oranges, lemons, &c., are 
also grown for export. The alfa and cork industries employ large 
numbers of persons, as do also the sardine, anchovy and tunny 
fisheries. The fisheries are in the hands of Italians, Maltese and 
Greeks. There are large herds of cattle and flocks of sheep and 
goats. About 60,000 acres are cultivated by French immigrants 
and about 15,000 acres by Italians. 

Among native industries may be mentioned the spinning and 
weaving of wool for clothing, carpet-weaving, the manufacture of 
pottery, slippers and matting, saddle-making and leather em- 
broidery. Silk-weaving, formerly important, is declining. 

In 1907 the number of mines working was 32. The export of 
phosphates rose from 445,000 tons in 1904 to 1,267,000 tons in 1908. 
The export of coal in that year was 74,000 tons, and copper ore 
937 tons (vide supra, Minerals). 

Commerce. The commerce of Tunisia has thriven under the 
French protectorate, having risen from an annual total of about 
1,700,000 in 1881 to 8,687,000 in 1908. British trade with 
Tunisia has nearly tripled since the establishment of the French 
protectorate. It stood at over 600,000 in annual value during 
the year 1898. In 1908 the total trade with Great Britain and Malta 
amounted to 914,000. In the same year the imports from France 
exceeded 2,750,000 and the exports to France 1,685,000. From 
Algeria the imports were 656,000; to Algeria the exports were 
185,000. The principal exports are olive oil, wheat, esparto 
grass, barley, sponges, dates, fish (especially tunny), hides, horses, 
wool, phosphates, copper, zinc and lead. The imports consist 
mainly of European manufactured goods (especially British cotton), 
machinery, flour, alcohol, sugar, timber, coal and petroleum. 
About half the shipping trade is in the hands of the French; in 1908, 
of the total tonnage of ships entered, 4,155,000, French vessels 
represented 1,905,000 tons, Italian vessels 1,422,000 tons and British 
vessels 299,000 tons. 

\ Communications. The French have made since 1882 about 
2000 m. of good roads. The first railway built (1871-1872) was that 
between Goletta and Tunis. This line, with the extensions to La 
Marsa and Bardo, is 21 J m. in length. It was constructed by an 
English company, which in 1880 sold it to an Italian company, 
despite the keen competition of French rivals (see History, below). 
The conversion of Tunis into a seaport (1893) destroyed the impor- 
tance of this line, which was then sold to the French Bone-Guelma 
Company (Bone-Guelma et Prolongements) , which owns the majority 
of the railways in Tunisia. 

The second railway connects the capital with the frontier of 
Algeria, where, at Suk Ahras, it joins the main line to Constantino, 
Algiers, &c. This line was built by the Bone-Guelma Company. 
The concession was obtained in 1877, and the line, IQI m. long, 
was finished in 1880. A branch line (8 m.) connected Beja with 
this railway, and another (u m.) ran from Tunis to Hamman-el- 
Enf , a favourite seaside resort of the Tunisians. 

For the next twelve years there was a pause in railway construc- 
tion followed by the opening, in 1892, of the line between Susa 
and Moknine (30 m.). Then came the continuation of the line from 
Hamman-el-Enf to Hammamet and along the Sahel to Susa (93 m.), 
and the building of a line from Susa to Kairwan, 31 m. (the last- 
named line superseded a horse-tramway built by the French army 
during the campaign of 1881). A branch line to Bizerta (434 m.) 
from Jedeida on the main Algeria-Tunis line was also built as well 
as one from Tunis to Zaghwan (44 m.). A short line, branching from 
the Tunis-Zaghwan line, was carried south-west to Pont du Fahs. 
These with a few short branch lines were built between 1892 and 
1900 by the Bone-Guelma Company. In 1906 was opened a con- 
tinuation of the line from Pont du Fahs to Kef and thence south- 
west to Kalaat-es-Senam, a place midway between Kef and Tebessa, 
the centre of the Algerian phosphate region. A branch from the 
Kef line runs to the phosphate mines of Kalaa-Jerda. 

Another railway (completed by 1900) runs from Sfax, along the 
coast to Mahres, thence inland to Gafsa and the phosphate mines 
of Metalwi. This line, 151 m. long, was for some years isolated 
from the general Tunisian system. The total mileage of the Tunisian 
railways was computed to be 1060 m. by the finishing of the Susa- 
Sfax, Gabes-Tebessa lines in 1909. Extensions of the railway 
system are contemplated to Gabes and, beyond, to the Tripolitan 
frontier. In the south communication is maintained chiefly by 
camel caravans. 

Posts and Telegraphs. The whole of Tunisia is covered with a 
network of telegraph lines (2500 m.), and there are telephones 
working in most of the large towns. The telegraph system pene- 
trates to the farthest French post in the Sahara, is connected with 
the Turkish system on the Tripolitan frontier and with Algeria, 
and by cable with Sicily, Malta, Sardinia and Marseilles. There 
is an efficient post office service, with about 400 post offices. 

Finance. The principal bank is the Banque de Tunisie. The 
coinage formerly was the caroub and piastre (the latter worth 
about 6d.), but in 1891 the French reformed the coinage, sub- 
stituting the franc as a unit, and having the money minted at 
Paris. The values of the coinage are pieces of 5 and 10 centimes 
in bronze, of 50 centimes, I franc and 2 francs in silver, of 10 francs 
and 20 francs in gold. The inscriptions are in French and Arabic. 



The public debt was consolidated in 1884 into a total of : 
guaranteed by France, and bearing 4% interest. In 

Pr\n\7Pt"t*H inf r Q Ino n To wlnnr t A / in + nr-rkct- o rn4 



397 

5,702,000, 

it was 



converted into a loan paying 3$% interest, and in 1892 another 
conversion reduced the rate of interest to 3%. In 1902 a new 
loan of 1,800,000 was issued at 3%. At the beginning of 1907 
the total Tunisian debt was 9,287,260; in that year the government 
was authorized to contract another loan of 5,000,000 at 3% 
(3.000,000 being guaranteed by France) for railways, roads and 
colonization. The weights and measures are those of France. 
The revenue for the year 1900 was 1,456,640, and the expenditure 
was it 45 2 ,597- In 1910 receipts and expenditure balanced at 
about 1,888,000 each. The principal sources of revenue are direct 
taxation, stamp and death duties, customs, port and lighthouse 
dues, octroi and tithes, tobacco, salt and gunpowder monopolies, 
postal and telegraph receipts, and revenue from the state domains 
(lands, fisheries, forests, mines). The civil list paid to the Bey of 
Tunis amounts to 36,000 per annum, and the endowment of the 
princes and princesses of the beylical family to 31,200 a year 
more. 

Administration. From a native's point of view Tunisia still 
appears to be governed by the Bey of Tunis, his Arab ministers and 
his Arab officials, the French only exercising an indirect though 
a very real control over the indigenous population (Mahommedans 
and Jews). But all Christians and foreigners are directly governed 
by the French, and the native administration is supervised by 
a staff of thirteen French contrdleurs and their French and Tunisian 
subordinates. Seven of the departments of state have Frenchmen 
at their head, the other two, Tunisians: thus the larger proportion 
of the Bey's ministers are French. France is directly represented 
in Tunisia by a minister resident-general, and by an assistant 
resident. The French resident-general is the virtual viceroy of 
Tunisia, and is minister for foreign affairs. Besides Mussulman 
(native) schools there were in the regency, in 1906, 158 public 
schools, 5 Iyc6es and colleges and 21 private schools. At these 
schools were 22,000 pupils (13,000 boys), all save 3500 Mussulmans 
being Europeans or Jews. 

History. The history of Tunisia begins for us with the 
establishment of the Phoenician colonies (see PHOENICIA and 
CARTHAGE). The Punic settlers semitized the coast, but left 
the Berbers of the interior almost untouched. The Romans 
entered into the heritage of the Carthaginians and the vassal 
kings of Numidia, and Punic speech and civilization n e 
gave way to Latin, a change which from the time Province of 
of Caesar was helped on by Italian colonization; to "<***" 
this region the Romans gave the name of " Africa," apparently 
a latinizing of the Berber term " Ifriqa," " Ifrigia " (in modern 
Arabic, Ifriqiyah). 

Rich in corn, in herds, and in later times also in oil, and 
possessing valuable fisheries, mines and quarries, the province 
of Africa, of which Tunisia was the most important part, attained 
under the empire a prosperity to which Roman remains in 
all parts of the country still bear witness. Carthage was the 
second city of the Latin part of the empire, " after Rome the 
busiest and perhaps the most corrupt city of the West, and the 
chief centre of Latin culture and letters." In the early history 
of Latin Christianity Africa holds a more important place than 
Italy. It was here that Christian Latin literature took its rise, 
and to this province belong the names of Tertullian and Cyprian, 
of Arnobius and Lactantius, above all of Augustine. Lost 
to Rome by the invasion of the Vandals, who took Carthage 
in 439, the province was recovered by Belisarius a century 
later (533-34), and remained Roman till the Arab invasions 
of 648-69. The conqueror, 'Oqba-bin-Nafa, founded the city 
of Kairwan (673) which was the residence of the governors of 
" Ifriqiyah " under the Omayyads and thereafter the capital 
of the Aghlabite princes, the conquerors of Sicily, who ruled in 
merely nominal dependence on the Abbasids. 

The Latin element in Africa and the Christian faith almost 
disappeared in a single generation; 1 the Berbers of the 

[ * The North African Church was not utterly swept away by the 
Moslem conquest, though its numbers at that time were very 
greatly diminished, and thereafter fell gradually to vanishing point, 
partly by emigration to Europe. Its episcopate in the loth century 
still numbered thirty members, but in 1076 the Church could not 
provide three bishops to consecrate a new member of the episcopate, 
and for that purpose Gregory VII. named two bishops to act with 
the archbishop of Carthage. In the 1 3th century the native 
episcopate had disappeared. Abd ul-Mumin, the Almohade con- 
queror of Tunisia, compelled many of the native Christians to embrace 
Islam, but when Tunis was captured by Charles V. in 1535, there 
were still found in the city native Christians, the last remnants of the 



TUNISIA 



mountains, who had never been latinized and never really 
christianized, accepted Islam without difficulty, but showed 
Arab Coo- their stubborn nationality, not only in the character 
quest and of their Mahommedanism, which has always been 
Berber mixed up with the worship of living as well as 
Dynasties. (j ea( j saints (marabouts) arid other peculiarities, 
but also in political movements. The empire of the Fatimites 
(q.v.) rested on Berber support, and from that time forth till 
the advent of the Turks the dynasties of North Africa were 
really native, even when they claimed descent from some 
illustrious Arab stock. When the seat of the Fatimite Empire 
was removed to Egypt, the Zirites, a house of the Sanhaja 
Berbers, ruled as their lieutenants at Mahdia, and about 1050 
Mo'izz the ZIrite, in connexion with a religious movement 
against the Shi'ites, transferred his very nominal allegiance 
to the Abbasid caliphs. The Fatimites in revenge let loose upon 
Africa about A.D. 1045 a vast horde of Beduins from Upper 
Egypt (Beni Hilal and Solaim), the ancestors of the modern 
nomads of Barbary. All North Africa was ravaged by the 
invaders, who, though unable to found an empire or overthrow 
the settled government in the towns, forced the agricultural 
Berbers into the mountains, and, retaining from generation 
to generation their lawless and predatory habits, made order 
and prosperity almost impossible in the open parts of the 
country until its effective occupations by the French. The 
ZIrite dynasty was finally extinguished by Roger I. of Sicily, who 
took Mahdia in 1148 and established his authority over all the 
Tunisian coast. Even Moslem historians speak favourably of 
the Norman rule in Africa; but it was brought to an early end 
by the Almohade caliph Abd ul-Mumin, who took Mahdia 
in 1 1 60. 

The Almohade Empire soon began to decay, and in 1336 Abu 
Zakarlya, prince of Tunis, was able to proclaim himself 

independent and found a dynasty, which subsisted 
Hafsites. tiu the advent of the Turks. The Hafsites (so called 

from Abu Hafs, the ancestor of Abu Zakarlya, a 
Berber chieftain who had been one of the intimate disciples of the 
Almohade mahdi) assumed the title of Prince of the Faithful, 
a dignity which was acknowledged even at Mecca, when in 
the days of Mostansir, the second Hafsite, the fall of 
Bagdad left Islam without a titular head. In its best 
days the empire of the Hafsites extended from Tlem^en 
to Tripoli, and they received homage from the Merinids 
of Fez; they held their own against repeated Prankish 
invasions, of which the most notable were that which 
cost St Louis of France his life (1270), and that of the duke 
of Bourbon (1390), when English troops took part in the unsuc- 
cessful siege of Mahdia. They adorned Tunis with mosques, 
schools and other institutions, favoured letters, and in general 
appear to have risen above the usual level of Moslem sovereigns. 
But their rule was troubled by continual wars and insurrections; 
the support of the Beduin Arabs was imperfectly secured by 
pensions, which formed a heavy burden on the finances of the 
state; 1 and in later times the dynasty was weakened by family 
dissensions. Leo Africanus, writing early in the i6th century, 
gives a favourable picture of the " great city " of Tunis, which 
had a flourishing manufacture of fine cloth, a prosperous colony 
of Christian traders, and, including the suburbs, nine or ten 
thousand hearths; but he speaks also of the decay of once 
flourishing provincial towns, and especially of agriculture, the 

once powerful Church. Traces of Christianity remained among 
the Kabyles till after the conquest of Granada (1492), when the in- 
flux of Andalusian Moors from Spain completed the conversion 
of those tribes. It may be added that down to the early years of 
the igth century it was alleged that some of the Tuareg tribes in 
the Sahara professed Christianity (see e.g. Hornemann's Travels), 
For the North African Church after the Moslem conquest, see 
Migne, Pat. lat.; and Mas Latrie, Afrique septentrionale. Their 
information is summarized in the introduction to vol. ii. of Azurara's 
Discovery and Conquest of Guinea, Hakluyt Society's edition 
(1899). ED.] 

1 In the I3th and I4th centuries the Hafsites also paid tribute to 
Sicily for the freedom of the sea and the right to import Sicilian 
corn a clear proof of the decline of Tunisian agriculture. 



greater part of the open country lying waste for fear of the 
Arab marauders. Taxation was heavy, and the revenue very 
considerable: Don Juan of Austria, in a report to Philip II.,- 
states that the land revenue alone under the last Hafsite was 
375,935 ducats, but of this a great part went in tribute to the 
Arabs. 

The conquest of Algiers by 'the Turks gave a dangerous 
neighbour to Tunisia, and after the death of Mohammed the 
Hafsite in 1525 a disputed succession supplied Khair- 
ad-DIn Barbarossa with a pretext for occupying the 
city in the name of the sultan of Constantinople. 
Al-Hasan, the son of Mahommed, sought help from the 
emperor, and was restored in 1535 as a Spanish vassal, by a 
force which Charles V. commanded in person, while Andrea 
Doria was admiral of the fleet. But the conquest was far from 
complete, and was never consolidated. The Spaniards remained 
at Goletta and made it a strong fortress, they also occupied the 
island of Jerba and some points on the south-east coast; but 
the interior was a prey to anarchy and civil war, until in 1570 
'All-Pasha of Algiers utterly defeated Hamid, the son and suc- 
cessor of Hasan, and occupied Tunis. In 1573 the Turks again 
retreated on the approach of Don Juan, who had dreams of 
making himself king of Tunis; but this success was not followed 
up, and in the next year Sultan Selim II. sent a strong expedition 
which drove the Spaniards from Tunis and Goletta, and reduced 
the country to a Turkish province. Nevertheless the Spanish 
occupation left a deep impression on the coast of Tunis, and 
not a. few Spanish words passed into Tunisian Arabic. After 
the Turkish conquest, the civil administration was placed 
under a pasha; but in a few years a military revolution trans- 
ferred the supreme power to a Dey elected by the janissaries, 
who formed the army of occupation. The government of the 
Deys lasted till 1705, but was soon narrowed or 
overshadowed by the authority of the Beys, whose Beys 
proper function was to manage the tribes and 
collect tribute. From 1631 to 1702 the office of Bey was 
hereditary in the descendants of Murad, a Corsican renegade, 
and their rivalry with the Deys and internal dissensions kept 
the country in constant disorder. Ibrahim, the last of the 
Deys (1702-1705), destroyed the house of Murad, and absorbed 
the beyship in his own office; but, when he fell in battle- 
with the Algerians, Hussein b. 'All, the son of a Cretan rene- 
gade, was proclaimed sovereign by the troops under the title 
of " Bey," and, being a prince of energy and ability, was able 
to establish the hereditary sovereignty, which has lasted without 
change of dynasty to the present time. 2 

Frequent wars with Algiers form the chief incidents in the 
internal history of Tunisia under the Beys. Under Deys and 
Beys alike Tunisia was essentially a pirate state. Occasionally 
acts of chastisement, of which the bombardment of Porto 
Farina by Blake in 1655 was the most notable, and repeated 
treaties, extorted by European powers, checked from time to 
time, but did not put an end to, the habitual piracies, on which 
indeed the public revenue of Tunis was mainly dependent. 
The powers were generally less concerned for the captives than 
for the acquisition of trading privileges, and the Beys took 
advantage of the commercial rivalry of England and France to 
play off the one power against the other. The release of all 
Christian slaves was not effected till after the bombardment of 
Algiers; and the definite abandonment of piracy may be dated 
from the presentation to the Bey in 1819 of a collective note 
of the powers assembled at Aix-la-Chapelle. The government 
had not elasticity enough to adapt itself to so profound a change 
in its ancient traditions; the finances became more and more 
hopelessly embarrassed, in spite of ruinous taxation; and 
attempts at European innovations in the court and army made 
matters only worse, so long as no attempt was made to improve 

2 Muhammad VI. es Sadok, the reigning Bey at the time of the 
French occupation, died in October 1882, and was succeeded by 
his brother 'AH IV. This prince reigned until 1902, the throne 
then passing to his son Muhammad VII. el Hadi, who died in 1906, 
when his cousin Muhammad VIII. en Nasr (b. 1855) became Bey. 



TUNNEL 



399 



the internal condition of the country. In the third quarter 
of the i gth century not more than a tenth part of the fertile 
land was under cultivation, and the yearly charge on the public 
debt exceeded the whole annual revenue. In these circum- 
stances only the rivalry of the European powers that had 
interests in Tunisia protracted from year to year the inevitable 
revolution. The French began to regard the dominions of the 
Bey as a natural adjunct to Algeria, but after the Crimean War 
Turkish rights over the regency of Tunis were revived. After 
the Franco-German War the embarrassed Bey turned towards 
Great Britain for advice, and a British protectorate suggested 
by the proximity of Malta was not an impossibility under the 
remarkable influence of the celebrated Sir Richard Wood, 
British diplomatic agent at the court of Tunis from 1855 to 
1879. The railways, lighthouses, gas and waterworks and 
other concessions and industries were placed in British hands. 
But in 1878, at the Congress of Berlin, Lord Salisbury agreed 
to allow France a " free hand " in Tunisia in return for French 
acquiescence in the British lease of Cyprus. 

After 1862, however, the kingdom of Italy began to take a 
deep interest in the future of Tunisia. When the country 
Occupation went bankrupt in 1869, a triple control was estab- 
bythe lished over Tunisian finances, with British, French 
Preach. and i ta i; an controllers." In 1880 the Italians 
bought the British railway from Tunis to Goletta. This and 
other actions excited the French to act on the secret under- 
standing effected with the British foreign minister at the 
Berlin Congress. In 1881 a French force crossed the 
Algerian frontier under pretext of chastising the independent 
Khmir or Kroumir tribes on the north-east of the regency, and, 
quickly dropping the mask, advanced on the capital and com- 
pelled the Bey to accept the French protectorate. The actual 
conquest of the country was not effected without a serious 
struggle with Moslem fanaticism, especially at Sfax; but all 
Tunisia was brought completely under French jurisdiction 
and administration, supported by military posts at every 
important point. In 1883 the new situation under the French 
protectorate was recognized by the British government, with- 
drawing its consular jurisdiction in favour of the French courts, 
and in 1885 it ceased to be represented by a diplomatic official. 
The other powers followed suit, except Italy, which did not 
recognize the full consequences of the French protectorate until 
1896. In 1884 a thorough reform of the government and 
administration of the country was begun under the direction 
of a succession of eminent French residents-general. In 1897 
Great Britain surrendered her commercial treaty with Tunisia 
and agreed (subject to a special temporary privilege regarding 
cotton goods) to allow her commerce and all other relations 
with Tunisia to be subjected to the same conditions as those 
affecting all such relations between Britain and France. 

The French protectorate over Tunisia, based on the treaty 
signed by the Bey at Bardo on the i2th of May 1881 and con- 
Reiatioas firmed by the treaty of La Marsa (June 8, 1883), was 
with not recognized by Turkey, which claimed the regency 

Turkey. as p art o f t jj e ottoman dominions. The protests of 
the Porte were ignored by the French, and in 1892 Turkey so 
far recognized the actual situation as to determine the Tunisia- 
Tripoli frontier as far south as Ghadames. South of that 
point the Saharan frontiers of Algeria, Tunisia and Tripoli 
remained undefined. Working eastward from Tunisia and 
Algeria the French occupied several points to which Turkey 
laid claim. Thus the oasis of Janet, S.S.W. of Rhat, was 
occupied in 1906. The action of France led to counter-action 
by Turkey and to various frontier incidents. Janet was re- 
occupied by Ottoman troops in the summer of 1910, but in 
deference to French protests the troops were withdrawn pending 
the delimitation of the frontier. At the same time Turkey 
maintained the claim that Tunisians were Ottoman subjects. 

Frontier troubles had however little effect on the remainder 
of the protectorate. In 1904-1905 there were famines and some 
native discontent in the south of Tunisia; but in general the 
country has prospered amazingly under the French protec- 



torate. The native dynasty has been strengthened rather 
than weakened, and Tunisia may be pointed out as the best 
and wisest example of French administration over an alien 
land and race. Though on a smaller scale it is worthy to be 
set as a pendant to the British work in Egypt. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Of 'Arabic sources accessible in translations the 
geographical works of Ya'kubi (Descriptio al Magribi, by De Goeje 
Leiden, 1860), Al-Bakri (Descr. de I'Afrique septentrionale, by De 
Slane, Paris, 1859; Arabic text, ibid. 1857) and Idrisi (Descr. de 
LAJnque, &c., by Dozy and De Goeje, Leiden, 1866) belong to 
the loth, iith and I2th centuries respectively; the history of 
Ibn Knaldun (Hist, des Berbbres, by De Slane, 4 vols., Algiers, 
1852-1856) includes the earlier Haf sites, that of Al-KairawanI 
(Hist, de lAfrique, by Pelissier and Remusat, Paris, 1845, in 
Expl. scient. de I'Algerie, vol. vii.; Arabic text, Tunis, 1286 A.H.) 
deals especially with Tunisia and goes down to 1681. Especially 
valuable and lucid are the following works: Ernest Mercier, 
Histoire de I'Afrique septentrionale (Berberie) (3 vols., Paris, 
1891), and Histoire de I'etablissement des Arabes dans I'Afrique 
septentrionale selon les auteurs arabes (Paris, 1875); Stanley Lane 
Poole, The Barbary Corsairs (" Story of the Nations Series," 
London, 1890), deals in part with the history of Tunisia. Other 
works which should be studied are: Dr Thos. Shaw's Travels 
( 1 757)1^60 Africanus's description of Africa in Ramusio and in 
Purchas s Pilgrims; Rousseau, Annales tunisiennes (Algiers, 1864); 
the late Sir R. Lambert Playfair, In the Footsteps of Bruce (London, 
1887); A. M. Broadley, Tunis, Past and Present (Edinburgh, 1882); 
Guerin, Voyage archeologique (Paris, 1862); D'Herisson, Mission 
archeologique en Tunisie (Paris, 1884); E. D. Schoenfield, Aus den 
Staaten der Barbaresken (Berlin, 1902); Sir Harry Johnston, The 
Colonization of Africa (Cambridge, 1905) ; Gaston Loth, La Tunisie 
et I'ceuvre du protectorat fran^ais (Paris, 1907); Professor Arthur 
Girault, Principes de colonisation et de legislation coloniale, vol. iii. 
(3rd ed., Paris, 1908). Lists of all the rulers of Tunisia will be found 
in A. M. H. J. Stokvis, Manuel d'histoire, vol. i. (Leiden, 1898). 
The geography of Tunisia was first treated scientifically by E. 
Pelissier in the i6th volume of his Explor. scient. de I'Algerie (Paris, 
'853) ; and by C. Tissot, Explor. scient. de la Tunisie: Geog. comparee 
de la province romaine d'Afrique (2 vols., Paris, 1884-1888); also 
in Murray 's Handbook, by Sir R. L. Playfair (1887). The works 
of Canon Tristram on the Sahara describe southern Tunisia in the 
'sixties of the igth century. Two important articles on Tunisia 
appeared in Nos. 22 and 23 of the Revue generale des sciences (Paris, 
Nov. 30 and Dec. 15, 1896). Still more valuable is La Tunisie 
franqaise, in two volumes, a government publication (Paris, 1896). 
An article on the Tunisian Sahara, the Tunisian Cave-Dwellers and 
Berber Languages, &c., by Sir H. H. Johnston, was published in the 
Geog. Journ. for June 1898. Other articles by the same author 
appeared in the Graphic during the years 1899, 1900 and 1902. 
An interesting dissertation on the question of the Berber race is 
given in Professor A. H. Keane's Man, Past and Present. Numerous 
other works in English and French have been published on Tunisia 
from the tourist's point of view; the best of these is by Douglas 
Sladen, Carthage and Tunis (2 vols., 1908). Gaston Boissier, 
L'Afrique romaine (1895), is a picturesque but somewhat super- 
ficial aperfu of the principal Roman ruins. Flaubert's Salammbo 
ought always to be read by those who visit Carthage and Tunisia. 
It was mainly written at La Marsa, near Carthage. See also H. S. 
Ashbee, Bibliography of Tunisia (London, 1889). (H. H. J.) 

TUNNEL (Fr. tonnel, later tonneau, a diminutive from Low 
Lat. lonna, tunna, a tun, cask), a more or less horizontal under- 
ground passage made without removing the top soil. In 
former times any long tube-like passage, however constructed, 
was called a tunnel. At the present day the word is sometimes 
popularly applied to an underground passage constructed by 
trenching down from the surface to build the arching and then 
refilling with the top soil; but a passage so constructed, although 
indistinguishable from a tunnel when completed, is more cor- 
rectly termed a " covered way," and the operations " cutting " 
and " covering," instead of tunnelling. Making a small tunnel, 
afterwards to be converted into a larger one, is called " driving 
a heading," and in mining operations small tunnels are 
termed " galleries," " driftways " and " adits." If the under- 
ground passage is vertical it is a shaft; if the shaft is begun 
at the surface the operations are known as "sinking"; and 
it is called a " rising " if worked upwards from a previously 
constructed heading or gallery. 

Tunnelling has been effected by natural forces to a far greater 
extent than by man. In limestone districts innumerable 
swallow-holes, or shafts, have been sunk by the rain water 
following joints and dissolving the rock, and from the bottom 
of these shafts tunnels have been excavated to the sides of 



400 



TUNNEL 



hills in a manner strictly analogous to the ordinary method of 
executing a tunnel by sinking shafts at intervals and driving 
headings therefrom. Many rivers find thus a course under- 
ground. In Asia Minor one of the rivers on the route of the 
Mersina railway extension pierces a hill by means of a natural 
tunnel, whilst a little south at Seleucia another river flows 
through a tunnel, 20 ft. wide and 23 ft. high, cut 1600 years 
ago through rock so hard that the chisel marks are still dis- 
cernible. The Mammoth Cave of Kentucky and the Peak 
caves of Derbyshire are examples of natural tunnelling. 
Mineral springs bring up vast quantities of matter in solution. 
It has been estimated that the Old Well Spring at Bath has 
discharged since the beginning of the ipth century solids 
equivalent to the excavation of a 6 ft. by 3 ft. heading 9 m. 
long; and yet the water is perfectly clear and the daily flow 
is only the isoth part of that pumped out of the great railway 
tunnel under the Severn. Tunnelling is also carried on to an 
enormous extent by the action of the sea. Where the Atlantic 
rollers break on the west coast of Ireland, or on the seaboard 
of the western Highlands of Scotland, numberless caves and 
tunnels have been formed in the cliffs, beside which artificial 
tunnelling operations appear insignificant. The most gigantic 
subaqueous demolition hitherto carried out by man was the 
blowing up in 1885 of Flood Rock, a mass about 9 acres in 
extent, near Long Island Sound, New York. To effect this 
gigantic work by a single instantaneous blast a shaft was sunk 
64 ft. below sea-level, from the bottom of which 4 m. of 
tunnels or galleries were driven so as to completely honeycomb 
the rock. The roof rock ranged from 10 ft. to 24 ft. in thickness, 
and was supported by 467 pillars 15 ft. square; 13,286 holes, 
averaging 9 ft. in length and 3 ins. in diameter, were drilled 
in the pillars and roof. About 80,000 cub. yds. of rock were 
excavated in the galleries and 275,000 remained to be blasted 
away. The holes were charged with no tons of " rackarock," 
a more powerful explosive than gunpowder, which was fired 
by electricity, when the sea was lifted 100 ft. over the whole 
area of the rock. Where natural forces effect analogous results, 
the holes are bored and the headings driven by the chemical 
and mechanical action of the rain and sea, and the explosive 
force is obtained by the expansive action of air locked up in the 
fissures of the rock and compressed to many tons per square foot 
by impact from the waves. Artificial breakwaters have often 
been thus tunnelled into by the sea, the compressed air blowing 
out the blocks and the waves carrying away the debris. 

With so many examples of natural caves and tunnels in 
existence it is not to be wondered at that tunnelling was one 
of the earliest works undertaken by man, first for dwellings 
and tombs, then for quarrying and mining, and finally for 
water-supply, drainage, and other requirements of civilization. 
A Theban king on ascending the throne began at once to drive 
the tunnel which was to form his final resting-place, and per- 
severed with the work until death. The tomb of Mineptah at 
Thebes was driven at a slope for a distance of 350 ft. into the 
hill, when a shaft was sunk and the tunnel projected a farther 
length of about 300 ft., and enlarged into a chamber for the 
sarcophagus. Tunnelling on a large scale was also carried on 
at the rock temples of Nubia and of India, and the architectural 
features of the entrances to some of these temples might be 
studied with advantage by the designers of modern tunnel 
fronts. Flinders Petrie has traced the method of underground 
quarrying followed by the Egyptians opposite the Pyramids. 
Parallel galleries about 20 ft. square were driven into the rock 
and cross galleries cut, so that a hall 300 to 400 ft. wide was 
formed, with a roof supported by rows of pillars 20 ft. square 
and 20 ft. apart. Blocks of stone were removed by the workmen 
cutting grooves all round them, and, where the stone was not 
required for use, but merely had to be removed to form a 
gallery, the grooves were wide enough for a man to stand up 
in. Where granite, diorite and other hard stone had to be cut 
the work was done by tube drills and by saws supplied with 
corundum, or other hard gritty material, and water the drills 
leaving a core of rock exactly like that of the modern diamond 



drill. As instances of ancient tunnels through soft ground 
and requiring masonry arching, reference may be made to the 
vaulted drain under the south-east palace of Nimrod and to the 
brick arched tunnel, 12 ft. high and 15 ft. wide, under the 
Euphrates. In Algeria, Switzerland, and wherever the Romans 
went, remains of tunnels for roads, drains and water-supply 
are found. Pliny refers to the tunnel constructed for the 
drainage of Lake Fucino as the greatest public work of the time. 
It was by far the longest tunnel in the world, being more than 
3^ m. in length, and was driven under Monte Salviano, which 
necessitated shafts no less than 400 ft. in depth. Forty shafts 
and a number of " cuniculi," or inclined galleries, were sunk, 
and the excavated material was drawn up in copper pails, of 
about ten gallons capacity, by windlasses. The tunnel was 
designed to be 10 ft. high by 6 ft. wide, but its actual cross- 
section varied. It is stated that 30,000 labourers were occupied 
eleven years in its construction. With modern appliances 
such a tunnel could be driven from the two ends without 
intermediate shafts in eleven months. 

No practical advance was made on the tunnelling methods of 
the Romans until gunpowder came into use. Old engravings 
of mining operations early in the I7th century show that 
excavation was still accomplished by pickaxes or hammer and 
chisel, and that wood fires were lighted at the ends of the 
headings to split and soften the rock in advance (see fig. i). 




(From Agricola's De re metallica, Basel, 1621.) 

FIG. I. Method of mining, 1621. 

Crude methods of ventilation by shaking cloths in the headings 
and by placing inclined boards at the top of the shafts are also 
on record. In 1766 a tunnel 9 ft. wide, 12 ft. high and 2880 yds. 
long was begun on the Grand Trunk Canal, England, and 
completed eleven years later; and this was followed by many 
others. On the introduction of railways tunnelling became one 
of the ordinary incidents of a contractor's work; probably 
upwards of 4000 railway tunnels have been executed. 

Tunnelling under Rivers and Harbours. In 1825 Marc Isambard 
Brunei began, and in 1843 completed, the Thames tunnel 
between Rotherhithe and Wapping now used by the East 
London railway. He employed a peculiar " shield," made of 
timber, in several independent sections. Part of the ground 
penetrated was almost liquid mud, and the cost of the funnel 
was about 1300 per lineal yard. In 1818 he took out a patent 
for a tunnelling process, which included a shield, and which 
mentioned cast iron as a surrounding wall. His shield fore- 
shadowed the modern shield, which is substituted for the 
ordinary timber work of the tunnel, holds up the earth of 
excavation, affords space within its shelter for building the 
permanent walls, overlaps these walls in telescope fashion, and 
is moved forward by pushing against their front ends. The 
advantages of cast-iron walls are that they have great strength 



TUNNEL 



401 



in small space as soon as the segments are bolted together, and 
they can be caulked water-tight. 

In 1830 Lord Cochrane (afterwards loth earl of Dundonald) 
patented the use of compressed air for shaft-sinking and tun- 
nelling in water-bearing strata. Water under any pressure can 
be kept out of a subaqueous chamber or tunnel by sufficient 
air of a greater pressure, and men can breathe and work 
therein for a time up to a pressure exceeding four atmo- 
spheres. The shield and cast-iron lining invented by Brunei, 
and the compressed air of Cochrane, have with the aid of later 
inventors largely removed the difficulties of subaqueous tunnel- 
ling. Cochrane's process was used for the foundation of bridge 
piers, &c., comparatively early, but neither of these devices was 
employed for tunnelling until half a century after their inven- 
tion. Two important subaqueous tunnels in the construction 
of which neither of these valuable aids was adopted are the 
Severn and the Mersey tunnels. 

The Severn tunnel (fig. 16), 4$ m. in length for a double line of 
railway, begun in 1873 and finished in 1886, Hawkshaw, Son, 
Hayter & Richardson being the engineers and T. A. Walker the 
contractor, is made almost wholly in the Trias and Coal Measure 
formations, but for a short distance at its eastern end passes through 
gravel. At the lowest part the depth is 60 ft. at low water and looft. 
at high water, and the thickness of sandstone over the brickwork 
is 45 ft. Under a depression in the bed of the river on the English 
side there is a cover of only 30 ft. of marl. Much water was met with 
throughout. In 1879 the works were flooded for months by a land 
spring on the Welsh side of the river, and on another occasion from 
a hole in the river bed at the Salmon Pool. This hole was subse- 
quently filled with clay and the works completed beneath. Two 
preliminary headings were driven across the river to test the ground. 

Break-ups " were made at intervals of two to five chains and the 
arching was carried on at each of these points. All parts of the 
excavation were timbered, and the greatest amount excavated in 
any one week was 6000 cub. yds. The total amount of water 
raised at all the pumping stations is about 27,000,000 gallons in 
twenty-four hours. 

The length of the Mersey tunnel (fig. 15) between Liverpool and 
Birkenhead between the pumping shafts on each side of the river 
is one mile. From each a drainage heading was driven through 
the sandstone with a rising gradient towards the centre of the river. 
This heading was partly bored out by a Beaumont machine to a 
diameter of 7 ft. 4 in. and at a rate attaining occasionally 65 lineal 
yds. per week. All of the tunnel excavation, amounting to 320,000 
cub. yds., was got out by hand labour, since heavy blasting would 
have shaken the rock. The minimum cover between the top of 
the arch and the bed of the river is 30 ft. Pumping machinery is 
provided for 27,000,000 gallons per day, which is more than double 
the usual quantity of water. Messrs Brunlees & Fox were the 
engineers, and Messrs Waddell the contractors for the works, which 
were opened in 1886, about six years after the beginning of operations. 

In 1869 P. W. Barlow and J. H. Greathead built the Tower 
foot-way under the Thames, using for the first time a cast-iron 
lining and a shield which embodied the main features of Brunei's 
design. Barlow had patented a shield in 1864, and A. E. Beach 
one in 1868. The latter was used in a short masonry tunnel 
under Broadway, New York City, at that time. In 1874 
Greathead designed and built a shield, to be used in connexion 
with compressed air, for a proposed Woolwich tunnel under 
the Thames, but it was never used. Compressed air was first 
used in tunnel work by Hersent, at Antwerp, in 1879, in a 
small drift with a cast-iron lining. 

In the same year compressed air was used for the first time 
in any important tunnel by D. C. Haskin in the famous first 
Hudson River tunnel, New York City. This was to be of 
two tubes, each having internal dimensions of about 16 ft. 
wide by 1 8 ft. high. The excavation as fast as made was lined 
with thin steel plates, and inside of these with brick. In 
June 1880 the northerly tube had reached 360 ft. from the 
Hoboken shaft, but a portion near the latter, not of full size, 
was being enlarged. Just after a change of shifts the compressed 
air blew a hole through the soft silt in the roof at this spot, 
and the water entering drowned the twenty men who were 
working therein. From time to time money was raised and the 
work advanced. Between 1888 and 1891 the northerly tunnel 
was extended 2000 ft. to about three-fourths of the way across, 
with British capital and largely under the direction of British 
engineers Sir Benjamin Baker and E. W. Moir. Compressed 



air and a shield were used, and the tunnel walls were made of 
bolted segments of cast iron. The money being exhausted, 
the tunnel was allowed to fill with water, and it so remained 
for ten years. Both tubes were completed in 1908. 

The use of compressed air in the Hudson tunnel, and of 
annular shields and cast-iron lined tunnel in constructing 
the City & South London railway (1886 to 1890) by Great- 
head, became widely known and greatly influenced subaqueous 
and soft-ground tunnelling thereafter. The pair of tunnels 
for this railway from near the Monument to Stockwell, from 
10 ft. 2 in. to 10 ft. 6 in. interior diameter, were constructed 
mostly in clay and without the use of compressed air, except 
for a comparatively short distance through water-bearing 
gravel. In this gravel a timber heading was made, through 
which the shield was pushed. The reported total cost was 
840,000. Among the tunnels constructed after the City & 
South London work was well advanced, lined with cast-iron 
segments, and constructed by means of annular shields and 
the use of compressed air, were the St Clair (Joseph Hobson, 
engineer) from Sarnia to Port Huron, 1889-1890, through clay, 
and for a short distance through water-bearing gravel, 6000 ft., 
1 8 ft. internal diameter; and the notable Blackwall tunnel 
under the Thames (Sir Alexander Binnie, engineer, and S. 
Pearson & Sons, contractors), through clay and 400 ft. of water- 
saturated gravel, 1892-1897, about 3116 ft. long, 24 ft. 3 in. 
in internal diameter. The shield, 19 ft. 6 in. long, contained a 
bulkhead with movable shutters, as foreshadowed in Baker's pro- 
posed shield (fig. 2). 
Numerous tunnels of 
small diameter have 
been similarly con- 
structed under the 
Thames and Clyde for 
electric and cable 
ways, several for 
sewers in Melbourne, 
and two under the 
Seine at Paris for 
sewer siphons. 

The Rotherhithe 
tunnel, under the 
Thames, for a road- 
way, with a length of 
4863 ft. between por- 
tals, of which about 
1400 ft. are directly 
under the river, has 
the largest cross- 
section of any sub- 
aqueous tube of this FIG. 2. B. Baker's pneumatic shield, 
type in the world (see fig. 3). It was begun in 1904 and 
finished in 1908, Maurice Fitzmaurice being the engineer of 
design and construction, and Price & Reeves the contractors. It 
penetrates sandy and shelly clay overlying a seam of limestone, 
beneath which are pebbles and loamy sand. A preliminary 
tunnel for exploration, 12 ft. in diameter, was driven across 
the river, the top being within 2 ft. of the following main 
tunnel. The top of the main tunnel excavation in the middle 
of the river was only 7 ft. from the bed of the Thames, and 
a temporary blanket of filled earth, usually allowed in similar 
cases, was prohibited owing to the close proximity of the docks. 
The maximum progress in one day was 12-5 ft., and the 
average in six days 10-4 ft. The air compressors were together 
capable of supplying 1,000,000 cub. ft. of air per hour. 

Some tunnels of marked importance of this type to be 
operated solely with electric cars have been built under the 
East and Hudson rivers at New York. Two tubes of 15 ft. 
interior diameter and 4150 ft. long penetrate gneiss and 
gravel directly under the East River between the Battery 
and Brooklyn. They were begun in 1902, with Wm. B. 
Parsons and George S. Rice as engineers, and were finished 
in December 1907, under the direction of D. L. Hough of the 



''" 




4-02 



TUNNEL 



The Thames Tunnel (Brunei), 1825-1842 




Glasgow Cable 

Subway, Clyde. 

y tubes. 



Hudson River, Morton St. 
a tubes. 





Baker St. & Waterloo Greenwich Footway 

Railway, Thames. 2 tubes. Tunnel, i tube. 




- 

Harlem River. 2 tubes. 





City & South London 
Railway, Thames. 
3 tubes. 




St Clair River, i tube. 



Hudson River (Haskin), 1879. 



^^fvfwsWw*^^ 




Waterloo & City Rail 
way, Thames. 

a tubes. 



Plackwall Tunnel, Thames, i tube. 



East Boston Tunnel under Harbour, i tube. 




Rotherhithe, Thames, t tube 



Hudson and E.iht Rivers. Pennsylvania 
Railroad. 2 and 4 tubes. 




i^B =- 

Battery to Brooklyn, East 
River. 2 tubes. 



<VV"AfiS,<" rV* .XV .&'" ^.V. v ^'^ v 'e^^. 



Detroit River Tunnel. 2 lubes. 




'. s 



Scale of Feet 
10 



kiver Seine, Pari*. i tube 



30 



Fie. 3. Cross Sections ol Tunnels under Kivers and Harbours. 



TUNNEL 



403 



New York Tunnel Company. They carry subway trains. In 
one of the blow-outs of compressed air a workman was blown 
through the gravel roof into the river above. He lived until 
the next day. Two other tubes of the same size built also through 
gneiss and gravel between 1905 and 1907 by the Degnon 
Contracting Company, with R. A. Shailer as the contractors' 
engineer, go from 42nd Street to Long Island City. 

Four much larger tubes (see fig. 3) built in 1904 to 1909, for 
the Pennsylvania railroad, with Alfred Noble as chief engineer, 
S. Pearson & Son as contractors, and E. W. Moir as general 
manager, cross from 32nd and 33rd Streets to Long Island. 
The maximum average progress per day (one heading) for the 
best month's work was: rock, 4-1 ft.; rock and earth, 3-8 ft.; 
earth, with full sand face, 12-8 ft. The best methods of prevent- 
ing blow-outs were found to consist of employing clay blankets 
(sometimes 25 ft. thick) on the river bed, which could be carried 
up to 20 ft. depth of water, and of filling the pores of the sand 
and gravel with blue lias lime or cement grout. The maximum 
air pressure was 38 Ib per sq. in. In the case of sand face with 
poor leaky cover the usual practice was to make the air pressure 
equal to that of water from the surface down to about a quarter 
the distance below the top of the shield. The average amount 
of free air supplied per man per hour was approximately 2300 
cub. ft. On the Hudson river side two tubes of the same 
size as those in the East River are for the Pennsylvania trains 
to New Jersey. Two tubes from Morton Street to New Jersey, 
begun by Haskin, already referred to, are for subway trains, and 
so are the most southerly of all on the Hudson side, viz. the 
two from Cortlandt Street to under the Pennsylvania station 
in Jersey City. 

The two tubes from Morton Street were completed under 
the direction of Charles M. Jacobs, who was also chief engineer 
of the four other Hudson River tubes. The contractors for the 
Hudson tubes for the Pennsylvania road were the O'Rourke 
Contracting Company. Skilful treatment was required to 
overcome the difficulties on the New York side of the Hudson 
in all the tubes where the face excavation was partly in rock 
and partly in soft earth. Most of their length, however, was 
through silt, and in this the tunnelling was the easiest and 
most rapid that has ever been carried out in subaqueous work, 
50 lineal ft. per day being sometimes accomplished. A large 
proportion of the silt which under ordinary processes would 
be taken into the tunnel through the shield, carried to the shore 
and got rid of by expensive methods, was by the latter process 
merely displaced as the shield with nearly or quite closed 
diaphragm was pushed ahead. 

The East Boston tunnel, the first important example of a 
shield-built monolithic concrete arch, from the Boston Sub- 
way to East Boston, is 1-4 m. long, 3400 ft. being under the 
harbour. One mile was excavated by tunnelling with roof shields 
about 29 ft. wide, through clay containing pockets of sand and 
gravel. The engineer was H. A. Carson, and the contractors the 
Boston Tunnel Construction Company and Patrick McGovern. 

Some 25 m. of waterworks brick-lined tunnels have been built 
since 1864, mostly in clay, under the Great Lakes, without the 
use of shields, though in the later ones compressed air was 
utilized. A large portion of the latest Cleveland tunnel, 9 ft. 
interior diameter, was built at the rate of 17 ft. per day at a 
cost of about $18 per ft. During this work three explosions 
of inflammable gases occurred, in which nineteen men were 
killed and others were injured. Later a fire at the shaft in the 
lake caused the death of ten men. Work was thereafter com- 
pleted under the engineering direction of G. H. Benzenberg. 
Less serious accidents, principally explosions of marsh gas, 
occurred in many of the other tunnels. In one case (at Mil- 
waukee under Benzenberg) drift material was penetrated, 
with large boulders and -coarse and fine gravel, and without 
any sand or clay filling, apparently in direct communication 
with the lake bottom. At times the necessary air pressure 
was 42 Ib per sq. in. 

Subaqueous Tunnels made by sinking Tubes, Caissons, &c. In 
1845 De la Haye, in England, doubtless having in mind the 



tedious and difficult work of the Thames tunnel, proposed to 
make tunnels un'der water by sinking large tubes on a previously 
prepared bed and connecting them together. Since then many 
inventors have proposed similar schemes. In 1866 Belgrand 
sank twin plate-iron pipes, i metre diameter and 156 metres 
long; under the Seine at Paris for a sewer siphon, and there have 
since been numerous examples of sunk cast-iron subaqueous 
water-pipes. It is believed that the first tunnel of this class, 
large enough for men to move upright in, was by H. A. Carson, 
assisted by W. Blanchard and F. D. Smith, in 1893-1894, in the 
outer portion of Boston harbour, for the metropolitan sewer 
outlet. The later tubes were about 9 ft. exterior diameter, 
in sections each 52 ft. long, weighing about 210,000 Ib, made of 
brick and concrete, with a skin of wood and water-tight bulk- 
heads at each end. A trench was dredged in the harbour bed 
and saddles were accurately placed to support the tubes. The 
latter, made in cradles above water alongside a wharf, were 
lowered by long vertical screws moved by steam power, and were 
towed 5 to J m. to their final positions. After sufficient water 
had been admitted they were lowered to their saddles by travel- 
ling shears on temporary piles. The temporary joints between 
consecutive sections were made by rubber gaskets between 
flanges which were bolted together by divers. The later opera- 
tions were backfilling the trench over the pipes, and in each 
section pumping out the water> removing its bulkheads, 
and making good the masonry between consecutive bulk- 
heads, this masonry being inside the flanges. This work, 
about 1500 ft. in length, was done without contractors, by 
labourers and foremen under the immediate control of 
the engineers, and was found perfectly tight, straight and 
sound. 

The double-track railroad tunnel at Detroit, made in 1906- 
1909, under the direction of an advisory board consisting of 
W. J. Wilgus (chairman), H. A. Carson and W. S. Kinnear (the 
last-named being chief engineer), is 15 m. long, with a portion 
directly under the river of % m. The method used under the 
river (proposed by Wilgus) is an important variation on the 
Boston scheme. A trench was dredged with a depth equal to 
the thickness of the tunnel below the river bed and about 70 ft. 
below the river surface, and grillages were accurately placed 
in it to support the ends of thin steel tube-forms, inside of 
which concrete was to be moulded and outside of which de- 
posited. These tubes, each about 23 ft. in diameter and 262-5 ft. 
long, were in pairs (one tube for each track), and were 
connected sidewise and surrounded by thin steel diaphragms 
12 ft. apart. Planking, to limit the concrete, was secured 
outside the diaphragms (see fig. 3). The forms were made 
tight, bulkheaded at their ends, floated into place, sunk by 
admitting water, set on the grillages, and the ends of successive 
pairs connected together by bolts through rubber gaskets and 
flanges. The succeeding pair of tubes was not lowered until 
concrete had been deposited through the river around the 
tubes of the preceding pair. The following steps were to re- 
move the water from one pair of tubes, mould inside a lining 
of concrete 20 in. thick, remove the contiguous bulkheads, 
and repeat again and again the processes described until the 
subaqueous tunnel was complete. 

The New York Rapid Transit tunnel under Harlem river, 
built 1904-1905, has two tubes, each about 15 ft. diameter and 
400 ft. long, with a surrounding shell of cast iron itself surrounded 
by concrete. The outside width of concrete is about 33 ft. 
Its top is 28 ft. below high water and about 3 ft. below the bed 
of the river. D. D. McBean, the sub-contractor, dredged a 
trench in the river to within 7 or 8 ft. of the required depth. 
He then enclosed a space of the width of the tunnel from shore 
to mid-stream with i2-in. sheet piling, which was evenly cut 
off some 2 ft. above the determined outside top of the tunnel. 
On top of this piling he sank and tightly fitted a flat temporary 
roof of timber 3 ft. thick in sections, and covered this with 
about 5 ft. of dredged mud. Water was expelled from this 
subaqueous chamber by compressed air, after which the re- 
maining earth was easily taken out, and the iron and concrete 



404 



TUNNEL 



tunnel walls were then built in the chamber. For the remaining 
part of the river the foregoing process was varfed by cutting off 
the sheet piling at mid-height of the tunnel and making the upper 
half of the tunnel, which was built above and lowered in sec- 
tions through the water, serve as the roof of the chamber in 
which the lower half of the tunnel was built. 

The tunnels of the Metropolitain railway of Paris (F. Bien- 
ventie, engineer-in-chief) under the two arms of the Seine, 
between Place Chatelet and Place Saint Michel, were made by 
means of compressed-air caissons sunk beneath the river bed, 



were next made by the aid of temporary small caissons sunk 
through about 26 ft. of earth under the river. The tops of the 
side walls were made even with the end walls. A steel rect- 
angular coffer-dam (figs. 5 and 6) was sunk to rest with rubber 
or clay joint on these surrounding walls. The coffer-dam had 
shafts reaching above the surface of the water, so that the earth 
core was easily taken out (after removing the water) in free air. 
The adjacent chambers under the caissons were then connected 
together. Three caissons, of a total length of 396 ft., were 
used under the larger arm, and two, of an aggregate length 



Mountain Tunnels for Railways. 



Tunnel. 


Location. 


Length, 
(miles) 


Internal Width and 
Height. 


Material 
penetrated. 


Average 
progress per 
day = 24 hrs. 
(lin. yds.). 


Approximate 
cost per 
lin. yd. 


Mont Cenis (l tunnel) . 
St Gotthard (i tunnel) 
Arlberg (i tunnel) . 

Simplon (2 tunnels'; 


Modane, France and 
Bardonecchia, Italy. 
Goschenen and Airolo in 
Switzerland. 
Innsbruck and Bludenz 
in Tirol. 

Brigue, Switzerland and 
Iselle, Italy. 


7-98 

9'3 
6-36 

12-3 


26 ft. 3 in. X 24 ft. 
7 in. (horseshoe). 
26 ft. 3 in. X 24 ft. 
7 in. (horseshoe). 
25 ft. 3 in. wide 

16 ft. 5 in. X 19 ft. 
6 in. each (rain.). 


Granitic 
Granitic 

Gneiss, mica schist, 
limestone and 
disintegrated mica 
schist rock. 


2'57 
6-61 
9-07 
11-63 


L 
226 

143 
108 
148 



L. Chagnaud being the contractor. They were built of plates 
of sheet steel and masonry, with temporary steel diaphragms 
in the ends, filled with concrete, making a cross wall with a 
level top about even with the outside top of the tunnel and 
about 2 ft. below the bottom of the Seine. The caissons were 
sunk on the line of the tunnel so that adjacent ends (and the 
walls just described) were nearly 5 ft. apart with at that stage 
a core of earth between them. Side walls joining the end 
walls and thus enclosing the earth core on four sides (fig. 4) 



Concrete Wbfls on 
%p of Ca/sson Ends^f- 







/* 


/ MMM 

*l4 






< 






r 










4 


-Lateral Walls 




J- -r- 




sef with Temporary 
Cff/ssot 




>'' ""k'1 







(From Engineering Neva, New York.) 

FIG. 4. Perspective showing manner of enclosing space between 
tunnel caissons for the Metropolitain under the Seine at Paris. 

_H.W. 
M.W. 




(From Engineering News, New York.) 

FIG. 5. Transverse Section. 



Coffer-dam superimposed over joints between caissons in tunnels for the Metropolitain 

under the Seine at Paris. 



of 132 ft., under the smaller arm of the Seine. The cost of 
the tunnel was 7000 francs per lineal metre. 

William Sooy Smith published in Chicago, in 1877, a de- 
scription of a scheme for building a tunnel under the Detroit 
river by sinking caissons end to end, each caisson to be secured 
to the adjoining one by tongued and grooved guides, and a 
nearly water-tight connexion between the two to be made by 
means of an annular inflated hose. 

Tunnelling through Mountains. Where a great thickness of 
rock overlies a tunnel through a mountain, it may be necessary 
to do the work wholly from the two ends without intermediate 
shafts. The problem largely resolves itself into devising the 
most expeditious way of excavating and removing the rock. 
Experience has led to great advances in speed and economy, as 
may be seen from examples in the above table. 

In 1857 the first blast was fired in connexion with the Mont 
Cenis works; in 1861 machine drilling was introduced; and in 
1871 the tunnel was opened for traffic. With the exception of 
about 300 yds. the tunnel is lined throughout with brick or 
stone. During the first four years of hand labour the average 
progress was not more than 9 in. per day on each side of the 
Alps; but with compressed air rock-drills the rate towards 
the end was five times greater. 

In 1872 the St Gotthard 
tunnel was begun, and in 
1 88 1 the first locomotive 
ran through it. Mechanical 
drills were used from the 
beginning. Tunnelling was 
carried on by driving in 
advance a top heading about 
8 ft. square, then enlarging 
this sideways, and finally 
sinking the excavation to 
invert level (see figs. 7 and 
8). Air for working the 
rock-drills was compressed 
to seven atmospheres by 
turbines of about 2000 
horse-power. 

The driving of the Arlberg 
tunnel was begun in 1 880 and 
the work was completed in 
little more than three years. 
Themainheading was driven 
along the bottom of the 



FIG. 6. Longitudinal Section. 



TUNNEL 



405 



tunnel and shafts were opened up 25 to 70 yds. apart, from which 
smaller 'headings were driven right and left. The tunnel was 
enlarged to its full section at different points simultaneously in 
lengths of 8 yds., the excavation of each occupying about twenty 
days, and the masonry fourteen days. Ferroux percussion air-drills 
and Brandt rotary hydraulic drills were used, the performance of 
the latter being especially satisfactory. After each blast a fine 
spray of water was injected, which assisted the ventilation 




FIGS. 7 and 8. Method of excavation in St Gotthard Tunnel. 

materially. In the St Gotthard tunnel the discharge of the 
air-drills was relied on for ventilation. In the Arlberg tunnel 
over 8000 cub. ft. of air per minute were thrown in by ven- 
tilators. To keep pace with the miners, 900 tons of excavated 
material had to be removed, and 350 tons of masonry 
introduced, daily at each end of the tunnel, which necessitated 
the transit of 450 wagons. The cost per lineal yard varied 
according to the thickness of masonry lining and the distance 
from the mouth of the tunnel. For the first thousand yards 
from the entrance the prices per lineal yard were 11 8s. for 
the lower heading; 7 123. for the upper one; 30 los. for the 
unlined tunnel; 45 for the tunnel with a thin lining of masonry; 
and 124 55. with a lining 3 ft. thick at the arch, 4 ft. at the 
sides, and 2 ft. 8 in. at the invert. 

The Simplon tunnel was begun in 1898 and completed in 
1905. It is over 30 % longer than the St Gotthard, and the 
greatest depth below the surface is 7005 ft. A novel method 
was introduced in the shape of two parallel bores (56 ft. apart, 
connected at intervals of 660 ft. by oblique galleries), which 
greatly facilitated ventilation, and resulted in increased economy 
and rapidity of construction, while ensuring the health of the 
men. One of these galleries was made large enough for a single- 
track railroad, and the second is to be enlarged and similarly 
used. The death-rate in the Simplon tunnel was decreased as 
compared with the St Gotthard from 800 in eight years to 60 
in seven years. Had one wide tunnel been made instead of two 
narrow ones, it would have been difficult to maintain its 
integrity; even with the narrow cross-section employed the floor 
was forced up at points in the solid rock from the great weight 
above, and had to be secured by building heavy inverts of 
masonry. Temperatures were reduced to 89 F. by spraying 
devices, although the rock temperatures ranged from 129 to 
130 F. At one point 4374 yds. from the portal of Iselle the 
" Great Spring " of cold water was struck; it yielded 10,564 
gallons per minute at 600 ft pressure per sq. in., and reduced 
the temperature to 55-4 F., the lowest point recorded. A 
spring of hot water was met on the Italian side which discharged 
into the tunnel 1600 gallons per minute with a temperature of 
113 F. The maximum flow of cold water was 17,081 gallons 
per minute, and of hot water 4330 gallons per minute. These 
springs often necessitated a temporary abandonment of the 
work. Water power from the Rhone at the Swiss and from the 
Diveria at the Italian end provided the power for operating all 
plant during the construction of most of the work. Among the 
able engineers connected with this work must be mentioned 
Alfred Brandt, a man of remarkable energy and ability, whose 
drills were used with much success. He died early in the work, 
of injuries received from falling rock. 

A group of tunnels the Tauern, Barengraben, Wocheiner and 
Bosriick was undertaken by the Austrian government in 



connexion with new Alpine railroads to increase the commercial 
territory tributary to the seaport of Trieste, which at one time 
was greater than Hamburg. The principal tunnel of this group 
is under the main body of the Tauern mountain. The bottom 
drifts met on the 2ist of July 1907. The difficulties resulted 
mostly from mountain debris and springs. There are four 
minor tunnels between Schwarzach, St Veit, and the north 
portal of the Tauern, and nineteen between the south portal 
and the south slope at Mollbriicken. 

The electric railway from the Eiger glacier to near the summit 
of the Jungfrau includes a tunnel 15 m. long, 3-6 metres wide 
and 3-8 metres high, with a midway station, from which a large 
part of northern Switzerland can be seen. From the Jungfrau 
terminus, at an elevation of 13,428 ft., the summit, 242 ft. 
higher, will be reached by an elevator. 

The Hoosac tunnel was the first prominent tunnel in America. 
It was begun in 1855 and finished in 1876, after many interrup- 
tions. It was memorable for the original use in America of 
air-drills and nitroglycerin. The Pennsylvania railroad tunnels 
crossing New York City under 32nd and 33rd Streets are of un- 
usual size. Owing to the close proximity of large buildings and 
other structures special methods were adopted for mining the 
rock to lessen the vibrations by explosions. At 33rd Street 
and 4th Avenue the tunnels pass directly under two of the 
Rapid Transit system, above which there is another belonging 
to the Metropolitan Traction Company, so that there are three 
tunnels at different levels under the street. 

Among other rock tunnels may be mentioned the Albula, 
through a granite ridge of the Rhaetian Alps, for a single-track 
narrow-gauge railroad, 3-6 m. long; tunnels on the Midland 
railway, near Totley in Derbyshire, over 3-5 m. long, largely 
in shale, and at Cowburn, over 2 m. long, in shale and harder 
rock, each 27 ft. wide and 20-5 ft. high inside; the Suram, on 
the Trans-Caucasus railway, for double track, 2-47 m. long, 
through soft rock; the tail-race tunnel for the Niagara Falls 
Water Power Company, 1-3 m. long, 19 ft. wide and 21 ft. high, 
through argillaceous shale and limestone, costing about 
$1,250,000; the Tequixquiac outlet to the drainage system for 
the city of Mexico, costing $6,760,000; the Cascade, Washington, 
part of the Great Northern railroad system, saving 9 m. 
in distance; and the Gunnison, irrigating 147,000 acres in 
Colorado. 

Tunnelling in Towns. Where tunnels have to be carried 
through soft soil in proximity to valuable buildings special 
precautions have to be taken to avoid settlement. A successful 
example of such work is the tunnel driven in 1886 for the Great 
Northern Railway Company under the Metropolitan Cattle 




FIG. 9. Paris Metropolitain Tunnel, longitudinal horizontal 
section. 



406 



TUNNEL 



Market, London. This was done by the crown-bar method, 
the bars being built in with solid brickwork. The subsidence 
in the ground was from i to about 3^ in. Several buildings 
were tunnelled under without any structural damage. 

London has now some 90 m. of tunnels for railways, mostly 
operated by electric traction. Most of those which have been 
constructed since 1890 have been tunnelled by the use of cylin- 
drical shields and walls of cast iron. Shields about 23 ft. in 
diameter were used in constructing the stations on the Central 
London railway, and one 32 ft. 4 in. in diameter and only 
9 ft. 3 in. long was used for a short distance on the Clapham 
extension of the City and South London railway. 



general, the upper half of the tunnel was executed first (figs. 9 
and 10) and the lower part completed by underpinning. 

Figs, n, 12 and 13 illustrate a case of tunnelling near impor- 
tant buildings in Boston in 1896, with a roof-shield 29 ft. 4 in. in 
external diameter. The vertical sidewalls were first made in 
small drifts, the roof-shield running on top of these, and the 
core was taken out later and the invert or floor of the tunnel 
put in last. Each hydraulic press of the shield reacted against 
a small continuous cast-iron rod imbedded in the brick arch. 
In some large sewerage tunnels in Chicago the shields were 
pushed from a wall of oak planks, 8 in. thick, surrounding the 
brick walls of the sewer. 




FIG. 10. Paris Metropolitain Tunnel, longitudinal vertical section. 



Paris has an elaborate plan for underground railways some 
50 m. in length, a considerable number of which have been 
constructed since 1898 under the engineering direction of F. 
Bienveniie. Instead of using completely cylindrical shields 
and cast-iron walls, as in London, roof-shields (boucliers de 
votile) were employed for the construction of the upper half of 
the tunnel, and masonry walls were adopted throughout. In 



Ventilation oj Tunnels. The simplest method for ven- 
tilating a railway tunnel is to have numerous wide openings to 
daylight at frequent intervals. If these are the full width of 
the tunnel, at least 20 ft. in length, and not farther apart 
than 200 yds., it can be naturally ventilated. Such arrange- 
ments are, however, frequently impracticable, and then recourse 
must be had to mechanical means. 









FIG. ii. Boston Subway, first and second phases. 



TUNNEL 



407 




FIG. 12. Boston Subway, third phase. 







FIG. 13. Boston Subway, longitudinal vertical section through shield. 



The first application of mechanical or fan ventilation to railway 
tunnels was made in the Lime Street tunnel of the London and 
North-Western railway at Liverpool, which has since been replaced 
by an open cutting. At a later date fans were applied to the Severn 
and Mersey tunnels. 

The principle ordinarily acted upon, where mechanical ventilation 
has been adopted, is to exhaust the vitiated air at a point midway 
between the portals of a tunnel, by means of a shaft with which is 
connected a ventilating fan of suitable power and dimensions. In 
the case of the tunnel under the river Mersey (fig. 14) such a shaft 
could not be provided, owing to the river being overhead, but a 
ventilating heading was driven from the middle of the river (at which 



point entry into the tunnel was effected) to each shore, where a fan 
40 ft. in diameter was placed. In this way the vitiated air is drawn 
from the lowest point of the railway, while fresh air flows in at the 
stations on each side to replenish the partial vacuum, as indicated 
by arrows in the accompanying longitudinal section of the tunnel. 
The principle was that fresh air should enter at each station and 
" split " each way into the tunnel, and that thus the atmosphere 
on the station platforms should be maintained in a condition of 
purity. 

The fans in the Mersey tunnel are somewhat similar to the well- 
known Guibal fans, with the exception of an important alteration 
in the shutter. With the Guibal shutter, the top of the opening 




(From a diagram in Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng.) 

FIG. 14. 



Longitudinal Section of the Mersey Tunnel, showing Method of Ventilation. 



408 



TUNNEL 



into the chimney from the fan has a line parallel to that of the fan- 
shaft and of the fan-blades, and, as a consequence, as each blade 
passes this shutter, the stoppage of the discharge of the air is instan- 
taneous, and the sudden change of the pressure of the air on the face 
cf the blade whilst discharging and the reversal of the pressure, 
due to the vacuum inside the fan-casing, cause the vibration hitherto 
inseparable from this type of ventilator. As an illustration of the 
effect of the pulsatory action of the Guibal shutters the following 
figures may be given : a fan having ten arms and running, say, sixty 
revolutions per minute, and working twenty-four hours per day, 
gives (10 X 60 X 60 X 24 = ) 864,000 blows per day transmitted 
From the tip of the fan-vanes to the fan-shaft; the shaft is thus in 
a constant state of tremor, and sooner or later reaches its elastic 
limit, and the consequent injury to the general structure of the fan 
is obvious. This difficulty is avoided by cutting a A -shaped opening 
in the shutter, thus gradually decreasing the aperture and allowing 
the air to pass into the chimney in a continuous stream instead of 
intermittently. The action of this regulating shutter increases 
the durability and efficiency of the fans in an important degree. 
In towns like Liverpool and Birkenhead any pulsatory action would 
be readily felt by the inhabitants, but with the above arrangement 
it is difficult to detect any sound whatever, even when standing close 
to the buildings containing the fans. The admission of the air on 
both sides is found in practice to conduce to smooth running and to 
the reduction of the side-thrust which occurs when the air is 
admitted on one side only. The fans are five in number: two are 
40 ft. in diameter by 12 ft. wide, and two 30 ft. in diameter by loft, 
wide, one of each size being erected at Liverpool and at Birken- 
head respectively. In addition, there is a high-speed fan 1 6 ft. in 
diameter in Liverpool which throws 300,000 cub. ft. 

The following table gives the result of experiments made with 
the ventilating fans of the Mersey railway : 





1 


3 


J.1 


li 


.5 


a 


a 
S l 


Fan at 


oj 





s^ 


oS 


Id 


*o S 


"oil 




jj'*' 


o ^J 


BJ ft 


^ 


t/. 


>% S3 


*J rj S 




i' s 


2.3 


1.1 


Sa 


3 


|J 


li 8 




s 





z 3 


< 


* 




> 


Hamilton Street, 
















Birkenhead 
Shore Road, 


30 


IO 


47 


"3 


1-30 


1895 


214,135 


Birkenhead 
James Street, 


40 


12 


45 


41 


2-50 


3288' 


134-685 


Liverpool . 
James Street, 


40 


12 


45 


72 


2-45 


2465 


178,880 


Liverpool . 


30 


IO 


60 


60 


2-30 


2062 


123,720 


Bold Street, 
















Liverpool .. 


1 6* 

















300,000 














Total 


951,420 



The central point of the Severn tunnel (fig. 15) lies toward the 
Monmouthshire bank of the river, and ventilation is effected from 
that point by means of one fan placed on the surface at Sudbrooke, 
Monmouth, at the top of a shaft which is connected with a horizontal 

Ventilating Fan 

Monmouthshire 40 "^ f"''"V^L? el/em 1 Gloucestershire 




7 
milei 

al length of Tunnel 4 miles 624 yardt rd 

FIG. 15. Section of Severn Tunnel (Fox). 

heading leading to the centre. This fan, which is 40 ft. in diameter 
by 12 ft. in width, removes from the tunnel some 400,000 cub. ft. 
per minute, and draws in an equivalent volume of fresh air from the 
two ends. 

About 1896 an excellent system was introduced by Signor Saccardo, 
the well-known Italian engineer, which to a great extent has minim- 
ized the difficulty of ventilating long tunnels under mountain-ranges 
where shafts are not available. This system, which is not applicable 
to tunnels in which underground stations exist, is illustrated in 
fig. 1 6, which represents its application to the single-line tunnel 
through the Apennines at Pracchia. This tunnel is one of fifty- 
two single-line tunnels, with a gradient of I in 40, on the main line 
between Florence and Bologna, built by Thomas Brassey. There 
is a great deal of traffic which has to be worked by heavy locomotives. 
Before the installation of a ventilating system under any condition 
of wind the state of this tunnel, about 3000 yds. in length, was bad ; 

_* In the case of this circular drift-way a velocity of 4000 ft. per 
minute was subsequently attained. 
* Quick-running fan. 



but when the wind was blowing in at the lower end at the same time 
that a heavy goods or passenger train was ascending the gradient 
the condition of affairs became almost insupportable. The engines, 
working with the regulators full open, often emitted large quantities 
of both smoke and steam, which travelled concurrently with the 
train. The goods trains had two engines, one in front and another 
at the rear, and when, from the humidity in the tunnel, due to the 



Fan 




(From the Proc. Inst. Civ. Ens.) 

FIG. 16. Diagram illustrating the Saccardo System for 
Ventilating Tunnels. 

steam, the wheels slipped and possibly the train stopped, the state 
of the air was indescribable. A heavy train with two engines, 
conveying a royal party and their suite, arrived on one occasion 
at the upper exit of the tunnel with both enginemen and both fire- 
men insensible; and on another occasion, when a heavy passenger 
train came to a stop in the tunnel, all the occupants were seriously 
affected. 

In applying the Saccardo system, the tunnel was extended for 
15 or 20 ft. by a structure either of timber or brickwork, the inside 
line of which represented the line of maximum construction, and this 
was allowed to project for about 3 ft. into the tunnel. The space 
between this line and the exterior constituted the chamber into 
which air was blown by means of a fan. Considering the length 
of tunnel it might at first be thought there would be some tendency 
for the air to return through the open mouth, but nothing of the 
kind happened. The whole of the air blown by the fan, 164,000 
cub. ft. per minute, was augmented by the induced current yielding 
46,000 cub. ft. per minute, making a total of 210,000 cub. ft.; and 
this volume was blown down the gradient against the ascending 
train, so as to free the driver and men in charge of the train from 
the products of combustion at the earliest possible moment. Prior 
to the installation of this system the drivers and firemen had to be 
clothed in thick woollen garments, pulled on over their ordinary 
clothes, and wrapped round and round the neck and over the head ; 
but in spite of all these precautions they sometimes arrived at the 
upper end of the tunnel in a state of insensibility. The fan, however, 
immensely improved the condition of the air, which is now pure 
and fresh. 

In the case of the St Gotthard tunnel, which is c>$ m. in length 
and 26 ft. wide with a sectional area of 603 sq. ft., the Saccardo 
system was installed in 1899 with most beneficial results. The 
railway is double-tracked and worked by steam locomotives, the 
cars being lighted by gas. The ventilating plant is situated at 
Goschenen at the north end of the tunnel and consists of two large 
fans operated by water power. The quantity of air passed into 
the narrow mouth of the tunnel is 413,000 cub. ft. per minute at 
a velocity of 686 ft., this velocity being much reduced as the full 
section of the tunnel is reached. A sample of the air taken from 
a carriage contained 10-19 parts of carbonic acid gas per 10,000 
volumes. 

In the Simplon tunnel, where electricity is the motive power, 
mechanical ventilation is installed. A steel sliding door is arranged 
at each entrance to be raised and lowered by electric power. After 
the entrance of a train the door is lowered and fresh air forced into 
the tunnel at considerable pressure from the same end by fans. 

The introduction of electric traction has simplified the problem 
of ventilating intra-urban railways laid in tunnels at a greater or 
less distance below the surface, since the absence of smoke and 
products of combustion from coal and coke renders necessary only 
such a quantity of air as is required by the passengers and staff. 
For supplying air to the shallow tunnels which form the under- 
ground portions of the Metropolitan and District railways in London, 
open staircases, blow-holes and sections of uncovered track are 
relied on. When the lines were worked by steam locomotives they 
afforded notorious examples of bad ventilation, the proportion of 



TUNNEL VAULT TUNNY 



409 



carbonic acid amounting to from 15 or 20 to 60, 70 and even 89 
parts in 10,000. But since the adoption of electricity as the motive 
power the atmosphere of the tunnels has much improved, and two 
samples taken from the cars in 1905 gave 11-27 an d 14-07 parts 
of carbonic acid in 10,000. 

When deep level " tube " railways were first constructed in 
London, it was supposed that adequate ventilation would be obtained 
through the lift-shafts and staircases at the stations, with the aid 
of the scouring action of the trains which, being of nearly the same 
cross-section as the tunnel, would, it was supposed, drive the air 
in front of them out by the openings at the stations they were 
approaching, while drawing fresh air in behind them at the stations 
they had left. This expectation, however, was disappointed, and 
it was found necessary to employ mechanical means. On the Central 
London railway, which runs from the Bank of England to Shepherd's 
Bush.adistance of 6 m.,the ventilating plant installed-in 1902 consists 
of a 300 h.p. electrically driven fan, which is placed at Shepherd's 
Bush and draws in fresh air from the Bank end of the line and 
at other intermediate points. The fan is 5 ft. wide and 20 ft. in 
diameter, and makes 145 revolutions a minute, its capacity being 
100,000 cub. ft. a minute. It is operated from I to 4 a.m., and the 
openings at all the intermediate stations being closed it draws fresh 
air in at the Bank station. The tunnel is thus cleared out about 
2 1 times each night and the air is left in the same condition as it is 
outside. The fan is also worked during the day from n a.m. to 
5 p.m., the intermediate doors being open; in this way the atmo- 
sphere is improved for about half the length of the line and the cars 
are cleared out as they arrive at Shepherd's Bush. Samples of 
the air in the tunnel taken when the fan was not running contained 
7-07 parts of carbonic acid in 10,000, while the air of a full car 
contained 10-7 parts. The outside air at the same time contained 
44 parts. A series of tests made for the London County Council 
in 1902 showed that the air of the cars contained a minimum of 
9-60 parts and a maximum of 14-7 parts. In some of the later tube 
railways in London such as the Baker Street and Waterloo, and 
the Charing Cross and Hampstead lines electrically driven exhaust 
fans are provided at about half-mile intervals; these each extract 
18,500 cub. ft. of air per minute from the tunnels, and discharge 
it from the tops of the station roofs, fresh air being conveyed to 
the points of suction in the tunnels. 

Tne Boston system of electrically operated subways and tunnels 
is ventilated by electric fans capable of completely changing the air 
in each section about every fifteen minutes. Air admitted at portals 
and stations is withdrawn midway between stations. In the case 
of the East Boston tunnel, the air leaving the tunnel under the middle 
of the harbour is carried to the shore through longitudinal ducts 
(fig- 3) atl d is there expelled through fan-chambers. 

In the southerly 5 m. of the New York Rapid Transit railway, 
which runs in a four-track tunnel of rectangular section, having 
an area of 650 sq. ft., and built as close as possible to the surface 
of the streets, ventilation by natural means through the open stair- 
cases at the stations is mainly relied upon, with satisfactory results 
as regards the proportions of carbonic acid found in the air. But 
when intensely hot weather prevails in New York the tunnel air is 
sometimes 5 hotter still, due to the conversion of electrical energy 
into heat. This condition is aggravated by the fine diffusion through 
the air of oil from the motors, dust from the ballast and particles 
of metal ground off by the brake shoes, &c. 

Volume of Air Required for Ventilation. The consumption of 
coal by a locomotive during the passage through a tunnel having 
been ascertained, and 29 cub. ft. of poisonous gas being allowed for 
each pound of coal consumed, the volume of fresh air required 
to maintain the atmosphere of the tunnel at a standard of purity 
of 20 parts of carbon dioxide in 10,000 parts of air is ascertained 
as follows: The number of pounds of fuel consumed per mile, 
multiplied by 29, multiplied by 500, and divided by the interval 
in minutes between the trains, will give the volume of air in cubic 
feet which must be introduced into the tunnel per minute. As an 
illustration, assume that the tunnel is a mile in length, that the 
consumption of fuel is 32 ft per mile, and that one train passes 
through the tunnel every five minutes in each direction; then the 
volume of air required per minute will be 

32 ft X 29 cub, ft. X 500 = cub f 

2j minutes. 

Corrosion of Rails in Tunnels. Careful tests made in the Box and 
Severn tunnels of the Great Western railway, to ascertain if possible 
the loss that takes place in the weight of rails owing to the presence 
of corrosive gases, gave the following results: 

Box TUNNEL (i m. 66 chains in length). 

Percentage of Wear per annum. 

ft per yard 
Down line, gradient falling I in 100 % per annum. 

At east mouth 0-439 = 0-377 

28 chains from east mouth I 800 = I -540 

48 chains from east mouth 2-110 = 1-810 

I m. 8 chains from east mouth 2-880 = 2.480 

At west mouth 0-640 = 0-553 



Up line, gradient rising I in 100 

At east mouth 0-620 = 0-575 

I m. 8 chains from east mouth i -500 = I -380 

i m. 28 chains from east mouth 1520 = 1-310 

At west mouth 0-680 = 0-587 

SEVERN TUNNEL (4 m. 28i chains in length). 
Percentage of Wear per annum. 

Ib per yard 
JJown line, outside and quite clear of tunnel, % per annum. 

Bristol end, gradient falling I in 100 . . . 0-280 = 0-240 
Up line, outside and quite clear of tunnel, 

Newport end, gradient falling I in 90 . . 0-440 = 0-390 
At Bristol mouth, gradient falling I in 100 1-200 = 1-020 

33 chains from Bristol mouth, gradient falling 

1 in iop 2-160 = 1 860 

3 m - 75i chains from Bristol mouth, gradient 

rising I in 90 1-900=1-630 

At Newport mouth 0-310 = 0-270 

Down and up line under main-shaft level . . 3-200 = 2-750 

It will be seen that the maximum wear and corrosion together 
reached the extraordinary weight of 2 \ ft per yard of rail per year 
a very serious amount that involved great expenditure The wear 
occurred over the whole of the rail, but the top, over which the 
engine and train passed, wore at a greater rate, presumably on 
account of the surface being kept bright and the gases being able 
to act on it. The Great Western Company tried the experiment in 
the Severn tunnel of boxing up the rails, so that the ballast 
approached their surface within i in. or i^ in. It was found, 
however, that in the case, at any rate, of the limestone ballast 
the cure was almost worse than the disease, the result being a 
maximum wear of 2j ft and an average wear of just under 2 ft> 
per yard of rail per year. The average on the open line would 
be about 0-25 ft in the same time. 

See Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. ; also works on tunnelling by Drinker, 
Simms, Stauffer and Prelini, and on tunnel shields, &c., by Copper- 
thwaite. (H. A. C.) 

TUNNEL VAULT, the term in architecture given to the 
semicircular or elliptical vault over underground passages, in 
contradistinction to the wagon or barrel vault of edifices above 
ground. 

TUNNY (Thunnusthynnus), one of the largest fishes of the 
family of mackerels, belongs to the genus of which the bonito 
(Th. pelamys) and the albacores (Th. albacora, Th. alalonga, &c.) 
are equally well-known members. From the latter the tunny 
is distinguished by its much shorter pectoral fins, which reach 
backwards only to, or nearly to, the end of the first dorsal fin. 
It possesses nine short finlets behind the dorsal, and eight 
behind the anal fin. Its colour is dark bluish above, and greyish, 
tinged and spotted with silvery, below. The tunny is a pelagic 
fish, but periodically approaches the shore, wandering in large 
shoals, within well-ascertained areas along the coast. It not 
infrequently appears in small companies or singly in the 
English Channel and in the German Ocean, probably in pursuit 




Tunny. 



of the shoals of pilchards and herrings on which it feeds. The 
regularity of its appearance on certain parts of the coasts of the 
Mediterranean has led to the establishment of a systematic 
fishery, which has been carried on from the time of the Phoeni- 
cians to the present day. Immense numbers of tunnies were 
caught on the Spanish coast and in the Sea of Marmora, where, 
however, this industry has much declined. The Sardinian 
tunnies were considered to be of superior excellence. The 
greatest number is now caught on the north coast of Sicily, the 
fisheries of this island supplying most of the preserved tunny 
which is exported to other parts of the world. In ancient times 
the fish were preserved in salt, and that coming from Sardinia, 
which was specially esteemed by the Romans, was known as 



TUNSTALL, C. TUPPER, SIR CHARLES 



Salsamentum sardicum. At present preference is given to tunny 
preserved in oil. Many of the fishes, especially the smaller ones, 
are consumed fresh. The tunny occurs also in the Pacific and 
is much sought for by anglers on the coast of southern California, 
where tuna-fishing has become a fashionable sport; but several 
other species seem to take its place in the Indo-Pacific ocean. 
It is one of the largest fishes, attaining to a length of ten ft. and 
to a weight of more than a thousand pounds. 

In connexion with the extremely active life of these fishes 
allusion should be made to the fact, first ascertained in 1839 by 
John (brother of Sir Humphry) Davy, that the temperature 
of the blood of a tunny may be considerably higher than that of 
the surrounding water, a discovery which disposed of the time- 
honoured division of vertebrate animals into warm-blooded and 
cold-blooded. 

The variations and movements of the tunny and albacores were 
studied with special care by King Carlos of Portugal, who published 
in 1899 a large illustrated memoir entitled A Pesca do alum no 
Algarve in 1898 (Lisbon). This memoir is accompanied by excel- 
lent figures of the different species of Thunnus and charts of their 
distribution in the Atlantic. 

TUNSTALL (or TONSTALL), CUTHBERT (1474-1559), English 
prelate, was an illegitimate son of Thomas Tunstall of Thurland 
Castle, Lancashire, his legitimate half-brother, Brian Tunstall, 
being killed at Flodden in 1513. Cuthbert seems to have studied 
at Oxford, at Cambridge and at Padua, and he became a dis- 
tinguished scholar, winning favourable comment from Erasmus. 
Having held several livings in quick succession, he became chan- 
cellor to William Warham, archbishop of Canterbury, in 1511, 
and he was soon employed on diplomatic business by Henry 
VIII. and Wolsey, being sent to Brussels in 1515 and to Cologne 
in 1519, while he was at Worms during the famous Diet of 1521. 
In 1516 he had been made master of the rolls; in 1521 he became 
dean of Salisbury, in 1522 bishop of London, and in 1523 keeper 
of the privy seal. For Henry VIII. he negotiated with Charles 
V. after his victory at Pa via in 1525 and he helped to arrange the 
Peace of Cambrai in 1529. In 1530 he succeeded Wolsey as 
bishop of Durham. Tunstall's religious views now gave some 
anxiety. He adhered firmly to the traditional teaching of the 
Church, but after some slight hesitation he accepted Henry as 
its head and publicly defended this position. In 1537 the bishop 
was appointed president of the new council of the north, but 
although he was often engaged in treating with the Scots he found 
time to take part in other public business and to attend parlia- 
ment, where in 1 539 he participated in the discussion on the bill 
of six articles. Although he disliked the religious policy pur- 
sued by the advisers of Edward VI. and voted against the first 
act of uniformity in 1549, he continued to discharge his public 
duties without molestation until after the fall of the protector 
Somerset; then in May 1551, he was placed in custody. A bill 
charging him with treason was introduced, but the House of 
Commons refused to pass it; he was, however, deprived of his 
bishopric in October 1552. On the accession of Mary in 1553 he 
was released and was again bishop of Durham, but during this 
reign he showed no animus against the Protestants. When 
Elizabeth came to the throne he refused to take the oath of 
supremacy, and he would not help to consecrate Matthew Parker 
as archbishop of Canterbury. He was arrested, and was still a 
prisoner at Lambeth when he died on the i8th of November 
ISS9- 

Among Tunstall's writings are De veritate corporis et sanguinis 
domini nostri Jesu Christi in eucharistia (1554); and De arte 
supputandi libri quattuor (1522). The bishop's correspondence as 
president of the council of the north is in the British Museum. 

TUNSTALL, a market town of Staffordshire, England, on 
the northern outskirts of the Potteries district, included in the 
parliamentary borough of Newcastle-under-Lyme, 4 m. N.W. 
from Stoke-upon-Trent by the North Staffordshire railway. 
Pop. of urban district (1901), 19,492. The town is of modern 
growth. The Victoria Institute (1889) includes a library and 
schools of art and science. The neighbourhood is full of collieries, 
ironworks and potteries. Kidsgrove, Chatterley and Talk-o'-th'- 
hill are large neighbouring villages; the mines at the last-named 



were the scene of a terrible explosion in 1866, by which nearly 
a hundred lives were lost. There are brick and tile works 
in Tunstall. The town is included in the large parish of Wol- 
stanton, and in the borough of Stoke-on-Trent (q.v.) under the 
" Potteries Federation " scheme (1908). 

TUPIS (Comrades), a tribe and stock of South American 
Indians of Brazil. They call all other peoples Tapuyas 
(foreigners). Their original home is believed to have been on the 
Amazon, and from its mouth they spread far southwards along 
the Brazilian coast. When hard pressed by the Portuguese 
they retreated to the Andes. Martius gives the Tupi nation a 
wide range, from the Atlantic to the Andes, and from Paraguay 
to the Amazon. Of this stock are the Omaguas, Cocomas and 
other Peruvian tribes. Latham makes the Tupis members of 
the Guarani stock. The " Lingoa Geral " or trade language 
between Portuguese and Amazon Indians is a corruption of the 
Tupi tongue. 

TUPPER, SIR CHARLES, BART. (1821- ), British colonial 
statesman, son of the Rev. Charles Tupper, D.D., was born 
at Amherst, Nova Scotia, on the 2nd of July 1821, and was 
educated at Horton Academy. He afterwards studied for the 
medical profession at Edinburgh University, where he received 
the diplomas of M.D. and L.R.C.S. In 1855 he was returned 
to the Nova Scotia Assembly for Cumberland county. In 1862 
he was appointed, by act of parliament, governor of Dalhousie 
College, Halifax; and from 1867 till 1870 he was president of 
the Canadian Medical Association. Mr Tupper was a member 
of the executive council and provincial secretary of Nova Scotia 
from 1857 to 1860, and from 1863 to 1867. He became prime 
minister of Nova Scotia in 1864, and held that office until the 
Union Act came into force on the ist of July 1867, when his 
government retired. He was a delegate to Great Britain 
on public business from the Nova Scotia government in 1858 
and 1865, and from the Dominion government in March 1868. 
Mr Tupper was leader of the delegation from Nova Scotia to the 
Union conference at Charlottetown in 1864, and to that of 
Quebec during the same year; and to the final colonial conference 
in London, which assembled to complete the terms of union, in 
1866-1867. On that occasion he received a patent of rank and 
precedence from Queen Victoria as an executive councillor of 
Nova Scotia. He was sworn a member of the privy council of 
Canada, June 1870, and was president of that body from that 
date until the ist of July 1872, when he was appointed minister 
of inland revenue. This office he held until February 1873, 
when he became minister of customs under Sir John Macdonald, 
resigning with the ministry at the close of 1873. On Sir John's 
return to power in 1878, Mr Tupper became minister of public 
works, and in the following year minister of railways and canals. 
At this time he was made K.C.M.G. Mr Tupper was the author 
of the Public Schools Act of Nova Scotia, and had been largely 
instrumental in moulding the Dominion Confederation Bill and 
other important measures. Sir Charles represented the county 
of Cumberland, Nova Scotia, for thirty-two years in succession 
first in the Nova Scotia Assembly, and subsequently in the 
Dominion parliament until 1884, when he resigned his seat on 
being appointed high commissioner for Canada in London. 
Shortly before the Canadian Federal elections of February 1887, 
Sir Charles re-entered the Conservative cabinet as finance 
minister. By his efforts the Canadian Pacific railway was enabled 
to float a loan of $30,000,000, on the strength of which the line 
was finished several years before the expiration of the contract 
time. He resigned the office of finance minister in May 1888, 
when he was reappointed high commissioner for the Dominion of 
Canada in London. Sir Charles was designated one of the British 
plenipotentiaries to the Fisheries Convention at Washington in 
1887, the result of which conference was the signing of a treaty 
in February 1888 (rejected by the U.S. Senate) for the settlement 
of the matters in dispute between Canada and the United States 
in connexion with the Atlantic fisheries. He was created a 
baronet in September 1888. When the Dominion cabinet, under 
Sir Mackenzie Bowell, was reconstituted in January 1896 Sir 
Charles Tupper accepted office, and in the following April he 



TUPPER, MARTIN F. TURBOT 



411 



succeeded Bowell in the premiership. On both patriotic and 
commercial grounds he urged the adoption of a preferential 
tariff with Great Britain and the sister colonies. At the general 
election in the ensuing June the Conservatives were severely 
defeated, and Sir Charles Tupper and his colleagues resigned, 
Sir Wilfrid Laurier becoming premier. The Conservative 
party now gradually became more and more disorganized, and 
at the next general election, in November 1900, they were again 
defeated. Sir Charles Tupper, who had long been the Conserva- 
tive leader, sustained in his own constituency of Cape Breton 
his first defeat in forty years. 

TUPPER, MARTIN FARQUHAR (1810-1889), English writer, 
the author of Proverbial Philosophy, was born in London on the 
1 7th of July 1810. He was the son of Martin Tupper, a doctor, 
who came of an old Huguenot family. He was educated at 
Charterhouse and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he gained 
a prize for a theological essay, Gladstone being second to him. 
He was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, but never practised. 
He began a long career of authorship in 1832 with Sacra Poesis, 
and in 1838 he published Geraldine, and other Poems, and for 
fifty years was fertile in producing both verse and prose; but 
his name is indissolubly connected with his long series of didactic 
moralisings in blank verse, the Proverbial Philosophy (1838-1867), 
which for about twenty-five years enjoyed an extraordinary 
popularity that has ever since been the cause of persistent 
satire. The first part was, however, a comparative failure, and 
N. P. Willis, the American author, took it to be a forgotten work 
of the 1 7th century. The commonplace character of Tupper's 
reflections is indubitable, and his blank verse is only prose cut 
up into suitable lengths; but the Proverbial Philosophy was 
full of a perfectly genuine moral and religious feeling, and con- 
tained many apt and striking expressions. By these qualities 
it appealed to a large and uncritical section of the public. A 
genial, warm-hearted man, Tupper's humane instincts prompted 
him to espouse many reforming movements; he was an early 
supporter of the Volunteer movement, and did much to promote 
good relations with America. He was also a mechanical inventor 
in a small way. In 1886 he published My Life as an Author; 
and on the 29th of November 1889 he died at Albury, Surrey. 

TURBAN, the name of a particular form of head-dress worn 
by men of Mahommedan races. The earlier forms of the word 
in English are lurbant, turband, and tolibant or lulipant, the 
latter showing that variant of the original which survives in 
the name of the flower, the tulip. All these forms represent 
the French adaptation of the Turkish tulbend, a vulgarism for 
dulbend, from Persian dulband, a sash or scarf wound round 
the head. The Moslem turban is essentially a scarf of silk, fine 
linen, cotton or other material folded round the head, some- 
times, as in Egypt, round the tarbush or close-fitting felt cap; 
sometimes, as in Afghanistan, round a conical cap; or, as among 
certain races in India, round the skull-cap or kullah. Races, 
professions, degrees of rank, and the like vary in the style of 
turban worn; distinctions being made in size, methods of folding, 
and colour and the like (see INDIA: Costume). At the end of 
the i8th and beginning of the ipth century, a species of head- 
dress somewhat resembling the true turban in outward form 
was worn by ladies of western nations, chiefly for use indoors. 

TURBERVILLE (or TURBEEVILE), GEORGE (1540^-1610?), 
English poet, second son of Nicholas Turberville of Whitchurch, 
Dorset, belonged to an old Dorsetshire family, the D'Urbervilles 
of Mr Thomas Hardy's novel, Tess. He became a scholar of 
Winchester College in 1554, and in 1561 was made a fellow of 
New College, Oxford. In 1562 he began to study law in London, 
and gained a reputation, according to Anthony a Wood, as a 
poet and man of affairs. He accompanied Thomas Randolph 
in a special mission to Moscow to the court of Ivan the Terrible 
in 1 568. Of his Poems describing the Places and Manners of the 
Country and People of Russia (1568) mentioned by Wood, only 
three metrical letters describing his adventures survive, and 
these were reprinted in Hakluyt's Voyages (1589). His Epitaphs, 
Epigrams, Songs and Sonets appeared " newly corrected with 
additions " in 1567. In the same year he published translations 



of the Heroycatt Epistles of Ovid, and of the Eglogs of Mantuan 
(Gianbattista Spagnuoli, called Mantuanus), and in 1568 A 
Plaine Path to Perfect Vertue from Dominicus Mancinus. The 
Book of Falconry or Hawking and the Noble Art of Venerie 
(printed together in 1575) may both be assigned to Turberville. 
The title page of his Tragical Tales (1587), which are translations 
from Boccaccio and Bandello, says that the book was written at 
the time of the author's troubles. What these were is unknown, 
but Wood says he was living and in high esteem in 1594. He 
probably died before 161 1. He is a disciple of Wyat and Surrey, 
whose matter he sometimes appropriated. Much of his verse 
is sing-song enough, but he disarms criticism by his humble 
estimate of his own powers. 

His Epitaphs &c. were reprinted in Alexander Chalmers's English 
Poets (1810), and by J. P. Collier in 1867. 

TURBET I HAIDARI, a district of the province of Khorasan 
in Persia, bounded N. by Meshed, E. by Bakharz, S. by Khaf 
and W. by Turshiz. It has a population of about 30,000, com- 
posed chiefly of members of the Turki Karai tribe and Beluchis. 
The Karais were settled here by Timur in the i4th century and 
now provide a battalion of infantry and 150 cavalrymen to the 
army. The district contains about 150 villages and hamlets, 
most of them situated in its more fertile eastern part, and pays 
a yearly revenue of 14,000. Much silk was formerly produced, 
now very little, but there are large crops of grain. 

TURBET I HAIDARI, the capital of the district, is 76 m. nearly 
S. of Meshed, in 35 17' N., 59 n' E., at an elevation of 4100 ft. 
The town is picturesquely situated on the bank of a deep and wide 
ravine in the midst of lofty hills, and surrounded by clusters of 
villages. Its population amounts to 8000 souls. There is a 
well-stocked bazaar and a number of Russian traders have estab- 
lished themselves here since 1903, when the place was connected 
with Meshed on one side and with Seistan on the other side by 
a telegraph line which, nominally Persian, is worked and main- 
tained by a Russian staff. A British consul has resided here 
since 1905, and there is alsoa post-office. 

The place was formerly known as Zavah and derives its 
present name from the turbet or tomb of a holy man named 
Kutb ed din Haidar, the founder of the ascetic sect of dervishes 
known as the Haidaris. He died c. 1230 and is buried in a 
large domed building a short distance outside the town. 

TURBINE (Lat. turbo, a whirlwind, a whirling motion or 
object, a top), in engineering, a machine which applies the 
energy of a jet of water or steam to produce the rotation of 
a shaft. It consists essentially of a wheel or chamber provided 
with a number of blades or vanes upon which the fluid jet 
impinges; the impelled fluid causes the blades to rotate and 
also the shaft to which they are attached. Water turbines 
are treated under HYDRAULICS, and steam turbines under 
STEAM ENGINE. 

TURBOT 1 (Rhombus maximus or Psetta maxima), one of the 
largest and most valuable of the flat-fishes or Pleuronectidae. 
The turbot, which rarely exceeds a length of two feet, has great 
width of body, and is scaleless, but is covered with conical bony 
tubercles. The eyes are on the left side of the body, the lower 
being slightly in advance of the upper; the mouth is large and 
armed with teeth of uniformly minute size. The turbot is found 
all round the coasts of Europe (except in the extreme north) >; pre- 
ferring a flat sandy bottom with from 10 to 50 fathoms of water. 
The broad banks off the Dutch coast are a favourite resort. It is 
a voracious fish, and feeds on other fish, crustaceans and molluscs. 
It seems to constantly change its abode, wandering northward 
during the summer, and going into deeper water in the cold 
season. The eggs of the turbot, like those of the majority of 
flat-fishes, are pelagic and buoyant. They are small and 
very numerous, varying from five to ten millions in fish of 18 
to 21 Ib weight. The young fish are symmetrical and swim 

1 The word " turbot " is of great antiquity, perhaps of Celtic 
origin it is preserved in French in the same form as in English, 
and is composed of two words, of which the second is identical with 
the " but " in halibut and with the German " Butte, which 
signifies flat-fish. The German name for the turbot is ' Stembutte. 



412 



TUREEN TURENNE 



vertically like the young of other Pleuronectids, but they reach 
a much larger size before metamorphosis than species of other 
genera, specimens from f in. to i in. in length being frequently 
taken swimming at the surface of the water and not completely 
converted into the adult condition. Specimens one year old 
are from 3 to 45 in. long, some perhaps larger. About 1860 it 
was estimated that the Dutch supplied turbot to the London 
market to the value of 80,000 a year. In 1900 the total weight 
of turbot landed on English and Welsh coasts for the year was 
according to the Board of Trade returns 60,715 cwt. valued at 
252,680. The turbot is also common, though not abundant, 
in the Mediterranean, and is replaced in the Black Sea by an 
allied species with much larger bony tubercles (Rh. maeoticus). 
Both species grow to a large size, being usually sold at from 
5 to 10 ft; but the common turbot is stated to attain to a 
weight of 30 K>. 

TUREEN, a deep dish or bowl, round or oval in shape, and with 
a cover, made to serve soup at table. The word is a corruption 
of the more correct " terrine," an earthenware vessel (Med. Lat. 
terrineus, made of earth, terra). The corruption is due to mis- 
spelling in early cookery-books, and an absurd story that the 
name arose from Marshal Turenne once drinking his soup from 
his helmet was invented to account for it. 

TURENNE, HENRI DE LA TOUR D'AUVERGNE, VICOMTE 
DE (1611-1675), marshal of France, second son of Henri, 
duke of Bouillon and sovereign prince of Sedan, by his second 
wife Elizabeth, daughter of William the Silent, prince of Orange, 
was born at Sedan on the nth of September 1611. He was 
educated in the doctrines of the Reformed religion and received 
the usual training of a young noble of the time, but physical 
infirmity, and particularly an impediment of speech (which 
he never lost), hampered his progress, though he showed 
a marked partiality for history and geography, and especial 
admiration of the exploits of Alexander the Great and Caesar. 
After his father's death in 1623, he devoted himself to bodily 
exercises and in a great measure overcame his natural weakness. 
At the age of fourteen he went to learn war in the camp of his 
uncle, Maurice of Nassau, and began his military career (as 
a private soldier in that prince's bodyguard) in the Dutch War 
of Independence. Frederick Henry of Nassau, who succeeded 
his brother Maurice in 1625, gave Turenne a captaincy in 1626. 
The young officer took his part in the siege warfare of the 
period, and won special commendation from his uncle, who was 
one of the foremost commanders of the time, for his skill and 
courage at the celebrated siege of Hertogenbosch (Bois-le-Duc) 
in 1629. In 1630 Turenne left Holland and entered the service 
of France. This step was dictated not only by the prospect 
of military advancement but also by his mother's desire to 
show the loyalty of the Bouillon dominions to the French 
crown. Cardinal Richelieu at once made him colonel of an 
infantry regiment. He still continued to serve at frequent 
intervals with the prince of Orange, who was the ally of France, 
and his first serious service under the French flag was at 
the siege of La Motte in Lorraine by Marshal de la Force 
(1634), where his brilliant courage at the assault won him 
immediate promotion to the rank of marechal de camp 
(equivalent to the modern grade of major-general). In 1635 
Turenne served under Cardinal de la Valette in Lorraine and 
on the Rhine. The siege of Mainz was raised but the French 
army had to fall back on Metz from want of provisions. 
In the retreat Turenne measured swords with the famous 
imperialist General Gallas, and distinguished himself greatly 
by his courage and skill. The reorganized army took the field 
again in 1636 and captured Saverne (Zabern), at the storming 
of which place Turenne was seriously wounded. In 1637 
he took part in the campaign of Flanders and was present at 
the capture of Landrecies (July 26) and in the latter part 
of 1638, under Duke Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar (1608-1639), 
he directed the assault of Breisach (reputed the strongest 
fortress on the upper Rhine), which surrendered on the I7th 
of December. He had now gained a reputation as one of the 
foremost of the younger generals of France, and Richelieu 



next employed him in the Italian campaign of 1639-40 under 
" Cadet la Perle," Henri de Lorraine, count of Harcourt (1601- 
1666). On the igth of November 1639 he fought in the famous 
rearguard action called the battle of the " Route de Quiers," 
and during the winter revictualled the citadel of Turin, held 
by the French against the forces of Prince Thomas of Savoy. 
In 1640 Harcourt saved Casale and besieged Prince Thomas's 
forces in Turin, which were besieging in their turn another 
French force in the citadel. The latter held out, while Prince 
Thomas was forced to surrender on the I7th of September 
1640, a fourth army which was investing Harcourt's lines 
being at the same time forced to retire. The favourable result of 
these complicated operations was largely due to Turenne, who 
had by now become a lieutenant-general. He himself com- 
manded during the campaign of 1641 and took Coni (Cuneo), 
Ceva and Mondovi. In 1642 he was second in command 
of the French troops which conquered Roussillon. At this 
time the conspiracy of Cinq Mars (see FRANCE: History) 
in which Turenne's elder brother, the duke of Bouillon, was 
implicated, was discovered. 

The earlier career of Turenne was markedly influenced by 
the relations of the principality of Sedan to the French crown; 
sometimes it was necessary to advance the soldier to conciliate 
the ducal family, at others the machinations of the latter against 
Richelieu or Mazarin prevented the king's advisers from 
giving their full confidence to their general in the field. 
Moreover his steady adherence to the Protestant religion was 
a further element of difficulty in Turenne's relations with the 
ministers. Cardinal Richelieu nevertheless entrusted him 
with the command in Italy in 1643 under Prince Thomas 
(who had changed sides in the quarrel). Turenne took Trino 
in a few weeks, but was recalled to France towards the end 
of the year. He was made a marshal of France (December 
19) and was soon sent to Alsace to reorganize the " Army of 
Weimar " the remnant of Duke Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar's 
troops which had just been severely defeated at Tuttlingen 
(November 24-25, 1643). He was at this time thirty-two 
years of age and had served under four famous commanders. 
The methodical prince of Orange, the fiery Bernhard, the 
soldierly Cardinal de la Valette and the stubborn and astute 
Harcourt had each contributed much to the completeness of 
Turenne's training, and he took the field in 1644 prepared 
by genius and education for the responsibilities of high command. 

The work of reorganization over, Marshal Turenne began 
the campaign in June by crossing the Rhine at Breisach, but 
was almost instantly joined by an army under the due d'Enghien 
(afterwards the great Conde), who, as a prince of the royal 
house, took the chief command of the united armies of " France " 
and " Weimar." The four famous campaigns which followed 
brought to an end the Thirty Years' War (<?..). The 
chief event of the first of these was the desperately-fought 
battle of Freiburg against Count Mercy's Bavarians (August 
3, 5 and 9, 1644), after which Philipsburg was successfully 
besieged. Before the capitulation Enghien withdrew and 
left Turenne in command. The marshal opened the cam- 
paign of 1645 with a strong forward movement, but was 
surprised and defeated by Mercy at Mergentheim (Marienthal) 
on the 2nd of May. Enghien was again sent to the front 
with the army of France and Turenne's army was greatly 
increased by the arrival of a Swedish force and a contingent 
from Hesse-Cassel. The Swedes soon departed, but Enghien 
was at the head of 20,000 men when he met the Bavarians 
in a battle even more stubbornly contested than Freiburg. 
Mercy was killed and his army decisively beaten at Allerheim 
near Nordlingen (August 3, 1645). 

Ill-health forced Enghien to retire soon afterwards, and 
Turenne was for the third time left in command of the French 
army. He was again unfortunate against the larger forces 
of the imperialists, but the campaign ended with a gleam 
of success in his capture of Trier (Treves). In the following 
year (1646) he obtained more decided successes, and, by 
separating the Austrians from the Bavarians, compelled the 



TURENNE 



elector of Bavaria to make peace (signed March 14, 1647). 
In 1647 he proposed to attack the thus weakened army of the 
emperor, but was ordered into Flanders instead. Not only 
was the opportunity thus lost but a serious mutiny broke 
out amongst the Weimar troops, whose pay was many months 
in arrear. The marshal's tact and firmness were never more 
severely tried nor more conspicuously displayed than in his 
treatment of the disaffected regiments, among whom in the 
end he succeeded in restoring order with little bloodshed. 
He then marched into Luxemburg, but was soon recalled 
to the Rhine, for in 1648 Bavaria had returned to her Austrian 
alliance and was again in arms. Turenne and his Swedish 
allies made a brilliant campaign, which was decided by the 
action of Zusmarshausen (May 17), Bavaria being subse- 
quently wasted with fire and sword until a second and more 
secure pacification was obtained. This devastation, for which 
many modern writers have blamed Turenne, was not a more 
harsh measure than was permitted by the spirit of the times 
and the circumstances of the case. 

The peace of Westphalia (1648) was no peace for France, 
which was soon involved in the civil war of the Fronde (see 
FRANCE: History). Few of Turenne's actions have been more 
sharply criticized than his adhesion to the party of revolt. 
The army of Weimar refused to follow its leader and he had 
to flee into the Spanish Netherlands, where he remained until 
the treaty of Rueil put an end to the first war of the Fronde. 
The second war began with the arrest of Conde and others 
(January 1650), amongst whom Turenne was to have been 
included; but he escaped in time and with the duchesse de 
Longueville held Stenay for the cause of the " Princes "- 
Conde, his brother Conti, and his brother-in-law the due de 
Longueville. Love for the duchess seems to have ruled Turenne's 
action, both in the first war, and, now, in seeking Spanish 
aid for the princes. In this war Turenne sustained one of his 
few reverses at Rethel (December 15, 1650); but the second 
conflict ended in the early months of the following year with 
the collapse of the court party and the release of the princes. 

Turenne became reconciled and returned to Paris in May, 
but the trouble soon revived and before long Conde again 
raised the standard of revolt in the south of France. In 
this, the third war of the Fronde, Turenne and Conde were 
opposed to each other, the marshal commanding the royal 
armies, the prince that of the Frondeurs and their Spanish 
allies. Turenne displayed the personal bravery of a young 
soldier at Jargeau (March 28, 1652), the skill and wariness 
of a veteran general at Gien (April 7), and he practically 
crushed the civil war in the battle of the Faubourg St Denis 
(July 2) and the reoccupation of Paris (October 21). Conde 
and the Spaniards, however, still remained to be dealt with, 
and the long drawn out campaigns of the "Spanish Fronde" 
gave ample scope for the display of scientific generalship on the 
part of both the famous captains. In 1653 the advantage 
was with Turenne, who captured Rethel, St Menehould and 
Muzon, while Conde's sole prize was Rocroy. The short cam- 
paign of 1654 was again to the advantage of the French; on 
the 25th of July the Spanish were defeated at Arras. In 1655 
more ground was gained, but in 1656 Turenne was defeated 
at Valenciennes in the same way as he had beaten Conde 
at Arras. The war was eventually concluded in 1657 by 
Turenne's victory at the Dunes near Dunkirk, in which a corps 
of English veterans sent by Cromwell played a notable part 
(June 3-14); a victory which, followed by another successful 
campaign in 1658, led to the peace of the Pyrenees in 1659. 

On the death of Cardinal Mazarin in 1661 Louis XIV. took 
the reins of government into his own hands and one of his 
first acts was to appoint Turenne " marshal-general of the 
carnps and armies of the king." He had offered to revive the 
office of constable of France (suppressed in 1627) in Turenne's 
favour if the marshal would become a Roman Catholic. 
Turenne declined. Born of Calvinist parents and educated a 
Protestant, he had refused to marry one of Richelieu's nieces 
in 1639 and subsequently rejected a similar proposal of Mazarin. 



He had later married a daughter of the Protestant Marshal 
de la Force, to whom he was deeply attached. But he sincerely 
deplored the division of the Christian church into two hostile 
camps. He had always distrusted the influence of many 
dissident and uncontrolled sects; the history of Independency 
in the English army and people made a deep impression on 
his mind, and the same fear of indiscipline which drove the 
English Presbyterians into royalism drew Turenne more and 
more towards the Roman Catholic Church. How closely 
both he and his wife studied such evidence as was available 
is shown by their correspondence, and, in the end, two years 
after her death, he was prevailed upon by the eloquence of 
Bossuet and the persuasions of his nephew, the abbe de Bouillon, 
to give in his adhesion to the Orthodox faith (October 1668). 
In 1667 he had returned to the more congenial air of the 
" Camps and Armies of the King," directing, nominally under 
Louis XIV., the famous " Promenade militaire " in which the 
French overran the Spanish Netherlands. Soon afterwards 
Conde, now reconciled with the king, rivalled Turenne's success 
by the rapid conquest of Franche Comte, which brought to 
an end the War of Devolution in February 1668. 

In Louis XIV.'s Dutch War of 1672 (see DUTCH WARS) 
Turenne was with the army commanded by the king which 
overran Holland up to the gates of Amsterdam. The terms 
offered by Louis to the prince of Orange were such as 
to arouse a more bitter resistance. The dikes were opened 
and the country round Amsterdam flooded. This heroic 
measure completely checked Turenne, whom the king had 
left in command. Europe was aroused to action by the news 
of this event, and the war spread to Germany. Turenne 
fought a successful war of manoeuvre on the middle Rhine 
while Conde covered Alsace. In January 1673 Turenne as- 
sumed the offensive, penetrated far into Germany, and 
forced the Great Elector of Brandenburg to make peace; 
later in the year, however, he was completely out- 
manceuvred by the famous imperial general Montecucculi, 
who evaded his opponent, joined the Dutch and took the 
important place of Bonn. In June 1674, however, Turenne 
won the battle of Sinzheim, which made him master of the 
Palatinate. Under orders from Paris the French wasted 
the country far and wide, and this devastation has usually 
been considered the gravest blot on Turenne's fame, though 
it is difficult to say that it was more unjustifiable than 
other similar incidents in medieval and even in modern war. 
In the autumn the allies again advanced, and though Turenne 
was again outmanoeuvred, his failure on this occasion was 
due to the action of the neutral city of Strassburg in permitting 
the enemy to cross the Rhine by the bridge at that place. The 
battle of Enzheim followed; this was a tactical victory, but 
hardly affected the situation, and, at the beginning of December, 
the allies were still in Alsace. The old marshal now made the 
most daring campaign of his career. A swift and secret march 
in mid-winter from one end of the Vosges to the other took the 
allies by surprise. Sharply following up his first successes, 
Turenne drove the enemy to Turkheim, and there inflicted 
upon them a heavy defeat (January 5, 1675). In a few 
weeks he had completely recovered Alsace. In the summer 
campaign he was once more opposed to Montecucculi, and 
after the highest display of " strategic chess-moves " by both 
commanders, Turenne finally compelled his opponent to offer 
battle at a disadvantage at Sassbach. Here, on the 27th of July 
1675, he was killed by almost the first shot fired. The news of 
his death was received with universal sorrow. Turenne's most 
eloquent countrymen wrote his eloges, and Montecucculi him- 
self exclaimed: " II est mort aujourd'hui un homme qui faisait 
honneur a 1'homme." His body was taken to St Denis and 
buried with the kings of France. Even the extreme revolutionists 
of 1793 respected it, and, when the bones of the sovereigns 
were thrown to the winds, the remains of Turenne were pre- 
served at the Jardin des Plantes until the 22nd of September 
1800, when they were removed by order of Napoleon to the 
church of the Invalides at Paris, where they still rest. 



414 



TURF TURGAI 



Turenne was one of the great captains whose campaigns 
Napoleon recommended all soldiers to " read and re-read.' 
His fame as a general was the highest in Europe at a perioc 
when war was studied more critically than ever before, for his 
military character epitomized the art of war of his time (Prince 
de Ligne). Strategic caution and logistic accuracy, combinec 
with brilliant dash in small combats and constancy under al 
circumstances of success or failure may perhaps be considerec 
the salient points of Turenne's genius for war. Great battles 
he avoided. " Few sieges and many combats " was his own 
maxim. And, unlike his great rival Conde, who was as brilliant 
in his first battle as in his last, Turenne improved day by day 
Napoleon said of him that his genius grew bolder as it grew 
older, and a modern author, the due d'Aumale (Histoire des 
princes de la maison de Conde) , takes the same view when he 
says: " Pour le connaitre il faut le suivre jusqu'a Sulz- 
bach. Chez lui chaque jour marque un progres." In 
his personal character Turenne was little more than a simple 
and honourable soldier, endowed with much tact, but in the 
world of politics and intellect almost helpless in the hands 
of a skilful intriguer or casuist. His morals, if not beyond 
reproach, were at least more austere than those prevalent 
in the age in which he lived. He was essentially a commander 
of regular armies. His life was spent with the troops; he knew 
how to win their affection; he tempered a severe discipline 
with rare generosity, and his men loved him as a comrade 
no less than they admired him as a commander. Thus, though 
Conde's genius was far more versatile, it is Turenne whose 
career best represents the art of war in the iyth century. 
For the small, costly, and highly trained regular armies, and 
the dynastic warfare of the age of Louis XIV., Turenne was 
the ideal army leader. 

The most notable of the numerous portraits of Turenne are those 
of P. de Champagne at Versailles, and of Senin (dated 1670) in the 
Jones collection at South Kensington, London. Of the older 
memoirs of Turenne the most important are those of " Du Buisson," 
La Vie du vicomte de Turenne the author is apparently Gatien de 
Sandraz de Courtilz (Paris, the Hague, and Cologne, 1688-1695) ; 
Abbe Raguenet, Histoire du vicomte de Turenne (Paris, 1741) and 
especially Ramsay, Histoire d'Henry de la Tour d'Auvergne, vicomte 
de Turenne (Paris, 1735), the second volume of which contains the 
marshal's memoirs of 1643-1658. These memoirs, of which the 
Prince de Ligne wrote that " ce ne sont pas de conseils, ce sont des 
ordres . . . ' faites ' . . . ' allez,' &c." were written in 1665, 
but were first published (Memoires sur la guerre, tires des originaux, 
&c.) in 1738, reprinted in Michaud, Memoires sur I' histoire de France, 
3rd series, vol. iii., and Liskenne and Sauvan's Bibliotheque historique 
el militaire, vol. iv. (Paris, 1846). A manuscript Maximes de M. de 
Turenne (1644) exists in the Staff Archives at Vienna, and of other 
documentary collections may be mentioned Grimoard, Collections 
de lettres et memoires trouves dans la portefeuille de M. de Turenne 
(Paris, 1782); Recueil de lettres ecrites au vicomte de Turenne par 
Louis XIV. et ses ministres, &c. (Paris, 1779) ; Correspondence inedite 
de Turenne avec Le Tellier et Louvois, ed. Barthelemy (Paris, 1874). 
See also the Observations on the Wars of Marshal Turenne, dictated 
by Napoleon at St Helena (1823) ; Puysegur, La Guerre par principes 
et regies (Paris, 1748); Precis in Bibliotheque Internationale d'hist. 
milit. (Brussels, 1883); Duruy, Histoire de Turenne (Paris, 1880); 
Roy, Turenne, sa vie^ et les institutions militaires de son temps (Paris, 
1884); Hardy de Perini, Turenne et Conde (Paris, 1907); Neuber, 
Turenne als Kriegstheoretiker und Feldherr (Vienna, 1869) ; Sir 
E. Cust, Lives of the Warriors of the ijth Century (London. 1867) ; 
T. O. Cockayne, Life of M. de Turenne (founded on Ramsay s work; 
London, 1853); G. B. Malleson, Turenne. Marshal Turenne, by 
" the author of the Life of Sir Kenelm Digby " (London, 1907), is 
a valuable work by a civilian, and is based in the main on Ramsay's 
work, the memoirs of Cardinal de Retz, James, duke of York, &c., 
and on Napoleon's commentaries. A remarkable parallel between 
Turenne and Conde, in Saint-Evremont's eloge of the latter, will 
be found in Carrion-Nisas, Essai sur I' histoire general de fart militaire, 
ii. 83 (Paris, 1824). (C. F. A.) 

TURF, the top or surface of earth when covered with grass, 
forming a coherent mass of mould or soil in which the roots 
of grasses and other plants are embedded. This is capable 
of being cut out in soh'd mat-like blocks, known by the same 
name. Similarly " peat " (q.v.) when cut in pieces for fuel 
or other purposes is also styled " turf." The term is applied 
widely to any stretch or sward of trimmed grass-land, and 
thus by metonymy, to horse-racing and all connected with it, 



from the owning and running of race-horses to betting. The 
word " turf " is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Du. turf, 
Ger. Torf, Dan. torv, &c. It has been connected with 
Skt. darbha, grass, so called from being matted or twisted 
together, darbh, to wind. The Teutonic word was adapted in 
Med. Lat., as turba (cf. Fr. , tourbe, Ital. torba), whence 
was formed lurbaria, turbary, the right of digging and cutting 
turf in common with the owner of the land. (See COMMONS.) 
TURGAI, a province of Russian Central Asia, formerly a 
part of the Kirghiz steppe, and now included in the governor- 
generalship of the Steppes, bounded by the province of Uralsk 
and the governments of Orenburg and Tobolsk on the W. 
and N., by Akmolinsk on the E., and by Syr-darya and the 
Sea of Aral on the S. This territory, which has an area 
of 176,219 sq. m. nearly as large as that of Caucasia and 
Transcaucasia taken together belongs to the Aral-Caspian 
depression. It has, however, the Mugojar Hills on its western 
border and includes a part of the southern Urals; and from 
Akmolinsk it is separated by a range of hills which run between 
the two largest rivers of the Kirghiz steppe the Turgai and the 
Sary-su. In the north it includes the low belt of undulating 
land which stretches north-east from the Mugojar Hills and 
separates the rivers belonging to the Aral basin from those 
which flow towards the Arctic Ocean, and beyond this range 
it embraces the upper Tobol. The remainder is steppe land, 
sloping gently towards the Sea of Aral. 

The Mugojar Hills consist of an undulating plateau nearly 1000 ft. 
in altitude, built up of Permian and Cretaceous deposits and deeply 
trenched by rivers. They are not the independent chain which 
our maps represent them to be: 1 they merely continue the Urals 
towards the south, and are connected with the Ust-Urt plateau 
by a range of hills which was formerly an island of the Aral-Caspian 
Sea. Their northern extremity joins the undulating plateau (400 
to 600 ft.), built up of sandstones and marls, which separates the 
tributaries of the Tobol from those of the river Ural, and falls by 
a range of steep crags probably an old shore-line of the Aral basin 
towards the steppes. The steppe land of Turgai is only some 
300 ft. above the sea-level, and is dotted with lakes, of which the 
Chalkar-teniz, which receives the Turgai and its tributary the Irgiz, 
is the largest. The Turgai was, at a recent epoch, a large river 
flowing into the Sea of Aral and receiving an extensive system of 
tributaries, which are now lost in the sands before jpining it. Re- 
mains of aquatic plants buried in the soil of the steppe, and shells 
of Mytilus and Cardium, both still found in the Sea of Aral, show 
that during the Glacial period this region was overflowed by the 
waters of the Aral-Caspian Sea. 

The climate of Turgai is exceedingly dry and continental. Orsk, 
a town of Orenburg, on its north-western border, has a January 
as cold as that of the west coast of Novaya Zemlya (-4 F.), while in 
July it is as hot as July in Morocco (73 ) ; the corresponding figures 
for Irgiz, in the centre of the province, are 7 and 77 At Irgiz 
and Orsk the annual rainfall is somewhat under 10 in. and 12 in. 
respectively (3 in. in summer). The west winds are parched before 
they reach the Turgai steppes, and the north-east winds, which in 
winter bring cold, dry snows from Siberia, raise in summer formid- 
able clouds of sand. A climate so dry is of course incompatible 
with a vigorous forest growth. There is some timber on the southern 
Urals, the Mugojar Hills and the water-parting of the Tobol; else- 
where trees are rare. Shrubs only, such as the wild cherry (Cerasus 
chamaecerasus) and the dwarf almond (Amygdalus nana) grow on 
the hilly slopes, while the rich black-earth soil of the steppe is chiefly 
clothed with feather grass (Stipa pennata)', the well-known ornament 
of the south Russian steppes. In spring the grass vegetation is luxu- 
iant, and geese and cranes are attracted in vast numbers from the 
leart of the steppe by the fields of the Kirghiz. The jerboa (Dipus 
jaculus) and the marmot (Spermophilus rufescens) are characteristic 
of the fauna; another species of marmot (Arctomys bobac) and the 
steppe fox (Canis corsac) are common; and the saiga antelope of 
Central Asia is occasionally met with. Farther south the black 
:arth disappears and with it the feather grass, its place being taken 
jy its congener, Stipa capillata. Trees disappear, and among the 
)ushes along the banks of the rivers willows and the pseudo-acacia 
or Siberian pea tree (Caragana microphyla) are most prevalent. In 
.he middle parts of the province the clayey soil is completely clothed 
,vith wormwood (Artemisia fragrans and A . monogyna) , with a few 
jrassy plants on the banks of the rivers and lakes (Lasiagrostis 
plendens, Alhagi camelorum and A. kirghizorum, Obiono portula- 
'oides, Halimodendrum argenteum) ; while large areas consist of 
hifting sands, saline clays clothed with various Salsolaceae, and 
he desiccated beds of old lakes. Such lakes as still exist, 



1 See P. S. Nazarov, in " Recherches zoologiques dans les steppes 
des Kirghizes," in Bull. soc. des natnr. de Moscow (1886), No. 4. 



TURGOT 



notwithstanding the rapid desiccation now going on, are surrounded 
by thickets of reeds the retreat of wild boars. Turgai is thus the 
borderland between the flora of Europe and that of Central Asia. 

The population was estimated in 1906 at 511,800, composed 
mainly of Kirghiz, though Russians have immigrated in large 
numbers. The province is divided into four districts, the 
chief towns of which are Turgai, the capital; Ak-tyubinsk 
in the district of Iletsk ; Irgiz and Kustanaisk in the Nikolayevsk 
district, a prairie town which has grown with great rapidity. 
Agriculture is mainly carried on by the Russian settlers in the 
Nikolayevsk district, where the crops do not suffer so much 
from droughts as they do elsewhere. But the Kirghiz have 
also begun to cultivate the soil, and in 1900 there were in all 
612,200 acres under cereals. 

The principal crops are rye, wheat, oats, barley and potatoes. 
Livestock breeding is the leading occupation of the Kirghiz. Camels 
are bred and kept by the nomads both for their own personal use 
and for the transport of goods between Bokhara, Khiva and Russian 
Turkestan. Considerable quantities of cattle and various animal 
products are exported to Orenburg, Orsk and Troitsk, and to Ust- 
Uisk and Zverinogolovsk, where large fairs are held. The Kirghiz 
of the southern parts migrate in winter to the better sheltered parts 
of the province of Syr-darya, while in the summer some 30,000 
kibitkas (felt tents) of nomads come from the neighbouring provinces 
to graze their cattle on the grassy steppes of Turgai. Salt is obtained 
from the lakes. There are a few oil-works, tanneries and flour-mills, 
and the Kirghiz are active in the making of carpets and felt goods. 
Education is a little more advanced than in the other steppe pro- 
vinces; the system of "migratory schools" has been introduced 
for the Kirghiz. 

See Y. Talferov, The Turgai Province (1896), in Russian. 

(P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) 

TURGOT, ANNE ROBERT JACQUES, BARON DE LAUNE 
(1727-1781), French statesman and economist, was born in 
Paris on the loth of May 1727. He was the youngest son of 
Michel Etienne Turgot, " provost of the merchants " of Paris, 
and Madeleine Francoise Martineau, and came of an old Norman 
family. He was educated for the Church, and at the Sorbonne, 
to which he was admitted in 1749 (being then styled abbe de Bru- 
court), he delivered two remarkable Latin dissertations, On the 
Benefits which the Christian Religion has conferred on Mankind, 
and On the Historical Progress of the Human Mind. The first 
sign we have of his interest in economics is a letter (1749) on 
paper money, written to his fellow student the abbe de Cice, 
refuting the abbe Terrasson's defence of Law's system. He 
was fond of verse-making, and tried to introduce into French 
verse the rules of Latin prosody, his translation of the fourth 
book of the Aeneid into classical hexameters being greeted by 
Voltaire as " the only prose translation in which he had found 
any enthusiasm." In 1750 he decided not to take holy orders, 
giving as his reason, according to Dupont de Nemours, " that 
he could not bear to wear a mask all his life." In 1752 he be- 
came substilut, and later conseiller in the parlement of Paris, 
and in 1753 maitre des requetes. In 1754 he was a member of 
the chambre royale which sat during an exile of the parlement; 
in 1755 and 1756 he accompanied Gournay, then intendant of 
commerce, in his tours of inspection in the provinces, and 
in 1760, while travelling in the east of France and Switzerland, 
visited Voltaire, who became one of his chief friends and 
supporters. In Paris he frequented the salons, especially 
those of Mme Graffigny whose niece, Mile de Ligniville 
(" Minette "), afterwards Mme Helvetius and his lifelong friend, 
he is supposed at one time to have wished to marry Mme 
Geoffrin, Mme du Deffand, Mile de Lespinasse and the duchesse 
d'Enville. It was during this period that he met the leaders 
of the " physiocratic " school, Quesnay and Gournay, and 
with them Dupont de Nemours, the abbe Morellet and other 
economists. All this time he was studying various branches 
of science, and languages both ancient and modern. In 1753 
he translated the Questions sur la commerce from the English 
of Josias Tucker, and wrote his Letlre sur la tolerance, and a 
pamphlet, Le Conciliates, in support of religious tolerance. 
Between 1755 and 1756 he composed various articles for the 
Encyclopedic, and between 1757 and 1760 an article on Valeurs 
el monnaies, probably for the Dictionnaire du commerce of the 
abbe Morellet. In 1759 appeared his Eloge de Gournay. 



In August 1761 Turgot was appointed intendant of the 
generalite of Limoges, which included some of the poorest and 
most over-taxed parts of France; here he remained for 13 years. 
He was already deeply imbued with the theories of Quesnay and 
Gournay (see PHYSIOCRATIC SCHOOL), and set to work to apply 
them as far as possible in his province. His first plan was to 
continue the work, already initiated by his predecessor Tourny, 
of making a fresh survey of the land (cadastre), in order to 
arrive at a juster assessment of the tattle; he also obtained a 
large reduction in the contribution of the province. He pub- 
lished his Avis sur I'assiette et la repartition de la tattle (1762- 
1770), and as president of the Societe d'agricullure de Limoges 
offered prizes for essays on the principles of taxation. Quesnay 
and Mirabeau had advocated a proportional tax (impdt de 
quotile), but Turgot a distributive tax (impdt de repartition). 
Another reform was the substitution for the corvee of a tax in 
money levied on the whole province, the construction of roads 
being handed over to contractors, by which means Turgot was 
able to leave his province with a good system of roads, while 
distributing more justly the expense of their construction. 
In 1769 he wrote his Memoire sur les prets a inter et, on the 
occasion of a scandalous financial crisis at Angouleme, the 
peculiar interest of which is that in it the question of lending 
money at interest was for the first time treated scientifically, and 
not merely from the ecclesiastical point of view. Among other 
works written during Turgot's intendancy were the Memoire sur 
les mines et carrieres, and the Memoire sur la marque des fers, 
in which he protested against state regulation and interference 
and advocated free competition. At the same time he did much 
to encourage agriculture and local industries, among others 
establishing the manufacture of porcelain. During the famine 
of 1770-1771 he enforced on landowners "the obligation of 
relieving the poor " and especially the metayers dependent 
upon them, and organized in every province ateliers and bureaux 
de charite for providing work for the able-bodied and relief for 
the infirm, while at the same time he condemned indiscriminate 
charity. It may be noted that Turgot always made the 
cures the agents of his charities and reforms when possible. 
It was in 1770 that he wrote his famous Lettres sur la 
liberte du commerce des grains, addressed to the comp- 
troller-general, the abbe Terray. Three of these letters 
have disappeared, having been sent to Louis XVI. by Turgot 
at a later date and never recovered, but those remaining demon- 
strate that free trade in corn is to the interest of landowner, 
farmer and consumer alike, and in too forcible terms demand 
the removal of all restrictions. 

Turgot's best known work, Reflexions sur la formation et la dis- 
tribution des richesses, was written early in the period of his inten- 
dancy for the benefit of two young Chinese students. Written in 
1766, it appeared in 1769-1770 in Dupont's journal, the Ephemerides 
du citoyen, and was published separately in 1776. Dupont, how- 
ever, made various alterations in the text, in order to bring it more 
into accordance with Quesnay's doctrines, which led to a coolness 
between him and Turgot (see G. Schelle, in Journal des economistes, 
July 1888). A more correct text is that published by L. Robineau 
(" Turgot," in Petite bibliotheque economique, 1889), and is followed 
by Professor W. J. Ashley in his translation (Economic Classics, 
New York, 1898), but the original MS. has never been found. 

After tracing the origin of commerce, Turgot develops Quesnay's 
theory that the land is the only source of wealth, and divides society 
into three classes, the productive or agricultural, the salaried 
(stipendiee) or artisan class, and the land-owning class (classe dis- 
ponible). After discussing the evolution of the different systems 
of cultivation, the nature of exchange and barter, money, and the 
functions of capital, he sets forth the theory of the impdt unique, i.e. 
that only the produit net of the land should be taxed. In addition 
he demanded the complete freedom of commerce and industry. 1 



1 For the controversy as to how far Adam Smith (q.v.) was in- 
fluenced by Turgot, see S. Feilbogen, Smith und Turgot (1892); 
also E. Cannan's introduction to Smith's Lectures on Justice, &c. 
(Clarendon Press, 1896); and H. Higgs's review of the latter in the 
Economic Journal, Dec. 1896. The question may still be considered 
an open one. See also Neymarck, i. 332, footnote, for the French 
authorities. Condorcet's statement that Turgot corresponded with 
Smith is disproved by a letter of Smith to the due de la Rochefou- 
cauld, published in the Economic Journal (March 1896), p. 165, 
in which he says, " But tho' I had the happiness of his acquaintance 



416 



TURGOT 



Turgot owed his appointment to the ministry to Maurepas, 
the " Mentor " of Louis XVI., to whom he was warmly recom- 
mended by the abbe Very, a mutual friend. His appointment 
as minister of the marine on the aoth of July 1774 met with 
general approval, and was hailed with enthusiasm by the 
philosophes. A month later he was appointed comptroller- 
general (August 24). His first act was to submit to the king 
a statement of his guiding principles: " No bankruptcy, no 
increase of taxation, no borrowing." Turgot's policy, in face 
of the desperate financial position, was to enforce the most 
rigid economy in all departments. All departmental expenses 
were to be submitted for the approval of the comptroller- 
general, a number of sinecures were suppressed, the holders 
of them being compensated, and the abuse of the " acquits 
au comptant " was attacked, while Turgot appealed person- 
ally to the king against the lavish giving of places and pensions. 
He also contemplated a thorough-going reform of the ferine 
generate, but contented himself, as a beginning, with imposing 
certain conditions on the leases as they were renewed such 
as a more efficient personnel, and the abolition for the future 
of the abuse of the croupes (the name given to a class of pensions) , 
a reform which Terray had shirked on finding how many persons 
in high places were interested in them, and annulling certain 
leases, such as those of the manufacture of gunpowder and the 
administration of the messageries, the former of which was 
handed over to a company with the scientist Lavoisier as one of 
its advisers, and the latter superseded by a quicker and more 
comfortable service of diligences which were nicknamed " turgo- 
tines." He also prepared a regular budget. Turgot's measures 
succeeded in considerably reducing the deficit, and raised the 
national credit to such an extent that in 1776, just before his 
fall, he was able to negotiate a loan with some Dutch bankers 
at 4%; but the deficit was still so large as to prevent him from 
attempting at once to realize his favourite scheme of substi- 
tuting for indirect taxation a single tax on land. He suppressed, 
however, a number of octrois and minor duties, 1 and opposed, 
on grounds of economy, the participation of France in the 
War of American Independence, though without success. 

Turgot at once set to work to establish free trade in corn, but 
his edict, which was signed on the i3th of September 1774, met 
with strong opposition even in the conseil du roi. A striking 
feature was the preamble, setting forth the doctrines on which 
the edict was based, which won the praise of the philosophes 
and the ridicule of the wits; this Turgot rewrote three times, 
it is said, in order to make it " so clear that any village judge 
could explain it to the peasants." The opposition to the edict 
was strong. Turgot was hated by those who had been interested 
in the speculations in corn under the regime of the abbe Terray 
- among whom were included some of the princes of the blood. 
Moreover, the commerce des bles had been a favourite topic 
of the salons for some years past, and the witty Galiani, the 
opponent of the physiocrats, had a large following. The oppo- 
sition was now continued by Linguet and Necker, who in 
1775 published his treatise Sur la legislation et le commerce 
des grains. But Turgot's worst enemy was the poor harvest of 
1774, which led to a slight rise in the price of bread in the winter 
and early spring of 1774-1775. In April disturbances arose 
at Dijon, and early in May took place those extraordinary 
bread-riots known as the " guerre des farines," which may be 
looked upon as a first sample of the Revolution, so carefully 
were they organized. Turgot showed great firmness and de- 
cision in repressing the riots, and was loyally supported by the 
king throughout. His position was strengthened by the entry 
of Malesherbes into the ministry (July 1775). 

All this time Turgot had been preparing his famous " Six 
Edicts," which were finally presented to the conseil du roi 
(Jan. 1776). Of the six edicts four were of minor importance, 
and, I flattered myself, even of his friendship and esteem, I never 
had that of his correspondence," but there is no doubt that Adam 
Smith met Turgot in Paris, and it is generally admitted that The 
Wealth of Nations owes a good deal to Turgot. 

1 For an account of Turgot's financial administration, see Ch. 
Gomel, Causes financieres, vol. i. 



but the two which met with violent opposition were, firstly, 
the edict suppressing the conees, and secondly, that suppressing 
the jurandes and maitrises, the privileged trade corporations. 
In the preamble to the former Turgot boldly announced as his 
object the abolition of privilege, and the subjection of all 
three orders to taxation; the clergy were afterwards excepted', 
at the request of Maurepas. In the preamble to the edict on 
the jurandes he laid down as a principle the right of every 
man to work without restriction. 2 He obtained the registra- 
tion of the edicts by the lit de justice of the I2th of March, 
but by that time he had nearly everybody against him. His 
attacks on privilege had won him the hatred of the nobles 
and the parlements, his attempted reforms in the royal house- 
hold that of the court, his free trade legislation that of the 
" financiers," his views on tolerance and his agitation for the 
suppression of the phrase offensive to Protestants in the king's 
coronation oath that of the clergy, and his edict on the jurandes 
that of the rich bourgeoisie of Paris and others, such as the 
prince de Conti, whose interests were involved. The queen 
disliked him for opposing the grant of favours to her proteges, 
and he had offended Mme de Polignac in a similar manner 
(see Marquis de Segur, Au Cottchant de la monarchie, p. 305- 
306). 

All might yet have gone well if Turgot could have retained 
the confidence of the king, but the king could not fail to see 
that Turgot had not the support of the other ministers. Even 
his friend Malesherbes thought he was too rash, and was, 
moreover, himself discouraged and wished to resign. The 
alienation of Maurepas was also increasing. Whether through 
jealousy of the ascendancy which Turgot had acquired over the 
king, or through the natural incompatibility of their characters, 
he was already inclined to take sides against Turgot, and the 
reconciliation between him and the queen, which took place 
about this time, meant that he was henceforth the tool of the 
Polignac clique and the Choiseul party. About this time, 
too, appeared a pamphlet, Le Songe de M. Maurepas, generally 
ascribed to the comte de Provence (Louis XVIII.), containing 
a bitter caricature of Turgot. 

Before relating the circumstances of Turgot's fall we may 
briefly resume his views on the administrative system. With 
the physiocrats, he believed in an enlightened absolutism, 
and looked to the king to carry through all reforms. As to 
the parlements, he opposed all interference on their part in 
legislation, considering that they had no competency outside 
the sphere of justice. He recognized the danger of the recall 
of the old parlement, but was unable effectively to oppose it, 
since he had been associated with the dismissal of Maupeou 
and Terray, and seems to have underestimated its power. 
He was opposed to the summoning of the states-general advo- 
cated by Malesherbes (May 6, 1775), possibly on the ground 
that the two privileged orders would have too much power 
in them. His own plan is to be found in his Memoire sur les 
municipalites, which was submitted informally to the king. 
In Turgot's proposed system landed proprietors alone were to 
form the electorate, no distinction being made between the 
three orders; the members of the town and country munici- 
palites were to elect representatives for the district municipalites, 
which in turn would elect to the provincial municipalites, and 
the latter to a grande municipalite, which should have no 
legislative powers, but should concern itself entirely with the 
administration of taxation. With this was to be combined a 
whole system of education, relief of the poor, &c. Louis XVI. 
recoiled from this as being too great a leap in the dark, and 
such a fundamental difference of opinion between king and 
minister was bound to lead to a breach sooner or later. 
Turgot's only choice, however, was between " tinkering " at the 
existing system in detail and a complete revolution, and his 
attack on privilege, which might have been carried through 
by a popular minister and a strong king, was bound to form 
part of any effective scheme of reform. 

* Turgot was opposed to all labour associations of employers or 
employed, in accordance with his belief in free competition. 



TURGUENIEV TURI 



The immediate cause of Turgot's fall is uncertain. Some 
speak of a plot, of forged letters containing attacks on the 
queen shown to the king as Turgot's, of a series of notes on 
Turgot's budget prepared, it is said, by Necker, and shown to the 
king to prove his incapacity. Others attribute it to the queen, 
and there is no doubt that she hated Turgot for supporting 
Vergennes in demanding the recall of the comte de Guines, 
the ambassador in London, whose cause she had ardently 
espoused at the prompting of the Choiseul clique. Others 
attribute it to an intrigue of Maurepas. On the resignation 
of Malesherbes (April 1776), whom Turgot wished to replace 
by the abbe Very, Maurepas proposed to the king as his suc- 
cessor a nonentity named Amelot. Turgot, on hearing of this, 
wrote an indignant letter to the king, in which he reproached 
him for refusing to see him, pointed out in strong terms the 
dangers of a weak ministry and a weak king, and complained 
bitterly of Maurepas's irresolution and subjection to court 
intrigues; this letter the king, though asked to treat it as con- 
fidential, is said to have shown to Maurepas, whose dislike for 
Turgot it still further embittered. With all these enemies, 
Turgot's fall was certain, but he wished to stay in office long 
enough to finish his project for the reform of the royal house- 
hold before resigning. This, however, he was not allowed to 
dp, but on the i2th of May was ordered to send in his resigna- 
tion. He at once retired to la Roche-Guyon, the chateau of 
the duchesse d'Enville, returning shortly to Paris, where he 
spent the rest of his h'fe in scientific and literary studies, being 
made vice-president of the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles- 
lettres in 177 7. Hediedon the i8th of March 1781. 

In character Turgot was simple, honourable and upright, 
with a passion for justice and truth. He was an idealist, 
his enemies would say a doctrinaire, and certainly the terms 
" natural rights," " natural law," &c., frequently occur in his 
writings. His friends speak of his charm and gaiety in intimate 
intercourse, but among strangers he was silent and awkward, 
and produced the impression of being reserved and disdainful. 
On one point both friends and enemies agree, and that is his 
brusquerie and his want of tact in the management of men; 
Oncken points out with some reason the " schoolmasterish " 
tone of his letters, even to the king. As a statesman he has 
been very variously estimated, but it is generally agreed that a 
large number of the reforms and ideas of the Revolution were 
due to him; the ideas did not as a rule originate with him, 
but it was he who first gave them prominence. As to his posi- 
tion as an economist, opinion is also divided. Oncken, to take 
the extreme of condemnation, looks upon him as a bad physio- 
crat and a confused thinker, while Leon Say considers that he 
was the founder of modern political economy, and that " though 
he failed in the i8th century he triumphed in the igth." 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. G. Schelle, Turgot (Paris, 1909); and Marquis 
de Segur, An Couchant de la monarchic (Paris, 1910), contain much 
that is based on recent research. The principal older biographies are 
those of Dupont de Nemours (1782, enlarged in his edition of Turgot's 
Works, 1807-1811), and Condorcet (1786); the best modern ones 
are those of A. Neymarck (Paris, 1885), Leon Say (Paris, 1887); 
and W. W. Stephens (London, 1895). See generally, Oncken, 
Geschichte der Nationalokonomie, vol. li. ch. I ; Schelle, Dupont de 
Nemours et I'ecole physiocratique (1888) ; Henry Higgs, The Physiocrats 
(1897) ; R. P. Shepherd, Turgot and the Six Edicts (1903), in Columbia 
Univ. Studies, vol. xviii. No. 2. 

TURGUENIEV, IVAN (1818-1883), Russian novelist, the 
descendant of an old Russian family, was born at Orel, 
in the government of the same name, in 1818. His 
father, the colonel of a cavalry regiment, died when our 
author was sixteen years of age, leaving two sons, Nicholas 
and Ivan, who were brought up under the care of their 
mother, the heiress of the Litvinovs, a lady who owned large 
estates and many serfs. Ivan studied for a year at the univer- 
sity of Moscow, then at St Petersburg, and was finally sent 
in 1843 to Berlin. His education at home had been conducted 
by German and French tutors, and was altogether foreign, 
his mother only speaking Russian to her servants, as became 
a great lady of the old school. For his first acquaintance 
with the literature of his country the future novelist was in- 
xxvn. 14 



debted to a serf of the family, who used to read to him verses 
from the Rossiad of Kheraskov, a once celebrated poet of the 
eighteenth century. Turgueniev's early attempts in literature, 
consisting of poems and trifling sketches, may be passed over 
here; they were not without indications of genius, and were 
favourably spoken of by Bielinski, then the leading Russian 
critic, for whom Turgueniev ever cherished a warm regard. 
Our author first made a name by his striking sketches " The 
Papers of a Sportsman " (Zapiski Okhotnika), in which the 
miserable condition of the peasants was described with start- 
ling realism. The work appeared in a collected form in 1852. 
It was read by all classes, including the emperor himself, and it 
undoubtedly hurried on the great work of emancipation. Tur- 
gueniev had always sympathized with the muzhiks; he had often 
been witness of the cruelties of his mother, a narrow-minded 
and vindictive woman. In some interesting papers recently 
contributed to the "European Messenger" (Viestnik evropy) 
by a lady brought up in the household of Mme Turgueniev, 
sad details are given illustrative of her character. Thus the 
dumb porter of gigantic stature, drawn with such power in 
Mumu, one of our author's later sketches, was a real person. 
We are, moreover, told of his mother that she could never 
understand how it was that her son became an author, and 
thought that he had degraded himself. How could a Turgueniev 
submit himself to be criticized? 

The next production of the novelist was " A Nest of Nobles " 
(Dvorianskoe gniezdo), a singularly pathetic story, which greatly 
increased his reputation. This appeared in 1859, and was fol- 
lowed the next year by " On the Eve " (Nakanunge) a tale 
which contains one of his most beautiful female characters, 
Helen. In 1862 was published " Fathers and Children " (Otzi 
i Died), in which the author admirably described the nihilistic 
doctrines then beginning to spread in Russia. According 
to some writers he invented the word nihilism. In 1867 
appeared " Smoke " (Dim), and in 1877 his last work of any 
length, " Virgin Soil " (Nov). Besides his longer stories, many 
shorter ones were produced, some of great beauty and full 
of subtle psychological analysis, such as Rudin, " The Diary 
of a Useless Man " (Dnevnik lishnago chelovieka), and others. 
These were afterwards collected into three volumes. The 
last works of the great novelist were " Poetry in Prose " and 
" Clara Milich," which appeared in the " European Messenger." 

Turgueniev, during the latter part of his life, did not reside 
much in Russia; he lived either at Baden Baden or Paris, 
and chiefly with the family of the celebrated singer Viardot 
Garcia, to the members of which he was much attached. He 
occasionally visited England, and in 1879 the degree of D.C.L. 
was conferred upon him by the university of Oxford. He died 
at Bougival, near Paris, on the 4th of September 1883. 

Unquestionably Turgueniev may be considered one of the 
great novelists, worthy to be ranked with Thackeray, Dickens 
and George Eliot; with the genius of the last of these he has 
many affinities. His studies of human nature are profound, 
and he has the wide sympathies which are essential to genius 
of the highest order. A melancholy, almost pessimist, feeling 
pervades his writings, a morbid self -analysis which seems natural 
to the Slavonic mind. The closing chapter of " A Nest of 
Nobles " is one of the saddest and at the same time truest 
pages in the whole range of existing novels. 

The writings of Turgueniev have been made familiar to persons 
unacquainted with Russian by French translations. There 
are many versions in English, among which we may mention 
the translation of the " Nest of Nobles " under the name of 
" Lisa," by Ralston, and '.' Virgin Soil," by Ashton Dilke. There 
is also a complete and excellent translation by Mrs Garnett. 

(W. R. M.) 

TURI, a Pathan tribe on thje Kohat border of the North- West 
Frontier Province of India. The Turis inhabit the Kurram 
valley, which adjoins the western end of the Miranzai valley and 
number nearly 1 2,000. Though now speaking Pushtu and ranking 
as Pathans, they are by origin a Turki tribe, of the Shiah 
sect, who subjected the Bangash Afghans some time early in the 



TURIN 



eighteenth century. They are strong, hardy, and courageous, 
and make first-rate horsemen. Their early dealings with the 
British government were inclined to turbulence, and they were 
concerned in the Miranzai expeditions of 1851 and 1855 (see 
MIRANZAI). But the only expedition specially sent against 
them was the Kurram expedition of 1856 (see KURRAM). Since 
then they have settled down and engaged in trade. During 
the Second Afghan War they supplied Sir Frederick Roberts 
with guides and provisions. In 1892 they voluntarily accepted 
British administration, and they now furnish a large part of 
the tribal militia in the Kurram Valley. 

TURIN, a city of Piedmont, Italy, capital of the province of 
Turin, formerly of the kingdom of Sardinia until 1860, and 
of Italy till the removal of the seat of government to Florence 
in 1865. Pop. (1906), 277,121 (town), 361,720 (commune), with 
a garrison of 8500, the town being the headquarters of the I. army 
corps. The area of the city is 4155 acres, and its octroi circle 
measures nearly 9 m. Its geographical position is excellent; 
built upon alluvial soil 784 ft. above sea-level at a short distance 
from the Alps, it stands upon the river Po, which here runs from 
south to north just above the confluence of the Dora Riparia. 
The streets and avenues, almost all of which are straight, cut 
each other at right angles, forming blocks of houses, here as else- 
where called " islands." As viewed from the east the city stands 
out boldly against the Alps. Taken as a whole it is modern 
in aspect, but its regularity of form is in reality derived from 
the ancient Roman town of Augusta Taurinorum, which 
formed its nucleus. The mean temperature at Turin (1871- 
1900) is 53 F. (winter 35, summer 71), with an average 
maximum of 90, and an average minimum of 17. Mists are 
frequent in the winter mornings, and to a less degree in autumn. 
Snow falls on an average only on seven days per annum. The 
rainfall averages 34 in. 

The cathedral of St John the Baptist is a cruciform Renaissance 
building dating from 1492-1498, by the Florentine Meo da 
Caprina. The site was first occupied by a church erected, it is 
said, by the Lombard duke Agilulf (7th century). Behind the 
high altar of the cathedral (from which it is separated by a glass 
screen) is the chapel of the Sudario or Sindone, built (1657-1694) 
by Guarini as a royal burial-place. The " sudario " from which 
it takes its name is asserted to be the shroud in which Joseph of 
Arimathea wrapped the body of Jesus. La Beata Vergine della 
Consolata, another of Guarini's works, has a tower which originally 
belonged to the church of St Andrew, founded by the monk 
Bruning in 1014, and attracts attention by Vincenzo Vela's 
beautiful kneeling statues of Queen Maria Teresa and Queen 
Maria Adelaide, as well as by the image of the Madonna, which 
has the credit of having warded off the cholera in 1835. Other 
churches of some note are San Filippo Neri (1672-1772), the dome 
of which fell in just as it was approaching completion under the 
hands of Guarini and was restored by Juvara, and La Gran 
Madre de Dio, erected to commemorate the return of the royal 
family in 1814. Of the secular buildings the more interesting 
are the Palazzo Madama, first erected by William of Montferrat 
at the close of the i3th century on the Roman east gate of the 
town, remains of the towers of which were incorporated in it, 
and owing its name to the widow of Charles Emmanuel II., who 
added the west facade and the handsome double flight of steps 
from Juvara's designs; and the extensive royal palace begun in 
the 1 7th century. Many of the palaces have fine pillared court- 
yards of the baroque period, some of which are the work of 
Guarini. For the Porta Palatina and other remains of the ancient 
city walls see below. The citadel, erected in 1 565, has been almost 
entirely demolished. There is practically nothing of the Renais- 
sance period except the cathedral. The Castello del Valentino is 
a building partly in the French style of the middle of the i6th 
century. The university, founded in 1400 by Lodovico di 
Acaja, has faculties of jurisprudence, medicine and surgery, 
literature and philosophy, and the mathematical, physical and 
natural sciences. The number of students is about 2500. The 
old university buildings erected in 1713 by the Genoese architect 
Ricca proved too small; and new buildings, fitted more especially 



for the medical and scientific departments, have been erected. 
The original building contains the valuable library (now national), 
many of the treasures of which were destroyed by fire in 1906, 
and a collection of Roman antiquities. The academy of sciences 
was founded in 1757. It occupies a building erected in 1687 by 
Guarini as a Jesuit college. The museum of antiquities and the 
picture gallery, of which it has the custody, are both of high 
interest the former for the local antiquities of Piedmont and 
Sardinia (notably from Industria) and for the Egyptian treasures 
collected by Donati and Drovetti, and the latter for its Van 
Dycks and pictures by north Italian masters. There is a museum 
of zoology and mineralogy in Palazzo Carignano (another of 
Guarini's buildings), and the royal palace contains the royal 
armoury (a fine collection made by Charles Albert in 1833) and 
the royal library with its rich manuscript collection and its 20,000 
drawings, among which are sketches by Raphael, Michelangelo, 
and Leonardo da Vinci. The civic museum has a great variety 
of artistic and literary curiosities, among them a remarkable 
collection of autographs and the Lombard missal (1490). 

There are many modern public monuments considerably more 
than in other Italian towns and some of them are fine. The Mole 
Antonelliana, built by Alessandro Antonelli, is the most important 
example of modern architecture in Turin. It belongs to the munici- 
pality, and is used for the Risorgimento Museum. It is the highest 
brick edifice in Europe, its summit being 510 ft. above ground. It is 
a square edifice with a large dome and lofty spire, the dome being 
raised upon a hall with three galleries, one above the other, so that 
from the floor to the top of the dome is over 300 ft. 

Among the hospitals is that called by the name of its founder, 
Cottolengo, a vast institution providing for more than 5000 persons; 
there are also the Ospedale Maggiore di San Giovanni, the Ospedale 
Mauriziano, and many other hospitals for special diseases, as well as 
asylums and charitable institutions of all kinds. 

The industries comprise metallurgy, machine-making, chemicals, 
silk and cotton weaving, tanning and leather- working. The manu- 
facture of motor-cars has become of great importance, and Turin is 
the chief seat of the industry in Italy, nearly 5000 workmen being 
employed. Chocolate, liqueurs and vermouth are also made here. 
The application of electricity is widely developed on account of the 
proximity of Alpine valleys rich in torrents. The supply of drinking 
water is furnished by three aqueducts. 

The opening of the St Gothard tunnel exercised a prejudicial 
influence upon the traffic of the network of railways of which Turin 
is the centre, and Milan, owing to its nearness both to this and to 
the Simplon, has become the most important railway centre of Italy. 
Turin has, however, the advantage of being the nearest to the Mont 
Cenis, while the completion of the line through Cuneo over the Col di 
Tenda affords direct communication with the French Riviera. Main 
lines run also from Turin toVercelli and thence to Novara and Milan 
(the direct route), to Casale Monferrato, to Alessandria (and thence 
to Piacenza or Genoa), to Genoa via Asti and Acqui, to Bra and 
Savona, and branch lines to Lanzo, Torre Pellice, Aosta, Rivoli, 
Rivarolo, &c., and steam tramways in various directions. 

For administrative purposes the city is divided into two municipal 
police sections and into seven government districts or mandamenti. 
The military organization is proportionate in importance to the 
strategical position of Turin near the French frontier. There is a 
military arsenal with laboratories, a military academy for artillery 
and engineer officers, a war school, and a military hospital. 

Among the surroundings of Turin the Hill of Superga (2300 ft. 
above the sea) merits special mention. Victor Amadeus II. erected 
there a votive basilica in memory of the liberation of Turin from the 
French in 1706. King Charles Albert and other kings and princes 
of the Savoy dynasty are buried in the crypt. Not far from Turin 
are also the castles of Moncalieri, Stupinigi, Rivoli, Racconigi, Agle, 
Venaria, and the ancient monastery of the Sagra di San Michele 
(753 metres above sea-level), famous for its view of the Alps as far 
as the beginning of the Lombard plain. 

Turin was always a place of importance and military strength, 
in spite of numerous vicissitudes, till at length it was made the 
chief town of Piedmont by Amadeus, first duke of Savoy. Under 
Emmanuel Philibert it became the usual residence of the ducal 
family, and in 1515 the bishopric was raised to metropolitan 
rank by Leo X. Between 1536 and 1562 Turin was occupied by 
the French, and in 1630 it lost 8000 of its citizens by the plague. 
The French were masters once more from 1640 to 1706, ard again 
from 1798 till 1814, when Piedmont was restored to the house of 
Savoy. From 1860 to 1865 Turin was the capital of Italy. 

The ancient Augusta Taurinorum was a city of Gallia Cisalpina, 
the chief town of the Taurini. The natural advantages of its 
site and its position with relation to the pass over the Alpis 



TURKESTAN 



419 



Cottia (Mont Genevre; see COTTII REGNUM) made it important 
in early times, though it cannot have been very strongly fortified, 
inasmuch as Hannibal, after crossing the Alps in 218 B.C., was 
able to take it after a three days' siege. It became a colony 
either under the triumvirs or under Augustus, and it was then 
no doubt that it was fortified. It was partly burned down in 
A.D. 69, but continued to be prosperous, as may be gathered from 
the remains of its fortifications and from the many inscriptions 
which have been discovered there. The Roman town formed a 
rectangle 2526 ft. by 2330; the line of the walls, which were 21 ft. 
high, 7 ft. thick at ground level and 3 ft. at the top, is well known, 
inasmuch as they were standing till about 1600; and the north 
gate, the Porta Palatina, still exists; it has a double opening, and 
two orders of arches above, and is flanked by two sixteen-sided 
brick towers. The east gate, similar in character, still exists in 
part within the Palazzo Madama. The north-west corner tower 
is also in part preserved, and traces of other parts of the enceinte 
have been found. The interior of the town was divided by 
seven streets from east to west and eight from north to south into 
72 insulae; and the ancient pavement and the drains below it 
are frequently found under the streets of the central portion of 
the modern town, indicating that they follow the ancient lines 
(see especially Notizie degli Scavi, 1902, p. 277). In the great 
extensions which the city has undergone since 1600, the old 
rectangular arrangement has been followed. Remains of a 
theatre have been discovered beneath the Palazzo Vecchio, 
demolished in 1899 (A. Taramelli, in Notizie degli Scavi, 1900, 

P- 3). 

See C. Promis, Storia dell' anlica Torino (Turin, 1869); A. 
d'Andradc, Relazione dell' ufficio regionale per la conseroazione dei 
monumenli del Piemonte e delta Liguria, 7 seq. (Turin, 1899). 

(T. As.) 

TURKESTAN, a name conventionally employed to designate 
the regions of Central Asia which lie between Siberia on the N. 
and Tibet, India and Afghanistan on the S., the western limit 
being the Caspian Sea and the eastern Mongolia and the Desert 
of Gobi. Etymologically the term is intended to indicate the 
regions inhabited by Turkish races. How far this name was 
appropriate in the past need not be considered here; at present 
the regions called Turkestan not only contain races which do not 
belong to the Turk family, but it excludes races which do, e.g. 
the Turks of the Ottoman Empire. Nevertheless the term, in 
its dual application of West Turkestan and East or Chinese 
Turkestan, has long been established, and in default of any better 
designations cannot very well be dispensed with. 

I. WEST TURKESTAN 

West Turkestan is very nearly, though not quite, coincident 
with the territories which Russia possesses and controls in Asia, 
Siberia excepted. Thus it includes (i) the governor-generalship 
of Turkestan, embracing the provinces of Ferghana, Samarkand, 
Semiryechensk, and Syr-darya; the provinces of Akmolinsk and 
Semipalatinsk, and sometimes that of Turgai belonging to the 
governor-generalship of the Steppes; the Transcaspian region; 
and the semi-independent states of Bokhara and Khiva. Its 
total area amounts approximately to 1,290,000 sq. m. 

Physical Geography. Physically this region is divided into two 
sharply contrasted parts, the mountainous and highland country in 
the east and the flat steppes and deserts in the west and north. The 
former are sufficiently described under the heading TlAN-SHAN. It 
will be enough to say here that the mountainous region belongs to 
the great orographical flange which runs from south-west to north- 
east along the north-western margin of the great plateau of Central 
Asia. Hence it consists (i) partly of ranges, mostly snow-capped, 
which stretch from south-west to north-east, and which in several 
cases terminate en echelon on the verge of the desert, and (2) partly 
of ranges which strike away from the above at various angles, but 
in a predominantly north-western direction. The latter, including 
such ranges as the Chingiz-tau, Chu-Ili Mountains, Kandyk-tau and 
Khan-tau, the Ferghana range, the Kara-tau and the Nura-tau, are 
geologically of later origin than the great border ranges of the Tian- 
shan proper, e.g. Trans-Alai, Alai, Kokshal-tau, Alexander range, 
Terskei Ala-tau, Kunghei Ala-tau, Trans-Ili Ala-tau and Dzungarian 
Ala-tau. The Tarbagatai Mountains, still farther north, are often 
classified as belonging to the Altai system. Generally speaking, 
the ranges of both categories run at 10,000 to 20,000 ft., though 



altitudes as high as 23,000 ft. are attained by individual peaks, such 
as Mt Kaufmann and Khan-tengri. Most of the loftier summits 
are capped with perpetual snow, and on some of them, e.g. Khan- 
tengri (Mushketov, Semenov, Inylchik) and the Kok-su Mountains 
(Fedchenko, Shurovsky), south of Peak Kaufmann, there are well- 
developed glaciers. Nearly all these border ranges rise abruptly 
and to great heights from the plains on the north or north-west, 
but have a much shorter and easier descent on the south or south- 
east. Hence the passes lie at great altitudes, ranging from about 
9000 to 14,000 ft. On the other hand the fact of the ranges radiating 
outwards towards the west, and the further fact that they are in 
more than one place penetrated by deep depressions (e.g. Dzungaria, 
Kulja, Issyk-kul, Ferghana) for a considerable distance towards the 
east, greatly facilitate access to the loftier plateau lands of Central 
Asia, and have from time immemorial been the highways of human 
intercourse between East and West. 

Like the highlands of Siberia, those of Turkestan are fringed by a 
girdle of plains, having an altitude of 1000 to 1500 ft., and these 
again are skirted by an immense lowland area reaching Lowland 
only 400, 300 and 150 ft. above sea-level, or even pi a i ns . 
sinking below the level of the ocean. Some geographers 
divide them into two sections the higher plains of the Balkash (the 
Ala-kul and Balkash drainage areas) and the Aral-Caspian depres- 
sion, which occupies nearly two-thirds of the whole and has been 
ably described by I. V. Mushketov under the appropriate name of 
Turanian basin the Kara-tau Mountains, between the Chu and the 
Syr-darya rivers, being considered as the dividing line between the 
two. The Balkash plains, more than 1000 ft. above the sea, and 
covered with clay, with a girdle of loess at their foot, are well 
drained by the Hi and other feeders of Lake Balkash and support 
the numerous flocks and herds of the Kirghiz. To the south-west 
the clayey soil becomes saline. There is the Famine steppe (Bek- 
pak-dala), while in the Ak-kum steppe, which surrounds Lake Kara- 
kul, large areas consist of nothing but sands, partly shifting. The 
plains and lowlands of the Turanian basin are subdivided by a line 
drawn from north-east to south-west along a slight range of hills 
running from the sources of the Ishim towards the south-east corner 
of the Caspian (Bujnurd and Elburz edge of Khorasan). This low 
range, which most probably separated the lowlands of the Aral- 
Caspian region (submerged during the Post-Pliocene period) from 
the higher plains which had emerged by the end of the Tertiary 
period, now divides the Transcaspian steppes from the somewhat 
different higher plains. In the Turanian basin the contrast between 
desert and oasis is much stronger than in the Balkash region. Fer- 
tile soil, or rather soil which can be rendered fertile by irrigation, 
is limited to a narrow terrace of loess along the foot of the mountains, 
and is surrounded by barren deserts. Even where the loess stretches 
out over terraces at some distance from the mountains, as in the 
south-east of the Transcaspian region, it can be cultivated only when 
irrigated. Two rivers only the Syr and the Amu succeed in 
getting across the desert and reaching the Sea of Aral. But their 
former tributaries no longer run their full course: the glacier-fed 
Zarafshan dries up amid the gardens of Bokhara soon after emerging 
from the highlands; and the Tejen and the Murghab lose themselves 
in the recesses of the Kara-kum desert. The only tributaries which 
the Amu retains are those whose whole course is within the high- 
lands. In the north such formerly important tributaries of the 
Syr-darya as the Chu, with its sub-tributary the Sary-su, now dry 
up some hundreds of miles before reaching the main stream. 

The whole area is now undergoing geological changes on a vast 
scale. Rivers have changed their courses, and lakes their outlines. 
Far away from their present shores the geologist finds Desiccation. 
indubitable signs of the recent presence of lakes in the 
shells they have left amid the sands. Traces of former rivers 
and channels, which were the main arteries of prosperous regions 
within the period of written history, have now disappeared. Of 
the highly developed civilizations which grew up and flourished 
in Bactria, Bokhara and Samarkand the last survivals are now 
undergoing rapid obliteration with the simultaneous desiccation 
of the rivers and lakes. The great " Blue Sea " of Central Asia, 
the Sea of Aral, which at a recent epoch (Post-Glacial) extended 
south-west as far as Sary-kamysh, and the shells of which are found 
north and east of its present shores 50 to 200 ft. above its present 
level (157 ft. above the ocean, and 248 above the Caspian), now 
occupies but a small portion of its former extent. It fills a shallow 
depression which is drying up with astonishing rapidity, so that the 
process of desiccation can be shown on surveys separated by intervals 
of only ten years; large parts of it, like Aibughir Gulf, have dried up 
since the Russians took possession of its shores. The whole country 
is dotted over with lakes, which are rapidly disappearing under the 
hot winds of the deserts. 

Geology? Like the highlands of eastern Asia, those of Turkestan 
are mostly built up on Pre-Cambrian gneisses and metamorphic 
slates, resting upon granites, syenites, old orthoclase porphyries, 
and the like. These upheavals date from the remotest geological 
ages; and since the Primary epoch a triangular continent having its 

1 R. Pumpelly and others, Explorations in Turkestan (Washington, 
1905), contains references to the geological literature to the date 
of publication. 



420 



TURKESTAN 



apex turned towards the north-east, as Africa and America have 
theirs pointing southward, rose in the middle of what now con- 
stitutes Asia. It is only in the outer foldings of the highlands that 
Palaeozoic fossiliferous deposits are found Silurian, Devonian, 
Carboniferous and Permo-Carboniferous. Within that period 
the principal valleys were excavated, and their lower parts have 
been filled up subsequently with Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary 
deposits. One of the most striking instances of this is the very thick 
Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits which cover the bottom of the 
valley of the Vakhsh (right tributary of the Amu) and are continued 
for about 300 m. to the north-east, as far as the Alai valley 
probably along the edge of the Pamir plateau. The deposits of the 
Secondary period have not maintained their horizontal position. 
While upheavals having a north-eastern strike continued to take 
place after the Carboniferous epoch, 1 another series of upheavals, 
having a north-western strike, and occasioned by the expansion of 
diabases, dolerites, melaphyres and andesites, occurred later, sub- 
sequently at least to the close of the Tertiary period, if not also 
before it, dislocating former chains and raising rocks to the highest 
levels by the addition of new upheavals to the older ones. Through- 
out the Triassic and Jurassic periods nearly all Turkestan remained 
a continent indented by gulfs and lagoons of the south European 
Triassic and Jurassic sea. Immense fresh-water lakes, in which 
were deposited layers of plants (now yielding coal), filled up the 
depressions of the country. Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits 
occur extensively along the edge of the highlands. Upper and 
Middle Cretaceous, containing phosphates, gypsum, naphtha, sul- 
phur and alum, attain thicknesses of 2000 and 5000 ft. in Hissar. 
Representatives of all the Tertiary formations are met with in 
Turkestan ; but while in the highlands the strata are coast-deposits, 
they assume an open sea character in the lowlands, and their rich 
fossil fauna furnishes evidence of the gradual shallowing of that sea, 
until at last, after the Sarmathian period, it became a closed Medi- 
terranean. During the Post-Pliocene period this sea broke up into 
several parts, united by narrow straits. The connexion of Lake 
Balkash with the Sea of Aral can hardly be doubted; but this 
portion of the great sea was the first to be divided. While the Sea 
of Aral remained in connexion with the Caspian, the desiccation of 
the Lake Balkash basin, and its break-up into smaller separate 
basins, were already going on. The Quaternary epoch is repre- 
sented by vast morainic deposits in the valleys of the Tian-shan. 
About Khan-Tengri glaciers descended to a level of 6800 ft. above 
the sea, 2 and discharged into the wide open valleys or syrts. It is 
most probable that, when allowance has been made for the oblitera- 
tion of glacial markings, and the region has been better explored, it 
will appear that the glaciation of Turkestan was on a scale at least as 
vast as that of the Himalayas. In the lowlands the Aral-Caspian 
deposits, which it is difficult to separate sharply from the later 
Tertiary, cover the whole of the area. They contain shells of mol- 
luscs now inhabiting the Sea of Aral, and in their petrographical 
features are exactly like those of the lower Volga. The limits of 
the Post-Pliocene Aral-Caspian sea have not yet been fully traced. 
It extended some 200 m. north and more than 90 m. east of the 
present Aral shores. A narrow strait connected it with Lake 
Balkash. The Ust-Urt plateau and the Mugojar Mountains pre- 
vented it from spreading north-westward, and a narrow channel 
connected it along the Uzboi with the Caspian, which sent a broad 
gulf to the east, spread up to the Volga, and was connected by the 
Manych with the Black Sea basin. Great interest, geological and 
historical, thus attaches to the recent changes undergone by this 
basin. Since the theory of geological cataclysms was abandoned, 
and that of slow modifications of the crust of the earth accepted, 
new data have been obtained in the Aral-Caspian region to show that 
the rate of modification after the close of the Glacial period, although 
still very slow, was faster than had been supposed from the evidence 
of similar changes now going on in Europe and America. The 
effects produced by desiccating agencies are beyond all comparison 
more powerful than those which result from the earthquakes that 
are so frequent in Turkestan. All along the base of the highlands, 
from Khojent to Vyernyi, earthquakes are frequent; 3 but their 
effects lie beyond the scope of our observational methods. 

Climate. The climate of West Turkestan is exceedingly dry and 
continental. Although the country is approximately comprised 
within the latitudes of Sicily and Lyons, it has a south Norwegian 
January and a Persian summer. Temperatures of more than 100 F. 
in the shade are common, and the heat is rendered still more 
unbearable by the reflection from a soil destitute of vegetation. The 
winter is for the most part so cold that the average temperature 
of January is below the freezing point, and even reaches o F. 
Snow falls for several months on the lower Syr-darya, and, were it 
not blown away by the winds, sledge-communication would be 
possible. This river is frozen for an average of 123 days every 
year in its lower parts and nearly 100 days at Perovsk. At Tashkent 
there is snow during two months and temperatures of 10 F. 
have been observed; on the other hand the maximum observation 



1 I. V. Mushketov's Turkestan (pp. 35, 681) seems to justify this 
conclusion. 

2 See I. Ignatyev, in Izvestia of Russ. Geog. Soc. (1887), vol. xxiii. 
1 Ibid.; also Orlov in Mem. of Kazan Naturalists (1873), vol. iii. 



is 108. To the south of Khojent the winter becomes more clement. 
Absence of rain is the distinctive feature of the climate. Although 
it rains and snows heavily on the mountains, only II in. of rain 
and snow fall throughout the year at Tashkent, at the base of the 
highlands; and the steppes of the lower Amu have less. A few 
showers are all that fall from the almost invariably cloudless sky 
above the Transcaspian steppes. 

Fauna. The fauna of Turkestan belongs to the zoo-geographical 
domain of northern Asia, and is only differentiated by the presence 
of species which have disappeared from the peripheral parts of the 
Old World and now find a refuge in the remotest regions of the 
uninhabited plateau. From the Palaeoarctic region it is distin- 
guished by the presence of Himalayan species. The distinctive 
animal of the Pamir plateau is the magnificent Ovis poli (con- 
jectured to be the ancestor of the common sheep). In the alpine 
tracts of the Tian-shan, on the borders of the Pamir, their 
horns and skulls are frequently met with, but there the place of 
the species is now taken by Ovis karelini. The wild horse, which 
occurred in Poland a few centuries ago, was discovered by Prezhe- 
valsky in the highlands of Dzungaria. The wild camel inhabits the 
lonely plateaus south of the Ala-shan. The other mammals of 
Turkestan are mostly those which are met with elsewhere in north 
Asia. The Himalayan bear (Ursus isabellinus) has its home on the 
Pamir, and the smaller Leuconyx up to the highest levels on the Tian- 
shan. Antelopes, Lepus lehmanni, Lagomys rutilus, various species 
of Arvicolae, and the Himalayan long-tailed marmot (Arctomys 
caudatus), the most characteristic inhabitant of the alpine meadows, 
are the only mammals of the Pamir proper. In the alpine region 
are found the badger (Meles taxus), the ermine (Puiorius ermineus) 
and six other Mustelidae, the wild dog (Canis alpinus), the common 
and the black-eared fox (C. melanotis), while the corsac fox (C. 
corsac) is met with only on the plains. Two species of lynx, the 
cheetah (Felis jubata), F. manul, and F. irbis, must be added to the 
above. The tiger is met with only on the lower Amu-darya, except 
when it wanders to the alpine region in pursuit of the maral deer 
(Ceryus maral). The jackal is characteristic of the steppes; it 
banishes the wolves and foxes. Hares are represented by several 
species, Lepus lehmanni being the most characteristic. Both the 
common and the long-tailed marmot 04. baibacinus and A. caudatus) 
live at the foot of the mountains, as well as four species of Spermo- 
philus, three of voles, two of the mouse and three of the hamster. 
The Meriones (four species) and the jerboa (five species) are only met 
with in the steppe region. Of ruminants, beside the sheep (0. poli, 
0. karelini, 0. nigrimonlana, O. heinsii), we find one moufflon (Musi- 
man vignei), formerly known only in the Himalayas, the Chinese 
antelope (Antilope subgutturosa) and the saiga antelope in the 
steppes, the Siberian ibex and another goat, the yak, the zebu or 
Indian ox, the common ox, the camel and the dromedary. The 
wild boar is common in the reed thickets along the rivers and 
lakes, where it stays during the winter, migrating to the high- 
lands in summer. The hedgehog and porcupine are common in the 
plains. 

No fewer than 385 species of avifauna afe recorded, most of them 
being middle-European and Mediterranean. A large number were 
formerly known only in the Himalayas, or in Persia, while others 
have then- origin in East Asia. The commonest are mostly European 
acquaintances. The insect fauna is truly multitudinous. Among 
the Lepidoptera of the Pamir there is an interesting mixture of 
Tian-shan with Himalayan species. G. E. Grum-Grshimailo found 
on the Pamir the butterfly Colias nastes, a species characteristic 
of Labrador and Lapland ; like the alpine plants which bear witness 
to a Glacial period flora in the Himalayas, this butterfly is a survival 
of the Glacial period fauna of the Pamir. 4 Of 50 species of molluscs 
found in Turkestan quite one half are peculiar to the region. 

Flora. As a whole the flora of Turkestan is identical with that of 
Central Asia, which was formerly continued by geo-botanists as far 
west as the steppes of Russia, but which must now be considered as 
a separate region subdivided into two the Central Asian proper 
and that of the Gobi. It has its own habitus, notwithstanding the 
number of species it has in common with Siberia and south-east 
Russia on the one hand and with the Himalayas on the other, and 
this habitus is due to the dryness of the climate and the consequent 
changes undergone by the soil. Towards the end of the Glacial 
period the Tian-shan Mountains had a flora very like that of northern 
Caucasia, combining the characteristics of the flora of the European 
Alps and the flora of the Altai, while the prairies had a flora very 
much like that of the south Russian steppes. During the Stone Age 
the human inhabitants lived in forests of maple, white beech and 
apple trees. But the gradual desiccation of the country resulted 



4 For ampler information, see N. A. Syevertsov's " Vertical and 
Horizontal Distribution of Turkestan Animals," in Itsvestia of the 
Moscow Soc. of Amateurs of Nat. Science (1873) ; A. P. Fedchenko's 
" Travels in Turkestan " (vols. xi., xix., xxi., xxiv. and xxvi. of the 
same Izvestia), forming a series of monographs by specialists which 
deal with separate divisions of the animal and vegetable kingdom 
(the flora by E. A. Regel); Oshanin's Zoo-Geographical Problems in 
Turkestan (Tashkent, 1880); G. E. Grum-Grshimailo's " Flora and 
Fauna of Pamir," in Izvestia of Russ. Geog. Soc. (1886) ; Works of the 
Aral-Caspian Expedition. 



TURKESTAN 



421 



in the immigration from the Central Asian plateau of such species 
as could adapt themselves to the dry climate and soil, in the dis- 
appearance of European and Altaic species from all the more arid 
parts of the region, in the survival of steppe species, and in the 
adaptation of many of the existing species to the needs of an arid 
and extreme climate and a saline soil. 1 The Pamir vegetation and 
that of the Aral-Caspian steppes constitute two types with numberless 
intermediate gradations. 

There is no arboreal vegetation on the Pamir, except a few willows 
and tamarisks along the rivers. Mountain and valley alike are 
carpeted with soft grass, various species of Festuca predominating. 
In the immediate vicinity of water the sedge (Carex physoides) 
grows, and sporadic patches of Allium. To these may be added a 
Few Ranunculaceae, some Myosotis, the common Taraxacum, one 
species of ChamomUla, and a few Leguminosae. In the north and 
west the Stipa of the Russian steppes supersedes Festuca and affords 
splendid pasture for the herds of the Kara-Kirghiz. In the gorges 
and on the better-watered slopes of the mountains the herbaceous 
vegetation becomes luxuriant. Besides the above-named there are 
many other Gramineae, such as Lasiagrostis splendens, the whole 
seas of Scabiosae. Eremurus, 6 to 7 ft. in height, forms thickets along 
with Scorodosma foetida. The northern slopes of the Alai chain are 
richer in trees. Up to 12,000 ft. full-grown specimens occur of the 
archa or juniper (Juniperus pseudo-Sabina) , characteristic of the 
whole northern slopes of the Turkestan highlands, the poplar, 
spruces, cedars, a very few birches (B. Sogdiana), and a copious 
undergrowth of shrubs familiar in European gardens, such as Rhodo- 
dendron chrysanthum, Sorbus aucuparia (rowan), Berberis keteropoda 
(berberry), Lonicera Tatarica (honeysuckle) and Crataegus (haw- 
thorn). Farther east and north comes the Turkestan pine (Picea 
Schrenkiana) , while at lower levels there grow willows, black and 
white poplars, tamarisk, Celtis, as well as Elaeagnus (wild olive), 
Hippopliae rhamnoides (sallow thorn), Rubusjructicosus (blackberry), 
Prunus spinosa (blackthorn) and P. Armeniaca (apricot). Thecharac- 
teristic poplar, Populus diversifolia, and the dwarf Acer Lobelii 
very different from the European maple-^-also occur. 

The above applies to most of the highlands of the Tian-shan. 
The drier southern slopes are quite devoid of arboreal vegetation. 
On the northern slopes, at the higher levels, Juniperus pseudo-Sabina 
is the only tree that grows on the mountains, and luxuriant meadow 
grasses cover the syrts. Lower down, at 7500 to 8000 ft. the coniferous 
zone begins, characterized by the Picea Schrenkiana. Of course the 
juniper and a few other deciduous trees also occur. The richest zone 
is that which comes next, extending downwards to 5000 and 4500 ft. 
There woods of birch, several species of poplar, the maple (Acer 
Semenovii), and thick underwoods spread over the mountain slopes. 
Orchards of apple and apricot surround the villages. The meadows 
are clothed with a rich vegetation numberless Paeoniae, Scabiosae, 
Convolvulaceae, Campanulae, Eremurus, Umbelliferae, Gallium, 
Rosaceae, Aliheae, Glycyrrhizae, Scorodosma foetida and Gramineae. 
But as soon as the soil loses its fertile humus it produces only 
a few Phlomis, Alhagi camelorum, Psammae, Salsolaceae, Artemisiae, 
Peganum and some poppies and Chamomillae, but only in the 
spring. The invading steppe plants appear everywhere in patches 
in the Turkestan meadows. 

The " culture " or " apricot " zone is followed by the prairie belt, 
in which black-earth plants (Stipa and the like) struggle for exis- 
tence against invading Central Asian forms. And then come the 
lowlands and deserts with their moving sandy barkhans, shprs and 
takyrs (see TRANSCASPIAN REGION). Two species of poplar (P. 
pruinosa and P. diversifolia), Elaeagnus angusttfolia, the ash, and a 
few willows grow along the rivers. Large areas are wholly destitute 
of vegetation, and after crossing 100 m. of such a desert the traveller 
will occasionally come upon a forest of saksaul (Anabasis Ammoden- 
dron). Contorted stems, sometimes of considerable thickness, very 
hard, and covered with a grey cracked bark, rise out of the sand, 
bearing green plumes with small greyish leaves and pink fruit. 
Sometimes the tree is a mere knot peeping above the sand with a 
sheaf of thin branches. In spring, however, the steppe assumes 
quite another aspect, being clothed, except where the sands are 
shifting, with an abundance of vegetation. Persian species pene- 
trate into Bokhara and the region of the upper Amu. 

Vegetable Products. As already stated the climate of Turkestan 
varies considerably from north to south. In Akmolinsk and Semir- 
yechensk most of the kinds of corn which characterize Middle Russia 
are grown. South of the Chu and the Syr-darya gardening is a 
considerable industry; and, although rye and wheat continue to 
be the chief crops, the cultivation of the apple, and especially of the 
apricot, acquired importance. Attempts are also made to cultivate 
the vine. The inhabitants of the neighbourhood of Tashkent and 
Samarkand, as well as those of the much more northern but better 
sheltered Kulja oasis, add the cultivation of the almond, pome- 
granate and fig. Vines are grown and cotton planted in those 
districts. Finally, about Khojent and in Ferghana, where the climate 
is milder still, the vine and the pistachio tree cover the hills, while 
agriculture and horticulture have reached a high degree of perfec- 



1 See Krasnov's researches in Izvestia of Russ. Geog. Soc. (1887), 
vol. xxiii. 



tion. Successful attempts are being made to grow the tea-plant 
in the Transcaspian region. Large numbers of oleaginous plants 
are cultivated, such as sunflower. 

Agriculture. The arable land, being limited to the irrigated 
terraces of loess, occupies little more than 2 % of the whole area of 
West Turkestan. The remainder is divided between pasture land 
(less than 44%) and desert (54%). Owing to a very equitable 
distribution of irrigation water in accordance with Moslem law, 
agriculture and gardening have reached a high stage of development 
in the oases. Altogether close upon 4,000,000 acres are irrigated, 
and the crops are usually taken every year. Wheat, barley, millet, 
pease, lentils, rice, sorghum, lucerne and cotton are the chief agricul- 
tural products. Carrots, melons, vegetable marrows, cucumbers 
and onions are extensively grown. Rye and oats are cultivated 
at Kazalinsk and Kopal. Corn is exported. Owing to the irri- 
gation, total failure of crops and consequent famines are unknown, 
unless among the Kirghiz shepherds. The kitchen gardens of the 
Mahommedans are, as a rule, admirably kept. Potatoes are grown 
only by the Russians. The cultivation of cotton is extending 
rapidly from 1300 acres in 1883 to 531,000 acres in 1902, of which 
402,000 acres were in Ferghana. Sericulture, a growing industry, 
is chiefly carried on in Ferghana, whence silk cocoons are an impor- 
tant item of export, the output having doubled between 1892 and 
I93 (3869 tons). Livestock breeding is extensively pursued. The 
flocks of sheep on the Kirghiz steppe are so large that the proprietors 
themselves do not know their exact numbers. 

Minerals. The mineral wealth of Turkestan is considerable. 
Traces of auriferous sands have been discovered at many places, but 
the percentage of gold is too poor to make the working remunerative. 
Silver, lead and iron ores occur in several localities; but the want of 
fuel is an obstacle to their exploitation. The vast coal-beds of Kulja 
and some inferior ones in Samarkand are not seriously worked. The 
petroleum wells of Ferghana and the beds of graphite about Zairam- 
nor are neglected. There are abundant deposits of gypsum, alum, 
kaolin, marble and similar materials. Asphalt is obtained in 
Ferghana. Notwithstanding the salt springs of Ferghana and 
Syr-darya, the salt lakes of the region, and the rock-salt strata of 
the Alexander Mountains, salt is imported. 

Industry and Trade. Turkestan has no manufacturing industry 
carried on by means of machinery, except distilleries and establish- 
ments for dressing raw cotton. These last have greatly increased 
in number; over a score are driven by steam and about a hundred by 
water. But there is a great variety of artisan work, such as copper 
and brass, paper, knives (at Bokhara), silver filigree, shoes, caps 
(at Samarkand and Andijan) and carpets; but most of these have 
been for some time declining and now stand at a rather low level. 
Trade is very actively carried on. Tashkent and Bokhara are the 
chief commercial centres, the principal articles of export to Russia, 
via Orenburg and Semipalatinsk, being raw cotton and silk, cattle 
and their products, while manufactured wares are imported in return. 
There is also an import and export trade to and from Urumchi and 
China, via Kulja and Ak-su. 

Population. Turkestan has been the theatre of so many 
migrations and conquests that its present population could not 
fail to be very mixed. Both Aryans and Mongols have their 
representatives there, the former settled for the most part, the 
latter chiefly nomad. The Ural-Altaians are numerically the 
predominant element, and consist of Turkomans, Kirghiz, 
Uzbegs and Sarts. The Turkomans inhabit chiefly the Trans- 
Caspian region. They number less than a quarter of a million. 
The Kara-Kalpaks (" Black Bonnets ") number about 104,000. 
They are supposed to be recent immigrants to Syr-darya, having 
come from the former Bulgarian Empire on the middle Volga. 
Their language and habits are the same as those of the Kirghiz; 
but for the last century and a half they have had some acquain- 
tance with agrculture. Their pacific temper exposed them to the 
raids of the Kirghiz, who compelled them first to settle in Dzun- 
garia, then to move their dwellings several times, and ultimately 
(in 1742) to recognize the sovereignty of Russia. Even since 
that time they have been driven by the persecution of their old 
enemies to cross the Aral-Caspian steppes and seek refuge near 
Astrakhan. The real masters of the steppes and highlands of 
Turkestan are the Kirghiz, of whom there are two branches the 
Kazak (Cossack) Kirghiz, who number about 3,787,000, and the 
Kara (Black) Kirghiz or Burut, who number nearly 202,000. The 
Uzbegs, who played a predominant political part in Turkestan 
before the Russian conquest, are of Turko- Tatar origin and speak 
a pure Jagatai (Turkish) dialect; but they are mixed to a great 
extent with Persians, Kirghiz and Mongols. They are sub- 
divided into clans, and lead a semi-nomadic life, preserving most 
of the attractive features of their Turkish congeners especially 
their honesty and independence. They number some 726,500 in 



422 



TURKESTAN 



all. When settled they are mostly designated Sarts a name 
which has reference more to manner of life than to anthropo- 
logical classification, although a much stronger admixture of 
Iranian blood is evident in the Sarts, who also speak Persian at 
Khojent and Samarkand. Their numbers amount to very nearly 
1,000,000. Taranchi or Taranji (" labourer " in Chinese) is the 
name given to those Sarts who were settled in the Kulja region by 
the Chinese government after the rising of 1758. They constitute 
about two-fifths of the population of Kulja. The origin of the 
Dzungans is somewhat problematical. They number nearly 
20,000, and inhabit the valley of the Ili in Kulja and partly are 
settled in Russian Turkestan. They are Mahommedans, but 
have adopted Chinese manners of life. The Mongol branch is 
represented in Turkestan by Kalmucks (191,000) and Torgutes 
(Torgod) in the north-east and in Kulja, where they are inter- 
mingled with Solons, Sibos and Chinese. The Aryan Tajik, the 
aborigines of the fertile parts of Turkestan, were subdued by the 
Turko-Mongol invaders and partly compelled to emigrate to the 
mountains, where they are now known as Galchas. They number 
over 350,000 and constitute the intellectual element of the 
country and are the principal owners of the irrigated land the 
Uzbegs being their labourers merchants, and mollahs or priests. 
They are Sunnite Mussulmans. Tke other representatives of 
Aryan race in Turkestan are a few (8000) Persians, mostly 
liberated slaves; Indians (300), who carry on trade and usury 
in the cities; a few Gipsies (800), and the Russians. Among 
these last two distinct elements must be noticed the Cossacks, 
who are settled on the borders of the Kirghiz steppe and have 
assumed many Kirghiz habits, and the peasant-settlers, who 
are beginning to colonize the valley of the Ili and to spread 
farther south. Inclusive of the military, the Russians number 
about 100,000. The total population numbers approximately 
9,000,000. 

Notwithstanding immigration, the Russians still constitute 
a very small proportion of the population, except in the pro- 
vince of Semiryechensk, where the Cossacks, the peasants, and 
the artisans in towns number 130,000, and, with the Russian 
troops, constitute 14% of the aggregate population. The 
only other province containing any considerable number of 
Russians is Syr-darya, where there are about 10,000 settlers 
(less than i% of the population). About 12,000 Russians 
are settled in Bokhara and about 4000 in Khiva. The 
total estimated population of Russian Turkestan in 1906 was 
5,746,600. 

There are several populous cities in Russian Turkestan. Its 
capital, Tashkent, in the Syr-darya province, had 156,414 
inhabitants in 1897, and other cities of importance are Samar- 
kand (58,194), Marghilan (42,855 in Old Marghilan, and 8977 in 
New Marghilan) in Ferghana, Khojent (31,881) in Syr-darya, 
Khokand (86,704), Namangan (61,388) and Andijan (49,682) in 
Ferghana. 

Education. In the way of education nearly everything has still 
to be done ; but a technical school and an experimental agricultural 
station with a school have been opened at Tashkent. 

Railways. Turkestan possesses only two railway systems; the 
Transcaspian line and the Orenburg-Tashkent line. The former, 
built in 1880-1888, starts at Krasnovodsk on the Caspian and runs 
east-south-east between the Kara-kum desert and the Kopet-dagh 
Mountains until it reaches the oasis of Teien. Then it turns north- 
east via Merv to Bokhara and Samarkand, the total distance being 
940 m. From Samarkand it is continued east-north-east via Khojent 
to Andijan (330 m.), sending off on the way a branch to Tashkent 
(94 m.). This last city was in 1905 connected by rail via Perovsk, 
Kazalinsk, and Irgiz with Orenburg (1149 m.). 

General Condition. Populous cities adorned with fine monuments 
of Arabian architecture, numerous ruins of cities decayed, grand 
irrigation canals now lying dry, and written monuments of Arabian 
literature testify to a time when civilization in Turkestan stood at a 
much higher level than at present. This period was during the first 
centuries after its conversion to Islam. Now all is in decay. The 
beautiful mosques and madrasas (theological colleges) are dilapidated ; 
no astronomers study the sky from the tops of their minarets ; and 
the scholars of the madrasas waste their time on the most deplorably 
puerile scholasticism. The inspiration of early belief has disappeared ; 
the ruling motive of the mollahs (priests) is the thirst for personal 
enrichment, and the people no longer follow the khojas or theologians. 



The agricultural labourer has preserved the uprightness, diligence 
and sobriety which characterize the Turkish peasant ; but the richer 
inhabitants of the cities are grossly sensual. 

It remains, however, an open question whether the Russians will 
be able to bring new vigour to the country and awaken intellectual 
life. The followers of Islam, whose common law and religion know 
only of a temporary possession of the land, which belongs wholly 
to the Prophet, cannot accept the 'principles of unlimited property 
in land which European civilization has borrowed from Roman law ; 
to do so would put an end to all public irrigation works and to the 
system by which water is used according to each family's needs, 
and so would be fatal to agriculture. The Russians have abolished 
slavery ; and their rule has put an end to the interminable intestine 
struggles which had weakened and desolated the whole region. The 
barbarous tortures and executions which rendered Khiva notorious 
in the East are no longer heard of ; and the continual appeals of the 
khojas for " holy " war against their rivals find no response. But 
the Russian rule has imposed many new taxes, in return for which 
Turkestan only gets troops of Russian merchants and officials, who 
too often accept the worst features of the depraved Mussulman 
civilization of the higher classes of the country. Schools are being 
diligently built; but the wants of the natives are subordinated to 
the supposed necessities of Russification. A consulting hospital 
for Mahommedan women has been opened by women graduates in 
medicine at Tashkent. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. I. V. Mushketov's Geological and Orographical 
Description of Turkestan (in Russian, St Petersburg, 1866) is still 
a standard authority. But consult also A. M. B. Meakin, Turkestan 
(London, 1903) ; F. von Schwarz, Turkestan (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 
1900) ; H. Krafft, A travers le Turkestane russe (Paris, 1902) ; H. 
Lansdell, Russian Central Asia (London, 1885); E. Huntingdon, 
" The Mountains of Turkestan, "in Geog.Journ. (1905) ;G. F.Wright, 
Asiatic Russia (New York, 1903) ; N. A. Syevertsov, " Vertical and 
Horizontal Distribution of Mammalia in Turkestan," in Izvestia 
Lub. Est. of Moscow (1873); L. F. Kostenko, Turkestanskiy Krai 
(3 vols., 1880) ; O. Fedchenko, Album of Views of Russian Turkestan 
(1885); Navilkin's History of the Khanate of Kokand (in Russian, 
Kazan, 1885); A. Vambery's Life and Adventures (London, 1883), 
Travels and Adventures in Central Asia (London, 1864); Sketches 
of Central Asia (London, 1867); and History of Bokhara (London, 
!873); F. H. Skrine and E. D. Ross, The Heart of Asia (London, 
1899), relating the history of the region; Heinz von Ficker, " Zur 
Meteorolpgie von West-Turkestan," Denksch. a. mathemat. -naturw. 
Kl. d. kaiserl. Akademie d. Wissenschaft, Ixxxi. (Vienna, 1907). 

II. EAST TURKESTAN 

East or Chinese Turkestan, sometimes called Kashgaria, is a 
region in the heart of Asia, lying between the Tian-shan ranges on 
the north and the Kuen-lun ranges on the scuth, and stretching 
east from the Pamirs to the desert of Gobi and the Chinese 
province of Kan-su (98 E.). The country belongs to China, and 
to the Chinese is known as Sin-kiang; but administratively the 
Chinese province of Sin-kiang crosses over the Tian-shan and 
includes the valleys of Kulja or Ili and Dzungaria on the north. 

Physical Geography. Along with the desert of Gobi East Tur- 
kestan occupies the lower terrace of the great central Asian plateau, 
which projects from the Himalayas north-east towards the Bering 
Straits. But though it is in reality an elevated plateau, with 
a general altitude of 4600 down to 2675 ft., it is nevertheless 
a depression when compared with the girdle of mountains which 
surround it on every side except the east, and even on that side 
it is shut in by the crumbling remains of a once mighty moun- 
tain system, the Pe-shan (see GOBI). The region as a whole 
slopes very gently towards the Lop district, where the lake, or 
rather marsh, of Kara-koshun, in 39 51' N. and 89" 24' E., lies 
at an altitude of 2675 ft. This is not, however, the absolutely 
lowest point in East Turkestan: that is found in the local depres- 
sion of Turfan-Lukchun, south-east of Urumchi, between the Chol- 
tagh and the Bogdo-ola ranges of the Tian-shan. The deepest 
part of that depression lies 56-426 ft. below the level of the 
sea; but this remarkable pit in the surface is of very limited area, 
for within less than 30 m. to the north the level rises up to 250 ft. 
(at the town of Turfan) and to 3500 ft. in the Chol-tagh only 
12 m. to the south, while at Pichang, 60 m. east, it is 3400 ft. 
above the sea, and immediately behind Turfan the Jargoz 
Mountains run up to an altitude of 10,000 ft. There are also 
two other depressions which lie at a lower altitude than the 
Kara-koshun, but they lie, one (Kulja or Ili) among the Tian- 
shan ranges and the other (Dzungaria) beyond them. The town 
of Kulja, which stands about the middle of the Chinese part of 
the valley of the Ili river, has an altitude of 2165 ft., but the valley of 
Dzungaria ranges at 900 to 3000 ft., and in the lakes (e.g. Ebi-nor) 
which dot its surface it descends to 820 ft. The mountain ranges 
which shut off East Turkestan from the rest of the world rank 
among the loftiest and most difficult in Asia, and indeed in the world. 
The Kuen-lun on the south rise steeply from the flat deserts of the 
Takla-makan and Kum-tagh by successive terraces until they reach 



TURKESTAN 



423 



an elevation of 19,000 to 20,000 ft. on the summit of the Tibetan 
plateau. The passes in them range generally at altitudes of 10,000 ft. 
to 1 8,300 ft. (e.g. Kyzyl-da van, 16,900 ft.; Sughet-davan, 17,825 ft.; 
a pass in the Arka-tagh 18,300 ft.). On the west East Turkestan 
is generally approached from India by the famous pass of Karakorum 
(18,300 ft.), from Ferghana and West (Russian) Turkestan by the 
passes of Kyzyl-art (14,015 ft.) and Terek (12,730 ft.), and 'the 
mountains on this side attain to altitudes of 25,780 ft. in the Muz- 
tagh-ata or Tagarma, of 23,000 ft. in the Kaufmann Peak, in the 
Trans-Alai range, and of 19,680 ft. in the Alai range. The Tian-shan 
Mountains skirt East Turkestan on the north-east, where the Kok- 
shal-tau range rises to 16,000 to 18,000 ft. and is crossed by passes 
(e.g. Bedel and Jan-art) which reach 13,000 to 14,500 ft., and on the 
north, where the mountain knot of Khan-tengri has an altitude 
of 22,800 ft. and the Bogdo-ola and Karlyk ranges run up to 15,000 
to 18,000 ft., while the passes (e.g. Muz-arton the north-east shoulder 
of Khan-tengri) climb up to 8000 to 12,000 ft. But here two 
natural gaps or gateways, those of Urumchi at 2790 ft. and 
Otun-koza at 2390 ft., facilitate communication between the basins 
of the Tarim and the Hi (Dzungaria). The Pe-shan swelling, with 
its flanking ranges of the Chol-tagh and Kuruk-tagh, which, by 
gradually approaching the Nan-shan section of the Kuen-lun in 
about 98 E., narrow the desert, are a good deal lower, namely 
5000 to 9000 ft. 

Within this mountain girdle lies the basin of the Tarim, extending 
over an area of 354,000 sq. m., but of this 51-2% consists of arid 
and almost impassable deserts, namely the Takla-makan (q.v.), the 
desert of Lop, the Ghashiun Gobi, and the desert of Kum-tagh, 
which are described under GOBI. The principal stream is, of course, 
the Tarim, about 1000 m. in length. It is virtually composed of 
the Yarkand-darya, the Kashgar-darya, and the Ak : su-darya, 
with constant augmentation from the Koncheh-darya, which drains 
Lake Bagrash-kul (at the south foot of the eastern Tian-shan), and 
intermittent augmentation from the Khotan-darya and the Cherchen- 
darya from the south. The basin of the Tarim contains, indeed, 
numerous other streams, most of them summer torrents seaming 
the flanks of the encircling mountains, but once no doubt affluents 
of the Tarim, though now all swallowed up in the desert soon after 
quitting the shelter of the mountains. The Tarim, which is on the 
whole a sluggish, shallow, winding stream, fringes the great desert 
of Takla-makan on the west, north and east, and, after being exten- 
sively drawn upon for irrigation purposes in the oases (Yurkand, 
Kashgar, Maral-bashi, Ak-su), through which it passes, it eventually 
dies away in the salt reed-grown lake or marsh of Lop-nor (Kara- 
koshun). Along the south foot of the Tian-shan, and in the high 
valleys which intervene between the constituent ranges of that 
system, there exist numerous flourishing oases, such as Uch-turfan, 
Ak-su, Kucha, Korla, Kara-shahr, Kami, Barkul, Turfan, Urumchi, 
Manas and Kulja. A similar string of oases exist all along the 
north foot of the Kuen-lun, e.g. Kargalik, Khotan, Keriya, Niya, 
Cherchen, Charkhlik, Sa-chou, and An-hsi-chou, but these settle- 
ments, some of them of very great antiquity, have to maintain a 
constant fight against the encroachments of the desert sand. In 
broad, general terms the Takla-makan may be described as a tumbled 
sea of sand, with waves (barkhans or sand-accumulations) as much 
as 300 ft. in height, diversified by occasional patches of hard clay, 
mostly elongated from north-east to south-west, between the ridges of 
the dunes. In the deserts that lie east of the Lop-nor the sand is not 
piled up to such great heights, nor is it generally of such a shifting 
character. There are ampler expanses of hard saliferous clay (shor) 
and on the north side of the desert of Lop the surface has been 
carved and sculptured by the wind into innumerable flat, table- 
topped masses (jardangs) with vertical or even overhanging sides, 
separated from one another by deep-cut, wind-swept gullies, running 
from north-east to south-west. During the later Tertiary period all 
these desert regions would appear to have been covered by an Asian 
Mediterranean or, at all events, by vast fresh-water lakes, a conclusion 
which seems to be well warranted by the existence of salt-stained 
depressions of a lacustrine character; by traces of former lacustrine 
shore-lines, more or less parallel and concentric ; by discoveries of vast 
quantities of fresh-water mollusc shells (e.g. Limnaea and Planorbis) ; 
the existence of belts of dead poplars, patches of dead and moribund 
tamarisks, and vast expanses of withered reeds, all these crowning 
the tops of the jardangs, never found in the wind-scooped furrows; 
the presence of ripple-marks of aqueous origin on the leeward side 
of the clay terraces and in other wind-sheltered situations; and, 
in fact, by the general conformation, contour lines, and shapes of 
the deserts as a whole. From the statements of older travellers, 
like the Venetian Marco Polo (i3th century) and the Chinese pilgrim 
Hsiian Tsang (7th century), as well as from other data, it is 
perfectly evident, not only that this country is suffering from a pro- 
gressive desiccation, but that the sands have actually swallowed 
up cultivated areas within the historical period. 

Climate. The climate is characterized by great extremes and a 
wide range of temperature, not only between summer and winter, 
but sometimes also in the course of twenty-four hours. In the 
desert of Gobi the thermometer descends as low as 19-3 F. in 
January, and in the desert of Cherchen as low as 26 in the same 
month, and snow falls in winter even in the heart of the latter desert. 
At Yanghi-kol (40 52' N. and 86 51' E.), beside the lower Tarim, 



the January mean is -1-3 F., the June mean 88, and the lowest 
minimum recorded -14 (February). In both the desert of Gobi 
and in the desert of Lop a diurnal range of 44 has been observed. 
The lower Tarim begins to freeze early in November. As regards 
the summer temperature, as early as the I2th of March a reading of 
70-5 has been obtained in the desert of Lop, and as high as 90 at 
Charkhlik early in May. In June beside the lower Tarim the ther- 
mometer has registered 104 before a buran, 77 during its continu- 
ance, and 48-7at night. At Kashgar (alt. 4275 ft.) the mean 
temperature for the year is 55-4, the January mean 21-2, and the 
July mean 81-5; at Yarkand (alt. 4165 ft.) the annual mean is 54-0, 
the January mean 20-3, and the July mean 81-4. In the Lukchun 
depression (55 ft. below sea-level), which is situated at approxi- 
mately the centre of the Asiatic continent (42 42' N.and 8942'E.), 
the climate is fairly typical of Central Asia, the mean for the year 
being 55'5. for January 16-7 and for July 89-6; in other words, 
while the summer is as hot as in the Sahara, the winter is as cold as 
at St Petersburg. Minimal observations of 4-0 and -4-5 have 
been taken at Yarkand and Lukchun respectively, and maximal 
observations of 103-2 and 109-5 at the same two places. The 
atmosphere in the desert regions is remarkably dry, and though a 
little rain falls occasionally on the lower slopes of the mountains, 
scarcely any falls in the desert, at the most a smart shower at 
intervals of several years. At Kashgar the annual rainfall amounts 
to less than 18 in. During a large part of the year, and more 
especially in spring, the atmosphere is heavily charged with sand, 
and blinding sandstorms (burans) are of frequent occurrence. 

Fauna. In the more arid regions animal life is naturally not 
abundant. The tiger and wild boar haunt the thickets beside the 
Tarim, wild duck and wild geese throng its waters, and more 
especially the waters of ks marginal and deltaic lakes. There also 
the wild swan is found. Antelopes, hares and occasionally the lynx, 
fox, deer, rats, vultures, crows, ravens, hawks, with lizards are other 
denizens of the borders of the deserts. The wild camel frequents 
the scattered oases along the margins of the desert and roams into 
the desert itself. Gadflies and mosquitoes are a veritable plague 
around the lakes of the lowlands in the hot weather In the higher 
mountainous parts animal life is more abundant, the typical forms 
being the wild yak, the kulan or wild ass, the arkhari or wild 
sheep, the orongo and other antelopes, the marmot, wolf, hare 
partridge and bear. Fish are plentiful in the lower Tarim and 
in its lakes. 

Vegetable Products. In the desert regions vegetation is, of course, 
extremely scanty, being restricted almost entirely to the tamarisk, 
Elaeagnus, tussock grass, and a few Salsolaceae. Poplars a.nd in 
some places willows grow along the river-sides, and dense reed 
brakes, of ten 6 to 10 ft. high, fill the lakes and dot the quieter reaches 
of the river beds. But as the slopes of the mountains are ascended 
the rainfall becomes more copious and grass makes its appearance, 
together with a few species of arboreal vegetation, such as the 
juniper. What cultivation there is, is confined to the oases which 
nestle at the foot of the mountains all round the Tarim basin. The 
soil in them is of great fertility wherever it is irrigated, and despite 
the supineness of the Chinese authorities, irrigation is very exten- 
sively practised in nearly all the oases. Excellent crops of wheat, 
barley, maize, sesame, millet, cotton, opium, tobacco and rice are 
grown, and several of the oases, e.g. Khotan, Kashgar, Korla, 
Turfan and Hami.are famous for their orchards, in which cucumbers, 
the mulberry, apple, pear, apricot, peach, melon, grape, pome- 
granate and walnut ripen to perfection. 

Population. The people who inhabit the plains and mountain 
slopes of East Turkestan consist partly of Aryans and partly 
of races of Ural-Altaic stock, and are partly of mixed blood. In 
Dzungaria they are Dzungans or Dungans, a Turko-Tatar tribe 
who nominally profess Mahommedanism, and in Kulja they are 
Kirghiz, Tatars, Mongols, Dungans and others. The agricultural 
population of the oases are principally of Turkish stock, power- 
fully influenced by Aryan blood. The townsmen are more dis- 
tinctly Turkish, i.e. Sarts and Uzbegs. The language universally 
spoken is Jagatai Turkish. Kirghiz graze the slopes of the Tian- 
shan. The trade is mostly in the hands of the Chinese, natives of 
West Turkestan (known as Andijanis from the town of Andijan) 
and Hindus. The total population, excluding Kulja and 
Dzungaria, is estimated by A. N. Kuropatkin at 1,200,000, by 
M. V. Pyevtsov at 2,000,000, and by Sven Hedin at 1,800,000 to 
2,000,000. The last named distributes it thus 1,500,000 rural, 
200,000 urban, and 100,000 shepherds. The principal towns and 
their populations are Yarkand, 100,000; Khotan, 40,000; Kash- 
gar, 33,000; Ak-su, 15,000; Keriya, 12,000; and Kulja, 20,000. 
The population of Dzungaria is estimated at 600,000 and of Kulja 
at 150,000. The prevailing religion all over East Turkestan is 
Mahommedanism. The country belongs politically to China, 
and Chinese fill all the higher administrative positions and form 



424 



TURKESTAN 



the garrisons in the towns. The region is divided into the adminis- 
trative districts of Kashgar, Yarkand, Ak-su and Urumchi. The 
capital is the town of Urumchi. 

Industries. In addition to agriculture, the breeding of livestock, 
more especially sheep, camels, horses and asses, fishing in the waters 
of the lower Tarim, and the transportation of merchandise are all 
important means of livelihood. East Turkestan contains several 
minerals, such as gold, mined to a very small extent in the Kuen-lun 
Mountains; lead found in the country west of Kashgar and once 
worked in the Kuruk-tagh, and copper and petroleum near Kashgar; 
coal exists in abundance in the Kulja valley and is found at Ak-su, 
Korla, Kara-shahr, Turfan and Hami on the northern verge of the 
deserts. Salt is obtained from stagnant lakes and from certain parts 
of the desert. Jade, which is very highly valued by the Chinese 
for making into ornaments, vases, cups, &c., has been extracted from 
time immemorial, and is still extracted to-day at Khotan. In a 
region like East Turkestan, where the settlements are so scattered 
and the population so thin, the arts and crafts are prosecuted 
necessarily on only a local scale. Nevertheless certain of the oases 
are famous individually for one or more handicrafts: for instance, 
Khotan for its silks, white carpets and felt goods; Kashgar and 
Turfan for cottons, Kucha and Kara-shahr for leather and saddlery, 
Ak-su for felts and leather and metal goods, Yarkand for silks, 
carpets and felts, and Urumchi and Uch-Turfan for sulphur. 

Trade and Communications. A considerable amount of trade is 
done in the export of wool, hides, cotton, carpets, silks, felts, cereals 
(wheat, barley, maize, rice), sheep, fruit and vegetables, and in tea, 
silver, porcelain and opium imported from China, cloth and groceries 
from India, and cloth, cottons, silks, sugar, matches and leather 
from West Turkestan and Russia. The entire trade with India does 
not exceed 200,000 per annum. Traffic is carried on principally by 
means of caravans of camels, horses, asses and oxen. The caravan 
routes mostly followed between China and the more populous 
centres (Kashgar and Yarkand) of East Turkestan start from 
An-si-chow and Sa-chow respectively, converge upon Hami on the 
north side of the Pe-shan swelling, and continue westward along 
the south foot of the Tian-shan Mountains through the oases of 
Turfan, Kara-shahr, Korla, Kucha, Ak-su and Uch-turfan. From 
Hami other routes proceed to Barkul and to the main caravan road 
which skirts the southern edge of the Dzungarian valley and leads 
to Vyernyi in the Russian province of Semiryechensk. A similar 
branch route strikes off at Turfan and cuts through the Tian-shan 
ranges at Urumchi. Ak-su is an important trading town. From it 
three routes start for West Turkestan; the one principally used 
climbs over the Bedel pass (13,000 ft.) in the Kokshal-tau and makes 
a detour round the east and along the north side of the Issyk-kul, 
while the others cross over the Muz-art pass (12,000 ft.), on the north- 
east shoulder of Khan-tengri, and the Terek pass (12,730 ft.) respec- 
tively, the latter into Ferghana. Kashgar has connexion with 
Ferghana and Bokhara over the Kyzyl-art pass (14,01 5 ft.) and down 
the Alai valley. Yarkand and Khotan communicate with India 
over the lofty pass of Karakorum (18,300 ft.) and through Leh in 
Ladak, and thence over the difficult pass of Zoji-la (11,500 ft.). 
There is another route between Kashgar and China along the 
southern edge of the desert via Lop-nor, but it is not much used. A 
telegraph line was constructed between Lanchow in the Chinese 
province of Kan-su and Turfan in 1893. 

History. It appears very probable that at the dawn of history 
East Turkestan was inhabited by an Aryan population, the 
ancestors of the present Slav and Teutonic races, and that a 
civilization not inferior to that of Bactria had already developed 
at that time in the region of the Tarim. 1 Our knowledge, how- 
ever, of the history of the region is very fragmentary until about 
the beginning of the Christian era. When the Huns (Hiung-nu) 
occupied west and east Mongolia in 177-165 B.C., they drove 
before them the Yue-chi (Yutes, Yetes or Ghetes), who divided 
into two hordes, one of which invaded the valley of the Indus, 
while the other met the Sacae in East Turkestan and drove them 
over the Tian-shan into the valley of the Ili. Thus by the beginning 

1 Such is the conclusion reached by C. Lassen, Indische Alter- 
thumskunde (4 vols., Bonn, 1844-1861), and supported by M. 
Grigoriev (Ritter's Asien in Russ. trans.; addenda to "East 
Turkestan"). In connexion with the objection based upon the 
sub-boreal character of the regions which were the cradle of the 
Aryans, as proved by the so-called palaeontology of the Aryan 
languages, it may be observed that by the end of the Glacial, and 
during the earlier Lacustrine (Post-Glacial) period, the vegetation 
of Turkestan and of Central Asia was quite different from what it 
is now. It was Siberian or north European. The researches by 
M. Krasnov (in Izuestia of Russ. Geog. Soc., St Petersburg, 1887, 
vol. xxiii.) as to the characteristics of the former flora of the Tian- 
shan, and the changes it has undergone in consequence of the 
extremely rapid desiccation of Central Asia, must be carefully 
borne in mind in all speculations founded upon the testimony of 
language as to the original home of the Aryans. 



of our era the Tarim region had a mixed population of Aryans 
and Ural-Altaians, some being settled agriculturists and others 
nomads. There were also several independent cities, of which 
Khotan was the most important. One portion of the Aryans 
emigrated and settled in what is now Wakhhan (on the Pamir 
plateau), the present language of which seems very old, dating 
anterior to the separation of the Vedic and Zend languages. 
Between 120 and 101 B.C. the Chinese extended their rule west- 
wards over East Turkestan as far as Kashgar. But their 
dominion seems to have been merely nominal, for it was soon 
shaken off. By the end of the 5th century the western parts fell 
under the sway of the " White Huns " (Ephthalites, or Tochari), 
while the eastern parts were under Tangut (Thygun) dominion. 
The Chinese, however, still retained the region about Lop-Nor. 
Buddhism penetrated into the country at an early date, and 
possessed famous monasteries there in the sth and 7th centuries. 
There were also at the same time followers of Zoroastrianism, of 
Nestorian Christianity, and even of Manichaeism. An active 
trade was carried on by means of caravans, corn and silk especially 
being mentioned at a very early date. The civilization and 
political organization of the country were dominated by the 
Chinese, but were also influenced to some extent by Graeco- 
Bactrian civilization, which had probably secured a footing in the 
country as early as the 3rd century B.C. Our information as to 
the history of this region from the 2nd century to the first half of 
the 7th is slight, and is derived chiefly from the Journeys of the 
Chinese pilgrims, Fa-hien in 399-415, Song-yun and Hwei-seng in 
518-521, and Hsiian-Tsang in 629-645. By this time Buddhism 
had reached its culminating point: in Khotan there were 100 
monasteries and 5000 monks, and the Indian sacred literature 
was widely diffused. But already there were tokens of its decay; 
even then the eastern parts of the Tarim basin seem to have been 
growing less and less populous. To the east of Khotan, cities 
which were prosperous when visited by Song-yun had a century 
later fallen into ruins. 

Little is known about these regions during the 7th, Sth and 
9th centuries. In the 7th century the Tibetan king, Srong-btsan, 
with the help of the western Turks, subjugated the western part 
of the Tarim basin. During the following century the Mahom- 
medans under Kotaiba ibn Moslim, after several excursions 
into West Turkestan, invaded (712-13) East Turkestan, pene- 
trating as far as Turfan and even China. The Chinese supremacy 
was not shaken by these invasions. But, on the outbreak of 
internal disturbances in China, the Tibetans took possession of 
the western provinces of China, and intercepted the communica- 
tions of the Chinese with Kashgaria, so that they had to send their 
troops through the lands of the Hui-khe (Hoei-ke, or Hoei-hu). 
In 790 the Tibetans were masters of East Turkestan; but their 
rule was never strong, and towards the gth century we find the 
country under the Hoi-he. Who these people were is somewhat 
uncertain. According to Chinese documents they came from the 
Selenga; but most Orientalists identify them with the Uighurs. 
In the opinion of M. Grigoriev, 2 the Turks who succeeded the 
Chinese in the western parts of East Turkestan were the Karlyk 
Turks, who extended farther south-west up to Kashmir, while 
the north-eastern parts of the Tarim region were subdued by the 
Uighurs. Soon Mongol hordes, the Kara-Kitais, entered East 
Turkestan (nth century), and then penetrated into West 
Turkestan. During the following century the Mongol conqueror 
Jenghiz Khan overran China, and Turkestan and Kashgaria fell 
under his rule in 1220, though not without strenuous resistance 
followed by massacres. The Mongol rule was, however, not very 
heavy, the Mongols merely exacting tribute. In fact, Kashgaria 
flourished under them, and the fanaticism of Islam was consider- 
ably abated. Women again acquired greater independence, and the 
religious toleration then established permitted Christianity and 
Buddhism to spread freely. This state of affairs lasted until the 
1 4th century, when Tughlak Timur, who extended his dominions 
to the Kuen-lun, accepted Islam. He transferred his capital 
from Ak-su to Kashgar, and had a summer residence on the banks 

2 See Ritter's Asien: " East Turkestan " (Russ. trans.), ii. 282; 
also A. N. Kuropatkin's Kashgaria (1883). 



TURKESTAN 



425 



of the lake Issyk-kul. His son reigned at Samarkand, but was 
overthrown by Timur (Tamerlane), the Mongol sovereign of 
Samarkand, who, to put an end to the attacks of the wild Tian- 
shan tribes, undertook in 1389 his renowned march to Dzungaria, 
which was devastated, East Turkestan also suffering severely. 

The reintroduction of Islam was of no benefit to the Tarim 
region. In the i4th and isth centuries Bokhara and Samarkand 
became centres of Moslem scholarship, and sent great numbers 
of their learned doctors to Kashgaria. Rubruquis, who visited 
East Turkestan in 1254, Marco Polo between 1271 and 1275, and 
Hois in 1680, all bore witness to great religious tolerance; but this 
entirely disappeared with the invasion of the Bokharian mullahs 
or Mahommedan priests. They created in Ease Turkestan the 
power of the khojas, or " theologians," who afterwards fomented 
the many intestine wars that were waged between the rival 
factions of the White and the Black Mountaineers. In the 1 7th 
century a powerful Kalmuck confederation arose in Dzungaria, 
and extended its sway over the Ili and Issyk-kul basins, having 
its capital on the Ili. To this power or to the Kirghiz the 
" Whites " and " Blacks " alternately appealed in their struggles, 
in which Yarkand supported the latter and Kashgar the former. 
These struggles paved the way for a Chinese invasion, which was 
supported by the White khojas of Kashgar. The Chinese entered 
Dzungaria in 1758, and there perpetrated an appalling massacre, 
the victims being estimated at one million. The Kalmucks fled, 
and Dzungaria became a Chinese province, with a military 
colonization of Sibos, Solons, Dahurs, Chinese criminals and 
Moslem Dzungars. The Chinese next re-conquered East Turkes- 
tan, marking their progress by massacres and transporting 12,500 
partisans of independence to the Ili (Kulja) valley. Hereupon 
the dissentient khojas fled to Khokand in West Turkestan, and 
there gathered armies of malcontents and fanatic followers of 
Islam. Several times they succeeded in overthrowing the Chinese 
rule in 1825, in 1830 and in 1847 but their successes were 
never permanent. After the " rebellion of the seven khojas " in 
1847 nearly 20,000 families from Kashgar, Yarkand and Ak-su 
fled to West Turkestan through the Terek-davan pass, many of 
them perishing on the way. In 1857 another insurrection broke 
out; but a few months later the Chinese again took Kashgar. In 
the course of the Dzungarian outbreak of 1864 the Chinese were 
again expelled; and Yakub Beg became master of Kashgar in 
1872. But five years later he had again to sustain war with 
China, in which he was defeated, and East Turkestan once more 
became a Chinese province. 

Antiquities. In 1896 Dr Sven Hedin discovered in .the desert 
not far from the town of Khotan, in a locality known as Borasan, 
objects in terra-cotta, bronze images of Buddha, engraved gems, 
coins and MSS.; the objects, which display artistic skill, give indi- 
cations of having been wrought by craftsmen who laboured to re- 
produce Graeco-Indian ideals in the service of the cult of Buddha, 
and consequently date presumably from the 3rd century B.C., 
when the successors of Alexander the Great were founding their 
kingdoms in Persia, Khwarezm (Khiva), Merv, Bactria (Afghan- 
istan) and northern India, and from that date to the 4th or 5th 
century A.D. At the same time the same explorer excavated 
part of the ruins of the ancient city of Takla-makan (near the 
Keriya-darya), which had been overwhelmed by the moving 
sands of the desert. There he found mural paintings, some of 
which represented local lake or river scenes, carved woodwork, 
fragments of pottery, gypsum images of Buddha, and traces of 
gardens. These discoveries were followed by others made by Dr 
M. Aurel Stein in the same part of East Turkestan, though at 
other localities, namely, at Yotkan, the ancient capital of the 
kingdom of Khotan, and at Dandan-uiliq, Endere, Karadong, 
Rawak and other places, all lying east and north-east of the 
town of Khotan. His " finds" consisted of pottery, images, 
statues, coins, seals, frescoes, MSS. written in Sanskrit, 
Brahmi and Chinese characters, wooden tablets in the 
Kharoshti script, furniture and various cereals. These 
things appear to date from the very beginning of the 
Christian era, and continue down to the end of the 8th 
century. Again, in another part of the country, namely, 



in the heart of the desert of Lop, in approximately 40 40' N. 
and 90 E., Dr Sven Hedin was fortunate enough to discover 
early in 1901 the ruins of the ancient city of Lou-Ian or 
Shanshan, which was destroyed, apparently by a desert storm 
or by an inundation, or perhaps by both, towards the end of 
the 3rd century A.D. Among the objects found on this site 
were documents testifying to the name of the locality and 
furnishing materials for fixing the date. 

A little before the date of these last discoveries, others of a 
somewhat similar nature were made by D. A. Klements in the 
Lukchun depression already mentioned. Here in 1898 the 
explorer discovered the ruins of ancient monasteries, dating from 
the beginning of the Christian era down to the I3th and i6th 
centuries. Among these ruins Klements found several very 
interesting MSS., some of them written in the language of 
the Uighurs, an ancient Turkish race, and others in tongues 
unknown. Finally, in 1904, Dr von Le Coq, when excavating 
the sand-buried ruins of Kara-khoja, between Turf an and 
Lukchun, discovered extremely valuable MSS., some written on 
Chinese paper, some on white leather, and some on wood, 
besides Buddhistic wall-paintings. The MSS. are written in 
ten different alphabets, and of the languages employed two are 
entirely unknown. The excavators also brought to light 
a vast number of human corpses in the garb of Buddhist 
monks. Other finds were subsequently made by the same 
explorer, in conjunction with Professor A. Griinwedel, at 
Kucha and Korla, two other oases at the south foot of the 
Tian-shan Mountains. 

In 1906-1908 Dr Stein made a second and more important 
journey, principally for the purpose of antiquarian research, 
though he also carried out important geographical investigations, 
with the assistance of a native surveyor, in the Eastern Pamirs 
(about Mustagh-ata), in the Nissa valley south of Khotan, and 
elsewhere. His archaeological investigations were carried on 
chiefly in the following localities: (i.) at and about Tashkurghan. 
(ii.) North-east of Khotan, where a large Buddhist temple, with 
relievos derived from Graeco-Buddhist models, were investigated 
and numerous MSS. and wooden tablets were discovered, in- 
scribed in Sanskrit, Chinese, Tibetan and the Brahmi script of 
Khotan, the arid conditions, here as elsewhere, having caused 
these and other perishable objects to remain remarkably well 
preserved. (iii.)At Niya, east of Kenya, where many Kharoshti 
documents on wood were [recovered, sometimes retaining their 
clay seals of Greek type and wooden covers as envelopes, together 
with implements, furniture, &c. (iv.)At Miran, near the western 
extremity of Lop-nor, where Buddhist shrines with frescoes, &c., 
were investigated, (v.) At Lop-nor itself, where Chinese and 
Kharoshti records on paper, wood and silk were recovered, and 
flint implements and other evidences of prehistoric occupation 
were discovered, (vi.) At and about the oasis of Tung-hwang, 
east of Lop-nor. Here the explorer traced a Chinese wall with 
watch-towers, guard-stations, &c., for a considerable distance, 
and made an important archaeological collection. Evidence of 
settlement back to the close of the 2nd century A.D. was obtained, 
and also of commercial traffic from the distant west in the shape 
of records in Indian, Kharoshti and Brahmi scripts and an un- 
known script resembling Aramaic. The sacred grottoes known as 
the Halls of the Thousand Buddhas, south-east of Tung-hwang, 
were visited, with their frescoes and cave temples, and a large 
number of documents and examples of early Chinese art were 
recovered. Dr Stein also investigated sites in the neighbourhood 
of Kara-shahr and others to the north-east of the great desert. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The best and the most exhaustive accounts of 
East Turkestan are contained in Sven Hedin's Scientific Results of 
a Journey in Central Asia, i8QQ-iQ(> 2 (vols. i.-ii., Stockholm, 1905- 
1906), Through Asia (2 vols., London, 1898), and Central Asia and 
Tibet (2 vols., London, 1903). See also H. H. P. Deasy, In Tibet 
and Chinese Turkestan (London, 1901) ; F. Grenard, in vol. ii. of J. L. 
Dutreuil de Rhins's Mission Scientifique dans la Haute Asie (1890- 
1895, n.p., 1897); Futterer, Durch Asien (Berlin, 1901); N. M. 
Przhevalsky, From Kulja across the Tian-shan to Lob-nor (Eng. trans., 
by Delmar Morgan, London, 1879) > G. E. Grum-Grshimailo, Opisanie 
Puteshestviya v Sapadniy Kitai (St Petersburg, 1897-1899); V. I. 
Roborovsky and P. K. Kozlov, Trudy Ekspeditsiy Imp. Russ. Geog. 



426 



TURKESTAN TURKEY 



ObshcheslvapocentralnoyAsiya, 1893-1895 (St Petersburg, i897,&c.) ; 
V. I. Roborovsky , Trudy Tibetskoi Ekspeditsiy, 1889-1890 ; K. Bogdan- 
ovich, Geologicheskiya Isledovaniya v. Vostochnom Turkestane and 
Trudy Tibetskoy Ekspeditsiy, 1889-1890 (St Petersburg., 1891-1892) ; 
V A Obruchev, Centralnaya Asiya, Severniy Kitai i Nan-schan, 
1802-1804 (2 vols., St Petersburg, 1899-1901); A. N. Kuropatkin, 
Kashearia (Eng. trans., London, 1883); and P. W. Church, Chinese 
Turkestan with Caravan and Rifle (London, 1901). For the archaeo- 
logical discoveries, see the books of Sven Hedin already quoted; 
M. A. Stein, The Sand-buried Cities of Khotan (London, 1903), and 
Geographical Journal (London, July and Sept., 1909) ; and D. A. 
Klements and W. Radlov, Nachrichten -fiber die von der k. Akademie 
der Wissenschaften zu St Petersburg im Jahre 1898 ausgerilsteten 
Expedition (St Petersburg, 1899). Consult also books cited under 
TIAN-SHAN, LOP-NOR, GOBI and KUEN-LUN. Q. T. BE. ; P. A. K.) 

TURKESTAN, or HAZRET, a town of Russian Turkestan, in 
the province of Syr-darya, on the railway from Orenburg to 
Tashkent, from which it lies 165 m. to the N.N.W. Pop. (1897), 
11,592. It lies on the right bank of the Syr-darya river, 20 m. 
from it, at an altitude of 833 ft. It has a very old mosque of the 
saint Hazret-Yassavi, which attracts many pilgrims. It is an 
important dep6t for hides, wool and other produce of cattle- 
breeding. The town was captured by the Russians in 1864. 

TURKEY. The Turkish or Ottoman Empire comprises Turkey 
in Europe, Turkey in Asia, and the vilayets of Tripoli and Barca, 
or Bengazi, in North Africa; and in addition to those provinces 
under immediate Turkish rule, it embraces also certain tributary 
states and certain others under foreign administration. Turkey 
in Europe, occupying the central portion of the Balkan Peninsula, 
lies between 38 46' and 42 50' N. and 19 20' and 29 10' E. 
It is bounded on the N.W. by Montenegro and Bosnia, on the 
N. by Servia and Bulgaria, on the E. by the Black Sea and the 
Bosporus, on the S. by the Sea of Marmora, the Dardanelles, 
the Aegean Sea and Greece, and on the W. by the Ionian and 
Adriatic Seas. Turkey in Asia, fronting Turkey in Europe to 
the south-east, and lying between 28 and 41 N. and 25 and 48 
E., is bounded on the N. by the Black Sea, on the N.W. by the 
Bosporus, the Sea of Marmora and the Dardanelles, on the W. 
by the Aegean Sea, on the E. by Persia and Transcaucasia, and 
on the S. by Arabia and the Mediterranean. So far as geo- 
graphical description is concerned, the separate articles on ASIA 
MINOR, ALBANIA, ARMENIA, and other areas mentioned below 
constituting the Turkish Empire may be consulted. (For maps 
of Asiatic Turkey , see ARABIA; ARMENIA; ASIA MINOR; 
PALESTINE; SYRIA.) 

The possessions of the sultan in Europe now consist of a 
strip of territory stretching continuously across the Balkan Peninsula 
from the Bosporus to the Adriatic (29 10' to 19 20' E.), and lying 
in the east mainly between 40 and 42 and in the west between 
39 and 43 N. It corresponded roughly to ancient Thrace, Mace- 
donia with Chalcidice, Epirus and a large part of Illyria, constituting 
the present administrative divisions of Stambul (Constantinople, 
including a small strip of the opposite Asiatic coast), Edirne (Adria- 
nople), Salonica with Kossovo (Macedonia), lannina (parts of 
Epirus and Thessaly), Shkodra (Scutari or upper Albania). To 
these must be added the Turkish islands in the Aegean usually 
reckoned to Europe, that is, Thasos, Samothrace, Imbros and, in 
the extreme south, Crete or Candia. In December 1898, however, 
Crete was granted practical independence, under the protection of 
Great Britain, France, Italy and Russia (see CRETE), and the 
suzerainty of the sultan is purely nominal. 

Asiatic Turkey. The mainstay of the Ottoman dynasty is the 
Asiatic portion of the empire, where the Mahornmedan religion is 
absolutely predominant, and where the naturally vigorous and robust 
Turki race forms in Asia Minor a compact mass of many millions, 
far outnumbering any other single ethnical element and_ probably 
equalling all taken collectively. Here also, with the unimportant 
exception of the islands of Samos and Cyprus and the somewhat 
privileged district of Lebanon, all the Turkish possessions constitute 
vilayets directly controlled by the Porte. They comprise the geo- 
graphically distinct regions of the Anatolian plateau (Asia Minor), 
the Armenian and Kurdish highlands, the Mesopotamian lowlands, 
the hilly and partly mountainous territory of Syria and Palestine 
and the coast lands of west and north-east Arabia. Asiatic Turkey 
is conterminous on the east with Russia and Persia; in the south- 
west it encloses on the west, north and north-east the independent 
part of Arabia. Towards Egypt the frontier is a line drawn from 
Akaba at the head of the Gulf of Akaba north-westwards to the 
little port of El Arish on the Mediterranean. Elsewhere Asiatic 
Turkey enjoys the advantage of a sea frontage, being washed in the 
north-west and west by the Euxine, Aegean and Mediterranean, in 



the south-west by the Red Sea, and in the south-east by the Persian 
Gulf. 

Turkey's Arabian possessions comprise, besides El-Hasa on the 
Persian Gulf, the low-lying, hot and insalubrious Tehama and the 
south-western highlands (vilayets of Hejaz and Yemen) stretching 
continuously along the east side of the Red Sea, and including the 
two holy cities of Mecca and Medina. 

African Territories. Turkey in Africa has gradually been reduced 
to Tripoli and Barca. Egypt, though nominally under Turkish 
suzerainty, has formed a practically independent principality 
since 1841, and has been de facto under British protection since 
1881. 

Population. The total population of the Turkish Empire in 
1 910, including Egypt and other regions nominally under the 
sultan's suzerainty, was 36,3 23, 539, averaging 25 to the square 
mile; in the provinces directly under Turkish government, 
25,926,000. 

The following towns have over 50,000 inhabitants each: Con- 
stantinople, 1,150,000; Smyrna, 250,000; Bagdad, 145,000; Damas- 
cus, 145,000; Aleppo, 122,000; Beirut, 118,000; Adrianople, 81,000; 
Brusa, 76,000; Jerusalem, 56,000; Caesarea Mazaca (Kaisarieh), 
72,000; Kerbela, 65,000; Monastir, 53,000; Mosul, 61,000; Mecca, 
60,000; Horns, 60,000; Sana, 58,000; Urfa, 55,000; and Marash, 
52,000. 

Race and Religion. Exact statistics are not available as 
regards either race or religion. The Osmanlis or Turks (q.v.) are 
supposed to number some 10 millions, of whom i J million belong 
to Turkey in Europe. Of the Semitic races the Arabs over 
whom, however, the Turkish rule is little more than nominal 
number some 7 millions, and in addition to about 300,000 Jews 
there is a large number of Syrians. Of the Aryan races the Slavs 
Serbs, Bulgarians, Pomaks and Cossacks and the Greeks 
predominate, the other representatives being chiefly Albanians 
and Kurds. The proportion borne to one another by the different 
religions, as estimated in 1910, is: 50% Mussulman, 41 % Ortho- 
dox, 6% Catholic, 3% all others (Jews, Druses, Nestorians, 
&c.). In the European provinces about two-thirds of the popu- 
lation are Christian and one-third Mahornmedan. Full and fairly 
accurate statistics are available for a considerable portion of 
Asiatic Turkey. Out of a population of 13,241,000 (1896) in 
Armenia, Kurdistan and Asia Minor, 10,030,000 were returned 
as Mahommedans, 1,144,000 as Armenians, 1,818,000 as other 
Christians, and 249,000 as Jews. There are also about 300,000 
Druses and about 200,000 Gipsies. The non-Mussulman popu- 
lation is divided into millets, or religious communities, which are 
allowed the free exercise of their religion and the control of their 
own monasteries, schools and hospitals. The communities now 
recognized are the Latin (or Catholic), Greek (or Orthodox), 
Armenian Catholic, Armenian Gregorians, Syrian, and United 
Chaldee, Maronite, Protestant and Jewish. The table on the 
following page, for which the writer is indebted to the kindness of 
Carolidi Effendi, formerly professor of history in the university 
of Athens, and in 1910 deputy for Smyrna in the Turkish parlia- 
ment, shows the various races of the Ottoman Empire, the regions 
which they inhabit, and the religions which they profess. 

Administration. Until the revolution of 1908, with a very 
short interval at the beginning of the reign (1876) of the deposed 
sultan Abd-ul-Hamid, the government of Turkey had been essen- 
tially a theocratic absolute monarchy. It was subject to the 
direct personal control of the sultan, who was himself a temporal 
autocrat, which he now is not, and the most generally recognized 
caliph, that is, " successor," of the Prophet, and consequently 
the spiritual head of by far the greater portion of the Moslem 
world as he still is. Owing principally to the fact that the 
system of the caliph Omar came to be treated as an immutable 
dogma which was clearly not intended by its originator, and to 
the peculiar relations which developed therefrom between the 
Mussulman Turkish conquerors and the peoples (principally 
Christian) which fell under their sway, no such thing as an 
Ottoman nation has ever been created. It has been a juxta- 
position of separate and generally hostile peoples in territories 
bound under one rule by the military sway of a dominant race. 
Various endeavours have been made since the time of Selim III. 
(1789-1807), who initiated them, to break down the barriers to 
the formation of a homogeneous nation. The most earnest and 



ADMINISTRATION] 



TURKEY 



427 



Races. 


Regions inhabited.orVilayets. 


Religions. 


Albanians . 


lannina, Scutari of Albania, 


Mussulman, 




Kossovo, Monastir 


Orthodox, 






Catholic 


Bulgarians . 


Salonica, Kossovo, Monastir 


Orthodox (dis- 






senting) 


Servians. 


Kossovo 


Orthodox 


Greeks . 


Constantinople, Adrianople, 
Salonica, Monastir, Kos- 


Orthodox and 
partly Greco- 




sovo, Janina, Archipelago. 


catholic 




Vilayets of Asiatic Turkey, 






(Hudavendighiar, Aidin, 






Konia, Angora, Kastamuni, 






Trebizond, Sivas, Adana 






Syria, Aleppo, Sanjak of 






Jerusalem) Crete 




Kutzo-Vlachs (See 


Monastir, lannina 


Orthodox 


MACEDONIA) 






Turks . . . 


The whole of European Tur- 


Mussulman 




key, Vilayets of Asia Minor, 






(Bitlis, Van, Ma-nuret-ul- 






Aziz, part of Mosul and cer- 






tain islands of Vilayet of the 


. 




Archipelago, of Cyprus, 






Crete) 




Lazes '. 


Trebizond and throughout 


Mussulman and 




the whole of Eastern Asia 


Orthodox 




Minor 




Kurds . . . 


Erzerum, Sivas,Seert,Angora, 


Mussulman 




Mosul 




Circassians . 


Spread over the whole of Asia 


Mussulman 




Minor 




Avchar . 


Adana, Angora, Sivas 


Mussulman 


Arabs 


Adana, Aleppo, Syria, Bagdad, 


Mussulman 




Sanjak of Jerusalem, Hejaz, 






Yemen, Beirut, Basna 




Armenians . 


Constantinople and spread 


Gregorian and 




over the other Vilayets of 


Catholic 




Turkey in Europe; also 






Sivas, Angora, Trebizond, 






Adana, Erzerum, Bitlis, 






Mamuret-ul-Aziz, Mosul, 






Aleppo, Van 




Jews 


Spread through Turkey in 


Jew 




Europe and Asia, and large- 






ly congregated in the San- 






jak of Jerusalent( and in the 






Vilayets of Bagdad, Mosul, 






Syria, Beirut. 




Samaritans . 


Only in the Sanjak of Nap- 


Samaritan Jew 




luze (Vilayet of Beirut) 




Gipsies . 


Spread throughout the whole 


Mussulman 




empire 




Chaldaeans or 


Bagdad, Mosul and partly 


Nestorian 


Nestorians, 


Aleppo, Beirut and Mamu- 


Christian 


speaking partly 


ret-ul-Aziz 




Syrochaldaic 






and partly 






Arabic (Syro- 






chaldaic in 






their churches) 






Melchites, or 


Beirut, Aleppo, Syria 


United Ortho- 


Syrian Greco- 




dox 


Catholics 






(Greek in feel- 






ing, speaking 






Arabic) 






Jacobite Syrians, 


Beirut, Syria, Aleppo, Mosul, 


Monophysite 


speaking Ara- 


Mamuret-ul-Aziz 


and Jacobite 


bic and partly 






Syrian (Syrian 






in their churches) 






Monites (speak- 


Mt Lebanon, Beirut 


Monophysite 


ing Arabic and 




(Catholic 


in their churches 




monothelite) 


Syrian) 






Druses . 


Mt Lebanon.SanjakofHauran 


Druse 


Mendaites or 


Basra 


Sabaean: or of 


Ben-i-Yahya 




the sect of the 






son of John 






the Baptist 






(Ben-i-Yahya) 






whom they re- 






gard as their 






only prophet. 


Yezzites . 


Mosul, Bagdad, Basra 


Yezzite(Mahom- 






medan sect) 





important of these attempts under Abd-ul-Mejid (1839-1861) 
proved, however, for various reasons abortive. So also did the 
" Midhat Constitution " promulgated by Abd-ul-Hamid almost 
immediately after his accession to the throne, owing largely to 
the reactionary spirit at that time of the ' Ulema and of the sultan's 
immediate advisers, but almost, if not quite, in equal measure 
to the scornful reception of the Constitution by the European 
powers. The 'Ulema form a powerful corporation, whose head, 
the Sheik-ul-Islam, ranks as a state functionary almost co-equal 
with the grand vizier. Until quite recent times the conservative 
and fanatical spirit of the 'Ulema had been one of the greatest 
obstacles to progress and reform hi a political system in which 
spiritual and temporal functions were intimately interwoven. 
Of late years, however, there has been a gradual assimilation of 
broader views by the leaders of Islam in Turkey, at any rate at 
Constantinople, and the revolution of 1908, and its affirmation 
in the spring of 1909, took place not only with their approval, 
but with their active assistance. The theoretical absolutism of 
the sultan had, indeed, always been tempered not only by tra- 
ditional usage, local privilege, the juridical and spiritual precepts 
of the Koran and the Sunnet, and their 'Ulema interpreters, 
and the privy council, but for nearly a century by the direct or 
indirect pressure of the European powers, and during the reigns 
of Abd-ul-Aziz and of Abd-ul-Hamid by the growing force of 
public opinion. The enthusiastic spirit of reform which heralded 
the accession of the latter sultan never altogether died out, and 
from about the last decade of the igth century has been rapidly 
and effectively growing in force and in method. The members 
and sympathizers of the party of reform who styled themselves 
" Young Turks," working largely from the European centres and 
from the different points in the Turkish Empire to which the 
sultan had exiled them for the purpose of repression their 
relentless persecution by the sultan thus proving to be his own 
undoing spread a powerful propaganda throughout the Turkish 
Empire against the old regime, in the face of that persecution 
and of the open and characteristic scepticism, and indeed of the 
hostile action, of some of the European powers. This movement 
came to a head in the revolution of 1908. In July of that year 
the sultan Abd-ul-Hamid capitulated to the Young Turks and 
restored by Irade (July 24) the constitution which he had granted 
in December 1876 and suspended on the I4th of February 1878. 
A reactionary movement started hi April 1909 was promptly 
suppressed by the Young Turks through the military occupation 
of Constantinople by Shevket Pasha and the dethronement of 
Abd-ul-Hamid, who was succeeded by his younger brother 
Reshad Effendi under the title of Mahommed V. A new 
constitution, differing from that of Abd-ul-Hainid only in some 
matters of detail, was promulgated by imperial Irade of the 5th 
of August 1909. 

In temporal matters the sultan is a constitutional monarch, 
advised by a cabinet formed of executive ministers who are the 
heads of the various departments of state, and who are respon- 
sible to the elected Turkish parliament. All Turkish subjects, of 
whatever race or religion, have equal juridical and political rights 
and obligations, and all discrimination as to military service has 
been abolished. The sultan remains the spiritual head of Islam, 
and Islam is the state religion, but it has no other distinctive or 
theocratic character. The grand vizier (sadr-azam), who is 
nominated by the sultan, presides ex officio over the privy council 
(mejliss-i-khass) , which, besides the Sheikh -ul-Islam, comprises 
the ministers of home and foreign affairs, war, finance, marine, 
commerce and public works, justice, public instruction and 
" pious foundations " (evkaf), with the grand master of ordnance 
and the president of the council ol state. 

For administrative purposes the immediate possessions of the 
sultan are divided into vilayets (provinces), which are again 
subdivided into sanjaks or mutessarifliks (arrondissements), 
these into kazas (cantons), and the kazas into nahies (parishes or 
communes). A vali or governor-general, nominated by the 
sultan, stands at the head of the vilayet, and on him are directly 
dependent the kaimakams, mutassarifs, deftardars and other 
administrators of the minor divisions. All these officials unite 



428 



TURKEY 



[ARMY 



in their own persons the judicial and executive functions, under 
the " Law of the Vilayets," which made its appearance in 1861, 
and purported, and was really intended by its framers, to confer 
on the provinces a large measure of self-government, in which 
both Mussulmans and non-Mussulmans should take part. It 
really, however, had the effect of centralizing the whole power of 
the country more absolutely than ever in the sultan's hands, since 
the Valis were wholly in his undisputed power, while the ex officio 
official members of the local councils secured a perpetual Mussul- 
man majority. Under such a system, and the legal protection 
enjoyed through it by Ottoman functionaries against evil con- 
sequences of their own misdeeds, corruption was rife throughout 
the empire. Foreigners settled in the country are specially 
protected from exactions by the so-called Capitulations (q.v.), 
in virtue of which they are exempt from the jurisdiction of the 
local courts and amenable for trial to tribunals presided over by 
their respective consuls. Cases between foreigners of different 
nationalities are heard in the court of the defendant, and between 
foreigners and Turkish subjects in the local courts, at which a 
consular dragoman attends to see that the trial is conducted 
according to law. (See further, as regards Turkish administra- 
tion, the account given under History below, regarding the 
reforms instituted under the sultan Abd-ul-Mejid in 1839.) 

Education. The schools are of two classes: (i) public, under the 
immediate direction of the state; and (2) private, conducted either 
by individuals or by the religious communities with the permission 
of the government, the religious tenets of the non-Mussulman 
population being thus fully respected. State education is of three 
degrees: primary, secondary and superior. Primary education 
is gratuitous and obligatory, and superior education is gratuitous 
or supported by bursaries. For primary education there are three 
grades of schools: (l) infant schools, of which there is one in 
every village; (2) primary schools in the larger villages; (3) 
superior primary schools. Secondary education is supplied 
by the grammar school, of which there is one in the capital 
of every vilayet. For superior education there is (l) the uni- 
versity of Constantinople, with its four faculties of letters, 
science, law and medicine; and (2) special schools, including (a) 
the normal school for training teachers, (b) the civil imperial 
school, (c) the school of the fine arts and (d) the imperial schools of 
medicine. 

Public instruction is much more widely diffused throughout the 
empire than is commonly supposed. This is due partly to the 
Christian communities, notably the Maronites and others in Syria, 
the Anatolian and Rumelian Greeks, and the Armenians of the 
eastern province and of Constantinople. Under the reformed 
constitution (Aug. 5, 1909) education is free, and measures have 
been taken largely to extend and to co-ordinate the education of all 
" Ottomans," without prejudice to the religious educational rights 
of the various religious communities. Primary education is obliga- 
tory. Among the Christians, especially the Armenians, the 
Greeks of Smyrna and the 
Syrians of Beirut, it has 
long embraced a consider- 
able range of subjects, 
such as classical Greek, 
Armenian and Syriac, as 
well as modern French, 
Italian and English, 
modern history, geogra- 
phy and medicine. Large 
sums are freely contri- 
buted for the establish- 
ment and support of good 
schools, and the cause of national education is seldom forgotten in 
the legacies of patriotic Anatolian Greeks. Much educational work 
has also been done by American colleges, especially in the northern 
provinces of Asia Minor, in conjunction with Robert College 
(Constantinople) . 

Army. In virtue of the enactments of May 1880, of November 
1886, of February 1888 and of December 1903, military service had 
been obligatory on all Mussulmans, Christians having been excluded 
but under obligation of paying a " military exoneration tax " of 
To for 135 males between the ages of 15 and 75. Under the new 
regime this system, which had greatly cramped the military strength 
and efficiency of the Ottoman Empire, has been changed, and all 
" Ottomans " are now subject to military service. Under certain 
conditions, however, and on payment of a certain exoneration tax, 
exemption may still be purchased. The revision of the whole 
military system was undertaken in 1910, especially as regards 
enrolment and promotion of officers, but, as things then stood, the 
term of service was twenty years (from the age of 20 to the age of 
40), for all Ottoman male subjects: active service (muasaff) nine 
years, of which three with the colours (nizam), in the case of infantry, 



four in the case of cavalry and artillery; six and five respectively 
in the reserve (ikhtiat) ; Landwehr (redif) nine years ; territorial 
(mustahfiz) two years. In case of supreme necessity all males up 
to 70 years of age can be called upon to join the colours. There are 
certain recognized rights to exemption from military service, such 
as some court officials, state officials, students in normal schools, 
medicine and law colleges, &c. The redifs form the principal 
part of the army in time of war, and are divided into two classes: 
Class I. comprises all men in the service who have completed their 
time with the nizam. In peace-time it is composed of weak cadres, 
on which falls the duty of guarding magazines and stores, and 
of carrying through musketry instruction and drill of the 
rank and file of the ikhtiat and the redif. Class II. was first 
established in 1898 under the name of ilaweh, and became 
"redif, class II." in 1903. This class is distributed in very 
weak cadres in time of peace. In time of war, it is completed 
by all troops not serving with the nizam, the redif class I. or the 
mustahfiz. As the organization proceeded, and stronger cadres 
were formed, the redif class II. would become completely absorbed 
in class I. The mustahfiz have no cadres in peace-time. 

The army is divided into seven army-corps (ordus), each under the 
command of a field marshal, and the two independent commands 
of Tripoli (Africa) and the Hejaz. The headquarters of the ordus 
are I., Cqnstantinople; II., Adrianople; III., Salonica; IV., Erzerum; 
V., Damascus; VI., Bagdad; VII., Yemen; I5th division, Tripoli; 
l6th division, Hejaz. Only the first six army-corps have, however, 
their proper establishment : the seventh ordu and the commands of 
Tripoli and the Hejaz have only garrison troops, and are fed by drafts 
from the first six ordus. Each ordu territory, from I. to VI., is 
composed of 8 redif brigade districts of 2 regimental districts of 
4 battalion districts apiece, each ordu thus counting 64 battalion 
districts. The total strength of the Ottoman army in 1904 was 
returned at 1,795,350 men all told, made up as follows: (i) Active 
(4 years' service) 230,408 (called), reserve (ikhtiat) 251,511 
(called), total 481,919; (2) nizam (class I., completely trained) 
237,026 (called); (3) redif (class II., not completely ti-ained), from 
21-29 years old, 585,846; from 30-^38 years old, 391,563; total 
977,409 (uncalled) ; (4) mustahfiz, trained 53,715 (called), untrained 
40,286 (uncalled), total 94,001. 

The strength of the different arms is given as follows: 

Infantry. 79 nizam infantry regiments I to 80 (4 is missing), 
each regiment consisting of four battalions of four companies apiece. 
Allowing for certain battalions unformed, there are altogether 309 
nizam battalions; 20 separate chasseur battalions, of four companies 
each; 4 special chasseur battalions stationed on the Bulgarian 
frontier total, 333 battalions in the first line. There are 96 
infantry battalions of redif class I.; each regiment composed of 4 
battalions total 384 battalkms. (In 1904 the 4th battalion of the 
94th regiment, and regiments 95 and 96 had not yet been formed, 
but, it was stated, had by 1910 been made good.) The projected 
strength of redif class II. was 172 regiments of 4 battalions each 
total, 688 battalions. At the end of 1904 the organization of this 
class was stated as completed in Turkey in Europe at 40 battalions 
with a total of 160 regiments: how far the organization had pro- 
gressed in 1910 in Asiatic Turkey was not known. 

The following table shows the war strength of battalions, and the 
total war strength of the infantry arm : 



Class. 


War Strength of Battalions. 


Total War Strength of Infantry. 


Officers. 


N.C.O.'s 
and Men. 


Draft 
Animals. 


Rifles. 


Officers. 


N.C.O's 
and Men. 


Draft 
Animals. 


Rifles. 


Special Chasseurs . 
Nizam 
Redif I 
Redif II. .. . . . 
Mustahfiz .... 


26 

24 
24 
24 
8-15 


800 
700 
900 
800 
400-600 


200 
1 06 
1 06 
1 06 


650 
650 
850 
75 
400-600 


520 
7,896 
10,320 
16,512 
1,760 


. 16,000 
230,300 
337-500 
550,400 
98,000 


4,000 

34,874 
39-750 
72,968 


13,000 
213,850 

318,750 
515,000 
98,000 



The troops are armed principally with Mauser repeating rifles 
(models 1887 and 1890) of which there are 1,120,000 issued and 
in store; there are also 510,000 Martini-Henry rifles in reserve. 

Cavalry. Cavalry of the Guard: I regiment " Ertogrul " or 
5 squadrons, 2 regiments of hussars of 5 squadrons each, and I 
regiment of lancers of 5 squadrons. Nizam Cavalry: 38 regiments 
of 5 squadrons each, or 190 squadrons in all. 

Redif Cavalry. 12 regiments of 4 squadrons each, or 48 squadrons 
in all, attached to the first three ordus. It was further proposed 
to appoint one regiment of redif cavalry to each redif division. 
On war footing the strength of a squadron of cavalry is 6 officers, 
100 men, 80 horses (Ertogrul 140 men, 135 horses). The nizam 
cavalry is incorporated with the first six ordus. one cavalry division 
of 3 brigades of 2 regiments each being appointed to each ordu. 
The redif cavalry is not organized with large units, and in time of 
war would be employed as divisional troops. The total war strength 
of the cavalry is 54 regiments (210 squadrons); 1580 officers, 26,800 
men, 21,900 horses. The cavalry is armed with repeating carbines 
(the N.C.O.'s with repeating revolvers) and swords. 

Artillery. From ancient times the artillery has formed an 



INDUSTRIES] 



TURKEY 



429 



altogether independent command in the Turkish army. The grand 
master of ordnance is co-equal with the minister of war, and his 
department is classed separately in the budget ; the artillery estab- 
lishments, parts of the infantry and of the technical corps, and even 
hospitals are placed under his direct orders. The artillery is divided 
into (a) field artillery, horse artillery, mountain artillery and howit- 
zer regiments; (6) fortress artillery, (c) artillery depots. All 
artillery troops are nizam : there is no second line. On principle an 
ordu would have with it 30 batteries of field artillery, 3 batteries 
of horse artillery and 3 batteries of mountain artillery, or in all 36 
batteries with 216 guns, all batteries being 6 guns strong. But the 
unequal strength of the ordus and political and other reasons have 
prevented this organization from being carried out. 

On war-footing each field battery has 4 officers, 100-120 N.C. 
officers and men, 100-125 horses and draught animals, 3-9 ammunition 
wagons; each horse battery, 4 officers, 120 N.C. officers and men, 100 
horses, &c., 3 ammunition wagons ; each mountain battery, 3 officers, 
100 N.C. officers and men, 87 horses, &c. ; each howitzer .battery, 4 
officers, 120 N.C. officers and men, 100 horses, &c., 3 ammunition 
wagons. 

In 1904 the total strength of the artillery was given as 198 field 
batteries (1188 guns), 18 horse batteries (108 guns), 40 mountain 
batteries (240 guns) and 12 howitzer batteries (72 guns) : total 268 
batteries (1608 guns). The guns are of various Krupp types. The 
ammunition train counts 1254 wagons. On a war-footing the 
strength oi the artillery troops is 1032 officers and 29,380 men. 

Technical Troops. These are formed into battalions of pioneers, 
railway troops, telegraph troops, sappers and miners, &c. ; in all 1 1 
battalions (55 companies) numbering 245 officers and 10,470 men. 
Other non-combatant troops, such as military train, medical corps, 
&c., are undergoing reorganization. (For the history of the Turkish 
army, see ARMY, 98.) 

Navy. The Turkish sea-power, already decayed owing to a 
variety of causes (for the effect of the revolt of the Greek islanders 
see GREEK INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF), was shattered by the catas- 
trophe of Sinope (1853). Abd-ul-Aziz, however, with the aid of 
British naval officers, succeeded in creating an imposing fleet of 
ironclads constructed in English and French yards. Sultan Abd-ul- 
Hamid, on the other hand, pursued a settled policy of reducing 
the fleet to impotency, owing to his fear that it might turn 
against him as it had turned against Abd-ul-Aziz. He added, 
it is true, a few torpedo boats and destroyers, but he promptly 
had them dismantled on arrival at Constantinople. These 
now refitted, a cruiser ordered from Cramp's shipyard (America) 
and another from W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth & Co., and the 
battleship " Messudiyeh " (9100 tons displacement) reconstructed 
by the firm of Ansaldo (Genoa) in 1902, and re-armed by Vickers, 
Sons & Maxim, formed the only really effective war-ships at the 
disposal of Turkey in 1910, although a few armoured ships in 
addition might still serve for coast defence at a pinch, and a few more 
for training ships. Taking all into account, the available strength 
of the fleet might be put at 7 armour-clad ships, of which the " Messu- 
diyeh " was one, the six others varying in displacement from 2400 to 
6400 tons; two cruisers (unarmoured) of 3800 tons displacement; 
some 18 gunboats; 12 destroyers, 16 first-class torpedo boats and 
6 second-class torpedo boats. There were also two Nordenfeldt 
submarine boats of doubtful efficiency. 

Up to 1908 the personnel was found by yearly drafts of two to 
three thousand men from army recruits designated by the minister of 
war; the term of service was 12 years, of which 5 were in the first line, 
3 in the reserve, 4 in the coastguard. The peace cadres (including 
2 battalions of marines and 4 battalions of mechanics) were supposed 
to comprise 12,500 men on peace-footing, to be increased on declara- 
tion of war to 37,000; but these cadres were mainly on paper. 

Under the " new regime " the Turkish government displayed 
commendable energy in reconstructing and reorganizing the sea- 
power of the empire. New construction to an amount of Ts ,000,000, 
repayable over ten years at the rate of Tsoo,ooo a year by 
national subscription guaranteed by the government, had by 1910 
been voted by parliament. The programme of construction which 
this initial expenditure was to cover was fixed at two battleships 
of about 16,000 tons displacement, one armoured cruiser of about 
12,000 tons displacement, some few auxiliary vessels (destroyers and 
gunboats), and a floating dock to lift about 17,000 tons. The main 
armament of the battleships was to be three pairs of 12-in. guns in 
three turrets, and three pairs of 9-2-in. in three turrets. The secon- 
dary armament was to be sixteen 4-in. Q.F. guns, and a few smaller 
guns (boat and field). The armoured cruiser was to carry four pairs 
of 9'2-in. guns in four turrets as main armament, and fourteen 4-in. 
Q.F. guns, and a few boat and field guns as secondary armament. 
British naval officers were engaged for training the personnel, and 
to assist in the reorganization of the fleet. 

Communications. A considerable hindrance to the development 
of the empire's resources has been the lack of an adequate system of 
communications; but although it is still deficient in good roads, 
much has been done of late years to develop railways, extend canals 
and improve river communications. From 1250 in 1885, of which 
903 were in Europe and 347 in Asia, the mileage of railways had 
increased to some 4440 in 1909, of which 1377 are in Europe, 1810 in 
Asia Minor, 418 in Syria and 835 fall to the share of the Hejaz railway, 



including the Ed-Dera-Haifa branch. The construction of this last 
line is one of the most remarkable achievements of the reign of 
Abd-ul-Hamid. It may be said to be an absolutely autocthonous 
enterprise, no recourse having been had to foreign capital to find the 
means requisite for construction and equipment, which were provided 
by means of a " national subscription " not entirely voluntary 
and from other sources which, although the financial methods were 
not strictly orthodox, were strictly Turkish. The line was designed, 
surveyed and constructed by Turkish engineers employing Otto- 
man navvies and labourers in a highly efficient and economical 
manner, the average cost per mile having been 3230, although con- 
siderable engineering difficulties had to be overcome, especially in 
the construction of the Haifa branch. The line, stations, sheds and 
stores are all solidly built, and the rolling stock is sufficient and of 
the best quality (see further under Finance, below). 

Production and Industries. The Ottoman Empire is renowned 
for its productiveness, but enterprise and skill in utilizing its 
capabilities are still greatly lacking. For the introduction of im- 
provements something, however, was done by the creation in 
1892 of a special ministry of agriculture, to which is attached the 
department of mines and forests, formerly under the minister 
of finance. Since the year named an agricultural bank has been 
established, which advances money on loan to the peasants on 
easy terms. Schools of agriculture have been opened in the chief 
towns of the vilayets, and in connexion with those schools, 
and elsewhere throughout the empire, model farms have been 
instituted, where veterinary instruction can also be obtained. 

To prevent the gradual destruction of the forests by unskilful 
management and depredations, schools of forestry have been 
founded, and means have been taken for regulating the cutting 
of wood and for replanting districts that have been partially 
denuded. About 21 millions of acres are under wood, of which 
over 3 millions are in European Turkey. 

Wheat, maize, oats, barley and rye are the chief agricultural 
products. The culture of cotton is making rapid progress, immi- 
grants who receive a grant of land being obliged to devote one-fourth 
of it to cotton culture. Tobacco is grown all over the empire, the 
most important market for it being Smyrna. Opium is mainly * 
grown in Anatolia. All the more common fruit-trees flourish in 
most districts. In Palestine and elsewhere there is a large orange 
trade, and Basra, in Turkish Arabia, has the largest export of dates 
in the world. The vine is largely cultivated both in Europe and 
Asia, and much Turkish wine is exported to France and Italy for 
mixing purposes. The chief centres of export are Adrianople (more 
than half), Constantinople and Smyrna, the others being Brusa, 
Beirut, Ismid, Mytilene and Salonica. Under the auspices of the 
Ottoman public debt administration silk culture is also carried 
on with much success, especially in the vilayets of Brusa and Ismid. 
In 1888 a school of sericulture was founded by the public debt 
administration for the rearing of silkworms according to the Pasteur 
method. The production of salt is also under the direction of the 
public debt administration. About a fourth of the salt produced 
is exported to foreign countries, and of this about three-fourths goes 
to British India. Since 1885 great attention has been paid to the 
sponge fisheries of Tripoli, the annual value of which is about 30,000. 
With its extensive sea-coast, and its numerous bays and inlets, 
Turkey has many excellent fishing-grounds, and the industry, the 
value of which is estimated at over 200,000 a year, could be greatly 
developed. Its general progress may be seen in the increase of the 
fishery revenuederived from duties, permits, &c. of the public 
debt administration. Among other important productions of 
the Ottoman Empire are sesame, coleseed, castor oil, flax, hemp, 
aniseed, mohair, saffron, olive oil, gums, scammony and liquorice. 
Attar of roses is produced in large quantities both in European 
and Asiatic Turkey, and to aid in furthering the industry numerous 
rose plants are distributed gratuitously. The empire is rich 
in minerals, including gold, silver, lead, copper, iron, coal, 
mercury, borax, emery, zinc; and only capital is needed for success- 
ful exploitation. The silver, lead and copper mines are mainly 
worked by British capital. The more special industries of Turkey 
are tanning, and the manufacture of muslin, velvet, silk, carpets 
and ornamental weapons. 

Shipping and Commerce. The figures obtainable with respect 
to shipping are approximate, the statistical data not being altogether 
complete. In 1890-1891 the number of steamers that entered and 
cleared Turkish ports was 38,601, and of sailing vessels 140,726, the 
total tonnageof both classesof vessels being 30, 509,861. In 1897-1898 
the number of steamers was 39,680 of 32,446,320 tons, the number of 
sailing vessels being 134,059 of 2,207,137 tons, thus giving a total 
tonnage of 34,653,457. In 1904-1905 the number of steamers was 
49. 2 35 of 44,180,000 tons, and of sailing vessels 133,706, with a ton- 
nage of 2,506,000 tons, the total tonnage being thus 46,686,000 
tons. In 1909 the total tonnage was 43,060,515. About a third 
of the tonnage belongs to British vessels. The number of steam- 
ships belonging to Turkey in 1899-1900 was 177 of 55,938 tons, as 



430 



TURKEY 



[FINANCE 



compared with 87 of 46,498 tons in 1897-1898, the number of sailing 
vessels in the same years being respectively 2205 of 141,055 tons 
and 1349 of 252,947 tons. The following tables show the total value 
of exports and imports arranged according to countries of origin or 
destination for 1905-1906 and 1908-1909; the same information for 
the year 19051906 with respect to the principal ports of the empire, 
and the tonnage of vessels cleared thereat during the year 1908- 
1909 ; and the value of the principal articles imported and exported 
for the year 1905-1906. 

Value of Principal Articles Imported and Exported 
for the year 1905-1006. 



Nature of Goods. 


Imports. 


Exports. 


Barley 


L 




658 462 


Rice 
Opium 


944-950 

I,AO4,8O'? 


639.630 






2,065 642 


Figs 
Cotton 





791-473 
44.0.628 







C4.8.A4.2 


Crude Iron and Iron Bars ... 
Sheepskins and Goatskins . 
Carpets, &c 


432,091 

506,353 


528,282 

A78.QOI 


Flour 


995 165 




Cotton Thread 
French Beans, Chick Peas and Beans 
Cashmere Cloth 
Coffee 


1,287,243 
561,246 

8W,^2S 


508,441 


Madapollam 


OI6.7IS 




Ores 
Wool 
Woollen Fabrics 
Eggs 
Cotton Print (Calico) .... 


785,622 
2,014,968 


486,037 
439,066 

441,282 


Tiftik (Silk-waste) 
Cocoons 
Petroleum 

Sugar 


909,735 
2,263,928 


801,755 
970,169 



Value of Goods Imported into, and Exported from, together with Number 
and Tonnage of Vessels cleared at, Principal Ports of Turkish Empire. 







Table indicating the 






number of Vessels, 




Value of the Goods im- 


(Steamships and Sail- 




ported into, or exported 


Boats), and Tonnage, 




from, Turkey, during 


cleared at" the follow- 


Port. 


the year 1905-1906. 


ing ports of the Otto- 






man Empire, in the 






year 1908-1909. 




Imports. 


Exports. 


Number 
of Vessels 


Tonnage. 














Constantinople 


8,470,095 


1,381,432 


17,792 


16,214,947 


Dependencies of 










Constantinople 


673.699 


2,453,758 








Smyrna . 


3,724-525 


5,722,273 


5,888 


2,989,863 


Beirut. 


3,568,437 


1,578,691 


3,076 


1,740,312 


Salonica . 


3,! 1 1, 957 


1,650,552 


2,962 


1,151,273 


Prevesa . 


358,586 


259,585 







Yemen 


603,731 


259,553 








Jidda .... 


801,927 


26,154 








Adrianople . 


587,653 


585,810 








Bagdad . 


1,510,430 


777,402 








Alexandretta 


1,669,231 


887,326 


685 


676,137 


Tripoli in Africa 


565,331 


328,164 


575 


376,214 


Trebizond 


1,507,771 


1,083,515 


1,389 


776,698 


Scutari, Albania. 


257,397 


135,850 






Erzerum . 


103,280 


96,405 








Basra. 













Kavala . . . 








1,410 


283,256 


Samsun . 








1,064 


976,803 


Tripoli in Syria . 








1,306 


919,222 


Jaffa .... 








1,241 


1,210,261 


Chios. 








2,732 


915,880 


Aivali. 








1,489 


124,804 


Dedeagatch l 








404 


50,469 


Total . . . 


27,514,050 


17,256,470 







Value of the Goods Imported from or Exported to Principal Countries during the years 11)05-1906 and, 1008-1909. 



Country of Origin or 
Destination. 


Imports from 


Exports to 


1905-1906 


1908-1909 


1905-1906 


1908-1909 


Amount 


% 


Amount 


o/ 

/o 


Amount 


/ 
/o 


Amount 


/ 

/o 





9,641,931 
1,162,538 

5,715,914 
2,145,789 

118 
643,641 
63,324 
252,247 
865,040 

33 
1,596,631 
697,631 
1,821 

89-329 
524,116 
2,341,086 
2,928 

492-037 
812,466 

409,727 

1,210 

54,495 


35-05 

4-22 

20-77 
7-79 

2-34 
0-23 
0-92 
3-15 

5-80 
2-54 

0-33 
1-91 

8-51 

O-OI 

1-79 
2-96 
1-49 
o 
0-19 



8,256,793 

1,697,957 
3,574,724 
2,150,064 
15,588 
485,887 
105,026 
360,446 
762,543 

2,187,868 
1,107,120 

2,374 
441,050 

555,972 
2,956,643 

6,633 
347,287 
1,019,952 
1,188,981 
181,965 
47,524 
119-738 


29-96 

6-16 
12-96 

7-79 
0-06 

1-77 
o-39 
1-30 
2-76 

7-94 
4-01 

O-OI 

i -60 

2-OI 
IO-72 
0-02 
1-26 
3-70 
4-31 

0-66 
0-17 
0-44 



5,552,703 
1,076,929 
1,874,827 
872,641 
21,827 

57-443 
640 
431,684 
427,998 

2OI 
520,916 
350,876 
214 
172,220 
509,688 
4,22O,OO6 
24,686 
476,829 

663,139 


32-I8- 
6-24 
10-87 
5-06 
0-13 

o-33 

2-50 

2-48 

3-02 

2-03 

0-99 
2-96 
24-46 
0-15 
2-76 

3-84 



4,506,344 
1,008,750 

2,173,453 
883,358 
17,332 
82,530 
3,056 
616,951 
152,517 

504,291 
336,663 

86,602 
220,489 
3,187,376 
20,228 

382,484 
1,453,274 
498,414 
10,319 
2,363 
27,833 


27-86 
6-23 
13-43 
5-46 

O-IO 
0-51 
O-O2 

3-8i 
0-94 

3-13 
2-08 

0-53 
1-36 
19-72 

O-I2 

2-37 
8-98 
3-09 
0-08 

O-OI 

0-17 


Germany 
Austria-Hungary 
Italy 


Spam 
Persia 
Switzerland .... 
United States . . . 
Belgium 
Denmark 


Rumania 
Japan 


Holland 


France 
Montenegro 
Greece 
Egypt 
Bulgaria 
Samos 


Tunis 


Other Countries . . 


27,514,052 


IOO-OO 


27,572,135 


IOO-OO 


17,255,467 


IOO-OO 


16,174,627 


IOO-OO 



The revenues produced by the customs duties for the five years 
1905-1906 to 1909-1910 are as follows: 



Year. 


Export 
Duties. 


Import Duties. 


Total. 


1905-1906 
1906-1907 
1907-1908 
1908-1909 
1909-1910 



160,037 

151,677 
143,210 
143,378 
162,252 



1,928,957 
2,260,382 
2,704,347 
3,138,534 
3,533,405 



3,088,994 
2,412,059 

2,847,557 
3,281,912 

3,695,657 



FINANCE 

Preliminary Sketch. From the outset of their history the 
Osmanli Turks adapted to their own needs most of the political, 
economic and administrative institutions which existed before 
them. Primarily their system was based on the great principles 
enunciated by the immediate successors of the Prophet, especially 
by Omar, involving the absolute distinction between, and 
impartiality of treatment of, the Mussulman conquerors and the 

1 As Dedeagatch is gaming, and will gradually gain, importance, 
it has been included in this table. 



FINANCE] 



TURKEY 



races which they conquered; and from this point of view a careful 
study of the financial history of Turkey will afford most valuable 
insight into the Eastern Question. 

In reward for the brilliant services rendered him by Ertoghrul 
(the father of Osman) and by Osman himself, Ala-ud-din, the last 
of the Seljuk sultans, conferred certain provinces in fief upon these 
two great warriors. They in their turn distributed the lands so 
acquired among their sons and principal emirs on strictly feudal 
principles, the feudatory lands being styled ziamet and timar, a 
system long continued by their successors in regard to the territories 
which they conquered. The conquered peoples fell into an inferior 
caste, made to work for, and to pay for the subsistence of, their 
conquerors, as under the Arab domination; the principal taxes 
exacted from them were the kharaj, a tax of indeterminate 
amount upon realty, based on the value of lands owned by unbe- 
lievers (in contradistinction to the tithe [ashar] which was a tax 
of fixed amount upon lands owned by believers) and levied in pay- 
ment of the privilege of gaining means of existence in a Mussulman 
country, and thejiziye, a compulsory payment, or poll-tax, to which 
believers were not subjected, in lieu of military service. The 
conquerors were feudatories of the reigning prince or sultan, and 
their payments consisted principally in providing fighting forces 
to make up the armies of the prince. The kharaj, the jiziye, and 
the whole feudal system disappeared in theory, although its spirit, 
and indeed in some respects its practice, still exists in fact, during 
the reforming period initiated by Sultan Selim III., culminating 
in the Tanzimat-i-Khairiye (1839) of Abd-ul-Mejid, and the Hatt-i- 
Humayun issued by the same sultan (1856). The administration 
of the state revenues was managed by a government department 
known as the Beit-ul-Mal or Maliye, terms generally employed 
throughout Islamic countries since the commencement of Islam. 
But the entire financial authority resided in the su'.tan as keeper, 
by right, of the fortune of his subjects. The public revenues were 
passed under three principal denominations: (i) the public treasury; 
(2) the reserve, into which was paid any surplus of revenues over 
expenses from the treasury ; (3) the private fortune (civil list) of the 
prince. Expenditure, as under the Seljuk sultans, was defrayed 
partly in cash, partly in " assignations " (havale). 

The Osmanh sultans, as also the Mamelukes and the Seljuks, 
were accustomed to give largesse to their military forces on their 
accession to the throne, or on special occasions of rejoicing, a 
custom which still is practised in form, as for instance on the first 
day of the year, or the birthday of the Prophet (mevltid). Largesse 
was especially given on the field of victory, and was, moreover, 
liberally distributed to stifle sedition and mutiny among the troops, 
the numerical strength of which was continually increased as the 
empire enlarged its borders. This vicious system, grafted as it was 
upon an inefficient administration, and added to the weight of a 
continual'.y depreciated currency, debased both by ill-advised 
fiscal measures and by public cupidity, formed one of the principal 
causes of the financial embarrassments which assailed the treasury 
with ever increasing force in the latter part of the i6th and during 
the I7th and l8th centuries. The Turkish historian, Kutchi Bey, 
attributes the origin of the decline of the empire to the reign of 
Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566), when the conversion of many 
emiriye lands into vakufs was effected, and the system of farming 
out revenues first introduced. Impoverished by these different 
causes, as well as by prodigal extravagance in interior expenditure, 
by shameless venality among the ruling classes, and by continual 
wars, of which the cost, whether they were successful or not, was 
enormous, the public treasury was frequently empty. So long as 
the reserve was available it was drawn upon to supply the void ; but 
when that also was exhausted recourse was had to expedients, 
such as the borrowing, or rather seizure, of the vakuf revenues (1622) 
and the sale of crown properties; then ensued a period of barefaced 
confiscation, until, to restore public confidence in some measure, 
state budgets were published at intervals, viz. the partial budget 
of Ainy-Ali (in 1018 or A. p. 1609), the budget of Ali Aga (in 1064, 
or 1653) and that of Eyubi Effendi (in 1071, or 1660). At this time 
(1657-1681) the brilliant administration of the two Kuprilis 
restored temporary order to Ottoman finance. The budget of 
Eyubi Effendi is particularly interesting as giving the statement 
of revenue and expenditure for an average year, whereas the budget 
of Ainy-Ali was a budget of expenditure only, and even in this 
respect the budget of Eyubi Effendi is far more detailed and 
complete. The budget of Ali Aga is almost identical with that 
of Eyubi Effendi, and is worthy of special note for the conclusions 
which accompanied it, and which although drawn up 250 years ago, 
described with striking accuracy some of the very ills from which 
Turkish finance was suffering throughout the reign of Abd-ul-Hamid. 

Apart from unimportant modifications, the form of the budget 
must have remained unchanged until the organic reforms of Selim 
III., while its complete transformation into European shape dates 
only from the year 1278 (1862), when Fuad Pasha attached a regular 
budget to his report on the financial situation of the empire. Since 
that time there had been no further change worth noting until the 
"new regime" was established in 1908. Although the publication 
of the budget had only taken place at very irregular intervals, it 
must also be observed that the published budgets were by no means 



accurate. From the time of Eyubi Effendi until the end of the grand 
vizierate of Ibrahim Pasha (1730), the empire experienced periodical 
relief from excessive financial distress under the series of remarkable 
grand viziers who directed the affairs of state during that time, 
but the recovery was not permanent. Ottoman arms met with 
almost systematic reverses; both the ordinary and the reserve 
treasuries were depleted; a proposal to contract a foreign loan 
(1783) came to nothing, and the public debt (duyun-i-umumiye) 
was created by the capitalization of certain revenues in the form 
of interest bearing bonds (sehims) issued to Ottoman subjects 
against money lent by them to the state (1785). Then came forced 
loans and debased currency (1788), producing still more acute 
distress until, in 1791, at the close of the two years' war with Russia, 
in which the disaster which attended Ottoman arms may be largely 
ascribed to the penury of the Ottoman treasury, Selim III., the first 
of the " reforming sultans, " attempted, with but little practical 
success, to introduce radical reforms into the administrative organiza- 
tion of his empire. These endeavours were continued with scarcely 
better result by each of the succeeding sultans up to the time of the 
Crimean War, and during the whole of the period the financial 
embarrassment of the empire was extreme. Partial relief was sought 
in the continual issue of debased currency (beshlik, altilik and their 
subdivisions), of which the excess of nominal value over intrinsic 
value ranged between 33 and 97 %, and finally paper money (kaime) 
which was first issued in 1839, bearing an interest of 8 %, reduced in 
1842 to 6%, such interest being paid on notes of 500 piastres, but 
not on notes of 20 or 10 piastres, which were issued simultaneously. 
Finally, usage of paper money was restricted to the capital only, 
and in 1842 this partial reform of the paper currency was followed 
by a reform of the metallic currency, in the shape of an issue of gold, 
silver and copper currency of good value. The gold coins issued 
were 500, 250, 100, 50, and 25 piastres in value, the weight of the 
loo-piastre piece (Turkish pound), 7-216 grammes, -916! fine. 
The silver coins were of 20, 10, 5, 2, I and f piastre in value, the 
2O-piastre piece weighing 24-055 grammes, -830 fine. The copper 
money was in pieces of a nominal value of 40, 20, 10, 5 and I paras, 
40 paras being equal to I piastre. In 1851 further attempts were 
made to withdraw the paper money from circulation, but these were 
interrupted by the Crimean War, and the government was, on the 
contrary, obliged to issue notes of 20 and 10 piastres. Finally, at 
the outbreak of the Crimean War Turkey was assisted by her allies 
to raise a loan of 3,000,000 in London, guaranteed by Great Britain 
and France; in 1855 an organic law was issued regulating the budget, 
and in the same year a second guaranteed loan of 5,000,000 was 
contracted in Great Britain. In 1857 an interior loan of 150,000 
purses in bonds (esham-i-mumtaze) , repayable in three years and 
bearing 8 % interest, was raised ; the term of repayment was, how- 
ever, prolonged indefinitely. In the same year another series of 
bonds (hazine tahvili), bearing 6% interest, and repayable in 1861, 
was issued; in 1861 the term of reimbursement was prolonged until 
1875. In 1858 a third loan was contracted in Great Britain for 
5,000,000, and thereafter foreign loans followed fast on one another 
in i860, 1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, 1869, 1872, 1873 and 1875, not to 
mention the two Egyptian tribute loans raised on Egyptian credic 
in 1871 and 1877. In 1859 the settlement of palace debts gave rise 
to the issue of 1,000,000 purses of new interior bonds (esham-i-jedide) 
spread over a period of three years, repayable in twenty-four years, 
and bearing interest at 6%. Further 6% bonds, repayable in ten 
years, and styled sergnis, were issued in the same year. Seeing the 
rapid increase of the financial burdens of the state, a commission 
of experts, British, French and Austrian, was charged, (1860) with 
setting the affairs in order, and with their assistance Fuad Pasha 
drew up the budget accompanying his celebrated report to the sultan 
in 1862. Meanwhile kaime was being issued in great quantities 
(about 60,000 purses a month) and fell toa discount (December 1861) 
of 75%- I n 1862 further sehims were issued, and these and the 
loan of 1862 (8,000,000) were devoted to the withdrawal of the 
kaime. Later, however, the kaime was again issued in very large 
amounts, and the years succeeding 1872 up to the Russian War 
(1877) presented a scarcely interrupted course of extravagance and 
financial disorder, the result of which is described below. 

The Budget was supposed to be drawn up according to an excellent 
set of regulations sanctioned by imperial decree, dated the 6th of July 
1290 (1875), of which the first article absolutely prohibited the 
increase, by the smallest sum, of any of the expenses, or the abandon- 
ment of the least iota of the revenues fixed by the budget. Under these 
regulations the revenues were divided into two categories, viz. the 
direct and the indirect. The first category included the " imposts " 
properly so called, the fixed contributions (redevances fixes) to be 
paid by the " privileged provinces, " and the military exoneration 
tax. In the second were comprised tithes, mine-royalties, forests 
and domains, customs, sheep-tax, tobacco, salt, spirits, stamps 
and " various. " The expenses were also divided into two categories 
(l) " Periodic and fixed " expenditure, which admitted of neither 
reduction nor delay; and (2) the credits allowed to the various 
departments of state, which might be increased or diminished 
according to circumstances. The expenditure of the first category 
was made up of the service of foreign loans, of the general debt, 
of the dotations replacing ziamet and timarat (military fiefs) and of 
fixed contributions such as vakufs. In the second category were 



432 



TURKEY 



[FINANCE 



included the imperial civil list, the departments of the Sheikh-ul- 
Islamat and of religious establishments, the ministries of the interior, 
war, finance, public instruction, foreign affairs, marine, commerce 
(including mines and forests), and public works, and, finally, of 
the grand master of ordnance. For every province (vilayet) a 
complete budget of receipts and expenditure was drawn up by its 
defterdar (keeper of accounts) under the supervision of the vali 
(governor); this budget was forwarded to the minister of finance, 
while each state and ministry of department received communica- 
tion of the items appertaining to it. Each ministry and department 
then sent in a detailed budget to the Sublime Porte before the end of 
November of each year. (The Turkish financial year is from the 1st 
of March to the 28th of February o.s.). The Sublime Porte for- 
warded these budgets, with its own added thereto, to the minister 
of finance, who thereupon drew up a general budget of receipts 
and expenses and addressed it to the Sublime Porte before the 1 5th 
of December. This was summarily considered by the council of 
ministers, and then referred to the budget commission, which was to 
be composed not only of State functionaries, but of private persons 
" worthy of confidence, and well versed in financial matters, " 
and which was invested with the fullest powers of investigation 
and inquiry. The report drawn up by the commission on the 
results of its labours was submitted to the Council of Ministers, 
which then finally drew up a general summary of the definitive 
budget and submitted it by mazbata (memorandum) for the imperial 
sanction. When this sanction had been accorded the budget was 
to be published. The remaining regulations set forth the manner 
in which extra-budgetary and extraordinary expenses were to be 
dealt with, and the manner in which the rectified budget, showing 
the actual revenues and expenditure as proved at the close of the 
year was to be drawn up with the assistance of the state accounts 
department (divan-i-mouhassebdt). This rectified budget, accom- 
panied by an explanatory memorandum, was examined by the 
budget commission and the Council of Ministers, and submitted for 
the imperial sanction, after receiving which it was ordered that both 
be published. Special instructions and regulations determined 
the latitude left to each department in the distribution of the credits 
accorded to it among its various heads of expenditure, the degree 
of responsibility of the functionaries within each department and 
the relations regarding finance and accounts between each department 
and its dependencies. These regulations provide carefully and well 
for all contingencies, but unfortunately they were only very partially 
carried out. It may indeed be said that it was only the previsionary 
budget (anglicb, the estimates) that received any approximately 
proper care on the lines laid down, while the rule that both the 
estimates and the definite budget (at the close of each year) should 
be published was almost wholly honoured in the breach; until 1909, 
when the Constitution had been re-established the budget had only 
twice been published, in 1880 and 1897, since the regulations were 
put into force. Not only were the budgets not published, but no 
figures whatever were allowed to transpire in regard to the true 
position of the Turkish treasury which laid the accuracy of even 
the limited number of budgets published open to suspicion. 

All this has now been changed, and the above regulations are 
conscientiously carried out with the differences in procedure 
necessary for compliance with constitutional methods, and with 
the submission of the Budget to the houses of parliament. The 
Budget is now published in full detail and that for the year 1326 
(1910-1911), with the explanatory memorandum which prefaces 
it, is an admirable work, mercilessly exposing the financial short- 
comings and sins of the previous system, or rather want of system, 
while unshrinkingly facing the difficulties which the present 
government has inherited. The account thus presented to us of 
what the previous confusion was, underlines and attests the 
summary exposition of it given in the last edition of this work. 
It was there stated that, on the most favourable estimate, 
the normal deficit of the Turkish treasury was ^2,725,000, 
(upwards of T, 1,700,000 below the truth as now declared) 
and the following observations were appended: 

" This budget represents the normal situation of Ottoman finance; 
it does not tally with the budget published in 1897, which was 
prepared with a special object in view, and was obviously full of 
inaccuracies, nor indeed does it agree with figures which could be 
officially obtained from the Porte. It is, however, compiled from 
the best sources of information, and it exaggerates nothing. The 
formidable deficit is met principally in three ways, (i) By leaving 
the salaries of state officials and the army unpaid. In many parts 
of the empire the soldiers rarely receive more than eight months pay 
in the year, although in Constantinople the arrears are not so large. 
The reverse is the case with the civil officials, whose salaries in the 
provinces are paid more regularly than in Constantinople, owing to 
their being charged on the provincial budgets; the average arrears 
are from two to three months in Constantinople, and from one to 
three in the provinces. The arrears in civil and military salaries 
average annually about fTi, 750,000. (2) By means of loans, both 



public and from individuals. By financial expedients of this kind 
payments were effected by the treasury in fifteen years (1881-1896) 
amounting to Ti 1, 666,000 or at the rate of nearly T8oo,ooo per 
annum. (3) By anticipating the revenues of future years. This is 
the method so frankly condemned by Ali Aga, as was seen above, in 
1 653. Delegations (havate) are granted on the provincial treasuries for 
one or two years in advance, sometimes for a series of years, in order 
to pay pressing debts too heavy to be met in a single payment. No 
better description of the financial distress and disorder of the empire 
can be given than that set forth in the official report of the budget 
commission of 1888. " It has hitherto been considered necessary 
owing to financial embarrassment, to commence financial years with 
unbalanced budgets. Later, without taking into consideration the 
effective amounts in cash at the disposal of the vilayets, considerable 
sums were drawn upon them, by means of havales, out of proportion 
to their capacity. For these reasons, during the last two or three 
months of the financial year, the vilayets have not a para to remit 
to the central administration, and it has been considered imperatively 
necessary to draw on the revenues of the following year. Thus, 
especially during the last two years, urgent extraordinary expenses 
have been perforce partially covered by the proceeds of the 
ordinary revenues, the revenues of 1303 (1887) were already 
considerably anticipated in the course of 1302 (1886). The 
former year naturally felt the effect of this, and the tithes which 
should have been encashed in the last months of the year were 
discounted and spent several months in advance. Moreover, in 
order to meet to some extent the deficit arising as well from the 
accumulation of arrears of state departments since 1300 (1884) as, 
to a large degree, from gross deficiencies due to the neglect of the 
civil officials of the government to encash the revenues to meet, 
further, the needs of the central administration, and above all, tke 
urgent military expenses of the empire, and to provide a guarantee 
for bankers and merchants in business relations with the government 
and the treasury, part of the revenues of 1304 were perforce spent in 
J 3 O 3- " This commission proved the deficit of the year to be 
^4,370,000. It set out also at length the very defective and dis- 
orderly condition of the state accounts. During the finance ministry 
of Agop Pasha (188910 1894) a good deal was done to set matters 
in order, but most of the ground then gained has since been lost." 

To this may be added a short extract from the Explanatory 
Preface to the Finance Bill for the year 1910-1911. After point- 
ing out the immense difficulties which he had had to encounter 
owing to the absence of any regular accounts, and above all of 
any of " those statistics which constitute the soul, indeed the 
very life of a public administration," and that it was therefore 
impossible for him to pretend that he had been able to free him- 
self altogether from the effects of the past, the minister continues, 
" every time we have endeavoured to have recourse to the previous 
elements of appreciation, we found ourselves faced by the chaos 
which characterized former years. We have sometimes ascer- 
tained things so strange that we cannot forbear expressing our 
astonishment at the idea that a great power such as ours could 
maintain itself under such conditions." M. Ch. Laurent, the 
financial adviser to the Turkish government, stated in a lecture on 
Turkish Finance, delivered in Paris on the 22nd of April 1910, 
that the Ministry of Finance has now been largely reorganized. 
Officials, he says, with grand titles and no responsible duties have 
been abolished, and departments with responsible chiefs created. 
The agents of the finance ministry, instead of being mere clerks, 
are now employed in " the assessment and collection of taxes, 
the control of expenditure, the preparation and execution of the 
budget, the estimates of the necessary cash required at different 
points of the empire all that, in fine, constitutes the 
real financial administration of a great empire." Laurent 
points out that direct taxes furnish 54% of the revenues of 
the empire, that agriculture is accordingly very heavily taxed, 
and that the tax on realty is both excessive and unfairly 
administered. The summary history given above of the origin 
of the system of taxation prevailing in Turkey explains how 
this came about. Reform of this system, and, further, very 
necessary reforms of the methods of collection of the wines 
and spirits revenue (which is protection turned upside down, 
the home-growers being far more heavily taxed than im- 
porters), and of the customs (in which almost every possible 
administrative sin was exemplified), were also undertaken. 
Three bills, moreover, were presented to parliament, the 
first regulating Public Accountancy, the second regulating the 
Central Accounts Department, and the third the service of 
the Treasury. By this last the centralization of receipts and 



FINANCE! 



TURKEY 



433 



expenditure and the movement of funds in the provinces were 
to be confided to the Imperial Ottoman Bank, which extendec 
and perfected its own organization for the purpose. 

Passing now to the examination of the budget, it should be ob- 
served that the method of estimating the revenues a matter of great 
difficulty owing to the previous want of method is described by 
Laurent as follows: " For every nature of receipts the total effective 
collections for the five last known years were set out, the averages 
were taken of these and the increase or decrease of the yearly average 
of those same years was worked out and added to or deducted from 
the figure previously obtained. The only exception made to this 
rule was in the case of revenues showing a yearly increase, such as 
Post Office revenue, tobacco, salt, for which were taken the figures 
of 1323 (1907) increased by a certain average." The expenditure 
was arrived at in the manner previously described and when the 
general budget came to be made up the severest pruning was found 
necessary, the original demands of the various ministries and depart- 
ments having resulted in a deficit of upwards of 1*9,000,000. It is 
thought better here, for the sake of clearness, to reserve observations 
on revenues specially assigned to the international administration 
of the Ottoman Public Debt, and on the expenditure of that adminis- 
tration, and to deal with that subject separately, while, however, 
including the total figures of both in the general figures in order to 
reproduce exactly the totals shown in the budget of the empire. 
The principal items of revenue and expenditure are as follows, the 
figures being taken from the published budget above-mentioned. 

Revenue. Direct Taxes. 1 The tax on realty (vcrghi) is estimated 
to yield Ta, 599,420. Duties on profession (temettu) consist (a) of a 
fixed duty leviable at rates declared in a schedule forming part of 
the special law (Dec. 8, 1907) regulating the tax, and (6) of a propor- 
tional duty at the rate of 3 % on the value of buildings occupied by 
companies or individuals in the prosecution of their business; of 3 % 
on salaries (subject to certain deductions) of employe's of such 
companies and individuals; and on government contractors and 
revenue farmers, at the rate of 3 % of 10 % of the value of contracts 
filled and of revenues farmed. The law is defective and unfair in 
its incidence, and it is not applicable to foreigners. The government 
promised in 1910 to remedy the law with the assent of the Great 
Powers, and, if successful in its negotiations, to present an amended 
law. The duties are estimated to produce 1*393,107; other profes- 
sional duties Ti 10,887 together 1503, 994. A " Military Exonera- 
tion tax " is levied on male Ottoman subjects between the ages of 
15 and 75 to the amount of 1*50 for 135 persons certain exceptions 
such as priests, religious orders, &c., are allowed. The estimated 
revenue from this source is Tl, 289,612. " Prestations " are pay- 
ments in lieu of services (apart from military service) to the state, 
such as maintenance of highways, &c. in effect, purchase of exonera- 
tion from forced labour. These duties vary in different parts of the 
empire: in the vilayets of Constantinople, Bagdad and Adrianople, 
and in the sanjaksof Bigha and Tchatalja the day's workis calculated 
at 5 piastres (about nd.); in the vilayets of Aleppo, Trebizond, 
Angora, lannina, Konia, Sivas and Kastamuni at 4 piastres (about 
9d.) ; and in most other parts of the empire at 3 piastres (about 7d.). 
These taxes were formerly levied either in cash or in kind : it has now 
been decided to levy them in cash only, although this change was 
expected to cause some arrears. Allowing for these, the estimated 
revenue is 1*553,938. The " tax on sheep, camels, buffaloes and 
hogs" (aghnam, meaning literally "sheep," but for taxing purposes 
the other animals are included under the same name), formed origi- 
nally part of the " tithe." It was transformed long since into a fixed 
amount per head of the animals taxed, which amount varies accord- 
ing to the region in which the tax is levied, the highest tariff being 
in the sanjak of Jerusalem (7 "f piastres) and the lowest in the Yemen 
(i piastre). The estimated receipts are, from sheep 1*1,790,720, 
from camels and buffaloes 1*144,520, [and from hogs 1*8890, 
or together Ti, 814,152. " Tithes" are the direct descendant of 
the kharaj already alluded to above. It should here be noted that, 
from the fiscal point of view, the reforms instituted at the commence- 
ment of the igth century may be summarized thus. In permanent 
remuneration of certain services to be rendered to the state, the 
sovereign assigned to civil or military functionaries territorial 
regions for the purpose, and with the power, of collecting land taxes 
imposed by Mussulman and Imperial law, i.e. the kharaj or tithe, and 
transfer and succession duties. The tithes were originally based on 
one-tenth of the agricultural produce of the country, but this propor- 
tion was gradually raised under the euphemistic pretence of " public 
instruction," but really, under financial pressure, to 12 % and again 
in 1900 for military " equipments " (Tejhizat-i-'Askeriyeh) by a 
further |% to I2j%. This last surtax, which produces about 
190,000 per annum, was specially affected to a loan, known as the 
Tejhizat-i- Askerieh of 1905," of 1*2,640,000, by virtue of a con- 
tract between the government and the Deutsche Bank (April 17, 

1 It should be noted that the classification of the revenues included 
respectively under the " direct " and " indirect " categories has now 
been quite properly changed, the sheep-tax, tithes, mining royalties 
and forest royalties being comprised under " direct taxes "; stamps 
and registration duties are placed in a special category, and salt and 
tobacco under " monopolies." 



!95). The estimated receipts from the " Tithes " (including 
tobacco and silk, both hypothecated to the Public Debt Administra- 
tion) are 10,731,107. The remaining taxes under the category 
direct are the forest-dues (generally speaking 15 % of the value 
of wood cut), estimated to produce 1*130,094; the mining dues 
(being a fixed duty of 10 piastres per 10,000 sq. metres of the super- 
ficial area covering the mine, and a proportional duty varying from 
i % to 20 % of the gross value of metal contained in the ore, accord- 
ing to the kind of metal and the method of extraction of the ore), 
1*45,141; and tax-papers (Tezkeres), 1*58,434. The total "direct 
taxes (inclusive of tobacco and silk tithes) are thus estimated to 
amount to 1*13,725,892. 

Section II. of the budget is composed entirely of revenues from 
stamp-duties. Of these, commercial stamps are among the revenues 
specifically hypothecated to the Public Debt Administration, 
14.60,079; the others, consisting of legal stamps of various kinds, 
registration and transfer-duties, &c., are estimated to produce 
T6 53-373 forming a combined total of 1*1,113,452. 

Under Section III. fall the " indirect contributions " as now 
reclassified. The first revenue specified among these in the budget 
is that accruing from the wine and spirit duties, which is again among 
those assigned to the Public Debt, 1283,079. Licenses for sale of 
Tumbeki, a variety of Persian tobacco used for the narghile, 1*2046. 
By far the most important " indirect " revenue is that produced by 
the customs, consisting of import, export and transit duties, and 
various unspecified receipts. Under the old commercial treaties 
which lapsed about 1890 but which have been maintained " pro- 
visionally " in force until one or other of the great powers consents 
to set a term to the negotiation of fresh treaties an ad valorem duty 
of 8 % was imposed on all articles imported into the Turkish empire. 
In 1905 financial resources had to be found for the special administra- 
tion of the three European vilayets as insisted upon by the powers, 
and to this end the Porte initiated negotiations with the latter to 
increase the import duties by 3%. As is usual in Turkey, this 
opportunity was seized for the demand of redress of grievances by 
such powers as considered they had any, and the negotiations were 
protracted until July 1907, when France finally gave in her adhesion. 
Since then the import duties have been collected at the rate of II % 
ad valorem under the supervision of the Public Debt Administration, 
the bondholders having certain rights, under the decree of Muharem, 
described below, over any increase of revenue arising from modifica- 
tion of the commercial treaties. By the provisions of the " Annex 
Decree," also described below, three-quarters of the additional 
revenue is assigned to the Turkish government, and one-quarter 
to the Public Debt Administration to swell the sinking-fund. 
Fresh negotiations were also undertaken to increase the import- 
duties by a further 4% in order to balance the deficit shown 
in the budget. In the year 1910-1911 the import duties were 
estimated to produce 1*3,980,395, the transit duties 1:20,276, 
and the export duties (i % ad valorem, which it was hoped 
the government might soon afford to abolish) 1*168,993 total 
customs revenue, ["4,217,752. The remaining " indirect contribu- 
tions " are port and lighthouse dues, 1*148,426. Sanitary taxes, 
1*20,519, and fisheries and sporting licenses affected to the service 
of the public debt, 1*153,990. The revenues figuring under " indi- 
rect contributions " thus reach a total of 1*4,825, 812. 

Monopolies form Section IV. of the budget, and include in the first 
place the salt revenue (Tl, 227,750), which is assigned to the Public 
Debt Administration, and tobacco revenues of which the larger part, 
1*865,737, is assigned to the same administration, the total (includ- 
ing share of Tumbeki profit) producing 1*965,754; the remaining 
monopolies are: fixed payment from the Tumbeki Company, 
140,000; explosives, 1*106,323; seignorage (Mint), Tlo,466; and 
posts and telegraphs, 1912,129. The " Monopolies " thus render 
a total revenue of 1*3,262,424. 

Section V. includes receipts from commercial and industrial 
undertakings belonging to the state. These are the Hejaz railway, 
1*152,000; the Dolma-Bagtche gas-works, 159,130; technical 
school, 1*8536; the Tigris and Euphrates steamships, T62,5i3;and 
mines (Heraclea coal and other), Tl2O,7io; forming a combined 
total of 1402,889. 

Section VI. iscomposed of receipts from" State Domains "of which 
a large proportion was formerly included in the civil list. Under 
the deposed sultan the Civil List Administration had encroached 
n every direction not only on the revenues properly accruing 
to the state, but upon private and upon state property in most 
aarts of the empire. Thus it is explained in the preface to the budget 
:hat the revenues " proceeding from the deposed sultan " are not 
classed together under one heading, but that they have been 
apportioned to the various sections under which they should fall 
' whether taxes on house property or property not built upon, 
tithes, aghnam, forests, mines, cadastre, sport, military equipment, 
private domains of the state, various receipts, proceeds of sales, 
ents " a truly comprehensive list which by no means set a 
imit to the private resources of Abd-ul-Hamid II., who looked upon 
the customs also as a convenient reserve on which he could, and 
did, draw when his 'privy purse was short of money. Apart from 
the sources of revenue specified above, of which the amounts 
actually transferred from the civil list are not stated, Section VI. 
s estimated to produce 1*513,651. In the previous budget there 



434 



TURKEY 



[FINANCE 



had been a special heading, " Proceeds of Domains transferred from 
the Civil List," estimated to produce 7620,233, which may have 
been intended to include all the various receipts above enumerated. 

Section VII., formed of the tributes of dependencies of which the 
two principal are the Egyptian, ^765,000, and that of Cyprus 
Tl02 1590 (assigned to the public, debt) comprises a total revenue of 
?T87 1 ,3 16. Finally, various receipts of which the principal separately 
specified are government share of railway receipts (Oriental railways 
and Smyrna-Cassaba railway), T2Oi,7io, and "subscriptions 
for the Hejaz railway, 1264,600, form Section VIII. 

The total revenues of the empire are thus estimated to produce 
125,848,332, and seeing the careful and moderate manner in 
which the estimates have been framed, this may be looked upon 
rather as a minimum than a maximum. The minister of finance 
stated in his budget speech to parliament, delivered on the 23rd 
of April 1910, that the revenues for the year 1909-1910, which 
had been estimated to produce ^25,000,000, had as a matter of 
fact produced T26, 500,000. 

Expenditure. Ministry of Finance. The first item of expendi- 
ture shown in the budget is the service of the public debt, amount- 
ing to T8,288,394. The Public Debt Administration plays so 
considerable a part in the finances of the Ottoman Empire, and its 
history is of such importance that a special section of this article 
will be devoted to it below. Under the budgetary heading 
" Public Debt " is included, as it should be, all expenditure in 
connexion not only with the public debt proper, but also with 
advances from banks and others, railway guarantees, an account 
of which will also be found below, and all capitalized liabilities, as 
far as known, contracted by the state. 

It is explained in the preface to the budget that one of the abuses 
of the previous regime had been to obtain advances from credit 
establishments at high rates of interest varying from 7 % to 9 %, 
when it was found impossible to issue a public loan. The rates on 
these advances have now been generally reduced to 6 % with the 
exception of that on the advances from the lighthouse administra- 
tion, which refused to allow any reduction below 7 %. In the years 
1908-1909 the advances were reduced by T688,ooo, in addition to 
repayments allowed for in the budget, and the credit agreed for the 
year 1909-1910 is T663,ooo, as compared with Ti, 160,000 for the 
previous year. In the year 1910-1911 the outstanding advances 
were to be so far paid off that the credits to be opened under this 
head would be still further reduced by Tsoo,ooo. 

The civil list has been reduced to the definite amount of 1443,880, 
wh'.ch, without the consent of parliament, cannot be increased. 
The sultan receives an annual allocation for himself and household 
of T240,ooo, the crown prince one of 124,000, and a sum of 
Tl53,ooo is assigned to the Imperial princes and the sultanas. 
The deposed sultan was allowed Tl2,ooo a year, and a similar 
amount was set aside to provide dowries for two sultanas who 
were just about to be married. The debts of the former are stated 
in the preface to the budget to be very large, and as payments are 
effected fresh creditors present themselves with undeniable vouchers 
in their hands, causing much embarrassment to the minister of 
finance: no figures, however, are given. The Finance Bill provides 
that these debts are to be paid out of supplementary credits. 

Under the reformed constitution every senator is entitled to a 
salary of Tloo per month, any remuneration which he may receive 
from the government for other services to be deducted from the 
senatorial allowance which, however, it may of course exceed. 
Deputies are allowed T3OO for each session of parliament, and Tso 
per month in addition should the session exceed its legal duration. 
They are further allowed travelling expenses from and to their 
constituencies on the basis of rules governing journeys of function- 
aries receiving a monthly salary of Tso. The amount reserved in 
the budget for these purposes is Ti8i,87l. 

The ministry of finance absorbs ^2,989,600. In this are in- 
cluded the expenses of the administration of both the central and 
provincial departments of the finance ministry, the mint, charitable 
allowances, expenses and presents in connexion with the holy 
cities (Ti2i,4io), pension funds of state officials (T628,O38), 
administrative allowance made to the agricultural bank (T225,38o) 
and various other expenses. Various administrative reforms were 
in hand in 1910-191 1 , by which it was expected considerably to reduce 
the credits demanded by the finance ministry-^-especially those 
in connexion with the holy cities. Special attention was called by 
the minister to the fact that the system of contributions of officials 
to the pension funds has been modified, the deduction from salaries 
being now IO % instead of 5 %, and the contributions to the funds 
being made as to one-third by the treasury, and two-thirds by the 
officials, instead of the reverse as formerly: the economy effected 
is about T3Oo,ooo. A credit of Ti7,i24 is allowed for the 
central accounts department. The total credits for the ministry ol 
finance are, then, as follows: Ottoman public debt, T8,288,394 - 
House of Osman, T443,88o; legislative corps, T 181,871; 



treasury, T2,989,6oo; central accounts department, Ti7,i24; 
forming an aggregate of Ti 1,920,869. 

Indirect contributions, or more familiarly customs, are allowed 

credit of "1512,670. The minister of finance points out the 
immense importance of the thorough reorganization of the customs 
administration. The services of a first-rate English expert (Mr 
R. F. Crawford) were obtained, and much has been done at Constan- 
tinople, but the provincial custom's offices are still lamentably 
defective. These were immediately to be taken in hand, and 
considerable sums are being voted for repairs of existing customs 
buildings and the construction of new buildings. The reforms 
already accomplished have resulted in a marked increase in the 
customs revenues. 

Posts and telegraphs, which absorbed a credit of ^782,839 in 
1910-191 1, have also long been in urgent need of extension and better 
administration. An additional credit of T9O,ooo was granted, as 
compared with the previous year, and increased expenditure was 
foreshadowed for the future; on the other hand, it was confidently 
expected that the post office receipts would increase in far more 
rapid ratio than the expenditure. 

The ministry of the interior was estimated te require Ti,i57,23O. 
This sum covered " immigration expenses," i.e. assistance given in 
settling Mussulmans immigrating from provinces detached from the 
Ottoman Empire. There can be no doubt that this expenditure is 
remunerative, since many rich regions of Asia Minor have long 
suffered from want of population. 

Military expenditure, including the three departments of war, 
is as follows: the army (excluding artillery), T8,28o,452; ordnance, 
7356,439; and gendarmerie, 71,694,778. As regards the first 
of these, it is curious to observe that the budget decree of 1880 strin- 
gently limited the peace strength of the Ottoman army to 100,000 
men, " including officers and generals," in order to put a stop to 
the rapidly increasing military expenditure; but this was merely 
the expression of a pious wish, at a time when European financial 
good will was indispensable, that expenditure might be kept down. 
No real attempt has ever been made to observe the decree, and 
indeed observance has been impossible seeing the dangers which 
never cease to menace the empire. To some extent the real level 
of military expenditure has been masked by the separation of certain 
payments into "extraordinary" expenditure, a course which, it is 
understood, has not been followed in the budgets of the " new 
regime," and which will not be revived. It should however, be 
remarked that out of an "extraordinary" budget, which will be 
mentioned below, sums of ^709,305 and of T27,827 were allocated 
to the ministry of war and the ordnance department respectively 
in 1909. It is not expected that military expenditure can be much 
reduced, except in the direction of supply contracts, which have been 
the cause in the past of iniquitous waste of means. 

The official budget shows a credit for admiralty expenditure of 
Tl ,000,327, which is apparently less than that for the previous year 
by some T22O,ooo. This, however, is not a real decrease, salaries 
of functionaries not on the active list having been removed to the 
region of supplementary credits, as are those of civil departments. 
As a matter of fact, the marine budgets of the two years are almost 
identical. The vote of Tsoo,ooo a year for ten years for the ; re- 
construction of the Ottoman navy by " national subscription," as 
already mentioned, was not included in the official budget, nor 
was there any allusion to it in the prefatory memorandum. The 
minister of finance did, however, allude to it in his budget speech, 
(April 23, 1910), and stated that four destroyers purchased in 
Germany had been paid for from the national subscription only, 
without touching the ordinary state revenues. It should be added 
that the Greek War (1897) revealed to the sultan the decrepit state 
into which the Ottoman navy had fallen, and considerable " extra- 
ordinary " expenditure much of which was wasted has been 
incurred since (and including) 1902 to put the least out-of-date 
warships into a serviceable condition. 

The ministry of commerce and of public works absorbed T883,i6l 
a reduction of some T 180,000 on the previous year. The govern- 
ment acknowledges the unavoidable necessity of greatly extending 
and improving the internal communications of the country, but 
cannot see its way to doing so satisfactorily out of the ordinary 
resources of the country. This question was being seriously studied, 
and it was hoped that a comprehensive scheme would be presented 
ere long. The Hejaz railway figures in the budget for T55O,i8o, 
and it is explained that this will not only cover working expenses, 
but also the final completion of the line. 

Floating Debt. This is really an accretion of undetermined 
liabilities which has been indefinitely, and probably alternately, 
advancing and receding for a great number of years, and which 
no previous minister of finance, or Turkish government, had the 
courage to face. Now and then it has been dealt with piecemeal, 
when some particular class of creditors has become too pressing, 
but it is more than probable that the piece got rid of has been 
more or less rapidly replaced by fresh liabilities occasioned by 
budgetary deficits, or by the mere accumulation of interest on 
debts allowed to run on. 



FINANCE] 

In March 1897 the floating debt was calculated by a financial 
authority in the Fortnightly Review to amount to upwards of 
T55,ooo,ooo, which might be compressed to T25,opo,ooo since a 
large proportion was certainly composed of salaries in arrear and 
other items of a similar kind which the government would never, 
under any circumstances, make good. Laurent tells us that the 
present government having found it absolutely impossible to arrive 
at even an approximate estimate of this " occult debt," recourse was 
had, in order to fix it, to the creditors themselves, and a short act 
of parliament was passed declaring all debts prescribed which should 
not be claimed by a fixed date. In consequence of this 560,000 
claims were received, and a first examination showed that the aggre- 
gate amount reached by these claims was not less than Tl3, 000,000. 
Considering the dilatory methods of Orientals, even when they are 
creditors, it is doubtful whether this sum adequately covers the whole 
of the claims outstanding, and it may be found difficult, even for a 
parliament, to refuse claims which should equitably be admitted 
and which may be preferred later. High authority in Constanti- 
nople put the true amount of the floating debt in 1910-1911 at the 
amount previously estimated, viz. T25,ooo,oop. No provision 
was then made in the budget to meet these liabilities, nor did the 
minister in his prefatory memorandum make any allusion to them ; 
in his budget speech, however, he announced that a scheme for 
dealing with them would be presented with the budget for 1911-1912. 
Under the heading " Floating Debt " in the budget for 1910-1911 
are placed the advances before described. 

No other items in the budget call for special remark, but in 
order that the information given may be complete, each head of 
expenditure is shown separately below, and the budget for 1910- 
1911, as first placed before the Turkish parliament, presents the 
following picture, from which it may be observed that the public 
debt absorbs 26% of the revenue, war service 38% and civil 
services 36 %. 

Expenditure. Revenue. 

(See above for details of general 
headings here given.) 

T 

Direct contribu- 
tions " . . . _ . 13,725,892 
Stamps and regis- 
tration duties . . 1,113,452 
Indirect contribu- 



TURKEY 



435 



Public debt . . . 8,288,395 

Civil list .... 443,880 

Legislative corps .. 181,870 

Finance . . . 2,989,600 

Accounts (central) . 17.124 

Customs .... 512,670 

Posts and telegraphs 782,840 

Cadastre . . . 109,820 

Grand vizierate . . 25,096 

Council of state . . 33,050 

. Interior .... 1,157,230 

' Public security . . 400,405 

Foreign affairs . . 213,400 

War 8,280,453 

Ordnance .... 356,440 

Gendarmerie . . . 1,694,778 

Marine .... 1,000,328 

Sheikh-ul-Islamat . 483,341 

Justice .... 751.580 

Public instruction . 744,086 
Forests, mines and 

agriculture . . 370,520 
Public works and 

commerce . . . 883,160 

Hejaz railway . . 550,180 



Total . . 730,270,246 



tions .... 
Monopolies . 
State undertakings, 



4,825,812 
3,262,424 



commercial 
industrial . 

Domains . 

Tributes . 

Various receipts 

Total . 
Deficit 



and 



402,889 

513,651 
871,316 
. 1,132,896 

T2 5 ,8 4 8,332 
^4,421,914 



Total . . ^30,270,246 



This deficit was increased, by the action of parliament, to 
79,678,000. Almost immediately after the budget was drawn up a 
change of government took place, and largely owing to this fact the 
parliamentary budget commission introduced various modifications 
on the expenditure side of the account, which increased the estimated 
deficit to the account just mentioned. 1 The principal increase is 
due to the war departments, according to the budget speech of the 
minister of finance (April 23, 1910), although he states that some 



1 On the 25th of June 1910 the chamber finally passed the budget 
for 1910-1911. The figures were as follows: 

Ordinary expenditure, ^32,997,000; extraordinary expenditure, 
T2, 696,000; revenue T26,oi 5,000, leaving a deficit of ^9,678,000, 
which was brought up to over T 10,500,000 by special credits 
for the pension fund, the payment of debts incurred by Abd- 
ul-Hamid and indemnities to officials. On the other hand, the 
minister of finance reckoned that the revenue would probably show 
an increase of Ti, 500,000, while about T2,ooo,ooo of expenditure 
would remain undisbursed, which, with a reserve of T2,ooo,ooo from 
1909, would reduce the deficit to roughly T5,ooo,ooo. 



increase is apparent in all departments. The actual figures of the 
increase are not, however, given. Exaggerated importance must 
not be attributed to the swollen deficit. The demands of the various 
departments of state had been much cut down, and according to the 
minister of finance's own statement much of the reduction was merely 
unavoidable expenditure deferred ; the fact that some of this expen- 
diture, which had been jealously scrutinized, was to be undertaken 
at once, meant that demands on future years would be relatively re- 
duced. A loan of T7,O4O,ooo was arranged with a German group 
headed by the Deutsche Bank. This loan followed upon one of 
T4,7OO,ooo in 1 908, and another of T7,ooo,ooo in 1909 (of which the 
service is provided by the revenues assigned to the Russian War in- 
demnities amounting to T35O,ooo per annum, of which payment has 
been deferred for forty years), the year 1909 having shown a realized 
deficit of about that amount a condition of affairs which would 
appear alarming were it not that the Turkish Empire was passing 
through absolutely abnormal times, and was attempting to convert 
the unstable morass of disorder, ineptitude and corruption left by 
the previous system into a solid foundation for good and orderly 
constitutional government. With the two previous loans abo\e 
mentioned, "15,500,000 capital liabilities were paid off, the work 
of reorganization had made considerable progress, and T2,ooo,ooo 
remained in hand at the beginning of 1910-1911 to continue it. 
As before stated reorganization was quickly followed by a marked 
increase of revenue, and it seemed probable that the forecast of the 
minister of finance that within a comparatively short time that 
increase would amount to T,ooo,ooo was not excessive. Nego- 
tiations were undertaken to increase the customs import duties 
by a further additional 4%. This measure would produce about 
Tl, 250,000 per annum. 

Further expenditure was voted in the course of 1909, to be met by 
an extraordinary budget. On the receipts side of this budget were 
comprised the Austrian indemnity for the annexation of Bosnia and 
Herzegovina (T2, 500,000), cash and securities belonging to the 
deposed sultan (T 1,600,000), sale of old guns (T3oo,ooo), sale of 
lands and other property recovered from civil list encroachments 
(T9o8,ooo), and finally the unexpected balance of the proceeds of 
the 1908 loan (T655,ooo), the whole forming an aggregate total of 
T5,963,ooo. It was intended to assign to the war department 
T3, 804,918, to the grand master of ordnance T358,io8, to the 
admiralty 1*93,912, and to the ministry of finance T2,443,2O2 for 
the payment of the war indemnities in Thessaly and other urgent 
liabilities, the estimated aggregate extraordinary expenditure thus 
amounting to T6,7OO,I4O. Some of the assets above mentioned 
proved, however, not to be easily realizable. Ready buyers were 
not found for the state lands, and the sale of the ex-sultan's securities 
was disputed by the German Reichsbank with which they were 
deposited, while the government did not consider it good policy 
to sell the Anatolian railway shares, which it seized at Yildiz, so 
that only T45O,ooo were encashed by the ministry of finance from 
these sources. Of the sums really received the ministry of finance 
expended some T3,ooo,ooo, in payment of the Greek indemnity, in 
repayment of Tl, 000,000 of advances to tht treasury and by 
assigning the credit voted to the ordnance department, and it was 
stated that these payments exhausted the extraordinary resources 
so far as it has been possible to realize them. 

Collection of Taxes. The Ottoman Empire possesses a very com- 
plete system of local self-government within certain limits. Every 
village or town district has a kind of mayor (mukhtar) appointed by 
election and approved by the official provincial authorities, and a 
" council of ancients" whose members are elected directly. The 
taxes are collected by means of the mukhtars, termed for this purpose 
kabz-i-mal (receiver of treasure), and under the supervision of gen- 
darmes specially named, termed tahsildar (collectors). The official 
authorities provide lists of all the taxes to be collected to the tahsil- 
dars, who hand them, against formal receipt, to the kabz-i-mals. 
The latter are bound to pay in to the local authorities all sums 
collected in five days in town districts, and in fifteen days in villages, 
if under 1500 piastres; sums of 1500 piastres and over are paid in 
at once. The tahsildars check the accounts of the kabz-i-mals, and, 
if they discover peculation, send them at once to be dealt with by the 
chief official authorities of the caza (department) ; all the electors 
of a mukhtar are, ipso facto, joint sureties for him. If the tax-payer 
declines to pay his due, he is brought before the proper authorities 
by the tahsildar; if he persists in his refusal, all his goods, except those 
indispensable for his dwelling and the pursuit of his trade, are sold 
by auction, without recourse to a judgment by tribunal. If he has 
no goods which may be seized, he may be summarily imprisoned for 
a term not exceeding 91 days: two imprisonments for the same debt 
are not permitted. The military exemption tax is not collected as 
above, but by the spiritual chiefs of the various religious 
communities. None of the above regulations apply to Constanti- 
nople, where no military exemption tax is imposed, and where sepa- 
rate official regulations for the collection of taxes are in force. The 
system of farming put the revenues is admitted, and is almost 
invariably followed in the case of the tithes. When this is done, 
the revenues to be farmed are put up to public auction and sold to 
the highest bidder, provided he can prove himself amply solvent and 
produce sufficient sureties. Elaborate regulations are in force for 
this method of collection to secure the state receiving its full due 



TURKEY 



FINANCE 



from the farmers, who, on the other hand, are entitled to full official 
assistance to enforce their rights. 

Assessment of Taxes. For the purposes of assessment the taxes 
may be divided roughly into two classes: (l) variable taxes; (2) non- 
variable taxes. Under the first head would be included proportional 
taxes dependent upon the value of the property taxed; under the 
second, taxes whose amount does not depend upon that value. The 
first class contains such revenues as the emlak verghi-si (duty on 
realty), 'ashar (tithes), temettu (professional tax), &c. In all such 
cases the taxable values are fixed by a commission of experts, some- 
times chosen by the tax-payers themselves, sometimes by the official 
authorities; in all cases both tax-payers and authorities are repre- 
sented on the commissions, whose decisions may be appealed against, 
in last resort, to the council of state at Constantinople, whose deci- 
sion is final. Revenues composing the second class such as the tapu 
(registration tax) do not vary, unless by special decree, and the 
assessment is automatic. 

The systems, both of assessment and collection, were equitable 
and far from oppressive in theory. In practice they left almost 
everything to be desired. The officials, already too numerous and 
underpaid, frequently, as has been stated above, found such pay as 
they had far in arrear. They were therefore naturally open to 
bribery and corruption, with the result that, while the rich often 
got off almost scot free, the poor were unduly taxed, and often 
cruelly oppressed by the tax collectors and farmers of revenue. In 
all departments there ensued, thus, an alarming leakage of revenue, 
amounting, it was credibly estimated, to quite 40%. The new 
government energetically proceeded to remedy this state of affairs. 

International Administration of the Ottoman Debt. In conse- 
quence of the piling up of the exterior public debt as described 
above, it amounted after the issue of " general debt " in 1875 
to Ti90,75o,ooo, and swallowed up annually upwards of 
Tio,ooo,ooo, or nearly half the revenue of the empire as it was 
then constituted. The revolt of various disaffected provinces 
brought matters to a climax; in September 1875 one-half of the 
service of the interest was suspended, paper certificates known as 
" Ramazans " (since they were issued in the Arabic month of 
that name) being issued for that half in lieu of cash, and in the 
following March it was suspended altogether. After the war with 
Russia, in order to obtain credit from the Imperial Ottoman 
Bank and local financiers, who refused any further accommoda- 
tion unless their previous and further advances were amply 
secured, revenues known as the " six indirect contributions " 
were handed over to a committee of local bankers (by decree 
of Nov. 22, 1879), to be administered and collected directly 
by them. These " six indirect contributions " were the 
revenues from tobacco, salt, wines and spirits, stamps (com- 
mercial), certain specified fisheries, and the silk tithe in specified 
provinces. Two years later, partly in view of the recommenda- 
tions of the Congress of Berlin, partly to overcome insuperable 
difficulties in obtaining any kind of credit, the sultan authorized 
the Sublime Porte to issue an invitation to the various bond- 
holders' committees in Europe to send delegates to Constanti- 
nople for the purpose of negotiating a resumption of payments. 
These " committees " were the " Council of Foreign Bondholders " 
for Great Britain, the Imperial Ottoman Bank and its " group " 
for France, Herr S. Bleichroder for Berlin, the Credit-Anstalt 
and its " group " for Austria-Hungary, and the Chamber of 
Commerce and of Arts of Rome for Italy. The Dutch bondholders 
placed their interests in the hands of the British council. Russia 
declined to countenance the negotiations in any way. Delegates 
from the various committees assembled in Constantinople in 
the early summer of 1881. The commission formed by them 
in conjunction with the delegates of the Sublime Porte is more 
generally known as the " Valfrey-Bourke commission," from the 
leading parts played by the Right Hon. R. Bourke (Lord Conne- 
mara), the British delegate, and M. Valfrey, the French 
delegate. The outcome of the negotiations was the issue of an 
imperial decree, known as the " Decree of Muharrem," owing 
to its bearing the date (Turkish style) of the 28th of Muhar- 
rem (Dec. 20) 1881. By this decree the outstanding capital of 
the exterior debt, to which were added the Ramazan certifi- 
cates above mentioned, and all interest fallen due, making a 
grand total of 252,800,000, was scaled down to 106,437,234 
(Ti 17,080,958). On this reduced capital a minimum interest of 
i % was to be paid, the rate of interest to be increased by quarters 
per cent, as the revenues set aside for the service of the reduced 



debt permitted. For purposes of sinking fund the old loans 
were combined into four groups: 1 group i. containing the 1858 
and 1862 loans, with a reduced nominal capital of ^7,902,259; 
group ii. the 1860, 1863, 1864 and 1872 loans, with a reduced 
nominal capital of ^11,265,153; group iii. the 1865, 1869 and 
1873 loans, with a reduced nominal capital of 1*33,915,762, and 
group iv. the " general debt," of which the last issue was in 1875, 
with a reduced nominal capital of ^48,365, 236, and the " lottery 
bonds " (railway loan), with a reduced nominal capital of 
Ti 5,632, 548, the total of group iv. being thus ^63,997,784. 
As security for the service of the new reduced debt it was provided 
that an international council should be formed, composed of one 
delegate each from the bondholders of the United Kingdom, 
France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy and Turkey, and one 
representing the " priority bondholders," a term which will be 
explained later. On this council the Turkish government has 
the right of naming an imperial commissioner with " consul- 
tative voice," i.e. no voting power, but the right to express his 
opinion on the proceedings of the council, who would make all 
reports he considered necessary to his government. The govern- 
ment was empowered also to name controllers to whom all the 
accounts of the administration should be open for inspection on 
demand. In all other respects the council, provided that it kept 
within the limits of the laws the administration of which was 
entrusted to it, was to be entirely independent of the Ottoman 
government, free to appoint and dismiss its own officials from 
highest to lowest, and to carry on its administration on such lines 
as it thought best. Proposals made by the council for the modifi- 
cation and improvement of the existing laws and regulations 
which concerned it were to receive an answer from the govern- 
ment within six months; this provision has remained a dead 
letter. Any difference between the government and the council, 
if not possible of adjustment, was to be settled by arbitration. 

To this council, with these extended powers, was handed over the 
absolute administration, collection and control of the " six indirect 
contributions " above enumerated, for the benefit of the bond- 
holders, and in addition, it was to encash for the same purpose 
bills on the customs, to be drawn half-yearly in its favour by the 
minister of finance, amounting annually to Tl8o,ooo, representing 
the tax on Tumbeki (T.so,ooo) and the surplus revenue of Cyprus 
(Tl30,ooo) ; and the Eastern Rumelian annuity, originally fixed at 
T245,ooo, but gradually reduced by force of circumstances, until 
after frequent suspensions of payment it reached in 1897 the level 
of Ti 14,000, and has, since the declaration of Bulgarian indepen- 
dence, been definitely stopped. In order to assist the young king- 
dom of Bulgaria, which could only with great difficulty and with much 
damage to its resources have found means to indemnify Turkey for 
this serious breach of treaty engagements, the Russian government 
intervened, and proposed as compensation to the Turkish govern- 
ment the deferment for forty years of the annual payment 
(T35O,ooo) of the 1877 war indemnity. This proposal was accepted 
by the Turkish government, which undertook to continue the annual 
payment of Ti 14,000 to the public debt administration until the 
extinction of the debt. The public debt council consented with 
good grace, although the minister of finance, by omitting to consult 
that council during the progress of negotiations, lost sight of the fact 
that a sum of ^87,823 was due to the public debt administra- 
tion on account of arrears of the Eastern Rumelian annuity up to 
December 1887, and that a further sum of T43O,74I was due by the 
Bulgarian to the Turkish government itself in compensation for the 
Rustchuk- Varna railway under the Treaty of Berlin. As pointed 
out by Sir Adam Block, the representative of the British and Dutch 
bondholders, in his report for 1908-1009, the above arrangement 
would have been prejudicial to the bondholders had the public 
debt not been " unified " (as described below) since, however, as a 
result of that unification, the ceded revenues now produced a sum 
more than sufficient for the service of the debt, it was only the 
surplus of revenue reverting to the government which was affected. 
There were further handed over, under the Muharrem decree, to 
the public debt council, the tribute of Bulgaria, the amount of 
which has never even been fixed, but as compensation for which the 
tobacco tithe up to a yearly amount of T 100,000 was ceded to the 
council in the same conditions as the " six indirect contributions ; 
the proportional shares (generally known as the " contributive 



1 For simplicity's sake, the lottery bonds having a special treat- 
ment different from that of the rest of the loans, these groups, when 
the new bonds of the reduced debt were exchanged against the old 
bonds of the original loans, became " series " thus : Series A, group i. ; 
series B, group 11. ; series C, group iii. ; series P, group iv. and lottery 
bonds. 



FINANCE] 



TURKEY 



437 



parts ") of the Ottoman public debt to be borne by Bulgaria, Servia, 
Greece and. Montenegro, which according to the Treaty of Berlin 
were to be adjudged by the representatives of the Great Powers 
at Constantinople, one of whom (the Russian) never succeeded in 
obtaining his instructions, and which therefore have never been 
fixed; and, finally, the excess of revenue resulting from a revision 
of the commercial treaties. The ceded revenues, exclusive of ths 
" contributive parts " and the excess from commercial treaties, were 
estimated by Bourke, in his report to the bondholders on the decree 
of Muharrem, at 1,812,562 (Ti,993,8l8). A substantial reduction 
however, had to be made in favour of the 5% " priority bonds, " 
which were bonds issued to the local banks before mentioned in 
satisfaction of their claims, and formed an annual first charge of 
T59O,ooo on the whole of the revenues ceded to the bondholders; 
the capital amount of the " priority bonds " was T8, 169,986, which 
was to be extinguished by 1906. Four-fifths of the net product of 
the revenues, after deduction of the first charge of T5go,ooo, was 
to be applied to the service of the interest on the new reduced debt, 
and provided that the four-fifths were sufficient to allow the distribu- 
tion of I % interest, one-fifth was to be devoted to sinking fund ; 
but this latter fifth was to be reduced, if necessary, by an amount 
sufficient to maintain the rate of interest at I %. The interest on 
bonds amortized was to be added to the funds available for sinking 
fund. The sinking fund was to work as follows: First i% on the 
whole reduced capital was to be applied to group i. ; if there were any 
surplus this was to be applied to group ii., until that also received the 
same full i %, and so on for group iii. and group iv., until the whole 
sinking fund amounted to I % on the reduced capital. It was to be 
applied by redemption at the best price possible on the market, until 
that price stood at T66-66, when, if the rate of interest served were 
I %, it was to proceed by drawings; if the interest were anything 
more than I %, and less than 3 %, the limit of price for redemption 
was to be raised to T75; if the interest were between 3% and 
4% inclusive, the limit was to be raised to par. _ Any surplus of 
revenue beyond that necessary to provide 4 % interest and I % 
sinking fund was to be handed over to the government. The lottery 
bonds receive a special treatment both in regard to interest and 
sinking fund ; full information as to the intricate arrangements made 
for these bonds will be found in the decree of Muharrem and the 
published reports of the council of administration of the Ottoman 
public debt. In 1890 the sinking fund was increased by the conver- 
sion of the " priority loan " into a 4 % loan and the extension of the 
term of its redemption for 15 years. In this manner an annuity 
of Ti59,5oo was set free, of which Ti 1,000 per annum was allotted 
as " extraordinary sinking fund " to series A and T49,5OO per 
annum each to series B, C and D; the lottery bonds were originally 
excluded from this arrangement, and special compensation was 
granted to these later. Each series receives the benefit of the interest 
on bonds belonging to it amortized by this special annuity. Thus, 
in the financial year 1900-1901 the total amount of the fund had 
risen from Ti59,soo to 1231,500. 

The arrangement set forth in and sanctioned by the decree of 
Muharrem on the whole worked admirably. Gradually, however, 
it became apparent that it would be desirable to give Turkish state 
securities, of which those governed by the decree of Muharrem formed 
the principal part, a better standing in European financial markets 
than was possible for bonds bearing so low a rate of interest; to 
obliterate thus, as far as possible, the effects of the past bankruptcy; 
and, further, to give the Turkish government a joint interest with 
the bondholders in the progress of the ceded revenues. The French 
bondholders, who hold by far the largest proportion of Turkish 
securities, took the principal initiative in this matter, and, after 
protracted negotiations with the Turkish government and the other 

syndicates of bondholders, they succeeded, in 1903, in obtaining 
the following modifications of the original decree of Muharrem. 

Series B, C and D (series A having already been completely 
redeemed by the action of the sinking fund) were replaced by the 
creation of new 4% bonds to a nominal amount of ^32,738,772, 
with a sinking fund of 0-45% per annum, bearing identical rights 
and privileges, and ranking immediately after, the priority bonds. 
The rates at which the series were respectively exchanged against 
the new unified bonds were 100 series B against 70 unified, 100 
series C against 42 unified and 100 series C against 37, iqs. 
unified. Bonds of the old series not presented for exchange within 
a period of fifteen years are prescribed. The amortization is to 
proceed by purchase when the unified bonds are below par, and 
when at or above par, by drawings. Coupons and drawn bonds 
not presented within six and fifteen years respectively of their 
due dates of payment are prescribed. Interest on amortized bonds 
goes to swell the sinking fund. When the net product of the ceded 
revenues amounts to 1*2,157,375, the surplus is divisible as to 
75% to the Turkish government and 25% to the public debt 
administration. A variation from this was provided as soon as 
the priority bonds should become extinct; but these bonds haying 
since been repaid (as mentioned below) by a further issue of unified 
bonds, this variation lapses. The above 25 % is to be employed 
as additional sinking fund for the unified debt and lottery bonds, 
in the proportion of 60 % and 40 % respectively. A reserve fund 
was created of which the nucleus was the sum already standing 



to the credit of the " Reserve fund for increasing the rate of in- 
terest " jjfTl, 1 13,865), plus T300,ooo at least in cash by the issue 
of sufficient unified bonds to produce that amount and the sum 
of Ti5o,ooo to be paid by the government to the public debt 
at the rate of Tis,ooo per annum. It should be added that the 
total issue was made sufficient to reserve also T 1,460,000 for 
expenses, after taking into account 100,000 in cash paid by the 
government to the public debt administration out of the said issue. 
The reserve fund was created primarily to make good any deficiency 
in the revenues below the amount required to pay the interest 
due. If such drafts upon the reserve fund become necessary, 
they are to be made good in the following years out of the surplus 
above mentioned. The reserve fund is increased by the interest 
it may earn, but when the capital amount of the fund reaches 
T2,ooo,ooo the interest earned is merged in the general receipts 
of the public debt administration. As soon as the unified debt 
is reduced to Ti6,ooo,ooo the reserve fund is to be reduced 
to T 1, 000,000, the surplus over this last amount being paid to 
the government. The unified bonds and coupons are exempt 
from all Turkish taxation existing or to come. Further special 
stipulations regarding the Turkish lottery bonds were made, but 
these are, as -before, omitted. They will be found in art. x. 
of the " Annex-Decree " of September 1-14, 1903, which gave the 
modifications to the Muharrem decree here described force of law. 
Finally the Imperial Ottoman government reserved to itself the 
right of paying off the whole unified debt at par at any moment, 
and all the dispositions of the decree of Muharrem not modified 
by the new " Annex-Decree " were formally confirmed and main- 
tained. In 1906 a further modification took place in the shape 
of the final and complete repayment of the priority bonds by the 
additional issue of 1*9,537,000 of unified bonds for the purpose, 
taken firm by the Ottoman bank at 86. The rate at which the 
exchange was _ effected was par with a cash bonus of 6 %. The 

Crevious annuity required for the service of these bonds having 
een T43O,5OO, and the additional charge for the service of the 
unified debt as a result of the operation being ^424,396, while 
the government received Tl, 272,600 in cash for its own purposes, 
there was a slight immediate advantage to be found in it : as, how- 
ever, the priority debt would have been completely extinguished 
in 1932, the financial wisdom of the change is not apparent. 

The ceded revenues administered directly by the public debt 
council have shown remarkable expansion, and may be fairly 
looked upon as exemplifying what would occur in the general 
revenues of the empire when good and honest administration and 
regular .payment of officials finally took the place of the care- 
lessness, corruption and irregularity which existed up to the 
change of regime. The council has not limited its duties to the 
collection of the revenues placed under its administration, but 
has taken pains to develop commercially the revenues capable 
of such development. A large and remunerative export trade in 
salt to India is now established, whereas formerly not one grain 
found its way there; the first steps in this direction were taken 
in 1892 when works were begun to place the great rock-salt 
salines of Salif, on the coast of the Red Sea, on a commercial 
footing. The gross receipts from this export trade amounted in 
the year 1908-1909 to ^99,564, and the profits approximately 
to T 1 2,000, in spite of the contest between Liverpool and 
Spanish salt merchants on the Calcutta market, which led to a 
heavy cutting of prices. Pains, moreover, have been taken by 
the public debt council to develop the sale of salt within the 
empire. These efforts have been rewarded by the increase of 
the salt revenue from T63S,ooo in 1881-1882, the year preceding 
the establishment of the council, to Ti,o7S,88o in 1907-1908. 
Again, in the early years of the administration (1885), the Pasteur 
system of selection of silk-worms' eggs for the rearing of silk- 
worms was introduced, and an " Institute of Sericulture " on 
modern lines was erected (1888) at Brusa for gratuitous instruc- 
tion in silk-rearing to students from all parts of the empire. Up 
to the end of 1907-1908, 919 students had received the diploma 
of the institute, and 465 silk-growers in addition had passed 
through the course of instruction. These men, returning to their 
various districts, impart to others the instruction they have 
received, and thus spread through the regions adapted to seri- 
culture the proper methods of selection and rearing. As a result 
some 60,000,000 mulberry trees were planted in Turkey during 
1890-1910, involving the plantation of about 130,000 acres, 
and new magnaneries and spinning factories sprang up in every 
direction; while the revenue (silk tithe) increased in the regions 
administered by the council from Ti7,ooo in 1881-1882 to 



438 



TURKEY 



[FINANCE 



Ti25,oooin 1906-1907, the value of the silk crop in those 
regions having thus advanced by over Ti, 000,000. But the 
regions not under its administration benefited at least equally 
by the methods above described. Thus the total value of 
the silk tithe in Turkey increased in the period named from 
about T20,ooo to 1276,500, and the total annual value of the 
crop from about T2oo,ooo to 12,765,000, or by nearly 2$ 
millions pounds sterling. 

Table A gives the produce of the revenues in 1881-1882, the 
last year of the administration of the " Galata Bankers," the 
average product of the first, second, third, fourth and fifth 
quinquennial periods since the public council was established, 
and of the year 1907-1908. 

Table B shows the total indebtedness of the Ottoman Empire, 
exclusive of tribute loans. 



Tobacco Regie. From the beginning of the year 1884 the tobacco 
revenue has been worked as a monopoly by a company formed under 
Ottoman law, styled " La Rdgie Imp^riale Coint6ress6e des Tabans 
Ottomans." This company has the absolute monopoly of the manu- 
facture and of the purchase and sale of tobacco throughout the 
Ottoman Empire, with the exception of the Lebanon and Crete, 
but exportation remains free. It is bound to purchase all tobacco 
not exported at prices to be agreed between itself and the cultivators ; 
if no agreement can be arrived at, the price is fixed by experts. 
It is obliged also to form entrepbts for the storage of the crops at 
reasonable distances from each other, and, on certain conditions, 
to grant advances to cultivators to aid them in raising the leaf. 
The cultivators, on the other hand, may not plant tobacco without 
permits from the rgie, although the power of refusing a permit, 
except to known smugglers or persons of notoriously bad conduct, 
seems to be doubtful ; nor may they sell to any purchaser, unless for 
export, except to the regie, while they are bound to deposit the 
whole of the tobacco crops which they raise in any one year in the 
entrep&ts of the r6gie before the month of August of the year following, 



TABLE A. Showing Revenues ceded to Ottoman Public Debt Administration at Various Periods to 1907-1908. 



Heads of Revenue. 


Last year of 
Galata Bankers, 
1881-1882. 


Average for 
First Five Years 
of Council of 
Public Debt, 
1882-83, 1886-87. 


Average for 
Second Five Years 
of Council of 
Publ'c Debt, 
1887-88, 1891-02. 


Average for 
Third Five Years 
of Council of 
Public Debt, 
1892-93, 1896-07- 


Average for 
Fourth Five Years 
of Council of 
Public Debt. 

1897-98, I90I-2. 


Average for 
Fifth Five Years 
of Council of 
Public Debt, 
1902-3, 1906-7. 


1907-8. 


Six Indirect Contributions: * 


T 

881,563 
634.936 
129,833 
177,163 

26,064 

17,118 


T 

822,633 

651,057 
146,822 
198,356 
34,356 
24.145 


T 

755.489 
702,150 

185,930 
229,059 
44,307 
39,398 


T 

788,384 
755.978 
212,815 
258,848 

44.337 
56,393 


rr 

725,641 

861,406 
221,856 
269,482 

47,294 

69,012 
2,797 


T 

815,923 
987,417 
321,193 
273,893 
53.032 
98,731 
25.757 


T 

899,352 
1,123,886 
366,255 
283,301 

69,549 
131,218 


Salt 
Stamps 
Spirits 


Fisheries * 


Silk 
Extra Budgetary Receipts f 


Total of Six Indirect Contri- 
butions 


1,866,677 


1.937.369 


1,956,333 


2,116,755 


2,197,488 


2,575.946 


2,873,561 


Tobacco Tithe 
Eastern Rumelian Annuity 
Excess of Cyprus Revenues 
TaxonTumbeki .... 


not collected 
, 

H 


72,340 
150,040 
I3O,OOO 
5O,OOO 


81,866 

126,688 

113.557 
50,000 


104,688 
129,222 
102,596 
50,000 


99,276 

88,682 
102,596 
50,000 


172,473 
159,628 
102,596 
50,000 


210,068 
114,020 

102,596 
50,000 


Total Gross Revenue 
Expenses 


1,866,677 
378,789 


2,339,, 749 
388,000 


2,328,444 
392,403 


2,503,261 
346,143 


2,538,042 
418,537 


3,060,643 
522,798 


3,350,245} 
572,850 




Total Net Revenue .... 


1,487,888 


I.95L749 


1,936,041 


2,157,118 


2,119,505 


2,537,845 


2,777.395 



* Exclusive of Tso,ooo representing the retrocession of the reftish (Egyptian tax, abolished in 1895) to the r<5gie. 

t Up to 1902-1903 the extra-budgetary receipts and fines had been carried to account of the respective revenues concerned ; after 
that date they were placed under a special heading. After 1905-1906 extra-budgetary receipts relating to expenditure previously 
effected have been deducted from " General Expenses." 

J The 3% customs surtax is not included in this table. It came into force on the I3th of July 1907, and produced during the 
remainder of the financial year ^544,987; 25% of this revenue is ceded to the public debt; the remainder reverts to the government. 

TABLE B. Position of the Ottoman Public Debt on the 1st of March 1326 (March 14, zozo). 





Designation of Loans. 


Nominal Capital 
issued. 


Annuities. 


Nominal Capital 
redeemed at 1st 
March 1326(1910). 


Nominal Capital in 
circulation on 1st 
March 1326(1910). 


V V ^ 


Unified Debt 4 % ' 


T 
42,275,772 


T 

1,887,375 


T 
2,345,010 


T 
39,930,762 


*> *" 




15,632,548 


270,000 


1,500,502 


12, 032,Q56 


X-.Q 

A 

i! 

l'i ' 


4% Loan 1890 
5% 1896 
4% 1903 Fisheries 
4% Bagdad ist Series .... 
4% 2nd 


4,999.500 
3,272,720 
2,640,000 
2,376,000 
4,752,000 


249.975 
180,000 
118,800 
97,120 
200,000 


i ,509,200 
289,300 

105,424 
15,642 
8,426 


3,490,300 
2,983,420 
2,534,576 
2,360,358 

4,743,574 


ill 

C g 

all 

jt9G 


4% 1904 
4% 1905 Military Equipment 
4% 1901-1905 
4% 1908 


2,750,000 
2,640,000 
5,306,664 
4,711,124 


123,750 
118,800 
238,800 
212,000 


57,090 
83,556 
123,420 


2,692,910 

2,556,444 
5,183,244 
4,711,124 


Q 












i-C a, Ji A < . 


r 4%Loan 1893 Tumbeki 


91,356,328 
1,010,010 


3,696,620 
50,000 


8,136,660 

23Q 8OO 


83,219,668 
760,210 


8||-5||S 


4% 1894 


1,760,000 


76,560 


136,202 


1,623,798 


> ll^* >c l 


4% 1902' 


8,600,020 


390,000 


367,180 


8,232,840 


_12S.SB< 


4% 1855 


5,500,000 


167,869 


1.303.280 


4.I06,72O 


.s rt e,s 


4% 1891 


6,948.612 


308,686 


777,700 


6.I7O.9I2 


fulfil 


3i% 1894 
4% 1909 


9,033.574 
7,000,004 


362,174 
350,000 


852,808 


8,180,766 
7,OOO,OO4 


Q 














Total 


i 3 i, 198,548 


5.4OI.QO9 


11,813,630 


119.384,918 















1 The capital in circulation for these loans, established on the 1st of March 1326 (1910), is approximate. 



FINANCE] 



TURKEY 



439 



and may not move any tobacco from the place where they cultivate 
it without the regie's express authority. In order to facilitate 
supervision, a minimum area of one-half of a deunum (a deunum = 
about one-fourth of an acre) is fixed for ground upon which tobacco 
may be cultivated; in the suburban districts of Constantinople 
and some other towns, and in enclosures surrounded by walls and 
attached to dwelling-houses, it is altogether prohibited. For its 
privileges the regie has to pay a rent of T75O,opo per annum to the 
government (assigned to bondholders), " even if it has no revenues 
at all," and after the payment of a dividend of 8 % to its shareholders, 
and certain other deductions, it has to share profits with the govern- 
ment and the bondholders according to a sliding scale agreed upon 
between the three parties. The regie did badly during the first 
four years of its existence, owing principally to two causes: (l) 
its ineffectual power to deal with contraband to which the system 
described above leaves the door wide open; (2) the admission 
of other than Turkish tobaccos into Egypt, which deprived it at 
once of about Tioo,ooo per annum. So great were its losses 
that in the year 1887-1888 it was obliged to write them off by reducing 
its capital from 2,000,000 to 1,600,000. At the same time it was 
granted an extension of penal powers, and the losses on reftieh (duty 
on tobacco exported to Egypt) were to be partially borne by the 
public debt administration. Things went better with it from that 
time until 1894-1895, when, owing to internal troubles in the empire, 
and the consequent fear of creating worse disorders, by the strict 
enforcement of the monopoly, the government withdrew most of 
its support, and contraband enormously increased. The following 
table shows the movement of the revenue of the regie from the year 
1887-1888 to 1908-1909 inclusive: 



Average for 
5 years. 


Gross receipts 
from all sources. 


Total expenses, in- 
cluding fixed charges. 


Net 
revenue. 


1887-1892 
1892-1897 
1897-1902 
1902-1907 


T 

1,924,264 
2,330,786 
2,098,537 
2,511,921 


T 

1,735,896 
2,037,190 
1,898,646 
2,104,739 


T 
188,368 
*293,596 
*i99,8gi 
407,182 


Year 1907-8 
'1908-9 


2,660,895 
2.597,909 


2,146,864 
2,167,795 


514-031 
430,114 



* There was a heavy fall in the receipts in the four years 1895-1896 
to 1898-1899 inclusive. The climax was reached in 1897-1898 when 
the net revenue amounted to only 63,975 as compared with 
T352,ooo in 1894-1895, and it did not revert to its previous level 
until 1902-1903. This was the result of the Armenian massacres, 
the wholesale emigration of Armenians of all classes, the accompany- 
ing profound political unrest throughout the country, and the great 
extension of contraband which ensued from it. 

Negotiations were initiated in 1910 for the prolongation of the 
concession of the tobacco monopoly, which reaches its term in 
I9I3- 

Railway Guarantees. Up to 1888 the only railways existing 
in the Turkish Empire (exclusive of Egypt) were, in Europe, the 
Constantinople-Adrianople-Philippopolis line and the Salonica- 
Mitrovitza line (finished in 1872); and in Asia Minor, theSmyrna- 
Ai'din (completed in 1866), the Smyrna-Cassaba (completed in 
1866), the Constantinople-Ismid (completed in 1872), the Mersina- 
Adana (completed in 1886). The want of railways in Asia Minor 
was urgently felt, but no capitalists were willing to risk their 
money in Turkish railways without a substantial guarantee, and 
a guarantee of the Turkish government alone was not considered 
substantial enough. In 1888 it was proposed by the public debt 
administration to undertake the collection of specified revenues 
to be set aside for the provision of railway guarantees, the 
principle to be followed being, generally, that such revenues 
should consist of the tithes of the districts through which the 
railways would pass, and that the public debt should hand over 
to guaranteed railway companies the amounts of their guarantees 
before transmitting to the imperial government any of the pro- 
ceeds of the revenue so collected. The government adopted this 
proposal, and laid down as a principle that it would guarantee 
the gross receipts per kilometre of guaranteed railways, such 
gross receipts to be settled for each railway on its own merits. 
Considerable competition ensued for the railway concessions 
under this system. The first granted was for the extension of 
the Constantinople-Ismid railway to Angora to a group of German 
and British capitalists in 1888. The Germans having bought 
out the British rights, this concession became a purely German 



affair, although a certain proportion of the capital was found in 
London. Since that time various other concessions have been 
granted to French and German financial groups, principally the 
Imperial Ottoman Bank group of Paris and the Deutsche Bank 
group of Berlin. 

The systems of guarantee above described are clearly faulty, 
since theoretically the railway company which ran no trains at 
all would, up to the limit of its guarantee, make the largest 
profits. The concessionnaire companies have, however, wisely 
taken the view that it is better to depend upon their own revenues 
than upon any government guarantee, and have done their best 
to develop the working value of the lines in their charge. The 
economic effect of the railways upon the districts through which 
they run is apparent from the comparative values of the tithes in 
the regions traversed by the Anatolian railway in 1889 and 1898 
in which years it so happened that prices were almost at exactly 
the same level, and again in 1908-1909, when they were only 
slightly higher. Thus in 1889 they produced ^145,378, in 1898 
^215,470, and in 1908-1909 T28i,9i9. 

A different system, still more uneconomic than the kilometric 
guarantee pure and simple, was adopted in the case of the Bagdad 
railway. In January 1902 the German group holding the 
Anatolian railway concession was granted a further concession for 
extending that railway from Konia, then its terminus, through 
the Taurus range and by way of the Euphrates, Nisibin, Mosul, 
the Tigris, Bagdad, Kerbela and Nejef to Basra, thus establishing 
railway communication between the Bosporus and the Persian 
Gulf. The total length, including branches to Adana, Orfa 
(the ancient Edessa) and other places was to exceed 1550 m. ; 
the kilometric guarantee granted was 15,500 francs (620). 
It should be noted that this concession was substituted for one 
negotiated by the same group, and projected to pass through 
Diarbekr. This raised strong objections on the part of Russia, 
and led to the Black Sea Basin agreement reserving to Russia 
the sole right to construct railways in the northern portion of Asia 
Minor. The Anatolian railway company, apparently unable to 
handle the concession above described, initiated fresh negotia- 
tions which resulted in the Bagdad railway convention (March 
5, 1903). This convention caused much excitement and irrita- 
tion in Great Britain, owing to the encroachment of German 
influence sanctioned by it on territories bordering the Persian 
Gulf, hitherto considered to fall solely within the sphere of British 
influence. Attempts were made by the German group, assisted 
by their government, to secure the participation of both Britain 
and France in the concession. These were successful in France, 
the Imperial Ottoman Bank group agreeing to undertake 30% 
of the finance without, however, any countenance from the 
French government the " Glarus Syndicate " being formed for 
apportioning interests. The British government seemed, at 
one time, rather to favour, a British participation, but when the 
terms of the convention were published, the strongest objection 
was taken to the constitution of the board of directors which 
established German control in perpetuity, while it was 
evident from the general tenor of the convention that a 
political bias informed the whole; in the end public feeling 
ran so high that any British participation became impossible. 

The financial advantages, however, granted by the Turkish 
government were singularly favourable to the concessionnaires 
and onerous to itself. The kilometric guarantee of 15,500 francs 
(620) was split into two parts, 4500 francs (180) being granted 
as the fixed working expenses of the line, all receipts in excess of 
which amount were to be credited to the Turkish government 
in reduction of the remaining 11,000 francs (440) which took the 
form of an annuity to be capitalized as a 4 % state loan redeemable in 
99 years, that being the period fixed for the duration of the conces- 
sion. The line was to be constructed in sections of 200 kilometres 
(125 m.) each, and as the complete plans and drawings of each were 
presented at the times and in the order specified in the convention, 
the government was to deliver to the concessionnaires government 
securities representing the capitalization of the annuity accruing 
to that section. The capital sum per section was fixed, in round 
figures, at 54,000,000 francs (2,160,000), subject to adjustment 
when the section was completed and its actual length definitely 
measured up. A minimum net price of 8i}% was fixed for the 
realization of these securities on the market. The bonds are secured 



440 



TURKEY 



[FINANCE 



on the surplus of the revenues assigned to the guarantee of the 
Anatolian railway collected by the Public Debt Administration, 
on the excess revenue, after certain deductions, accruing to the 
government under the " Annex-Decree to the Decree of Muharrem " 
above described, on the sheep tax of the vilayets of Koniah, Adana 
and Aleppo, and on the railway itself. The first series (54,000,000 
francs or 2,160,000), was duly handed over to the concessionaires 
in 1903, and was floated in Berlin at 86-4% realizing the sum of 
1,868,000. The division of the line into equal sections of 200 
kilometres apiece produced at once a somewhat ridiculous result. 
The little town of Eregli, some 190 kilometres distant from Konia, 
presented the only excusable locality for the terminus of the first 
section, and even that place is 90 kilometres distant from Karaman, 
the last town of any importance for some hundreds of miles on the 
way to the Euphrates valley, the country between the two towns 
being desolate and sparsely inhabited. But the Bagdad Railway 
Company 1 (the share capital of which is 600,000 half paid up), 
naturally anxious to earn the whole of the capitalized subvention, 
completed the construction of the entire 200 kilometres. The line 
was thus continued to a station taking its name from Bulgurlu, 
a small straggling village four miles away, between which and Eregli 
there is not a single habitation. But even this did not quite com- 
plete the distance, and the line was carried on for still another 
kilometre and there stopped, " with its pair of rails gauntly pro- 
jecting from the permanent way " (Fraser, The Short Cut to India, 
1909). The outside cost of construction of the first section, which 
lies entirely in the plains of Konia, is estimated to have been 
625,000; the company retained, therefore, a profit of at least 
I i millions sterling on this first part of the enterprise. In the second 
section the Taurus range is reached, after which the construction 
becomes much more difficult and costly. On the 2nd of June 1908 
a fresh convention was signed between the government and the 
Bagdad Railway Company providing, on the same financial basis, 
for the extension of the line from Bu'.gurlu to Helif and of the con- 
struction of a branch from Tel-Habesn to Aleppo, covering a total 
aggregate length of approximately 840 kilometres. The principle 
of equal sections of 200 kilometres was thus set on one side. The 
payments to the company were to be made in two lump sums 
forming " series 2 and 3 " of the " Imperial Ottoman Bagdad 
railway loan," series 2 amounting to 4,320,000, which was delivered 
to the company on the signature of the contract, and series 3 to 
4,760,000. The Bagdad railway must for much time be a heavy 



Ottoman Railways worked at end of 1908. 





Length in 


Amount 


.Designation of Main Lines. 


Miles(including 


Kilometric 




branch lines). 


Guarantees. 


Turkey in Europe: 







Oriental Railways 2 


815 


Nil 


Salonica-Monastir . 


137 


572 


Salonica-Constantinople 


317 


620 


Total European Turkey 


1269 




Turkey in Asia : 






Hamidie Railway of the 






Hejaz 3 .... 


932 


Nil. 


Anatolian Railway. 


** 

635 


Varies from 270 to 






600. 


BagdadRailway(Konia- 






Bulgurlu section)* 


124 


620 : Annuity 440 






Working Expenses 






180. 


Mudania-Brusa 


26 


Nil. 


Smyrna-Aidin . 


320 


Nil. 


Smyrna-Cassaba . 


322 


For main-line and 






Burnabat and Man- 






isa-Soma branches 






the government 






guarantees 92,400 






as ha!f the annual 






receipts. For the 






Alashehr-Karahissar 






extension, there is a 






kilometric guarantee 






of 755. 


Damascus-Hama . 


361 


520 


Mersina-Adana 6 


42 


Nil. 


Jaffa-Jerusalem . . 


54 


Nil. 


Total Asiatic Turkey 


2816 




Grand Total . 


4085 





Results of 1908 according to the Nationality of the Capital. 



Nationality 
of the 
Capital. 


Companies or Societies. 


Lengths Worked. 


Gross 
Receipts 
for the 
Year 1908. 


Guarantees 
paid by 
the State 
for the 
Year 1908. 


Rents 
paid to 
the State 
for the 
Year 1908. 


Totals 
per 
Companies 


Totals 
per 
Nation- 
alities. 


Average 
receipts 
per mile 
per 
Nation- 
ality. 


per 
Company. 


per Nation- 
ality. 






Miles. 


Miles. 

















/ 


Ottoman 


Hejaz Railway .... 
Salonica-Monastir Railway . 


932 
137 


932 


150,435 
129,854 




243 


150,435 
129,611 


150,435 


A> 

161 




Bagdad Railway .... 
Mersina-Adana Railway . 


124 
42 




14,578 
36,400 


108,155 




122,733 
36,400 






German 


Anatolia "I 




938 










841,081 


885 




Haidar Pasha-Angora I 






209,105 


117,030 








W^J 




Eskishehr- Konia 


635 




102,570 


118,755 


^_ 


552,337 








Hamidie-Adabazar J 






4-877 




__ 








English 
Austro- 


Aidin Railway. . . ' . 


320 


320 


293,104 








293,104 


293,104 


916 


German 


Oriental Railways 
Salonica-Constantinople Junc- 


8i5 


8i5 


607,619 





H5.679 


491,940 


491,940 


604 




tion 
Smyrna Kassaba and Exten- 


317 




H3-505 


199,728 





313,233 






French 


sions 


322 


- 1-054 


223,643 


146,980 








1,092,957 


1,037 






Damascus-Hama and Exten- 




















sions (Rayak-Aleppo) . 


36i 




269,934 


94,801 





364,735 






Various 


Jaffa- Jerusalem .... 
Mudania-Brusa .... 


54 
26 


26 


44,366 
15-039 








44,366 
15,039 


15,039 


579 




Totals 


4-085 


4-085 


2,215,029 


785,449 


115,922 


2,884,556 


2^84,556 


697 





weight on the Turkish budget, the country through which it passes 
with the exception of the sections passing from Adana to Osmanieh, 
through the Killis-Aleppo-Euphrates district (that is, the first point 
at which the line crosses the Euphrates some 600 m. from Bagdad), 
and to a lesser extent through the plains of Seruj and Harran 
being very sparsely populated, while the financial system adopted 
offers no inducement to the concessionaire company to work for 

1 Specially formed by the Anatolian railway group for the execu- 
tion, which the Anatolian Railway Company guarantees under the 
Bagdad Railway Convention, of the Bagdad railway concession. 



increasing earnings. It should be mentioned that the Bagdad 
Railway Company has sublet the working of the line to the Ana- 
tolian Railway Company at the rate of 148 per kilometre, as 
against the 1 80 per kilometre guaranteed by the Turkish government 



1 The line from Mustafa-Pasha to Vakarel now lies in the king- 
dom of Bulgaria. 

3 Constructed and worked by the State. ' 

4 Extension of Anatolian Railway. 

6 The Anatolian Railway group (German) has obtained control 
of this little railway, which was originally British. 



FINANCE] 



TURKEY 



44 1 



an additional indication, if any were needed, of the thrift- 
lessness of the latter in the matter. Moreover, the Anatolian 
railway receives, under the original Bagdad railway convention 
(l) an annuity of 14,000 per annum for thirty years as com- 
pensation for strengthening its permanent way sufficiently to 
permit of the running of express trains, and (2) a second annuity 
of 14,000 in perpetuity to compensate it for running express 
trains this to begin as soon as the main Bagdad line reaches 
Aleppo. 

It was stated in the preface to the budget of 1910 that the 
government would grant no more railway concessions carrying 
guarantees. The amount inscribed for railway guarantees in the 
budget of 1910 was 746,790. The tables on p. 440 show the 
respective lengths of the various Ottoman railways open and 
worked at the end of 1908 and the amount of kilometric guaran- 
tees which they carried and the lengths, &c., of railways worked 
by the various companies according to the nationality of the 
concessionaire groups. 

Banks. At the close of the Crimean War a British bank was 
opened in 1856 at Constantinople under the name of the Ottoman 
Bank, with a capital of 500,000 fully paid up. In 1863 this was 
merged in an Anglo-French bank, under a concession from the 
Turkish government, as a state bank under the name of the Imperial 
Ottoman Bank, with a capital of 2,700,000, increased in 1865 to 
4,050,000 and in 1875 to 10,000,000, one-half of which is paid 
up. The original concession to the year 1893 was in 1875 extended 
to 1913, and in 1895 to 1925. The bank acts as banker to the 
government, for which it has a fixed annual commission, and it 
is obliged to make a permanent statutory advance to the govern- 
ment of Ti, 000,000, against the deposit by the government of 
marketable securities bearing interest at a rate agreed upon. The 
bank has the exclusive privilege of issuing bank-notes payable 
in gold. Its central office is in Constantinople, and it is managed 
by a director-general and advisory committee appointed by com- 
mittees in London and Paris. 

The National Bank of Turkey (a limited Ottoman Company) 
is a_ purely British concern with a capital of 1,000,000, founded 
by imperial firman of the nth of April 1909, under the auspices of 
Sir Ernest Cassel. It is understood that it was originated at the 
unofficial instigation of both the British and Ottoman governments, j 
with the idea of forming a channel for the more generous investment I 
of British capital in Turkey under the new r6gime, so that British 
financial interests might play a more important part in the Otto- 
man Empire than has been the case since the state bankruptcy of 
1876. This bank brought out the Constantinople municipal loan 
of 1909 (1,000,000). Other banks doing business in Constantinople 
are the Deutscfa Bank, the Deutsche-Orient Bank, the Credit Lyon- 
nais, the Wiener Bank-Verein, the Russian Bank for Commerce and 
Industry, the Bank of Mitylene, the Bank of Salonica and the Bank 
of Athens. 

Monetary System. The monetary system presents a spectacle 
of perplexing confusion, which is a remnant of the complete chaos 
which prevailed before the reforms initiated in 1844 by Sultan 
Abd-ul-Mejid. The basis of the system adopted was the double 
standard with a fixed relation of I to 15-09, and free coinage. The 
unit was the piastre ( = 2jd.), nominally subdivided into 40 paras. 
The gold pound (l8s. 2d.) was equivalent to 100 piastres; the gold 
nieces struck were Ts, Tl, Tj and TJ; the standard is o-o.l6f 
fine, and the weight 7-216 grammes. The silver coinage consisted 
of the mejidie (weight 24-055 grammes, 0-830 fine), equivalent to 
20 piastres, and its subdivisions 10, 5, 2, I, and -j piastre pieces. 
The altilik, beshlik and metallik currencies struck, the first and 
last in the reign of. Mahmud II. and Abd-ul-Mejid, and the second 
in the reign of Mahmud only, were not included in the reform; 
these were debased currencies bearing a nominal value, the altilik 
of 6, 3 and I J piastres, the beshlik of 5 and 2j piastres, the metallik 
of I, and i piastres; they represented the last degree of an age- 
long monetary depreciation, the original piastre having had a value 
of about 5s. 7d., which had fallen to 2jd. The heavy depreciation 
in silver causing large losses to the government, free coinage was 
suspended in 1880, and the nominal value of the mcjidie was 
reduced by decree to 19 piastres (105-26 piastres thus = Tl), while 
in the same year the debased currencies were reduced, altilik, 
the 6-piastre piece to 5 piastres, the 3-piastre piece to 2j piastres, 
the I i-piastre piece to ij piastre; beshlik, the 5-piastre piece to 
2| piastres, the 2j-piastre piece to ij-piastre; metallik, the i-piastre 
piece to J piastre, the I-piastre piece to piastre, the i-piastre piece 
to | piastre these values representing approximately the intrinsic 
value of the silver, at mejidie standard, contained in the debased 
coins. The copper coinage (113,000,000 piastres) and the paper 
currency (kaime) (1,600,000,000 piastres) referred to in the above 
sketch were withdrawn in 1880 by repudiation. The 2O-piastre 
mejidie currency, in spite of the further enormous depreciation 
of silver since 1880, has scarcely varied in the Constantinople 
market, but has always remained at a discount of about 3% 
(between 108 and 109 piastres to the pound) under government 
rate; this is doubtless due to the fact that the demand and supply 



of the coins in that market are very evenly balanced. The parity 
thus working out at}lO2-6o, gold continued to be held away from 
the treasury, and in 1909 the government decided to accept the 
Turkish pound at the last named rate. The fractional mejidie 
coins (5, 2 and I piastres) are quoted at a separate rate in 
the market, usually at a premium over the 2O-piastre piece. 
In the last twelve years of the igth century the altilik currency 
was almost entirely withdrawn, and replaced by fractional mejidie; 
a large proportion of the beshlik has also been withdrawn, but the 
metallik has not _been touched. These debased currencies are 
usually at a premium over gold owing to the extreme scarcity of 
fractional coinage. The standard of the altilik is about 0-440 
fine, that of the beshlik is 0-185 to 0-225 nn e. that of the metallik 
is 0-170 fine. Foreign gold coins, especially the pound sterling 
(par value no piastres) and the French 2O-franc piece (par value 
875 piastres) have free currency. Throughout Arabia and in 
Tripoli (Africa) the principal money used is the silver Maria Theresa 
dollar tariffed by the Ottoman government at 12 piastres. The 
Indian rupee and the Persian kran are widely circulated through 
Mesopotamia; in Basra transactions are counted in krans, taking 
as a fixed exchange Ti = 34-15 krans. The general monetary 
confusion is greatly intensified by the fact that the piastre unit 
varies for almost every province; thus, while the pound at 
Constantinople is counted at 108 piastres silver, it is at about 
127 piastres for one kind of transaction and 1 80 for another in 
Smyrna, 135 piastres at Adrianople, 140 at Jerusalem, and so 
forth, accounts being kept in " abusive piastres," which exist no 
longer. In some towns, e.g. Adrianople, small change is often 
supplemented by cardboard tickets, .metal discs, &c., put into 
circulation by private establishments or individuals of good 
credit. 

A_ commission (the successor of many) was instituted at the 
ministry of finance in 1910, to draw up proposals for setting this 
confusion in order. In his 1910 budget speech the minister of 
finance, Javid Bey, demanded authority to create a new aluminium 
coinage of 5, 10, 20 and 40 para pieces, of which he would issue, 
in the course of three years, a nominal amount of T 1, 000,000 
to those provinces in which there was a great scarcity of small 
coins. The amounts of Turkish gold, silver and debased coinage 
in circulation are approximately Ti6,5oo,ooo, in gold, T8,7oo,ooo 
(940,000,000 piastres at 108) in silver mejidies and fractions, and 
200,000,000 piastres in beshlik and metallik. 

Tenure of Property. Real property is held in one of four various 
ways: either mulk, emiriyg, vakuf or khaliye. (i) Mulk is the 
absolute property of its owner, and can be disposed of by him as 
he wills without restrictions, save those enumerated lower down 
(General Dispositions) as general for all the four classes. Mulk 
property is governed chiefly by the Sheri (sacred law). A duty 
of 10 per mille on its estimated value has to be paid on trans- 
fer by sale, donation or testament; 5 per mille on transfer by 
inheritance; and a registration duty on expenses of transfer. 
(2) Emiriye is practically " public domains." The state may grant 
land of this category to private persons on payment by the latter 
of the value of the proprietary right the tithes, ground-rent 
(should there be private buildings upon it), and the land-tax. 
It is administered by imperial functionaries called arazi-memuru; 
it is with the consent of the latter only that the proprietary rights 
can be sold. These rights are of simple possession, but they are 
transmissible in certain degrees to the heirs of the possessor. Emi- 
riye cannot be mortgaged, but can be given as security for debt 
on condition that it be restored when the debt has been repaid. 
The creditor may demand the arazi-memuru to proceed to a forced 
sale, but the arazi-memuru is not obliged to comply with that de- 
mand ; no forced sale may take place after the decease of the debtor. 
Emiriye is not transmissible by will, but may be transferred by dona- 
tion, which returns to the donor should he outlive the beneficiary. 
Should a proprietor of emiriye plant trees or vines, or erect buildings 
upon it, with the consent of the state, they are considered as mulk ; 
an annual tax representing the value of the tithes on the portions 
of emiriye thus utilized is levied. The emiriye then becomes mulk, 
with certain restrictions as to transfer dues. A transfer duty of 
5 % on the estimated value of emiriye is paid on transmission 
by sale, inheritance or donation, of 2\ % on the amount of the 
debt in case of mortgage or release from mortgage, and of 10 % 
on expenses of registration. A different scale is established for 
emiriye with moukataa (rent paid for emiriye with mulk property 
established upon it). (3) Vakuf is " all property dedicated to 
God, of which the revenue is consecrated to His poor "; or " pro- 
perty of which the usufruct, such as tithe, taxes and rents, is attri- 
buted to a work of charity and of public interest." When once 
a property has been registered as vakuf it can never be withdrawn. 
There are two classes of vakuf: (a) Land so declared either directly 
by the sovereign or in virtue of imperial authority; (6) lands 
transformed by their proprietors from mulk into vakuf. The laws 
and regulations concerning vakuf are too intricate to be described ; 
generally it may be said that they form a great obstruction to 
dealing with a large proportion of the most valuable property in 
Turkey, and therefore to the prosperity of the country. The 
vakufs are administered by a special ministerial department (evkaf 
nazareti), whose property, on behalf of the state, they theoretically 



442 



TURKEY 



[HISTORY 



are. The effect of the original system was that a vakuf property 
became the inalienable property of the state, and the original 
proprietor a mere tenant. All fundamental repairs thus fell to 
the charge of the state, which could not afford to effect them, and the 
vakuf revenues decreased so rapidly that already in the reign of 
Selim I. (1511-1520) a serious effort was made to deal with the 
difficulty. But this resulted in so heavy a burden upon the public 
that the law had again to be altered to extend hereditary rights, 
and to admit a system of mortgage which was assimilated to that 
for emiriye; but the evils were little more than palliated. The 
curious gilds called guedik must here be mentioned. They were 
established at a time when industry was not free, and the govern- 
ment fixed the number of artisans of every kind of trade in each 
town, no one having the right to increase that number. The 
guedik, then, had the right to erect buildings on vakuf property 
and supply it with the tools, &c., necessary to exercise a trade. 
The ancient guediks have not been abolished, the government not 
daring to deprive them of their privileges; but since the Tanzimat 
no new ones have been created, industry being declared free. 
The various special dues payable on vakuf form too long a list 
to be inserted; the highest is 30 per mille. (4) Kkaliye. This 
property is also styled mevad. It consists of uncultivated or rough 
lands, such as mountains, stony ground, &c., which are useless 
without clearance, to which no possession is claimed, and which 
are at such a distance from the nearest dwelling that the human 
voice cannot be made to reach them from that dwelling. Any 
one can obtain a gratuitous permit to clear and cultivate such lands ; 
the laws governing ordinary agricultural lands then apply to them. 
The permit is withdrawn if the clearance is not effected within 
three years. If the clearance is effected without the necessary 
permit, the land is nevertheless granted on application, and on the 
payment of the tapu or sum paid by the proprietor to the state for 
the value of the land. 

General Dispositions. By the " protocol of the 7th Sefer 1284 
A.H. " foreigners may enjoy the rights of proprietorship on the 
same conditions as Ottoman subjects throughout the empire, save 
in the Hejaz. The transmission of property from a foreigner 
to his heirs is therefore governed by the Ottoman laws, and not 
those of the country to which he belongs. The real property of a 
Mussulman does not pass by inheritance to non-Mussulman heirs, 
but may pass to his Mussulman heirs of a foreign nationality, 
and vice versa. Property of an individual who has abandoned 
Ottoman nationality without legal authority so to do does not 
pass to heirs, whether Ottoman or foreign, but devolves to the 
state; if legal authority has been granted the government under 
which the foreign heirs live must have accepted the protocol above 
cited. An heir who has voluntarily caused the death of the person 
from whom he should inherit loses all rights of succession. It is 
not proposed to trace the formalities of transfer and transmission 
of real property here; they will be found in vol. iii. of the Duslur 
(Ottoman Code). Minerals are worked according to the law of the 
1 4th Sefer 1324 (March 26, 1906). Mines can only be exploited in 
virtue of an imperial irade. The concessions are to be for 99 years 
with the exception of chrome, emery, boracite and other minerals 
found only in the form of deposits, which may be granted for not 
less than 40 years or more than 99 years. They may be disposed 
of under certain conditions to third parties, and they may be in- 
herited. Immovable property, working plant, tools and fixtures, 
cannot be seized for payment of debts. For the discovery of mines, 
special permits of research, on which there is a fee of Ts to Tis, 
are necessary; full details of the requisite formalities are given in 
the law. No researches are permitted in boroughs and villages 
or in forests, pasturages, &c., if it be considered that they would 
interfere with public convenience. Two permits are not granted 
for the same mineral within the same area, until the first has lapsed. 
Specimens may be sent to Europe for expert examination up to 
an aggregate weight of 2000 tons, on paying the requisite duties. 
Explosives are under the control of the local authorities. In order 
to obtain permits foreigners must first have adhered to the law 
of 1293 (A.H.). The original discoverer of a mine is entitled to a 
certain indemnity for " right of discovery " to be paid by the con- 
cessionaire of that mine, should the discoverer be unable to work 
it. To obtain a concession, formalities detailed in the law must be 
complied with, under a penalty of Tioo to Tiooo. Should a 
different mineral from that specified in the imperial firman for a 
mining concession be discovered in a free state, a fresh firman 
is necessary to exploit it. Discovered mines not registered by the 
government, or not worked for a period of 99 years before the pro- 
mulgation of the law of the 26th of March 1906, are considered as non- 
discovered. On the promulgation of the firman for the exploitation 
of a mine, a fee of T5O to Tloo becomes payable. Two categories 
of rent, fixed and proportional, are payable to the state by mine- 
owners. The fixed rent is 10 piastres per jerib (about 10,000 
square metres), to be paid whether the mine is worked or not. The 
proportional rent is from I % to 5 % on the gross products of mines 
of vein formation, and from 10% to 20% on those of mines of 
deposit formation; the percentages are calculated on the value of 
the mineral after deduction of freight, &c. to Europe and of 
treatment. The proportional rents are fixed by the Mines Adminis- 
tration according to the wealth, area and facility of working of 



the mine, and are inserted in the imperial firman governing the mine, 
and must be paid before the minerals are exported. Yearly returns, 
under a penalty of T5 to T25, of the results of working have to 
be rendered to the Mines Administration. If payments due to the 
government are not made within two months of due date, the mines 
may be seized by the authorities and sold to the highest bidder. 
The working of the mine must begin within two years of the date of 
the delivery of the mine to the conpessionaire. Certain specified 
plans must be delivered annually, under penalty of Ts to T25, 
to the Mines Administration, and, under similar penalties, all 
information and facilities for visiting the mines in detail must be 
afforded to government inspectors. Should a mine-owner, in the 
course of developing his mine, damage the mine of a neighbouring 
owner, he must pay him an agreed indemnity. With the exception 
of the engineer and foreman, the employes must be Ottoman 
subjects. No part of the subterranean working of a mine may be 
abandoned without official permission obtained according to 
formalities specified in the law. Owners of the land in which a 
mine is located have a prior right to work such mine under imperial 
firman, on the obtention of which a duty of /T4 is payable ; if they 
do not work it the concession may be granted to others, on payment 
of a certain compensation to the landowner. The research of a 
mine in no way impairs the rights of ownership of the land in which 
the mine is located. If a mining concession is granted within lands 
which are private property or which are " real vakuf lands" (arazi- 
i-mevkufe-i-sahiha) only one-fifth of the proportional rent is payable 
to the state, the other four-fifths reverting to the land-owner or 
the vakufs, as the case may be. As to ancient coins, and all kinds 
of treasure of which the proprietor is unknown, reference must be 
made to the Dustur, No. 4, p. 89. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. I. Topography, Travels, &c.: The works of 
J. B. Tavernier, of Richard Knolles and Sir P. Rycaut, of O. G. de 
Busbecq (Busbequius), Sir T. Hanway, the Chevalier Jean Chardin, 
D. Sestine and W. Eton (Survey of the Turkish Empire, 3rd ed., 
1801) are storehouses of information on Turkey from the i6th 
century to the end of the i8th. More recent works of value are 
those of J. H. A. Ubicini, Lettres sur la Turquie (1853-1854, Eng. 
trans., 2 vols., 1856); D. Urquhart, The Spirit of the East (2 vols., 
1838); A. W. Kinglake (especially his Eothen, 1844); A. H. Layard, 
H. F. Tozer, E. Spencer, Ami Bou6, A. VambeVy, W. M. Rameay 
and J. G. von Hahn (in " Denkschriften " of the K. Akad. der 
Wissenschaften zu Wien for 1867-1869). Sir C. Elliot's Turkey in 
Europe (London, 1907) is comprehensive and accurate. See also 
P. de Laveleye, La Peninsule des Balkans (Brussels, 1886); V. 
Cuinet. La Turquie d'Asie (5 vols., Paris, 1891-1894, and index 
1900); id. Syrie Liban et Palestine (Paris, 1896-1898); W. Miller, 
Travels and Politics in the Near East (London, 1898); M. Bernard, 
Turquie d' Europe et Turquie d'Asie (Paris, 1899) ; M. von Oppenheim, 
Vom Mittelmeer zum persischen Golfe, &c. (2 vols., Berlin, 1899- 
1900) ; Lord Warkworth, Notes from a Diary in Asiatic Turkey 
(London, 1898); Mark Sykes, Dar-el-Islam (London, 1903); D. 
Fraser, The Short Cut to India (London, 1909) ; with the books cited 
under TURKS and in articles on the separate divisions of the empire 
and on Mahommedan law, institutions and religion. 

2. Law, Commerce and Finance: F. Belin, Essais sur I'hisloire 
cconomique de la Turquie (Paris, 1865); Aristarchi Bey, Legislation 
ottomane (8 vols., Constantinople, 1868-1876); R. Bourke, Report 
to the British and Dutch Bondholders (London, 1882); O. Haupt, 
L'Histoire monetaire de notre temps (Paris, 1886); F. Ongley and 
H. A. Miller, Ottoman Land Code (London, 1892); Medjelle (Ottoman 
Civil Code) (Nicosia, 1895); Kendall, Turkish Bonds (London, 
1898); V. Caillard, Babington-Smith and Block, Reports on the Otto- 
man Public Debt (London, 1884-1898, 1899-1902, 1903-1910); 
Annuaire oriental du commerce (Constantinople); Journal de la 
chambre de commerce (Constantinople, weekly); Annual Report of 
the Regie Co-interess6e des Tabacs (Constantinople); Annual Report 
of the Council of Foreign Bondholders (London); C. Morawitz, Les 
Finances de la Turquie (Paris, 1902); G. Young, Corps de droit otto- 
man (7 vols., Oxford, 19051906) ; Pech, Manuel des societes anony- 
mes fonctionnant en Turquie (Paris, 1906) ; Alexis Bey, Statistique 
des principaux r&sultats des chemins de fer de I'empire ottoman 
(Constantinople, 1909). 

3. Defence: Djevad Bey, Etat militaire ottoman (Paris, 1885); 
H. A., Die turkische Wehrmacht (Vienna, 1892); L. Lamoucne, 
L' Organisation militaire de I'empire ottoman (Paris, 1895); Lebrun- 
Renaud, La Turquie: puissance militaire (Paris, 1895); Haupt- 
man Rasky, Die Wehrmacht der Turkei (Vienna, 1905). (See also 
ARMY.) (V.C.*) 

HISTORY 

Legend assigns to Oghuz, son of Kara Khan, the honour of 
being the father of the Ottoman Turks. Their first appearance 
in history dates from A.D. 1227. In that year a horde, variously 
estimated at from two to four thousand souls, with their flocks 
and their slaves, driven originally from their Central Asian homes 
by the pressure of Mongol invasion, and who had sought in vain 
a refuge with the Seljukian sultan Ala-ud-din Kaikobad of Konia, 
were returning under their chief Suleiman Shah to their native 



HISTORY] 



TURKEY 



443 



Ertoghrul, 
1230-1288. 



land. They were crossing the Euphrates, not far from the castle 
of Jaber, when the drowning of their leader by accident threw 
confusion into their ranks. Those who had not yet crossed the 
river refused, in face of this omen, to follow their brethren; the 
little band, numbering 400 warriors (according to others, consist- 
ing of 2000 horsemen) decided to remain under Ertoghrul, son of 
the drowned leader. Ertoghrul first camped at Jessin, 
east of Erzerum; a second appeal to Ala-ud-din was 
more successful the numbers of the immigrants had 
become too insignificant for their presence to be a source of danger. 
The lands of Karaja Dagh, near Angora, were assigned to the new 
settlers, who found there good pasturage and winter quarters. 
The help afforded by Ertoghrul to the Seljukian monarch on a 
critical occasion led to the addition of Sugut to his fief, with 
which he was now formally invested. Here Ertoghrul died 
in 1288 at the age of ninety, being succeeded in the leader- 
ship of the tribe by his son Osman. When, ex- 
nauste d by the onslaughts of Ghazan Mahmud Khan, 
ruler of Tabriz, and one of Jenghiz Khan's lieu- 
tenants, the Seljukian Empire was at the point of dissolution, 
most of its feudatory vassals helped rather than hindered 
its downfall in the hope of retaining their fiefs as independent 
sovereigns. But Osman remained firm in his allegiance, and 
by repeated victories over the Greeks revived the drooping 
glories of his suzerain. His earliest conquest was Karaja Hissar 
(1295), where first the name of Osman was substituted for that 
of the sultan in the weekly prayer. In that year Ala-ud-din 
Kaikobad II. conferred on him the proprietorship of the lands he 
had thus conquered by the sword, and presented him at the same 
time with the horse-tail, drum and banner which constituted the 
insignia of independent command. Osman continued his vic- 
torious career against the Greeks, and by his valour and also 
through allying himself with Keusse Mikhal, lord of Harman Kaya, 
became master of Amegeul, Bilejik and Yar Hissar. His marriage 
with Mai Khatun, the daughter of the learned sheikh Edbali, 
has been surrounded by poetical legend; he married his son 
Orkhan to the beautiful Greek Nilofer, daughter of the lord of 
Yar Hissar, whom he carried off from her destined bridegroom on 
her marriage-day; the fruits of this union were Suleiman Pasha 
and Murad. In 1300 the Seljukian Empire crumbled away, and 
many small states arose on its ruins. It was only after the death 
of his protector and benefactor Sultan Ala-ud-din II. that Osman 
declared his independence, and accordingly the Turkish historian 
dates the foundation of the Ottoman Empire from this event. 
Osman reigned as independent monarch until 1326. He pursued 
his conquests against the Greeks, and established good govern- 
ment throughout his dominions, which at the time of his death 
included the valleys of the Sakaria and Adranos, extending 
southwards to Kutaiah and northwards to the Sea of Marmora. 
Infirmity had compelled him towards the end of his life to 
depute the chief command to his younger son Orkhan, by whom 
in 1326 the conquest of Brusa was at last effected after a long 
siege. 

Orkhan's military prowess secured for him the succession, 
to the exclusion of his elder brother Ala-ud-din, who became 
his grand vizier. At that time a number of 
principalities had replaced the Seljukian state. 
Though Yahsha Bey, grandson of Mahommed Kara- 
man Oghlu, had declared himself the successor of the Seljukian 
sultans, the princes of Aidin, Sarukhan, Menteshe, Kermian, 
Hamid, Tekke and Karassi declined to recognize his authority, 
and considered themselves independent, each in his own 
dominions. Their example was followed by the Kizil Ahmedli 
Emir Shems-ed-din, whose family was afterwards known as the 
house of Isfendiar in Kastamuni. The rest of the country 
was split up among Turcoman tribes, such as the Zulfikar in 
Marash and the Al-i-Ramazan in Adana. At his accession 
Orkhan was practically on the same footing with these, and* 
avoided weakening himself in the struggle for the Seljukian 
inheritance, preferring at first to consolidate his forces at Brusa. 
There he continued to wrest from the Greeks the lands which 
their feeble arms were no longer able to defend. He took Aidos, 



1326^1359 



Nicomedia, Hereke, and, after a siege, Nicaea; Tarakli and 
Gemlik fell to his arms, and soon the whole of the shore of 
the Marmora up to Kartal was conquered, and the Byzantines 
retained on the continent of Asia Minor only Ala Shehr and 
Biga. These acquisitions were made between 1328 and 1338; 
in the latter year Orkhan achieved his first conquest from 
Mussulman hands by the capture of Karassi, the pretext being 
the quarrel for the succession on the death of. the prince, 
Ajlan Bey. 

At this period the state of the Byzantine Empire was such as to 
render its powers of resistance insignificant; indeed the length 
of time during which it held out against the Turks is to be attri- 
buted rather to the lack of efficacious means at the disposal of 
its assailants than to any qualities possessed by its defenders. 
In Constantinople itself sedition and profligacy were rampant, 
the emperors were the tools of faction and cared but little for 
the interests of their subjects, whose lot was one of hopeless 
misery and depravity. On the death of the emperor Andro- 
nicus III. in 1341 he was succeeded by John Palaeologus, a 
minor; and Cantacuzenus, the mayor of the palace, appealed 
to Orkhan for assistance to supplant him, giving in marriage 
to the Ottoman prince his daughter Theodora. Orkhan lent 
the desired aid; his son Suleiman Pasha, governor of Karassi, 
crossed into Europe, crushed Cantacuzenus's enemies, and 
penetrated as far as the Balkans, returning laden with spoil. 
Thus the Turks learnt the country of the Greeks and their 
weakness. In 1355 Suleiman crossed over from Aldinjik and 
captured the fortress of Gallipoli, which was at once converted 
into a Turkish stronghold; from this base Bulalr, Malgara, 
Ipsala and Rodosto were added to the Turkish possessions. 
Suleiman Pasha was killed by a fall from his horse near Bulalr in 
1358; the news so affected his father Orkhan as to cause his death 
two months later. The institution of the Janissaries (7.^.) holds 
a prominent place among the most remarkable events of Orkhan's 
reign, which was notable for the encouragement of learning and 
the foundation of schools, the building of roads and other works 
of public utility. 

Orkhan was succeeded by his son Murad. After capturing 
Angora from a horde of Turkomans encamped there who were 

attacking his dominions, at first with some success, 

\x j -r Murad], 

in 1361 Murad prepared for a campaign in Europe. 1^59-1389 

At that time the Greek emperor's rule was con- 
fined to the shores of the Marmora, the Archipelago and 
Thrace. Salonica, Thessaly, Athens and the Morea were 
under independent Greek princes. The Bulgarians, Bosnians 
and Servians had at different periods invaded and conquered 
the territories inhabited by them; the Albanians, original 
natives of their land, were governed by princes of their 
own. When, on the death of Cantacuzenus, John Palaeo- 
logus remained sole occupant of the imperial throne, Murad 
declared war against him and conquered the country right up to 
Adrianople; the capture of this city, the second capital of the 
emperors, was announced in official letters to the various Mussul- 
man rulers by Murad. Three years later, in 1364, Philippopolis 
fell 'to Lala Shahin, the Turkish commander in Europe. The 
states beyond the Balkan now began to dread the advance of the 
Turks; at the instigation of the pope an allied army of 60,000 
Serbs, Hungarians, Walachians and Moldavians attacked Lala 
Shahin. Murad, who had returned to Brusa, crossed over to 
Biga, and sent on Haji Ilbeyi with 10,000 men; these fell by night 
on the Servians and utterly routed them at a place still known as 
the " Servians' coffer." In 1367 Murad made Adrianople his 
capital and enriched it with various new buildings. He continued 
to extend his territories in the north and west; the king of Servia 
and the rulers of Kiustendil, Nicopolis and Silistria agreed to 
pay tribute to the conquering Turk. Lala Shahin Pasha was 
appointed feudal lord of the district of Philippopolis, and Timur 
Tash Pasha became beylerbey of Rumelia; Monastir, Perlepe, 
and parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina were next taken, a.nd the 
king of Servia consented to furnish to Murad a fixed contingent 
of auxiliary troops, besides paying a money tribute. In 1381 
Murad's son Yilderim Bayezid married Devlet Shah Khatun, 



444 



TURKEY 



[HISTORY 



daughter of the prince of Kermian, who brought him in dowry 
Kutaiah and its six dependent provinces. In the same year Bey 
Shehr and other portions of the Hamid principality were acquired 
by purchase from their ruler Hussein Bey, as the Karamanian 
princes were beginning to cast covetous eyes on them; but the 
Karamanians were unwilling to resign their claims to be heirs of 
the Seljukian sultans, and not until the reign of Mahommed II. 
were they finally suppressed. Ali Bey, the prince at this time, 
took advantage of Murad's absence in Europe to declare war 
against him; but the Ottoman ruler returning crushed him at 
the battle of Konia. Meanwhile the king of Bosnia, acting in 
collusion with the Karamanian prince, attacked and utterly 
defeated Timur Tash Pasha, who lost 15,000 out of an army of 
20,000 men. The princes and kings who had consented to pay 
tribute were by this success encouraged to rebel, and the Servian 
troops who had taken part in the battle of Konia became insub- 
ordinate. Indignant at the severity with which they were pun- 
ished, Lazarus, king of Servia, joined the rebel princes. Murad 
thereupon returned to Europe with a large force, and sent Chen- 
dereli Zade Ali Pasha northwards; the fortresses of Shumla, 
Pravadi, Trnovo, Nicopolis and Silistria were taken by him; 
Sisman III., rebel king of Bulgaria, was punished and Bulgaria 
once more subjugated. Ali Pasha then joined his master at Kos- 
sovo. Here Lazarus, king of Servia, had collected an army of 
100,000 Serbs, Hungarians, Moldavians, Walachians and others. 
On the 27th of August 1389 the greatest of the battles of Kossovo 
was fought. A lightning charge of Yilderim Bayezid's dispelled 
the confidence of the enemy, scattering death and dismay in 
their ranks. The king of Servia was killed and his army cut to 
pieces, though the Turks numbered but 40,000 and had all the 
disadvantage of the position. After the battle, while Murad was 
reviewing his victorious troops on the field, he was assassinated 
by Milosh Kabilovich, a Servian who was allowed to approach 
him on the plea of submission. 

Murad maintained a show of friendly relations with the 
emperor John Palaeologus, while capturing his cities. A review 
held by him in 1387 at Yeni Shehr was attended by the emperor, 
who, moreover, gave one of his daughters in marriage to Murad 
and the other two to his sons Bayezid and Yakub Chelebi. These 
princes were viceroys of Kermian and Karassi respectively; the 
youngest son, Sauji Bey, governed at Brusa during his father's 
absence. Led away by evil counsellors, Sauji Bey plotted with 
Andronicus, son of the emperor, to dethrone their respective 
fathers. The attempt was foiled; Andronicus was blinded by 
his father's orders and Sauji was put to death (1387). 

After being proclaimed on the field of Kossovo, Bayezid's 
first care was to order the execution of his brother Yakub 
Chelebi, and so to preclude any repetition of 
t389-'i4O3.' Sauji's plot. The young prince Andronicus, who 
had not been completely blinded, sent secretly 
to Bayezid and offered him 30,000 ducats to dethrone 
his father John Palaeologus and make him emperor. Bayezid 
consented; later on John Palaeologus offered an equivalent 
sum and, since he engaged to furnish an auxiliary force of 
12,000 men into the bargain, Bayezid replaced him on 'the 
throne. By the aid of these auxiliaries the fort of Ala Shehr 
was captured (1392), Manuel Palaeologus, son of the emperor, 
being allowed, in common with many other princes, the privilege 
of serving in the Turkish army, then the best organized and 
disciplined force extant. The principalities of Aidin, Menteshe, 
Sarukhan and Kermian were annexed to Bayezid's dominions 
to punish their rulers for having joined with the Karamanian 
prince in rebellion. The exiled princes took refuge with the Kizil 
Ahmedli, ruler of Kastamuni, who persuaded the Walachians 
to rebel against the Turks. By a brilliant march to the Danube 
Bayezid subjugated them; then returning to Asia he crushed 
the prince of Karamania, who had made head again and had 
defeated Timur Tash Pasha. Bayezid now consolidated his 
Asiatic dominions by the capture of Kaisarieh, Sivas and 
Tokat from Tatar invaders, the relics of Jenghiz Khan's hordes. 
Sinope, Kastamuni and Samsun were surrendered by the prince 
of Isfendiar, and the conquest of Asia Minor seemed assured. 



On the death of John Palaeologus in 1391 his son Manuel, who 
was serving in the Turkish army, fled, without asking leave, to 
Constantinople, and assumed the imperial dignity. Bayezid 
determined to punish this insubordination: Constantinople was 
besieged and an army marched into Macedonia, capturing 
Salonica and Larissa (1395). The siege of the capital was, how- 
ever, unsuccessful; the pope and the king of Hungary were able 
to create a diversion by rousing the Christian rulers to a sense of 
their danger. An army of crusaders marched upon the Turkish 
borders; believing Bayezid to be engaged in the siege of Constanti- 
nople, they crossed the Danube without precaution and invested 
Nicopolis. While the fortress held out with difficulty Bayezid 
fell upon the besiegers like a thunderbolt. The first onslaught 
of the Knights of the Cross did indeed rout the weak irregulars 
placed in the van of the Turkish army, but their mad pursuit 
was checked by the steady ranks of the Janissaries, by whom 
they were completely defeated (1396). King Sigismund of 
Hungary barely escaped in a fishing boat; his army was cut to 
pieces to a man; among the prisoners taken was Jean Sans Peur, 
brother of the king of France. To the usual letter announcing 
the victory the caliph in Egypt replied saluting Bayezid with 
the title of " Sultan of the lands of Rum." 

After the victory of Nicopolis the siege of Constantinople 
was resumed, and the tower of Anatoli Hissar, on the Asiatic 
side of the Bosporus, was now built. However, by sending 
heavy bribes to Bayezid and his vizier, and by offering to build 
a mosque and a Mussulman quarter, and to allow Bayezid to be 
named in the weekly prayer, Manuel succeeded in inducing 
Bayezid to raise the siege. The mosque was destroyed later on 
and the Mussulman settlers driven out. Between 1397 and 1399 
Bayezid overran Thessaly, while in Asia his lieutenant Timur 
Tash was extending his conquests. Meanwhile Timur (Tamer- 
lane) had started from Samarkand on his victorious career. 
With incredible rapidity his hosts spread and plundered 
from Bagdad to Moscow. After devastating Georgia in 1401 
he marched against the Turks. Some of the dispossessed 
princes of Asia Minor had repaired to Timur and begged him 
to reinstate them; accordingly Timur sent to Bayezid to request 
that this might be done. The tone of the demand offended 
Bayezid, who rejected it in terms equally sharp. As a result 
Timur's countless hordes attacked and took Sivas, plundering 
the town and massacring its inhabitants. Then, to avenge an 
insult sustained from the ruler of Egypt, Timur marched south- 
wards and devastated Syria, thence turning to Bagdad, which 
shared the same fate. He then retraced his steps to the north- 
west. Bayezid had taken advantage of his absence to defeat 
the ruler of Erzingan, a protege of Timur. All attempts to 
arrange a truce between the two intractable conquerors were in 
vain. They met in the neighbourhood of Angora. Timur's 
army is said to have numbered 200,000, Bayezid's force to have 
amounted to about half that figure, mostly seasoned veterans. 
The sultan's five sons were with the army, as well as all his 
generals; 7000 Servian auxiliaries under Stephen, son of 
Lazarus, took part in the battle (1402). Prodigies of valour 
on the part of Bayezid's troops could not make up for the defec- 
tion of the newly-absorbed levies from Aidin, Sarukhan and 
Menteshe who went over to their former princes in Timur's 
camp. The rout of the Turkish army was complete. Bayezid, 
with many of his generals, was taken prisoner. Though treated 
with some deference by his captor, who even promised to 
reinstate him. Bayezid's proud spirit could not endure his 
fall, and he died eight months later at Ak Shehr. 

After the disaster of Angora, from which it seemed impossible 
that the Ottoman fortunes could ever recover, the princes fled 
each with as many troops as he could induce to j a t ef . 
follow him, being hotly pursued by Timur's armies, regaum. 
Only Mussa was captured. Timur reached Brusa, 1*03-1413. 
and there laid hands on the treasure of Bayezid; one after 
another the cities of the Turks were seized and plundered 
by the Tatars. Meanwhile Timur sent letters after the fugi- 
tive sons of Bayezid promising to confer on them their father's 
dominions, and protesting that his attack had been due merely 



HISTORY] 



TURKEY 



445 



to the insulting tone adopted towards him by Bayezid and to 
the entreaties of the dispossessed princes of Asia Minor. Most 
of the latter were reinstated, with the object of reducing the 
Turkish power. Timur did not cross into Europe, and con- 
tented himself with accepting some trifling presents from the 
Greek emperor. After capturing Smyrna he returned to 
Samarkand (1405). Some years of strife followed between the 
sons of Bayezid, in which three of them fell; Mussa, seizing 
Adrianople, laid siege to Constantinople, and Manuel Palaeo- 
logus, the emperor, appealed for aid to Mahommed, the other 
son, who had established himself at Brusa. 

In 1413 Mahommed defeated Mussa, and thus remained sole 
heir to Bayezid 's throne; in seven or eight years he succeeded 
Mahom- in regaining all the territories over which his father 
med i., had ruled, whereas Timur's empire fell to pieces 
1413-1421. at tne d eat ij O f j| ts founder. Two years after his 
accession Mahommed overcame a rebellion of the prince of Kara- 
mania and recaptured his stronghold Konia (1416), and then, 
turning northwards, forced Mircea, voivode of Walachia, who in 
the dispute as to the succession had supported Prince Mussa, to 
pay tribute. The Turkish dominions in Asia Minor were 
extended, Amasia, Samsun and Janik being captured, and an 
insurrection of dervishes was quelled. In 1421 the sultan died. 
His services in the regeneration of the Turkish power can hardly 
be over-estimated; all agree in recognizing his great qualities 
and the charm of his character; even Timur is said to have 
admired him so much as to offer him his daughter in marriage. 
The honour was declined, and Mahommed took a bride from the 
house of Zulfikar. Amid the cares of state he found time for 
works of public utility and for the support of literature and 
art; he is credited with having sent the first embassy to a 
Christian power, after the Venetian expedition to Gallipoli in 
1416, and the Ottoman navy is first heard of in his reign. 

At the time of Mahommed's death his eldest son Murad was at 
Amasia; and, as' the troops had lately shown signs of insubordi- 
nation, it was deemed advisable to conceal the news 

"/-//' of the sultan ' s death and to send a P art of the arm y 

across to Asia. The men, however, refused to march 
without seeing their sultan, and the singular expedient was 
resorted to of propping up the dead monarch's body in a. dark 
room and concealing behind it an attendant who raised the hands 
and moved the head of the corpse as the troops marched past. 
Shortly after Murad's accession the emperor Manuel, having 
applied in vain for the renewal of the annual subsidy paid him 
by the late sultan for retaining in safe custody Mustafa, an 
alleged son of Bayezid, released the pretender. Adherents 
flocked to him, and for a whole year Murad was engaged in 
suppressing his attempts to usurp the throne. 

At last the armies of sultan and pretender met at Ulubad 
(Lopadion) on the Rhyndacus in Asia Minor; Mustafa's troops 
fled at the first onset; Lampsacus, where the pretender took 
refuge, was captured with the aid of the Genoese galleys under 
Adorno. Mustafa, who had crossed the strait and fled north- 
wards, was taken, brought to Adrianople, and hanged from a 
tower of the serai (1422). Murad now laid siege to Constanti- 
nople to avenge himself on the emperor, and on the 24th of 
August the desperate valour of the defenders succeeded in driv- 
ing back an assault led by a band of fanatical dervishes. The 
siege was raised, however, not owing to the bravery of the defence, 
but because the appearance of another pretender, in the person 
of Murad's thirteen-year-old brother Mustafa, under the pro- 
tection of the revolted princes of Karamania and Kermian, 
called the sultan to Asia. Mustafa, delivered up by treachery, 
was hanged (1424); but Murad remained in Asia, restoring order 
in the provinces, while his lieutenants continued the war against 
the Greeks, Albanians and Walachians. By the treaty signed 
on the 22nd of February 1424, shortly before his death, the 
emperor Manuel II., in order to save the remnant of his empire, 
agreed to the payment of a heavy annual tribute and to surrender 
all the towns on the Black Sea, except Selymbria and Derkos, 
and those on the river Strymon. Peace was also made at the 
same time with the despot of Servia and the voivode of 



Walachia, on the basis of the payment of tribute. By 1426 the 
'princes of Kermian and Karamania had submitted on honour- 
able terms; and Murad was soon free to continue his conquests 
in Europe. Of these the most conspicuous was that of Salonica. 
Garrisoned only by 1 500 Venetians, the city was carried by storm 
(March i, 1428); the merciful precedent set by Mahommed I. 
was not followed, the greater part of the inhabitants being 
massacred or sold into slavery, and the principal churches 
converted into mosques. 

The capture of Salonica had been preceded by renewed troubles 
with Servia and Hungary, peace being concluded with both in 
1428. But these treaties, each of which marked a fresh Turkish 
advance, were short-lived. The story of the next few years 
is but a dismal record of aggression and of reprisals leading to 
fresh aggression. In 1432 the Turkish troops plundered in 
Hungary as far as Temesvar and Hermannstadt, while in Servia 
Semendria was captured and Belgrade invested. In Tran- 
sylvania, however, the common peril evoked by the Turkish 
incursion and a simultaneous rising of the Vlach peasantry had 
knit together the jarring interests of Magyars, Saxons and 
Szeklers, a union which, under the national hero, the voivode 
Janos Hunyadi (q.v.), was destined for a while to turn the tide 
of war. In 1442 Hunyadi drove the Turks from Hermannstadt 
and, at the head of an army of Hungarians, Poles, Servians, 
Walachians and German crusaders, succeeded in the ensuing 
year in expelling them from Semendria, penetrating as far as 
the Balkans, where he inflicted heavy losses on the Turkish 
general. Meanwhile, again confronted by a rebellion of the 
prince of Karamania, Murad had crossed into Asia and reduced 
him to submission, granting him honourable terms, in view of 
the urgency of the peril in Europe. On the i2th of July 1444 
a ten years' peace was signed with Hungary, whereby Walachia 
was placed under the suzerainty of that country; and, wearied 
by constant warfare and afflicted by the death of his eldest son, 
Prince Ala-ud-din, Murad abdicated in favour of his son Mahom- 
med, then only fourteen years of age, and retired to Magnesia 
(1444). The pope urged the king of Hungary to take advantage 
of this favourable opportunity by breaking the truce solemnly 
agreed upon, and nineteen days after it had been concluded a 
coalition was formed against the Turks; a large army headed by 
Ladislaus I., king of Hungary, Hunyadi, voivode of Walachia, 
and Cardinal Cesarini crossed the Danube and reached Varna, 
where they hoped to be joined by the Greek emperor. In this 
emergency Murad was implored to return to the throne; to a 
second appeal he gave way, and crossing over with his Asiatic 
army from Anatoli Hissar he hastened to Varna. The battle 
was hotly contested; but, in spite of the prowess of Hunyadi, 
the rout of the Christians was complete; the king of Hungary and 
Cardinal Cesarini were among the killed. Murad is said to have 
abdicated a second time, and to have been again recalled to power 
owing to a revolt of the Janissaries. In 1446 Corinth, Patras 
and the north of the Morea were added to the Turkish dominions. 
The latter years of Murad's reign were troubled by the successful 
resistance offered to his arms in Albania by Scanderbeg (q.v.). 
In 1448 Hunyadi, now governor of Hungary, collected the largest 
army yet mustered by the Hungarians against the Turks, but he 
was defeated on the famous field of Kossovo and with difficulty 
escaped, while most of the chivalry of Hungary fell. Little 
more than two years later Murad died at Adrianople, being 
succeeded by his son Mahommed. 

After suppressing a fresh revolt of the prince of Karamania, 
the new sultan gave himself up entirely to the realization of 
the long-cherished project of the conquest of Con- nations- 
stantinople. He began by building on the European medii. the 
side of the Bosporus the fort known as Rumeli C ^'^' 
Hissar, opposite that built by his grandfather Bay- 
ezid. Tradition avers that but forty days were needed for the 
completion of the work, six thousand men being employed night 
and day; guns and troops were hurriedly put in, and all naviga- 
tion of the Bosporus was stopped. After completing his 
preparations, which included the casting of a monster cannon 
and the manufacture of enormous engines of assault, Mahommed 



446 



TURKEY 



[HISTORY 



began the siege in 1453. Constantine Palaeologus, the last occu- 
pant of the imperial throne, took every measure that the courage 
of despair could devise for the defence of the doomed city; but 
his appeal to the pope for the aid of Western Christendom was 
frustrated through the bigoted, anti-Catholic spirit of the Greeks. 
The defenders were dispirited and torn by sedition and dissen- 
sions, and the emperor could rely on little more than 8000 fighting 
men, while the assailants, 200,000 strong, were animated by the 
wildest fanatical zeal. The siege had lasted fifty-three days 
when, on the 2gth of May 1453, a tremendous assault was 
successful; the desperate efforts of the Greeks were unavailing, 
Constantine himself falling among the foremost defenders of the 
breach. The sultan triumphantly entered the palace of the 
emperors, and the next Friday's prayer was celebrated in the 
church of St Sofia (see ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER). 

After some days' stay in Constantinople, during which he 
granted wide privileges to the Greeks and to their patriarch, 
the sultan proceeded northwards and entirely subdued the 
southern parts of Servia. A siege of Belgrade was unsuccessful, 
owing to the timely succour afforded by Hunyadi (1456). Two 
years later internal dissensions in Servia brought about the 
conquest of the whole country by the Turks, only Belgrade 
remaining in the hands of the Hungarians. The independent 
princes of Asia Minor were now completely subjugated and their 
territories finally absorbed into the Turkish dominions; Wala- 
chia was next reduced to the state of a tributary province. 
Venice having adopted a hostile attitude since Turkey's con- 
quests in the Morea, greater attention was devoted to the fleet; 
Mytilene was captured and the entrance to the straits fortified. 
The conquest of Bosnia, rendered necessary by the war with 
Venice, was next completed, in spite of the reverses inflicted on 
the Turks by the Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus, the son 
of Janos Hunyadi. The Turks continued to press the Venetians 
by land and sea; Albania, which under Scanderberg had for 
twenty-five years resisted the Ottoman arms, was overrun; 
and Venice was forced to agree to a treaty by which she ceded 
to Turkey Scutari and Kroia, and consented to pay an indem- 
nity of 100,000 ducats (Jan. 25, 1478). The Crimea was next 
conquered and bestowed as a tributary province on the Tatar 
khan Mengli Girai. Mahommed now endeavoured to strike a 
blow at Rhodes, the stronghold of the Knights of St John, 
preparatory to carrying out his long-cherished plan of conquering 
Italy. A powerful naval expedition was fitted out, but failed, 
an armistice and treaty of commerce being signed with the 
grand master, Pierre d'Aubusson (1479). But a land attack on 
southern Italy at the same time was successful, Otranto being 
captured and held for a time by the Turks. In 1481 the sultan 
was believed to be projecting a campaign against the Circassian 
rulers of Syria and Egypt, when he died at Gebze. He is said 
to have been of a merry and even jocular disposition, to have 
afforded a generous patronage to learning, and, strange to say 
for a sultan, to have been master of six languages. 

Mahommed II. was the organizer of the fabric of Ottoman 
administration in the form which it retained practically un- 
changed until the reforms of Mahmud II. and Abd-ul-Mejid. 
He raised the regular forces of the country to a total exceeding 
100,000; the pay of the Janissaries was by him increased, and 
their ranks were brought up to an effective of upwards of 12,000. 
He established the system whereby the lands conquered by the 
arms of his troops were divided into the different classes of fiefs, 
or else assigned to the maintenance of mosques, colleges, schools 
and charitable institutions, or converted into common and 
pasturage lands. Many educational and benevolent founda- 
tions were endowed by him, and it is to Mahommed II. that 
the organization of the ulema, or legist and ecclesiastical class, 
is due. 

Upon Bayezid II. succeeding to his father a serious revolt 
of the troops took place, which led to the institution of the 
Ba ezldir re S u l ar payment of an accession donative to the 
14SI-IS12." Janissaries. At the outset of the reign Bayezid's 
brother, Prince Jem, made a serious attempt to 
claim the throne; he was defeated, and eventually took 



refuge with the knights of Rhodes, whom Bayezid bribed 
to keep him in safe custody. The unfortunate prince was led 
from one European stronghold to another, and, after thirteen 
years' wandering, died at Naples in 1494 (see BAYEZID II.). 
Freed from the danger of his brother's attacks, the sultan gave 
himself up to devotion, leaving to his ministers the conduct of 
affairs in peace and war. But, though of an unambitious and 
peace-loving temper, the very conditions of his empire made 
war inevitable. Even when peace was nominally in existence, 
war in its most horrible forms was actually being waged. On 
the northern frontier border raids on a large scale were frequent. 
Thus, in 1492 the Turks made incursions into Carinthia as far 
as Laibach, and into Styria as far as Cilli, committing unspeak- 
able atrocities; in 1493 they overran both Styria and Croatia. 
The Hungarians retaliated in kind, burning and harrying as far 
as Semendria, torturing and murdering, and carrying off the 
saleable inhabitants as slaves. In 1494 a crushing victory of 
the emperor Maximilian drove the Turks out of Styria, which 
they did not venture again to invade during his reign. In 1496 
the temporary armistice between the Poles and Turks, renewed 
in 1493, came to an end, and John Albert, king of Poland, seized 
the occasion to invade Moldavia. The efforts of Ladislaus of 
Hungary to mediate were vain, and the years 1497 and 1498 
were marked by a terrible devastation of Poland by the Ottomans; 
only the bitter winter, which is said to have killed 40,000 Turks, 
prevented the devastation from being more complete. By the 
peace concluded in 1500 the sultan's dominions were again ex- 
tended. Meanwhile, in June 1499, war had again broken out 
with Venice, mainly owing to the intervention of the pope and 
emperor, who, with Milan, Florence and Naples, urged the sultan 
to crush the republic. On the 28th of July the Turks gained 
over the Venetians at Sapienza their first great victory at sea; 
and this was followed by the capture of Lepanto, at which 
Bayezid was present, and by the conquest of the Morea 
and most of the islands of the archipelago.' By the peace 
signed on the 24th of December 1502, however, the status quo 
was practically restored, the sultan contenting himself with 
receiving Santa Maura in exchange for Cephalonia. 

Meanwhile in Asia also the Ottoman Empire had been con- 
solidated and extended; but from 1501 onwards the ambitious 
designs of the youthful Shah Ismail in Persia grew more and 
more threatening to its security; and though Bayezid, intent 
on peace, winked at his violations of Ottoman territory and 
exchanged friendly embassies with him, a breach was sooner 
or later inevitable. This danger, together with the growing 
insubordination of the aged sultan's sons, caused his ministers 
to urge him to abdicate in favour of Selim, the younger but more 
valiant. This prince pushed his audacity so far as to attack 
his father's troops, but the action merely increased his popu- 
larity with the Janissaries, and Bayezid, after a reign of thirty- 
one years, was obliged to abdicate in favour of his forceful 
younger son; a few days later he died. This reign saw the end 
of the Mussulman rule in Spain, Turkey's naval power not being 
yet sufficient to afford aid to her co-religionists. It also saw 
the first intercourse between a Russian tsar and an Ottoman 
sultan, Ivan III. exchanging in 1492 friendly messages with 
Bayezid through the Tatar khan Mengli Girai; the first Russian 
ambassador appeared at Constantinople three years later. 

When he had ruthlessly quelled the resistance offered to his 
accession by his brothers, who both fell in the struggle for the 
throne, Selim undertook his campaign in Persia, 
having first extirpated the Shia heresy, the prevalent 1512-1520. 
sect of Persia, in his dominions, where it threatened 
to extend. After an arduous march and in spite of the mutinous 
behaviour of his troops, Selim, crushed the Persians at Chaldiran 
(1515) and became master of the whole of Kurdistan. He next 
turned against the Mameluke rulers of Egypt, crushed them, 
and entering Cairo as conqueror (1517), obtained from the last 
of the Abbasid caliphs, 1 Motawakkil, the title of caliph (q.v.) 

'After the fall of the caliphs of Bagdad (1258), descendants of 
the Abbasids took refuge in Cairo and enjoyed a purely titular 
authority under the protection of the Egyptian rulers. 



HISTORY] 



TURKEY 



447 



for himself and his successors (see EGYPT: History; M ahommedan 
Period). The sultan also acquired from him the sacred banner 
and other relics of the founder of Islam, which have since been 
preserved in the Seraglio at Constantinople. Egypt, Syria and 
the Hejaz, the former empire of the Mamelukes, were added 
to the Ottoman dominions. Towards the end of Selim's reign 
the religious revolt of a certain Jellal, who collected 200,000 
adherents, was the cause of much trouble; but he was eventually 
routed and his force dispersed near Tokat. While preparing 
an expedition against Rhodes to avenge the repulse sustained 
forty years before by Mahommed II., the sultan died at Orash- 
keui, near Adrianople, at the spot where he had attacked his 
father's troops. His reign of eight years had almost doubled 
the extent of the Turkish dominions. 

He was succeeded by his son Suleiman " the Magnificent," 
in whose long and eventful reign Turkey attained the highest 
point of her glory. Selim's Asiatic conquests had 
left his successor free to enter upon a campaign in 
Europe, after the suppression of a revolt of the 
governor of Damascus, who had thought to take advantage of 
the new sultan's accession to restore the independent rule of the 
Circassian chiefs. In 1521 war was declared against the king 
of Hungary on the pretext that he had sent no congratulations 
on Suleiman's accession. Belgrade was besieged and captured, 
a conquest which Mahommed II. had failed to effect. In the 
next year an expedition was undertaken against Rhodes, the 
capture of which had become doubly important since the acquisi- 
tion of Egypt. The siege, which was finally conducted by the 
sultan in person, was successful after six months' duration; 
the forts of Cos and Budrum were also taken. The European 
war was now renewed; in 1526 the sultan, marching from Bel- 
grade, crossed the Danube and took Peterwardein and Esseg; 
on the field of Mohacs he encountered and defeated the Hun- 
garians under king Louis II., who was killed with the flower 
of the Hungarian chivalry (see HUNGARY: History). Budapest 
hereupon fell to the Turks, who appointed John Zapolya king 
of Hungary (1528). But the crown of Hungary was claimed 
by the archduke Ferdinand, brother of the emperor Charles V., 
as being king Louis's brother-in-law. This brought Turkey into 
collision with the great emperor. Moreover, Francis I. of France, 
who had just been defeated by Charles, sent to the sultan am- 
bassadors and messages dwelling on the danger of allowing 
Charles's power to become too great, and imploring the assis- 
tance of Suleiman as the only means of preserving the balance 
of power in Europe. Meanwhile Ferdinand's troops captured 
Budapest, driving out Zapolya, who at once appealed to Suleiman 
for aid. Suleiman decided against Charles, and marched north 
(1529). Zapolya joined the Turks at Mohacs, and a joint attack 
was made on Budapest. After five days' siege the Austrians 
were driven out, and Zapolya was reinstated on the throne of 
Hungary. The Turks then marched on Vienna, which was 
bombarded and closely invested, but so valiant was the resist- 
ance offered that after three weeks the siege was abandoned 
(Oct. 14, 1529). Suleiman now prepared for a campaign 
in Germany and sought to measure himself against Charles, 
who, however, withdrew from his approach, and little was 
done save to ravage Styria and Slavonia. In 1533 a truce 
was arranged, Hungary being divided between Zapolya and 
Ferdinand. 

During the Hungarian campaign the Shia sectaries had been 
encouraged to revolt, and the Persians had overrun Azerbaijan 
and recaptured Tabriz. Suleiman, therefore, turned his arms 
against them, reaching Bagdad in 1534, and capturing the whole 
of Armenia. The naval exploits of Khair-ed-din Pasha (see 
BARBAROSSA) are among the glories of the reign, and led to 
hostilities with Venice. After capturing Algiers, an attack 
by this famous admiral on Tunis was repulsed with the aid 
of Spain, but in the Mediterranean he maintained a hotly- 
contested struggle with Charles's admiral, Andrea Doria. 
Venice was in alliance with Charles, and her possessions 
were consequently attacked by Turkey by land and by 
sea, many islands, including Syra and Tinos, falling before 



Barbarossa's assaults. Corfu was besieged, but unsuccess- 
fully. At Preveza Barbarossa defeated the papal and Venetian 
fleets under Doria. In 1540 the fort of Castelnuovo, the 
strongest point on the Dalmatian coast, was taken by the Vene- 
tians and recaptured by Barbarossa. Peace was then made on 
the terms that Turkey should retain her conquests and Venice 
should pay an indemnity of 300,000 ducats. Friendly relations 
had subsisted between Suleiman and Ferdinand during the 
expedition to Persia; but on the death of Zapolya in 1539 
Ferdinand claimed Hungary and besieged Budapest with a large 
force. Suleiman determined to support the claims of Zapolya's 
infant son, John Sigismund, and in 1541 set out in person. At 
the end of August he appeared before Budapest, the siege of 
which had already been raised by the defeat of the Austrians; 
the infant John Sigismund was carried into the sultan's camp, 
and the queen-mother, Isabella, was peremptorily ordered to 
evacuate the royal palace, though the sultan gave her a diploma 
in which he swore only to retain Budapest during the minority 
of her son. On the 2nd of September Suleiman entered the city, 
and to the ambassadors of Ferdinand, who came to offer a yearly 
sum if the sultan would recognize his claim to Hungary, he 
replied that he had taken possession of it by the sword and 
would negotiate only after the surrender of Gran, Tata, Vise- 
grad and Szekesfehervar. The war now continued vigorously 
by sea and land. The great expedition of the emperor 
Charles V. against Algiers ended in failure, his fleet being 
destroyed by a sudden storm (Oct. 31, 1541); and his diplo- 
matic efforts to wean Barbarossa from his allegiance to the 
sultan fared no better. In 1 542 a formal alfiance was concluded 
between Suleiman and Francis I. ; the Ottoman fleet was placed 
at the disposal of the king of France, and in August 1543, the 
Turks under Barbarossa, and the French under the duke of 
Enghien, laid siege to Nice. The town surrendered; but the 
citadel held out until, on the 8th of September, it was reh'eved 
by Andrea Doria. Meanwhile on land Suleiman had taken full 
advantage of the European situation to tighten his grip on 
Hungary. The attempt of the imperialists, under Joachim of 
Brandenburg, to retake Budapest (September 1542), failed 
ignominiously; and in the following year Suleiman in person 
conducted a campaign which led to the conquest of Siklos, Gran, 
Szekesfehervar and Visegrad (1544). Everywhere the churches 
were turned into mosques; and the greater part of Hungary, 
divided into twelve sanjaks, became definitively a Turkish 
province. A truce, on the basis of uli possidetis, signed at Adria- 
nople on the igth of June 1547 for five years, between the sultan, 
the emperor and Ferdinand I. king of Hungary, recognized the 
Turkish conquests in Hungary; while, for the portion left to- 
him, Ferdinand consented to pay an annual tribute of 30,000 
ducats. John Sigismund was recognized as independent prince 
of Transylvania and of sixteen adjacent Hungarian counties, 
Queen Isabella to act as regent during his minority. 

Suleiman was now free to resume operations against Persia. 
In the spring of 1548 he set out on his eleventh campaign, 
which ended in the capture of Erzerum (August 16) and the 
conquest of Armenia and Georgia. But the Persian War 
dragged on, with varying fortune, for years, till after Suleiman 
had ravaged Persia it was concluded by the treaty the first 
between shah and sultan signed at Amasia on the 29th of 
May 1555. 

Meanwhile the war in Hungary had been resumed. Neither 
side had been careful to observe the terms of the treaty of 1 547 ; 
the Turkish pashas in Hungary had raided Ferdinand's do- 
minions, while Ferdinand had been negotiating with Frater 
Georgy (see MARTINUZZI) with a view to freeing Transylvania 
from the Ottoman suzerainty. When the sultan discovered 
that Martinuzzi, who was all-powerful in Transylvania, had 
actually arranged to hand over the country to Ferdinand, he 
threw the Austrian ambassador into prison, and in September 
1551 sent an army, 80,000 strong, under Mahommed Sokolli 
over the Danube. Several forts, and the important town of 
Lippa on the Marosch, fell at once, and siege was laid to Temes- 
var. This was raised after two months, and Martinuzzi took 



448 



TURKEY 



[HISTORY 



advantage of the retirement of the Turks to raise an army and 
recapture Lippa. Before the surrender of the city, however, 
he was murdered by Ferdinand's orders on strong suspicion 
of treachery. The campaign of 1552 was disastrous for the 
Austrians; the Turks, under the command of Ahmed Pasha, 
defeated them at Szegedin and captured in turn Veszprem, 
Temesvar, Szolnok and other places. Their victorious career 
was only checked, in October, by the raising of the siege of 
Erlau. In the spring of 1553 the victories of the Persians 
called for the sultan's presence in the East; a truce for six 
months was now concluded between the envoys of Ferdinand 
and the pasha of Budapest, and Austrian ambassadors were 
sent to Constantinople to arrange a peace. But the negotia- 
tions dragged on without result; the war continued with hideous 
barbarities on both sides; and it was not until the ist of June 
1562 that it was concluded by the treaty signed at Prague by 
Ferdinand, now emperor. Suleiman kept the possessions he 
had won by the sword, Temesvar, Szolnok, Tata and other 
places in Hungary; Transylvania was assigned to John Sigis- 
mund, the Habsburg claim to interference being categorically 
denied; Ferdinand bound himself to pay, not only the annual 
tribute of 30,000 ducats, but all the arrears that had meanwhile 
accumulated. Even this treaty, however, was but an apparent 
settlement. A year passed before the Latin and Turkish texts 
of the treaty were harmonized; and meanwhile irregular fighting 
continued on all the borders. In 1 564 Ferdinand died, and was 
succeeded by Maximilian II. The new emperor attacked 
Tokaj, which was in Turkish possession; the tribute had been 
allowed again to fall into arrears; and to all this was added 
that Mahommed SokoUi, the new grand vizier (1565), pressed 
for new war to wipe out the disgrace of the failure of the 
Ottoman attack on Malta (May-September 1565). In May 
1566 the war broke out, Suleiman, now seventy-two years old, 
again leading his army in person. In August he laid siege to 
Szigetvar with 100,000 men; but on the sth of September, 
while preparations were being made for a final assault, the 
sultan died. His death was, however, kept secret, and on the 
Sth the fortress fell. 

The reign of Suleiman the Magnificent marked the zenith 
of the Ottoman pcwer. At the time of his death the Turkish 
Empire extended from near the frontiers of Germany to the 
frontiers of Persia. The Black Sea was practically a Turkish 
lake, only the Circassians on the east coast retaining their 
independence; and as a result of the wars with Persia the whole 
Euphrates valley, with Bagdad, had fallen into the sultan's 
power, now established on the Persian Gulf. The Venetians 
had been driven from the Morea and the islands of the Archi- 
pelago; and, except a strip of the Dalmatian coast and the little 
mountain state of Montenegro, the whole of the Balkan peninsula 
was hi Turkish hands. In the Mediterranean, Crete and Malta 
yet survived as outposts of Christendom; but the northern 
coasts of Africa from Egypt to Morocco acknowledged the 
supremacy of the sultan, whose sea power in the Mediterranean 
had become a factor to be reckoned with in European politics, 
threatening not only the islands, but the very heart of Christen- 
dom, Italy itself, and capable as the alliance with France 
against Charles V. had shown of being thrown with decisive 
weight into the balance of European rivalries. 

The power of the Ottomans at sea was maintained during 
this period by a series of notable captains, such as Khair-ed-din 
^ *" s son Hassan, Piale, Torgud, Sali Reis and 
*" Reis. Of these the two first are separately 
noticed (see BARBAROSSA). Piale, a Croatian who 
had been brought up in the imperial harem and succeeded 
Sinan as capudan-pasha, crowned a series of victories over the 
galleys of Andrea Doria by the capture of the island of Jerba, 
off Tripoli (July 31, 1560). For this he was rewarded with 
the hand of one of the sultan's grand-daughters. He later 
became the second vizier of the empire, and, as a supporter of 
Sokolli, was in power till his death in 1575. Torgud, also 
the son of Christian parents, was a native of the sanjak of 
Mentesha in Asia Minor, and began his career as a soldier in 



the Ottoman, sea service. After spending some time as a 
Genoese galley-slave, he turned corsair and became the terror 
of the Mediterranean coasts. He seized Mahdia, a strong post 
on a tongue of land about 43 m. south of Susa in Tunisia, and 
made this the centre of his piracies till, during his absence 
raiding the Spanish coasts, it was bombarded and destroyed 
by an expedition sent by Charles V. (September 10, 1550). 
Torgud was now summoned to Constantinople to answer for 
piracies committed on the friendly galleys of Venice; but he 
sailed instead to Morocco, and there for two years defied the 
sultan's authority. But Suleiman, who needed the aid of the 
corsairs against Malta, pardoned him, and he was given the 
command of the expedition against Tripoli, which he captured. 
He now turned against Corsica, captured Bastia (August 1553) 
and on his return to Constantinople, laden with booty and 
slaves, chastised the insurgent Albanians. He was rewarded 
by Suleiman with the governorship of Tripoli, which he held 
till his death. He was killed during the unsuccessful attack on 
Malta, which he commanded (1565). Sali Reis, also by birth 
a Christian of Asia Minor, was likewise successful as a corsair; 
he distinguished himself especially at the capture of Tunis, 
and succeeded Hassan Barbarossa as beylerbey of Algiers. 

Other captains carried the Turkish arms down the Arabian 
and Persian gulfs far out into the Indian Ocean. Of these the 
most remarkable was Piri Reis, nephew of Kamil Reis, the 
famous corsair who, under Bayezid II., had swept the Aegean 
and Mediterranean. Piri sailed into the Persian Gulf, took 
Muscat, and laid siege to Ormuz. But the approach of the 
Portuguese fleet put him to flight; some of his vessels were 
wrecked; and on his return by way of Egypt he was arrested 
at Cairo and executed. He had compiled a sea-atlas (the 
Bahrije) of the Aegean and Mediterranean seas, every nook 
and cranny of which he had explored, with an account of the 
currents, soundings, landing-places, inlets and harbours. 

Another literary seaman of this period was Sidi Ali, celebrated 
under his poetic pseudonym of Katibi (or Katibi Rumi, to 
distinguish him from the Persian poet of the same name). 
He was no more successful than Piri or his successor Murad 
in fighting the elements and the Portuguese in the Persian Gulf; 
but he was happier in his fate. Driven, with the remnant of 
his ships, into the Indian Ocean, he landed with fifty com- 
panions on the coast of India and travelled back to Turkey by 
way of Sind, Baluchistan, Khorassan and Persia. He wrote 
an account of this three years' journey, for which he was re- 
warded by Suleiman with an office and a pension. He was the 
author also of a mathematical work on the use of the astrolabe 
and of a book (Muhit, " the ocean ") on the navigation of the 
Indian seas. 

At the close of Suleiman's reign the Turkish army numbered 
nearly 200,000 men, including the Janissaries, whose total he 
almost doubled, raising them to 20,000. He im- 

i . . . 11-111 Reforms of 

proved the laws and institutions established by suielmaaL 
his predecessors and adapted them to the require- 
ments of the age; to him are due important modifications in 
the feudal system, aimed at maintaining the fiefs in a really 
effective condition. The codes of law were by him revised and 
improved, and he was the first sultan to enter into relations 
with foreign states. In 1534 Jean de La Foret, a knight of 
St John of Jerusalem, came to Constantinople as first per- 
manent French ambassador to the Porte, and in February 
1535 were signed the first Capitulations (q.v.) with France. 

A short sketch of the administration and state of the country at 
this time may find place here. Successively transferred from Brusa 
to Adrianople and thence to Constantinop'e, the seat 
of government was at first little more than the camp 
of a conqueror. After the conquest of the imperial 
city the sultans began to adopt the pomp and splendour century 
of eastern sovereigns, and largely copied the system, 
ready to hand, of the Byzantine emperors. Affairs of state were at 
first discussed at the imperial divan, where the great dignitaries 
were convened at appointed hours. Until the reign of Mahommed 
the Conqueror the sultan presided in person ; but a rough Anatolian 
peasant penetrating one day to the council and exclaiming, "Which 
of you might be the sultan? I've come to make a complaint!" it 



.. fh 



HISTORY] 



TURKEY 



449 



was thought that in future it would be more consonant with the 
imperial dignity for the sovereign to remain concealed behind a 
grating where, unseen, he could hear all that was said. Towards 
the middle of Suleiman's reign even this practice was abandoned, 
and the sultans henceforth attended the divans only on the dis- 
tribution of pay to the troops or the reception of a foreign ambas- 
sador, which occasions were usually made to coincide. The divan 
accompanied the sultan on military expeditions. 

As established by Mahommed II., the officials of the state were 
divided into four classes: (l) administrative; (2) ecclesiastical; 
(3) secretarial and (4) military. The administration of kazas, or 
cantons, was usually entrusted to the cadis and the holders of the 
more important fiefs; the sanjaks, or departments, were ruled by 
ala'i beys or ntir-i-livas (colonels or brigadiers), pashas with one horse- 
tail ; the vilayets, or provinces, by beylerbeys or mir-i-mirans (lord of 
lords), pashas with two horse-tails; these were all originally military 
officers, who, in addition to their administrative functions, were 
charged with the duty of mustering and commanding the feudal 
levies in war time. Above them were the beylerbeys of Anatolia and 
Rumelia, who served under the orders of the commander-in-chief. 
The title of vizier was borne by six or seven persons simultaneously; 
the grand vizier was the chief of these and exercised supreme 
authority, being invested with the sultan's signet. He often com- 
manded an army in person, and was then given the title of serdar- 
i-ekrem (generalissimo); one of the subordinate viziers remained 
behind as kaimmakam, or locum tenens. The duties of the other 
viziers were limited to attending the divan; they were called kubbe 
or cupola viziers from the fact that the council met under a cupola ; 
they were pashas with three horse-tails, and were attended by large 
retinues, having generally achieved distinction as beylerbeys. 
These officers were usually chosen from among the more promising 
of the youths selected by the devshurme, or system of forced levy 
for manning the ranks of the Janissaries: hence so many of the 
statesmen of Turkey were of non-Mussulman origin. Besides these 
members of the secretarial class, such as nishanjis and defterdars, 
as well as regular army officers, and occasionally members of the 
ecclesiastical class, or ulema, rose to the rank of vizier. 

The highest dignitaries of the ecclesiastical class were at first the 
kazaskers, or military judges, of Europe and Asia ; later the office 
of Sheikh-ul-Islam was created as the supreme authority in matters 
relating to the Church and the sacred law. Promotion was regular, 
but was obtainable only by entering at an early age one of the 
medresses or colleges; the student, after passing through the suc- 
cessive degrees of danishmend, mulazim and muderris, became first 
a molla, then a judge, rising to the higher ranks as fortune and 
opportunity offered. In the time of Bayezid II. the post of nakib- 
ul-eshraf, or registrar of the sherifs, or descendants of the Prophet, 
was created. 

The secretarial class consisted of six categories: the nishanjis, 
the defterdars, the reis, the defter emini, the shakk-i-sani (or second 
class) defterdars and the shakk-i-sdlis (or third class) defterdars. 
The first named were charged with the duty of revising and duly 
executing the decisions of the divan respecting the assignment of 
lands to warriors and the apportioning of conquered territories. 
They were men of great culture, and many historians, poets 
and writers belong to this class. The defterdar was practically the 
minister of finance. The reis was the secretary-general of the 
divan, and in more modern times became minister for foreign 
affairs. The defter emini kept the registers for the nishanji, 
whose place he took on emergency, the others acted as secretaries 
and clerks. 

The military class was divided into two categories: (i) the regular 
paid troops who were quartered in barracks and were known as 
" slaves of the palace "; (2) the feudal levies who received no pay 
and were called upon to serve only in war-time. The Janissaries 
(q.v.) belonged to the first category. The rigid regulations for 
admission to their ranks were soon relaxed : at the close of the Persian 
war in 1590 their total amounted to 50,000. The regular troops 
comprised also armourers (jebeji), from 6000 to 8000 men, and six 
squadrons of cavalry; these were recruited in the same way as the 
Janissaries, and their numbers were raised by Murad III. to 20,000. 
There were also bostanjis, or forest-guards, numbering about 5000, 
besides local troops in distant and frontier provinces, and about 
20,000 akinjis, or light troops, in Europe, who carried out forays 
in the enemies' country. 

The fiefs were not hereditary, and were held directly from the 
sultan. On the conquest of a country the lands were apportioned 
by the nishanjis, who first computed the tithe revenueof each village, 
its population, woods, pasturage, &c. ; and divided it into the three 
classes of fief s (khas, ziamet and timar), or into vakuf (pious endow- 
ments) or pasturage. Any estate with a revenue exceeding 100,000 
aspres was a khas, and was conferred on a prince or on a high dignitary 
as long as he held his post ; for each 5000 aspres of revenue one armed 
warrior had to be furnished in war. Fiefs with a revenue of from 
20,000 to 100,000 aspres were called ziamets and were conferred 
on similar terms on inferior officers, usually for life or during good 
behaviour. Fiefs with a revenue of from 3000 to 20,000 aspres 
were timars, furnishing one armed warrior for every 3000 aspres' 
revenue ; the grant of a fief was conditional on obligatory residence. 
The peasants owning the land remained undisturbed in their 

xxvn. 15 



Sellm //., 
1566-1574. 



proprietorship, paying to their feudal lord the tithe, as well as the fixed 
duties on transfer, &c. Abuses in the system first began in the time 
of Khosrev Pasha, Suleiman's grand vizier. 

The governors of the more distant provinces enjoyed a consider- 
able amount of independence, which in the case of the Barbary 
states was more or less complete ; these entered into treaties with 
foreign powers, and by their piratical outrages frequently caused 
the Porte considerable embarrassment. The sherif of the Hejaz, 
Abu-'l-berekat, made submission to Sultan Selim I. After the 
subjugation of the Yemen, the absorption of the holy places 
was also attempted, and. in Suleiman s reign judges were ap- 
pointed thither from Constantinople. But it was found politic 
to continue the office of the grand sherif of Mecca in the sherifian 
family. 

The princes of the Crimea were invested with many of the prero- 
gatives of independence, e.g. that of coining money; the ruler of 
Transylvania was allowed to retain the royal title, nor were Turkish 
troops quartered in the country. The Danubian principalities 
were also ruled by native princes until the Phanariote period (see 
PHANARIOTES). 

On the 1 7th of February 1568, two years after the accession 
of Suleiman's son Selim, peace was concluded with Austria 
on the basis of the former terms, the emperor 
Maximilian having sent ambassadors to congratulate 
the new sultan on his accession. A disastrous 
attack on Astrakhan, with the object of carrying out Sokolli's 
plan for uniting the Don and the Volga, first brought the 
Turks into collision with the Russians. Expeditions against 
the Yemen and Cyprus were successful, but the loss of 
Cyprus, accompanied as it was by the barbarous murder of the 
Venetian commander, Marco Antonio Bragadino, by the seras- 
kier pasha Mustafa's orders, in violation of the terms of the 
capitulation of Famagusta (August 1571), roused the bitter 
resentment of the Venetians, previously incensed by Turkish 
raids on Crete. Already, on the 2$th of May, had been concluded 
the holy league between the pope, Venice and Spain for a new 
crusade against the infidel, in spite of the efforts of France 
to prevent the adhesion of the republic. Preparations were 
hurried on and at the end of September the great allied fleet, 
under Don John of Austria, sailed into the archipelago. On 
the 7th of October was fought the naval battle of Lepanto, 
which broke for ever the tradition of the invincibility of the 
Turks at sea. The immediate results of the battle were not, 
however, as decisive as might have been expected. In June 
1572 a fresh Ottoman fleet of 250 sail took the sea; and the 
jealousy of the allies and the incompetence of their commanders 
made any repetition of their former victory impossible. After 
a series of indecisive engagements Venice broke from the league 
and, under the mediation of France, concluded a treaty with 
the Porte practically on the basis of uti possidetis (March 7, 
!573)- With Spain the war continued, and on the 24th of 
August 1574 Tunis which had been taken by Don John of 
Austria in 1572 was recaptured by the Turks, who from this 
new base proceeded, under Sinan Pasha and Kilij Ali, to ravage 
Sicily. 1 In the same year Selim II. died. Known in history 
as the " Sot," he had allowed his able grand vizier Mahommed 
Sokolli to rule the country. 

The character of Murad III., who succeeded his father 
Selim II. at the age of twenty-eight, was not calculated to arrest 
the progress of decay within the Ottoman Empire. 
He was a weakling, swayed by his favourites in the Murad in., 
harem, especially by his Venetian wife Safi6; and, I574-1S9S. 
though he kept Sokolli in office, he was suspicious 
of the too powerful vizier, whose wise influence he allowed 
his minions to undermine. Thus eminent servants of the 
state such as Mustafa Pasha, Sokolli's nephew who for 
twelve years had ruled the sanjak of Budapest with con- 
spicuous enlightenment and success were deposed or 
executed to make way for the nominees of the harem. In 
even weightier matters the opinion of the grand vizier was 
slighted. Thus it was against his advice that, at the 
beginning of 1578, advantage was taken of the disorders 
arising on the death of Shah Tahmasp of Persia to attack 

1 It was ten years before a formal truce was signed with Spain 
(1584); two hundred years passed before the signature of a definitive 
treaty of peace and commerce (Sept. 14, 1782). 



45 



TURKEY 



[HISTORY 



that country. The war lasted for twelve years, during 
which Tiflis, Shirvan and Daghestan were taken; finally 
Shah Abbas established himself on the Persian throne 
and in 1590 made peace with Turkey, who retained her con- 
quests in Georgia, Azerbaijan and Shirvan. But this short- 
sighted policy is criticized by Turkish historians, who censure 
Murad III. for thus weakening the neighbouring Mussulman 
states such as Persia and Daghestan, thereby facilitating Russia's 
future expansion at their cost. Sokolli's assassination, on 
the nth of October 1578, had meanwhile thrown the ccomtry 
into disorder. There was now no authority left to hold in 
check the corrupt influences of the harem. The avenues to 
power were through bribery and yet more unspeakable paths; 
the fiefs which formed the basis of the feudal array were bestowed 
on favourites' favourites, or sold to the highest bidder, and the 
sultan himself shared in the corrupt plunder. At last that final 
expedient of weak governments, the debasing of the coinage, 
led to a crisis. In 1589 mutinies of troops took place all over 
the empire, and in the two following years there were several 
risings of the Janissaries at Constantinople, the pretext being 
everywhere that the soldiers were being robbed of their pay. 
At this juncture a fresh crisis in the relations with Austria 
arose. The peace concluded in 1568 and thrice renewed (in 
I S73, J576 and 1584) had not prevented the continuance of 
raids and forays, from either side of the frontier, that at times 
assumed the dimensions of regular campaigns. The climax 
came in 1593. All through the preceding year Hassan " Tilli," 
beylerbey of Bosnia, had raided in Croatia, taking border 
fortresses and driving off the inhabitants into slavery. In 
June 1593, with an army of 30,000 men, he laid siege to Sissek; 
the Austrian and Hungarian levies hurried to its relief; and 
on the zznd the Turks were routed with immense slaughter 
on the banks of the Kulpa, Hassan himself, with many other 
beys and two of the imperial princes, being among the slain. 
Though not yet formally declared, the " long war " was now 
in full progress. In August, Sinan Pasha, the grand vizier 
now eighty years of age took command of the troops for the 
Hungarian War and left Constantinople, dragging with him 
the Austrian ambassador in chains. The capture of Veszprem 
and of Raab (1594) and the failure of the archduke Matthias 
to take Gran seemed to promise another rapid victory of the 
Ottoman arms; but Sinan was ill-supported from Constanti- 
nople, the situation was complicated by the revolt of 
Walachia and Moldavia, and the war was destined to last, with 
varying fortunes, for fourteen years. On the i6th of January 
1595 Murad III. died. 

In spite of the internal corruption which, under Murad III., 
heralded the decay of the empire, the prestige of the Ottomans 
in Europe was maintained during his reign. Even the emperor 
had to be content to be treated by the sultan as an inferior 
and tributary prince; while France had to suffer, with no 
more than an idle protest, the insult of the conversion of 
Catholic churches at Constantinople into mosques. In spite 
of frequent causes of friction, good relations were maintained 
with Venice, through the influence of the sultana Safie, and the 
capitulations with the republic of St Mark were renewed in 
1589. Those with France were also renewed (July 6, 1581); 
and capitulations were signed for the first time with the grand 
duke of Tuscany (1578) and with England (isSo). 1 In the 
following year permanent diplomatic relations were established 
by England with the Porte by the despatch of William Harebone 
as ambassador, Queen Elizabeth urging as her special claim to 
the sultan's friendship their common mission to fight " idolaters." 

The new sultan, Mahommed III., Murad 's son, succeeded 
to the throne at a moment when the Turkish arms were suffering 
reverses in Hungary and in the revolted Danubian provinces; 
Mahom- the Janissaries, too, were ill-content and mutinous, 
med in., and to put an end to their murmurings Mahommed 
1S9S-1603. was persuaded by Sinan Pasha to lead them to the 
war in person. The immediate effect was good; Erlau was 

1 They were renewed with England in 1593, 1603, 1606, 1622, 
1624, 1641, 1662 and 1675. 



captured in October 1596, and a three days' battle in the plain 
of Keresztes (Oct. 23 to 26) ended in the disastrous 
rout of the allied troops under the archduke Maximilian and 
Sigismund, prince of Transylvania. But the Turks did not 
profit much by their victory. The new grand vizier, Cicala, 
by his severity to the soldiers, mainly Asiatics, who had shown 
cowardice in the battle, drove thousands to desert; and the 
sultan, who had himself little stomach for the perils of cam- 
paigning, returned to Constantinople, leaving the conduct of 
the war to his generals. The campaign of 1598 began with the 
loss of Raab, and continued unfavourable to the Turks, who 
lost Totis, Veszprem and Papa, and were hard pressed in Buda- 
pest. In October want of supplies and a mutiny of the Janis- 
saries compelled the commander-in-chief to retreat into winter 
quarters at Belgrade. In 1599 the first peace overtures were 
made, but came to nothing; and the confused fighting of this 
and the following year culminated in the capture of Kanizsa 
by the Turks (September 1600). The attempt of the archduke 
Ferdinand, at the head of 30,000 men, to retake it a year later 
was defeated. In August 1602 Szekesfeherv&r again fell into 
the hands of the Turks; in November the siege of Buda by the 
archduke Matthias, who had taken Pest by storm, was raised 
by the grand vizier Hassan. 

Trouble had, however, meanwhile broken out in other parts 
of the Ottoman dominions. The deserters from Cicala's army, 
distributed in armed bands throughout Asia Minor, had become 
centres round which all the elements of discontent gathered, 
and formed the mainstay of the Jellali sectaries who, at this 
time, rose in insurrection and ravaged Anatolia. In Con- 
stantinople, early in 1603, there was, moreover, a serious rising 
of the spahis; and, finally, in September Shah Abbas of Persia 
took advantage of what is known in Turkish history as " the 
year of insurrections " to declare war and reconquer Tabriz. 
In the midst of this crisis, on the 22nd of December 1603, Sultan 
Mahommed III. died, and was succeeded by his elder son, 
Ahmed I., a boy of fourteen. 

Though negotiations for peace were at once begun, it was not 
till three years after Ahmed's accession that the peace of Sitva- 
torok, concluded on the nth of November 1606, at 
last put an end to the war in Europe. By this 
treaty the annual tribute payable by Austria was 
abolished, but an indemnity of 200,000 florins was paid "once 
for all " by the emperor, who was henceforth to be given his 
proper imperial title (padishah) in Turkish official documents. 
The peace of Sitvatorok (or Zeideva, as it is also called) marks 
the close of Turkey's period of conquest. No longer haughtily 
imposed on the vanquished, as was the case with former 
treaties, it was submitted to the examination and discussion of 
both parties before being signed. It freed Austria from the 
humiliating tribute to which the treaty of 1547 had subjected 
her, and established relations between the two monarchs on 
a footing of equality. It was thus the first manifest sign 
of Turkey's decadence from the glory of Suleiman I.'s reign, 
when King Ferdinand stooped to call the sultan's vizier 
his brother. For the remainder of the reign the Persian 
War was continued fitfully, a treaty of peace, signed in 1611, 
not being observed. 

In 1617 the sultan died, and was succeeded by his brother 
Mustafa; but the latter being declared incompetent to reign, 
his brother Osman took his place on the throne. M ustttla i 
The war in Persia was terminated by the renewal leir-ieis" 
in 1618 of the treaty of 1611, whereby all the con- ""I 
quests effected by Murad III. and Mahommed III. ** n 6 " 2 " 
were given up. Peace, however, left the rebellious 
Janissaries leisure to engage in plots against the sultan, and 
in order to occupy them and to remove them from the 
capital advantage was taken of the king of Poland having 
intervened in the affairs of Transylvania and the principalities 
to declare war against him. Osman marched against Khotin, 
but failed to capture it, and his unpopularity with the army 
was increased by rumours that he designed to collect such 
troops as were loyal to him, under pretence of going on 



HISTORY] 



TURKEY 



pilgrimage to Mecca, in order to destroy the Janissaries and 
reform the country. They therefore rose and dethroned him, 
soon afterwards putting him to death. For a few months 
Mustafa was replaced on the throne; when he abdicated in 
Mustafa I favour of nis nephew Murad IV. Turkey seemed to 
1&2-1623', be at the point of dissolution. Profiting by the 
and mutiny of the army, the Persians invaded Turkey, 

Murad iv., ca pt u ring Bagdad; at Constantinople and in the 
W0 " provinces alike anarchy was everywhere prevalent. 
This continued until the new sultan had acquired age and 
experience; but, nine years after his accession, he successfully 
crushed the military rebels, and thereafter ruled with a severity 
amounting to bloodthirsty cruelty. In 1638 he marched in 
person against the Persians and succeeded in recapturing 
Bagdad. Peace was made in 1639, leaving the Turco-Persian 
frontier practically as it now stands. In the next year the 
sultan died at the age of thirty-one, being succeeded by his 
brother Ibrahim. In his reign the Cossacks were driven from 
Azov and the expedition against Crete was begun, the immediate 
cause being the plunder of a Turkish vessel by 
'u4o'-i648. Maltese corsairs who took their capture to Crete. 
War was therefore declared against Venice, to 
whom Crete belonged (1644), and continued in the island for 
twenty-five years. 

The anarchy and misgovernment of Turkey now reached such 
a pitch that Ibrahim was dethroned and murdered, and 
Mabom- his son Mahommed IV. was proclaimed in his 
mediv., stead. For the first eight years of his reign suc- 
1648-1687. cess i ve grand viziers were unable to restore order 
to the country. In 1656 Mahommed Kuprili (q.v.) became 
grand vizier, and by dint of firmness and resolution repaired 
the falling fortunes of the country. The fleet was restored, 
and recaptured Lemnos and other islands which had passed 
into the hands of the Venetians; the revolts caused by 
Kuprili's severity were put down, and tranquillity was re- 
established in Transylvania. After five years' tenure of office 
the grand vizier died and was succeeded by his son, Ahmed 
Kuprili. In 1663 the disturbances which had broken out again 
in Transylvania led to war with Austria. Ahmed Kuprili 
attacked the Austrians, at first with success, but was routed by 
Montecuculi at the battle of St Gotthard Abbey and eventually 
consented to the treaty of Vasvar (Aug. 10, 1664), by 
which a twenty years' truce was agreed upon; Transylvania 
was evacuated by both parties, but remained tributary to 
Turkey. The Kuprilis, both father and son, had by their 
haughty and uncompromising demeanour done much to alienate 
the old-standing friendship with France, and at the battle of 
St Gotthard 6000 French, under Coligny, fought on the Austrian 
side. The result was that the Turks in retaliation deprived 
the Catholics, always under the protection of France, of some 
of their privileges in connexion with the holy places, which 
were now granted to the Orthodox Church. Meanwhile the 
Cretan campaign continued, and here also France lent her aid 
to the Venetians; this assistance could not, however, prevent 
the capture of Candia in 1669; on the sth of September of that 
year Morosini, the Venetian commander, signed a treaty of 
peace with the Turks by which, after twenty-five years' warfare, 
they were placed in possession of the fortress of Candia, and 
with it of the effective rule over the whole island, Venice retain- 
ing only the fortresses of Suda, Grabusa and Spinalonga, and 
the islets along the coast. 

Dissensions among the Cossacks led to the recognition by 
Turkey of Doroshenko, the hetman of the Sari Kamish, as ruler 
of the Ukraine; the Zaporog Cossacks, his antagonists, applied 
for aid to Russia. However, Michael Wiesnowiecki, king of 
Poland, considering the Ukraine as under his protection, 
sought to intervene, with the result that Turkey declared war 
against him (1672). The Turks captured Kamenets, Lemberg 
and Lublin. Hereupon the Poles sued for peace, and a treaty 
was signed at Buczacs (Oct. 18, 1672) whereby Podolia was 
ceded to Turkey, the Ukraine was left to the Cossacks, and 
Poland agreed to pay to Turkey an annual tribute of 22,000 



sequins. But John Sobieski, who succeeded shortly afterwards 
to the throne of Poland, refused to abide by the terms of this 
treaty; the war was renewed and continued for four years, 
when the treaty of Buczacs was reaffirmed at Zuravno by both 
parties, the tribute clause alone being abrogated (Oct. 16, 
1676). A few days later Ahmed Kuprili died. 

Doroshenko now deserted the Turkish alliance for the Russian; 
in consequence an expedition was sent into the Ukraine which 
was both costly and useless. In 1678 the Turks succeeded in 
taking Cehrin, but their losses were very heavy, and on the Sth 
of January 1681 a treaty was signed at Radzyn whereby the 
territory in dispute was ceded to Russia. A revolt of the 
Hungarian Protestants, in consequence of the persecuting 
policy of the house of Habsburg, now led to a renewal of the 
war between Turkey and Austria, due in part to the over- 
weening ambition of Kuprili's successor, Kara Mustafa, who 
desired to immortalize his tenure of office by some great exploit, 
and who cherished dreams of founding for himself a western 
Moslem Empire. The war is blamed by Turkish historians as 
unjustifiable and untimely, the country needing reform. A 
vast Turkish army marched to the walls of Vienna and closely 
beleaguered the imperial city, from which the emperor and 
his court fled. All hope seemed lost, when by a brilliant feat 
of arms John Sobieski, king of Poland, drove away the besiegers 
in hopeless confusion and saved the cause of Christianity, 1683. 
This was the signal for a general coalition against Turkey; 
Venice, Poland and the pope allied themselves with the Aus- 
trians; Russia, Tuscany and Malta joined in the attack. Turkey 
now sought for a rapprochement with France, and endeavoured 
to bring about her intervention in return for concessions as 
regards the holy places. But the French had just before 
bombarded Algiers and Tripoli, even menacing Chios (Scio), 
where some pirates had put in with French captives; and 
the mediation of France was not very actively exercised. 
One after another the Hungarian forts were captured by the 
Austrians; the Venetians were equally successful in Greece and 
the Morea; the Russians pressed on the Crimea, and Sobieski 
besieged Kamenets. The troops now mutinied and deposed 
the sultan, placing his brother Suleiman on the throne. But 
the disorder in the army and the administration continued, 
and the advance of the Austrians and the Venetians met 
with little opposition. In this emergency Mustafa _ 

v ! / \ , , fc , \ Sulelmaall., 

Kuprui (q.v.) was appointed grand vizier (1689). /^JT./^/. 
His prudent measures at once re-established some 
degree of order in the army and the fleet, while he sought by 
a wise tolerance to improve the position and conciliate 
the sympathies of the non-Moslem subject races. At first 
eminently successful, he drove the Austrians across the 
Danube, recapturing Nish, Vidin, Semendria and Belgrade; 
repulses were also inflicted on the Venetians and the Russians. 
In the course of the campaign the sultan died, being succeeded 
by his brother Ahmed. The successes of the Turks were not 
maintained, the Austrians inflicting on them a crushing defeat 
at Slankamen, where Mustafa Kuprili was killed, and driving 
them from Hungary. After four years of disaster 
Ahmed died; he was succeeded by his nephew 1691-1695. 
Mustafa. The tide of success now turned again 
in favour of the Turks, who recaptured Karansebes and 
Lippa, and at Lugos exterminated by the weight of over- 
whelming numbers an Austrian force under Field-marshal 
Count Friedrich von Veterani (1630-1695), the hero of many 
victories over the Turks, who was killed in the battle. 
Elsewhere, too, the Ottoman arms were victorious; in 
February the Venetians suffered a double defeat in the road- 
stead of Chios, and the island fell into the hands of the Turks. 
But Prince Eugene's genius restored the Austrian fortunes, 
and the Turks were utterly routed at Zenta on 
the Theiss, losing more than 15,000 men (1697). 
Russia, driven from Azov in 1695, succeeded in 
capturing it in the following year; Venice continued to press 
the Turks; in this condition of affairs Hussein Kuprili (q.v.) 
was called to office; England and Holland urged Turkey to 



452 



TURKEY 



[HISTORY 



make peace, and after long negotiations a series of treaties were 
concluded in January 1699 at Karlowitz, that with Poland 
being signed on the i6th and those with Austria and Venice 
on the 26th. The main provisions of these were, that 
Turkey retained the Banat, while Austria kept Transyl- 
vania; Poland restored the places captured in Moldavia, 
but retained Kamenets, Podolia and the Ukraine; Venice 
restored her conquests north of Corinth, but kept those in 
the Morea and Dalmatia. On the 4th, Russia concluded 
a two years' armistice, but remained in possession of Azov, 
which was formally ceded to her by the definitive treaty 
of peace signed at Constantinople on the I3th of June 
1700. The peace of Karlowitz marks the definitive termina- 
tion of Turkey's power of offence in Europe. Apart from 
the heavy losses which it imposed on her, it constitutes a fresh 
departure in her history, as putting an end to her splendid 
isolation and rendering her dependent on the changes of Euro- 
pean politics. It is noteworthy also as being the first occasion 
on which representatives of the mediating powers took part 
in the peace negotiations. The grand vizier's efforts to take 
advantage of the peace to introduce order in the country were 
unavailing; he was driven from office, and disorders ensued 
which led to the sultan's abdication. 

The troubles were not ended by the accession of Ahmed III., 
and many high dignitaries of state were sacrificed to the law- 
lessness and insubordination of the Janissaries. 
o" Meanwhile Turkey found herself again involved 
with Russia. After the defeat of Charles XII. 
of Sweden at Poltava, this monarch took refuge in Turkey, 
and was allowed to reside at Bender. The Russians pursued 
him into Turkish territory; which led to a Turkish declara- 
tion of war (1710). The Turks succeeded in surrounding 
Peter the Great near the Pruth, and his army was menaced 
with total destruction, when the Turkish commander, the 
grand vizier Baltaji Mahommed Pasha, was induced by the 
presents and entreaties of the empress Catherine to sign the 
preliminary treaty of the Pruth (July 21, 1711), granting terms 
of peace far more favourable than were justified by the situation 
of the Russians. These were: the cession to Turkey of Azov 
with all its guns and munitions, the razing of all the forts recently 
built on the frontier by Russia, the renunciation by the tsar 
of all claim to interfere with the Tatars under the dominion 
of the Crimea or Poland, or to maintain a representative at 
Constantinople, and Russia's consent to Charles's return to 
Sweden. 1 It was long, however, before the latter relieved 
Turkey of his presence. During the campaign Peter had entered 
into alliance with the hospodars of Moldavia and Walachia, 
respectively Demetrius Cantemir and Constantine Brancovano, 
from whom he had received material assistance. These were 
naturally dismissed after the defeat of the Russians; the former 
made good his escape to Russia, the latter was executed. The 
sultan determined henceforth to appoint Greeks to the princi- 
palities as more likely to be subservient to his will than the 
natives hitherto appointed. This system was continued 
until the Greek insurrection of 1821. 

Russia having thus lost all the advantage gained by the peace 
of Karlowitz, Venice was next taken in hand, she having 
invaded the Bosnian frontier and incited the Montenegrins to 
revolt, besides capturing Turkish ships in the Mediterranean. 
These acts were held to be infractions of the treaty, and war 
was declared (1715). The result was the stamping out of the 
insurrection in Montenegro and the capture of the whole of 
the Morea. The fleet also took Tinos and Cerigo, as well as the 
three forts still remaining to the Venetians in Crete. Turkey's 
action, and the preparations being made for the siege of Corfu, 
now brought about the intervention of Austria. Charles VI., 
weary of the war for the Spanish succession, had shortly before 
concluded the peace of Rastadt (1715) and was anxious that 
Venice should not be too hardly pressed. He therefore urged 
Turkey to give up to Venice certain places in Dalmatia as a 

The definitive treaty was signed at Constantinople on the i6th 
of April 1712 (renewed June 5, 1713). 



compensation for the loss of the Morea. The Porte was at 
first disposed to comply, but the party of resistance finally 
prevailed. War was declared against Austria (1716); the fleet 
sailed for Corfu and the army crossed the Save from Belgrade 
to Semlin. Near Peterwardein a great battle was fought, 
in which the Austrians completely routed the Turks; pursuing 
their advantage they took Temesvar and overran the Banat; 
in 1717 they captured Belgrade, the Turks retreating to Adrian- 
ople. England and Holland now urged their mediation, and 
after negotiations the treaty of Passarowitz (Pozharevats in 
Servia) was signed (July 21, 1718); Venice ceded the Morea to 
Turkey but kept the strongholds she had occupied in Albania 
and Dalmatia; Belgrade, Temesvar and Walachia as far as 
the Olt were retained by Austria. 

Meanwhile relations with Russia continued strained. The 
peace of 1712 had been concluded only for a term of years, 
and the neglect of the tsar to carry out its provisions had all 
but led to a fresh outbreak of hostilities when the intervention 
of the other powers led in 1713 to the renewal of the treaty; 
and in November 1720 it was superseded by a treaty of " per- 
petual peace," signed at Constantinople. But, though the 
questions at issue between Russia and Turkey in Poland and the 
northern littoral of the Black Sea were thus for the time settled, 
the aggressive designs of Russia in the Caucasus and in Persia 
soon caused a renewal of anxiety at Constantinople. Again 
war all but broke out; but, through the intervention of France, 
a treaty of partition was signed at Constantinople on the 23rd 
of June 1724, whereby the shores of the Caspian from the 
junction of the Kur and the Arras (Araxes) northwards should 
belong to Russia, while the western provinces of Persia should 
fall to the share of Turkey. These provinces had not yet 
been conquered by Turkey; and, when a part of them had 
been taken, a treaty was concluded with the Afghan Ashraf 
Shah, who had risen to supreme power in Persia, by which 
Turkey should retain them on condition of recognizing him 
as shah (Oct. 23, 1727). But Nadir Kuli Khan came forward 
as the champion of Shah Tahmasp II., the rightful ruler, 
and drove the Turks from these provinces, capturing Tabriz. 
This news caused consternation at Constantinople; the inevit- 
able revolt of the Janissaries followed, headed this time by 
one Patrona Khalil, and the sultan was forced to abdicate 
in favour of his nephew Mahmud. With difficulty the rebellion 
was suppressed; in 1733 the war with Persia was 
resumed, and after three years of fighting Nadir 
succeeded in 1736 in inducing Turkey to recognize 
him as shah of Persia and to restore the territory captured 
since the reign of MuradlV. 

Russia's designs on Poland now brought about war. On 
the death of Augustus II., king of Poland (1733), France had 
put forward as candidate Stanislaus Leszczynski, War of 
Louis XV. 's father-in-law. Austria and Russia Polish 
supported Augustus III., elector of Saxony, and Succession. 
the empress Anne marched an army into Poland and com- 
pelled the election of her candidate, though Russia had 
bound herself by the treaty of 1711 and again by that of 1720 
to abstain from all interference with Poland. France thereupon 
declared war against Russia and her ally Austria, and her 
envoy, the marquis de Villeneuve, urged Turkey to join by 
representing the danger of allowing Russian influence to extend. 
Turkey had cause of complaint against Russia for refusing 
to allow the Crimean troops to march through Daghestan during 
the Persian campaign, and on the 28th of May 1736, war 
was declared, in spite of the efforts of England and Holland. 
The Russians had not waited for the formal declaration of war; 
and on the very day that this was notified by the hanging 
out of the horse-tails before the Seraglio at Constantinople a 
Russian army under Marshal Munnich stormed the ancient wall 
that guarded the isthmus of the Crimea. While Munnich 
conducted a systematic devastation of the peninsula, forces 
were detached under his lieutenants Leontiev and Lascy to 
attack Kinburn (Kiiburun) and Azov. Both these places fell; 
and in July of the following year Munnich captured Ochakov. 



HISTORY] 



TURKEY 



453 



Meanwhile the western sea-powers had made earnest efforts 
to restore peace, and in August 1737 the plenipotentiaries 
of the combatant powers met at Niemirov to arrange terms 
under their mediation. But Austria, which had made a great 
show of seconding their efforts, now began to unmask her real 
aims, which were to take advantage of Turkey's embarrass- 
ments to push her own claims in the principalities and the 
Balkan Peninsula. To the refusal of the sultan's representatives 
to concede any of her demands, Austria replied by revealing 
the existence of an alliance with Russia, which she threatened to 
make actively offensive if her terms were refused. In November 
the conferences broke up; in the spring of the following year 
Austrian divisions advanced simultaneously into Bosnia, Servia 
and Walachia; and in July the main army, under the prince 
of Lorraine, crossed the frontier and captured Nish. In spite 
of this initial success, however, the campaign proved disastrous 
to the Austrians; and France, which had meanwhile come to 
terms with the emperor, endeavoured to mediate a peace in 
conjunction with Sweden and Holland. But the Ottomans, 
though the negotiations continued throughout 1738, were in 
no hurry to come to terms; for the tide of war had turned 
against both Austrians and Russians; Ochakov and Kinburn 
were recaptured; and the victorious Turks crossed the Danube 
and penetrated far into the Banat. Not till the middle of 1739 
would they consent to negotiate seriously for peace. The con- 
ferences were opened at the close of July in the camp of the 
grand vizier, who was pressing Belgrade hard and demanded 
the surrender of the city as a sine qua non. This was conceded; 
on the ist of September, under the mediation of the French 
ambassador Villeneuve, the preliminaries were signed; on 
the 4th the grand vizier made his formal entrance into the city, 
where on the i8th the definitive treaties with Austria and 
Russia were signed. By the former Austria gave up Belgrade 
and the places on the right bank of the Save and the Danube 
which she had gained by the treaty of Passarowitz, together 
with the Austrian portions of Walachia. The treaty with 
Russia provided that Azov should be razed and its terri- 
tory devastated to form a barrier, Russia having the right 
to erect a new fortress at Cherkask, an island in the Don, 
near Azov, and Turkey to build one on the border of 
Kuban near Azov. But Taganrog was not to be refortified, 
and Russia was to have no war-ships on the sea of Azov or the 
Black Sea. The Kabardias, great and little, were to remain 
independent, to serve as a barrier between the two empires. 
By the 1 2th article the Ottoman government agreed " amicably 
to discuss " the question of recognizing the tsar's claim to the 
imperial title, and by the I3th admitted his right to send to 
Constantinople representatives of whatever rank he might 
judge fitting (Noradounghian, Recueil, i. 258). 

Scarcely two years after the signature of the treaty of 
Belgrade sinister rumours reached Constantinople from Persia, 
where Nadir Shah, on his return from India, was planning 
an attack on Mesopotamia. The war, which broke out in 
1743, was waged with varying fortunes, and the peace by which 
it was concluded on the sth of September 1746, beyond stipu- 
lating for a few privileges for Persian pilgrims to the holy 
places, altered nothing in the settlement arranged ten years 
before with Murad IV. In the war of the Austrian Succession, 
which followed the accession of Maria Theresa to the Habs- 
burg throne, Turkey, in spite of the urgency of France, would 
take no share, and she maintained the same attitude in the 
disorders in Persia following the death of Nadir Shah. 

In 1754 the Sultan Mahmud died. He was succeeded by 
- . his brother Osman, whose three years' reign 

Osman 111., . , i- i r 

1754-1757. was marked by no political event of special 

importance. Osman III. was succeeded by his 

cousin Mustafa. At the outset of his reign negotiations 

M st f m were act ^ ve ^ v pursued for the conclusion of a 

1757*1773. " treaty with Prussia, to counteract the alliance 

between France and Austria contracted in 1756; 

and these resulted in the signature of Capitulations, or a treaty 

of friendship and commerce (March 22, 1761). The attitude 



of the northern powers, however, and especially of Russia, 
towards Poland was beginning to excite the sultan's liveliest 
suspicions; and these the accession, in 1762, of the masterful 
Catherine II. to the Russian throne was not calculated to allay. 
In 1763, Catherine took advantage of the death of August us II I. 
of Poland to force her favourite, Stanislaus Poniatowski, on to 
the vacant throne. From the committee of patriots at Warsaw 
complaints and warnings were carried to Constantinople; and 
the cession of Podolia was offered as the price of a Turkish 
attack on Russia. The sultan, though inclined to take up the 
cause of the Polish dissidents, was slow to move, and 
contented himself for a while with protests and threats. But 
the aggressive policy of Russia in the direction of the Caspian 
and Black Seas became more and more evident; complaints 
reached the Porte of a violation of the neutrality of Kabardia, 
of a seditious propaganda in Moldavia by Russian monks, 
and of Russian aid given to the malcontents in Servia and 
Montenegro. Added to all this was the news of the continual 
Russian military aggressions in Poland, against which the 
Catholic confederation of Bar continued to appeal for aid. 
At last, on the 6th of October 176*8, on the refusal of the 
Russian minister to give guarantees for the withdrawal of 
the Russian troops from Poland and the abandonment of 
Russia's claim to interfere with the liberties of the republic, war 
was declared and the Russian representative was imprisoned 
in the Seven Towers. 

The war that followed marks an epoch in the decay of the 
Ottoman Empire and in the expansion of Russia. When, in 
the spring of 1769, the first serious campaign was opened by 
a simultaneous attack by three Russian armies on the princi- 
palities, the Crimea and the buffer state of Kabardia, the 
Turks, in spite of ample warning, were unprepared. They 
were hampered, moreover, by an insurrection in the Morea, 
where a Russian expedition under Orlov had stirred up the 
Mainotes, and by risings in Syria and Egypt. It was not, 
however, till September that the fall of Khotin in Bessarabia 
marked the first serious Russian success. The following year 
was more fatal. In May the Ottoman fleet was attacked and 
destroyed off Cheshme, and the Russian war-ships threatened 
to pass the Dardanelles. In June Romanzov's victory at 
Kartal made him master of the principalities, and by November 
the fortresses of Izmail and Kilia, guarding the passage of the 
Danube, and those of Akkerman and Bender on the Dniester 
had fallen into the hands of the Russians. The campaign 
of 1771, which opened with a gleam of success in the capture 
of Giurgevo, proved yet more disastrous to the Turks, the 
Russians passing the Danube and completing the conquest of 
the Crimea. Prussia and Austria now offered their mediation; 
and in June conferences were opened at Focshani, which led 
to no result. In the following year a conference, from which 
the Austrian and Prussian representatives were excluded, 
was opened at Bucharest (November 1772). In February 
1773 the Russian plenipotentiary delivered his ultimatum, 
of which the most important demands were the cession of 
Kerch, Yenikale and KinBurn, the free navigation of the Black 
Sea and Archipelago for Russian trading and war vessels, and 
the recognition of the tsar's right to protect the Orthodox 
subjects of the sultan. These conditions were submitted 
to Constantinople, and rejected after a stormy debate in the 
divan. The conference of Bucharest now broke up, and the 
war continued. The successful defence of Varna and Silistria 
seemed to justify the stubbornness of the Porte. 

On the 24th of December 1773 Mustafa III. died, and was 
succeeded by his brother Abd-ul-Hamid I., a weakling, from 
whose character nothing could be expected to Abd-ul- 
retrieve the now desperate fortunes of the war. Hamidi., 
The exhaustion of the treasury was evidenced by 1773-1789. 
the absence of the usUal donative to the troops; and the 
demoralization in both army and court made further resis- 
tance useless. At the beginning of July the Russians, under 
Kamenskiy, were before Shumla; and a few days later the 
grand vizier and his army, their communications with the 



454 



TURKEY 



[HISTORY 



capital severed, were surrounded in the fortress. Negotia- 
tions for peace were now opened and on the 2ist of July 
chosen by the Russian plenipotentiary as the anniversary 
of the humiliating convention of the Pruth the treaty of 
Kuchuk Kainarji was signed. Its terms were the most 
onerous as yet imposed on the Ottoman sultans. The Tatars 
Treaty of f rom tne frontier of Poland to the shores of the 
Kuchuk Caspian, including those of the Crimea and Kuban, 
Kainarji, we re declared independent under their own khan 
of the race of Jenghiz, saving only the religious 
rights of the sultan as caliph of Islam. Russia, however, 
retained the fortresses of Kerch, Yenikale and Kinburn, with 
the desert country between the Bug and the Dnieper, while 
Ochakov was left to the Turks. Bessarabia, with the fortresses of 
Akkerman, Izmail and Kilia, was restored to Turkey. Moldavia 
and Walachia were likewise restored, but under conditions which 
practically raised them to the position of semi-independent 
principalities under Russian protection (art. xvi.). Azov and 
its district were annexed to Russia, and the two Kabardias 
were transferred subject to the consent of the khan of the Crimea. 
Russia undertook to evaluate Mingrelia and Georgia. The 
recognition of the imperial title (podishah) was at last conceded 
to the Russian tsars. 

Commerce and navigation in the Black Sea and the Mediter- 
ranean were free to both countries. Turkey was to pay a 
war indemnity of 15,000 purses, the Russian fleet was to 
withdraw and the islands captured by it to be restored. By 
article vii. of the treaty the Sublime Porte undertook " to pro- 
tect the Christian religion and its churches " and conceded to the 
ministers of Russia the specific right to " make representations 
in favour of the new church " which, under article xiv. of the 
same treaty, the Russian government was empowered to build, 
in addition to the embassy chapel " in the street named Bey 
Oglu." This article is of great historical importance as forming 
the basis of the later claim of Russia to possess by treaty the 
right to protect the Orthodox subjects of the Porte. 1 Poland, 
the original cause of the war, was not even mentioned in the 
treaty, having been partitioned in 1772. 

After yielding to these hard conditions, Turkey took advan- 
tage of her respite to strengthen the frontier defences and to 
put down the rebellions in Syria and Egypt; some effort was 
also expended on the hopeless task of reforming the Janissaries. 
It was not long before Russia showed that it was not the in- 
dependence but the absorption of the Crimea which she desired. 
In 1779 a rupture on this account was only averted through 
the mediation of the French ambassador, coupled with the 
fact that Turkey was in no condition to enter upon hostilities, 
owing to the outbreak of plague in her army. The Porte, 
unable to resist, was obliged to consent to the convention of 
Ainali Kavak (March 10, 1779) whereby the Russian partisan, 
Shahin Girai, was recognized as khan of the Crimea, the 
admission of Russian vessels to navigate Turkish waters was 
reaffirmed and Russia's right of intervention in the affairs 
of the Danubian principalities was formally recognized. Five 
years later Potemkin induced the chiefs of the Crimea and 
Kuban to hold a meeting at which the annexation of their 
country to Russia was declared, Turkey giving her consent 
by a convention, signed at Constantinople, on the 8th of 
January 1784, by which the stipulations as to the liberty of the 
Tatars contained in the treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji and the 
convention of Ainali Kavak were abrogated. In 1 786 Catherine 
made a triumphal progress through the Crimea in company 
with her ally, Joseph II., who had succeeded to the imperial 
throne on the death of his mother. These events and the fric- 
tion caused by mutual complaints of infringements of the treaty 
stirred up public opinion in Turkey, and the British ambassador 
lent his support to the war party. In 1788 war was declared, 
but Turkey's preparations were inadequate and the moment 
was ill-chosen, now that Russia and Austria were in alliance, 
a fact of which Turkey became aware only when the horse- 

1 See G. F. de Martens, Recueil des trailSs, 1st series, vol. ii. 
p. 286, also Noradounghian, Recueil, p. 319. 



tails were planted for the campaign. The Turks drove back 
the Austrians from Mehadia and overran the Banat (1789); 
but in Moldavia Romanzov was successful and captured Jassy 
and Khotin. After a long siege Ochakov fell to Potemkin, 
and all its inhabitant's were massacred. This news affected 
the sultan so deeply as to cause his death. 

Selim, the late sultan's nephew, who succeeded, made 
strenuous preparations for continuing the war, but his 
generals were incompetent and his army mutinous; 
expeditions for the relief of Bender and Akkerman 
failed, Belgrade was taken by the Austrians, 
Izmail was captured by Suvorov, and the fall of Anapa com- 
pleted the series of Turkey's disasters. Sultan Selim was 
anxious to restore his country's prestige by a victory before 
making peace, but the condition of his troops rendered this 
hope unavailing; while Prussia, though on the 3ist of January 
1790 she had signed an offensive treaty with Turkey, 2 gave 
her no help during the war. Accordingly a treaty was signed 
with Russia at Jassy (Jan. 9, 1792) by which the Crimea 
and Ochakov were left to Russia, the Dniester was made the 
frontier in Europe, and the Asiatic frontier remained unchanged. 
Joseph II. had died, and his successor, Leopold II., was averse 
from the Russian alliance. Through the mediation of England, 
Holland and Prussia, Turkey and Austria concluded on the 
4th of August 1791 the treaty of Sistova, by which Belgrade 
and the other conquests made by Austria were restored. 

The conclusion of peace was welcomed by Selim as the oppor- 
tunity for carrying out reforms, of which he thoroughly realized 
the necessity in every branch of the administration, and especi- 
ally in the army, to whose defects the disasters of the state 
were due. Accordingly it was decided to form troops known 
as nizam-i-jedid, affiliated to the Janissaries so as to disarm 
the jealousy of the latter, properly drilled and wearing a dis- 
tinctive uniform. The fleet was reorganized, military schools 
were established, and skilled instructors were obtained from 
Europe. These reforms excited much opposition, which was 
at first unheeded. Meanwhile Turkey came into conflict with 
France. Throughout all the vicissitudes of the 
Revolution the relations between the two states had w h Prancei 
remained unimpaired, and Turkey had been one 
of the first countries to recognize the republic. Bonaparte's 
sudden occupation of Egypt (1798) came therefore as a complete 
surprise. This expedition was in reality directed against English 
rule in India. Nelson's destruction of the French fleet at the 
battle of the Nile disconcerted Bonaparte's plans; he hoped to 
pursue his designs through Syria, and laid siege to Acre, 
which, however, successfully held out. Turkey now joined 
Great Britain and Russia against France. 3 The Russian 
and Turkish fleets attacked and took the Ionian Islands, 
which had become French by the treaty of Campo Formio, 
and certain towns, hitherto unconquered, on the Albanian 
coast. An expeditionary force was also sent against Bona- 
parte, now practically blockaded in Egypt. This was routed 
and driven into the sea at Abukir (July 15, 1799). For the 
subsequent operations in Egypt, which ended in its evacuation 
by the French after the British victory at Alexandria, see 
EGYPT: History. 

Meanwhile in Turkey disorder prevailed in almost every 
province of the empire, and the local governors in many 
places became entirely independent, oppressing the 
people under their rule and often driving them to p^^ig" 
revolt. This was notably the case in Servia, where 
the temporary domination of Austria, to which the "treaty of 
Sistova (1791) put an end, had had the effect of awakening 
the national spirit of the people. But no armed manifestation of 
revolt had taken place until the lawless and savage conduct of 
the Janissaries, who had made themselves masters of the country, 
assisted by the notorious governor of Vidin, Pasvan Oglu, 

* Text in Martens, Recueil, 2nd series, vol. iv. p. 466. 

8 The treaty of alliance with Russia was signed on the 23rd of 
December 1798, that with Great Britain on the 5th of January 
1799- 



HISTORY] 



TURKEY 



455 



and his band of outlaws, drove the peaceful rayas to rebel. 
The insurgents chose as their captain one George Petrovich, 
nicknamed Kara Georgi (i.e. Black George), and under his 
able leadership succeeded in capturing Belgrade and in breaking 
the power of the Janissaries. The Porte also sent an army 
against Pasvan Oglu, but after reducing him to submission 
reinstated him in his government. A serious outbreak took 
place at Adrianople in 1804, where 20,000 of the new troops 
had been sent, ostensibly to put down the revolt in Servia, 
but really to try to bring about the reform of the European 
provinces. So strong was the opposition that the troops were 
recalled, and the anti-reform party was greatly strengthened. 
The Wahhabi movement in Nejd now began to assume serious 
proportions. These religious sectaries attacked and plundered 
all Mussulmans not conforming to their peculiar tenets; they 
overran Kerbela and the Hejaz, sacking the holy cities and 
closing the pilgrim routes. Only in the reign of Mahmud II. 
were they put down (see WAHHABIS). 

In 1802, by a treaty of peace signed at Paris on the 25th of 
June, France resumed her former terms of friendship with 
Complies- Turkey. Russia, desirous of deriving some return 
tioas wHh for the support which she had given the sultan 
Russia. during his rupture with the French, induced the 
Porte to address to her a note in which the right of interven- 
tion in the affairs of the principalities, conferred on her by the 
treaty of Kainarji and reaffirmed in the convention of Ainali 
Kavak, was converted into a specific stipulation that the 
hospodars should be appointed in future for seven years and 
should not be dismissed without the concurrence of the Russian 
ambassador at Constantinople. In pursuance of this agreement 
Constantine Ypsilanti was appointed to Walachia and Alex- 
ander Muruzi to Moldavia both devoted to Russian interests. 
Their intrigues in favour of the Greek and other revolutionary 
movements induced the Porte to dismiss them in 1806, 
contrary to the arrangement of 1802. Russia and England 
hereupon used threatening language, and Turkey replaced the 
hospodars. But war was nevertheless declared on the 2 7th of 
December 1806, and Russia occupied the principalities. The 
British ambassador sought by every means in his power to induce 
Turkey to give way to Russia, going so far as to guarantee 
the withdrawal of the Russian troops from Moldo-Walachia if 
the Porte remained at peace, and threatening that if Turkey 
persisted in her opposition England would join with Russia 
against her. But France's influence, backed by the strong 
personality of her ambassador, General Sebastiani, was suffi- 
cient to enable the sultan to withstand these arguments, and 
the British ambassador broke off relations and withdrew to the 
fleet at Tenedos (February 1807). Helped by a strong south 
wind, the British war-ships passed up the straits and anchored 
off the Seven Towers. An ultimatum was presented order- 
ing Turkey within twenty-four hours to dismiss the French 
ambassador, hand over the Turkish fleet, and make peace with 
Russia. With Sebastiani's encouragement the Porte resisted 
these demands; in one day a thousand guns were ranged along 
both sides of the Bosporus; and after a stay of ten days the 
British fleet was ordered to leave, and was considerably damaged 
by the fire of the forts while passing down. 

Meanwhile the sultan's whole efforts were directed towards 
the reform of the country; the newly-instituted militia was 
Revolt in every respect a success; it grew in numbers, 
against a nd hopes were entertained that it would gain 
SeIIm - popularity. But the Janissaries and the corrupt 
officials were fundamentally opposed to the scheme, and the 
conservatives joined with them against such reforms of 
European origin. The rulers of the provinces shared these 
views; the consequence was disquiet and confusion throughout 
the empire. At this difficult moment the army was obliged to 
march to the Danube, leaving the government in the hands of 
men hostile to reform. In 1807 the garrisons of the Black Sea 
forts at the entrance of the straits rose in rebellion, headed by 
one Kabakji Mustafa, and killed their officers. The sultan 
sought to appease them by pacific means, but the movement 



spread to the Janissaries, who insisted upon the abolition of 
the new troops. But even this concession did not satisfy them; 
they dethroned Selim and proclaimed his nephew Mustafa. 
The new sultan was obliged to abolish all the 
reforms, and during practically the whole of his 
fourteen months' reign the Janissaries were in 
rebellion, even while facing the Russians. All officers who 
were partisans of the reforms were obliged to take refuge in 
flight; and Turkey's position would have been desperate but 
for the conclusion of the peace of Tilsit (July 7, 1807) between 
Russia and France, to which Turkey also became a party. The 
army hereupon retired to Adrianople, and the powerful pasha 
of Rustchuk, Mustafa Bairakdar, who had distinguished, him- 
self by his resistance to the Russians, and who thoroughly 
shared Selim's desire for reform, was now induced by the many 
officers who held similar views to march on Constantinople to 
restore Selim to the throne. But he arrived too late; Selim 
had already been killed; the unworthy Mustafa was put to 
death, and Mahmud, the sole survivor of the house 
of Osman, became sultan. Mustafa Bairakdar, 
was now raised to the dignity of grand vizier, suc- 
ceeded in inspiring the Janissaries with a wholesome respect, 
due to their dread of the 10,000 irregulars known as kirjolis by 
whom he was accompanied. The remnants of the abolished 
new troops were collected and formed into regiments affiliated 
to the Janissaries under the name of seymen-i-jedid; the 
dignitaries of state were called upon to take an oath of fidelity 
and loyalty. The feast of Ramazan hereupon occurring, 
the grand vizier unwisely allowed his own troops to disperse. 
Taking advantage of this opportunity, the Janissaries rose by 
night and besieged the house of the grand vizier, who even- 
tually blew himself up in the arsenal. Fighting became general 
and extended to the fleet, which bombarded the capital. The 
Janissaries slaughtered all the " new troops " whom they met, 
and finally extorted an amnesty from the terrified government. 

After the peace of Tilsit an armistice had been agreed upon 
with Russia (Aug. 24, 1807). Turkey was at this time the 
only neutral state in Europe; it was of vital im- Treaty of 
portance that she should not be absorbed into the Bucharest; 
Napoleonic system, as in that case Russia would Troubles la 
have been exposed to a simultaneous attack from Servla " 
France, Austria, Turkey and Persia. Accordingly, though 
France made every attempt to induce Turkey to adopt her 
side, the young Stratford Canning succeeded in causing the 
resumption of the peace negotiations at Bucharest, broken off 
through Russia's terms being considered too onerous, and 
followed by the capture of Izmail and Bender. The British 
diplomatist secured his first triumph in the signature of the 
treaty of Bucharest (May 28, 1812) whereby Khotin, Bender, 
Kilia and Akkerman were left to Russia; the frontier was fixed 
at the Pruth; the Asiatic boundary was slightly modified. The 
treaties as to the principalities were renewed; and though 
Servia was restored to the direct rule of Turkey it was stipu- 
lated that clemency was to be observed in the Forte's dealings 
with the country, which was given the power of regulating its 
own affairs. 

The vagueness of these latter provisions at once gave rise to 
disputes, and in 1813 the Turkish troops occupied the country. 
The new pasha of Belgrade appointed one Milosh Obrenovich 
headman of his own district, but a few years later Milosh raised a 
successful revolt, drove out the Turks, and re-established Servian 
semi-independence. Karageorge, who had fled to Austria in 
1812, was induced to return, but Milosh caused him to be 
murdered, and in 1817 was by a popular vote named hereditary 
prince of Servia. 

The affairs of Servia, however, were not the only question 
left unsettled by the treaty of Bucharest. In the course of 
the war with Persia Russia had received permission from the 
Ottoman government to use, for a limited time, the easy road 
from the Black Sea to Tiflis by way of the valley of the Rion 
(Phasis) for the transport of troops and supplies, and this 
permission had been several times renewed. Wishing to make 



45 6 



TURKEY 



[HISTORY 



this important privilege permanent, Russia by secret articles 
of the Treaty of Bucharest had secured the cession of this dis- 
trict, in return for an undertaking to destroy the forts of Kilia 
and Izmail on the Danube. But the sultan refused to ratify 
these articles, and the relations between Russia and Turkey 
were therefore determined by the patent treaty only, which 
positively stipulated for the evacuation by the Russians of 
every spot occupied by them on Turkish soil in Asia. When the 
Russians showed no signs of withdrawing from the valley of 
the Rion, the sultan threatened to renew the war, the sole 
result of which was to reveal the determination of the tsar 
not to be bullied into concessions. The dispute, at first of 
little importance, developed in seriousness during the next 
year or two, owing to the avowed intention of Russia, which by 
conquest or treaties with independent chiefs had acquired all 
the high land between the Caspian and the Black Sea, to 
take possession of the low lands along the coast, between Anapa 
and Poti, of which the sultan claimed the sovereignty. 

Such was the situation when the question of a European 
guarantee of Turkey was raised at the Congress of Vienna. 
In view of the multiple dangers to which the Otto- 
man Empire was exposed, both from without and 
from within, and of the serious consequences to 
the world's peace which would result from its break-up, there 
was a strong feeling among the powers in favour of such a 
guarantee, and even the emperor Alexander was willing to 
agree to it in principle. But nothing could be done until the 
Porte should have come to terms with Russia as to the Treaty 
of Bucharest; for, as the British ambassador, Sir Robert Listen, 
was instructed to point out to the Ottoman government, " it is 
impossible to guarantee the possession of a territory of which 
the limits are not determined." With the consent of the tsar, 
it was proposed to submit the questions at issue to the decision 
of Great Britain, France and Austria ; and the Porte was 
informed that, in the event of its accepting this arrangement, 
the powers would at once proceed to guarantee the integrity 
of the Ottoman Empire. But the sultan could not bend his 
pride to suffer foreign intervention in a matter that touched 
his honour, and the return of Napoleon from Elba threw the 
Eastern Question into the background. The Ottoman Empire 
thus remained outside the European concert; Russia main- 
tained her claim to a special right of isolated intervention in 
its affairs; and the renewal of war between Russia and Turkey 
was only postponed by the preoccupation of Alexander with 
his dream of the " Confederation of Europe." 

Meanwhile, within the Ottoman Empire there was every 
sign of a rapidly approaching disintegration. In Egypt Mehemet 
Ali had succeeded in establishing himself as quasi- 
independent ruler of the country. By his action 
during Napoleon Bonaparte's invasion, and later when the 
British fleet after leaving Constantinople in 1807 proceeded to 
Egypt, he had to some extent acquired the goodwill of the 
Turkish government. In.iSn he was called upon by the Porte 
to put down the Wahhabi insurgents (see ARABIA, vol. ii. p. 268), 
his success in this matter, and especially in the recovery of the 
holy cities, adding greatly to his prestige. 

Sultan Mahmud now devoted himself to breaking the over- 
grown power of the local governors, which had for many years 
practically annihilated that of the central authority. Their 
extortions impoverished the whole country, yet the abolition of 
the system might perhaps have been carried out more gradually 
and with greater precaution, and Turkey more than once felt 
the want of their aid, questionable as its value often was. Thus 
Greek Ali (q.v.), Pasha of lannina, the most famous of 
Revolt. these, though insubordinate and inclined to intrigue 
with foreign powers in the hope of making himself indepen- 
dent, had used his influence to keep the Greeks quiet; and it 
was only after his power had been broken in 1821 that the 
agitation of the Helairia issued in widespread dangerous 
revolt. The first hope of emancipation from the Turkish yoke 
had been founded by the Greeks on Peter the Great, who had 
planned the expulsion of the Turks trom Europe and had 



caused the inscription " Petrus I., Russo-Graecorum Monarcha " 
to be placed beneath his portrait engraved at Amsterdam. 
Catherine II. following in his footsteps, aspired to found a 
Greek empire, the throne of which was to be occupied by her 
nephew, Constantino, specially so baptized, and brought up 
by Greek nurses (see CONSTANTINE PAVLOVICH). During the 
war of 1770 the Greeks had risen in an abortive rebellion, 
promptly crushed by the Turks. But the idea of liberation 
continued to grow, and about 1780 the Society of Friends 
('EroLpia T&V <t>i\iK>v) was founded at Bucharest by the 
fervent patriot and poet, Constantinos Rhigas (q.v.). The 
secret organization, temporarily checked by Rhigas's arrest and 
execution in 1798, was revived at Odessa in 1814; it extended 
throughout Turkey, and in 1820 the insurrection took shape, 
a favourable opportunity being afforded by the outbreak of 
hostilities between Ali Pasha and the Porte. (See GREEK 
INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF.) 

On the 6th of March 1821 Prince Alexander Ypsilanti, son 
of the hospodar Constantine, and a general in the Russian 
service, crossed the Pruth, proclaiming the revolt of the Greeks 
against the sultan and the intention to restore the Greek Empire 
of the East. But in the principalities, where the Vlach peasants 
regarded the Phanariots as worse oppressors than the Turks, 
the movement had little chance of success; it was doomed 
from the moment that the emperor Alexander disavowed 
Ypsilanti's claim to his support (see ALEXANDER I.). After 
some initial successes the Greeks were finally routed at the 
battle of Dragashani (June 19, 1821). It was far otherwise 
with the insurrection which broke out at the beginning of April 
in the Morea. The Mussulman population of the Morea, taken 
unawares, was practically exterminated during the fury of the 
first few days; and, most fatal of all, the defection of the 
Greeks of the islands crippled the Ottoman navy by depriving 
it of its only effective sailors. The barbarous reprisals into 
which Sultan Mahmud allowed himself to be carried away 
only accentuated the difficulty of the situation. The execution 
of the patriarch Gregorios, as technically responsible for the 
revolt, was an outrage to all Christendom; and it led at once 
to a breach of diplomatic relations with Russia. 

To prevent this breach developing into war was now the 
chief study of the chanceries. Public opinion throughout 
Europe was violently excited in favour of the Greeks; and this 
Philhellenic sentiment was shared even by some of the statesmen 
who most strenuously deprecated any interference in their 
favour. For at the outset Metternich was not alone in main- 
taining that the war should be allowed to burn itself out " beyond 
the pale of civilization." The mutual slaughter of barbarians 
in the Levant seemed, even to George Canning, a lesser evil 
than a renewed Armageddon in Europe; and all the resources 
of diplomacy were set in motion to heal the rupture between 
Turkey and Russia. In spite of the emperor Alexander's 
engagements to the Grand Alliance and the ideal of European 
peace, this was no easy matter; for the murder of the patriarch 
was but the culmination of a whole series of grievances accumu- 
lated since the Treaty of Bucharest. Moreover, the Porte 
was thrown into a suspicious mood by the contrast between 
the friendly language of the western powers and the active 
sympathy of the western peoples for the Greeks, who were 
supported by volunteers and money drawn from all Europe. 
But, though the sultan remained stubborn, the emperor 
Alexander, who since the Congress of Laibach had been wholly 
under Metternich's influence, resisted the clamour of his people 
for war, and dismissed his Greek minister Capo d'Istria (<?..). 
The Congress of Verona (1822) passed without any serious 
developments in the Eastern Question. 

The stubborn persistence of the Greeks, however, dashed 
Metternich's hope that the question would soon settle itself, 
and produced a state of affairs in the Levant which necessitated 
some action. In the instructions drawn up, shortly before his 
death, for his guidance at Verona, Castlereagh had stated the 
possibility of the necessity for recognizing the Greeks as belli- 
gerents if the war continued. The atrophy of the Ottoman 



HISTORY] 



TURKEY 



457 



sea-power had left the archipelago at the mercy of the Greek 
war-brigs; piracy flourished; and it became essential in the 
interests of the commerce of all nations to make some power 
responsible for the policing of the narrow seas. On the 25th 
of March 1823 accordingly, Canning announced the recognition 
by Great Britain of the belligerent character of the Greeks. 

This roused the emperor Alexander to action, since it seemed 
as though Great Britain was aiming at ousting Russian influence 
in the Levant. He suggested a joint intervention of the 
powers; but the conference, which met at St Petersburg 
in April 1824, came to nothing, since Turkey and the Greeks 
alike refused to be bound by its decisions, and Canning would 
not hear of coercion being applied to either. The sole outcome 
of the conference was the offer in March 1825 of the joint 
mediation of Austria and Russia, which the Porte rejected. 

Meanwhile Mahmud, realizing the impossibility of crushing 
the Greek revolt unaided, had bent his pride to ask the help 
of Mehemet Ali, who was to receive as his reward Crete, 
the Morea and the pashaliks of Syria and Damascus. The 
Egyptian fleet and disciplined army were now thrown into the 
scale; and from the moment when Ibrahim Pasha landed at 
Modon (Feb. 24, 1825), the fate of the Greeks seemed sealed. 
The Morea was quickly overrun; in April 1826 Missolonghi 
fell, after a heroic defence; in June 1827 Athens was once more 
in the hands of the Turks. Crowds of Greek captives were being 
sent as slaves to Cairo; and, should the powers not intervene, 
there was every prospect of Greece being depopulated and colo- 
nized with Mussulman negroes and fellahin. 

At the close of 1825 an isolated intervention of Russia had 
seemed probable. A great army was assembled in the south 
of Russia, and the emperor Alexander had gone to place himself 
at its head when he died (Dec 22, 1825). It was to prevent 
such an intervention that Canning seized the opportunity of 
the accession of Nicholas I. to send the duke of Wellington to 
St Petersburg in order to concert joint measures. The result 
was the protocol of St Petersburg of the 4th of April 1826, by 
which Great Britain was empowered to offer to the Ottoman 
government a settlement of the Greek question based on the 
establishment of Greece as a vassal and tributary state. Should 
the Porte refuse, the two powers were to take the earliest 
opportunity, either separately or in common, of establishing a 
reconciliation on the basis of the protocol. 

Russia, meanwhile, had seized the occasion to send to Con- 
stantinople an ultimatum demanding satisfaction for her own 
particular grievances; the Porte resented the intrusion of new 
Convention demands before the others had been dealt with, 
of and hurried on preparations for war. The reform 

Akkermaa. o j tng armV) however, involved the destruction of 
the Janissaries (q.v.), and though their massacre on the isth 
of June left the sultan free to carry out his views with 
regard to the army, it left him too weak to resist the 
Russian demands. On the 7th of October, accordingly, these 
were conceded by the Convention of Akkerman. Its terms 
were: the confirmation of the Treaty of Bucharest and the 
opening of the navigation of the Black Sea to the Russian flag; 
a stipulation that the hospodars of Walachia and Moldavia 
should be elected by the boyars for seven years, their election 
being confirmed by the Porte which, however, had no power 
to dismiss them without the concurrence of the Russian 
ambassador at Constantinople; finally, Servia's autonomy was 
recognized, and, save in the fortresses, no Mussulman might 
reside there. 

The Greek question was however, not yet settled. Months 
passed without any action being taken under the protocol 
Agreement * tne 4^ ^ April; and Russia suspected Great 
otthe Britain of merely using the protocol to prevent her 
Powers as O wn isolated intervention. The situation was how- 
to Greece. ever ma t er j a iiy altered by the end of August 
1826; for the Greeks, driven to desperation, had formally 
invited the mediation of England, thereby removing Canning's 
objection to an unasked intervention. He now invited the 
co-operation of Russia in representations to the Porte on 



the basis of the protocol, and, in the event of its refusal 
to come to terms, suggested certain measures of coercion. 
The tsar consented, and proposed that the coercion should take 
the form of a pacific blockade of the Morea, so as to force 
Ibrahim, by cutting off his supplies, to evacuate the country. 
To this Great Britain agreed in principle; for Canning clearly 
saw the need for yielding on the question of a joint intervention, 
if the isolated intervention of Russia were to be prevented. In 
the conference of the five powers of the Grand Alliance opened 
at London in the early summer of 1827, however, a divergence 
of views at once became apparent. Austria and Prussia pro- 
tested against any coercion of the Porte " to serve revolutionary 
ends " and, failing to carry their views, withdrew from the con- 
ference. France thereupon proposed to convert the protocol 
of the 4th of April into a treaty; Russia and Great Britain 
agreed; and on the 6th of July the Treaty of London was signed 
by the three powers, i 

By the patent articles of the treaty the powers agreed to 
secure the autonomy of Greece under the suzerainty of the 
sultan, but without any breach of friendly relations with Turkey. 
By additional secret articles it was agreed that, in the event 
of the Porte not accepting the offered mediation, consuls should 
be established in Greece, and an armistice proposed to both 
belligerents and enforced by all the means that should " suggest 
themselves to the prudence " of the high contracting powers. 
In general it was allowed that these means should be the 
" pacific blockade " proposed by the tsar. Instructions to 
this effect were sent to the admirals commanding in the 
Levant. 

The armistice, accepted by the Greeks, was refused by 
Ibrahim, pending instructions from Constantinople, though he 

consented to keep his ships in the harbour of Nava- . 

,-, . Navariao. 

nno. The Greeks, having put themselves in the 

right with the powers, were free to continue the war; and 
the destruction of a Turkish flotilla off Salona on the 23rd of 
September followed. Ibrahim, taking this as a breach of the 
convention, set sail from Navarino northwards, but was turned 
back by Sir Edward Codrington, the British admiral. Then, 
the Russian and French squadrons having joined, it was deter- 
mined to put further pressure on the Egyptian commander, 
and the allied fleets, on the morning of the 2oth of October, 
stood into the bay of Navarino. A chance scuffle led to a 
battle, and by the evening the Turkish and Egyptian fleets 
had ceased to exist (see NAVARINO, BATTLE OF). 

The effect on the passionate sultan of this " unparalleled 
outrage on a friendly power in time of peace " is easy to imagine. 
In spite of the weak efforts of the British government to palliate 
the significance of this " untoward incident," Turkey broke off 
diplomatic relations with the three powers concerned, and on 
the 2oth of December Mahmud, giving full vent to his rage, 
issued a hatt-i-sherif denouncing the cruelty and perfidy of the 
Christian powers, declaring the convention of Akkerman null 
and void, and summoning the faithful to a holy war. The 
struggle that followed was, however, destined once more to 
be a duel between Russia and Turkey. Great Britain, when 
Canning was no longer at the helm of state, had reverted to 
the traditional policy of preserving Ottoman integrity at all costs; 
the invitation of the tsar to accept the logical consequences 
of Navarino was refused; and Russia was left to settle her 
account with Turkey. 

The war that followed proved once more the wonderful 
resisting power of the Turks. In spite of the confusion due 
to the destruction of the Janissaries and army 
reforms as yet hardly begun, it cost the tzar two War with 
hardly fought campaigns before the audacious 
strategy of General Diebitsch enabled him to dictate the terms 
of the treaty of Adrianople (Sep. 14, 1829). Meanwhile the 
other powers had taken advantage of the reverses of the 
Russian arms to discount the effect of their ultimate victory 
by attempting to settle the Greek question. In July 1828 
France had been commissioned to oust Ibrahim from the 
Morea; and though by a convention, concluded on the gth of 



TURKEY 



[HISTORY 



August by Codrington with Mehemet Ali, the principle of 
evacuation by the Egyptian troops had already been settled 
before the arrival of the French expedition, the Morea remained 
for the time in French occupation. On the i6th of November 
a protocol of the London conference placed the Morea, with 
the neighbouring islands and the Cyclades, under the guarantee 
of the powers; and on the 22nd of March 1829 another 
protocol extended the frontier thus guaranteed to the line 
Arta-Volo and included the island of Euboea. According to 
this instrument Greece was to be erected into a tributary state, 
but autonomous, and governed by an hereditary prince chosen 
by the powers. 

The Treaty of Adrianople, by which the Danubian principali- 
ties were erected into practically independent states, the treaty 
rights of Russia in the navigation of the Bosporus 
" and Dardanelles confirmed, and the districts of 
Anapa and Poti in Asia ceded to the tsar, included 
also a settlement of the Greek question on the terms of the 
protocol of the 22nd of March. This fact, which threatened 
to give to Russia the whole prestige of the emancipation of 
Greece, spurred the other powers to further concessions. The 
acceptance of the principle of complete independence, once 
more warmly advocated by Metternich, seemed now essential 
if Greece was not to become, like the principalities, a mere 
dependency of Russia. On the 3rd of February 1830 was 
signed a protocol embodying the principle of an independent 
Greece under Leopold of Coburg as " sovereign prince." This 
was ultimately expanded, after the fall of the Wellington 
ministry, into the Treaty of London of the yth of May 1832, 
by which Greece was made an independent kingdom under 
the Bavarian prince Otto. (See GREECE: History.) 

Before the final settlement of the Greek question a fresh 
crisis had arisen in the affairs of Turkey. Her lessened prestige 
s rfa had already received a severe blow from the bom- 
bardment and capture of Algiers by the French in 
1830, and her position was further embarrassed by revolts in 
Bosnia and Albania, when news reached Constantinople that 
Mehemet Ali had invaded Syria (Nov. i, 1831), nominally 
in order to punish his enemy Abdullah, pasha of Acre, really 
in order to take by force of arms the pashaliks of Syria and 
Damascus promised as a reward for his services in Greece. 
An account of the collapse of the Turkish power before 
Mehemet Ali, and of the complicated diplomatic developments 
that followed, is given in the article MEHEMET ALI. Here it 
must suffice to say that the recognition of Mehemet Ali's 
claims, forced on the sultan by France and Great Britain, was 
followed in 1833 by the signature cf the Treaty of Unkiar 
Skelessi, which seemed to place Turkey wholly in the power 
of Russia, after which Sultan Mahmud concentrated his 
energies on creating a force strong enough to crush his 
rebellious vassal. 

At last, in 1839, his eagerness would no longer be restrained, 
and without consulting his ministers, and in spite of the 
warnings of all the powers, he determined to renew the war. 
On the 2ist of April the Ottoman army, which had been 
massed under Hafiz Pasha at Bir on the Euphrates, crossed 
the stream, by the sultan's orders, and advanced on Damascus. 
On the 23rd of Juns it was attacked by Ibrahim at Nezib and 
annihilated. As for Mahmud, the news of the disaster reached 
Constantinople when he was unconscious and dying. Early 
on the ist of July he was .dead, and his son Abd-ul-Mejid, a 
lad of eighteen, reigned in his stead (see MAHMUD II.). 

The Eastern Question had now suddenly once more entered 
an acute phase. The news of Nezib was immediately followed 
Abd-ui- by that of the treason of Ahmed Pasha, the Ottoman 
Meiu, admiral, who, on the plea that the sultan's coun- 
1839-1861. se ]i ors were sold to R uss i aj had sailed to Alexandria 
and handed over the fleet to Mehemet Ali. With an inexpe- 
rienced boy on the throne, divided and untrustworthy counsels 
in the divan, and the defences of the empire shattered, the 
house of Osman seemed doomed and the Turkish Empire 
about to dissolve into its elements. If Russia was to be 



prevented from using the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi for her 
own purposes, it was essential that the powers should con- 
cert measures to deal with the situation. The story of the 
diplomatic negotiations that followed is told elsewhere (see 
MEHEMET ALI). Here it may suffice to say that the desire of 
the emperor Nicholas to break 'the entente between Great 
Britain and France led him to waive his special claims under 
the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, and that in the ultimate concert 
by which the question was settled France, which throughout 
supported Mehemet Ali, had no part. The intervention of the 
powers, based on the convention of London of the isth of July 
1840, led to the withdrawal of Ibrahim from Syria, and the 
establishment by the firman of the I3th of February 1841 of 
Mehemet Ali as hereditary pasha of Egypt under conditions 
intended to safeguard the sovereign rights of the Ottoman 
sultan. On the loth of July the four signatory powers of the 
convention of London signed a protocol recording the closure 
of the incident (protocole de, cloture), and on the i3th France 
united with them in signing another protocol (protocole des 
detroits) by which the powers engaged to respect the principle 
proclaimed by the sultan as to the closing of the Dardanelles to 
foreign warships. 

The severe crisis through which the Ottoman Empire had 
passed accentuated the need for strengthening it by a drastic 
reform of its system. For such an experiment, neform 
though hampered by continual insurrections within Policy la 
and troubles without, Mahmud had done some- Turkey. 
thing to pave the way. The destruction of the j-aazimit. 
Janissaries and the suppression of the quasi-indepen- 
dent power of the dtrebeys had removed the worst disturbing 
elements; the government had been centralized; a series of 
enactments had endeavoured to secure economy in the adminis- 
tration, to curb the abuses of official power, and ensure the 
impartiality of justice; and the sultan had even expressed his 
personal belief in the principle of the equality of all, Mussulman 
and non-Mussulman, before the law. It was therefore no sudden 
revolution when, on the isth of November 1839 Abd-ul-Mejid 
signalized his accession by promulgating the Tanzimat, or Halt-'' 
i-Sherif of Gulhane, a decree abolishing the arbitrary and un- 
limited power hitherto exercised by the state and its officials, 
laying down the doctrine of the perfjct equality of all Ottoman 
subjects of whatever race or creed, and providing for the regular, 
orderly and legal government of the country and the security 
of life, property and honour for all its inhabitants. Yet the 
feelings of dismay and even ridicule with which this proclama- 
tion was received by the Mussulmans in many parts of the 
country show how great a change it instituted, and how strong 
was the opposition which it encountered among the ruling race. 
The non-Mussulman subjects of the sultan had indeed early been 
reduced to such a condition of servitude that the idea of their 
being placed on a footing of equality with their Mussulman 
rulers seemed unthinkable. Preserved merely as taxpayers 
necessary to supply the funds for the maintenance of the 
dominant and military class, according to a foreign observer 
in 1571, they had been so degraded and oppressed that they 
dared not look a Turk in the face. Their only value was from a 
fiscal point of view, and in times of fanaticism or when anti- 
foreign sentiment ran high even this was held of little account, 
so that more than once they very nearly became the victims of 
a general and state-ordered massacre. Thus Sultan Ibrahim 
was dissuaded from such a step in 1644 only by the refusal of 
the Sheikh-ul-Islam to sanction the proceeding. The humane 
and tolerant measures provided for in the " nizam-i-jedld," or 
new regulations for the better treatment of the Christians enacted 
by Mustafa Kuprili during his grand vizierate (1689-1691), 
did for a time improve the position of the rayas. But the 
wars with Russia and other Christian powers, and the dif- 
ferent risings of the Greeks and Servians, helped to stimulate 
the feelings of animosity and contempt entertained towards 
them by the ruling race; and the promulgation of the Tanzimat 
undoubtedly heralded for the subject nationalities the dawn 
of a new era. 



HISTORY] 



TURKEY 



459 



The reforms introduced by Sultan Mahmud and by the Tanzi- 
mat necessitated the remodelling of nearly all the departments 
Remodelling of state - T wards the end of Mahmud II.'s reign 
ofthe ministries had been instituted, and a council of 

AOministra- ministers had been established, presided over by 
a n - the grand vizier. In 1837 the " council of the 

Sublime Porte " and the " supreme council of legal affairs " 
were established: the latter was the tribunal to which were 
referred all complaints against officials or claims pending 
between the state and private individuals; the council of 
the Sublime Porte was in 1839 transferred to the ministry of 
commerce; the supreme council of legal affairs after under- 
going various modifications was in 1868 absorbed in the council 
of state. In 1837 a " council of public works " was instituted, 
converted ten years later into a separate ministry. In 1835 the 
" ministry of administration " was formed; two years later 
its title was changed to ministry of the interior. Regulations 
prescribing the duties of the local governors and officials of all 
ranks were drawn up only in 1865 and 1870, but since Mahmud's 
time their functions were exclusively civil and administrative. 
~A regular hierarchical order was elaborated for the official 
classes, both civil and military, whereby the rank of each person 
was clearly defined. 

The military reorganization dates from the destruction of the 
Janissaries (June 15, 1826). On that day Aga Hussein Pasha 
was appointed " Seraskier (commandant) of the victorious 
Mahommedan troops"; at first only twp divisions were estab- 
lished, quartered respectively at Constantinople and Scutari. 
In 1833 the reserves were instituted, and three years later 
reserve commandants were appointed in six principal provinces. 
In 1843 the corps d'armte of Constantinople, Rumelia, Anatolia 
and Arabia were formed, and a military council was appointed. 
In 1847 a recruiting law was promulgated, reducing the period 
of service (until then unlimited in point of time), to five years. 
Military schools were founded. For the reorganization carried 
out from 1908 to 1910 see section Army, above. 

After the Greek revolution the system of manning the navy 
from the Christian natives of the archipelago and the Mediter- 
ranean littoral was abandoned, and recruits for the navy are 
now selected under the ordinary law. A naval school and a 
modern factory' and arsenal were established. The direction 
of the police, formerly left to the Janissaries, was formed into a 
ministry, and a body of gendarmerie was instituted. For the 
financial reforms see the section Finance, above. 

The ministry of public instruction was established in 1857; until 
the reign of Selim III. (when a few military schools were established) 
the only schools had been the colleges of the Ulema and 
Education. guc j l p reparator y schools as had been founded by private 
munificence. In 1838 the council of education had been created 
and several secondary state schools were founded. In 1860 the 
regulations for public education were promulgated; schools were 
everywhere opened, and in 1882 a portion of the receipts from certain 
vakufs were appropriated to their maintenance. As all the prepara- 
tory schools founded by the state were for Mussulman children 
only (the various Christian communities maintaining their own 
schools), idodi or secondary schools were established in 1884 for 
the instruction of children of all confessions. In 1868 the Imperial 
Lycee of Galata Serai was founded; most of the later generation 
of officials received their education there. Special state schools 
of medicine, arts, science, crafts, &c., have been created successively, 
and in 1901 a university was founded. Educational affairs in the 
provinces are now superintended by special officials. 

After the promulgation of the reforms, the judicial duties of the 
Imperial Divan, which with other functions also exercised those 
of a kind of supreme court of appeal, were transferred 
Justice. to tne Sheikh-ul-lslam. The codification of the civil 
law, which soon became necessary, was effected by the promulga- 
tion in 1859 of the Mejelle, or civil code. Commercial and criminal 
codes, as well as codes of procedure, were drawn up, largely on the 
basis of the Code Napoleon. The rules regulating the Ulema were 
amended, a school for judges was fornded, and the Sheikh-ul-lslam 
was charged with the duty of revising all judgments. In 1865 the 
court of cassation was founded. 

In 1835 the Reis-ul-Kuttab, to whom the superintendence of 

foreign affairs was entrusted, received the designation of mimstei 

_ for foreign affairs. Turkey had originally maintainec 

no representatives abroad, and appointed such only 

for special occasions as e.g. the signature of a treaty or 

the announcement of a new sultan's accession. Selim III. was the 



' 



irst sultan who entered into regular relations with foreign powers, and 
employed permanent ambassadors; the practice was discontinued 
at the time of the Greek revolution and the consequent rupture with 
the powers. Later, during the Egyptian negotiations, ambassadors 
were accredited to London, Paris and Vienna. Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz's 
ourney to Europe and the return visits paid by foreign princes 
strengthened Turkey's relations witli foreign states. 

The ministry of the Evkof or pious foundations was established 
n 1827 and extended ten years later. Such foundations had been 
created from the earliest times, and the execution of the testator's 
wishes was generally left to his descendants, under the supervision 
of some high official designated in the act of endowment. In case 
>f failure in the line of succession an administrator 1 was appointed 
jy the state. But many such foundations fell into disorder, and 
the ministry was created to exercise the requisite supervision. 

Though the provisions of the Tanzimat were not fully ob- 
served, they afforded convincing proof that reform was entirely 
sracticable in Turkey. Reforms were effected in 
every direction; the finances and the army were 
reorganized, military instructors being procured from 
Europe; the administration was gradually centralized, and 
good relations were cultivated with the powers, the only 
serious international controversy arising in 1848-1849 over 
the refusal by Turkey, with the support of England, to 
surrender the Hungarian and Polish insurgents who had 
taken refuge within her borders. It cannot indeed be 
said that complete tranquillity prevailed throughout the 
country meanwhile; disturbances in the principalities and in 
the Lebanon gave serious trouble, while in 1842 the unsettled 
state of the Turco-Persian frontier nearly led to war. By 
the mediation of England and Russia the Treaty of Erzerum 
was signed (1847) and a frontier commission was appointed. 
But as the frontier was not definitely demarcated the door 
was left open for controversies which have occurred frequently 
up to the present day. 

Turkey's progress in the path of reform was viewed with 
some uneasiness in Russia, the cardinal principle of whose 
policy since 1829 had been to maintain her own Russian 
influence at Constantinople by keeping the Otto- Policy since 
man government weak. In favour of this view l829 ' 
the traditional policy of Peter the Great and Catherine II. had 
been deliberately given up, and by the secret convention 
signed at Munchengratz on the i8th of September 1833 the 
emperor Nicholas had agreed with his brother sovereigns 
of the revived " Holy Alliance " to maintain the integrity of 
Turkey, where Russian influence seemed to have been rendered 
supreme and permanent by the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi. 
The crisis which ended in 1841, however, materially altered 
the situation from the Russian point of view. By his concert 
with the other powers in the affair of Mehemet Ali, the tsar 
had abdicated his claim to a unique influence at Constantinople, 
and he began to revive the idea of ending the Ottoman rule 
in Europe, an idea which he had only unwillingly abandoned 
in 1829 in response to the unanimous opinion of his advisers. In 
1844 he took advantage of his visit to England to propose 
to British ministers a plan of partition, under which Great 
Britain was to receive Egypt and Crete, Constantinople was 
to be erected into a free city, and the Balkan states were to 
become autonomous under Russian protection. This pro- 
posal, as might have been expected, only served to rouse sus- 
picions as to Russia's plans; it was politely rejected, and the 
whole Eastern Question slumbered, until, early in 1850, it was 
awakened by an incident trivial enough in itself, but pregnant 
with future trouble: a quarrel of Catholic and Orthodox monks 
about the holy places in Palestine. 

By the Capitulations signed on the 28th of May 1740 on 
behalf of Sultan Mahmud I. and Louis XV. " emperor of France, " 
not only French pilgrims to Jerusalem, but all 
members of " Christian and hostile nations " visiting 
the Ottoman Empire, had been placed under the 
protection of the French flag, and by a special article the Frank, 
i.e. Roman Catholic, ecclesiastics had been guaranteed certain 
rights in the holy places. These stipulations of the treaty, 
which were in effect a confirmation of the firman granted in 
1620 by Murad IV. to Louis XIII., had fallen into oblivion 



460 



TURKEY 



[HISTORY 



during the age of Voltaire and the turmoil of the Revolution; 
and meanwhile, every advance of Russia had been marked by 
further encroachments of the Orthodox clergy in Palestine on 
the ancient rights of their Latin rivals. The quarrels of these 
monks might have been left to the contempt they deserved, 
had not Napoleon III. seen in the situation an opportunity at 
once for conciliating the clericals in France and for humili- 
ating Russia, which had given to his title but an equivocal 
recognition. His ambassador, accordingly, handed in at Con- 
stantinople a formal demand for the restitution of the Catholics 
in all their property and rights. The Ottoman government, 
seeking to gain time, proposed a " mixed commission " of inquiry ; 
and to this France agreed, on condition that no documents 
later than 1740 should be admitted as evidence. To this 
suggestion, which would have excluded the Treaty of Kuchuk 
Kainarji, the emperor Nicholas replied by a haughty demand 
that nothing should be altered in the status quo. It was now 
clear that no less an issue was involved than a contest between 
France and Russia for paramount influence in the East, a con- 
test into which Great Britain would inevitably be dragged. 
The British government did its best to help the Porte to evolve 
a compromise on the questions immediately at issue, and in 
March 1852 a firman was issued, which to Protestants and 
Mahommedans might well seem to have embodied a reasonable 
settlement. Concessions were made to one side and the other; 
and the question of the right of " protection " was solved by 
the Turkish government itself undertaking the duty. But 
neither Napoleon nor Nicholas desired a settlement. The French 
emperor wanted a war for dynastic reasons, the tsar because 
he conceived his honour to be involved, and because he 
judged the moment opportune for expelling the infidel from 
Europe. France, he believed, would never come single-handed 
to the assistance cf Turkey; Austria would be bound at least 
to benevolent neutrality by " gratitude " for the aid given 
in 1849; the king of Prussia would sympathize with a 
Christian crusade; Great Britain, where under the influence 
of John Bright and Richard Cobden the " peace at any price " 
spirit seemed to be in the ascendant, would never intervene. 
Nicholas even hoped for the active sympathy of Britain. Lord 
Aberdeen made no secret of his dislike for the Turks, and 
openly expressed his disbelief in the reality of their reforms; 
and in January 1853 the tsar, in conversation with Sir Hamilton 
Seymour, the British ambassador at St Petersburg, spoke 
of the Ottoman Empire as " the Sick Man," and renewed the 
proposals for a partition made in 1844. 

Early in 1853 the Russian army was mobilized, and Prince 
Menshikov, a bluff soldier devoted to the interests of Ortho- 
doxy and tsardom, was sent to present the emperor's ultimatum 
at Constantinople. He demanded the recognition of the status 
quo in the holy places, and of the tsar's right, under the Treaty 
of Kuchuk Kainarji, to the protectorate of all Orthodox Chris- 
tians in the Ottoman dominions. The Porte, in alarm, turned 
to Great Britain for advice and assistance. Lord Stratford 
de Redcliffe, who reached his post at Constantinople shortly 
after the arrival of Menshikov, at once grasped the essential 
facts of the situation. The question of the holy places was 
insignificant in itself it might be settled if France were granted 
political compensation elsewhere; that of the protectorate 
claimed by Russia over the Christians involved the integrity 
of the sultan's sovereignty. With great address he succeeded 
in persuading Menshikov to present the two demands separately. 
On the zznd of April the French, Russian and British ministers 
came to an agreement on the question of the holy places; 
with the result that, when the question of protectorate was 
raised, Menshikov found himself opposed by the ambassadors 
of all the other powers. On the sth of May, nevertheless, 
in obedience to his peremptory instructions, he presented his 
ultimatum to the Ottoman government, which, backed now 
by all the other powers, rejected it. On the 22nd Menshikov 
and the whole of the Russian diplomatic staff left Constan- 
tinople; and it was announced that, at the end of the month, 
the tsar's troops would enter the Danubian principalities. On 



the 22nd of June the Russian army, under Prince Gorchakov, 
crossed the Pruth, not as was explained in a circular to the 
powers for the purpose of attacking Turkey, but solely to 
obtain the material guarantees for the enjoyment of the 
privileges conferred upon her by the existing treaties. The 
news of this aggression roused intense excitement in England; 
but the British government still exerted itself to maintain 
peace. In August a conference of the four powers assembled 
at Vienna, but the settlement they proposed, which practically 
conceded everything demanded by Russia except the claim 
to the protectorate, though accepted by the tsar, was rejected 
by the Porte, now fallen into a mood of stubborn resentment 
at the Russian invasion. At the beginning of October Turkey 
formally declared war; on the 22nd the French and British 
fleets passed the Dardanelles. Lord Aberdeen still hoped to 
secure peace, and the Russian government was informed that 
no casus belli would arise so long as Russia abstained from 
passing the Danube or attacking a Black Sea port. To the 
emperor Nicholas this was tantamount to a declaration of 
war; and in effect it was so. On the 3Oth of November the 
Russian fleet attacked and destroyed a Turkish squadron 
in the harbour of Sinope; on the 3rd of January the combined 
French and British fleets entered the Black Sea, commissioned 
to " invite " the Russians to return to their harbours. 

The emperor Nicholas had been singularly misled as to the 
state of public opinion in Europe. The news of the affair of 
Sinope, rather wanton slaughter than a battle, Crimean 
raised excitement in England to fever heat; while w * r ' 
the excellent bearing and consistent successjs of the Turkish 
troops during the first months of the campaign on land excited 
the admiration of all Europe. The belief in the rejuvenation of 
Turkey seemed to be justified; and when, on the 27th of March 
1854, Great Britain and France declared war on Russia, the 
action of. the governments was supported by an overwhelming 
public opinion. As regards Austria, too, the emperor Nicholas 
was no less mistaken. If she maintained neutrality, it was due 
to no impulse of gratitude, and it was far from " benevolent." 
As the Russians withdrew from the Danubian principalities, 
Austrian troops occupied them, and by a convention with the 
Porte the Austrian government undertook to resist by arms any 
attempt of the Russians to return. So far as the extreme claims 
of the tsar were concerned, neither Austria nor Prussia was 
willing to concede them, and both had joined with France and 
Great Britain in presenting, on the I2th of December 1853, an 
identical note at St Petersburg, drawn up at the Conference of 
Vienna, reaffirming the principles of the treaty of 1841. Save 
for the benevolent neutrality of Prussia, therefore, which enabled 
her to obtain supplies from the north, Russia was pitted single- 
handed against a coalition of Turkey, Great Britain and France, 
to which Sardinia was added later. 

The events of the war that followed are told elsewhere (see 
CRIMEAN WAR). The main operations were confined to the 
Crimea, where the allied troops landed on the I4th of September 
1854, and they were not concluded, in spite of the terrible exhaus- 
tion of Russia, till in December 1855 the threatened active inter- 
vention of Austria forced the emperor Alexander II. to come to 
terms. These terms were ultimately embodied in the Treaty of 
Paris of the 3oth of March 1856. Its provisions, held by some to 
be so unduly favourable to Russia as to justify the question 
whether she had not been victorious in the war, were as follows: 
Russia abandoned all pretensions to exercise a protectorate over 
the Christians in Turkey, or to an exclusive right of interference 
in the Danubian principalities, to which Bessarabia was restored; 
the navigation of the Danube was made free and placed under 
the supervision of an international commission; the Black Sea 
was closed to warships, while open to the commercial flags of all 
countries; the Asiatic frontier between the two empires remained 
unchanged; Turkey was admitted to the concert of Europe, and 
all the contracting parties agreed to respect her independence 
and the integrity of her territory; moreover, the provisions of the 
Tanzimat were reaffirmed in a fresh decree of the sultan, which 
was incorporated in the treaty, and further provided for a 



HISTORY) 



TURKEY 



461 



large measure of local autonomy for the Christian communities. 
It was stipulated that Turkey's promises of reform gave no 
power the right of interference on behalf of the Christians. 

The Treaty of Paris was regarded as opening a new era in the 

progress of Turkey. Admitted on equal terms to the European 

family of nations, the Ottoman government had 

The New . J . .* 

Bra. given a solemn guarantee of its intention to make 

the long-promised reforms a reality. But it soon 
became apparent that the time was scarcely come for liberal 
measures; and fanatical outbreaks at Jidda (1858) and in 
Syria (1860) gave proof that the various sections of the popu- 
lation were not yet prepared to act together in harmony. 
The Syrian disturbances brought about a French occupa- 
tion, which Fuad Pasha, ably seconded by Ahmed Vefyk 
Effendi, the Turkish ambassador in Paris, contrived to restrict, 
and to terminate as soon as possible. The immediate local 
result was the institution, by a reglemenl, 1 signed at Con- 
stantinople on the 6th of September 1864, of autonomy for the 
Lebanon under a Christian governor appointed by the powers 
with the concurrence of the Porte, an arrangement which has 
worked satisfactorily until the present day. In 1859 the Danu- 
bian principalities, deliberately left separate by the Congress of 
Paris, carried out their long-cherished design of union by electing 
Prince Cuza both in Moldavia and in Walachia, a contingency 
which the powers had not taken into account, and to which in 
the end they gave a grudging assent (see RUMANIA). 

On the 25th of June 1861 Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid died, being 

succeeded by his brother Abd-ul-Aziz. The new sultan's reign 

^^ . * , marked, if not the beginning, at least the high tide 

Abd-uI-Azlz. , , . . 

1861-1876. * tnat cour se of improvident and unrestrained 
expenditure, facilitated by the enthusiasm created 
in Europe by Turkey's admission to the ranks of the powers 
which loosened for her the purse-strings of the foreign in- 
vestor. The viceroy of Egypt, Ismail Pasha, followed his 
suzerain's example in this respect, and was lavish in his bribes 
to his imperial overlord to obtain the extension of his own 
privileges and the establishment in Egypt of succession from 
father to son; these concessions were granted to him by the 
firmans of the 27th of May 1866 and the 8th of June 1867, 
in the latter of which the viceroy is addressed for the first time 
as " khedive." Abd-ul-Aziz is said to have yielded the more 
readily as being desirous of bringing about a similar altera- 
tion in the succession in Turkey, in favour of his own eldest 
son, Prince Yussuf Izz-ed-din; public opinion was, however, 
opposed to so sweeping a change, and the succession to the 
throne in Turkey still goes to the eldest surviving member of 
the house of Osman. Though the foreign relations of Turkey 
remained untroubled, disturbances in Servia, Montenegro and 
Crete continued throughout the " sixties." Servia had long 
resented the occupation of her fortresses by Turkish troops; 
frequent collisions arising from this source resulted in June 1862 
in the bombardment of Belgrade; some slight concessions were 
then made to Servia, but it was not until 1867 that, through the 
mediation of England and other powers, she succeeded in obtain- 
ing the withdrawal of the Turkish garrisons. The Cretan 
insurrection rose to a formidable height in 1868-69, and the 
active support given to the movement by Greece brought about a 
rupture of relations between that country and Turkey. The 
revolt was suppressed, the Turko-Greek conflict was settled by a 
conference of the powers in Paris, and Crete received a charter 
of local self-government which for a time pacified the island. 2 

Abd-ul-Aziz had visited the Paris Exhibition of 1867 and had 
paid his respects to Queen Victoria, who conferred on him the 
order of the Garter. In 1869 the visit was returned by many 
sovereigns and princes on their way to the opening of the Suez 
Canal, among these being the empress Eugenie. An impor- 
tant event not to be passed over without mention is the grant 
on the loth of March 1870 of the firman instituting the Bul- 
garian exarchate, thus severing the Bulgarian Church from 

1 Text in Holland, p. 212. 

1 " Correspondence . . . respecting the rupture of diplomatic 
relations between Turkey and Greece, &c.," in State Papers, 
lix. 584., &c., Protocols of Conferences, p. 813, &c. 



the jurisdiction of the Greek patriarch of Constantinople. This 
concession, given under strong pressure from Russia, aroused 
the deepest resentment of the Greeks, and was the principal 
factor in the awakening of the Bulgarian national spirit which 
subsequent events have done so much to develop. Russian 
influence at Constantinople had been gradually increasing, and 
towards the end of 1870 the tsar took advantage of the 
temporary disabling of France to declare himself no longer 
bound by those clauses of the Treaty of Paris which restricted 
Russia's liberty of possessing warships on the Black Sea. 
An international conference convoked in London early in 1871 
laid down the principle that treaty engagements were binding, 
and then proceeded to abrogate this particular engagement. 
Russia and Turkey thus regained full liberty as regards their 
naval forces and armaments in the Euxine; the passage of the 
straits remained interdicted to ships of war. 

A reform not unworthy of notice was effected by the law 
promulgated on the i8th of June 1867 whereby foreigners were 
for the first time allowed to hold landed property throughout 
the Ottoman Empire (save in the Hejaz) on condition of their 
being assimilated to Ottoman subjects, i.e. divested of their 
right to the protection of their own authorities in every respect 
concerning such property. 

Meanwhile in Turkey national bankruptcy was brought 
within measurable distance by the sultan's extravagance and 
the incompetence of his ministers; it was staved off only by 
loans contracted almost annually to pay the interest on their 
predecessors. External influences and latent fanaticism were 
active ; a serious insurrection broke out in Bosnia and Herze- 
govina in 1875, and the efforts to quell it almost exhausted 
Turkey's resources; the example spread to Bulgaria, where abor- 
tive outbreaks in September 1875 and May 1876 led to those 
cruel measures of repression which were known as " the Bulgarian 
atrocities," 3 Mussulman public feeling was inflamed, and an 
attempt at Salonica to induce a Christian girl who had embraced 
Islam to return to her faith caused the murder of two foreign 
consuls by a fanatical mob. The finances of Turkey now col- 
lapsed, and the inevitable bankruptcy was declared, whereby 
more than through any other cause she lost such Deposition 
sympathies as she possessed in western Europe. ofAbd-ui- 
Turkey's distress was Russia's opportunity; the Atl *~ 
sultan fell entirely under the influence of General Ignatiev, the 
tsar's ambassador, and it became evident that the country was 
hastening to its dissolution. A conspiracy to bring about a change 
was hereupon formed by certain prominent statesmen, whose 
leaders were Midhat Pasha, Mehemed Rushdi Pasha and 
Mahmud Damad Pasha, the husband of a princess of the blood, 
sister to Prince Murad. These succeeded in gaining over the 
Sheikh-ul-Islam, and in obtaining from him a fetva for the 
deposition of Abd-ul-Aziz. 

In virtue of this judgment of the supreme legal authority, 
and with the aid of the fleet, Abd-ul-Aziz was deposed, being 
shortly afterwards found dead, apparently by his own hand. 
Murad V. reigned in his stead. But the change of sultans brought 
no relief to the troubled state: Servia and Montenegro declared 
war, and in less than three months it had become evident that 
Mura'd was incapable of governing. 

Murad 's brother Abd-ul-Hamid was accordingly proclaimed 
sultan on the 313! of August 1876. The diplomacy of 
Europe had been searching in vain since the autumn Accession 
of 1875 for the means of inducing Turkey to institute ofAba-ui- 
effective administrative reforms and to grant to ***"'<*# 
its European provinces that autonomy which now 
appeared essential. But the new sultan was as averse 
from accepting any of the formulae proposed as were his pre- 
decessors: Servia and Montenegro were with great difficulty 
pacified, but it was plain that Russia, whose Slavonic and 
Orthodox sympathies had been strongly aroused, would soon 
begin hostilities herself. Turkey now made a show of going 
even beyond the demands formulated by Europe, and the 
international conference which met at Constantinople during 

' See Mr Baring's reports in Parl. Papers (1878), Ixxxi. 



462 



TURKEY 



[HISTORY 



the last days of 1876 was startled by the salvo of artillery which 
heralded the promulgation of a liberal constitution, not for the 
European provinces only, but for the whole empire, and the 
institution of a Turkish parliament. The decisions of the con- 
ference, moderate though they were, in the end requiring 
merely the nomination of an international commission to 
investigate the state of the European provinces of Turkey, 
and the appointment by the sultan, with the approval of the 
RUSSO- powers, of governors-general for five years, were 
Turkish rejected by the Porte. The statesmen of Europe 
War ' still continued their efforts to avert a conflict, but 
to no purpose. On the 24th of April 1877 Russia declared war 
and her troops crossed the Turkish frontiers. Hostilities were 
conducted both in Europe and Asia for nearly a year. Rumania 
joined the Russians, and in Europe no effective opposition was 
encountered by the invaders until the assaults on Plevna and 
the Shipka Pass, where the valiant resistance of the Turks won 
for them the admiration of Europe. By November the defence 
of the Turks in Asia Minor had entirely collapsed. Plevna 
surrendered on the gth of December 1877 after a heroic struggle 
under Osman Pasha. Thereafter the Russians advanced 
practically unchecked (see Russo-TuRKisn WARS) . An armistice 
and preliminaries of peace were signed on the 3ist of January 
1878 at Adrianople, and a definitive treaty was concluded at 
San Stefano on the 3rd of March 1878. Its terms 
SaAStefano were: the creation of an autonomous tributary 
principality of Bulgaria extending from the Black 
Sea to the Aegean; the recognition by Turkey of the independence 
of Rumania, Servia and Montenegro, with increased territories; 
the payment of a war indemnity; the introduction of reforms 
in Bosnia and Herzegovina; the cession to Russia of Bessarabia 
and the Dobruja; the opening of the passage of the straits at 
all times to the merchant vessels of neutral states; and the 
razing of the fortresses on the Danube. 

Great Britain had throughout the war preserved strict neu- 
trality, but, while making it clear from the outset that she could 
not assist Turkey, had been prepared for emergencies. Turkey's 
severity in repressing the Bulgarian insurrection had raised up 
in England a storm of public opinion against her, of which the 
Liberal opposition had taken the fullest advantage; moreover 
the suspension of payments on the Ottoman debt had dealt 
Turkey's popularity a blow from which it had never recovered. 
But upon the approach of the Russians to Constantinople the 
British reserves were called out and the fleet was despatched to 
the Bosporus. Accordingly, and as her line of retreat might 
be threatened by Austria, Russia consented to a revision of 
the Treaty of San Stefano at a congress to be held at Berlin. 
Congress of Before the meeting of this congress, which assembled 
Berlin, on the I3th of June 1878, the powers principally 
i7. interested had arrived at an understanding as to 

the modifications to be introduced in the treaty, and by a conven- 
tion concluded with Turkey on the 4th of June 1878 England 
had undertaken to defend the Asiatic dominions of the sultan 
by force of arms, provided that his majesty carried out all the 
necessary reforms, to be agreed upon later, and assigned to 
England the island of Cyprus, which was however to be restored 
if Turkey fulfilled her engagements as to reforms and if Russia 
gave back to her Kars, Ardahan and Batum. On the i3th of 
July 1878 the Treaty of Berlin was signed: the Great Bulgaria 
of the San Stefano Treaty was diminished to an autonomous 
province north of the Balkans, the south-eastern portion, no 
longer extending to the Aegean, was formed into a self-governing 
tributary province styled Eastern Rumelia; Turkey abandoned 
all pretension to suzerainty over Montenegro; Servia and 
Rumania received their independence (but the last named 
was made to cede Bessarabia to Russia, receiving instead the 
Dobruja) ; the Asiatic frontier was readjusted, Kars, Ardahan and 
Batum becoming Russian. It was further provided that Bulgaria 
should pay to Turkey an annual tribute, and should moreover 
(as well as the other Balkan states receiving accessions of terri- 
tory at Turkey's expense) bear a portion of the Ottoman debt. 
The sums payable by the different countries were to be fixed 



by the powers; but no effect has so far been given to this reason- 
able stipulation, which may now be looked upon as null and 
void. Turkey undertook to pay to Russia a war indemnity of 
300,000,000 roubles, and the status of the straits remained 
unchanged. Measures of reform in Armenia were also provided 
for, as also the convocation of an international commission 
for drawing up a reform scheme for .the European provinces 
left to Turkey. The organic law for Crete was to be carried 
out, and special laws enacted for other parts of Turkey. Bosnia 
and Herzegovina were handed over to the administration of 
Austria; Montenegro and Greece received accessions of territory 
to which only strong pressure coupled with a naval demonstra- 
tion induced Turkey to consent three years later. 

Peace once restored, some attempt was made by Turkey in 
the direction of complying with her engagements to institute 
reform. Financial and military advisers were procured from 
Germany. English officers were engaged to reform the gen- 
darmerie, and judicial inspectors of foreign nationality were to 
travel through the country to redress abuses. It was not long 
before the unsubstantial character of all these undertakings 
became apparent; the parliament was dissolved, the constitution 
was suspended and its author exiled. Egyptian affairs next 
threatened complications. In May 1879 the misgovernment 
of Ismail Pasha and the resulting financial crisis rendered the 
deposition of the khedive inevitable; in order to anticipate 
the action of England and France, who would otherwise have 
expelled the erring viceroy, the sultan deposed him himself; 
the succession devolved upon his son Mahommed Tewfik Pasha. 
(For the subsequent history of the Egyptian question The 
see EGYPT: History.) The revolt of Arabi Pasha Egyptian 
in 1 88 1 broke up the Anglo-French condominium in Question. 
Egypt and led to outrages at Alexandria followed by a bombard' 
ment on the nth of July 1882. The occupation of the country 
by Great Britain gradually took a more permanent form, and 
though negotiations were more than once entered into with 
Turkey with a view to its termination, these either proved 
abortive or were rendered so (as e.g. the Drummond-Wolff 
convention of 1887) by the action of other powers. The Anglo- 
French agreement of 1904 left England in undisputed mastery. 

The financial straits of Turkey after the war became so acute 
that the sultan was compelled to consent to a measure _ 

, , . "VT ,. ... PublkDebt. 

of foreign control over the finances of the country; 

the administration of the public debt being established in 

December 1881. (See Finance, above.) 

In 1885 the practically bloodless revolution of Philippopolis 
on the i8th of September united Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia, 
severed by the Treaty of Berlin. A conference held at Constan- 
tinople sanctioned the union on terms which were rendered 
acceptable to the suitan; but Said Pasha, who had assisted the 
sultan in centralizing at Yildiz Kiosk the administration of the 
country, and who had become grand vizier, was a strong adherent 
of the policy of armed intervention by Turkey, and the conse- 
quence was his fall from office. His successor in the grand 
vizierate, Kiamil Pasha, was soon called upon to deal with 
Armenian unrest, consequent on the non-execution of the 
reforms provided for in the Treaty of Berlin and the Cyprus 
Convention, which first found vent about 1890. But Kiamil 
Pasha was not subservient enough to his imperial master's 
will, and his place was taken by a military man, Jevad Pasha, 
from whom no independence of action was to be apprehended. 

It is from this period that the German ascendancy in Con- 
stantinople is noticeable. Railway concessions were given to 
Germans over the heads of British applicants already aerman 
in possession of lines from which they were expro- Activity to 
priated, thus affording the nucleus of the Bagdad Turkey. 
railway (of which Germany obtained the concession in Novem- 
ber 1899). (See BAGDAD, vol. iii. p. 197.) 

From 1890 Crete was frequently the scene of disturbance ; 
the Christian communities in other parts of Turkey began to 
chafe under the attempted curtailing of their privileges; about 
Christmas 1893 the Greek patriarch caused all the Orthodox 
churches to be closed as a protest; and the Armenian agitation 



HISTORY] 



TURKEY 



463 



Armenian 
Troubles. 



entered upon a serious phase. The Kurds, the constant 
oppressors of that people, had received official recognition 
and almost complete immunity from the control 
of the civil law by being formed into a yeo- 
manry frontier-guard known as the Hamidian 
cavalry. The troubles arising from this cause and from 
greater energy in the collection of taxes led the Armenians 
in outlying and mountainous districts to rise against the 
authorities. The repression of these revolts in the Sassun 
district in the autumn of 1894 was effected under circumstances 
of great severity by Turkish troops and Kurdish irregulars. 
A commission composed of British, French and Russian officials 
held an inquiry into the events which had occurred, and early in 

1895 England, France and Russia entered actively into negotia- 
tions with a view to the institution of reforms. The scheme 
propounded by the three powers encountered great objections 
from the Porte, but under pressure was accepted in October 1895. 
Its acceptance was however the signal for a series of massacres 
in almost every town of importance throughout Asia Minor, 
which there is but too strong evidence for suspecting were com- 
mitted with the connivance of the authorities, and in which 
upwards of 200,000 persons are computed to have perished. In 

1896 Lord Salisbury induced the other powers to unite in urging 
the execution of the reforms, but no agreement could be come to 
for the use of coercion, and Europe could but look on and protest. 
Changes of ministry at Constantinople were powerless to bring 
about an improvement, and early in 1896 Cretan affairs became 
so serious as to call for the intervention of the powers. In 
September yet another Cretan charter of self-government was 
promulgated. Shortly before, a revolutionary attack by an 
Armenian band on the Ottoman bank ut Constantinople brought 
about a general massacre of Armenians in the capital (where a 
widespread revolutionary organization undoubtedly existed), in 
which at least 3000 victims fell, and the persecution of Armenians 
became the order of the day. 

The neglect of the Porte to carry out all the stipulations of the 
Cretan arrangement of 1896 led to a renewal of the disturbances, 

and Greece began to take steps for the invasion of 
0/W97 ar *- ne island; m February 1897 Colonel Vassos sailed 

from the Piraeus with an armed force, intending 
to proclaim the annexation of Crete to Greece, and Greek 
troops were massed on the Thessalian frontier. Diplomacy 
busied itself with fruitless attempts to avert hostilities; on 
the lyth of April 1897 war was declared by Turkey. The 
resistance offered by Greece was feeble in the extreme: Europe 
was obliged to intervene, and Turkey gained a rectifica- 
tion of frontier and a war indemnity of 4,000,000, besides 
the curtailment by the treaty eventually signed of many privi- 
leges hitherto enjoyed by Hellenic subjects in Turkey. But 
Europe was determined that the Cretan question should be 
definitely settled, at least for a period of some years, and, after an 
outbreak at Candia, in which the lives of British troops were 
sacrificed, the four powers (Germany and Austria having with- 
drawn from the concert) who had taken over the island en 
dtpot handed it over in October 1898 to Prince George of Greece 
as high commissioner (see CRETE: History). 

Crete being thus removed from the scope of her action, Turkey 
found ample occupation in the almost constant turbulence of 

the Yemen, of Albania and of Macedonia. After 
Arab/a. J ^9 2 tne rev lts, frequently renewed, of the so-called 

imam of Sana, necessitated the despatch of large and 
costly expeditions to Arabia, in which thousands of Turkish 
troops have fallen in guerrilla warfare or through the inhospit- 
able climate; in Albania disturbance became almost endemic, 
owing to the resistance offered by the intractable population 
to successive attempts of the central authorities to subject 
the country to regular taxation and the operation of the laws. 

Unsettled claims by French citizens led to a breaking off of 
relations and the occupation of Mitylene by France in November 
1901 ; the rupture was of short duration and Turkey soon gave 
way, according complete satisfaction both in this matter and 
on certain other French demands. In 1901 and 1902 Turkish 



encroachments on the hinterland of Aden brought about a 
dangerous state of tension between Great Britain and Turkey, 
which had its parallel in 1906 in similar trespasses Dispirits 
by the Ottoman authorities on the Egyptian land with France 
frontier near Akaba. In both cases Turkey eventually ""iBrUaia. 
yielded; a similar question arose in 1906 with France over the 
boundaries of the African possessions of the two countries. 

But Macedonia was Turkey's chief source of anxiety. That 
country, left by the Treaty of Berlin with its status unaltered, was 
in a continued condition of disturbance. The Chris- 
tian population, who in common with their Muss 
man fellow subjects suffered from the defective 
methods of government of their rulers, had at least before 
them the example of their brethren Greeks, Bulgarians or 
Servians dwelling in independent kingdoms under Christian 
governments on the other side of the frontier. The hope 
of eventual emancipation was stimulated by sedulous propa- 
gandists from each of these countries; from time to time 
armed bands of insurgents were manned and equipped in 
the small neighbouring states, with or without the co-operation 
of the governments. So long as Stambolov, the energetic 
Bulgarian statesman, was alive he succeeded in keeping 
the Bulgarian element quiet, and the peace of the country 
was less liable to disturbance. But for some years the three 
rivals in Macedonia, to which a fourth, the Rumanian element, 
must be added, were in constant strife (see MACEDONIA). A 
serious Bulgarian insurrection in Macedonia in the autumn of 
1903 induced Austria and Russia to combine in formulating the 
Miirzsteg reform programme, tardily consented to by Turkey, 
by which Austrian and Russian civil agents were appointed to 
exercise a certain degree of control and supervision over the three 
vilayets of Salonica, Monastir and Kossovo. It was also arranged 
that foreign officers should be named to reorganize the gen- 
darmerie. An Italian officer, General De Giorgis, was appointed 
to the chief command in the reorganization, and the three 
vilayets were apportioned among the great powers into districts, 
in each of which was appointed a staff officer with a number of 
subordinate officers of his nationality under his orders. The 
work of reorganization was efficiently carried out, and the gen- 
darmerie school at Salonica, under British supervision, showed 
excellent results. But the achievements of the two civil agents 
were less noteworthy; and in 1905 it was agreed that, in view of 
the financial necessities of the provinces, the other great powers 
should each appoint delegates to a financial commission with 
extensive powers of control in fiscal matters. The Porte opposed 
the project, and an international naval demonstration and the 
occupation of Mytilene by the powers became necessary before 
Turkey gave way in December 1905. Even so it proved im- 
possible to fulfil the Miirzsteg programme, though the attempt 
was prolonged until 1908. The Austro-Russian entente had 
then come to an end; and after a meeting between King 
Edward VII. and the tsar Nicholas II. at Reval, a new scheme 
of reforms was announced, under the name of the " Reval pro- 
gramme." The enforcement of these reforms, however, was 
postponed sine die owing to the revolution which transformed 
the Ottoman Empire into a constitutional state; and the 
powers, anticipating an improvement in the administration of 
Macedonia by the new government, withdrew their military 
officers in the summer of 1908. 

The Young Turkish party had long been preparing for the 
overthrow of the old regime. Their central organization was in 
Paris and their objects were known throughout 
Europe, but except at Yildiz Kiosk their power was Turks""* 
almost everywhere underrated. The Porte strove 
by every means at its disposal to thwart their activity; but 
elsewhere they were regarded as a body of academic enthusiasts, 
more noisy than dangerous, who devoted their scanty funds to 
the publication of seditious matter in Paris or Geneva, and sought 
to achieve the impossible by importing western institutions into a 
country fit only to be ruled by the sheriat and the sword. Such 
was the opinion held even by experienced diplomatists and by 
historians. It was strengthened by the fact that the Young 



464 



TURKEY 



[HISTORY 



Turks had deliberately abstained from violent action. They had, 
in fact, learned from events in Russia and Poland that sporadic 
outbreaks on a small scale would inevitably discredit their cause, 
and that a successful revolution would require the support of the 
army. To gain this, an extensive propaganda was carried on by 
secret agents, many of whom were officers. At the beginning of 
1908 a favourable opportunity for action arrived. The Otto- 
man troops in Arabia were mutinous and unpaid; the Albanians, 
long the mainstay of Turkish military power in the west, had been 
irritated by unpopular taxes and by the repressive edicts which 
deprived them of schools and a printing-press; foreign inter- 
ference in Crete and Macedonia was resented by patriotic Moslems 
throughout the empire. In these circumstances the head- 
quarters of the Young Turks were transferred from 'Paris to 
Salonica, where a central body, known as the committee of union 
and progress, was established (1908) to organize the revolution. 
Most of its members were military officers, prominent among 
them being Majors Enver Bey and Niazi Bey, who directed the 
propaganda in Albania and Macedonia. By midsummer the 
Albanian leaders and the greater part of the Turkish army in 
Europe had sworn fidelity to the constitution. 

On the 25th of May an insurrection broke out in Samos, 
owing to a dispute between the Samian Assembly and Kopassis 
Effendi, " prince," or governor of the island. After the port of 
Vathy had been bombarded by Ottoman war-ships the revolt 
was easily crushed. 

This affair however was of little more than local importance, 
and the Young Turks were not directly concerned in it. They 
The struck their first blow on the 22nd of July 1908, 

Revolution when Niazi Bey and his troops raised the standard 
oli908. o f re volt at Resna, a town on the road from Monastir 
to Ochrida. On the 23rd the committee of union and progress, 
under the presidency of Enver Bey, proclaimed the constitution 
in Salonica, while the second and third army corps threatened 
to march on Constantinople if the sultan refused to obey the 
proclamation. On the 24th the sultan yielded, and issued 
an trade, restoring the constitution of 1876, and ordering the 
election of a chamber of deputies. Various other reforms, 
notably the abolition of the spy system and the censorship, 
were announced soon afterwards. Some of the more unpopular 
officials associated with the old regime were assassinated, 
among them Fehim Pasha, the former head of the espionage 
department, who had been exiled to Brusa in 1907 at the 
request of the British and German ambassadors. Otherwise 
the revolution was effected almost without bloodshed; for a 
time the insurgent bands disappeared in Macedonia, and the 
rival " nationalities " Greek, Albanian, Turk, Armenian, 
Servian, Bulgarian and Jew worked harmoniously together 
for the furtherance of common constitutional aims. On the 
6th of August Kiamil Pasha, an advanced Liberal, became 
grand vizier, and a new cabinet was formed, including a Greek, 
Prince Mavrocordato, an Armenian, Noradounghian, and the 
Sheikh-ul-Islam. 

The success of the Young Turks created a serious situation 
for the statesmen of Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria. A regene- 
rated Ottoman Empire might in time be strong enough 

Bosnia and . , . r -n j TI 

Bulgaria. t demand the evacuation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 
and to maintain or extend the nominal suzerainty 
over Bulgaria which the sultan had exercised since 1878. Accord- 
ingly, at the beginning of October 1908, the emperor Francis 
Joseph informed the powers signatory to the treaty of Berlin 
that the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the Dual 
Monarchy had become necessary, and this decision was formally 
announced in an imperial rescript dated the 7th of October. 
The independence of Bulgaria was proclaimed on the 5th. The 
Ottoman government protested to the powers, but it wisely 
limited its demands to a claim for compensation. Austria- 
Hungary had from the first undertaken to withdraw its garrisons 
from the sanjak of Novibazar an important concession; 
after prolonged negotiations and a boycott of all Austrian 
goods exported to Turkey, it also agreed to pay 2,200,000 as 
compensation for the Turkish crown lands seized in Bosnia 



and Herzegovina. This arrangement was sanctioned by the 
Ottoman parliament, which assented to the annexation on the 
6th of April 1909 and recognized the independence of Bulgaria 
on the igth of April, the Russian government having enabled 
Bulgaria to pay the indemnity claimed by Turkey on account 
of the Eastern Rumelian tribute ,and railways (see BULGARIA: 
History). On the 3rd of February 1910 the Porte accepted a 
Bulgarian proposal for a mixed commission to delimit disputed 
sections of the Turco-Bulgarian frontier, and in March King 
Ferdinand visited Constantinople. 

Meanwhile the Young Turks were confronted with many 
difficulties within the empire. After the first fervour of enthu- 
siasm had subsided the Christian nationalities The Re- 
in Macedonia resumed their old attitude of mutual action in the 
jealousy, the insurgent bands began to reappear, fl"v/oce. 
and the government was in 1900-1910 forced to undertake 
the disarmament of the whole civil population of the three 
vilayets. In Albania serious discontent, resulting in an insur- 
rection (May-September 1909), was caused by the political 
rivalry between Greeks and Albanians and the unwillingness 
of the Moslem tribesmen to pay taxes or to keep the peace with 
their neighbours, the Macedonian Serbs. In Asia Minor the 
Kurdish troops under Ibrahim Pasha revolted, and, although 
they were defeated with the loss of their commander, the Kurds 
continued to attack indiscriminately the Turks, Nestorians and 
Armenians; disturbances also broke out among the other 
reactionary Moslems of this region, culminating in a massacre 
of the Armenians at Adana. In Arabia Ratib Pasha, the 
Turkish commander-in-chief, joined the enemies of the new 
regime; he was defeated and captured in the autumn of 1908, 
but in the following year frequent raids upon the Hejaz railway 
were made by Bedouin tribesmen, while a Mahdist rebellion 
broke out and was crushed in Yemen. 

More serious than any of these local disturbances was the 
counter-revolution in Constantinople itself, which began with 
the revolt of Kiamil Pasha, the grand vizier, against The Con- 
the authority of the committee of union and pro- stantinopie 
gress. Kiamil Pasha was forced to resign (Feb. 14, Counter- 
1909) and was succeeded by Hilmi Pasha, ex-high revotut ">"- 
commissioner of Macedonia. Strife then arose between 
the committee and the Liberal Union, a body which mainly 
represented the Christian electorate, and on the sth of April 
Hassan Fehmi Effendi, who edited the Serbesti, the official 
organ of the union, was assassinated. He was an Albanian, 
and his fellow countrymen in the Constantinople garrison at 
once made common cause with the opponents of the committee. 
Mutinous troops seized the parliament house and the telegraph 
offices; the grand vizier resigned and was succeeded by Tewfik 
Pasha (April 14); and delegates were sent by the Liberal Union, 
the association of Ulema and other bodies to discuss terms 
with the committee. But Abd-ul-Hamid had issued a free 
pardon to the mutineers, and the committee had now decided 
that the new regime would never be secure while the sovereign 
favoured reaction. They refused to treat with the delegates, 
and despatched 25,000 men under Mahmud Shevket to 
Constantinople. 

The senate and chamber met at San Stefano, and, sitting 
jointly as a National Assembly, issued a proclamation in favour 
of the committee and its army (April 22, 1909), 
by which Constantinople was now invested. Part 
of the garrison remained loyal to the sultan, but after 
five hours of severe fighting Shevket Pasha was able to occupy 
the capital (April 25). The National Assembly met in secret 
session two days later, voted unanimously for the deposition of 
Abd-ul-Hamid II., and chose his younger brother Mahommed 
Reshad Effendi (b. Nov. 3, 1844) as his successor, with the 
style of Mahommed V. Abd-ul-Hamid II. was removed to 
Salonica on the 28th, and on the loth of May the new sultan 
was formally invested with the sword of Osman. Hilmi Pasha 
again became grand vizier, but resigned on the 28th of December 
1909, when he was succeeded by Hakki Bey. On the sth of 
August 1909 the new constitution described above was 



LITERATURE] 



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465 



promulgated by imperial irade; parliament was prorogued for 
three months on the 27th, and during the recess the committee 
of union and progress met at Salonica and modified its own 
rules (Oct. 23), ceasing thenceforward to be a secret association. 
This was regarded as an expression of confidence in the reformed 
parliament, which had laid the foundation of the important 
financial and administrative reforms already described. On 
the 1 3th of September 1909 the Macedonian international 
commission of finance met for the last time; its members were 
reappointed to a higher finance board for the whole empire, 
under the presidency of Djavid Bey. Ch. Laurent had already 
been nominated financial adviser to the empire (Sept. 16, 1908), 
while Sir William Willcocks became head of the irrigation 
department; the reorganization of the army was entrusted to 
the German General von der Goltz, that of the navy to Admiral 
Sir Douglas Gamble (resigned Feb. i, 1910). 

The evacuation of Crete by the four protecting powers was 
followed in 1909 by renewed agitation. Turkey was willing 
Crete, t concede the fullest local autonomy, but not to 
(incccand abandon its sovereign rights over the island. In 
Rumania, jujy 1909, however, the Greek flag was hoisted in 
Canea and Candia, and it was only lowered again after the 
war-ships of the protecting powers had been reinforced and had 
landed an international force. The Cretan administrative com- 
mittee swore allegiance to the king of the Hellenes in August, 
and again, after a change of government, at the end of December 
1909. This situation had already given rise to prolonged 
negotiations between Greece and Turkey. It also contributed 
towards the conclusion of an entente between Turkey and 
Rumania in the summer of 1910. Both of these powers were 
interested in preventing any possible accession of territory 
to the Bulgarian kingdom; and Rumania (q.v.) had for many 
years been a formidable opponent of Hellenism among the 
Macedonian Vlachs. Greece and Crete were thus confronted 
with what was in effect a defensive alliance between Turkey 
and Rumania. The Cretans had insisted upon their demand 
for union with Greece and had elected three representatives to 
sit in the Greek national assembly. Had this act been ratified 
by the government at Athens, a war between Greece and the 
Ottoman Empire could hardly have been avoided; but a royal 
rescript was issued by the king of the Hellenes on the 3oth of 
September 1910, declaring vacant the three seats to which the 
Cretan representatives had been elected; the immediate danger 
was thus averted. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. (i) General Historical Works: The monumental 
Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiclies, by J. von Hammer Purgstall 
(ist ed., 10 vols., Vienna, 1827-1835; 2nd ed., 4 vols., Pest, 1840; 
French trans., by J. J. Hellert, 18 vols., Paris, 1835-1843), is still 
the standard work until the conclusion of the treaty of Kuchuk 
Kai'narji (1744), at which date it stops. Founded upon it are Sir 
E. S. Creasy's History of the Ottoman Turks (London, 1878) and S. 
Lane-Poole s Turkey in the " Story of the Nations Series " (London, 
1888); Sutherland Menzies's Turkey, Old and New (2 vols., 1880) 
is derived chiefly from French sources and is less accurate and 
unbiased. An excellent and impartial history in Turkish is the 
Tarikh-i-devlet-i-osmanie, by Abdurrahman Sheref (Constantinople, 
A.H. 1315-1318 = A. D. 1897-1900). The Balkans, by W. Miller 
(London, 1899), in the " Story of the Nations Series," deals with 
Turkey's relations with the Balkan states. Halil Ganem's Les Sultans 
ottomans (2 vols., Paris, 1902) contains much that is interesting, if 
not always entirely trustworthy. 

2. Monographs: Much information on modern Turkish history 
and politics will be found in the works dealing primarily with topo- 
graphy, finance, law and defence, which have been cited above. 
See also S. Lane-Poole, Life of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe (2 vols., 
London, 1888) ; A. Vandal, Memoires du marquis de Nointel (French 
ambassador at Constantinople from 1670 to 1678) ; E. Engelhardt, 
La Turquie et le Tanzitnat (Paris, 1882); E. Driault, La Question 
d' orient depuis ses origines jusqu'a nos jours (Paris, 1898); V. 
Berard, La Turquie et I'Hellenisme (Paris, 1897); idem, Le Sultan, 
I' Islam et les Puissances (Paris, 1907); idem, La Revolution turque 
(1909). 

3. Official Publications and Collections of Treaties: Sir E. Herts- 
let s Treaties Regulating the Trade, &c., between Great Britain and 
Turkey (London, 1875) presents a summary of all the principal 
treaties between Turkey and other states; see also Gabriel Effendi 
Noradounghian, Recueil d'actes internationaux de I' empire ottoman, 
1300-1789, t. i. (Paris, 1897). Much valuable information is to 



OU School. 



be obtained from parliamentary papers. These are too numerous 
for detailed mention, but the following periods may be cited as the 
most interesting: 1833-1841 (Egyptian question); 1849-1859 
(Crimean War and the events by which it was preceded and followed) ; 
1868-1869 (Cretan insurrection); 1875-1881 (Bosnian and Herzego- 
vinian insurrection, Russo-Turkish War, Berlin treaty and subse- 
quent events) ; 1885-1887 (union of Eastern Rumelia with Bulgaria) ; 
1889-1890 (Cretan disturbances) ; 1892-1899 (Armenian and Cretan 
affairs) ; 1902-1907 (Macedonia) ; 1908-1910 (revolution and reform). 
Some analysis of the unpublished documents in the record office, 
for the period 1815-1841, by W. Alison Phillips, will be found in 
the bibliographies to chs. vi. and xvii. of vol. x. of the Cambridge 
Modern History. (X.) 

Literature. 

In all literary matters the Ottoman Turks have shown them- 
selves a singularly uninventive people, the two great schools, 
the old and the new, into which we may divide their literature, 
being closely modelled, the one after the classics of Persia, the 
other after those of modern Europe, and more especially of 
France. The old or Persian school flourished from the founda- 
tion of the empire down to about 1830, and still continues to 
drag on a feeble existence, though it is now out of fashion and 
cultivated by none of the leading men of letters. These belong 
to the new or European school, which, in spite of the bitter 
opposition of the partisans of the old Oriental system, has suc- 
ceeded, partly thiough its own inherent superiority and partly 
through the talents and courage of its supporters, in expelling 
its rival from the position of undisputed authority which it had 
occupied for upwards of five hundred years. For the present 
purpose it will be convenient to divide the old school 
into three periods, which may be termed respectively 
the pre-classical, the classical and the post-classical. Of these 
the first extends from the early days of the empire to the accession 
of Suleiman I., 1301-1520 (700-926); the second from that event 
to the accession of Mahmud I., 1520-1730 (926-1143); and the 
third from that date to the accession of "Abd-ul-'Aziz, 1730-1861 
(1143-1277). 

The works of the old school in all its periods are entirely Persian 
in tone, sentiment and form. We find in them the same beauties 
and the same defects that we observe in the production 
of the Iranian authors. The formal elegance and ** e 
conventional grace, alike of thought and of expression, 
so characteristic of Persian classical literature, pervade 
the works of the best Ottoman writers, and they are 
likewise imbued, though in a less degree, with that spirit of 
mysticism which runs through so much of the poetry of Iran. 
But the Ottomans did not stop here: in their romantic poems 
they chose as subjects the favourite themes of their Persian 
masters, such as Leyli and Mejnun, Khusrev and Shirin, Yusuf 
and Zuleykha, and so on; they constantly allude to Persian 
heroes whose stories occur in the Shdh-Nama and other store- 
houses of Iranian legendary lore; and they wrote their poems 
in Persian metres and in Persian forms. The mesnevi, the jcaslda 
and the ghazel all of them, so far at least as the Ottomans are 
concerned, Persian were the favourite verse-forms of the old poets. 
A mesnevi is a poem written in rhyming couplets, and is usually 
narrative in subject. The kaslda and the ghazel are both mono- 
rhythmic ; the first as a rule celebrates the praises of some great man, 
while the second discourses of the joys and woes of love. Why 
Persian rather than Arabian or any other literature became the model 
of Ottoman writers is explained by the early history of the race 
(see TURKS). Some two centuries before the arrival of the Turks 
in Asia Minor the Seljuks, then a mere horde of savages, had overrun 
Persia, where they settled and adopted the civilization of the people 
they had subdued. Thus Persian became the language of their 
court and government, and when by-and-by they pushed their 
conquests into Asia Minor, and founded there the Seljulf Empire 
of Rum, they carried with them their Persian culture, and diffused 
it among the peoples newly brought under their sway. It was 
the descendants of those Persianized Seljuks whom the early Otto- 
mans found ruling in Asia Minor on their arrival there. What had 
happened to the Seljuks two centuries before happened to the Otto- 
mans now: the less civilized race adopted the culture of the more 
civilized; and, as the Seljulf Empire fell to pieces and the Ottoman 
came gradually to occupy its place, the sons of men who had called 
themselves Seljuks began thenceforth to look upon themselves as 
Ottomans. Hence the vast majority of the people whom we are 
accustomed to think of as Ottomans are so only by adoption, being 
really the descendants of Seljuks or Seljukian subjects, who had 
derived from Persia whatever they possessed of civilization or of 
literary taste. An extraordinary love of precedent, the result 
apparently of conscious want of original power, was sufficient 
to keep their writers loyal to their early guide for centuries, till 



ra 






4 66 



TURKEY 



[LITERATURE 



at length the allegiance, though not the fashion of it, has been 
changed in our own days, and Paris has replaced Shiraz as the shrine 
towards which the Ottoman scholar turns. While conspicuously 
lacking in creative genius, the Ottomans have always shown them- 
selves possessed of receptive and assimilative powers to a remarkable 
degree, the result being that the number of their writers both in 
prose and verse is enormous. Of course only a few of the most 
prominent, either through the intrinsic merit of their work or through 
the influence they have had on that of their contemporaries, can 
be mentioned in a brief review like the present. It ought to be 
premised that the poetry of the old school is greatly superior to the 
prose. 

Ottoman literature may be said to open with a few mystic lines, 
the work of Sultan Veled, son of Maulana Jelal-ud-Din, the author 

of the great Persian poem the Mathnam. Sultan Veled 
"",. . flourished during the reign of ' Osman I., though he 

did not reside in the territory under the rule of that 

prince. Another mystic poet of this early time was 
'Ashik Pasha, who left a long poem in rhyming couplets, which is 
called, inappropriately enough, his Divdn. The nocturnal expe- 
dition across the Hellespont by which Suleiman, the son of 
Orkhan, won Galipoli and therewith a foothold in Europe for his 
race, was shared in and celebrated in verse by a Turkish noble or 
chieftain named Ghazi Fazil. Sheikhi of Kermiyan, a contemporary 
of Mabommed Land Murad II., wrote a lengthy and still esteemed 
mesnevi on the ancient Persian romance of Khusrev and Shirin ; and 
about the same time Yaziji-oghlu gave to the world a long versified 
history of the Prophet, the Mubammediya. The writers mentioned 
above are the most important previous to the capture of Constanti- 
nople ; but there is little literature of real merit prior to that event. The 
most notable prose work of this period is an old collection of stories, 
the History of the Forty Vezirs, said to have been compiled by a certain 
Sheikh-zada and dedicated to Murad II. A few years after Constanti- 
nople passed into the hands of the Ottomans, some ghazels, the work 
of the contemporary Tatar prince, Mir 'AH Shir, who under the nom 
de plume of Nevayl wrote much that shows true talent and poetic 
feeling, found their way to the Ottoman capital, where they were seen 
and copied by Ahmed Pasha, one of the viziers of Mabommed II. 
The poems of this statesman, though possessing little merit of their 
own, being for the most part translations from Nevayl, form one of 
the landmarks in the history of Ottoman literature. They set the 
fashion of ghazel-writing; and their appearance was the signal 
for a more regular cultivation of poetry and a greater attention 
to literary style and to refinement of language. In Sinan Pasha 
(d. 1420), another minister of Mahommed the Conqueror, Ottoman 
prose found its first exponent of ability; he left a religious treatise 
entitled Tazarru'at (Supplications), which, notwithstanding a too 
lavish employment of the resources of Persian rhetoric, is as remark- 
able for its clear and lucid style as for the beauty of many of the 
thoughtsit contains. The most noteworthy writersof the Conqueror's 
reign are, after Ahmed and Sinan, the two lyric poets Nejati and Zati, 
whose verses show a considerable improvement upon those of Ahmed 
Pasha, the romantic poets Jema.ll and Hamdi, and the poetesses 
Zeyneb and Mihri. Like most of his house, Mabommed II. was fond 
of poetry and patronized men of letters. He himself tried versifica- 
tion, and some of his lines which have come down to us appear quite 
equal to the average work of his contemporaries. Twenty-one out 
of the thirty-four sovereigns who have occupied the throne of 
'Osman have left verses, and among these Selim I. stands out, not 
merely as the greatest ruler, warrior and statesman, but also as the 
most gifted and most original poet. His work is unhappily for the 
greater part in the Persian language ; the excellence of what he has 
done in Turkish makes us regret that he did so little. The most 
prominent man of letters under Selim I. was the legist Kemal 
Pasha-zada, frequently called Ibn-Kemal, who distinguished himself 
in_both prose and verse. He left a romantic poem on the loves of 
Yusuf and Zuleykha, and a work entitled Nigarislan, which is 
modelled both in style and matter on the Gulistan of Sa'di. His 
contemporary, Mesihi, whose beautiful verses on spring are perhaps 
better known in Europe than any other Turkish poem, deserves a 
passing mention. 

With the accession of Sellm's son, Suleiman I., the classical 
period begins. Hitherto all Ottoman writing, even the most highly 
Classical finished, had been somewhat rude and uncouth ; but 
Period. now a mar ked improvement becomes visible alike in the 

manner and the matter, and authors of greater ability 
begin to make their appearance. Fuzuli (d. 1563), one of the four 
great poets of the old school, seems to have been a native of Bagdad 
or its neighbourhood, and probably became an Ottoman subject 
when Suleiman took possession of the old capital of the caliphs. 
His language, which is very peculiar, seems to be a sort of mixture 
of the Ottoman and Azerbaijan dialects of Turkish, and was most 
probably that of the Persian Turks of those days. Fuzuli showed 
far more originality than any of his predecessors; for, although his 
work is naturally Persian in form and in general character, it is far 
from being a mere echo from Shiraz or Isfahan. He struck out a new 
line for himself, and was indebted for his inspiration to no previous 
writer, whether Turk or Persian. An intense and passionate ardour 
breathes in his verses, and forms one of the most remarkable as well 
as one of the most attractive characteristics of his style ; for, while 



few even among Turkish poets are more artificial than he, few seem 
to write with greater earnestness and sincerity. His influence upon 
his successors has scarcely been as far-reaching as might have been 
expected a circumstance which is perhaps in some measure owing 
to the unfamiliar dialect in which he wrote. Besides his Dwdn, 
he left a beautiful mesnevi on the story of Leyll and Mejnun, as 
well as some prose works little inferior to his poetry. Baki (d. 1599) 
of Constantinople, though far from rivalling his contemporary 
Fuzuli, wrote much good poetry, including one piece of great excel- 
lence, an elegy on Suleiman I. The Ottomans have as a rule been 
particularly successful with elegies; this one by Baki has never been 
surpassed. Ruhi, Lami'i, Nev'I, the janissary Yahya Beg, the mufti 
Ebu-Su'ud and Selim II. all won deserved distinction as poets. 
During the reign of Ahmed I. arose the second of the great poets 
of the old Ottoman school, Nef'i of Erzerum, who owes his pre- 
eminence to the brilliance of his kasidas. But Nef'i could revile 
as well as praise, and such was the bitterness of some of his satires 
that certain influential personages who came under his lash induced 
Murad IV. to permit his execution. Nef'i, who, like Fuzuli, formed 
a style of his own, had many to imitate him, of whom Sabri Shakir, 
a contemporary, was the most successful. Na'ili, Jevri and Fehim 
need not detain us; but Nabi (d. 1712), who flourished under Ibrahim 
and Mabommed IV., calls for a little more attention. This prolific 
author copied, and so imported into Ottoman literature, a didactic 
style of ghazel-writing which was then being introduced in Persia 
by the poet Sa'ib ; but so closely did the pupil follow in the footsteps 
of his master that it is not always easy to know that his lines are 
intended to be Turkish. A number of poets, of whom Seyyid Vehbi, 
Raghib Pasha, Rabmi of the Crimea, Kelim and SamI are the most 
notable, took Nabi for their model. Of these, Sami is remarkable 
for the art with which he constructed his ghazels. Among the writers 
of this time who did not copy Nabi are Sabit, Rasikh and Talib, each 
of whom endeavoured, with no great success, to open up a new path 
for himself. We now reach the reign of Abmed III., during which 
flourished Nedim, the greatest of all the poets of the old school. 
Little appears to be known about his life further than that he resided 
at Constantinople and was alive in the year 1727 (A.H. 1140). Nedim 
stands quite alone : he copied no one, and no one has attempted to 
copy him. There is in his poetry a joyousness and sprightliness 
which at once distinguish it from the work of any other Turkish 
author. His ghazels, which are written with great elegance and 
finish, contain many graceful and original ideas, and the words 
he makes use of are always chosen with a view to harmony and 
cadence. His kasidas are almost equal to his ghazels; for, while 
they rival those of Nef'i in brilliancy, they surpass them in beauty of 
diction, and are not so artificial and dependent on fantastic and far- 
fetched conceits. The classical period comes to an end with Nedim ; 
its brightest time is that which falls between the rise of Nef'i and 
the death of Nedim, or, more roughly, that extending from the 
accession of Ahmed I. 1603 (1012), to the deposition of Ahmed III., 

173 (ii43)- 

We will now glance at the prose writers of this period. Under 
the name of Humdyun Ndma (Imperial Book) 'Ali Chelebi made 
a highly esteemed translation of the well-known Persian 
classic Anvdr-i SuheyK, dedicating it to Suleiman I. Classical 
Sa'd-ud-Din (d. 1599), the preceptor of Murad III., f^? e 
wrote a valuable history of the empire from the earliest 
times to the death of Selim I. This work, the Tdj-ut-Tevarikh 
(Crown of Chronicles), is reckoned, on account of its ornate yet clear 
style, one of the masterpieces of the old school, and forms the first 
of an 11 nbroken series of annals which are written, especially the later 
among them, with great minuteness and detail. Of Sa'd-ud-Din's 
successors in the office of imperial historiographer the most remark- 
able for literary power is Na'ima. His work, which extends from 
1591 (1000) to 1659 (1070), contrasts strongly with that of the earlier 
historian, being written with great directness and lucidity, combined 
with much vigour and picturesqueness. Evliya, who died during the 
reign of Mahommed IV., is noted for the record which he has left of 
his travels in different countries. About this time Tash-kopri- 
zada began and 'Ata-ullah continued a celebrated biography of the 
legists and sheikhs who had flourished under the Ottoman monarchs. 
Haji Khalifa, frequently termed Katib Chelebi, was one of the most 
famous men of letters whom Turkey has produced. He died in 
1658 (1068), having written a great number of learned works on 
history, biography, chronology, geography and other subjects. The 
Persianizing tendency of this school reached its highest point in the 
productions of Veysi, who left a Life of the Prophet, and of Nergisi, 
a miscellaneous writer of prose and verse. Such is the intentional 
obscurity in many of the compositions of these two authors that 
every sentence becomes a puzzle, over which even a scholarly Otto- 
man must pause before he can be sure he has found its true meaning. 
The first printing-press in Turkey was established by an Hungarian 
who had assumed the name of Ibrahim, and in 1728 (1141) appeared 
the first book printed in that country; it was Vankuli's Turkish 
translation of Jevheri's Arabic dictionary. 

Coming now to the post-classigal period, we find among poets 
worthy of mention Beligh, Nevres, Hishmet and Sunbuli-zada 
Vehbi, each of whom wrote in a style peculiar to himself. Three 
poets of note Pertev, Neshet and Sheikh Ghalib flourished under 
Selim III. The last-named is the fourth great poet of the old 



TURKEY 



467 



school. Husn u 'Ashk (Beauty and Love), as his great poem is 
called, is an allegorical romance full of tenderness and imaginative 

power. Ghalib's style is as original as that of Fuzull, 

i IT I Nefi or Nedim. The most distinguished prose writers 

classical Q ^ g p er j o j are perhaps Rashid, the imperial historio- 

grapher, 'Asim, who translated into Turkish two great 
lexicons, the Arabic Kdmus and the Persian Burhan-i R.a(i', and 
Kani, the only humorous writer of merit belonging to the old school. 
When we reach the reign of Mahmud II., the great transition 
period of Ottoman history, during which the civilization of the 



' 



West began to struggle in earnest with that of the East, 
we ^"^ tne c h. an g e which was coming over all things 
Turkish affecting literature along with the rest, and 
preparing the way for the appearance of the new school. The 
chief poets of the transition are Fazil Bey, Wasif, notable for his 
not altogether unhappy attempt to write verses in the spoken 
language of the capital, 'Izzet Molla, Pertev Pasha, 'Akif Pasha, and 
the poetesses Fitnet and Ley la. In the works of all of these, although 
we occasionally discern a hint of the new style, the old Persian 
manner is still supreme. 

More intimate relations with western Europe and a pretty 
general study of the French language and literature, together with 

the steady progress of the reforming tendency fairly 
School. started under Mahmud II., resulted in the birth of the 

new or modern school, whose objects are_truth and sim- 
plicity. In the political writings of Reshid and 'Akif Pashas we 
have the first clear note of change; but the man to whom more 
than to any other the new departure owes its success is Shinasi 
Effendi, who employed it (1859) for poetry as well as for prose. 
The European style, on its introduction, encountered the most 
violent opposition, but now it alone is used by living authors of 
repute. If any of these does write a pamphlet in the old manner, 
it is merely as a tour de force, or to prove to some faithful but 
clamorous partisan of the Persian style that it is not, as he 
supposes, lack of ability which causes the modern author to adopt 
the simpler and more natural fashion of the West. The whole 
tone, sentiment and form of Ottoman literature have been 
revolutionized by the new school: varieties of poetry hitherto 
unknown have been adopted from Europe; an altogether new 
branch of literature, the drama, has arisen; while the sciences 
are now treated and seriously studied after the system of the 
West. Among writers of this school who have won distinction 
are Ziya Pasha, Jevdet Pasha, the statesman and historian, 
Ekrem Bey, the author of a beautiful series of miscellaneous 
poems, Zemzema, IJamid Bey, who holds the first place among 
Ottoman dramatists, and Kemal Bey (d. 1878), the leader of the 
modern school and one of the most illustrious men of letters 
whom his country has produced. He wrote with conspicuous 
success in almost every branch of literature history, romance, 
ethics, poetry and the drama; and his influence on the Young 
Turk party of later days was profound. (For the Turkish 
language see TURKS.) (E. J. W. G.) 

The magnum opus in English on Turkish poetry is E. J. W. Gibb's 
History of Ottoman Poetry (5 vols., 1900-8, vol. v. ed. E. G. Browne). 

TURKEY, an abbreviation for Turkey-Cock or Turkey-Hen 
as the case may be, a well-known large domestic gallinaceous bird. 
How it came by this name has long been a matter of discussion, 
for it is certain that this valuable animal was introduced to 
Europe from the New World, and in its introduction had nothing 
to do with Turkey or with Turks, even in the old and extended 
sense in which that term was applied to all Mahommedans. But 
it is almost as unquestionable that the name was originally applied 
to the bird which we know as the guinea-fowl (<?..), and there 
is no doubt that some authors in the i6th and ryth centuries 
curiously confounded these two species. As both birds became 
more common and better known, the distinction was graduaUy 
perceived, and the name " turkey " became restricted to that 
from the New World possibly because of its repeated call-note 
to be syllabled lurk, lurk, lurk, whereby it may be almost said to 
have named itself (cf. Notes and Queries, 6th series, vol. iii. pp. 23, 
369) . But even Linnaeus could not clear himself of the confusion, 
and unhappily misapplied the name Meleagris, undeniably 
belonging to the guinea-fowl, as the generic term for what we now 
know as the turkey, adding thereto as its specific designation 
the word gallopaw, taken from the Gallopava of C. Gesner, 



who, though not wholly free from error, was less mistaken 
than some of his contemporaries and even successors. 1 

The turkey, so far as we know, was first described by Oviedo in 
his Sumario de la natural historia de las Indias* (cap. xxxvi.), 
said to have been published in 1527. He, not unnaturally, includes 
both curassows and turkeys in one category, calling both " Pavos " 
(peafowls) ; but he carefully distinguishes between them, pointing 
out among other things that the latter make a wheel (hacen la rueda) 
of their tail, though this was not so grand or so beautiful as that 
of the Spanish " Pavo," and he gives a faithful though short 
description of the turkey. The chief point of interest in his 
account is that he speaks of the species having been already taken 
from New Spain_ (Mexico) to the islands and to Castilla del Oro 
(Darien), where it bred in a domestic state among the Christians. 
Much labour has been given by various naturalists to ascertain the 
date of its introduction to Europe, to which we can at present only 
make an approximate attempt; 3 but after all that has been written 
it is plain that evidence concurs to show that the bird was established 
in Europe by 1530 a very short time to have elapsed since it 
became known to the Spaniards, which could hardly have been 
before 1518, when Mexico was discovered. The possibility that it 
had been brought to England by Cabot or some of his successors 
earlier in the century is not to be overlooked, and reasons will 
presently be assigned for supposing that one of the breeds of 
English turkeys may have had a northern origin ; 4 but the often- 
quoted distich first given in Baker's Chronicle (p. 298), asserting 
that turkeys came into England in the same year and that year 
by reputation 1524 as carps, pickerels and other commodities, is 
wholly untrustworthy, for we know that both these fishes lived in 
the country long before, if indeed they were not indigenous to it. 
The earliest documentary evidence of its existence in England is a 
" constitution " set forth by Cranmer in 1541, which Hearne first 
printed (Leland's Collectanea, 2nd ed., vol. vi. p. 38). This names 
' Turkey-cocke " as one of the " greater fowles " of which an ecclesi- 
astic was to have " but one in a dishe," and its association with the 
crane and swan precludes the likelihood of any confusion with the 
guinea-fowl. Moreover the comparatively low price of the two 
turkeys and four turkey-chicks served at a feast of the serjeants- 
at-law in 1555 (Dugdale, Origines, p. 135) points to their having 
become by that time abundant, and indeed by 1573 Tusser bears 
witness to the part they had already begun to play in " Christmas, 
husbandlie fare." In 1555 both sexes were characteristically 
figured by Belon (Oyseaux, p. 249), as was the cock by Gesner in 
the same year, and these are the earliest representations of the bird 
known to exist. 

As a denizen of the poultry-yard there are at least two distinct 
breeds, though crosses between them are much commoner than 
purely-bred examples of either (see POULTRY). That known as. 
the Norfolk breed is the smaller of the two, and is said to be the 
less hardy. Its plumage is black. The chicks also are black,, 
with occasionally white patches on the head. The other breed,, 
called the Cambridge, is much more variegated in colour, and 
some parts of the plumage have a bright metallic gloss, while the 
chicks are generally mottled with brownish grey. This has been 
much crossed with the American Bronze, the largest of all, which 
has the beautiful metallic plumage of the wild bird, with the 

1 The French Coq and Poule d'Inde (whence Dindon) involve 
no contradiction, looking to the general idea of what India then 
was. One of the earliest German names for the bird, Kalekuttisch 
Him (whence the Scandinavian Kalkon), must have arisen through 
some mistake at present inexplicable; but this does not refer, as is. 
generally supposed, to Calcutta, but to Calicut on the Malabar coast 
(cf. Notes and Queries, 6th series, vol. x. p. 185). 

1 Purchas (Pilgrimes, iii. 995) in 1625 quoted both from this and' 
from the same author's Hystoria general, said to have been published 
a few years later. 

3 The bibliography of the turkey is so large that there is here no- 
room to name the various works that might be cited. Recent 
research has failed to add anything of importance to what has been 
said on this point by Buffon (Oiseaux, ii. 132-162), Pennant (Arctic 
Zoology, pp. 291-300) an admirable summary and Broderip 
(Zoological Recreations, pp. 120-137) not that all their statements 
can be wholly accepted. Harrington's essay (Miscellanies, pp. 127- 
151), to prove that the bird was known before the discovery _of 
America and was transported thither, is an ingenious piece of special 
pleading which his friend Pennant did him the real kindness of 
ignoring. 

4 In 1672 Josselin (New England's Rarities, p. 9) speaks of the 
settlers bringing up " great store of the wild kind ' of turkeys, 
" which remain about their houses as tame as ours in England." 
The bird was evidently plentiful down to the very seaboard of 
Massachusetts, and it is not likely to have been domesticated by 
the Indian tribes there, as, according to Hernandez, it seems to have 
been by the Mexicans. It was probably easy to take alive, and, as 
we know, capable of enduring the voyage to England. 



TURKI TURKS 



Mexican form of which it quite agrees in colour. White, pied 
and buff turkeys are also often seen, and if care be taken they are 
commonly found to " breed true." Occasionally turkeys, the 
cocks especially, occur with a top-knot of feathers, and one of 
them was figured by Albin in 1738. It has been suggested with 
some appearance of probability that the Norfolk breed may be 
descended from the northern form, Meleagris gallopavo or ameri- 
cana, while the Cambridge breed may spring from the southern 
form, the M. mexicana of Gould (Proc. Zool. Society, 1856, p. 61), 
which indeed it very much resembles, especially in having its tail- 
coverts and quills tipped with white or light ochreous points 
that recent North American ornithologists rely upon as distinc- 
tive of this form. If this supposition be true, there would be 
reason to believe in the double introduction of the bird into 
England at least, as already hinted, but positive information 
is almost wholly wanting. 1 The northern form of wild turkey, 
whose habits have been described in much detail by all the chief 
writers on North American birds, is now extinct in the settled 
parts of Canada and the eastern states of the Union, where it was 
once so numerous; and in Mexico the southern form, which would 
seem to have been never abundant since the conquest, has been 
for many years rare. Farther to the south, on the borders of 
Guatemala and British Honduras, there exists a perfectly dis- 
tinct species, M. ocettata, whose plumage almost vies with that 
of a peacock in splendour, while the bare skin which covers the 
head is of a deep blue studded with orange caruncles (Proc. Zool. 
Society, 1861, pi. xl.). 

The genus Meleagris is considered to enter into the family 
Phasianidae, in which it forms a subfamily Meleagrinae, peculiar 
to North and Central America. The fossil remains of three species 
have been described by Professor Marsh one from the Miocene 
of Colorado, and two, one much taller and the other smaller than the 
existing species, from the post-Pliocene of New Jersey. Both the 
last had proportionally long and slender legs. (A. N.) 

TURKI, strictly speaking an Arabic or Persian adjective 
formed from Turk, used by European writers in two rather 
different senses, (i) It is applied to tribes or languages which 
are Turkish as opposed to Aryan, Semitic, &c. (2) It is used as 
the special designation of the tribes and languages of Kashgaria 
and Eastern Turkestan. (See TURKS.) 

TURKOMAN, a name applied to certain Turkish tribes still 
nomad or only recently settled in Transcaspia and northern 
Afghanistan and Persia. (See TURKS.) 

TURKS AND CAICOS ISLANDS, a group in the British West 
Indies. They belong geographically to the Bahamas and lie 
between 21 and 22 N. and 71 and 72 37' W. They are of 
coral and sand formation, their combined area being 169 sq. m. 
The Turks Islands, taking their name from a species of cactus 
having the appearance of a turbaned head, are nine in number, 
but Grand Turk (10 sq. m.) and Salt Cay (s| sq. m.) are the only 
two of any size. The town of Grand Turk, on the west of the 
island of that name, is the seat of government and a port of 
registry. Salt Cay has a good harbour. 

. The Caicos Islands lie to the north-west of Turks Islands and 
are seven in number. Cockburn Harbour on South Caicos, 22m. 
from Grand Turk, is the principal settlement and a port of entry. 
The climate, though somewhat relaxing, is healthy, but there is a 
scarcity of drinking water, the average annual rainfall being only 
27! in. The mean temperature is 82 F., but owin;; to the 
sea breezes the climate is never oppressive. Salt raking is the 
staple industry. Sisal hemp is grown, sponges are found in some 
quantities off the coast and there are four sponge-curing factories 
on the Caicos Islands. Pink pearls are occasionally found. The 
exports, chiefly to the United States, include salt, sponges and 
sisal hemp. Grand Turk is in cable communication with 
Bermuda and with Kingston, Jamaica, some 420 m. to 
the S.W. 

The islands were uninhabited when, abouti678, the Bermudians 
began to visit them to rake the salt found in the ponds. These 
visits became annual and permanent settlements were made. In 

1 For results of a comparison of the skulls of wild and domesticated 
turkeys, see Dr Shufeldt, in Jonrn. of Comp. Medicine and Surgery 
(July 1887). 



1 710 the British were expelled by the Spaniards, but they returned 
and the salt trade (largely with the American colonies) continued 
to be carried on by the Bermudians despite attacks by Spaniards 
and French, and counter-claims to the islands by the British 
authorities at the Bahamas, who about 1765 made good their 
claim. In 1799 the islands were given representation in the 
Bahamas Assembly, and they remained part of that colony until 
1848, when on the petition of the inhabitants they were made a 
separate colony under the supervision of the governor of Jamaica. 
This arrangement proving financially burdensome the islands were 
in 1873 definitely annexed to Jamaica. They are governed by a 
commissioner assisted by a nominated legislative board. The 
census of 1901 showed a total population of 5287, of whom 342 
were whites, the rest being negroes or mulattoes; 1751 of the 
inhabitants lived in Grand Turk Island. 

See J. N. Bellin, Description geographique des debouquements au 
nord de St Dominique (1768); the Jamaica Handbook (London, 
yearly) and Sir C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography of the British 
Colonies, vol. ii. (2nd ed., Oxford, 1905). 

TURKS. The words " Turk " and " Turkish " are used in three 
senses, political, linguistic and ethnological. Politically, Turk 
means a Mahommedan subject of the sultan of Turkey. In the 
East at any rate it is not employed in speaking of Christians, 
and its application to Arabs, Albanians, Kurds, &c., living in 
Turkey, though not unusual, is hardly correct. The linguistic 
use of the name, by which it designates a well-marked division 
of the Ural-Altaic languages and their speakers, is the most satis- 
factory. The languages in question are easily identified and 
defined (see below), and there can be little doubt that they were 
spoken by the vast majority of the people called Turks since the 
6th century of the Christian era. Ethnographically, the use 
of the word presents difficulties, for it is not easy to differentiate 
the Turks by physique or customs from allied tribes such as the 
Finno-Ugrians, Mongolians and Manchus. The Bashkirs, who 
are probably of Finno-Ugrian stock, speak a Turkish language, 
and the Magyars, who speak a Ugrian language, have many 
Turkish characteristics. At the present day there is no difficulty 
in making a practical distinction between Turks and Mongols. 
The former speak Turkish languages, are Moslems by religion, 
live almost entirely in the western half of Asia and fall within the 
Arabic, and to some extent the European, sphere of influence; 
the latter speak Mongolian languages, are Buddhists by religion, 
live in the eastern half of Asia and fall within the sphere of Chinese 
influence. Yet both Turkish and Mongol traditions represent 
the two nations as descended from two brothers: Jenghiz Khan, 
the founder of the Mongol power, must have had large numbers of 
Turks in his armies, for the chief traces left in Europe of the 
Mongol invasions are the settlements of Turkish-speaking Tatars 
in Russia; and the name of his son, Jagatai,is commonly used for 
a Turkish dialect and khanate in the regions of the Oxus. In 
Central Asia the distinctions between tribes, nations and races 
are unusually fluid: we are dealing with predatory nomads for 
ever fighting with one another or with the settled populations 
round them. The conquerors enslaved the men and married the 
women of the conquered, a successful leader attracted round his 
standard men of different tribes and languages. The corps of 
janissaries instituted by the Turks in Europe is no doubt an 
illustration of what happened during many centuries in Asia. 
The Turks after taking Constantinople claimed from the Christian 
population a certain number of male children, who were brought 
up as Turkish soldiers with few ties or principles except obedience 
to their officers. There was thus a large class, of Turkish speech 
and Turkish habits, who had absolutely no Turkish blood in 
their veins. In addition to this, intermarriage has taken 
place to so large an extent that the modern Turks are almost 
entirely European in physique. Similarly, no doubt, among 
the hordes of Central Asia the youths of conquered tribes 
were absorbed and assimilated by the conquerors and lost 
their original language. Such transformations were facili- 
tated by the fact that there was no great difference in the 
manners and customs of these tribes. They were all nomadic, 
mostly horsemen, and rapacious. As they settled down from time 



TURKS 



469 



to time they borrowed a good deal from their more civilized 
neighbours, but their natural manner of life was simple 
and untrammelled. The Turkish-speaking tribes were ap- 
parently the most mobile and adventurous. Starting from the 
confines of China they reached India, Algeria and the walls of 
Vienna. They probably formed a large contingent in the hordes 
of Jenghiz and of the Huns, and perhaps the Petchenegs, Avars 
and Comans all belonged to this group. In comparison with them 
the Mongol and Manchu-speaking tribes, though conquerors in 
the East on no mean scale, seem stationary and inactive, 
while the Finno-Ugrians are nomad hunters rather than warriors. 
To the honour of the Turks it must be said that', bad as is 
their administration when judged by European standards and 
especially when applied to Europeans, the empires of the Seljuks, 
Osmanlis and Moguls which they founded rise far above the 
ordinary standard of ephemeral Oriental dynasties. 

The effect of Turkish invasions has been in the main destruc- 
tive, but they have also played a considerable part in transport- 
ing both ideas and commodities from one end of the old world to 
the other. The achievement by which they are best known the 
transplantation of Mahommedanism on to European soil is a 
remarkable, though not successful, feat of this kind. But they are 
also largely responsible for the introduction of Mahommedanism 
into India, for carrying Nestorian Christianity and Persian 
fire-worship into China, and for the overland intercourse between 
China and India which fostered if it did not introduce Chinese 
Buddhism. They exported Chinese silk to Byzantium, and the 
most ancient Buddhist temple :n Japan contains Persian objects 
which must have been brought across Asia by their caravans. 

Divisions. At the present day the name Turk is applied 
primarily to the people who have conquered Constantinople and 
the regions known as Turkey, but the following may be classed as 
Turkish in the sense of belonging to the same group linguistically 
and to some extent racially: 

. i. The Yakuts are a Siberian tribe who inhabit the country 
near the banks of the middle and lower Lena, including Yakutsk 
and Verkhoyansk on the Yana. Their language is purely 
Turkish, though differing considerably from the more western 
Turkish idioms, but they have largely intermingled with the 
Tunguses. They are said to be industrious and skilful alike 
as artisans, traders and agriculturists. They are nominal 
Christians, but preserve much of their old nature worship. 

2. Tatar (g.v.) or Tartar is a popular name which in its most 
correct sense is applied to Turkish-speaking Moslems in Russia, 
who number over three millions and are mostly remnants of the 
Mongol invasion which took place in the i3th century. But it is 
also extended rather loosely to various tribes in Siberia and 
elsewhere who speak Mongolian, Finnish or other languages. 

The following classes of Tatars speak Turkish languages: (a) The 
Kazan Tatars, numbering perhaps a million. Their centre is in 
the government of Kazan, but they extend down both banks of 
the Volga as far as the government of Saratov. (6) The Astrakhan 
Tatars, numbering only about 10,000. (c) The Bashkirs, whose 
headquarters are in the government of Ufa. They appear to be 
a tribe of Finnish origin who have adopted a Turkish language. 
(d) The Tatars of the Crimea, sometimes called the Krim or Nogai 
Tatars, who occupied the Crimea in the I3th century and had a 
considerable empire from the 1 5th to the iyth century. There are 
also Nogai Tatars in the Caucasus and Kuban country, (e) There 
are considerable bodies of Tatars in Rumania and Bulgaria, who 
appear to be Nogais who have emigrated from the Crimea, Bes- 
sarabia and other parts of Russia. (/) The Tatars of the Caucasus 
seem to be for the most part Azerbaijan Turks mingled with 
Armenian, Georgian, Lesghian and other blood. But the name is 
often loosely applied to any Mahommedan Caucasian tribe. 

3. Kirghiz (q.v.), nomadic tribes amounting to about three 
million souls who are found chiefly in Asiatic Russia. They fall 
into two chief divisions, (a) The Kazaks, who inhabit the northern 
and eastern parts of the Aral-Caspian basin, including the 
government of Orenburg. They do not call themselves Kirghiz, 
and apparently the name has been given them by the Russians 
in order not to confuse them with the Cossacks, (b) The Kara- 
Kirghiz, who are the less numerous division, live in Dzungaria, in 
the Altai, about lakes Balkash and Issyk-kul, and extend 
southwards to the Pamirs and the sources of the Oxus. Some 



of them inhabit Chinese territory. Both divisions live chiefly 
on the produce of their herds. Their chief drink is koumiss, 
or fermented mare's milk. 

4. The Kara-Kalpaks (9.9.) or Black-caps, who inhabit the 
south-eastern shores of the sea of Aral, are sometimes classed 
with the Kirghiz, but seem to be a separate branch of the Turki 
stock. They are a feeble race, apparently in process of extinction, 
and now number only about 50,000. 

5. Uzbeg is a political and not an ethnological denomination. 
It is derived from Uzbeg Khan of the Golden Horde (1312-1340), 
and was subsequently used at the beginning of the i6th century 
to designate the adherents of Shaibani Khan. Finally it was 
employed as the name of the ruling tribes in the Central Asian 
khanates (much like Osmanli in Turkey), in opposition to Kirghiz 
and Sarts, as well as to non-Turkish tribes. The Uzbegs are 
accordingly a mixed race, but the elements of which they are 
composed are mostly Turkish. Their numbers have been esti- 
mated at about two millions. They are mostly agriculturists or 
dwellers in cities, not nomads. 

6. Sart is the name commonly given to the Turkish -speaking 
urban population of the Central Asian khanates. It is opposed 
to Tajik, which denotes the agricultural, Iranian-speaking 
population, but both words are used very loosely and have come 
to mean little more than town and country people. Sart and 
Uzbeg are also opposed in the meanings of common people and 
aristocracy, but many Sarts claim Uzbeg descent. The word 
is hardly suitable for scientific use, but is employed by Russian 
writers as the name of the Turkish language spoken in Bokhara, 
Samarkand and Ferghana. 

7. The various Turkish tribes found on the eastern slopes of 
the Tian Shan, in Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan, &c., are the 
descendants of the ancient Ulghurs or Ouighours. These 
people were probably the most eastern branch of the Turks 
who remained behind when the first westward movements were 
made, but subsequently moved westward themselves. They 
ruled in Kashgaria from the loth to the i2th centuries, and, like 
other branches of the Turks, adopted Mahommedanism. They 
continued, however, to use a variety of the Syriac alphabet 
introduced by Nestorian missionaries, and a book, the Kudatku 
Bilik, composed in their language about 1065, is extant. The 
Taranchis, an agricultural tribe of the Hi basin, seem also to 
belong to this group. The Turkish spoken in Kashgaria, &c., 
is often distinguished as Turki. 

8. Mogul, Moghul or Mughal, appears to be the same word 
as Mongol, but is commonly restricted to the tribes who invaded 
northern India from Ferghana in 1526 under Baber (or Babar) 
and established the Mahommedan Empire of Delhi. Memoirs 
written by Baber in Jagatai Turkish are extant. 

9. The Koibals and Karagasses of the upper Yenisei are 
perhaps of Finnish stock, but they speak languages akin to the 
Kashgarian Turki. They are sometimes called Tatars. 

10. Turkoman or Turkman is the name usually given to the 
nomadic tribes who inhabit the country between the Caspian 
and the Oxus. They appear to be a branch of the Western 
Turks and not essentially different from the Osmanlis or Azer- 
baijanis, except that until the Russian occupation of Merv they 
remained in the condition of predatory horse-riding nomads, 
much feared by their neighbours as "'man-stealing Turks." 

They are divided into many tribes, of which the principal are 
(a) The Chaiidors in the north-western part of the Ust-Urt and near 
the Kara-boghaz Gulf. (6) The Yomuts or Yamuds extending 
from Khiva across the Ust-Urt and along the shore of the Caspian 
to Persia, (c) The Goklans or Goklens settled in the Persian 
province of Astarabad. They are said to be the most civilized 
and friendly of all the Turkomans, (d) The Tekkes, who were 
the most important tribe when the Russians conquered Trans- 
caspia. They are first heard of in the peninsula of jMangishlak, 
but were driven out by the Kalmuks in 1718, and subsequently 
occupied the Akhal and Merv oases. The Russians inflicted a 
crushing defeat on them at Geok-Tepe in 1881. (e) The Sakart 
inhabit the left bank of the Oxus near Charjui. (/) The Sariks are 
found in the neighbourhood of Panjdeh and Yulatan. (g) The 
5o/ow, an old and important tribe, suffered much in the course of 
fights with the Tekkes and in 1857 migrated to Zarabad in Persian 
territory near the Hari-rud. (h) The Ersaris are now chiefly found 



470 



TURKS 



near Khoja Sajih. They were once a very important tribe on the 
upper Oxus. (') The Ali-elis live near Andkhui. 

11. The Turkish nomads scattered over Persian territory 
are often known by the name of Azerbaijani* or Adharbaijanis, 
though this name is strictly applicable only to the inhabitants 
of the province of Azerbaijan (q.v.), of which Tabriz is the capital. 
They are the descendants of various bodies of Turks who have 
wandered into Persia at various times, but more particularly 
of the Ghuzz tribes (the Oufoi of the Greeks) who invaded it 
during the Seljuk period. They are also known as Hat or 
Iliyat, meaning tribes, and each tribe has its own chieftain or 
Ilkhani appointed by the shah. 

Among the tribes are (i) The Kajars, who dwelt in Transcaucasia 
until Abbas the Great (1585-1628) forced a portion of them to settle 
near Astarabad. The present dynasty of Persian Shahs comes 
from this tribe. (2) The Afshars or Awshars are a very numerous 
tribe in the province of Azerbaijan. Another division of them is 
found in the Anti-taurus. (3) The Shekakis and Shah-seven. 
The latter is a political name which has become hereditary, " those 
who love the shah," i.e. partisans of the Safawi dynasty (1499- 
1736), and of the Shiite faith. (4) The Karakoyunlu living near 
the town of Khoi. In the south of Persia are found (5) the Abul- 
werdis, (6) the Kara-Gdzlii, (7) the Baharlu, (8) the Inamlu and 
(9) the Kashkai. These last perhaps include the Khalaches or 
Khalaj who were already settled near Herat before the arrival of 
the Seljuks, and from whom sprang the Indian dynasty known as 
Khalji (1290-1320). 

12. The Turks now inhabiting the Turkish Empire fall into 
various categories and have entered it at various times. 

a. The Osmanlis or Ottomans. This word is loosely used to 
mean any Mahommedan subject of the sultan, though even then 
it is not generally extended to Arabs and Albanians. Used more 
strictly it means the clan of Osman and their descendants as 
opposed to Seljuks and other Turks. The name is genealogical 
rather than ethnic; for though the exploits of the Osmanlis 
have given them an importance in modern history far exceeding 
that of all the other tribes, they are not distinguished from them 
in language or customs. According to tradition the clan came 
from Khorasan, supported the Seljuks and received in return the 
fief of Eskishehr. In the I4th century they took Brusa from 
the Byzantine Empire and established a kingdom there which 
withstood the shock of Timur's invasion (1402). In 1453 they 
captured Constantinople. Until recently Turkish Mahommedans 
always employed the words Osmanli and Osmanlija to describe 
themselves and their language, and avoided the expressions 
Turk and Turkche as signifying semi-civilized tribes, but in the 
last twenty years the older words have again come into use as 
national designations. 

b. There must be many Turks in the Ottoman dominions 
who have no claim to be called Osmanlis in the strict sense. 
Byzantine authors mention a colony of 30,000 Turks on the 
river Vardar in Macedonia as early as the gth century, and many 
Turks in Europe are still called Koniots or Konariots and claim 
to be descendants of the Seljuks. After the defeat of the 
emperor Romanus at Manzikert (1071) Turkomans and Turks 
of every description poured into Asia Minor. The Tatars of 
the Dobrudja also seem to be an ancient settlement. 

c. The Kizil-Bash, or red-heads, who are found in the plains 
of Asia Minor about Angora, Tokat and Karahissar, differ 
somewhat from the surrounding Turkish population in both 
physique and customs. They appear to be immigrants from 
Persian territory, where some of them still remain. They are 
industrious agriculturists and their women enjoy unusual 
freedom. They call themselves Eski- Turk or old Turks, and have 
a secret religion in which Shiite tenets seem to be combined 
with elder pagan (or possibly Christian) elements. 

d. In various parts of western and southern Asia Minor, 
particularly the plains of Cilicia, are nomadic Turkoman tribes 
called by the Turks Yilriik or Gyochebe. They are even found 
near Smyrna. They are a peaceful race, with fair complexions 
and a fine physique, and are great camel breeders. Though 
they do not appear to have a religion of their own like the 
Kizil Bash, they are only nominally Mahommedans. 

Besides the peoples mentioned above, a number of extinct tribes 
may have been Turkish-speaking, though in the absence of linguistic 



records no certain conclusion is possible. Such are the Huns. 
Ephthalites, Avars, Bulgars, Khazars, Comans and Petchenegs. 
The name Hun is perhaps identical with the Chinese Hiung-nu or 
with the Turkish word for ten, on or un, meaning the ten tribes. Of 
the Avars really nothing is known: they were an extremely bar- 
barous people who made no settlements and disappeared as suddenly 
as they came. They have been identified with the Jwen-Jwen of 
the Chinese. The name of the Khazars has a Turkish sound : they 
were a relatively civilized people and had a kingdom in the neigh- 
bourhood of Astrakhan and the north Caspian which lasted for 
several centuries. The original Bulgarians were certainly not Slavs, 
though they acquired a Slavonic language, but it is more probable 
that they were Finno-Ugrians than Turks. The Petchenegs, also 
called narfi^aiccu or UaTftva/ciTat in Greek and Bisseni in Latin, 
are said to have been driven into Europe from the lower Ural 
by the Ghuzz (OCf 01) at the end of the 9th century, and wandered 
about the northern frontiers of the Byzantine Empire for about 300 
years. Perhaps some of them settled in Hungary and Bulgaria. 
They were, like the Avars, very barbarous and were probably Turks, 
for Anna Comnena says they spoke the same language as the Comans. 
This dialect is known by the so-called Codex Cumanicus. Coman or 
Kuman is a name given by Europeans to the tribes who occupied 
Moldavia and the adjacent regions in the middle ages. Rubruquis 
speaks of the Coman Kipchaks, and it is probable that the Comans 
were a hybrid Turkish tribe. 

History. The invasions and conquests of the later Turkish 
dynasties form an important part of the history of the world 
and are treated in such articles as TURKEY; SELJUKS; TIMUR; 
MOGULS. Here it is proposed to sketch the earlier wanderings 
and agglomerations (for they can hardly be called kingdoms) 
of Turkish tribes in eastern and central Asia. Much new in- 
formation on this subject has been made accessible in the last 
twenty years by the discovery near the river Orkhon, to the 
south of Lake Baikal, of Turkish inscriptions dating from the 
8th century A.D., and by the publication of materials furnished 
by Chinese writers. But authorities are still not entirely agreed 
as to the chronology of the events recorded or the identity of 
the names which appear in Turkish, Greek and Chinese forms, 
so that the following summary is for many periods tentative. 

From 1400 B.C. onwards, but especially about 200 B.C., Chinese 
history contains notices of warlike nomads called Hiung-nu or 
Hsiung-nu, who were a danger to the empire. Their political 
power broke up in the early centuries of this era before the 
advance of the Sien-pi and Tobas, who appear to have been Tun- 
guses, and from whom arose the Wei dynasty of northern China. 
In A.D. 433 a Hiung-nu clan called Asena or A-shih-na, disliking 
the rule of the Wei, moved eastwards and sought the protection 
of a people called Jeu-Jen or Jwen-Jwen, who were also a kind 
of Hiung-nu. They are the Geougen of Gibbon and others x and 
their identity with the Avars has been affirmed and disputed 
with equal confidence. The Asena served the Jwen-Jwen as 
workers in iron and lived not far from the modern city of Shan- 
Tan in Kan-suh. In this neighbourhood was a hill called from 
its shape Turku, Durku or T'u-chueh, meaning helmet, and this 
is said be to the origin of the national name which has become so 
celebrated. The name Tu-Kiue (Tou-Kiue) or Turk is first used 
by the Chinese in recording the events of A.D. 545, and the follow- 
ing years, when the Turks, or descendants of the Asena, revolted 
against the Jwen-Jwen. These latter were crushed and disappear 
from history, at least under that name. The victorious Turks 
advanced across their territory, came into collision with the 
Hephthalites or Ephthalites, whom they defeated, and are 
heard of on the Oxus about A.D. 560. The period 546-582 marks 
the first brilliant epoch of early Turkish history. The tribes 
were not divided and made the most astonishing advance under 
Tumen (who took the title of Ili-Khan), his brother Itsami or 
She-ti-mi (perhaps the Stembis of Greek writers), his son Mokan 
and Istami's son Tardu or Ta-t'eu. Though fifty years before 
only a servile clan in China, they sent an embassy in 567 to 
the East Roman emperor Justin II., as related by Menander 
Protector (C. Miiller: Fragm. hist, grace., vol. iv.). The object of 
this mission was to open up commercial relations, especially in 
the silk trade, with the West, and to co-operate with the Greeks 
against the Persians, because the latter wished to make the 
Persian Gulf the only outlet for the silk trade, and with that 
object to hamper the communications of the Turks with Western 
powers. The ruler who sent this embassy is called in Greek 



TURKS 



47 



Silziboulos or Dilziboulos, corresponding to the Sinjibu of Arab 
chroniclers and perhaps representing Sin-jabgu in old Turkish, 
the latter part being a title. He has been identified with Istami. 
Justin sent as envoy to him in return a certain Zemark, who 
visited the khan at Ektel or Ektag (? Ak-dagh), and several 
subsequent embassies were exchanged. In 598 the khan 
Tardu wrote to the emperor Maurice, and in 620-28 the Turks 
assisted Heraclius in his campaigns against Persia. Meanwhile 
the Turks had themselves split into two divisions with separate 
princes. A tendency towards division, very natural in so 
loose and extended a community, had been visible for some 
time, and the rupture was precipitated in 582 by the jealousy 
of Ta-lo-pien or Dalobian, who was angry at not being chosen 
khan. For a century and a half or so we hear of two khanates: 
the northern Turks, living near Lake Baikal and the southern 
tributaries of the Yenisei, and the western l Turks, who appear 
to have had two headquarters, one near Urumchi and one near 
Aulieata, north of Tashkent. But their conquests, or at least 
their successful raids, extended very much farther to the west 
and south. In 630 the Chinese pilgrim Yuan Chwang (Hsiian 
Tsang) was well received by their khan, T'ung-she-ho, who 
exercised some kind of authority from Turfan to Merv. The 
Chinese followed a consistent policy of spreading dissension 
among these dangerous tribes and of supporting the factions 
which were weak or distant against those who were strong or 
near. Accordingly they were friendly to the western Turks 
until they had conquered the northern Turks. This western 
branch lasted until about 750 as a political name. From about 
550 till 650 they were independent, and, as mentioned, allies 
of the east Roman Empire against the Persians. But about 
650 the politics of the Nearer East were transformed by the 
conquests of the Arabs following on the preaching of Mahomet. 
After subduing Persia in 639 they spread to Transoxiana. At 
the same time dissension prevailed among the western Turks 
themselves: the five tribes called Nu-she-pi, who lived west of 
Issyk-kul, quarrelled with the five tribes called Tu-lu living to 
the east of it. The Chinese fomented the quarrel, and in 659 
were able to declare that they annexed the whole territory of 
the western Turks, including at least Dzungaria, Tashkent, 
Ferghana, Bokhara, Khulm, Badakshan, Ghazni, Bamian, 
Udyana, Wakhan and Karateghin. But it would seem that 
neither the Turkish occupation nor the Chinese annexation 
of most of these countries was effective. From 650 to 750 
the possession of them was disputed not only by the Turks and 
Chinese but by the Tibetans in the east and the Arabs in the 
west. In the west, the campaigns of Qotaiba b. Moslim or 
Kutaiba (705-14) completed the Mahommedan conquest of 
Transoxiana (see CALIPHATE, sect. B 6). In the east the 
really effective power seems to have been exercised by a new 
Turkish tribe called Turgash, who had capitals at Tokmak and 
in Hi. 

For the history of the northern Turks our only authorities 
are the Orkhon inscriptions and Chinese writers. The half- 
century following on the division was prosperous for the north- 
ern as well as for the western Turks, and they menaced China; 
but in 630 the Chinese conquered them. This is the Chinese 
servitude mentioned in the inscriptions. In 682 Kutluk (also 
called Elteres, which seems to be a title) re-established a Turkish 
state on the Orkhon. He was succeeded by his brother Kapagan 
(or Me-Chuo), who subdued the Turgash, or perhaps merely 
drove them southwards, early in the 8th century, and was 
succeeded by Bilga Kagan of the inscriptions. 

This northern khanate was destroyed by a coalition of the 
Karluk, Uighur and Basmal in 744. These peoples, like the 
Turgash, appear to have been Turkish; for though Turk was 
originally the name of the clan whose destinies in its northern 
and western branches have just been sketched, yet there is no 
objection to the usage by which it is extended to the descendants 

1 No better name seems forthcoming, but western Turks is a 
most inconvenient designation because it is also used (and equally 
correctly) to signify the Osmanlis and Seljuks as opposed to the Turks 
of Transoxiana and Kashgar. 



of similar clans with similar customs and as far as is known 
similar languages. A succession of these pressed forwards 
from the east. When first heard of, the Karluk inhabited the 
country on the Irtysh and the Urungu, and subsequently occupied 
Teles and Tokmak. The Uighurs belonged to the group of 
tribes known as Tolo's or T'ie-le and established themselves at 
Balasaghun (also known by the forms Kara-Balghasun, Kara- 
Balgassun and Balagasun: see KARAKORUM). This brings us 
to the middle of the 8th century. For the next two hundred 
years the Turkish element in Central Asia, though it must have 
been numerous, does not cut any figure in history, which is 
filled with the chronicles of Arab and Persian dynasties 
(see CALIPHATE; SAMANIDS). but in the loth century we 
begin to hear of it again. Turkish adventurers founded the 
dynasty of Ghaznevids at Ghazni, and there was a Uighur 
kingdom in the east comprising Kashgar and Khotan. Boghra 
Khan, the ruler of this kingdom, was converted to Islam at the 
end of the icth century, and it continued under various branches 
of Uighurs until 1120. An interesting memorial of this period 
is the book Kudatku Bilik (see below). More important politi- 
cally is the rise of the Seljuks. They were the princely family of 
the Kabaks, who were a section of the group of tribes called 
Ghuzz (Oghuz, Oiifot), and are heard of in Transoxiana about 
985. Their chieftains Toghrul and Chakir drove the Ghaznevids 
to India and established themselves as protectors of the Abbasid 
caliph, who formally ceded his temporal power to them. (For the 
history of the dynasty see SELJUKS.) Alp Arslan, the son of 
Chakir, defeated the Byzantines at Manzikert (1071), and 
prepared the way for the Ottoman conquests. His son Malik 
Shah ruled over nearly all the modern Turkey in Asia, and as 
far as the frontiers of China. On his death in 1092 his empire 
broke up into several pieces. Konia became the capital of the 
sultanate of Asia Minor and various Seljuk dynasties established 
themselves in Kerman, Irak and Syria. A new Turkish power 
was founded by the khans of Khiva, who are known as the 
Khwarizm-shahs. They were originally vassals of the Seljuks, 
with the title of tasdar or ewer-bearer, but became independent 
and conquered Khorasan and Irak. They had, however, to 
contend with yet another new arrival from the east, the Kara- 
Kitais. These also were probably Turks, and were pushed 
westwards from China by the Kins. They conquered Kashgar, 
Khotan, Yarkand and later Transoxiana, pushing the Ghuzz 
tribes before them into Persia and Afghanistan. Their prince 
bore the title of gur-khan, and the Khwarizm shahs did homage 
to him till 1208, when they unsuccessfully revolted. But all 
these squabbling principal! ties were swept away in 1219 by the 
extraordinary wave of invasion which surged across Asia to 
Europe under Jenghiz Khan (<?.?>.). After the death of Jenghiz 
his conquests were divided, and Transoxiana, Kashgar, Badak- 
shan, Balkh and Ghazni were given to his second son Chagatai 
or Jagatai. Jenghiz and his family must have been Mongols, 
but the name Jagatai passed to the population and language of 
the countries about the Oxus. It does not appear that they 
ever ceased to be Turkish in speech and customs. The hordes 
of Jenehiz must have comprised a considerable Turkish 
element; the Mongols had no inclination to settle in cities, and 
Jagatai himself lived near Kulja in the extreme east of his 
dominions. Though the cities in western Central Asia suffered 
severely the people were not Mongolized, and Mahommedan 
learning even flourished. But otherwise the whole history of 
the Jagatai khanate, which lasted from 1234 to 1370, is a con- 
fused record of dissensions with frequent intervals of anarchy. 
In 1321 it split into two khanates, Transoxiana and Dzungaria, 
and in 1370 collapsed before Timur. This great conqueror 
(1333-1404), who like Jenghiz had an extraordinary power of 
collecting and leading the hordes of Central Asia, was a native 
of the district of Samarkand and a Turk by descent. He con- 
quered successively Dzungaria (1370), Persia and the Caucasus 
(1390), the Kipchaks on the Volga (1395), and Northern India 
(1398). He then invaded Syria and Asia Minor, where he de- 
feated but did not annihilate the Osmanlis. The house of Timur 
did not retain his more distant conquests, but they ruled at 



472 



TURKS 



Samarkand until 1499 with the usual struggles between different 
branches of the family. Their possessions included, at least from 
time to time, the northern parts of Afghanistan and Persia, as 
well as Transoxiana and Turkestan. They were one of the 
most enlightened and cultivated of Turkish dynasties. They 
beautified the cities of Central Asia and were patrons of literature. 
The literary languages were as a rule Arabic or Persian; Turkish 
was used more rarely and chiefly for poetry. 

The Timurids were overthrown and succeeded by the Shaibani 
dynasty, a branch of the house of Juji, Jenghiz Khan's eldest 
son, to whom his father had assigned dominions in the region 
north of the kingdom of Jagatai. About 1465 a number of this 
clan migrated into the Jagatai khanate. They were given 
territory on the Chu River and were known as Uzbegs. About 
1 500 their chief, Mahommed Shaibani or Shahi Beg, made himself 
master of Transoxiana and founded the Uzbeg power. The 
chief opponent of the Uzbegs in their early days was Baber, 
who represented the house of Timur in the fifth generation, 
but he ultimately led his armies in another direction and 
invaded India (1526), where he founded the Mogul Empire, 
a far more important state than the principalities of the Oxus. 
The Shaibanis continued to rule in these latter till 1583, and 
were followed by the houses of Astrakhan and Mangit; but it 
is not necessary to continue here the complicated chronicles of 
these dynasties. 

The Osmanlis, or house of Osman, the founders of the present 
Turkish Empire, appear to have been a clan similar to the early 
Seljuks or the present Turkomans of Transcaspia, who migrated 
into Asia Minor from Khorasan and made the neighbourhood 
of Brusa their headquarters. Their conspicuous position in 
history is mainly due to the fact that they attained pre-eminence 
very late and in districts very near Europe. Except for the 
invasion of Timur they did not suffer from the attacks of other 
Turks and they were able to concentrate their strength on the 
conquest of the decrepit Byzantine Empire. 

Customs, Civilization, Religion, &c. The Turks are imitative 
rather than original, and, in all their branches, have assimilated to 
some extent the nearest civilization whenever they have settled 
down. Up to the 7th century their only culture consisted of some 
scraps of Chinese and Indian civilization. Subsequently both the 
eastern and western states which they founded adopted Perso- 
Arabic civilization and Mahommedanism. The Osmanlis have also 
been affected by Byzantine and west European influences. 

Chinese historians and the Turkish inscriptions of the Orkhon and 
Yenisei give us a good deal of information respecting the earlier 
condition of these tribes. We are told that the Hiung-nu lived on 
horseback and moved about from place to place in search of fresh 
pasture. They possessed horses, cattle and sheep and also camels. 
They had no towns or villages and no agriculture and they never 
stayed long in one camp, but during their halts a special piece of land 
was assigned to each tribe and each tent. They were ignorant of 
writing. The children were taught to ride and shoot, and the adults 
were expert archers. Their food was flesh and milk and their 
clothing the skins of animals. They were polygamous and a son 
married his deceased father's wives, except his own mother. It is 
expressly stated that old people were despised and neglected, but 
this barbarous trait disappeared from the manners of the later Turks. 

Of the Turks in the 6th century the Chinese writers give a rather 
more flattering account. They had numerous grades of rank, and 
when their khan was invested with the supreme power he was carried 
in a carpet. When troops were levied or taxes collected, the required 
amount was carved on a piece of wood marked with a golden arrow 
as a sign of authority. Their punishments were severe. Marriage 
was by arrangement with the parents, not capture. The dead were 
kept for some time after death and the mourners gashed their faces. 
They sacrificed to heaven and to the spirits of their ancestors. Their 
amusements included singing antiphonally, playing dice and drinking 
koumiss till they were drunk. They had a written alphabet (derived 
from India or Syria) and a duodenary cycle in which the years were 
designated by the names of animals. Somewhat similar accounts 
are given of the Kerkur or Kirghiz and of the Kankli or Kankali. 
These were perhaps the ancestors of the Uighurs and moved about 
in carts with high wheels : they are described as a barbarous undis- 
ciplined people, but capable of concerted action. 

In the Orkhon inscriptions of the early part of the 8th century a 
somewhat more civilized branch of the Turks gives an account of 
itself which tallies with the Chinese descriptions. No Turkish cities 
are mentioned, only tribes and localities. War is the national 
occupation. The sovereign or kagan fights himself, and it is interest- 
ing to see that the names of the various chargers which he mounted 
are carefully recorded. The spirit of tribal patriotism and desire 



lor glory which animate these compositions are very noticeable and 
also the implied obligation of the rulers to see to the prosperity of the 
people. The existence of the tombs and of inscriptions in Chinese 
characters as well as in an alphabet of Aramaic origin, and the 
mention of gold, silver, silk and precious objects show that the 
builders had looted, so to speak, a certain amount of fragmentary 
civilization from their neighbours. The chief deity is Heaven or 
Tangri (still used in Osmanli Turkish as the equivalent of Allah), 
who gives the kingdom to the kagans and cares for the name and 
reputation of the Turkish people. There qre also spirits of the earth 
and waters. All this is very like the earliest Chinese religion. 
Funeral ceremonies were evidently elaborate and the cycle of years 
named after animals was used for chronology. 

The Chinese pilgrim Husan Tsang was entertained by She-hu 
(perhaps a title), kagan of the Western Turks, near Tokmak about 
A.D. 630. He left an account of the barbaric splendour of his recep- * 
tion and alludes to the number of horses, the gold embroidery of the 
kagan's tent, the silk robes of his retinue, and the use of wine and 
music. He says the Turks were fire-worshippers and would not sit 
on wooden seats. 

It is probable that before they were converted to Islam the Turks 
practised in a desultory manner Buddhism, fire-worship and Nes- 
torian Christianity, though they never wholly accepted any of them. 
An interesting trace of Buddhism remains in the names Shaman and 
Shamanism. It would appear that the Indian word Sramana or 
Samana was appjied to the wizards and exorcizers of the older 
Turkish superstition. Recent investigations have discovered the 
existence of a considerable Buddhist civilization at Khotan, but 
at the time when it flourished it would appear that the mass of the 
population was of Iranian affinities and that the Turkish element 
was small. 

The Kudatku Bilik (about 1065) gives a picture of life in Easte.Ti 
Turkestan after the conversion to Islam, but still showing many 
traces of Chinese influence. But after this period nearly all the 
Turks (except a few obscure tribes like the Yakuts) adopted the 
Perso-Arabic civilization. Some however, such as the Kirghiz, 
Turkomans and Yuruks of Asia Minor, have not yet abandoned the 
nomadic life. The Turks seem to be everywhere characterized by 
their innate sense of discipline and their submissiveness to their own 
authorities; councils or assemblies have rarely assumed importance 
among them; sovereigns and even dynasties (except the house of 
Osman) have often been removed by violence, but the despotic form 
of government has never failed to secure obedience. But equally 
important, as explaining their military successes, is the fact, noticed 
alike by ancient Chinese historians and modern European officers, 
that the ordinary Turkish soldier has in military matters an unusual 
resourcefulness and power of initiative which, without impairing 
discipline, renders him independent of his officers. 

.Language. The Turkish or Tatar-Turkish languages belong 
to the Ural-Altaic family. Both nominal and verbal forms are 
built up solely by the addition of suffixes, and the law of vowel 
harmony is strictly observed. Hard and soft vowels cannot occur 
in the same word, and there is a tendency to assimilate the vowels 
of the suffix to those of the root ; thus pederiniz, your father, but 
dostunuz, your friend. From the Mongol-Manchu languages the 
Turkish group is distinguished by its much more developed 
system of inflexion, particularly in the verbs, by its free use of 
pronominal suffixes, and by its more thoroughly agglutinative 
character. The stem with its suffixes forms a single compound 
word, whereas in Mongol the suffixes often seem quasi-indepen- 
dent. In all these features Turkish resembles the Finno-Ugric 
languages, but it diverges from them in having a much simpler 
system of cases and different phonetics, in the absence of many 
peculiarities such as the incorporation of the pronominal object 
in the verb, and in the development of some special forms, such 
as the expression of negation by inserting a suffix after the verbal 
root (yazdim, I wrote, yazmadim, I did not write). The gram- 
matical forms are more agglutinative and less inflexional than in 
Finnish; though they are single words, the root does not change 
and the elements can be easily separated, which is not always the 
case in Finnish. Compare the Turkish gyordunuz, " you saw," 
from the root gyor, with the equivalent Finnish naitte from ntike. 
The fusion between the root and suffixes is much more thorough 
in the latter. Turkish thus stands midway between Mongol and 
Finnish in its development of the agglutinative principle. Also, 
though compounds are not unknown in Turkish (e.g. demiryol, 
railway) they are much rarer than in Finnish or Hungarian. 

Despite the apparent divergence between Turkish and Mongol, 
due perhaps partly to the influence of Chinese on the latter, the 
affinity between them seems real, though not -superficial. The 
pronouns, case suffixes, and construction of sentences all show a 



TURKS 



473 



general similarity, and the verb in Buriat, which differs from other 
Mongol languages, exhibits a development parallel to Turkish. 

The want of resemblance in vocabulary between the three 
classes of languages is remarkable. The numerals, for instance, in 
Turkish, Mongol and Finno-Ugric are entirely different, and con- 
siderable changes have to be assumed before the identity of words 
can be proved. A comparison of Turkish words with Mongol 
equivalents makes it probable that the former are in many 
instances contractions: thus dagh, mountain, yol, road, corre- 
spond to the Mongol dabaga, yabudal and perhaps represent an 
earlier tavagh and yawl. The best-known Turkish languages, 
particularly Osmanli, have borrowed an enormous number of 
Arabic and Persian words which disguise the characters of the 
native vocabulary and to some extent affect the grammar. 

Compared with the Finno-Ugric group, the Turkish languages 
are remarkably uniform. Indeed, allowing for the lapse of time 
and the importation of foreign words, it is hardly an exaggeration 
to say that from the Lena to Constantinople, from the Orkhon 
inscriptions till now, we have merely one language in different 
dialects. The native vocabulary and grammar remain sub- 
stantially the same. The linguistic type is evidently strongly 
individual and persistent, and its separation from Mongol, &c., is 
probably very ancient. 

Radlov divides the Turkjsh languages or dialects into four groups, 
according to their phonetic system, (i) Eastern: Altai, Baraba, 
Lebed, Tuba, Abakan, Kiiarik, Soyon, Karagass and Uighur. (2) 
Western: Kirghiz, Bashkir, Irtysh and Volga dialects. (3) Central 
Asiatic: Jagatai, Taranji, &c. (4) Southern: Turkmani, Azerbai- 
jani, Krimmi, Anadoli and Osmanli. But this classification does not 
seem entirely satisfactory. As one passes across Asia from the 
Yakuts, through Kashgar, Turkestan and Azerbaijan to Constanti- 
nople, the pronunciation of the Turkish languages becomes decidedly 
softer, the suffixes become more intimately united with the words 
to which they are appended (approaching though not attaining the 
unity of Finnish inflexions), and the verbal forms grow more numer- 
ous and more complicated. Thus in the east we find nin, ni, go as 
suffixes for the genitive, accusative and dative, and man for that of 
the first personal pronoun (e.g. durman, I stand or I am) correspon- 
ding to -in, -i, -a and -im in Osmanli, which have clearly assumed the 
character of inseparable terminations more completely than the older 
forms. Osmanli possesses more copious verbal forms than the other 
dialects, some of which (such as the future in -ajak) seem to be recent 
formations. On the other hand, the dialects of Turkestan use in 
speaking, though not in writing, forms which indicate a process &f 
composition followed by contraction, more remarkable than any 
change which has taken place in the west. For instance, wopti, a 
contraction of bolup irdi, is said to be currently used in Khokand for 
" has become." Yakut (which can still be best studied in Boht- 
lingk's excellent grammar of 1851) is the dialect which is most 
distinct from the others, but does not appear always to preserve the 
oldest forms. Thus it has lost the genitive, which is replaced by'a 
pronominal periphrasis (e.g. oriis bas-a, horse head-his, i.e. horse's 
head), and has verbal forms like bisabin, I cut, bispappin, I do not 
cut, apparently standing for bisarbin, bispatbin. The negative 
suffix is pa not ma. The resemblance between the Turkish dialects 
is increased by the fact that they are nearly all written in a somewhat 
artificial and standardized form which imperfectly represents the 
variety existing in conversational speech. 

Several alphabets have been employed to write Turkish, (i) 
Arabic characters are everywhere used by Mahommedan Turks, 
almost without exception; yet this alphabet is extremely ill suited 
to represent Turkish sounds. It cannot distinguish the hard and 
soft vowels, so that oldu, " he was " is written in the same way as 
oldii, " he died." In some cases the consonants indicate the charac- 
ter of the vowels which are to be supplied after them, hard consonants 
being followed by hard vowels and soft by soft. Thus the word 
spelt with the letters kaf, re, he is pronounced as kara, but that 
spelt with kef, re, he as kerre. Further the orthography often follows 
an antiquated pronunciation and the letters have many sounds. 
Thus the single letter kef can be used to express k, ky, g, gy, y, v, w 
and n. The result is that pure Turkish words written in Arabic 
letters are often hardly intelligible even to Turks and it is usual to 
employ Arabic synonyms as much as possible because there is no 
doubt as to how they should be read. Osmanli documents are often 
little more than a string of Arabic words with Turkish terminations. 

2. The Uighurs and Eastern Turks used in the middle ages a short 
alphabet of fourteen letters derived from a Syriac source and prob- 
ably introduced among them by Nestorian missionaries; similar 
characters may also have been employed by Manichaeans. The 
Mongol and Manchu alphabets represent further variations of this 
writing. Though very like the modern Nestorian, it is in some 
respects more nearly allied to the Estrangelo and Syro-Palestinian 
alphabets of the 6th and 7th centuries. The most important 



document in this alphabet is a MS. preserved at Vienna of the 
Kudatku Bilik, " The Blessed or Fortunate Knowledge," a poem 
composed at Kashgar about 1065. A colophon states that the MS. 
was written at Herat in 1465, and that it is a copy of one written jn 
1085. Inscriptions in a similar alphabet have also been found in 
China. 

3. The most interesting forms of Turkish writing are those used 
on the inscriptions found in Siberia near the Yenisei and Orkhon 
rivers. For some time it has been known that stones bearing inscrip- 
tions as well as roughly carved figures and hunting scenes were to 
be tound on the upper waters of the Yenisei, particularly near its 
tributary the Abakan in the district of Minusinsk. They are greatly 
venerated by the Soyotes inhabiting the region. They were first 
discovered by Messerschmidt in 1722, and some of them were repre- 
sented in the plates of Strahlenberg's Das nord. und ostliche Theil 
von Europa und Asia (1730). They were generally attributed to 
Scythians or Chudes. The knowledge of them did not much advance 
until the researches of Castren (1847) and the Finnish Society of 
Archaeology, which in 1889 published the text of thirty-two, chiefly 
from the Uibat, Ulukem, Altynkul and Tes. Even more interesting 
are the monuments discovered in 1889 and known as the Orkhon 
or Kosho-Tsaidam inscriptions, as they were found in Mongolia to 
the south of Lake Baikal, between the river Orkhon and Lake 
Koshp-Tsaidam. The most important are a mortuary inscription in 
Turkish and Chinese, bearing a date corresponding to 733, in honour 
of Kul-tegm, and another recounting the exploits of Bilga Kagan. 
A third inscription at Kara-Balgassun probably dates from 800-805. 
The inscriptions were deciphered and translated by Thomsen and 
Radlov, and Donner examined the origin of the alphabet. He came 
to the conclusion that the Yenisei alphabet is rather older than that 
of the Orkhon inscriptions, and that both are derived from the 
Aramaic alphabet and most nearly allied to the variety of it used 
on the coins of the Assacid dynasty. In the 3rd century A.D. a 
section of the Kirghiz, who subsequently moved northwards, were 
in West Sogdiana and in touch with the Yue-Chi, who had been for 
some time in contact with Persia. The old Turkish characters bear 
a superficial resemblance to runes; the Yenisei letters have the 
simplest shapes, those of Kara-Balgassun the most complicated. 
But they are mostly traceable to Aramaic prototypes and have no 
connexion with Scandinavia. The vowels are generally omitted, 
even at the beginning of words, and, as in the modern Turkish 
method of using the Arabic alphabet, their quality is often indicated 
by the consonants, many of which have two forms, one used with 
soft the other with hard vowels. Thus bar and bar are differentiated 
not by the vowels but by the consonants employed to write them. 

4. Turkish-speaking Armenians and Greeks often write it in their 
own alphabets. Turkish newspapers printed in Armenian charac- 
ters are published in Constantinople, and Greek characters are 
similarly employed in several parts of Asia Minor. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: (a). General works on the history and ethno- 
graphy of the Turks: Deguignes, Histoire des Huns; Vambery, Das 
Turkenvolk (Leipzig, 1885), Ursprung der Magyaren (Leipzig, 1882), 
and several other publications; Radlov, Aus Sibirien (Leipzig, 
1884); W. Grigoriev, Zemlewjedjenie K. Rittera Wostotschni lit 
Kitaiski Turkestan; Neumann, Die Volker des siidlichen Russland 
(Leipzig, 1847). We may add the historians of the Mongols 
D'Ohsson, Howorth and others the numerous journals of travellers 
amongst Turkish peoples, and several articles in the Russische Revue; 
Journ. Royal Asiatic Soc.; Revue orientate pour les etudes Oural- 
altaiques, and other Oriental periodicals; Skrine and Ross, Heart of 
Asia (1899); Cahun, Turcs et Mongols (Paris, 1896); E. H. Parker, 
A Thousand Years of the Tartars (1895), and numerous articles, 
especially in the Asiatic Quarterly by the same author on Chinese 
accounts of these tribes; Chavannes, Les Tou-kiue occidentaux (St 
Petersburg, 1903). 

b. For the study of Turkish dialects the subjoined books may be 
used, (i) Osmanli: the grammars, dictionaries and chrestomathiea 
of Wells (1880), A. Wahrmund (1884) and Redhouse (1890). (2) 
Uighur: the works of Klaproth; Abel R6musat, Recherches sur les 
langues tatares (Paris, 1820); Vambery, Uigurische Sprachmonumente 
und das Kudatku Bilik (Innsbruck, 1870), and a newer edition by 
W. Radlov (St Petersburg, 1900). (3) Jagatai: the dictionary of 
Pavet de Courteille and Vambdry, Jagata'ische Sprachstudien 
(Leipzig, 1867). (4) Eastern Turki: Shaw's grammar and vocabu- 
lary (Journ. Roy. As. Soc. of Bengal, 1877). (5) Tatar dialects: the 
grammars of Kasimbeg-Zenker (Leipzig, 1848), Ilminski (Kazan, 
1869) and Radlov (Leipzig, 1882); Dictionary of Trojanski (Kazan, 
1833) ; the chrestomathies of Bdresine (Kazan, 1857), Terentiev and 
specially Radlov, Proben der Volksliteratur der tiirkischen Stamme 
Siid-Sibiriens (St Petersburg, 1872). (6) Yakuti: Bohtlingk, Die 
Sprache der Jakuten (St Petersburg, 1851); Radlov, Yakutische 
Sprache in ihrent Verhdltniss zu den Turkspjachen (1908). (7) 
Inscriptions: Soci6t6 finlandaise d'archeologie, Inscriptions de 
I'lenisei and several works by O. Donner, W. Radlov and V. Thomsen 
especially Thomsen, Inscriptions de I'Orkhon dechiffrees (Helsing- 
fors, 1896); Donner, Sur V origins de V alphabet turc (Helsingfors); 
Radlov, Die alt-turkische Inschriften der Mongolei (St Petersburg, 
1897) ; Marquardt, Chronologie der alt-turkischen Inschriften (1898). 

(C. EL.) 



474 

TURLE, JAMES (1802-1882), English organist and composer, 
was born at Tauaton, Somerset, and started as a choir boy at 
Wells Cathedral. In 1817 he became a pupil in London of the 
organist at Westminster Abbey, and after acting as deputy for 
some years he succeeded to this post himself in 1831 and held it 
till his death. He and Sir John Goss, the organist at St Paul's, 
had been fellow-pupils in London as boys. Turle was a great 
organist in his day, and composed a good deal of church music 
which is still well known. His son Henry Frederic Turle (1835- 
1883) was editor of Notes and Queries. 

TURMERIC (from Fr. terre merite, turmeric, Lat. terra merita, 
deserved, i.e. excellent earth; Skeat suggests that it is a barbarous 
corruption, perhaps of Arabic karkam, kurkum, saffron or cur- 
cuma), the tuberous root of Curcuma longa, L., an herbaceous 
perennial plant belonging to the natural order Zingiberaceae. 
It is a native of southern Asia, being cultivated on a large scale 
both on the mainland and in the islands of the Indian Ocean. 
Turmeric has been used from a remote period both as a condi- 
ment and as a dyestuff , and to a more limited extent as a medicine 
(now obsolete). In Europe it is employed chiefly as a dye, also 
as an ingredient in curry powder and as a chemical test for 
alkalies. The root is prepared by cleaning it and drying it in an 
oven. There are several varieties (Madras, Bengal, Gopalpur, 
Java, China and Cochin turmeric), differing chiefly in size and 
colour and to a slight degree in flavour. Some of these consist 
exclusively of the ovate central tubers, known as " bulbs," or 
" round turmeric," and others of the somewhat cylindrical lateral 
tubers, which are distinguished in trade as " fingers," or " long 
turmeric." Both are hard and tough, but break with a short 
resinous or waxy fracture, which varies in tint from an orange 
brown to a deep reddish brown. The colour is due to cur cumin, 
CuHieO?, of which the drug contains about 0-3%. When pure 
it forms yellow crystals having a vanilla odour and exhibiting a 
fine blue colour in reflected light. It is soluble in alcohol, in 
chloroform and in alkaline solutions, but only sparingly in water. 
Paper tinged with a tincture of turmeric exhibits on the addition 
of an alkali a reddish brown tint, which becomes violet on drying. 
This peculiarity was pointed out by H. A. Vogel in 1815, and 
since that date turmeric has been utilized as a chemical test for 
detecting alkalinity. It is of no therapeutic value. In Sierra 
Leone a kind of turmeric is obtained from a species of Canna. 

TURNEBUS, ADRIANUS [ADRIEN TURNEBE] (1512-1565), 
French classical scholar, was born at Les Andelys in Normandy. 
At the age of twelve he was sent to Paris to study, 
and attracted great notice by his remarkable abilities. After 
having held the post of professor of belles-lettres in the university 
of Toulouse, in 1547 he returned to Paris as professor (or royal 
reader), of Greek at the College Royal. In 1552 he was entrusted 
with the printing of the Greek books at the royal press, in which 
he was assisted by his friend, Guillaume Morel (?..). He died 
of consumption on the I2th of June 1565. His works chiefly 
consist of philological dissertations, commentaries (on Aeschylus, 
Sophocles, Theophrastus, Philo and portions of Cicero), and 
translations of Greek authors into Latin and French. His son, 
Etienne, published his complete works, in three volumes 
(Strassburg, 1600), and his son Adrien his Adversaria, containing 
explanations and emendations of numerous passages in classical 
authors. 

See Oratio funebris by L6ger du Chesne (Leodegarius a Quercu) 
prefixed to the Strassburg edition; L. Clement, De Adriani Turnebi 
praefationibus et poematis (1899); J. E. Sandys, History of Classical 
Scholarship (1908) iii. 

TURNER, CHARLES (1773-1857), English engraver, was born 
at Woodstock in 1773. He entered the schools of the Royal 
Academy in 1795; and, engraving in stipple in the manner of 
Bartolozzi, he was employed by Alderman Boydell. His finest 
plates, however, are in mezzotint, a method in which he engraved 
J.M.W. Turner's " Wreck " and twenty-four subjects of his Liber 
studiorum, Reynolds's " Marlborough Family," and many of 
Raeburn's best portraits, including those of Sir Walter Scott, 
Lord Newton, Dr Hamilton, Professors Dugald Stewart and 
John Robinson, and Dr Adam. He also worked after Lawrence, 



TURLE TURNER, J. M. W. 



Shee and Owen. He was an admirable engraver, large, broad 
and masterly in touch; and he reproduced with great fidelity the 
characteristics of the various painters whose works he translated 
into black and white. In 1828 he was elected an associate 
of the Royal Academy. He died on the ist of August 1857. 

TURNER, SIR JAMES (1615-1686), Scottish soldier and 
military writer, was educated with a view to hi? entering the 
Church, but early showed his preference for the profession of arms 
by enlisting in the Swedish army, then the most famous training- 
school in Europe. He saw considerable service in the Thirty 
Years' War, and in 1640 returned to Scotland as a captain. It 
was not long before he secured employment, and as a major he 
accompanied the Scottish army in its invasion of England in 
the same year, successfully avoiding the imposition of the 
" Covenant " as a test. With Lord Sinclair's regiment Major 
Turner served in Ulster, and subsequently, after failing to join 
Montrose's army, accompanied the Scottish army until Naseby 
practically ended the Civil War. Turner was often with Charles I. 
during his detention at Leslie's headquarters, and continually 
urged him to escape. Up to this time he had served against 
the king, but always with some repugnance, and he welcomed 
the opportunity when in 1648 the cause of the king and the in- 
terests of the Scottish nation for the moment coincided. In the 
disastrous campaign which followed Turner was at Hamilton's 
headquarters, and it was owing to the neglect of his advice that 
the rout of Preston took place. Taken in the final surrender at 
Uttoxeter, he spent some time in captivity, but in 1649 was re- 
leased and sent abroad. He was unable for want of means to 
reach Montrose in time to join in the final venture of the noblest 
of the Royalist commanders, but he landed in Scotland on the 
day before Dunbar, and in the grave crisis that followed was a 
welcome ally. As a colonel and adjutant-general of foot he was 
with Charles II. at Worcester. In that battle he was captured, 
but regained his liberty, and after many adventures escaped to 
the Continent, where for some years he was engaged in various 
Royalist intrigues, conspiracies and attempted insurrections. At 
the Restoration he was knighted, and in 1662 he became a 
major in the Royal Guards. Four years later, as a district com- 
mander in Scotland, he was called upon to deal severely with 
Covenanter disturbances. Though not, it appears, unjust, his 
dragooning methods eventually led to his being deprived of his 
command. The rest of his life was spent in retirement. A 
pension was granted to him by James II. in 1685. In 1683 
he had published his Pallas armata, Military Essayes of the 
Ancient Grecian, Roman and Modern Art of War, one of the 
most valuable authorities for the history of military sciences. 

TURNER, JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM (1775-1851), 
English painter, was born in London on the 23rd of April 1775. 
His father, William Turner, a native of Devonshire, kept a bar- 
ber's shop at 26 Maiden Lane, in the parish of St Paul's, Covent 
Garden. Of the painter's mother, Mary Marshall or Turner, 
little is known; she is said to have been a person of 
ungovernable temper and towards the end of her life became 
insane. Apparently the home in which Turner spent his child- 
hood was not a happy one, and this may account for much that 
was unsociable and eccentric in his character. The earliest 
known drawing by Turner, a view of Margate Church, dates from 
his ninth year. It was also about this time that he was sent to 
his first school at New Brentford. Of education, as the term is 
generally understood, he received but little. His father taught 
him to read, and this and a few months at New Brentford and 
afterwards at Margate were all the schooling he ever had; he 
never mastered his native tongue, nor was he able in after life 
to learn any foreign language. Notwithstanding this lack of 
scholarship, one of his strongest characteristics was a taste for 
associating his works with personages and places of legendary 
and historical interest, and certain stories of antiquity seem to 
have taken root in his mind very strongly. 

By the time Turner had completed his thirteenth year his 
schooldays were over and his choice of an artist's career settled. 
In 1788-1789 he was receiving lessons from Palice, '' a floral 
drawing master; " from T. Malton, a perspective draughtsman; 



TURNER, J. M. W. 



and from Hardwick, an architect. He also attended Paul 
Sandby's drawing school in St Martin's Lane. Part of his time 
was employed in making drawings at home, which he exhibited 
for sale in his father's shop window, two or three shillings being 
the usual price. He coloured prints for engravers, washed in 
backgrounds for architects, went out sketching with Girtin, and 
made drawings in the evenings for Dr Munro " for half a crown 
and his supper." When pitied in after life for the miscellaneous 
character of his early work, his reply was " Well! and what could 
be better practice? " In 1789 Turner became a student of the 
Royal Academy. He also worked for a short time in the house 
of Sir Joshua Reynolds, with the idea, apparently, of becoming 
a portrait painter; but, the death of Reynolds occurring shortly 
afterwards, this intention was abandoned. In 1790 Turner's 
name appears for the first time in the catalogue of the Royal 
Academy, the title of his solitary contribution being " View of 
the Archbishop's Palace, Lambeth." About 1792 he received a 
commission from Walker, the engraver, to make drawings for his 
Copper-Plate Magazine, and this topographical work took him 
to many interesting places. The natural vigour of his constitu- 
tion enabled him to cover much of the ground on foot. He could 
walk from 20 to 25 m. a day with ease, his baggage at the end 
of a stick, making notes and memoranda as he went. He rose 
early, worked hard all day, wasted no time over his simple 
meals, and his homely way of living made him easily contented 
with such rude accommodation as he chanced to find on the road. 
A year or two after he accepted a similar commission to make 
drawings for the Pocket Magazine, and before his twentieth year 
he had travelled over many parts of England and Wales. None 
of these magazine drawings is remarkable for originality of 
treatment or for artistic feeling. 

Up to this time Turner had worked in the back room above his 
father's shop. His love of secretiveness and solitude had already 
begun to show itself. An architect who of ten employed him to put 
in backgrounds to his drawings says, " he would never suffer me 
to see him draw, but concealed all that he did in his bedroom." 
On another occasion, a visitor entering unannounced, Turner 
instantly covered up his drawings, and, in reply to the intimation, 

" I've come to see the drawings for ," the answer was, " You 

shan't see 'em, and mind that next time you come through the 
shop, and not up the back way." Probably the increase in the 
number of his engagements induced Turner about this time to 
set up a studio for himself in Hand Court, not far from his 
father's shop, and there he continued to work till he was elected 
an associate of the Royal Academy (1799). 

Until 1792 Turner's practice had been almost exclusively 
confined to water colours, and his early works show how much 
he was indebted to some of his contemporaries. There are few 
of any note whose style he did not copy or adopt. His first 
exhibited oil picture appeared in the Academy in 1793. In 1794- 
1795 Canterbury Cathedral, Malvern Abbey, Tintern Abbey, 
Lincoln and Peterborough Cathedrals, Shrewsbury, and King's 
College Chapel, Cambridge, were among the subjects exhibited, 
and during the next four years he contributed no less than thirty- 
nine works to the Academy. In the catalogue of 1798 he first 
began to add poetic quotations to the titles of his pictures; one 
of the very first of these a passage from Milton's Paradise Lost 
is in some respects curiously prophetic of one of the future 
characteristics of his art: 

" Ye mists and exhalations that now rise 
From hill or steaming lake, dusky or grey 
Till the sun paints your fleecy skirts with gold, 
In honour of the world's great author rise. ' 
This and several other quotations in the following years show 
that Turner's mind was now occupied with something more than 
the merely topographical element of landscape, Milton's Paradise 
Lost and Thomson's Seasons being laid under frequent contri- 
bution for descriptions of sunrise, sunset, twilight or thunder- 
storm. Turner's first visit to Yorkshire took place in 1797. It 
seems to have braced his powers and possibly helped to change 
the etudent into the painter. Until then his work had shown very 
little of the artist in the higher sense of the term: he was little 
more than a painstaking and tolerably accurate topographer; but 



475 

even under these conditions he had begun to attract the notice 
of his brother artists and of the critics. England was, at the 
time, at a low point both in literature and art. Among the artists 
De Loutherbourg and Morland were almost the only men of note 
left. Hogarth, Wilson, Gainsborough and Reynolds had passed 
away. Beechey, Bourgeois, Garvey, Farington names well- 
nigh forgotten now were the Academicians who painted land- 
scape. The only formidable rivals Turner had to contend with 
were De Loutherbourg and Girtin, and after the death of the 
latter in 1802 he was left undisputed master of the field. 

It is not, therefore, surprising that the exhibition of his works 
in 1798 was followed by his election to the associateship of the 
Royal Academy. That he should have attained to this position 
before completing his twenty-fourth year says much for the 
wisdom and discernment of that body, which further showed its 
recognition of his talent by electing him an Academician four 
years later. Turner owed much to the Academy. Ruskin says, 
" It taught him nothing." Possibly it had little to teach that 
he had not already been able to learn for himself; at all events it 
was quick to see his genius and to confer its honours, and Turner, 
naturally generous and grateful, never forgot this. He enjoyed 
the dignity of Academician for nearly half a century, and during 
nearly the whole of that period he took an active share in the 
direction of the Academy's affairs. His speeches are described 
as " confused, tedious, obscure, and extremely difficult to follow "; 
but at council meetings he was ever anxious to allay anger and 
bitter controversy. His opinions on art were always listened to 
with respect; but on matters of business it was often difficult to 
know what he meant. His friend Chantrey used to say, " He 
has great thoughts, if only he could express them." When 
appointed professor of perspective to the Royal Academy in 
1808, this painful lack of expression stood greatly in the way of 
his usefulness. Ruskin says, " The zealous care with which Turner 
endeavoured to do his duty is proved by a series of large drawings, 
exquisitely tinted, and often completely coloured, all by his own 
hand, of the most difficult perspective subjects, illustrating not 
only directions of line, but effects of light, with a care and comple- 
tion which would put the work of any ordinary teacher to utter 
shame." In teaching he would neither waste time nor spare it. 
With his election to the associateship of the Academy in 
1799 Turner's early strugglps may be considered to have ended. 
He had emancipated himself from hack work, had given up 
making topographical drawings of castles and abbeys for the 
engravers drawings in which mere local fidelity was the principal 
object and had taken to composing as he drew. Local facts had 
become of secondary importance compared with effects of light 
and colour. He had reached manhood, and with it he abandoned 
topographical fidelity and began to paint his dreams, the 
visionary faculty the true foundation of his art asserting 
itself, nature being used to supply suggestions and materials. 

His pictures of 1797-1799 had shown that he was a painter of 
no ordinary power, one having much of the poet in him, and able 
to give expression to the mystery, beauty and inexhaustible 
fullness of nature. His work at this period is described by 
Ruskin as " stern in manner, reserved, quiet, grave in colour, 
forceful in hand." 

Turner's visit to Yorkshire in 1797 was followed a year or two 
later by a second, and it was on this occasion that he made the 
acquaintance, which afterwards ripened into a long and staunch 
friendship, of Fawkes of Farnley Hall. From 1803 till 1820 Turner 
was a frequent visitor at Farnley. The large number of his 
drawings still preserved there English, Swiss, German and 
Italian, the studies of rooms, outhouses, porches, gateways, of 
birds shot while he was there, and of old places in the 
neighbourhood prove the frequency of his visits and his 
affection for the place and for its hospitable master. A 
caricature, made by Fawkes, and " thought by old friends 
to be very like," shows Turner as " a little Jewish- 
nosed man, in an ill-cut brown tail-coat, striped waistcoat, 
and enormous frilled shirt, with feet and hands notably 
small, sketching on a small piece of paper, held down almost 
level with his waist." It is evident from all the accounts 



476 



TURNER, J. M. W. 



given that Turner's personal appearance was not of a kind to 
command much attention or respect. This may have pained 
his sensitive nature, and led him to seek refuge in the solitude of 
his painting room. Had he been inclined he had abundant 
opportunity for social and friendly intercourse with his fellow 
men, but he gradually came to live more and more in a state of 
mental isolation. Turner could never make up his mind to visit 
Farnley again after his old friend's death, and his voice would 
falter when he spoke of the shores of the Wharfe. 

Turner visited Scotland in 1800, and in 1801 or 1802 he made 
his first tour on the Continent. In the following year, of the seven 
pictures he exhibited, six were of foreign subjects, among them 
" Bonneville," " The Festival upon the Opening of the Vintage 
of Macon," and the well-known " Calais Pier " in the National 
Gallery. The last-named picture, although heavily painted and 
somewhat opaque in colour, is magnificently composed and full 
of energy. 

In 1802, the year in which Turner became a Royal Academi- 
cian, he took his father, who still carried on the barber business 
in Maiden Lane, to live with him. The old man lived in his 
son's house for nearly thirty years, making himself useful in 
various ways. It is said that he used to prepare and strain 
his son's canvases and varnish them when finished, which 
may explain a saying of Turner's that " his father used to 
begin and finish his pictures for him." He also attended to 
the gallery in Queen Anne Street, showed in visitors, and 
took care of the dinner, if he did not himself cook it. Turner 
was never the same man after his father's death in 1830, 
living a life of almost complete isolation. 

In 1804 Turner made a second tour on the Continent, and in 
the following year painted the " Shipwreck " and " Fishing 
Boats in a Squall " (in the Ellesmere collection), seemingly in 
direct rivalry of Vandervelde, in 1806 the " Goddess of Discord 
in the Garden of the Hesperides " (in rivalry of Poussin), and 
in 1807 the " Sun rising through Vapour " (in rivalry of Claude). 1 
The last two are notable works, especially the " Sun." In after 
years it was one of the works he left to the nation, on 
the special condition of its being hung beside the Claudes 
in the National Gallery. In this same year (1807) Turner 
commenced his most serious rivalry. Possibly it arose out 
of a desire to break down Claude worship the then prevailing 
fashion and to show the public that there was a living 
artist not unworthy of taking rank beside him. That the Liber 
studiorum was suggested by the Liber veritatis of Claude, and 
was intended as a direct challenge to that master, is beyond 
doubt. There is, however, a certain degree of unfairness to 
Claude in the way in which the challenge was given. Claude 
made drawings in brown of his pictures as they left the easel, not 
for publication, but merely to serve as private memoranda. 
Turner's Liber drawings had no such purpose, but were intended 
as a direct appeal to the public to judge between the two artists. 
The first of the Liber drawings was made in the autumn of 1806, 
the others at intervals till about 1815. They are of the same size 
as the plates and carefully finished in sepia. He left over fifty of 
these to the National Gallery. The issue of the Liber began in 
1807 and continued at irregular intervals till 1819, when it stopped 
at the fourteenth number. Turner had resolved to manage the 
publishing business himself, but in this he was not very successful. 
He soon quarrelled with his engraver, F. C. Lewis, on the ground 
that he had raised his charges from five guineas a plate to eight. 
He then employed Charles Turner, who agreed to do fifty plates 
at the latter sum, but, after finishing twenty, he too wished to 
raise his price, and, as a matter of course, this led to another 
quarrel. Reynolds, Dunkarton, Lupton, Say, Dawe and other 
engravers were afterwards employed Turner himself etching 

1 This spirit of rivalry showed itself early in his career. He began 
by pitting himself against his contemporaries, and afterwards, when 
his powers were more fully developed, against some of the old 
masters, notably Vandervelde and Claude. During these years, while 
he kept up a constant rivalry with artists living and dead, he was 
continuing his study of nature, and, while seemingly a mere follower 
of the ancients, was accumulating that store of knowledge which 
in after years he was to use to such purpose. 



and mezzotinting some of the plates. Each part of the Liber 
contained five plates, the subjects, divided into " historical," 
" pastoral," " marine," &c., embracing the whole range of land- 
scape art. Seventy-one plates in all were published (including 
one as a gift of the artist to his subscribers) ; ten other plates 
more or less completed intended for the fifteenth and sixteenth 
numbers were never published, the work being stopped for want 
of encouragement. Absence of method and business habits may 
account for this. Turner is said to have got up the numbers in 
his own house with the help of a female servant. The plates, 
which cost the subscribers only five shillings apiece, were so little 
esteemed that in the early quarter of the ipth century they were 
sometimes used for lighting fires. So much has fashion, or public 
taste, changed since then that a fine proof of a single plate has 
sold for 210. The merit of the plates is unequal; some for 
example, " Solway Moss," " Inverary Pier," " Hind Head Hill," 
" Ben Arthur," " Rizpah," " Junction of the Severn and Wye " 
and " Peat Bog " are of great beauty, while a few are compara- 
tively tame and uninteresting. Among the unpublished plates 
" Stonehenge at Daybreak," " The Stork and Aqueduct," " The 
Via Mala," " Crowhurst," and " Moonlight off the Needles " take a 
high place. The Liber shows strong traces of the influence of Cozens 
and Girtin, and, as a matter of course, of Claude. In most of the 
designs the predominant feeling is serious; in not a few, gloomy, 
or even tragic. A good deal has been written about Turner's 
intention, and the " lessons " of the Liber studiorum. Probably 
his only intention in the beginning was to show what he could do, 
to display his art, to rival Claude, perhaps to educate public taste, 
and at the same time make money. If lessons were intended they 
might have been better conveyed by words. " Silent always with 
a bitter silence, disdaining to tell his meaning " such is Ruskin's 
explanation ; but surely Turner had little reason for either silence 
or contempt because the public failed to see in landscape art the 
means of teaching it great moral lessons. The plates of the Liber 
contain an almost complete epitome of Turner's art. It is sup- 
posed that his original intention had been that the Liber should 
consist of one hundred plates, and drawings for that number exist, 
but there was no public demand for them. Already in this work 
are seen strong indications of one of his most remarkable charac- 
teristics a knowledge of the principles of structure in natural 
objects; mountains and rocks are drawn, not with topographical 
accuracy, but with what appears like an intuitive feeling for 
geological formation; and trees have also the same expression of 
life and growth in the drawing of stems and branches. This 
instinctive feeling in Turner for the principles of organic structure 
is treated of at considerable length in the fourth volume of Modern 
Painters, and Turner is there contrasted with Claude, Poussin, 
and some of the Dutch masters, greatly to their disadvantage. 

After 1797 Turner was little concerned with mere topo- 
graphical facts: his pictures might be like the places represented 
or not; much depended on the mental impression produced 
by the scene. He preferred to deal with the spirit, rather than 
with the local details of places. A curious example of the reason- 
ableness accompanying his exercise of the imaginative faculty 
is to be found in his creations of creatures he had never seen, as, 
for example, the dragon 2 in the " Garden of the Hesperides " and 
the python in the " Apollo," exhibited in 1811. Both these 
monsters are imagined with such vividness and reality, and the 
sense of power and movement is so completely expressed, that 
the spectator never once thinks of them as otherwise than repre- 
sentations of actual facts in natural history. It needs but a little 
comparison to discover how far Turner surpassed all his con- 
temporaries, as well as all who preceded him, in these respects. 
The imaginative faculty he possessed was of the highest order, 
and it was further aided by a memory of the most retentive 

2 " The strange unity of vertebrated action and of a true bony 
contour, infinitely varied in every vertebra, with this glacial outline, 
together with the adoption of the head of the Ganges crocodile, the 
fish-eater, to show his sea descent (and this in the year 1806, when 
hardly a single fossil saurian skeleton existed within Turner's reach), 
renders the whole conception one of the most curious exertions of the 
imaginative intellect with which I am acquainted in the arts " 
(Ruskin, Mod. Painters, v. 313). 



TURNER, J. M. W. 



and unerring kind. A good illustration of this may be seen at 
Farnley Hall in a drawing of a " Man-of-War taking in Stores." 
Some one, who had never seen a first-rate, expressed a wish to 
know what it looked like. Turner took a blank sheet of paper 
one morning after breakfast, outlined the ship, and finished the 
drawing in three hours, young Fawkes, a son of the house, 
sitting beside him from the first stroke to the last. The size 
of this drawing is about 16 in. by n in. Ruskin thus describes 
it: 

" The hull of a first-rate occupies nearly one half of the picture 
to the right, her bows toward the spectator, seen in sharp perspective 
from stem to stern, with all her port-holes, guns, anchors and lower 
rigging elaborately detailed, two other ships of the line in the middle 
distance drawn with equal precision, a noble breezy sea, full of 
delicate drawing in its waves, a store ship beneath the hull of the 
larger vessel and several other boats, and a complicated cloudy sky, 
all drawn from memory, down to the smallest rope, in a drawing- 
room of a mansion in the middle of Yorkshire." 

About the year 1811 Turner paid his first visit to Devonshire, 
the county to which his family belonged, and a curious glimpse 
of his simple manner of 'life is given by Redding, who accom- 
panied him on some of his excursions. On one occasion they 
spent a night together in a small road-side inn, Turner having 
a great desire to see the country around at sunrise. 

" Turner was content with bread and cheese and beer, tolerably 
good, for dinner and supper in one. In the little sanded room we 
conversed by the light of an attenuated candle and some aid from 
the moon until nearly midnight, when Turner laid his head upon 
the table and was soon fast asleep. Three or four hours' rest was 
thus obtained, and we went out as soon as the sun was up to explore 
the surrounding neighbourhood. It was in that early morning 
Turner made a sketch of the picture ' Crossing the Brook.' " In 
another excursion to Borough Island, " the morning was squally 
and the sea rolled boisterously into the Sound. Off Stakes Point 
it became stormy; our Dutch boat rode bravely over the furrows. 
Two of the party were ill. Turner was all the while quiet, watching 
the troubled scene. Bolt Head, to seaward, against which the 
waves broke with fury, seemed to absorb his entire notice, and he 
scarcely spoke a syllable. While the fish were getting ready Turner 
mounted nearly to the highest point of the island rock, and seemed 
writing rather than drawing. The wind was almost too violent for 
either purpose." 

This and similar incidents show how careless of comfort 
Turner was, and how devoted to his art. The tumult and 
discomfort by which he was surrounded could not distract 
his powers of observation; and some thirty years later there 
is still evidence of the same kind. In the catalogue of the 
exhibition of 1842 one of his pictures bears the following title, 
" Snow-Storm: steam-boat off a harbour's mouth making 
signals in shallow water, and going by the lead. The author 
was in that storm the night the ' Ariel ' left Harwich." 

From 1813 till 1826, in addition to his Harley Street residence, 
Turner had a country house at Twickenham. He kept a boat 
on the river, also a pony and gig, in which he used to drive about 
the neighbouring country on sketching expeditions. The pony, 
for which Turner had a great love, appears in his well-known 
" Frosty Morning " in the National Gallery. He appears to have 
had a great affection for animals, and one instance of his tender- 
ness of heart is given by one who often joined him in the amuse- 
ment of fishing, of which Turner was very fond. " I was often 
with him when fishing at Petworth, and also on the banks of 
the Thames. His success as an angler was great, although 
with the worst tackle in the world. Every fish he caught he 
showed to me, and appealed to me to decide whether the size 
justified him to keep it for the table or to return it to the river; 
his hesitation was often almost touching, and he always gave the 
prisoner at the bar the benefit of the doubt." 

In 1813 Turner commenced the series of drawings, forty in 
number, for Cooke's Southern Coast. This work was not 
completed till 1826. The price he at first received for these 
drawings was 7, 105. each, afterwards raised to 13, 2S. 6d. 

" Crossing the Brook " appeared in the Academy of 1815. It 
may be regarded as a typical example of Turner's art at this 
period, and marks the transition from his earlier style to that 
of his maturity. It represents a piece of Devonshire scenery, 
a view on the river Tamar. On the left is a group of tall pine- 



477 

trees, beautifully designed and drawn with great skill and know- 
ledge of structure; in the foreground a couple of children, with 
a dog carrying a bundle in its mouth across the brook; and 
beyond, a vast expanse of richly-wooded country, with glimpses 
of a winding river, an old bridge, a mill, and other buildings, 
and, in the far distance, the sea. Both in design and execution 
this work is founded upon Claude. Some critics consider it 
one of Turner's greatest works; but this is open to question. 1 
It can hardly be called a work in full colour: it is limited to 
greys and quiet greens for the earth and pale blues for the sky. 
It is a sober but very admirable picture, full of diffused daylight, 
and in the painting of its distance better than any master who 
had preceded him. The fascination of the remote, afterwards 
so distinctive an element in Turner's pictures, shows itself here. 
Perhaps nothing tests the powers or tries the skill of the land- 
scape painter more severely than the representation of distant 
effects. They come and go so rapidly, are often in a high key 
of light and colour, and so full of mystery and delicacy, that 
anything approaching to real imitation is impossible. Only 
the most retentive memory and the most sensitive and tender 
feeling will avail. These qualities Turner possessed to a remark- 
able degree, and as his powers matured there was an ever- 
increasing tendency in his art to desert the foreground, where 
things were definite and clear, in order to dream in the infinite 
suggestiveness and space of distances. " Dido Building Carthage " 
also belongs to this period. It hangs beside the Claudes in the 
National Gallery. It pertains to the old erroneous school of 
historical painting. Towering masses of Claudesque architec- 
ture piled up on either side, porticoes, vestibules, and stone 
pines, with the sun in a yellow sky, represent the Carthage of 
Turner's imagination. With all its faults it is still the finest 
work of the class he ever painted. Carthage and its fate had a 
strange fascination for him. It is said that he regarded it as a 
moral example to England in its agricultural decline, its increase 
of luxury, and its blindness to the insatiable ambition of a power- 
ful rival. He returned again to this theme in 1817, when he 
exhibited his " Decline of the Carthaginian Empire: Hostages 
Leaving Carthage for Rome " a picture which Ruskin describes 
as " little more than an accumulation of academy student's 
outlines coloured brown." 

In 1818 Turner was in Scotland making drawings for the 
Provincial Antiquities, for which Sir Walter Scott supplied the 
letterpress, and in 1819 he visited Italy for the first time. One 
of the results of this visit was a great change in his style, and 
from this time his works became remarkable for their colour. 
Hitherto he had painted in browns, greys and blues, using red 
and yellow sparingly. He had gradually been advancing 
from the sober grey colouring of Vandervelde and Ruysdael to 
the mellow and richer tones of Claude. His works now begin to 
show a heightened scale of colour, gradually increasing in richness 
and splendour and reaching its culminating point in such 
works as the " Ulysses," " Childe Harold's Pilgrimage," " The 
Golden Bough," and "The Fighting Tem6raire." All 
these works belong to the middle period of Turner's 
art (1820-1839), when his powers were entirely developed 
and entirely unabated. Much of his mcst beautiful work 
at this period is to be found in his water-colour drawings: those 
executed for Whitaker's History of Richmondshire (1819-1821), 
for Cooke's Southern Coast (1814-1826), for The Rivers of 
England (1824), for England and Wales (1829-1838), Provincial 
Antiquities (1826), Rogers's Italy (1830), Scott's Works (1834), 
and The Rivers of France (1833-1835) are in many instances 
of the greatest beauty. Of the Richmondshire drawings Ruskin 
says, " The foliage is rich and marvellous in composition, the 
rock and hill drawing insuperable, the skies exquisite in complex 
form." 

But perhaps one of the greatest services Turner rendered 
to the art of England was the education of a whole school of 

1 " Crossing the Brook " was a great favourite with Turner. It 
was painted for a patron, who, dissatisfied with it, left it on the 
painter's hands. The price asked (500) seems to have been part of 
the objection. Turner subsequently refused an offer of 1600 for it. 



TURNER, J. M. W. 



engravers. His best qualities as a teacher came from the union 
of strength and delicacy in his work; subtle and delicate tonality 
was almost a new element for the engraver to deal with, but with 
Turner's teaching and careful supervision his engravers by degrees 
mastered it more or less successfully, and something like a new 
development of the art of engraving was the result. No better 
proof can be found of the immense advance made than by 
comparing the work of the landscape engravers of the pre- 
Turnerian period with the work of Miller, Goodall, Willmore, 
Cooke, Wallis, Lupton, C. Turner, Brandard, Cousen, and others 
who worked under his guidance. The art of steel engraving 
reached its highest development in England at this time. 
Rogers's Italy (1830) and his Poems (1834) contain perhaps the 
most beautiful and delicate of the many engravings executed 
after Turner's drawings. They are vignettes, 1 a form of art 
which Turner understood better than any artist ever did 
before perhaps, we might add, since. " The Alps at Daybreak," 
" Columbus Discovering Land," and " Datur Hora Quieti " 
may be given as examples of the finest. 

In 1828 Turner paid a second visit to Italy, this time of 
considerable duration, on the way visiting Nimes, Avignon, 
Marseilles, Genoa, Spezzia and Siena, and in the following year 
he exhibited the " Ulysses Deriding Polyphemus," now in the 
National Gallery. It marks the beginning of the central and 
best period of Turner's power. This work is so well known that 
description is hardly needed. The galley of Ulysses occupies 
the centre of the picture; the oars are being thrust out and the 
sailors flocking up the masts to unfurl sail, while Ulysses waves 
the blazing olive tree in defiance of the giant, whose huge form 
is seen high on the cliffs above; and the shadowy horses of 
Phoebus are traced in the slanting rays of the rising sun. The 
impression this picture leaves is one of great power and splendour. 
The painting throughout is magnificent, especially in the sky. 
Leslie speaks of it as " a poem of matchless splendour and 
beauty." From this period onward till about 1840 Turner's 
life was one of unceasing activity. Nothing is more astonishing 
than his prodigious fertility; he rose early, worked from morning 
till night, entirely absorbed in his art, and gradually became more 
and more solitary and isolated. Between 1829 and 1839 he sent 
fifty-five pictures to the Royal Academy, painted many others 
on private commission, made over four hundred drawings for 
engravers, besides thousands of studies and sketches from nature. 
His industry accounts for the immense quantity of work he 
left behind him. There is not the slightest evidence to show 
that it arose from a desire to make money, which he never cared 
for in comparison with his art. He has been accused, perhaps 
not without some cause, of avarice and meanness in his business 
dealings, and many stories are told to his discredit. But in 
private he often did generous things, although owing to his 
reserved disposition his virtues were known only to a few. His 
faults on the other hand thanks to the malice, or jealousy, 
of one or two individuals were freely talked about and, as a 
matter of course, greatly exaggerated. " Keep it, and send 
your children to school and to church," were the words with 
which he declined repayment of a considerable loan to a poor 
drawing-master's widow. On another occasion, when interrupted 
in his work, he roughly chid and dismissed the applicant, a 
poor woman ; but she had hardly left his door before he followed 
her and slipped a 5 note into her hand. His tenants in Harley 
Street were in arrears for years, but he would never allow his 
lawyer to distrain; and if further proof of his generosity were 
needed his great scheme for bettering the condition of the 
unfortunate in his own profession should suffice. On one 
occasion he is known to have taken down a picture of his 
own from the walls of the Academy to make room for that of 
an unknown artist. 

1 " Of all the artists who ever lived I think it is Turner who treated 
the vignette most exquisitely, and, if it were necessary to find some 
particular reason for this, I should say that it may have been because 
there was nothing harsh or rigid in his genius, that forms and colours 
melted into each other tenderly in his dream-world, and that his 
sense of gradation was the most delicate ever possessed by man " 
(Hamerton). 



The first of Turner's Venetian pictures (" Bridge of Sighs, 
Ducal Palace and Custom House, Venice, Canaletti Painting ") 
appeared in the Academy in 1833. Compared with the sober, 
prosaic work of Canaletti, Turner's pictures of Venice appear 
like poetic dreams. Splendour of colour and carelessness of 
form generally characterize them. Venice appeared to him 
" a city of rose and white, rising out of an emerald sea against a 
sky of sapphire blue." Many of these Venetian pictures belong 
to his later manner, and some of them, " The State Procession 
bearing Giovanni Bellini's Pictures to the Church of the 
Redeemer " (exhibited in the Royal Academy, 1841), " The Sun 
of Venice Going to Sea " (1843), " Approach to Venice " (1844), 
and "Venice, Evening, Going to the Ball" (1845), to his 
latest. As Turner grew older his love of brilliant colour and 
light became more and more a characteristic. In trying to 
obtain these qualities he gradually fell into an unsound method 
of work, treating oil as if it had been water-colour, using both 
indiscriminately on the same canvas, utterly regardless of the 
result. Many of his finest pictures are already in a ruined 
state, mere wrecks of what they once were. 

" The Fighting Temeraire Tugged to her Last Berth to be 
Broken Up " was exhibited in the Academy of 1839. By many it 
is considered one of his finest works. Turner had all his life 
been half a sailor at heart : he loved the sea, and shipping, and 
sailors and their ways; many of his best pictures are sea pieces; 
and the old ships of Collingwood and Nelson were dear to him. 
Hence the pathetic feeling he throws around " The Fighting Teme- 
raire." The old three-decker, looking ghostly and wan in the 
evening light, is slowly towed along by a black, fiery little steam 
tug a contrast suggesting the passing away of the old order 
of things and the advent of the new; and behind the sun sets 
red in a thick bank of smoke or mist. " The Slave Ship," another 
important sea picture, was exhibited in the following year, 
and in 1842 " Peace: Burial at Sea," commemorative of Wilkie. 

Turner had now reached his sixty-seventh year, but no very 
marked traces of declining power are to be seen in his work. 
Many of the water-colour drawings belonging to this period are 
of great beauty, and, although a year or two later his other 
powers began to fail, his faculty for colour remained unimpaired 
almost to the end. He paid his last visit to the Continent in 
1843, wandering about from one place to another, and avoiding 
his own countrymen, an old and solitary man. At his house in 
Queen Anne Street they were often ignorant of his whereabouts 
for months, as he seldom took the trouble to write to any one. 
Two years later (1845) his health gave way and with it both 
mind and sight began to fail. The works of his declining period 
exercised the wit of the critics. Turner felt these attacks 
keenly. He was naturally kind-hearted and acutely sensitive 
to censure. " A man may be weak in his age," he once remarked, 
" but you should not tell him so." 

After 1845 all the pictures shown by Turner belong to the 
period of decay mere ghosts and shadows of what once had 
been. In 1850 he exhibited for the last time. He had given 
up attending the meetings of the Academicians; none of his 
friends had seen him for months; and even his old house- 
keeper had no idea of his whereabouts. Turner's mind 
had evidently given way for some time, and with that love of 
secrecy which in later years had grown into a passion he had gone 
away to hide himself in a corner of London. He had settled 
as a lodger in a small house in Chelsea, overlooking the river, 
kept by his old Margate landlady, Mrs Booth. To the children 
in the neighbourhood he was known as " Admiral Booth." 
His short, sailor-like figure may account for the idea that he 
was an impoverished old naval officer. He had been ill for some 
weeks, and when his Queen Anne Street housekeeper at last 
discovered his hiding-place she found him sinking, and on the 
following day, the igth of December 1851, he died. He was 
buried in St Paul's Cathedral, in deference to a wish he had 
himself expressed. He left the large fortune he had amassed 
(about 140,000) to found a charity for the " maintenance and 
support of male decayed artists, being born in England, and of 
English parents only, and of lawful issue." His pictures he 



TURNER, N. TURNER, W. 



bequeathed to the nation, on condition that they were exhibited 
in rooms of their own, and that these rooms were to be called 
" Turner's Gallery." The will and its codicils were so confused 
that after years of litigation, during which a large part of the 
money was wasted in legal expenses, it was found impossible 
to decide what Turner really wanted. A compromise was effected 
in which the wishes of everybody, save those of the testator, 
were consulted, his next-of-kin, whom he did not mean to get 
a single farthing, inheriting the bulk of his property. The 
nation got all the pictures and drawings, and the Royal 
Academy 20,000. 

If Turner had died early his reputation as an artist would have 
been very different from what it ultimately became. He would 
not have been recognized as a colourist. It was only after the 
year 1820 that colour began to assert itself strongly in his work. 
He painted for many a year in greys and greens and browns, 
went steadily through " the subdued golden chord," and painted 
yellow mists and suns rising through vapour; but as time went 
on that was no longer enough, and he tried to paint the sun in 
his strength and the full glories of sunshine. The means at the 
painter's disposal are, however, limited, and Turner, in his 
efforts after brilliancy, began to indulge in reckless experiments 
in colour. He could not endure even the slightest restraints 
which technical limitations impose, but went on trying to paint 
the unpaintable. As a water-colour painter Turner stands 
pre-eminent; he is unquestionably the greatest master in that 
branch of art that ever lived. If his work is compared with that 
of Barrett, or Varley, or Cozens, or Sandby, or any of the earlier 
masters, so great is Turner's superiority that the art in his 
hands seems to be lifted altogether into a higher region. 

In 1843 a champion, in the person of John Ruskin, arose to 
defend Turner against the unjust and ignorant attacks of the 
press, and what at first was intended as a " short pamphlet, 
reprobating the manner and style of these critics," grew into the 
five volumes of Modern Painters. Ruskin employed all his 
eloquence and his great critical faculty to prove how immeasur- 
ably superior Turner was to all who had ever gone before, 
hardly restricting his supremacy to landscape art, and placing 
him among the " seven supreme colourists of the world." 

Like most men of note, Turner had his enemies and 
detractors, and it is to be regretted that so many of the 
stories they set in circulation against his moral character 
should have been repeated by one of his biographers, who 
candidly admits having " spared none of his faults," and 
excuses himself for so doing by " what he hopes " is his 
" undeviating love of truth." The immense quantity of work 
accomplished by Turner during his lifetime, work full of the 
utmost delicacy and refinement, proves the singularly fine 
condition of his nervous system, and is perhaps the best 
answer that can be given to the charge of being excessively 
addicted to sensual gratification. In his declining years he 
possibly had recourse to stimulants to help his failing powers, 
but it by no means follows that he went habitually to excess 
in their use. He never lost an opportunity of doing a kind- 
ness, and under a rough and cold exterior there was more 
good and worth hidden than the world imagined. " During 
the ten years I knew him," says Ruskin, " years in which he 
was suffering most from the evil-speaking of the world, I 
never heard him say one depreciating word of any living man 
or. man's work; I never saw him look an unkind or blameful 
look; I never knew him let pass, without sorrowful remon- 
strance, or endeavour at mitigation, a blameful word spoken 
by another. Of no man, but Turner, whom I have ever known 
could I say this." Twice during his earlier days there are 
circumstances leading to the belief that he had the hope of 
marriage, but on both occasions it ended in disappointment, 
and his home after his father died was cheerless and solitary. 

Two biographies of Turner have been written, one by Thornbury, 
the other by P. G. Hamerton. The work of the latter deserves the 
highest commendation ; it gives a clear and consistent history of the 
great artist, and is characterized by refined thought and critical 
insight. An excellent little book by W. Cosmo Monkhouse may also 



479 

be noticed. Books upon Turner continue to appear, although it is 
scarcely to be expected that they can add t9 the facts already known 
about him. Turner and Ruskin, an exposition of the work of Turner 
from the writings of Ruskin, edited with a biographical note on 
Turner by Frederick Wedmore, in two volumes, with ninety-one 
illustrations, was published by George Allen in 1900. Perhaps the 
most important recent work upon his art is Sir Walter Armstrong's 
Turner (1901), which deals at considerable length with the events of 
his life, and with his pictures in oil and his drawings in water-colour. 
It also gives so far as possible a list of his oil pictures, and for the 
first time a pretty full list of his water colours, although the great 
painter's works in both media are so numerous that it would be 
impossible to say that either is complete. See also J. M. W. Turner, 
by W. L. Wyllie, A.R.A. (1905). The great authority on the Liber 
Studiorum is W. G. Rawlinson (Turner s Liber Studiorum, 2nd ed., 
1906). (G. RE.) 

TURNER, NAT (1800-1831), the negro leader of a slave 
insurrection in Virginia, known as the " Southampton Insur- 
rection," was born in Southampton county, Virginia, in 1800. 
From his childhood he claimed to see visions and hear voices, 
and he became a Baptist preacher of great influence among the 
negroes. In 1828 he confided to a few companions that a 
voice from heaven had announced that " the last shall be first," 
which was interpreted to mean that the slaves should control. 
An insurrection was planned, and a solar eclipse in February 1831 
and peculiar atmospheric conditions on the I3th of August were 
accepted as the signal for beginning the work. On the night of 
the 2ist of August 1831, with seven companions, he entered the 
home of his master, Joseph Travis, and murdered the inmates. 
After securing guns, horses and liquor they visited other houses, 
sparing no one. Recruits were added, in some cases by compul- 
sion, until the band numbered about sixty. About noon on 
the 22nd they were scattered by a small force of whites, hastily 
gathered. Troops, marines and militia were hurried to the scene, 
and the negroes were hunted down. In all thirteen' men, 
eighteen women, and twenty-four children had been butchered. 
After hiding for several weeks Nat was captured on the 3Oth of 
October and was tried and hanged, having made, meanwhile, 
a full confession. Nineteen of his associates were hanged and 
twelve were sent out of the state. The insurrection, which was 
attributed to the teachings of the abolitionists, led to the 
enactment of stricter slave codes. 

See S. B. Weeks, " Slave Insurrections in Virginia," in Magazine 
of American History, vol. xxxi. (New York, 1891), and W. S. Drewry, 
The Southampton Insurrection (Washington, 1900). 

TURNER, SHARON (1768-1847), English historian, was born 
in Pentonville, London, on the 24th of September 1768. His 
parents came from Yorkshire. He was educated at a private 
school kept by Dr Davis in Pentonville, and was articled to a 
solicitor in the Temple in 1783, and when his master died in 
1789 he continued the business. He remained in business at 
first in the Temple, and later in Red Lion Square till 1829, when 
failing health compelled him to retire. He settled for a time 
at Winchmore Hill, but afterwards returned to London, and died 
in his son's house on the i3th of February 1847. In early 
boyhood he had been attracted by a translation of the " Death 
Song of Ragnar Lodbrok," and was led by this boyish interest to 
make a study of early English history in Anglo-Saxon and Ice- 
landic sources. He devoted all the time he could spare from his 
business to the study of Anglo-Saxon documents in the British 
Museum. The material was abundant and had hitherto been 
neglected. When the first volume of his. History of England 
from the earliest times to the Norman Conquest appeared in 1799, 
it was at once recognized as a work of equal novelty and value. 
The fourth volume appeared in 1805. He also published a 
continuation (History of England during the Middle Ages), a 
Modern History of England, a Sacred History of the World, and 
a volume on Richard III. (1845), and he was the author of 
pamphlets on the copyright laws (1813). 

His son, Sydney Turner (1814-1879), educated at Trinity 
College, Cambridge, took orders, was known as a strong 
partisan of reformatory schools, and died rector of Hempstead 
in Gloucestershire. 

TURNER, WILLIAM (d. 1568), English divine, botanist and 
physician, was born at Morpeth in Northumberland, and was 



480 



TURNHOUT TURNSTONE 



educated at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, where he was elected 
junior fellow in 1530. He learnt Greek from Nicholas Ridley, 
and, hearing Hugh Latimer preach, threw in his lot with the 
new faith. In 1538 he published his Libellus de re herbaria, 
and in 1540 set out to preach in different places. For doing 
this without a licence he suffered imprisonment, and on his 
release travelled in Holland, Germany, Italy and Switzerland, 
always increasing his knowledge of botany and medicine, 
collecting plants, and writing books on religion which were so 
popular in England that they were forbidden by proclamation 
in July 1546. On the accession of Edward VI. he became 
chaplain and physician to the duke of Somerset and in 1550 
prebendary of York. In November 1550 he was made dean of 
Wells, but in 1553 was deprived, and during Queen Mary's 
reign lived at various places in Germany, mostly along the Rhine. 
Returning to England in 1558 he regained his deanery, and did 
all he could to disparage episcopacy and ceremonial, and to 
bring the Anglican Church into conformity with the Reformed 
Churches of Germany and Switzerland. On the complaint 
of his bishop, Gilbert Berkeley, he was suspended for Noncon- 
formity in 1564. He passed his last days in Crutched Friars, 
London, and died on the 7th of July 1568. Turner was a sound 
and keen botanist, and introduced lucerne into England. He 
was a racy writer, a man of undoubted learning, and a vigorous 
controversialist. 

TURNHOUT, a town of Belgium, in the province of Antwerp, 
26 m. N.E. of that city. Pop. (1904), 22,162. It carries on an 
active industry in cloth and other manufactures. There is a 
breeding establishment for leeches. The hotel de ville was 
formerly a palace of the dukes of Brabant. Two miles west 
of Turnhout is the curious penal or reformatory colony of 
Merxplas (pop. in 1904, 2827). The system of this establish- 
ment is to allow certain approved prisoners to follow their 
usual occupations within a defined area. The persons detained 
have complete liberty of movement, subject to the two condi- 
tions that they are under the supervision of guardians and are 
not allowed to cross the boundaries of the settlement. They 
also wear a distinct dress, and each prisoner bears a number. 

TURNIP, Brassica campestris, var. Rapa, a hardy biennial, 
found in cornfields in various parts of England. It has been 
cultivated from a remote period for its fleshy roots. The tender 
growing tops are also used in spring as a green vegetable. The 
so-called " root " is formed by the thickening of the primary 
root of the seedling together with the base of the young stem 
(hypocotyl) immediately above it. The great mass of the 
" root " consists of soft " wood " developed internally by the 
cambium layer and composed mainly of thin-walled, unlignified, 
wood-parenchyma. The stem remains short during the first 
year, the leaves forming a rosette-like bunch at the top of the 
" bulb "; they are grass-green and bear rough hairs. In the 
second season the bud in the centre of the rosette forms a strong 
erect branched stem bearing somewhat glaucous smooth leaves. 
The stem and branches end in corymbose racemes of small, 
bright yellow flowers, which are succeeded by smooth, elongated, 
short-beaked pods. 

The varieties of turnip are classified according to their shape 
as (i) long varieties, with a root three or more times as long as 
broad; (2) tankard or spindle-shaped varieties, with a root about 
twice as long as broad; (3) round or globe varieties with an 
almost spherical root; (4) flat varieties with a root broader than 
long; there are also many intermediate forms. Turnips are also 
grouped according to the colour of the upper part of the root 
which comes above ground, and according to the colour of the 
flesh, which is white or yellow. The yellow-fleshed varieties, 
many of which are probably hybrids between the turnip and 
swede, are mote robust, of slower growth and superior feeding 
value to the white-fleshed turnips, and are less injured by frost. 
The swede-turnip, Brassica campestris, var. Napo-brassica, 
differs from the turnip proper in having the first foliage-leaves 
glaucous, not grass-green, in colour, and the later leaves smooth 
and glaucous; the root bears a distinct neck with well-marked 
leaf-scars, the flesh is yellow or reddish-orange, firmer and more 



nutritious, and the roots keep much better during winter. The 
flowers are larger and buff-yellow or pale orange in colour and 
the seeds are usually larger and darker than in the turnip. 

Turnips should be grown in a rich friable sandy loam, such as will 
produce medium-sized roots without much aid from the manure heap, 
and are better flavoured if grown in fresh soil. In light dry soils 
well decomposed hotbed or farmyard manure is the best that can 
be used, but in soils containing an excess of organic matter, bone 
dust, superphosphate of lime, wood-ashes or guano, mixed with 
light soil, and laid in the drills before sowing the seed, are bene- 
ficial by stimulating the young plants to get quickly into rough 
leaf, and thus to grow out of reach of the so-called turnip fly or turnip 
flea (Phyllotreta). To get rid of this pest, it has been found beneficial 
to dust the plants with quicklime, and also to draw over the young 
plants nets smeared with some sticky substance like treacle, by which 
large numbers will be caught and destroyed. It has been also recom- 
mended as a palliative to sow thick in order to allow for a percentage 
of loss from this and other causes, but this is inadvisable, as over- 
crowding is apt to render the plants weak. As a preventive, gas-lime 
may be scattered over the surface after the seed has been sown. Lime 
is also effective against the disease known as " finger and toe " (q.v.). 

The first sowing should be made on a warm border, with the pro- 
tection of a frame or matted hoops, in January or February; the 
second on a well-sheltered border in March, after which a sowing 
once a month will generally suffice. In May and June the plot 
should be in a cool moderately shaded position, lest the plants 
should suffer from drought. The principal autumn and winter 
sowings, which are the most important, should be made about the 
end ofjune in the northern districts, and in the beginning of July in 
warmer districts ; a small sowing may be made at the end of August 
to come in before the spring-sown crops are ready. If the weather 
is showery at the time of sowing, the seed speedily germinates, and 
the young plants should be kept growing quickly by watering with 
rain or pond water and by surface stirrings. The drills for the 
earliest sorts need not be more than 15 in. apart, and the plants 
may be left moderately thick in the row; the late crops should have 
at least 2 ft. between the rows, and be thinned to 12 in. in the row, 
a free circulation of air about them being very important in winter. 
As a provision against prolonged periods of severe weather it has 
been recommended to lay the finest roots in rows, covering them well 
with soil, and leaving intact the whole of the foliage. The very latest 
sown crops of half-grown roots will prolong the supply until the 
earliest spring-sown crops are fit for use. 

TURNPIKE, a pike or pointed bar or stake which turns or 
revolves, hence the name given to a form of barrier consisting of 
three or more horizontal bars, with one end sharpened, revolving 
on a pivot. Such barriers were used across roads, and, when tolls 
were exacted from passengers along highways to raise the money 
for the upkeep of the roads, the name, though not the form, was 
given both to the toll-gates set up at different places where the 
tolls were collected, and to the highways repaired under the 
system (see HIGHWAY). 

A " turnstile," consisting of a vertical post with projecting, 
revolving arms, is another form of barrier, placed by the side of a 
gate across a road, or across a path to prevent the passage of all 
except foot passengers, or at the entrance to any building, park or 
other place as a means of controlling the admission of people, of 
collecting admission money and the like. 

TURNSTONE, the name long given l to a shore-bird, from its 
habit of turning over with its bill such stones as it can to seek its 
food in the small crustaceans or other animals lurking beneath 
them. It is the Tringa interpret* of Linnaeus and Strepsilas 
inlerpres of most later writers, and is remarkable as being perhaps 
the most cosmopolitan of birds; for, though properly belonging to 
the northern hemisphere, there is scarcely a sea-coast in the world 
on which it may not occur: it has been obtained from Spitzbergen 
to the Strait of Magellan and from Point Barrow to the Cape of 
Good Hope and New Zealand examples from the southern 
lemisphere being, however, almost invariably in a state of 
plumage that shows, if not immaturity, yet an ineptitude for 
reproduction. It also, though much less commonly, resorts 

1 The name seems to appear first in F. Willughby's Ornithologia 
(p. 231) in 1676; but he gave as an alias that of Sea-Dottrel, under 
which name a drawing, figured by him (pi. 58), was sent to him by 
Sir Thomas Browne. 

1 Linnaeus (Oel. och GoMdndska Resa, p. 217), who first met with 
this bird on the island of Gottland (July I, 1741), was under the 
mistaken belief that it was there called Tolk (=interpres). But 
that name properly belongs to the REDSHANK (o.i>.), from the 
cry of warning to other animals that it utters on the approach of 
danger. 



TURNU MAGURELE TURPENTINE 



481 



to the margins of inland rivers and lakes; but it is very rarely 
seen except near water, and salt water for preference. 

The turnstone is about as big as an ordinary snipe; but, 
compared with most of its allies of the group Limicolae, to which 
it belongs, its form is somewhat heavy, and its legs are short. 
Still it is brisk in its movements, and its variegated plumage 
makes it a pleasing bird. Seen in front, its white face, striped 
with black, and broad black gorget attract attention as it sits, 
often motionless, on the rocks; while in flight the white of the 
lower part of the back and white band across the wings are no 
less conspicuous even at a distance. A nearer view will reveal 
the rich chestnut of the mantle and upper wing-coverts, and the 
combination of colours thus exhibited suggests the term " tor- 
toise-shell " often applied to it the quill-feathers being mostly 
of a dark brown and its lower parts pure white. The deeper tints 
are, however, peculiar to the nuptial plumage, or are only to be 
faintly traced at other times, so that in winter the adults and 
the young always have a much plainer appearance, ashy-grey 
and white being almost the only hues observable. From the fact 
that turnstones may be met with at almost any season in various 
parts of the world, and especially on islands as the Canaries, 
Azores, and many of those in the British seas, it has been inferred 
that these birds may breed in such places. In some cases this 
may prove to be true, but in most evidence to that effect is 
wanting. In America the breeding-range of this species has not 
been defined. In Europe there is good reason to suppose that it 
includes Shetland ; but it is on the north-western coast of the Con- 
tinent, from Jutland to the extreme north of Norway, that the 
greatest number are reared. The nest, contrary to the habits of 
most Limicolae, is generally placed under a ledge of rock which 
shelters the bird from observation, 1 and therein are laid four eggs, 
of a light olive-green, closely blotched with brown, and hardly to 
be mistaken for those of any other bird. A second species of 
turnstone is admitted by some authors and denied by others. 
This is the S. melanocephalus of the Pacific coast of North 
America, which is on the average larger than S. interpres, and 
never exhibits any of the chestnut colouring. 

Though the genus Strepsilas seems to be rightly placed among the 
Charadriidae (sec PLOVER), it occupies a somewhat abnormal position 
among them, and in the form of its short pointed beak and its 
variegated coloration has hardly any very near relative. (A. N.) 

TURNU MAGURELE, the capital of the department of Teleor- 
man, Rumania; 2\ m. N.E. of the confluence of the Olt and 
Danube, at the terminus of a branch railway. Pop. (1900), 8668. 
A ferry plies across the Danube to the Bulgarian fortress of Nico- 
polis. Large quantities of grain are shipped in lighters to Braila. 
There are some vestiges of a Roman bridge across the Danube, 
built (c. A.D. 330) by Constantine the Great. 

TURNU SEVERIN, the capital of the department of Mehe- 
dintzi, Rumania, on the main Walachian railway, and on the left 
bank of the river Danube, below the Iron Gates cataracts. Pop. 
(1900), 18,628. It is a modern commercial town, having a school 
of arts and crafts, several churches, and large government yards 
for the building of river steamers, lighters and tug-boats. There 
is a considerable trade in livestock, preserved meat, petroleum 
and cereals. The town, which was originally called Drobetae by 
the Romans, took its later name of Turris Severi, or the " Tower 
of Severus," from a tower which stood on a small hill surrounded 
by a deep fosse. This was built to commemorate a victory over 
the Quadi and Marcomanni, by the Roman emperor Severus 
(A.D. 222-235). Near Turnu Severin are the remains of the cele- 
brated Trajan's bridge, the largest in the Roman Empire, built in 
A.D. 103 by the architect Apollodorus of Damascus. The river 
is about 4000 ft. broad at this spot. The bridge was composed of 
twenty arches supported by stone pillars, several of which are 
still visible at low water. 

TURPENTINE (in M. Eng. lurbentine, adapted through the 
0. Fr. turpentine or terebentine from Lat. terebinthina, sc. resina, 
resin of the terebinth, Gr. Tfpt{3i.vOos or rkpnivQos), the oleo-resins 
which exude from certain trees, especially from some conifers 

1 There is little external difference between the sexes, and the 
brightly contrasted colours of the hen-bird seem to require some 
kind of concealment. 

XXVII. 16 



such as Pinus syhestrisund from the terebinth tree, Pistacia 
lerebinthus, L. It was to the product of the latter, now known 
as Chian turpentine, that the term was first applied. The tere- 
binth tree and its resin were well known and highly prized from 
the earliest times. The tree is a native of the islands and shores 
of the Mediterranean, passing eastward into Central Asia ; but the 
resinous exudation found in commerce is collected in the island of 
Chios. Chian turpentine is a tenacious semi-fluid transparent 
body, yellow to dull brown in colour, with an agreeable resinous 
odour and little taste. On exposure to the air it becomes dry, 
hard and brittle. In their natural characters, turpentines are 
soft solids or semi-fluid bodies, consisting of resins dissolved in 
turpentine oil, the chief constituent of which is pinene. They are 
largely used in the arts, being separated by distillation into rosin 
or colophony (see ROSIN), and oil or spirit of turpentine. 

Crude or common turpentine is the commercial name which 
embraces the oleo-resin yielded by several coniferous trees, both 
European and American. The principal European product, some- 
times distinguished as Bordeaux turpentine, is obtained from the 
cluster pine, Pinus Pinaster, in the Landes department of France. 
Crude turpentine is further yielded by the Scotch fir, P. sylvestris, 
throughout northern Europe, and by the Corsican pine, P. Laricio, 
in Austria and Corsica. In the United States the turpentine- 
yielding pines are the swamp pine, P. australis, and the loblolly, 
P. Taeda, both inhabiting North and South Carolina, Georgia and 
Alabama. Venice turpentine is yielded by the larch tree, Larix 
europaea, from which it is collected principally in Tirol. Strass- 
burg turpentine is obtained from the bark of the silver fir; but it is 
collected only in small quantities. Less known turpentines are 
obtained from the mountain pine, P. Pumilio, the stone pine, 
P. Cembra, the Aleppo pine, P. halepensis, &c. The so-called Canada 
balsam, from Abies balsamea, is also a true turpentine. 

Oil of Turpentine, or Turps, as a commercial product is obtained 
from all or any of these oleo-resins, but on a large scale only from 
crude or common turpentine. The essential oil is rectified by redis- 
tillation with water and alkaline carbonates, and the water which 
the oil carries over with it is removed by a further distillation over 
calcium chloride. Oil of turpentine is a colourless liquid of oily 
consistence, with a strong characteristic odour and a hot disagree- 
able taste. It begins to boil at about 155 C., and its specific gravity 
is between 0-860 and 0-880. It rotates the plane of polarized light 
both to right and left in varying degrees according to its sources, 
the American product being dextrorotatory and the French laevo- 
rotatory. It is almost insoluble in water, is miscible with absolute 
alcohol and ether, and dissolves sulphur, phosphorus, resins and 
caoutchouc. On exposure to the air it dries to a solid resin, and 
absorbing oxygen gives off ozone a reaction utilized in the disinfec- 
tant called " Sanitas." Agitated with successive quantities of sul- 
phuric acid and distilled in a current of steam, it yields terebene, a 
mixture of dipentene and terpinene mainly, which is used in medicine. 
Chemically, oil of turpentine is a more or less complex mixture of 
hydrocarbons generically named terpenes (q.v.). Oil of turpentine 
is largely used in the preparation of varnishes and as a medium by 
painters in their "flat " colours. 

Pharmacology and Therapeutics. Oil of turpentine (Oleum 
terebinthinae) is administered internally as an antnelmintic to kill 
tapeworm. Applied externally it possesses, in higher degree than 
any of its fellows; the properties of the volatile oils. It acts as a 
rubefacient, an irritant and a counter-irritant. It is also an antisep- 
tic and, in small quantities, a feeble anaesthetic. It is absorbed by 
the unbroken skin. The drug is largely employed as a counter- 
irritant, the pharmacopoeia! liniments being very useful applications. 
Such conditions as myalgia, bronchitis, " chronic rheumatism " and 
pleurisy are often relieved by its use. It may also be employed as a 
parasiticide in ringworm and similar conditions. 

In large doses oil of turpentine causes purging and may induce 
much haemorrhage from the bowel ; it should be combined with some 
trustworthy aperient, such as castor oil, when given as an anthel- 
mintic. It is readily absorbed unchanged and has a marked con- 
tractile action upon the blood vessels. This gives it the rare and 
valuable property of a remote haemostatic, erroneously supposed to 
be possessed by so many useless drugs. It must not be used to 
check haemorrhage from the kidneys (naematuria) owing to its irri- 
tant action on those organs, but in haemoptysis (haemorrhage from 
the lungs) it is often an invaluable remedy. In large doses it has a 
depressant action on the nervous system, leading even to coma and 
total abolition of reflex action. The drug is excreted partly by the 
bronchi which it tends to disinfect and partly in the urine, which 
it causes to smell of violets. Glycuronic acid also appears in the 
urine. A small portion of the drug is removed by the skin, in which 
it may give rise to an erythematous rash. It must not be given to 
the subjects of Bright's disease. 

Perhaps the most valuable of all the medicinal applications of 
turpentine, and one which is rarely, if ever, mentioned in therapeutic 
textbooks owing to the fact that gynaecology has been so ex- 
tremely specialized is in inoperable cancer of the uterus. Quite 



482 



TURPIN (OF REIMS) TURQUOISE 



90% of these cases are seen too late for operation, and nearly all 
recur after operation. The exhausting pain, the serious haem- 
orrhages, and the abdominal septicity associated with a repulsive 
odour and the absorption of toxic products, which are the chief and 
ultimately fatal symptoms of that disease, are all directly combated 
by the administration of oil of turpentine. So beneficial is the 
action that for years there prevailed the unfortunately erroneous 
belief that Chian turpentine is actually curative in this condition. 
But it undoubtedly prolongs life, lessens suffering, and by checking 
the growth of bacteria upon the cancer reduces the fetid odour and 
the symptoms of septic intoxication. 

Old turpentine and French oil of turpentine are antidotes to 
phosphorus, forming turpentine-phosphoric acid, which is inert. 

TURPIN (d. c. 800), archbishop of Reims, was for many years 
regarded as the author of the legendary Historia de vita Caroli 
Magni el Rolandi, and appears as one of the twelve peers in a 
number of the chansons de geste. He is probably identical with 
Tilpin, archbishop of Reims in the 8th century, who is alluded 
to by Hincmar, his third successor in the see. According to 
Flodoard, Charles Martel drove Rigobert, archbishop of Reims, 
from his office and replaced him by a warrior clerk named Milo, 
afterwards bishop of Trier. The same writer represents Milo as 
discharging a mission among the Vascones, or Basques, the very 
people to whom authentic history has ascribed the great disaster 
which befell the army of Charlemagne at Roncesvalles. It is 
thus possible that the warlike legends which have gathered around 
the name of Turpin are due to some confusion of his identity with 
that of his martial predecessor. Flodoard says that Tilpin was 
originally a monk at St Denis, and Hincmar tells how after his 
appointment to Reims he occupied himself in securing the restora- 
tion of the rights and properties of his church, the revenues and 
prestige of which had been impaired under Mile's rule. Tilpin 
was elected archbishop between 752 and 768, probably in 755; 
he died, if the evidence of a diploma alluded to by Mabillon may 
be trusted, in 794, although it has been stated that this event 
took place on the 2nd of September 800. Hincmar, who composed 
his epitaph, makes him bishop for over forty years, and from this 
it is evident that he was elected abcut 753, and Flodoard says 
that he died in the forty-seventh year of his archbishopric. Tilpin 
was present at the Council of Rome in 769, and at the request of 
Charlemagne Pope Adrian I. sent him the pallium and confirmed 
the rights of his church. 

The Historia Caroli Magni was declared authentic in 1122 by Pope 
Calixtus II. It is, however, entirely legendary, being rather the 
crystallization of earlier Roland legends than the source of later 
ones, and its popularity seems to date from the latter part of the I2th 
century. Gaston Paris, who made a special study of the Historia, 
considers that the first five chapters were written by a monk of 
Compostella in the nth century and the remainder by a monk of 
Vienne between 1109 and 1119. The popularity of the work is 
attested by the fact that there are at least five French translations 
of the Historia dating from the I3th century and one into Latin verse 
of about the same time. According to August Potthast there are 
about fifty manuscripts of the story in existence. The Historia was 
first printed in 1566 at Frankfort; perhaps the best edition is the 
one edited by F. Castets as Turpini historia Karoli magni et Rotho- 
landi (Paris, 1880). It has been translated many times into French 
and also into German, Danish and English. The English translation 
is by T. Rodd and is in the History of Charles the Great and Orlando, 
ascribed to Turpin (London, 1812). See G. Paris, De pseudo-Turpino 
(Paris, 1865), and Histoire poetique de Charlemagne, new ed. by 
P. Meyer (1905) ; and V. Friedel, " Etudes compostellanes " in Otia 
Merceiana (Liverpool, 1899). 

TURPIN, FRANCOIS HENRI (1709-1799), French man of 
letters, was born at Caen. He was first a professor at the univer- 
sity of his native town, then went to seek his fortunes in Paris, 
where he made some stir in philosophical circles, and especially 
in that of the magnificent Helvetius; but he was only enabled 
with difficulty to earn a livelihood by putting his pen at the ser- 
vice of the booksellers. He translated, or rather adapted from the 
English, Edward W. Montague's Histoire du gouvernement des 
anciennes republiques (1769), and wrote a continuation of Father 
Pierre Joseph d'Orleans, Histoire des revolutions d' Angleterre 
(1786). His Histoire naturelle et civile du royaume de Siam (1771) 
is an interesting but faulty adaptation of the observations of a 
vicar-apostolic who had lived for a long time in that country, 
and who accused Turpin of having misrepresented his ideas. His 
chief work, La France illustre, ou Le Plutarque franf ais, contains 



the biographies of generals, ministers, and eminent officers of 
the law (5 vols., 1777-1790), in which, however, as La Harpe 
said, he showed himself to be " ni Plutarque ni Frangais." 
He also wrote an Histoire des hommes publics tires du tiers Hat 

(1789). 

TURPIN, RICHARD [DICK] (1706-1739), English robber, was 
born in 1706 at Hempstead, near Saffron Walden, Essex, where 
his father kept an alehouse. He was apprenticed to a butcher, 
but, having been detected at cattle-stealing, joined a notorious 
gang of deer-stealers and smugglers in Essex. This gang also 
made a practice of robbing farmhouses, terrorizing the women 
in the absence of their husbands and brothers, and Turpin took 
the lead in this class of outrage. On the gang being broken up 
Turpin went into partnership with Tom King, a well-known high- 
wayman. To avoid arrest he finally left Essex for Lincolnshire 
and Yorkshire, where he set up under an assumed name as a horse 
dealer. He was convicted at York assizes of horse-stealing and 
hanged on the 7th of April 1739. Harrison Ainsworth, in his 
romance Rookwood, gives a spirited account of a wonderful ride 
by Dick Turpin on his mare, Black Bess, from London to York, 
and it is in this connexion that Turpin's name has been generally 
remembered. But as far as Turpin is concerned the incident is 
pure fiction. A somewhat similar story was told about a certain 
John Nevison, known as " Nicks," a well-known highwayman in 
the time of Charles II., who to establish an alibi rode from Gad's 
Hill to York (some 190 m.) in about 15 hours. Both stories are 
possibly only different versions of an old north road myth. 

TURQUOISE, a mineral much used as an ornamental stone for 
the sake of its blue or bluish-green colour. It is generally held that 
the name indicates its source as a stone from Turkey, the finest 
kinds having come from Persia by way of Turkey, whence it was 
called by the Venetians who imported it turchesa, and by the 
French turquoise. The old form turkis, used by Tennyson, agrees 
with the German Turkis. Some authorities have suggested that 
the word may be a corruption of the Persian name of the stone 
piruzeh. Turquoise is a crypto-crystalline mineral, occurring in 
small reniform nodules or as an incrustation, or in thin seams 
and disseminated grains. Its mode of occurrence suggests its 
formation by deposition from solution, and indeed it is sometimes 
found in stalactitic masses. The typical colour is a delicate sky- 
blue, but the blue passes by every transition into green. In some 
cases the colour deteriorates as the stone becomes dry, and may 
be seriously affected by exposure to sunlight; whilst with age 
there is often a tendency to become green, as seen in examples of 
ancient turquoise. The mineral is always opaque in mass, but 
generally translucent in thin splinters. Turquoise takes a fair 
polish, but the lustre is feeble, and inclines to be waxy; the hard- 
ness is nearly 6, the specific gravity between 2-6 and 2-8. 

Much discussion has arisen as to the chemical composition of 
turquoise. It is commonly regarded as a hydrous aluminium 
phosphate having the composition 2A12OYP2CV5H2O or rather 
Al 2 HPO.i(OH)4, coloured with a variable proportion of a copper 
phosphate, or perhaps partly with an iron phosphate. Pro- 
fessor S. L. Penfield, however, has been led by careful analysis 
of turquoise from Nevada to propose the general formula: 
[Al(OH) 2 ,Fe(OH) 2 ,Cu(OH),H] 3 PO 4 . Hence turquoise may be 
regarded chemically as derived from orthophosphoric acid by 
replacement of the hydrogen by the univalent radicles A1(OH)2, 
&c. An ingenious counterfeit of turquoise has been formed by 
compressing a precipitate of cupriferous aluminium phosphate. 

Turquoise is usually cut as an ornamental stone in circular or 
elliptical form, with a low convex surface. In the East, where it 
is used not only for personal ornament but for the decoration of 
dagger-handles, horse-trappings, &c., the pieces are not unusually 
of irregular shape; and when worn as amulets the turquoise is 
often engraved with Oriental inscriptions, generally passages 
from the Koran, the incised characters being gilt or inlaid with 
gold wire. The turquoise has always been associated with 
curious superstitions, the most common being the notion that it 
changes colour with variations in the state of the owner's health 
or even in sympathy with his affections. It is commonly held 
to be a " lucky stone." 



TURRET TURRIS LIBISONIS 



483 



In Persia, where the finest turquoise is found, the mines have been 
worked for at least eight centuries. The workings have been 
described by General Houtum Schindler, an Austrian, who was at 
one time in charge of the mines. The principal locality is north-west 
of the village of Madan, on the southern slopes of Mt Ali-Mirsai, 
a peak near Nishapur, in the province of Khorasan. Here the 
turquoise occurs in narrow seams in a brecciated trachyte-porphyry. 
It is found also in some other localities in Persia and in Turkestan. 
Jean Baptiste Tavernier (1605-1689) states that the best turquoise, 
reserved for the sole use of the shah, was obtained from the Vieille 
Roche, whilst inferior stones were got from the Nouvelle Roche. 
These terms still survive, for turquoise of fine colour is sometimes 
said in trade to be from the " oid rock," and that of pale tint or of 
unstable colours is described as from the " new rock." The latter 
is sometimes not true Oriental turquoise, but the material called 
" bone-turquoise " or odontolite, and known also as " occidental 
turquoise." This is merely fossil bone or ivory coloured by iron 
phosphate (viyianite) or perhaps stained in some cases by cupriferous 
solutions, and is readily distinguished from true turquoise by showing 
organic structure under the microscope. Bone-turquoise occurs in 
Europe; and it may be noted that mineral turquoise also is known 
from certain localities in Saxony and Silesia, but the quantity is very 
limited and the quality poor, so that it has no commercial impor- 
tance. Chrysocolla has been sometimes mistaken in various parts 
ot the world for turquoise. 

In 1849 turquoise was found by Major C. Macdonald in Wadi 
Maghara and Wadi Sidreh in the Sinaitic Peninsula ; and a large series 
of the specimens was shown in the Great Exhibition of 1851. Accor- 
ding to H. Bauerman, who described the locality geologically, the 
turquoise occurs in a red sandstone, in the form of embedded nodules 
and as an incrustation lining the joint-faces. The turquoise was 
worked for some time by Macdonald, and many years afterwards 
workings were resumed on a systematic scale by an English company, 
but without great success. Relics of extensive ancient mining 
operations for turquoise show that the rock was at one time worked 
with flint implements. The locality was examined by Professor 
Flinders Petrie in 1905. 

In ancient Mexico much use was made of turquoise as an inlay for 
mosaic work,, with obsidian, malachite, shell ana iron pyrites. Such 
work is illustrated by fine specimens in the ethnographical gallery 
of the British Museum and elsewhere. Relics of extensive workings 
are found in the mountains of Los Cerillos near Santa F6 in New 
Mexico, where mining for turquoise is now actively carried on. One 
of the hills in which old workings occur has been called Mt 
Chalchihuitl, since it is believed that the turquoise was known by 
the name chalchihuitl, which in some places was applied also to 
jade. Another of the Cerillos hills in which workings have been 
opened up is called Turquoise Hill. The matrix at Los Cerillos is 
described by D. VV. Johnson as an altered angite-andesite, in which 
the turquoise occurs in thin veins and in small nodules in patches of 
kaolin. It appears probable that the alumina of the turquoise was 
derived from the alteration of felspar, and the phosphorus from apa- 
tite in the rock, whilst the copper was brought up by heated vapours 
which altered the andesite. Turquoise is found also at Turquoise 
Mountain, Cochise county, Arizona, and at Mineral Park, Mohave 
county, in the same state; it occurs in the Columbus district, southern 
Nevada; in Fresno county, California; and near Idaho, Clay county, 
Alabama. Mexican turquoise is known from the state of Zacatecas. 
Turquoise was discovered in 1894 near Bodalla, in New South Wales; 
and it has also been found in Victoria. 

Turquoise is sometimes termed by mineralogists callaite, since 
it is believed to be the callais of Pliny a stone which he describes 
as resembling lapis lazuli, but paler, and in colour more like the shal- 
low sea. The callaina of Pliny was a pale green stone from beyond 
India, whilst his cattaica was a kind of turbid callaina. The 
name callainite was suggested by Professor J. D. Dana for a bright 
green mineral which was found in the form of beads, with stone 
hatchets, in ancient graves near Mane'-er-H'roek (Rock of the 
Fairy), near Locmariaquer in Brittany, and which A. Damour 
sought to identify with Pliny's callais. The mineral in question 
seems to be identical with variscite, a hydrous aluminium phosphate 
named by A. Breithaupt, and occurring as a beautiful green amor- 
phous mineral, sometimes polished as an ornamental stone; fine 
examples occur in Utah. Somewhat allied to turquoise is the blue 
mineral called lazulite (to be distinguished from lazurite, see LAPIS 
LAZULI), which has the formula (Fe 2 Mg)AU(OH)(PO4), and has 
occasionally been used as an ornamental stone. (F. W. R.*) 

TURRET (from O. Fr. tourette, diminutive of tour, tower, mod. 
Fr. tourelle), a small tower, especially at the angles of larger 
buildings, sometimes overhanging and built on corbels, when it is 
often called a " bartizan " (q.v.), and sometimes rising from the 
ground. 

TURRETIN, or TURRETINI, the name of three Swiss divines. 

BENOIT TURRETIN (1588-1631), the son of Francesco Turretini, 
a native of Lucca, who settled in Geneva in 1579, was born at 
Zurich on the Qth of November 1588. He was ordained a pastor 
in Geneva in 1612, and became professor of theology in 1618. 



In 1620 he represented the Genevan Church at the national synod 
of Alais, when the decrees of the synod of Dort were introduced 
into France; and in 1621 he was sent on a successful mission to the 
states-general of Holland, and to the authorities of the Hanseatic 
towns, with reference to the defence of Geneva against the 
threatened attacks of the duke of Savoy. He published in 1618- 
1620 (2 vols.) a defence of the Genevan translation of the Bible, 
Eine Verteidigung der genfer Bibelubersetzung (Defense de la 
fidelite des traductions de la Bible faites d Geneve), against P. 
Cotton's Geneve plagiaire. He died on the 4th of March 1631. 

FRANCOIS TURRETIN (1623-1687), son of the preceding, was 
born at Geneva on the i7th of October 1623. After studying 
theology in Geneva, Leiden and France, he became pastor of the 
Italian congregation in Geneva in 1647 ; after a brief pastorate at 
Lyons he again returned to Geneva as professor of theology in 
1653, having modestly declined a professorship of philosophy in 
1650. He was one of the most influential supporters of the 
Formula Consensus Helvetica, drawn up chiefly by Johann 
Heinrich Heidegger (1633-1698), in 1675, and of the particular 
type of Calvinistic theology which that symbol embodied, and an 
opponent of the theology of Moses Amyraut and the school of 
Saumur. His Institutio theologicae elencticae (3 vols., Geneva 
1680-1683) has passed through frequent editions, the last reprint 
having been made in Edinburgh in 1847-1848. He was also the 
author of volumes entitled De satisfactione Christi disputationes 
(Geneva, 1666) and De necessaria secessione nostra ab ecclesia 
romana (Geneva, 1687). He died on the 28th of September 1687. 

JEAN ALPHONSE TURRETIN (1671-1737), son of the preceding, 
was born at Geneva on the i3th of August 1671. He studied 
theology at Geneva under L. Tronchin, and after travelling in 
Holland, England and France was received into the " Venerable 
Compagnie des Pasteurs " of Geneva in 1693. Here he became 
pastor of the Italian congregation, and in 1697 professor of church 
history, and later (1705) of theology. During the next forty 
years of his life he enjoyed great influence in Geneva as the ad- 
vocate of a more liberal theology than had prevailed under the 
preceding generation, and it was largely through his instrumen- 
tality that the rule obliging ministers to subscribe to the Formula 
Consensus Helvetica was abolished in 1706, and the Consensus 
itself renounced in 1725. He also wrote and laboured for the 
promotion of union between the Reformed and Lutheran 
Churches, his most important work in this connexion being 
Nubes testium pro moderato et pacifico de rebus theologicis judi- 
cio, et instituenda inter Protestantes concordia (Geneva, 1729). 
Besides this he wrote Cogitationes et disserlationes theologicae, 
on the principles of natural and revealed religion (2 vols., 
Geneva, 1737; in French, Traiti de la virile de la religion 
chrftienne) and commentaries on Thessalonians and Romans. 
He died on the ist of May 1737. 

See E. de Bud6, Francois et J. AlpJtonse Turretini (2 vols., 1880). 
and Lettres incites d Jean Alphonse Turretini (3 vols., 1887-1888); 
F. Turretini, Notice biographique sur Benedict Turretini (1871); 
C. Borgeaud, Histoire de I'universite de Geneve (1900). 

TURRIFF, a municipal and police burgh of Aberdeenshire, 
Scotland. Pop. (1901), 2273. It lies near the Deveron, 385 m. 
N.W. of Aberdeen by the Great North of Scotland railway, via 
Inveramsay. In the choir of the ancient church, now in ruins, 
is a fresco painting of St Ninian. On the i4th of May 1639 the 
national struggle for civil and religious h'berty was inaugurated 
in the county with the skirmish known as the Trot of Turriff. 
Some 4 m. south are the remains of the castle of Towie Barclay, 
the seat of the old family of the Barclays. 

TURRIS LIBISONIS (mod. Porto Torres, q.v.), an ancient 
seaport town of Sardinia, situated at the north-western extremity 
of the island, and connected with Carales by two roads, 
which diverged at Othoca, one (the more important) keeping 
inland and the other following the west coast. It was probably 
of purely Roman origin, founded apparently by Julius Caesar, 
as it bears the title Colonia Julia; and in Pliny's time it 
was the only colony in the island. It is noteworthy that it 
apparently belonged to one of the urban tribes, the Collina; 
Puteoli, which belonged to the Palatina is the only other 



TURSHIZ TUSCANY 



exception to the rule that municipia and coloniae were not 
enrolled in the urban tribes. A Roman bridge of seven arches, 
somewhat restored in modern times, the ruins of a temple (now 
known as II Palazzo del Re Barbaro), which an inscription 
found there shows to have been restored (A.D. 247-249) by the 
praefectus of the province, together with the basilica, an aque- 
duct, various buildings (S. Valero Usni in Notizie degli scavi 
(1882), 121, A. Taramelli,ibid. (1904), 145) and some rock tombs, 

still exist. 

The inscriptions from Turris Libisonis are given by Th. Mommsen 
in Corp. inscr. lat, x. 826 ; V. DessJ in Notizie degli scavi ( 1 898) , 260 ; 
A. Taramelli, ibid. (1904), 141. One of them (C.I.L. No. 7954) 
mentions the construction of a fountain basin, another the construc- 
tion of a quay (ripa turritana) : substructions may still be seen under 
water when the sea is clear. (T. As.) 

TURSHIZ, a district of the province of Khorasan in Persia, 
lying E. of the great salt desert. It has a population of nearly 
20,000 and pays a yearly revenue of about 7000. It produces 
and exports wool, cotton, silk and much dried fruit, of the latter 
particularly raisins and Alu Bukhara, " Bokhara prunes." 
The chief place and capital of the district is Sultanabad, gener- 
ally called Turshiz, like the district, situated 225 m. south-east 
by east from Shahrud and 100 m. south-west from Meshed, in 
35 10' N. 58 34' E., at an elevation of 2200 ft. It is 
surrounded by a dilapidated wall and has a population of 
about 8000. 

TURTON, an urban district in the Westhoughton parlia- 
mentary division of Lancashire, England, 4 m. N. of Bolton, 
on the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901), 12,355. 
Its modern growth is the result of the development of the cotton 
trade in its various branches; and there are large stone quarries 
in the vicinity. There remains in the township a curious 
building named Turton Tower, dating principally from the i6th 
century, and containing some fine contemporary woodwork. 

TUSCALOOSA, a city and the county-seat of Tuscaloosa 
county, Alabama, U.S.A., in the west-central part of the state, on 
the Black Warrior river, about 55 m. S.W. of Birmingham and 
about 100 m. N.W. of Montgomery. Pop. (1900), 5094; (local 
census, 1908), 7140 (3551 negroes); (1910 U.S. census), 8407. 
It is served by the Alabama Great Southern and the Mobile & Ohio 
railways. The Black Warrior river, formerly not navigable 
beyond Tuscaloosa, has been improved by the United States 
government, and there are three locks in or near the city. 
Tuscaloosa lies between the foothills of the Appalachians 
to the north-east and the low alluvial valley of the Black 
Warrior. It has many old-fashioned residences and gardens, 
and a fine Federal building. It is the seat of the university 
of Alabama; of the Alabama Central Female College (Baptist, 
1858), which occupies the old state capitol; of the Tusca- 
loosa Female College (Methodist Episcopal, South, 1860); 
of Stillman Institute (Presbyterian, 1876; originally the 
Tuscaloosa Institute for the Education of Coloured Ministers; 
named in honour of its founder, Dr Charles A. Stillman, 
in 1897); and of Alabama Bryce Hospital for the Insane 
(1861). The university of Alabama was founded by an act 
of the state legislature of 1820, the United States government 
having donated 46,080 acres of public lands for this purpose 
in the preceding year; in 1831 the university was opened at 
Tuscaloosa, then the state capital. On the 4th of April 1865 
all the buildings of the university, except the observatory, were 
burned by a body of Federal cavalry, and the university was 
closed thereafter until 1869; in 1884 the United States govern- 
ment gave another 46,080 acres of public lands in restitution, 
and in 1907 the state legislature appropriated $445,000 for new 
buildings. The university is a part of the public school system 
of the state, and is governed by a board of trustees, consisting 
of the governor and the superintendent of education of the state, 
of two members from the congressional district in which the 
university is situated, and of one member from each of the other 
congressional districts of the state. The university includes, 
besides a college and a graduate school, departments of engineer- 
ing, law, medicine (formerly the Medical College of Alabama, 
established in 1859) and pharmacy (the two last in Mobile), 



and a summer school for teachers, and in 1908-9 had 60 instructors 
and 887 students. In the city there are several manufacturing 
establishments, principally cotton and lumber mills; and in the 
immediate vicinity there are important coal, coke and iron 
interests there is a large iron furnace, pipe foundry and coking 
plant at Holt, about 4 m. north-east of the city. 

Tuscaloosa derives its name from an Indian chief, who, 
after a desperate battle with De Soto at Mauvilla (the site of 
which is not definitely known) in 1540, is said to have hanged 
himself in order to escape capture, and is commemorated by a 
granite monolith in the Court House Square; the name is said 
to mean " black warrior." The first settlement of whites was 
made in 1815. The city was chartered in 1819, and in 1826-1846 
it was the capital of Alabama. 

TUSCANA (mod. Toscanella, q.v.), an ancient town of Etruria, 
about 15 m. N.E. of Tarquinii. It is hardly mentioned in 
ancient literature; it was a station on the road from Blera to 
Saturnia, a prolongation of the Via Clodia. On the hill of S. 
Pietro are remains of walling of the Roman period. A number 
of Etruscan tombs were found by the Campanari brothers in 
the igth century, and their valuable contents are in various 
European museums. 

TUSCANY (Toscand). a territorial division of Italy, consisting 
of the western part of the centre of the peninsula, bounded N.W. 
by Liguria and Emilia, E. by the Marches and Umbria, S.E. by 
the province of Rome and W. by the Mediterranean. It con- 
sists of eight provinces, Arezzo, Firenze (Florence), Grosseto, 
Livorno (Leghorn), Lucca, Massa-Carrara, Pisa and Siena, 
and has an area of 9304 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 2,566,741. The 
chief railway centre is Florence, whence radiate lines to Bologna 
(for Milan and the north), Faenza, Lucca, Pisa and Leghorn, 
and Arezzo for Rome. Siena stands on a branch leaving the 
Florence-Pisa line at Empoli and running through the centre of 
Tuscany to Chiusi, where it joins the Florence-Rome railway. 
The line from Rome to Genoa runs along the coast throughout 
the entire length of Tuscany, and at Montepescali throws off 
a branch joining the Empoli-Chiusi line at Asciano, and at 
Follonica another to Massa Marittima. 

Except towards the coast and around Lucca, Florence and 
Arezzo, where the beds of prehistoric lakes form plains, the 
country is hilly, being intersected with sub-Apennine spurs. 
The most fertile country in Tuscany is in the valley of the 
Arno, where the plains and slopes of the hills are highly culti- 
vated. In strong contrast with this is the coast plain known 
as the Maremma, 850 sq. m. in extent, where malaria has been 
prevalent since the depopulation of the country in the middle 
ages. Here in the first half of the igth century the grand duke 
Leopold II. of Tuscany began an elaborate system of drainage, 
which was gradually extended until it covered nearly the whole 
of the district. The greater part of the Maremma now affords 
pasture to large herds of horses and half-wild cattle, but on the 
drier parts corn is grown, the people coming down from the hills 
to sow and to reap. The hill country just inland, especially 
near Volterra, has poor soil, largely clayey, and subject to land- 
slips, but is rich in minerals. But for the Maremma, Tuscany 
is one of the most favoured regions of Italy. The climate is 
temperate, and the rainfall not excessive. The Apennines 
shelter it from the cold north winds, and the prevailing winds 
in the west, blowing in from the Tyrrhenian Sea, are warm and 
humid, though Florence is colder and more windy than Rome 
in the winter and hotter in summer, owing to its being shut 
in among the mountains. Wheat, maize, wine (especially the 
red wine which takes the name of Chianti from the district 
S.S.W. of Florence), olive oil, tobacco, chestnuts and flowers 
are the chief products of Tuscany. Mules, sheep and cattle 
are bred, and beeswax is produced in large quantities. But the 
real wealth of Tuscany lies in its minerals. Iron, mercury, 
boracic acid, copper, salt, lignite, statuary marble, alabaster 
and Sienese earth are all found in considerable quantities, while 
mineral and hot springs abound, some of which (e.g. Montecatini 
and Bagni di Lucca) are well known as health resorts. The 
industries of Tuscany are exceedingly varied and carried on 



TUSCANY 



485 



with great activity. There are universities at Pisa and Siena. 
Viareggio and Leghorn are much frequented for sea-bathing, 
while the latter is a prosperous port. 

The main art centres of Tuscany are Florence, Pisa and Siena, 
the headquarters of the chief schools of painting a.nd sculpture 
from the i3th century onwards. While the former city, however, 
bore as prominent a part as any in Italy in the Renaissance, 
the art of Pisa ceased, owing to the political decline of the city, 
to make any advance at a comparatively early period, its impor-. 
tance being in ecclesiastical architecture in the i2th, and in 
sculpture in the i3th century. Siena, too, never accepted the 
Renaissance to the full, and its art retained an individual 
character without making much progress. 

The language of Tuscany is remarkable for its purity of idiom, 
and its adoption by Dante and Petrarch probably led to 
its becoming the literary language of Italy. (See ITALIAN 
LANGUAGE, vol. xiv. p. 895.) 

See E. Repetti, Dizionario geografico fisico storico della Toscana 
(6 yols., Florence, 1834-1846). See also G. Dennis, Cities and Ceme- 
teries of Etruria (2 vols., London, 1883). On medieval and Renais- 
sance architecture and art there are innumerable works. Among 
those on architecture may be mentioned the great work of H. von 
Geymuller and A. Widmann, Die Architektur der Renaissance in 
Toscana. (T. As.) 

History. Etruria (q.v.) was finally annexed to Rome in 
351 B.C., and constituted the seventh of the eleven regions 
into which Italy was, for administrative purposes, divided by 
Augustus. Under Constantine it was united into one province 
with Umbria, an arrangement which subsisted until at least 
400, as the Notitia speaks of a " consularis Tusciae et Umbriae." 
In Ammianus Marcellinus there is implied a distinction between 
" Tuscia suburbicaria " and " Tuscia annonaria," the latter 
being that portion which lies to the north of the Arno. After 
the fall of the Western empire Tuscia, with other provinces of 
Italy, came successively under the sway of Herulians, Ostrogoths, 
and Greek and Lombard dukes. Under the last-named, " Tuscia 
Langobardorum," comprising the districts of Viterbo, Corneto 
and Bolsena, was distinguished from " Tuscia Regni," which 
lay more to the north. Under Charlemagne the name of Tuscia 
or Toscana became restricted to the latter only. One of the 
earliest of the Frankish marquises was Boniface, either first 
or second of that name, who about 828 fought with success 
against the Saracens in Africa. Adalbert I., who succeeded 
him, in 878 espoused the cause of Carloman as against his brother 
Louis III. of France, and suffered excommunication and im- 
prisonment in consequence. Adalbert II. (the Rich), who 
married the ambitious Bertha, daughter of Lothair, king of 
Lorraine, took a prominent part in the politics of his day. A sub- 
sequent marquis, Hugo (the Great), became also duke of Spoleto 
in 989. The male line of marquises ended with Boniface II. 
(or III.), who was murdered in 1052. His widow, Beatrice, 
in 1055 married Godfrey, duke of Lorraine, and governed the 
country till her death in 1076, when she was succeeded by Matilda 
(q.v.), her only child by her first husband. Matilda died in 1114 
without issue, bequeathing all her extensive possessions to the 
Church. The consequent struggle between the popes, who 
claimed the inheritance, and the emperors, who maintained that 
the countess had no right to dispose of imperial fiefs, enabled 
the principal cities of Tuscany gradually to assert their indepen- 
dence. The most important of these Tuscan republics were 
Florence, Pisa, Siena, Arezzo, Pistoia and Lucca. 

The Return of the Medici. After the surrender of Florence 
to the Imperialists in August 1530 the Medici power was re- 
established by the emperor Charles V. and Pope Clement VII., 
although certain outward forms of republicanism were preserved, 
and Alessandro de' Medici was made duke of Florence, the dignity 
to be hereditary in the family. In the reign of Cosimo III. 
Siena was annexed (1559); the title of grand duke of Tuscany 
wa.s conferred on that ruler in 1567 by Pope Pius V. and recog- 
nized in the person of Francis I. by the emperor Maximilian II. 
in 1576. Under a series of degenerate Medici the history of 
Tuscany is certainly not a splendid record, and few events of 
importance occurred save court scandals. The people became 



more and more impoverished and degraded, a new and shoddy 
nobility was created and granted wide privileges, and art and 
letters declined. Giovan Gastone was the last Medicean grand 
duke; being childless, it was agreed by the treaty of Vienna 
that at his death Tuscany should be given to Francis, duke of 
Lorraine, husband of the archduchess Maria Theresa, afterwards 
empress. In 1737 Giovan Gastone died, 1 and Francis II., after 
taking possession of the grand duchy, appointed a regency under 
the prince of Craon and departed for Austria never to return. 
Tuscany was governed by a series of foreign regents and was 
a prey to adventurers from Lorraine and elsewhere; although 
the administration was not wholly inefficient and introduced 
some useful reforms, the people were ground by taxes to pay for 
the apanage of Francis in Vienna and for Austrian wars, and 
reduced to a state of great poverty. Francis, who had been 
elected emperor in 1745, died in 1765, and was succeeded on 
the throne of the grand duchy by his younger son, Leopold I. 

Leopold resided in Tuscany and proved one of the most capable 
and remarkable of the reforming princes of the i8th century. 
He substituted Tuscans for foreigners in government fhe 
offices, introduced a system of free trade in food- Reforms or 
stuffs (at the suggestion of the Sienese Sallustio Leopold II. 
Bandini), promoted agriculture, and reclaimed wide areas of 
marshland to intensive cultivation. He reorganized taxation 
on a basis of equality for all citizens, thereby abolishing one of 
the most vexatious privileges of the nobility, reformed the 
administration of justice and local government, suppressed 
torture and capital punishment, and substituted a citizen militia 
for the standing army. His reforms in church matters made a 
great stir at the time, for he curbed the power of the clergy, 
suppressed some religious houses, reduced the mortmain and 
rejected papal interference. With the aid of Scipione de' Ricci, 
bishop of Pistoia, he even attempted to remove abuses, reform 
church discipline and purify religious worship; but Ricci's 
action was condemned by Rome. Ricci was forced to resign, 
and the whole movement came to nothing. (See PISTOIA, 
SYNOD OF.) The grand duke also contemplated granting a 
form of constitution, but his Teutonic rigidity was not popular 
and many of his reforms were ahead of the times and not 
appreciated by the people. At the death of his brother, 
Joseph II., in 1790, Leopold became emperor, and repaired to 
Vienna. After a brief regency he appointed his second son, 
Ferdinand III., who had been born and brought up in 
Tuscany, grand duke. 

During the French revolutionary wars Ferdinand tried to 
maintain neutrality so as to avoid foreign invasions, but in 
1799 a French force entered Florence and was 
welcomed by a small number of republicans. The occupation 
grand duke was forced to fly, the " tree of liberty " 
was set up, and a provisional government on French lines 
established. But the great mass of the people were horrified 
at the irreligious character of the new regime, and a counter- 
revolution, fomented by Pope Pius VII., the grand ducalists 
and the clergy, broke out at Arezzo. Bands of armed peasants 
marched through the country to the cry of " Viva Maria!" and 
expelled the French, not without committing many atrocities. 
With the assistance of the Austrians, who put an end to disorder, 
Florence was occupied and the grand ducalists established a 
government in the name of Ferdinand. But after Napoleon 
Bonaparte's victory at Marengo the French returned in great 
force, dispersed the bands, and re-entered Florence (October 
1800). They too committed atrocities and sacked the churches, 
but they were more warmly welcomed than before by the people, 
who had experienced Austro-Aretine rule. Joachim Murat 
(afterwards king of Naples) set up a provisional government, 
and by the peace of Luneville Tuscany was made a part of 
the Spanish dominions and erected into the kingdom of Etruria 
under Louis, duke of Parma. (1801). The new king died in 
1803, leaving an infant son, Charles Louis, under the regency of 
his widow, Marie Louise of Spain. Marie Louise ruled with 

'The history of Tuscany from 1530 to 1737 is given in greater 
detail under MEDICI. 



486 



TUSCARORA TUSCULUM 



reactionary and clerical tendencies until 1807, when the 
emperor Napoleon obliged Charles IV. of Spain to cede Tuscany 
to him, compensating Charles Louis in Portugal. 

From 1807 to 1809, when Napoleon's sister, Elisa Baciocchi, 
was made grand duchess, Tuscany was ruled by a French 
administrator-general; the French codes were introduced, and 
Tuscany became a French department. French ideas had gained 
some adherents among the Tuscans, but to the majority the 
new institutions, although they produced much progress, 
were distasteful as subversive of cherished traditions. After 
Napoleon's defeats in 1814 Murat seceded from the emperor and 
occupied Tuscany, which he afterwards handed over to Austria, 
and in September Ferdinand III. returned, warmly welcomed 
by nearly everybody, for French rule had proved oppressive, 
especially on account of the heavy taxes and the drain of con- 
scription. At the Congress of Vienna he was formally reinstated 
with certain additions of territory and the reversion of Lucca. On 
Napoleon's escape from Elba Murat turned against the Austrians, 
and Ferdinand had again to leave Florence temporarily; but he 
returned after Waterloo, and reigned until his death in 1824. 

The restoration in Tuscany was unaccompanied by the excesses 
which characterized it elsewhere, and much of the French legisla- 
tion was retained. Ferdinand was succeeded by his 
Restoration. son > Leopold II., who continued his father's policy 
of benevolent but somewhat enervating despotism, 
which produced marked effects on the Tuscan character. In 1847 
Lucca was incorporated in the grand duchy. When the political 
excitement consequent on the election of Pius IX. spread to 
Tuscany, Leopold made one concession after another, and in 
February 1848 granted the constitution. A Tuscan contingent 
took part in the Piedmontese campaign against Austria, but 
the increase of revolutionary agitation in Tuscany, culminating 
in the proclamation of the republic (Feb. 9, 1849) , led to Leopold's 
departure for Gaeta to confer with the pope and the king of 
Naples. Disorder continuing and a large part of the population 
being still loyal to him, he was invited to return, and he did 
so, but accepted the protection of an Austrian army, by which 
act he forfeited his popularity (July 1849). In 1852 he formally 
abrogated the constitution, and three years later the Austrians 
departed. When in 1859 a second war between Piedmont and 
Austria became imminent, the revolutionary agitation, never 
completely quelled, broke out once more. There was a division 
of opinion between the moderates, who favoured a constitutional 
Tuscany under Leopold, but forming part of an Italian federation, 
and the popular party, who aimed at the expulsion of the house 
of Lorraine and the unity of Italy under Victor Emmanuel. 
At last a compromise was arrived at and the grand duke was 
requested to abdicate in favour of his son, grant a constitution, 
and take part in the war against Austria. Leopold having 
rejected these demands, the Florentines rose as one man and 
obliged him to quit Tuscany (April 27, 1859). A provisional 
government, led by Ubaldino Beruzzi and afterwards by Bettino 
Ricasoli, was established. It declared war against Austria 
and then handed over its authority to Boncompagni, the Sar- i 
dinian royal commissioner (May 9). A few weeks later a French ! 



force under Prince Napoleon landed in Tuscany to threaten 
Austria's flank, but in the meanwhile the emperor Napoleon 
made peace with Austria and agreed to the restoration of Leopold 
and other Italian princes. Victor Emmanuel was obliged to 
recall the royal commissioners, but together with Cavour he 
secretly encouraged the provisional governments to resist the 
return of the despots, and the constituent assemblies of Tuscany, 
Romagna and the duchies voted for annexation to Sardinia. 
A Central Italian military league and a customs union were 
formed, and Cavour having overcome Napoleon's opposition 
by ceding Nice and Savoy, the king accepted the annexations 
and appointed his kinsman, Prince Carignano, viceroy of Central 
Italy with Ricasoli as governor-general (March 22, 1860). 
Union with The Sardinian parliament which met in April con- 
the Italian tained deputies from Central Italy, and after the 
kingdom, occupation of the Neapolitan provinces and Sicily 
the kingdom of Italy was proclaimed (Feb. 18, 1861). In 



1865, in consequence of the Franco-Italian convention' of 
September 1864, the capital was transferred from Turin to 
Florence, where it remained until it was removed to Rome in 
1871. 

Since the union with Italy, Tuscany has ceased to constitute 
a separate political entity, although the people still preserve 
definite regional characteristics.' It has increased in wealth 
and education, and owing to a good system of land tenure the 
peasantry are among the most prosperous in Italy. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. A. yon Reumqnt, Geschichte Tescanas (2 vols., 
Gotha, 1876-1877) ; Zobi, Storia civile delta Toscana (Florence, 1850) ; 
E. Robiony, Gli ultimi dei Medici (Florence, 1905) ; C. Tivaroni, 
Storia critica del risorgimento italiano (9 vols., Turin, 1888, &c.); 
M. Bartolommei-Gioli, // Rivolgimento toscano e Vazione popolare 
(Florence, 1905). See also under FLORENCE; MEDICI; FERDINAND 
III.; LEOPOLD II.; BARTOLOMMEI; RICASOLI, &c. (L. V.*) 

TUSCARORA, a tribe of North American Indians of Iroquoian 
stock. Their former range was on the Neuse river, North Caro- 
lina. Here in 1700 they lived in fifteen villages and were esti- 
mated at 6000. In 1711, as a protest against the encroachments 
on their territory, they declared war on the white settlers. After 
two years they were defeated and fled north to the Iroquois, 
in whose famous league they became the sixth nation, settling 
on the territory of the Oneida Indians, in New York state. In 
the War of American Independence some of the tribe fought for 
the English and some against them. The remnant of them 
is divided between reservations in Canada and New York, and 
numbers about 700. 

TUSCULUM, an ancient city of Latium, situated in a command- 
ing position on the north edge of the outer crater ring of the Alban 
volcano, 15 m. N.E. of the modern Frascati. The highest point 
is 2198 ft. above sea-level. It has a very extensive view of the 
Campagna, with Rome lying 15 m. distant to the north-west. 
Rome was approached by the Via Latina (from which a branch 
road ascended to Tusculum, while the main road passed through 
the valley to the south of it), or by the Via Tusculana (though 
the antiquity of the latter road is doubtful). 

According to tradition, the city was founded by Telegonusj 
the son of Ulysses and Circe. When Tarquinius Superbus was 
expelled from Rome his cause was espoused by the chief of 
Tusculum, Octavius Mamilius, who took a leading part in the 
formation of the Latin League, composed of the thirty principal 
cities of Latium, banded together against Rome. Mamilius 
commanded the Latin army at the battle of Lake Regillus 
(497 B.C.), but was killed, and the predominance of Rome among 
the Latin cities was practically established. According to some 
accounts Tusculum became from that time an ally of Rome, 
and on that account frequently incurred the hostility of the 
other Latin cities. In 381 B.C., after an expression of complete 
submission to Rome, the people of Tusculum received the Roman 
franchise, but without the vote, and thenceforth the city con- 
tinued to hold the rank of a municipium. Other accounts, 
however, speak of Tusculum as often allied with Rome's enemies 
last of all with the Samnites in 323 B.C. Several of the chief 
Roman families were of Tusculan origin, e.g. the gentes Mamilia, 
Fulvia, Fonteia, Juventia and Porcia; to the last-named the 
celebrated Catos belonged. The town council kept the name 
of senate, but the title of dictator gave place to that of aedile. 
Notwithstanding this, and the fact that a special college of 
Roman equitcs was formed to take charge of the cults of the 
gods at Tusculum, and especially of the Dioscuri, the citizens 
resident there were neither numerous nor men of distinction. 
The villas of the neighbourhood had indeed acquired greater 
importance than the not easily accessible town itself, and by the 
end of the Republic, and still more during the imperial period, 
the territory of Tusculum was one of the favourite places of 
residence of the wealthy Romans. The number and extent 
of the remains almost defy description, and can only be made 
clear by a map. Even in the time of Cicero we hear of eighteen 
owners of villas there. Much of the territory (including Cicero's 
villa), but not the town itself, which lies far too high, was supplied 
with water by the Aqua Crabra. On the hill of Tusculum itself 
are remains of a small theatre (excavated in 1839), with a 



TUSKEGEE TUSSAUD, MADAME 



487 



reservoir behind it, and an amphitheatre. Both belong probably 
to the imperial period, and so does a very large villa (the sub- 
structures of which are preserved), by some attributed, but 
wrongly, to Cicero, by others to Tiberius, near the latter. Be- 
tween the amphitheatre and the theatre is the site of the Forum, 
of which nothing is now visible, and to the south on a projecting 
spur were tombs of the Roman period. There are also many 
remains of houses and villas. The citadel which stood on the 
highest point an abrupt rock was approached only on one side, 
that towards the city, and even here by a steep ascent of 
1 50 ft. Upon it remains of the medieval castle, which stood here 
until 1191, aione are visible. The city walls, of which some 
remains still exist below the theatre, are built of blocks of the 
native " lapis Albanus " or peperino. They probably belong 
to the republican period. Below them is a well-house, with 
a roof formed of a pointed arch generally held to go back to a 
somewhat remote antiquity, but hardly with sufficient reason. 

The most interesting associations of the city are those con- 
nected with Cicero, whose favourite residence and retreat for 
study and literary work was at, or rather near, Tusculum. It 
T/as here that he composed his celebrated Tusculan Disputa- 
tions and other philosophical works. Much has been wiitten 
on the position of his villa, but its true site still remains doubtful. 
The theory, which places it at or near Grotta Ferrata, some 
distance farther to the west, has most evidence to support it. 
Although Cicero ( Pro Sestio, 43) speaks of his own house as being 
insignificant in size compared to that of his neighbour Gabinius, 
yet we gather from other notices in various parts of his works 
that it was a considerable building. It comprised two gymnasia 
(Div. i. 5), with covered porticus for exercise and philosophical 
discussion (Tusc. Disp. ii. 3). One of these, which stood on 
higher ground, was called " the Lyceum," and contained a 
library (Div. ii. 3); the other, on a lower site, shaded by rows of 
trees, was called " the Academy." The main building con- 
tained a covered porticus, or cloister, with apsidal recesses (exedrae) 
containing seats (see Ad Fam. vii. 23). It also had bathrooms 
(Ad Fam. xiv. 20), and contained a number of works of art, 
both pictures and statues in bronze and marble (Ep. ad Alt. 
i. i, 8, 9, 10). The central atrium appears to have been small, 
as Cicero speaks of it as an atriolum (Ad Quint. Fr. iii. i). The 
cost of this and the other house which he built at Pompeii led to 
his being burdened with debt (Ep. ad Alt. ii. i). Nothing now 
exists which can be asserted to be part of Cicero's villa with any 
degree of certainty. During the imperial period little is recorded 
about Tusculum; but soon after the transference of the seat of 
empire to Constantinople it became a very important stronghold, 
and for some centuries its counts occupied a leading position in 
Rome and were specially influential in the selection of the popes. 
During the I2th century there were constant struggles between 
Rome and Tusculum, and towards the close of the century (1191) 
the Romans, supported by the German emperor, gained the 
upper hand, and the walls of Tusculum, together with the whole 
city, were destroyed. 

See L. Canina, Descr. dell' anlico Tusculo (Rome, 1841); A. Nibby, 
Dintorni di Roma, iii. 293 (2nd ed., Rome, 1841); H. Dessau in 
Corp. inscript. lot. pp. 252 sqq. (Berlin, 1887); F. Grossi-Gondi, 
// Tuscolano ndV eld, classica (Rome, 1907) ; T. Ashby in Papers 
of the British School at Rome, iv. 5 (London, 1907, 1909). (T. As.) 

TUSKEGEE, a town and county-seat of Macon county, Ala- 
bama, U.S.A., in the east part of the state, about 40 m. E. of 
Montgomery. Pop. (1900) 2170; (1910) 2803. It is served 
by the Tuskegee railway, which connects it with Chehaw, 5 m. 
distant, on the Western railway of Alabama. The city manu- 
factures cotton seed. Tuskegee is chiefly known for its educa- 
tional institutions the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial 
Institute and the Alabama Conference Female College (Methodist 
Episcopal Church, South; opened 1856). The former was 
founded in 1880 by an act of the state legislature as the Tuskegee 
State Normal School, and was opened in July 1881 by Booker T. 
Washington for the purpose of giving an industrial education 
to negroes; in 1893 it was incorporated under its present name. 
In 1899 the national Congress granted to the school 25,000 acres 
of mineral lands, of which 20,000 acres, valued at $200,000, 



were unsold in 1909. Andrew Carnegie gave $600,000 to the 
institute in 1903, and the institute has a Carnegie library (1902), 
with about 15,000 volumes in 1909. In 1909 theendowment was 
about $1,389,600, and the school property was valued at about 
$1,117,660. It had in 1909 a property of 2345 acres (of which 
1000 were farm lands, 1145 pasture and wood lands, and 200 
school campus), and 100 buildings, many of brick, and nearly 
all designed and constructed, even to the making of the bricks, 
by the teachers and students. The state of Alabama appro- 
priated $2000 for teachers' salaries in 1880, increased the 
appropriation to $3000 in 1884, and for many years gave $4500 
annually; the school receives $10,000 annually from the John 
F. Slater Fund, and the same sum from the General Education 
Board. The institute comprises an academic department (in 
which all students are enrolled) with a seven years' course, 
the Phelps Hall bible training school (1892), with a three years' 
course, and departments of mechanical industries, industries 
for girls, and agriculture. The department of agriculture has an 
experiment station, established by the state in 1896, in which 
important experiments in cotton breeding have been carried on. 
There are a farm, a large truck garden, an orchard, and a bakery 
and canning factory. Forty different industries are taught. 
Cooking schools and night schools are carried on by the institute 
in the town of Tuskegee. In 1908-1909 the enrolment was 
1494 students, of whom about one-quarter were women, and 
there were 167 teachers, all negroes. Tuition in the institute 
is free; board and living cost $8.50 a month; day students are 
allowed to " work-out " $i.so-$3.oo a month of this amount, 
and night students may thus pay all their expenses. At Tuskegee 
under the auspices of the institute are held the annual negro 
conferences (begun in 1891) and monthly farmers' institutes 
(begun in 1897); and short courses in agriculture (begun in 1904) 
are conducted. Farmers' institutes are held throughout the 
South by teachers of the school. In 1905 the institute took up 
the work of rural school extension. A model negro village 
(South Greenwood) has been built west of the institute grounds 
on land bought by the institute in 1901. Affiliated with the 
institute and having its headquarters in Tuskegee is the National 
Negro Business League (1900). The success of the institute 
is due primarily to its founder and principal, Booker T. Washing- 
ton, and to the efficient board of trustees, which has included 
such men as Robert C. Ogden and Seth Low. Tuskegee was 
settled about 1800. 

See Booker T. Washington, Working With the Hands (New York, 
1904); and Thrasher, Tuskegee, Its Story and Its Work (Boston, 
1900). 

TUSSAUD, MARIE (1760-1850), founder of "Madame 
Tussaud's Exhibition " of wax figures in London, was born in 
Berne in 1760, the daughter of Joseph Grosholtz (d. 1760), an 
army officer. Her uncle, a doctor of Berne, John Christopher 
Curtius, had attracted the attention of the prince de Conti by his 
beautiful anatomical wax models, and had been induced to move 
to Paris, abandon his profession, and practise wax modelling as 
a fine art. His house became the resort of many of the talented 
men of the day, and here he brought his niece at the age of six, 
and taught her to model in wax. She became such an adept 
that she early modelled many of the great people of France, 
and was finally sent for to stay at the palace at Versailles 
to instruct the sister of Louis XVI., Mme Elizabeth, in the 
popular craze. It was from Curtius's exhibition that the mob 
obtained the busts of Necker and the duke of Orleans that 
were carried by the procession when on the i2th of July 1789 
the first blood of the French Revolution was shed. During the 
terrible days that followed Marie Grosholtz was called upon to 
model the heads of many of the prominent leaders and victims 
of the Revolution, and was herself for three months a prisoner, 
having fallen under the suspicion of the committee of public 
safety. In 1794 she married a Frenchman named Tussaud, 
from whom she was separated in 1800. Her uncle having 
died in the former year, after some difficulty she secured per- 
mission from Napoleon to leave France, and she took with her 
to London the nucleus of her collection from the cabinet de cite 



4 88 



TUSSER, T. TUTTLINGEN 



in the Palais Royal, and the idea of her " Chamber of Horrors " 
from Curtius's Caverne des Grands Voleurs, in the Boulevard 
du Temple. Her wax figures were successfully shown in the 
Strand on the site of the Lyceum theatre, and through the 
provinces, and finally the exhibition was established in per- 
manent London quarters in Baker Street in 1833. Here Mme 
Tussaud died on the i6th of April 1850. She was succeeded by 
her son Francis Tussaud, he by his son Joseph, and he again 
by his son John Theodore Tussaud (b. 1859). The exhibition 
was moved in 1884 to a large building in Marylebone Road. 

TUSSER, THOMAS (c. 1524-1580), English poet, son of 
William and Isabella Tusser, was born at Rivenhall, Essex, 
about 1524. At a very early aige he became a chorister in the 
collegiate chapel of the castle of Wallingford, Berkshire. He 
appears to have been pressed for service in the King's Chapel, 
the choristers of which were usually afterwards placed by the 
king in one of the royal foundations at Oxford or Cambridge. 
But Tusser entered the choir of St Paul's Cathedral, and from 
there went to Eton College. He has left a quaint account of 
his privations at Wallingford, and of the severities of Nicholas 
Udal at Eton. He was elected to King's College, Cambridge, 
in 1543, a date which has fixed the earliest limit of his birth- 
year, as he would have been ineligible at nineteen. From 
King's College he moved to Trinity Hall, and on leaving Cam- 
bridge went to court in the service of William, ist Baron Paget 
of Beaudesart, as a musician. After ten years of life at court, 
he married and settled as a farmer at Cattiwade, Suffolk, near 
the river Stour, where he wrote his Hundreth Good Pointes of 
Husbandrie (1557, 1561, 1562, &c.). He never remained long 
in one place. For his wife's health he removed to Ipswich. 
After her death he married again, and farmed for some time 
at West Dereham. He then became a singing man in Norwich 
Cathedral, where he found a good patron in the dean, John 
Salisbury. After another experiment in farming at Fairsted, 
Essex, he removed to London, whence he was driven by the 
plague of 1572-1573 to find refuge at Trinity Hall, being matri- 
culated as a servant of the college in 1573. At the time of his 
death he was in possession of a small estate at Chesterton, 
Cambridgeshire, and his will proves that he was not, as has 
sometimes been stated, in poverty of any kind, but had in some 
measure the thrift he preached. Thomas Fuller says he " traded 
at large in oxen, sheep, dairies, grain of all kinds, to no profit"; 
that he " spread his bread with all sorts of butter, yet none 
would stick thereon." He died on the 3rd of May 1580. An 
erroneous inscription at Manningtree, Essex, asserts that he 
was sixty-five years old. 

The Hundreth Good Pointes was enlarged to A Hundreth good 
pointes of husbandry, lately tnaried unto a hundreth good poyntes of 
huswifery . . . the first extant edition of which, " newly corrected and 
amplified," is dated 1570. In 1573 appeared Five hundreth pointes 
of good husbandry . . . (reprinted 1577, 1580, 1585, 1586, 1590, &c.). 
The numerous editions of this book, which contained a metrical 
autobiography, prove that the homely and practical wisdom of 
Tusser's verse was appreciated. He gives directions of what is to 
be done in the farm in every month of the year, and minute instruc- 
tions for the regulation of domestic affairs in general. The later 
editions include A dialogue of wyvynge and thryvynge (1562). 
Modern editions are by William Mavor (1812), by H. M. W. (1848), 
and by W. Payne and Sidney J. Herrtage for the English Dialect 
Society (1878). 

TUTBURY, a town in the Burton parliamentary division of 
Staffordshire, England, 4$ m. N.W. of Burton-upon-Trent, 
picturesquely situated on the river Dove, a western tributary 
of the Trent, which forms the county boundary with Derby- 
shire. Pop. (1901), 1971. The station of the Great Northern 
and North Staffordshire railways is in Derbyshire. The fine 
church of St Mary has a nave of rich Norman work with a re- 
markable western doorway; there are Early English additions, 
and the apsidal chancel is a modern imitation of that style. 
There are ruins of a large castle standing high above the valley; 
these include a gateway of 14th-century work, strengthened in 
Caroline times, a wall enclosing the broad " Tilt Yard," and 
portions of dwelling rooms. Glass is the staple manufacture. 
Alabaster is found in the neighbourhood. 



The early history of Tutbury (Toteberie, Stutesbury, Tultebiri, 
Tudbury) is very obscure. It is said to have been a seat of the 
Mercian kings. After the Conquest it was granted to Hugh 
d'Avranches, who appears to have built the first castle there. 
At the time of the Domesday Survey the castle was held by 
Henry de Ferrers, and " in the borough round it were 42 men 
living by their merchandize alone." Tutbury was the centre 
of an honour in Norman times, but the town remained small 
and unimportant, the castle and town continuing in the hands 
of the Ferrers until 1266, when, owing to Robert de Ferrers's 
participation in the barons' revolt, they were forfeited to the 
Crown and granted to Edmund Crouchback, earl of Lancaster. 
They are still part of the duchy of Lancaster. Tutbury Castle 
was partially rebuilt by John of Gaunt, whose wife, Constance 
of Castile, kept her court there. Later it was, for a time, the 
prison of Mary Queen of Scots. During the Civil War it 
was held for the king but surrendered to the parliamentary 
forces (1646), and was reduced to ruins by order of parliament 
(1647). Richard III. granted to the inhabitants of Tutbury 
two fairs, to be held respectively on St Katharine's day and 
the feast of the Invention of the Cross; the fair on the isth of 
August was famous until the end of the i8th century for its 
bull coursing, said to have been originally introduced by John 
of Gaunt. 

In 1831 a large treasure of English silver coins of the i3th 
and i4th centuries was discovered in the bed of the river, and a 
series was placed in the British Museum. This treasure was 
believed to have been lost by Thomas, the rebellious earl of 
Lancaster, who was driven from Tutbury Castle by Edward II. 
in 1322. 

See Mosley, History of Castle, Priory and Town of Tutbury (1832) ; 
Victoria County History : Stafford. 

TUTICORIN, a seaport of British India in the Tinnevelly 
district of Madras. Pop. (1901), 28,048. It is the southern 
terminus of the South Indian railway, 443 m. S.W. of Madras 
city. In connexion with this railway a daily steamer runs to 
Colombo, 149 m. distant by sea. Tuticorin is an old town, 
long in possession of the Dutch, and has a large Roman Catholic 
population. It used to be famous for its pearl fisheries, which 
extended from Cape Comorin to the Pamban Channel between 
India and Ceylon; but owing to the deepening of the Pamban 
Channel in 1895 these banks no longer produce the pearl oysters 
in such remunerative quantities, though conch shells are still 
found and exported to Bengal. As a set-off to this, Tuticorin 
has advanced greatly as a port since the opening of the railway 
in 1875, though it has only an open roadstead, where vessels 
must anchor two and a half miles from the shore; it is the second 
port in Madras and the sixth in all India. The exports are 
chiefly rice and livestock to Ceylon, cotton., tea, coffee and 
spices. There are factories for ginning and pressing cotton 
and a cotton mill. 

TUTOR (Lat. tutor, guardian, lueri, to watch over, protect), 
properly a legal term, borrowed from Roman law, for a guar- 
dian of an infant (see ROMAN LAW and INFANT). Apart from 
this usage, which survives particularly in Scots law, the word 
is chiefly current in an educational sense of a teacher or in- 
structor. It is thus specifically applied to a fellow of a college 
at a university with particular functions, connected espe- 
cially with the supervision of the undergraduate members of the 
college. These functions differ in various universities. Thus, 
at Oxford, a fellow, who is also a tutor, besides lecturing, 
or taking his share of the general teaching, of the college, has 
the supervision and responsibility for a certain number of the 
undergraduates during their period of residence; at Cambridge 
the tutor has not necessarily any teaching functions to perform, 
but is more concerned with the economic and social welfare 
of the pupils assigned to his care. In American universities 
the term is applied to a teacher who is subordinate to a 
professor, his appointment being for a year or a term of years. 

TUTTLINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wtirt- 
temberg, on the left bank of the Danube, which is here crossed 
by a bridge, 37 m. by rail N.E. of Schaffhausen, and at the 



TUXEDO TVER 



489 



junction of lines to Stuttgart and Ulm. Pop. (1905), 14,627. 
The town is overlooked by the ruins of the castle of Honberg, 
which was destroyed during the Thirty Years' War, and has 
an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, several schools, 
and a monument to Max Schneckenburger (1819-1849), the 
author of Die Wacht am Rhein. Its chief manufactures are 
shoes, cutlery, surgical instruments and woollen goods, and 
it has a trade in fruit and grain. 

Tuttlingen is a very ancient place, and is chiefly memorable 
for the victory gained here on the 24th of November 1643 by 
the Austrians and Bavarians over the French. It was almost 
totally destroyed by fire in 1803. It has belonged to Wiirt- 
temberg since 1404. 

TUXEDO, a town of Orange county, New York, U.S.A., 
about 40 m. N.N.W. of New York City, near the New Jersey 
state line. Pop. (1890), 1678; (1900), 2277; (1905), 2865; 
(1910), 2858. Tuxedo is served by the Erie railway. About 
15 m. west of the railway station is Tuxedo Lake, which with 
13,000 acres of surrounding country was taken for debt in 1814 
by the elder Pierre Lorillard, who built a shooting-box here 
and sold wood from the land. The second Pierre Lorillard 
(1833-1901) formed the Tuxedo Park Association for the 
development of the tract, and on the ist of June 1886 the 
Tuxedo Club and Tuxedo Park were opened; here there has 
grown up a remarkable collection of private establishments for 
the enjoyment of country life by certain wealthy families, 
who form a social club to whom the privileges are restricted. 
The area covers a variety of wild and cultivated scenery, and 
is beautifully laid out and utilized; there are golf links, a 
tennis and racket club, and game preserves, with excellent 
trout and bass fishing in the lake. 

TUY, a city of north-western Spain, in the province of Ponte- 
vedra, on the right bank of the river Mifio (Portuguese Minho), 
opposite Valenfa do Minho, which stands on the left bank in 
Portuguese territory. Pop. (1900), 11,113. Tuy is the southern 
terminus of the railways to Santiago de Compostela and 
Corunna; Valenga do Minho is the northern terminus of the 
Portuguese railway to Oporto. Near Tuy rises the Monte San 
Cristobal, whose far-spreading spurs constitute the fertile and 
picturesque Vega del Oro. To the east is the river Louro, a 
right-hand tributary of the Mino abounding in salmon, trout, 
lamprey, eels and other fishes; and beyond the Louro, on the 
railway to Corunna, are the hot mineral springs of San Martin 
de Caldelas. Tuy is a clean and pleasant city with well-built 
houses, regular streets and many gardens. The cathedral, 
founded in the I2th century, but largely restored between the 
15th and igth, is of a massive and fortress-like architecture. 
Its half-ruined cloister and noble eastern facade date from 
the i4th century. There are several large convents and ancient 
parish churches, an old episcopal palace, hospitals, good schools, 
a theatre, and a very handsome bridge over the Mino built in 
1885. The industries of Tuy include tanning, brewing, the 
distillation of spirits and the manufacture of soap. The city 
has also a brisk agricultural trade. 

During part of the 7th century Tuy was the Visigothic capital. 
It was taken from the Moors by Alphonso VII. in the i2th 
century. As a frontier fortress it played an important part 
in the wars between Portugal and Castile. 

TVER, a government of central Russia, on the upper Volga, 
bounded by the governments of Pskov and Novgorod on the 
W. and N. respectively, Yaroslavl and Vladimir on the E. 
and Moscow and Smolensk on the S. It has an area of 24,967 
sq. m. Lying on the southern slope of the Valdai plateau, and 
intersected by deep valleys, it has the aspect of a hilly region, 
but is in reality a plateau 800 to 1000 ft. in altitude. Its highest 
parts are in the west, where the Volga, Southern Dvina and 
Msta rise in marshes and lakes. The plateau is built up chiefly 
of Carboniferous limestones, Lower and Upper, underlain by 
Devonian and Silurian deposits, which crop out only in the 
denudations of the lower valleys. The whole is covered by a 
thick sheet of boulder-clay, the bottom-moraine of the Scan- 
dinavo-Russian ice-sheet, and by subsequent Lacustrine 



deposits. A number of dsar or eskers occur on the slopes of 
the plateau. Ochre, brick, and pottery clays, as also lime- 
stone for building, are obtained, and there are chalybeate 
springs. The soil, which is clayey for the most part, is not 
fertile as a rule. 

Nearly the whole of Tver is drained by the upper Volga and 
its tributaries, several of which (Vazuza, Dubna, Sestra, Tvertsa 
and the tributaries of the Mologa) are navigable. The Vyshnevol- 
otsk system of canals connects the Volga (navigable some 60 m. 
from its source) with the Baltic, and the Tikhvin system connects 
the Mologa with Lake Ladoga. The Msta, which flows into Lake 
Ilmen, and its tributary the Tsna drain Tver in the north-west, and 
the Southern Dvina rises in Ostashkov. This network of rivers 
highly favours navigation: corn, linseed, spirits, flax, hemp, timber, 
metals and manufactured wares to the annual value of 1,500,000 
are shipped from, or brought to, the river ports of the government. 
Lakes, ponds and marshes are numerous in the west and north-west, 
Lake Seliger near the source of the Volga and Lake Mztino being 
the most important. The forests coniferous in the north and 
deciduous in the south are rapidly disappearing, but still cover 
32 % of the surface. The climate is continental ; the average 
yearly temperature at Tver (41 "-5 F.) is the same as that of Orel 
and Tambov (Jan. 11, July 67). 

The population was estimated in 1906 as 2,053,000, almost 
entirely Great Russian, but including about 117,700 Karelians. 
The government is divided into twelve districts, the chief 
towns of which are Tver, Byezhetsk, Kalyazin, Kashin, Kor- 
sheva, Ostashkov, Rzhev, Staritsa, Torzhok, Vesyegonsk, 
Vyshniy Volochok and Zubtsov. Nearly 2,000,000 acres are 
under cereals. The principal crops are rye, wheat, oats, barley 
and potatoes. The sowing of grass is spreading, owing to the 
efforts of the zemstws or local councils, and improved machinery 
is being introduced. Livestock breeding is also important, 
and dairy produce is exported. Manufactures have grown 
rapidly. Cotton-mills, flour-mills, tanneries, sugar-refineries, 
iron-foundries and distilleries are the chief establishments. 
The government of Tver is also the seat of important village 
industries, of which a remarkable variety is carried on, nearly 
every district and even every village having its own speciality. 
The principal of these are weaving, lace-making, boat-building, 
and the making of boots, saddlery, coarse pottery, sacks, nets, 
wooden wares, nails, locks, other hardware and agricultural 
implements and felt goods. 

TVER, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the 
same name, 104 m. by rail N.W. of Moscow, on both banks of 
the Volga (here crossed by a floating bridge) at its confluence 
with the Tvertsa. The low right bank is protected from inun- 
dations by a dam. Pop. (1885), 39,280; (1900), 45,644. Tver 
is an archiepiscopal see of the Orthodox Greek Church. The 
oldest church dates from 1564, and the cathedral from 1689. 
A public garden occupies the site of the former fortress. The 
city possesses a good archaeological museum, housed in a former 
imperial palace. The industries have developed greatly, espe- 
cially those in cotton, the chief works being cotton and flour 
mills, but there are also machinery works, glass works, saw- 
mills, tanneries, railway carriage works and a steamer-building 
wharf. Among the domestic industries are nail-making and 
the manufacture of hosiery for export to Moscow and St Peters- 
burg. The traffic of the town is considerable, Tver being an 
intermediate place for the trade of both capitals with -the 
governments of the upper Volga. 

Tver dates its origin from 1180, when a fort was erected at the 
mouth of the Tvertsa to protect the Suzdal principality against 
Novgorod. In the i3th century it became the capital of an 
independent principality, and remained so until the end of the 
1 5th century. Michael, prince of Tver, was killed (1318) fight- 
ing against the Tatars, as also was Alexander his son. It 
long remained an open question whether Moscow or Tver would 
ultimately gain the supremacy in Great Russia, and it was 
only with the help of the Tatars that the princes of the former 
eventually succeeded in breaking down the independence of 
Tver. In 1486, when the city was almost entirely burned 
down by the Muscovites, the son of Ivan III. became prince 
of Tver; the final annexation to Moscow followed four years 
later. In 1570 Tver had to endure, for some reason now 



490 



TWAIN, MARK TWEED 



difficult to understand, the vengeance of Ivan the Terrible, who 
ordered the massacre of 90,000 inhabitants of the principality. 
In 1609-1612 the city was plundered both by the followers of 
the second false Demetrius and by the Poles. 

TWAIN, MARK, the nom de plume of SAMUEL LANG- 
HORNE CLEMENS (1835-1910), American author, who was 
born on the 3oth of November 1835, at Florida, Missouri. 
His father was a country merchant from Tennessee, who moved 
soon after his son's birth to Hannibal, Missouri, a little town 
on the Mississippi. When the boy was only twelve his father 
died, and thereafter he had to get his education as best he 
could. Of actual schooling he had little. He learned how to 
set type, and as a journeyman printer he wandered widely, 
going even as far east as New York. At seventeen he went 
back to the Mississippi, determined to become a pilot on a river- 
steamboat. In his Life on the Mississippi he has recorded 
graphically his experiences while " learning the river." But 
in 1861 the war broke out, and the pilot's occupation was gone. 
After a brief period of uncertainty the young man started 
West with his brother, who had been appointed lieutenant- 
governor of Nevada. He went to the mines for a season, 
and there he began to write in the local newspapers, adopting 
the pen name of " Mark Twain," from a call used in taking 
soundings on the Mississippi steamboats. He drifted in time 
to San Francisco, and it was a newspaper of that city which in 
1867 supplied the mcney for him to join a party going on a 
chartered steamboat to the Mediterranean ports. The letters 
which he wrote during this voyage were gathered in 1869 into 
a volume, The Innocents Abroad, and the book immediately 
won a wide and enduring popularity. This popularity was of 
service to him when he appeared on the platform with a lecture 
or rather with an apparently informal talk, rich in admirably 
delivered anecdote. He edited a daily newspaper in Buffalo 
for a few months, and in 1870 he married Miss Olivia L. 
Langdon (d. 1904), removing a year later to Hartford, where he 
established his home. Roughing It was published in 1872, 
and in 1874 he collaborated with Charles Dudley Warner 
in The Gilded Age, from which he made a play, acted many 
hundred times with John T. Raymond as " Colonel Sellers." In 
1875 he published The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, the sequel 
to which, Huckleberry Finn, did not appear until 1884. The 
result of a second visit to Europe was humorously recorded in 
A Tramp Abroad (1880), followed in 1882 by a more or less 
historical romance, The Prince and the Pauper; and a year 
later came Life on the Mississippi. The Adventures of Huckle- 
berry Finn, the next of his books, was published (in 1884) 
by a New York firm in which the author was chief partner. 
This firm prospered for a while, and issued in 1889 Mark Twain's 
own comic romance, A Connecticut Yankee at King Arthur's 
Court, and in 1892 a less successful novel, The American Claimant. 
But after a severe struggle the publishing house failed, 
leaving the author charged with its very heavy debts. After this 
disaster he issued a third Mississippi Valley novel, The Tragedy of 
Pudd'nhead Wilson, in 1894, and in 1896 another historical 
romance, Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc, wherein the 
maid is treated with the utmost sympathy and reverence. 
He went on a tour round the world, partly to make money 
by lecturing and partly to get material for another book of 
travels, published in 1897, and called in America Following 
the Equator, and in England More Tramps Abroad. From 
time to time he had collected into volumes his scattered sketches; 
of these the first, The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras 
County, appeared in 1867, and the latest, The Man that Cor- 
rupted Hadleyburg, in 1900. To be recorded also is a volume 
of essays and literary criticisms, How to Tell a Story (1897). 
A complete edition of his works was published in twenty-two 
volumes in 1890-1900 by the American Publishing Company of 
Hartford. And in this last year, having paid off all the debts 
of his old firm, he returned to America. By the time he died 
his books had brought him a considerable fortune. In later 
years he published a few minor volumes of fiction, and a series 
of severe and also amusing criticisms of Christian Science (pub- 



lished as a book in 1907), and in 1906 he began an autobiography 
in the North American Review. He had a great reception 
in England in 1907, when he went over to receive from Oxford 
the degree of Doctor of Literature. He died at Redding, 
Connecticut, on the 2ist of April 1910. Of his four daughters 
only one, who married the Russian pianist Gabrilowitch, sur- 
vived him. Mark Twain was an outstanding figure for many 
years as a popular American personality in the world of letters. 
He is commonly considered as a humorist, and no doubt he is a 
humorist of a remarkable comic force and of a refreshing fertility. 
But the books in which his humour is broadly displayed, the 
travels and the sketches, are not really so significant of his 
power as the three novels of the Mississippi, Tom Sawyer, 
Huckleberry Finn and Pudd'nhead Wilson, wherein we have 
preserved a vanished civilization, peopled with typical figures, 
and presented with inexorable veracity. There is no lack 
of humour in them, and there is never a hint of affecta- 
tion in the writing; indeed, the author, doing spontaneously 
the work nearest to his hand, was very likely unconscious 
that he was making a contribution to history. But such 
Huckleberry Finn is, beyond all question; it is a story of very 
varied interest, now comic, now almost tragic, frequently 
poetic, unfailingly truthful, although not always sustained 
at its highest level. And in these three works of fiction there 
are not only humour and pathos, character and truth, there 
is also the largeness of outlook on life such as we find only 
in the works of the masters. Beneath his fun-making we can 
discern a man who is fundamentally serious, and whose ethical 
standards are ever lofty. Like Cervantes at times, Mark 
Twain reveals a depth of melancholy beneath his playful 
humour, -and like Moliere always, he has a deep scorn and a 
burning detestation of all sorts of sham and pretence, a scorching 
hatred of humbug and hypocrisy. Like Cervantes and like 
Moliere, he is always sincere and direct. 

After Mark Twain's death, his intimate friend, W. D. Howells, 
published in 1910 a series of personal recollections in Harper's 
Magazine. (B. M.) 

TWEED, a river in the south of Scotland. It rises in the 
south-west corner of Peeblesshire, not far from the Devil's 
Beef Tub (in Dumfriesshire) in the hill country in which the 
Clyde and Annan also rise. The stream flowing from Tweed's 
Wall, about 1500 ft. above the sea, is generally regarded as 
its source, though its origin has been traced to other streams 
at a still higher elevation. For the first 36 m. of its course 
the stream intersects the shire of Peebles in a north-easterly 
direction, and, shortly before the county town is reached, 
receives Lyne Water on the left and Manor Water on the right. 
The valley now widens, and the river, bending towards the 
south-east, passes Innerleithen, where it receives the Leithen 
(left) and the Quair (right). It then crosses Selkirkshire and, 
having received the Ettrick (reinforced by the Yarrow) on 
the right, flows northward past Abbotsford, forming for about 
2 m. the boundary between the counties of Selkirk and 
Roxburgh. After receiving the Gala on the left, the Tweed 
crosses the north-western corner of Roxburghshire past Mel- 
rose and, after being joined by the Leader on the left, winds 
past Dryburgh Abbey round the south-western corner of 
Berwickshire. The remainder of its course is in a north-easterly 
direction through Roxburghshire past Kelso, where it receives 
the Teviot on the right, and then between the counties of 
Berwick and Northumberland, past Coldstream, to the town of 
Berwick, where it enters the North Sea. On the left it 
receives Eden Water at Edenmouth and Leet Water at Cold- 
stream, and the Till from Northumberland between Cold- 
stream and Norham Castle. The last 2 m. of its course 
before reaching Berwick are in England. The Tweed is 97 m. 
long and drains an area of 1870 sq. m. Its bed is pebbly 
and sandy, and notwithstanding discolorations from manu- 
factures, the stream, owing to its clear and sparkling appear- 
ance, still merits the epithet of the " silver Tweed." The 
river, however, has no estuary, and traffic is chiefly confined 
to Berwick, though for a short distance above the town some 



TWEEDDALE TWICKENHAM 



49 1 



navigation is carried on by barges. The Tweed is one of the 
best salmon streams in Scotland. From the time of Kenneth 
the Grim (d. 1005) to that of James VI. (1600) the Tweed 
uplands were the favourite hunting ground of the Scots 
monarchs, and, at a later date, the Covenanters found refuge 
in the recesses of the hills and on the banks of Talla Water, 
an early right-hand affluent. Close to Stobo Castle is Stobo 
Kirk, the mother-church of the district, founded by St 
Kentigern and probably the oldest ecclesiastical building in 
Tweeddale, a mixture of Saxon, Norman and modern Gothic. 

See Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, Scottish Rivers (1874); Professor 
John Veitch, The Rtver Tweed (1884); Rev. W. S. Crockett, The 
Scott Country (1892). 

TWEEDDALE, MARQUESSES OF. JOHN HAY, 2ND EARL 
and IST MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1626-1697), was the eldest 
son of John, 8th Lord Hay of Yester (c. 1599-1654), created 
earl of Tweeddale in 1646, who was the grandson of William 
Lord Hay of Yester (d. 1576), one of the partisans of Mary 
Queen of Scots, and thus a descendant of John Hay of Yester 
(Haddingtonshire) who was created a lord of the Scottish 
parliament in 1488 and died about 1500. Before succeeding 
to the peerage in 1654 the second earl fought for Charles I. 
during the Civil War, but he soon transferred his allegiance, and 
was in the Scottish ranks at Marston Moor. Changing sides 
again, he was with the royalists at Preston; but he was a 
member of Cromwell's parliament in 1656, and was imprisoned 
just after the restoration of Charles II. He was soon, however, 
in the king's favour, and in 1663 was appointed president of 
the Scottish council, and in 1664 an extraordinary lord of 
session. In Scotland he sought to mitigate the harshness 
shown by the English government to the Covenanters, and for 
this attitude he was dismissed from his offices in 1674; but 
he regained an official position in 1680 and held it during the 
reign of James II. A supporter of William of Orange, he was 
made lord high chancellor of Scotland in 1692, and two years 
later was created marquees of Tweeddale and earl of Gifford. 
He favoured the scheme for the expedition to Darien, and as 
lord high commissioner during William's absence he formally 
assented to the act establishing the trading company in 1695; 
for this action he was dismissed from office when the king 
returned to England in 1696. He died on the nth of August 
1697. 

His son JOHN, 2ND MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1645-1713), 
was prominent in Scottish politics during the stormy period 
which preceded the union with England. After acting for 
a time with the national party he became the leader of the 
squadrone volante, a band of men who at first took up an inde- 
pendent attitude on the question, but afterwards supported 
the union. For a very short time he was lord chancellor of 
Scotland, and he was one of the first of the Scottish represen- 
tative peers. He died on the 2oth of April 1713. His eldest 
son, CHARLES (c. 1670-1715), became 3rd marquess; a younger 
son, Lord JOHN HAY (d. 1706), commanded the famous regiment 
of dragoons, afterwards called the Scots Greys, at the battle 
of Ramillies and elsewhere. 

JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762), eldest 
son of the 3rd marquess, was chief secretary of state for Scot- 
land from 1742 to 1746 and extraordinary lord of session from 
1721 until his death. In six parliaments he was a representa- 
tive peer for Scotland; he was for a time keeper of the king's 
signet, and in 1761 he was made lord-justice-generaJ. He died 
on the 9th of December 1762. His brother, Lord CHARLES 
HAY (d. 1760), was the soldier who displayed great coolness 
when suddenly brought face to face with some French troops 
at Fontenoy, requesting the enemy, so Voltaire's account 
runs, to fire first. 

The family of the 4th marquess became extinct when GEORGE, 
the sth marquess, died on the 4th of October 1770; and 
GEORGE, a son of the 3rd marquess, succeeded to the title. 
When he died unmarried on the i6th of November 1787 the 
marquessate passed to a kinsman, GEORGE (1733-1804), a 
descendant of the 2nd marquess, who became 7th marquess. 



GEORGE, STH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876), son 
of the preceding, succeeded in August 1804. He fought in 
the Peninsular War, being wounded at the battles of Busaco 
and Vittoria, and then in America; and he attained the rank 
of a field marshal in 1875. From 1842 to 1848 he was governor 
and commander-in-chief of Madras, but his later life was mainly 
spent at Yester, where he showed a very practical interest 
in agriculture. He died on the loth of October 1876. His 
son, ARTHUR (1824-1878), who became gth marquess, was an 
ornithologist of repute and a soldier who served in India and 
the Crimea. His ornithological works were published privately 
in 1881 by his nephew, Captain R. E. W. Ramsay, with a 
memoir by Dr W. H. Russell. His successor was his brother, 
WILLIAM MONTAGU (b. 1826), who, after sitting in the House 
of Commons for thirteen years, was made a peer of the United 
Kingdom as Baron Tweeddale in 1881. 

TWEEZERS, a small instrument like a pair of tongs, used 
for picking up minute objects, extracting thorns or splinters 
from the flesh, &c. Etymologically a " tweezer " is an instru- 
ment contained in a " tweeze " or a small case containing 
several instruments, " tweeze " being a plural form of " twee," an 
adaptation of French etui, a sheath-case or box to put things in. 
Why one particular instrument out of the case should be called 
" tweezers " is not certain; Skeat suggests a possible connexion 
of ideas with the obsolete " twich," " twitch " (Ger. zwicken, 
to nip, fasten, Eng. " tweak "), or reference may be made to 
the M. Eng. twisel or twissel, a pair of objects (twi-, two). 

The derivation of the French etui (O. Fr. estuy) is doubtful. Cog- 
nate forms are Span, estuche, Port, estojo, Ital. astuccio, formerly 
stuccio or stucchio, all with the same meaning of a small case for 
instruments such as scissors, knife, &c. Skeat supports Diez in his 
connexion with the modern German dialect Stauche, cuff, that part 
of the sleeve where such small objects were carried. Others connect 
the word with Lat. studium, a place where one studies, hence a 
place where objects of study are carried, a somewhat far-fetched 
sense development. 

TWELVE TABLES, the tables of wood on which was engraved 
or painted the earliest codification of the Roman law. Origi- 
nally ten in number, two others were afterwards added, con- 
taining supplemental matter, and the whole code was termed 
the Lex XII. Tabularum (Law of the Twelve Tables). (See 
ROMAN LAW and ROME.) 

TWENTY-FOUR PARGANAS, THE, a district of British 
India, in the presidency division of Bengal, with an area of 
4844 sq. m. It occupies part of the Gangetic delta, east of 
the Hugli, surrounding (but not including) the city of Calcutta. 
It also includes the greater part of the almost uninhabited 
Sundarbans (q.v.). The administrative headquarters are at 
Alipur, a southern suburb of Calcutta. The country consists 
for the most part of a vast alluvial plain, and is everywhere 
watered by numerous branches of the Ganges. In 1901 
the population was 2,078,359, showing an increase of 10 % 
in the decade. Rice is the staple crop, followed by jute, 
pulses and sugar-cane. The district is traversed by three 
railways, two of which terminate at the ports of Diamond 
Harbour and Port Canning, but numerous river channels are 
still the chief means of communication. Apart from the 
suburbs of Calcutta, there is hardly a single real town. But 
round Calcutta all the manufactures of a great city are to 
be found, principally jute mills and jute presses, cotton mills 
and paper mills, and also government factories for rifles and 
ammunition. 

The Twenty-four Parganas form the tract of which the 
zamindari or landlord rights were granted to the East India 
Company after the battle of Plassey, while the revenue arising 
therefrom was conferred upon Clive, upon whose death it 
reverted to the company. 

TWICKENHAM, an urban district in the Brentford parlia- 
mentary division of Middlesex, England, 12 m. W.S.W. of 
St Paul's Cathedral, London, on the river Thames. Pop. 
(1891), 16,027; (JO 01 )? 20,991. Its situation is pleasant, and 
it has grown into an extensive residential district. The body 
of the church of St Mary was rebuilt in brick after its collapse 



492 



TWILIGHT TWISS, H. 



in 1713, but the Perpendicular tower remains. Among men of 
eminence buried here are Alexander Pope and Sir Godfrey 
Kneller. The Thames in this neighbourhood forms a long 
deep reach in favour with fishermen, and Eel Pie Island is a 
resort of boating parties. There are many fine houses in the 
vicinity, more than one possessing historical associations. 
Strawberry Hill, the residence of Horace Walpole, was built 
to his taste in a medley of Gothic styles. Marble Hill was 
erected by George II. for the countess of Suffolk, and Pope, 
Swift and Gay took part in its equipment. Orleans House 
was the residence in 1800 of Louis Philippe, then duke of 
Orleans, and this family again acquired it in 1852, when it 
was occupied by the duke of Aumale. Several eminent French 
refugees resided at this period in the neighbourhood. In 1700 
the young duke of Gloucester, son of Queen Anne, died here. 
York House was given to Lord Clarendon by Charles II., was 
probably the occasional residence of James II. when duke of 
York, and in 1864 was occupied by the comte de Paris, nephew of 
the duke of Aumale. Twickenham House was the residence of 
Sir John Hawkins, author of the History of Music, and Twicken- 
ham Park House, no longer standing, that of Lord Chancellor 
Bacon. Pope's Villa was replaced by another building after his 
death, but the tunnel which connected his garden and house 
beneath a road, and was ornamented by him as a grotto, remains. 
Other eminent residents were Turner, who occupied Sandy- 
combe Lodge, and painted many of his famous works here, 
Henry Fielding the novelist, and Tennyson. Kneller Hall, the 
house built by Kneller (1711), was converted into a training 
college for masters of workhouse schools in 1847, and in 1856 
became the Royal Military School of Music. 

Twickenham at the Domesday survey was included in Isle- 
worth. Anciently it was called Twittenham or Twicanham, 
and the first form, or a variation of it, is used by both Pope and 
Walpole. The manor was given in 941 by King Edmund to the 
monks of Christ Church, Canterbury, from whom it had been 
previously taken, but it was again alienated, for it was restored to 
the same monks by Edred in 948. In the reign of Henry VIII. 
it came into the possession of the Crown, and by Charles I. 
was assigned to Henrietta Maria as part of her jointure. It 
was sold during the Protectorate, but after the Restoration the 
queen mother resumed possession of it. In 1670 it was settled 
for life on Catherine of Braganza, queen of Charles II. It 
remains in possession of the Crown, but since the death of 
Catherine has been let on leases. The old manor house, now 
demolished, was Catherine's residence; and had been, according 
to tradition, the place of the retirement of Catherine of Aragon 
after her divorce from Henry VIII. 

TWILIGHT, formerly known as Crepusculum (a Latin word 
meaning dusky or obscure), properly the interval during which 
the atmosphere is illuminated after the setting of the sun. The 
analogous phenomenon in the morning, i.e. the interval between 
the first appearance of light and the rising of the sun, is known 
as the dawn. These phenomena are due to the light of the sun 
after refraction by the atmosphere being reflected to the observer 
by the clouds, dust, and other adventitious matter present 
in the atmosphere. Even in the early infancy of astronomy, 
the duration of twilight was associated with the position of the 
sun below the horizon, and measurements were made to de- 
termine the maximum vertical depression of the sun which 
admitted the phenomena. This was found by Alhazen, Tycho 
Brahe and others, to be about 18, and although other observers 
obtained somewhat different values, yet this value is now 
generally admitted. The duration of twilight is therefore 
measured by the time in which the sun traverses an arc of 
1 8 of vertical depression, and primarily depends on the 
latitude of the observer and the declination of the sun. It 
is subject to several minor variations, occasioned by the variable 
amount of dust, clouds, &c. suspended in the air; and also 
on the temperature, which alters the altitude of the reflecting 
particles; thus at the same place and on the same day, the 
morning twilight or dawn is generally shorter than the evening 
twilight. 



The duration and possibility of twilight may be geometrically 
exhibited as follows: Let O be the position of the observer (fig. l) ; 
Z, the zenith; P, the pole of the heavens; 
ADB, the plane of the horizon; EOF, the 
path of the sun. Let the circles ADB and 
FDE intersect in the points D and DI; 
then these points correspond to the rising 
and setting of the sun. Now 'twilight 
prevails from sunrise or sunset until the 
sun is depressed through 18; hence if we 
draw arcs ZC and ZCi equal to 1 08, and 
terminating on the circle FDE at C and 
Ci, then the arcs DC and' Did represent 
the distance traversed by the sun during 
the twilight. Also it may be observed 




FIG. i. 



that CiEC represents the path of the sun during the night, and DFDi 
during the day. The arc CD is readily determined by spherical 
trigonometry. For, join CP by an arc of a great circle; then in the 
triangle ZPC we know ZP (the colatitude of O) ; PC (the sun's polar 
distance) and ZC ( = 108 by construction). Hence the angle ZPC, 
the sun's hour angle, may be found; this gives the time before or 
after noon when the sun passes C. The times of sunrise and sunset 
being known, then the arcs DC and DiQ (and the duration of dawn 
and twilight) are determined. 

So far we have considered the case when the sun does attain a 
depression of 18, but it is equally possible for this depression not 
to be attained. To investigate this, take ZG equal to 108. Now 
if G lies beyond B and E (the maximum depression of the sun), E 
being also below B, then the sun will rise and set, but never descend 
so low as to occasion true night, and the entire interval between 
sunrise and sunset will be twilight. 

If E be not below B but above it, the sun will never descend 
below the horizon, and will neither rise nor set, and we are presented 
with the phenomenon known as the midnight sun. Since PE=9O 
sun's declination, and PG = latitude of observer + 18, then 
it follows that for there to be no night the latitude of the ob- 
server together with the declination of the sun must lie between 
90 and 72. 

The maximum declination of the sun is about 23 30', and hence 
in latitude 48 30' there will be one day without a true night; in 
higher latitudes there will be an increasing number of such days; 
and in lower latitudes none. In England there is no real night from 
about the 22nd of May till the 22nd of July. 

The phenomenon known as the after-glow, or second twilight, has 
been referred to a second reflection of the solar rays in the atmosphere. 

TWILL (connected with " two "), a woven cloth in which 
the passage of the weft is arranged, not in regular suc- 
cession as in plain weaving, but over one thread and under 
two or more according to the kind of twill. This gives a suc- 
cession of diagonal lines to the cloth, and though in the normal 
type of twill this diagonal traverses from selvage to selvage 
at an angle of 45, considerable variations may be made. 
Twills may be stout and serviceable cloths, though, theoreti- 
cally, it would seem that the strain of wear on the threads that 
compose the cloth is necessarily irregular. The twill or dia- 
gonal may run either from left to right or vice versa. Twills 
are made in most kinds of cloths silk, woollen, cotton, &c. 

TWINING, THOMAS (1735-1804), English classical scholar, 
was born at Twickenham on the 8th of January 1734-1735. 
The son of Daniel Twining, tea merchant of London, he was 
originally intended for a commercial life, but his distaste for it 
and his fondness for study decided his father to send him to the 
university. He entered Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge 
(fellow, 1760), took orders, and after his marriage in 1764 spent 
the remainder of his life at Fordham (Essex) and Colchester, 
where he died on the 6th of August 1804. His reputation as a 
classical scholar was established by his translation, with notes, 
of Aristotle's Poetics (1789). Twining was also an accomplished 
musician, and assisted Charles Burney in his History of Music. 

Selections from his correspondence will be found in Recreations 
and Studies of a Country Clergyman of the Eighteenth Century (1882) 
and Selections from Papers of the Twining Family (1887), edited by 
his grand-nephew (Richard Twining) ; see also Gentleman's Magazine, 
Ixxiv. 490, and J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, vol. 
iii. (1908). 

TWISS, HORACE (1787-1849), English writer and politician, 
was born at Bath, being the son of Francis Twiss (1760-1827), 
a Shakespearian scholar who married Mrs Siddons's sister, 
Fanny Kemble, and whose brother Richard (1747-1821) made a 
name as a writer of travels. Horace Twiss had a pretty wit, 
and as a young man wrote light articles for the papers; and, 



TWISS, SIR T. TYBURN 



493 



going to the bar, he obtained a considerable practice and became 
a K.C. in 1827. In 1820 he was elected to parliament, where, 
with some interruptions, he sat till 1841, holding the office of 
under-secretary for war and the colonies in 1828-1830. In 
1844 he was appointed vice-chancellor of the duchy of Lan- 
caster, a well-paid post which enabled him to enjoy his popu- 
larity in London society. For some years he wrote for The 
Times, in which he first compiled the parliamentary summary, 
and his daughter married first Francis Bacon (d. 1840) and then 
J. T. Delane, both of them editors of that paper. He was 
the author of the Life (1844) of Lord Eldon, and other volumes. 
He died suddenly in London on the 4th of May 1849. 

TWISS, SIR TRAVERS (1809-1897), English jurist, eldest 
son of the Rev. Robert Twiss, was born in London on the 
igth of March 1809. At University College, Oxford, he obtained 
a first-class in mathematics and a second in classics in 1830, 
and was elected a fellow of his college, of which he was after- 
wards successively bursar, dean and tutor. During his connexion 
with Oxford he was, inter alia, a public examiner in classics 
and mathematics, Drummond professor of political economy 
(1842), and regius professor of civil law (1855). After he had 
forfeited his fellowship by marriage, he was elected to an hono- 
rary fellowship of University College. He published while at 
Oxford an epitome of Niebuhr's History of Rome, an annotated 
edition of Livy and other works, but his studies mainly lay 
in the direction of political economy, law, chiefly international 
law, and international politics. In 1840 he was called to the 
bar at Lincoln's Inn, and became an advocate at Doctors' 
Commons. In the ecclesiastical courts he enjoyed a large 
practice, and filled many of the appointments incidental thereto, 
such as commissary-general of the city and diocese of Canter- 
bury (1849), vicar-general to the archbishop (1852) and 
chancellor of the diocese of London (1858). He was professor 
of international law at King's College, London (1852-1855). In 
1858, when the Probate and Divorce Acts of 1857 came into 
force, and the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of Doctors' Commons 
had passed away, Twiss, like many other leading advocates 
of Doctors' Commons, became a Q.C., and in the same year 
he was also elected a bencher of his Inn. His successful career 
continued in the civil courts, and in addition to his large practice 
he was appointed in 1862 advocate-generai to the admiralty, 
and in 1867 queen's advocate-general. In 1867 he was also 
knighted. He served during his legal career upon a great 
number of royal commissions, such as the Maynooth commission 
in 1854, and others dealing with marriage law, neutrality, 
naturalization and allegiance. His reputation abroad led to 
his being invited by the king of the Belgians in 1884 to draw 
up the constitution of the Congo Free State. In 1871 Twiss 
became involved in an unpleasant scandal, occasioned by 
allegations against the ante-nuptial conduct of his wife, whom 
he had married in 1862; and he threw up all his appointments 
and lived in retirement in London until his death on the i4th 
of January 1897, devoting himself to the study of international 
law and kindred topics. Among his more notable publications 
of this period were The Law of Nations in Peace and The 
Law of Nations in War, two works by which his reputation 
as a jurist will chiefly endure. 

TWYSDEN, SIR ROGER (1597-1672), English antiquary 
and royalist pamphleteer, belonging to an ancient Kentish 
family. His mother, Anne, was the daughter of Sir Moule 
Finch, and his father, Sir William Twysden, was a courtier 
and scholar who shared in some of the voyages against the 
Spaniards in the reign of Queen Elizabeth and was well known 
at the court of King James I. He was one of the first baronets. 
Roger Twysden was educated at St Paul's School, London, 
and then at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. He entered 
Gray's Inn on the 2nd of February 1623. He succeeded to the 
baronetcy on his father's death in 1629. For some years 
he remained on his estate at Roydon, East Peckham, largely 
engaged in building and planting, but also in studying antiquities 
and the law of the constitution. The king's attempts to govern 
without a parliament, and the vexatious interference of his 



lawyers and clergy with the freedom of all classes of men, 
offended Sir Roger as they did most other country gentlemen. 
He showed his determination to stand on his rights by refusing 
to pay ship money, but, probably because the advisers of the 
Crown were frightened by the unpopularity of the impost, 
was not molested. He was chosen member of parliament 
for Kent in the Short Parliament of 1640, but was not elected 
to the Long Parliament. In common with most men of his 
class Sir Roger applauded the early measures of the parliament 
to restrict the king's prerogative, and then became alarmed 
when it went on to assail the Church. The attainder of Lord 
Strafford frightened him as a tyrannical use of power. He be- 
came in fact a very typical example of the men who formed 
the strength of the king's party when the sword was at last 
drawn. He considered himself too old to serve in the field, 
and therefore he did not join the king at Oxford. But he took 
the most prominent part in preparing the Kentish petition 
of March 1642 and in subsequent demonstrations on behalf 
of Charles. He incurred the wrath of the parliament, was 
arrested on the ist of April 1642, but was soon let out on bail, 
and on his promise to keep quiet. But his respect for legality 
would not let him rest, and he was soon in trouble again for 
another demonstration known as " The Instruction to Mr 
Augustine Skinner." For this he was again arrested and 
for a time confined in a public-house, called " The Two Tobacco 
Pipes," near Charing Cross, London. He was released with a 
distinct intimation that he would be well advised not to go 
back to Roydon Hall, but to keep out of temptation in London. 
He took the advice and applied himself to reading. One plan 
for going abroad was given up, but at last he endeavoured 
to escape in disguise, was detected, and brought back to 
London. He was now subjected to all the vexations inflicted 
on Royalist partisans of good property, sequestrations of his 
rents, fines for " malignancy," and confinement in the Tower, 
where he consoled himself with his books. At last he com- 
pounded in 1650 and went home, where he lived quietly till the 
Restoration, when he resumed his position as magistrate. He died 
on the 27th of June 1672. He published The Commons' Liberty 
(Lbndon, 1648), demonstrating that finings and imprisonings 
by parliament were illegal; Historiae anglicanae scriptores 
decem (London, 1652), a work encouraged by Cromwell; and 
Historical Vindication of the Church of England (London, 1657). 
TYBURN, a small left-bank tributary of the river Thames, 
England, now having its course entirely within London and 
below ground. The name, which also occurs as Aye-bourne, 
is of obscure derivation, though sometimes stated to signify 
Twy-burn, i.e. (the junction of) two burns or streams. The 
Tyburn rose at Hampstead and ran south, crossing Regent's 
Park, striking the head of the modern ornamental water there. 
Its course is marked by the windings of Marylebone Lane, 
the dip in Piccadilly where that thoroughfare borders the 
Green Park and at times by a line of mist across the park 
itself. It joined the Thames at Westminster (q.v.). But the 
name is more famous in its application to the Middlesex gallows, 
also called Tyburn Tree and Deadly Never Green, and also 
at an early period, the Elms, through confusion with the place 
of execution of that name at Smithfield. The Tyburn gallows 
stood not far from the modern Marble Arch. Connaught 
Square is said by several authorities to have been the exact 
site, but it appears that so long as the gallows was a permanent 
structure it stood at the junction of the present Edgware 
and Bayswater roads. The site, however, may have varied, 
for Tyburn was a place of execution as early as the end of the 
i2th century. In 1759, moreover, a movable gallows super- 
seded the permanent erection. On some occasions its two 
uprights and cross-beam .are said to have actually spanned 
Edgware Road. Round the gibbet were erected open galleries, 
the seats in which were let at high prices. Among those executed 
here were Perkin Warbeck (1449), the Holy Maid of Kent 
and confederates (1535), Haughton, last prior to the Charter- 
house (1535), John Felton, murderer of Villiers, duke of Buck- 
ingham (1628), Jack Sheppard (1724), Earl Ferrers (1760). 



494 

In 1661 the skeletons of Cromwell, Ireton and other regicides 
were hung upon the gallows. The last execution took place 
in 1783, the scene being thereafter transferred to Newgate. 
The Tyburn Ticket was a certificate given to a prosecutor of 
a felon on conviction, the first assignee of which was exempted 
by a statute of William III. from all parish and ward duties 
within the district. The hangman's halter was colloquially 
known in the i6th century as the Tyburn Tippet. 

See A. Marks, Tyburn Tree, its History and Annals (London, 
1908). 

TYDEUS, in Greek legend, son of Oeneus, king of Calydon, 
and Periboea. Having slain his uncle (or other relatives) he 
fled for refuge to Argos, where Adrastus received him hospitably 
and purified him from the guilt of blood. Tydeus took part 
in the expedition of the " Seven against Thebes," in which, 
although small of stature, he greatly distinguished himself. In 
the desperate battle under the walls of the city, he was severely 
wounded by Melanippus, but managed to slay his adversary. 
Athena, who held Tydeus in special favour, hastened to the 
field of battle, to heal him of his wound and bestow immor- 
tality upon him. But the sight of Tydeus, cleaving open 
the skull of his dead enemy and sucking out his brains, so 
disgusted her that she left him to his fate. Tydeus married 
Deipyle, the daughter of Adrastus, by whom he had a son, 
the famous Diomedes, frequently called Tydides. 

Homer, Iliad, xiv. 1 14-132 ; Apollodorus iii. 6, 8 ; Schol. on Pindar, 
Nemea, x. 12. 

TYLDESLEY with SHAKERLEY, an urban district in the 
Leigh parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, n m. 
W.N.W. from Manchester by the London & North Western 
railway. Pop. (1901), 14,843. The town is of modern growth 
and depends upon its cotton mills and the large collieries in 
the neighbourhood. 

TYLER, JOHN (1790-1862), tenth president of the United 
States, was born at Greenway, Charles City county, Virginia, 
on the 29th of March 1790. He was the second son of John 
Tyler (1747-1813), governor of Virginia in 1808-1811 and United 
States district judge in 1812-1813. The family was of English 
descent, but the claim of relationship to the famous Wat Tyler, 
though always stoutly maintained by President Tyler, cannot 
be substantiated. John Tyler the younger entered the grammar- 
school of the College of William and Mary, at Williamsburg, 
in 1802, and graduated in 1807. Two years later he was 
admitted to the bar. His public life began in 1811, when he 
was elected a member of the Virginia House of Delegates. 
Here he served for five years, being chosen also in 1815 a mem- 
ber of the council of state. In 1813 he raised a company for 
the defence of Richmond against the British, serving sub- 
sequently in minor operations elsewhere. From December 
1816 to March 1821 he was a member of the national House 
of Representatives. A Republican in politics, and a firm 
believer in the doctrines of strict construction and state sover- 
eignty which Thomas Jefferson had been principally instru- 
mental in formulating, he opposed consistently the demand 
for internal improvements and increased tariff duties, and 
declined to follow Henry Clay in the proposed recognition of 
the independence of the Spanish colonies in South America 
and in the Missouri Compromise legislation. For the conduct 
of Jackson in Florida, in the summary execution of Arbuthnot 
and Ambrister, he had only strong condemnation. He declined 
a re-election to the House in 1821. In 1823-1825 he was again 
a member of the Virginia House of Delegates, and in 1825- 
1827 was governor of the state. In 1827 he was elected to 
the United States Senate to succeed John Randolph. In 1829- 
1830 he also served as a member of the Virginia constitutional 
convention. His career as senator was marked by a degree 
of independence which at times made his party position uncer- 
tain, notwithstanding the fact that his political ideas continued 
to be those of a thoroughgoing strict constructionist. Believ- 
ing protective tariff duties to be unconstitutional, he voted 
against the " tariff of abominations " in 1828, and also against 
the tariff of 1832, since the latter measure, though reducing 



TYDEUS TYLER, JOHN 



duties, showed no abandonment of the protective principle. 
The compromise tariff of 1833, made necessary by the hostile 
attitude of South Carolina, owed its inception largely to him, 
but he voted against the " force bill," an act for enforcing 
the collection of duties, being the only senator whose vote 
was so recorded. His hostility to a high tariff policy, however, 
did not prevent him from condemning the South Carolina 
ordinance of nullification; and in the presidential election of 
1832 he supported Andrew Jackson, to whose political principles 
and methods, as to those of his advisers, he was invincibly 
opposed, as the " least objectionable " of the various candidates. 
The vigorous course of the president towards South Carolina, 
however, led him, after 1833, to act more and more with the 
opposition which presently became the Whig party; but he 
was never at heart a Whig, at least as Whig principles came 
later to be defined, and his place is with the Democrats of the 
Calhoun school. He sought to incorporate in a new code 
for the District of Columbia, in 1832, a prohibition of the 
slave trade in the district, at the same time opposing the aboli- 
tion of slavery there without the consent of Maryland and 
Virginia, which had originally ceded the district to the United 
States. In the controversy over the removal of the govern- 
ment deposits from the Bank of the United States he sided 
with the bank, and voted for Clay's resolution censuring Jack- 
son for his course in the matter. In 1833 he was again elected 
to the Senate, notwithstanding the criticism of his independent 
attitude and the wide approval of Jackson's policy in regard 
to the bank. In the election of 1836 he was supported as a 
candidate for the vice-presidency by the friends of Hugh L. 
White of Tennessee, the Democratic candidate opposed to 
Martin Van Buren, and received 47 votes, none of them from 
Virginia. When the legislature of Virginia voted instructions 
to its senators to support Senator Thomas H. Benton's resolu- 
tion expunging from the journal ot the Senate the resolution 
of censure, Tyler, though admitting the right of instruction, 
could not conscientiously obey the mandate, and on the 29th 
of February 1836 he resigned his seat. He was by this time 
reckoned a Whig, and his refusal to favour the Van Buren 
administration lent colour to that view. In 1838 he became 
once more a member of the Virginia House of Delegates, and 
in the same year was chosen president of the Virginia Coloni- 
zation Society, of which he had long been a vice-president. 
In 1839 he made an unsuccessful contest for the United States 
senatorship. In December of that year the Whigs, relying 
upon his record in Congress as a sufficient declaration of political 
faith, nominated him for vice-president on the ticket with 
William Henry Harrison, expecting that the nomination would 
win support for the party in the South. Harrison and Tyler 
each received 234 electoral votes and were elected. On the 
4th of April 1841, one month after the inauguration, Harrison 
died, and Tyler became president. The detailed discussion 
of the events of his administration, 1841-1845, belongs to the 
history of the United States (see UNITED STATES: History). He 
retained Harrison's cabinet until his veto of the bill for a " fiscal 
corporation " led to the resignation of all the members except 
Daniel Webster, who was bringing to a close the negotiations 
with Lord Ashburton for the settlement of the north-eastern 
boundary dispute; and he not only opposed the recognition of 
the spoils system in appointments and removals, but kept at 
their posts some of the ablest of the ministers abroad. He 
stood, however, as it were, midway between the two great 
parties, without the leadership or support of either; Van Buren, 
whose influence in the practical working of politics was still 
great, refused to recognize him as a Democrat, and the Whigs 
repudiated him as a Whig; while with Clay leading the majority 
in Congress, harmony between that body and the executive 
was from the first impossible. The annexation of Texas, 
achieved just before the close of his administration, seemed 
to commend him for a second term on that issue, and in May 
1844 he was renominated by a convention of Democrats, irre- 
gularly chosen, at Baltimore. The majority of the annexa- 
tionists, however, would not support him, and he had further 



TYLER, M. C. TYLER, WAT 



495 



to meet the opposition of Van Buren, who had failed to secure 
the nomination in the regular Democratic convention, and 
of James K. Polk, the regular Democratic nominee. Tyler 
accepted the Baltimore nomination, but on the 2oth of August 
withdrew from the contest. From this time until the eve of 
the Civil War he held no public office, but his opinions on 
political questions continued to be sought, and he was much in 
demand as a speaker on public occasions. In December 1860, 
when South Carolina adopted its ordinance of secession, Tyler, 
though sympathizing with the state, took firm ground against 
disunion and exerted himself in behalf of peace. The legisla- 
ture of Virginia appointed him a commissioner to confer with 
President Buchanan and arrange, if possible, for the main- 
tenance of the status quo in the matter of Fort Sumter, in 
Charleston harbour; but his efforts were unavailing. He did 
not abate his activity, however, and the Peace Congress which 
assembled at Washington on the 4th of February 1861, pur- 
suant to a resolution of the Virginia legislature, and over which 
he presided, was largely the result of his labours. The con- 
stitutional amendment proposed by the conference, however, 
did not meet with his approbation, and his action in signing 
and transmitting the resolution to Congress was merely formal. 
On the I3th of February, while absent in Washington on this 
mission, he was elected to the Virginia convention at Rich- 
mond, and took his seat on the ist of March. In the conven- 
tion he advocated immediate secession as the only proper 
course under the circumstances. He continued to serve as 
a member of the convention until it adjourned in December, 
in the meantime acting as one of the commissioners to nego- 
tiate a temporary union between Virginia and the Confederate 
States of America. He was also a member of the provisional 
Confederate Congress from May 1861, when the capital of the 
Confederacy was removed from Montgomery, Alabama, to 
Richmond. He was elected a member of the House of Re- 
presentatives of the permanent Congress, but died on the 
i8th of January 1862, in Richmond, before that body assembled. 

President Tyler was twice married, first in 1813 to Miss 
Letitia Christian (1790-1842), and second in 1844 to Miss Julia 
Gardiner (1820-1889). His son, LYON GARDINER TYLER (b. 
1853), graduated at the university of Virginia in 1875, and 
practised law at Richmond, Virginia, from 1882 to 1888, when 
he became president of the College of William and Mary. 
Among his publications, besides Letters and Times of the Tylers, 
are Parlies and Patronage in the United States (1890); Cradle 
of the Republic (1900); England in America (1906) in the 
" American Nation " series, and Williamsburg, the Old Colonial 
Capital (1908). 

The principal authority for the life of Tyler, aside from speeches, 
messages and other documents, is Lyon G. Tyler, Letters and Times 
of the Tylers (3 vols., Richmond, Va., 1884-1896). (W. MAC D.*) 

TYLER, MOSES COIT (1835-1900), American author, was 
born in Griswold, Connecticut, on the 2nd of August 1835. 
At an early age he removed with his parents to Detroit, Michi- 
gan. He entered the university of Michigan in 1853, but in 
the next year went to Yale College, from which he graduated 
A.B. in 1857, and received the degree of A.M. in 1863. He 
studied for the Congregational ministry at the Yale Divinity 
School (1857-1858) and at the Andover Theological Seminary 
(1858-1859), and held a pastorate at Owego, New York, in 
1859-1860 and at Poughkeepsie in 1860-1862. Owing to ill- 
health, however, and a change in his theological beliefs, he 
left the ministry. He became interested in physical training, 
and for some time (partly in England) wrote and lectured on 
the subject, besides other journalistic work. He became 
professor of English language and literature in the university 
of Michigan in 1867, and held that position until 1881, except 
in 1873-1874 when he was literary editor of the Christian 
Union; from 1881 until his death on the 28th of December 
1900 at Ithaca, New York, he was professor of American history 
at Cornell University. In 1881 he was ordained deacon in 
the Protestant Episcopal Church and in 1883 priest, but he 
never undertook parochial work. Most important among 



his works are his valuable and original History of American 
Literature during the Colonial Time, 1607-1765 (2 vols., 1878; 
revised in 1897), and Literary History of the American Revolu- 
tion, 1763-1783 (2 vols., 1897). Supplementary to these two 
is his Three Men of Letters (1895), containing biographical 
and critical chapters on George Berkeley, Timothy Dwight 
and Joel Barlow. In addition he published The Brawnville 
Papers (1869), a series of essays on physical culture; a revision 
of Henry Morley's Manual of English Literature (1879); In 
Memoriam: Edgar Kelsey Apgar (1886), privately printed; 
Patrick Henry (1887), an excellent biography, in the " American 
Statesmen" series; and Glimpses of England: Social, Political, 
Literary (1898), a selection from his sketches written while 
abroad. 

See " Moses Coit Tyler," by Professor .William P. Trent, in The 
Forum (Aug. 1901), and an article by Professor George L. Burr, in 
the Annual Report of the American Historical Association for 1901 
(vol.i.). 

TYLER, WAT [or WALTER] (d. 1381), English rebel, a man 
of obscure origin, was a native either of Kent or of Essex. 
Nothing definite is known of him previous to the outbreak of 
the peasant revolt in 1381, but Froissart says he had served 
as a soldier in the French War, and a Kentishman in the re- 
tinue of Richard II. professed to identify him as a notorious 
rogue and robber of Kent. The name Tyler, or Teghler, is 
a trade designation and not a surname. The discontent of 
the rural labourers and of the poorer class of craftsmen in 
the towns, caused by the economic distress that followed the 
Black Death and the enactment of the Statute of Labourers 
in 1351, was brought to a head by the imposition of a poll 
tax in 1379 and again in 1381, and at the end of May in the 
latter year riots broke out at Brentwood in Essex; on the 4th 
of June similar violence occurred at Dartford; and on the 
6th a mob several thousands strong seized the castle of Roches- 
ter and marched up the Medway to Maidstone. Here they 
chose Wat Tyler to be their leader, and in the next few days 
the rising spread over Kent, where much pillage and damage 
to property occurred. On the loth Tyler seized Canterbury, 
sacked the palace of Archbishop Sudbury, the chancellor, 
and beheaded three citizens as " traitors." Next day he led 
his followers, strengthened by many Kentish recruits, on the 
road to London, being joined at Maidstone by John Ball 
(q.ii.), whom the mob had liberated from the archbishop's 
prison. Reaching Blackheath on the I2th, the insurgents 
burnt the prisons in Southwark and pillaged the archbishop's 
palace at Lambeth, while another body of rebels from Essex 
encamped at Mile End. King Richard II. was at the Tower, 
but neither the king's councillors nor the municipal authorities 
had taken any measures to cope with the rising. The draw- 
bridge of London Bridge having been lowered by treachery, 
Tyler and his followers crossed the Thames; and being joined 
by thousands of London apprentices, artisans and criminals, 
they sacked and burnt John of Gaunt's splendid palace of the 
Savoy, the official residence of the treasurer, Sir Robert Hales, 
and the prisons of Newgate and the Fleet. On the i4th 
Richard II., a boy of fourteen, undertook the perilous enter- 
prise of riding out to confer with the rebels beyond the city 
wall. At Mile End the king met Wat Tyler; a lengthy and 
tumultuous conference, during which several persons were 
slain, took place, in which Tyler demanded the immediate 
abolition of serfdom and all feudal services, and the removal 
of all restrictions on freedom of labour and trade, as well as 
a general amnesty for the insurgents. Richard had no choice 
but to concede these demands, and charters were immediately 
drawn up to give effect to them. While this was in progress 
Tyler with a small band of followers returned to the Tower, 
which they entered, and dragged forth Archbishop Sudbury 
and Sir Robert Hales from the chapel and murdered them 
on Tower Hill. During the following night and day London 
was given over to plunder and slaughter, the victims being 
chiefly Flemish merchants, lawyers and personal adherents 
of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. Meantime the people 



49 6 



TYLER TYLOPODA 



of property began to organize themselves for the restoration 
of order. On the isth of June, Richard, after confession 
and receiving the Sacrament, rode to Smithfield for a further 
conference with the rebels. Close to St Bartholomew's Church 
he met Wat Tyler, who advanced from the ranks of the insur- 
gents and shook the king's hand, bidding him be of good cheer. 
Tyler then formulated a number of fresh demands, including 
the confiscation of ecclesiastical estates and the institution 
of social equality. Richard replied that the popular desire 
should be satisfied "saving the regalities of the Crown." Tyler 
thereupon grew insolent, and in the altercation that ensued 
the rebel leader was killed by the mayor, Sir William Wai- 
worth (q.v.), and John Standwick, one of the king's squires. 
The rebels now handled their bows in a menacing fashion, 
but at the critical moment the young king with great presence 
of mind and courage spurred his horse into the open, crying, 
" Sirs, will you shoot your king? I will be your chief and 
captain, you shall have from me all that you seek." Richard 
then led the mob to a neighbouring meadow, where he kept 
them in parley till Walworth, who had returned within the city 
to summon the loyal citizens to the king's aid, returned with a 
sufficient following to overawe and disperse the rebels. With 
the death of Wat Tyler the rising in London and the home 
counties quickly subsided, though in East Anglia it flickered 
a short time longer under the leadership of John Wraw and 
Geoffrey Litster until suppressed by the energy of Henry 
Despenser, bishop of Norwich. About no persons were exe- 
cuted for the rebellion in Kent and Essex, including John Ball, 
and Jack Straw, Tyler's chief lieutenant. 1 The enfranchise- 
ment of villeins granted by Richard at the Mile End conference 
was revoked by parliament in 1382, and no permanent results 
were obtained for the peasants by Wat Tyler's revolt. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The best original account of the rebellion of 
Wat Tyler is the " Anonimal Chronicle of St Mary's, York," printed 
by G. M. Trevelyan in the Eng. Hist. Rev. (1898). See also Thomas 
Walsingham, Chronicon Angliae (Rolls series, 1874); Froissart, 
Chronicles (edited by G. C. Macaulay, London, 1895) ; Andre Reville, 
Le Soulevement des travaillers d'Angleterre en Ij8l> (Paris, 1898); 
C. Oman, The Great Revolt of 1381 (Oxford, 1906), and The Political 
History of England, vol. iv. (ed. by W. Hunt and R. L. Poole, London, 
1906). (R. J. M.) 

TYLER, a city and the county-seat of Smith county, Texas, 
U.S.A., about 115 m. E. by S. of Dallas. Pop. (1890), 6908; 
(1900), 8069, of whom 2693 were negroes; (1910 census), 10,400. 
Tyler is served by the International & Great Northern and the 
St Louis South-Western railways. It is the seat of the Tyler 
Commercial College, of the East Texas Conservatory of Music 
and of two institutions for negroes Texas College (1895; 
Colored Methodist Episcopal) and the East Texas Normal and 
Industrial Academy (Baptist, 1905). The principal public 
buildings include the city hall, the county court-house, a Car- 
negie library and the post office and Federal Courts building. 
Sessions of the United States Circuit and District Courts, and 
of a state district court, as well as of the county court, are held 
in Tyler. Tyler is situated in a prosperous agricultural region, 
and has various manufactures. The St Louis South-Western 
railway maintains general offices and machine-shops here. 
Tyler, named in honour of President John Tyler, was settled 
in 1847, was incorporated as a town in 1870 and was chartered 
as a city in 1907. 

TYLOPODA (Gr. for boss-footed, in reference to the 
cushion-like pads forming the soles of the feet), the scientific 
name of the section of ruminating artiodactyle ungulate mam- 
mals (see ARTIODACTYLA) now represented by the Old World 
camels (see CAMEL) and the South American Llamas (see LLAMA) 

Characters. In the skull there is a sagittal crest; the tympanic 
bulla is filled with cancellous tissue; the condyle of the lower jaw is 
rounded; and the premaxillae, or anterior bones of the upper jaw, 
have the full number of incisor teeth in the young state, the outer- 
most of these being persistent through life as an isolated tooth. 
The tusk-like canines are present in both jaws, those of the lower jaw 

1 Mr F. W. D. Brie (English Historical Review, 1906) vol. xxi. 
advances the theory that Tyler and Straw are one and the same 
person. 



being differentiated from the long, horizontal and spatulate incisors; 
in form they are sub-erect and pointed. The crowns of the molars 
belong to the -rrescentic or selenodont type, and are tall-crowned or 
hypsodont; but one or more of the anterior premolars is usually 
detached from the series, and of simple pointed form. The hinder 
part of the body is much contracted, and the femur long and verti- 
cally placed, so that the knee-joint is lower in position, and the thigh 
altogether more detached from the abdomen than in most mammals. 
The limbs are long, but with only tWo digits (the third and fourth) 
developed on each, no traces of any of the others being present. 
The trapezoid and magnum of the carpus, and the cuboid and navi- 
cular of the tarsus are distinct. The two cannon-bones of each limb 
are confluent for the greater part of their length, though separated 
for a considerable distance at the lower end. Their lower articular 
surfaces, instead of being pulley-like, with deep ridges and grooves, 
as in other Artiodactyla, are simple, rounded and smooth. The 
first phalanges are expanded at their lower ends, and the wide, 
depressed middle phalanges embedded in a broad cutaneous pad, 
forming the sole of the foot, on which the animal rests in walking 
instead of on the hoofs. The terminal phalanges are small and 
nodular, not flattened on their inner or opposed surfaces, and not 
completely encased in hoofs, but bearing nails on their upper surface 
only. The neck is long and curved, and its vertebrae are remarkable 
for the position of the canal for the transmission of the vertebral 
artery, which does not perforate the transverse process, but passes 
obliquely through the anterior part of the pedicle of the arch. There 
are no horns or antlers. Though these animals ruminate, the 
stomach differs considerably in the details of its construction from 
that of the Pecora. The interior of the rumen or paunch has no tags 
or villi on its surface, and there is no distinct psalterium or manyplies. 
Both first and second compartments are remarkable for the presence 
of a number of pouches or cells in their walls, with muscular parti- 
tions, and a sphincter-like arrangement of their orifices, by which 
they can be shut off from the rest of the cavity, and into which 
the fluid portion only of the contents of the stomach is allowed to 
enter. The placenta is diffuse, not cotyledonary. Finally, the 
Tylopoda differ not only from other ungulates, but from all other 
mammals, in the fact that the red corpuscles of the blood, 
instead of being circular in outline, are oval as in the inferior 
vertebrate classes. 

Camels. Of the two existing generic representatives of the 
Camelidae (as the family in which they are both included is named), 
the Old World camels (Camelus) are characterized by their great 
bodily size, and the presence of one or two fleshy humps, which 
diminish or increase in size according to the physical condition of 
the animals themselves. There is a total of 34 teeth, arranged 
as i. J, c. \, p. |, m. jj. Of these the first upper premolar is a simple 
tooth placed close behind the premaxilla and separated by a long 
gap from the two other teeth of the same series; while the lower 
incisors, of which the outermost is the largest, are directed partially 
forwards. The skull is elongated, with an overhanging occiput, 
complete bony rims to the orbits, and the premaxillae separated 
from the arched and rather long nasals. The vertebrae are C. 7. 
D. 12. L. 7. S. 4 and Ca. 13 to 15. The ears are short and rounded; 
the toes of the broad feet very imperfectly separated ; the tail io 
well developed, with a terminal tuft; and the straight hair is not 
woolly. 

Llamas. Although the name llama properly applies only to one 
of the domesticated breeds, zoologically it is taken to include all the 
South American representatives of the Camelidae, which form the 
genus Lama. In this sense, llamas are characterized as follows. 
The dentition in the adult is i. $, c. \, p. , m. f ; total 32. In the 
upper jaw there is a compressed, sharp-pointed, tusk-like incisor 
near the hind edge of the premaxilla, followed in the male at least 
by a moderate-sized, pointed, curved canine in the anterior part of 
the maxilla. The isolated canine-like premolar which follows in the 
camels is not present. The teeth of the cheek-series which are in 
contact with each other consist of two small premolars (the first 
almost rudimentary) and three broad molars, constructed generally 
like those of Camelus. In the lower jaw the three incisors are long, 
spatulate and horizontal, with the outer one the smallest. Next 
to the latter is a curved, sub-erect canine, followed after an interval 
by an isolated minute and often deciduous simple conical premolar; 
then a contiguous series of one premolar and three molars, which 
differ from those of recent species of Camelus in having a small 
accessory column at the anterior outer edge. The skull generally 
resembles that of Camelus, the relatively larger brain-cavity and 
orbits and less developed cranial ridges being due to its smaller 
size. The nasal bones are shorter and broader, and are joined by 
the premaxillae. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 12, L. 7, S. 4, Ca. 15 to 20. 
Ears rather long and pointed. No hump. Feet narrow, the toes 
being more separated than in the camels, and each with a distinct 
plantar pad. Tail short. Hairy covering long and woolly. Size 
smaller and general form lighter than in the camels. Llamas 
are now confined to the western and southernmost parts of South 
America, though fossil remains have been found in the caves of 
Brazil, and in the pampas of the Argentine Republic. (See also 
ALPACA; GUANACO; LLAMA and VICUGNA.) 

Fossil History. As regards the past history of the group, remains 
of fossil species of Camelus have been obtained from the superficial 



TYLOPODA 



497 



deposits of various parts of Russia, Rumania, and Siberia, and 
others from the Lower Pliocene of northern India; the molar teeth 
of these latter presenting the additional column referred to above 
as distinguishing those of the llamas from those of modern camels. 
In addition to these Dr M. Schlosser has described remains of a large 
camel-like animal from China, with apparently generalized affinities, 
for which the name of Paracamelus is proposed. Mme Pavlow, 
of Moscow, has brought to notice a fossil camel-skull of great in- 
terest, which was collected in the district Alexandrie, of the govern- 
ment of Kherson, Russia. Unfortunately, the precise age of the 
formation from which it was obtained is unknown, but it is con- 
sidered probable that it dates from the later Tertiary. Although 
it has the deciduous dentition, Mme Pavlow considers herself 
justified in referring the Kherson skull to the genus Procamelus 
previously known only from the Lower Pliocene or Upper Miocene 
strata of North America, and differing from modern camels, among 
other features, by the retention of a fuller series of premolar teeth. 
Part of the cannon-bone of a camel from another district in Russia 
is provisionally assigned to the same species. Possibly this Russian 
camel (Procamelus khersonensis), as it is called, may form the 
connecting link between the typical Procamelus of North America 
and the fossil camel (Camelus sivalensis) of the Siwalik Hills of 
India. Be this as it may, the identification of a North American 
type of camel from the Tertiary strata of eastern Europe forms 
another connecting link between the extinct faunas of the northern 
half of the Old World and North America, and thus tends to show 
that the claim of America to be the exclusive birthplace of many 
Old World types may have to be reconsidered. 

Remains of camels (C. thomasi) have also been found in the 
Pleistocene strata of Oran and Ouen Seguen, in Algeria; and cer- 
tain remains from the Isle of Samos have been assigned to the 
same genus, although the reference requires confirmation. The 
Algerian Pleistocene camel was doubtless the direct ancestor of 
the living African species, which it serves to connect with the 
extinct C. sivalensis. 

In North America, apart from certain still older and more primi- 
tive mammals, with teeth of the tubercular type, the earliest 
known form which can definitely be included in the camel-series is 
Protylopus, of the Uinta or Upper Eocene. In this creature, 
which was not larger than a European hare, there was the full 
number of 44 teeth, which formed a regular series, without any long 
gaps, and with the canines but little taller than the incisors, while 
the hinder cheek-teeth, although of the crescentic type, were 
low-crowned. In both jaws the anterior front-teeth were of a cutting 
and compressed type. Unfortunately, the skull is incomplete, 
and the rest of the skeleton very imperfectly known; but sufficient 
of the former remains to show that the socket of the eye was open 
behind, and of the latter to indicate that in the hind-foot, at any 
rate, the upper bones of the two functional toes had not coalesced 
into a cannon-bone. The lateral hind-toes (that is to say the second 
and fifth of the typical series) had, however, become rudimentary ; 
although it is probable that the corresponding digits of the fore- 
limb were functional, so that this foot was four-toed. In old 
individuals the bones of the forearm (radius and ulna) became 
welded together about half-way down, although they remained 
free above. On the other hand it appears that the smaller bone of 
the leg (fibula) was welded to the larger one (tibia), and that its 
upper portion had disappeared. Nothing is known of the neck 
vertebrae. It is, of course, evident that there must have been an 
earlier form in which all the feet were four-toed, and the bones of 
the forearm and lower part of the leg separate. 

A stage higher in the series, viz. in the Oligocene, we meet with 
Poebrotherium, in which a distinct increase in bodily size is notice- 
able, as also in the relative length of the two bones which unite 
in the higher types to form the cannon-bone. Moreover, the 
crowns of the hinder cheek-teeth are taller, and more distinctly 
crescentic, both feet are two-toed, the ulna and radius are fused, 
and the fibula is represented only by its lower part. In the verte- 
brae of the neck the distinctive cameloid characters had already 
made their appearance. On the other hand, the skull was short 
and rabbit-like, showing none of the characteristic features of 
modern camels. 

In the Lower Miocene occurs Protomeryx or Gomphotherium, in 
which there is a considerable increase in the matter of bodily size, 
the two metacarpal and metatarsal bones (or those which unite in 
the latter forms to constitute the cannon-bones) being double the 
length of the corresponding elements in Protylopus. These bones, 
although separate, have their adjacent surfaces more closely applied 
.than is the case in the latter; while in this and the earlier genera 
the terminal toe-bones indicate that the foot was of the normal 
hoofed type. In the skull the socket of the eye is surrounded by 
bone; while the dentition begins to approximate to the camel 
type notably by the circumstance that the lower canine is either 
separated by a gap from the outermost incisors, or that its crown 
assumes a backwardly curved shape. In Protolabis of the Middle 
Miocene, while no canno_n-bone is formed, the first and second pairs 
of incisor teeth are retained, and the limbs and feet are short and 
disproportionately small. In the Upper Miocene we come to a 
distinct type Procamelus which is entitled to be regarded as 
a camel, and approximates in size to a small llama. Here the 



mecacarpals and metatarsals have partially united to form cannon- 
bones, the skull has assumed the elongated form characteristic of 
modern camels, with the loss of the first and second pairs of upper 
incisors, and the development of gaps in front of and behind each 
of the next three teeth, that is to say, the third incisor, the canine 
and the first cheek-tooth. The approximately contemporaneous 
Pliauchema makes another step by the loss of the second lower 
cheek-tooth. Both these genera have the toe-bones of the ir- 
regular nodular form distinctive of modern camels, so that we may 
safely infer that the feet themselves had assumed the cushion- 
type. 

In one species of Procamelus the metacarpals and metatarsals 
coalesced into canon-bones late in life; but when we come to the 
Pleistocene Camelops such union took place at an early stage of 
existence, and was thoroughly complete. In the living members 
of the group it occurs before birth. The species of Camelops 
were probably fully as large as llamas, and some, at any rate, 
resembled these animals as regards the number of teeth, the incisors 
being reduced to one upper and three lower pairs, and the cheek- 
teeth to four or five in the upper and four in the lower jaw ; the total 
number of teeth thus being 28 or 30 in place of the 44 of Poebrothe- 
rium. The sole difference between Camelops and Llama seems to 
consist in certain structural details of the lower cheek-teeth. An 
allied extinct genus (Eschatius) is also distinguished by certain 
features in the dentition. 

Apart from Procamelus the foregoing genera are exclusively 
North American. A lower jaw from the Pleistocene deposits of 
that continent has, however, been referred to the Old World 
Camelus. 

In addition to the above there is an extraordinary North American 
Miocene giraffe-necked camel (Allicamelus) , a creature of the size 
of a giraffe, with similarly elongated neck and limbs, and evidently 
adapted for browsing on trees. The feet and number of teeth 
were generally similar to those of Procamelus. Unlike the giraffe, 
the length of the limbs is due to the elongation of their upper 
segments, and that of the neck to the lengthening of only the hinder 
vertebrae. 

In caverns and superficial deposits of South America occur re- 
mains of extinct species more or less closely related to modern 
llamas; but previous to the Upper Pliocene the group is unknown 
in South America, which it reached from the north. 

All the foregoing genera are included in the sub-family Camelidae. 
Parallel to this is, however, the North American family Leptomery- 
chidae (Hypertragulidae), as represented by Leptomeryx, Camelo- 
meryx and- Leptoreodon, which presents remarkable resemblances, 
especially in the type genus, to the Tragulina (see CHEVROTAIN); 
camel-like features being, however, apparent in the two genera 
last mentioned. Generalized features are also displayed by the 
Oligocene Hypisodus, which in its short skull and large orbits 
presents a curious approximation to the African dik-dik antelopes 
of the genus Madoqua (see ANTELOPE). Again, the remarkable 
horned North American Oligocene genus Protoceras, while dis- 
playing resemblances to Leptomeryx and Leptoreodon, presents also 
points of similarity to the Tragulina and Pecora (g.f .). 

The North American genus Oreodon typifies a second family 
included by Professor W. B. Scott in the Tylopoda and generally 
known as the Oreodontidae. As Oreodon is, however, antedated 
by Merycoidodon, the latter; name is properly entitled to stand, 
in which case the family should be called Agriochoeridae. It is not 
easy to point put the characters in which the family approximates 
to the Camelidae, and only its general characteristics can be 
indicated. The family ranges in North America from the Upper 
Eocene to the Lower Miocene, but Oreodon (or Merycoidodon), 
which is typified by an animal of the size of a sheep, is Oligocene. 
In the Oreodontinae or typical section of the family, which includes 
several genera nearly allied! to Oreodon, the skull is shorter and higher 
than in the camels, with a swollen brain-case, a preorbital gland- 
pit, the condyle of the lower jaw transversely elongated, the 
tympanic bulla hollow, and the orbit surrounded by bone. The 
dentition comprises the typical 44 teeth, of which the molars are 
short-crowned, with four crescentic cusps on those of the upper 
jaw (selenodont type). The most characteristic dental feature is, 
however, the assumption of the form and function of a canine by 
the first lower premolar; the lower canine being incisor-like. The 
tail is very long; and the feet have five functional toes, with com- 
plete but short metacarpals or metatarsals. In the Miocene 
Agriochoerus, which typifies a second sub-family (Agriochoerinae), 
there is no gland-pit in the skull, of which the orbit is open behind; 
while the upper incisors are wanting in the adult and the terminal 
toe-bones are claw-like rather than of the hoofed type. The molars 
are less completely selenodont than in the type genus. It is note- 
worthy that a molar from the Tertiary of India has been referred 
to Agriochoerus, a determination which if correct probably indicates 
the occurrence of Oreodonts in the unknown Tertiary deposits 
of Central Asia. It may be added that in the Oreodontidae the 
vertebral artery pierces the transverse processes of the cervical 
vertebrae in the normal manner. 

The earliest representatives of the Tylopoda according to Professor 
Scott is the Middle Eocene genus Homacodon, typifying the family 
Homacodontidae, which is regarded as the common ancestor of both 



TYLOR TYNDALE 



Camelidae and Oreodontidae, with resemblances to the European 
Oligocene genus Dichobune (see ARTIODACTYLA). Homacodon was 
an animal of the size of a rabbit, with five toes (of which only 
five were functional to each foot) and 44 teeth, of which the molars 
are tuberculated (bunodont), with six columns on those of the upper 
jaw; the premolars being of a cutting type. It should be added 
that this generalized animal is not unfrequently classed among the 
ancestral pigs, but its cameline affinities are strongly emphasized 
by Professor Scott. 

LITERATURE. W. B. Scott, " On the Osteology of Poebrother- 
ium," Journal of Morphology (1891), vol. v. ; "The Osteology of 
Protoceras " (1895), ibid., vol. xi. ; J. L. Wortman, " On the Oste- 
ology of Agriochoerus," Bull. Amer. Museum (1895), vol. vii. ; " The 
Extinct Camelidae of North America (1898), ibid., vol. x. ; 
W. D. Matthew, " The Skull of Hypisodus (1901), ibid., vol. xvi. 

(R. L.*) 

TYLOR, EDWARD BURNETT (1832- ), English anthro- 
pologist, was born at Camberwell, London, on the 2nd of 
October 1832, the son of Joseph Tylor, a brassfounder. Alfred 
Tylor, the geologist, was an elder brother. His parents were 
members of the Society of Friends, at one of whose schools, at 
Grove House, Tottenham, he was educated. In 1848 he entered 
his father's manufactory in London, but at about the age of 
twenty he was threatened with consumption and forced to 
abandon business. During 1855-1856 he travelled in the 
United States of America to recruit his health. Proceeding 
in 1856 to Cuba, he met Henry Christy the ethnologist, with 
whom he visited Mexico. Tylor's association with Christy 
greatly stimulated his awakening interest in anthropology, 
and his visit to Mexico, with its rich prehistoric remains, led 
him to make a systematic study of the science. While on a 
visit to Cannes he wrote a record of his observations, entitled 
Anahuac; or, Mexico and the Mexicans, Ancient and Modern, 
which was published in 1861. In 1865 appeared Researches 
into the Early History of Mankind, which made Tylor's reputa- 
tion. It showed great research, original insight, and much 
constructive power in the formation of systematic views. The 
chapters on early myths and their geographical distribution 
are especially valuable. The work reached a third edition in 
1878. This book was followed in 1871 by the more elaborate 
Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, 
Philosophy, Religion, Language, Art and Custom, which at once 
became the standard general treatise on anthropology. Tylor's 
treatment of animism (chs.xi.-xvii.) was particularly elaborate, 
and he first determined the limits of that province of anthro- 
pology intending it to include " the general doctrine of souls, 
and other spiritual beings." In 1881 Tylor published a smaller 
and more popular handbook on Anthropology. His work had 
already met with recognition. In 871 he was elected F.R.S., 
and in 1875 received the honorary degree of D.C.L. from the 
university of Oxford. He was appointed keeper of the Uni- 
versity Museum at Oxford in 1883, and reader in anthropology 
in 1884. In 1888 he was appointed first Gifford lecturer at 
Aberdeen University, and delivered a two years' course on 
" Natural Religion." In 1896 he became first professor of 
anthropology at Oxford. At the end of 1907 the Clarendon 
Press published a volume of Anthropological Essays, to which 
various representative scholars of a younger generation in the 
same field had contributed, the essays being dedicated and 
presented to Tylor as a mark of honour; and this collection 
includes not only a bibliography of his publications by Miss 
Freire-Marreco, but also an appreciation of Tylor's life-work 
by Andrew Lang. 

TYMPANON, or TYMPANUM (Gr. TVfnravov, from rinrTdv, 
to strike), a name applied by the Romans to both kettledrum 
and tambourine, in the case of the latter sometimes qualified 
by leve. The tympanum leve, generally included among the 
tympana, described as being like a sieve, was the tambourine 
used in the rites of Bacchus and Cybele. Pliny doubtless 
described half pearls having one side round and the other flat, 
as tympania, on account of their resemblance to the tympanum 
or kettledrum, which, in its primitive form, innocent of screws 
or mechanism for tightening the head, exactly resembled the 
half pearl. During the middle ages the tympanum was gene- 
rally a tambourine, the kettledrum being known as nacaire. 



In architecture the term tympanum is given to the triangular 
space enclosed between the horizontal cornice of the entabla- 
ture and the sloping cornice of the pediment. Though sometimes 
left plain, in the most celebrated Greek temples it was filled with 
sculpture of the highest standard ever attained. In Romanesque 
and Gothic work the term is applied to the space above the 
lintel or architrave of a door and the discharging arch over 
it, which was also enriched either with geometrical patterns or 
in later work with groups of figures; those in continental work 
are usually arranged in tiers. The upper portion of a gable 
when enclosed with a horizontal string-course, is also termed 
a tympanum. 

TYNDALE (or TINDALE), WILLIAM (c. 1492-1536), translator 
of the New Testament and Pentateuch (see BIBLE, ENGLISH), 
was born on the Welsh border, probably in Gloucestershire, 
some time between 1490 and 1495. In Easter term 1510 he 
went to Oxford, where Foxe says he was entered of Magdalen 
Hall. He took his M.A. degree in 1515 and removed to Cam- 
bridge, where Erasmus had helped to establish a reputation for 
Greek and theology. Ordained to the priesthood, probably 
towards the close of 1521, he entered the household of Sir 
John Walsh, Old Sodbury, Gloucestershire, as chaplain and 
domestic tutor. Here he lived for two years, using his leisure 
in preaching in the villages and at Bristol, conduct which brought 
him into collision with the backward clergy of the district, 
and led to his being summoned before the chancellor of Worcester 
(William of Malvern) as a suspected heretic; but he was allowed 
to depart without receiving censure or giving any undertaking. 
But the persecution of the clergy led him to seek an antidote for 
what he regarded as the corruption of the Church, and he re- 
solved to translate the New Testament into the vernacular. 
In this he hoped to get help from Cuthbert Tunstall, bishop 
of London, and so " with the good will of his master " he left 
Gloucester in the summer of 1523. Tunstall disappointed 
him, so he got employment as a preacher at St Dunstan's-in- 
the-West, and worked at his translation, living as chaplain jn 
the house of Humphrey Monmouth, an alderman, and forming 
a firm friendship with John Frith; but finding publication 
impossible in England, he sailed for Hamburg in May 1524. 
After visiting Luther at Wittenberg, he settled with his amanu- 
ensis William Roy in Cologne, where he had made some progress 
in printing a 4to edition of his New Testament, when the 
work was discovered by John Cochlaeus, dean at Frankfurt, 
who not only got the senate of Cologne to interdict further 
printing, but warned Henry VIII. and Wolsey to watch the 
English ports. Tyndale and Roy escaped with their sheets 
to Worms, where the 8vo editiqn was completed in 1:526. 
Copies were smuggled into England but were suppressed by 
the bishops, and William Warham, archbishop of Canterbury, 
even bought up copies on the Continent to destroy them. At- 
tempts were made to seize Tyndale at Worms, but he found 
refuge at Marburg with Philip, landgrave of Hesse. There he 
probably met Patrick Hamilton, and was joined by John 
Frith. About this time he changed his views on the Eucharist 
and swung clean over from transubstantiation to the advanced 
Zwinglian position. His Parable of the Wicked Mammon (1528), 
Obedience of a Christen Man (1528), in which the two great 
principles of the English Reformation are set out, viz. the 
authority of Scripture in the Church and the supremacy of the 
king in the state, and Practyse of Prelates (1530), a strong in- 
dictment of the Roman Church and also of Henry VIII. 's 
divorce proceedings, were all printed at" Marburg. In 1529 
on his way to Hamburg he was wrecked on the Dutch coast, 
and lost his newly completed translation of Deuteronomy. 
Later in the year he went to Antwerp where he conducted his 
share of the classic controversy with Sir Thomas More. After 
Henry VIII. 's change of attitude towards Rome, Stephen 
Vaughan, the English envoy to the Netherlands, suggested 
Tyndale's return, but the reformer feared ecclesiastical hostility 
and declined. Henry then demanded his surrender from the 
emperor as one who was spreading sedition in England, and 
Tyndale left Antwerp for two years, returning in 1533 and 



TYNDALL 



499 



busying himself with revising his translations. In May 1535 
he was betrayed by Henry Phillips, to whom he had shown 
much kindness, as a professing student of the new faith. The 
imperial officers imprisoned him at Vilvorde Castle, the state 
prison, 6 m. from Brussels, where in spite of the great 
efforts of the English merchants and the appeal of Thomas 
Cromwell to Archbishop Carandolet, president of the council, 
and to the governor of the castle, he was tried for heresy and 
condemned. On the 6th of October 1536 he was strangled at 
the stake and his body afterwards burnt. Though long an 
exile from his native land, Tyndale was one of the greatest 
forces of the English Reformation. His writings show sound 
scholarship and high literary power, while they helped to 
shape the thought of the Puritan party in England. His 
translation of the Bible was so sure and happy that it formed 
! the basis of subsequent renderings, especially that of the 
authorized version of 1611. Besides the New Testament, the 
Pentateuch and Jonah, it is believed that he finished in prison 
the section of the Old Testament extending from Joshua to 
Chronicles. 

Beside the works already named Tyndale wrote A Prologue 
on the Epistle to the Romans (1526), An Exposition of the 1st Epistle 
of John (1531), An Exposition of Matthew v.-vii. (1532), a treatise 
on the sacraments (1533), and possibly another (no longer extant) 
on matrimony (1529). 

The works of Tyndale were first published along with those of 
John Frith (g.f.) and Robert Barnes, " three worthy martyrs and 
principal teachers of the Church of England," by John Day, in 
1573 (folio). A new edition of the works of Tyndale and Frith, 
by T. Russell, was published at London (1828-1831). His Doctrinal 
Treatises and Introductions to Different Portions of the Holy Scripture 
were published by the Parker Society in 1848. For biography, 
see Foxe's Acts and Monuments; R. Demaus, William Tyndale 
(London, 1871); also the Introduction to Mombert's critical reprint 
of Tyndale's Pentateuch (New York, 1884), where a bibliography 
is given. 

TYNDALL, JOHN (1820-1893), British natural philosopher, 
was born in Co. Carlow, Ireland, on the 2nd of August 1820, 
his father being the son of a small landowner in poor circum- 
stances, but a man of more than ordinary ability. With Darwin 
and Huxley his name is inseparably connected with the battle 
which began in the middle of the ipth century for making the 
new standpoint of modern science part of the accepted philo- 
sophy in general life. For many years, indeed, he came to repre- 
sent to ordinary Englishmen the typical or ideal professor of 
physics. His strong, picturesque mode of seizing and expressing 
things gave him an immense living influence both in speech and 
writing, and disseminated a popular knowledge of physical 
science such as had not previously existed. But besides being 
a true educator, and perhaps the greatest popular teacher of 
natural philosophy in his generation, he was an earnest and 
original observer and explorer of nature. 

Tyndall was to a large extent a self-made man; he had no 
early advantages, but with indomitable earnestness devoted him- 
self to study, to which he was stimulated by the writings of 
Carlyle. He passed from a national school in Co. Carlow 
to a minor post (1839) in the Irish ordnance survey, thence 
(1842) to the English survey, attending mechanics' institute 
lectures at Preston in Lancashire. He then became for a time 
(1844) a railway engineer, and in 1847 a teacher at Queenwood 
College, Hants. Thence with much spirit, and in face of many 
difficulties, he betook himself, with his colleague Edward 
Frankland, to the university of Marburg (1848-1851), where, by 
intense application, he obtained his doctorate in two years. 
His inaugural dissertation was an essay on screw-surfaces. 

Tyndall's first original work in physical science was in his 
experiments with regard to magnetism and diamagnetic polarity, 
on which he was chiefly occupied from 1850 to 1855. While 
he was still lecturing on natural philosophy at Queenwood College, 
his magnetic investigations made him known in the higher 
circles of the scientific world, and through the initiative of Sir 
E. Sabine, treasurer of the Royal Society, he was elected F.R.S. 
in June 1852. In 1850 he had made Faraday's acquaintance, 
and shortly before the Ipswich meeting of the British Associa- 
tion in 1851 he began a lasting friendship with T. H. Huxley. 



The two young men stood for chairs of physics and natural 
history respectively, first at Toronto, next at Sydney, but they 
were in each case unsuccessful. On the nth of February 1853, 
however, Tyndall gave, by invitation, a Friday evening lecture 
(on " The Influence of Material Aggregation upon the Manifesta- 
tions of Force ") at the Royal Institution, and his public reputa- 
tion was at once established. In the following May he was 
chosen professor of natural philosophy at the Royal Institution, 
a post which exactly suited his striking gifts and made him a 
colleague of Faraday, whom in 1866 he succeeded as scientific 
adviser to the Trinity House and Board of Trade, and in 1867 as 
superintendent of the Royal Institution. His reverent attach- 
ment to Faraday is beautifully manifested in his memorial 
volume called Faraday as a Discoverer (1868). 

The more original contributions which Tyndall made to 
science are dealt with elsewhere, in the articles concerned with 
the various subjects (see HEAT, &c.). But his inquiries into 
glacier motion were notable alike for his association with Switzer- 
land and for prolonged controversy with other men of science 
on the subject. In 1854, after the meeting of the British 
Association in Liverpool, a memorable visit occurred to the 
Penrhyn slate quarries, where the question of slaty cleavage 
arose in his mind, and ultimately led him, with Huxley, to 
Switzerland to study the phenomena of glaciers. Here the 
mountains seized him, and he became a constant visitor and 
one of the most intrepid and most resolute of explorers; among 
other feats of climbing he was the first to ascend the Weiss- 
horn (1861). The strong, vigorous, healthfulness and enjoyment 
which permeate the record of his Alpine work are magnificent, 
and traces of his influence remain in Switzerland to this day. 
The problem of the flow of glaciers occupied his attention for 
years, and his views brought him into acute conflict with others, 
particularly J. D. Forbes and James Thomson. Every one knew 
that glaciers moved, but the questions were how they moved, 
for what reason and by what mechanism. Some thought they 
slid like solids; others that they flowed like liquids; others that 
they crawled by alternate expansion and contraction, or by 
alternate freezing and melting; others, again, that they broke 
and mended. Thus there arose a chaos of controversy, illumi- 
nated by definite measurements and observations. Tyndall's 
own summary of the course of research on the subject was as 
follows: 

The idea of semi-fluid motion belongs entirely to Rendu ; the 
proof of the quicker central flow belongs in part to Rendu, but almost 
wholly to Agassiz and Forbes ; the proof of the retardation of the bed 
belongs to Forbes alone; while the discovery of the locus of the point 
of maximum motion belongs, I suppose, to me. 

But while Forbes asserted that ice was viscous, Tyndall 
denied it, and insisted, as the result of his observations, on the 
flow being due to fracture and regelation. All agreed that ice 
flowed as if it were a viscous fluid ; and of this apparent viscosity 
James Thomson offered an independent explanation by the 
application of pure thermodynamical theory, which Tyndall 
considered inefficient to account for the facts he observed. 
It is unnecessary here to rake among the ashes of this prolonged 
dispute, but it may be noted that Helmholtz, who, in his lecture 
on " Ice and Glaciers," adopted Thomson's theory, afterwards, 
added in an appendix that he had come to the conclusion that 
Tyndall had " assigned the essential and principal cause of 
glacier motion in referring it to fracture and regelation " 
(1865). 

Tyndall's investigations of the transparency and opacity of 
gases and vapours for radiant heat, which occupied him during 
many years (1850-1871), are frequently considered his chief 
scientific work. But his activities were essentially many- 
sided. He definitely established the absorptive power of clear 
aqueous vapour a point of great meteorological significance. 
He made brilliant experiments elucidating the blue of the sky,, 
and discovered the precipitation of organic vapours by means 
of light. He called attention to curious phenomena occurring 
in the track of a luminous beam. He examined the opacity of 
the air for sound in connexion with lighthouse and siren work, 



500 



TYNDARIS TYNE 



and he finally clinched the proof of what had been already sub- 
stantially demonstrated by several others, viz. that germ-free 
air did not initiate putrefaction, and that accordingly " spon- 
taneous generation " as ordinarily understood was a chimera 
(1875-1876). One practical outcome of these researches is the 
method now always adopted of sterilizing by a succession of 
gentle warmings, sufficient to kill the developed micro-organisms, 
instead of by one fierce heating attempting to attack the more 
refractory undeveloped germs of the same. This method of inter- 
mittent sterilization originated with Tyndall, and it was an im- 
portant contribution to biological science and industrial practice. 

For the substantial publication of these researches reference 
must be made to the Transactions of the Royal Society; but an 
account of many of them was incorporated in his best-known 
books, namely, the famous Heal as a Mode of Motion (1863; and 
later editions to 1880), the first popular exposition of the me- 
chanical theory of heat, which in 1862 had not reached the text- 
books; The Forms of Water, &c. (1872); Lectures on Light (1873); 
Floating Matter in the Air (1881); On Sound (1867; revised 1875, 
1883, 1893). The original memoirs themselves on radiant heat 
and on magnetism were collected and issued as two large volumes 
under the following titles: Diamagnetism and Magne-crystallic 
Action (1870); Contributions to Molecular Physics in the Domain 
of Radiant Heat (1872). 

It was on the whole the personality, however, rather than the 
discoverer, that was greatest in Tyndall. In the pursuit of 
pure science for its own sake, undisturbed by sordid considera- 
tions, he shone as a beacon light to younger men an exemplar 
of simple tastes, robust nature and lofty aspirations. His 
elevation above the common run of men was conspicuous in 
his treatment of the money which came to him in connexion 
with his successful lecturing tour in America (1872-1873). It 
amounted to several thousands of pounds, but he would touch 
none of it; he placed it in the hands of trustees for the benefit 
of American science an act of lavishness which bespeaks a 
noble nature. Though not so prominent as Huxley in detailed 
controversy over theological problems, he played an important 
part in educating the public mind in the attitude which the 
development of natural philosophy entailed towards dogma and 
religious authority. His famous Belfast address (1874), de- 
livered as president of the British Association, made a great 
stir among those who were then busy with the supposed conflict 
between science and religion; and in his occasional writings 
Fragments of Science, as he called them, " for unscientific people " 
he touched on current conceptions of prayer, miracles, &c., 
with characteristic straightforwardness and vigour. 

As a public speaker he had an inborn Irish readiness and 
vehemence of expression; and, though a thorough Liberal, 
he split from Mr Gladstone on Irish home rule, and took an 
active part in politics in opposing it. 

In 1876 Tyndall married Louisa, daughter of Lord Claud 
Hamilton. He built in 1877 a cottage on Bel Alp above the 
Rhone valley, and in 1885 a house on Hindhead,near Haslemere. 
At the latter place he spent most of his later years; his health 
was, however, no longer as vigorous as his brain, and he suffered 
frequently from sleeplessness. On the 4th of December 1893, 
having been -accidentally given an overdose of chloral, he died 
at Hindhead. 

TYNDARIS, an ancient city on the northern coast of Sicily, 
about 13 m. W.S.W. of Mylae (mod. Milazzo) and 5 m. E. of the 
modern town of Patti. It was founded by Dionysius the Elder 
in 395 B.C., who settled there 600 Peloponnesian Messenians on a 
site cut out of the territory of Abacaenum (i m. north of the 
modern Tripi). It was thus almost the last Greek city founded in 
Sicily. It was one of the earliest allies of Timoleon. In the First 
Punic War it was dependent on Carthage, but expelled the garrison 
in 254 B.C. and joined the Romans, under whom it seems to have 
flourished. Cicero calls it " nobilissima civitas," though it seems 
to have suffered especially under Verres. It was one of the points 
occupied by Sextus Pompeius, but was later on taken by Agrippa, 
who used it as a base of operations. Augustus probably made 
it a colonia. Pliny mentions that half of it was swallowed up 



by the sea, though he does not give the date of this event (Hist. 
nal. ii. 206). It was probably, however, due to a fault in the 
limestone rock of which it is composed, and the action of the 
sea. The site is a remarkably fine one, and it is surprising that 
it was not occupied sooner. It is an isolated hill (920 ft.) with 
projecting spurs, rising abruptly on the seaward side, and con- 
nected by a comparatively narrow isthmus with the lower ground 
inland. It thus commands a magnificent view, including 
even the summit of Etna, while opposite to it on the north 
are the Lipari Islands. Considerable remains of the city 
walls, built of rectangular blocks of stone, exist on the 
south side; on the west their foundations are traceable. 
Remains of several towers may be seen, and the site of the 
main gate, which was in a recess on the south (the land) side, 
is clearly traceable, the walls defending it on each side being 
well preserved. Outside it are several tombs of the Roman 
period. The walls follow the upper edge of the plateau, and 
do not seem to have included the spurs to seaward. Their 
remains indicate that it was the north and north-east portion 
of the city that fell. This fact renders it doubtful whether the 
church of the Madonna di Tindari, at the east extremity, marks 
the site of the acropolis. Along parts of the north side, where the 
line of the wall should run, is a line of debris, which may belong 
to a reconstruction after the catastrophe described by Pliny. 
Within the walls are considerable remains of a building generally 
known (though not correctly) as the gymnasium, constructed of 
masonry, with three narrow halls, each about 90 ft. long, the cen- 
tral hall being 21 ft. wide, the other two 14 ft. Below it to the 
north are remains of a building with several mosaic pavements, 
and to the west is a small theatre, the internal diameter of which 
is 212 ft., and the length of the stage 80 ft. There are traces of 
many other buildings within the city area, including a consider- 
able number of underground cisterns An important collection 
of objects found on the site is preserved in the Villa della Scala 
(i| m. to the west), belonging to Baron Sciacca, the owner of 
the site itself. 

See R. V. Scaffidi, Tyndaris (Palermo, 1895). (T. As.) 

TYNE, a river in the north-east of England, flowing east- 
ward to the North Sea, formed of two main branches, the 
North Tyne and South Tyne. The North Tyne rises in the 
Cheviot Hills, at their south-western extremity, near the 
Scottish border. The valley soon becomes beautifully wooded. 
At Bellingham it receives the Rede, whose wild valley, 
Redesdale, was one. of the chief localities of border warfare, 
and contains the site of the battle of Otterburn (1388). The 
South Tyne rises in the south-eastern extremity of Cumber- 
land, below Cross Fell in the Pennine Chain, and flows north 
past Alston as far as the small town of Haltwhistle, where it 
turns east. The valley receives from the south the picturesque 
Allendale, in which the lead mines were formerly important. 
The two branches of the Tyne join at Warden, a little above the 
town of Hexham, with its great abbey, and the united stream 
continues past Corbridge, where a Roman road crossed it, in a 
beautiful sylvan valley. The united course from the junction 
to the sea is about 30 m. The length from the source of the 
North Tyne is 80 m., and the drainage area is 1130 sq. m. In 
its last ism. the Tyne, here the boundary between Northumber- 
land and Durham, is one of the most important commercial 
waterways in England. Sea-going vessels can navigate up to 
Blay.lon, and collieries and large manufacturing towns line the 
banks Newburn, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Wallsend and North 
Shield.; on the Northumberland side; Gateshead, Jarrow and 
South Shields on the Durham side, with many lesser centres, 
forming continuous lines of factories and shipbuilding yards. 
The growth of the great shipbuilding and engineering companies, 
now amalgamated, of which the Armstrong firm at Elswick is 
the mos famous, necessitated the dredging of the river so as to 
form a leep waterway. At high-water spring tides there are 
40 ft. oi water at Shields Harbour at the mouth, and 31 at 
Newcaste, 8 m. up river. Dangerous rocks outside the mouth 
have bee n partially removed and the remainder protected, and 
the Tynf forms a very safe harbour of refuge. 



TYNEMOUTH TYPEWRITER 



TYNEMOUTH, a municipal, county and parliamentary 
borough of Northumberland, England, including the townships 
of Chirton, Cullercoats, North Shields, Preston and Tynemouth. 
Pop. (1891), 46,588; (1901), 51,366. North Shields, Tynemouth 
and Cullercoats are successive stations on a branch of the North- 
Eastern railway. Tynemouth lies on the north bank of the Tyne, 
on a picturesque promontory, 85 m. E. of Newcastle. North 
Shields (q.v.) adjoins it on the W.; Chirton is to the W. again, 
and Preston to the N. of North Shields, while Cullercoats is on 
the coast ij m. N.N.W. of Tynemouth. Tynemouth is the prin- 
cipal watering-place on this part of the coast, and here and at 
Cullercoats are numerous private residences. On the point of 
the promontory there is a small battery called the Spanish 
battery, and near it is a monument to Lord Collingwood. Within 
the grounds, to which the gateway of the old castle gives entrance, 
are the ruins of the ancient priory of St Mary and St Oswin 
the principal remains being those of the church, which was a 
magnificent example of Early English work engrafted upon 
Norman. The priory and castle serve as the headquarters 
of the Tyne Submarine Engineers. The municipal buildings 
are in North Shields, which is also an important seaport. 
The coast is rocky and dangerous, but a fine pier protects the 
harbour (see NORTH SHIELDS). The municipal borough is 
under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 4372 
acres. 

Tynemouth is supposed to have been a Roman station, from 
the discovery of Roman remains there, but its early history 
centres round the priory, supposed to have been founded by 
Edwin, king of Northumbria, between 617 and 633, and rebuilt 
by king Oswald in 634. In 651 it became famous as the burial- 
place of Oswin, king of Deira, afterwards patron saint of the 
priory. After the conquest Malcolm, king of Scotland, and 
Edward his son, who had been defeated and killed at Alnwick, 
were buried there. Earl Waltheof gave Tynemouth to the 
monks of Jarrow, and it became a cell to the church of Durham, 
but later, owing to a quarrel with the bishop, Robert de Mowbray 
granted it to the abbey of St Albans in Hertfordshire. The priory 
was probably fortified in Saxon times, and was strengthened 
by Robert de Mowbray so that it was able to sustain a siege of 
two months by William Rufus. After the Dissolution the forti- 
fications were repaired by Henry VIII. In 1642 it was garri- 
soned for the king by the earl of Newcastle, but surrendered to 
parliament in 1644. It was converted into barracks at the end 
of the 1 8th century. Owing to their close proximity to New- 
castle and to the ascendancy which the burgesses of that town 
had gained over the river Tyne, Tynemouth and North Shields 
did not become important until the igth century; the privileges 
which they held before that time are contained in charters to the 
prior and convent, and include freedom from toll, &c., granted by 
King John in 1203-1204. In 1292 there were disputes between 
the citizens of Newcastle and the prior, who had built a quay at 
North Shields, but was obliged by act of parliament to destroy 
it. Edward IV. in 1463 confirmed the previous charters of the 
monks, and at the same time gave them and their tenants licence 
to buy necessaries from ships in the " port and river of Tyne," 
and to load ships with coal and salt " without hindrance from 
the men of Newcastle." After the Napoleonic wars the trade of 
North Shields rapidly increased. The borough was incorporated 
in 1849, and has returned one member to parliament since 1832. 
In 1279 the prior claimed a market at Tynemouth, but was not 
allowed to hold it; and in 1304 a fair, which had been granted to 
him in the preceding year, was withdrawn on the petition of the 
burgesses of Newcastle. A market and two fairs on the last 
Friday in April and the first Friday in November were estab- 
lished in 1802 by the duke of Northumberland. In the I7th 
century the chief industries were the salt and coal trades. The 
former, which has entirely disappeared, was the more important, 
and in 1635 the salt-makers of North and South Shields received 
an incorporation charter. 

See Victoria County History, Northumberland; W. S. Gibson, 
The History of the Monastery founded at Tynemouth in the Diocese 
of Durham (1846-1847). 



TYPEWRITER, a writing machine which produces characters 
resembling those of ordinary letterpress; the term is also applied 
to the operator who works such machines. 

In 1714 a British patent was granted to Henry Mill, who 
claimed that he had brought his invention to perfection at great 
pains and expense, for " An Artificial Machine or Method for 
the Impressing or Transcribing Letters, Singly or Progressively 
one after another as in Writing, whereby all Writing whatever 
may be Engrossed in Paper or Parchment so Neat and Exact 
as not to be distinguished from Print "; but beyond the title 
the patent gives no indication of the nature or construction of 
the machine. In America a patent for a " typographer " 
was obtained by William A. Burt in 1829, but the records of 
it were destroyed by a fire at Washington in 1836. The " typo- 
graphic machine or pen " patented by X. Progrin, of Mar- 
seilles, in 1833, was on the type-bar principle, and at the York 
meeting of the British Association in 1844 a Mr Littledale showed 
an apparatus for the use of the blind, by which the impression 
of a type selected from a series contained in a slide could be 
embossed on a sheet of paper. In the " chirographer," for 
which American patents were granted to Charles Thurber in 
1843 and 1845, a horizontal wheel carried in its periphery a 
series of rods each bearing a letter, the wheel being rotated till 
the required type was over the printing point. The Great 
Exhibition of 1851 contained a machine patented by Pierre 
Foucault, of Paris, in 1849, in which a series of rods with type 
at their ends could be pushed down to emboss paper at the print- 
ing point to which they were arranged radially; and there was 
in addition the " typograph " of William Hughes, which was also 
intended for embossing, though it was subsequently modified 
to give an impression through carbon paper. Between 1847 
and 1856 Alfred E. Beach in America, and between 1855 and 
1860 Sir Charles Wheatstone in England, constructed several 
typewriters, and in 1857 Dr S. W. Francis, of New York, made 
one with a pianoforte keyboard and type bars arranged in a 
circle. In 1866 John Pratt, an American living in London, 
patented a machine having 36 types mounted in three rows on a 
type wheel, the rotation of which brought the required character 
opposite the printing point, when the paper with a carbon sheet 
intervening was pressed against it by a hammer worked by the 
keys. Two years later an American patent was taken out by 
C. L. Sholes and C. Glidden, and in 1875, after effecting various 
improvements, they finally placed the manufacture of their 
machines in the hands of Messrs E. Remington & Sons, gun- 
makers, of Ilion, New York. The Remington machines worked 
on the type-bar principle, but at first each of the 44 bars carried 
only a single character, so that the writing was in capitals only. 
But in 1878 type-bars with two types were introduced, so that a 
machine with 40 keys, two being change-case keys, could print 
76 characters, with both capital and small letters. 

The great majority of modern typewriters are worked from a 
keyboard; the few that are not, known as index machines, will 
be disregarded here, for although they are much less expensive 
in first cost than the others, they scarcely come into competition 
as practical instruments, on account of their slowness. Key- 
board machines fall into two classes, according as the types 
which make the impressions are (a) carried at the end of levers 
or type-bars which strike the paper when the keys are depressed, 
or (b) are arranged round the circumference of a wheel, or 
segment, which is rotated by the action of the keys until the 
corresponding type is brought opposite the printing point. The 
former of these arrangements is the more common. Another 
point of difference is in the inking device; in some cases, 
the type is inked by means of an ink-pad before being 
brought down on the paper to make the impression, but more 
frequently an inked ribbon is drawn along by the action of the 
machine between the type-face and the paper. Sometimes 
this ribbon is inked in two colours, enabling the operator, by 
bringing the appropriate portion opposite the type-face, to write, 
say, in black and red at will. A third basis of classification may 
be found in the arrangement of the keyboard. In some machines 
there is one key for each character, in others each key does duty 



502 



TYPEWRITER 




for two or more characters. For example, in the former class 
there is one key for the capital A and another for the small a, 
the keys being arranged in two banks corresponding to the upper 
and lower cases of a printer's type-case; in the latter, one key 
is capable of striking both the small and the capital letter, 
and it does one or other according as a subsidiary key is or is not 
brought into simultaneous use with it. In type-bar machines 
designed on this plan, each bar carries two or more letters (cf. 
fig. i). This form of keyboard is also applied to type- wheel 
machines. 

Though there are numberless differences in detail, all type- 
writers, apart from the index machines, bear a general resem- 
blance to each other in their me- 
chanical arrangements. The really 
essential operations may be reduced 
to two; the machine must print a 
letter when a key is struck, and it 
must have a device by which the 
paper may be moved a short 
distance to the left with each 
stroke in order that the letters may 
be printed separately, not one on 
top of the other. Of the many 
subsidiary appliances that are fitted 
a bell to warn the operator that 
he is approaching the end of a line, 
a lock to prevent the machine 
from working after the end of the 
line has been passed, attachments 
for facilitating insertion of fresh 
paper, corrections, and tabulation, 
&c. some are certainly of advan- 
tage, but others are more useful 
to the manufacturer in drawing 
up his advertisements than to the 
expert operator, whose first care 
often is to disconnect them from 
the machine. Similarly with the 
" visible writing," which is some- 
times put forward as a recommendation of extraordinary 
importance; doubtless the novice who is learning the keyboard 
finds a natural satisfaction in being able to see at a glance that 

he has struck the key he was 
aiming at, but to the practised 
operator it is not a matter of 
great moment whetherthe writing 
is always in view or whether it is 
only to be seen by moving the 
carriage, for he should as little 
need to test the accuracy of his 
performance by constant inspec- 
tion as the piano-player needs to 
look at the notes to discover 
whether he has struck the right 
ones. The one important desid- 
eratum, without which no type- 
writer can produce work of 
satisfactory appearance, is ac- 
curacy of alignment. For the 
attainment of this the use of 
type-bars has given wide scope 
to the ingenuity of inventors, 
who have been confronted with 
the problem of making a system 
of levers at once strong, rigid 
and light, and of supporting 
them on bearings which are 
steady and adjustable for wear in conditions where space is 
much restricted. 

In the Oliver machine the type-bar is of the form shown in fig. i, 
to secure stiffness and a double bearing. In the Bar-Lock, the type- 
bars are arranged three in one hanger, so that each has a bearing 



FIG. i. Type-bar of Oliver 
Machine. 




FIG. 2. Type-bars of Bar-Lock 
Machine. 



three times as wide as would be possible in the same space if each 
had a hanger to itself (fig. 2) ; in addition the wear of the pivots 
can be taken up by the screws seen on the 
right of the bearings, and as a further P 
precaution each type-bar is locked at the 
printing point by falling between a pair of 
conical pins, which centre it exactly in the 
required place. In the Yost 'and the 
Empire the type-bars pass through guides. 
The centre guide of the former is shown 
at G in fig. 3, the type being just about to 
strike the paper. Pressure on one of the 
keys works the lever and pushes up the . 
connecting-rod C, when the type leaves ^uide and Type-bar of 
the ink-pad P and passes through the Yost Machine, 
guide, which is slightly bevelled so as to guide it exactly to the print- 
ing point. In the Smith Premier the shafts upon which the type- 




FIG. 3. Central 





FIG. 4. Type-bar Bearings, Smith Premier. 

bars swing are mounted tangentially on the ring (fig. 4), so that 
long supporting bearings are obtained, while the shortness of the 
type-bars themselves renders it possible to make them very stiff. 
The rocking-shaft mechan- 
ism (fig. 5), by which the 
power is transmitted from 
the keys to the type-bars, 
admits of each key having 
the same leverage and 
tends to uniformity of 
touch. This last quality 
is also aimed at by inter- 
posing an intermediate 
parallel bar between the 
key levers and the type- 
bar, as in the New Century 
Caligraph. In the Dens- 
are the friction of the 
movements is minimized 
by the employment of ball 
bearings for the type-bar 
pivots. Electrical type- 
writers, in which the de- 
pression of a key does not | 
work a type-bar directly, 
but merely closes a circuit 
that energizes an electro- 
magnet, have been sug- FlG 5 ._R ock i ng . s haft Mechanism of 
ratted as a means of Smith Premier, 

obtaining umtormity ot ,, , . 

touch combined with ease *' Key with stem 2, Rocking shaft, 
and rapidity, but have 3- ConMctin^-rod. 4, Type-bar, 
not as yet displaced the A and B, Conical bearings, if in. apart, 
ordinary machines to any extent. 

One special form of typewriter, the Elliott-Fisher, is designed 
to write in a book such as a ledger. One leaf is clamped between 
the platen and an open frame which holds the paper smoothly. 
The operative parts slide on this frame, and move up and down the 
page so as to space the lines properly, the keyboard, with the type- 
bars, riobon, &c., travelling step by step across the page. Aft 
adding device may be combined with this machine. 




TYPHOID FEVER 



503 



TYPHOID FEVER. Typhoid or enteric 1 (Gr. tvrepov, the 
intestine) is a specific infectious fever characterized mainly 
by its insidious onset, by a peculiar course of the temperature, 
by marked abdominal symptoms occurring in connexion with 
a specific lesion of the bowels, by an eruption upon the skin, by 
its uncertain duration, and by a liability to relapses. This fever 
has received various names, such as gastric fever, abdominal 
typhus, infantile remittent fever, slow fever, nervous fever, 
" pythogenic fever," &c. The name of " typhoid " was given 
by Louis in 1829, as a derivative from typhus. Until a com- 
paratively recent period typhoid was not distinguished from 
typhus. For, although it had been noticed that the course of 
the disease and its morbid anatomy were different from those 
of ordinary cases of typhus, it was believed that they merely 
represented a variety of that malady. The distinction between 
the two diseases appears to have been first accurately made in 
1836 by Messrs Gerhard and Pennock, of Philadelphia, and valu- 
able work was done by other American doctors, particularly 
Elisha Bartlett (1842). The difference between typhus and 
typhoid was still more fully demonstrated by Dr A. P. Stewart, 
of Glasgow (afterwards of London). Finally, all doubt upon 
the subject was removed by the careful clinical and patho- 
logical observations made by Sir William Jenner at the London 
fever hospital (1849-1851). 

The more important phenomena of typhoid fever will be better 
understood by a brief reference to the principal pathological changes 
which take place during the disease. These relate for the most 
part to the intestines, in which the morbid processes are highly 
characteristic, both as to their nature and their locality. The 
changes (to be presently specified) are evidently the result of the 
action of the contagium on the system, and they begin to show 
themselves from the very commencement of the fever, passing 
through various stages during its continuance. The portion of the 
bowels in which they occur most abundantly is the lower part of 
the small intestine (ileum), where the " solitary glands" and " Peyer's 
patches " on the mucous surface of the canal become affected by 
diseased action of a definite and progressive character, which stands 
in distinct relation to the symptoms exhibited by the patient in the 
course of the fever. (l) These glands, which in health are compara- 
tively indistinct, become in the commencement of the fever enlarged 
and prominent by infiltration due to inflammatory action in their 
substance, and consequent cell proliferation. This change usually 
affects a large extent of the ileum, but is more marked in the lower 
portion near the ileo-caecal valve. It is generally held that this 
is the condition of the parts during the first eight or ten days of 
the fever. (2) These enlarged glands next undergo a process of 
sloughing, the inflammatory products being cast off either in frag- 
ments or en masse. This usually takes place in the second week of 
the fever. (3) Ulcers are thus formed varying in size according to 
the gland masses which have sloughed away. They may be few or 
many in number, and they exhibit certain characteristic appear- 
ances. They are frequently, but not always, oblong in shape, 
with their long axis in that of the bowel, and they have somewhat 
thin and ragged edges. They may extend through the thickness 
of the intestine to the peritoneal coat and in their progress erode 
blood-vessels or perforate the bowel. This stage of ulceration exists 
from the second week onwards during the remaining period of the 
fever, and even into the stage of convalescence. (4) In most 
instances these ulcers heal by cicatrization, leaving, however, no 
contraction of the calibre of the bowel. This stage of healing 
occupies a considerable time, since the process does not advance 
at an equal rate in the case of all the ulcers, some of which have 
been later in forming than others. Even when convalescence has 



1 The word " enteric " has been substituted for " typhoid " by 
the Royal College of Physicians in the nomenclature of diseases 
authorized by them, and the change was officially adopted by all 
departments of the British government. Its advantages are doubt- 
ful, and it has been generally ignored by those foreign countries 
which used the word " typhoid. ' " Enteric " is preferable in that 
it cannot be confounded with " typhus " and bears some relation 
to the nature of the affection, the characteristic feature of which 
is a specific inflammation of the small intestine; but it is not suffi- 
ciently distinctive. There are, in truth, several enteric fevers, 
and the appropriation of a term having a general meaning to one 
of them is inconvenient. Thus it is found necessary to revert to 
the discarded " typhoid," which has no real meaning in itself, but 
is convenient as a distinctive label, when speaking of the cause of 
the disease or some of its symptoms. We have the " typhoid 
bacillus," " typhoid stools," " typhoid spots", " typhoid ulcers," &c. 
The word " enteric " cannot well be applied to these things, because 
of its general meaning. Consequently both words have to be used, 
which is awkward and confusing. 



been apparently completed, some unhealed ulcers may yet remain 
and prove, particularly in connexion with errors in diet, a cause of 
relapse of some of the symptoms, and even of still more serious or ' 
fatal consequences. The mesenteric glands external to, but in 
functional relation with, the intestine, become enlarged during the 
progress of the fever, but usually subside after recovery. 

Besides these changes, which are well recognized, others more or 
less important are often present. Among these may be mentioned 
marked atrophy, thinning and softness of the coats of the intestines, 
even after the ulcers have healed a condition which may not 
improbably be the cause of that long-continued impairment of the 
function of the bowels so often complained of by persons who have 
passed through an attack of typhoid fever. Other changes common 
to most fevers are also to be observed, such as softening of the 
muscular tissues generally, and particularly of the heart, and evidences 
of complications affecting chest or other organs, which not infre- 
quently arise. The swelled leg of fever sometimes follows typhoid, 
as does also periosteal inflammation. 

The symptoms characterizing the onset of typhoid fever ar.e 
very much less marked than those of most other fevers. The most 
marked of the early symptoms are headache, lassitude and dis- 
comfort, together with sleeplessness and feverishness, particularly 
at night; this last symptom is that by which the disease is most 
readily detected in its early stages. The peculiar course of the 
temperature is also one of the most important diagnostic evidences 
of this fever. During the first week it has a morning range of 
moderate febrile rise, but in the evening there is a marked ascent, 
with a fall again towards morning, each morning and evening, 
however, showing respectively a- higher point than that of the pre- 
vious day, until about the eighth day, when in an average case the 
highest point is attained. This varies according to the severity 
of the attack; but it is no unusual thing to register 104 or 105 F.. 
in the evening and 103 or 104 in the morning. During the 
second week the daily range of temperature is comparatively small, 
a slight morning remission being all that is observed. In the 
third week the same condition continues more or less; but frequently 
a slight tendency to lowering may be discerned, particularly in 
the morning temperature, and the febrile action gradually dies 
down as a rule between the twenty-first and the twenty-eighth 
days, although it is liable to recur in the form of a relapse Although 
the patient may. during the earlier days of the fever, be able to 
move about, he feels languid and uneasy; and usually before the 
first week is over he has to take to bed. He is restless, hot and un- 
comfortable, particularly as the day advances, and his cheeks show 
a red flush, especially in the evening or after taking food. The 
aspect, however, is different from the oppressed, stupid look which 
is present in typhus. The pulse in an ordinary case, although more 
rapid than normal, is not accelerated to an extent corresponding 
to the height of the temperature, and is, at least in the earlier stages 
of the fever, rarely above 100. In severe and protracted cases, 
where there is evidence of extensive intestinal ulceration, the pulse 
becomes rapid and weak, with a dicrotic character indicative of 
cardiac feebleness. The tongue has at first a thin, whitish fur and 
is red at the tip, edges and central line. It tends, however, to 
become dry, brown or glazed looking, and fissured transversely, 
while sordes may be present about the lips and teeth. There is 
much thirst and in some cases vomiting. Splenic and hepatic 
enlargement may be made out. From an early period in the disease 
abdominal symptoms show themselves and are frequently of highly 
diagnostic significance. The abdomen is somewhat distended or 
tumid, and pain accompanying some gurgling sounds may be elicited 
on light pressure about the lower part of the right side close to the 
groin the region corresponding to that portion of the intestine 
in which the morbid changes already referred to are progressing. 
Diarrhoea is a frequent but by no means constant symptom. When 
present it may be slight in amount, or, on the other hand, ex- 
tremely profuse, and it corresponds, as a rule, to the severity of the 
intestinal ulceration. The discharges are highly characteristic, 
being of light yellow colour resembling pea soup in appearance. 
Should intestinal haemorrhage occur, as is not infrequently the 
case during some stage of the fever, they may be dark brown 
or composed entirely of blood. The urine is scanty and high- 
coloured. About the beginning, or during the course of the second 
week of the fever, an eruption frequently makes its appearance on 
the skin. It consists of isolated spots, oval or round in shape, 
of a pale pink or rose colour, and of about one to one and a half 
lines in diameter. They are seen chiefly upon the abdomen, 
chest and back, and they come out in crops, which continue for 
four or five days and then fade away. At first they are slightly 
elevated, and disappear on pressure. In some cases they are very 
few in number, and their presence is made out with difficulty; but 
in others they are numerous and sometimes show themselves upon 
the limbs as well as upon the body. They do not appear to have 
any relation to the severity of the attack, and in a very con- 
siderable proportion of cases (particularly in children) they are 
entirely absent. Besides this eruption there are not infrequently 
numerous very faint bluish patches or blotches about half an inch 
in diameter, chiefly upon the body and thighs. When present 
the rose-coloured spots continue to come out in crops till nearly 
the end of the fever, and they may reappear should a relapse 



54 



TYPHOID FEVER 



subsequently occur. These various symptoms persist throughout 
the third week, usually, however, increasing in intensity. The patient 
becomes prostrate and emaciated ; the tongue is dry and brown, 
the pulse quickened and feeble, and the abdominal symptoms 
more marked; while nervous disturbance is exhibited in delirium, 
in tremors and jerkings of the muscles (subsultus tendinum), in 
drowsiness, and occasionally in " coma vigil." In severe cases the 
exhaustion reaches an extreme degree, although even in such in- 
stances the condition is not to be regarded as hopeless In favour- 
able cases a change for the better may be anticipated between the 
twenty-first and twenty-eighth days, more usually the latter. It 
does not, however, take place as in typhus by a well-marked crisis, 
but rather by what is termed a " lysis " or gradual subsidence of 
the febrile symptoms, especially noticeable in the daily decline of 
both morning and evening temperature, the lessening of diarrhoea, 
and improvement in pulse, tongue, &c. Convalescence proceeds 
slowly and is apt to be interrupted by relapses. Should such re- 
lapses repeat themselves, the case may be protracted for two or 
three months, but this is comparatively rare. 

Death in typhoid fever usually takes place from one or other of 
the following causes. (l) Exhaustion, in the second or third weeks, 
or later. Sometimes sinking is sudden, partaking of some of the 
characters of a collapse. (2) Haemorrhage from the intestines. 
The evidence of this is exhibited not only in the evacuations, but 
in the sudden fall of temperature and rise in pulse-rate, together 
with great pallor, faintness and rapid sinking. Sometimes haemor- 
rhage, to a dangerous and even fatal extent, takes place from the 
nose. (3) Perforation of an intestinal ulcer. This gives rise, 
as a rule, to sudden and intense abdominal pain, together with 
vomiting and signs of collapse, viz. a rapid flickering pulse, cold 
clammy skin, and the marked fall of temperature. Symptoms of 
peritonitis quickly supervene and add to the patient's distress. 
Death usually takes place within 24 hours. Occasionally peritonitis, 
apart from perforation, is the cause of death. (4) Occasionally, but 
rarely, hyperpyrexia (excessive fever). (5) Complications, such as 
pulmonary or cerebral inflammation, bedsores, &c. 

Certain sequelae are sometimes observed, the most important 
being the swelled leg, periostitis affecting long bones, general ill- 
health and anaemia, with digestive difficulties, often lasting for a 
long time, and sometimes issuing in pulmonary tuberculosis. 
Occasionally, after severe cases, mental weakness is noticed, but 
it is usually of comparatively short duration. 

No disease has been more thoroughly studied in recent years 
than typhoid fever. The chief points requiring notice are 
(i) causation and spread, (2) prevalence, (3) treatment, (4) 
prevention. 

Causation. The cause is the bacillus typhosus, discovered by 
Eberth in 1880 (see PARASITIC DISEASES). This organism 
multiplies in the body of a person suffering from the disease, 
and is thrown off in the discharges. It enters by being swallowed 
and is conveyed into the intestine, where sets up the charac- 
teristic inflammation. It is found in the spleen, the mesenteric 
glands, the bile and the liver, not infrequently also in the 
bone marrow, and sometimes in the heart, lungs and kidneys, 
as well as in the faeces and the urine. It has also, though 
more rarely, been found in the blood. The illness is therefore 
regarded as a general toxaemia with special local lesions. 
The relation of the bacillus to the other numerous bacteria 
infesting the intestinal canal, some of which are undoubtedly 
capable of assuming a pathogenic character, has not been 
determined; but its natural history, outside the body, has 
been investigated with more positive results than that of any 
other micro-organism, though much still remains obscure. 
Certain conclusions may be stated on good evidence, but 
it is to be understood that they are all more or less tentative, 
(i) In crude sewage the bacillus does not multiply, but dies out 
in a few days. (2) In partly sterilized sewage (i.e. heated to 
65 C.) it does not multiply, but dies out with a rapidity 
which varies directly with the number of other organisms 
present the more organisms the quicker it dies. (3) It is said 
not to be found in sewer air, though Sir Charles Cameron, 
from a series of recent experiments, claims to have proved the 
contrary. (4) In ordinary water containing other organisms 
it dies in about a fortnight. (5) In sterilized water it lives for 
about a month. (6) In ordinary soil moistened by rain it has 
lived for 67 days, in sewage-polluted soil for at least 53 days, 
in soil completely dried to dust for 25 days, and in sterilized 
soil for upwards of 400 days. (7) Exposed to direct sunlight it 
dies in from four to eight hours. (8) It is killed by a temperature 
of 58 C., but not by freezing or drying. (9) It multiplies at 



any temperature between 10 C. and 46 C., but most rapidly 
between 35 C and 42 C. These conclusions, which are derived 
from experiment, are to a considerable extent in agreement 
with certain observations on the behaviour of the disease on 
a large scale. 

The susceptibility of individuals to the typhoid bacillus 
varies greatly. Some persons appear to be quite immune. 
The most susceptible age is adolescence and early adult 
life; the greatest incidence, both among males and females, 
is between the ages of 15 and 35. The aged rarely contract 
it. Men suffer considerably more than women, and they carry 
the period of marked susceptibility to a later age. Predisposing 
causes are believed to be debility, depression, the inhalation 
of sewer air by those unaccustomed to it, and anything tending 
to " lower the vitality," whatever that convenient phrase may 
mean. According to the latest theories, it probably means in 
this connexion a chemical change in the blood which diminishes 
its bactericidal power. The lower animals appear to be free 
from typhoid in nature; but it has been imparted to rabbits 
and other laboratory animals. There is no evidence that it is 
infectious in the sense in which small-pox and scarlet fever are 
infectious; and persons in attendance on the sick do not often 
contract it when sufficient care is taken. The recognition of 
these facts has led to a general tendency to underrate contagion, 
direct and indirect, from the sick to the healthy as a factor in 
the dissemination of typhoid fever; but it must be remembered 
that the sick, from whose persons the germs of the disease are 
discharged, are always an immediate source of danger to those 
about them. Such personal infection may become a very 
important means of dissemination. There is evidence that 
this is the case with armies in the field, e.g. the conclusions 
of the commission appointed to inquire into the origin 
and spread of enteric fever in the military encampments 
of the United States in the Cuban campaign of 1898. Out 
of 1608 cases most thoroughly investigated, more than half 
were found to be due to direct and indirect infection in and 
from the tents (Childs: Sanitary Congress, Manchester, 1902). 
A similar but perhaps less direct mode of infection was shown 
to account for a large number of cases under more ordinary 
conditions of life in the remarkable outbreak at Maidstone in 
1897, which was also subjected to very thorough investigation. 
It was undoubtedly caused in the first instance by contaminated 
water, but 280 cases occurred after this cause had ceased to 
operate, and these were attributed to secondary infection, either 
direct or indirect, from the sick. A good deal of evidence to 
the same effect by medical officers of health in England has 
been collected by Dr Goodall, who has also pointed out that 
the attendants on typhoid patients in hospital are much more 
frequently attacked than is commonly supposed (Trans. 
Epidem. Soc. vol. xix.). 

Recent discoveries as to the part played in the dissemination 
of typhoid fever by what are termed " typhoid carriers " have 
thrown light upon the subject of personal infection. The 
subject was first investigated by German hygienists in 1907, 
and it was found that a considerable number of persons who 
have recovered from typhoid fever continue to excrete typhoid 
bacilli in their faeces and urine (typhoid bacilluria). They 
found that after six weeks 4% to 5% of typhoid patients were 
still excreting bacilli; 23% of 65 typhoid patients at Boston 
City Hospital showed typhoid bacilli in their excretions ten 
days before their discharge. The liability of a patient to 
continue this excretion bears a direct relation to the severity 
of his illness, and it is probable that the bacilli multiply in 
the gall bladder, from which they are discharged into the 
intestine with the bile. The condition in a small number 
of persons may persist indefinitely. In 101 cases investigated, 
Kayser found three still excreting bacilli two years after the 
illness, and George Deane has recorded a case in which bacilli 
continued to be excreted 29 years afterwards. 

Many outbreaks have in recent times been traced to typhoid 
carriers, one of the first being the Strassburg outbreak. The 
owner of a bakehouse had had typhoid fever ten years 



TYPHOID FEVER 



505 



previously, and it was noticed that every fresh employe entering 
her service developed the disease. She prepared the meals 
of the men. On her exclusion from the kitchen the cases 
ceased. In Brentry reformatory, near Bristol, an outbreak 
numbering 28 cases was traced to a woman employed as cook 
and dairymaid who had had typhoid fever six years previously. 
Before entering the reformatory she had been cook to an insti- 
tution for boarded-out girls, and during her year's residence 
there 25 cases had occurred. A case is reported by Huggen- 
berger of Zurich (Lancet, October 1908) in which a woman 
carrier is said to have infected a series of cases lasting over 31 
years, including her husband, son, daughter-in-law, and no less 
than nine different servants. Numerous cases of contamination 
of milk supplies by a " carrier " have been investigated, and in 
outbreaks traced to dairies it is wise to submit the blood of 
all employes to the agglutination test. A persistently high 
opsonic index to typhoid bacilli is notable among "carriers." 
Not only do persons who have had tyhpoid fever harbour 
bacilli, but also persons who come in contact with cases of the 
disease and who have no definite history of illness themselves. 

The other means of dissemination are polluted soil, food and drink, 
particularly milk and water. The precise mode in which polluted 
soil acts is not understood. The result of experiments mentioned 
above shows that the bacillus lives and multiplies in such soil, 
and epidemiological investigation has repeatedly proved that 
typhoid persists in localities where the ground is polluted by the 
leakage of sewage or by the failure to get rid of excrementitious 
matter. In some instances, no doubt, drinking water thus becomes 
contaminated and conveys the germs, but there appears to be 
some other factor at work, for the disease occurs under the condi- 
tions mentioned where the drinking water is free from suspicion. 
Exhalation is not regarded as a channel of communication. The 
researches of Majors Firth and Horrocks prove that dust, flies and 
clothing may convey the germs. Another way in which food 
becomes the medium of conveyance is by the contamination of 
oysters and other shellfish with sewage containing typhoid bacilli. 
This has been abundantly proved by investigations in Great Britain, 
America and France. Uncooked vegetables, such as lettuces and 
celery, may convey the disease in a similar way. The most familiar 
and important medium, however, is water. It may operate directly 
as drinking water or indirectly by contaminating vessels used 
for holding other liquids, such as milk cans. Typhoid caused by 
milk or cream has generally been traced to the use of polluted water 
for washing out the cans, or possibly adulterating their contents. 
There is obviously no reason why this chain of causation should 
not hold good of other articles of food and drink. Outbreaks have 
been traced to ginger-beer and ice-creams. Water sources become 
contaminated directly by the inflow of drains or the deposit of 
excrctal matter; indirectly, and more frequently, by the leakage of 
sewage into wells or by heavy rains which wash sewage matter and 
night-soil from ditches and the surface of the land into springs and 
watercourses. Water may further be contaminated in the mains 
by leakage, in domestic cisterns, and in supply pipes by suction. 
There is some reason to believe that the bacilli may multiply 
rapidly in water containing suitable nourishment in the absence of 
large numbers of their natural foes. 

Prevalence. Typhoid fever^ is more or less endemic and 
liable to epidemic outbreaks all over the world. It is more 
prevalent in temperate than in tropical climates. The follow- 
ing comparative death-rates show its relative prevalence in 
certain countries in 1890: Italy, 658; Austria, 470; U.S.A. 
462; Prussia, 204; England, 179. It has undergone marked 
and progressive diminution in many countries coincidently with 
improved sanitation, particularly in regard to drainage and 
water-supply. Table I. gives annual death-rates in England 
and Wales after 1869, when typhoid was registered separately 
from typhus and " simple " fever. 

London shows less improvement than Great Britain as a 
whole, but it started with superior sanitary conditions, and 
though the reduction has not been maintained in the last 
recorded quinquennium, the mortality is still much below the 
mean. The disease is more prevalent in Paris, but the diminu- 
tion effected has been far greater in the time, the average 
annual mortality per million having fallen from 1430 in 1882 and 
581 in 1883-1888 to 293 in 1889-1894 and 172 in 1895-1900. 
Other recorded instances of diminution are Berlin, Hamburg, 
Munich, Copenhagen, the Netherlands, Buenos Aires (from 
1060 per million in 1890 to 140 in 1899). In all these and 





1871-75. 


1876-80. 


iSSi-Ss. 


1886-90. 


1891-95. 


l8g6-I()OO. 


1901-05 


England and 
Wales . 
London . 


354 
256 


278 
234 


218 
226 


180 
150 


176 
136 


174-8 
148 


112-6 



TABLE I. Annual Mortality from Enteric Fever per Million 
Persons living England and Wales. 



Year. 


Mortality. 


Year. 


Mortality. 


1869 


390 


1889 


176 


1870 


388 


1890 


179 


1871 


371 


1891 


1 68 


1872 


377 


1892 


137 


1873 


376 


1893 


229 


1874 


374 


1894 


159 


1875 


371 


1895 


175 


1876 


309 


1896 


1 66 


1877 


279 


1897 


156 


1878 


306 


1898 


182 


1879 


231 


1899 


199 


1880 


261 


1900 


160 


1881 


212 


1901 


173 


1882 


229 


1902 


126 


1883 


228 


1903 


100 


1884 


2 3 6 


1904 


93 


1885 


175 


1905 


89 


1886 


184 


1906 


92 


1887 


185 


1907 


67 


1888 


172 


1908 


75 



The diminution is more clearly shown if quinquennial periods are 
taken, as in Table II. 

TABLE II. Average Annual Mortality per Million in England 
and Wales, and in London. 



other cases the improvement is attributed either to drainage 
or water-supply, or both. The case of Munich is so instructive 
that it deserves special mention. For many years typhoid was 
excessively prevalent in that city. The prevalence was con- 
tinuous, but aggravated by large epidemic waves, extending 
over several years. These gradually decreased in magnitude, 
and ceased towards the end of 1880. Since then the prevalence 
has still further diminished, the average annual mortality 
per million having fallen from 2024 in 1851-1860, 1478 in 
1861-1870 and 1167 in 1871-1880 to 160 in 1881-1890 and 52 
in 1891-1900. 

It has been forcibly argued by Dr Childs (Trans. Epidem. Soc. 
vol. xvi.) that drinking water had little, if anything, to do with 
the prevalence of the disease, and that its gradual reduction was due 
to purification of the soil by improved drainage systems and the 
abolition of slaughter-houses. The epidemic waves were found 
by von Pettenkofer to be associated with the rise and fall of the 
subsoil water; when the water fell the fever rose, and vice versa. 
He did not, however, consider that the subsoil water exercised any 
influence itself; he merely regarded it as an index to certain con- 
ditions of moisture which exercised a favourable or unfavourable 
influence on the development of the disease. His theory, which 
has been much misunderstood, is to some extent corroborated by 
some facts observed in Great Britain. One is the seasonal preva- 
lence of typhoid, which in England is an autumnal disease. The 
minimum occurs in May or June; in August a marked rise begins, 
which continues throughout the autumn and reaches a maximum in 
November, after which an abrupt fall sets in. These facts are in 
keeping with Pettenkofer's theory, for the subsoil water reaches 
its maximum height at the end of spring and falls throughout the 
summer and a great part of the autumn. The coincidence is 
further emphasized by the fact that in dry years, when the subsoil 
water sinks lower than usual, typhoid is more prevalent, and in 
wet years the contrary. A glance at the mortality table for England 
given above will show that the progressive improvement recorded 
down to 1892 was suddenly interrupted in 1893, when the rate rose 
abruptly from 137 to 229. That was an extraordinarily dry and 
hot year, and it was followed by a succession of dry and hot years, 
culminating in 1899, with two exceptions 1894 and 1897. In 
both the typhoid rate fell again, but in all the others it rose. One 
explanation has been suggested by Mr Matthew Adams of Maid- 
stone. He points out that organic matter deposited on or in the 
ground passes in normal years gradually through several layers of 
soil, and undergoes a process of destruction or purification before 
reaching the underground water; but in hot summers the ground 
becomes baked and cracked, and there is no such percolation; 
when rain comes everything is swept suddenly away without any 
purification, and finds its way into the sources of drinking water. 



506 



TYPHOID FEVER 



Whether this be so or not, there is no doubt that dangerous material 
does collect during the summer and is swept into watercourses 
by the autumnal rains. Perhaps this is sufficient to account for 
the seasonal prevalence and the annual variations noted. There 
is, however, a great deal of typhoid which has no connexion with 
water-supply. Numerous cases of persistent prevalence have been 
investigated by the medical officers of the local government 
board, in which drinking water has been exonerated and the mischief 
attributed to standing pollution of the soil for instance, Mold, 
Middlesbrough, Southend, Swinton and Pendlebury, &c. In such 
places the chronic prevalence is apt to swell at times to more epi- 
demic proportions, as at Munich; and possibly the condition of the 
ground may be the cause. An examination of the relative incidence 
of typhoid in the counties of England and Wales (Bulstrode) goes 
to show that its prevalence, broadly regarded, is not capricious. 
The areas of maximum and minimum incidence remained practically 
the same throughout the twenty years 1871-1890, though there was 
everywhere a large diminution. This fact suggests the reflection 
that standing conditions are more important factors than those 
accidental occurrences which attract public attention by causing 
sudden and explosive outbreaks. When these are on a small scale 
they may be due to milk; on a large scale they are always water- 
borne and caused by sudden contamination of a public supply. 
The classical example is Maidstone. That outbreak began towards 
the end of August 1897, and within six weeks some 1500 persons 
were attacked. The total number of cases was 1847, with 132 
deaths, in a population of about 34,000. With the exception of 
280 cases of secondary infection, which lingered on till the following 
January, they all occurred before the i8th of October, and the disease 
subsided almost as rapidly as it arose. A mass of evidence of 
different kinds left no possibility of doubt that accidental contamina- 
tion of a water-supply was the cause. Perhaps the most striking 
point was that Maidstone is supplied with water from three different 
sources, known as Cossington, Boarley and Farleigh, and out of 1681 
cases the respective incidence in these areas was Cossington 29, 
Boarley 69, Farleigh 1 583. Another great example of water- 
borne typhoid is furnished by Philadelphia, where 14,082 cases 
occurred in 1898-1899. 

Treatment. Improved knowledge of the nature and causation 
of typhoid fever has not led to the successful introduction of a 
specific treatment; nor have means been found to cut short 
the illness, though its fatality has been reduced. It still goes 
through the classical stages, which broadly coincide with first, 
second and third weeks. Attempts have been made to deal 
directly with the toxins produced by the bacilli, on the hypo- 
thesis that they are formed in the intestinal canal, by the use 
of internal disinfectants, such as mercury, iodine, carbolic 
acid, salol, &c., and these agents are sometimes beneficial; 
but the treatment remains essentially symptomatic, and follows 
the principles that were recognized before the discovery of the 
bacillus typhosus. One of the most important improvements 
is the regular use of sponging or bathing for the reduction of 
temperature. It has even been developed into a continuous 
bath, in which the patient is kept in water throughout the 
illness. Since the recent development of serum-therapy various 
serums have been tried in the treatment of typhoid fever, and 
successful reports are given of the anti-endotoxic serum devised 
by Dr Allen Macfadyen, while Professor Chantemesse, in the 
statistics of serum treatment at the Bastion Hospital, Paris, 
states that from July 1901 to July 1907 he so treated 1000 
cases, 43 proving fatal, a mortality of 4-3%. During the same 
period, 5621 cases were treated in fourteen other Paris hospitals, 
with 960 deaths, a mortality of 1 7 %. Chantemesse's serum was 
employed by Professor Brunon at Rouen in 100 cases with three 
deaths, and Dr Josias of Paris in 200 cases with eight deaths in 
typhoid fever occurring in young children. The serum is 
taken from a horse which has received over a long period injec- 
tions of an emulsion of the bacillus typhosus or a soluble toxin. 
Sir Almroth Wright has suggested the use of an autogenous 
vaccine in this as in other parasitic diseases, opsonic control 
being exercised. 

The fatality of typhoid fever varies greatly. Age exercises a 
marked influence, the fatality rising steadily after the period 5 
to 10 years. The importance of careful and intelligent nursing 
is undoubtedly great, but there is a tendency, encouraged by some 
nurses, _on the part of the public to overestimate that factor and 
to thins that nothing more is needed. This is a grave mistake. 
No disease requires more vigilant attention or greater medical 
experience. The following table shows quinquennial figures for 
the London Metropolitan Asylums Board hospitals. 



Metropolitan Asylums Board Hospitals. 


County of 
London. 




Admissions. 


Deaths. 


Ratio per cent, 
of deaths to 
admissions. 


Mean annual 
mortality per 
IOOO living. 


1874-1878 
1879-1883 
1884-1888 
1889-1893 
1894-1898 
1899-1903 
1904-1908 


1878 
2049 
1937 
2517 
3328 
6779 
3084 


379 ' 
38l 
3H 
415 
578 
1023 

457 


20 

'1 

16 

16 
17 
15 

15 


0-25 
0-23 
0-17 

0-13 
0-13 

0-13 
0-05 



Prevention.- If house drainage were always perfectly carried 
out, sewage satisfactorily disposed of, water-supply efficiently 
protected or treated, patients segregated, and the typhoid 
material excreted by them and typhoid " carriers " effectually 
annihilated if, in short, scientific cleanliness were completely 
attained, the disease would disappear, or be at least excessively 
rare. In some communities much has been done in the direc- 
tions indicated; but in many others the lessons of experience 
are ignored, and even in the best practice lags behind theory. 
This is mainly due to apathy and reluctance to spend money, 
but there are certain real difficulties which stand in the way. 
To discuss them fully would involve a lengthy consideration 
of drainage, water-supply and other matters, which would 
be out of place here; but some points must be noted. The most 
important is undoubtedly water-supply. The substitution 
of public water-supplies for shallow wells and small streams 
liable to pollution is one of the greatest factors in the diminution 
of typhoid and other water-borne diseases; but it may give rise 
to danger on a far larger scale, for a whole community may be 
poisoned at one blow when such a supply becomes contaminated. 
Unfortunately, it is extremely difficult to prevent contamination 
with certainty in a populous country. Theoretically, water 
may be pure at its source, and may be distributed in that 
condition. Such is water derived from deep welis and springs, 
or gathered from uncultivated and uninhabited uplands. In 
the one case it has undergone natural filtration in the ground; 
in the other, it escapes all risk of pollution. These waters are 
generally pure, but the condition cannot be relied on. A tramp 
or a shepherd may pollute the most remote gathering-ground 
unless it be fenced in; deep wells may be similarly fouled by 
workmen, and sewage may find its way into them from the 
surface or through fissures. In an outbreak of enteritis and 
typhoid fever at Leavesden Asylum, investigated by Dr A. 
Shad well in 1899, the source of mischief was traced to con- 
tamination of the well, which was 250 ft. deep in the chalk. 
The contamination did not take place from the surface, but 
from some underground source, and there were grounds 
corroborated by subsequent observation for believing that it 
occurred at irregular intervals, and was probably connected 
with the level of the deep underground water. At the same 
time the similar well of a neighbouring poor-law school was 
found to be dangerously polluted, and it was ascertained that 
two others in the same locality had been condemned and closed 
in the past. The deep chalk in that neighbourhood was clearly 
unsafe, and this was thought to be due to the practice of digging 
holes called " dumb wells," but in reality cess-pits, as much as 
40 ft. deep, in the chalk for the reception of sewage. The same 
practice is common in all inhabited localities on a chalk forma- 
tion, as it is an extremely convenient way of disposing of sewage, 
which percolates away and renders it unnecessary to empty the 
cess-pit. Several similar cases of deep well pollution have been 
recorded, notably those of Houghton-le-Spring in 1889 and 
Worthing, in 1893. To secure purity, therefore, and prevent ' 
liability to outbreaks of typhoid and other intestinal diseases, all 
gathering-grounds should be fenced in, and water, even from 
deep wells, should be regularly examined, both chemically and 
bacterioscopically, in order that any change in composition may 
be detected. In the water-supplies of great populations such 
examination should be made daily. Further, all supplies which 



TYPHOID FEVER 



57 



are not above suspicion should be filtered through sand or 
sterilized by boilirfg. The latter can be carried out by simple 
means in the case of individual domestic water, and attempts 
have been made to apply it by means of mechanical apparatus 
to supplies on a larger scale. It is not, however, applicable to 
the water-supply of large towns, because of the liability of such 
apparatus to get out of order. Sand filtration is at present the 
best mode of dealing with these supplies. There is no purer 
water than that which has been properly treated by subsidence 
and sand nitration, even when it is taken from an impure source. 
So far as the prevention of typhoid and other water-borne 
disease is concerned, it is certainly safer than the unfiltered 
water which is taken from so-called pure sources. It cannot be 
a mere coincidence that London, Hamburg, Berlin and other 
towns using well-filtered but originally impure river water should 
be generally freer from water-borne disease than many large 
towns drawing their supply from purer sources but neglecting 
to filter it, such as Manchester, Glasgow and the American 
cities. Table III., prepared by Mr Caink, engineer to the city 
of Worcester, illustrates this fact, which has also been noted 
by Professor Saltet of Amsterdam as holding good of the 
Netherlands. 



type and severity of the illness. Bacteriological science has here 
come to the assistance of the clinical physician with what is called 
the Widal or serum reaction, which has a great diagnostic value 
when carefully performed. Professor Chantemesse has also intro- 
duced a cutaneous reaction similar to von Pirquet's reaction in 
tuberculosis. But obviously these remedies can only be applied 
to persons in the position of patients; it is of no use in the case of 
those who dp not proclaim themselves ill, but go about their business 
when suffering from the disease. Such " ambulatory " cases have 
long been recognized as an important factor in spreading the disease. 
Many of the most memorable epidemics have probably been caused 
by them, and it is difficult to see how they can be guarded against. 
The " typhoid-carrier," however, when discovered should be inter- 
dicted from the preparation of food and should undergo a course 
of treatment with a view to lessening their excretion of typhoid 
bacilli. 

The prevention of typhoid among armies in the field is a 
problem of special difficulty, not in principle but because of the 
conditions. The water is generally polluted, and soldiers are 
too thirsty to wait while it is boiled or filtered, even if the means 
are at hand. The sanitary arrangements are such as to ensure 
the saturation of the ground with excreta; flies and dust 
abound; personal cleanliness is impossible, and men feed and 
sleep together in the closest proximity. No doubt a great 
deal might be done by efficient sanitary organization, which 



TABLE III. Occurrences of Typhoid according to Sources of Water-Supply. 



r~ 

Source of Water. 


Town. 


Annual Typhoid Case-rate per 100,000. 






1892. 


I893- 


1894. 


1895- 


1896. 


I897- 


1898. 


1899. 


1900. 


Deep wells in Red Sandstone 


\ Wolverhampton . 


109 


184 


109 


146 


159 


"7 


124 


224 


237 




/ Birkenhead 


157 


207 


185 


165 


138 


126 


211 


230 


145 


Deep wells in Chalk 


Southampton . 


145 


159 


109 


83 


7 


64 


153 


171 


109 




( Liverpool 


152 


275 


267 


190 


168 


1 60 


129 


149 


H5 


Upland surface water 


j Manchester 


I2O 


120 


90 


96 


92 


90 


118 


78 


78 




( Plymouth . 


126 


63 


47 


32 


3i 


49 


41 


49 


120 




( London 


65 


8 4 


77 


81 


71 


70 


66 


98 


95 


Rivers (filtered) .... 


j Reading 


30 


35 


28 


53 


3 


67 


32 


48 


41 




( Worcester . 


155 


H5 


no 


36 


43 


45 


31 


5 


26 


Average of 219 towns 


88 


142 


i3 


"5 


102 


IOO 


US 


127 


116 



The amount of typhoid is dependent on other factors besides 
the water-supply, but the close connexion between the two and the 
influence of filtration are well attested by the experience of Wor- 
cester, where the great reduction recorded since 1894 coincided 
with new and improved filtration. The weak point about sand 
filtration is that it is apt to be imperfectly performed when the 
filters are frozen or newly cleaned, or when the process is too rapid. 
Filtration through porcelain is an efficient purifier, but it is not 
applicable to supplies on a large scale, and is liable to break down 
through clogging of the filters. Other portable filters are regarded 
as useless or worse. The best emergency treatment for suspected 
drinking water is boiling. Contamination of water in the mains 
is due to bad laying, and ought never to occur; that of supply 
pipes can be prevented by a constant service, and of domestic 
filters by providing them with covers. 

Next to water-supply, and hardly less important, is drainage. 
The drying and cleansing of the soil by good household drainage 
and sewerage is essential to the prevention of typhoid. Cess-pits, 
leaking drains and privies, especially when there is only one to 
several houses, as in many industrial towns, are powerful allies 
of this disease. The drainage of all old houses is defective and 
dangerous. The ground about them is commonly honeycombed 
with cess-pits and saturated with sewage. The only way to 
discover and remedy such defects is to lay them bare with the 
pickaxe and shovel. Soil-pipes should always be trapped 
and ventilated. In short, no disease requires for its prevention 
more careful attention to house sanitation. The paving of 
yards and other spaces is also desirable in towns, on account 
of the liability of the unprotected soil to harbour moisture and 

Other modes by which the disease is spread such as shellfish, 
milk and uncooked vegetables suggest their own remedy. The 
dissemination by dust and flies is less easily prevented. All that 
can be done is to segregate the sick and promptly destroy all danger- 
ous matters proceeding from them. It should be remembered that 
the urine may be an even greater source of danger than the faeces. 
The same observation applies to the prevention of infection from 
person to person. There is no doubt that sufficient care is often 
wanting, even in hospitals, in handling patients' soiled linen and 
clothes, and in dealing promptly and effectually with their excreta. | 
For the effectual segregation and treatment of persons suffering 
from typhoid prompt recognition is necessary ; and this, unfortun- 
ately, is a matter of much difficulty on account of variation in the 



has hitherto been lacking, and by educating the men. Dr 
Leigh Canney in 1901 suggested a scheme for dealing system- 
atically with the water-supply of an army. Extraordinary 
results were obtained by the Japanese army medical depart- 
ment in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5 in the prevention of 
typhoid fever, which up to that period was responsible for the 
largest mortality of any disease affecting armies in the field. 
Handbooks on the avoidance of cholera, plague and typhoid 
fever were issued to the troops. Boiled water in quantities 
was provided for the soldiers, each battalion having its boil- 
ing outfit. Even foreign attaches and correspondents were 
requested to observe the regulations on this point. With this 
there was a systematic advance testing of wells, the wells being 
labelled " fit for drinking " or " for washing purposes only." 
It being impossible to suppress the presence of flies on food, 
care was taken to cover all latrines and cover and disinfect 
excreta, so that infection from flies was reduced to a minimum. 
Food was transferred from sterilized caldrons into sterilized 
lacquer boxes and served on sterilized plates. A crematory 
was attached to base hospitals, where all nightsoil, garbage and 
waste was burnt daily. Owing to these precautions the inci- 
dence of infectious disease, notably typhoid fever, was reduced 
to a figure unparalleled in any previous war, only 3-51 % of the 
total sickness being due to infectious disease. Taking the 
number of men at the front in April 1905 to have been 599,617, 
the entire deaths from infectious and contagious diseases 
amounted to 1-24% of the entire army in the field. 

In a table furnished by the Japanese war office at a still later date 
we note the small percentage of typhoid fever. 

Percentage of patients in entire Army Corps at a certain date : 

Wounds received in action 45'53 

Other wounds and injuries 3-71 

Typhoid fever I -6 1 

Dysentery 1-95 

All other diseases 47-20 



TYPHON TYPHUS FEVER 



In the statistics of General Oku's army, calculated to be at least 
75,000 strong, Major-General Mori, chief medical officer, reports 
the typhoid cases to be 66 only between the dates of October 1904 
and April 1905. Of this army 2142 were invalided home or died; 
133 only being cases of typhoid fever. 

The sickness incidence in the First Army under General Kuroki 
was as follows during the first six months of the campaign : 



Months. 


Sickness: all Diseases. 


Typhoid Fever. 


March . 
April . . 
May 
June 
July . . 
August 


3829 
3545 
3154 
4824 

5565 
6006 


3 
I 

9 
9 

4 
9 



The figures are interesting when we consider that during the South 
African War of 1899-1902 no fewer than 31,000 men were invalided 
home to England on account of typhoid fever. 

One other point requires mention in connexion with preven- 
tion, namely, protective inoculation. This is performed with 
an anti-toxic substance prepared from dead cultures of bacilli, 
and has been tried on a fairly large scale, particularly on the 
British army in India and South Africa. Sir W. B. Leishman, 
writing on the results of anti-typhoid inoculations in the army 
(Journ. of R.A.M.C., February 1909), gives the total number 
of men inoculated up to the ist of June 1908 as 5473, amongst 
whom 21 cases (3-8 per iooo)with 2 deaths occurred. The number 
non-inoculated, 6610 men, had an incidence of 187 cases (28-3 
per 1000) with 26 deaths. The case mortality of the inoculated 
was 9-5%, of the non-inoculated 13-8%. Several regiments 
however were not exposed to enteric fever. If these be excluded 
the incidence in the inoculated is 6-6 per 1000 against 39-5 per 
1000 in the non-inoculated. Lord Kitchener, speaking at 
Middlesex Hospital in October 1910, bore emphatic testimony 
to the value of inoculation coupled with improved sanitary 
methods on the health of the army in India, declaring his 
belief that enteric would before long join cholera in total 
banishment from the barracks. 

TYPHON (TYPHAON, TYPHOEUS), in Greek mythology, 
youngest son of Gaea and Tartarus. He is described as a grisly 
monster with a hundred dragons' heads, who was conquered 
and cast into Tartarus by Zeus. In other accounts, he is con- 
fined in the land of the Arimi in Cilicia (Iliad, ii. 783) or under 
Etna (Aeschylus, P.V. 370) or in other volcanic regions, where 
he is the cause of eruptions. Typhon is thus the personification 
of volcanic forces. Amongst his children by Echidna are 
Cerberus, the Lernaean hydra, and the Chimaera. He is also 
the father of dangerous winds (typhoons), and by later writers 
is identified with the Egyptian Seth. 

See Eduard Meyer, Set-Typhon (1875), and M. Mayer, DieGiganten 
und Titanen (1887); Preller- Robert, Griechische Mythologie (1894), 
pp. 63-66; O. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, ii. 845, 1333, according 
to whom Typhon, the " snake-footed " earth-spirit, is the god of 
the destructive wind, perhaps originally of the sirocco, but early 
taken by the Phoenicians to denote the north wind, in which sense 
it was probably used by the Greeks of the 5th century in nautical 
language; and also in Philologus, ii. n.f. (1889), where he endeavours 
to prove the identity of Typhon with the Phoenician Zephon (Baal- 
Zephon, translated in Gesenius's Thesaurus by " locus Typhonis " or 

Typhoni saar "), signifying " darkness," " the north wind," and 
perhaps " snake "; A. yon Mess, " Der Typhonmythus bei Pindar 
und Aeschylus," in Rhein. Mus. Ivi. (1901), 167. 

TYPHOON (probably from the Arabic and Hindustani tufan, 
a tempest, which is perhaps derived from Typhon, q.v.: the 
Chinese t'ai fung, strong wind, is not used in application to 
typhoons), the name given to a heavy cyclonic storm in the 
seas fringing the eastern coast of Asia from Japan to the 
Philippine Islands. Typhoons generally occur in a series 
during the months of August, September and October, the 
season when the belt of equatorial calms in the Pacific Ocean 
reaches its most northerly extension. 

TYPHUS FEVER (from Gr. rO^os, smoke or mist, in 
allusion to the stupor of the disease), an acute infectious disease 
of highly contagious nature, lasting for about fourteen days, 
and characterized mainly by great prostration of strength, 



severe nervous symptoms, and a peculiar eruption on the skin. 
It has received, numerous other names, such as pestilential, 
putrid, jail, hospital fever, exan thematic typhus, &c. It 
appears to have been known for many centuries as a destructive 
malady, frequently appearing in epidemic form, in all countries 
in Europe, under the conditions to be afterwards referred to. 
The best accounts of the disease are those given by old English 
writers, who narrate its ravages in towns and describe many 
" black assizes," in which it was communicated by prisoners 
brought into court to the judges, jurymen, court officials, &c., 
with fatal effect. Typhus fever would seem to have been 
observed in almost all parts of the world; but it has most 
frequently prevailed in temperate or cold climates. 

The conditions concerned in its production include both the 
predisposing and the exciting. Of the former the most power- 
ful are those influences which lower the health of a community, 
especially overcrowding and poverty. Hence this fever is most 
frequently found to affect the poor of large cities and towns, or 
to appear where large numbers of persons are living crowded 
together in unfavourable hygienic conditions, as has often been 
seen in prisons, workhouses, &c. Armies in the field are also 
liable to suffer from this disease; for instance, during the 
Crimean War it caused an enormous mortality among the 
French troops. Recently, however, an important change of view 
of the connexion of typhus fever has arisen. Professor Matthew 
Hay (Journal of Public Health, September 1907) attributes the 
spread of typhus fever to fleas. His observations are based 
on the epidemic in Aberdeen. He sums up his conclusions in 
the following manner: (i) Every case in hospital examined 
by Professor Hay and his assistants was flea bitten, and those 
of the staff who complained of flea bites were attacked. Care 
was exercised to distinguish between flea bites and petechiae. 
(2) Where a patient was apparently free from bites it was 
found he had been in contact with verminous families. (3) 
The disease did not spread in clean houses with clean inhabi- 
tants, even when a typhus patient remained in the dwelling 
during his entire illness. (4) All nurses or wards-maids who 
were attacked were in contact with the patients when they were 
first admitted. No nurse, wards-maid or doctor who had been 
in close contact with the cases when cleaned contracted the 
disease. (5) An ambulance driver who complained of being 
pestered by. fleas contracted typhus fever, but when the ambu- 
lance staff were adequately protected from fleas no other cases 
developed. 

Typhus is now regarded as certainly due to the action of some 
specific micro-organism (see PARASITIC DISEASES), but the 
bacteriology is still imperfect. In 1891 Jaroslav Hlava, of 
Prague, found in the blood of 20 out of 33 cases of typhus a 
well-defined organism which he termed the strepto-bacillus. 
Lewaschew in 1892 found in the blood and spleen of typhus 
patients small round highly refractive actively-moving bodies 
lying between the corpuscles. Sometimes these bodies were 
flagellate. Dubieff and Bruhl also found a diplococcus in the 
blood which they named the diplococcus exanthematicus. 

The course of typhus fever is characterized by certain well- 
marked stages. I. The stage of incubation, or the period elapsing 
between the reception of the fever poison into the system and the 
manifestation of the special evidence of the disease, is believed to 
vary from a week to ten days. During this time, beyond feelings 
of languor, no particular symptoms are exhibited. 

2. The invasion of the fever is in general well marked and severe, 
in the form of a distinct rigor, or of feelings of chilliness lasting 
for hours, and a sense of illness and prostration, together with 
headache of a distressing character and sleeplessness. 



Feverish 
rises to a 



! or a Distressing cnaracter and sleeplessness. 

symptoms soon appear and the temperature of the body 

considerable height (103- 105 F.), at which it continues with little 
daily variation until about the period of the crisis. It is, however, 
of importance to observe certain points connected with the tempera- 
ture during the progress of this fever. Thus about the seventh 
day the acme of the fever heat has been reached, and a slight 
subsidence (l or less) of the temperature takes place in favourable 
cases, and no further subsequent rise beyond this lowered level occurs. 
When it is otherwise, the case often proves a severe one. Again, 
when the fever has advanced towards the end of the second week, 
slight falls of temperature are often observed, prior to the extensive 
descent which marks the attainment of the crisis. The pulse in 



HISTORY) 



TYPOGRAPHY 



509 



typhus fever is rapid (100-120 or more) and at first full, but later 
on feeble. Its condition as indicating the strength of the heart's 
action is watched with anxiety. The tongue, at first coated with 
a white fur, soon becomes brown and dry, while sprdes (dried 
mucus, &c.) accumulate upon the teeth; the appetite is gone; and 
intense thirst prevails. The bowels are as a rule constipated, 
and the urine is diminished in amount and high coloured. The 
physician may make out distinct enlargement of the spleen. 

3. The third stage is characterized by the appearance of the 
eruption, which generally shows itself about the fourth or fifth day 
or later, and consists of dark red (mulberry-coloured) spots or 
blotches varying in size from mere points to three or four lines in 
diameter, very slightly elevated above the skin, at first disappear- 
ing on pressure, but tending to become both darker in hue and 
more permanent. They appear chiefly on the abdomen, sides, 
back and limbs, and occasionally on the face. Besides this charac- 
teristic typhus rash, there is usually a general faint mottling all 
over the surface. The typhus rash is rarely absent and is a very 
important diagnostic of the disease. In the more severe and fatal 
forms of the fever the rash has all through a very dark colour, 
and slight subcutaneous haemorrhages (petechiae) are to be seen in 
abundance. After the appearance of the eruption the patient's 
condition seems to be easier, so far as regards the headache and 
discomfort which marked the outset of the symptoms; but this is 
also to be ascribed to the tendency to pass into the typhous stupor 
which supervenes about this time, and becomes more marked 
throughout the course of the second week. On the examination 
of the blood a marked leucocytosis is present, This is considered 
to be diagnostic in doubtful cases when the rash is badly marked. 
The patient now lies on his back, with a dull dusky countenance, 
an apathetic or stupid expression, and contracted pupils. All the 
febrile symptoms already mentioned are fully developed, and 
delirium, usually of a low muttering kind, but sometimes wild and 
maniacal (delirium ferox), is present both by night and day. The 
peculiar condition to which the term " coma vigil " is applied, in 
which the patient, though quite unconscious, lies with eyes widely 
open, is regarded, especially if persisting for any length of time, as 
an unfavourable omen. Throughout the second week the symptoms 
continue unabated ; but there is in addition creat weakness, the pulse 
becoming very feeble, the breathing shallot and rapid, and often 
accompanied with bronchial sounds. 

4. A crisis or favourable change takes place about the end of 
the second or beginning of the third week (on an average the I4th 
day), and is marked by a more or less abrupt fall of the temperature 
and of the pulse, together with slight perspiration, a discharge of 
loaded urine, the return of moisture to the tongue, and by a change 
in the patient's look, which shows signs of returning intelligence. 
Although the sense of weakness is extreme, convalescence is in 
general steady and comparatively rapid. 

Typhus fever may, however, prove fatal during any stage of its 
progress and in the early convalescence, either from sudden failure 
of the heart's action a condition which is specially apt to arise 
from the supervention of some nervous symptoms, such as meningitis 
or of deepening coma, or from some other complication, such as 
bronchitis. Further, a fatal result sometimes takes place before 
the crisis from sheer exhaustion, particularly in the case of those 
whose physical or nervous energies have been lowered by hard 
work, inadequate nourishment and sleep, or intemperance. 

Occasionally troublesome sequelae remain for a greater or less 
length of time. Among these may be mentioned mental weakness 
or irritability, occasionally some form of paralysis, an inflamed 
condition of the lymphatic vessels of one leg (the swelled leg of 
fever), prolonged weakness and ill health, &c. Gradual improve- 
ment, however, may be confidently anticipated and even ultimately 
recovery. 

The mortality from typhus fever is estimated by Charles 
Murchison (1830-1879) and others as averaging about 18% of the 
cases, but it varies much according to the severity of type (particu- 
larly in epidemics), the previous health and habits of the individual, 
and very specially the age the proportion of deaths being in strik- 
ing relation to the advance of life. Thus, while in children under 
fifteen the death-rate is only 5 %, in persons over fifty it is about 
46%. 

The treatment of typhus fever includes the prophylactic measures 
of attention to the sanitation of the more densely populated por- 
_ , , tions of towns. Where typhus has broken out in a 
crowded district the prompt removal of the patients to 
a fever hospital and the thorough disinfection and cleansing of the 
infected houses are to be recommended. Where, however, a single 
case of accidentally caught typhus occurs in a member of a family 
inhabiting a well-aired house, the chance of it being communicated 
to others in' the dwelling is small; nevertheless every precaution 
in the way of isolation and disinfection should be taken. 

The treatment of a typhus patient is conducted upon the same 
general principles as in typhoid. Complete isolation should be 
maintained throughout the illness, and due attention given to the 
ventilation and cleansing of the sick chamber. Open-air treat- 
ment when practicable greatly reduces the temperature. The main 
element in the treatment of this fever is good nursing, and especially 



he regular administration of nutriment, of which the best form is 
nilk, although light plain soup may also be given. The food should 
>'e administered at stated intervals, not, as a rule, oftener than once in 
one and a half or two hours, and it will frequently be necessary to 
ouse the patient from his stupor for this purpose. Sometimes it is 
mpossible to administer food by the mouth, in which case recourse 
must be had to nutrient enemata. Alcoholic stimulants are not of ten 
equired, except in the case of elderly and weakly persons who have 
jecome greatly exhuasted by the attack and are threatening to 
collapse. When the pulse shows unsteadiness and undue rapidity, 
and the first sound of the heart is but indistinctly heard by the 
stethoscope, the prompt administration of stimulants (of which 
:he best form is pure spirit) will often succeed in averting danger. 
Should their use appear to increase the restlessness or delirium 
they should be discontinued and the diffusible (ammoniacal or 
ethereal) forms tried instead. 

Many other symptoms demand special treatment. The headache 
nay be mitigated by removing the hair and applying cold to the 
lead. The sleeplessness, with or without delirium, may be com- 
jated by quietness, by a moderately darkened room (although a 
distinction between day and night should be made as regards the 
amount of admitted light), and by soothing and gentle dealing on 
the part of the nurse. Opiate and sedative medicines in any form, 
although recommended by many high authorities, must be given 
with great caution, as their use is often attended with danger in 
this fever, where coma is apt to supervene. When resorted to, 
probably the safest form is a combination of the bromide of potas- 
sium or ammonium with a guarded amount of chloral. Alarming 
effects sometimes follow the administration of opium. Occasionally 
the deep stupor calls for remedies to rouse the patient, and these 
may be employed in the form of mustard or cantharides to the surface 
(calves of legs, nape of neck, over region of heart, &c.), of the cold 
affusion, or of enemata containing turpentine. The height of the 
temperature may be a serious symptom, and antipyretic remedies 
appear to have but a slight influence over it as compared to that 
which they possess in typhoid fever, acute rheumatism, &c. Hugo 
Wilhelm von Ziemssen (1829-1902) strongly recommends baths in 
hyperpyrexia, the temperature of the bath being gradually reduced 
by the addition of ice. Cold sponging of the hands and feet and 
exposed parts, or cold to the head, may often considerably lower 
the temperature. Throughout the progress of a case the condition 
of the bladder requires special attention, owing to the patient's 
drowsiness, and the regular use of the catheter becomes, as a rule, 
necessary with the advance of the symptoms. 

TYPOGRAPHY (i.e. writing by types) is the general term for the 
art of printing movable (cast-metal) types on paper, vellum, &c. 
It is distinct from writing, and also from wood-engraving or 
xylography, which is the art of cutting figures, letters, words, &c., 
on blocks of wood and taking impressions from such blocks 
by means of ink, or any other fluid coloured substance, on 
paper or vellum. 

I. HISTORY or TYPOGRAPHY 

Although the art of writing and that of block-printing both 
differ widely from printing with movable metal types, yet 
this last process has apparently been such a gradual transition 
from block-printing, 1 and block-printing in its turn such a natural 
outcome of the many trials that were probably made to produce 
pictures, books, &c., in some more expeditious manner than 
could be done with handwriting, that a cursory glance at these 
two processes will not seem out of place, especially as a discussion 
on the origin and progress of typography could hardly be under- 
stood without knowing the state of the literary development 
at the time that printing appeared. 

The art of printing, i.e. of impressing (by means of certain 
forms and colours) figures, pictures, letters, words, lines, 
whole pages, &c., on other objects, as also the first 
art of engraving, which is inseparably connected Attempts at 
with printing, existed long before the isth cen- PWn<A W i 
tury. Not to go back to remoter essays, there is reason to 
suppose that medieval kings and princes (among others William 

1 We do not deal here with copperplate engraving (chalcography), 
nor with the question, raised by some authors, whether this art 
preceded that of wood-engraving (xylography), or vice versa. The 
earliest known date of the former is 1446 on the small engravings 
of " the Passion " in the Berlin Royal Print Room, whereas the 
earliest known date of wood-engraving is 1418 (on the Brussels Mary 
engraving). Both arts were naturally dependent upon MSS. for 
the forms of their letters, but as to the question of transition from 
the art of writing to that of typography, xylography alone can be 
regarded as the intervening and connecting link between those two 
arts, and there are good reasons for assuming that the inventor of 
printing with movable types was a xylographer (see below). 



TYPOGRAPHY 



[HISTORY 



the Conqueror) had their monograms cut on blocks of wood 
or metal in order to impress them on their charters. Such 
impressions from stamps are found instead of seals on 
charters of the isth century. Manuscripts, even of the I2th 
century, show initials which, on account of their uniformity, 
are believed to have been impressed by means of stamps 
or dies. 1 Before the invention of printing, say about 1436, 
bookbinders are known to have impressed names or legends or 
other inscriptions on their bindings in two ways: (i) by means 
of single, insulated letters engraved reversely downwards into 
a stamp of brass, whereby the letters appeared en relief on the 
leather or parchment of the binding; (2) by letters engraved 
reversely en relief on the brass stamp, whereby the letters 
sank into the binding. For this reason the term impressor, 
applied afterwards to the " printer," was, in the first instance, 
applied to the binder, whereas ligator was the proper word 
for him (see F. Falk, Der Stempeldruck, in " Festschrift," 1900, 
p. 73 sqq.; Zedler, Gulenberg-Forschungen, 1901, p. 6). But the 
idea of " multiplying " representations from one engraved plate 
or block or stamp, or other form, was unknown to the ancients, 
whereas it is predominant in what we call the art of block- 
printing, and especially in that of typography, in which the 
same types can be used again and again. 

Block-printing and printing with movable types seem to have 
been practised in China and Japan long before they were known in 
East Asiatic E^op 6 - It i s ^jd that in the year 175 the text of 
Prlntlosr * ne Chinese classics was cut upon tablets, and that 
impressions were taken of them, some of which are 
supposed to be still in existence. Printing from wooden blocks can 
be traced as far back as the 6th century, when the founder of the 
Suy dynasty is said to have had the remains of the classical books 
engraved on wood, though it was not until the loth century that 
printed books became common. In Japan the earliest example of 
block-printing dates from the period 764-770, when the empress 
Shiyau-toku, in pursuance of a vow, had a million small wooden 
toy pagodas made for distribution among the Buddhist temples and 
monasteries, each of which was to contain a dh4rant out of the 
Buddhist Scriptures, entitled " Vimala nirbhasa Sutra," printed on 
a slip of paper about 18 in. in length and 2 in. in width, which was 
rolled up and deposited in the body of the pagoda under the spire. 
In a journal of the period, under the year 987, the expression " printed 
book " (suri-hon)is applied to a copy of the Buddhist canon brought 
back from China by a Buddhist priest. This must have been a 
Chinese edition ; but the use of the term implies that printed books 
were already known in Japan. It is said that the Chinese printed 
with movable types (of clay) from the middle of the llth century. 
The authorities of the British Museum exhibit as the earliest instance 
of Korean books printed with movable types a work printed in 1337- 
To the Koreans is attributed the invention of copper types in the 
beginning of the 1 5th century; and an inspection of books bearing 
dates of that period seems to show that they used such types, even 
if they did not invent them. 2 

From such evidence as we have, it would seem that Europe 
is not indebted to the Chinese or Japanese for the art of block- 
printing, nor for that of printing with movable types. 

In Europe, as late as the second half of the i4th century, 
every book and every public and private document was 
written by hand; all figures and pictures, even 
playing cards and images of saints, were drawn with 
the pen or painted with a brush. In the i3th century there 
already existed a kind of book trade. The organization of univer- 
sities as well as that of large ecclesiastical establishments was 
at that time incomplete, especially in Italy, France and Ger- 
many, without a staff of scribes and transcribers (scriptores), 
illuminators, lenders, sellers and custodians of books (stationarii 
librorum, librarii), and pergamenarii, i.e. persons who prepared 
and sold the vellum or parchment required for books and docu- 
ments. The books supplied were for the most part theological, 
legal and educational, and are calculated to have amounted to 
above one hundred different works. As no book or document 
was approved unless it had some ornamented and illuminated 

1 Passavant, Le Peintre-Graveur, i. 18 (Leipzig, 1860-1864); John 
Jackson, Wood Engraving (London, 1839); Bruno Bucher, Gesch. der 
techn. Kunste, I. p. 362 seq. 

^ See Ern. Satow, " On the Early History of Printing in Japan," in 
Trans. Asiat. Soc. of Japan, x. 48 seq. ; and Stan. Julien, " Documents 
sur 1'art d'imprimer," &c., in Journ. Asiat., 4 me ser. t vol. ix. p. 505. 



MS. Period. 



initials or capital letters, there was no want of illuminators. 
The workmen scribes and transcribers were, perhaps without 
exception, calligraphers, and the illuminators for the most 
part artists. Beautifully written and richly illuminated 
manuscripts on vellum became objects of luxury which were 
treasured by princes and people of distinction. Burgundy of 
the 1 5th century, with its rich literature, its wealthy towns, its 
love for art and its school of painting, was in this respect the 
centre of Europe, and the libraries of its d-ukes at Brussels, 
Bruges, Antwerp, Ghent, &c., contained more than three 
thousand beautifully illuminated MSS. 

In speaking of the writing of the manuscripts of the isth 
and preceding centuries it is essential to distinguish 

,. a Classes of 

in each country between at least four different 
classes of writing, two of which must be again 
subdivided into two classes. 

I. The book hand, that is, the ordinary writing of theological, 
legal and devotional books, used by the official transcribers of the 
universities and churches, who had received a more or less learned 
education, and consequently wrote or transcribed books with a 
certain pretence of understanding them and of being able to write 
with greater rapidity than the ordinary calligrapher. Hence they 
produced two kinds of writing: (a) the current or cursive book hand, 
of which several illustrations are given in Wilh. Schum, Exempla 
Codicum A mplon. Erfurtensium; the volumes of the (London) Palaeogr. 
Society, &c. Quite distinct from this current writing, and much 
clearer and more distinct, is (b) the upright or set book hand, which 
was employed not only by writers who worked for universities and 
churches, but also by persons who may be presumed to have worked 
in large cities and commercial towns for schools and the people in 
general without university connexion. (2) In the church hand 
(Gothic or black letter) were produced transcripts of the Bible, 
missals, psalters and other works intended for use in churches and 
private places of worship and devotion. This writing we may again 
subdivide into two classy : (a) the ornamental or calligraphic writing, 
tound exclusively in books intended for use in churches or for the 
private use of wealthy and distinguished persons, and (b) the ordinary 
upright or set church hand, employed for less ornamental and less 
expensive books. (3) The letter hand may be said to be intermediate 
between the set literary book hand and the set literary church hand, 
and to differ but little from either. It was employed in all public 
documents of the nature of a letter. (4) The court or charter hand 
was used for charters, title-deeds, papal bulls, &c. 8 

These different kinds of writing served again, in the first 
instance, as models for cutting the inscriptions and explanatory 
texts that were intended to illustrate and explain the figures 
in blockbooks, and afterwards as models for the types used 
in the printing of books and documents. 

Dypold Laber (Lauber), a teacher and transcriber at Hagenau in 
Germany, is known to have carried on a busy trade in manuscripts 
about the time of the invention of printing. His 
prospectuses * in handwriting of the middle of the 1 5th -f 
century announce that whatever books people wish 
to have, large or small, " geistlich oder weltlich, 
hiibsch gemolt," are all to be found at Dypold Lauber's 
the scribe. He had in stock Gesta Romanorum, mil den Viguren 
gemolt ; poetical works (Parcival, Tristan, Freidank) ; romances of 
chivalry (Der Witfarn Ritter; Von eime Getruwen Ritter der sin eigen 
Hertze gab umb einer schonen Frowen willen ; Der Ritter unter dem 
Zuber); biblical and legendary works (A Rimed Bible; A Psalter, 
Latin and German; Episteln und Evangelien durch das Jor; Vita 
Christy; Das gantze Passional, winterteil und summerteil; devotional 
books (Bellial ; Der Selen Trost ; Der Rosenkrantz ; Die zehn Gebot mil 
Glosen ; Small Bette-Bucher) ; and books for the people (Cute bewehrte 
Artznien-Bucher; Gemolte Loss-Bucher, i.e. fortune-telling books; 
Schachtzabel gemolt). The lower educational books consisted for the 
most part of the A becedaria , containing the alphabet, the Lord's 
Prayer, the creed, and one or two prayers; the Donalus, a short 
Latin grammar extracted from the work of Aclius Donatus, a Roman 
grammarian of the 4th century, and distinctly mentioned in a school 
ordinance of Bautzen of 1418; the Doctrinale, a Latin grammar in 
leomne verse, compiled by Alexander Gallus (or De Villa Dei), a 
minorite of Brittany of the I3th century; the Summula logica of 
Petrus Hispanus (afterwards Pope John XXL), used in the teaching 
of logic and dialectics; and Dionysius Cato's Disticha de Moribus, and 
its supplement called Facetus, with the Florelus of St Bernard, used 
in the teaching of morals. As helps to the clergy in educating the 
lower classes, and as a means of assisting and promoting private 
devotion, there were picture books accompanied with an easy explan- 
atory text, for the most part representations of the mystic relation 

"See further PALAEOGRAPHY. 

An original copv of one of them is in the British Museum (Addit. 

MS. 28752). 



Books, 
Written. 



HISTORY] 



TYPOGRAPHY 



between the Old and New Testaments (typology). Among these 
books the Biblia pauperum l stands first. It represents pictorially 
the life and passion of Christ, and there exist MSS. of it as early as 
the I3th century, in some cases beautifully illuminated. 2 A richly 
illuminated MS. of it, executed in the Netherlands c. 1400, is in the 
British Museum (press-mark, King's 5), and also fragments of one 
of the I4th century (press-mark, 31,303). A remodelling and 
development of this work is the famous Speculum humanae 
salvationis, of which we shall speak when dealing with the block- 
books and early printed books. It was written in rhymed prose 
before 1324, and represents, in forty-five chapters, the Bible 
history of the fall and redemption of mankind interwoven with 
Mariolatry and legend. Of this work alone more than 200 MSS., 
illuminated or without pictures, are known to exist in various 
libraries of Europe. The National and Arsenal Libraries in Paris 
each possess one written some time after 1324; the British Museum 
has sixteen MSS. of it (eleven of which are illuminated) of the 
1 4th and isth centuries, written in the Netherlands, Germany, 
France and England, one (press-mark, 16,578) bearing the distinct 
date 1379 and another (press-mark, Egerton, 878) that of 1436. 
A work of a similar nature is the Apocalypsis, of which at least 
two recensions with illustrations may be pointed out. One gives 
the text as we know it, with or without commentary, for which cf. 
Brit. Mus. 17,333 (French), 18,633 (French, but written in England), 
Reg. 2 D. xiii. and 22,493 (French) all four early I4th century. 
Another is more a short history or biography of St John, but the 
illustrations follow those of the former work very closely ; cf. Brit. 
Mus. 19,896 (isth century, German). It is this last recension which 
agrees with the blockbook to be mentioned hereafter. Other devo- 
tional works are the Ars Moriendi, the Antichrist and other works 
which will be mentioned below among the blockbooks. 

Block-printing or Xylography. When all this writ- 
ing, transcribing, illustrating, &c., had reached their period of 
greatest development, the art of printing from wooden blocks 
(block-printing, xylography) on silk, cloth, vellum, paper, &c., 
made its appearance in Europe. This art was already a great 
advance on writing, in that it enabled any one with a few 
simple tools to multiply impressions from any block of wood 
with text or pictures engraved on it, and so produce a number 
of single (paper) leaves or sheets with text or pictures printed 
on them in almost the same time that a scribe produced a single 
copy of them. 

It seems to have been practised, so far as we have evidence, 
on cloth, vellum and other stuffs as early as the I2th century 
(Weigel, Anf tinge, i. 10); and on paper as far back as the second 
half of the I4th century; while it began to be largely employed 
in the early part of the isth all over Germany, Flanders and 
Holland in the production of (i) separate leaves (called briefs, 
from breve, scriptum), containing either a picture (print, prent, 
shortened from the Fr. emprint, empreinte, and already used 
by Chaucer, C.T. 6186, six-text, D. 604, printe, prente, preente, 
and in other early English documents; also called in colloquial 
German Helge, Helglein, or Halge), or a piece of text, or both 
together; and of (2) whole sheets (two leaves), a number of 
which, arranged like the MSS. in quires or gatherings, formed 
what are called " blockbooks," sometimes consisting of half 
picture and half text, or wholly of text, or altogether of 
picture. 

The earliest dated woodcut that we know of is the Mary engraving, 

discovered at Malines, and now preserved in the Brussels Royal 

Library. It bears the date mccccxviii. Some authors 

Early dated have asserted that an / has been scratched out between 

the fourth c and the x; that, therefore, the date is 1468. 

Engravings. g u( . tnere j s no groun d f or suc h an assertion (cf. H. 

Hymans, L'Estampe de 1481, Brussels, 1903). A slightly modified 
reproduction of it, on a reduced scale, which could hardly be 
placed later than 1460, is preserved in the St Gall Library. The 
next date is 1423 found on the St Christopher, preserved in 
the John Rylands Library (Spencer collection) at Mancfiester. In 
the third place comes the woodcut of 1437 preserved in the 
Imperial Library at Vienna, which was discovered in 1779 ' n the 
monastery of St Blaise in the Black Forest, and represents 
the martyrdom of St Sebastian, with fourteen lines of text. 
The date, however, is said by some to refer to a concession 
of indulgences. A woodcut, preserved in the same library in 
Vienna, which represents St Nicolas de Tolentino, has the date 



'This title is applied to at least three works: (l) the well- 
known blockbook, of which we speak below, (2) a treatise " in qua 
de vitiis et virtutibus agitur," and (3) a work in rhyme by Alexander 
Gallus. 

2 See Laib and Schwarz, Biblia pauperum (Zurich, 1867). 



1440, but written in by hand ; as the saint was canonized in that year 
it may refer to that event. Another in the Weigel collection, repre- 
senting the bearing of the cross, St Dorothea and St Alexis, has 
the date 1443, also written in by hand, though the woodcut is con- 
sidered to belong to that period. These are the only known wood- 
engravings with dates ranging from 1418 to 1443. But there exist 
a good many woodcuts which, from the style of the engraving, are 
presumed to be of an earlier date, and to nave been printed partly 
in the Hth and partly in the first half of the I5th century. J. D. 
Passavant (Le Peintre-Graveur, 1860-1864, i. 27 seq.) enumerates 
twenty-seven of them, all of German origin and preserved in various 
libraries in Germany; 154 are recorded in the Colleclio Weigeliana 
(vol. I., 1866), and W. L. Schreiber (La Gravure sur bois, vols. i. and ii., 
1891 and 1892) enumerates over 2000 of them, some of which may 
be ascribed to the Netherlands, exx.g. (i) representing the Virgin 
Mary, with Flemish inscriptions in the museum in Berlin; (2) repre- 
senting the Virgin Mary (see above) in the library at Brussels; (3) 
representing St Anthony and St Sebastian, in the Weigel collection 
(now in the Brit. Mus.); U) a St Hubert and St Eustatius, in the 
royal library at Brussels; (5) representing the Child Jesus, in the 



the Weigel collection (cf. i, 195), now at Nuremberg. 

In these blocks, as in wood-engraving now, the lines to be printed 
were in relief. The block, after the picture or the text had been 
engraved upon it, was first thoroughly wetted with a thin, watery, 
pale brown material, much resembling distemper; then a sheet of 
damp paper was laid upon it, and the back of the paper was care- 
fully rubbed with some kind of dabber or burnisher, usually called 
a' frotton, till an impression from the ridges of the carved block had 
been transferred to the paper. In this fashion a leaf or sheet could 
only be printed on one side (anopisthographic) ; and in some copies 
of blockbooks we find the sides of the leaves on which there is no 
printing pasted together, so as to give the work the appearance of an 
ordinary book. Any one wanting to set up as a printer of briefs or 
books needed no apparatus but a set of woodblocks and a rubber. 
We know only three blockbooks which do not possess this 
characteristic, as the Legend of St Servatius in the royal library of 
Brussels, which may be called a xylo-chirograph (see below), in 
which the pictures occur on both sides of the paper (with some 
lines of text written underneath), but apparently impressed by hand 
from blocks without any rubbing, there being no traces of any 
indentures either on the rectos or the versos; Das Zeitglocklein in 
the Bamberg Library (cf. Falkenstein, p. 49) ; Das geistlich utid 
weltlich Rom, in the John Rylands Library (Spencer collection) and 
at Gotha (cf. Falkenstein, p. 46) ; but these belong to the end of the 
1 5th century, and therefore to a later period than the ordinary 
blockbooks. 

Formerly it was the general opinion that playing cards had 
been the first products of xylography; but the earliest that have 
been preserved are done by hand, while the printed 
cards date from the I5th century, therefore from a 
period in which woodcuts were already used for other Printers. 
purposes. Some of the wood engravings and blockbooks are sup- 
posed to have been printed in monasteries. In a necrology of the 
Franciscan monastery at Nordlingen, which comes down to the 
beginning of the I5th century, this entry occurs: "VII. Id. 
Augusti, obiit Prater h. Luger, laycus, optimus incisor lignorum "; 
and on some of the engravings we find the arms of certain monasteries, 
which may, however, merely mean that they were printed for, not 
in, those monasteries. The registers of Dim mention several wood- 
engravers (formschneider) in 1398 a certain Ulrich ; in 1441 Heinrich 
Peter yon Erolzheim, Joerg, and another Heinrich; in 1442 Ulrich 
and Lienhart; in 1447 Claus (Nicolas), Stoffel (Christopher) and 
Johann; in 1455 Wilhelm ; in 1461 Meister Ulrich, &c. In a register 
of taxes of Nordlingen we find from 1428 to 1452 a certain \\ilhelm 
Kegeler mentioned as brief trucker ; in 1453 his widow is called alt 
brief true kerin; and in 1461 his brother Wilhelm is registered for the 
same craft. At Mainz there was a printer, Henne Cruse, in 1440. 
At Nuremberg we find in 1449 Hans (Spoerer?), a formschneider, 
while his son Junghans exercised the same industry from 1472 to 
1490. Hans von Pfedersheim printed at Frankfort in 1459; Lienhart 
Wolff, priefdrucker, is mentioned in the registers of Regensburg oi 
1463 ; Peter Schott at Strassburg in 1464. A certain George Glocken- 
don exercised the same trade at Nuremberg till 1474, when he died 
and was succeeded by a son and afterwards by a grandson. In 
Flanders a Jan de Printere was established at Antwerp in 1417; 
and printers and wood engravers (houte bildsnyters) worked there 
in 1442 (Privileges of the Corporation of St Luke at Antwerp). At 
Bruges printers and beeldemakers (makers or engravers of images) 
were enumerated in 1454 among the members of the fraternity of 
St John the Evangelist. The printers of playing cards seem to 
have constituted a separate , class. 

All these entries show that long before the middle of the ith 
century there were men who exercised the art of wood-engraving 
and printing as a trade or craft. It seems also certain that wealthy 
persons and religious institutions were wont to possess sets of blocks, 
and, when occasion arose, printed a set of sheets for presentation to a 
friend, or in the case of monasteries for sale to the passing pilgrim. A 
printer of briefs or blockbooks had no need to serve an apprenticeship; 



512 



TYPOGRAPHY 



[HISTORY 



any neat-handed man could print for himself. We learn from 
the inventory of the possessions of Jean de Hinsberg, bishop of Liege 
(1419-1455), and his sister, a nun in the convent of Bethany, near 
Mechlin, that they possessed " unum instrumentum ad imprimendas 
scripturas et ymagines, " and " novem printe lignee ad imprimendas 
ymagines cum quatuordecim aliis lapideis printis." These entries 
would seem to indicate that people purchased engraved blocks of 
wood or of stone from the wood-cutter rather than books from a 
printer. 

Concurrently with these single woodcuts, with or without 
written or xylographic text, arose a class of books, in some 
of which written texts were added to pictures 
Chirographs, printed from wooden blocks; in others the text was 
' written first, and woodcuts pasted or printed in 
spaces reserved for them. These books, combining wood- 
engraving with handwriting, are now in technical language 
called xylo-chirographs (wood-handwritten books); they may 
also be called semi-blockbooks, and form an intervening 
stage between the manuscript book and the blockbook 
(xylograph) entirely printed from wooden blocks. They tend 
to show that xylography, after having been for some time 
confined to the production and multiplication of insulated 
pictures, was gradually applied to the printing of whole series 
of illustrations, to be added to written texts, or to have written 
texts added to them. It is not possible to assign definite 
dates to these xylo-chirographs; they could hardly be placed 
after, but may, for ought we know, be contemporaries of the 
blockbooks. We know nine of them; the years 1440 (which 
occurs in No. 5) and 1463 (found in No. 9) marking, for the 
present, the period within which they can be placed. 

(l) Biblia Pauperum, in the Heidelberg University Library, German 
work, MS., Latin text added to engravings (cf. Schreiber, Manual, iv. 
90, c. 1460; photpgr. pi. xlv.); (2) Anti-christus, one part of which 
is in the Paris Bibl. St Gen. (see Bernard, Orig. de I'impr. \. 102), 
another at Vienna, Alb. Bibl. ; Bavarian work, MS., German text 
added to engravings (Schreiber iv. 231, pi. Iv.); (3) Vita, et Passio 
Jesu Christi, 48 leaves, in the Vienna Hofbibliothek, German work, 
the woodcuts printed on the versos, Latin prayers written on the 
rectos (Schreiber iv. 321, c. 1450, pi. Ixxxx.) ; (4) Septem planetae, 
seven xylographically printed plates in the Berlin K. K. Library, 
German work, with German explanatory text written on separate 
leaves facing the engravings (Schreiber iv. 417, c. 1470, pi. cxi.); 
(5) Pomeriwn spirituals, by Henricus de Pomerio (or Henri Vanden 
Bogaert), in the Brussels Royal Library, bearing the date 1440 in 
two places; its twelve engravings seem to have originally been 
published as a blockbook, without any text (see below) ; 1 in this 
copy they are cut up, pasted on other (contemporary) leaves of 
paper, and a Latin MS. commentary added to them (see Alvin, 
Documents iconogr.; Schreiber iv. 317, pi. Ixiv. ; Conway, Notes on 
the Exercitium super Pater Noster; Holtrop, Man. typ. p. 9). Some 
bibliographers unreasonably contend that the engravings cannot 
be earlier than c. 1470, and that the year 1440 is the date of the 
original, now lost, which the transcriber of this copy inadvertently 
repeated. (6) Exercitium super Pater Noster (ascribed for good reasons 
to the same Henri Vanden Bogaert) ; imperfect copy (8 leaves) 
in the Paris National Library (Invent. D. 1581); woodcuts printed 
on the recto of each leaf, and an explanatory text (in Flemish) written 
underneath them (Schreiber iv. 245, pi. Ixxxvii.; Conway, I. c.); 
(7) the same Exercitium, with the same eleven engravings that were 
issued, some time before, as a complete blockbook (see below), a 
copy of which is preserved in the public library at Mons, in which 
the engravings are cut up and (after the Flemish verses of the block- 
book had been cut away) pasted, with their versos, on the versos 
of other contemporary leaves, with an explanatory (Latin) text 
written on the recto of the leaf next to each engraving (Schreiber 
iv. 247, pi. Ixxxviii.; Conway, /. c. ; (8) a MS. of the Speculum 
humanae salvationis, with the written date 1461 (Munich Hof.-u. 
Staatsbibl. cod. lat. 21543), m which the 192 illustrations, usually 
found in the MSS. of the Speculum, have been impressed from small 
wooden blocks in the spaces reserved for them in the MS. ; (9) another 
MS. of a German version of the Speculum in the same Munich library 
(Cod. Ger. 1126), with the written date 1463, in which the 192 
woodcut illustrations, impressed in No. 8, are again impressed in 
the spaces reserved for them. 

Of blockbooks of probable German origin the following are 
known: 

i. The Apocalypsis, or Tlistoria S. Johannis evangelistae ejusque 
visiones apocalypticae (Germ. Das Buck der haymlichen Ofenbarungen 

1 Dumortier testifies to having seen a copy of the engravings 
unaccompanied by MS. (" Notes sur 1'imprimerie," in Bull. Acad. 
Roy. de Belg., 1841, vol. viii.). 



Sanct Johans). Of this work six or seven editions arc said to 
exist, each containing 48 (the 2nd and 3rd edition 50) illustrations, 
on as many anopisthographic leaves, which seem to 
have been divided into three quires of eight sheets each. 
The first edition alone is without signatures. Cf. S. L. *<f ermaa 
Sotheby, The Blockbooks, i. I. A copy of the 5th edition o "K la - 
(according to W. L. Schreiber, Manuel, iv. 168), 48 leaves, is in the 
Cambridge University Library. A,copyof the supposed 4th edition in 
the British Museum (C. 9, c. l), and one of the 6th edition (IB. 14); 
also a single leaf (with signature H) of the 5th edition (IB. 16). 

2. Ars moriendi. Although the origin of this work must be as- 
cribed to the Netherlands, some authors think that there are early 
German editions, among others that spoken of below as the and 
Dutch edition. Certainly German is the edition of Hans Sporer 
of Nuremberg (1473), in the public library at Zwickau, and a fragment 
of leaf 18, in the British Museum (IB. 20) ; another by Ludwig zu Ulm, 
in the Paris National Library, and the one described in Collectio 
Weigel. (ii. 1 6), where also other, but opisthographic, editions are 
described (see Sotheby i. 70; Schreiber iv. 253). A copy of one 
of these in the British Museum (IA. 24). A copy of an edition 
printed in a press and ascribed to Augsburg, in the British Museum 
(IB. 23). 

3. Ars memorandi quatuor evangelia; 30 leaves, folio, printed on 
one side, 15 leaves being letterpress and 15 plates (Sotheby ii. 2; 
Schreiber iv. 135). Copy in the British Museum (IB. 17). 

4. Salve Regina, bears the name of its engraver, Lienhart czu 
Regenspurck; 1 6 leaves; 2 leaves (signature a) are wanting in the 
only copy known of it, which was in the Weigel collection (ii. 103) 
and is now in the British Museum (IB. l) ; Schreiber iv. 381. 

5. Vita et Passio Christi (German) ; 32 leaves, small 8vo. Two 
copies in the Paris Library (Sotheby ii. 143 ; Schreiber iv. 320, who 
describes other issues in German and Italian). 

6. The Ten Commandments for Unlearned People (Die Zehn Bolt 
fiir die ungelernte Leut). Ten leaves in the library at Heidelberg 
bound up with MS. No. 438; see Joh. Geffcken, Bildercatechismus 
(Leipzig, 1855), 4to; Sotheby ii. 160; W. L. Schreiber iv. 234. 

7. The Passion of our Lord; 16 leaves in the Weigel collection 
(Sotheby ii. 141; Schreiber iv. 320), now in the British Museum 
(IA. 25). 

8. The Antichrist (Der Enndchrisl) ; 26 leaves, small folio (Sotheby 
ii. 38; Weigel ii. Ill ; Schreiber iv. 217). Copies in the Manchester 
Rylands Library (Spencer collection) ; Coll. Weig. No. 264, leaf 6 
and the upper half of 7 now in the British Museum, where also a 
fragment of leaf 28 is preserved; four copies at Munich. 

9. The Fifteen Signs of the Last Judgment; 12 engravings, usually 
bound up with the engravings of The Antichrist (Sotheby ii. 42; 
Schreiber iv. 217). Copies as of No. 8. An edition was also pub- 
lished at Nuremberg in 1472 by Jung hannss Priffmaler (copy at 
Gotha). 

10. Symbolum Apostolicum ; small 4to, 7 leaves printed on one side 
only, containing 12 woodcuts. Cf. Sotheby ii. 148; also Schreiber 
iv. 239, who describes three editions: (i) at Vienna; (2) at Heidelberg; 
(3) with German inscriptions, at Munich. 

1 1 . The Legend of St Meinrad ; 48 leaves. Copies in the libraries 
at Munich and Einsiedeln (Sotheby ii. 150; Schreiber iv. 385). 

12. The Acht Schalkheiten, of which 8 leaves were in the Weigel 
collection (i. 112; Sotheby ii. 154). 

13. The Fable of the Sick Lion; 12 leaves. Copies in the Berlin 
Museum, and in the Heidelberg Library (No. 438). Cf. Sotheby 
ii. 159, pi. Ixxxyi.; Schreiber iv. 444. 

14. Defensorium Inviolatae Virginitatis b. Mariae Virginis; 16 
leaves, folio, with the initials of the printer F(riedrich) W(althern) 
and the date 1470 on the first leaf (Schreiber iv. 368; Sotheby 
ii. 63). Copies in the British Museum (IB. 2) ; two at Paris; three at 
Munich; one at Berlin; another at Stuttgart. 

15. The same work, 27 leaves, large folio, 1471, with the imprint 
" Johannes eysenhiit impressor (at Regensburg) Anno ab incarnacois 
dnice M quadringentesimo septuagesimo j " (cf. Sotheby ii. 72; 
Schreiber iv. 374). Copies in the British Museum (1C. 4) at Berlin, 
Gotha, Manchester. 

1 6. The Dance of Death (Dance Macabre; der Doten Dantz); 
27 leaves; two editions; one in the library at Heidelberg; another 
at Munich (cf. Schreiber iv. 432; Sotheby ii. 156). 

17. Die Kunsl Ciromantm of Dr Johan Hartlieb (Sotheby ii. 84; 
Schreiber iv. 428). Ten leaves of the edition of Jorg Scnapff of 
Augsburg c. 1478 in the British Museum (IB. 8). 

18. Der Beichlspiegel or Confessionale; 8 engravings (Sotheby 
ii. 145; Schreiber iv. 252). Copy in the royal library (Mus. 
Meerman) at the Hague. 

19. Exercitium super Pater Noster, only one leaf (the first) pre- 
served at Kremsmiinster, of a German edition (Schreiber iv. 247). 
For two xylo-chirographic issues of this Netherlandish work, see 
above, and below for a xylographic edition. 

20. Biblia Pauperum, German text; copy in the British Museum 
(IB. 3); and a copy of another edition (40 leaves) with the device 
of Hans Spoerer, and the date 1471 (1C. 5). 

21. The Apostles' Creed; 7 leaves, folio. Copy at Wolfenbiittel. 

22. The Credo, in German; 12 leaves, 410. Copy in the Munich 
Royal Library. 



HISTORY] 



TYPOGRAPHY 



23. Propugnacula, seu Tunis sapientiae (Sotheby ii. 164). One 
sheet, piano, in the British Museum (1C. 30). It may have 
originated in the Netherlands. 

Blockbooks of Netherlandish origin are: 

I. Apocalypsis S. Johannis. Copy in the Haarlem Town Library. 

A copy of the 3rd (?) edition, of 50 leaves, in the British Museum 

(1C. 40), the leaves 36 and 38 having been supplied from 

Of Nether- anotner CO ny. Leaf 21 of another copy in the same 

"*'* library. 

2. Biblia Pauperum; 40 folio leaves (each bearing a 
signature: a to v; .a. to .p.). As many as seven editions have been 
distinguished by Sotheby (i. 43), Holtrop (Man. typ. p. 3), and ten 
by Scnreiber (iv. l), who likewise mentions a Latin edition of 50 
leaves, besides the two editions with German texts of 1470 and 1471. 
The British Museum Catalogue of 15th-century books enumerates 
copies or fragments of copies of seven editions. 

3. Speculum humanae salvationis. Of this work a blockbook 
must have existed, of which only 10 sheets (=20 leaves) with 
woodcuts and texts, besides 12 isolated woodcuts (used in 1483), 
have come down to us. We speak of it at length below when dealing 
with the typographic editions known of this work. 

4. Ars moriendi; 24 leaves, small folio, 13 containing text, II 
plates. See above (German) No. 2 ; Sotheby i. 69 ; Holtrop, p. 8 ; 
Schreiber iv. 253, who enumerates thirteen editions, some of 
which are German. * The theory, started a few years ago, that the 
engravings of this blockbook are imitations of the sketches by the 
master E. S. (see M. Lehrs, Der Kunstler der Ars moriendi, 1890; 
L. H. Cust, The Master E. S., 1898) is wholly inadmissible. Copy 
in the British Museum (IB. 18), and an imperfect one in the 
Haarlem Town Library. 

5. A copy of another edition of 24 leaves in the British Museum 
(IA. 19). 

6. Canticum Canticorum; Historia seu Providentia B. Virginis 
Mariae ex Cantico Canticorum; 16 leaves in folio, two editions 
(Sotheby i. 77; Holtrop, p. 6; Schreiber iv. 151). Copies in the 
Haarlem Town Library (wanting the leaves 3, 4, 7, II, 13, 15, 16); 
the British Museum (IB. 46), which possesses also a copy of another 
edition (1C. 47). 

7. Liber Regum, seu Historia Davidis; 20 leaves, folio (Sotheby 
i. 120"; Schreiber iv. 146). Some consider this to be a German 
work. 

8. Exercitium super Pater Noster, by Henricus de Pomerio or 
Henry Vanden Bogaert; 10 leaves, small folio (Sotheby ii. 137; 
Holtrop p. 10; Conway, Notes on the Exercitium, 1887; Schreiber 
iv. 245). For other editions see the two preceding sections. 

9. Pomerium Spirituale, by the same author as No. 8; 12 leaves, 
having 12 woodcuts. This blockbook is now only known from 
a xylo-chirographic issue with the MS. date 1440 (see above), pre- 
served in the Brussels Royal Library. See Conway, Notes on the 
Exercitium. 

10. Temptationes Demonis temptantis hominem de septem peccatis 
mortalibus; a single large folio leaf printed on one side (Sotheby 
i. 122"; Schreiber ii. 249). One copy in the British Museum (1C. 29), 
another in the Wolfenbuttel Library. 

11. Vita Christi, or The Life and Passion of Christ; 36 cuts, 
originally printed in a press on six anopisthographic leaves, in 8vo. 
Copy in the Erlangen Library (Campbell, Annales, 746). 

12. Historia Sanctae Crucis; a fragment of one leaf (with signature 
g), formerly in the Weigel Collection (ii. 92), but now in the museum 
at Nuremberg ; it seems to be only a proof-sheet. 

13. Alphabet (grotesque) in figures (Holtrop p. II ; Sotheby i. 122; 
Schreiber ii. 324-327). There is one copy in the British Museum 
and another in the Basel Library, the latter having the date 1464 
engraved on the letter A, which is mutilated in the Museum copy. 
A similar alphabet preserved at Dresden seems to be a copy made 
in Germany. 

i^.. Donatus (Aelius) de oclo partibus orationis. Leaf 6 of an 
edition c. 1500 of 16 leaves in the British Museum (IA. 48). For 
other xylographic editions of this work cf. Holtrop, Man. typ. 

Besides the works of Sotheby, Holtrop, Weigel, Schreiber, Lehrs, 
Cust, &c., quoted above, consult Sir W. M. Conway, The Woodcutters 
of the Netherlands in the l$th Century (Cambridge, 1884) ; Heinecken, 
Id6e generate (Leipzig, 1771); J. Ph. Berjeau's Facsimiles of the 
Biblia Pauperum, Canticum Canticorum, Speculum (London, 1859- 
1861), and idem, Catal. Illustre des limes xylogr. (London, 1865); 
Dodgson, Cat. of Early German and Flemish Woodcuts in the Brit. 
Mus. 

Early Printing with movable Metal Types. When the 
art of writing, and that of printing from wooden blocks (xylo- 
graphy), and all the subsidiary arts of illuminating, 
Haa"iem* decorating and binding manuscripts, books, pictures, 
&c., were at their greatest height, and had long passed 
out of the exclusive hands of the monasteries into the hands 

Heinecken enumerates six editions, of which one has German 
inscriptions. See also an article by Guichard, in Bull, du Bibliophile 
(Paris, 1841). 

xxvn. 17 



of students and artisans, the art of printing with movable 
cast-metal types (typography) was invented. As to when, 
where and by whom this invention came about, a dispute has 
been waged for more than four hundred years. It will be 
seen below that we must attribute it, as in our former 
edition, to Lourens Janszoon Coster, of Haarlem, and not to 
Johan Gutenberg, of Mainz. 

In saying this, we are aware that in the year 1900 (exactly 
four hundred years after the Cologne Chronicle had publicly 
started the dispute by saying that Gutenberg had 
improved but not invented the art) Germany enthu- 
siastically celebrated the supposed sooth anniversary 
of his birthday. The speeches delivered on that occasion, after 
making faint allusions to the doubts and opposition of former 
times, all declared that, after the rediscovery of the Helmas- 
perger document of 1455, which could not be found in 1880 
(Hessels, Gutenberg, pp. 99-101), it was impossible for any 
unbiased person to dispute Gutenberg's claims to the honour 
of the invention any longer. 

In the same year a Gutenberg Museum was erected at Mainz, 
to be a repository for anything connected with Gutenberg and 
printing; also a Society (Gutenberg-Cesellschaft) founded with the 
view of publishing any book that related, however remotely, to 
Gutenberg and his invention, to which the whole civilized world 
was invited to subscribe, as its object was to honour the genius 
who had conferred such an inestimable boon on mankind by his 
invention. As a first result, a " Festschrift " was published con- 
taining an historical introduction by Professor Hart wig; and articles 
on the first steps to typography (Schreiber) ; stamp-printing before 
Gutenberg and the Psalters of 1457, 1459, &c. (Falk); 15th-century 
printing in France (Labande) ; German printers in Spain and Portugal 
(Habler) ; German printers in Italy (Marzi) ; the coloured initials 
in Fust and Schoeffer's Psalter (Wallau) ; the Turkkalendar for 1455 
(Wyss) ; the earliest spread of typography (Velke) ; also an elaborate 
pedigree of the family Gansfleiscn (Schenk zu Schweinsberg), and 
an equally full account (by Schorbach) of all the documents related 
to Gutenberg. This " Festschrift " was followed by publications 
of the "Gutenberg Society": I. (1902) Die alteste Gutenberg type 
(Zedler); II. (1903) Die Donat- und Kalendar type (Schwenke); III. 
(1904) Das Mainzer Fragment vom Weltgericht (Schroder, Zedler, 
Wallau); IV. (1905) Das Mainzer Catholicon (Zedler); V., VI., VII. 
(1908) Das Mainzer Fragment vom Weltgericht (Schroder); Die B u 
type im Schofferschen Missale Mogunt. von 1493 (Zedler) ; Die Missal- 
drucke P. Schoffers und seines Sohnes Johann (Tronier) ; Zu den Biich- 
eranzeigen Peter Schoffers (Velke). 

We admit the great value of these learned and painstaking 
publications, and those who have the time and patience to 
study the mass of material here brought together in a some- 
what bewildering fashion, will find their knowledge enriched 
on various subjects connected with early printing, but no proofs 
that Gutenberg invented it. It is clear from these books that 
their authors firmly believed from the outset that Gutenberg 
invented printing, and printed nearly every book that appeared 
or can be placed before his death in 1468. Under this impression 
they always speak of him as the " great master," the " great 
genius," &c., and represent him, not as inventing printing by 
accident, but as conceiving, somewhere about 1436 or earlier, 
the idea of inventing it, and meditating from that moment over 
the problems which he had to solve. Consequently, our authors 
read a good deal between the lines of their documents, which 
we fail to find there, and in this way the texts of the docu- 
ments always show somehow that " the great master " is making 
or has already made his invention. For instance, the Strass- 
burg lawsuit of 1436-1439 is to them an unimpeachable 
proof that Gutenberg was secretly working there at printing 
and trying to solve his problems; when he is paying there, 
during the same time, a considerable sum in duties for large 
quantities of wine, we are told that he was then in good cir- 
cumstances; but when he borrows money in 1442, 1448, 1450 
and 1452, andis summonsed in 1455 for not repaying the two last 
loans, and prosecuted in 1457 for not paying the interest due 
on his first debt, it is all owing to his difficulties in working 
out the problems of his invention, though the documents 
themselves never allude to any " invention " and may be 
interpreted in quite a different way. 

We proceed to examine the documents. The earliest mention 
and description of the new art is perhaps that in the Donatus issued 

5 



TYPOGRAPHY 



[HISTORY 



by Peter Schoeffer at Mainz before 1456, which, according to its 
colophon, was finished " Arte nova imprimendi seu caracterizandi 
Earliest (from character = letter) . . . absque calami exaratione." 
Definitions ^ ust an< ^ Schoeffer said of the Mainz Psalter of 1457 that 
of Printing. '' was formed by an " adinventio artificiosa imprimendi 
ac caracterizandi absque calami ulla exaratione." The^ 
colophon of the Catholicon of 1460 says that the book was printed 
" non calami, stili, aut pennae suffragio, sed mira patronarum 
formarumque concordia, proporcione, ac modulo." In 1462 Albrecht 
Pfister says that he had " gedrucket " the Four Histories. Fust and 
Schoeffer say of the Liber Sextus Decretalium, published in 1465, 
that it was completed " non atramento (" atramento communi " 
in the Justinianus of 1468 and 1472), plumali canna neque aerea, 
sed artificiosa quadam adinventione imprimendi seu caracterizandi," 
which phrase they slightly varied in Cicero's Officia, issued in the 
same year: " non atramento, plumali canna neque aerea, sed arte 
quadam perpulcra." The edition of St Jerome s Epistles of 1470 
is said to have been completed by an " ars impressoria," the Decrelum 
Gratiani of 1472 by an " ars quaedam ingeniosa imprimendi," the 
Dyalogus of 1478 by an " ars magistra." We find further " ars 
sancta " or " diyina," " nova ars scribendi," " novum exscribendi 
genus prope divinum," " sculptoria archetyporum ars," " ars 
mirifica formandi," " ars excusoria," " nova imprimendi ratio," 
" ars pressurae," " chalcotypa ars," " chalcographia " (1472 and 
later), " chalcographia excusoria impressoriaque," " libraria im- 
pressio," " empryntynge " (Caxton, 14^82), " prenterei " (Schoeffer, 
1492), " truckery " (1505), " impression des livres " (1498), and 
" prenten." 

The early printers called themselves, or were called by others, 
" librorum prothocaragmatici " (Gramm. Rhythm., 1468), " impres- 
_.. sores librorum," " exsculptor librorum" (Jenson, 1471), 

ers ' " chalcographus " (1473; Hain 13036), " magister artis 
impressoriae," " boeckprinter " ; and during the l6th century we 
find them still frequently called " chalcotypus " and " chalco- 
graphus." 

The types were at first designated more by negative than positive 
expressions. In 1468 they were called " caragma," later on " car- 
_ acter " or "character," " archetipae notae " (1473; 

Hain 13036), " sculptoria archetyporum ars," " chal- 
cotypa ars," " formae," " artificiosissimae imprimendorum librorum 
formae." We soon hear also of the process and material by which 
they were produced. The Grammatica of 1468, published by 
Schoeffer, says that it was " cast " (sum fusus libellus). In 1471 
" aeneae formulae " are spoken of; and Bernardus Cenninus and his 
son testify that they had printed the Virgil " expressis ante calibe 
caracteribus et deinde fusis literis " (with letters first cut into steel 
and then cast). In 1473 Friedrich Creusner at Nuremberg states that 
he had " cut " (sculpsit) the work of Diogenes (Hain 6192). Johan 
Zeiner of Ulm says m 1474 that he had perfected a book, not with 
the pen, but with letters of metal (stagneis caracteribus). In 1474 
Joh. Ph. de Lignamine speaks of " metallicae formae." In 1476 
Husner of Strassburg represents the Nider as being printed with 
" letters cut of metal (litteris sculptis artificial! certe conatu ex 
acre)." Nicolas Jenson printed in 1480 with letters " cut and cast " 
(sculptis ac conflatis). 

The word typographic seems to occur for the first time in 1488, in 
the preface of P. Stephanus Dulcinius Scalae to the Astronomicon 
Word of Manilius, printed in that year at Milan by Antonius 
"Typo- Zarotus; 1 in 1498 Erasmus uses it in a letter (dated 
graphy." F^ 3 - I 3) to Christianus, a Lubeck merchant; 2 and in 1517 
Johan Schoeffer applies the word to himself in the colophon 
of the Aeneas Sylvius published by him. But of the use of the word 
typographia no earlier instance is known than 1520, in which year 
Gerardus Noviomagus ( = Geldenhaurius) in his Lucubratiuncula 
de Batavorum Insula (pref. to Nicol. Buscoducensis, dated 1520) 
says: " inventa Germanorum . . . bombarda videlicet, typographia, 
pyxis chartaque nautica "; and Johan Schott, a printer of Strassburg, 
in the Geogr. Ptolem. published by him, describes his grandfather, 
Johan Mentelin, as " primus typographiae inventor." Gerardus, 
it may be added, borrowed the whole passage from Pet. Montanus 
(li. I Adag., published an. 1504), who has chalcographia instead of 
typographia. Meerman indeed 3 speaks of a use of the word typo- 
graphia (or at least of typographus) earlier than 1520, and refers to 
the preface of Bernardmus Veronensis in the edition of Tibullus, 
Catullus and Propertius published at Venice in 1493 by Symon 
Bevilaqua, " at least," Meerman adds, " as it (the preface) is read 
in the Annal. typogr. of Maittaire, i. 560, 2nd ed. But on page 
560 Maittaire quotes the first two lines of Bernardinus's preface 
(till dicit) and then adds: " Graecis characteribus destitutus, typo- 
graphus necesse habuit hiatus in commentario hie illic relinquere," 
which is evidently Maittaire's own remark, not that of Bernardinus. 
The present writer at least has been unable to find such a passage 
in the Tibullus. 

When we, for the moment, leave out of sight the question 
as to when, where, and by whom the art was invented, and 

1 Maittaire, Annales Typogr. i. 508, note I. 

1 Opp. iii. col. 24. 

8 Origg. Typogr. i. 32, note ex. 



take our stand on well-authenticated dates in such printed docu- 
ments as have been preserved, we find that the first printed 
date, 1454, occurs in two different editions of the same letter 
of indulgence issued in that year by Pope Nicholas V. in behalf 
of the kingdom of Cyprus. 

These two editions bear no printer's name, nor the place of printing, 
but are distinguished respectively as the 31-line and the 3O-line 
Indulgence. The one with 31 lines claims priority, 1 
from a chronological point of view, over the one with y~*' as v -'* 
30 lines, because one of the sold copies that has been f,J?^ ace 
preserved was issued at Erfurt on the 22nd of October '*** 
1454 (in the possession of Herr Ernst Fischer at Weinheim, Cenlralbl., 
1909, p. 30); a second (in the Hanover Archives; Veroffentl. II. 
tab. i.) at Fritzlar on the I2th of November 1454; a third (in the 
Mus. Meerman, at the Hague) at Erfurt on the itjth of November 
1454, &c., whereas of the 3O-line Indulgence the earliest sold copy 
that has as yet come down to us was issued at Cologne on the 27th 
of February 1455, though it has the printed date mccccliiii., which 
was altered with the pen to mccccliiiij. In the 3 1 -line Indulgence 
occur (a) a large church type used for the headings and commencing 
words of the absolutions, for the first word in the document and for 
the Christian name of the pope's legate; (b) a smaller text or brief 
type for the text ; (c) a large initial V and two large initials M, which 
slightly differ from each other. In the 3O-line Indulgence occur 
(a) a large church type, used as in the 31-line Indulgence; (b) a 
smaller text or brief type for the text ; (c) a large initial U, and two 
large initials M differing from each other. 

These two different editions are usually regarded as having been 
printed at Mainz ; and, in the absence of any evidence to the contrary, 
we assume that such really was the fact. But we must 
at the same time conclude that about October 1454 2w 
there were at least two rival printers at work there: " 1a " a f- 
(i) the printer of the3l-line Indulgence, who may have been Johan 
Gutenberg, perhaps subsidized by Johan Fust; (2) the printer of 
the 3o-line Indulgence, who was no doubt Peter (Schoeffer) de 
Gernssheym, as this Indulgence is connected with one of 1489 
printed by him. Four written copies of this 1454 Indulgence are 
known to exist which respectively bear the dates: Frankfurt, 
loth April 1454 (in the possession of Herr Lais, Wiesbaden) ; Frank- 
furt, nth April 1454 (Frankfurt Archives); nth July 1454 (place 
unknown; Darmstadt archives); Lubeck, 6th October 1454. As 
their dates precede by a few weeks only the earliest known date 
(Oct. 22, 1454) on a printed copy, they mark, perhaps, the exact 
time when printing made its appearance at Mainz, in an already 
advanced state of perfection. 

Basing ourselves on the above Indulgences with their printed 
date, and four different types, we subjoin two lists of the books 
which the German bibliographers of the present day regard 
as having all been printed by Johan Gutenberg at Mainz, 
in the types or " developments " of them, employed for these 
Indulgences. They are arranged in two columns (A and B) 
according to types, but without regard to strict or supposed 
chronology. For further details cf. Hessels, Gutenberg (1882), 
p. 150 sqq.; Schwenke, Berlin Festschr. (and in the Verojfentl. 
of the Mainz Gutenberg-Gesellsch.) ; Zedler (Gutenberg-Forsch. 
and in the Veroffenll.), &c. 



A. 

Types: I (large church type, 
also called the 36-line Bible type) 
and II (smaller brief type), used 
by an unknown printer, not 
later than October 1454. 

i. 3i-Iine Indulgence; three 
different issues (A, B, C), with the 
printed year mccccliiii., and one 
issue (D) with the printed year 
mcccclv. All printed on vellum. 
Of issues A and B no sold copies 
have yet come to light; but 
three unsold copies of each are 
preserved at Brunswick, Wolfen- 
buttel and Hanover (Culemann 
coll.). Of issue C ten sold copies 
are known to exist in various 
libraries with dates ranging from 
the 22nd of October 1454 to 
April 1455, besides three unused 
copies. Of issue D ten sold copies 
with dates from the 7th of March 
1 455 to the 30th of April 1455 and 
four unused copies are known. 



B. 

Types. Ill (large church type, 
somewhat smaller than Type I, 
also called the 42-line Bible type) 
and IV (a smaller brief type), 
used by Peter Schoeffer de 
Gernssheym (1454-1455). 

i. 3O-line Indulgence; one 
issue (A) with the printed year 
mccccliiii., and two issues (B, C) 
with the printed year mccccl- 
quinto. All printed on vellum. 
Of issue A only one copy has been 
discovered (now in the Rylands- 
Spencer Library), which was sold 
atCologne on the27th of February 
'455. the printed date mccccliiii 
having been altered with the pen 
to mccccliiiij. Of issue B two 
sold copies, with dates April 11 
and 29, 1455, are in the Berlin 
Library and the British Museum. 
Of issue C a sold copy with date 
April 24, 1455 is at Wolfen- 
buttel. 



4 No inferences can be drawn from this priority, as it merely rests 
on the date of a sold copy that has come to light. 



HISTORY] 



TYPOGRAPHY 



A (contd.). 

Type I continued ; for type 
II. (of which no further trace is 
found) see below. 

ii. Poem on the " Weltge- 
richt." Fragment of one leaf 
(paper), discovered at Mainz 
about 1892, preserved in the 
Gutenberg Museum at Mainz; 
presumed to have been printed 
c. 1443-1444. 

iii. Donatus, 27 lines. Frag- 
ments of 4 vellum leaves (4, 5, 
8, 9) recently discovered in the 
Heiligenstadt Library, and now 
preserved in the Berlin Royal 
Library. 

iv. Donatus, 27 lines. Two 
rubricated vellum leaves (5 and 
10) of an edition of 14 leaves, 
usually called the Donatus of 
1451, preserved in the Paris 
National Library. 

v. Donatus, 27 (?) lines. Two 
strips of vellum leaves, contain- 
ing the remains of 3 lines and 
about 30 mutilated letters, dis- 
covered in the Heiligenstadt 
Library, and now in the Berlin 
Royal Library. 

vi. Astronomical Kalendar, 
said to be for the year 1448, 
therefore supposed to have been 
printed at the end of 1447. 
Fragments of two large vellum 
rubricated sheets, printed on 
one side, discovered in 1901 in 
the binding of a MS. belonging 
to the monastery of Schonau, 
near Mainz, now preserved in the 
Wiesbaden Landesbibliothek. 

vii. Donatus of 1 8 leaves, 26 
lines, on vellum ; of which 2 
rubricated sheets (4 leaves, I, 2, 
o, 10) are preserved in the Berlin 
Royal Library; probably issued 
between 1447 and 1450 (Cen- 
tralbl. xxvii. 65 sqq.). 

viii. Manung widder die Dur- 
ken. An almanac for January 
1455, in 4to, 5 paper leaves, 20 
and 21 uneven lines. A unique 
copy, discovered at Augsburg, 
now in the Munich Hof Library. 

ix. A German translation of 
the bull of Pope Calixtus III., 
dated XII. Kal. Julii ( = Jun. 
20) 1456. Fourteen rubricated 
leaves 4to, in the Kalendar 
type, except that two of the 
capital E's belong to the B 36 
type (l3_b and 14 blank), pre- 
served in the Berlin Royal 
Library ; not to be ascribed to 
P. Schoeffer (CentralU. xxvii. 63). 

x. Conjunctiones et opposi- 
tiones solis et lunae (now called 
by German bibliographers 
Laxier-Kalendar). A calendar 
for 1457, a broadside paper sheet, 
printed on one side, of which 
the upper half of the only copy 
known, discovered at Mainz, 
is in the Paris Library. 

xi. Der Cisianus (not Cisla- 
nus) zu Dutsche. A broadside 
paper sheet, 36 lines, printed on 
one oide, with separate head- 
line. The Tross-copy mentioned 
in suppl. to Brunei's Manuel 
(1878, sub voce " Cisianus ") was 
bought in 1870 for the Cam- 
bridge University Library. 

xii. Donatus, 27 lines, 14 
vellum leaves, of which the 
British Museum possesses the 
leaves 4, 10 and n (entire) with 
fragments of the leaves 2, 6-9 
and 13. A fragment of 6j lines 



B (contd.). 

Type III continued (till about 
1457 ; of Type IV no further 
trace is found). 

ii. Donatus, of 35 lines, folio, 
printed, according to the colo- 
phon, " per Petrum de Gernss- 
heym in urbe Moguntina cum 
suis capitalibus." 

iii. Bible of 42 lines (also 
called Mazarine Bible and re- 
ferred to below as B 42 ), printed 
before the I5th of August 1456, a 
the bind-. 1 ' of the paptr copy in 
the Paris Library states that he 
finished its rubrication on that 
day. Two volumes folio, 641 
Ieavesin2columnsof42hneseach, 
though in somecopies thecolumns 
of pp. I to 9 contain 40 lines only, 
while the loth page has 2 col- 
umns of4i lines each, thedifference 
in the number ot lines making no 
difference in the space which 
they occupy. For other copies 
see Hessels, Gutenberg, p. 170; 
Dziatzco, Beitr. zur Gutenberg- 
frage (Berlin, 1889); Schwenke, 
Festschr., who has drawn up a 
list of all the copies known to be 
still in existence. The copy 
known as the Klemm copy, 
which was bought by the Saxon 
Government in 1886, and pre- 
sented to the " Deutsches Buch- 
gewerbemuseum " at Leipzig, 
has the year " 1453 " written 
in small Arabic numerals of 
15th-century form at the 
bottom of the last leaf of the 
second volume. But this date 
is highly suspicious, for Klemm, 
who must have known its 
importance and high value, 
never mentioned it, though he 
described his copy three times, 
in 1883 and 1884. 

iv. Donatus of 33 lines. Vel- 
lum fragment at Oxford, without 
printed initials. 

v. Donatus of 33 lines. Vel- 
lum fragment at Paris, without 
printed initials; also three rubri- 
cated leaves (5, 6 and 8) in the 
Berlin Royal Library (CentralU, 
xxvii. 68). 

vi. Donatus of 33 lines. Leaf 
I (defective) on vellum, men- 
tioned in Ludw. Rosenthal's 
Cat. 105, No. 3, and purchased 
by the Berlin Royal Library, 
which has also acquired the 
leaves I and II (CentralU. 
xxvii. 69.). The large Psalter 
initials are used for the initials 
of chapters. 

vii. Donatus of 33 lines. Leaf 
I (vellum) discovered in the 
Berlin Royal Library. 

viii. Donatus of 33 (?) lines. 
Small fragment, discovered in 
the library at Giessen, of a 
vellum leaf, which Schwenke 
thinks may be the loth of an 
edition which differs from 
Schoeffer's 35-line edition, and 
also from the Paris 33-line 
edition. 

ix. Donatus of 26 lines. One 
defective vellum leaf, discovered 
in a Munich private library, and 
now in the Mainz Gutenberg 
Museum. 

x. Donatus of 26 lines. One 
vellum leaf at Mainz, another 
at Hanover, a third in the British 
Museum. 

xi. Donatus of 24 (?) lines, be- 
tween 1470 and 1477 (Schwenke). 



A (contd.). 

in the Bodleian Library and two 
small fragments discovered in 
the library at Heiligenstadt 

xiii. Donaius, 27 lines, which 
Schwenke calculates to have 
consisted ot 14 vellum leaves, ot 
which the leaves 6 to 9 are now 
in che Berlin Royal Library. 

xiv. Donatus, 27 lines. Three 
strips ot a rubricated vellum 
leaf 5 discovered in the Karls- 
ruhe Hot-Bibhothek. 

xv. Donatus 27 lines One 
rubricated vellum leat (6), in 
the Kalendar type, in the Berlin 
Library (CentralU. xxvii. 62 ) 

xvi Donatus 27. 28 or 30 (?) 
lines. Fragments of two vellum 
leaves ot an edition of 12 (?) 
leavej discovered in the binding 
ot a book (printed at Milan in 
1476) which iormerly belonged 
to the Episcopal Library at 
Salzburg, and is now in the 
Munich Hof Bibhothek. 

xvii. Donatus, 27 (or 30?) 
lines Vellum fragments of an 
edition of 12 (?) leaves in the 
British Museum (C. 18. e. I No. 
5). Leaves i and 2 are in the 
Bodleian Library, and leaf 8 in 
the Mainz Town Library. 

xviii. Donatus, 27 lines. Frag- 
ment of a vellum leaf (3?) dis- 
covered in the binding of a MS. 
in the Munich Hof-Bibliothek. 

xix. Donatus, 27 lines. Two 
vellum fragments of the leaves 
6+9, the upper part of which is 
preserved in the Bodleian Library 
(Auct. 2 Q infra I. 50 No. 6), the 
lower part in the Bamberg Royal 
Library (VI. F i). 

xx. Donatus, 28 (?) lines. One 
defective vellum leaf, showing 
25 lines, formerly in the pos- 
session of Jacq. Rosenthal (/- 
cun. typ. ii. No. 



B (contd.'). 

xii. Cantica ad Matutinas; 
only known from one vellum leaf 
(the first) in the Pans Library, 
considered to be the remains 
of a Psalterium. for the printing 
of which Humery may have 
furnished (!) the type (Schwenke 
Untersuch. p. 72 seq.). Judeing 
from the leaf preserved, the work 
corresponds in every respect to 
the 42-line Bible, having double 
columns 42 lines- &c. 

Type V. The " first stage " 
of Type VII., supposed by Otto 
Hupp (Ein Missale Spec.) and 
others to have served for print- 
ing (i) a Missale speciale, in the 
possession of Ludw. Rosenthal 
at Munich; (2) a Missale abbre- 
viatum discovered in 1900 in the 
Benedict Church of St Paul in 
the Lavantthale. 

Type VI. The large type 
for the Psalter of 1457. 

Type VII. The small type 
for the same Psalter (" second 
stage " of Type V). Types VI 
and VII were also used for the 
" Canon Missae "of 1458, a copy 
of which is preserved in the 
Bodleian Library. 

Type VIII used for (i) 
Joannis de Balbis Catholicon of 
1460. Large folio, 373 leaves, 
with two columns of 66 lines 
each on a page; (2) Matth. de 
Cracovia, Tractatus racionis, 22 
leaves with 30 lines to the page, 
4to; (3) and (4) Thomas de 
Aquino, Summa de articulis 
fidei, two 4to editions, one of 13 
leaves with 34 lines to the page; 
the second of 12 leaves with 36 
lines to the page; (5) an Indul- 
gence of 1461 of 15 lines (see 
Hessels, Gutenberg, p. 171 sqq.) 



2 1 54), afterwards 
in the Amherst collection (Hand- 
list No. 5). Another leaf in the 
Mainz Gutenberg Museum. 

xxi. Bible of 36 lines (referred 
to everywhere as B 36 ), 2 vols., 
folio, 882 leaves, with 2 columns 
of 36 lines each on a page. Some 
bibliographers, assuming that 
Pfister printed it, call it the 
Pfister Bible. A paper copy of 
it is in the Paris Library, and 
also a separate copy of the last 
leaf, which bears the MS. date 
1461. Other copies are pre- 
served in the Rylands- Spencer 
Library, in the British Museum, 
at Jena, Leipzig, Antwerp, &c. 
(Hessels, Gutenberg, p. 160; 
Bernard, Origine, ii. 31). 

The above eight types and the books printed with them 
(besides a few others printed by Albrecht Pfister at Bamberg) 
are the only ones that bear, more or less closely, on the question 
regarding the introduction, or possible invention, of printing 
at Mainz. 

Till recently the church type i, of the 3i-line Indulgence, had 
always been regarded as identical with that of B 38 , and the church 
type 3, of the 3O-line Indulgence, with that of B 42 . But, as the capital 
P of Indulgence 30 seems not to occur in B 42 , and on examination 
minute differences show themselves in other respects, identity be- 
tween the two types cannot be accepted. The use of the brief type 
2 of Indulgence 31 seems to have been limited to printing this one 
document, as its great resemblance to the type employed at Eltville 
in 1472 for printing a Vpcabularius ex quo, and Thomas Aquinas 
Summa de articulis fidei, amounts not to identity. Nor has any 
further trace been found of the brief type 4 of the Indulgence 30 , 
so that the four types used for the two Indulgences were, perhaps, 
specially manufactured for them and discarded afterwards or melted 
down for other types. 



5 i6 



TYPOGRAPHY 



Hence there is nothing to connect these two broadsides with any 
locality or any printing-office, except that one of the initial M's 
of the Indulgence 30 re-occurs as the initial M of the second absolution 
of a 33-line Indulgence of 1489, which was unquestionably printed 
by Peter Schoeffer at Mainz, for " Raymundus Peyraudi archi- 
diaconus Alniensis in ecclesia Xanton," who issued it at the order 
of Pope Innocent VIII., " pro tuicione orthodoxe fidei contra Tur- 
chos. For this reason types 3 and 4 and the books printed with 
them, including B 42 , must all be ascribed to him, all the more as 
he printed, with the type of B 42 , the 35-line Donatus, which bears 
his name in the colophon. As Schoeffer, in the colophon of this 
Donatus (ii.) which bears his name, says that it was printed " cum 
suis capitalibus," and as these capitals gradually disappear after 
1459 and the type of the 42-line Bible is no longer found after 1456, 
we must presume that some of the twelve incunabula mentioned 
above (in col. B) were printed by Peter Schoeffer alone before he 
entered (in 1457) into partnership with Johan Fust (see Hessels, 
Gutenberg, p. 166 seq.). 

During the last two decades, however, the two types (3 and 4) 
and most of the books mentioned above in column B, including 
B* 2 , together with the two types (i and 2), and several of the books 
in column A, including B 36 , have been attributed by German biblio- 
graphers to Gutenberg. This singular proceeding is chiefly owing 
to the late Dr Dziatzko's treatises (Beitrage zur Gutenberg/rage, 
1889; Gutenberg's friiheste Druckerpraxis, 1890) on Gutenberg's 
supposed work as a printer. This author, noticing that the two 
types of B 36 and B 42 , their signs of contraction, marks of punctua- 
tion, &c., though differing in size, closely resemble each other in 
form, concluded that they were manufactured in one and the same 
office, by one and the same printer, that is, Gutenberg. He thought 
his conclusion confirmed by the two Bibles being printed on the 
same kind of paper showing the same watermarks, and arranged 
in quires in the same way, and divided off into parts at the same place. 
Finally, from a misprint in B 42 being rectified in the Stuttgart 
copy of B 36 by a cancel (Druckerpraxis, p. 95), he concluded: 
(a) that B 38 was a reprint of B 42 ; that the latter was printed by 
Gutenberg during his partnership (1450-1455) with Fust, who 
supplied the money and the material, while he himself superintended 
the manufacture of the type, instructed the compositor and printer, 
and therefore was its printer; and that the type came afterwards 
into Schoeffer's possession; (6) as B 42 was Gutenberg's first work, 
and had been begun in 1450, B", a reprint of it, could not be dated 
before this year; but as its type already existed in 1454 (in the 
Indulgence 31 ), Gutenberg, foreseeing his quarrels with Fust, must 
have been preparing it since 1453, and have printed with it, first, 
some Donatuses, the Indulgence 31 , &c., and finally B 36 , with the 
technical and financial assistance of Albrecht Pfister who, shortly 
before 1458, acquired its type and printing-material (see further, 
Hessels, " A Bibliogr. Tour, " in The Library, July 1908). Dr 
Dziatzko, noticing also a " resemblance " between the types and 
the workmanship of the two Indulgences, attributed both these 
broadsides likewise to Gutenberg. 

His conclusions, and the method of research by which he 
reached them, the German bibliographers of the present day 
have adopted and amplified into a bibliographical and typo- 
graphical " system," which professes to examine minutely the 
form and size of every letter, capital or small; the combined 
letters like do and de cast on one type; the signs of contrac- 
tion above, or by the side of or through certain letters, the 
marks of punctuation, the habits and workmanship of the 
printer, the arrangement of the quires, the paper and its 
water-marks, &c. 

The " system " divides the Gothic or Church types with which 
B 3 * and B 42 and the other books mentioned above are printed 
into " chief " and " by-forms," (Haupt- und Nebenformen). The 
tops and bottoms of the former are ornamented with minute pro- 
truding tags, angles and points, while the " by-forms " miss most 
of these ornaments, their limbs being straight on the left or right, 
so as to be easily joined to the protruding tags, angles and points 
of the " chief forms, " whenever the two come together. For 
instance, if a u or a t follows an e, the " by-form " of u with straight 
limbs was to be used, while the t was to be without its crossbar 
protruding on the left. 

The bibliographers who deal with the incunabula enumerated 
above, in accordance with this " system," regard the books in 
which they find these chief and by-forms used in their proper 
places as the earliest, and therefore as the products of Guten- 
berg's " creative genius and skill," while they ascribe the books 
which bear evidence of the misuse of those forms to other printers, 
but their types to him. But this is an uncertain guide, as 
by errors in the distribution of the types after the printing of 
the first or second pages this misuse may already occur in the 
third and further pages of a book. In this way, however, the 



[HISTORY 
above in the 



" system " arranges the books enumerated 
following approximately chronological order: 

1443-1444. " First phase " of the Gutenberg type ( = the Donatus 
type). The numbers ii., iii., iv. (with the suspicious date 1451) and v. 

1447 (end of) till I457(?). " Second phase " of the same type 
( =the Kalendar type). The numbers vi. to xiv. 

1450-1453. B 42 presumed to have been finished in or before 1453, 
taking this year, written in the Klemm copy, as genuine. 

I453- " Third phase " of Gutenberg's type, B 36 (xviii., of which 
the earliest known date is 1461). 

1454. The two Indulgences with their types (i, 3 ; 2, 4). 

1457. The two Psalter types. 

1461, 1462 till (?). Pfister, who is said to have acquired the 
type of B 36 from Gutenberg, is known to have issued a book with 
the date 14 February 1461, and another with the year 1462. 
Hence, Schwenke says that the 36-line Bible type, which he regards 
as a " continuation " of the Donatus, and the Kalendar types, 
had a life of nearly 20 years (Veroffentl. ii. i). Type v. is thought 
to be Gutenberg's earliest (before 1443!) by the few who regard the 
" Missale speciale " and the " Missale abbreviatum "as his work. 

The " Donatus type " is so called from the Paris Donatus, on one 
of whose leaves the year 1451 is written. Zedler, somewhat unrea- 
sonably, considers this date to be a forgery of Professor Bodmann, 
though he is known to have forged other Gutenberg documents. 
This type is regarded as the same as that of the Astronomical 
Kalendar, but in an earlier, more imperfect stage. As this Kalen- 
dar calculates the ephemerides of the sun, moon and stars, either 
for the year 1429 or for 1448 or 1467, it is presumed to have been 
printed for 1448, that is at the end of 1447, and as its type looks 
new and almost perfect, the Paris Donatus is placed considerably 
earlier because its type looks old. The poem on the " Weltgericht 
(No. ii.) is said to show all the forms of the Donatus type, but as 
its workmanship looks primitive, it is dated back to 1443-1444. 
The Heiligenstadt Donatus (No. iii.) is placed after the " Welt- 
gericht " (ii.), but before the Paris Donatus (iv.) and the other 
Heiligenstadt Donatus (v.). 

Some German bibliographers do not feel sure that Gutenberg 
manufactured types v., vi. and vii., though they have no doubt 
as to the remaining. Others are of opinion that Pfister printed 
some of the books in the type of B 39 ; Schwenke thinks this Bible 
could not have been begun before 1457, but all agree that every 
book in the above lists must have been printed either by Gutenberg 
himself, or in his office, or with his type, or under his superintendence. 

Though the church type I cannot be said to be identical with 
that of B 36 , and no further trace of the brief type 2 has been found, 
we see no reason for separating Indulgence 31 from Mainz printing. 
And assuming that it was printed there, its printer may have been 
Johan Gutenberg, who was at Mainz in 1454. 

A peculiarity of the above-mentioned " system " is that it 
ascribes two types, so different in size, shape and form, as those 
of B 36 and B 42 , to one and the same printer, merely because they 
" resemble " each other. This shows that the " system " takes 
no account of the fact that the inventor of printing, and all 
the early printers who came after him, in manufacturing their 
types necessarily imitated the forms of the written characters of 
their time. Hence if two printers simultaneously erected their 
presses in one town, their types, though cut and cast indepen- 
dently, were apt to resemble each other, as appears from various 
examples. The printers of B 36 and B 42 are no exception to this 
rule; they each took a MS. as their model, and the types which 
they produced are simply imitations of the Gothic or Church 
hand, which, from its first beginnings in the roth century, if 
not earlier, can clearly be traced down to, and reached its 
greatest development in, the isth century. 1 

The written characters of all ages and countries resemble and yet 
differ from each other in various respects; and as their resemblances 
and differences are closely reproduced by the metal printing type's 
of every country, we are able to ascribe MSS. as well as incunabula 
to definite countries, some manuscripts even to " schools, " a few 
even to definite scribes. But when two types differ in size and 
form, however slightly, and there is no evidence that they belonged 
to one and the same printer, some of their characteristics may 
justify us in ascribing both to the same country or town, but not 
to the same printer. It is, moreover, not safe to ascribe incunabula 
to one and the same printer on account of their similarity of the 
quires and divisions into volumes, their paper or water-marks 
(which Dziatzko observed in the two Bibles), as these particu- 
lars are nothing but a continuance of the MSS. 

1 The Cambridge University Library possesses two folio volumes 
(press-mark Dd. 7. I, 2), the writing of which, ascribed in the 
catalogue to 1490, resembles the types of B 42 with all its chief and 
by-forms so much, that at first sight they might be mistaken for 
copies of this Bible. 



HISTORY] 



TYPOGRAPHY 



Nor is his evidence 1 for saying that B 38 is a reprint of B 42 conclusive. 
The types of B 36 and B 42 may be ascribed to Germany, but as both 
are used for the printing of a Bible and editions of Donatus, it is 
improbable that the printer of B 42 and one set of Donatuses should 
manufacture, about the same time, another type for another Bible 
and another set of Donatuses. We have shown above that B 42 must, 
on bibliographical grounds, be ascribed to Peter Schoeffer at Mainz, 
and as he used its type for a book which actually bears his name, 
all the other books in the same type must be ascribed to him. It 
follows that B 36 and every other book in column A must be assigned 
to some other printer or printers. 

Type v. is a Church type and resembles those of B 36 and B 42 , 
but it can have nothing to do with Gutenberg or the invention 
of printing, as it is not earlier than 1480-1490. Types vi. and 
vii., which are nothing but imitations of the written Psalters of the 
time, are employed for a work, the colophon of which distinctly 
mentions Fust and Schoeffer as the printers; hence they cannot 
be claimed for Gutenberg. Of the Catholicon type we speak below. 
Therefore the books numbered i. to xxi. in column A of the above 
list are the only ones about which there can be any doubt or 
discussion. 

Here we encounter another peculiarity of the above-men- 
tioned " system," which treats the three different types detected 
in these twenty-one works not as different, but as " phases " 
or " developments " of one and the same type, while the differ- 
ences between them, and the absence or presence of certain 
forms of letters, are taken as guides for approximately dating 
the books, and for subdividing the type, hitherto known as the 
36-line Bible or Gutenberg type, into three or more varieties. 
For instance, Schwenke (Centralbl., 1908, p. 74) explains that 
" the types b, c, i, s, t enable us to distinguish the earliest from 
the later elements in the Donatus type; the ' Weltgericht ' 
shows, at least of i and s, the old forms still unmixed. But 
in the Paris Donatus, the new forms appear by the side of the 
old forms, though the latter are already to a great extent super- 
seded. The new (Heiligenstadt) Donatus comes between these 
two works; it has chiefly the old b, which begins to a great extent 
to be absent in the Paris Donatus." 

As we cannot regard types which differ in form as " develop- 
ments " of one type, we must deal with three types in column 
A, that is (i) the so-called Donatus type; (2) the Kalendar type; 
(3) the 36-line Bible type, besides the two employed for the 
Indulgence 31 . Gutenberg's career, and the straightened cir- 
cumstances in which he appears to have lived, so far as they are 
known to us, make it difficult to ascribe them all to him. 

More than thirty documents have come to light which enable 
us to trace Johan Gutenberg from 1420 to 1468. Dr Carl 
Schorbach has published nearly all their texts, with elaborate 
explanations, in the Festschrift zum 500 jdhr. Geburtstage von 
J. Gutenberg (suppl. to Centralbl. f. Biblioth., 1900, p. 163 sqq.), 
and they are further explained by Hessels (Gutenberg, was he 
the Inventor of Printing? 1886; idem, The so-called Gutenberg 
Documents, 1911). 

At least six of them are known to be forgeries, among them the 
" relics " of a printing-press with the date " 1441 " which were 
accidentally (!) discovered in 1856 in the " Hof zum Jungen " which 
had always been supposed to have been Gutenberg's first printing- 
office at Mainz, but which we now know not to have been the case. 
Assuming that the Gutenberg mentioned in the remaining docu- 
ments is no other than Henne (= Hans or Jphan) Gensfleisch 
called Gutenberg from his mother (whose maiden name was Elsa 
Wyrich) having lived in the " Hof zum Gutenberg " at Mainz, 
where he is supposed to have been born about 1400 he appears 
to have lived at Strassburg from 1436 (?) till the I2th of March 
1444, in easy and somewhat luxurious circumstances, at least 
during the first three years, as he was then paying duties for large 
quantities of wine (about 1924 liter). But this prosperity does not 
seem to have continued, for on the lyth of November 1442 he 
borrowed 80 pounds Strassburg denarii ( = about 4800 marks) 
from the Strassburg St Thomas Chapter, a Strassburg citizen, 
Martin Brechter, being his surety. From the I2th of March 1444 
till the iyth of October 1448 there is no trace of him, but on the 
latter day he again borrowed, this time at Mainz, 150 gold guilders. 
Both these loans he never redeemed, nor is it known whether he 
ever paid any interest on his Mainz loan. But the account books 
of the Thomas Chapter, still preserved in the Strassburg Public 
Archives, show that the interest of 4 pounds per annum on his 
loan of 1442 was regularly paid, by him or his surety, till 1457. 
The interest due in the latter year was also paid, but difficulties 
appear to have occurred before the Chapter received it, as there 
is an item in their account book for 1457-1458 of two shillings for 



expenses, incurred by them for arresting Gutenberg and his surety. 
In and after 1458 no further payments were made; the Chapter had 
recourse to law, and made various efforts to arrest the defaulters, 
but in vain; and in 1474, six years after Gutenberg's death, the debt 
is no longer recorded in the Chapter's accounts. He can be traced 
at Mainz from 1450 (when he borrowed money from Fust) till the 
aist of June 1457, when he is a witness at the conveyance of pro- 
perty in Bodenheim near Mainz. After this date we hear no more 
of him until the 1 7th of January 1465, when the archbishop of Mainz 
appointed him as his servant and courtier for life on account of the 
" grateful and willing service which he had rendered to himself 
and to his Stift, and will and may render in future. " The nature 
of this " service " is not stated. It has always been supposed that 
he was then residing at Eltville, the residence of the archbishop, 
and that he died there about or before the 26th of February 1468, 
on which day Dr Kunr. Humery received from the archbishop 
some " printing apparatus which belonged to him, and which he 
had lent to Gutenberg." But recent researches seem to have shown 
that Gutenberg remained at Mainz till his death, and was buried 
there. 

Apart from the six forgeries, about which there is no dispute, 
Bockenheimer, a Mainz magistrate, explains (Gutenberg- Feier, 
Mainz, 1900) as forgeries also (i) the document of the I4th of March 
1434, which represents Gutenberg as having at Strassburg arrested 
and released the secretary of Mainz for a debt which this city 
owed him ; (2) a document of 1437 recording a breach of promise 
case between Gutenberg and a Strassburg lady; (3) the records of 
a Strassburg lawsuit between Gutenberg and some Strassburg 
citizens in 1439; (4) the Helmasperger notarial instrument of the 
6th of November 1455, recording a lawsuit of Joh. Fust against 
Joh. Gutenberg. 

The last two, and a third dated the 26th of February 1468, men- 
tioned above, are the only documents that can be said to connect 
Gutenberg with the art of printing. Various external and internal 
circumstances throw serious doubts on the genuineness of the 
1439 documents; but suppose they were genuine, they only show 
that Gutenberg had been engaged, with other Strassburg citizens, in 
" polishing stones " and " manufacturing looking-glasses," and 
promised to give instruction in " new arts.' A " press," however, 
is mentioned, and a clause reports that one of Gutenberg's witnesses, 
Hans Dunne, a goldsmith, had testified that he had earned nearly 
100 guilders from Gutenberg, " merely for that which belonged 
to printing " (alleine das zu dem trucken gehoret). The document 
contains nothing to connect Gutenberg with the art of printing, 
except this line, which has clearly been added (as an afterthought) 
by a different hand from the one that wrote the two first lines of 
this witness's testimony, a circumstance which makes the whole 
document more than suspicious. Several theories, however, as 
to Gutenberg printing at Strassburg in or before 1439 have been 
built upon this document, and German bibliographers are even 
now expressing their hope of finding some day evidence of Gutenberg 
having printed Donatuses and other works in that town. 

As to the notarial instrument of 1455, Bockenheimer suggests 
that as it contains absurdities which are contradictory to all the 
legal usages of the time, it may be a forgery of the Faust family, 
perhaps of Joh. Fr. Faust von Aschaffenburg (who pretended 
to descend from Joh. Fust, whom he called " Faust "), who 
appears to have possessed, in or about 1600, an " original " 
of the instrument. From this " original " are derived all the 
texts published before 1741. In that year, however, J. D. 
Kohler (Ehren-Rettung Joh. Guttenberg's, Leipzig) printed the 
text again from an " original " which is now in the Gottingen 
University Library (republished by Dziatzko, Beitrdge, Berlin, 
1889), and is perhaps identical with Faust von Aschaffenburg's 
" original." Though an analysis of the text brings out various 
incongruities as to the business relations between Fust and 
Gutenberg, it is difficult to look upon the Gottingen document 
as a forgery, and we deal with it here as genuine. 

It is dated the 6th of November 1455, and records some of the 
proceedings in the lawsuit between Johan Fust (q.v.) and Gutenberg, 
which had taken place on that day in the convent of the Bare- 
footed Friars at Mainz, whereby the former sought to recover from 
Gutenberg 2026 guilders in repayment of 1600 guilders which he 
had advanced to him (800 about August 1450, and another 800 
about December 1452), with the interest thereon. The document 
first relates that, on some previous day (not stated), Fust had testi- 
fied (i) that by a written agreement between them, Gutenberg 
was to " finish the work " (line 24) with the 800 guilders to be ad- 
vanced to him at 6%; Fust being unconcerned whether it cost 
more or less. (2) Gutenberg had not been content with these 
800 guilders, and Fust, wishing to please him, advanced him another 
800 guilders at 6%. (3) He had himself borrowed this money, 
and as Gutenberg had never paid any interest, the principal sum 
and the interest thereon amounted to 2026 guilders ( = between 
15,000 and 16,000 marks), which he now demanded from him. 



S i8 



TYPOGRAPHY 



[HISTORY 



(4) On the same occasion Gutenberg had replied that Fust should 
have furnished him with 800 guilders, wherewith to make his 
" tools " (or apparatus; Germ. Geczuge), and he should be content 
with this money, and might devote it to his own use. (5) Such tools 
should be a pledge to Fust. (6) The latter should also give him 
(lines 37 to 40) annually 300 guilders for maintenance and furnish 
workmen's wages, house-rent, parchment, paper, ink, &c. (7) If 
they did not agree further, he should return Fust his 800 guilders, 
and his tools should be free ; but it was to be well understood that 
he should finish " such work " (line 41) with the money which Fust 
had lent him on his pledge, and he hoped that he had not been 
bound to Fust to spend such 800 guilders on " the work of the books " 
(line 41). (8) Fust had told him that he did not desire to take 
interest from him; nor had these 800 guilders all, and at once, 
come to him in accordance with the agreement. (9) Of the addi- 
tional 800 guilders he wished to render Fust an account; hence he 
allowed Fust no interest, nor usury, and hopes not to be legally 
indebted to him. 

We assume, though it is nowhere stated, that these clauses re- 
late to the" printing of books," to be executed by Gutenberg with 
the money which Fust advanced to him. But as he was already 
in debt at Strassburg since the i;th of November 1442 (and 
had to pay annually interest on this debt), and at Mainz since 
the I7th of October 1448 (also against interest), it is not surprising 
that when he contracted this fresh loan in 1450, at the high rate 
of 6%, he (by not giving any security except tools which 
he had still to make) practically admitted that he was penniless, 
and stipulated that Fust should give him also an annual sum for 
maintenance, and besides furnish workmen's wages, house-rent, 
parchment, paper, ink, &c., in fact everything required for 
setting up a printing-office and keeping it going. Fust seems not 
to have complied with these demands, otherwise he would have 
mentioned them in his account and at the trial. But he ad- 
vanced another 800 guilders in December 1452, barely two years 
after his first advance, merely to please Gutenberg, who had not 
been satisfied with the first 800. 

It is argued that Gutenberg must have been able to show Fust 
some specimens of his work to induce him to lend him so much 
money, and we have seen above that German bibliographers attribute 
to him a poem on the " Weltgericht, " which they date c. 1443- 
1444, and the Paris Donatus which they date a little later, both 

Erinted, it is said, in the " first phase " of the " Gutenberg type," 
ut showing already some traces of wear and tear; and thirdly, an 
Astronomical Kalendar (a broadside of 4 leaves) which they ascribe 
to the end of 1447, and regard as a " masterpiece " printed in a new 
type, said to be a " development " or " second phase " of the 
Gutenberg type, which must have been used for several years after- 
wards, till a fresh or " third phase " was cast of it (for B 36 ) with the 
alteration of some of the letters. But if Gutenberg had printed 
these three works in the years ascribed to them, however small 
they may be, he must be supposed to have had, from 1443 to 
1448, types for printing them, and patrices and matrices for making 
his types, besides a press and various other tools for printing. 
Yet the notarial instrument of 1455, if it is genuine, reveals him 
as borrowing money, not so early as 1443, but so late as 1450, for 
" preparing his tools," and as having, at the time, nothing to offer 
his creditor as security except the tools which he still had to make( !). 
But, says one theory, Gutenberg, intending to print a Bible, and 
finding the type in his possession too large for it, manufactured 
a smaller one with the aid of Fust's money, while another theory 
would have it that he wanted to begin with the printing of a Missal, 
and for this purpose casted two types, one large and the other 
smaller. Difficulties, however, arose which induced him to use 
the smaller type for B 42 , which was finished about the beginning of 
1453, and Dziatzkp places the type of B M also in the year 1453, 
while Schwenke assigns a life of nearly twenty years (1443-1462) to 
this type. 

If, however, Gutenberg had cast all these types, and printed all 
these books, and sold them, straight from 1443 to 1450, and from 
1450 straight on to, say, 1455, he could not have done this without 
Fust, his money-lender, becoming aware of it, especially as Fust, 
for his first advance of 800 guilders, was to have received, as security, 
the " tools " which Gutenberg had to make before he could begin 
to print. Yet in 1455, fully five years after Fust had entered into 
such close financial relations with Gutenberg, he claimed, in spite 
of what he must have known of Gutenberg's supposed activity, 
the whole of the money which he had advanced, with interest and 
compound interest on it. And Gutenberg, instead of pleading on 
the first day of the trial that he had from 1450 to 1455 printed 
two large folio Bibles and a considerable number of other books, 
merely refers to the initial stages of his work, to " tools " _to be 
prepared by him as a future pledge for Fust; he tells the judges 
that he had expected Fust to supply him with various necessaries 
for printing and his own existence, without saying whether Fust 



had complied with his demands or not, and finally declares that he 
had not felt called upon to devote the first 800 guilders to the 
" work of the books "; that he was ready to account for the second 
Sop, but did not feel indebted to Fust either for interest or any- 
thing else, while, on the second day of the trial, he absented himself, 
and merely sent two of his workmen to hear what was going on (!). 
This does not look as if he had performed much from 1450 to 1455, 
but rather the reverse. Anyhow; if the Helmasperger instrument of 
November 1455 is not a fabrication, it shows that Gutenberg could 
not have begun to print before 1450; that in this year, 1450 (about 
August), when he borrowed money from Fust, he had no property 
such as a printing-office, presses, types, patrices, matrices, &c., 
which he must have possessed if he had been printing since 1443, 
to offer his creditor as security; had not a penny to maintain himself ; 
besides being already in debt at Strassburg since 1442, and at 
Mainz since 1448. 

The remainder of the instrument records the verdict given on 
the first day of the trial which decided (i) when Gutenberg shall 
have rendered his account of all receipts and disbursements paid 
out by him on the " work for the use [or profit] of them both " 
(i. 49), whatever less 1 money he then has received and taken in 
above it, that shall be reckoned in the Sop guilders; (2) but if the 
account should show that Gutenberg had paid out more for Fust than 
800 guilders which had not come in their common good [or use] 
(line 60) Gutenberg shall return it to Fust ; (3) and if Fust adduces 
by oath or by reasonable evidence that he has borrowed the above 
money on interest, and not lent it of his own money, then Gutenberg 
shall also pay such interest according to the tenor of the schedule. 

The verdict is followed by Fust's sworn declaration regarding the 
amount of his claim, which he had been ordered to make in Guten- 
berg's presence, but which he now made in his absence, declaring 

(4) that he had taken up 1550 guilders which Gutenberg had re- 
ceived and which also had gone on " our common work " (line 60); 

(5) that he had annually given interest and loss, part of which he 
still owed; six guilders for every 100 guilders which he had thus 
taken up; (6) of all that Gutenberg had received of this borrowed 
money, which has not gone on the " work " of them both, which 
is found in the account, he claimed from him the interest in 
accordance with the verdict. 

Gutenberg appears not to have produced the account which he 
was expected (clause i) to render, as Fust's allusion to an account 
(in clause 6) must refer to his own account. Hence we know not 
whether he made any " disbursements. " The " receipts " seem to 
mean nothing more than the instalments of the first 800 guilders 
which he acknowledged to have received from Fust, though some 
authors think that allusion is made to things (printed books or 
broadsides ?) from which he might have received money by sale or 
otherwise. 

It is to be noticed that Fust speaks here (for the sake of accuracy?) 
of having taken up 1550 not 1600 guilders, as in his first account. 
On the whole the wording of the verdict and the sworn declaration 
is obscure, and open to different interpretations, but it is impossible 
to ascribe to Gutenberg, on the strength of this document, the 
manufacture of the types and the printing of all the books in column 
A above, especially when we have regard to his own inexplicable 
silence at the trial, when it was incumbent on him for his own 
sake to show what he had done with Fust's money, and still more 
when we have regard to the pecuniary difficulties in which he had 
been placed at least eight years before he contracted these heavy 
new loans with Fust. Within the space of two years after the 
trial he was bankrupt, unable to pay either his loans or the small 
interest thereon, and might have ended his days in prison if the 
Strassburg St Thomas Stift had been able to have him arrested. 

Certain circumstances point to Albrecht Pfister of Bamberg 
as the printer of the numbers vii., viii., ix., xviii. and perhaps 
those that come between them in column A. Even in former 
years when the church type of the Indulgence 31 (1454) was be- 
lieved to be identical with that of B 36 , it was the general opinion 
that, though Pfister could not have printed the Indulgence, he 
had acquired its church type from Gutenberg for printing B 36 
Now that a closer examination has shown that the type of B 36 
need not be dated so early as 1454, the known dates of Pfister 
(1461, 1462) harmonize with the approximate date (1460) of B 36 . 
It is admitted that the types of vii., viii. and ix. differ from that 

^he instrument says: "was er dan men gelts dar uber enp- 
fangen . . . hait. " Senckenberg, Kohler, Van der Linde, &c., 
printed nun for the correct reading men. This latter word has 
hitherto been interpreted as meaning more (see Dziatzko, Guten- 
bergfrage, p. 34, note i; Schorbach, in Festschr. of 1900, p. 259). 
Zedler (Gutenbergforschungen, p. 65, note) thinks that it is a dialectic 
by-form of the Mid. H. German mein found in mein-kouf, mein- 
rat, mein-swern, mein-tdt, and still preserved in the Mod. H. German 
Meineid; he translates it therefore as " widerrechtlich " (unlawfully). 
But men is the same as the Mid. Dutch min (see Verdam's Middel- 
Nederl, Woordenb, in voce) =New Netherl. minder, and means 
less, the only meaning which can give sense to this clause. 



HISTORY] 



TYPOGRAPHY 



of B 38 in the form of certain capitals. But Pfister issued on the 
i4th of February 1401 at Bamberg, with the B 36 type, an edition 
of Boner's Edelstein (88 leaves fol., with wood-engravings), and 
at least eight other works (Hessels, Gutenberg, p. 161, seq.),one 
of which bears the date 1462, the seven others none. 

Most of the copies of the 36-line Bible now known to us were 
at one time or another preserved in the libraries of Bavaria, 
and several fragments have been found in monasteries of that 
country, even in a register of the year 1460 of the abbey of St 
Michael at Bamberg. Moreover, a transfer or sale of type from 
Gutenberg to Pfister is contrary to all analogy in the infancy of 
printing, when every printer started with a type of his own 
making. 

It is alleged that, in consequence of the lawsuit between 
Gutenberg and Fust, the former was deprived of all tools, &c., 
The which he had made, or is supposed to have made, 

Cathoiicoa with the latter's money, and that afterwards a cer- 
Typ e - tain Dr Homery or Humery, a syndic of Mainz, 
lent him fresh money to enable him to set up another printing- 
office. 

This allegation is made on the strength of a letter of obligation 
(dated Feb. 26, 1468) referred to above, and given by Dr Homery 
to Adolph, the archbishop of Mainz, by which he acknowledges to 
have received from the said archbishop " several forms, letters, 
instruments, implements and other things belonging to the work of 
printing, which Johan Gutenberg had left after his death, and which 
had belonged and still did belong to him (Dr Homery)." It is to 
be observed that Homery, though willing to assist or oblige Gutenberg, 
had been cautious enough to reserve to himself all rights to this 
printing apparatus, in somewhat the same way as Fust in 1450 de- 
manded, or was promised, to receive Gutenberg's " tools " as pledge 
for his advances. The Homery apparatus could hardly have been 
of large dimensions, seeing that it was readily passed on first from 
him to Gutenberg, then from the latter to the archbishop and returned 
again to its owner. But it is presumed that with these types, which 
appear in the above list as type VIII., Gutenberg had printed 
(i) Joannis de Balbis, Catholicon of 1460, copies of which exist 
in the Cambridge University Library, three in the British Museum, 
two in the Paris Library, in the Spencer collection of the Rylands 
Library, in the Wolfenbiittel and Mainz libraries, &c. ; (2) Matthaeus 
de Cracovia, Tractatus rationis, 22 leaves, of 30 lines, 4to, three 
copies of which are in the British Museum, one in the Rylands, 
one in the Cambridge, two in the Paris Library, &c.; (3 and 4), 
two editions of Thomas Aquinas, Summa de_ articulis fidei, in 4to., 
the first of 13 leaves and 34 lines (two copies of which are in the 
British Museum, one in the Rylands and one in the Cambridge 
Library, &c.); the second of 12 leaves and 36 lines (copies in the 
British Museum and the Paris Library) ; and (5) an indulgence of 
1461 of 15 lines. 

We have seen above that on the I7th of January 1465 Adolph II., 
archbishop of Mainz, had appointed "Johan Gudenberg, his servant 
and courtier. " It has always been inferred from this that Gutenberg 
had quitted Mainz and gone to Eltville (Elfeld) to reside at the arch- 
bishop's court, and that, his dignity as courtier preventing him 
from printing himself, he passed the Catholicon types on to Henry 
Bechtermuncze at Eltville. It seems certain that in 1467 the 
Catholicon type with some additions (already found in the Indulgence 
of 1461) was at Eltville near Mainz, in the hands of Henry and 
_Nicholas Bechtermuncze and Wigandus Spyes de Orthenberg, who 
issued on the 4th of November of that year (vi.) Vocabularius ex 
quo (a Latin-German vocabulary) in 4to, 1 66 leaves, 35 lines, the only 
known copy of which is in the Paris Library, and (vii. ) Vocabularius ex 
quo, 2nd edition, with colophon dated the 5th of June 1469, 4to, 
165 leaves, 35 lines, copies of which exist in the Rylands, the Blen- 
heim, and the Paris libraries. It is therefore asked how the Bechter- 
munczes could have been using the Catholicon type in 1467, if we 
assume that it was this type to which Homery refers in his letter 
of obligation as being in his possession. Some, therefore, conclude 
that the Catholicon and the four other works in the same type were 
printed at Mainz by Henry Bechtermuncze, who may afterwards 
have transferred his printing office to Eltville. In that case it is 
difficult to see what type Homery could refer to, unless it were 
type II, a close imitation of which, if not the actual type, was used 
by Nicholas Bechtermuncze at Eltville in printing (March 12, 1472) 
a 3rd edition of the Vocabularius ex quo, 166 leaves, 35 lines, copies 
of which are preserved in the Paris and Hamburg libraries, and an 
edition of Thomas Aquinas, Summa de articulis fidei, 12 leaves, 
35 lines (Munich Library). 

It would seem, however, that Fust and Schoeffer were the 
printers and publishers of the Catholicon, and the other three 
works mentioned above, as the latter advertised them for sale 
in a list which he printed and circulated in 1469-1470 (see Konr. 



Burger, Buchhandleranzeigen des 15 Jahrhunderts, Leipzig, 1907, 
No. 3). Schoeffer may of course have purchased the stock of 
these books from Gutenberg or acquired it after his death from 
Homery, but as nothing compels us to attribute the printing of 
these books to Gutenberg, there is still less reason to deny that 
Fust and Schoeffer printed them, as the much discussed colophon 
of the Catholicon is found, almost verbatim, in three books 
published by them in 1465 and 1467. Hence the numbers i. to 
vi. are the only ones that could be ascribed to Gutenberg. 

Even this number, involving the manufacture of four different 
types (apart from the alterations in the forms of certain letters 
which involved the making of new patrices and matrices) would 
be large for a man who, after having lived in luxury for some years, 
practically subsisted from 1442 to 1455 on money which he borrowed 
from various parties and never repaid. But the poem on the 
" Weltgericht," printed on paper, could scarcely be placed at the 
head of a list which includes and, but for this poem, begins with 
vellum printed works. Moreover, as it can hardly be regarded as 
a specimen of primitive printing, it takes a more natural place by 
the side of the paper-printed Turkkalendar , Cisianus and Con- 
junctiones, which all show that printing on paper was beginning 
to supersede that on vellum. It is asserted that its type is the same 
as that of the 1451 Donatus, but this is doubtful. 

That the Astronomical Kalendar calculates the ephemerides for 
1448 is no evidence of its having been printed at the end of 1447, 
as kalendars of this kind "seem to have been printed without any 
regard to time and circumstances. Some years ago the Cisianus 
was ascribed to Gutenberg and to the year 1444, because some of 
the saints and movable feasts mentioned in it were thought to relate 
to that year. But as the same saints and feasts occur in the same 
way in Cisianus editions printed long after 1500, this notion was 
abandoned. The Astronomical Kalendar in question lays down 
rules for blood-letting at certain times of the year, and was evidently 
intended to be hung up in houses as guides for this purpose. It is 
admitted that it contains mistakes if we apply its calculations to 
1448, and it has not yet been proved that these rules required a 
special kalendar for each year in particular. Removing, therefore, 
Nos. ii. and vi. to somewhat later dates in the list, the Donatus 
No. iii. and that of 1451 (No. iv.) with another edition (No. v.) of 
the same school-book remain at the head of the column A, together 
with the Indulgence 31 , as the only works that could be ascribed to 
Gutenberg. They bring us down to the time (c. 1451) when he, 
according to the Helmasperger document, may be supposed to 
have been in a position to exercise the new art of printing. 

It is necessary to point out that eight books (i) Prognostication 
or Calendar; (2) Hermann de Saldis, Speculum sacerdotum; (3) 
Tractatus de celebratione missarum; (4) a work in German treating 
of the necessity of councils; (5) Dialogus inter Hugonem Cathonem 
et Oliverium super libertate ecclesiastica,; (6) Sifridus de Arena, 
Determinatio duarum quaestionum; (7) idem, Responsio ad quatuor 
quaestiones; (8) Klagspiegel, or New geteutscht Rechtbuch have been 
ascribed to Gutenberg on the strength (a) of the date 1460, which 
was said to be found in a Prognostication in the Darmstadt library, 
and (b) of a so-called lubrication alleged to be in a copy of the 
Tractatus de celebratione missarum, in which " Johannes dictus 
a bono monte " and Johannes Numeister are represented as offering 
this work on the igth of June 1463 to the Carthusians at Mainz. 
But the date in the Prognostication has been falsified from 1482 
into 1460, and the rubrication in the Tractatus is a forgery (Hessels, 
Gutenberg, pp. 107-114). The eight books are now considered to 
have been printed by Erhard Reuwich. 

Apart from these disputed points there is no further difficulty 
as regards the history of Mainz printing. Fust and Schoeffer 
worked together from 1457 to 1466, starting in August 1457 
with an edition of the Psalterium, printed in large missal types, 
which, as far as we know, is the first printed book which bears 
a date, besides the place where it was printed and the name of 
the printers. It was reprinted with the same types in 1459 (the 
second printed book with date, place and name of printer), in 
1490, and in 1502 (the last work of Schoeffer, who had manu- 
factured its types). In 1459 Fust and Schoeffer also published 
Gul. Durantus, Rationale divinorum officiorum, with the small 
type (usually called Durandus type) with which they continued 
to print long afterwards. In 1460 they published the Constitu- 
tiones of Pope Clement V., the text printed in a type (Clement 
type) about a third larger than the Durandus. This type was, 
however, in existence in 1439, as the colophon of the Durandus 
is printed with it. 1 

The Invention Controversy. Now that we have traced 
the art of printing from the moment (1454) that it made its 
1 See further Bernard, Origine, i. 2i6seq. 



520 



TYPOGRAPHY 



[HISTORY 



appearance in a perfect state at Mainz, and have seen that none of 
the particulars known to us of the life and career of Johan 
Gutenberg, who is alleged to have invented it, nor any of the 
books said to have been printed by him, afford us any basis for 
ascribing that honour to him, we will examine what has been said 
during a period of more than four hundred years on the question 
of the invention. For this purpose we will gather up into a 
chronological sequence (a) a few of the most important expres- 
sions used by the earliest printers in their colophons, (6) whatever 
documentary evidence there may be on the subject, and (c) some 
accounts of the earliest authors onHhe question. The Roman 
numerals i., ii., &c., are for the sake of convenient reference. 

The earliest l testimony (i.) is the notarial instrument, dated 

the 6th of November 1455, of the lawsuit between Fust and Guten- 

berg, already mentioned above, which records trans- 

. actions between the two men from August 1450 to 

Testimonies. November I455> Fust spe aking of " the work " and of 

" our common work "; Gutenberg of " tools " which he wanted to 
prepare, of " workmen's wages, house-rent, vellum, paper, ink, &c.," 
of such work " and of " the work of the books, " whereas thejudges 
speak of " the work to the profit of both " and " their common use. " 
(ii.)Inthe first 2 book published with a date (the Mainz Psalter, 
issued the i^th of August 1457 by Fust and Peter Schoeffer),it is 

said that it was perfected at Mainz by an " adinventio 

c/*A artificiosa imprimendi ac caracterizandi absque calami 

oop <ms, u jj a exar atione, " repeated and varied later, by the same 

printers in their colophons of the years 1459 to at least 
1470. (iii.) In 1460 the colophon of the Catholicon published at 
Mainz without the printer's name, after stating that " the book was 
printed at Mainz, the genial city of the renowned German nation, 
which town God's mercy had deigned to prefer and adorn above the 
other nations of the earth by such an exalted light of genius and 
spontaneous gift, " adds that the book was printed and completed 
" non calami, stili, aut pennae suffragio, sed mira patronarum forma- 
rumqueconcordia, proporcione, et modulo. " This work (which is to 
be ascribed to Peter Schoeffer) is considered to have been printed by 
Gutenberg, and the mention of God's mercy, &c., is regarded as an 
allusion to the invention of printing. The phrase is, however, also 
found, with some variations, in the Liber sextus Decretalium, in 
the Summa of Thomas Aquinas, and in the Clementinae, published 
respectively on the 1 7th of December 1465, the 6th of March and 
the 8th of October 1467, by Fust and Schoeffer. (iv;) On the I7th 
of January 1465 Adolph II., archbishop of Mainz, by a public decree, 
appointed Gutenberg as his servant in reward for " his services, " 
but he does not say what kind of " services " he had rendered, nor 
does he speak of him as the inventor of printing, nor as a printer, 
(v.) In the Grammatica rhythmica, published in 1466 by Fust and 
Schoeffer, the third line of the colophon runs: Hinc Nazareni 
sonet oda per ora Johannis, " which was formerly regarded as an 
allusion to Johann Fust or Johann Gutenberg, but which more prob- 
ably refers to Johann Brunnen or Fons, the author of the grammar. 
(vi.) On the 26th of February 1468 Dr Homery wrote to the arch- 
bishop of Mainz the letter quoted above, from which it may be 
inferred that Gutenberg had been a printer, though nothing is said 
as to his being the inventor of printing, (vii.) In 1468 Schoeffer 
reprinted Fons's Grammatica, in the colophon of which it is said: 
"At Moguntina sum fusus in urbe libellus meque(the book)domus 
genuit unde caragma venit. " (viii.) Schoeffer published on the 
24th of May 1468 the 1st edition oiJustiniani Imper. Institutionum 
juris libri VI., cum glossa. To this were added by way of colophon 
some verses commencing: " Scema tabernaculi, " &c., in which it 
is said that (the ornament of the church) Jesus " hos dedit eximios 
sculpendi in arte magistros . . . Quos genuit ambos urbs Moguntina 
Johannes, librorum insignes prothocaragmaticos, " which is regarded 
as an allusion to Johann Gutenberg and Johann Fust as first or chief 
printers, (ix.) In the same year (1468) Johannes Andreae, bishop 
of Aleria, says, in the dedication of his edition of St Jerome's 
Epistles, published in that year (Dec. 13,) at Rome, to Pope Paul II., 
that " Germany is to be honoured for ever as having been the 
inventress of the greatest utilities. Cardinal Cusa wished that 
the sacred art of printing, which then (under Cardinal Cusa, who died 
on the nth of August 1464) seemed to have arisen in Germany, were 
brought to Rome. " (x.) In 1470 Guil. Fichet, in an octastichon 
inserted in the Paris ecjition of 1470 of the Letters of Gasparinus 
of Bergamo, exhorts Paris to take up the almost divine art of writing 
(printing) which Germany is acquainted with (see below No. xiii.). 
In the same year Erhard Windsberg writes to the same effect in an 
epigram inserted in the Epistolae Phalaridis published at Paris about 
1470. (xi.) In 1471 Ludov. Carbo, in the dedication of the Letters 

1 The earliest would be the records of the Strassburg lawsuit 
of 1439, in which the word " trucken " is used, but we cannot accept 
them as genuine. 

2 Earlier is perhaps the Donatus issued by Peter Schoeffer, possibly 
before 1456, the colophon of which says that it was finished Arte 
nova imprimendi seu caracterizandi . . . absque calami exaratione 
(by a new art of printing or making letters . . . without the writing 
of a pen). 



of Pliny to Borso, duke of Modena, speaks of the Germans having 
invented printing; Nicolaus Gupalatinus (Venice, 1471) of a German 
being the inventor of printing, and Nicolaus Perottus of the art 
which had lately come from Germany, (xii.) On the 2 1st of May 
1471 Nicolas Jenson published an edition of Quintilian, edited and 
revised by Ognibene de Lonigo (Omnibpnus Leonicenus), who in 
the preface speaks of its printer as "librariae artis mirabilis inventor, 
non ut scribantur calamo libri, sed veluti gemma imprimantur, ac 
prope sigillo, primus omnium ingeniose demonstravit. " (xiii.) 
About 1472 the first three printers of Paris published Gasparinus 
Pergamensis's Orthographiae liber, to which is prefixed (in the copy 
of the university library of Basel) a letter, dated the ist of January, 
from Guillaume Fichet (see above No. x.), prior of the Sorbonne, 
to Robert Gaguin, in which he says that "it is rumoured that in 
Germany, ' not far from the city of Mainz,' a certain Johann Guten- 
berg (Johannes, cui cognomen Bonemontano) first of all invented 
the art of printing (impressoriam artem), by means of which books 
are made with letters of metal, not with a reed (as the ancients did), 
nor with the pen (as is done at present). " (xiv.) On the I4th of 
July 1474 Joh. Philippus de Lignamine published at Rome Chronica 
summorum Qontificum imperatorumque, in which, between two 
entries, relating one to the I4th of July 1459 and the other to the 
1st of October 1459, an undated paragraph is found saying that 
Jacobus with the surname of Gutenberg of Strassburg and a certain 
other one named Fustus, " imprimendarum litterarum in membranis 
cum metallicis formis periti, trecentas cartas quisque eorum per 
diem facere innotescunt apud Moguntiam Germame civitatem. " 
It says the same of Mentelin, and (under 1464) of Conrad Sweynheym, 
Arnold Pannarts, and Udalricus Gallus. (xv.) On the 23rd of 
May 1476 Peter Schoeffer issued the 3rd edition of the Institutiones 
of Justinian, with the same imprint as in the edition of 1468 (see 
testimony viii.), but with the addition that Mainz is the " impres- 
soriae artis inventrix elimatrixque prima. " (xvi.) In the Fasciculus 
lemporum, issued at Cologne in 1478, it is stated under the year 1457 
that the printers of books were multiplied on earth, deriving the 
origin of their art from Mainz. The earlier editions merely stated 
that the printers of books were multiplied on earth, (xvii.) In 
1483 Matthias Palmer of Pisa, in the Chron. Euseb. published at 
Venice, stated under the year 1457 that students owe a great debt 
to Germany, where Johannes Gutenberg zum Jungen, knight of 
Mainz, invented the art of printing in 1440. (xviii.) In the same 
year, 1483, Jac. Phil. Foresta of Bergamo, in the Supplementum 
chronicorum, says under the year 1458 that the art of printing books 
was first discovered in Germany, according to some by Guthimberg 
of Strassburg, according to others by Faust (see xiv.), according 
to others by Nicolas Jenson (see xii.). (xix.) On the 6th of 
March 1492 Peter Schoeffer published the Niedersachsische Chronik 
of Conrad Botho, saying in the colophon that it was " geprent . . . 
in ... Mentz, die eyn anefangk is der prentery." (xx.) 
At the end of 1494 two Heidelberg professors, Adam t 
Wernher and Joh. Herbst, composed some Latin verses^ 6 ." "* 
in honour of Johannes Gensfleisch (Gutenberg's family 
name turned into the Latin Ansicarus), whom they called " primus 
librorum impressor " and " impressoriae artis inventor primus. " * 
(xxi.) In 1499 Jacob Wimpheling (bornatSchlettstadt l45O,died 1528) 
published (at Mainz, by P. Fnedberg [?]) an Oratio m Memoriam 
MarsiliiabInghen(A. 1396), in which he, on leaf 22 a, praises Joannes 
Ansicarus in Latin verse for his invention at Mainz. (xxii.) 
These verses are preceded by a Latin epitaph on Johann Gensfleisch, 
" artis impressoriae inventor " and " repertor, ' written by Adam 
Gelthus, a relative of Gutenberg, adding that his remains rest in 
the Franciscan Church at Mainz, (xxiii.) In the same year (1499) 
Polydore Vergil (De inventoribus rerum, Venice, lib. ii. cap. 7) says 
that a certain Peter [Schoeffer ?], a German, invented in 1442 the 
art of printing at Mainz in Germany, as he had heard from the 
latter's countrymen; this statement was repeated in a Venice edition 
of 1503. In later editions " Peter " was altered to " Joh. Guten- 
berg. " (xxiv.) In- the same year Koelhoff, printer at Cologne, 
published Cronica van der hilligerStat van Coetten, in which on fol. 
311 b, the following statements occur: (i) The art of printing was 
found first of all in Germany at Mainz about the year 1440; (2) from 
that time till 1450 the art and what belonged to it were investi- 
gated; (3) and in 1450, when it was a golden year (jubilee), they 
began to print, and the first book that they printed was the Bible 
in Latin, in a large letter, resembling that with which at present 
missals are printed. (4) Although the art was found at Mainz, 
as aforesaid, in the manner in which it is generally employed now, 
yet the first prefiguration was found in Holland from out the Dona- 
luses which were printed there before that time, and from and out 
of them was taken the beginning of the aforesaid art, and it was found 
much more masterly and exact (subtilis) than that other manner was, 
and has become more and more artistic. (5) Omnibonus wrote in 
a preface to Quintilian, and in some other books, too, that a Walloon 



3 These verses were not published at the time, but in the igth 
century by F. J. Mone, Quellensamml. der bad. Landesgesch. iii. 163, 
from the contemporary MS. of Adam Wernher, preserved in the 
archives of Carlsruhe. We pass over here a few books which merely 
say that the invention was made at Mainz: a Chronyk derlanden 
van Overmaas, written by an inhabitant of Beek, near Maastricht, 
in the isth century; the Chronycke van Hollandt (Leiden, 1517), &c. 



HISTORY] 



TYPOGRAPHY 



from France, named Nicol. Jenson (see xii.), discovered this art; 
but that is untrue, for there are those still alive who testify that 
books were printed at Venice before Nicol. Jenson came there and 
began to cut and make letters. (6) But the first inventor of printing 
was a citizen of Mainz, named Junker Johan Gudenburch. (7) 
From Mainz the art was introduced first of all into Cologne, then into 
Strassburg, and afterwards into Venice. (8) The origin and progress 
of the art were told to the writer verbally by Ulrich Zell of Hanau, 
still printer at Cologne (anno 1499), through whom the said art 
came to Cologne, (xxv.) In 1501 Jacob Wimpheling (see xxi.), 
who stated in his Oratio querulosa contra Invasores Sacerdotum, &c. 
(published at Delft, c. 1495) that chalcography had been invented 
at Mainz, says on p. 43 of his Germania (Strassburg, Job, Priiss, 
1501), that the invention was made at Strassburg by Johann Guten- 
berg of Strassburg, and that it was perfected at Mainz, (xxvi.) 
In 1503 Johann Schoeffer (the son of Peter Schoeffer and the 
grandson of Johann Fust) published an edition of Hermes Tris- 
megistus, in which he represents himself as one of the most dis- 
tinguished citizens of Mainz (nobili vrbe maguntina artis impressoriae 
inventrice illuminatriceque prima), descended from the most 
fortunate race who invented the art of printing, (xxvii.) In 1504 
Ivo Wittig, a canon and the keeper of the seal of the St Victor 
Cathedral near Mainz (of which Gutenberg had been a lay member), 
erected in the house " Zum Gutenberg " a memorial stone and an 
epitaph (missing already in 1700) to Joh. Gutenberg of Mainz, 
" qui primus omnium litteras acre impnmendas inyenit." (xxviii.) 
In 1505, in the German translation of Livy published by Johann 
Schoeffer (see xxxii.) the dedication to the emperor Maximilian, 
probably written by Ivo Wittig (see xxvii.), speaks of Johan 
Guttenbergk as inventor of printing (1450) and Johan Faust and 
Peter Schoeffer as improvers and perpetuators of the art. This 
work was reprinted at least eight times (in 1514, 1523, 1529, 1530, 
1533. I55i. 1553. 1557) with the same dedication; but in 1509 the 
Breviarium Moguntinum says that it was printed at the expense and 
labour of Johann Schoeffer, whose grandfather (i.e. Johann Fust) 
was the first inventor and author of the art of printing (see xxvi.). 
(xxix.) In 1505 Jacob Wimpheling, in his Epithoma Germanorum 
(Strassburg, 1505), asserts (on leaf xxxviii. b and xxxix. a) that 
in 14^.0 Johann Gutenberg of Strassburg invented there the art 
of printing. And in 1507, in his Catal. episcoporum Argent. 
(Strassburg, 1507), he says that the art was invented, though in 
an imperfect manner, by a certain Strassburger, who after- 
wards went to Mainz and joined others working and trying the 
same art, where it was, under the guidance of Johann Gens- 
fleisch, perfected in the house " boni montis " (Gutenberg). This 
he repeated in 1515. (xxx.) About 1506-1511 Johannes Trithe- 
mius wrote his Chronikon of Spanheim, published at Frankfort 
in 1601, in which he says (p. 366), under the year 1450, that the 
art of printing books was discovered afresh (a nemo) at Mainz by 
a certain citizen said to be Johan Gutenberg, who, after having 
spent all his property in accomplishing the new invention, 
perfected it by the advice and assistance of Johan Fust 
and others. The first propagator of the new art was, after 
the inventor, Peter Schoeffer. (xxxi.) In 1515 Johann Schoeffer 
published Joh. Trithemius's Compendium sive Breviarium 
historiae Francorum, and said in the colophon that the book 
was published at Mainz (the first inventress of the art of printing), 
by him, the grandson of the late Johann Fust, the first author of the 
said art, who finally from his own genius commenced to excogitate 
and to investigate the art in 1450, and in 1452 perfected it and 
commenced printing, assisted by many necessary inventions of Peter 
Schoeffer von Gernsheim, his servant and adopted son. Johann 
Fust and Peter Schoeffer kept this art secret, binding all their 
servants and domestics by oath never to reveal it ; but in 1462 it was 
spread by the same domestics into divers countries. The same 
statements were repeated in the Breviar. eccles. Mindensis of 1516. 
(xxxii.) On the gth of December 1518 the emperor Maximilian ac- 
corded to Johann Schoeffer the privilege of printing Livy (1518-1519), 
saying that " he has learnt and been advised on the faith of worthy 
testimonies that the ingenious invention of chalcography was effected 
by the printer's grandfather." Erasmus, in his preface to this book, 
says that great praise is due to the inventors of the almost divine 
art of printing, the chief among whom is rumoured or said to be 
.Joan Faust, the grandfather of Joan Scheffer; and Nicolaus Car- 
bachius, in a final notice of the edition, speaks of " Joan Scheffer 
Chalcographus," whose grandfather first invented and exercised this 
art in Mainz, (xxxiii.) In 1519 Joh. Thurmayer Aventinus (1474- 
!534) wrote that " in 1450 Joannes Faustus, a German, a citizen 
of Mainz, invented a new kind of writing, called chalcography, and 
completed it in two years; it was kept secret by him and Peter 
Schoeffer, his son-in-law, but divulged in Germany ten years after- 
wards by Faust's servant, Johannes Guttenberger, a Strasburger." 
(xxxiv.) In a pedigree of Lourens Janssoen Coster of Haarlem 
and his descendants, preserved in the Haarlem Town Library, it is 
asserted that " he brought the first print into the world 1446." It 
would seem that an attempt was made, at some time or other, to alter 
the date 1446 of this document into 1440, otherwise its genuineness 
is beyond doubt; in its present state it was probably first drawn 
up about i5S9i but its first four divisions including the above 
statement were evidently copied from some earlier document, 



as they are all written by one hand, in Roman or Karoline 
minuscules, and, of course, this earlier document may be assumed 
to have existed long before 1502-1560, the period usually assigned 
to this pedigree, and to go back to the time of L. J. Coster him- 
self. There is some doubt as to whether the year 1446 refers to 
Coster's bringing the first print into the world, or to the marriage 
of his daughter. In the latter case the " first print " must be 
earlier, (xxxv.) In 1520 Johan Schott, a printer at Strassburg 
and grandson of Johan Mentelin, the first printer of that town, 
published an edition of Ptolemy, and printed at the end the arms of 
his grandfather with the following inscription: " insigne Schottorum 
Familiae ab Friderico Rom. Imp. III. Joan. Mentelio primo Typo- 
graphiae Inventori ac suis concessum : Anno Christ! 1466." Apart 
from the assertion that Mentelin was the inventor of printing, we 
may remark that the emperor Frederick III. raised Mentelin to the 
rank of a nobleman in 1466 and granted him new arms, (xxxvi.) 
In !5 2 4 Johan Schoeffer speaks again (at the end of S. Prosperi libel- 
lus) of his maternal grandfather Joan " Faust " and his father Peter 
Schoeffer, citizens of Mainz, who first of all invented and practised 
metal printing, (xxxvii.) in 1531 Ivo Schoeffer, the son of Johan 
Schoeffer, speaks of his great grandfather Johan " Faust " having 
invented chalcography, and " Faust " continues for many years 
afterwards to be spoken of as the inventor, sometimes in connexion 
with Peter, once or twice even with Ivo Schoeffer. (xxxviii.) About 
'533 the Neapolitan Mariangelo Accorso, who had resided at the 
court of Charles V., wrote on the first leaf of a vellum Donatus (in 
the possession of Aldus Manutius, jun.) that " Joh. Faust of Mainz 
first discovered the art of printing with metal types which afterwards 
he made of lead; his son Peter Schoeffer added much afterwards 
to polish the said art. This Donatus and Confessionalia were printed 
first of all in 1450. Faust derived the suggestion from a Donatus 
printed before in Holland from an engraved block." This state- 
ment is found on p. 411 of the Biblioth. Apost. Vaticana of Angelo 
Roccha (Rome, 1591), who saw the leaf. Some consider its latter 
part to have been derived from the Cologne Chronicle (xxiv.) 
and it seems probable that it was a mixture of some of the above 
testimonies. (xxxix.) In 1536 Johan Schott (see xxxv.) pub- 
lished Historien Handt-Buchlein (Strassburg, 1536), in which 
on leaf b l and b s he says that " Hans Mentlin of Strassburg in- 
vented the art, which, through infidelity, was brought to Mainz." 
On the strength of this and other statements (xxv., xxix., 
xxxv.) the bicentenary of the Strassburg invention was celebrated 
there in 1640. (xl.) In 1541 Joh. Arnold (Bergel or) Bergellanus, 
who had settled as press-reader at Mainz two years previously, 
published his Encomium chalcographiae (Mainz, in the St Victor 
Stift, Fr. Behem, 1541, 4to), in which the lawsuit between Fust and 
Gutenberg (i.) is alluded to for the first time. Bergel had read 
Tritheim's books (xxx.), in which the invention is ascribed to 
Johan Gutenberg with two coadjutors, Johann Faust and Peter 
Schoeffer, which he (Bergel) had heard confirmed in conversations 
with Mainz citizens; he had also seen some old tools prepared for 
the work by the originators which were still in existence. Gutenberg 
invented it in 1450. (xli.) About 1561 Jan van Zuren (born at 
Haarlem in 1517) and Dirk Volkerts Coornhert (born at Amsterdam 
in 1522) established a printing-office at Haarlem. Of the former 
it is alleged that he had compiled a work on the invention of print- 
ing, which is presumed to have been lost during the siege of Haarlem 
m J 573- This work was not publicly mentioned before 1628, when 
Peter Scriverius published his Laurecranz voor Laurens Coster, in 
which he says that he had only found the title, preface and intro- 
duction, in which Van Zuren contended that the first foundations 
of the art were laid at Haarlem, and that it afterwards accompanied 
a foreigner to Mainz. In this introduction he does not mention the 
name of the inventor, nor a date, but points in indefinite terms to 
the house of the inventor as still existing, (xlii.) In the same year 
(1561) Van Zuren and Coornhert published an edition of the Officia 
Ciceronis, in which the latter, in a dedication to the magistracy of 
Haarlem, refers to the rumour that the art of printing books was 
invented first of all at Haarlem, and was brought to Mainz by an 
unfaithful servant and much improved there. He adds that very old 
and dignified persons had often told him, not only the family of the 
inventor, but also his name and surname, and had explained the 
first crude way of printing, and pointed out to him the house of the 
first printer, (xliii.) In 1566 Luigi Guicciardini, a Florentine noble- 
man, who had visited the Netherlands and had resided many years 
at Antwerp, finished a description of the Netherlands (published in 
1567), in which, alluding to Haarlem, he speaks of the invention 
there according to the assertions of the inhabitants, the evidence 
of some authors, and other remembrances; the inventor died before 
the perfection of his art ; his servant went to Mainz, where he per- 
fected the art, and hence the report that it was invented there, 
(xlhr.) About 1568 (it is calculated) Hadrianus Junius wrote his 
Batavia, published at Leiden in 1588, with two prefaces, dated, 
the one from Leiden, the 6th of January 1575, the other from Delft ad 
annum salutis 1575. On p. 253 he says: (a) the opinion that the 
forms of the letters whereby books are printed were first discovered 
at Mainz is very inveterate, but old and eminent inhabitants of 
Haarlem had assured him that they had heard from their ancestors 
(6) that there lived at Haarlem, more than 128 years before, in a 
decent house then existing, near the market-place, opposite the 



522 



TYPOGRAPHY 



[HISTORY 



royal palace, Lourens (son of) Tan, surnamed Coster, who, while 
walking in the wood near Haarlem, began to shape beechen bark 
first into figures of letters, by which, reversely impressed one by one 
on paper, he composed one or two lines to serve as an example for 
the children of his son-in-law, (c) When this succeeded, he began to 
contemplate greater things, and first of all invented, assisted by his 
son-in-law Thomas (son of) Peter, a more gluey and substantial 
kind of ink (as the ordinary ink was found to blot), with which he 
printed whole tablets with pictures, with the letters added, (d) 
Junius had seen books of this kind printed by Coster (the beginnings 
of his labours) on the rectos of the leaves only, not on both sides; 
the book was written (in Dutch) by an anonymous author, and 
entitled Speculum nostrae salutis, in which care was taken that the 
blank versos could be pasted together, so that the blank pages should 
not present any unsightliness. (e) Afterwards (Coster) changed 
the beechen characters into leaden, and the latter again into tin ones. 
Very ancient wine-pots cast of the remains of these types were still 
to be seen in the house of Lourens, which was afterwards inhabited 
by his great-grandson Gerard (son of) Thomas, who had died 
an old man a few years before. (/) When the new merchandise 
attracted purchasers everywhere, workmen were added to (Lourens') 
household, among whom was a certain John (whether, as was sus- 
pected, Faust, or another of the same name, Junius did not inquire), 
who was bound to the work of printing by oath. But, when he 
thought he knew the art of joining the letters and of casting the 
types, &c., he stole away, when everybody had gone to church, the 
whole apparatus of the types and the tools prepared by his master, 
and hastened to Amsterdam, thence to Cologne, until he arrived at 
Mainz, where he could remain in safety, and, having opened a work- 
office, issued within the space of one year, about 1442, the Doctrinale 
of Alexander Gallus and the Tracts of Petrus Hispanus, printed with 
the same types which Lourens had used at Haarlem, (g) Junius 
recollects that Nicolaas Gaal, his tutor, a man of firm memory and 
venerable old age, had told him that as a boy he had often heard a 
certain bookbinder, Cornells (a man of more than eighty years of 
age, who had been an under-workman in the same office) narrating 
the story of the invention (as he had heard it from his master), the 
polishing and increase of the crude art, &c., and cursing those nights 
which he had passed, during some months, with the culprit in one 
bed. (h) The burgomaster Quirinus Talesius admitted to Junius 
that he had formerly heard nearly the same from the mouth of the 
same bookbinder. 

(xly.) Natalis Comes, in his Universa historic, sui temporis 
(Venice 1581; the edition of 1572 contains only books I to 10), 
lib. xxiv. 521, says that Haarlem is memorable on account of 
the almost divine invention of printing books first contrived by 
John Gutenberg in the year 1453; who, when he had invented the 
rudiments of it, had a rather cunning servant, observant of his 
master's art, who, after the death (see xliii., xlvi., xlvii.) of Johan 
went to Mainz and there perfected the art, and hence the report 
that it was invented in that city, (xlvi.) Geo. Braunius, in the second 
volume of his Civitates orbis terrarum (Coin, 1575?), says of Haarlem, 
that in this town and the whole province of Holland, there was a fixed 
tradition that the art of typography was first invented there. But 
before it was perfected and brought to light, the inventor died 
(see xliii., xlv.) and his servant went to Mainz, and made it known 
there, (xlvii.) Mich. Eyzinger on p. 75 of his Niederlandsche 
Beschreibung (Coin, 1584) says that the art of printing, as it was then 
done, with letters and characters on paper or otherwise, was invented 
by some one at Haarlem, but, on the death of his master (see xliii., 
xlv., xlvi.), was brought to light in perfection by his servant. 
(Repeated by Matthias Quadus Pictor Juliacus in Compendium 
Universi, sive Geographicae narrationes, lib. iii. c. 38, Colon. 1600.) 
(xlviii.) Chronicon Sublacense, per P. D. Cherubinum Mirtium 
Trevirensem monachum Sublacensem labor alum anno . . . 1629. 
A MS. in 4to, on p. 150 of which is read : Non egre ferat, quaeso lector, 
si inseruero ratione temporis rem non plane ab instituto nostro 
alienam, nempe laudabile studium monachprum Sublacensium 
teutonicorum . . . Nempe, quod nobilissima librorum typographia 
paucis ante annis in inferior! Germania enata est et in lucem producta 
(with a note by Mirtius: Hollandia A.D. 1453 in civitate Haarlem 
per Joannem Cutenbergam, quae tamen ars, postea Moguntiae per 
dicti inventoris famulum in meliorem redacta fuit excudendi 
formam). It is supposed that xlv. to xlvii. are derived from 
Test, xliii., but this seems impossible as regards xlviii. 

(xlix.) In 1628 Scriverius in his Laurecranz (see xli.) placed the 
date of the Haarlem invention as far back as 1428, and mentioned 
as its inventor Lourens Janszoon, sheriff of Haarlem. He asserts 
that the art of printing appeared, " not in the manner as it is used 
now, with letters cast of lead and tin, but a book was cut leaf for 
leaf on wooden blocks," and the Haarlem inventor was robbed in 
1440 by Johan Gutenberg. Scriverius based the date 1428 upon 
a Hebrew Chronicle compiled by Joseph ben Meir (1496-1575?), 
and published in 1554 at Sabionetta by Cornelius Adelkmd, where, 
under the year of the Jewish era 5188 ( = 1428), the author mentions 
a book (without giving the title) printed at Venice and seen by 
him. Scriverius, being convinced that this could only refer to a 
book printed at Haarlem, applied the entry to a xylographic Biblia 
pauperum, of which he gave a description, together with several 
other blockbooks and early printed books. 



(1.) In 1639 Boxhprn pushed the date of the Haarlem invention 
back to 1420, referring, as his authority, to the same Chronicle of 
Rabbi Joseph. Since that time the date of the Haarlem invention 
has been variously placed between 1420 and 1430. 

Later testimonies are mere repetitions of earlier statements. 1 
We need not discuss the story of Antonio Cambruzzi, whoasserted 
that Pamfilo Castaldi invented printing at Feltre, in Italy, in 1456, 
and that Fausto Comesburgo, who lived in his house in order to 
learn the Italian language, learnt the art from him, and brought it 
to Mainz; the story, however, found so much credence that in 1868 
a statue was erected at Feltre in honour of Castaldi. Nor need we 
speak of Kuttenberg in Bohemia, where John Gutenberg is asserted 
to have been born and to have found the art of printing. Nor is it 
necessary to speak of Jean Brito, who printed at Bruges c. 1477-1488, 
and is asserted to have invented printing there. We may also pass 
over Johann Fust, later on called Faust (testimonies xiv., xviii., 
xxvi., xxviii., xxxi., xxxii., xxxiii., xxxviii.), as we know from the 
Mainz lawsuit of 1455 that he had simply assisted Gutenberg with 
loans of money. We may also pass over Johann Mentelin of 
Strassburg (testimonies xxxv., xxxix.), only remarking here that he 
had already printed a Bible in 1460, and that he is mentioned in 
Strassburg registers as a chrysographer or gold- writer from 1447 to 
1450; but of his whereabouts between 1450 and 1460 there is no 
record. That he had gone, or had been called, after 1450 by 
Gutenberg to Mainz has been asserted but not proved, though 
there is no reason why he should not be one of the two Johannes 
alluded to as the prothocaragmatici of Mainz in the Justinian of 1468 
(testimony viii.). That Nicolas Jenson came to be regarded in 
certain circles and for a time as the inventor of printing is owing to 
testimony xii. being misunderstood. 

There remain, therefore, to be considered the testimonies which 
bear on the rival claims of Haarlem and Mainz. So far as we 
know, the controversy between Germany and Holland was pub- 
licly started as early as 1499 by the Cologne Chronicle (testimony 
xxiv.), that between the two towns mentioned not publicly 
before 1561 (testimony xli.); while the name of the Haarlem 
inventor was not mentioned publicly in print earlier than 
1588 (testimony xliv.). 

The claims of Germany and Mainz, as centred in the person of 
Johann Gutenberg, have been discussed above while treating of 
the early printing at Mainz. A few more words about these claims 
are necessary. Though some of the documents relating to him 
connect him with the art of printing, they say nothing of him as 
the inventor of it; nor do any of the books ascribed to him. 

The first document that connects him with the art of printing, 
the notarial instrument of the 6th of November 1455 (testimony i.), 
says nothing of an invention or a new mode of printing. And yet 
the occasion was such as to make it almost imperative on Gutenberg 
to speak of his invention, if he had made any, for he had spent 
1600 guilders of Fust's money for making " tools," apparently 
without printing anything, 2 and was on the point of being robbed 
by the latter and having taken away from him all that he is supposed 
to have made and done to give effect to his idea or invention. 
The next testimony (ii.) i.e. the earliest Mainz books with printed 
dates (1457 to 1467), shows that the art of printing was not treated 
as a secret at Mainz; it is openly proclaimed; its importance 
fully realized and appreciated, but it is distinctly advertised as a 
" by-invention of printing," and still more distinctly as a " new 
art of printing"; the public were informed that books were now 
no longer produced by means of the pen, but by a new art of forming 
characters and printing. Such advertisements are natural and 
appropriate if we assume that the new art of printing had recently 
(say about 1450 to 1455) become known at Mainz, but not when 
we assume that Gutenberg had been printing there devotional and 
school books and folio Bibles since 1443. But, though the new art 
is so distinctly described and advertised, in none of these adver- 
tisements is there one word of a " Mainz invention " or an " in- 
ventor." In testimony iii. (the Catholicon of 1460) there is an 
allusion to Mainz being favoured by God, but again not one word 
about an invention or an inventor. If Gutenberg had printed the 
Catholicon, it would be incredible that he, who had been wronged 
and robbed by his two rivals (Fust and Schoeffer), should join in 
with them in defining and proclaiming the new art, but never with 
one word assert his claim to the honour and profit of the invention, 
if he had made any, and should even omit his name, whereas he saw 



1 Over a hundred of them have been collected by Ger. Meerman, 
Origines typogr. ii. 58 seq. 

* In line 42 Gutenberg distinctly declares that " he hoped he 
was under no obligation to Fust to devote the first 800 guilders 
to the work of the books " ; and, as Fust, by advancing the second 
800 guilders in 1452, had practically become Gutenberg's partner, 
it seems clear that the former claimed in October or November 
1455, when the trial may be said to have commenced, his money 
and interest because Gutenberg had as yet not printed anything. 



HISTORY] 



TYPOGRAPHY 



523 



Mainz 



his two rivals never neglect to print their names in full on every 
book which they published. Those who believe that Gutenberg was 
the inventor of printing suggest that he kept silent, as otherwise 
his creditors would have seized his copies and his printing-office. 
But this explanation cannot be accepted, as we have seen that 
Gutenberg was practically bankrupt at that time, and prosecuted 
as a defaulter; and the verbose colophon at the end of a gigantic 
folio book like the Catholicon, published at a time when there were 
perhaps not more than three printing offices in the world, would be 
calculated to draw attention to its printer and his residence, not 
to conceal him. Testimony v. (1466) can no longer be regarded 
as having any reference to Gutenberg or the invention of printing; 
vii. (1468) was formerly thought to mean: " I, the book, am cast 
(i.e. its types are cast) in the Mainz city, and the house whence the 
type came ( = where the type was invented) produced me." But 
of late years it has been shown that the author of the book, Johann 
Fons, was Peter Schoeffer's press-corrector. And, as he no doubt 
resided in Schoeffer's house, the two lines evidently mean: " I 
am a little book cast in Mainz, and I was born ( = written) in the 
same house whence the type comes 1 ( = where I am printed)." 
Testimony viii. (also of 1468) speaks of two Johannes (Gutenberg 
and Fust) as the " prothocaragmatici librorum quos genuit urbs 
Moguntina." But this means, not that the first printers of books 
were born at Mainz, but that the two Johannes (born) produced at 
Mainz were the chief printers of books. 

When we now place together the clear documentary testimonies 
(i. to viii.) of the first fourteen years of printing (1454 to 1468) at 
Mainz, we see that they all come from Mainz itself. 

inz Everybody connected with the art when speaking of 

_""' es ' it does so in the most public and unreserved manner; 
its importance was as fully realized and advertised 
then as it is now; the German nation is even congratulated on 
possessing it; there is never any secrecy about it; but from the 
moment that it begins to be mentioned there (say about 1456) it 
is called a new art. In the midst of all this publicity, however, the 
new art which Mainz and Germany possess is never spoken of as 
having been invented at Mainz or anywhere else in Germany. The 
supposed Mainz inventor (Gutenberg) even speaks himself on two 
occasions (certainly in the lawsuit of 1455, and presumably in the 
Catholicon of 1460) but never says that he made an invention. 
The archbishop of Mainz, too, speaks publicly of Gutenberg in 1465 
(testimony iv.), and rewards him for services, but does not speak 
of him as the inventor of printing, nor even as a printer. Nor does 
Dr Homery, in his letter to the archbishop (testimony vi. of 1468), 
in which he refers to Gutenberg's printing apparatus, call him the 
inventor of printing. 

In 1468 we enter on a new phase in the history of the inven- 
tion. Even if we set aside testimony viii. as being merely local, 
testimony ix. (1468) speaks of the art of printing as having arisen 
in Germany. This testimony, however, does not come from 
Germany, nor from Mainz, but from Italy, and is supposed to have 
been inspired by the two German printers who had established a 
printing-office at Subiaco in 1465, and in 1467 at Rome, and who 
most likely learned their craft at Mainz. 

As the two printers are mentioned in the testimony, and as it 
does not speak of Gutenberg, nor of Mainz, it is far more likely 
that it was merely derived from the colophons of Fust and Schoeffer, 
or from something that Cardinal Cusa had heard during his em- 
bassies in Germany. To the Mainz colophons we must also ascribe 
(a) the two testimonies of 1470 (x.) and (6) the three of 1471 (xi.), 
all five of which come from France and Italy. At last, in 1472 
(testimony xiii.), the invention of printing is ascribed to Gutenberg 
of Mainz, but as a rumour, and the testimony comes from France. 
Guil. Fichet of Paris, who gives it, is supposed to have heard the 
rumour from the three German printers who commenced printing 
at Paris in 1470. And as two of them had resided, immediately 
before they came to Paris, in the university of Basel, and^are sup- 
posed to have learnt their art there, the rumour is traced to " Bertolff 
von Hanauwe," who appears in the lawsuit of 1455 as Gutenberg's 
servant and who was printing at Basel in 1468. But it came 
more likely from information which Fichet obtained from the St 
Victor Cathedral, near Mainz (of which Gutenberg had been a lay 
member), as he speaks of the art having been invented " not far from 
that town." Testimony xiv. (1474) again comes from Italy, from 
Rome, and was' perhaps derived from one of the German printers 
settled there at that time. It merely speaks of Gutenberg, Fust 
and Mentelin as printers, but says not a word which even 
touches upon the invention of the art. In testimony xv. (H7 6 ) 
we have the first definite mention of Mainz as the inventress of 
the art; it is given as an addition to the Mainz colophon of 1468 
(see viii.). In 1478 Mainz is again mentioned in a Cologne testi- 
mony (xvi.) which gives evidence of research, as it is an amplifica- 
tion of an earlier one in which Mainz was not mentioned. Germany, 
Gutenberg and Mainz are again mentioned in the Venetian testi- 
mony xvii. (1483), which gives (under the year 1457) for the first 
time 1440 as the date of the invention. In the same year we have 



1 Venit (comes), the present not the perfect tense (has come). 



two earlier testimonies (xiv. and xii.) worked into one (xviii.), to 
the effect that printing was invented either by Gutenberg or by 
Fust or by Jenson. Testimony xix. (1492), which states that 
printing commenced at Mainz, is practically equivalent to xv. 
In 1494 and 1499 we have three German testimonies (xx., xxi., 
xxii.) as to Gutenberg being the inventor of printing ; these, however, 
come, not from Mainz, but from Heidelberg; xxii. is given by a 
relative of Gutenberg, Adam Gelthus, and, as the latter resided at 
Heidelberg, it is clear that he was the real source of the other two 
Heidelberg testimonies (xx. and xxi.). Two years later, when Wim- 
pheling, the author of testimony xxi., had left Heidelberg, he 
ascribed (xxv.) the invention of printing to Strassburg, though 
stating that Gutenberg was the inventor. Testimony xxiii. is 
recorded above to show the confusion that reigned in people's 
minds about 1500 regarding the invention. We must add to these 
testimonies those of 1504 (xxvii.) and 1505 (xxviii.), which are 
owing to Ivo Wittig, a canon and the keeper of the seals of the St 
Victor Cathedral, near Mainz, of which, according to its liber 
fraternitatis, Gutenberg had been a lay member. 

Thus the Helmasperger document, the two Indulgences of 1454 
and the 42-line Bible tell us, that in the period from August 1450 to 
1456 the art of printing had commenced and been perfected at 
Mainz; but not a word is heard as to how it arose, or what its 
nature was. In the period from 1456 (if we place Schoeffer's 35- 
line Donatus in this year) to 1468 various books were printed at 
Mainz with colophons in which the art of printing is proclaimed as 
a by-invention of printing; more especially as a new art; its 
mechanism is fully described and said to be quite different from 
the mode of producing books by means of the pen; but, no one 
says that it was invented at Mainz, or mentions the name of a 
Mainz inventor. 

In the period from 1468 to 1505, however, we have (i) several 
vague statements made in Italy and France as to the art of printing 
being known or practised or invented in Germany, statements 
which arose from the books and colophons published at Mainz; 
(2) one item of rumour in 1472 that Gutenberg invented it near 
that town; (3) two Mainz statements, of 1476 and 1492, and one 
Cologne statement, of 1478, that it was invented at Mainz; (4) three 
German statements, of 1492, 1494 and 1499, that Gutenberg had 
invented it; and (5) two Mainz statements, of 1504 and 1505, to 
the same effect. But it is to be particularly noticed that the 
statements (2, 4, 5), which speak distinctly of Gutenberg being the 
inventor, can be clearly traced to the St Victor Cathedral, that 
is, to Gutenberg himself and one of his relatives. 

Seeing then how slender the basis is for the assertion that 
printing was invented by Gutenberg at Mainz, that even this 
slender basis was not laid till fourteen years after 
the art had been fully established and proclaimed 
in that city, and that it may be traced to Gutenberg auteaberg's 
himself, we cannot be surprised to find it promptly claims. 
contradicted, not in Holland, but in Germany itself. 

This contradiction was made in 1499 (testimony xxiv.) in a 
Chronicle published at Cologne. To facilitate the understanding 
of this testimony it is divided above into eight sections. The first 
(taken from Hartmann Schedel's Chronicle, 1493), second, sixth, 
seventh and eighth are no doubt due to the compiler of the Chronicle, 
and must not be connected with the third, fourth and fifth, which, 
according to the compiler, are due toUlrichZell.aprinteratCologne, 
who had probably settled there about 1463, and had most likely 
learnt his art at Mainz, as he called himself " clericus moguntinus. ' 
As Zell's testimony leaves to Gutenberg nothing but the honour of 
having perfected the art, various attempts have been made to ex- 
plain away this account. As long as no typographically printed 
Donatus had been found that could be fitted into Zell's account it 
was argued that he meant a Donatus printed from wooden blocks; 
and this argument is brought forward even at the present time. 
But a practical printer like Zell must have been able to express 
himself to that effect if he had really meant to say so; and, as 
block-printing was not less practised in Germany than in Holland, 
we could hardly assume that blockbooks printed in Holland would 
have inspired the German inventor rather than the same books 
printed in Germany. That testimony xxxviii. speaks of a Donatus 
printed from wooden blocks may be ascribed to the notion arising 
at that time (c. 1533) that block-printing had given rise to typo- 
graphy. It has also been remarked that unless we take Zell to 
refer to a Donatus xylographically printed in Holland, the passage 
in the Chronicle would be contradictory, as it says in its first and 
sixth section that the art of printing was found first of all at Mainz 
about 1440, by a Mainz citizen, Junker Johan Gudenburch, and 
then in its fourth that the art had already been found before that 
time in another place. But if the fourth section is read in accord- 
ance with its punctuation in the Chronicle itself, it says clearly 
that the art was found at Mainz, as aforesaid in the manner in 
which it is generally employed now, that is, more masterly, more 
artistic than in the Donatuses printed in Holland. It has further 
been asserted that Holland in the Chronicle means Flanders; but 
the Chronicle is usually correct in geographical matters, and is 



524 



TYPOGRAPHY 



[HISTORY 



therefore not likely to have gone astray in this particular case. It 
has also been suggested that Zell most likely learnt his art in Fust and 
Schoeffer's office and invented the passage to injure the reputation 
of Gutenberg, who had been their enemy. Finally it has been 
said that Zell did not suggest or write the passage at all ; but it is 
hard to see how this can be maintained in face of the compiler's 
own statement to that effect. 

As, therefore, all these suggestions do not weaken or invalidate 
Lourens Zell's testimony, we must see how far it harmonizes 
Coster's with other circumstances and the testimonies xxxiv., 
Claims. xjj t o x iix -( which claim the honour of the invention 
for Haarlem in Holland 

Testimony xxxiv. (the Pedigree) is sufficiently clear as to the in- 
vention of printing at Haarlem, the supposed date and the name of 
its inventor. Testimonies xli. and xlii., though coming from Haar- 
lem, do not mention the name of the inventor. But xli. is a mere 
introduction destined for a complete book that seems to have been 
lost during the siege of Haarlem in 1573 before it was printed; 
we are, therefore, not justified in saying that Van Zuren did not 
know the name; xlii. may have omitted the name, because the 
publication of Van Zuren's work was in contemplation at the time 
that it was written. That Guicciardini (testimony xliii.) in 1566 
did not mention the name of the reputed Haarlem inventor cannot 
be considered as an indication that it was not known or had not 
yet been " invented " when he wrote, as his accounts of the cities 
of the northern Netherlands are all rather meagre and for the most 
part derived from correspondence. He and other authors coming 
after him (testimonies xlv.-xlvii.) state that the Haarlem inventor 
had died before the art was perfected, and that thereupon his servant 
had brought it to perfection at Mainz. We do not find any such 
statement in Jumus. The latter's account (xliv.), however, gives 
various particulars as regards the inventor and his invention. 
He begins by referring to the difficulty of vindicating the honour 
of the invention for Haarlem on account of the deep-rooted and 
general opinion that it took place at Mainz. He then mentions 
that Lourens (son of Jan) surnamed Coster resided at Haarlem 
" more than 128 years ago," and gives us to understand that in 
the year indicated by that phrase he invented the art of printing. 
Junius's book was not published till after his death, in 1588, but 
its two prefaces are dated 1575 (he died June 16, 1575), hence the 
number 128 is supposed to go back from the date when he actually 
wrote his account, which he is calculated to have done about 
1568. Thus we get the year 1440 as the supposed date of the Haar- 
lem invention, though, if we based our calculation upon the date 
of the preface, the year 1446 or 1447 would have to be assumed. 
But, as Junius adds that Coster's types were stolen by one of his 
servants, who fled with them to Mainz, and, establishing there a 
printing-office, printed within a year's time, in 1442, two books, 
he must, if this latter date is correct, have meant 1440. By 
testimonies xlix. and 1. we see that in the 1 7th century the date of 
the Haarlem invention was first put back as far as 1428, then to 
1420; and since then it has usually been regarded as 1420-1423, 
especially after it was discovered that the Haarlem wood where 
Coster is said to have cut his wooden letters was destroyed during 
a siege in 1426. 

The researches regarding the reputed Haarlem inventor have 
hitherto been made in an inadequately scientific manner, and it 
appears that, after Scriverius (1628) had pushed back, in spite 
of Junius, the date of the invention to 1420-1428, he and 
later Dutch authors on the subject mixed up two Haarlem 
citizens (a) Lourens Janszoon, who never bore the surname 
Coster: he is proved to have been sheriff, wine merchant and 
innkeeper from 1404 to 1439, and to have died in the latter year; 
(6) Lourens Janszoon Coster, authenticated by official documents 
as a chandler and innkeeper from 1436 to 1483, leaving Haarlem 
in the latter year. The name of this person and some genea- 
logical particulars known of him seemed to agree with Junius's 
account and the Coster pedigree. 

But recent investigations at Haarlem and elsewhere tend to 
show that there have been two, if not three, persons of this name 
living at Haarlem about the same time. Though this superabundance 
of namesakes shows that van der Linde and those who accepted 
his conclusions were rather hasty in declaring L. J. Coster to be 
a myth, it is somewhat perplexing to the historian, and it would 
seem that the Dutch people prefer to make speculations and guesses 
on this point, rather than search in some systematic way the original 
documents and registers from which they draw haphazard extracts. 
The result of the latest inquiries (so far as they may be called in- 
quiries) is that L. J. Coster, who would agree with Junius's account 
and the Haarlem Coster pedigree, was a member of a Christmas- 
gild in 1436, is mentioned in the Haarlem registers as a dealer in 
candles and oil till 1454, and seems to have died before 1460 (see 
Fruin, De huidige stand van het Costervraagstuk, 1906; Enschede, 



Laurens Jansz. Coster, 1904) ; so that his business as printer was 
probably continued by one of his relatives, and finally broken up 
about 1481, when the Speculum cuts are in the hands of Veldener. 

Junius's account of the Haarlem invention is based on three 
books: (i) a Dutch edition of the Specuium humanae salvationis; 
(2) the Doctrinale of Alexander Gallus ; and (3) the Tracts of Petrus 
Hispanus (Pope John XXL). The first work, he said, was printed 
by Coster as a first specimen of his art, and it would seem from his 
words that the tradition believed it to be printed with wooden 
types; the second and third books, he declares, were printed at 
Mainz with Coster's types, stolen from him by his workman. Of 
the Hispanus Tracts no edition answering to Junius's description 
has as yet come to light. Of the Doctrinale and the Speculum we 
possess editions which fit into his account, though, of course, it 
will be impossible to say whether any of the Doctrinale editions 
were printed at Haarlem or at Mainz. Various editions of the 
Latin grammar of Aelius Donatus, printed in the same types, 
link Junius's independent testimony regarding Haarlem and Coster 
on to that of Ulnch Zell, who declares in the Cologne Chronicle of 
1499 that editions of this school book printed in Holland were the 
models (prefiguration) for the printing at Mainz, which commenced 
about 1450. 

As the evidence for Haarlem's claims has been obscured by 
various adverse and not always intelligent criticisms, and 
no less by imperfect and incorrect descriptions of 
the books on which they rest, we describe here, 
from autopsy, the types and books that have always been and 
still may be, on solid grounds, attributed to Coster, and 
which, for this reason, we continue to call Costeriana. 

Tlie Costeriana. Xylographic Printing. 

Of the Speculum humanae salvationis, a folio Latin blockbook 
(that is, an edition printed entirely from wooden blocks) must 
have been printed several years before 1471, consisting, like the 
later type-printed Latin editions, of at least 32 sheets = 64 leaves, 
all printed on one side of the leaf only, alternately on the versos 
or rectos (therefore 64 printed pages). The sheets were, no doubt, 
arranged in the same number of quires (a 3 for the preface; bed 7 , 
e*=29 sheets for the text) as in the later editions; the first leaf 
was perhaps blank, the preface occupied the leaves 2 to 6, and 58 
leaves remained for the 29 chapters of text, each occupying two 
opposite pages of two columns each. We may further assume 
that the upper part of each printed page of the text was occupied 
by one of the woodcuts, which we know from the later editions, 
and which are divided each into two compartments or scenes by 
a pillar, with a line or legend below each compartment explaining, 
in Latin, the subject of the engraving; and that underneath the 
woodcut was the text, in two columns, corresponding to the two 
divisions of the engraving above. 

This blockbook has already been alluded to above among the 
Netherlandish blockbooks, but we give here further details, as 
various circumstances make it clear that it was the work of the same 
(Haarlem) printer who issued the other editions of the Speculum, 
together with the several incunabula described below, and to \vhom 
a Haarlem tradition ascribes the invention of printing. 

All the Speculum editions which concern us contain, so far as we 
know, 29 chapters. But previous to the above blockbook another 
one of more than 29 chapters (may be 45, like most of the MSS.) 
must have existed, as may be inferred from Johan Veldener's 410 
edition of a Dutch version of the Speculum, published in 1483, 
in which all the 58 blocks of the old folio editions reappear cut up 
into 1 1 6 halves to suit this smaller edition, besides twelve additional 
woodcuts for three additional chapters (the 25th, 28th and 29th) 
not foundlin any of the old folio editions. As these additional 
woodcuts appear to be also cut-up halves of six larger blocks, 
they point to the existence, at some earlier period, of a folio 
edition (xylochirographic or xylographic?) of at least 32 chapters, 
at present unknown to us. 

Of the blockbook as is here assumed we know now only 10 
sheets or 20 leaves, which, in combination with 22 sheets or 44 
typographically printed leaves, make up an edition, called, on 
account of this mixture of xylography and typography, the mixed 
Latin edition. These twenty xylographic leaves are (counting 
the 6 leaves of the type-printed preface) 7+20, 8 + 19, 10+17, 
11 + 16, 12 + 15, 13 + 14 (in quire 6); 22+33, 23+32, 27+28 
(in quire c); 52+61 (in quire e). 

Copies of this mixed Latin edition still existing: (l) Bodleian 
Library, Oxford (Douce collection, 205), perfect; (2 and 3) Paris 
National Library, 2 copies, one perfect, the other wanting the first 
(blank) leaf; (4) John Rylands Library at Manchester (Spencer 
collection), wanting the first (blank) leaf; (5) Colonel Geo. Lindsay 
Holford, London, wanting the first (blank) leaf ; (6) British Museum 
(Grenville collection), wanting the leaves I (blank) and 21 (this 
being supplied in facsimile) ; (7) Royal Public Library at Hanover, 
wanting the leaves 19 (xylogr.) and 24 (typ.), but having duplicates 
of the (xylogr.) leaves 15 and 28 ; (8) Museum Meerman-Westreenen, 
the Hague, wanting the leaves I to 36, and portions of the text of 



HISTORY] 



TYPOGRAPHY 



525 



leaves 37 and 38; (9) Berlin Royal Library, wanting the leaves I 
(blank), 58, 59, 62, 63, 64, while in place of the (xylogr.) leaves 52 
and 61 it has the same (type-printed) leaves of the second Latin 
edition; several of the other leaves are bound in a wrong order; 
(10) Pembroke library at Wilton House, wanting the leaves I to 7 
and 64, while the leaves 9 + 18 have been supplied from the second 
(type-printed) Latin edition; (n) Copy, represented now by the 
leaves 15 +28, which appear as duplicates in the Hanover copy 
(above, No. 7) ; (12) Ottley (Invention of Printing, p. 287) mentions 
another copy as having belonged to Mr Singer, which wanted three 
or four leaves, but has since been taken to pieces and dispersed. 
See further Holtrop, Cat. bibl. reg. Hag. 560; idem, Man. typ. p. 22 
and facs. pis. 20, 21; Bernard, Orig. i. 13 sqq. ; Sotheby i. pi. 
xxxii. ; Campbell, Ann. No. 1570 (who wrongly states that the 
two copies in the Paris National Library belong to the unmixed 
Latin edition). 

Efforts have from time to time been made to account for the 
unusual mixture of xylography and typography in this one book, 
and to assign a date to it and the other editions, with the further 
view of ascertaining the date of their printer, as for him the honour 
.of the invention of printing is claimed. Bernard (1853) 
iraara. wag uncer tain as to the chronological order to be assigned 
to the various editions, but, without stating his reasons, concluded 
that at least six or seven must have been issued, and that the 
xylographic leaves of the mixed Latin (his edition A), are the re- 
mains of a first complete, entirely xylographic edition. As there 
is a close resemblance between the letters of the xylographic and 
typographic texts, and both texts agree, with a few exceptions, 
word for word with the corresponding texts of the other Latin 
edition (which, being wholly typographical, is called the 
Ottiey. unm ixed Latin), Ottley in 1816 concluded that the xylo- 
graphic pages were facsimiles from those of the typographically 
printed unmixed^ Latin edition, which the publisher caused to be 
made after having lost, through some accident in his office, not 
only those sheets already typographically printed, but also his 
types. In support of this theory he pointed to some defects or 
breakages in the pillars, dresses, &c., of the woodcuts of the xylo- 
graphic pages which he did not find in the same woodcuts in the 
unmixed Latin edition ; so that he thought the latter must be the 
first edition. Secondly, as the scrolls in the last vignette (Daniel 
interpreting the handwriting on the wall) are black in the Inglis 
copy of the unmixed Latin edition, but white in all the copies of 
the mixed Latin and the other editions, he concluded that the former 
must have been printed before the woodcutter had cut away the 
piece of wood which produced the black scroll, which was to him 
an additional proof that the unmixed Latin edition was the first. 
These theories were adopted by Sotheby in 1858 and again by 
Schreiber in two treatises on xylography (in Centralbl., 1895, 
p. 20 sqq.; in the Gutenberg-Festschrift, Centralbl., 1900, p. 46 sqq.; 
and in his Manuel de la gravure sur bois, 1902, iv. 114 sqq., vii. 
pis. 48, 49, viii. pis. 79, 80). The latter author is of opinion that 
xylography was not employed for the multiplication of books till 
about 1468-1470, and that about that time printing with movable 
metal types was almost unknown in the Netherlands. Hence he 
thinks that the woodcut illustrations in the various editions of the 
Speculum were printed somewhere in the Netherlands, and the 
sheets afterwards sent to Germany, most likely to Cologne, for the 
purpose of having the texts added by typography. These pro- 
ceedings, he fancies, were successful twice, once with what he calls 
the first (unmixed) Latin, secondly with the first Dutch edition, 
but on the third return journey a part of the material of the second 
(mixed) Latin edition, that is the ten sheets in question, all packed 
in one parcel, were lost, and the publisher, in a hurry to sell his 
copies, had these sheets replaced by xylography. 

As a careful examination of the mixed Latin and other editions 
clearly shows their real condition and the order of their issue, we 
do not discuss Schreiber's improbable theories. As to those of 
Ottley and Sotheby, some of the lines which they regarded as broken 
in the copy or copies of the mixed Latin edition which they examined, 
are intact in other copies of the same edition, so that no reliance can 
be placed on these defects and breakages, which are clearly due to 
printing from wooden blocks, a process which admittedly causes 
more defects in the impressions than printing from types. Of the 
black and white scrolls we speak below. 

It is to be noticed first of all that the legends underneath the 
woodcuts are in Latin, so that they were no doubt engraved for a 
Latin edition. But, unless we take the twenty xylographic leaves 
as remains of a complete xylographic edition issued (at Haarlem) 
before the invention of printing, there would be no Latin edition to 
connect the woodcuts with in the first instance, as the primitive 
types and workmanship of one, if not two, of the Dutch editions 
described below show that these must have been printed before 
the 44 type-printed leaves of the mixed Latin edition, and also before 
the wholly type-printed unmixed Latin edition, the types of which 
are new and far better cast. 

Incidentally, this fact that the types of the mixed Latin edition 
are later than those of the Dutch editions disposes also of another 
theory favoured by some authors, viz. that during the progress 
of the xylographic edition its printer invented the movable type, 
and thereupon stopped his xylographic work to complete the book 



by means of type, so that in this mixed Latin edition we were to 
see the transition from xylography to typography. 

The priority of the xylographic over the typographic leaves 
is proved by the Pembroke (No. 10) and Berlin (No. 9) copies. In 
the former the third sheet of quire 6 ( = the leaves 9 + 18 with the 
figures 5, 6 and 23, 24), the only type-printed sheet in this quire 
in the other copies (i to 7 and 9), is not the same as in the other 
copies, but belongs to the unmixed or second Latin edition. 1 

A somewhat similar but still more important manipulation we 
observe in the Berlin copy, in which the fourth sheet of quire e ( = the 
leaves 52 and 61), the only xylographic sheet in this quire in the other 
copies, is replaced by the corresponding type-printed sheet of the 
unmixed or second Latin edition. 

All this makes it clear that the printer of the Speculum, some time 
after having become a type-printer instead of a block-printer, 
replaced gradually (or by one operation), forty-four xylographically 
printed leaves of his first edition by type-printed leaves, for the 
purpose of issuing the Latin edition, now known as the mixed Latin 
edition; then, at a later stage, prepared a new Latin edition, wholly 
printed in movable type (now known as the unmixed Latin edition), 
and afterwards used sheets of this latest edition, not only to replace 
more of his old xylographic sheets (as in the Berlin copy), but even 
(as in the Pembroke copy) some of the forty-four sheets which he 
had printed (evidently for no more copies than he calculated to have 
left of the old xylographic stock), in the first instance, for issuing 
the mixed Latin edition. We shall see below that he proceeded 
in a somewhat similar way in completing copies of his Dutch editions. 

Hence the sequence of the Latin editions was thus: (i) The 
xylographic edition of 64 (?) or more leaves in 29 (?) or more chapters, 
of which we have only 20 leaves remaining, which was issued before 
the invention of printing with movable types, and was probably 
preceded in its turn by a xylographic or xylo-chirographic edition 
of at least 32 or more chapters; (2) another issue of 20 leaves of 
the preceding edition, in combination with 44 typographic leaves 
(the mixed Latin edition) printed for the purpose of replacing the 
corresponding xylographic leaves of the preceding edition, considered 
unfit for further publication, or discarded for other reasons ; (3) the 
wholly typographically printed edition known as the unmixed 
Latin edition. 

This clear sequence of the Latin makes it easy to explain that of 
the other editions of the Speculum. 

Typographic Printing. 

(Speculum type i). First edition of a Dutch translation of the 
Speculum, with the title Spieghel der menschliker behoudenisse, 
hitherto called the first, or the unmixed, Dutch edition, or the Dutch 
edition in one fount of type. First issue entirely printed in type I. 

Judging by this and the third, the editions of the Dutch version 
of the Speculum must have had the same number of sheets, arranged 
(woodcuts and text) in the same way, as the mixed and unmixed 
Latin editions, with the exception of the preface, which required 
only 2 sheets ( = 4 leaves). Hence complete copies consist of the 
quires a 2 (prefatory matter ), bed 7 , e 8 = 3i sheets or 62 leaves. 

Holtrop, who gives a facsimile of one of its pages (Man. pi. 22), 
regarded this edition as the last of all the Speculum editions, because 
he thought the type to be identical with that employed for the 
other editions, only here more used up. Bernard, however, saw 
that it was a different fount, and there can be no doubt that it is ; 
it differs in form and size from Speculum type 2 as well as from type 
3, though it has all the characteristics and the family likeness of 
the two. Most of the letters might even be regarded as identical 
with those of type 3, if they were not slightly smaller. That it 
looks old and battered seems to be owing to bad ink having been 
used for the printing; it was, however, badly engraved and badly 
cast, for not one line in the book runs straight. For this reason 
alone this edition is to be placed before the next two, which are 
printed with a better type, especially the third. There are, however, 
more reasons for doing this. First of all, leaf 46 (with the figures 
83: Semey, and 84: Rex amon) of Lord Pembroke's copy belongs 
to the 3rd edition (in Speculum type 3), so that the present 
edition, to which the Pembroke copy belongs, must have existed 
earlier. It appears from Holtrop's facsimile (Man. pi. 22) that 
leaf 46 was duly printed in type I like the other leaves of this 
edition. But the leaf 46, from which he took his facsimile, is an 
isolated one which found its way into the Meerman Museum at the 
Hague, but is wanting in the copy of the Communal Library at 
Lille. Hence this particular leaf is, perhaps, a cancel meant to be 
replaced (in the Lille copy) by another one of the 3rd edition, as 
in the Pembroke copy. The corresponding leaf of this sheet (33, 
with the figures 57 : Cristus fleuit, and 58 : Jeremias) is wanting in 
the Pembroke copy, so that we can obtain no further information. 
Another reason for placing this edition before the 3rd is found in 
the Haarlem copy (No. 5), the leaves 24 + 27, 25 + 26 of which 
also belong to the (3rd) edition, and were apparently meant to 
replace in that copy the corresponding leaves of this edition, which 



1 The Pembroke copy has this additional peculiarity that these 
leaves 9 + 18 consist each of two separate slips, one having the 
engraving, the other the text, the latter being pasted on to the 
bottom part of the former slip. 



526 



TYPOGRAPHY 



[HISTORY 



may have been lost, or the stock of which had become exhausted. 
Similar manipulations we have noticed above, type-printed leaves 
having been used to replace earlier xylographic leaves, and again 
below in the 3rd edition leaves of another edition are found. 

Hence we must distinguish between at least three issues of this 
edition ; the first, with the whole text printed in Speculum type I ; 
the second, with sheet 46 of the 3rd Dutch edition; the third, with 
the leaves 24 to 27 of the 3rd Dutch edition. Copies of the first 
issue: (l) Communal Library at Lille, wanting the leaves 33 and 46 
(which latter are probably now in the Meerman Museum at the Hague) , 
and showing several peculiarities; 1 (2) Haarlem Town Library 
(No. 4), wanting the leaves 2 and 3, besides the woodcuts (figures 
7, 8 and 21, 22) belonging to the leaves 8 and 15. The sheets of 
this copy have all been cut up into halves, mounted on other larger 
sheets, and so bound in one volume, together with a copy of the 
Liber Alexandri Magni, printed at Utrecht by Ketelaer and De 
Leempt, and of Pet. Scriverius' Laurecrans, both mounted in the 
same way. There is no rubrication. Second issue: (3) Lord Pem- 
broke's copy, which was completed by leaf 46 of the 3rd Dutch 
edition. Besides wanting the original leaf 46 in type 2, this copy 
also wants the leaves 32, 33, 54 and 55. It shows, moreover, these 
peculiarities, that on the recto of leaf 7 and the verso of the corre- 
sponding leaf 16 (therefore, on the verso of the third sheet of quire b) 
are illegible sets-off of the texts of two other pages, or, perhaps, they 
are faulty impressions of the leaves 8 and 15, which, in the Haarlem 
copies, seem to be reprints. Third issue: (4) Haarlem Town Library 
(No. 5), wanting the leaves 20 + 31, 21 + 30, 22 + 29, 23 + 28, 
while its leaves 24 + 27, 25 + 26 belong to the third (formerly called 
second) Dutch edition (in Speculum type 3). It has, moreover, 
this peculiarity that the fourth sheet of quire b ( = the leaves 8 + 15, 
with the figures 7, 8 and 21, 22), consists of two separate slips of 
paper, one containing the impression of the engravings, the other 
that of the text, the latter slip being pasted on the former, while 
underneath the figures 7 and 8 are still visible the blind impressions 
of the two top lines (on the corresponding leaf even 3 lines) of the 
old discarded letterpress. Seeing that the other copy at Haarlem 
has the text of these leaves, but not their engravings, it would seem 
that the letterpress had failed, that is, it had been impressed on the 
paper without its having been inked. 

It is clear from all these manipulations in the copies of this edition, 
that its printer was inexperienced ; moreover, considering its defec- 
tive type, &c., it is necessary to give it precedence to all the other 
types and to place this edition immediately after the xylographic 
edition. 

(Speculum type 2). Second (?) edition of the Dutch version of 
the Speculum, at present only known from one sheet (the 26th) =the 
two leaves 49 (with the figures 89 : Xpus crucifixus and 90 : Inventores 
artis) and 60 (with the figures in: Exitus ione and 112: Lapis 
reprobatus), that is, the third sheet of quire e, found in all the existing 
copies of the Dutch edition (in the Speculum type 3), called the 
mixed Dutch edition, on account of its having these two leaves, 
printed in a different type, bound up with the others. 

The type (on which see Holtrop, Man. pi. 19, and Ottley, Inquiry, 
i. 249) used for these two leaves is slightly smaller than the Speculum 
type 3, and differs from it and from Speculum type I in several 
respects, though there is a great family likeness between all three. 
We place it before type 3 because the letters ba, be, ha, he, he, ho, pe, 
pe, ve, &c., are cast in pairs on one body of type, which combinations 
appear no longer in type 3. Moreover it looks so primitive, uneven 
and used up that its proper place would almost seem to be before 
Speculum type I, although the latter's uneven, wobbling condition 
suggests its priority. Further, its look and " ductus litterarum " 
bear such a singular likeness to the Valla type (mentioned below) 
that it seems reasonable to place it as near to that type as possible. 
Under ordinary circumstances these two leaves might be regarded 

1 The fourth sheet of quire 6 (leaves 8 and 15) consists of two 
separate slips of paper, one containing the engravings, the other 
the text, the latter being pasted on the former. The fifth sheet of 
quire c ( = leaves 23 and 28) is in the same condition. But these 
slips are not, like the former, pasted one on the other, but the pieces 
of leaf 23 are pasted on a small, apparently old, slip of paper, another 
newer piece of paper having been pasted on to the outer margin 
to strengthen the old piece. The slips of leaf 28 are pasted together 
by a slip of modern paper on the back, from which it would appear 
that they had been left loose when the volume was issued. Further 
the 7th or centre sheet of this same quire c (leaves 25 and 26) is 
bound wrongly in the place of the first sheet of quire d (leaves 33 
and 46), which is wanting in this copy, so that leaf 25 follows after 
leaf 32, taking the place of the missing leaf 33, while leaf 26 follows 
after leaf 45, taking the place of the missing leaf 46 (now at the Hague). 
But on leaf 25", which should be blank, is an impression of the text 
belonging to leaf 62", but not of the figures (115, 116), while on leaf 
26, wnicn should also be blank, is now the text belonging to leaf 
47, but without its figures (85 and 86). Hence the text of these 
pages (62" and 47 b ) occurs twice in this copy, first on the leaves 25" 
and 26 b , and secondly in their proper place. These peculiarities 
seem to show that the letterpress was printed first, and that in this 
case a mistake was made in the first instance, but discovered when 
the figures were printed. 



as later impressions for completing the edition in which they occur. 
Ottley and others regarded them as replacing earlier leaves which, 
by some accident in the printing-office, had got lost or spoiled. But 
why should a printer use an old, quaint-looking type for printing 
and reprinting, with differences, one sheet for a book which he had 
printed entirely with a new and better type employed for many 
other works? We rather assume that the leaves are the remains 
of a complete (the second Dutch ?) edition in Speculum type 2 and 
were used on this occasion as substitutes for the two corresponding 
leaves of the third edition, which had become defective or 
momentarily unavailable. 

Differences in the text of the second column of leaf 60 between 
Meerman's copy and the Spencer Rylands and (Enschede) Crawford 
copies (see Meerman, Origg. typ. i. 121, note cl., and facs. on pi. 
vi. ^rd diy. ; also Holtrop Man. pi. 19, sec. col.) point to another 
edition printed in this same type. We therefore distinguish between 
one edition represented by the Meerman-Westreenen copy, and 
another represented by the two other copies, without being able to 
say which of the two is the earlier. 

No other trace of this type has hitherto been found, but as it 
looks old and used up, it seems reasonable to suggest that it must 
have been employed not only for printing one or more editions of 
the Speculum, but for other books not yet known to us. It bears 
a singular likeness to the Valla type mentioned below, and some 
of the capitals seem almost identical. 

(Speculum type 3). (i) The (second, or third, but) first type- 
printed Latin edition of the Speculum, or rather of 22 of its sheets 
(=44 leaves), printed on one side only, in a type which is newer, 
and therefore later than the above types I and 2, and, for that reason, 
here called Speculum type 3. It has hitherto been called the 
Speculum type, as it was thought that all the editions of the Speculum 
were printed in one and the same type; type I being considered 
identical with 3, while of type 2, regarded as a stray one, no account 
was taken. The 22 type-printed sheets of this edition are only found 
in combination with the 10 sheets (20 leaves) printed entirely 
(figures and text) from wooden blocks, described above; and the 
edition so made up is, on account of this mixture of xylography 
and typography, called the mixed Latin edition. The type-printed 
leaves are I (blank) + 6, 2 + 5, 3 + 4 (quire a, preface) 59 + 18 
(of quire 6) ; 21 + 34, 24 + 31, 25 + 30, 26 + 29 (of quire c) ; the 
whole quire d (leaves 35 + 48, 36 + 47, 37 + 46, 38 + 45, 39 + 44, 
40 + 43, 41 + 42); and the leaves 49 + 64, 50 + 63, 51 + 62, 
53 + 60, 54 + 59, 55 + 58, 56 + 57 of quire e. The copies of 
this edition, still in existence, with all the particulars related to them, 
have been enumerated above. 

(2) The third (hitherto called the second) Dutch edition; also called 
the mixed Dutch edition, or the Dutch edition in two types, two of 
its leaves (49 and 60) being printed in a different type (see above, 
Speculum type 2). This edition is arranged in the same way as 
the first and second, and consists therefore of 62 leaves. Copies: 
I. John Rylands Library, Manchester (Spencer collection), perfect; 
(2) Lord Crawford's library, perfect; (3), Museum Meerman, the 
Hague, perfect; (4) Geneva Public Library. 

(3) The (third, or fourth, but) second type-printed Latin edition, 
usually called the unmixed Latin edition, it being printed throughout 
in one type (3). It contains 64 leaves, printed on one side and 
arranged in the same number of quires as the mixed Latin editioa 
But under figure 100 (column 100) it has a line (5th) which is wanting 
in the first (mixed) Latin edition, and the final word of line 4 is 
correctly printed corporali, not spirituali as in the mixed Latin. 
Moreover, line 10 in col. 104 has the final word egipti, which is want- 
ing in the mixed Latin, and line 6 in col. 62 has the correct final 
word terrestris instead of celestis as in the mixed Latin. (See also 
Holtrop, BRH. 561; Sotheby, i. 145; Bernard, i. 17; Facs. in 
Holtrop, Man. pis. 17, 19; Sotheby, i. pis. xxix. and xxx.). Copies: 
(i) The Hague, Museum Meerman-Westreenen, wanting the first 
six leaves of the preface. A separate impression of the engraving 
(Semey maledicit + Rex amon) of leaf 48 is pasted on the lower part 
of the same cut, which had been printed with the text in the first 
instance, but defectively (Holtrop, Man. p. 20, and pi. 17); (2) 
Florence, Royal National Library, formerly in the Pitti Palace, 
wanting the first (blank) leaf and having also a separate impression 
of the engraving of leaf 48, but here the text seems to have failed 
and is pasted on the engraving; (3) Stuttgart, Landesbibliothek, 
wanting the first (blank) leaf; (4) Munich, Hofbibliothek (pressmark 
Xyl. 4to No. 37) wanting the first (blank) leaf; (5) Vienna, Hof- 
bibliothek (pressmark Inc. 2 D 19) wanting the first (blank) leaf; 
(6) [John B. Inglis, bought by Mr Quaritch, and now in] the Lennox 
library; (7) Haarlem, Town Library (No. 8), wanting the preface 
(leaves I to 6) ; (8) Brussels, Royal Library, wanting, besides the first 
(blank) leaf, the second and third sheet of quire b (leaves 8 + 19, 
9 + 18), and the second half of the fourth sheet (leaf 31) of quire c; 
(9) Hanover, Royal Library, wanting 18 leaves, that is, the first 
four, and the whole quired (leaves 34 to 48) ; (10) Munich, University 
Library (pressmark Xyl. 10), wanting the four leaves i (blank), 
54, 55 and 59. In this copy Schreiber (Cenlralbl. 1895, p. 208) 
discovered the date 1471, in old arable numerals in rubrics, under- 
neath the blind impression of some line after the last line of the 
Prohemium. The date is repeated by a hand of the i8th century, 
in modern arabic numerals, underneath the old date, by way of 



HISTORY] 



TYPOGRAPHY 



527 



explanation; (11) Library of the Royal Gymnasium at Freiberg in 
Sachsen where the 14 leaves of quire c are said to be preserved, 
but which in June 1908 could not be found 

In the Florence, Munich (University Library), Vienna and (Inglis) 
Lennox copies, all four belonging to this (unmixed) Latin edition, 
the three scrolls on the last vignette of the book (over col. 116), 
representing Daniel before Belshazzar, and the " handwriting on 
the wall," appear black (see Sotheby, Principia typogr. i. pi. xxx., 
xxxvii., xxxviii.), but blank in all other copies of this and the other 
editions. From this fact some authors have concluded that the 
unmixed Latin edition, here called the last, was, in reality, the first, 
as the black scrolls show that the pieces of wood which caused these 
black impressions had not yet been cut away when the copies were 
printed off. But as its type and other circumstances connected 
with this unmixed Latin edition make it impossible to regard it as 
the first, we have to look for another explanation of these black 
scrolls. First of all, scrolls, especially scrolls proceeding from the 
mouth of some individual, were already common in the pictures 
or illustrations of the manuscript- and block-printing periods, just 
as they are now. They were then, as they are now, intended in all 
cases to convey to the reader some memorable saying, quotation, 
inscription or motto. As black scrolls, therefore, could have had 
no object, we should have to assume that the practised engraver of 
the Speculum had prepared this last engraving carelessly and only 
saw his mistake after some copies had been printed off, which yet 
he allowed to pass into circulation. In some copies the Bible words 
Mane thecel phares have been written in the blank scrolls, as was 
to be expected ; other copies vary this by adding the Latin inter- 
pretations, numerus, appensio, divisio. But in one of the Haarlem 
copies the scrolls have been coloured yellow with a brush, and it 
would seem that to some such operation the black scrolls are due; 
the colour in none of the impressions looks exactly like that of the 
vignette. It is, however, more than probable that, for some purpose 
or another, some of these scrolls were intended to be black, and that, 
while they were printed, something was placed in the block in the 
hollow of the scrolls to produce a black impression. 

Sotheby, in his Principia typogr. p. 178 sqq., calls attention to 
an imitation of this Speculum vignette by Jacobus de Breda, who 
began printing at Deventer about 1483. This imitation (having 
one scroll which proceeds from the mouth of a figure supposed to 
represent Jacobus himself) he used for the first (?) time in Matthaei 
Bossi Sermo, c. 1491, the scroll being blank. But when he uses 
the engraving for the second (?) time, in P. Ovidi Naso. metamor. 
Liber Secundus, c. 1493 (copy in the Cambridge University Library), 
his name, " Jacob' de Breda " appears in the scroll (upside down 
when reading from right to left). A third time the vignette appears 
in his edition of Pub. Ov. Nas. Metamorphoseos lib. tertius (copy in 
the Cambridge Library) with his name in the ordinary way. A 
fourth time it is on the title-page of Seneca de quattuor virtutibus, 
c. 1495 (also in the Cambridge Library), with the name " Seneca " 
in the scroll. Sotheby shows that it occurs a fifth time on the title- 
page of a Donatus published by J. de Breda, again with his name 
in the scroll. A sixth time (says Sotheby) the engraving occurs 
on the title-page of a tract Dominus que Pars, again with his name 
in the scroll. And finally (says Sotheby) it is on the title-page of 
Secunda Pars Doctrinalis Alexandri, with the date 1511 and the 
name " Joanes Bergis " in the scroll. Seeing then the use made of this 
imitation till 1511, Sotheby, not unreasonably, suggests that the 
original scroll in the Speculum was from the beginning meant to 
contain the name of the printer (the inventor of printing). See 
also Dibdin, Bibliographical Decameron, ii. 285-296. One thing 
seems certain, the scrolls in the Speculum were not intended to be 
black in all cases, but to contain something or other, and not always 
the words Mene, &c., as in that case it would have been as easy for 
the engraver to cut them on the block as any other words or figures, 
pillars, &c. The printer probably wished to leave the choice to his 
purchasers. Incidentally the use made by Jacobus de Breda of his 
scroll points to his having been aware of the use for which the original 
scroll, which he imitated, was intended; and as the printer of the 
Speculum was undoubtedly the first printer of Holland, it is not 
improbable that Jacobus learnt his craft from him. 

The above descriptions and explanations, based on biblio- 
graphical and typographical facts, deal exclusively with the 
editions and issues of editions of the Speculum now known to us. 
They by themselves make it clear (i) that their printer began as 
a xylographer and block-printer; (2) that the six editions which 
he published of this one work cannot be placed later than 1471, 
as this date is written in a copy of the latest of them; (3) that, 
for the printing of his five type-printed editions (Dutch and 
Latin) , he manufactured no less than three different types. 

When round these editions and types we now group the various 
other incunabula which must be ascribed to him, as being printed 
with the same types or others related to them by a striking family 
likeness and other circumstances, we obtain the following 
sequence for this printer's work. 



A. The Xylographic Period. 

1. One or two folio editions of the Speculum in Latin, printed 
(pictures and text) from wooden blocks, and consisting most likely 
of 32 if not more chapters, but of which only ten sheets (twenty 
leaves), and six separate woodcuts (cut up into twelve halves, for 
the Veldener 4to edition of 1483) have come down to us. Of one of 
these xylographic editions, at least of ten sheets of it, three issues are 
known to have been made in combination with type-printed leaves 
(see below). 

2. As various circumstances compel us to regard the printer of 
the Speculum as having been a xylographer before he invented 
printing with movable types, it is necessary to mention here a small 
block of wood which is known to have been preserved for nearly 
300 years at Haarlem as a remnant of Coster's printing-office. On 
it is engraved part of an Horarium; its first lines beginning with 
Servu [m] tuum in pace Qmaviderunt ocuh mei Salutare, &c.,of the hymn 
of Simeon. About 1628 it was in the possession of Adriaen Rooman, 
printer to the Haarlem Corporation, who had obtained it from one 
of Coster's descendants, a man of great age. Rooman gave it to 
Dr Johan Vlasveld, of Haarlem, at whose death, in 1684, it came into 
the hands of his children; in 1734 it was bought by Jan Maas of 
Haarlem, who left it at his death to his son-in-law the Rev. Jacobus 
Mandt, a pastor at Gorinchem ; at whose death it was bought by 
Jacobus Koning, the well known author on the invention of printing, 
and after his death it was acquired by the Haarlem Town Library 
where it now is (see A. de Vries, de Uitvinding der Boekdrukkunst, 
1862, p. 35). 

B. Printing with movable Metal Types. 

Type I ., also called the A becedarium type, with which were printed : 
(i) The Abecedarium, 4 leaves, l6mo, on vellum, now preserved at 
Haarlem (Town Library), where M. Joh. Enschedd discovered it in 
1751, in a MS. Breviarium of the I5th century; (2) An edition of 
Donatus, 31 lines, 4to, two vellum leaves, printed on one side, dis- 
covered in 1844, in the ancient binding of a Dutch Book of Hours, 
printed at Delft in 1484; it is now preserved in the Hague Royal 
Library. 

Type II. (Speculum type I ; see p. 525; hitherto erroneously 
regarded as identical with Speculum type 3) : (i) First Dutch edition 
of the Speculum, of 31 paper sheets (62 leaves) printed on one side, 
folio, hitherto known as the first or unmixed Dutch edition. Two 
issues: (a), printed entirely in this type, represented by copies at 
Lille and Haarlem (No. 4); (6), having some of its leaves replaced 
by leaves of the third Dutch edition, represented by the Pembroke 
and Haarlem (No. 5) copies. (2) 1 An edition of Donatus, 28 lines, 
4to; two vellum leaves in the Haarlem Town Library, found pasted 
in the original binding of an account book of 1474 of the cathedral 
of that town, in which an entry testifies that this account-book was 
bound by Cornelis the bookbinder, whom Junius asserts to have 
been the servant of Lourens Janszoon Coster (Meerman, Orig. typ. 
Tab. VI.*). (3) Another Donatus of 28 lines, two leaves of which 
are in the Haarlem Town Library, and were discovered in the original 
bindings of account-books of the Haarlem Cathedral Church of 
1476, also bound by " Cornelis the bookbinder." Fragments of this 
same edition are also in the Paris National Library, and in 
various other public and private collections. (4) Donatus, 28 lines, 
4to, one vellum leaf, in the Hague Royal Library (BRH. 2 ; Ca. 612 ; 
Holtrop, Man. pi. 13), discovered in the binding of a book belonging 
formerly to the Sion Convent at Cologne containing several treatises 
printed by Ulrich Zell, one being dated 1467. (5) Donatus, 30 lines, 
4to. Two unrubricated vellum leaves in the Cambridge University 
Library (Inc. 4. E. l.l), discovered in the binding of a copy of 
J. Mile's Reportorium, Louvain, 1475, now also in the same library. 
The first leaf contains the chapters xiv. II to xvi. 4, the second 
chapter xxvi. 6 to xxix. 10. The text is abridged, having amabamus, 
batis, bant, &c., where other editions have amabamus, amabatis, 
amabant, &c. (6) Donatus, 30 lines, abridged edition, 4to, one 
unrubricated vellum leaf, cut into halves. Wrongly described 
by Holtrop (BRHs) and Campbell (614) as part of No. 7 (below). 
(7) Donatus, 30 lines, 4to; two rubricated vellum leaves, in the 
Paris National Library (Van Praet, Velins, No. 8; now 1040). (8) 
Donatus, 30 uneven lines, 4to. Two rubricated vellum leaves, m 
the Hague Royal Library (BRH 5; Ca. 614). (9) Donatus, 30 lines 
4to. Two vellum leaves in the Haarlem Town Library, discovered 
in 1750 by M. Joh. Ensched6 at Haarlem in the binding of a MS. 
(Handvesten . . . van Kennemerland, 1330 to 1477). (10) A liturgical 
book, containing rules for saying Mass, in l6mo (12 lines to a page 
[Holtrop, Man. pi. 14] 2 vellum leaves, pp. 3-6), in the Brussels 
Royal Library, (u) Alex. Galli Doctrinale, on vellum, 32 lines, 



1 The present writer is certain that Speculum type i differs from 
Speculum type 3 in size, and somewhat in form too. But he is 
still uncertain whether the Donatuses (2 to 7) here enumerated are 
in the same type as the first Dutch Speculum, though he travelled 
twice to the places where they are preserved to examine them. 
It would seem that the Donatuses are in a different type, more 
compact, regular and better cast than that used for this edition of 
the Speculum. But if there is any difference between the types 
it is so minute that it is well nigh impossible to detect it. 



TYPOGRAPHY 



[HISTORY 



4to; one leaf and fragment of a second, in the Ghent University 
Library (Res. 1409). (12) Alex. Galli Doctrinale, on vellum, 32 lines, 
4to. Two leaves (forming one sheet) in the Cologne Town Library. 1 

Type III. (Speculum type 2): (i) Second Dutch edition of the 
Speculum, which probably consisted of 31 paper sheets (62 leaves) 
printed on one side in folio, like the first and third. Only known 
from one sheet (leaves 49 and 6p) which forms part of all the copies 
of the mixed or third Dutch edition preserved to us. (2) On account 
of differences in the setting up of the second column of leaf 60, 
another edition in this type may be supposed to have existed. 
There is no further trace of this type, 2 which greatly resembles 
type IV. 

Type IV., also called the Valla type: (i) Laur. Vallae Facetiae 
morales et Franc. Petrarcha de salibus virorum illustrium ac faceciis 
tractalus, 24 paper leaves, small 4to. No other books printed in this 
type 2 are known to exist. But four of its capitals (B, H, L, and M) 
have been used in printing the edition of the Singularia of Ludovicus 
(Pontanus) de Roma, which otherwise is entirely printed in type VI. 

Type V. (Speculum type 3, hitherto wrongly called The Speculum 
type): (i) The [second or third, but] first type-printed Latin edition 
of the Speculum, for which only 22 paper sheets (44 leaves) seem 
to have been printed to replace the same sheets of the earlier xylo- 
graphic edition A, and to make up, in combination with the ten 
remaining xylographic leaves, a folio Latin edition of 64 anopistho- 
graphic leaves, called, on account of this mixture of xylography 
and typography, the mixed Latin edition. Some copies (the Berlin 
and Pembroke) of this mixed edition were still further mixed with 
sheets of the second type-printed Latin edition. (2) Third Dutch 
edition of the Speculum, hitherto known as the mixed Dutch edition, 
as having two leaves, (49 and 60) printed in a different type (Specu- 
lum type 2); 31 paper sheets (62 leaves) printed on one side, folio. 
(3) A Dutch version of the Seven Penitential Psalms, one vellum 
sheet ( = 2 leaves) , 4 pages i6mo, 1 1 lines to the page, printed on one 
side; copies in the Royal Library of Brussels (where it was dis- 
covered) and the Hague. (4) An edition of Donatus, of 27 lines, 
fragments of which are in the British Museum and the Bodleian 
Library. (5, 6, 7) Three editions of Donatus, of 30 lines, all on 
vellum (Holtrop, Man. pi 1411 ; Meerman, Origg. iv.). (8) A French 
translation of Donatus, on vellum, 29 or 30 lines to a page ; four leaves, 
now in the Utrecht University Library, discovered by Dr Samuel 
Muller, the Archivist of Utrecht, in a Utrecht MS. Cartulary of the 
first half of the i6th century. (9, 10) Two different editions of 
Alexandri Galli Doctrinale on vellum, 32 lines to a page (Holtrop, 
Man. pi. 15). (ll) Catonis Disticha, imperfect copy of four vellum 
leaves, 8vo, 21 lines to a page (Holtrop, Man. pi. 16) in the John 
Rylands Library (Spencer Collection). (12) The [third or fourth, 
but] second type-printed Latin edition of 32 sheets (64 leaves), 
printed entirely in this Speculum type (3), and therefore known 
as the unmixed 'Latin edition (Holtrop, Mon., pi. 17). For the use 
of sheets of this edition to complete copies of the earlier edition, 
see above V.I. The Munich University Library copy has the 
rubricator's date 1471. 

Type VI., also called the Pontanus type: (i) Ludov. (Pontani) 
de Roma Singularia juris (in type VI.) and Pii Secundi Tractatus 
de mulieribus prams et ejusdem Epitaphia (in type VII.), 60 paper 
leaves, folio, of which the Pontanus occupies the leaves I (blank) 
to 45 recto, and the Pius, the leaves 45 verso to the end. Various 
differences are found in the copies of the Pontanus known to us, 
and we may assume two if not three issues. This type VI., there- 
fore, is linked on to type VII. by the two being used in one and the 
same book, while it is inseparably connected with type IV. by the 
capitals B, H, L and M of this latter type being employed in printing 
the Singularia. Copies in the British Museum, Cambridge University 
Library, John Rylands Library (Spencer Collection), Hague Royal 
Library. (2, 3, 4, 5) Four different editions of Donatus, each of 24 
lines, fragments of which are preserved in the Hague Royal Library, 
Haarlem Town Library, Paris National Library, Cologne Town 
Library, &c. 

Type VII., also called the Saliceto, or the Pii Secundi Tractatus 
type, (i) Pii Secundi Tractatus et Epitaphia, mentioned above 
under type VI. as being printed with the Pontanus in one volume. 
(2) Guil. de Saliceto De salute corporis. Fragments of two vellum 
leaves of this edition, discovered in the binding of a copy of the 
Formulae Noviciorum, printed at Haarlem by Joh. Andreae, in 1486, 
are now in the British Museum. The fragments are printed on 
one side only, and their texts correspond to the leaves 3 and 5 of 

1 It may be that some of the works enumerated under type v. 
are really printed in the first Speculum type, but it is almost 
impossible to come to some certainty as to the difference between 
types i and 3, unless the books are together. 

2 The present writer has recently purchased from Herr Jaques 
Rosenthal, of Munich, two leaves of a Donatus, which were said (in 
Herr Rosenthal's catalogue) to be printed in the Valla type (IV.). 
On examination this proves not to be the case. At first sight it 
seemed to him to be type III (Speculum type 2). But this is not 
the case either. It has, however, the peculiarities of both these 
types combined, so that he does not hesitate to call these fragments 
a unicttm, and its type provisionally type III.* 



another edition (see below) in the same type, to which treatises 
of Turrecremata, Pius Secundus, &c. have been added. It is not 
clear why these fragments were printed on one side only ; the versos 
have not been scraped as was asserted by Holtrop and Campbell, 
nor are they printer s waste, as they are rubricated. It is not known 
whether the treatises added to the other edition formed also 
part of this one. (3) An edition of Donatus minor, or abbreviatus, 
26 lines. (4, 5, 6, 7, 8) Five different editions of Donatus of 27 lines. 
(9) An edition of the Doctrinale, of 26 lines. (10) A Doctrinale 
of 28 lines. (11) Doctrinale of 29 lines. (12) Doctrinale of 32 lines. 
(13) Catonis disticha, 21 lines. (14) [Incerti auctoris, vulgo Pindari 
Thebani] Iliados Homericae Epitome abbreviatum (metrice), 
cum praefatione Pii II. in laudem Homeri, in folio, 10 leaves 
(first blank), 35 lines; first edition_ having, on fol. ga, as last 
line 35: " intecio homeri in preceded poemate est describere," 
as in the copy in the Cambridge University Library (Inc. 3 E. i. i). 
(15) Guil. de Saliceto De salute corporis; De Turrecremata De salute 
corporis; Pii II. Tractatus de amore; (Pindari) Iliados Homericae 
epitome abbreviatum, cum praefatione Pii II.; added are three 
additional pages, the first contains " Hectoris'. . . Epitaphium "; 
the second " Homonee . . . Epitaph."; the third is blank. In folio, 
24 leaves (first blank), divided into two quires of six sheets each; 
34, 35 and 36 lines (second edition of the Saliceto, and of the Yliada; 
but .first of the Turrecremata, and the Tract, de amore of Pius II.). 
This edition is represented by the copy in the Hague Museum 
Meerman, in which a MS. note records that it was bought between 
1471 and 1474. (Campbell Ann. 1493), which still has in the Yliada: 
" in preceded poemate est describere." (16) Second edition of the 
Yliada, having as last line (35) on folio ga a more correct reading: 
" intecio homeri in hoc opere est describere troiana." This edition 
is represented by the British Museum copy (pressm. 8814) and the 
three additional pages (3rd blank already found in No. 15) 
" Hectoris . . . Epitaphium " and " Homonee . . . Epitaph." (17) 
Another edition of No. 15 (that is third edition of the Saliceto, second 
of the Turrecremata and Tract, de amore of Pius II., third of the 
Yliada and third of the additional pages), but with the line in the 
Yliada (on 22a) : " intecio . . . troiana. ' This edition is represented 
by the British Museum copy (C. 14. b 10). (18) Another issue of the 
Saliceto; Turrecremata; Pii Tract, de amore et epitaphia, 26 leaves, 
with various additions or omissions and differences in the setting 
up not in the former editions. Copy in the Darmstadt Hof-Biblio- 
thek (S 4705), which has the rubricator's date 1472 written in two 
places. (19) Another issue of the Yliada with the Pii Tract, de amore 
et epitaphia, again with additions, omissions and differences in the 
setting up, not in the Darmstadt copy or in the earlier editions. 
Represented by 17 loose leaves in the Museum Meerman at the 
Hague (see Holtrop, Mon. typ., pp. 32, 33). 

An eighth type, hitherto regarded as a Costerian, is type VI. in 
Hessels's List of Costeriana (Haarlem not Mentz, p. 31 seq.), where two 
editions of Donatus in this type are mentioned, one of 26 lines, four 
leaves of which are in the Catholic Gymnasium at Cologne (Camp- 
bell, 629), another of 27 lines, of which leaf II is in the Museum 
Meerman at the Hague, some fragments in the Haarlem Town 
Library and two leaves (formerly in the Weigel Collection) in the 
British Museum (IA 47028). Holtrop (Mon. typ. pi. 21) and 
Meerman (Opp. pi. II.) give a facsimile of the type. Campbell, 
in his Annales (No. 629, 631), referring to pi. 31 of Holtrop's Mon. 
for a facsimile of both these editions, says that they are printed with 
the types of the Pii II. Tractatus (the Saliceto type), but that, by 
the size and form of the P, this edition is distinguished from the other 
books in this type. Hessels (/. c. p. 24) repeated this; but Campbell's 
assertion proves to be an error, as the two types differ, in spite of a 
great likeness between them (the C, F, I and V being almost identical). 
That of the two Donatuses is an early Gothic, and has some of the 
characteristics of the Costerian types, as the t with perpendicular 
stroke to its cross-bar, the marks of contraction connected with 
the letters above which they appear, but only a few pairs of letters 
cast on one body, and no r with a curl; so that it seems somewhat 
later than those mentioned above. 

A ninth type (facsimile in Holtrop's Mon. pi. 323), hitherto 
regarded as a Costerian, is No. VII. in Hessels's List (I.e.). It 
resembles much that of the Saliceto, and has served for a Donatus 
of 27 lines, fragments of which representing two copies, were found 
in the binding of a Durandi Rationale, printed at Strassburg, 1493, 
belonging to the Convent of the Holy Cross, at Uden in North Bra- 
bant. This type again bears a great likeness to the Saliceto and 
also to the above type 8, but it differs from both. 

Setting aside for the moment the types viii. and ix. as doubtful 
Costerians, we must also point out that there is no direct evidence 
that type i. is connected with the other seven, or that it is the first 
of them. But it is a primitive one; it has all the characteristics of 
the Speculum and other Costerian types, and could hardly be placed 
later than the earliest of them ; the Donatus printed with it is printed 
on one side of the leaf only; it shows, moreover, in other respects 
that it must be dated before 1470. The Abecedarium printed with 
the same type, and discovered at Haarlem in a 1 5th century manu- 
script belonging to a Haarlem family, looks as the work of an 
inexperienced printer. The types II., III. and V. (the Speculum 
types i, 2 and 3) are inseparably connected with each other; they 



HISTORY] 



TYPOGRAPHY 



529 



must have been in one and the same office; their workmanship shows 
that their founder step by step simplified and improved his work, 
and in what order they are to be placed; the most perfect of them 
(V.) was in existence not later than 1471 (see above), and the three, 
together with the xylographic leaves in the mixed Latin Speculum 
(from which they cannot be separated) take us back to a period 
which could not possibly be extended beyond 1470, but which may 
reasonably be said to have begun as early as, say 1440. 

Therefore these three types, and the books printed with them in 
combination with the xylographic leaves, and various circumstances 
pointing to Haarlem as their birthplace, would alone suffice to sup- 
port, and vindicate the Haarlem claims to the honour of the inven- 
tion of printing. It could, however, serve no useful purpose to 
separate the types I., IV., VI. and VII. from those of the Speculum, as 
they have all a great family likeness and three distinctive peculiarities 
common among them: (i) a perpendicular stroke to the cross-bar 
of the /; (2) a small curl attached to the top of the r found in no other 
Netherlandish type ; it goes backward in types i and 3 ; and in type 
2 another curl is added to the first, bending to the right again; (3) 
a minute perpendicular link connecting the marks of contraction 
with the letters above which they appear (a peculiarity common 
also in the Dutch MSS. of the time). A copy of the latest issue of 
the Saliceto, preserved at Darmstadt, printed in type VII., has the 
rubricator's date 1472 in two places; another book in the same type 
(in the Meerman Museum) was bought between 1471-1474, and as 
this type is used for a tract printed together with the Pontanus 
treatise printed in type VI., and the Pontanus type is supple- 
mented with capitals of type IV. (the Valla type), it follows 
that these three types (IV., VI. and VII.) must have been in 
use in one and the same office, and that the latest of them (VII.) 
cannot be placed later than 1472. Again, it must be said that there 
is no direct evidence that these three types were used by the printer 
of the Speculum, but as fragments of Donatuses in the Saliceto type 
have been found in account-books of the Great Church at Haarlem, 
all presumably bound by the same Cornelis the bookbinder (the 
reputed servant of the Haarlem inventor), who also used fragments 
of Donatuses in the Speculum types, Haarlem may be regarded as 
their common birthplace. 1 Hence these seven types may be grouped 
thus: (a) the Abecedarium type; (b) the three Speculum types; (c) 
the Valla, Pontanus and Saliceto or Pius types; the (a) group cannot 
be dated later than 1470; (b) (three types) not later than 1471; (c) 
(three types) not later than 1472 and perhaps not before 1458. 

Here then we have a printer who, before 1472, had manufac- 
tured and extensively used at least seven (if not eight or nine) 
different and primitive looking types; three of the seven must 
have existed long before 1471, as with them he had printed 
before that year no less than five folio editions of one book 
(the Speculum), besides several editions of Donatus and the 
Doctrinale of Alex. Gallus and other smaller books. This work 
may be supposed to have extended over a number of years, 
and before he printed any of these type-printed books he had 
already engraved, printed and issued at least one large folio 
blockbook (the Speculum). 

And yet the catalogues of the present day, which profess to 
arrange the incunabula chronologically, under their respective 
countries, towns, printers, types and dates according to some 
" historical " or " natural history method " suggested in 1870 
by an eminent bibliographer, and intended to show the " develop- 
ment of printing " assign this primitive Dutch printer, and 
his primitive types and books, to what is presumed to be their 
" chronological " place, after the productions of Germany, 
Italy, Switzerland and France; that is, they are placed in a 
period when printing presses had been established in nearly 
every large town of Europe, and the art of printing was already 
so fully developed and vulgarized, that the books of that period 
show, on comparison with the Costeriana, that the latter must 
have preceded them by at least two or three decades. 

Apart from this anachronism, the same catalogues assign 
this printer and his books no longer to Haarlem in North Hol- 
land, to which they had always been attributed in conformity 
with the tradition that printing had been invented in that 
town and the Speculum and other books printed there; but 
they locate them at Utrecht, the capital of the province of 
the same name, although the types of the Costeriana show 
that they are imitations of the handwritings indigenous to the 
province of Holland, not to those of Utrecht. 

1 The Cambridge University Library possesses two sheets of two 
different editions of Donatus, one (unrubricated) printed in Speculum 
type i , the other (rubricated) in the Saliceto type, both found pasted 
by the binder on the wooden boards of a copy of J. Mile's Reportorium, 
printed at Louvain in 1475, which is also in the same library. 



This bibliographical calamity dates from the year 1870, when 
Dr Anton Van der Linde published his book The Haarlem Coster 
Legend. After it had become known to him that for years past 
the " Lourens Janszoon Coster " mentioned by Junius as the 
inventor of printing had been confused by some authors with 
another inhabitant of Haarlem, whose name was " Lourens 
Janszoon, " but who had never borne the surname " Coster, " 
he, after an inadequate investigation in the Haarlem archives 
and elsewhere, professed to prove from documents (i) that the 
Haarlem tradition was nothing but a " legend, " the kernel of 
which was " Jacob Bellaert, " who published in 1483 the first 
Haarlem book with a date; (2) Lourens Janszoon Coster was 
a " myth "; (3) Cornelis the bookbinder, Junius's chief witness 
for the Haarlem tradition, had been Bellaert's servant, and, 
telling his story in his second childhood, magnified the first 
Haarlem printer of 1483 into the first printer of the world; (4) 
the " Spiegel " and the Donatuses could not have been printed 
before 1470-1474, &c. As Van der Linde's book was appa- 
rently based on documents, it was generally thought to have put 
an end to the Haarlem claims. It seems to have struck nobody 
at the time that this Haarlem tradition or legend, if it had 
originated in or after 1483, could not have been so strangely 
distorted and altered that, within a few decades, " Jacob 
Bellaert " its hero, according to Van der Linde, was forgotten, 
while his " servant, " in his second childhood, substituted for 
him another person of an entirely different name and of a 
much earlier period; whose descendants all appear in Haarlem's 
history, and one of whom records him in a genealogy; who is 
himself mentioned again and again in the Haarlem registers of 
the time, but who is finally, in 1870, declared to be a " myth." 
Nor did it strike anybody at the time that if Cornelis the book- 
binder had been Bellaert's servant or binder, and his story of 
the inventor related to him, and to no other printer, this book- 
binder must have used fragments of Bellaert's productions for 
strengthening his bindings, instead of which he employed 
fragments of the Costeriana, which are admittedly not printed 
by Bellaert. 

These are two of the many points which might have arrested 
Van der Linde in his sweeping denunciation of the Haarlem tradition 
if he had given more attention to the subject. As no reply invalidat- 
ing the main part of his criticism emanated from Haarlem, Henry 
Bradshaw, the librarian at Cambridge, who had been studying the 
Dutch incunabula for some years, accepted Van der Linde's conclu- 
sions, and published, in 1871, his List of the founts of type used by 
printers in Holland in the i^th century, in which he explained that 
he was compelled to place the printer of the Speculum at Utrecht 
because " it is there that the cuts of the old folio editions first appear 
cut up into pieces in a book (Epistelen ende Evangelien) printed by 
Veldener at that place in 1481. Without further information he 
would have found it necessary to place the printer of the Speculum 
last among the Utrecht presses and to affix as his date (before 1481). 
But as the types of the Yliada (VII.) and of the Ludovicus de Roma 
(VI.) bear a close resemblance to those of the Speculum, they could 
not be separated from the latter, and a note in the Hague copy of 
the Tractatus de salute corporis in the same type VII. makes it clear 
that it was bought between 1471 and 1474, this was the only date 
which he could accept, and it compelled him to place the printer 
of the Speculum at the head of the Dutch printers, just as the 
Speculum compelled him to place him at Utrecht." 

It is clear that Bradshaw s system of classifying the incunabula, 
so inflexible as regards dates and places of printing, that he would 
admit any stray statement on these points if it be found in the books 
themselves, rather than go outside the books for further information, 
is yet elastic enough to ascribe the Yliada and the Pontanus to the 
printer of the Speculum, merely on account of a close resemblance 
between the types of these books. As he knew that the early 
printers shaped their types according to the handwritings indigenous 
to the places where they settled, it must have escaped him that in 
locating the printer of the Speculum at Utrecht, he placed him 
among printers whose types bore no resemblance to those of the 
Costeriana. This system, therefore, so rigorous on the one hand 
and so flexible on the other, can only be applied with safety to books 
whose country, printer and date are known, not to such as the 
Costeriana, which have neither date nor printer's name, nor place 
of printing, and might, therefore, be ascribed to France, Italy, 
Germany or any other European country, if it were not that some 
of them were printed in the Dutch vernacular. 

As to the Speculum cuts being in Veldener's hands in 1481 (and 
1483), various circumstances show (see Holtrop, Man. p. no sqq.) 
that he could not have possessed them, nor acquired them from other 



530 



TYPOGRAPHY 



[HISTORY 



printers at Utrecht, until he used them cut up into halves and 
already considerably worn out. It is also known that ten years at least 
before he employed them, the cuts had been used intact as illustra- 
tions in a book which could not be ascribed to him. In such cases 
bibliography is bound to inquire where they could have been so used 
before ascribing them to the place where they are used in 1481. The 
statements of the Cologne Chronicle (1499) and of Junius (1568) when 
examined together with the types and workmanship of the Costeriana 
give satisfactory answers on this point. The fact that fragments 
of a French translation of Donatus, printed in Speculum type 3, 
and of a treatise of Ludov. Pontanus on Canonical Law in the 
Pontanus type, were discovered at Utrecht, cannot be set against 
the finding of many more fragments of Donatuses, &c. at Haarlem. 
Bradshaw lived to see some result of his system in Campbell's 
Annales, published in 1874, where all the Costeriana are ascribed 
to a Prototypographie neerlandaise a Utrecht, and he regretted it. 
Unhappily, his untimely death prevented him from testing his system 
more closely; those who adopted it were unable, or considered it 
unnecessary, to repeat his explanations and reservations, so that 
the Costeriana are now, in almost every catalogue, placed at Utrecht, 1 
without any sign of doubt or hesitation, though all the particulars 
connected with them prove that they could not have originated there. 

To ascertain the probable date of the Haarlem invention, 
we have at our disposal: (A) some historic statements and 
Date of documents, namely (a) two entries of 1446 and 1451 
Haarlem in the Diary of Jean Le Robert (Abbat of Cam- 
inventton. bray); (b) the Helmasperger Instrument of 1455; 
(c) Ulrich Zell's account of the invention of printing in the 
Cologne Chronicle of 1499; (d) the Coster pedigree; and 
(e) Junius's narrative of the Haarlem tradition; (B) a collec- 
tion of nearly, if not more than, fifty incunabula, known as 
Costeriana, the printing of which must have involved the 
manufacture of seven types, four of which (the Abecedarium, 
and three Speculum types) cannot be placed later than 1471, 
the other three (the Valla, Pontanus and Salicelo types) not 
later than 1472. With these types were printed five folio 
editions of the Speculum, twenty-three of Donatus, eight of the 
Doclrinale, besides several other important books. 

A. Historic Statements. Junius, saying that Coster invented 
printing in 1440, and that Johan, who stole his types, printed with 
them at Mainz in 1442, probably knew, or had heard, nothing more 
definite about a date than that Coster's types were used at Mainz 
within a year after the theft. The year 1440 as that of the invention 
was first mentioned, it seems, in 1483, in testimony xvii. ; a second 
time by the Cologne Chronicle in 1499 (but only as the year in which 
the art began to be " investigated," whatever that may mean), 
and again in 1505 and later (testimonies xxix., xxxix.). Junius, 
therefore, may have derived 1440 not from the Haarlem tradition, 
nor from the Coster pedigree (which gives 1446, and may imply a 
still earlier date), but from other sources, and hence fixed the com- 
mencement of printing at Mainz in 1442 (first mentioned, it seems, 
in 1499 by Polyd. Vergil, testimony xxiii.). Be this as it may, the 
Helmasperger instrument of 1455, if it is genuine, shows that Guten- 
. . . berg could not have begun printing before the end of 
1450 1 45> tf s ear ly. as in that year, about the middle of 

August, he borrowed money for " making his tools," 
and was then, moreover, destitute of everything necessary for print- 
ing, as parchment, paper, even ink. This year 1450 agrees with 
the date (1451) written in the Paris Donatus, which, on insufficient 
grounds is considered to be a forgery. It also agrees with Ulr. Zell's 
statement in the Cologne Chronicle that printing and all that be- 
longed to it were " investigated " from 1440 to 1450, and that in 
the latter year they began to print. And it likewise agrees with 
the testimonies xxviii., xxx., xxxi., xxxiii., xxxviii. and xl. quoted 
above, which all come from persons who may be supposed to have 
known something about the date of early Mainz printing, namely, 
Johan Schoeffer, the son of Peter Schoeffer .Job. Trithemius (who was 
personally acquainted with both Peter and Johan Schoeffer), Joh. 
Thurmayer Aventinus (who lived from 1474 to 1534), Mariangelo 
Accorso (who wrote c. 1533), while No. xl. is that of Joh. Bergellanus, 
the first author, so far as we know, who mentioned the lawsuit 
of 1455, in his Encomium, printed and published in the very St 
Victor Stift of which Gutenberg had been for some years a lay- 
brother till his death, so that this testimony points to Gutenberg's 
own version of the " beginning " of Mainz printing. 

Therefore the Mainz date 1450, derived from documents and 
testimonies which cannot be lightly set aside, is much later than the 
latest date (1446) of the Haarlem claims, and those who accept 
the Haarlem tradition, as we do, may reasonably conclude that Fust 
was induced to advance money to Gutenberg about August 1450, 
not by seeing anything printed by the latter, but by having some 

1 It is pleasant to be able to record some exceptions. Voulli6me 
and Giinther in their Catalogues still mention Haarlem. 



of Coster's types and tools, and a type-printed Donatus, shown and 
explained to him. 

We are, however, now asked to disregard this date 1450 and all 
documents that indicate, and have hitherto always been relied on 
as fixing, the beginning of printing at Mainz in that year, and to 
believe that the Astronomical Kalendar, said to be for 1448, was 
printed at Mainz in 1447. If this year could be accepted for the 
printing of this Kalendar, its value would of course be greater than 
any written or printed statement. It is, however, far from certain, 
and its assumed date, though not interfering with the Haarlem dates, 
as it falls after 1446 of the Coster pedigree, is incompatible with 
the Helmasperger instrument, which shows that so late as August 
1450 Gutenberg had not printed anything, and had not even made 
his apparatus for printing. There remains the Poem on the " Welt- 
gericht," also ascribed to Gutenberg and said to be printed in the 
same type as the Donatus of 1451, with the exception of certain 
letters the form of which represents, it is thought, a still earlier stage. 
Hence the Poem is dated back, apparently for no tangible reason, 
to 1443-1444, and the Donatus placed between it and the Kalendar, 
the type of which is said to be a " development " of the Donatus 
type. This date, which is even more speculative than that assigned 
to the Kalendar, militates entirely against the Helmasperger instru- 
ment ; it can hardly be said to go against the Coster pedigree, while 
it does not interfere with, but rather favours, Junius' dates. 

Among the historic statements also come the two entries of the 
Abbot of Cambray, on folio 161" of his Diary, preserved in the 
Archives at Lille, in which he records having bought in January 
(1445, o.s. = ) 1446 and in 1451, at Bruges and Valenciennes, printed * 
Doctrinalia (on vellum 3 and on paper). Even if printing could be 
said to have begun at Mainz in 1450 or earlier, no Doctrinalia 
printed there have ever come to light, unless we accept the Haarlem 
tradition, that those printed with Coster's types were printed there. 
Hence these entries can only be applied to the Doctrinalia printed 
in Holland in the same types as the Speculum (on which Junius 
based the tradition of the Haarlem invention) and the Donatuses 
which fit into Zell's historic statement (in the Cologne Chronicle of 
1499), that the Donatuses printed in Holland were the models for 
the Mainz printing. Therefore there is no certainty as to any Mainz 
printing having been done before 1450, and, if the Helmasperger 
instrument has any value, it is certain that it could not have begun 
there before that year; Ulrich Zell unreservedly places the printing 
done in Holland before that of Mainz; Jean Le Robert's statements 
make it certain that printing was exercised before January 1446; 
the Coster pedigree fixes no later date than 1446 for the invention 
at Haarlem; Junius' years (1440-1442) are, perhaps, his own guess. 
Anyhow, if historic statements and documents have any value, the 
invention must have been accomplished within the six years from 
1440 to 1446 (also indicated by Zell). 

B. The Costeriana. It has been pointed out above that we have 
nearly 50 Costeriana, for which seven types have been employed, 
four of which cannot be placed later than 1471, the remaining three 
not later than 1472; and that with these types five folio editions 
of the Speculum were printed, 23 of Donatus, & of the Doclrinale, 
besides several other important books. With such an abundance 
of material, for the greatest part of which we have the year 1471-1472 
as an undoubted terminus ad quern, we need not inquire too anxiously 
whether Junius placed the invention in 1440, or whether the Haarlem 
Coster pedigree fixes it at 1446 or earlier. For, by placing intervals 
either between the seven types or between the several editions of 
the Speculum, Donatus, Doclrinale, &c., we can easily reach any 
terminus a, quo which may be found to agree with the historic state- 
ments explained above. Such intervals, however natural and 
necessary they may be to arrange the Costeriana in some chrono- 
logical order, must always be more or less arbitrary, as it is impossible 
to say whether the editions followed each other within two months 
or within two or more years, or whether the types became used up 
within six months or within six, seven or more years. Therefore, 
only such intervals need be suggested as may show that the Costeriana, 
or some of them, may reasonably be placed before Mainz dates 
which are certain (that is c. 1450, derived from the Helmasperger 
instrument, and 1454, the date of the Indulgences), or speculative 
(as 1443-1444 for the " Weltgericht," and 1447 for the Astronomical 
Kalendar). The first products of the art of printing were intended 
to be faithful imitations of the manuscripts, and no material devia- 
tions from the general plan become observable till about 14731477. 
Nowhere are the features of the MSS. of the I5th century so faith- 
fully imitated as in the productions of the three earliest printing- 
offices of Coster, Gutenberg (?) and Schoeffer. They are all without 



1 The abbot speaks of Doctrinalia " gette " or " jettez en molle," 
and the phrase is, as Bernard (Origine, i. 97 seq.) shows by eight 
examples from 1474 (the year when printing is first officially spoken 
of in France) to 1593, and down to the present day, applied to 
typographically printed books only; see also Fred. Godefroy, 
Dtctionaire, in voce mole (which he interprets as caractere d'imprimerie, 
where he gives six quotations showing the same meaning. 

3 The abbot does not mention the word vellum, but states that 
the Doclrinale which he had bought at Valenciennes was full of 
mistakes wherefore he had bought one on paper. 



HISTORY] 



TYPOGRAPHY 



signatures, without printed initial directors, 1 without printed catch- 
words; in short, without any of those characteristics which we see 
gradually, one after the other, come into almost general use when 
printing becomes more developed, that is from 1473 (if not earlier) 
to 1480. Hence a comparison of the Speculum, Donatus and 
Doclrinale editions, printed in the Speculum and other types, with 
the Gutenberg and Schoeffer Donatuses and their other books 
enumerated above, shows that the types, mode of printing and work- 
manship of all these books stand on nearly the same primitive stage. 
Yet there is a considerable difference between the productions of 
the three offices, those of the Haarlem office being more primitive 
than any of the other two. First of all the types of the Costeriana 
(which have nothing in common with any of those used in the 
Netherlands after 1471), show by their t with the perpendicular 
stroke attached to its cross-bar, the r with a curl, and the signs of 
contraction connected by a fine link to the tops of the letters over 
which they stand, that they were manufactured during the MS. 
and block-printing periods of Holland. Secondly, none of the 
Costeriana have any hyphens, which, in the Gutenberg and Schoeffer 
incunabula appear already from the beginning. Thirdly, the five 
editions of the Speculum are all printed anopisthographically (that 
is, on one side), the woodcuts at the top of the pages as well as 
the explanatory text underneath, which would hardly be the case 
if they had been printed after 1471, when the printing of woodcuts, 
together with text in movable types, on both sides of the leaf, was 
no longer a novelty. None of them have any colophon (except such 
a word as explicit), which would, for a collection of nearly 50 books, 
be incompatible with a period after 1471, but not with the earlier 
period of the blockbooks and MSS. Moreover, of the 50 no less 
than 38 are printed on vellum, which is incompatible with a period 
after 1471 and even earlier, when printing on paper had become 
universal, but not with the earlier period of the MSS. Therefore, 
those who wish to date the Donatuses, ascribed to Gutenberg, before 
1450, or before 1447, must not forget that the more primitive editions 
of the Speculum, Donatus and Doctrinale printed in types I. and 
II. &c. can also be dated before 1450 or 1447; and when once so 
much is admitted, there is no reason to reject Zell's statement that 
the Donatuses printed in Holland served as models to Mainz printing. 
In addition to the above considerations, there is the remarkable 
fact that the chief productions of the three earliest printing-offices 
are editions of Donatus, all printed on vellum. This fact has become 
more conspicuous by the discovery in recent years, in various parts 
of Holland and Germany, of a multitude of fragments of different 
editions of this schoolbook. Of the Haarlem office we know 23 editions ; 
13 are ascribed to Gutenberg; 9 we have in the Schoeffer or B 42 type. 
The production of so many editions, all about the same time in the 
infancy of printing and in two different places, so widely apart from 
each other as Haarlem and Mainz, cannot have been an accident 
or coincidence, but suggests some connexion, some links 2 between 
the three or more offices that produced them. One link we find in 
Ulrich Zell's statement that the Donatuses printed in Holland 
were the models for Mainz printing, another in the Haarlem tradi- 
tion, as narrated by Junius, that one of Coster's workmen, taking 
his master's types and tools, went with them to Mainz and settled 
there as a printer. These two statements go far to explain not only 
how the art of printing was transferred from Haarlem to Mainz, 
but how, at the latter place, it was thought expedient to continue 
the printing of Donatuses begun at Haarlem. Bearing this obvious 
connexion between the three earliest offices in mind, and also that the 
books of the printer of the Speculum show that he could not have 
learnt his art at Mainz or any other place, the only question really 
is: Can the Costeriana, or some of them, by placing an interval 
between them, be dated so far back that they may be placed before 
the certain or speculative dates now attributed to books or broad- 
sides printed at, or ascribed to Mainz. In our former edition, when 
only 20 Costerian editions of Donatus were known, and no earlier 
final date than 1474, we suggested an interval of 18 months between 
each of them, giving about 30 years, from 1474 back to 1445, for 
the issue of all the Donatuses. We now know 23 editions, and 1472 
as final date for the existence of all the types, though, of course, 
some of the editions may have appeared after this year. Therefore, 
our interval need not be longer than about 15 months, which makes 
a stretch of nearly 29 years from 1472 back to 1443. As to an 
interval between the types, an eminent type-founder, Dr Ch. 
Enschedd of Haarlem, when dealing with Coster's types (in his 
treatise Laurens Jansz. Coster de uitmnder van de boekdrukkunst, 

1 An exception is to be noticed in the Costerian Yliada (see above 
type VII., no. 14-17) in which on the recto of the second leaf the 
initial director i is printed. 

2 Schwenke has, to some extent, observed this connexion, and 
suggested that the texts of the Donatuses should be studied, as the 
differences between them might show whether those of Mainz were 
printed from the Haarlem editions or vice versa. Such a study may 
be useful, but could hardly lead to a definite result, as the types of 
these schoolbooks, like those of other incunabula, were imitations 
of the respective handwritings of the places where they were printed, 
and the texts were no doubt taken from the same MSS. in the first 
instance, though it is possible that the types were cast for other books 
and used afterwards for the Donatuses. 



Haarlem, 1904, p. 28), reminds us of three printers (Eckert van 
Homberch of Delft, Govaert Bac and Willem Vorsterman, of Ant- 
werp), who used one type all the time that they were printing (which 
means 23 years for the first and 19 for the second), and declares that 
we could not possibly put a shorter interval than 6 years between 
each type. As there are seven Costerian types, such an interval 
would mean a period of 42 years, from 1472 back to 1430, hence 
only four and a half years ( = 31$ years) between each type would 
suffice to reach the year 1440. 

These calculations, however, include the Abecedarium (i.), Valla 
(v.), Pontanus (vi.) and Saliceto (vii.) types, and, as has been pointed 
out above there is no absolute proof that these four also belonged 
to the printer of the Speculum. Types v., vi., and vii. cannot be 
separated, and two circumstances, mentioned above, make it more 
than probable that they did belong to him. But the Abecedarium 
type can be ascribed to the Speculum printer on no other grounds 
than that it has all the characteristics of the Costerian types; that 
it is too primitive to be attributed to any later Dutch printer, so 
far as we know them, and that the Abecedarium printed with it, 
was discovered at Haarlem in a Dutch MS. which belonged to a 
Haarlem family. 

Hence a computation based on the five- Speculum editions (all 
printed and issued at least before 1471), the 12 editions of Donatus 
and four editions of the Doctrinale printed in the same types might 
be more convincing to the opponents of Haarlem's claims. Apart 
from the final date (1471) for them there is also evidence that the 
Speculum type I existed a considerable time before 1474, as in that 
year the bookbinder Cornells used fragments of a Donatus printed 
in that type in the binding of an account book of the cathedral 
church at Haarlem. Their types and workmanship, moreover, 
compel us to place them before the Valla, Pontanus and Saliceto 
(or Pius) types. The last two, employed together in one book, cannot 
have been used for this book before 1458, as it bears the name of 
Pope Pius II., who was not elected till that year, but it is certain 
that it cannot have been printed after 1472. The Valla type, how- 
ever, existed before the Pontanus and Saliceto types, as four capitals 
of the former were used to supply the want of such capitals in the 
Pontanus type. 

If then, as suggested by Enschedd, the type-founder, an interval 
of six years is placed between the three Speculum types, it would 
mean 18 years, or a period from 1471 back to 1453. A similar 
number of years we obtain by intervals of 18 months between each 
of the 12 editions of Donatus printed in type I. Even this moderate 
calculation makes it plain that the printer of the Speculum must 
have begun printing at least about the same time that printing began 
at Mainz. But we have seen above that this printer did not hesitate 
to make up complete copies of his books by mixing sheets of a later 
edition, printed in a different type, with those of an earlier edition, 
and even mixed type-printed with xylographically printed sheets. 
A printer so carefully and economically husbanding his stock of 
sheets is not likely to have printed new editions of his books before 
the old ones were fully sold off, or to have manufactured new types 
till his old ones were used up. Moreover, Haarlem, a quiet provincial 
town, could not have been a favourable market for a rapid sale of 
books, especially not for books in the vernacular, like the Dutch 
versions of the Speculum. Hence we should not put too short an 
interval either between his editions or his types. 

As (e.g.) Gerard Leeu 3 printed at Gouda, during the six years 
1477 to 1482, 17, mostly bulky, volumes, together consisting of 
2968 leaves, or nearly 6000 folio pages, all in one type, we need not 
hesitate to place at least eight or nine years between each of the 
three Speculum types, that is together 24 or 27 years from 1471 
back to 1447 or 1/1/14- It is true, the types manufactured after, 
say 1477, may have been more enduring than the earlier types, as 
being, perhaps, cast of better material and by a more perfect process 
than those of Coster, but the number of pages printed by the latter 
with the three Speculum types, barely amounts, so far as we know, 
to a tenth part (600 pages) of Gerard Leeu's work. Our calcula- 
tions are, of course, liable to modification or alteration ; earlier dates 
may yet be discovered in the Costeriana or in other documents; 
more editions of Donatus in the same types may be found, which 
would shorten the intervals. But we have shown that, without 
straining chronology, bibliography or typology, the Costeriana can 
be dated back so as to harmonize with any historical date, Dutch 
(1440, 1446) or German (1450), known at the present time, or so as 
to precede even the speculative dates (1447 or 1444) assigned to 
some Gutenberg products. 

There is therefore no reason to discredit Zell's statement in 
the Cologne Chronicle of 1499, that the Donatuses printed in 
Holland were anterior to, and the models for, the art Necessltyot 
of printing at Mainz, or that of Hadrianus Junius in an Earlier 
his Batavia, that printing was invented at Haarlem Printer 
by Lourens Janszoon Coster, and that the Speculum b ^^ z 
was one of his first productions. The two statements 
were made independently of each other. But even without 

'These examples might easily be multiplied. Ulr. Zell, for in- 
stance, printed more than 80 books in his first type. 



532 



TYPOGRAPHY 



[HISTORY 



them, the existence of a group of nearly fifty primitively 
printed books of undoubtedly Dutch origin, the printing of 
which must have taken a number of years before 1471, 
would suggest serious doubts as to the priority of Mainz 
printing. Zell's statement is all the more weighty, as it is not 
one made at random but meant to be a direct contradiction of 
the vague rumours and statements about an invention of 
printing at Mainz by Gutenberg, which had gradually crept 
into print since 1468 in Italy and France, and had found their 
way back into Germany about 1476, after Mainz and Germany 
had given the greatest publicity, during twenty-two years, to 
the existence of the new art in their midst; while all those who 
might, and would and could, have told the public that the 
invention had been made at Mainz, if it had come about there, 
preserved a profound silence on this particular point, even the 
supposed inventor himself. And, though Zell accords to Mainz 
and Gutenberg the honour of having " improved " the art and 
having made it more artistic, he denies to them the honour 
of having " invented " or " begun " it, and this latter honour 
was never claimed by that town before 1476. Junius's account, 
on the other hand, is the embodiment of a local tradition at 
Haarlem, the first written traces of which we have in a pedigree 
(testimony xxxiv) of the family of the reputed Haarlem inventor, 
which, as regards its central part, may have existed at least as 
early as 1520, whereas its first part may be dated much earlier. 
His account is indirectly confirmed by the finding of several 
fragments at Haarlem, all belonging to the groups of books 
mentioned above, but still more by the discovery of several 
fragments of the Donatuses printed in the Speculum type 
i and 3, some of which had been used as binder's waste by 
Cornells, the bookbinder, the very man whom Junius alleges 
to have been the servant of Coster. 

As the case stands at present, therefore, we have, after careful 
and impartial examination, no choice but to repeat that the 
invention of printing with movable metal types took place at 
Haarlem between the years 1440 and 1446 by Lourens Janszoon 
Coster. 

That the Haarlem inventor of printing was, as we have shown, 
a block-printer before he printed with movable types, helps us 
to understand what the tradition, as chronicled by Junius, says of 
him (Testimony xliv. 6): that he, while walking in the wood near 
Haarlem, _cut some letters in the bark of a tree, and with them, 
reversely impressed one by one on paper, he composed one or two 
lines as an example for the children of his son-in-law. Junius 
does not say it, but clearly implies that, in this way, Coster came to 
the idea of the movability (the first step in the invention of typo- 
graphy) of the characters which, hitherto, he had been cutting 
together on one block. He perceived the advantage and utility 
of such insulated characters, and so the invention of printing with 
movable types was made. The questions as to whether he con- 
tinued to print with movable " wooden " types, or even printed 
books with them, cannot be answered, because no such books or 
fragments of them have come _down to us. Junius's words (Test, 
xliv. d) on this point are ambiguous, and no Dutch edition of the 
Speculum printed, figures and text, from wooden blocks or movable 
wooden types, is known. 

By the middle of the igth century the claims of Coster and Haar- 
lem had steadily gained ground, owing to the researches of Job. 
Enschede (1751), Meerman (1765), Koning (1815), Young Ottley 
(1816), Bernard (1853), Sotheby (1858) and others. But in 1870 
they were wellnigh destroyed by a criticism which afterwards proved 
to be partly groundless, partly a distortion of facts. At the time, 
however, it was, without further research, accepted as decisive; 
the claims were regarded to be a fiction, and a system of classifying 
the incunabula started with the unfortunate result that Utrecht 
came to be adopted as the birthplace of the Costeriana and Coster 
and Haarlem almost obliterated from all our catalogues. Since 
then many things have come to light, all tending to confirm Haar- 
lem's claims, and showing how unjustifiably they were attacked 
in 1870. An examination of the incunabula on which they rest is 
far from easy or inexpensive, as the books are scattered not only 
over Europe but now also over America, and therefore not easy 
of access. We have, however, made it, sufficiently to be able to 
prove that the claims are based on good grounds. Our evidence, 
though still circumstantial, is not based on guesses; we assert nothing 
except on bibliographical or historical grounds; nor do we accept 
one statement unjess it is corroborated by other statements, or 
by the rules of bibliography and history. Hence we should not 
accept Zell's evidence or that of Junius, or of any one else, if the 
books to which they refer did not corroborate them to the fullest 



extent, or if the claims of Mainz to the honour of the invention 
could be said to have any substance of fact. The great efforts 
made in Germany since 1882 to strengthen the case for Gutenberg, 
which culminated in the celebrations of 1900 and the publication 
of valuable and learned books, have enriched our knowledge of 
early Mainz and German printing, but at the same time conclusively 
shown that it requires great courage to maintain that Gutenberg 
was the inventor of printing. 

How long Coster or his successors continued the first printing- 
office at Haarlem we cannot say; it seems to have come to an end 
in or before 1481, as the cuts of the Speculum had evidently then 
passed into John Veldener's hands, and the Haarlem tradition 
says that wine-pots had been cast of the remains of the types. 
In 1483 Jacob Bellaert was printing at Haarlem, and Jan Andrieszn 
in 1485 ; their types are imitations of the writing of their time, but 
already differ from those of the Speculum and the other Costeriana 
in various respects, and show many features of a later period. 
The question as to whether they learnt their craft from the first 
Haarlem printer, or from other masters, has been asked but not 
yet answered. 

Spread of Typography. Having explained the early printing 
of Haarlem and Mainz, in so far as it bears upon the controversy 
as to where and by whom the art of printing was invented, and 
shown that the testimony of Ulrich Zell (in the Cologne Chronicle 
of 1499) as to Mainz having learnt the art of printing from 
Holland through the Donatuses printed there, and that of 
Hadrianus Junius, as to the tradition of its Haarlem origin, 
are confirmed by bibliographical and historical facts, we can 
follow its spread from Haarlem to Mainz, and from the latter 
place to other towns and countries. 

1460; Strassburg.First printers: Johann Mentelin, who com- 
pleted a Latin Bible in that year, according to a rubrication in a copy 
at Freiburg in the Breisgau; Adolph Rusch de Inguilen, who is 
presumed to be the printer of the undated books with a singularly 
shaped R, 1 c. 1464; Henricus Eggestein, 1471; George Husner, &c. 

14.61; Bamberg. First printers: Albrecht Pfister, who in 1461 
published Boner's Edelstein, though it is still doubtful whether he 
did not print earlier, while he has always been regarded as the 
printer of B M (see above) ; Joh. Sensenschmidt, c. 1480. 

1465; Subiaco. First and only printers: Conrad Sweynheym 
and Arnold Pannarts, who completed in that year an edition of 
Cicero, De Oratore, and Lactantius, and removed to Rome in 1467. 

1466; Cologne. Earliest printers: (l) Ulrich Zell, who published 
in that year Chrysostom, Super Psalmo quinquagesimo liber 
primus, though it is presumed that he printed already in 1463; 
(2) Arnold Ther Hoernen, 1470; (3) Johannes Koelhoff of Liibeck, 
1470, who printed the Cologne Chronicle in 1499; (4) Nicolaus 
Gotz, 1474; (5) Goiswinus Gops, 1475; (6) Petrus de Olpe, 1476 
(not 1470); (7) Conradus Winter of Homburg, 1476; (8) Joh. 
Guldenschaaf, 1477; (9) Henricus Quentel, 1479, &c. 2 

1467; Eltville. First printers: Nicolas and Henry Bechter- 
muncze and Wygandus Spyes de Orthenberg, who completed in 
that year a Vocabularius ex quo. 

1467; Rome. First printers: Conrad Sweynheym and Arnold 
Pannarts from Subiaco, who published an edition of Cicero's 
Epistolae ad familiares ; Ulrich Hahn or Udalricus Callus, who 
issued on the 3ist of December 1467 Turrecremata's Meditationes. 

1468; Augsburg. First printer: Giinther Zainer or Zeyner. 
Same year at Basel (first printer Berthold Rot of Hanau) and at 
Marienthal (Brothers of the Common Life). 

1469; Venice. Printers: (i) Johannes of Spires; (2) his brother 
Vindelinus of Spires; (3) Christopher Valdarfer; (4) Nicolas 
Jenson, &c. 

The further spread of typography is indicated by the following 
dates: 1470 at Nuremberg (Johan Sensenschmidt, Friedr. Creusner, 
Anton Koberger, &c.), Berona or Beromiinster in Switzerland 
(Helyas Helye alias De Llouffen), Foligno (Emilianus de Orfinis 
and Johannes Numeister), Trevi (Johann Reynard), Paris (first 
printers the three partners Ulrich Gering, Michael Friburger, Martin 
Krantz); 1471 at Spires, Bologna, Ferrara, Florence, Milan, Naples, 
Pavia, Treviso, Savigliano (Hans Glim?); 1472 at Esslingen, Cre- 
mona, Mantua, Padua, Brescia, Parma, Monreale (Mondovi), 
Fivizzano, Verona, lesi, St Ursino (?); 1473 at Lauingen, Ulm (per- 
haps as early as 1469), Merseburg, Alost, Utrecht, Lyons, Messina, 
Buda-Pest, Santorso; 1474 at Louvain, Genoa, Como, Savona, 
Turin, Vicenza, Modena, Valencia; 1475 at Liibeck, Breslau, Blau- 
beuren, Burgdorf, Trent, Cracow (?), Reggio (in Calabria), Cagli, 



1 M. Philippe, Origine de I'imprimerie a Paris, p. 219, mentions 
two books printed in this type, which contain manuscript notes, 
to the effect that they were purchased in 1464 and 1467, so that 
Inguilen is to be placed before Eggestein. 

2 Johann Veldener, who is said to have printed at Cologne, 
was never established there, but at Louvain (1473-1477), Utrecht 
(1478-1481), and Culenborg or Kuilenburg (1483-1484) ; see Holtrop, 
Man. typ., pp. 42, 47, 109. 



HISTORY] 



TYPOGRAPHY 



533 



Caselle or Casale, Pieve (Piove) di Sacco, Perugia, Piacenza, Sara- 
gossa; 1476 at Rostock, Bruges, Brussels, Angers, Toulouse, Pol- 
liano (Pogliano), Pilsen; 1477 at Reichenstein, Deventer, Gouda, 
Delft, Westminster, Lucca, Ascoli, Bergamo, Tortosa, Palermo, 
Seville; 1478 at Oxford, St Maartensdijk, Colle, Schussenried (in 
Wurtemberg), Eichstadt, Geneva, Vienne, Trogen (?), Chablis, 
Cosenza, Prague, Barcelona; 1479 at Erfurt, Wurzburg, Nijmegen, 
Zwolle, Poitiers, Toscolano, Pinerolo, Novi, Lerida, Segorbe, Saluzzo; 

1480 at London, St Albans (or in 1479), Oudenarde, Hasselt, Reggio 
(in Modena), Salamanca, Toledo, Nonantola, Friuli (?), Caen; 

1481 at Passau, Leipzig, Magdeburg, Treves, Urach, Casale di 
San Vaso, Saluzzo, Albi, Antwerp, Rougemont; 1482 at Reutlingen, 
Memmingen, Metz, Pisa, Aquila, Promentoux, Zamora, Odense, 
Chartres, Wien, Guadalajara, Mtinchen, Erfurt; 1483 at Leiden, 
Kuilenburg (Culenborg), Ghent, Chalons-sur-Marne (?), Gerona, 
Stockholm, Siena, Soncino, Salins; 1484 at Bois-le-Duc, Eichstatt, 
Novi, Sangermano, Chamb^ry, Udine, Winterberg, Klosterneuburg, 
Rennes, Loudeac, Tarragona; 1485 at Heidelberg, Ratisbon, 
Pescia, Vercelli, Treguier or Lantreguet, Brilnn, Salins, Burgos, 
Mallorca, Hijar, Palma, Xeres; 1486 at Munster, Stuttgart, 
Chiavasco, Voghera, Casal Maggiore, Abbeville, Schleswig, Toledo; 
1487 at Ingolstadt, Gaeta, Rouen, Murcia, Besancon; 1488 at 
Stendal, Viterbo, Gradisca, Faro, Constantinople, Lantenac; 1489 
at Hagenau, Kuttenberg, San Cucufat (near Barcelona), Portesio, 
Coria, Pamplona, Tolosa, Lisbon; 1490 at Embrun, Orleans, Gre- 
noble, Dole; 1491 at Hamburg, Kirchheim, Norzano, Goupillieres, 
Angoule'me, Dijon, Narbonne; 1492 at Marienburg, Cluni, Zinna, 
Valladolid, Leiria; 1493 at Luneburg, Freiburg (in Breisgau), 
Urbino, Cagliari, Lausanne, Nantes, Copenhagen, Rieka; 1494 at 
Oppenheim, Tours, Macon, Monterey, Braga; 1495 at Freismgen, 
Freiberg (near Leipzig), Scandiano, Forli, Limoges, Schoonhoven 
(monastery Den Hem), Pamplona, Wadstena, Cettinje; 1496 at 
Offenburg, Provins, Barco, Valence, Granada ; 1497 at Carmagnola, 
Avignon; 1498 at Tubingen, Perigueux, Schiedam, Gripsholm; 
1499 at Danzig, Olmtitz, Montserrat, Madrid; 1500 at Pforzheim, 
Sursee, Perpignan, Valenciennes, Jaen. 

Printing seems to have begun in Scotland after September 
1507, when King James IV. granted a patent to Walter Chepman 
and Andrew Myllar (also printed Millar) for the establishment 
of a printing press at Edinburgh. Their first book (The Maying 
or disport of Chaucer) appeared on the 4th of April 1508. Myllar, 
however, appeared to have been established there as a book- 
seller already in 1503 and to have published there his first book, 
Joh. de Garlandia Inter pr. wcabulorum equiwcorum (printed for 
him abroad) in 1505, his second Expositio Sequenliarum (also 
printed abroad) in 1506. (See Rob. Dickson and John Ph. 
Edmond, Annals of Scottish Printing from 1507 to the ijth 
century, Cambridge, 1890; Harry G. Aldis, List of Books printed 
in Scotland before 1700, Edinburgh 1904). Printing was intro- 
duced into Ireland at Dublin in 1551 by Humfrey Powell, who 
published in that year a verbal reprint of Whitchurch's edition 
of the Common Prayerbook of 1549. Printing in Irish types 
was brought into the kingdom in 1571 by N. Walsh and John 
Kearney, the first book printed in that type being A Catechism, 
written by Kearney. 

Above we have stated that printing was established at Avignon 

in the year 1497. But during the last two decades various trea- 

tises have been published endeavouring to show that 

yues on o p r ; n ^; n g na( j already been exercised there more than 

Avlsraon na '^ a centur y earlier. 

In 1890 the Abbat Requin discovered at Avignon, in 
three notarial registers, five Latin notarial Protocols of the years 
1444 and 1446, which, though they mention only the arts of " writing 
artistically," and painting different colours on stuffs, he and others 
interpreted as showing that, during those years, certain artisans 
had exercised the art of printing with movable types at Avignon; 
so that, if the art was not invented there, one of those artisans 
must have learnt the secret from Gutenberg, said to have been en- 
gaged in printing at Strassburg from 1436 to 1439. And hence 
Avignon, hitherto regarded as the 6oth town where printing was 
introduced, was to take the second place, if not the first, in the his- 
tory of the invention of printing, between Strassburg and Mainz 
(Requin, L'Imprimerie a Avignon en 1444, Paris, 1890; id., Origines 
de I'imprimerie^ en France, Avignon, 1444, Paris, 1891). 

From Requin's first document (dated July 4, 1444) it appears 
that a silversmith, Procopius Waldfoghel, of Prague, residing at 
Avignon, had received from a magister Manaudus (also called Menal- 
dus Vitalis, born at Dax, in the Departement des Landes, bacca- 
laureus in decretis, and student at Avignon) two alphabets of steel, 
two iron forms (frames?), one steel screw, 48 forms of tin, and divers 
other forms belonging to the "art of writing (duo abecedaria calibis 
et duas formas ferreas, unum instrumentum calibis vocatum vitis, 
quadraginta octo formas stangni necnon diversas alias formas ad artem 
scribendi pertinentes), and promised to return these instruments 



(ad usum scribendi pertinencia) the moment Manaudus asked for 
them. The second document (dated August 27, 1444) makes no 
mention of tools or instruments, but is Procopius's bond for two 
sums of money (10 to 27 florins) which he had borrowed from 
Georgius de la Jardina; for the first he promised to instruct the said 
George in the art of writing well and seemly, and to do the necessary 
and suitable things for one month (pro quibus promisit instruere 
dictum Georgium in arte scribendi bene et condecenter, et administrare 
necessaria et opportuna, hinc ad unum mensem), on condition that 
neither of them should instruct anyone else in the said art of 
writing, without the consent of the other (fuit tamen de pacto quod 
nullus non debeat instruere aliquem in dicta arte scribendi, nisi de 
hcentia alterius). The third document (March 10, 1446) is an 
agreement between Procopius and a Jew of Avignon named Davinus 
de Codarossia, who had advanced money to him and held property 
from him as security. The Jew had promised to teach Procopius 
to paint stuffs in different colours, and the latter had promised 
the Jew to make for him and to deliver to him " twenty-seven 
prepared Hebrew letters, well and properly cut in iron according 
to the science and practice of writing, which, two years ago, the said 
Procopius had shown and taught the Jew, together with instru- 
ments of wood, tin and iron (Procopius promisit . . . judeo facere 
et facias reddere et restituere viginti septem litteras ebreaycas formatas, 
scisas in ferro bene et debite juxta scientiam et practicam scribendi, 
sunt duo anni elapsi ipsi judeo per dictum Procopium ostensam et 
doctam, ut dixit, Una cum ingeniis de fusle, de stagno et de ferro). 
It was also agreed that the Jew should pay for the tin and wood 
for the instruments of the Hebrew writing (fuit de pacto quod idem 
judeus solvet stagnam et_ fustes artificiorum sive ingeniorum scripture 
ebrayce). And Procopius further promised to give the Jew, the 
following week, ten florins to recover certain pledges or utensils 
which the Jew had in pawn from him, the latter binding himself 
not to reveal the science or teach the art to any one as long as Pro- 
copius should remain at Avignon or in the neighbourhood (promisit 
eidem judeo dare decent florenps per totam hebdpmadam proxime 
futuram et restituere sibi certa pignora sive ustensilia que ipse judeus 
habet in pignora a dicto Procopio). The fourth document (April 5, 
1446) shows that Procopius had made for the above-named Menaldus 
Vitalis and Arnaldus de Coselhaco (and Girardus Ferrosis?) and de- 
livered to them several instruments or tools of iron,, steel, .copper, 
latten, lead, tin and wood for writing artistically; he had instructed 
them in the said art of writing artistically, and all the tools belonged 
to them in common. But Menaldus, wishing to sell his share in 
the said tools to the others and to retire from the association, twelve 
florins were paid to him in two instalments, but at the request of 
Procopius he testifies under oath th?t the said art of writing, taught 
him artistically by the said Procopius, was real and most proper, 
and also easy, practicable and useful to any one wishing and choosing 
to work it (Cum dictus Procopius super arte scribendi artificialiter 
fecerit venerabilibus viris . . . Menaldo Vitalis et Arnaldo de Cosel- 
haco . . . nonnulla instrumenta sive artificia causa artificialiter 
scribendi tarn ferro de callibe, de cupro, de lethono, de plumbo, de stagno, 
et de fuste . . . dictamque artem scribendi artificialiter eos dpcuerit, 
instrumentaque ipsa omnia et singula sint . . . communia inter 
eosdem studentes . . . Cumque dictus . . . Vitalis cupiat . . . par- 
tern suam dictorum instrumentorum sive artificiorum . . . vendere 
et a communione eorum recedere . . . vendidit dicto Procopio et 
Cirardo presentibus . . . partem suam . . . precio duodecim flore- 
norum . . . Ibidem Vitalis . . . media suo juramento . . . dixit 
. . . dictam artem scribendi per dictum Procopium artificialiter 
eidem doctam, esse veram et verissimam, esseque facilem, possibilem 
et utilem laborare volenti et diligenti earn). The fifth document 
(April 26, 1446) shows that Procopius had recovered from Davinus 
all the pledges which he had pawned with him, except one mantle 
and 48 letters engraved in iron, that Davinus had not yet carried 
out his part of the agreement as to teaching Procopius the painting 
of different colours on stuffs, whereas Procopius had delivered 
to the Jew all the arts, tools and instruments pertaining to writing 
artistically in Latin letters, as he had promised to do on the loth of 
March last. (Procopius confessus fuit se ab eodem judeo recepisse 
. omnia pignora sua per eum penes dictum judeum impignorata, 
excepto unp mantello et quadraginta octo litteris gravatis in ferro. 
Et . . . dictus judeus confessus fuit . . . recepisse a dicto Procopio 
. . . omnia artificia, ingenia et instrumenta ad scribendum artifi- 
cialiter in litera latina, &c.) Again the compact is that Davinus 
shall not reveal the science to anyone, at least so long as Procopius 
should reside at Avignon or within 30 m. in the neighbourhood. 
(nemini mundi dicere, notificare nee quovismodo revelare, per se nee 
per alium ullomodo, presentem scientiam in teorica nee pratica, et 
nulli mundi earn docere neque revelare earn fuisse ostensam per 
quemvis). 

It is difficult to find the art of printing with movable types, 
or the art of casting types in these documents. The Abbat, how- 
ever, says they prove the establishment of a printing-office at 
Avignon in 1444, and he reads " matrices," " caracteres d'impri- 
merie," une " imprimerie," and " tout un materiel d'imprimerie " in 
them, although the documents themselves do not mention such things ; 
they only allude to the " art of writing," the " practice " or " exer- 
cise of writing " ; the " art of writing well and seemly " ; the " science 
and practice of writing "; the "art of writing artistically." And 



534 



TYPOGRAPHY 



[HISTORY 



there is, apparently, no reason to think that these precise documents, 
while speaking exclusively of this art, should always mean another 
art which they do not mention. Procopius, indeed, seemed to 
have known an art of writing, in which he instructed others (second 
document) and which he and his associates wished to keep secret, 
while the " letters," tools, &c. of which they speak were no doubt 
" movable." 

But Procopius himself appears to' have possessed neither letters 
nor tools nor instruments or forms at the beginning of these pro- 
ceedings; it was Menaldus Vitalis, a bachelor of law and. student 
at Avignon, who entrusted to him the " two steel alphabets, two 
iron forms, one steel screw, and forty -eight tin and other forms," 
mentioned in the first document of 1444. Procopius, however, 
appears to have seen no permanent value in these letters, forms, &c. 
as he, of his own accord, promised to return them at the first 
request of Menaldus, who had handed them to Procopius without 
asking for a receipt. The third document, however, makes it plain 
that Procopius engraved for Davinus the Jew, not for himself, 
twenty-seven Hebrew letters (therefore a complete alphabet, in- 
cluding the five final letters) in iron, in accordance with the art of 
writing which he had taught Davinus two years ago, together with 
tools of wood, tin and iron, in return for which the Jew would teach 
Procopius the art of painting stuffs. The fourth document shows 
that Procopius had made tools of iron, steel and other metals for 
writing artistically, but again not for himself but for two other men 
one of whom was Menaldus who, two years ago, had entrusted him 
with two alphabets and some tools; Procopius, however, had this 
time reserved to himself a share in these tools, and Menaldus sold 
his share in the tools for twelve florins to the other associates, so 
that the value of all these tools cannot have amounted to more 
than about 36 florins of Avignon currency. 

Therefore, the precise descriptions in the documents of the 
letters, tocls and instruments required for Procopius's art of writing 
artistically, and the absence of all allusions to paper, ink and other 
things necessary for printing with movable types, show that there 
is no reference to this art, even in its infancy. That art means the 
multiplication of books or documents by means of an adequate 
quantity of single types for composing a whole page of text, and 
capable of being taken asunder and used again for a second, a third 
and a multitude of other pages, and so produce a number of copies 
of a book in the same or a shorter time than a scribe with his pen 
could produce one copy. But two Latin alphabets (of steel) 
and one Hebrew alphabet (of iron) would not suffice for composing 
and printing more than two or three words on any one page at a 
time, so that a person with such a small quantity of letters at his 
command would, in several respects, be worse off than a scribe. 
Hence the documents which only refer to the art of writing, mean 
nothing more serious than an art of taking impressions of certain 
letters (perhaps initials or capitals) in a more regular and steady 
fashion than even trained scribes could produce them by hand. 
For pressing in such (ornamental) initials or capitals here and there 
in MSS., after the scribes had done their ordinary work of writing, 
the insulated alphabets of Menaldus and Davinus would be a great 
help and save a deal of time and labour, but useless for the art of 
printing with movable types. If the two steel alphabets, and the 
one Hebrew alphabet of iron, and the 48 letters engraved in iron 
had been patrices, and the 48 forms of tin had been matrices, the 
documents, no doubt, would contain some expressions to show this, 
in spite of the endeavour not to divulge this art of writing. What 
the nature of this writing was, and why all these forms and instru- 
ments, even a screw, were required, we cannot say. It has been 
pointed out that the art of printing was also described as an art 
of writing, which is true; but when it is so described we learn at the 
same time that typography is meant. But we must bear in mind 
that Davinus the Jew was engaged on the painting of colours on 
stuffs and that Procopius desired to become acquainted with this 
industry. No doubt tools were much more required for this work 
than for writing. However, this writing association seems to have 
come to an end in 1446, and the parties departed fromVAvignon, 
without leaving there or anywhere else any trace of themselves 
and their interesting operations. See also Zedler, Gutenberg- 
Forsch., p. 10 sqq. 

As for non-European countries and towns, printing was 
established in Mexico in 1544, at Goa about 15 50, at Tranquebar 
in 1569, Terceira in the Azores 1583, Lima 1585, Manila and 
Macao (China) 1590, in Haiti in the beginning of the i7th 
century, at Puebla in 1612, Cambridge (Mass.) 1638, Batavia 
1668, Tiflis 1701, German-town 1735, Ceylon 1737, Halifax 
(Nova Scotia) 1766, Madras 1772, Calcutta 1778, Buenos Aires 
1789, Bombay 1792, in Egypt (at Alexandria, Cairo, and Gizeh) 
in 1798, at Sydney 1802, Cape Town 1806, Montevideo 1807, 
Sarepta 1808, Valparaiso 1810, Astrakhan 1815, in Sumatra 
and at Hobart Town and Santiago (in Chile) in 1818, in Persia 
(at Teheran) in 1820, and at Chios about 



1 On the introduction of printing in various towns, consult Henry 
Cotton, A Typog. Gazet., 8vo, Oxford, 1831 and (second series, 8vo, 



Till the moment (say 1477) that printing was practised in almost 
all the chief towns of the Netherlands, Germany, Italy, Switzer- 
land, France, Spain, England, not a single printer car- 
ried away with him a set of types or a set of punches Custon 
or moulds from the master who had taught him, but, in p-i 
setting up his printing office, each man cast a set of types wters. 
for his own use, always imitating as closely as possible the hand- 
writing indigenous to his locality, or. of some particular manuscript 
which he or his patron desired to publish. When we compare 
Schoeffer's 3O-line Indulgence of 1454 with a manuscript copy of 
the same Indulgence dated the loth of April 1454, now in the 
hands of a private collector at Wiesbaden, we see that the 
types used in printing that document were specially cast for 
the purpose after the model of the handwriting employed for 
the written copies. We know also that the types of the 36-line 
and 42-line Bibles and those of the Psalter of 1457 are the closest 
possible imitations of the ornamental church handwriting cus- 
tomary at the time of their production. Also, when we compare 
the 31-line Indulgence of 1454 with the German blockbook 
called the Enndtchrist, and both in their turn with the German 
MSS. of that period (especially the manuscript portions in the 
printed copies of the Indulgences), we see that the cutter of 
the text type of the Indulgence, as well as the engraver of 
the blockbook, formed his characters according to some German 
handwriting (book hand) of the period. This imitation extended, 
not only to the shape of the individual letters of the alphabet, but 
likewise to all those combinations of letters (double p, double /, 
double s, st, ti, tu, re, cu, ct, si, de, co, ci, te, ce, or, ve, po, fa, he, be, 
&c.) and contractions (for pro, -urn, -em, -en, the-, uer, -bus, -bis, sed, 
am, tur, qui, quae, quod, secundum, &c.) which were then, and had 
been for many centuries, in use by scribes. In most, if not all 
cases, the MSS. which the printers imitated were, as has been re- 
marked above, indigenous to the place where they settled. Thus 
the first printers of Subiaco, though they were Germans and had 
most probably learnt the art of casting types and printing at Mainz, 
yet cut their types after the model of some Italian MS. which was 
free from any Gothic influence, but written in a pure Caroline 
minuscule hand, differing but slightly from the Caroline minuscules 
which the same printers adopted two years afterwards at Rome. 
The first Paris printers started in 1470 with a type cast entirely on 
the model of the Caroline minuscule handwriting then in vogue at 
Paris. John de Westphalia, who introduced printing into Belgium, 
used from the beginning a type which he calls Venetian. Therefore 
a great similarity (without absolute identity) between the types of 
two printers (e.g. Schoeffer and Ulr. Zell), should be attributed to 
the similarity of the handwritings which the printers followed, not 
to any attempt on their part to imitate each other's types. To this 
universal system (clearly discernible in the first twenty-five years 
of printing) of each printer setting up business with a new type cast 
by himself, there would be, according to the conjectures of some 
bibliographers, only two exceptions; one is Albrecht Pfister (see 
above); the other is the Bechtermunczes of Eltville (see above). 2 

Another important feature in the earliest books is that the printers 
imitated, not only the handwriting, with all its contractions, com- 
bined letters, &c., but all the other peculiarities of the,, 
MSS. they copied. There is in the first place the un- U ??* eaae " 
evenness of the lines, which often serves as a guide ^ o ofl - laes - 
the approximate date of an early printed book, especially when we 
deal with the works of the same printer, since each commenced with 
uneven lines, and gradually made them less uneven, and finally 
even. The unevenness was unavoidable in manuscripts as well 
as in blockbooks; but in the earliest printed books it is regarded 
as evidence of the inability of the printers to space out their lines. 
If this theory be correct, this inability was perhaps owing to the 
types being perforated and connected with each other by a thread, 
or to some other cause which has not yet been clearly ascertained. 
In some incunabula we find some pages with uneven lines, and others 
quite straight in the same book. It is not impossible, however, 
that the unevenness was simply part and parcel of the system of 
imitating MSS., and that only gradually about 1473 or 1474, but 
in some cases later) printers began to see that even lines looked better 
than uneven. This seems clear when we observe that the imitation 
of MSS. was carried so far that sometimes things which deviated 
from the work of the scribe, but had accidentally been printed in, 
were afterwards erased and altered in conformity with the MS. 
The Paris Library, for, instance, possesses two copies of the Liber 
Epistolarum of Gasparinus Pergamensis (printed at Paris in 1470), 
in both of which the initial G of the first line and the initial M of the 
fourth line were printed in, and, whilst they have been allowed to 



Oxford, 1866) ; (P. Deschamps) Diet, de geogr. d I' usage du libraire, 
(8vo, Paris, 1870); R. C. Hawkins, Titles of the First Books from the 
Earliest Presses Established in Different Cities in Europe, (410, New 
York, 1 884) ; Rob. Proctor, Early Printed Books in the BritishMuseum , 
(1898), &c. 

2 In recent years Dr Dziatzko, overlooking the relation between 
MSS. and typography in its infancy, has attempted to show that 
the types of the 36-line Bible were imitations of those of the 42-line 
Bible. 



HISTORY] 



TYPOGRAPHY 



535 



remain in one of the copies, in the other they were regarded as a 
fault and replaced by a rubricated L and M. 

In the second place the initials of books or the chapters of books in 
MSS., and again in blockbooks and the earliest products of printing, 
were always, or at least in most cases (they are printed 
as ' in the Indulgences of 1454), omitted by the scribe and the 
printer and afterwards filled in by the rubricator. As the latter artists 
were sometimes illiterate and very often filled up the gap by a wrong 
initial, we find in many MSS. as -well as early printed books small 
letters written either in the margin or in the blank left for the initial, 
to guide the rubricator. In most cases where these letters (now 
called initial directors) were written in the margin, they were placed 
as much as possible on the edges of the pages in order that they 
might be cut away by the binder as unsightly; but in many 
incunabula they have remained till the present day. 1 Later on 
these initial directors were in many books printed in (in lower-case 
type) with the text. In all cases, whether written or printed, they 
were meant to be covered by the illuminated initial ; but, as a matter 
of fact, the latter very seldom covers the initial director so completely 
as to make it invisible, and in various cases the intended illumination 
was never carried into effect. With respect to the hyphens, which 
were used in the 1454 Indulgences and the 36-line and 
Hyphens. ^ 2 -line Bibles, always outside the printed margin, some 
of the earliest printers did not employ them at the moment that 
they started their presses, and in the case of some printers the non- 
use or use of hyphens, and their position outside or inside the 
printed margin, serve as a guide to the dating of their products. 
After about 1472 they become more uniform in their shape and 
more generally used. 

The use of signatures was confined in MSS. mostly to mark the 
quires (with a numeral or a letter of the alphabet), sometimes also 
the leaves; in many cases they were written close to the 
S&natures. Bottom o f t h e leaf, so that they might be cut off by the 
binder, which has happened in many cases, wholly or in part, as may 
be seen in many MSS.; in blockbooks they are usually printed with 
the picture on each sheet or page; they are not printed in incunabula 
close to the bottom line of the page before 1472 (at least in no earlier 
book with a date), when they appear in Joh. Nider's Praeceptorium 
Divinae Legis, published by Johan Koelhoff at Cologne. Caxton 
did not adopt them till 1480. In the books printed before 1472 
they were written by the rubricator or the binder, in the same way 
as in the MSS. 

Catchwords (custodes) were used for the first time about 1469 by 
. Johannes of Spires, at Venice, in the first edition of 
Cate *"' " fs -Tacitus. 

Pagination or rather foliation was first used by Arn. Ther Hoernen, 
at Cologne in 1471, in Adrianus's Liber de remediis forluitorum 

casuum, having each leaf (not page) numbered by 
Pagination. figures placed j n the end o{ the lme Qn the middle of 

each right-hand page. 

The practice among early printers of imitating and reproducing 
MSS. was not abandoned till many years after the first dated docu- 
Si a o/ ment ( ! 454) ma de its appearance; and, looking at the 
Progress at boo ' cs printed, say from 1454 to 1477, from our present 
First standpoint, the printing of that period may be said to 

have been almost wholly stagnant, without any improve- 
ment or modification. If some printers (for instance, Sweynheym and 
Pannarts at Subiaco and Rome, and Nicolas Jenson at Venice) 
produced handsomer books than others, this is to be attributed to the 
beauty of the MSS. imitated and the paper used rather than to any 
superior skill. Generally speaking, therefore, we shall not be far 
wrong in saying that the workmanship of Ketelaer and De Leempt's 
first book, published at Utrecht c. 1473, and that of Caxton's first 
book issued at Westminster in 1477, exhibit almost the same stage 
of the art of printing as the 1454 Indulgences. If, therefore, any 
evidence were found that Ketelaer and De Leempt and Caxton had 
really printed their first books in 1454, there would hardly be any- 
thing in the workmanship of these books to prevent us from placing 
them in that year. And conversely, if the Indulgences of 1454 had 
been issued without a date or without any names to indicate their 
approximate date, their workmanship might induce bibliographers 
to ascribe them to c. 1470, if not somewhat later. Even after 
1477 alterations in the mode of printing books came about slowly 
and almost imperceptibly. It was no longer a universal system for 
printers to begin business by casting a type for themselves, but some 
received their types from one of their colleagues. And, though there 
were still many varieties of types, one sort began to make its 
appearance in two or three different places. The combinations of 
letters were the first to disappear; but the contractions remain in 
a good many books even of the 1 7th century. 

Some theories have been based on, and others have been considered 
to be upset by, the supposition that the early printers always 
required as much type as printers of the present day, or at any rate 

1 The university library of Basel possesses a collection of the 
earliest Paris books still bound in their original binding, in which 
these initial directors are written not only on the outer edges, but 
on the inner sides of the pages, and so close to the back that they 
can only be seen by stretching the books wide open. 



so much as would enable them to set up, not only a whole quire of 
4 or 5 sheets ( = 8 or 10 leaves= 16 or 20 pages), but even two quires 
( = 40 pages). Consequently calculations have been made that, for 
instance, the printer of the 42-line Bible required a fount of at least 
120,000 characters. See Bernard, Orig. de I'impr. i. 164, who was 
a printer himself and speaks very strongly on this point. But there 
are numerous proofs that many early books were printed page by 
page, even when in small 4to. For instance, in some books it has 
been observed that portions of the types with which the text of the 
first, second or third pages of a quire had been printed, were used 
to " lock up " the types emploved for the later pages of the same 
quire, as is evident from the blank impressions of such portions being 
found on these later pages. Again, in some small books, two, three 
or four blank leaves are found at the end, showing a miscalculation 
of the printer at the commencement. Moreover, numerous itinerant 
printers of the I5th century established a press for a short time 
wherever they went, which proves that the furniture of the earliest 
printing-offices cannot have been of any great extent. 

Early Types and their Fabrication. We must now take 
notice of two theories or traditions which have been current 
for a long time as to some intervening stage between the art 
of block-printing and the art of printing with movable cast 
metal types. 2 One theory or tradition would have it that the 
inventor of printing, after the idea of single, individual, movable 
types had arisen in his mind, practised his new invention for 
some time with wooden types, and that he came only gradually 
to the idea of movable types cast of metal. 

Junius gives us to understand that the Dutch Speculum was 
printed with such wooden types. Of Johann Gutenberg it was 
asserted that he printed his first Bible with wooden , . 
types. The Mainz psalter, printed in 1457 by Joh. Fust ~y l 
and Peter Schoeffer, was alleged to have been printed ypes 
with wooden types, in which case the 4th edition, published in 1502, 
and even the 5th edition of 1516, would be printed with wooden 
types, the same being used for them as for the editions of 1457 and 
1459. Theod. Bibliander was the first to speak (in 1548) of such types 
and to describe them: first they cut their letters, he says, on wood 
blocks the size of an entire page; but, because the labour and cost 
of that way was so great, they devised movable wooden types, 
perforated and joined one to the other by a thread. 3 Bibliander 
does not say that he had ever seen such types himself, but Dan. 
Speckle or Specklin (d. 1589), who ascribed the invention to Mentelin, 
asserts that he saw some of these wooden types at Strassburg. 4 
Angelo Roccha asserted in 1591 that he had seen at Venice 
types perforated and joined one to the other by a thread, but he 
does not say whether they were of wood or of metal. 6 In 1710 
Paulus Pater asserted that he had seen wooden types made of the 
trunk of a box-tree, and perforated in the centre to enable them to 
be joined together by a thread, originating from the office of Fust 
at Mainz. 6 Bodman, as late as 1781, saw the same types in a worm- 
eaten condition at Mainz; and Fischer stated in 1802 that these 
relics were used as a sort of token of honour to be bestowed on worthy 
apprentices on the occasion of their finishing their term. 

Besides those who believed in these wooden types from the fact 
that the letters (especially in the Speculum) vary among themselves 
in a manner which would not be the case had they been cast from 
a matrix in a mould, there were authors and practical printers who 
attempted to cut themselves, or to have cut for them, some such 
wooden types as were alleged to have been used by the early printers. 
Some of them came to the conclusion that such a process would be 
quite practicable; others found by experiment that it would, in the 
case of small types, be wholly impossible. Nearly all the experi- 
ments, however, were made with the idea that the inventor of print- 
ing, or the earliest printers, started, or had to start, with as large 
a supply of type as a modern printer. This idea is erroneous, as it 
is known that, for a good many years after the first appearance of 
the art, printers printed their books (large or small) not by quires 
(quaternions or quinternions) but page by page. 7 Therefore, all 
considerations of the experimenters as to the impracticability of 
such wooden types, on account of the trouble and length of time 
required for the cutting of thousands of types, fall to the ground in 
face of the fact that the earliest printers required only a very small 
quantity of type, in spite of the peculiar forms (combined letters, 
letters with contractions, &c.) which were then in vogue. Up to 



1 We do not allude to Tritheim's assertion that the Catholicon 
of 1460 was printed from wooden blocks; for this story, which he 
declares he had heard from Peter Schoeffer, if it were true, would 
belong to the history of block-printing. Nor need we speak of 
Bergellanus's verses (1541), in which he distinctly alludes to carved 
blocks. 

3 Commentatio de ratione communi omnium linguarum et literarum, 
p. 80 (Zurich, 1548). 

4 Chron. Argent. MS. ed. Jo. Schilterus, p. 442. 
6 De Bibliotheca Vaticana, p. 412 (Rome, 1591). 

6 De Germaniae miraculo, p. 10 (Leipzig, 1710). 

7 See, for instance, W. Blades, Life of Caxton, i. 39. 



536 



TYPOGRAPHY 



[HISTORY 



the present time no book or document has come to light which can 
be asserted to have been printed from single, movable, wooden types. 
But we have seen above that the Haarlem tradition, as told by 
Junius, distinctly points to such types having been used for, among 
other things, the first edition of the Dutch Spiegel, and no one 
examining this edition (of which two copies are preserved at Haar- 
lem) would deny that there are grounds for this belief; the dancing 
condition of the lines and letters making it almost impossible to 
think that they are metal types. For how long and to what extent 
such types were employed, if at all, we cannot say. 

The other theory would have it that between block-printing and 
printing with movable cast types there was an intermediate stage 
_, of printing with " sculpto-fusi " types, that is, types 

f iTaes * wn ' c h t^ 6 shanks had been cast in a quadrilateral 
<"" mould, and the " faces," i.e. the characters or letters, 
engraved by hand afterwards. This theory was suggested by 
some who could not believe in wooden types and yet wished to 
account for the marked irregularities in the types of the earliest 
printed books. 

Gerardus Meerman, the chief champion of this theory, based it, 
not only on the words of Celtes. (Amores, iii. 3), who in 1502 described 
Mainz as the city " quae prima sculpsit solidos aere characteres," 
but on the frequent recurrence of the word sculptus in the colophons 
of the early printers (for Jenson and Husner of Strassburg, see p. 514 
above). Sensenschmid in 1475 said that the Codex Justinianus 
was " cut " (insculptus), and that he had " cut " (sculpsit) the work 
of Lombardus, In Psalterium. Meerman also interpreted the 
account of the invention of printing by Trithemius 1 as meaning that, 
after the rejection of the first wooden types, the inventors discovered 
a method of casting the bodies only of all the letters of the Latin 
alphabet from what they called matrices, on which they cut the face 
of each letter; and from the same kind of matrices a method was in 
time discovered of casting the complete letters of sufficient hardness 
for the pressure they had to bear, which letters they were before 
that is, when the bodies only were cast obliged to cut. 2 In this 
way Meerman explained that the Speculum was printed in sculpto- 
fusi types, although in the one page of which he gives a facsimile 
there are nearly 1700 separate types, of which 250 alone are e's. 
Schoepflin claimed the same invention for Strassburg, and believed 
that all the earliest books printed there were produced by this means. 
Meerman and Schoepflin agreed that engraved metal types (literae 
in aere sculptae) were in use for many years after the invention of 
the punch and matrix, mentioning among others so printed the 
Mainz psalter, the Catholicon of 1460, the Eggestein Bible of 1468, 
and even the Praeceptorium of Nider, printed at Strassburg in 1476. 
But the difficulty connected with the process of first casting the 
shanks and afterwards engraving the faces of the types has become 
apparent to those who have made experiments; and it seems more 
probable that the terms sculpere, exsculpere, insculpere, are only a 
figurative allusion to the first process towards producing the types, 
namely, the cutting of the punch, which is artistically more im- 
portant to the fabrication of types than the mechanical casting all 
the more as Schoeffer in 1468 makes his Grammalica veins rhythmica 
say, " I am cast at Mainz," an expression which could hardly be 
anything but a figurative allusion to the casting of the types. 

Granting that all the earlier works of typography preserved to us 
are impressions of cast-metal types, there are still differences of 
Tvoes Cast P' n ' on ' especially among practical printers and type- 
InSaad founders, as to the probable methods employed to cast 
them. It is i considered unlikely that the inventor of 
printing passed all at once to the perfect typography of the punch, 
the matrix and the mould. Bernard 3 thought that the types of the 
Speculum were cast in sand, as that art was certainly known to the 
silversmiths and trinket-makers of the I5th century ; and he accounts 
for the varieties observable in the shapes of various letters on 
the ground that several models would probably be made of each 
letter, and that the types, when cast by this imperfect mode, would 
require some touching up or finishing by hand. He exhibits a 
specimen of a word cast for him by this process which not only 
proves the possibility of casting types in this manner, but also 
shows the same kind of irregularities as those observable in the 
types of the Speculum. 

But here again it is argued that in types cast by this or any other 
primitive method there would be an absence of uniformity in what 
founders term " height to paper." Some types would stand higher 
than others, and the low ones, unless raised, would miss the ink and 
not appear in the impression. The comparative rarity of faults of 
this kind in the Speculum leads one to suppose that, if a process of 
sand-casting had been adopted, the difficulty of uneven heights had 
been surmounted either by locking up the forme face downwards, 
or by perforating the types, either at the time of casting or after- 
wards, and holding them in their places by means of a thread or wire. 

1 Annales Hirsaugienses, ii. 421 : " Post haec inventis successerunt 
subtiliora, inveneruntque mpdum fundendi formas omnium Latini 
alphabeti literarum, quas ipsi matrices nominabant, ex quibus 
rursum aeneos sive stanneos characteres fundebant, ad omnem 
pressuram sufficientes, quos prius manibus sculpebant." 

1 Origines typographicae, app. p. 47 (The Hague, 1765). 

* Origine de I'imprimerie, i. 40. 



To this cause Ottley attributed the numerous misprints in the 
Speculum, to correct which would have involved the unthreading 
of every line in which an error occurred. And, as a still more 
striking proof that the lines were put into the forme one by one, in 
a piece, he shows a printer's blunder at the end of page 42 in the 
unmixed Dutch edition, where the whole of the last reference-line 
is put in upside down, thus: 

Hot Buna brapnt alapritir tube nitt t>urtrnt>r. 



A " turn " of this magnitude could hardly have occurred if the 
letters had been set in the forme type by type. 

A second suggested mode is that of casting in clay moulds, by a 
method very similar to that used in the sand process, and resulting 
in similar peculiarities and variations in the types. 

Ottley, who was the chief exponent of this theory, Types Cast 
suggested that the types were made by pouring melted la Clay 
lead or other soft metal into moulds of earth or plaster, Moulds. 
after the ordinary manner used from time immemorial in casting 
statues of bronze and other articles of metal. But the mould thus 
formed could hardly avail for a second casting, as it would be 
scarcely possible to extract the type after casting without breaking 
the clay, and, even if that could be done, the shrinking of the metal 
in cooling would be apt to warp the mould beyond the possibility 
of further use. Ottley therefore suggests that the constant renewal 
of the moulds could be effected by using old types cast out of them, 
after being touched up by the grayer, as models a process which 
he thinks will account for the varieties observable in the different 
letters, but which would really cause such a gradual deterioration 
and attenuation in the type, as the work of casting progressed, that 
in the end it would leave the face of the letter unrecognizable as that 
with which it began. It would, therefore, be more reasonable to 
suppose that one set of models would be used for the preparation 
of all the moulds necessary for the casting of a sufficient number of 
types to compose a page, and for the periodical renewal of the 
moulds all through the work, and that the variations in the types 
would be due, not to the gradual paring of the faces of the models, 
but to the different skill and exactness with which the successive 
moulds would be taken. 

It is evident that the sand and clay methods of casting types 
above described would be slow. The time occupied after the first 
engraving of the models in forming, drying and clearing the moulds, 
in casting, extracting, touching up and possibly perforating the types 
required for one page, would exceed the time required by a practised 
xylographer for the cutting of a page of text upon a block. But he 
that has gone through the trouble of casting separate movable 
types has a clear gain over the wood-block printer in having a fount 
of movable types, which, even if the metal in which they were cast 
were only soft lead or pewter, might be used again and again in the 
production of any other page of text, while the wood block can only 
produce the one page which it contains. Moreover, only one hand 
could labour on the xylographic block; but many hands could be 
employed in the moulding and casting of types, however rude they 
might be. Bernard states that the artist who produced for him 
the few sand-cast types shown in his work assured him that a work- 
man could easily produce a thousand such letters a day. He also 
states that, though each letter required squaring after casting, there 
was no need to touch up the faces. 

A third suggestion was made as to the method in which the types 
of the rude school may have been produced. This may ... 
be described as a system of what the founders of about " > v*yp*' 
1800 called polytype, which is a cast or facsimile copy of an engraved 
block, matter in type, &c. 

Lambinet, 4 who is responsible for the suggestion, based upon a 
new translation of Trithemius's narrative, explains that this process 
really means an early adoption of stereotype. He thinks that the 
first printers may have discovered a way of moulding a page of 
some work an Abecedarium in cooling metal, so as to get a matrix- 
plate impression of the whole page. Upon this matrix they would 
pour a liquid metal, and by the aid of a roller or cylinder press the 
fused matter evenly, so as to make it penetrate into all the hollows 
and corners of the letters. This tablet of tin or lead, being easily 
lifted and detached from the matrix, would then appear as a surface 
of metal in which the letters of the alphabet stood out reversed and 
in relief. These letters could easily be detached and rendered 
mobile by a knife or other sharp instrument, and the operation 
could be repeated a hundred times a day. The metal faces so 
produced would be fixed on wooden shanks, type high, and the fount 
would then be complete. Lambinet's hypothesis was endorsed by 
Firmin-Didot, the renowned type-founder and printer of Lambinet's 
day. But it is impossible to suppose that the Mainz psalter of 1 457, 
which these writers point to as a specimen of this mode of execution, 
is the impression, not of type at all, but of a collection of " casts " 
mounted on wood. 

Yet another theory has been proposed by Dr Ch. Enschede, head 
of the celebrated type foundry of the same name at Haarlem, who 
says (pp. 15 sqq. of his Technisch onderzoek naar de uitvinding van 
de Boekdrukkunst, 1901), that the principle of a printing surface 



4 Orig. de I'imprimerie i. 97 (2 vols. 8vo., Paris, 1810). 



HISTORY] 



TYPOGRAPHY 



537 



composed of separate pieces was known to the block-printer, but he 

would have found it impossible to use small insulated blocks of wood 

, for printing, or to manufacture them for that purpose 

Enschede ^jth ^he necessary mathematical precision. Hence the 

i*ory. jj ea Q f separate movable characters was not the inven- 
tion of printing, but the art of casting them, and this was a work 
not for the block-printer, but for another industry, for a foundry. 

From the types of B 36 and B 42 Enschede concludes that Guten- 
berg's punches (patrices) were made, like the bookbinders' stamps, 
of yellow copper (brass, Germ. Messing). With such patrices only 
jeaden matrices could be made, but the latter could be produced 
in two ways: the lead can be poured over the patrix, or the patrix 
be pressed into cold lead. The first mode is somewhat complex, 
but the matrix would have a smooth surface, and need no further 
adjustment. The second mode is more simple, but requires great 
force, although lead is a soft metal. Moreover, the surface of the 
matrix has to be trimmed, as the impression forces the lead down- 
wards and sidewards, which makes the surface uneven, though by 
this pressure the lead becomes firmer and more compact, to the 
advantage of the type-founder. Enschede' thinks that Gutenberg's 
letters must have been sharp, and that he obtained his matrices by 
the second mode; he had each letter engraved on a brass plate, 
2mm. thick, therefore a mere letter without anything underneath 
it. This letter, (patrix) was pressed, by means of a small flat plate, 
so far into the metal that its back formed one surface with the top 
part of the lead, and then removed. After the patrix and matrix 
had been made in this way, the letter was to be cast, and Enschede 
believes that for this work Gutenberg used what in Germany is 
called the Abklatsch-method, which, after having been gradually 
improved, was at last superseded by more perfect machinery. By 
this method the letter was cast in two tempos. First the letter 
itself on a small plate; then the plate placed underneath a casting- 
form, to fix it to a small shank, which was to be cast into the form 
and would make, with the plate, the exact height of the letter. The 
letter on the plate was made not by pouring the metal into the 
matrix, but by beating the latter into the molten metal. When lead 
is heated so as to be a soft mass it easily assumes the form of any 
object which falls on or in it, therefore also of the matrix, which is 
the image of the engraved type. When the metal is not over- 
heated it will immediately cool down by contact with the cold 
matrix, so that the latter will not be injured, although it consists 
of the same substance as the molten metal. In this way a great 
many letters can be cast from one matrix. Enschede' describes 
various difficulties connected with this method, and tells us that 
only large letters, like those of B 36 and B 42 , could be made by it, 
as the operation of adding the shank to the letter becomes impossible 
in the case of smaller letters. Hence Gutenberg, having conceived 
the idea of printing from seeing (!) the Dutch Donatuses, chose this 
large size of type for his work; for the smaller types of the 1454 
Indulgences a copper matrix was required, which, in its turn, necessi- 
tated the use of a steel patrix, the introduction of which he ascribes, 
as others have done before him (e.g. Bergellanus), to Peter Schoeffer. 

As to the Costerian types, their bad and irregular condition shows, 
he thinks, that they were produced from leaden matrices, and the 
latter from brass patrices, though wooden patrices are also possible, 
but not probable. All the tools, however, were imperfect, and the 
workmen inexperienced, and therefore bound to produce such 
imperfections as he finds in the Abecedarium and Donatus types. 
But the types were cast in one tempo; the Abklatsch-methoA would 
have been out of the question for them on account of their small 
size. In this way Ensched6 thinks Coster, not having learnt his 
art from anybody, invented the type cast with the staff, in one 
tempo, while Gutenberg, having had a Costerian Donatus as his 
model, cast his large types in two tempos by the Abklatsch system 
till Peter Schoeffer, by means of his steel patrices, was able to cast 
smaller types such as those of the 1454 Indulgences, with staff and all. 

Enschede warns us that he is merely making suggestions as a 
type-founder, that he is not a bibliographer, and leaves the inter- 
pretation of documents to others. We quote his theories as coming 
From such a qualified type-founder, and because they have made 
sorrte impression in certain quarters, but they lead us away from the 
real points connected with the invention of printing. First of all 
the " casting of metal types " is not, as he thinks, the first stage in 
the invention; its beginning, its essence is, and has always been 
thought to be, the movability of the characters. This movability, 
and the accidental way in which it was discovered, form together 
the pith of the Haarlem tradition as told by Junius. He indicates 
it, without using the word " movable," by saying that Coster, 
while walking in the Haarlem wood, cut some letters in the bark 
of a tree, and with them, " reversely impressed one by one on paper," 
composed one or two lines. Nothing seems more natural than that 
a block-printer (as the printer of the xylographically printed 
Speculum must have been) should cut such separate letters, and 
thereupon perceive that they could be used over and over again 
for a variety of words, on different pages, while those which he used 
to cut in a block only served him for one page and for one purpose. 
It is equally clear from the Haarlem tradition that the art of casting 
metal types was the second stage in the invention, a development 
or outcome of the primary idea of " movable letters," and the realiza- 
tion of their advantage, for Junius says that Coster " afterwards 



changed the beechen characters into leaden, and the latter again 
into tin ones." This also shows that the discoverer of the insulated 
movable wooden letters after realizing, perhaps, that they could 
not endure much pressure, or missed (as EnschedS says) the mathe- 
matical precision necessary for his purpose transformed himself 
from a woodcutter into a letter-founder, and had no recourse 
(as Enschede would have it) for casting his types to a foundry 
apart from his own. As this transformation is possible and probable 
there seems to be no reason for departing from the simple but 
clear Haarlem tradition as we read it in Junius. 

In the infancy of printing every printer, in different countries and 
different towns, starts with his own types; hence we may conclude 
that he had learnt the art of engraving and casting them himself, 
and so combined the art of type-founding with that of printing. 
This points back to a combination of the two or three arts in the 
first printing-office. It would be strange if the inventor of the 
movable letters, whom we have shown to have been a block- 
printer, and therefore acquainted with the art of engraving letters, 
and other mechanical contrivances connected with printing, had 
lacked the ability, which his immediate followers possessed, of 
imparting to his movable characters, by some means or another, 
that firmness and precision which he required for the realization 
of his invention. How long Coster had been a block-printer before 
he invented, and how long and to what extent he continued to use, 
the movable wooden letters, we cannot tell. 

That Enschede' ascribes to Coster the invention of casting metal 
types with a shank (as they have been manufactured for centuries 
afterwards), and that of another mode of manufacturing types 
(the Abklatsch-method) to Gutenberg, suggested to the latter by 
seeing (!) the Donatuses printed at Haarlem, looks like an amiable 
attempt to get over the unpleasant tradition of the theft of Coster's 
types, but his theories are irreconcilable with the Haarlem tradition, 
with Zell's account of the relation between Dutch and Mainz 
printing and with bibliography in general. 

It is not surprising that EnschedS's theories called forth others 
from Zedler (Veroffentl. {. 34), who argues as follows: Ensched6 
says rightly that the type of the Hague Dutch Donatus is more 
defective than that of any other 15th-century book, more than even 
that of the Paris Donatus. Such types could not have been cast 
from a copper matrix. But a printer who had derived his art of 
casting types from Gutenberg or one of his pupils, would hardly, 
after the introduction of the steel stamp and the copper matrix 
(necessary for manufacturing the small types of the 1454 Indul- 
gences), have returned to the casting of a small type from a leaden 
matrix, and used, moreover, a process which remained, in its 
consequences, behind that of Gutenberg. Zedler then points to 
a peculiarity of the earliest Dutch incunabula already mentioned 
above, namely, the sign of contraction connected with some letters 
by a fine stroke, which he says is not (!) found in the Dutch block- 
books, or in the Dutch MSS. He thinks, therefore, that this stroke 
was required by the method of casting this type. The stamp for 
making the matrix cannot have been a staff, on the lower end of 
which the reversed letter was cut, but a mere letter without any 
footing. Consequently, it must have consisted of lead not wood, 
and have been manufactured in the same way as Gutenberg's type 
was made, according to Ensched6. Every sign of contraction had to 
be one whole with the letters to which they belonged to prevent 
their being shifted during the process of printing. The letters 
cast from the matrix made in this way had as foot a thin square 
plate which enclosed the letter but no staff, owing to the mode of 
making the stamp and the matrix. If the Dutch printer had in- 
tended to cast a type with a staff by means of a casting tool, however 
primitive, he would not have required the thin plate. But his 
letters, with a thin plate as their foot, required to be pasted on a sheet 
of strong paper, so as to be firmly connected in words and sentences 
for the purpose of printing. Hence the printer could regulate the 
spaces between the words, without using, like Gutenberg, spaces 
of a definite width for this purpose, so that he had no trouble in 
making the lines end evenly. From such a printing-surface with 
a firm footing, it was possible, after the ground had become hard, 
to obtain impressions just as from movable types enclosed in the 
forme. Zedler was told by an expert that, technically, there was 
nothing against such an explanation, but, he says, if it were correct, 
it would not solve the question, not yet satisfactorily answered, 
as to what we have to understand by the printed Dutch Donatuses. 
The " doctrinal jett6 en molle " of Jean le Robert and the libri 
impressi, mentioned under the year 1450 in the Memorial of the 
monastery Weidenbach in Cologne would then be books printed 
from such printing plates with separately cast letters. In this 
way Zells' account in the Cologne Chronicle would be confirmed (!). 
We should also understand why the Dutch, though knowing the 
art of casting types, only printed Donatuses and similar small 
schoolbooks, for which there was much demand, for in the present 
day, stereotype-printing is likewise used for books which, when 
editions follow each other rapidly, have to be printed unaltered. 
In this case Gutenberg would not be the inventor of the cast letter. 
But the Dutch could not claim, with Enschede', the honour of the 
invention of movable metal types. They invented the casting 
of letters, but it would be Gutenberg's merit to have invented the 
movable cast types. At any rate he would be the inventor of the 



538 



TYPOGRAPHY 



[HISTORY 



casting instrument whereby the letter with the staff became inde- 
pendent, that is movable. The early Dutch printing letter, which 
could only be used by being firmly footed on a plate, would have 
missed its real value for printing, its free movabihty. 

Zedler, for want of data, cannot say where and when Gutenberg 
learnt the technics of early Dutch printing, though the Cologne 
Chronicle tells us that from this printing his work began. But he 
thinks that the secret arts which occupied Gutenberg at Strassburg 
and which, when the documents are impartially (!) considered 
can be regarded as nothing but experiments in the printing ol 
books, are earlier than 1440. He will not decide whether Guten- 
berg has been in Holland, or whether this historical kernel is the 
foundation of the Coster legend (!) of Adrianus Junius which is 
independent of the Cologne Chronicle. Anyhow, Gutenberg stil 
required ten years of hard work and troublesome experiments 
before he, basing himself on the early Dutch printing, whatever 
this may have been, could become the inventor of the present mode 
of printing books. 

We here see how Ensched^'s theories give rise to Zedler's structure 
of theories. When the former says that Gutenberg chose for his first 
work the large letters of B 36 and B 42 , because the Abklatsch-method 
(invented [?] by him) was only fit for large letters, he forgets that 
the printers of these Bibles, wishing to apply their new art to the 
production of copies of the Bible in a speedier way than the scribes 
of their time were able to do, had, of necessity, to design their 
types from the large ornamental church-hand then in vogue for 
Bibles, Psalters, Missals, &c. For the same reason they prepared 
different, much smaller, types for the Indulgences of 1454, as the 
manuscript copies of these Indulgences, handed to them as " copy," 
were written in the bastard Roman book-hand, used for such 
documents. When the arts of casting types and of printing with 
them found their way to Mainz they were new in that city, but 
they came there already well-developed, and the printers, whoever 
they were, knew how to prepare themselves for any book or docu- 
ment which it was thought desirable to print. But of these 
questions Enschede takes no account. He ascribes the two Bibles to 
Gutenberg, because Dziatzko has done so, without inquiring whether 
Gutenberg (not Pfister) had, after all, anything to do with B 36 . 

Zedler's theories, partly developments, partly corrections of those 
of Enschede's, are based on the misapprehension that a peculiarity 
in the Costerian types, i.e. the connexion of the signs of contractions 
by a fine stroke with the letters over which they stand, does not 
occur either in the Dutch blockbooks or in the Dutch MSS. This 
connexion, however, far from being not found, is a conspicuous 
feature, in the Dutch blockbooks and MSS., and being faith- 
fully reproduced in the Costerian types, shows how near these types 
stand to the block-printing and MS. periods. Zedler does not 
explain how he would print with the plate-footed types, pasted on 
strong paper, which he ascribes to Coster. Nor does he say whether 
he ever examined the Costerian editions of the Speculum, Donatuses, 
&c., to see whether they showed any traces of such awkward 
contrivances. 

After having done justice, we hope, to these latest theories, 
which, in spite of their great length, leave many things unexplained, 
it is a pleasure to read once more Junius's unvarnished account of 
the Haarlem tradition, which contains no intricate theories, but a 
simple explanation of the rise and progress of printing with mov- 
able (metal) types in that city. The reading of it shows that 
real facts can be explained in a few words, while theories require long 
explanations, first for explaining away the real facts, and then for 
explaining the theories, which after all lead us astray. 

The shape and manufacture of the types used as early as c. 1470 
do not seem to have differed materially from those of the present 
Shane of tv P es - T his ' s evident (l) from the shape of the old 
Earnest tv P es which were discovered in 1878 in the bed of the 
Type river Saone, near Lyons, opposite the site of one of the 

15th-century printing-houses of that city, and which 
there is reason to believe belonged once to one of those presses, and 
were used by the early printers of Lyons; (2) from a page in Joh. 
Nider s Lepra moralis, printed by Conrad Homburch at Cologne in 
1476, which shows the accidental impression of a type, pulled up from 
its place in the course of printing by the ink-ball, and laid at length 
upon the face of the forme, thus leaving its exact profile indented 
upon the page; (3) from an entirely similar page (fol. 4 b ) in Liber 
de laudibus ac festis gloriosae Virginis (Cologne, c. 1468). From 
the small circle appearing in the two last-mentioned types, it is 
presumed that the letters were pierced laterally by a circular hole, 
which did not penetrate the whole thickness of the letter, and served, 
like the nick of modern types, to enable the compositor to tell by 
touch which way to 'set the letter in his stick. The fact that in 
these two cases the letter was pulled up from the forme seems to 
show that the line could not have been threaded. 

Vlnc - Fineschi, Notizie Storiche sopra la stamperia di Ripoli, 
p. 49 (Florence, 1781), gives an extract from the cost-book of the 
Kipoh press, about 1480, which shows that steel, brass, copper, 
tin lead and iron wire were all used in the manufacture of types 
at that period. 1 

1 On the above theories and types consult T. B. Reed, Old English 
Letter Foundries, pp. 3-26. 



History of the Earliest Types. The history and nomenclature 
of the earliest types arc practically a continuation of the history 
and nomenclature of the characters figured in the earliest 
blockbooks, wood-engravings and MSS. For instance, Gothic 
type was first used, say, about the year 1445; but Gothic writing, 
of which that type was an imitation, was already known and 
used about the second half of the I2th century and can be 
traced still farther back (see above). Again, the pure Roman 
type, which appeared about 1464, is nothing but an imitation 
of what in palaeography is called the Caroline minuscule, a hand- 
writing which was already fully developed towards the end of 
the 8th century (see PALAEOGRAPHY). 

The broad outlines of the history of the earliest types are 
as follows : 

Gothic type, of the angular or pointed kind, was first used by 
the Haarlem printer of the Speculum, Donatus, &c. (see specimen 
No. i, taken from the British Museum copy of the r .... 
Speculum humanae salvationis , mixed Latin edition), 
presumably c. 1445. An entirely similar but larger type (No. 2, 
taken from the British Museum copy of Ludovicus [Pontanus] de 
Roma, Singularia) was used, presumably by the same printer, 
c. 1465-1470. Gothic type appeared in Germany as a church type 
in 1454, in the 31-line Indulgence, presumably printed by Johan 
Gutenberg at Mainz (No. 3, from the Gottingen copy), and in the 
3O-line Indulgence (No. 4, taken from the British Museum copy), 
printed by Peter Schoeffer at Mainz. Type No. 3 was also used 
about the same time for the 36-line Bible, and type No. 4 for the 
42-line Bible. Two much larger Gothic types appeared in the Psalter 
of 1457, published by Fust and Schoeffer (see Bernard, Origine, 
pi. vii.). In Italy Gothic type appears in 1468 (No. 5, taken from 
the British Museum copy of Cicero, De oratore, published at Rome by 
Ulr. Hahn, the isth of December 1468, in small Roman type, 
with imprint in Gothic), but in a more rounded form ; it is practically 
the ordinary Italian writing influenced by the Gothic. In France 
Gothic began to be used in 1473; in England it appears first in 
Caxton's type about the year 1480.2 It was employed extensively 
in a great many of the earliest presses all over Europe, and con- 
tinued to be used largely at all times, especially for Bibles, law 
books, royal proclamations, &c., and even to this day it is the 
national character of Germany. It is now usually called lettre de 
forme, black letter or English in English-speaking countries, lettre 
flamand in Holland, and fractur in Germany. 

Bastard Italian or bastard Roman was introduced in 1454 at 
Mainz in the 31 -line (No. 6) and 3o-line (No. 7) Indulgences. It is 
also called lettre de somme, some think from the Summa 
of Thomas Aquinas, printed in the type of the Bible of Bastara 
1462 by Fust and Schoeffer. Varieties of this kind l ^ Uaaor 
of type were, like the Gothic, much used by the earliest Komaa - 
printers, as, for instance, the printer of the 1460 Catholicon, Mentelin 
of Strassburg, c. 1460, and Ulrich Zell at Cologne, c. 1466, &c. In 
England it appeared in the first three books printed (1478, 1479) 
at Oxford (No. 8, taken from the British Museum copy of Jerome's 
Exposilio in Simbolum Apostolorum wrongly dated 1468 for 1478). 

Roman type, the Caroline minuscule of palaeography, was first 
used in Germany about 1464, Strassburg, by the printer whose 
fount of type is known by a peculiarly shaped R, and D 
who on that account is usually called " the R printer " 
(No. 9, taken from the British Museum copy of Durandus, Rationale, 
of which the Basel library possesses a copy which was bought in 
1464).' In Italy it appears in 1465 at Subiaco (see Bernard pi. xii. 
No. 19), at Rome in 1467 (op. cit. pi. xii. No. 20), but in all its purity 
at Venice in 1469, used by Johannes of Spires (op. cit. pi. xii. 
No. 25), and at Paris in 1470 (op. cit. pi. xiii. No. 25). In England 
t was not used before 1518, when Richard Pynson printed Pace's 
Oratio in Pace nuperrima(see facsimile in Reed's Type Foundries,?. 92) . 




1471-1472). With a somewhat similar type (No. II, Bur uadlan - 
aken from the British Museum copy of the Recuyell) William 
-axton is presumed to have printed, likewise at Bruges, a set of 
ive books, of which the Recuyell of the History of Troye, a trans- 
ation of a work by Raoul le Fevre, is the best known and 
was probably printed c. 1471. To this same class belong the first 
ype (No. 12, from the British Museum copy of the Dictes) used in 
bngland by William Caxton for the printing of Dictes and Sayings 
>/ the Philosophers (Nov. 18, 1477), and that used by the printer 
ttSt Albans (No. 13, taken from the Cambridge University 
.jibrary copy of Aug. Dactus, Elegancie). It was an imitation of 
he manuscript hand of the English and Burgundian scribes of the 
:5th century, and, after having figured for a long time in several 
>1 the early London and provincial presses, was about 1534 entirely 
uperseded by the English black letter. To this class of type 



2 See Blades, Life of Caxton, pi. xvii. 

8 See Jules Philippe, L'Impnmerie ct Paris, p. 219. 

Cf. Blades, Life of Caxton. 



HISTORY] 



TYPOGRAPHY 



539 



belong also the later lettre de civilite (c. 1570). the script (lettre coulee, 
lettre de finance, Dutch, geschreven schrift), set court, base secretary, 
and running secretary types. 



prittio 

No. I. Speculum type 
c. 1445 (?). 



No. 2. Pontanus type, 
'c. 1470 (?). 




ftitatur 



critmnibj 



Nos. 3 and 6. Mainz 31 -line 
Indulgence, 1454. 



Nos. 4 and 7. Mainz 3O-line 
Indulgence, 1454. 



ttoS&fffc idt> 



No. 5. Cicero, De oratore. No. 10. Conlroversie de Noblesse, 
1468. c. 1471-1472. 



Remifimusdc 



Dat affectum 

No. 8. Jerome's Expositio 
(1468), 1478. 



. tux 



atitonomafice 

No. 9. Durandus, c. 1464. 



No. n.Recuyell of the Hist, 
of Troye, c. 1471. 



No. 12. Dictes and Sayings, 
1477- 



quo 3}cnm6xC3 f enu 

No. 13. Aug. Dactus, Elegancie, 1479. 

On the types, illustrations, initials, &c., before 1500, consult also 
the facsimiles in Holtrop's Man. typ. des Pays-Bus (the Hague, 
1868); R. C. Hawkins, First Books and Printers of the Fifteenth 
Century (New York, 1884); William Blades, The Life of Caxton 
(London, 1861-1863); Bernard, Origine de Vimprimerie, vol. i. 
pis. iii.-xiii. (Paris, 1853); Placidus Braun, Notitia de libris ab 
artis typogr. inventione usque ad annum 1479 impressis (Augsburg, 
1788) ; rL-Noel Humphreys, Hist, of the Art of Printing, fol. (London, 
1867); Veroffentlichungen der Gesellsch. fur Typenkunde des 15. 
Jahrhunderts. Edd. Isak Collyn, Rud. Haupt, H. O. Lange, 
K. Haebler, V. Madsen, E. Voullidme, vol. i, &c. (220 facs. published, 
Leipzig, 1907- ); The Woolley [Geo. Dunn], Photographs of 
Early Types (400), designed to supplement published examples with 
references to the British Museum Index 1899-1904, 5 pts., folio; 
K. Burger, Deutsche und italienische Inkunabeln, in getreuen 
Nachbildungen herausgeg., pts. 1-8 (200 pis.), folio (Berlin, 1892- ); 
E. Gordon Duff, Early English Printing, a seriesof facs. , folio (London, 
1896) ; Ch. Enschede 1 , Fonderies de caracteres et leur materiel dans les 
Pays-Bas du 15 au 19 siecle, fol. (Haarlem, 1908) ; Horace Hart, 
Notes on a Century of Typography at the University Press, Oxford, 
1693-1794, folio (Oxford, 1900); Olgar Thierry-Poux, Premiers 
monuments de Vimprimerie en France au /5 me siecle, fol. (Paris, 
1890); British Museum (Facsimiles from ea,rly printed books in the), 
(1897), 32 pis. folio; Type Facsimile Society , folio (Oxford, 1900- ). 

The types after 1500 can best be learned from the catalogues of 
type-founders, among which those of Messrs Ensched6 of Haarlem 
occupy a foremost place. Of others we may mention: Indice dei 
caratteri nella stampa Vaticana, 410 (Rome, 1628); Epreuves des 
caracteres qui se trouvent chez Claude Lameste, 4to (Paris, 1742); 
Epreuves des car. de la fonderie de Claude Mozet, 8vo (Nantes, 
1754) ; Les Car. de Vimprimerie par Fournier le Jeune, 8vo (Paris, 



1764); Proef van Letteren, Bloemen, fc., van Ploos van Amstel, 8vo 
(Amsterdam, 1767); Epreuve de car. de Jacques Francois Rosart, 
8vo (Brussels, 1771); Schriften . . . bey J. H. Prentzler, 410 (Frank- 
fort-on-Main, 1774) ; Epreuves des car. de la fond, de J. L. Joannis, 
8vo (Paris, 1776); Epreuves des car. de la fond, de J. L. de Boubers, 
8vo (Brussels, 1777); Proeve van Letteren welke gegooten warden door 
J. de Croat, 8vo (the Hague, 1787); Pantographie, by Edmund 
Fry, 8vo (London, 1799) ; and Manuale typographic, by G. Bodoni, 
4to (Parma, 1818). 

Printers after 1500. Though the Cologne Chronicle of 1499 
denies to Mainz the honour of the invention of the art of printing, 
it was right in asserting that, after it had been brought there 
from Holland, it became more masterly and exact, and more 
and more artistic. During the first half-century of printing a 
good many printers distinguished themselves by the beauty, 
excellence and literary value of their productions. We may 
mention as such: Johan Fust and Peter Schoeffer at Mainz; 
Johan Mentelin and Heinrich Eggestein at Strassburg; Ulrich 
Zell at Cologne; Sweynheym and Pannarts at Subiaco and at 
Rome; Nicolas Jenson at Venice; Anton Koberger at Nurem- 
berg; Ketelaer and De Leempt at Utrecht; Johan Veldener at 
Louvain, Utrecht and Kuilenburg; Gerard Leeu at Gouda; 
Johan of Westphalia at Louvain; and William Caxton (q.v.) 
at Westminster. 

Very soon the demand for books increased, and with it came a 
reduction in their prices. This caused a decline in the exe- 
cution of printing, which begins to be appreciable about 1480 
in some localities, and may be said to have become general 
towards the end of the isth century. At all times, however, 
we find some printers raise their art to a great height by the 
beauty of their types and the literary excellence of their pro- 
ductions. Among the later printers we may mention the Aldi 
of Venice (1490 to 1597); G. B. Bodoni of Parma (1768-1813); 
John Amerbach at Basel (1492-1516); John Froben at Basel 
(1496-1527); John Baskerville at Birmingham (1750-1775); 
the house of Weichel, first at Paris (c. 1530-1572), afterwards 
at Frankfort; Christopher Plantin at Antwerp (1554-1589); 
the Elzevirs, fiist at Leiden, afterwards at Amsterdam (1580- 
1680); Antoine Verard at Paris (1485-1513); Josse Bade or 
Badius at Paris (1495-1535); and the Estiennes at Paris (1502- 
IS98). 

The Italic type * is said to be an imitation of the handwriting of 
Petrarch, and was introduced by Aldus Manutius of Venice for 
the purpose of printing his projected small editions of 
the classics. The cutting of it was entrusted to Fran- 
cesco da Bologna, an artist who is presumed to be identical with 
the painter Francesco Francia or Raibolini. The fount is a " lower 
case " only, the capitals being Roman in form. It contains a large 
number of tied letters, to imitate handwriting, but is quite free from 
contractions and ligatures. It was first used in the Virgil of 1500. 
Aldus produced six different sizes between 1501 and 1558. It was 
counterfeited almost immediately in Italy, at Lyons and elsewhere. 
Originally it was called Venetian or Aldine, but subsequently Italic 
type, except in Germany and Holland, where it is called " cursive." 
The Italians also adopted the Latin name " characteres cursivi seu 
cancellarii." In England it was first used by Wynkyn de Worde 
in Wakefield's Oratio in 1524. The character was at first intended 
and used for the entire text of classical works. When it became 
more general, it was employed to distinguish portions of a book not 
properly belonging to the work, such as introductions, prefaces, 
indexes, notes, the text itself being in Roman. Later it was used 
in the text for quotations, and finally served the double part of 
emphasizing certain words in some works, and in others, chiefly 
translations of the Bible, of marking words not rightly forming a 
part of the text. 

Greek type (minuscules) first occurs in Cicero, De officiis printed 
at Mainz in 1465 by Fust and Schoeffer. The fount used is rude 
and imperfect, many of the letters being ordinary Latin. 
In the same year Sweynheym and Pannarts used a good 
Greek letter for some of the quotations in their edition of Lactantius 
(see, for instance, leaves lia, iga, 363, 139, 140) ; but the supply was 
evidently short at first, as some of the larger quotations in the first 
part of the book were left blank to be filled in by hand. The first 
book wholly printed in Greek minuscules was the Grammar of 
Lascaris, by Paravisinus, at Milan in 1476, in types stated to have 
been cut and cast by Demetrius of Crete. The fount contains 
breathings, accents and some ligatures. The headings to the 

1 These paragraphs on the various types are for the most part 
taken from T. B. Reed's History of the Old English Letter Foundries, 
p. 50 seq. (London, 1887). 



540 



TYPOGRAPHY 



[HISTORY 



chapters are wholly in capitals. The Anthologia graeca of Las- 
cans was printed at Florence in 1494 wholly in Greek capitals 
(litterae majusculae), and it is stated in the preface that they were 
designed after the genuine models of antiquity to be found in the 
inscriptions on medals, marbles, &c. But as late as 1493 Greek type 
was not common, for in that year the Venice printer Symon Bevilaqua 
issued Tibullus, Catullus and Propertius with blanks left in the com- 
mentary for the Greek quotations. In England Greek letters ap- 
peared for the first time in 1519 in W. de Worde's edition of Rob. 
Whittington's Grammatica, where a few words are introduced cut 
in wood. Cast types were used at Cambridge in Galen's De tempera- 
mentis, translated by Linacre, and printed by Siberch in 1521, who 
styles himself the first Greek printer in England ; but the quotations 
in the Galen are very sparse, and Siberch is not known to have 
printed any entire book in Greek. The first printer who possessed 
Greek types in any quantity was Reginald Wolfe, who held a royal 
patent as printer in Greek, Latin and Hebrew, and printed in 
1543 two Homilies of Chrysostom, edited by Sir John Cheke, the 
first Greek lecturer at Cambridge. In Edinburgh, in 1563, and as 
late as 1579, the space for Greek words was left blank in printing, 
to be filled in by hand. 

The Oxford University Press, re-established in 1585, was well 
supplied with Greek types, which were used in the Chrysostom of 
1586. About 1607 Sir Henry Savile introduced Greek types (vulgarly 
called on account of their beauty " the silver letter ' ) into Eton 
College, for printing his edition of St Chrysostom (8 vols., 1610-1613, 
John Norton), and other Greek authors. He afterwards presented 
this type to the university of Oxford. In 1632 Cambridge applied 
to Oxford for the loan of a Greek fount to print a Greek Testament, 
and the same university made an offer in 1700 for the purchase of 
a fount of the king's Greek at Paris, but withdrew on the French 
Academy insisting as a condition that every work printed should 
bear the imprint " characteribus Graecis e typographeo regio Parisi- 
ensi." It should not be forgotten that the large number of ligatures 
in the Greek of that day made the production of a fount a serious 
business. The Oxford Augustin Greek comprised no fewer than 354 
matrices, the great primer 456, and Fournier's fount showed even 
776 different sorts. The Dutch founders effected a gradual reduction 
of the Greek typographical ligatures. Early in the igth century 
a new fashion of Greek, for which Porson was sponsor and furnished 
the drawings, was introduced, and has remained the prevailing 
form to this day. Cf. Rob. Proctor, The Printing of Greek in the 
XVth Century, folio (Oxford, 1900). 

The first Hebrew types are generally supposed to have appeared 
in 1475 in Petrus Niger's Tractatus contra perfidos Judaeos (leaf 10), 
. printed by Conrad Fyner at Esslingen. De Rossi states 

ew ' that a Hebrew work in four folio volumes entitled Arba 
Turim, of Rabbi Jacob ben Asher, was printed in 1475 at Pieve di 
Sacco in Austrian Italy, while in the same year, a few months earlier, 
Salomon Jarchi's Comment, on the Pentateuch appeared at Reggio 
in Italy, printed in the Rabbinical character. Numerous other 
Hebrew works followed before 1488, in which year the first entire 
Hebrew Bible was printed, with points, at Soncino, by a family 
of German Jews. The first English book in which any quantity 
of Hebrew type was used was Dr Rhys's Cambro-Brytannicae Cym- 
raecaeve linguae institutiones, printed by Thomas Orwin in 1592, 
though already in 1524 Hebrew characters, but cut on small blocks 
of wood, were used by W. de Worde in Rob. Wakefield's Oratio. 
The Hebrew fount made use of in Walton's Polyglott in 1657 was 
probably the first important fount cut and cast in England, though 
there were as yet no matrices there for Rabbinical Hebrew. In 
the beginning of the i8th century Amsterdam was the centre of the 
best Hebrew printing in Europe. 

The first book printed in Arabic types is said to be a Diurnale 
Graecorum Arabum, printed at Fano in Italy in I5H. 1 Two years 
Arabic ' a ter P. P. Porrus's Polyglott Psalter, comprising the 
Arabic version, was printed at Genoa; and two years 
later a Koran in Arabic is said to have been printed at Venice. In 
1505 an Arabic Vocabulary at Granada had the words printed in 
Gothic letters with the Arabic points placed over them ; and in other 
presses where there were no Arabic types the language was expressed 
in Hebrew letters or cut in wood. De Guignes and others mention 
a fount of Arabic used by Gromors in Paris in 1539-1540 to print 
Postel's Grammar. In England some Arabic words were introduced 
in Wakefield's Oratio of 1524, but apparently cut on small blocks 
of wood. In Minsheu's Ductor in linguas, 1617, the Arabic words 
are printed in Italic characters. Laud's gift of Oriental MSS. to 
Oxford in 1635, a "d the appointment of an Arabic lecturer, were 
the first real incentives to the cultivation of the language by English 
scholars. Previous to this it is stated that the Raphelengius Arabic 
Press at Leiden had been purchased by the English Orientalist, 
William Bedwell; but, if it was brought to England, it does not 
appear to have been immediately made use of. The Arabic words 
in Thomas Greave's Oratio de linguae Arabicae utilitate, printed at 
Oxford in 1639, were written in by hand. 

Syriac type, probably cut in wood, first appeared in Postel's 
Linguarum XII. Alphabeta, printed in Paris in 1538; but the char- 
acters are so rude in form and execution as to be scarcely legible. 

1 See Panzer vii. 2. 



In 1555, however, Postel assisted in cutting the punches for the 
Syriac Peshito New Testament, printed at Vienna in 410, the first 
portion of the Scriptures, and apparently the first book, _ . 
printed in that language. In 1569-1572 Plantin at 
Antwerp included the Syriac New Testament in his Polyglott, and 
reissued it in a separate form in 1574. In England Syriac was. 
usually expressed in the earlier works in Hebrew characters. But in 
1652, when the prospectus and preliminary specimen of Walton's 
Polyglott were issued, we find Syriac type in use. 

Of the Armenian character the press of the Vatican possessed a 
good fount in 1591, when Angelo Roccha showed a specimen in 
his Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana. A psalter is said 
to have been printed at Rome in 1565, and Rowe Mores Armealaa - 
mentions doubtfully a liturgy printed at Cracow in 1549. Armenian 
printing was practised in Paris in 1633; but the Armenian bishops, 
on applying to France for assistance in printing an Armenian Bible, 
in 1662, were refused, and went to Rome, where, as early as 1636, the 
press of the Propaganda had published a specimen of its Armenian 
matrices. The patriarch, after fifteen months' residence in Rome, 
removed to Amsterdam, where he established an Armenian press, 
and printed the Bible in 1666, which was followed in 1668 by a 
separate edition of the New Testament. In 1669 the press was 
set up at Marseilles, where it continued for a time, and was ulti- 
mately removed to Constantinople. In England the first Arme- 
nian type was that presented by Dr Fell to Oxford in 1667. The 
alphabet given in the prolegomena of Walton's Polyglott was cut 
in wood. 

Of Ethiopic the earliest type appeared in Potken's Psalter and 
Song of Solomon, printed at Rome in 1513. The work was reprinted 
at Cologne, in 1518, in Potken's Polyglott Psalter. In Ethl fc 
1548 the New Testament was printed at Rome by some 
Abyssinian priests. The press of the Propaganda issued a specimen 
of its fount in 1631, and again in Kircher's Prodromus Coptus in 1636. 
Erpenius at Leiden had an Ethiopic fount, which in 1626 was 
acquired by the Elzevirs. Usher attempted to procure the fount for 
England; but, his attempt failing, punches were cut and matrices 
prepared by the London founders for the London Polyglott, which 
showed the Psalms, Canticles and New Testament in the Ethiopic 
version. 

Of Coptic the press of the Propaganda possessed a fount, and a 
specimen was issued in 1636, in which year also Kircher's Prodromus 
Coptus appeared from the same press. In England _ ,.^ 
David Wiikins's edition of the New Testament was 
printed in 1716 from Coptic types cast with matrices which Dr Fell 
had presented to Oxford in 1667. The alphabets shown in the 
introduction and prolegomena to the London Polyglott of 1655 and 
1657 were cut in wood. 

Of Samaritan the press of the Propaganda had a fount in 1636, 
and the Paris Polyglott, completed in 1645, contained the entire 
Pentateuch in type, the punches and matrices of which ~ 
had been specially prepared under Le Jay's direction. Samar " an - 
The fount used for the London Polyglott in 1657 is admitted to have 
been an English production, and was probably cut under the super- 
vision of Usher. 

With Slavonic type a psalter was printed at Cracow as early as 
1491, and reprinted in Montenegro in 1495- The only Slavonic 
fount in England was that given by Dr Fell to Oxford, . . 
and this, Mores states, was replaced in 1695 by a fount a " ' 
of the more modern Russian character, purchased probably at 
Amsterdam. The Oratio Dominica in 1700 gives a specimen of 
this fount, but renders the Hieronymian version in 
copper-plate. Modern Slavonic, better known as ss *"' 
Russian, is said to have appeared first in portions of the Old Testa- 
ment, printed at Prague in 1517-1519. Ten years later there was 
Russian type in Venice. A Russian press was established at Stock- 
holm in 1625, and in 1696 there were matrices in Amsterdam, from 
which came the types used in Ludolph's Grammatica Russica, 
printed at Oxford in that year, and whence also, it is said, the types 
were procured which furnished the first St Petersburg press, estab- 
lished in 1711 by Peter the Great. Mores notes that in 1778 there 
was no Russian type in England, but that Cottrell was at that time 
engaged in preparing a fount. It does not appear that this project 
was carried out, and the earliest Russian in England was cut by 
Dr Fry from alphabets in the Vocabularia, collected and published 
for the empress of Russia in 1786-1789. This fount appeared in the 
Pantographia in 1799. 

A fount of the Etruscan character cut by William Caslon about 
: 733 f r Swinton of Oxford was apparently the first produced. 
Fournier in 1766 showed an alphabet engraved in metal _. 
or wood. In 1771 the Propaganda published a specimen ; 
of their fount, and Bodom of Parma in 1806 exhibited a third in 
his Oratio Dominica. 

Runic types were first used at Stockholm in a Runic and Swedish 
Alphabetarium, printed in 1611. The fount, which was cast at 
the expense of the king, was afterwards acquired by fc 
the university. About the same time Runic type was 
used at Upsala and at Copenhagen. Voskens of Amsterdam had 
matrices about the end of that century, and it was from Holland 
that Francis Junius is supposed to have procured the matrices 
which, in 1677, he presented to Oxford. This fount appears in the 



HISTORY] 



TYPOGRAPHY 



Oratio Dominica of 1700, and in Hickes's Thesaurus (1703-1705), 
and it remained the only one in England. 

Matrices of Gothic type were presented to Oxford by Francis 
Junius in 1677, and a fount of them was used for the Oratio Dominica 
Gothic 1700 and in Hickes's Thesaurus. A different fount 

was used for Chamberlayne's Oratio Dominica, printed 
at Amsterdam in 1715. Caslon cut a fount which appeared in his 
first specimen in 1734. This and the Oxford fount were the only 
two in England in 1820. 

Founts of Icelandic, Swedish and Danish were included in Junius's 
gift to Oxford in 1677, and were, perhaps, specially prepared in 
,. Holland. The first-named is shown in the Oratio 

Dominica of 1700 and in Hickes's Thesaurus. Printing 
had been practised in Iceland since 1531, when a Breviary 
was printed at Hoolum, in types rudely cut, it is alleged, in wood. 
In 1574, however, metal types were provided and several works 
produced. After a period of decline, printing was revived in 1773, 
and in 1810 Sir George M'Kenzie reported that the Hoolum press 
possessed eight founts of type, of which two were Roman, and the 
remainder of the common Icelandic character, which, like the Danish 
and Swedish, bears a close resemblance to the German. 

For the Anglo-Saxon language the first type was cut by John 

Day in 1567, under the direction of Archbishop Parker, and appeared 

in iElfric's Paschal Homily in that year and in the 

dZlfredi res gestce of Asser Menevensis in 1574. Anglo- 

OAiMi Saxon type was used by Browne in 1617, in Minsheu's 

Ductor in linguas; and Haviland, who printed the second edition 

of that work in 1626, had in 1623 made use of the character in Lisle's 

edition of ./Elfric's Homily. 

The first fount of Irish character was that presented by Queen 

Elizabeth to O'Kearney in 1571, and used to print the Catechism 

which appeared in that year in Dublin, from the press 

of Franckton. But the fount is only partially Irish, 

many of the letters being ordinary Roman or Italic. It was used 

in several works during the early years of the I7th century, and as 

late as 1652 in Godfrey Daniel's Christian Doctrine, printed in Dublin. 

The Irish seminaries abroad were better supplied with Irish type. 

A new type was cut by Moxon, and appeared in 1681 in Boyle's 

New Testament, printed by Robert Everingham. 

The earliest specimen of music type occurs in Higden's Poly- 
chronicon, printed by De Worde at Westminster in 1495. The 
,. . square notes appear to have been formed of ordinary 

quadrats, and the staff-lines of metal rules imperfectly 
joined. In Caxton's edition of the same work in 1482 the space 
had been left to be filled up by hand. The plain chant in the Mainz 
psalter of 1490, printed in two colours, was probably cut in wood. 
Hans Froschauer of Augsburg printed music from wooden blocks 
in 1473, and the notes in Burtius's Opusculum Musices, printed 
at Bologna in 1487, appear to have been produced in the same 
manner; while at Lyons the missal printed by Matthias Hus in 
1485 had the staff only printed, the notes being intended to be filled 
in by hand. About 1500 a musical press was established at Venice 
by Ottavio Petrucci, at which were produced a series of mass-books 
with lozenge-shaped notes, each being cast complete with a staff-line. 
In 1513 he removed to Fossombrone, and obtained a patent from 
Leo X. for his invention of types for the sole printing of figurative 
song (cantus figuratus). Before 1550 several European presses 
followed Petrucci's example, and music type was used, among other 
places, at Augsburg in 1506 and 1511, Parma in 1526, Lyons in 1532 
and Nuremberg in 1549. In 1525 Pierre Hautin cut punches of 
lozenge-shaped music at Paris. Round notes were used at Avignon 
in 1532. In England, after its first use, music-printing did not 
become general till 1550, when Grafton printed Marbecke's Book 
of Common Prayer, " noted " in movable type, the four staff-lines 
being printed in red and the notes in black. There are only four 
different sorts of notes used three square and one lozenge. About 
1660 the detached notes hitherto employed began to give place to 
the " new tyed note," by which the heads of sets of quavers could 
be joined. But at the close of the I7th century music-printing 
from type became less common, on account of the introduction of 
stamping and engraving plates for the purpose. Cf. Rob. Steele, 
The Earliest English Music Printing, folio (London, 1903) ; Andr. 
Deakin, Mus. Bibliogr., 8vo. (Birmingham, 1893). 

Printing for the blind was first introduced in 1784 by Valentin 
Haiiy, the founder of the asylum for blind children in Paris. He 
Printing tor ma de use of a large script character, from which im- 
the Blind. Passions were taken on a prepared paper, the impressions 
being so deeply sunk as to leave their marks in strong 
relief and legible to the touch. Hatty's pupils not only read in this 
way, but executed their own typography, and in 1786 printed an 
account of their institution and labours as a specimen of their press. 
The first school for the blind in England was opened in Liverpool 
in 1791, but printing in raised characters was not successfully accom- 
plished till 1827, when Gall of the Edinburgh asylum printed 
the Gospel of St John from angular types. Alston, the treasurer of 
the Glasgow asylum, introduced the ordinary Roman capitals in 
relief, and this system was subsequently improved upon by the 
addition of the lower-case letters by Dr Fry, the type-founder, 
whose specimen gained the prize of the Edinburgh Society of Arts 



in 1837. Several rival systems have competed in England for 
adoption, of which the most important are those of Lucas. Frere, 
Moon, Braille, Carton and Alston (see BLINDNESS). 

The trouble and cost involved in the use of the initial director early 
suggested the use of woodcut initials, and Erhard Ratdolt of Venice, 
about 1475, is generally supposed to have been the first . 
printer to introduce the literae florenies, called also 
lettres tourneures, or typi tornatissimt, which eventually superseded 
the hand-painted initials. Caxton introduced one or two kinds in 
1484. Among the earliest to be used are the so-called Lombardic 
initials or capitals. The more elaborate initials, such as those used 
in the Mainz indulgences and psalter, by Aldus at Venice, by Johann 
Schoeffer at Mainz in 1518, by Tory and the Estiennes at Paris, 
by Froben at Basel, and by the other great printers of their day, 
were known as lettres grises. Besides these, the ordinary " two- 
line letters " or large plain capitals came into use: and these were 
generally cast, whilst the ornamental letters were for the most part 
engraved on wood or metal. 

Type ornaments and flowers began, like the initials, with the 
illuminators, and were afterwards cut on wood or metal. The first 
printed ornament or vignette is supposed to be the 
scutum or arms of Fust and Schoeffer in some copies Oraamenta 
of their 1457 Psalter, and of their edition of the Bible aa<t Flowers - 
of 1462. There is no vignette in the Subiaco Lactantius of 1465 (as 
stated by Mr Reed, Letter Foundries, p. 82). In Holtrop's Monum: 
typogr. des Pays-Bas may be seen borders used by some of the 
earliest printers of Holland (1475-1490), which would not look bad 
even in the present time. Caxton in 1490 used ornamental pieces 
to form the border for his Fifteen O's. At the same time the Paris 
printers engraved still more elaborate border pieces. At Venice 
entire frames were engraved in one piece, while Aldus as early as 1495 
used tasteful head-pieces cut in artistic harmony with his lettres 
grises. Early in the l6th century we observe detached ornaments 
and flourishes which have evidently been cast from a matrix. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Besides the works of Berjeau, Bernard, Blades, 
Hawkins, Hessels, Holtrop, Noel Humphreys, Koehler, Jules 
Philippe, T. B. Reed, Sotheby, Steele, Weigel, &c., already mentioned, 
consult also Bigmore and Wyman, A Bibliography of Printing 
(London, 1880) ; Geo. Wolfg. Panzer, Annales typog. (Nuremberg, 
1793, &c.); Lud. Hain, Repertorium bibliog. (Stuttgart, 1826-1838), 
with indices by Conr. Burger (1891 and 1908) ; suppl. by W. A. 
Copinger (1895-1902), and Appendices ad Hainii-Copingeri reper- 
torium, by Diet. Reichling (1905-1909) ; Holtrop, Cat. librorum 
sec. xv impressorum in bibl. Regia Hagana (the Hague, 1856); 
M. F. A. G. Campbell, Ann. de la typog. neerlandaise au xv 
siecle (the Hague, 1874); Rob. Sinker, A. Cat. of the XV. Century 
Printed Books in the Library of Trinity College, Cambridge (Cambridge, 
1876); W. Th. Lowndes, Bibliographer's Manual, ed. by H. G. 
Bohn (London, 1858, &c.); J. C. Brunei, Manuel du libraire (Paris, 
1860; four earlier editions); Th. F. Dibdin, Bibliotheca Spenceriana 
(London, 1814, &c., and his other works); Ennen, Katalog der 
Incunabeln in der Stadt-Bibliothek zu Koln; Schoepflin, Vindiciae 
typog. (1760); Meerman, Origines typog. (the Hague, 1765); Dupont, 
Hist, de I'impr. (Paris, 1869); Firmin-Didot, Hist, de la typog. 
(Paris, 1882) ; E. Duverger, Hist, de I'invention de I'impr. (Paris, 
1840); P. Lambinet, Origine de I'impr. (Paris, 1810); Ch. Ruelens, 
La Legende de St Servais (Brussels, 1873); J. P. A. Madden, 
Lettres d'un bibliographe (Paris, 1868-1878) ; Wetter, Krit. Gesch. der 
Erfindung der Buchdruckerkunst (Mainz, 1836); A. de Vries, Eclair- 
cissemens sur I'histoire de I'inv. de I'impr. (the Hague, 1843); Jos. 
Ames, Typogr. Antiquities (augmented by W. Herbert; London, 
1785-1790); T. C. Hansard, Typographia (London, 1825); Thomas, 
Hist, of Printing in America (Albany, 1874); Th. L. Devinne, The 
Imi. of 'Print. (London, 1877) ; W. Skeen, Early Typography (Colombo, 
1872); Sam. Palmer, A General Hist, of Print. (London, 1732); 
W. Young Ottley, Inquiry concerning the Inv. of Print. (London, 
1863) ; Henry Bradshaw, A Classified Index of the 15 th Century Books 
in the Collection of the late M. /. de Meyer (London, 1870) ; idem, Hist, 
of the Founts of Type and Woodcut Devices used by Printers in Holland 
in the ifth Century (London, 1871) ; idem, The Printer of the Historia 
S. Albani (Cambridge, 1868); A. Van der Linde, Haarlem Legend 
(London, 1870); idem, Gutenberg (Stuttgart, 1881); idem, Gesch. der 
Er find, der Buchdruckerkunst (Berlin, 1886) ;Schaab, Gesch. der Erfind. 
der Buchdruckerk. (Mainz, 1830); K. Falkenstein, Gesch. der Buch- 
druckerk. (Leipzig, 1856); Lorck, Handb. der Gesch. der Buchdruck- 
erk. (Leipzig, 1882) ; K. Faulmann, Illustr. Gesch. der Buchdruckerk. 
(Vienna, 1882) ; M. Denis, Wiens Buchdruckergesch. bis 1560 (Vienna, 
1782); C. R. Hildeburn, A Century of PrintingThe Issues of the 
Press in Pennsylvania, 1684-1784. (Philadelphia, 1887); J. Garcia 
Icazbalceta, Btbliografia Mexicana del siglo xvi. (Mexico, 1887); 
Bibliographica (3 vols., London, 1895-1897); W. Blades, Biblio- 
graphical Miscellanies (London, 1890); C. M. Briquet, Les Filigranes. 
Diet. hist, des marques du. papier (4 vols., Geneve, 1907); Konr. 
Burger, Beitrage zur Inkunabelbibliogr, (Leipzig, 1908) ; Catal. of 
Books printed in the I5th Century, Brit. Mus. pt. i. (London, 1908) ; 
Catal. of MSS. and early Printed Books in the library of J. Pierpont 
Morgan (3 vols., London, 1907) ; Arth. Christian, Origines de I'imprim- 
erie en France (Paris, IQOO) ; A. Claudin, Monum. de Vimprimerie a 
Poitiers (Paris, 1897); idem, Histoire de Vimprimerie en France au 



542 



TYPOGRAPHY 



[MODERN 



xf et au ion' siecle (Paris, 1900-1904); W. P. Courtney, A Register 
of Nation. Bibliography (2 vols., London, 1905); J. P. Edmond, 
Catal. of Early Printed Books in the library of the Society of Writers 
to the Signet (Edinburgh, 1906) ; Ehwald, Handschr. u. Inkunabeln 
der Gymnasialbibliothek zu Gotha, 410 (Gotha, 1893); Will. J. van 
Eys, Bibliogr. des Bibles et des Now. Testaments en langue franf. 
(Geneve, 1900); John Ferguson, Some Aspects of Bibliography 
(Edinburgh, 1900); G. Fumagalli, Lexicon typographicum Itahae; 
Diction, geogr. d'ltalie (Florence) ; Gravures sur bois tirees des livres 
francais du xV siecle (Paris, 1868); Konrad Haebler, Typenreper- 
torium der Wiegendrucke (Halle, 1905, 1908); idem, Typographie 
iberique du xV siecle (La Have, Leipzig, 1902 ; 87 plates) ; idem, Bibho- 
grafia iberica del siglo xv. (La Haye, Leipzig, 1903); Otto Giinther, 
Die Wiegendrucke der Leipziger Sammlungen (Leipzig, 1909); Alb. 
Hubl, Die Inkunabeln der Biblioth. des Stifles Schotten in Wien (Vienna 
and Leipzig, 1904) ; L'Imprimerie hors I' Europe, par un bibliophile 
(Paris, 1902) ; Ad. Kniitgen, Incunabeln im kon. kathol. Gymnasium zu 
Heiligenstadt (Heiligenstadt, 1888); Paul Lacombe, Livres d'heures 
impnmes au xv' et au xvi' siecle (Paris, 1907); Ad. Lange, Peter 
Schoffer (Leipzig, 1864); H. O. Lange, Analecta bibliographica 
(Copenhagen, 1906); F. Madan, The University Press at Oxford 
(Oxford, 1908) ; Baron F. del Marmol, Diction, des filigranes (Namur, 
1900); Joh. Jac. Merlo, Ulrich Zell, ed. Otto Zaretzky (Cologne, 
1900) ; Henri Monceaux, Les Le Rouge de Chablis,calligraphesetminia- 
turistes, graveurs et imprimeurs (Paris, 1896) ; R. A. Peddie, Printing 
at Brescia in the isth Century (London, 1905); Marie Pellechet, 
Catal. general des incunables des bibliotheques publiques de France 
(Paris, 1897); M. A. Pericaud, Bibliogr. lyonnaise du xu siecle. 
(Lyons, 1861); J. Philippe, Origine de V imprimerie a Paris (Paris 
1885); Guillaume Fichet, Introduction de I 'imprimerie a Paris 
(Paris, 1892); Henr. R. Plomer, Hist, of English Printing, 1476-1898 
(London, 1900); G. R. Redgrave, Erhard Ratdolt and his work at 
Venice (London, 1894); Fr. Reiber, De primordiis artis imprimendi 
ac praecipue de inventione typographiae Harlemensi (Berol., 1856); 
Ph. Renouard, Bibliographie des impressions et des teuiires de Josse 
BadinsAscensius, 1462-1535 (Paris, 1908) ;SeymourdeRicci,<4 Census 
of Caxtons (London, fol., 1909); Due de Rivoli, Bibliogr. des livres a 
figures venit., 1469-1525 (Paris, 1892); Paul Schwenke, Untersuch. 
zur Geschichte des ersten Buchdrucks, herausgeg. von der konigl. Bibl. 
zu Berlin (1900); L. C. Silvestre, Marques typographiques (Paris, 
1853) ; Dav. E. Smith, Rara arithmetica, in the library of Geo. Arthur 
Plimpton of New York (Boston and London, 1908) ; Henri Stein, 
Manuel de bibliographic gen. (Paris, 1897) ; C. H. Timperley, Encyclo- 
paedia of Literary and Typographical Anecdote (2nd ed., London, 
1842); Tijdschrift voor boek-en bibliotheekwezen (Antwerp, Ghent, 
1903); Leon Vallee, Bibliogr. des bibliographies (Paris, 1897); Herm. 
Varnhagen, Eine Sammlung alter italien. Drucke der Erlanger Univer- 
sitdtsbibliothek (Erlangen, 1892); Ernst Voullieme, Der Buchdruck 
Kolns bis zum Ende des XV. Jahrhunderts (Bonn, 1903); idem, Die 
Incunabeln der kon. Universitats-Bibl. zu Bonn (Leipzig, 1894); 
W. H. J. Weale, Bibliographia Liturgica (London, 1886). 

The titles of other works on the invention, progress and process 
of printing, &c., may be learnt from the lists of books on such sub- 
jects in the works already quoted. Also the catalogues of second- 
hand booksellers, as Jos. Baehr (Frankfurt), Harrowitz (Berlin), 
Leo S. Olschki (Florence), Bern. Quaritch and W. M. Voynich 
(London), Jaques Rosenthal, Ludw. Rosenthal (Munich), &c. 

(J. H. H.) 

II. MODERN PRACTICAL TYPOGRAPHY 

The printing surfaces used in the production of books and 
newspapers, apart from wood- or process-blocks and casts, 
and apart also from such surfaces as are obtained by means of 
the Linotype and kindred machines, are made up primarily 
of an aggregation of separate types, each representing a letter, 
mark or sign, though the actual surface employed on the 
printing press is frequently a duplicate copy made by a 
process of stereotyping or electrotyping. 

Material Characteristics of Type. A fount consists of a propor- 
tioned quantity of each ot these letters and signs of any one particular 
body and face. It therefore contains single letters, both capitals 
(" upper case ") and small letters (" lower case "), diphthongs, liga- 
tures, such as ff, fl, accents, points, figures, fractions, commercial 
signs such as @, , " peculiars " such as *, t and leaders (...), to- 
gether with quads (pieces of metal which do not print, but are 
used to compensate for the shortness of occasional lines, as at the 
end of a paragraph), and spaces which separate words. A fount 
may thus have about 275 characters or sorts, about IOO of them 
consisting of italic letters, points and figures. 

The numbers of the different sorts vary with different languages 
and even with the style of different writers, the works of Charles- 
Dickens, for instance, making unusually heavy demands on the 
vowels, while the writings of Lord Macaulay run with like persistence 
on the consonants. Type-founders determine the proportions o" 
the different sorts according to a bill of type, or scheme, either numeri 
cally. when the basis of the computation is the number of lower 
case m's (or of A's, in the case of display type used for headings 



>r by weight. In the second method a fount of 125 lb of Roman 
ype includes, on one scheme, 8 oz. of E, M, C; 9 oz. of T; 8 lb of e; 
> lb each of a, b, n, o, t ; and so on down to 3 oz. of z. A fount of 
sody-letters, that is those used for the reading matter of books and 
newspapers, as made up by one British type-founder, contains capitals 
9% by weight, small capitals 4%, figures 6%, lower case letters, 
points and leaders 56%, spaces 15% and quads 10%; rules, accents 
and fractions not being supplied except in new complete founts or 
when specially asked for. A rule for estimating the quantity of type 
required for a page is to divide the number of square inches it con- 
tains by 4, when the quotient represents approximately the weight 
of type in lb. But for large founts 25% and for small ones 40% 
should be allowed in addition, on account of unused type in the cases, 
ivhich cannot be completely set. 

For many years it was a favourite idea with inventors, especially 
hose who were not practical printers, that great economy might 
>e gained in composition by the use of word characters, , . 
or " logotypes," instead of single letters. The constant to *"v/ 
recurrence of certain words such as " the," " and," " is," suggested 
that they, as well as affixes and suffixes like ad-, ac-, -ing, -ment, 
should be cast in single pieces instead of being set up with their 
component letters. Such logotypic printing was used in 1785 
n the London Daily Universal Register, which three years later 
Became The Times, but it has never found general favour. The chief 
jractical objection is that it involves the use of cases with an in- 
conveniently large number of boxes. The greater the variety of 
characters the more " travel " of the compositor's hand over the 
cases is necessary for picking them up, and by so much is the speed 
of his work retarded. 

Each of the parts of a type has a technical name. In fig. i, 
representing the capital letter M, the darkest space a, a, a, a, is called 
the face; and only that part of the type touches the p ar t so fa 
Daper in printing. The face is divided into the stem, j- 
narked I, which comprises the whole outline of the 
type M ; the serifs, or the horizontal lines marked 2, which complete 
the outline of the letter; the beard, consisting 
of the bevel or sloping part marked b, b, and 
:he shoulder or flat portion below b. The shank 
is the entire body of the letter d, the front part 
(that shown) being known as the belly and the 
corresponding part behind as the back. The 
spaces at h and h are the counters, which regulate 
the distances apart of the stems in a line of 
type. The hollow groove extending across the 
shank at e, e is the nick, which enables the 
workman to recognize the direction of the type 
and to distinguish different founts of thesame 
body. The absence of this simple expedient 
would retard the operation of hand-setting up 
by fully one-half. The earliest type-founders 
did not know the use of the nick. If a part of pj G- 
the face overhangs the shank, this part is called 
the kern, but kerned letters are avoided as 
much as possible. The groove g divides the bottom of the type 
into two parts called the feet. An impression from that part of 
a type on which it stands would be as ~. Types must be perfectly 
rectangular, the minutest deviation rendering them useless. Any 
roughness at the sides is called burr, and any injury to the faces a batter. 
Types which have the face cast in the middle of the shank, as a, 
c, e, m, &c., and thus leave an open space above them corresponding 
to that below, caused by the beard, are known as short soeclesot 
letters. Those whose stem extends to the top of the i^ etter 
shank, as b, d, f, &c., are called ascending letters. Those 
that have a stem extending over the shoulder, as g, p, &c., are called 
descending letters. Those that are both ascending and descending, 
and extend over the whole of the shank, as Q and j, are long letters. 
Small letters and figures cast upon the upper part of the shank, 
as l a , are called superiors; those very low down on the shank are 
inferiors, as H 3 . Types that are very heavy and massive in appear- 
ance are called fat-faced; those that are fine and delicate, lean-faced. 
A type whose face is not in proportion to the depth of the shank 
(e.g. a small pica cast on a pica body) is a bastard type. 

Types of are various sizes, from those used for the smallest pocket 
bibles to those used for large placards, and the sizes are classified 
according to the dimensions of their ends or bodies. sizes ot 
In a given fount the length of the end of the type which _ 
bears the /ace is the same for all characters, but the 
width varies, an i for example being narrower than a w. Each 
body has a distinctive name, but it used to be a confusing and in- 
convenient anomaly that types made by different founders, though 
called by the same name, were not of precisely the same size. The 
long primer of one maker, for example, was 89 lines to the foot, of 
another 89^, and of a third 92. This inconvenience was remedied 
in America by the founders agreeing to adopt a uniform point- 
system ; the pica of o- 16604 in. was taken as a standard, six picas being 
0-996 in., and was divided into twelve parts or points of 0-013837 in., 
other types being cast as multiples of one of these points, and 
specified according to the number of them they contained. This 
system, with the same basic unit, has been adopted by British 



X 



i . Finished 
Type. 



Points. 
22 

18 

"4 
12 
I I 
10 

9 
8 

7 
6 

31 



MODERN] 

typefounders, though not to the exclusion of older sizes, and it has 
been extended to regulate the thickness or set of types, and also the 
position of the faces on the bodies as regards alignment. The Didot 
point-system, used in France, is based on a point of 0-376 mm., the 
English point being 0-35145 mm. The following are specimens of 
the principal bodies of ordinary British and American types, with 
their corresponding appellations on the point-system, the first five 
being now mainly for display purposes: 

1 DC linCyClO 2linesmaH P ica 
The EnCydopaed Great primer . 

The Encyclopaedia English . . 

The Encyclopaedia Brit Pica . . . 

The Encyclopaedia Britan Small pica . . 

The Encyclopaedia Britannica, Long primer 

The Encyclopaedia Britannica, Bourgeois . . 

The Encyclopaedia Britannica, inh Brevier. 

The Encyclopaedia Britannica. nth Minion . 

The Encyclopaedia Britannica, nth edition Nonpareil . . 

The Encyclopaedia Britannica. nth edition Ruby . . 

The Encyclopaedia Britannica, i ith edition Pearl ..... 5 

[The larger type used in the body of this work is ID-point, and the 
smaller 8-point.) 

The height of types is \% in. Those lower than the standard 
dimensions are said to be " low to paper," and if surrounded by 
higher types will not give perfect impressions. Spaces and quads 
are J-in. high for direct printing, but for stereotyping are cut 
rather higher (0-83 in.). 

According to the purpose tor which they are used, types are 
divided into two classes book type, including Roman and Italic; 
, .. . and job type, including a multitude of fanciful forms of 
Face letters, chiefly founded on the shape of the Roman and 

Italic letters, and intended to be more prominent, 
delicate, elegant, &c. It is impossible to enumerate all the varieties 
of the latter class, as additions are being constantly made and once 
popular styles always going out of fashion. The leading varieties 
are the antiques, which are Roman letters with strokes of nearly 
uniform thickness, as M; sanserifs or grotesques, which have no 
serifs, as M ; blacks, as <JH; and scripts, which represent the modern 
cursive or Italian handwriting, as ^$. Black letter is now only a 
jobbing type in English-speaking countries, although it was the 
first character used in printing. It is still used in Germany, with 
certain modifications, as the principal text-letter for books and 
newspapers. A comparison of the numerous icproductions that 
have been issued of Caxton's works with any modern line of black 
letter will show how greatly the form and style have been altered. 
The present style of Roman type dates only from about the first 
quarter of the 1 8th century. Previously the approved shape was 
as follows : 

Printing has been defined to be the act, art, or practice 

The use of this type was revived by Charles Whlttingham, nephew 
of the founder of the Chiswick Press, about 1843, and it has since 
become a favourite form, under the name of old style. Some of the 
punches cut by the first notable English type-founder, William Caslon 
(1692-1766), have been preserved, and types are being constantly 
cast from them. Nearly all founders now produce modernized old 
style. 

In this connexion reference may be made to the modern revival 
of artistic book printing in England by William Morris and others 
influenced by him. This development took definite form in the 
founts and books of the Kelmscott Press, which is distinguished by 
the use of three founts designed by Morris. The Troye and Chaucer 
founts, both Gothic, are best fitted for ornamented medieval works, 
while the Golden or Roman fount is without the exaggerated con- 
traction of form laterally, the exaggerated use of thick and thin 
strokes, and the vicious stroke-terminations common to modern 
founts. It is a type of full body, designed in careful relation to the 
up and down strokes, and resting upon solid serifs, as with Jenson's 
fount, for instance, but in detail more allied to fine penmanship or 
black letter. The Vale books, often classed with the Kelmscott, 
may be counted with them so far as they also are controlled by one 
designer, from the important matter of type, decoration and illustra- 
tion, to that of " build " and press work. The first Vale book in 
which these conditions were achieved is Milton's MinorPoems (1896). 
In this is employed the Roman type, known as the Vale fount, 
designed by Charles Ricketts, which differs from the Kelmscott 
fount in a greater roundness or fullness of body, and in a modification 
of details by the conditions of type-making. The second fount 
used in the Vale issues, first employed in The Plays of Shakespeare 
(1896), is less round in body, more traditional in detail and lighter 
in effect. 



TYPOGRAPHY 



543 

Manufacture of Type. Type is made of an alloy, known as 
type-metal, which consists chiefly of lead, with smaller amounts 
of antimony and tin. The exact proportions vary in different 
countries and foundries and with the size and quality of the type, 
but in general more than 60% is lead and the antimony pre- 
dominates over the tin. Sometimes small quantities of other 
metals, such as copper and iron, are added. Large letters, 
such as are used for bills and posters do not come within the 
province of the type-founder; they are made of wood, chiefly 
rock maple, sycamore, pine and lime, planed to the right size 
and engraved by special machinery. 

The earliest printers made their own types, and the books printed 
from them can now be distinguished with almost as much certainty 
as handwriting can be identified. The modern printer 
has recourse to the type-founder. The first step in^" tHces for 
the making of type, according to the old method, is the '' pe ' 
production of a matrix. The letter is cut on the end of a piece of 
fine steel, forming the punch (fig. 2), which is afterwards hardened. 
A separate punch is required for each character in every fount of 
type, and the making of them requires great care and delicacy in 
order that the various sorts in a fount may be exactly uniform in 
width, height and general proportions. During the process of its 



Gt.P 



FIG. 2. Punch. FIG 3. Drive. FIG. 4. Matrix. 

manufacture, the punch is frequently tested or measured by delicate 
gauges to insure its accuracy, and from time to time it is examined 
by means of a smoke-proof, that is, an impression obtained by holding 
it in a flame and stamping it on paper. When the letter is perfect, 
it is driven into a piece of polished copper, called the drive or strike 
(fig. 3). This passes to the justifier, who makes the width and depth 
of the faces uniform throughout the fount. They must then be made 
to line exactly with each other. When completed, the strike be- 
comes the matrix (fig. 4), wherein the face of the type is made. 
But matrices are now commonly produced by the aid of an engraving 
engine which copies a standard drawing of each letter on any desired 
scale, and they may be obtained from existing founts by electro- 
typing. 

Until well into the igth century types were cast from the 
matrices in small hand-moulds, the output from which with a skil- 
ful worker was about 400 letters an hour. The mould 
consisted of two portions fitting closely to each other 
and containing the matrix with a space to receive the 
metal for the shank ; holding it in his left hand the operator poured 
in the metal with his right, and after jerking it at arm's length, to 
bring the metal well up against the matrix, opened the two halves 
and threw out the type. In 1838 David Bruce, Junr., of New York, 
a Scotsman, who had migrated to America, invented a machine to 
perform substantially the same operations; this increased the rate 
of production to about 100 a minute for ordinary sizes, and with 
improvements and modifications remained a standard appliance for 
40 years after its introduction. The metal, kept molten by a small 
furnace, was injected by a pump into the mould, which at every 
revolution of the axle came up to the spout of the pump, received 
a charge of metal, receded, opened, and discharged the type. But 
neither the hand mould nor the Bruce machine produced finished 
type. To the bottom of each there was attached a wedge-shaped 
jet (fig. 5), somewhat similar to that on a bullet cast 
in a hand mould. This had to be picked off by 
hand; the burr on the shoulder of the types had 
also to be rubbed off, and a groove had to be cut 
in the bottom to form the feet. Many efforts were 
made to devise machines which should perform 
these operations and produce finished type, one of 
the most satisfactory being that patented by Henry 
Barth, of Cincinnati, in 1888, but the principle of 
the divided mould which opened to discharge the 
type was generally retained. A new principle, 
however, was adopted by Frederick Wicks (1840- 
1910) in his rotary type casting machine, which 
was developed into a practical apparatus in London 
iust at the end of the igth century, and which 




_ Type 
w jtn j e t 



, 

is able to produce finished types, ready to be despatched to the 
printer without any inspection or treatment beyond packing, at a 



544 



TYPOGRAPHY 



[MODERN 



continuous rate of 60,000 an hour. It consists of a horizontal 
mould wheel, 20 in. in diameter, contained in the casing D (fig. 6), 
in which are cut 100 radial slots, each having a matrix at its inner 
end. These slots thus form moulds, and are of varying width 
according to the letter each has to cast. Each wheel can only pro- 
duce type of the particular body for which it has been cut, but by 
changing the matrices the moulds can be made to cast any descrip- 
tion of face capable of being received upon the body. The wheel is 
rotated once in every six seconds, so that the slots are successively 
presented .to a jet of molten type-metal, which is pumped from the 




Type-setting by Hand. The types, received from the foundry 
in the packages called pages, containing about 8 ft, are placed in 
shallow trays called cases. These contain compartments f yae . aae 
or boxes, each of which is appropriated to some ' 
particular sort or character. The cases when in use stand on 
frames or sloping desks. The case at the top is the upper case, and 
that below the lower case. The former contains 98 equal-sized 
boxes, appropriated principally to the capital and small capital 
letters; the latter has 53 boxes of various sizes, appropriated to 
the lower case sorts. The difference in the size of the boxes corre- 
sponds to the difference of quantity of letters in a fount, 
the lower-case e, for instance, having the largest box. As a 
man picks out from the boxes seldom less than 1500 letters 
an hour and distributes or replaces on the average about 




FIG. 6. Wicks Rotary Type-casting Machine. 

metal reservoir A by a pump B of special construction.'and forced 
out at high pressure through a nozzle under the shield C. As soon 
as any particular slot has passed the jet and been filled with metal, 
a cam-action comes into play and gradually pushes out the formed 
type. This operation is completed in half a revolution, the ejected 
type being taken up by carriers mounted on a continuous chain E, 
which is moved along exactly in step with the wheel. The carriers, 
which are of different sizes according to the particular letters they 
have to hold, are raised by a cam-action as they come opposite the 
slots to receive the types, but fall again at the point F, depositing 
the letters at the end of the race G. Each successive type thus 
dropped pushes its predecessors farther along the race until when 
the row contains 200 types the product of two revolutions of the 
wheel an attendant lifts the whole series off and places them on 
the plate H, one row below the other. Since the sequence of the 
letters is of course the same in each revolution, the result is that 
each vertical line on the plate consists of the same character, and each 
sort can be easily removed and packed in any required form for 
despatch to the printer. As soon as each slot has been emptied of 
its type, another cam begins to draw in the matrix towards the 
centre of the wheel, so that it is in as far as it can go by the time 
the slot is again opposite the jet. To prevent a type from being 
drawn back with the matrix, the bead-cam K engages with the nicks 
which have already been formed on the front of the type-bodies by 
the operation of the machine. To ensure trueness and accuracy 
in the product, the conditions under which casting is conducted 
are maintained as uniform as possible. The composition of the 
type-metal alloy is kept constant; the temperature of the molten 
metal is carefully regulated by the aid of a pyrometer to about 
800 F., so as not to volatilize the antimony it contains; the pumps 
work up to a pressure of 900 Ib to the square inch, and by the 
interposition of a reducing valve deliver the metal at the nozzle 
at a constant pressure of 200 Ib; and the moulding slots are main- 
tained at an equably cool temperature by an elaborate system of 
water circulation. 



FIG. 7. Type-case. 

5000 an hour, it is necessary that the most economical allo- 
cation of the boxes should be adopted. The system of 
allocating the various types is called the lay of the case; 
one plan is illustrated in fig. 7. 

The types when taken from the cases are arranged in 
lines (composed or set up) in an instrument called a composing 
stick, made of iron, brass or gun metal. The.. 
slide in the middle is movable so as to accom- mp ag ' 
modate varying lengths of lines. The compositor fixes the 
" copy " or document which he has to repeat in type, in 
a convenient place before his eye. In his left hand he 
holds the composing stick, and with the thumb and first 
finger of the right hand lifts the jetters from the boxes, 
and arranges them in the composing stick, every letter, 
point or sign being picked out separately. In this operation 
he is much assisted by the use of a setting-rule, a thin 
brass or steel plate which, being removed as successive 
lines are completed, keeps the type in place. When so 
many words and parts of words as will nearly fill the line 
have been composed, it is made the exact length required by 
increasing or diminishing the space between the several words. 
This is called justifying the line and is effected by means of the 
spaces already mentioned. If the work is not " solid " that is, if the 
lines are not close together the strips of metal called leads or brasses 
are inserted between each. When the composing stick is filled, the 
type is lifted upon a galley, a shallow tray of wood or metal, two or 
three sides of which are flanged, for the purpose of supporting the 
type when the galley is slightly inclined. Stickful after stickful 
of type is placed on the galley until it is full. The matter is then 
fastened up, a proof taken at the proof press, and the work of the 
reader or corrector of the press begins (see PROOF-READING). The 
proof, marked with the necessary corrections, is given back to the 
compositor ,an order that he may make the required alterations in 
the type. 

The type, being duly corrected, is made up into pages of the 
required length (unless the author has desired to see proof in slip). 
It is then imposed, that is, the pages are arranged in . . 
such a manner that, when printed and the sheet folded, " n P os ' n X- 
they will fall in due numerical sequence. The impression from any 
arrangement of pages will be the reverse of that in which they are 
laid down. If a four-page newspaper be opened and spread out 
with the first page uppermost, it will be found that on this side the 
order of pages is 4, I ; when turned the pages are 2, 3. The type 
pages must be ranged in the reverse way, as I, 4; 3, 2. Thus the 
fourth page is placed alongside the first, because both must be printed 
together on the outside ; the third page is to the left, and the second 
to the right, because in books the odd page-;-the verso-^is always 
to the right. For a quarto a sheet of paper is folded twice, that is 
once across its breadth and then once in a perpendicular direction 
down the middle. It contains four leaves, and if these are printed 
on both sides eight pages. The two sides of a sheet are called the 
outer and inner formes respectively. A sheet of octavo is folded 
three times, making 8 leaves or 16 pages. The size of a book depends 
not only upon the number of times the sheet has been folded^ and 
described accordingly as 4to, 8vo, I2mo, &c., but upon the size of 
the sheets. The dimensions of the papers commonly used in book- 
printing are: imperial, 22X30 in.; super royal, 2o|X27i; royal, 



MODERN] 



TYPOGRAPHY 



545 



20 X 25; medium, 19 X 24; demy, 17^ X 22|; double crown, 20 X 30; 
double foolscap, 17 X 27; post, 15} X 19 j. Hence to say merely 
that a book is a quarto gives no precise indication of its dimensions, 
as a quarto of one size of paper may be smaller than an octavo of 
another; it is also necessary to know the size of the sheets of which 
it is composed. 

When a printed book is opened, it will be found that at the foot 
of certain pages there is usually a letter and at the foot of another 
Signatures a ^ etter ar "d a figure, as B, B 2 ; farther on another letter 
' and another letter and figure. On going through the 
book it will be seen that the letters are in regular alphabetical order, 
and occur at regular intervals of eight, twelve, sixteen, &c., pages. 
These designate the several sheets of which the book is composed 
and are called signatures, so that a sheet may be designated B, and 
the pages of which it consists are thereby sufficiently indicated. 
(Occasionally, numbers are used instead of letters.) These signatures 
assist the binder in folding, as they occupy a certain specified place 
in each sheet ; hence to ascertain if the sheet has been folded properly 
it is only necessary to examine the position of the signature. The 
binder also is thus assisted in gathering or collating together the 
sheets of a volume in proper order. Signature A is omitted, because 
it would be on the title or first page, and would be both unnecessary 
and unsightly. By old custom J, V and W are discarded, I and 
J, U and V being originally used indiscriminately, by printers, 
while W was written UU or VV. When the alphabet is exhausted, 
a new one is begun, distinguished by a figure precedent, as 2 B, 
2 C, &c. 

The pages of types are arranged in proper order on a flat table, 
covered with stone or metal, called the imposing stone, and are then 
_ ready to be made into a forme, that is, into such a state 

me ' that they can be securely fastened up and moved about. 
The forme is enclosed in an iron frame or chase, sub-divided by a 
cross bar. The portions of the type are separated by furniture, 
which may be of metal or wood or both. It is of the same height 
as the chase, but lower than the type, and therefore does not print, 
but forms the margin of the printed pages. As the sides of the two 
sections of the formes are pieces of furniture of a tapering shape, 
called side-sticks, and at the top and bottom corresponding pieces, 
called foot-sticks. Small wedges, called quoins, are inserted and 
driven forward by a mallet and a shooting-stick, so that they gradually 
exert increasing pressure upon the type. Other mechanical means 
for locking up are also occasionally adopted. When sufficiently 
locked up, the whole is quite as firm and portable, however many 
thousands of pieces of metal it may consist of, as if it were a single 
plate, and is ready for use on the printing press, either directly or 
in the form of a stereotyped or electrotyped copy. 

After use the type undergoes the operation of distributing, which 
is the converse of composing; it is de-composing the forme and 
_. . returning the several letters to their proper boxes in 

the case. The forme is first washed over with an alkali 
g ' or other detergent to remove the ink from its surface, and 
then laid down on the imposing surface, unlocked and damped; this 
assists the cohesion of the type, after the chase, furniture, side- 
sticks, &c., are removed. The compositor then takes in his left hand, 
supported by a setting rule, a portion of type in lines, and with the 
right hand takes a word or so between the finger and thumb, letting 
each letter drop separately into its proper box. The types are held 
upside down, that is, with the nicks uppermost; hence the letters 
of each word are read from left to right like ordinary matter when 
printed, but the words are of course dealt with in the inverse order. 

Type-selling by Machine. The above method of producing 
a printing surface depends entirely upon hand labour, but it 
has long been an object of inventors in connexion with print- 
ing to perfect a mechanical system by which hand-work may be 
done away with both in setting type and in distributing it after 
use. The first step in this direction was the construction of 
composing machines in which the compositor put together 
types in the required order, not by lifting them one after another 
from his " boxes " and placing them by hand in his " stick," 
but by operating a keyboard which liberated them from maga- 
zines and assembled them in the order in which the keys had been 
struck. Such machines were followed as a natural correlative 
by distributing machines which performed the converse opera- 
tion. Then the idea occurred of avoiding distribution altogether, 
by returning the printing surface to the melting-pot and using 
the metal over again to produce an entirely new printing sur- 
face as required, instead of sorting the types into their various 
kinds to be set up again either by hand or by machine. There 
are two main solutions of this problem. One is to manu- 
facture ordinary movable types at a cost that is less than that 
of distribution, when it obviously becomes advantageous to treat 
the formes, after use, as old metal and return them directly to 
the melting pot without distribution. In 1900 The Times 
xxvii. 18 



began to adopt this method, thus securing the advantage of 
fresh new type for each issue. In its offices for several years 
type made by the Wicks casting machine was set up by com- 
posing machines, and after being used in making the necessary 
stereotype plates was returned to the foundry to be melted and 
recast. The other solution depends upon the employment of 
apparatus which are in effect combinations of type-setting and 
type-casting machines, and may be divided into two broad 
classes: (a) those in which, by the operation of a keyboard, 
letters are translated into metal types which appear as a pro- 
duct for use in the printing-press, not singly, but cast into com- 
plete bars or lines of type; and (6) those in which the final pro- 
duct is separate types, delivered made up into lines of the 
required length. The former class is exemplified by the Linotype, 
the Typograph, and the Monoline machines, the latter by the 
Lanston Monotype, the Tachytype and the Goodson. In 
machines of the Linotype class, which have come into exten- 
sive use, especially for newspaper printing, it is impossible 
to make corrections or alterations in the line of type after it 
has been cast. The smallest change, such as the addition of a 
comma, involves the resetting and recasting of a whole line, 
while, if two or three words have to be added or removed, the 
compositor may have to recast a considerable number of lines, 
perhaps a whole paragraph. Machines of the second class, 
like the Monotype, which has been employed for setting up 
the present edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, appeal 
rather to the book printer, though the Monotype is used by 
such newspapers as The Times (London) and the Sun (New 
York). They have the advantage that corrections can be made 
as with hand-set type; but for newspaper work the fact that the 
manipulation of the keyboard does not, as with the Linotype, 
directly produce a printing surface but merely a punched strip 
of paper, which has then to be passed through a separate casting 
machine, inevitably introduces some delay. This is a matter 
that must be taken into account in the hurried conditions under 
which a daily paper is produced, when the shortest possible 
interval must elapse between the time when the latest news is 
received and the actual printing is begun. A machine invented 
by Mr H. Gilbert-Stringer is designed to combine the advantages 
of the Linotype and Monotype machines by casting at a single 
operation separate types properly arranged in lines and uni- 
formly spaced. Up to the point where the matrices are ranged 
in a line ready for the bar of type to be cast, the mechanism 
may be identical with that of the Linotype; from that point 
each matrix is separately pushed into a mould which is auto- 
matically varied in size to suit the size of the particular letter 
it is casting, and also casts the spaces between the words (deter- 
mined by the use of a modified Schuckers wedge-space), so 
that when all the individual types and spaces in the line are 
assembled after casting they exactly fill the line. The machine 
requires only one operator, and while one line is being cast the 
matrices which have formed the preceding one are being dis- 
tributed to the magazine, as in the Linotype, and the following 
one is being set up. The matrices differ from those of the 
Linotype in that the face is impressed on their broad flat sur- 
face, not on the thin edge. 

Composing Machines. An early attempt to make a machine for 
setting up ordinary foundry type was patented in England by Dr 
William Church in 1822. In the machine of Young and Delcambre, 
which was used in London for composing the Famuy Herald in 1842, 
and was the forerunner of the Kastenbein machine adopted in The 
Times office in 1869, the types were arranged in tubes placed either 
vertically or horizontally, and the lowest or endmost letter was, 
when wanted, ejected from the tube by a pusher actuated by a 
finger-key. It then passed down the channels of a guide-plate to a 
common point, whence it was pushed forward by a reciprocating 
motion to the line of previously composed matter and divided into 
lines of the required length. To the same group belong the Eraser 
machine, the Hattersley and the Empire, also known in America as 
the Burr. Another group of machines developed from the rotary 
composer was invented by Alexander Mackie of Warrington in 1871, 
and used in the office of the Warrington Guardian. In this the types 
were arranged in vertical tubes round a rotating disk, and the letters 
were automatically selected by a strip of paper previously punched 
with holes through which feelers passed and caused the desired type 



546 



TYPOGRAPHY 



[MODERN 



to be ejected upon a travelling band. This device of using a paper 
strip perforated in different positions to correspond to different 
letters was patented by Felt in 1860 (U.S. Patent Spec. No. 28,463), 
and he also utilized it for effecting distribution, the " dead " or 
used type being dealt with by another machine through which the 
paper strip was run in the reverse direction. This quality, however, 
was not so valuable as it might appear at first sight, since any 
correction, however simple, of necessity made the perforated paper 
ineffectual as a guide in distribution. The Thorne machine, exhibited 
in the Paris Exhibition of 1878, was a development of the 
principle of a rotating disk, but the types, which were contained in a 
vertical cylinder, were selected by touching keys in the ordinary 
manner. When liberated they fell upon a rotating table, whence 
they were deflected by a finger upon a travelling band and deli- 
vered into the composing race. The American Simplex machine 
resembles the Thorne very closely. The Wicks composing machine, 
again, adopts a different principle from both the above groups. 
The types are ejected upon a straight race set at an angle of 45. 
Thus each has to travel a different distance from the other a 
result which the inventors of the Delcambre group of machines 
were at pains to avoid ; and when several keys are struck together 
so as to give a combination like " and," the several types delivered 
to the race follow each other in proper succession to the point of 
assembly, the letter whose key is nearest to the left side of the key- 
board preceding those whose keys are more to the right. 

The Paige composing, justifying and distributing machine 
an American invention is one of the most remarkable pieces of 
mechanism ever put together. It contains 18,000 parts, and the 
patent specifications form an imposing volume. It is operated by 
keys in the ordinary way, but automatic mechanism advances the 
ejected letters in words, spaces them. and inserts the lines in the 
" galley " with " leads " if desired ; at the same time other mechanism 
automatically distributes dead matter and refills the tubes which 
contain the supplies of types. Two machines were made, and are 
said to have done good work, but the cost of construction and the 
complicated nature of the mechanism made the apparatus im- 
practicable commercially, and the two that were made are now on 
view as mechanical curiosities, the one in the Columbia Institute 
and the other in Cornell University. The Paige machine dispensed 
with the guide-plate of the Delcambre group, the letters being 
ejected on a plane along which a driver passed at intervals and 
swept the type into a receiving race on the left of the machine. 
The Dow composing and justifying machine, a later American 
invention, adopts this characteristic of the Paige, but has two 
drivers meeting at the centre of the plane which receives the letters. 
The types having been swept to the centre by these, a vertical 
driver forces them downwards into a vertical receiver. When a 
line has been set a justifying key is touched, the vertical line passes 
to a horizontal position, and is driven forwards to a point where 
apparatus measures it, and having removed temporary brass spaces 
replaces them with others selected from a series of ten different 
thicknesses. 

Distributing Machines. There are two main classes of distributing 
machines. One, which is exemplified by the Delcambre or the 





FIG. 8. Nick System of Distribution (Simplex Machine). 



Fraser machine, is operated by a keyboard ; the compositor strikes 
the keys corresponding to the letters of the printed matter he wishes 
to distribute, and thus opens gates through which the types pass 
and find their way down a guide-plate to their proper tubes. The 
other comprises a number of machines which agree in requiring the 
type to be specially nicked for their use. Each type has its own 
particular combination of nicks, and the receptacles in which the 
type is collated are provided at their entrances with wards corre- 
sponding to these nicks, so that each type can only enter the one 
receptacle for which its nicks are arranged (fig. 8). In some cases, 
as in the Empire and the Dow, the distributor is a separate machine; 
in others, as the Thorne and the Simplex, it is combined with the 
composing machine in such a way that the two work simultaneously. 
Linotype. An enormous amount of ingenuity has been expended 
on the Linotype, which was developed into a practical machine by 



DISTRIBUTOR 




FIG. 9. Diagram of Linotype Machine. 



Ottmar Mergenthaler, of Baltimore, though two of its elements 
the solid bar of type and the wedge space were invented by others, 
the former by T. W. Smith, of the Caslon Foundry, and the latter 
by Jacob W. Schuckers, of Washington. The following will give a 
general idea of its working : In the magazine A (fig. 9) are a series 
of matrices, formed with the characters in intaglio on one edge, 
which are discharged by gates, operated from the keyboard D into 
the chutes E, and thence upon the travelling belt F; this delivers 
them upon a revolving pusher wheel by which they are set up in 
proper order in the assembler block G. Above the assembler block 
is a space magazine, and from this the space key J releases a space 
bar, when desired, which drops into place in the line. As the 
matrices are forced into the assembler block they move to the left 
against the resistance of a sliding abutment, thus being held com- 
pactly in place in the line. As soon as a complete line is set up, 
the compositor operates a hand lever by which the assembler block 
and matrices are raised to the level of a horizontal slide, where the 
line is grasped between two jaws and carried to the left, and lowered 
into position opposite the mouth of the mould wheel K. Here the 
justification of the line is effected by means of an upwardly moving 
plunger which drives the wedge-shaped spaces, seen in fig. 10, into 
the line, and thus expands it to the exact length required. The 
matrices are then locked firmly in a vice with the characters opposite 
the mouth of the mould. At this time the pump plunger in the 
melting pot M (fig. 9) is forced downwards by mechanism actuated 
by suitable cams on the driving shaft, and a jet of molten type 
metal is ejected into the mould and against the characters on the 
matrices, thus casting the bar or " slug." The cast bar is next 
forced, by a revolution of the wheel K, between a pair of knives, by 
which it is trimmed, and into a galley, where it is pushed along by 
a packer arm and placed beside its fellows in a column ready for use. 
It is next necessary to distribute the matrices to the magazines, 
in order that the operation of the machine may be carried on con- 
tinuously. The matrices and spaces are raised from the vice and 
brought opposite a bar R, which carries on its under side a series 
of undercut ribs corresponding to the teeth which are shown at the 
edges of the V-shaped notch in the top of the matrices (fig. 10) and 
the matrices are pushed on to this bar so as to be suspended by the 



MODERN] 



TYPOGRAPHY 



547 




ribs. They are next pushed still farther towards the right of the 
machine into a box having ribs engaging the notches in the side of 
the matrices, but with downwardly inclined grooves crossing these 
ribs, by which the shoulders at the upper end of the space bars 

are allowed to descend, and 
the spaces are thus dropped 
out of line and fall through 
a chute into the space-box 
from which they originally 
came. The matrices are 
pushed still farther to the 
right, where their teeth 
slide along the distributor 
bar T, being carried by 
two screws which engage 
opposite sides of the ma- 
trices and keep them sepa- 
rated so that they hang 
loosely from the distributor 
bar. The ribs of the 
distributor bar are so ar- 
ranged as to support each 
matrix by one or more 
pairs of teeth until it 
arrives opposite the mouth 
FIG. 10. Line of Matrices with Spaces, of its own magazine chan- 
nel, where they are inter- 
rupted in such a manner that the matrix is unsupported and drops 
into the magazine for further use. It will thus be apparent that 
there is a constant circulation of the matrices through the machine, 
and the composing of one line, the casting of another and the distribu- 
tion of a third are all carried on at the same time, which adds greatly 
to the speed of the operation. The machine may be fitted with double 
magazine, which with double-letter matrices gives 360 characters 
or four faces ready for use, or even with three magazines, which 
provide for 540 characters or six faces, the movement of a hand 
lever bringing the desired magazine into use. 

Lanston Monotype. In the Lanston apparatus there are two 
distinct machines, a ribbon-punching machine and a type-cast- 
ing and composing machine. The first of these is a small device 
resembling a typewriter, having a number of keys, 257 in all, corre- 
sponding to all the characters used in a fount of type, with some 
additions representing certain movements to be performed by the 
composing machine. These keys, when depressed, admit com- 
pressed air to a plunger or combination of two plungers working 
punches, whereby perforations are made in a strip of paper fed step 
by step through the machine. Most of the keys make two perfora- 
tions, though some a single one only. These perforations stand in a 

transverse line across the 
strip, as shown in fig. n, 
and their relative position 
in the line varies with the 
particular key operated. 
At the end of each word a 
spacing key is struck, and 
suitable perforations are 
made in the strip, and as 
the end of a line is 
neared, a bell rings to warn 
the operator, who, by 
looking at a line scale 
facing him on the machine, 
is enabled to see how many 
units of space remain to 
be filled, and can then 
determine whether another 
word or syllable can be set 
up. If not, it then be- 
comes necessary to provide 
proper space-type to jus- 
tify or fill out the line, 
which is done by increasing 
the width of the normal 
space-types already pro- 
vided for in the proportion 

FIG. ii. Perforated Strip. w , hich the numb - f . uts 

of space still vacant in the 

line bears to the number of space-types which the line contains. For 
example, if there are ten space-types and fa of an inch of space 
remains to be filled, each space-type must be increased in thickness 
just T J 5 of an inch completely to fill the line. It is not necessary, 
however, for the operator to make this calculation, for he has only 
to consult the scale provided for this purpose, and is referred at once 
to the proper keys to punch the justifying perforations in the strip. 
Each time the space key is depressed a pointer rises one step against 
a cylindrical scale placed vertically in front of the machine, and 
when the operator has finished setting a line he presses a special 
key which causes the cylinder to rotate until it automatically stops 
with the required number at the end of the pointer. This number 
is in the form J, and to complete the justification of the line the 




operator has only to depress the appropriate keys in the top two 
rows of the keyboard, in this case No. 3 of the top row and No. 4 
of the second. 

The ribbon thus prepared in the punching machine is used to 
control all the movements of the casting or composing machine. 
The matrices for making the type faces are formed in a plate about 
3 in. square, and any character is brought opposite the casting point 
by the movement of the matrix-carrier in two directions, or rather 
by the resultant of two such independent movements. As the 
perforations for controlling the galley movements and those for 
justifying the line are necessarily made after the others in the per- 
forating machine, and these operations must be provided for in the 
composing machine before the line is set up, the latter machine is 
so organized that the ribbon is passed through and the types are 
set in the reyerse order to that in which the strip was punched. The 
perforated ribbon is wound from one wheel off to another, passing 
over the edge of a tracker board in which there are a number of 
holes corresponding to those which may occur in the ribbon, and 
each of these holes communicates by a tube with a small piston 
which controls some device for performing one of the various opera- 
tions of the machine. As the ribbon passes over the tracker board, 
a jet of compressed air passes to the appropriate operating device 
whenever a ribbon perforation or any combination of them coincides 
with the proper holes. The two perforations on each transverse 
line control two stop pins which limit the movements of the matrix- 
carrier to bringing the proper matrix to the casting-point, while the 
justifying perforations set in motion devices which open the space 
mould to cast space type of the exact size to effect the proper justifi- 
cation of the line, and the galley perforation starts the feeding 
device which moves the galley for the next line of type. The matrix- 
carrier may be readily removed and another carrying a different 
style or size of type substituted therefor. 

In modern printing it is often the case that the printing 
surface actually used in the press (see PRINTING) is not the 
original forme of type, whether consisting of separate type set 
up by machine or by hand, or of Linotype slugs, but a repro- 
duction of it made by electrotyping or by stereotyping. Of 
these two processes the former is the slower and the more costly, 
but it produces the better results, since electrotyped plates 
are capable of yielding a larger number of sharp impressions 
than are stereotypes. 

Electrotyping. In making an electrotype, a moulding composition 
consisting mainly of wax with a little blacklead, is poured when 
molten into a shallow metal tray, and, when it has set, its surface 
is brushed over with blacklead and polished. An impression of 
the forme, which is also blackleaded, is next taken in the wax while 
it is still warm, often by the aid of a hydraulic press, and the mould 
thus obtained, after being separated from the forme, undergoes a 
process of building up, which consists of dropping heated wax upon 
those portions which require to be more deeply sunk in the finished 
type, that is, upon those places where " whites " are to appear in 
the print. The face of the finished mould is then carefully covered 
with blacklead, which is a conductor of electricity, and the whole is 
immersed in an electrotyping bath, where copper is deposited on 
the blackleaded portions by means of the current from a Smee's 
battery or a dynamo machine. When the deposit, or shell, is 
sufficiently thick, it is disengaged from the wax mould, backed with 
a metal which resembles type-metal but contains a larger proportion 
of lead, and trimmed and planed. For use in rotary presses curved 
electrotypes may be produced. 

Stereotyping. The great advantage of stereotyping is in con- 
nexion with the production of newspapers, where the desideratum 
is the printing off of a large number of copies in a short time. For 
this purpose, in the first place, rotary machines must be employed, 
and stereotyping affords a ready means of obtaining curved printing 
surfaces to fit their cylinders. It is true that stereotyping is not 
absolutely necessary for rotary printing, since it has been found 
possible to print from movable type clamped on the cylinders in 
curved frames known as " turtles." But to set up duplicate 
formes of type is impracticable, and, therefore, this device does not 
permit the utilization of more than one press. Herein lies the 
second great advantage of stereotyping, for it enables the printer 
to obtain as many replicas of each forme as he desires, and thus not 
only to employ a number of machines simultaneously, but also to 
" dress " each of them with several duplicates of the same forme, 
as is required in the later developments of high-speed presses. 

The first attempt at making stereotypes was by means of moist 
clay into which, after it had been impressed with the type and baked, 
molten type metal was poured; but this method did not yield a 
curved plate. Later the clay -was replaced by papier-mache, which 
being flexible can be bent to the required shape. This papier- 
m&che, known as flong and composed of several sheets of paper 
united by a paste capable of withstanding a high temperature 
without burning, is moistened and laid over the forme of type, into 
which it is well pressed either by beating with a long-handled brush 
or, according to the more modern and expeditious method, by being 
passed through a moulding press. The flong is next dried, for which 



TYR TYRCONNELL, EARL 



purpose it is either placed with the type in a heated chamber covered 
with blankets which absorb the moisture, or is removed from the 
type and heated separately. Sometimes these two methods are 
used in combination ; processes have also been devised for pressing 
the flong dry upon the type, when [subsequent drying becomes 
unnecessary. For casting a plate the matrix thus prepared is 
fastened in a casting mould or box curved to the circumference of 
the cylinder of the press, and molten stereo-metal (a softer form of 
type-metal) is poured upon it. During this process the box stands 
upright, but while the matrix is being placed in position it lies 
horizontally, a swivel mounting enabling it to be readily turned. 
After time has been allowed for solidification, the cast is taken out, 
stripped from the matrix and adjusted on a " finishing saddle," 
where a machine cuts off the superfluous metal from its upper end 
and forms a bevel by which it can be clamped on the press. It is 
then placed face downwards in another machine which shaves out 
and smooths its interior surface, and finally it is set face upwards, 
while men with chisels remove protruding pieces of metal that might 
take ink and print. 

Up to the end of the igth century the general method of stereo- 
typing was as outlined above, though of course there were variations 
in different establishments. The time required to produce a plate, 
as distinct from making the matrix, was about I or I J minute, and the 
process was expensive in labour since it required the employment 
of half-a-dozen men. This time may seem short enough, but when 
plates are needed by the score, as may be the case with a paper 
having a large circulation, the delay entailed by the preparation 
of the whole number by this method becomes of serious importance. 
Means were therefore sought to reduce it by the adoption of auto- 
matic mechanism. In the Autoplate machine, invented in America 
by Henry A. Wise Wood, and first used by the New York Herald 
in 1900, the operation of casting is performed automatically from the 
time the matrix is put in position until the finished plate is ready 
to be placed on the printing press, and from a single matrix four 
plates | in. thick, or seven or eight j in. thick, can be produced 
every minute, by the aid of three men only. The casting is done 
against a horizontal cylinder or core, the interior of which is cooled 
by water. Below it is a frame or " back " carrying the matrix. 
This back has an up and down movement of about six inches, and 
when it is in its topmost position there is a semicircular space 
between it and the core equal in length, breadth and thickness to 
the plate which has to be cast. Molten metal having been injected 
into this space by a pump, there is a pause of a few seconds to permit 
of solidification, and then the back falls, bringing away the matrix with 
it. Immediately afterwards the cylinder makes a half turn, and pre- 
sents what was previously its upper half to the matrix for another 
cast. The first cast is taken with it as it turns, and is then pushed 
along from the top of the core against two rotating saws which trim 
its edges. Next it comes under a shaving arch, where it pauses while 
jts interior surface is smoothed to proper thickness, and finally water 
is directed against its back, to cool it without wetting its printing 
face. The Junior Autoplate is a simpler machine which does not 
perform so many operations. In it the casting core is vertical, not 
horizontal, but the matrix is still automatically stripped from the 
plate, the casts are made alternately on the two halves of the 
cylinder, and as one plate is being removed another is being cast. 
The machine also automatically cuts off the sprue which is left on the 
top of the plate as it stands in the casting box. About three 

Elates a minute are produced, but they are not delivered completely 
nished, and have to undergo several further operations before they 
are ready to be placed on the press. The Double Junior consists 
of two Junior Autoplates served from a common melting-pot, and 
its capacity is six plates a minute, with two matrices; and another 
machine, the Autoshaver, has been devised which can shave, cool 
and deliver that number of plates automatically, no labour being 
required except to take the plate from the casting machine and 
place it on the Autoshaver. 

See Practical Printing, by John Southward and Arthur Powell 
(5th ed., London, 1900) ; Modern Printing, by John Southward 
(London, 1898); The American Handbook of Printing, by Edmund 
G.Gress (New York, 1907) ; History of Composing Machines, by John 
S. Thompson (Chicago, 1904) ; TraM de la typographic, by Henri 
Fournier (4th ed., Paris, 1904); "Type Casting and Composing 
Machines," by L. A. Legros, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. (London, 
1908) ; " Modern Stereotypy and the Mechanics of the Newspaper," 
by Henry A. Wise Wood, Journ. Franklin Inst. (Philadelphia, 
1910). (J-So.;H.M. R.) 

TYR, the Scandinavian god of battle. He is not a prominent 
figure in Northern mythology, for even in this special capacity 
he is overshadowed by Odin, and there are hardly any traces 
of worship being paid to him. Among other Teutonic peoples, 
however, he seems at one time to have been a deity of consider- 
able importance. In Anglo-Saxon he was called Ti (Ti, Tiig, 
gen. Tiwes, whence " Tuesday ") and equated with the Roman 
Mars. He is also identified with the German god mentioned 
more than once by Tacitus, as well as in inscriptions, by the name 
Mars. His Teutonic name is the same as the word for " god " 



in several other Indo-European languages (e.g. Lat. diuus, Lith. 
divas, Skr. devas), and even in Old Norse the plural (tivar) 
was still used in the same sense. (See TEUTONIC PEOPLES: 
Religion, ad fin.) (H. M. C.) 

TYRANT (Gr. rvpavvos, master, ruler), a term applied in 
modern times to a ruler of a cruel and oppressive character. 
This use is, however, based on a complete misapprehension of 
the application of the Greek word, which implied nothing more 
than unconditional sovereignty. Such rulers are not, as is often 
supposed, confined to a single period, the 7th and 6th centuries 
B.C. (the so-called " Age of the Tyrants ") of Greek history, 
but appear sporadically at all times, and are frequent in the later 
city-states of the Greek world. The use of the term " tyrant " 
in the bad sense is due largely to the ultra-constitutionalists of 
the 4th century in Athens, to whom the democracy of Pericles 
was the ideal of government. Thus the government which 
Lysander set up in Athens at the close of the Peloponnesian War 
is called that of the " Thirty Tyrants " (see CRITIAS). The same 
term is applied to those Roman generals (really 18) who usurped 
authority locally under Gallienus. 

TYRAS, a colony of Miletus, probably founded about 600 B.C., 
situated some 10 m. from the mouth of the Tyras River 
(Dniester). Of no great importance in early times, in the 2nd 
century B.C. it fell under the dominion of native kings whose 
names appear on its coins, and it was destroyed by the Getae 
about 50 B.C. In A.D. 56 it seems to have been restored by the 
Romans and henceforth formed part of the province of Lower 
Moesia. There exists a series of its coins with heads of emperors 
from Domitian to Alexander Severus. Soon after the time of 
the latter it was destroyed by the Goths. Its government was 
in the hands of five archons, a senate, a popular assembly and a 
registrar. The types of its coins suggest a trade in wheat, wine 
and fish. The few inscriptions are also mostly concerned with 
trade. Its remains are scanty, as its site has been covered by 
the great medieval fortress of Monocastro or Akkerman (?..). 

See E. H. Minns, Scythians and Greeks (Cambridge, 1909) ; V. V. 
Latyshev, Inscriptiones Orae Septentrionalis Ponti Euxini, vol. i. 

(E. H. M.) 

TYRCONNELL, RICHARD TALBOT, EARL [TITULAR DUKE] 
or (1630-1691), Irish Jacobite, came of an ancient Anglo-Nor- 
man family, the Talbots of Malahide. His father, Sir William 
Talbot (d. 1633), was a Roman Catholic lawyer and politician of 
note. His brother Peter was Roman Catholic archbishop of 
Dublin. Richard Talbot served as a royalist during the Great 
Rebellion. He was present in Drogheda (Tredah) when it was 
stormed by Cromwell on the 3rd of September 1647, and was 
one of the few members of the garrison who escaped from the 
massacre; he fled to Spain. He then lived like many other 
royalist refugees, partly by casual military service, but also by 
acting as a subordinate agent in plots to upset the Common- 
wealth and murder Cromwell. He was arrested in London in 
November 1655 and was examined by Cromwell. Once more 
he escaped, but it was said by his enemies that he was bribed by 
the Protector, with whom one of his brothers was certainly in 
correspondence. After the Restoration he had a place in the 
household of the duke of York (James II.). He was actively 
engaged in an infamous intrigue to ruin the character of Anne 
Hyde, the duke's wife, but continued in James's employment 
and saw some service at sea in the naval wars with the Dutch. 
He accumulated money by acting as agent for Irish Roman 
Catholics who sought to recover their confiscated property. He 
was arrested in connexion with the Popish Plot agitation in 1678, 
but was allowed to go into exile. He returned just before the 
death of Charles II., and during the reign of James II. he was the 
chief agent of the king's policy in Ireland. He was appointed 
commander-in-chief and created earl of Tyrconnell in 1685. 
The duty assigned him was to create a Roman Catholic army 
which might be used to coerce England. In February 1687 he 
was appointed lord deputy, and became the civil as well as the 
military governor of Ireland. Tyrconnell, who foresaw the 
revolution in England, entered into intrigues for handing Ireland 
over to the king of France in order to secure the interest of his 



TYRCONNELL TYRONE 



549 



fellow Roman Catholics. For a time he made a pretence of 
protecting the Protestants, but when the revolution of 1688 
occurred in England he threw himself, after some hesitation, 
into the struggle against William III., and when James fled to 
France Tyrconnell was left as his representative. When 
William raised the siege of Limerick, Tyrconnell went over to 
France to seek help, and after his return (January 1691) he was 
little more than a spectator of the military operations. When 
he did act it was to thwart the French General St Ruth and his 
own countryman Sarsfield. He became so unpopular that he 
was compelled to retire to Limerick, where he died of apoplexy 
on the i4th of August 1691. In 1689 King James created him 
duke of Tyrconnell, but the title was recognized only by the 
Jacobites. 

TYRCONNELL (Tir-Conaill), an ancient kingdom of Ireland. 
Conall Gulban, a son of Niall of the Nine Hostages, king of 
Ireland, acquired the wild territory in the north-west of Ulster 
(the modern Co. Donegal, &c.), and founded the kingdom 
about the middle of the sth century. Of the several branches 
of his family, the O'Connells, O'Cannanans and O'Dohertys 
may be mentioned. The kings of Tyrconnell maintained their 
position until 1071. 

TYRE (Phoen. and Hebr. ti, -ret = " rock," Assyr. Surru, 
Egypt. Dara, Early Lat. Sarra), the most famous city of Phoe- 
nicia. It is now represented by the petty town of Sur (about 
5,000 inhabitants), built round the harbour at the north end of a 
peninsula, which till the time of Alexander's siege was an island, 
without water or vegetation. The mole which he constructed 
has been widened by deposits of sand, so that the ancient island 
is now connected with the mainland by a tongue of land a quarter 
of a mile broad. The greatest length of the former island, from 
north to south, is about f m. and its area about 142 acres. The 
researches of Renan have refuted the once popular idea that a 
great part of the original island has disappeared by natural 
convulsions, though he believes that the remains of a submerged 
wall at the south end indicate that about 1 5 additional acres were 
once reclaimed and have been again lost. On this narrow site 
Tyre was built; its 25,000 inhabitants were crowded into many- 
storeyed houses loftier than those of Rome; and yet place was 
found not only for the great temple of Melqarth with its courts, 
but for docks and warehouses, and for the purple factories, which 
in Roman times made the town an unpleasant place of residence 
(Strabo xvi. 2, 23). In the Roman period the population 
occupied a strip of the opposite mainland, including Palaetyrus. 
Pliny (Nat. Hist, v. 19) gives to the whole city, continental 
and insular, a compass of 19 Roman miles; but this account 
must be received with caution. In Strabo's time the island was 
still the city, and Palaetyrus on the mainland was distant 30 
stadia; modern research, however, indicates an extensive line 
of suburbs rather than one mainland city that can be identified 
with Palaetyrus. This name was given by the Greeks to the 
settlement on the coast under the mistaken impression that it 
was more ancient than that on the island; the Assyr. Ushu, 
frequently mentioned in the Amarna letters, makes it probable 
that Usu or Uzu was the native name. Owing to the paucity 
of Phoenician remains the topography of the town and its 
surroundings is still obscure. The present harbour is certainly 
the Sidonian port, though it is not so large as it once was; the 
other ancient harbour, the Egyptian port, has disappeared, and 
is supposed by Renan to have lain on the south side of the island, 
and to be now absorbed in the isthmus. The most important 
ruins are those of the cathedral, with its magnificent columns 
of rose-coloured granite, now prostrate. The present building 
is assigned by De Vogue to the second half of the i2th century, 
but the columns may have belonged to the 4th-century church 
of Paulinus (Euseb. H.E. x. 4). The water-supply of ancient 
Tyre came from the powerful springs of Ras-al 'Ain (see AQUE- 
DUCT) on the mainland, one hour south of the city, where there 
are still remarkable reservoirs, in connexion with which curious 
survivals of Adonis worship have been observed by travellers. 
Tyre was still an important city and an almost impregnable 
fortress under the Arab Empire. From 1124 to 1291 it was a 



stronghold of the crusaders, and Saladin himself besieged it in 
vain. After the fall of Acre the Christians deserted the place, 
which was then destroyed by the Moslems. The present town 
has arisen since the Motawila (Metawila or Mutawileh) occupied 
the district in 1766. 

The most important references to Tyre in the Bible are I Kings v., 
vii., ix. ; Is. xxiii. ; Am. i. 9 seq.; Ezek. xxvi.-xxviii. ; 2 Mace. iv. 
18 sqq.; Mark iii. 8, vii. 24 sqq. ; Matt. xi. 21 seq. (and parallels); 
Acts xii. 20. Cf. also Joshua xix. 29; 2 Sam. xxiv. 7; Ezra iii. 7; 
Neh. xiii. 16; Ps. xlv. 12, Ixxxiii. 7, Ixxxvii. 4. For the history of 
Tyre see PHOENICIA. See also Renan, Mission de Phenicie (1864); 
Pietschmann, Gesch. der Phonizier (1889), 61-72; F. Jeremias, 
Tyrus bis zur Zeit Nebukadnesars (1891); H. Winckler, Altor. 
Forschungen, ii. 65 sqq. ; A. Socin in Baedeker, Pal. u. Syrien. 

(W. R. S.;G. A.C.*) 

TYREE, an island of the Inner Hebrides, Argyllshire, Scot- 
land. Pop. (1901), 2192. It is situated fully 2 m. S.W. of 
Coll, the isle of Gunna lying in the channel between the two 
islands, and has an extreme length from north-east to south- 
west of nearly 1 2 m. and a breadth varying from f m. to 4! m. 
Carnan Mor (460 ft.) is the highest point; there are several 
lakes. On the south-western point of Balephuill Bay are 
ruins of St Patrick's temple, besides duns and ancient chapels. 
Steamers call from Oban regularly at the small harbour of 
Scarinish. SKERRYVORE, a lonely rock in the Atlantic, 14 m. 
south-west, belongs to the parish of Tyree. The massive 
lighthouse, which Alan Stevenson erected in 1833-1843, was 
constructed of granite from the quarries of Hynish at the south- 
eastern extremity of Tyree. 

TYRONE, EARLS OF. The earldom of Tyrone was first 
conferred by Henry VIII. in 1542 on Conn Bacach O'Neill, 
and was forfeited in 1614 when an act of attainder was passed 
against his grandson Hugh, 2nd earl (more strictly 3rd earl, 
for his brother Brien was for some years de jure holder of the 
title though never recognized as such), the famous rebel who 
fled from Ireland with the earl of Tyrconnell in 1607 (see 
O'NEILL). Descendants of the ist earl in Spain continued to 
style themselves earls of Tyrone till the death early in the i8th 
century of Owen O'Neill, grandson of Owen Roe O'Neill. In 
1673 Richard Power, 6th Baron Le Power and Coroghmore, 
governor of Waterford, was created viscount of Decies and 
earl of Tyrone, being succeeded in these titles by his two sons 
successively, on the death of the younger of whom in 1704 they 
became extinct. A daughter of this last earl married Sir 
Marcus Beresford, Bart., of Coleraine, Co. Derry, in 1717; and 
in 1720 Beresford was created Baron Beresford and Viscount 
of Tyrone. In 1746 he was further created earl of Tyrone, 
and after his death in 1763 his widow became in 1767 Baroness 
La Poer in her own right. The only surviving son of this 
marriage inherited the titles of both his parents, all of which 
were in the peerage of Ireland, and in 1786 he was created 
a peer of Great Britain as Baron Tyrone of Haverfordwest in 
the county of Pembroke; three years later he was created 
marquess of Waterford, with which dignity the earldom of 
Tyrone has remained conjoined. 

TYRONE, a county of Ireland in the province of Ulster, 
bounded N. and W. by Donegal, N.E. by Londonderry, E. by 
Lough Neagh and Armagh and S. by Monaghan and Fermanagh. 
The area is 806,658 acres or about 1260 sq. m. The surface is 
for the most part hilly, rising into mountains towards the 
north and south, but eastward towards Lough Neagh it declines 
into a level plain. Running along the north-eastern boundary 
with Londonderry are the ridges of the Sperrin Mountains 
(Sawel, 2240 ft., and Meenard, 2061 ft.). Farther south there 
is a range of lower hills, and Mullaghearn, north-east of Omagh, 
reaches 1778 ft. South of Clogher a range of hills, reaching 
1255 ft. in Slieve Beagh, forms the boundary between Tyrone 
and Monaghan. On each side of the Mourne River near Omagh 
rise the two picturesque hills Bessy Bell and Mary Gray. The 
Foyle forms a small portion of the western boundary of the 
county, and receives the Mourne, which flows northward by 
Newton Stewart. The principal tributaries of the Mourne 
are the Strule (constituting its upper waters), the Derg from 



550 



TYRONE TYRRELL, G. 



Lough Derg, and the Owenkillew, flowing westward from Fir j 
Mountain. The Blackwater rises near Fivemiletown and ' 
forms part of the south-eastern boundary of the county with 
Monaghan and Armagh. With the exception of Lough Neagh, 
bounding the county on the east, the lakes are small, also 
few in number. Lough Fea is picturesquely situated in the 
north-west, and there are several small lakes near Newtown 
Stewart. 

Geology. The Sperrin Mountains in the north consist of ordinary 
" Dalradian " mica schists, covered mostly with grass. Lower 
Carboniferous Sandstone occurs as an outlier between the mountains 
and Strabane. The relation of the northern schists to the gneissic 
and " green rock " axis that forms the central moorland of Tyrone 
is obscure; intrusions of granite have evidently coarsened the 
structure of this axis. Ancient perlitic rhyolites occur among 
the " green rocks " on its northern flank. Omagh lies on Lower 
Carboniferous Sandstone, which, fringed by Old Red Sandstone, 
stretches west from the town to the county boundary; but the 
Dalradian schists appear continuously south of this from Omagh 
to Lack in Co. Fermanagh. A great mass of Old Red Sandstone, 
rising in long ranges of hills, occupies most of the south of the 
county, resting on Silurian shales at Pomeroy. Lower Carboni- 
ferous sandstone and limestone occur on the south flank of this 
upland, and extend over its east end to Cookstown. At Slieve 
Beagh in the extreme south Upper Carboniferous sandstones and 
shales are reached, and from Coalisland to Dungannon true Coal 
Measures appear. This coalfield includes one fine seam 9 ft. thick 
at Coalisland; less important coals occur in the Millstone Grit 
series at Dungannon. Though much denuded before Triassic times, 
the field doubtless continues eastward under the Triassic sandstone 
that stretches towards Lough Neagh. The pale clays, probably 
Pliocene, of the southern shore of the lake cover the flat land east 
of Coalisland. and are several hundred feet thick. North of Stewarts- 
town, near Tullaghoge, a very small patch of Magnesian limestone 
contains Permian marine fossils; and, farther north, the county 
includes part of the basaltic plateaus, protecting Chalk, which 
extend away into Co. Londonderry. The Glacial epoch has 
left immense deposits of gravel and long eskers throughout the 
county. These are especially conspicuous north of Pomeroy. 
Fire-clay is raised from the collieries at Coalisland ; but coal-mining 
here awaits exploration on the east. 

Industries. The hilly districts are unsuitable for tillage; but in 
the lower regions the soil is remarkably fertile, and agriculture 
is generally practised after improved methods, the county in this 
respect being in advance of most parts of Ireland. The excellent 
pasturage ofthe hilly districts supports a large number of young 
cattle. The proportion of tillage to pasture is roughly as I to ij. 
Oats, potatoes and turnips are the principal crops. The cultivation 
of flax, formerly an important industry, has greatly deteriorated. 
Poultry-keeping is a growing industry. There are manufactures 
of linens and coarse woollens (including blankets) ; brown earthen- 
ware, chemicals, whisky, soap and candles are also made. There 
are a few breweries and distilleries, and several flour and meal mills. 
But for the lack of enterprise the coal and iron might aid in the 
development of a considerable manufacturing industry. 

Branches of the Great Northern railway from Portadown 
(Co. Armagh) and Dungannon in the south-east, and from 
Enniskillen (Co. Fermanagh) and Fintona, unite at Omagh, 
whence a line proceeds north by Newtown Stewart and Strabane 
to Londonderry. From Dungannon a branch runs north to Cooks- 
town, where it joins a branch of the Northern Counties (Midland) 
railway. From yictoria Bridge on the Londonderry line the 
Castlederg light railway serves that town. The south of the county 
is served by the Clogher Valley light railway. Water communica- 
tion includes Lough Neagh, and the Blackwater entering it, and 
navigable to Moy, whence the Ulster canal skirts the boundary of 
the county with Co. Armagh to Caledon. The Foyle is navigable 
to Strabane. 

Population. The population (150,567 in 1901) shows a 
decrease among the most serious of Irish county populations, 
and emigration is heavy. About 55% of tbe inhabitants are 
Roman Catholics, 22% Protestant Episcopalians and 19% 
Presbyterians; about 90% constitute the rural population 
The chief towns are Strabane (pop. 5033), Omagh (the county 
town, 4789) , Dungannon (3694), Cookstown (3531) and Newtown 
Stewart (1062). The county comprises 8 baronies. Two 
county members and 2 for each of the boroughs of Augher, 
Clogher, Dungannon and Strabane were returned to the Irish 
parliament; after the Union the county returned 2 members 
to parliament, the borough of Dungannon also returning i; 
but in 1885 Dungannon was disfranchised and the county 
arranged in four divisions east, mid, north and south each 
returning one member. Assizes are held at Omagh and quarter- 



sessions at Clogher, Cookstown, Dungannon, Omagh and 
Strabane. 

History. Tyrone became a principality of one of the sons 
of Niall of the Nine Hostages in the sth century, and from his 
name Eogan was called Tir Eogan, gradually altered to 
Tyrone. From Eogan were descended the O'Neals or O'Neills 
and their numerous septs. The 'family had their chief seat at 
Dungannon until the reign of Elizabeth, when it was burned 
by Hugh O'Neill to prevent it falling into the hands of Lord 
Mountjoy. The earldom of Tyrone had been conferred by 
Henry VIII. on Conn O'Neill, but on his death, when the 
earldom should have descended to his heir Matthew, baron of 
Dungannon, another son, Shane, was proclaimed chief with 
the consent of the people. Shane maintained a contest with 
English authority, but his last-remaining forces were completely 
defeated near the river Foyle in May 1567, and shortly after- 
wards he was himself killed. Tyrone was one of the counties 
formed at Sir John Perrot's shiring of the unreformed parts 
of Ulster; but his work was interrupted by the rising of Hugh 
O'Neill in 1596. During the insurrection of 1641 Charlemont 
Fort and Dungannon were captured by Sir Phelim O'Neill, 
and in 1645 the parliamentary torces under General Munro 
were signally defeated by Owen Roe O'Neill at Benburb. At 
the Revolution the county was for a long time in the possession 
of the forces of James II. 

Raths are scattered over every district of the county. There is 
a large cromlech near Newtown Stewart, another at Tarnlaght 
near Coagh and another a mile above Castlederg. At Kilmeillie 
near Dungannon are two stone circles. There are some ruins of 
the ancient castle of the O'Neills, near Benburb; mention may 
also be made of the ruins of the castles of Newtown Stewart, 
Dungannon, Strabane and Ballygawley. 

TYRONE, a borough of Blair county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 
about 15 m. N.E. of Altoona, on the Little Juniata river, a 
small tributary of the Juniata river. Pop. (1910) 7176. 
Tyrone is served by the main line and three short branches of 
the Pennsylvania railway (which has repair shops here) , and is 
connected with Altoona by an electric line. The borough is 
situated about 910 ft. above sea-level, in an agricultural and 
lumbering region, and there are deposits of limestone in the 
vicinity. It is a distributing point for the Clearfield coal 
region to the northward. At the village of Birmingham, 3 m. 
east, is a school for girls (founded 1853; incorporated 1907). 
Tyrone was laid out as a village in 1851, and was incorporated 
as a borough in 1857. 

TYRRELL, GEORGE (1861-1909), Irish divine, was born in 
Dublin on the 6th of February 1861, and came of a family noted 
for its intellectual distinction. He was educated under Dr 
Benson at Rathmines School and entered Trinity College in 
1878. He was greatly influenced by the writings of Cardinal 
Newman, and early in 1879 entered the Roman Catholic Church. 
In 1880 he joined the Society of Jesus and passed his novitiate 
at Manresa and other houses of the order, becoming teacher 
of philosophy at Stonyhurst. He hada keen sympathy with 
the difficulties experienced by the ordinary lay mind in trying 
to reconcile the conservative element in Catholicism with the 
principle of development and growth, and in The Faith of the 
Millions, Hard Sayings and Nova et iielera he attempted to 
clear them away. His writings have been described as " apolo- 
getic in intention, meditative in method and mystical in 
substance," and Tyrrell himself certainly combined in a wonder- 
ful way the judicial and the enthusiastic types of character. 
Besides the influence of Newman, the friendship and work of 
Robert Dolling made a great impression on him, and as he 
admitted, saved him from being contented with a merely 
academic and ecclesiastical type of religion. Tyrrell privately 
circulated among his friends writings in which he drew a clear 
line of distinction between religion as a life and theology as 
the incomplete interpretation of that life. One of these, the 
Letter to a Professor of Anthropology, was translated without 
his knowledge into Italian, and extracts from it were published 
in the Corriere della Sera of Milan in January 1906. For at 



TYRRELL, SIR J. TYRWHITT 



least eight years before this he had been more or less in con- 
flict with the authorities of his order, through his sympathy 
with " modernist " views, but the publication of this letter 
(afterwards issued by Tyrrell as A Much Abused Letter) brought 
about his expulsion from the order in February 1906. " The 
conflict," he wrote, " such as it is, is one of opinion and ten- 
dencies, not of persons; it is the result of mental and moral 
necessities created by the antitheses with which the Church is 
wrestling in this period of transition." Tyrrell found no bishop 
to give him an ecclesiastical status and a celebret, and he never 
regained these privileges. In July 1907 the Holy Office pub- 
lished its decree condemning certain modernist propositions, 
and in September the pope issued his encyclical Pascendi Gregis. 
Tyrrell's criticism of this document appeared in The Times on 
the 30th of September and the ist of October, and led to 
his virtual excommunication from the Church. In the few 
years that remained to him he gave himself with patience 
and dignity to the work of his life. He had already published 
Lex orandi, insisting that the true interpretation of the 
creed is determined by its prayer value, and in 1906 he 
wrote Lex credendi. This was followed by Through Scylla 
and Charybdis, in which he developed his favourite view of 
revelation as experience; Mediaevalism, a vigorous apologia 
in reply to a Lenten pastoral of Cardinal Mercier, archbishop 
of Malines, who had attacked him as the chief exponent 
of Modernism; and Christianity at the Cross Roads, which 
emphasizes the distinction between his own position and that 
of the Liberal Protestants, and is of special interest for its 
treatment of the eschatological problems of the Gospels. On 
the 6th of July 1909 he was suddenly taken ill, on the loth he 
received conditional absolution from a priest of the diocese of 
Southwark, and on the I2th extreme unction from the prior 
of Storrington. His intimate friend, the Abbe Bremond, gave 
him the last absolution and remained with him until his death on 
the 1 5th of July 1909. Such appear to be the facts, but Tyrrell's 
relations with Rome were such that a good deal of mystery was 
made as to whether he really received the last rites of his Church 
in any authorized manner. About his own saintly and sym- 
pathetic character, and his essential religiousness, there was no 
doubt. 

See the estimates by Baron F. von Hiigel and Rev. C. E. Osborne 
in The Hibbert Journal for January 1910; also the obituary in 
The Times (July 16, 1909), and the Life, by Miss M. D. Petre. 

TYRRELL, SIR JAMES (d. 1502), the supposed murderer 
of the English king Edward V., and of his brother Richard, 
duke of York, was a son of William Tyrrell and a grandson of 
Sir John Tyrrell (d. c. 1437), who was treasurer of the royal 
household and was on three occasions Speaker of the House of 
Commons. The family is said to descend from Walter Tirel, 
the murderer of William Rufus. During the Wars of the Roses 
James Tyrrell fought for the Yorkists; in 1471 he was knighted; 
and in 1477 he was member of parliament for Cornwall. With 
regard to his share in the murder of the prince in 1483 he 
appears to have been selected by Richard III. and sent to the 
Tower of London, where he supervised the crime which was 
carried out by his subordinates. Afterwards he received several 
appointments from Richard and was sent to Flanders. He 
was also employed by Henry VII. and was made governor of 
Guisnes, but he seems to have incurred the king's displeasure 
through his friendship with Edmund de la Pole, earl of Suffolk. 
Having been treacherously seized he was conveyed to England 
and was executed on the 6th of May 1502. Just before his 
death he made a confession about the murder of the princes. 

Members of the same family were Sir Thomas Tyrrell 
(1594-1672), justice of the common pleas under Charles II., 
and Anthony Tyrrell (1552-*;. 1610), a Roman Catholic priest 
and spy, who afterwards became a clergyman of the Church 
of England. 

TYRTAEUS, Greek elegiac poet, lived at Sparta about the 
middle of the 7th century B.C. According to the older tradition 
he was a native of the Attic deme of Aphidnae, and was invited 
to Sparta at the suggestion of the Delphic oracle to assist 



the Spartans in the second Messenian war. According to a 
later version, he was a lame schoolmaster, sent by the Athenians 
as likely to be of the least assistance to the Spartans (Justin iii. 5; 
Themistius, Oral. xv. 242; Diod. Sic. xv. 67). A fanciful explana- 
tion of his lameness is that it alludes to the elegiac couplet, 
one verse of which is shorter than the other. According to 
Plato (Laws, p. 629 A), the citizenship of Sparta was con- 
ferred upon Tyrtaeus, although Herodotus (ix. 35) makes no 
mention of him among the foreigners so honoured. Basing 
his inference on the ground that Tyrtaeus speaks of himself 
as a citizen of Sparta (Fr. 2), Strabo (viii. 362) is inclined 
to reject the story of his Athenian origin. Suidas speaks of 
him as " Laconian or Milesian "; possibly he visited Miletus in 
his youth, where he became familiar with the Ionic elegy. 
Busolt, who suggests that Tyrtaeus was a native of Aphidnae 
in Laconia, conjectures that the entire legend may have been 
concocted in connexion with the expedition sent to the assis- 
tance of Sparta in her struggle with the revolted Helots at Ithome 
(464). However this may be, it is generally admitted that 
Tyrtaeus flourished during the second Messenian war (c. 650 B.C.) 
a period of remarkable musical and poetical activity at 
Sparta, when poets like Terpander and Thaletas were welcomed 
that he not only wrote poetry but served in the field, and 
that he endeavoured to compose the internal dissensions of 
Sparta (Aristotle, Politics, v. 6) by inspiring the citizens with a 
patriotic love for their fatherland. About twelve fragments 
(three of them complete poems) are preserved in Strabo, Lycur- 
gus, Stobaeus and others. They are mainly elegiac and in 
the Ionic dialect, written partly in praise of the Spartan con- 
stitution and King Theopompus (Eiivofda) , partly to stimulate 
the Spartan soldiers to deeds of heroism in the field ('TTro^xai 
the title is, however, later than Tyrtaeus). The interest of the 
fragments preserved from the Evvo/jia is mainly historical, 
and connected with the first Messenian war. The 'TirodTJKtu, 
which are of considerable merit, contain exhortations to bravery 
and a warning against the disgrace of cowardice. The popularity 
of these elegies in the Spartan army was such that, according 
to Athenaeus (xiv. 630 F), it became the custom for the soldiers 
to sing them round the camp fires at night, the polemarch 
rewarding the best singer with a piece of flesh. Of the march- 
ing songs ('E/jiparripia) , written in the anapaestic measure and 
the Doric dialect, only scanty fragments remain (Lycurgus, 
In Leocralem, p. 211, 107; Pausaniasiv. 14, 5. 15, 2; fragments 
in T. Bergk, Poetae lyrici graeci, ii.). 

Verrall (Classical Review, July 1896, May 1897) definitely places 
the lifetime of Tyrtaeus in the middle of the 5th century B.C., 
while Schwartz (Hermes, 1899, xxxiv.) disputes the existence of 
the poet altogether; see also Macan in Classical Review (February 
1897) ; H. Weil, Etudes sur I' antiquite grecque (1900), andC. Giarratani, 
Tirteo e i suoi carmi (1905). There are English verse transla- 
tions by R. Polwhele (1792) and imitations by H. J. Pye, 
poet laureate (1795), and an Italian version by F. Cavallotti, with 
text, introduction and notes (1898). The fragment beginning 
'VfSvaiifvat yap naXbv has been translated by Thomas Campbell, 
the poet. The edition by C. A. Klotz (1827) contains a dissertation 
on the war-songs of different countries. 

TYRWHITT, THOMAS (1730-1786), English classical scholar 
and critic, was born in London on the 27th of March 1730, 
where he died on the isth of August 1786. He was educated 
at Eton and Queen's College, Oxford (fellow of Merton, 1755). 
In 1756 he was appointed under-secretary at war, in 1762 
clerk of the House of Commons. In 1768 he resigned his post, 
and spent the remainder of his life in learned retirement. In 
1784 he was elected a trustee of the British Museum, to which 
he bequeathed a portion of his valuable library. 

His principal classical works are: Fragmenta Plutarchi II. inedita 
(1773), from a Harleian MS. ; Dissertatio de Babrio (1776), containing 
some fables of Aesop, hitherto unedited, from a Bodleian MS.; 
the pseudo-Orphic De lapidibus (1781), which he assigned to 
the age of Constantius; Conjecturae in Strabonem (1783); Isaeus 
De Meneclis hereditate (1785) ; Aristotle's Poetica, his most important 
work, published after his death under the superintendence of Dr 
Burgess, bishop of Salisbury, in 1794. Special mention is due of 
his editions of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (1775-1778); and of 
Poems, supposed to have been written at Bristol by Thomas Rowley 



TYTLER, W. TZETZES 



552 

and others in the Fifteenth Century (I777-I778), with an appendix to 
prove that the poems were all the work of Chatterton. In 1782 
he published a Vindication of the Appendix in reply to the arguments 
of those who maintained the genuineness of the poems While 
clerk of the House of Commons he edited Proceedings and Debates 
of the House of Commons, 1620-1621 from the original MS. in the 
library of Queen's College, Oxford, and Henry Elsynge s (1598- 
1654) The Manner of holding Parliaments in England. 

TYTLER, WILLIAM (1711-1792), of Woodhouselee, Scottish 
historian and antiquarian, son of Alexander Tytler of Edin- 
burgh, was born in that city on the I2th of October 1711. 
He was educated at the High School and the University, and 
was in 1744 admitted into the society of Writers to the Signet. 
In 1759 he published an Inquiry, Historical and Critical, 
defending the character of Mary, Queen of Scots, and in 1783 
the Poetical Remains of James the First, King of Scotland. He 
died at Woodhouselee on the izth of September 1792. His 
life, written by Henry Mackenzie, was published in 1796. 

His son ALEXANDER FRASER TYTLER, Lord Woodhouselee 
(1747-1813), Scottish judge, was born at Edinburgh on the isth 
of October 1747. He was called to the Edinburgh bar in 1770. 
His first work, a supplement to Lord Kames's Dictionary of 
Decisions, entitled The Decisions of the Court of Session, was 
published in 1778, and a continuation appeared in 1796. In 
1780 he was appointed conjoint professor of universal history in 
the university of Edinburgh, becoming sole professor in 1786. 
In 1783 he published Outlines of his course of lectures, extended 
and republished in 1801 under the title of Elements of General 
History. In 1790 he was appointed judge-advocate of Scotland, 
and while holding this office he wrote a Treatise on the Low of 
Courts-Martial. In 1801 he was raised to the bench, taking 
his seat (1802) in the court of session as Lord Woodhouselee. 
He died at Edinburgh on the sth of January 1813. 

Besides the works already mentioned, he wrote Life and Writings 
of Dr John Gregory (1788); Essay on the Principles of Translation 
(1700)- a dissertation on Final Causes, prefixed to his edition of 
Derham's Physico-Theology (1799); a political pamphlet entitled 
Ireland profiting by Example ( 1 799) ; an Essay on Laura and Petrarch 
(1801); and Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Henry Home 
of Kames (1807). 

PATRICK ERASER TYTLER (1791-1849) Scottish historian, 
son of Lord Woodhouselee, was born at Edinburgh on the 3oth 
of August 1791. He was called to the bar in 1813; in 1816 he 
became king's counsel in the exchequer, and practised as an 
advocate until 1832. He contributed to Allison's Travels in 
France (1815); his first independent essays were papers in 
Blackwood's Magazine. His great work, the History of Scot- 
land (1828-1843) covered the period between 1249 and 1603. 
While occupied on this work Tytler removed to London, and it 
was largely owing to his efforts that a scheme for publishing 
state papers was carried out. Tytler was one of the founders 
of the Bannatyne Club and of the English Historical Society 
He died at Great Malvern on the I4th of December 1849 
His life (1859) was written by his friend, John W. Burgon 
dean of Chichester. 

His other works include: contributions to Thomson's Selec 
Melodies of Scotland (1824); Life of James Crichton of Cluny 
commonly called the Admirable Crichton (1819; 2nd ed., 1823) 
a Memoir of Sir Thomas Craig of Riccarton (1823); an Essay on 
the Revival of Greek Literature in Italy, and a Life of John Wickhff 
published anonymously (1826); Lives of Scottish Worthies, fo 
Murray's Family Library (1831-1833) ; Historical View of the Progres 
of Discovery in America (1832); Life of Sir Walter Raleigh (1833) 
Life of Henry VIII. (1837); England under the Reigns of Edward VI 
and Mary, from original letters (1839); Notes on the Darnley Jewe 
(1843), and on the Portraits of Mary Queen of Scots (1845). 

TYUMEfi, a town in West Siberia, in the government o 
Tobolsk, situated where the chief highway from Russia acros 
the Urals touches the first navigable river (the Tura) of Siberia 
Pop. (1900), 29,651. A railway passing through Ekaterinburg 
(202 m west by rail) and the principal ironworks on the eastern 
slopes of the middle Urals connects Tyumen with Perm, th 



erminus of steamboat traffic on the Kama and Volga. Tyu- 
men has regular steam communication with Omsk and Semi- 
salatinsk Irtysh (steamers penetrating as far as Lake Zaisan 
n Dzungaria), with Tomsk, and other places in the Altai, 
and with the Arctic Ocean and the fisheries of the lower Ob. 
?he town is well built, and stands on both banks of the Tura, 
here spanned by a bridge. The' inhabitants have always been 
enowned for their industrial skill. Woollen cloth, linen, belts, 
jarges, paper, and especially boots and gloves, are manufactured 
o a large amount; and Tyumen carpets have a great reputation 
n Russia and Siberia. 

TZETZES, JOHN, Byzantine poet and grammarian, flourished 
at Constantinople during the i2th century A.D. Tzetzes has 
been described as a perfect specimen of the Byzantine pedant. 
Excessively vain, he resented any attempt at rivalry, and 
violently attacked his fellow grammarians. Owing to want 
of books, he was obliged to trust to his memory; hence he is 
to be used with caution. But he was a learned man, and 
deserves gratitude for his efforts to keep up the study of 
ancient Greek literature. Of his numerous works the most 
mportant is the Book of Histories, usually called Chiliades 
'" thousands ") from the arbitrary division by its first editor 
: N. Gerbel, 1546) into books each containing icoo lines (it 
actually consists of 12,674 lines in " political " verse). It is a 
collection of literary, historical, theological and antiquarian 
miscellanies, whose chief value consists in the fact that it 
to some extent makes up for the loss of works which were 
accessible to Tzetzes. The whole production suffers from an 
unnecessary display of learning, the total number of authors 
quoted being more than 400 (H. Spelthahn, Studien zu den 
Chiliaden des Johannes Tzetzes, diss.-, Munich, 1904). The author 
subsequently brought out a revised edition with marginal 
notes in prose and verse (ed. T. Kiessling, 1826; on the sources 
see C. Harder, De J. T. historiarum fontibus quaestiones selectae, 
diss., Kiel, 1886). The Chiliades is based upon a collection 
of Letters (ed. T. Pressel, 1851), which has been called an 
index to the larger work, itself described as a versified com- 
mentary on the letters. These letters (107 in number) are 
addressed partly to fictitious personages, and partly to 
the great men and women of the writer's time. They 
contain a considerable amount of biographical details. The 
Iliaca, an abridgment of and supplement to the Iliad, is 
divided into three parts Antehomerica, Homerica, Post- 
homerica containing the narrative from the birth of Paris to the 
return of the Greeks after the fall of Troy, in 1676 hexameters 
(ed. C. Lehrs and F. Diibner, 1868, in the Didot series, with 
Hesiod, &c.) The Homeric Allegories, dedicated to the empress 
Irene, in " political " verse, are two didactic poems in which 
Homer and the Homeric theology are explained on euphemistic 
principles (ed. P. Matranga, in his Anecdota graeca, i. 1850). 
Tzetzes also wrote commentaries on a number of Greek authors, 
the most important of which is that on the Cassandra or Alex- 
andra of Lycophron (ed. C. G. Muller, 1811), in the production 
of which his brother Isaac is generally associated with him. 

Mention may also be made of a dramatic sketch in iambic 
verse, in which the caprices of fortune and the wretched lot of 
the learned are described; and of rfn iambic poem on the 
death of the emperor Manuel, noticeable for introducing at the 
beginning of each line the last word of the line preceding it 1 

(both in Matranga, An. gr. ii.). 

For the other works of Tzetzes see T. A. Fabricius, Bibliotheca 
graeca (ed. Harles), xi. 228, and C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der 
byz. Litt. (2nd ed., 1897); monograph by G. Hart, " De Tzetzarum 
nomine, vitis, scriptis," in Jahn's Jahrbiicher fur classische Philologie. 
Supplementband xii. (Leipzig, 1881). 

1 This versification is called icXi/jaicuTAj _ '(K\~IHO, ladder), a 
term more commonly applied to a verse in which each word 
contains one letter more than the one which precedes it. 



U UBEDA 



553 



UThe twenty-first letter of the English alphabet. It is a 
modification made in manuscript writing of the Latin 
inscriptional V, and is itself found on the inscrip- 
tions of Rome as early as the latter part of the 2nd 
century A.D. The symbols U, V, Y are all of the same origin, 
but what the origin is has been much disputed. In the Phoenician 
alphabet T is the last symbol, but there can be little doubt that 
when the Greeks introduced symbols for vowels, which had not 
been indicated in the alphabet they had borrowed, they took the 
sixth symbol of the Phoenician alphabet (see F) in its ordinary 
form Y and placed it at the end of the alphabet with the value 
of a vowel. This vowel was apparently u (English oo in moon), 
though Ionic and Attic Greek at a very early period changed 
it to the sound of the French u. In other dialects the earlier 
value long persisted, and in modern Tzakonian, the representa- 
tive of the ancient Laconian, it still survives. In some places, 
e.g. Boeotia, the sound seems to have changed, in connexion 
with dental consonants, in the same way as the English sound, 
in certain cases i (y) being inserted in front of it. This seems 
to be the only feasible explanation of such spellings as TIOVXO. 
(ruxrj), TToXiou&i'os (iroMfcvo'i) , which appear after the Boeo- 
tians adopted the Ionic alphabet. A similar change must have 
existed in very early Attic and Ionic to account for the change of 
/ before u into s in av, " thou " for TV; some authorities think it 
was universal in the earliest Greek. Greek nowhere shows the 
symbol in the bowl shape that it has in the Semitic alphabet. 
From the 7th century B.C. both Y and V are found, sometimes 
both in the same area. Another form somewhat later has the 
upper strokes curved outwards T, while the angle is much less 
deep than in the other forms. It is noticeable that the symbol for 
u in the syllabary which was used to write Greek in Cyprus has 
this form amongst others. The name of the sLxth symbol in the 
Phoenician alphabet was Wow ( Van) , but though U has taken its 
form, in Greek its name was 5 (i.e. English oo, as in moon, except 
in Attic and Ionic, where it was like the French u in lune), not 
upsilon, as is frequently stated. In Sweet's terminology u (oo), 
as pronounced in English " put " or " too, " is a high back wide 
round, while the sound in the French sou or the Scotch pro- 
nunciation of " book " is a high back narrow round. The high 
front corresponding sound is found in the French lune. With 
this the German " modified u " (u) is often equated, but it is 
not really identical, being a mid front narrow round vowel. 
The pitch of the vowel u is among the lowest of the vowel sounds; 
the rounding and protrusion of the lips make the breath passage 
longer than it is for other vowels, and so its production may be 
compared to that of a sound made upon a flute when all the 
finger-holes are covered. In modern English u preceded by i 
(y) arises from three different sounds in middle English: (a) the 
long French u (u) brought in with borrowed words from French 
(duke), (b) eu (Early English low) as in " new, " (c) a more 
open sound eu (Early English eata) as in " dew " (Sweet, New 
English Grammar, 806). The y-sound was dropped after r, ch 
and dzh, as in " true, " " choose, " " juice " (ibid., 857). In the 
literary dialect also it generally disappears after /, as in " lurid," 
" lute." In some provincial and American pronunciations it is 
dropped everywhere except initially, so that " Tuesday " is 
pronounced Toosday, " new " noo. (P- Gi.) 

UAKARI (Ouakari), the native name of certain tropical 
American monkeys, distinguished from all other New World 
monkeys by their short tails. The three known species con- 
stitute the genus Uacaria (or Cothurus) of zoologists, and are con- 
fined to the forests of Amazonia and the neighbourhood. One 
of them (U. caliid) is remarkable for its long, silky, pale chestnut 
fur and brilliant scarlet face, which is naked (see PRIMATES). 

UBANGI, a river of Equatorial Africa, the chief northern 
affluent of the Congo (q.v.). The Ubangi (otherwise Mubangi or 
Mobangi) enters the Congo by various mouths between o 22' 
and o 37' S. and 17 40' and 17 50' E. The main channel, 



fully i m. wide, joins the Congo in o 31' S. The Ubangi is 
formed by the junction of the Mbomu and the Welle, both of 
which rise on the north-eastern rim of the Congo basin. 

The water-parting between the Bahr-el-Ghazal affluents (Nile 
system) and the Mbomu headstreams is not very clearly marked, 
but high hills running parallel with the Nile between Albert Nyanza 
and Dufile sharply separate the valley of the Welle and other west- 
flowing streams from that of the Mountain Nile. The chief of the 
headstreams of the Welle (known in its upper course as the Kibali) rises 
on the western slope of a hill about 40 m. west of Wadelai. It is 
joined by several small streams, the main river flowing in a W.N.W. 
direction. After a course of over 700 m. (during which it receives one 
large southern tributary the Bomokandi and other considerable 
affluents) the Welle joins the Mbomu in 4 10' N. 22 37' E. The 
Mbomu, which has two large northern tributaries, the Shinko and the 
Balo, rises in 4 50' N. 27 12' E. For some distance it runs parallel 
to and about 100 m. north of the lower course of the Welle. About 
23 12 E. it turns sharply south until its junction with the Welle. In 
its lower course the Mbomu is interrupted by many falls and rapids. 
A short distance below the junction of the Mbomu and Welle the 
Kotto, coming from beyond 8 N., on the borders of Darfur, and 
forming the most northerly extension of the Congo basin, enters 
the united stream, now known as the Ubangi, on the right bank. 
The remaining tributaries, mostly on the right bank, are smaller, 
but the Kemo, which joins the Ubangi near its most northern point 
(5 8 N.), is of some importance as offering water communication 
to within a short distance of the Shari basin. Below the Kemo 
confluence the Ubangi, which has hitherto continued to flow W.N.W., 
makes a great bend south and runs into the Congo after a southerly 
course of 400 m. Shortly after receiving the Kemo the river forces 
its way through a line of hills whose tops rise 600 to 800 ft. above the 
banks of the stream. Here are the Zongo or Grenfell rapids, which are 
a barrier to navigation save for small boats at flood season. Above 
the Zongo rapids the river is navigable up to the confluence of the 
Welle and Mbomu, and the Welle is navigable at high flood up 
to the Bomokandi confluence in 26 8', though the stream is much 
interrupted by rapids. 

From the Mbomu-Welle confluence to the junction of the Ubangi 
with the Congo the river has a course of fully 700 m., while the 
Ubangi-Welle combined exceeds 1400 m. From its mouth to 
Zongo rapids, a distance of 350 m., the stream is navigable by 
steamers drawing 3 ft. of water. In general the Ubangi flows 
through a fertile and forested region. 

The Welle was discovered from the north by G. A. Schwein- 
furth in 1870; i.e. seven years before the discovery of the course 
of the Congo by H. M. Stanley. By Schweinfurth the Welle was 
believed to belong to the Chad system, but W. Junker, who (1882- 
1883) followed the river to near its confluence with the Mbomu, 
made it clear that the Welle belonged to the Congo system. In 
1885 the Rev. George Grenfell, of the Baptist Missionary Society 
(who had discovered the mouth of the river in 1884), ascended 
the Ubangi as far as the Zongo rapids. He was followed in 1886- 
1889 by the Belgian A. van Gele, who in the last-named year 
finally established the identity of the Ubangi with Schweinfurth's 
Welle. The Mbomu was discovered from the north in 1877 by a 
Greek, Dr P. Potagos, and its upper course was followed for 
some distance by Junker. The Ubangi and the Mbomu form 
the frontier between Belgian Congo and French Congo, the 
northern banks of both streams belonging to France. 

See, besides the works of Schweinfurth, Junker and other travel- 
lers, A. J. Wauters, Les Bassins de I' Ubangi (inferieur) et de la Sanga, 
with map (Brussels, 1902); Dr Cureau's map (i : 1,000,000) of the 
upper Ubangi in La Geographic (October 1900) ; the CONGO and 
works there cited. 

UBEDA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Jaen ; 
2000 ft. above sea-level, in the Loma de Ubeda, a range on the 
right bank of the Guadalquivir. Pop. (190x3), 19,913. The 
surrounding country produces wheat, wine, olives and fruit, 
tibeda has a station 6 m. south on the Madrid-Almeria railway. 
Portions of the old walls, with towers and gates, still remain, 
and there are three late Gothic churches, the oldest of which, 
San Salvador, dates from 1540 to 1556, and contains some 
interesting paintings. An important fair is held from the 29th 
of September to the sth of October. Oil, soap, esparto and 
linen fabrics are manufactured. Ubeda was an important 
town under Moorish rule. 



554 



UDAD UDAL, NICHOLAS 



UDAD, AOUDAD or AUDAD, the Moorish name of the Barbary 
sheep, or arui, Ovis (Ammolragus) lervia, the only wild sheep 
found in Africa, where it inhabits all the mountain ranges of the 
north, descending to the eastward far into the heart of the Sudan. 
The udad is distinguished by the abundant hair on the throat 
and fore-quarters of the rams, and the length of the tail. In 
the absence of face-glands and in the structure of the horns the 
species approximates to the goats. The " lion-coloured " coat 
approximates to the hue of the limestone rocks on which these 
sheep dwell. 

UDAIPUR, OODEYPORE or MEWAR, a native state of India, 
in the Rajputana agency. Area, 12,691' sq. m. Pop. (1901), 
1,030,212. Estimated revenue 200,000; tribute 17,000. The 
greater part of the country is level plain. A section of the 
Aravalli Mountains extends over the south-western and 
southern portions, and is rich in minerals, but the mines have 
been long closed. The general inclination of the country 
is from south-west to north-east, the Banas and its 
numerous feeders flowing from the base of the Aravalli range. 
There are many lakes and tanks in the state, the finest of 
which is the Debar or Jaisamand, with an area of nearly 
21 sq, m.; it is considered to be the largest artificial sheet of 
water in the world. A portion of the state is traversed by the 
Malwa line of the Rajputana railway. A branch from Chitor 
towards Udaipur was taken over by the state in 1898, and was 
extended nearer to the capital. Like the rest of Rajputana the 
state suffered severely from famine in 1900. The ancient coinage 
is of the Sasanian or Persian type, copper issues of this type 
being still in circulation. Modern coins bear on the reverse the 
words " Friend of London." 

The chief, whose title is maharana, is the head of the Sisodhyia 
clan of Rajputs, and claims to be the direct representative of 
Rama, the mythical king of Ajodhya. He is universally recog- 
nized as the highest in rank of all the Rajput princes. The 
dynasty offered a heroic resistance to the Mahommedans, 
and boast that they never gave a daughter to a Mogul emperor. 
They are said to have come from Gujarat and settled at Chitor 
in the 8th century. After the capture of Chitor by Akbar in 1 568 
the capital was removed to Udaipur by Maharana Udai Singh. 
During the i8th century the state suffered greatly from internal 
dissension and from the inroads of the Mahrattas. It came under 
British protection in 1817. The Maharana Fateh Singh, G.C. S. I. 
(b. 1848), succeeded by adoption in 1884. 

The name of Mewar is derived from the Meps, or Minas, a tribe of 
mixed Rajput origin, who have likewise given their name to a 
different tract in northern Rajputana, called Mewat, where they are 
now all Mahommedans. About 1400 a sub-division of the Mewatis, 
called Khanzadas, made themselves the dominant power in this 
tract; and at the end of the i8th century, and again during the 
Mutiny, they were notorious for their ravages in the Upper Doab, 
around Agra and Delhi. In 1901 the total number of Mewatis in 
Rajputana was 168,596, forming 13% of the population in the 
state of Alwar. Down to 1906 the Mewar residency was the title 
of a political agency in Rajputana, comprising the four states of 
Udaipur, Banswara, Dungarpurand Partabgarh; area, 16,970 sq. m.; 
pop. (1901), 1,336,283. But in that year the three last states 
were separated from Udaipur, and formed into the Southern Raj- 
putana States agency. The Mewar Bhil Corps, raised as a local 
battalion in 1840, which was conspicuously loyal during the Mutiny, 
was in 1897 attached to the Indian army, with its headquarters at 
Kherwara. 

The city of UDAIPUR is 2469 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 
45,976. It is situated in a valley amid wooded hills, on the bank 
of a large lake (Pichola), with palaces built of granite and 
marble. The maharana's palace, which crowns the ridge on 
which the city stands, dates originally from about 1570, but 
has had additions made to it till it has become a conglomeration 
of various architectural styles. On Lake Pichola are two 
islands, on which are palaces dating respectively from the 
middle of the i7th and of the i8th centuries. In one of these 
the European residents were sheltered during the Indian Mutiny. 
In the neighbourhood are Eklingji (with a magnificent temple 
of the isth century), and Nagda, the seat of the ancestors of 
the chiefs of Udaipur, with a number of temples, two of which 
are said to date from the nth century. 



There is another UDAIPUR STATE in the Central Provinces (till 
1905 one of the Chota Nagpur states of Bengal). Area, 1052 sq. m. ; 
pop. (1901), 45,391. Its capital is Dharmjaygarh. 

UDAL, NICHOLAS (1504-1556), English schoolmaster, trans- 
lator and playwright, author of the earliest extant English 
comedy, Roister Doister, came of the family of Uvedale, who 
in the I4th century became lords of Wykeham, Hants, by 
marriage with the heiress of the Scures. The name was pro- 
bably pronounced Oovedale, as it appears as Yevedale, Owdall, 
Woodall, with other variants. He latinized it as Udallus, and 
thence anglicized it as Udall. He is described as Owdall of 
the parish of St Cross, Southampton, 12 years old at Christmas 
1516, when admitted a scholar of Winchester College in 
1517 (Win. Schol. Reg.). He was therefore not 14 (as Anthony 
Wood says) but 165 years of age when admitted a scholar of 
Corpus Christi College, Oxford, in June 1520; he is called 
Wodall as a lecturer at that college in 1526 to 1528 (T. Fowler, 
Hist. C. C. C.). 

With John Leland he produced " dites " (ditties) " and inter- 
ludes" (B.M. MS. i8A Ixiv.) at Anne Boleyn's coronation on the 
3ist of May 1533. Leland's contributions are all in Latin; those 
of " Udallus," which form the chief part, are mostly in English, 
the speeches being each spoken by a " child," at Cornhill beside 
LeadenhalV' " at the Conducte in Cornhill " and " at the little 
Conducte in Cheepe." His Floures for Laline Spekynge, selected 
and gathered out of Terence and the same translated into Englysshe, 
published by Bartlet (in aedibus Bertheleli), were dedicated " to 
my most sweet flock of pupils, from the monastery of the monks 
of the order of Augustine," on the 28th of February 1533-1534. 
There were no monks of that order, and whether Austin Friars 
or Augustinian canons were meant is open to doubt. The 
book was prefaced with laudatory Latin verses by Leland and 
by Edmund Jonson. The latter was a Winchester and Oxford 
contemporary of Udal's, in 1528 lower master (hostiarius) at 
Eton, a post which he left to become master of the school of 
St Anthony's Hospital, then the most flourishing school in 
London. From the dedication we may infer that Udal was 
usher under Jonson and " the sweet flock " was at St Anthony's 
school next door to Austin Friars. At Midsummer 1534 he 
became head master of Eton (informator puerorum or ludi 
grammalicalis; Eton Audit Book. 25-26 Hen. VIII.). It has 
been suggested (Die. Nat. Biog.) that the Floures was dedicated 
to Eton boys in advance; but this is unlikely, as in those 
days schools never got their masters till the place was vacant, 
or on the verge of vacancy. At Eton Udal's salary was 10 
and i for livery, with " petty receipts " of 8s. 4d. for obits, 
as. 8d. for laundress, 25. for candles for his chamber, and 
233. 4d. " for ink, candles and other things given to the grammar 
school by Dr Lupton, provost." One of his school books, 
Commentaries on the Tusculan questions of Cicero (ed. Berouldus, 
1509), with the inscription " sum Nicolai Udalli 1536," is in 
the King's Library at the British Museum. 

There was a yearly play, 35. being paid for the repair of 
the dresses of the players at Christmas, and is. 4d. to a servant 
of the dean of Windsor for bringing his master's clothes for 
the players. A payment for repair of the players' dresses 
recurs every year. Udal has been credited (E. K. Chambers, 
Mediaeval Stage, ii. 144, 192) with producing a play at Braintree 
while vicar there, recorded in the churchwardens' accounts for 
1534 as " Placidas alias Sir Eustace." The play is actually 
called in the accounts (only extant in 17th-century extracts) 
" Placy Dacy alias St Ewastacy," and is the old play of Placidas, 
mentioned in the gth century. Udal did not become vicar of 
Braintree till the 27th of September 1537 (Newcourt's Repert. 
ii. 89). At Michaelmas he resigned the mastership of Eton 
to reside at Braintree, being called " late schole-master wose 
roome no we enjoyeth and occupieth Mr Tindall " in a letter from 
the provost to Thomas Cromwell, then privy seal, on the 7th 
October 1537 (Lett, and Pa. Hen. VIII., 1537). He returned 
to Eton, however, or rather to Hedgeley, the school being 
removed there on account of the plague, at Midsummer 1537, 
being paid for the third and fourth terms of the school year 



UDAL, NICHOLAS 



555 



(Eton Audit Book, 29-30 Hen. VIII.). In October 1538 
" Nicholas Uvedale, professor of the liberal arts, informator 
and schoolmaster of Eton, " was licensed to hold the vicarage 
of Braintree, "with other benefices," without personal residence. 
The accounts of Cromwell for 1538 include " Woodall, the 
scholemaster of Eton, to playing before my lord, 5." Pre- 
sumably he brought a troupe of Eton boys with him. In that 
year he published a second edition of his Floures of Terence for 
the benefit of Eton boys. The often-questioned account of 
Thomas Tusser (Five Hundred Pointes of Good Husbandrie) is 
typical of Eton at the time, as Udal's predecessor Cox is said 
in Ascham's Scholemaster to have been " the best scholemaster 
and greatest beater of our time ": 

" From Powles * I went to Aeton sent, 

To learn straightwaies the Latin phraise ; 

Where fifty-three stripes given to me at once I had ; 

For fault but small or none at all 

It came to pass thus beat I was; 

See, Udall, see, the mercie of thee to mee, poor lad." 

Udal's rule of the rod at Eton was brought to an abrupt con- 
clusion by his being brought up before the privy council on the 
I4th of March 1540/1541 lor being " counsail " with two of the 
boys, Thomas Cheney, a relation of the lord treasurer of the 
household, and Thomas Hoorde, for stealing some silver images 
and chapel ornaments. He denied the theft, but confessed to 
a much more scandalous offence with Cheney, and was sent to 
the Marshalsea prison. He tried, but failed, to get restored to 
Eton. Attempts have been made to whitewash him. But his 
own confession, and an abject letter of repentance with promises 
of amendment, addressed (probably) to Wriothesley, a Hamp- 
shire man and a family friend, cannot be got over. It shows 
that he was a bad schoolmaster as well as an immoral one, 
since he pleads " myn honest chaunge from vice to vertue, from 
prodigalitee to frugall lyving, from negligence of teachyng to 
assiduitee, from play to studie, from lightness to gravitee." 
In 1542-1543, after the bursar of Eton had ridden up to London 
to the provost, Udal was paid " 535. 4d. in full satisfaction of his 
salary in arrears and other things due to him while he was 
teaching the children "; but on the other side of the account 
appears an item of " 6os. received from Dr Coxe for Udal's 
debts." So no money passed to Udal. 

He seems to have maintained himself by translating into 
English, in 1542, Erasmus's Apophthegms and other works. In 
1544 he published a new edition of the Floures of Terence. 
He seems to have taken a schoolmastership in Northumberland 
or Durham, as Leland in one of his Encomia speaks of him, 
probably at this time, as translated to the Brigantes. He seems 
to have been made to resign his living at Braintree, a successor 
being appointed on the i4th of December 1544. He purged 
himself, however, by composing the Answer to the Articles of 
the Commoners of Devonshire and Cornwall (Pocock, Troubles of 
the Prayer Book of 1549, Camd. Soc., new series, 37, 141, 193), 
when they rose in rebellion in the summer of 1549 against 
the First Prayer Book of Edward VI. In 1551 he received 
a patent for printing his translation of Peter Martyr's two 
works on the Eucharist and the Great Bible in English 
(Pat. 4 Edw. VI. pt. 5, m. 5, Shakespeare Soc. iii. xxx.). 
He was rewarded by being made a canon of Windsor on 
the i4th of December 1551. On the 5th of January "after 
the common reckoning 1552 " (i.e. 1551/2) he edited a 
translation of Erasmus's Paraphrases of the Gospels, him- 
self translating the first three, while that on St John was 
being translated by the princess Mary, till she fell sick and 
handed her work over to Dr Malet. The work was done at the 
suggestion and expense of the dowager queen Katharine, 
in whose charge Mary was. A translation by Udal of 
Geminus's Anatomic or Compendiosa totius anatomiaedelineatio, 
a huge volume with gruesome plates, was published in 1553." 
Udal's preface is dated the 2oth of July 1552 "at Windesore. 
In June and September 1553 (Trevelyan Pap. Camd. Soc. 
84, ii. 31, 33) "Mr Nicholas Uvedale" was paid at the rate 
of 13, 6s. 8d. a year as " scholemaster to Mr Edward Courtney, 
1 Tusser was a chorister of St Paul's. 



beinge within the Tower of London, by virtue of the King's 
Majesty's Warrant " the young earl of Devon, who had 
been in prison ever since he was twelve years old. 

Queen Mary on the 3rd of December 1554 issued a warrant 
on Udal's behalf reciting that he had " at soundrie seasons con- 
venient heretofore shewed and myndeth hereafter to shewe his 
diligence in setting forth Dialogues and Enterludes before us 
for our royal disporte and recreacion, " and directing " the 
maister and yeomen of the office of the Re veils " to deliver 
whatever Udal should think necessary for setting forth such 
devices, while the exchequer was ordered to provide the money 
to buy them (Loseley MSS. Kempe 63, and Hist. MSS. Com. 
Rep. vii. 612). One of these interludes was probably Roister 
Doister; for it was in January 1553, i.e. 1554, that Thomas 
Wilson, master of St Katharine's Hospital by the Tower, pro- 
duced the third edition of The Rule of Reason, the first text-book 
on logic written in English,which contains, while the two earlier 
editions, published in 1551 and 1552 respectively, do not con- 
tain, a long quotation from Roister Doister. It gives under the 
heading of " ambiguitie, " as " an example of such doubtful 
writing whiche, by reason of poincting, maie have double sense 
and contrarie meaning . . . taken out of an intrelude made 
by Nicholas Udal," the letter which Ralph Roister procured a 
scrivener to compose for him, asking Christian Constance, the 
heroine, to marry him. Roister's emissary read it 

" Sweete mistresse, where as I love you nothing at all, 
Regarding your substance and richnesse chiefe of all," 

and so on; whereas it was meant to read 

" Sweete mistresse, whereas I love you (nothing at all 
Regarding your substance and richnesse) chiefe of all, 
For your personage, beautie, demeanour and wit." 

The play was entered at Stationers' Hall, when printed in 1566. 
Only one copy is known, which was given to Eton by an old 
Etonian, the Rev. Th. Briggs, in 1818, who privately printed 
thirty copies of it. As the title-page is gone the only evidence of 
its authorship is Wilson's quotation. Wilson being an Etonian, 
it has been argued that his quotation was a reminiscence of 
his Eton days, and that the play was written for and first per- 
formed by Eton boys. But the occurrence of the quotation 
first in the edition of 1554, and its absence in the previous 
editions of 1551 and 1552, coupled with the absence of anything 
in the play to suggest any connexion with a school, while the 
scene is laid in London and among London citizens and is 
essentially a London play, furnish a strong argument that 
Roister Doister first appeared in 1553, and therefore could 
not have been written at Eton or for Eton boys. 

Nor could it have been written at Westminster School or 
for Westminster boys, as argued by Professor Hales in Eng. 
Studien (1893) xviii. 408. For though Udal did become head 
master of Westminster, he only became so nearly two years 
after Wilson's quotation from Roister Doister appeared. He was 
at Winchester in the interval, for Stephen Gardiner, bishop 
of Winchester and chancellor, by will of the 8th of November 
JS55 (P-C.C. 3 Noodes), gave 40 marks (26, 135. 4d.) to 
" Nicholas Udale, my scholemaister. " In what sense he was 
Gardiner's schoolmaster it is hard to guess. He was not 
head master or usher of Winchester College; but he may 
have been master of the old City Grammar or High School, 
to which the bishop appointed (A. F. Leach, Hist. Winch. Coll. 
32, 48). The schoolhouse had been leased out for 41 years in 
1544 but it is possible Gardiner had revived the school or kept a 
school at his palace of Wolvesey. At Westminster " Mr Udale 
was admitted to be scholemaster 16 Dec. anno 1555 " (Chapter 
Act-Book).. 

The last act of the secular canons, substituted by Henry VIII. 
for the monks, was the grant of a lease on the 24th of September 
1556. When the monks re-entered, on Mary's restoration of 
the abbey (Nov. 21, 1556), the school did not, as commonly 
alleged, cease, nor had Udal ceased to be master (Shakespeare 
Soc. iii. xxxiv.) when he died a month later. The parish register 
of St Margaret's, Westminster, under " Burials in December 
A.D. 1556 " records " n die Katerine Woddall," " 23 die Nicholas 



556 



UDAL UFA 



Yevedale," i.e. Tidal. Katharine was perhaps a sister or 
other relation, as Elizabeth Udall was buried there on the 8th of 
July 1559. The abbey cellarer's accounts ending Michaelmas 
1557 contain a payment " to Thomas Notte, usher of the boys, 
6, ios., and to the scholars (scolaslicis vocatis le grammer 
childern), 63, 6s. 8d.," showing that the usher carried on the 
school after Udal's death. Next year (1557-1558) the abbey 
receiver accounted for 20 paid to John Passey, (the new) 
schoolmaster, to Richard Spenser, usher, 15, and 133, 6s. 8d. 
for 40 grammar boys. So it is clear that the school never 
stopped. Udal therefore was master of Westminster for just 
over two years. He died at the age of 52. 

Roister Doister well deserves its fame as the first English 
comedy. It is infinitely superior to any of its predecessors in 
form and substance. It has sometimes been described as a 
mere adaptation of Plautus's Miles Gloriosus. Though the 
central idea of the play that of a braggart soldier (with an 
impecunious parasite to flatter him) who thinks every woman 
he sees falls in love with him and is finally shown to be an 
arrant coward is undoubtedly taken from Plautus, yet the 
plot and incidents, and above all the dialogue, are absolutely 
original, and infinitely superior to those of Plautus. Even the 
final incident, in which the hero is routed, is made more 
humorous by the male slaves being represented by maid- 
servants with mops and pails. 

The play was printed by F. Marshall in 1821 ; in Thomas White's 
Old English Dramas (3 vols., 1830); by the Shakespeare Society, 
vol. iii., the introduction to which contains the fullest and most 
accurate account of his life; in Edward Arber's reprints in 1869; 
and Dodsley's Old Plays (1894), vol. iii. (A. F. L.) 

UDAL (Dan. odd), a kind of right still existing in Orkney 
and Shetland, and supposed to be a relic of the old allodial 
mode of landholding existing antecedently to the growth of 
feudalism in Scotland (see ALLODIUM). The udal tenant holds 
without charter by uninterrupted possession on payment to 
the Crown, the kirk, or a grantee from the Crown of a tribute 
called scat (Dan. skat), or without such payment, the latter 
right being more strictly the udal right. Udal lands descend 
to all the children equally. They are convertible into feus at 
the option of the udallers. 

UDINE, a town and archiepiscopal see of Venetia, Italy, 
capital of the province of Udine, situated between the Gulf 
of Venice and the Alps, 84 m. by rail N.E. of Venice, 450 ft. 
above sea-level. Pop. (1906), 25,217 (town); 40,627 (com- 
mune). The town walls were in the main demolished towards 
the end of the igth century. The old castle, at one time the 
residence of the patriarchs of Aquileia, and now used as a 
prison, was erected by Giovanni Fontana in 1517 in place of 
the older one destroyed by an earthquake in 1511. The Roman- 
esque cathedral contains some interesting examples of native 
art (by Giovanni Martini da Udine, a pupil of Raphael, and 
others). The church of S. Maria della Purita has frescoes by 
Giovanni Battista and Domenico Tiepolo. In the principal 
square stands the town hall, built in 1448-1457 in the Venetian- 
Gothic style, and skilfully restored after a fire in 1876; oppo- 
site is a clock tower resembling that of the Piazza di San Marco 
at Venice. In the square is a statue of Peace, erected in 
commemoration of the peace of Campo Formio (1796), which 
lies 5 m. to the W.S.W. The archiepiscopal palace and Museo 
Civico, as well as the municipal buildings, have some valuable 
paintings. The leading industry of Udine is silk-spinning, 
but it also possesses manufactures of linen, cotton, hats and 
paper, tanneries and sugar refineries, and has a considerable 
trade in flax, hemp, &c. Branch railways lead to Cividale 
del Friuli and S. Giorgio di Nogaro, and a steam tramway to 
S. Daniele del Friuli. 

The origin of Udine is uncertain; though it lay on the line 
of the Via lulia Augusta, there is no proof of its existence in 
Roman times. In the middle ages it became a flourishing and 
populous city; in 1222 or 1238 the patriarch Berthold made 
it the capital of Friuli, and in 1420 it became Venetian. In 
1752 it became an archbishopric. (T. As.) 



UEBERWEG, FRIEDRICH (1826-1871), German historian 
of philosophy, was born on the 22nd of January 1826 at Leich- 
lingen, in Rhenish Prussia, where his father was Lutheran 
pastor. Educated at Gottingen and Berlin, he qualified him- 
self at Bonn as Privatdozent in philosophy (1852). In 1862 
he was called to Konigsberg as extraordinary professor, and in 
1867 he was advanced to the ordinary grade. He married in 
1863, and died on the 9th of June 1871. His compendious 
History of Philosophy is remarkable for fullness of information, 
conciseness, accuracy and impartiality. At first he followed 
Beneke's empiricism, and strongly opposed the subjectivistic 
tendency of the Kantian system, maintaining in particular 
the objectivity of space and time, which involved him in a 
somewhat violent controversy. His own mode of thought he 
preferred later to describe as an ideal realism, which refused to 
reduce reality to thought, but asserted a parallelism between 
the forms of existence and the forms of knowledge. Beneke 
and Schleiermacher exercised most influence upon the develop- 
ment of his thought. 

WORKS. System der Logik (1857; 5th ed., 1882; Eng. trans, 
of 3rd ed. by T. M. Lindsay, 1871); Grundriss der Gesch. der Phil. 
(1863-1866, 8th ed., M. Heinze, 1894-1898; Eng. trans., G. S. 
Morris, 1872; 4th ed., 1885); an essay (1861) on the authenticity 
and order of Plato's writings, crowned by the Imperial Academy 
of Vienna; Schiller als. Hist, und Phil, (published by Brasch from 
his papers, Leipzig, 1884). See F. A. Lange, Friedrich Ueberweg 
(Berlin, 1871 ); M. Brasch, Die Welt- und Lebensanschauung Friedrich 
Ueberwegs (Leipzig, 1889). 

UELZEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of 
Hanover, on the Ilmenau, east of the famous Liineburger 
Heide, at the junction of the railway connecting Hamburg, 
Hanover, Bremen and Stendal, 52 m. S.E. of Hamburg. Pop. 
(1905), 9329. The town has four Evangelical churches, one of 
which, dedicated to the Holy Ghost, has a valuable altar- 
piece dating from the I4th century. The principal industries 
are flax, sugar, tobacco and machinery, and there is a trade 
in cattle and horses. In the vicinity are some interesting 
Slavonic remains and the former Benedictine monastery of 
Ullesheim. 

Founded in the icth century as Lowenwold, Uelzen became 
in the middle ages an active member of the Hanseatic 
League. 

See Jaenicke, Geschichte der Stadt Uelzen (Hanover, 1889). 

UFA, a government of south-eastern Russia, on the western 
slope of the Ural Mountains. It has the governments of 
Vyatka and Perm on the N., Orenburg on the E. and S., Samara 
and Kazan on the W., and comprises an area of 47,094 sq. m. 
Several craggy and densely wooded ranges, running from S.W. to 
N.E. parallel to the main chain of the southern Urals, occupy its 
eastern part. They rise to altitudes of 2500103500^.; their highest 
peaks Iremel (523oft.),Urenga (4115 ft.) andTaganai (3935 ft.) 
ascend above the limits of arboreal vegetation, but in no 
case reach those of perpetual snow. Southward Ufa extends 
over the slopes of the Obshchiy Syrt plateau, the angular space 
between the latter and the Urals being occupied by elevated 
plains (1000 to 1500 ft.), deeply grooved by the river valleys, 
and sometimes described as the " Ufa plateau." Towards 
the Kama the fertility of the soil increases, and the black- 
earth regions of Menzelinsk and Birsk are granaries for that part 
of Russia. 

The geological structure of Ufa is very varied. The main range 
of the Urals consists of gneisses and various crystalline slates resting 
upon granites and syenites; next comes a broad strip of limestones 
and sandstones, the fossil fauna of which is intermediate between 
the Upper Silurian and the Lower Devonian. These form the 
highest elevations in the government. Farther west the 
Devonian deposits are followed by Lower and'Upper Carboniferous 
and Artinsk schists, which, together with Permian deposits, cover 
western Ufa. Quaternary deposits are extensively developed in all 
the valleys, most of which were occupied by lakes during the 
Lacustrine period. There is great wealth in iron (Devonian) and 
copper (Permian). The district of Zlatoust is celebrated for its 
granite, epidote, nephrite and a variety of decorative stones and 
minerals. Coal is found over a wide area. 

Ufa belongs almost entirely to the drainage area of the Byelaya, 
a tributary of the Kama which rises in Orenburg and flows north and 



UFA UGANDA 



557 



north-west through Ufa, receiving a number of tributaries, among 
which the Syun, the Tanyp and the Ufa are also navigable. The 
Byelaya is an important channel for trade; but it sometimes drops 
to so low an ebb in summer that steamers cannot proceed beyond 
Birsk. The Kama flows for 120 m. along the western border of the 
government. 

The average temperature at the city of Ufa is 37 F., and the winter 
is extremely cold (January 5-5 F., July 68 F.); at the Zlatoust 
observatory the average temperature is only 32-2 (January 2; 
July 61-8). Even in the hilly tracts of Zlatoust the annual rainfall 
is not more than 19 in. The rivers are frozen 158 days at Ufa and 
202 at Zlatoust. 

The estimated population in 1900 was 2,620,600. The govern- 
ment is divided into six districts, the chief towns of which are Ufa, 
Belebey, Birsk, Menzelinsk, Sterlitamak and Zlatoust. Towns 
have sprung up around the ironworks at Zatkinsk, Yurezan 
and Katav-Ivanovsk. The Russian element in the population 
has rapidly increased (in 1897, 45%; in 1865, 36%), the other 
ethnographical elements being mainly Bashkirs, Tatars and 
Meshcheryaks, together withChuvashesandCheremisses,Votyaks 
and Mordvinians. Since the wholesale plundering of the 
Bashkir lands, which took place under Alexander II., the land 
has been sold by the nobles, and bought chiefly by the merchant 
class. Large estates are common, though it is the peasants 
and the peasants' co-operative societies that cultivate most 
of the area under crops. Agriculture has greatly developed, 
owing partly to the Russian immigration and partly to the 
educational efforts of the local councils; in 1900 there were 
4,860,000 acres (16%) under crops and 9,780,000 acres (325%) 
under cultivation. The principal crops are rye, wheat, oats, 
barley, millet, buckwheat and potatoes. 

The government is rich in antiquities belonging to three different 
periods the Finnish or Chud period, the period of the Bulgarian 
empire, and the period of the Nogai Tatar domination. The burial- 
mounds of the Chudes contain brass implements and decorations, 
and in one of them near Ufa a coffin sheeted with silver was found. 
Remains from the Bulgarian epoch have been discovered at Menzel- 
insk. But it is the ruins of the Mongol period which are of greatest 
value; the remains of a large town, with a mausoleum and a palace, 
have been found near Ufa and extend several miles along the 
Byelaya River. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) 

UFA, a town and river-port of Russia, capital of the govern- 
ment of the same name, situated 326 m. by rail N.E. of Samara, 
on the main line from Moscow to Siberia, at the confluence of 
the Ufa with the Byelaya. Pop., 49,275. The better part of 
the town contains two cathedrals and a few churches; the 
remainder is a scattered aggregation of small wooden houses. 
There are a museum, a public library and a theological 
seminary; and the industries include iron and copper works, 
machinery works and saw-mills. 

Ufa was founded in 1574. The wooden kreml, or fort, pro- 
tected by wooden towers and an outer earthen wall, had to 
sustain the attacks of the revolted Bashkirs and Russian serfs 
in 1662 and at later dates; and in 1773 Chika, one of the chiefs 
of the Pugachev revolt, besieged it for four months. 

UGANDA, a British protectorate in Eastern Equatorial 
Africa, lying between Lakes Victoria and Albert and between 
the Mountain Nile and Lake Rudolf. The same name was 
originally applied to the Bantu kingdom of Buganda, which is 
one of the five provinces of the protectorate, but which is now 
styled officially by the correct native name of " Buganda." 
The Swahili followers of the first explorers always pronounced 
the territorial prefix, Bu, as a simple vowel, U; hence the 
incorrect rendering " Uganda " of the more primitive Bantu 
designation. It was first applied to the kingdom of Mutesa, 
discovered by J. H. Speke in 1862, and in time came to include 
the large protectorate which grew out of the extension of British 
influence over Buganda. 

Boundaries and Area. On the north the frontier of the pro- 
tectorate is an undetermined line running between Lado (which 
lies a little north of 5 N.) on the Mountain Nile and the watershed 
of Lake Rudolf. This northern boundary is in any case conter- 
minous with the southern boundary of the Anglo-Egyptian 
Sudan. On the east the limit of the Uganda Protectorate 
in 1901 was the thalweg of Lake Rudolf and a line drawn 



from the south-eastern coast of that lake south along the 
edge of the Laikipia and Kikuyu escarpments to the frontier 
of German East Africa. The southern frontier of Uganda 
was the ist degree of S. lat.; the western was the 3Oth meridian 
of E. long., from the German frontier on the south, across 
Albert Edward Nyanza and the Semliki River to the line of water- 
parting between the systems of the Congo and the Nile (in the 
country of Mboga); thence northwards this western boundary 
descended to the north coast of Albert Nyanza at Mahagi, 
and then followed the main stream of the Nile to about 
5 N. In 1904, however, it was found that the 3Oth 
meridian had been placed some 25 m. west of its true 
position in the maps used when the frontier was agreed 
upon, and that if it was maintained as the dividing line 
it would cut off the Uganda Protectorate from access to 
Albert Edward Nyanza while giving a corner of the Congo 
forest to Uganda. A survey commission was subsequently 
despatched, and in 1910 British, Belgian and German dele- 
gates met in Brussels to draw up a new frontier line. Germany 
was interested in the dispute, inasmuch as the southern frontier 
of the Uganda Protectorate coincided with the northern frontier 




Emery Walker sc. 



of German East Africa. Moreover Germany, Great Britain and 
Belgium (as inheritor of the Congo State) had conflicting claims 
in the region N.E. of Lake Kivu. On the I4th of May 1910 a 
protocol was signed defining the new frontier as follows: Ftom 
the north end of Lake Kivu the Congo-German frontier turns 
east by north, traversing the volcanic region of Mfumbiro, 
and crosses the summit of Mt Karissimbi to the summit of Mt 
Sabyino, where the British, Belgian and German frontiers meet. 
From Mt Sabyino the frontier between Belgian Congo and the 
Uganda Protectorate goes in a direct line north to Mt Nkabwe, 
and thence along the Ishasha River, to its mouth on the S.E. 
shores of Albert Edward Nyanza. Thence it crosses that lake 
in a straight h'ne and afterwards the Ruwenzori to its highest 
point, Margherita peak, whence it follows the Lamia River to 
its junction with the Semliki. From that point the frontier 
is formed by the Semliki to its mouth and the middle of Albert 
Nyanza to a point opposite Mahagi, where it meets the Congo- 
Sudan frontier. 

Meantime in 1903 the then Eastern province cf the Uganda 
Protectorate had been transferred to the adjoining East Africa 
Protectorate, the new eastern boundary being the west coast 
of Lake Rudolf, the river Turkwel, the eastern flanks of Mt 
Elgon, the Sio River, and a line running south from the mouth 
of the Sio across Victoria Nyanza to i S. The area of the 
protectorate, approximately 150,000 sq. m. in 1901, has been 
reduced by these changes to about 1 10,000 sq. m. 



UGANDA 



Physical Features. The protectorate, with a singularly diversified 
surface of lofty plateaus, snow-capped mountains, vast swamps, 
dense forests and regions of desolate aridity (valley of 
Climate. Lake Rudolf), offers a remarkable variety of climates. 
The Rudolf province lies low an average altitude of not more 
than 2000 ft. is extremely hot, and has a very poor rainfall. 
In some of its districts no rain falls for two years at a time, 
elsewhere scarcely as much as 10 in. per annum. The Eastern 
province is abundantly watered near Victoria Nyanza and 
around Mt Elgon and the noble Debasien mountain (about 
50 in. to loo in. annually) ; elsewhere, in Karamojo and the 
northern regions, the rainfall lessens to about 20 in. Busoga 
and the western part of the Elgon district in this province have 
a regular West African climate hot, moist and not over-healthy. 
These are the conditions of Buganda, a country with an annual 
rainfall of from 60 to 80 in., a regular West African climate, and 
severe and frequent thunderstorms. Much the same may be said 
about the Western province, except for the cooling influence of the 
Ruwenzori snow range, which pleasantly affects Toro and northern 
Ankole. The rainfall on Ruwenzori and the central Semliki valley 
is quite 100 in. per annum. Along the Ruwenzori range are 
glaciers and snowfields nearly 15 m. in continuous length and some 
5 m. in breadth. The Northern (formerly called the Nile) pro- 
vince is perhaps the hottest part of Uganda. Like the districts 
round Lake Rudolf, the average altitude (near the Nile) is not more 
than 2000 ft., but the rainfall is more abundant than in the terrible 
Rudolf region, being an average of 30 in. per annum. 

The surface of the protectorate is diversified. Mount Elgon 
(q.v ) just outside the Eastern province is one of the leading physical 
features of the Uganda and East Africa protectorates. 
Mountains, j t cons ; sts o f the vast crater some IO m. in diameter 
Lakes and Q f an ext ; nc t volcano, the rim of which rises in several 
Rivers. places to over 14,000 ft. Terraces and buttresses 

extend and ramify in all directions from the central crater, so that 
the giant volcano and its surrounding heights form a mountain 
country (notable for its innumerable cascades and dense forests) the 
size of Montenegro. The mass of Elgon can be seen from the north- 
east coast of Victoria Nyanza, from near the main Nile stream, from 
the heights overlooking Lake Rudolf and from the Kikuyu escarp- 
ment. The Eastern province consists of well-forested, undulating 
land (Busoga) on the coast of the lake, a vast extent of marsh round 
the lake-like backwaters of the Victoria Nile (Lakes Ibrahim or 
Kioga, Kwania, &c.) and a more stony, open, grain-growing country 
(Bukedi, Lobor, Karamojo). The Turkana country west of Lake 
Rudolf has been of late years terribly arid. A little vegetation 
is met with in the stream valleys, but most of the rivers marked on 
the map have ceased to show running water in their lower courses. 
A good deal of high land rising in some peaks to near 10,000 ft. 
is found in the eastern part of the Northern province, and 
these heights attract moisture and nourish permanent streams 
flowing Nilewards. But much of the lower ground is stony and poor 
in vegetation, while the lowland near the main Nile is exceedingly 
marshy. 

The Ripon Falls, in the centre of the northern coast of the Victoria 
Nyanza, at the head of the exquisitely beautiful Napoleon Gulf, 
mark the exit of the fully born Nile from the great lake. The 
Victoria Nile tumbles over 50 m. of cascades and rapids (descend- 
ing some 700 ft. in that distance) between Ripon Falls and Kakoge. 
Here it broadens into Lake Ibrahim (Kioga) (in reality a vast back- 
water of the Nile discovered by Colonel Chaille Long in 1874), and 
continues navigable (save for sudd obstacles at times) right through 
Lake Ibrahim and thence northwards for 100 m. to Foweira and 
Karuma Falls. Between Karuma and Murchison Falls the Victoria 
Nile is unnavigable. At Fajao the navigation can be resumed into 
Lake Albert. The main Nile stream when it quits Lake Albert 
continues navigable as far north as Nimule (3 40' N.). Between 
Nimule and Fort Berkeley the river flows through a deep gorge 
and falls nearly 1000 ft. Navigability really only begins again at 
Gondokoro on the Sudan frontier, from which point steamers ply to 
Khartum (see NILE). 

The geography of the Western province includes many interesting 
features, the in many ways peculiar Albert Nyanza (q.v.), the great 
snowy range of Ruwenzori (q.v.), the dense Semliki, Budonga, Mpanga 
and Bunyaraguru forests, the salt lakes and salt springs of Unyoro 
and western Toro, the innumerable and singularly beautiful crater 
lakes of Toro and Ankole, the volcanic region of Mfumbiro (where 
active and extinct volcanoes rise in great cones to altitudes of from 
11,000 to nearly 15,000 ft.), and the healthy plateaus of Ankole, 
which are in a lesser degree analogous in climate and position, and 
the Nandi plateau on the east of Victoria Nyanza. Ruwenzori is 
a snowy range, and not a single mountain. Its greatest altitude-^- 
the Duke of the Abruzzi's Mt Stanley (Margherita Peak) is 
16,816 ft., and therefore the third highest point on the African con- 
tinent. The Uganda Protectorate is a land of great lakes, and in- 
cludes partially or wholly the water areas of Victoria Nyanza (about 
27,000 sq. m.), Lake Rudolf (about 3500 sq. m.), Lake Ibrahim- 
Kioga-Kwania (800 sq. m.), Albert Nyanza (2700 sq. m.), and Lakes 
Albert Edward and Dweru 1 (1500 sq. m.), besides the small crater 

1 In 1909 Albert Edward Nyanza was renamed by British geo- 



lakes of Toro and Ankole (singularly beautiful), the lake-swamps 
Salisbury and Kirkpatrick in the Eastern province, Lakes Wamaja 
in Buganda, and Kachera in Ankole. The water of Lake Victoria 
is perfectly fresh. This is the case with all the other lakes except 
Rudolf, Albert Nyanza and Albert Edward, in which the water 
ranges from salt to slightly brackish. 

Geology. Wide tracts remain geologically unexplored. Archean 
rocks gneiss, schist and granite cover large areas through which 
the Nile cuts its way in alternate narrow gorges and open reaches. 
In Ankole and Koki rocks consisting of granular quartzite, schis- 
tose sandstone, red and brown sandstone, and shales with cleaved 
killas rest on the Archean platform and possibly represent the 
Lower Witwatersrand beds of the Transvaal. No traces of the 
Karroo formation have been detected. Volcanic rocks occur in 
Usoga and elsewhere. The Nile at the Ripon Falls leaps over a 
basalt dike. The rocks on the verge of the Kisumu province of 
East Africa are mainly volcanic (basalt, tuff, lava, kenyte). West 
of the volcanic region, nearer to Lake Victoria and the Eastern 
province, ironstone, granite, gneiss and schistose formations pre- 
dominate, with phonolite in places. 

Iron ore (haematite) is abundant. In the Eastern province the 
rocks are mainly quartz, gneiss and granite, with sandstone in 
Busoga, basalt round Mt Elgon, slate (Busoga) and iron- p eirolofv 
stone (Busoga and Bukedi). In the Rudolf province there and 
are the basalt, lava, tuff and kenyte of the volcanic j; nera / 
Rift valley, overlying a formation of granite, gneiss 
and quartz. Gold in some cases alluvial is found in the moun- 
tainous country to the north-west of Lake Rudolf. Gneiss, granite 
and quartz the decomposed granite giving the red " African " clay 
are the leading features in the formations of the Northern province, 
of Buganda, and of the Western province, with some sandstone in 
the littoral districts of Buganda and in Ankole, and eruptive rocks 
and lava in south-western Ankole and on the eastern flanks of 
Ruwenzori. There are indications of copper in Busoga, of gold in 
Unyoiro. Iron is found nearly everywhere. Graphite is present in 
Buganda and Unyoro. 

Flora. The vegetation is luxuriant except in the Rudolf region, 
which has the sparse flora of Somaliland. In the Western province, 
Busoga and the Elgon district the flora is very West African in char- 
acter. The swampy regions of the Nile and of the Eastern province 
are characterized by an extravagant growth of papyrus and other 
rushes, of reeds and coarse grass. There are luxuriant tropical 
forests in the coast region of Buganda, in Busoga, west Elgon, western 
Unyoro, eastern Toro, the central Semliki valley and north-west 
Ankole. The upper regions of Mt Elgon, Mt Debasien and Mt 
Agoro are clothed with forests of conifers juniper and yew 
and witch-hazels (Trichocladus) . There are also giant yew-trees 
(Podocarpus) on the flanks of Ruwenzori and theMfumbiro volcanoes 
between 7000 and 9000 ft., but no junipers. The alpine vegetation 
on all these lofty mountains is of a mixed Cape and Abyssinian 
character witch-hazels, senecios, lobelias, kniphofias, everlasting 
flowers, tree heaths and hypericums. The really tropical vegetation 
of Bugandu is nearly identical with that of West Africa, but there 
is no oil-palm. 

Fauna. The fauna also has many West African affinities in the 
hot, forested regions. In the Kisumu province of East Africa even, 
there are several West African mammals such as the broad-horned 
tragelaph and the forest pig. These are also found in part of the 
Semliki forests. As a rule, however, the fauna of the Upper Semliki 
valley, of parts of Ankole, Buganda and Unyoro, of the Northern, 
Rudolf and Eastern provinces, is of that " East African," " Ethi- 
opic " character which is specially the feature of South and East 
Africa and of the Sudan right across from Abyssinia to the river 
Senegal. Among notable mammals the chimpanzee is found in 
Unyoro, Toro and north-west Ankole, and has only recently become 
extinct in Buganda; the okapi inhabits the Semliki forests on the 
Congo frontier; the giraffe (the male sometimes developing five horn 
cores) is common in the Northern, Eastern and Rudolf provinces; 
there are three types of buffalo the Cape, the Congo and the 
Abyssinian; two species of zebra (one of them Grevy's), the African 
wild ass, the square-lipped (" white ") and pointed-lipped (" black ") 
rhinoceroses, the elephant, hippopotamus, water tragelaph (" Speke's 
antelope"), Cape ant-bear, aard-wolf (Proteles), hunting-dog, and 
nearly every genus and most of the species of African antelopes. 
The birds are more West African than the mammals, and include 
the grey parrot, all the genera of the splendidly-coloured turacoes, 
the unique " whale-headed stork," and the ostrich. 

Inhabitants. The inhabitants in 1909 numbered about 
3,500,000 natives, 3000 British Indians and Arabs, and 507 
Europeans (British, French, Germans, Italians and Maltese). 
Of these last 119 were women. The races -indigenous to the 
protectorate are mainly of the Negro species (with slight Cau- 
casian intermixture), and may be divided into the following 
categories, (i) Pigmy -prognathous (so-called " Congo " pigmies 
of Semliki forest, of Kiagwe in Buganda, and of the western 

graphers (with the consent of Edward VII.) Lake Edward, and 
Lake Dweru Lake George, in honour of George V. 



UGANDA 



559 



flanks of Mt Elgon and the types of Forest Negroes); (2) Bantu 
negroes (Banyoro, Bairu, Basese, Basoga, Bakonjo, Baganda, 
Masaba and Kavirondo); (3) Nile negroes (Aluru, Bari, 
Madi, Acholi, Gang, Lango, Latuka, Tesi, Sabei (Nandi), Turkana 
and Karamojo) ; (4) Hamitic (some tribes on islands and the 
north coast of Lake Rudolf; and the remarkable " Hima " 
or " Huma " aristocracy In Unyoro, Buganda, Toro and Ankole). 
The pigmies are generally known as Bambute or Bakwa in the 
Semliki forests. They are both reddish yellow and brownish 
black (according to individual variation) in skin colour, with 
head hair often tending to russet, and body hair of two kinds 
black and bristly on the upper lip, chin, chest, axillae and 
pubes; and yellowish and fleecy on the cheeks, back and limbs. 
Their faces are remarkable for the long upper lip and the 
depressed broad nose with enormous alae. Associated with these 
pigmies is the " Forest Negro " type (Lendu, Lega, Baamba, 
Banande) of normal human stature, but short-legged and un- 
usually prognathous. The Bantu negroes represent the future 
ruling race of the protectorate, and include the remarkable 
Baganda people. These last, prior to the arrival of Arabs and 
Europeans, displayed a nearer approach to civilization than has 
as yet been attained by an unaided Negro people. Their 
dynasty of monarchs can be traced back with tolerable cer- 
tainty to a period coincident with the reign of Henry IV. of 
England (A.D. 1400). The first Buganda king was probably a 
Hamite of the Hima stock (from Unyoro). Until recent years 
the Baganda and most of the other Bantu peoples of the pro- 
tectorate worshipped ancestral and nature spirits who had 
become elevated to the rank of gods and goddesses. The 
Baganda are now mainly Christian. There is also a " totem " 
system still in vogue. All the Baganda belong to one or other 
of twenty-nine clans, or " Bika, " which are named after and have 
as totem familiar beasts, birds, fish or vegetables. The Baganda 
are not a very moral people, but they have an extreme regard 
for decency, and are always scrupulously clothed (formerly in 
bark-cloth, now in calico). As a general rule, it may be said 
that all the Bantu tribes in the western half of the protectorate, 
including the Basoga, are careful to consider decency in their 
clothing, while the Nilotic negroes are often completely nude 
in both sexes. More or less, absolute nudity among men is 
characteristic even of the Bahima (Hamites). But in this 
aristocratic caste the women are scrupulously clothed. 

The Nile negroes and Hima are tall people. The former are 
seldom handsome, owing to their fiat faces and projecting 
cheek-bones. The Bahima are often markedly handsome, 
even to European eyes. In the Bahima the proportion of 
Caucasian blood is about one-fourth; in the Nile negroes and 
Bantu from one-sixteenth to none at all. The aboriginal stock of 
the Uganda Protectorate is undoubtedly the pigmy-prognathous, 
which has gradually been absorbed, overlaid or exterminated by 
better developed specimens of the Negro sub-species, or by 
Negro-Caucasian hybrids from the north and north-east. 

The languages spoken in the Uganda Protectorate belong to the 
following stocks : (i ) Hamitic (Murle and Rendile of Lake Rudolf) ; (2) 
Masai (Bari, Elgumi, Turkana, Suk, &c.) ; (20) Sabei, on the northern 
slopes of Elgon and on Mt Debasien; (26) Nilotic (Acholi, Aluru, 
Gang, &c.) ; (3) Madi (spoken on the Nile between Aluru and Bari, 
really of West African affinities) ; (4) Bantu (Lu-ganda, Runyoro, 
Lu-konjo, Kuamba, Lihuku, the Masaba languages of west Elgon 
and Kavirondo, &c.); and lastly, the unclassified, isolated Lendu 
and Mbuba spoken by some of the pigmy-prognathous peoples. 

Towns. The seat of the British administration is Entebbe 
(" a throne ") on the south shores of a peninsula projecting into the 
Victoria Nyanza in o 4' 2" N. 32 27' 45" E. It contains a number 
of commodious official residences, churches, hospitals, a laboratory, 
covered market, &c. The port is protected by a breakwater and 
provided with a pier on which is the customs-house. The native 
capital of Buganda is Mengo (pop. about 70,000), situated some 
20 m. N. by E. of Entebbe. It is a straggling town built on seven 
steep hills : on one hill is the royal residence ; on another (Namirembe 
= the hill of peace) was the cathedral of St Paul, destroyed by light- 
ning in September 1910, and other buildings of the Anglican mission. 
St Paul's was a fine Gothic church of brick, built by the Baganda 
in 1901-1904. After its destruction steps were at once taken to 
rebuild the cathedral. On a third hill are the cathedral and mission 
buildings of the Roman Catholics. On still another hill, Kampala, 
the British fort and government and European quarters are situated. 



Some 7i m. S. by E. of Kampala, and connected with it by mono- 
rail, is Kampala Port, on Victoria Nyanza. The capital of the 
Eastern province is Jinja, on the Victoria Nyanza, immediately 
above and east of the Ripon Falls. It is a thriving trading centre and 
port. Hoima is the administrative headquarters in Unyoro ; Butiaba 
is a trading port of some importance on Lake Albert; Mbarara 
is the capital of Ankole. Kakindu, Mruli, Fqwera and Fajao are 
government stations and trading posts on the Victoria Nile; Wadelai 
(q.v.), Nimule and Gondokoro (q.v.) are similar stations on the 
Mountain Nile. Bululu is a port on Lake Ibrahim. 

Agriculture and Trade. A few plantations are owned and managed 
by Europeans. Otherwise agriculture is in the hands of the natives. 
Some Baganda chiefs have started cotton, rubber and cocoa 
plantations, the botanic department assisting in this enterprise. 
Para and Funtumia rubber trees are also cultivated by the 
department. (For the work of the botanic, forestry and scientific 
department, the government plantations, &c., see the Colonial Report 
[Miscellaneous], No. 64.) A forest area of 150 sq. m. has been leased 
to a European company. Trade is mainly conducted by native 
(i.e. Arab, Somali and Negro) traders, by British Indians and by 
Germans. The. value of the trade during 1901-1902 was approxi- 
mately 400,000 in imports (largely railway material) and 50,000 
in exports. The articles exported were ivory, rubber, skins and 
hides, and livestock (for consumption in East Africa). These, except 
livestock, continue to be the main items of export. For the six 
years 1903-1904 to 1908-1909 the imports increased from 147,000 
to 419,000, and the exports produce of the protectorate from 
43,000 to 127,000. The imports included the transit trade (with 
the Belgian Congo and German East Africa), which grew from 
8460 in 1903-1904 to 82,615 in 1908-1909. The transit trade in 
the last-named year included bullion valued at 33,000, being raw 
gold from the Kilo mines, Belgian Congo. Among the new industries 
are sugar and coffee plantations, while cotton, ground-nuts and 
rubber figure increasingly among the exports, cotton and cotton- 
seed being of special importance. Cotton goods, chiefly " American!, " 
are the chief imports, machinery, hardware and provisions ranking 
next. Large quantities of rice are imported from German East 
Africa. About 50% of the imports are from the United Kingdom 
and British possessions. 

Communications. In connexion with the railway from Mombasa 
to Victoria Nyanza a steamship service is maintained on the lake 
between Port Florence, Entebbe and other ports, including those 
in German territory. Government boats also ply on the Victoria 
Nile and Lake Kioga (Ibrahim) and on Albert Nyanza and the 
Mountain Nile. A railway (begun in 1910), some 50 m. long, runs 
from Jinja to Kakindu, i.e. along the Victoria Nile from its point 
of issue from the Nyanza to where it becomes navigable above Lake 
Kioga. Good roads connect Entebbe and Butiaba (the steamboat 
terminus on Albert Nyanza) and other districts. There is a direct 
telegraphic service to Gondokoro and Khartum and to Mombasa. 
The postal service is well organized. 

Administrative Divisions and Government. The protectorate is 
divided into five provinces Rudolf, Eastern (formerly central), 
kingdom of Buganda, Western, and Northern (formerly Nile) 
and these again into a number of administrative districts. The 
kingdom of Buganda, which has a thoroughly efficient and recog- 
nized native government, is subdivided into no fewer than nineteen 
" counties " or districts, but the other provinces have as a rule only 
three or four subdivisions. 

The protectorate is administered by a governor and commander- 
in-chief , under the colonial office, residing at Entebbe, on the north- 
western coast of the Victoria Nyanza. He is assisted by a staff of 
officials similar to the functionaries of a Crown colony, but there is at 
present no legislative council. The natives are ordinarily under the 
direct rule of their own recognized chiefs, but in all the organized 
districts the governor alone has the power of life or death , of levying 
taxes, of carrying on war, of controlling waste lands and forests, and 
of administering justice to non-natives. In the case of Buganda 
special terms were accorded to the native king and people in the 
settlement dated the loth of March 1900. The king was secured a 
minimum civil list of 1500 a year out of the native revenues; pen- 
sions were accorded to other members of the Buganda royal family ; 
the salaries of ministers and governing chiefs were guaranteed; 
compensation in money was paid for removing the king's control 
over waste lands; definite estates were allotted to the king, royal 
family, nobility and native landowners; the native parliament or 
" Lukiko " was reorganized and its powers were defined; and many 
other points in dispute were settled. The king was accorded the 
title of " His Highness the Kabaka of Buganda," and his special 
salute was fixed at eleven guns. By this agreement the king and 
his people pledged themselves to pay hut and gun taxes to the 
administration of the protectorate. Somewhat similar arrange- 
ments on a lesser scale were made with the king of Ankole, the kings 
of Toro and Unyoro, and with the much less important chieftains or 
tribes of other districts. The territories north and north-east 
of these Bantu kingdoms are inhabited by Nilotic negroes and up 
to 1909 were left almost unadministered, except in close vicinity to 
the Nile banks. 

The education of the natives is confined to the schools maintained 
by the missionaries, who are doing an excellent work. Manual, 



560 



UGANDA 



technical and higher education is provided. In 1909-1910 there 
were in the Anglican schools over 36,000 scholars, of whom 17,000 
were girls. Of the total number of scholars over 26,000 were in 
the kingdom of Buganda. The Roman Catholic schools had in 
1909 over 11,000 scholars. (See the Col. Of. Report on Uganda, 
No. 686.) 

The expenditure for 1902-1903 was fixed at 210,000, of which 

about 170,000 was furnished by an imperial grant-in-aid and 

the balance from local revenue. Between 1903 and 

Expenditure l ^ Q ^ t j )e revenue increased from 51,000 to 102,000. 

* Revenue is chiefly derived from hut and poll taxes, 

lae ' customs, wharfage dues, game licences and land tax. 

The hut and poll taxes yield about 62,000 a year. The expenditure 

increased from 186,000 in 1903 to 256,000 in 1909. Deficiencies 

are made good by parliamentary grants. The rupee (is. 4d.) is 

the standard coin, with a subsidiary decimal coinage. 

History. The countries grouped under this protectorate 
were invaded at some relatively remote period say, three to 
four thousand years ago by Hamitic races from the north- 
east (akin to the ancestors of the ancient Egyptians, Gallas, 
Somalis), who mingled extensively with the Nile negroes first, 
and then with the aboriginal inhabitants of Buganda, Unyoro 
and Nandi. These Hamites brought with them a measure 
of Egyptian civilization, cattle, and the arts of metallurgy, 
pottery and other adjuncts to neolithic civilization. There 
was probably no direct intercourse with Egypt by way of the 
Nile, owing to the lake-like marshes between Bor and Fashoda, 
but instead an overland traffic with Ethiopia (the Land of 
Punt) via Mt Elgon and the Rudolf regions. In time even 
this intercourse with the non-negro world died away, and 
powerful kingdoms with an aristocracy of Galla descent grew 
up in Buganda, Unyoro and Ankole. 

The kingdom of Buganda especially dominated the lands of 
Victoria Nyanza in the igth century. In the 'forties and 'fifties 
Egyptian officials, Austrian missionaries, and British, Dutch, 
Italian, and German explorers had carried our knowledge of the 
Nile beyond Khartum as far south as Gondokoro. In the same 
period of time the Zanzibar Arab traders were advancing from 
the south on the Bahima kingdoms of the western Victoria 
Nyanza and on Buganda. King Suna of Buganda first heard 
of the outer world of white men in 1850 from a runaway Baluch 
soldier of Zanzibar. Captains Burton and Speke, on their 
Tanganyika expedition, heard of Buganda from the Arab traders 
in 1857. Captain Speke in 1862 reached Buganda, the first of 
all Europeans to enter that country. In the early 'seventies 
Sir Samuel Baker (who had discovered Albert Nyanza) extended 
the rule of the Egyptian Sudan as far south as the Victoria Nile. 
General Gordon, who succeeded Baker, and who had Dr Emin 
Bey (afterwards Emin Pasha) as lieutenant, attempted through 
Colonel Charles Chaille Long, in 1874, not only to annex Unyoro 
but also Buganda to the Egyptian dominions, and thoroughly 
established Egyptian control on Albert Nyanza. But owing 
to the indirect influence of the British government, exercised 
through Sir John Kirk at Zanzibar, the Egyptian dominions 
were prevented from coming south of the Victoria Nile. 

Suna, the powerful king or emperor of Buganda, who was the 
first to hear of a world beyond Negroland, had been succeeded 
in 1857 by his still more celebrated son, Mutesa (Mutesa means 
the measurer). Mutesa had received Speke and Grant in 
a most friendly manner. Subsequent to their departure he 
had opened up relations with the British agent at Zanzibar. 
In 1875 he received an epoch-making visit from Sir H. M. 
Stanley. Stanley, in response to Mutesa's questions about 
religion, obtained from that king an invitation to Anglican 
missionaries, which he transmitted to London through the 
Daily Telegraph. 1 Having made the first survey of Victoria 
Nyanza and confirmed Speke's guesses as to its shape and area, 
Stanley passed on (half discovering Ruwenzori on the way) 
to the Congo. 

Meanwhile the Zanzibar Arabs had reached Buganda in ever- 
increasing numbers as traders; but many of them were earnest 

1 The letter was entrusted to Linant de Bellefonds, a Belgian in 
the Egyptian service, who had been sent to Buganda by Gordon. 
On his return journey Bellefonds was murdered by the Bari. When 
his body was recovered Stanley's letter was found concealed in one 
of his boots and was forwarded to England. 



propagandists of Islam, and strove hard (with some success) 
to convert to that religion the king and chiefs of Buganda and 
adjoining countries. In 1877 the Rev. C. T. Wilson, one of a 
party of missionaries sent in answer to Stanley's appeal by the 
Church Missionary Society of England, arrived 
in Uganda, and towards the end of 1878 was joined *^'" 
by Alexander Mackay. In 1879 another party I877 -I879. 
arrived by the Nile route; and Wilson, after thirteen 
months' actual residence, left for England with Dr R. W. 
Felkin, who had arrived only three months before, taking with 
him envoys from Mutesa. In the same year the French Roman 
Catholic mission of the White Fathers of Algeria was inaugurated, 
and thus from 1879 dates the triangular rivalry of the creeds of 
Anglican and Roman Christianity and of Islam. 

In 1882 Islam gained an ascendancy, and the French with- 
drew for a time. In the autumn of 1884 Mutesa died. A great 
change had been wrought in Uganda during the Matesa 
latter years of his reign. Calico, fire-arms and succeeded 
swords had replaced the primitive bark-cloth and by Mwanga, 
spear, while under the teaching of the missionary- l884 ' 
engineer Mackay the native artisans had learnt to repair 
arms and use European tools. Mutesa was a clever man of 
restless energy, but regardless of human life and suffering, and 
consumed by vanity. He was succeeded by Mwanga, a cruel, 
weak and vicious youth. The intrigues of the Arabs led him 
to suspect the designs of the missionaries. He was alarmed 
at their influence over numbers of his people and resolved to 
stamp out Christianity. 

In the early 'eighties the aspirations of several European 
powers turned towards Africa as a field for commercial and 
colonial expansion. The restless Arabs of Zanzibar had since 
1857 steadily advanced Zanzibar influence to Tanganyika, 
Nyasa, and even through the Masai countries to the north-east 
coast of Victoria Nyanza and the " back door " of Uganda. 
In 1882 the Royal Geographical Society despatched Joseph 
Thomson to discover through Masailand the direct route to 
Victoria Nyanza. Thomson succeeded (he also discovered 
Lake Baringo and Mt Elgon), but turned back from the 
frontier of Busoga in order not to provoke Mutesa to hostilities. 
Mr H. H. Johnston was despatched on a scientific mission to 
Kilimanjaro, and concluded treaties on which the British East 
Africa Company was subsequently based. The vague stir 
of these movements had perturbed Mutesa, and they were 
regarded with deep suspicion by his successor, Mwanga. 

The annexations of Emin on Albert Nyanza, the visit of 
Thomson to the closed door of Busoga, the opposition of the 
Europeans to the slave trade, and, lastly, the identification 
of the missionaries with political embassies and their letters 
of introduction from secular authorities, added to Mwanga's 
fears, and early in 1885, simultaneously with the return of the 
French Fathers, the long smouldering hostility broke out, 
and the Christian converts were seized and burnt at the stake. 
Bishop Hannington, who attempted to enter Buganda M un f ero f 
by the forbidden route from the east, was murdered, Bishop 
and the Rev. R. P. Ashe and Mackay only redeemed Haaaiagton. 
their lives by presents. The Buganda Christians I8SS ' 
showed heroism, and in spite of tortures and death the religion 
spread rapidly. Mwanga now determined to rid himself of 
Christians and Mahommedans alike by inducing them to pro- 
ceed to an island in the lake, where he meant to leave them to 
starve. The plot was discovered, and Mwanga fled to the south 
of the lake, and Kiwewa, his eldest brother, was made king. 
The chiefs of the rival creeds British (Anglicans), French 
(Catholics), and Ba-Islamu, as they were called divided the 
chiefships. The Mahommedans now formed a plot to oust the 
Christians, and treacherously massacred number of their 
chiefs and then defeated their unprepared adherents. Kiwewa, 
refusing to submit to circumcision, was (after Reilgioiu 
reigning .three or four months) expelled by the Feuds. 
Ba-Islamu, who placed another brother, Kalema, on the throne 
and began a fanatical propaganda, forcing the peasantry to 
submit to the hated circumcision. The British and French 



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561 



factions, who had taken refuge in Ankole, could not agree even 
in their common exile, and nearly came to blows, but on the 
spur of threatened famine they agreed to combine and to take 
back Mwanga as their king and strike a blow for supremacy 
in Buganda. In May 1889 Mwanga, aided by the trader Charles 
Stokes, approached Buganda by water, and after several bloody 
battles captured the capital, but shortly afterwards was again 
defeated, and Kalema and the Ba-Islamu reoccupied Mengo 
(the native capital). Appeals for help were sent to Frederick 
John Jackson (subsequently lieutenant-governor of British East 
Africa), who had arrived on the east of the lake with a caravan 
of some 500 rifles, sent by the newly-formed East African 
Chartered Company. He replied saying he would come 
if all the expenses were guaranteed and the British flag 
accepted. Pere Lourdel, who was Mwanga's chief adviser at 
this time, counselled acceptance of these terms, but Jackson 
at first marched in a different direction northwards. Re- 
turning three months later, he found that Dr Karl Peters, a 
German in command of an " Emin Pasha Relief " expedition, 
had passed through his camp, read his letters, and, acting on 
the information thus obtained, had marched to Buganda, 
arriving in February 1890, where with the aid of Lourdel he 
Preach and concluded a treaty which was kept secret from 
British the British party, who repudiated it. The Baganda 
Factions. Christians, before the arrival of Peters, had again 
engaged the Mahommedans and driven them to the frontier 
of Unyoro, where King Kabarega gave them an asylum and 
aid. Kalema died later in the same year 1890 and was 
succeeded by Mbogo, a half brother of King Mutesa. The 
posts of honour had been divided between the rival factions. 
Peters's treaty had given fresh offence and added to the disputes 
arising in the division of the offices of state, and the factions 
were on the point of fighting. Jackson arrived in April with 
180 gun-men (a portion of his caravan having mutinied), and 
presented a new treaty, which was refused by the French. 
Feeling ran high, and Jackson withdrew his treaty, and, taking 
a couple of envoys who should bring back word whether 
Uganda was to be French or British, he left the country, Mr 
Ernest Gedge remaining in charge of his expedition. 

While these events were happening in Uganda the Anglo- 
German treaty of July 1890 had assigned Uganda to Great 
Lugard's Britain, and in October 1890 Captain F. D. Lugard, 
Arrival, then at Kikuyu, halfway between the coast and the 
1890. lake, received instructions to go to Uganda. He had 

with him Messrs De Winton and W. Grant, some 50 Sudanese 
soldiers, and about 250 porters, armed with Snider carbines. 
Marching with unprecedented rapidity, he entered Mengo on 
the 1 8th of December. Lugard, by introducing the names 
" Protestant " and " Catholic "till then unknown and by 
insisting that all religion was free, endeavoured to dissociate 
it from politics, and urged that as Uganda was now under Great 
Britain there could be no hostile " French " faction. This 
attitude was welcome to neither faction, and for some days the 
position of the new arrivals on the little knoll of Kampala was 
very precarious. Lugard's first object was to obtain a treaty 
which would give him a right to intervene in the internal affairs 
of the country. The hostile French faction was much the 
stronger, since at this time the king (whom the whole of the 
pagan party followed) was of that faction; but after some 
critical episodes the treaty was signed on the 26th of December. 
Lugard then endeavoured to settle some of the burning disputes 
relative to the division of lands and chiefships, &c., and to gain 
the confidence of both parties. In this he was to some extent 
successful, and his position was strengthened by the arrival in 
January 1891 of Captain (subsequently Colonel) W. H. Williams, 
R.A., with a small force of Sudanese and a maxim. In April 
Lugard, hoping to achieve better results away from the capital, 
led the combined factions against the Mahommedans, then 
raiding the frontier, whom he defeated. Seeing that the situation 
in Buganda was impossible unless they had a strong central 
force, which the company could not provide, Lugard and 
Williams had formed the idea of enlisting the Sudanese who 



had been left by Emin and Stanley at the south end of the 
Albert Lake. Taking with him Kasagama, the rightful king of 
Toro, he traversed the north of Ankole, with which country 
he made a treaty, and passing thence through Unyoro, 
along the northern slopes of Ruwenzori, reached Kavali at 
the south end of Lake Albert, defeating the armies of Unyoro 
who opposed his progress. He brought away with him 8000 
Sudanese men, women, children and slaves, under Selim Bey 
(an Egyptian officer). Some of these he left at the posts he 
established along southern Unyoro. After an absence of 
six months from Buganda, Lugard reached the capital at 
the end of the year (1891) with 200 or 300 Sudanese soldiers 
and two or three times that number of followers. Lugard 
little thought that in bringing these Sudanese, already (some 
of them) infected with the sleeping-sickness of the Congo forests, 
he was to introduce a disease which would kill off some 250,000 
natives of Uganda in eight years. Meanwhile Williams, amid 
endless difficulties, with a mere handful of men, had managed 
to keep the two factions from civil war, though fighting had 
actually occurred in Buddu and in the Sese Islands. 

After Lugard's return a lull occurred till the coast caravan 
left, when lawlessness again broke out and several murders 
were committed. On the 22nd of January the 
killing of a Protestant at the capital (Mengo) pro- ^" W " r ' 
duced a crisis. Lugard appealed to the king to do 
justice, but he himself was treated with scant courtesy, and his 
envoy was told that the French party would sack Kampala if 
Lugard interfered on behalf of the murdered man. In spite 
of strenuous efforts on the part of the British administrator 
to avert war the French party determined to fight, and finally 
attacked the British, who had assembled round Kampala. 
The king and French party were defeated and fled to the Sese 
Islands. The king and chiefs (except two ringleaders) were 
offered reinstatement, and they appeared anxious to accept 
these terms, but the French bishop joined them in the islands, 
and from that day all hopes of peace vanished. Fighting was 
recommenced by a " French " attack on " British " canoes, 
and Williams thereupon attacked the island and routed the 
hostile faction. After this the " French " slowly concentrated 
in Buddu in the south, the Protestants migrating thence. 
Williams then led a successful expedition against the Sese 
islanders and went on to the south of the lake to obtain one of 
the young princes heirs to the throne who were at the French 
mission there. But the Fathers were hostile, and though 
Mwanga was eager to accept Lugard's offers of reinstatement, 
he was a prisoner in the hands of his party. He succeeded 
eventually in escaping, and arrived in Mengo on the 3oth of 
March (1892). A new treaty was made, and the British flag flew 
over the capital, while the French party were given a proportion 
of chiefships and assigned the province of Buddu. These con- 
ditions they themselves said were liberal, nor could they have 
ventured to assume their old positions throughout Uganda. 

The Mahommedans had all this time refrained from attacking 
the capital as had been expected. They now clamoured for 
recognition, and Lugard went to meet them, and after a some- 
what precarious and very difficult interview he succeeded in 
bringing back their king Mbogo to Kampala, and in assigning 
them three minor provinces in Uganda. 1 

Lugard on his return to Uganda at the end of 1891 had received 
orders to evacuate the country with his whole force, as the 
company could no longer maintain their position. j- fle 
A reprieve till the end of 1892 followed, funds having Question of 
been raised through the efforts of Bishop Tucker I" 1 ' 00 ' 
by the Church Missionary Society and friends. 
The lives of many Europeans were at stake, for anarchy 
must follow the withdrawal, and it seemed impossible to 
repudiate the pledges to Toro, or to abandon the Baganda 
who had fought for the British. In June 1892, therefore, 
Lugard determined to leave for England to appeal against 
the decision for abandonment. Williams remained in Uganda, 
where the outlook was now fairly promising, and every effort 
1 Since reduced to one. 



562 



UGANDA 



was made to reduce expenses. On arrival in England Lugard 
found that the British Government had decided not to come 
to the help of the company, and Uganda was to be left to 
its fate. A strong movement was set on foot for the " retention 
of Uganda," and on the loth of December Lord Rosebery 
despatched Sir Gerald Portal to report on the 
best means of dealing with the country, and a 
subsidy was given to the company to enable them 
to retain their troops there till the 3ist of March 1893. 
Captain (afterwards General Sir) J. R. L. Macdonald, who had 
been in charge of a railway survey to Uganda, was directed to 
inquire into the claims put forward by France for compensation 
for the priests. His report was set aside by the government, 
which, without admitting liability, but to close the controversy 
with France, agreed to pay 10,000 to the French priests, and 
the foreign office published a categorical reply by Lugard to 
the accusations made. Portal and his staff reached Uganda 
in March, and Williams left soon afterwards with the original 
troops of the company, leaving Selim Bey and the Sudanese 
and Portal's large escort in Uganda. The country on Portal's 
arrival bore every mark of prosperity and revival. By in- 
creasing the territory of the Roman Catholics, and giving 
them estates on the road from Buddu to the capital, Portal 
gave effect to projects which the Protestants had violently 
opposed. He added also to their chief ships, and on the ist 
of April hoisted the British flag, made a new treaty with 
Mwanga, and sent Major Roderick Owen to enlist 400 Sudanese 
from the Toro colonies. He recommended to the imperial 
government the retention of Uganda (i.e. Buganda), the abandon- 
ment of Unyoro and Toro, and the construction of a railway 
half-way only to the lake. He departed after two and a half 
months' residence, leaving Macdonald in charge. During 
Macdonald's administration the Sudanese under Selim Bey 
began to conspire against the British control. The movement 
was checked and Selim Bey was deported to the coast. 

In November 1893 Colonel (Sir Henry) Colvile arrived to 
take charge, and at once led the whole of the Baganda army 
Coiviie's against King Kabarega of Unyoro. Major R. Owen 
Occupation defeated the hostile army, first in the south and 
of Unyoro. i ater m t h e nor th, and the Baganda chiefs scattered 
the main body, while Colvile occupied the capital and built 
a line of forts from Buganda to Lake Albert, of which he 
left Major A. B. Thruston in command. This officer fought a 
number of brilliant actions, and aided by Major (later Colonel) 
G. G. Cunningham, Captain Seymour Vandeleur, William 
Grant and others, he overran Unyoro and broke down all 
resistance. In June 1894 Uganda (i.e. the kingdom of 
Buganda) was declared a protectorate, and at the end of the 
year Sir Henry Colvile was invalided. Mr F. J. Jackson now 
took temporary charge, pending the arrival in June 1895 of 
Mr E. J. L. Berkeley, the first administrator. 

At this time also it was decided to construct a railway to 
Uganda, but work was not begun till December 1896. Peace 
seemed assured in Uganda; territorial limits to religious teaching 
were abolished, English Roman Catholic priests were added to 
the French Fathers, and the material progress of the country 
was very marked. European traders settled in the country, 
good permanent houses were built, roads were made and kept 
in repair, and many new industries introduced, chief among 
which were the expression of oil from various oilseeds and the 
cultivation of coffee. Trees were imported and land set aside 
for planting forests. The success of these efforts at progress 
was largely due to Mr G. Wilson, C.B., who had been sent to 
Uganda from East Africa as an assistant administrator in 1896. 
In this year also the protectorate was extended' over Unyoro 
and Busoga. 1 

In the middle of 1897 this era of peace was rudely interrupted. 
Colonel Trevor Ternan was acting commissioner, and Macdonald 
had returned to East Africa in command of an exploring expedi- 
tion, for which Ternan had been ordered to supply 300 Sudanese. 

1 Toro, Ankole, Bukedi and the other countries now included in 
the protectorate were added by Sir Harry Johnston in 1899-1901. 



KebeUto f 



In June Wilson discovered a plot to revolt, and in July Mwanga 
fled to the south of Buddu and raised the standard of rebellion. 
The rebels were defeated, while Mwanga was made a 
prisoner by the Germans. Ternan, unaware of 
disaffection of his men, now sent three companies 
to Macdonald, selecting those who had been continuously 
fighting in Unyoro, Nandi and' Buddu. This caused great 
discontent, which was increased by the fact that their pay 
was six months in arrears and their clothing long overdue. 
The men, too, resented the fact that their pay was but a fifth 
of that given to Zanzibari porters and to those of their own 
body enlisted in the adjoining protectorate. They were sore 
at again being sent on service without their wives, and com- 
plained of harsh treatment from their officers. Necessaries 
had been delayed in the attempt to import steamers from the 
coast before the railway was made. 

After Colonel Ternan 's departure on leave the three companies 
who had joined Macdonald broke out into revolt in the Nandi dis- 
trict (East Africa) and set off to Uganda, looting the 
countries they passed through. Macdonald and Jack- Mutiny*.' 
son followed with a force of Zanzibaris. Meanwhile 
Major Thruston a man justly loved by his soldiers, in whom 
he had complete confidence hurried to the garrison at Luba's, 
near the Ripon Falls, relying on his personal influence to control 
the men, and risking his life in the heroic attempt. He and 
two other Europeans were seized and made prisoners. On the 
1 9th of October a battle was fought between the mutineers 
and Macdonald's force, in which the former were defeated. 
The same night the Sudanese leaders, fearful lest their men 
might submit, murdered Thruston and his companions and sent 
letters to Uganda to incite their comrades to mutiny. Wilson, 
however, had already disarmed the troops in Kampala, who 
remained loyal, as also did Mbogo, the ex-king of the Baganda 
Mahommedans. A large Protestant army now went to the 
assistance of Macdonald, and from the igth of October to the 
9th of January the siege of Luba's continued, with constant 
skirmishes, among the killed being the Rev. G. Pilkington. 
Early in January Mwanga escaped from the Germans, and, 
declaring himself a Mahommedan, reached Buddu with a large 
force, which Major Macdonald defeated with the aid of the 
Baganda army. He then disarmed the Sudanese garrisons 
in Buddu. The garrisons in Unyoro (about 500) and in Toro 
remained loyal. Meanwhile the Sudanese at Luba's (numbering 
600, with 200 Mahommedan Baganda) escaped, proceeded up 
the east bank of the Nile and crossed the river, making their 
way to Mruli. It appeared probable that if they reached 
that point the Sudanese garrisons in Unyoro would revolt as 
well as the Baganda Mahommedans, and the last hope of the 
Europeans would be lost. Leaving a small column to deal 
with Mwanga's force in the south, and another with Kabarega, 
Macdonald pursued the mutineers, overtook them in the swamps 
of Lake Kioga, and after a couple of successful skirmishes 
returned to Kampala, leaving Captain (afterwards Colonel) 
E. G. Harrison in command. That officer, crossing a swamp 
supposed to be impassable, attacked the rebel stockade at 
Kabagambi, and carried it with great gallantry. Captain 
Maloney was killed and Lieut. Osborne wounded, but the 
crisis was past. A large number of Indian troops arrived 
early in 1899, and in May Colonel C. G. Martyr inflicted 
another heavy defeat on the mutineers at Mruli. Mwanga, 
however, managed to get through and join Kabarega and 
the rebels in the north. These were dealt with in a series of 
engagements, but it was not till June 1899 that Colonel J. T. 
Evatt had the good fortune to capture Kings Mwanga and 
Kabarega, who were deported to the coast and subsequently 
removed to the Seychelles, where Mwanga died in 1903. Colonel 
Martyr at the close of the year (1899) undertook an expedi- 
tion up the Nile, and extended the limits of the protectorate 
in that direction. Major H. H. Austin, who had come up to 
Uganda in 1897 with Macdonald and had fought through 
the mutiny operations, revealed the regions north of Mt 
Elgon. Colonel C. Delme-Radcliffe finally subdued the last 



UGLICH UHLAND 



5 6 3 



remnant of the Sudanese mutineers in 1900-1901. The year 
1899 had been a costly one, 329,000 being voted in aid. In 
the autumn of 1899 Sir Harry Johnston was sent out as special 
commissioner to Uganda, being also given the rank of com- 
mander-in-chief. By extensive reorganizations, and in spite of 
having to cope with a rising in Nandi, his commission resulted 
in the reduction of expenditure and increase of local revenue. 
He gave the kingdom of Buganda a definite constitution, 
settled the land question in the provinces of Buganda, Busoga, 
Unyoro, Toro and Ankole, and also the question of native 
taxation. By the treaty of Mengo, signed in March 1900, the 
young king of Buganda, Daudi Chwa, a son of Mwanga, born 
in 1896, was accorded the title of his Highness the Kabaka. 
During his minority the kingdom of Buganda was governed 
by regents. In 1900, the Uganda Protectorate was divided 
into six provinces, but in 1903 the Eastern and part of the 
Central provinces were transferred to the British East Africa 
Protectorate. 

In 1902 the Uganda railway, begun in 1896. was finished. 
Its terminus is at Kisumu (Port Florence) on Kavirondo Gulf, 
Victoria Nyanza. It is some 580 m. long, ascends in places 
to altitudes of 7000 and 8000 ft. (highest point 8300 ft.), 
but has only one tunnel. Its cost was about 5,300,000. 
(See BRITISH EAST AFRICA.) 

Colonel Sir James H. Sadler succeeded Sir Harry Johnston 
in 1902 and was transferred to East Africa in 1905. His place 
in Uganda was taken by Sir Henry Hesketh Bell, who was made 
the first governor of Uganda in 1906. The ravages of sleeping- 
sickness between 1901 and 1909 destroyed upwards of a quarter 
of a million people, and the whole of the native population 
had to be removed from the lake shores and the Sese Islands; 
but nevertheless the protectorate continued to make steady 
progress in civilization and in the development of its material 
resources. Its transit trade, especially with the Belgian Congo, 
became of great importance. To facilitate commerce with the 
Congo and with the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and to open up the 
Busoga region the British government in 1910 voted money to 
build a railway from Jinja to Kakindu. The work was carried 
out under the superintendence of Captain H. E. S. Cordeaux, 
who became governor of the protectorate in 1910. 

AUTHORITIES. J. H. Speke, Discovery of the Source of the Nile 
(1863); Sir H. M. Stanley, Through the Dark Continent (1878) and 
In Darkest Africa (1890); Sir Richard Burton, Lake Regions of 
Central Africa (1860); Sir Samuel Baker, Albert Nyanza (1866); 
Emin Pasha, Journals (1886 edition) ; C. Chaille Long. Central Africa, 
Naked Truths of Naked People (1876) ; Colonel Cordon in Central 
Africa (1881), edited by G. B. Hill; C. T. Wilson and R. W. Felkin, 
Uganda and the Egyptian Sudan (1882); R. P. Ashe, Two Kings 
of Uganda (1889) and Chronicles of Uganda (1894), Sir H. Colvile, 
The Land of the Nile Springs (1895); P. Kollmann, The Victoria 
Nyanza (1899); Sir F. D. Lugard, The Rise of Our East African 
Empire (1893) ; G. F. Scott-Elliot, A Naturalist in Mid Africa (1896) ; 
Joseph Thomson, Through Masai Land (1885) ; J. Ansorge, Under 
the African Sun (1899); Count Tcleki and Lieut. Hohnel, Dis- 
coveries of Lakes Rudolf and Stephanie (1894); F. Stuhlmann, 
Mil Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika (1894); Sir Harry Johnston, 
The Uganda Protectorate (1902); and The Nile Quest (1903); A. B. 
Thruston, African Incidents (1900); J. F. Cunningham, Uganda 
and its Peoples (1905); H. H. Austin, With Macdonald in Uganda 
(1903) and Among Swamps andGiants in Equatorial Africa (1902); 
Winston Churchill, My African Journey (1908) ; Bishop Tucker, 
Eighteen Years in Uganda and East Africa (1908); articles on 
ethnology by the Rev. H. Roscoe in the Journal of the Royal 
Anthropological Institute between 1900 and 1908; the duke of the 
Abruzzi, " The Snows of the Nile," in The Geographical Journal 
(February 1907); De Filippi, Ruwenzori (1908); J. E. S. Moore, The 
Tanganyika Problem (1903), and To the Mountains of the Moon 
(1901); A. F. R. Wollaston, From Ruwenzori to the Congo (1908); 
Seymour Vandeleur, Campaigning on the Upper Nile and Niger 
(1898). (H. H. J.) 

UGLICH, a town of Russia, in the government of Yaroslavl, 
on the upper Volga, 63 m. W. by S. of the city of Yaroslavl. 
Pop., 9698. Its historical remains are mostly associated with 
Prince Dmitri, son of Ivan the Terrible, who was believed to 
have been murdered (1591) hereby Boris Godunov. The wooden 
house (built in 1481, restored in 1892) which the prince occupied, 
a church of St Demetrius, erected at the spot where he was killed, 



and a kiosk on the site of a convent where his mother was 
forcibly consecrated a nun, are the principal memorials of this 
incident. The cathedral was erected in the I3th century, but 
subsequently restored, and contains the grave of Prince Roman. 
The industries include paper-mills, flour-mills, distilleries, copper 
works, and linen factories; and the samovars (tea-urns) and 
sausages made here are famous. 

The local annals go as far back as the gth century. Until the 
I4th century Uglich was a separate principality, which extended 
over eastern Tver. In 1329 the sons of Prince Roman the Saint 
renounced their independence in favour of Moscow, and fifty 
years later the Uglich princes sold their rights to the great prince 
of Moscow. The Tatars plundered the town in 1237, 1293 and 
1408, and the Lithuanians did the same at a later date. 

UHDE, FRITZ KARL HERMANN VON (1848- ), German 
painter, was born at Wolkenburg in Saxony. His artistic career, 
for which he studied first in Dresden, was interrupted for nearly 
ten years by military service, which included the two years of the 
Franco-German War, but in 1877 ne again turned his attention 
to art, studying under Munkacsy in Paris and afterwards indepen- 
dently in Holland. His inclination was from the first directed 
towards religious subjects. He revived the practice of treating 
Biblical episodes realistically by transferring them to modern 
days. Thus in the " Come, Lord Jesus, be our Guest," of the 
Berlin National Gallery, Christ appears among the peasant family 
assembled for their meal in a modern German farmhouse " par- 
lour," and in " The Sermon on the Mount " (Berlin, private 
collection) addresses a crowd of igth century harvesters. Similar 
in conception are " Suffer Little Children to come unto Me " 
(Leipzig Museum), "The Holy Night" (Dresden Gallery), 
" The Last Supper," " The Journey to Bethlehem " (Munich 
Pinakothek) and " The Miraculous Draught of Fishes." Other 
works of his in public collections are: " Saying Grace," at the Lux- 
embourg in Paris; " Christ at Emmaus/' at the Staedel Institute, 
Frankfort; " The Farewell of Tobias," at the Liechtenstein 
Gallery, Vienna; and a portrait oi the actor Wohlmuth, at the 
Christiania Museum. Von IJhde became professor and honorary 
member of the academies of Munich, Dresden and Berlin. 

UHLAND, JOHANN LUDWIG (1787-1862), German poet, was 
born at Tubingen on the 26th of April 1787. He studied juris- 
prudence at the university ol his native place, but also devoted 
much time to medieval literature. Having graduated as a 
doctor of laws in 1810, he went for some months to Paris; and 
from 1812 to 1814 he worked at his profession in Stuttgart, in the 
bureau of the minister of justice. He had begun his career as a 
poet in 1807 and 1808 by contributing ballads and lyrics to L. von 
Seckendorff's Musenalmanach; and in 1812 and 1813 he wrote 
poems for J. Kerner's Poetischer Almanack and Deutscher Dichter- 
wald. In 1815 he collected his poems in a volume entitled 
Gedichte, which almost immediately secured a wide circle of 
readers. To almost every new edition he added some fresh poems. 
He wrote two dramatic works Ernst, Herzog von Schwaben and 
Ludiaig der Baier the former published in 1818, the latter in 
1819. These, however, are unimportant in comparison with his 
Gedichte. As a lyric poet, Uhland must be classed with the writers 
of the romantic school, for, like them, he found in the middle 
ages the subjects which appealed most strongly to his imagina- 
tion. But his style has a precision, suppleness and grace which 
sharply distinguish his most characteristic writings from those 
of the romantic poets. Uhland wrote manly poems in defence of 
freedom, and in the states assembly of Wiirttemberg he played 
a distinguished part as one of the most vigorous and consistent 
of the liberal members. In 1829 he was made extraordinary 
professor of German literature at the university of Tubingen, 
but he resigned this appointment in 1833, when it was found to 
be incompatible with his political views. In 1848 he became a 
member of the Frankfort parliament. 

Uhland was not only a poet and politician; he was also an 
ardent student of the history of literature. In 1812 he published 
an interesting essay on Das altfransosische Epos; and ten years 
afterwards this was followed by an admirable work on Walther 
von der Vogelweide. He was also the author of an elaborate 



564 



UIGHUR ULAN 



study of Der Mythus von Thar nach nordischen Quellen (1836), 
and he formed a valuable collection of Alte hoch- und nieder- 
deutsche Volkslieder, which appeared in 1844-1845. He died at 
Tubingen on the isth of November 1862. 

Uhland's Gesammelte Werke, edited by H. Fischer, were published 
in 1892 in 6 vols.; also by L. Frankel (2 vols., 1893) and L. Holthof 
(1901). His Gedichte passed through nearly fifty editions in the 
poet's lifetime; jubilee edition of the Gedichte und Dramen (1886). 
A critical edition by E. Schmidt and J. Hartmann appeared in 1898 
(2 vols.)- Uhland's Schriften zur Geschichte der Dichtung und Sage 
were published in 8 vols. (1865-1873); his Tagebuch von 1810-1820 
by J. Hartmann (1893). See F. Notfer, L. Uhland, sein Leben und 
seine Dichlungen (1863); K. Mayer, L. Uhland, seine Freunde und 
Zeitgenossen (2 vols., 1867); L. Uhlands Leben (with Nachlass), by 
his widow (1874); A. von Keller, Uhland als Dramatiker (1877); 
H Dederich, L. Uhland als Dichter und Patriot ( 1 886) ; W. L. Holland, 
Zu Uhlands Geddchtnis (1886); H. Fischer, L. Uhland (1887); H. 
Maync, Uhlands Jugenddichtung (1899). 

UIGHUR, or OUIGHOUR, the name of a Turkish tribe and 
dynasty who came from the East and ruled in Kashgaria from 
the loth to the i2th centuries. They used a variety of the 
Syriac alphabet. (See TURKS.) 

UIST, NORTH AND SOUTH, islands of the outer Hebrides, 
Inverness-shire, Scotland. North Uist lies S.W. of Harris (Long 
Island), from which it is separated about 8 m. by the Sound of 
Harris. The island measures 14 m. in length by 16 m. in greatest 
width, but the coasts are extremely indented. The highest point 
is Mt Eaval (1138 ft.). The principal sea-lochs are Loch 
Maddy and Loch Eport, both on the east. On the east coast the 
surface is mostly swampy moorland, but on the west there is 
some fertile soil. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in crofting, 
fishing and cattle-rearing. The principal village, Loch Maddy, 
is the centre of a large trade, and is a favourite resort of anglers, 
being a regular calling station for the steamers from Oban and 
Portree. The islands belonging to the parish of North Uist 
comprise to the south-west Balleshare and Illeray (pop., 383), 
Kirkibost, Heisker (98), and the Monach group, with a lighthouse 
on Shillay; to the south, Grimisay (290) and Ronay; to the 
north-east, Levera; to the north, Boreray (118) and Vallay. 

South Uist has a population (1901) of 3541, an extreme length 
of 22 m. and an extreme width of 8 m. Towards the north-east 
it becomes mountainous, the highest points being Buail'a Choill 
(2034), Ben More (1994) and Hecla (1988). The chief sea-lochs 
are Loch Boisdale, largely frequented by anglers, Loch Eynort 
and Loch Skiport on the east coast. On the east side the surface 
is mainly alluvial peat, broken by hills, but on the west 
there is a belt of productive land. Besides crofting, the inhabi- 
tants are engaged in the fisheries and cattle-raising. Steamers 
from Oban call regularly at the village of Loch Boisdale. The 
islands attached to the parish of SouthUist include, to the south, 
Eriskay (pop., 3478), where Prince Charles landed on the 2nd of 
August 1745; to the north-east, Wiay; to the north, Grimisay, 
Fladda, just off the north-east shore of Benbecula, and Benbecula 
(pop., 1417), with an area of 40 sq. m., from which there is at 
low tide a ford to North and South Uist. 

UITENHAGE, a town of the Cape province, South Africa, 
in the valley of the Zwartkops river, 270 ft. above the sea, 21 m. 
by rail N.N.W. of Port Elizabeth. Pop. (1904), 12,193, of whom 
6680 were whites. It was founded in 1804 by De Mist, the 
Batavian commissioner, who took over Cape Colony from the 
British in 1803. Many natives find employment in the mills 
along the Zwartkops, where vast quantities of wool from the 
sheep farms of the eastern part of the province are cleansed and 
forwarded for shipment at Port Elizabeth. Extensive railway 
works are established here. There are in addition large flower 
and fruit nurseries. The town is laid out in rectangular blocks, 
and contains a handsome town-hall, court-house and public 
offices. 

UJEST (Polish, Viast), a small town on the Klodnitz in 
Prussia, which gives the title of duke to the head of the family 
of Hohenlohe-Ohringen, a branch (1823) of that of Hohenlohe- 
Ingelfingen (see HOHENLOHE). Prince Hugo of Hohenlohe- 
Ohringen was created duke of Ujest in 1861, and in 1897 was 
succeeded by his son Christian Kraft (b. 1848). The duke is an 



hereditary member of the upper houses of Wiirttemberg and 
Prussia. 

UJIJI, a town in German East Africa, also known as Kavele, 
situated on the eastern shores of Lake Tanganyika, in 4 55' S., 
29 40' E. It is connected with Cape Town by an overland tele- 
graph line. The population (about 14,000) is composed of Arabs 
and members of numerous Central African tribes. Ujiji is the 
meeting-point of merchants from all parts of Tanganyika, and the 
terminus of the caravan route from Dar-es-Salaam. Arabs from 
Zanzibar made Ujiji their headquarters during the first half of 
the i9th century, and it became a great slave and ivory mart. 
In 1858 Richard Burton and J. H. Speke reached Ujiji from 
Zanzibar, being the first Europeans to see Lake Tanganyika. 
In 1869 David Livingstone, coming from the south, arrived at 
Ujiji, and it was here that H. M. Stanley found him on the 
28th of October 1871. In 1890 it came within the German sphere 
of influence. (See TANGANYIKA and GERMAN EAST AFRICA.) 

UJJAIN, or UJAIN, a city of central India, in the state of 
Gwalior, on the right bank of the river Sipra, with a station on 
the branch of the Rajputana railway from Ratlam to Bhopal. 
Pop. (1901) 39,892. Ujjain, known as Avanti in the Buddhist 
period and as Ozene to the Greeks, is one of the seven sacred 
cities of the Hindus and the traditional capital of King Vikra- 
maditya, at whose court the " nine gems " of Sanskirt literature 
are said to have flourished. It marks the first meridian of longi- 
tude in Hindu geography. It is heard of first as the residence 
of Asoka (afterwards emperor), when viceroy of the western pro- 
vinces. It was sacked by the Mahommedans in 1235. Under 
Akbar it became the capital of Malwa, and during the last half 
of the 1 8th century it was the headquarters of Sindhia. It 
contains few old buildings, though relics of antiquity are often 
found on the abandoned site of the old city. It is now a centre 
of the trade in Malwa opium, with a wealthy colony of Bohra 
merchants. The principal institutions are the Madhava College 
(called after the present Maharaja), two state hospitals, and a 
dispensary belonging to the Canadian Presbyterian mission. A 
great religious festival is held here every twelfth year. 

UJVIDfiK (German, Neusatz), a town of Hungary in the county 
of Bacs-Bodrog, 171 m. S.S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 
28,763. It is situated on the left bank of the Danube near the 
terminus of the Franz- Josef canal. It is the seat of a Greek 
Orthodox bishop, and has become the literary and religious 
centre of the Servians in Hungary, especially since the founda- 
tion in 1864 of the Matica Srbska, or Servian Literary Society. 
The town was founded in the middle of the i8th century, and was 
almost totally destroyed during the revolution of 1848-49. On 
the opposite bank of the Danube, connected with Ujvidek by a 
railway bridge, lies Petervarad or Peterwardein. 

UKAZ, or UKASE (Russ., from ukazat, a shortened form of 
ukazlhal, to show, announce, prescribe), a term applied in 
Russia to an edict or ordinance, legislative or administrative, 
having the force of law. A ukaz proceeds either from the 
emperor or from the senate, which has the power of issuing such 
ordinances for the purpose of carrying out existing decrees. All 
such decrees are promulgated by the senate. A difference is 
drawn between the ukaz signed by the emperor's hand and his 
verbal ukaz, or order, made upon a report submitted to him. 
(See RUSSIA: Constitution and Government.) 

UKRAINE (" frontier "), the name formerly given to a dis- 
trict of European Russia, now comprising the governments of 
Kharkov, Kiev, Podolia and Poltava. The portion east of the 
Dnieper became Russian in 1686 and the portion west of that 
river in 1793. 

ULAN (formerly spelt Uhlan), originally a Polish cavalry 
soldier armed with a lance. These troops were light cavalry, 
and wore the national dress and czapka (or lancer cap). They 
were introduced into the Prussian service in 1740, but failed to 
distinguish themselves in the first Silesian War, and it was only 
after the treaty of Tilsit (1807) that Ulan regiments were again 
formed in the Prussian army. In the Austrian army a " Uhlan- 
pulk " of Poles was formed in 1784 and ordinary Ulan regiments 
of Austrian cavalry in 1791. The Austrian Ulans no longer 



ULBACH ULFILAS 



565 



carry the lance. In the German army of to-day Ulans are 
classed as heavy cavalry and wear the distinctive lancer dress 
inherited from the original Polish light horse. (See CAVALRY 
and LANCE.) 

ULBACH, LOUIS (1822-1889), French writer, was born at 
Troyes (Aube) on the 7th of March 1822. He was encouraged 
to take up a literary career by Victor Hugo. He became dramatic 
critic of the Temps, and attracted attention by a series of satirical 
letters addressed to the Figaro over the signature of " Ferragus," 
and published separately in 1868. He edited the Revue de Paris 
until its suppression in 1858, and in 1868 he founded a paper, La 
Cloche, which was suppressed in 1869 for its hostility to the 
empire. Ulbach was imprisoned for six months, and when on 
his release he revived the paper he got into trouble both with the 
commune and the government, and was again imprisoned in 
1871-1872. In 1878 he was made librarian of the arsenal, and 
died in Paris on the i6th of April 1889. 

Among his works are: Voyage autour de man docker (1864), 
Nos contemporains (1869-1871), Aventures de trois grandes dames 
de la cour de Vienne (3 vols., 1876); Les Buveurs de poisons: la fee 
verte (1879), La Vie de Victor Hugo (1886), &c. 

ULCER, an open sore (derived through the French from Lat. 
ulcus, Gr. e'X/cos). When a portion of animal tissue dies in 
consequence of an infection or injury, the death of that tissue 
taking place by gradual breaking down or disintegration, the 
process is termed ulceration and the result an ulcer. When the 
ulcer is spreading the place is painful and the surrounding parts 
are flushed with extra blood, but under appropriate treatment 
the destructive process ceases and the ulcer gradually heals. 
The bright surface of the ulcer becomes glazed over, and those 
changes take place in it which occur in an open wound. The 
ulcer gradually contracts, and round its edges cicatrization, or 
scarring, occurs. Ulcers may arise from various causes in 
different parts of the body, and in association with certain specific 
diseases, such as syphilis, tubercle, cancer and typhoid fever. 
(For GASTRIC ULCER see the separate article.) (E.O.*) 

ULEABORG (Finnish, Oulu), a province in the grand duchy of 
Finland, including a wide territory to the north of Kuopio and 
nearly reaching Varangerf jord, taking in the high dreary plateau 
of Laponia (16,000 sq. m.) and the fertile plains of Osterbotten. 
It has a total area of 63,970 sq. m., with a population, chiefly 
agricultural in Osterbotten and nomadic in Laponia, of (1904) 
295,187. The bulk of the inhabitants (99 %) are Finnish. There 
are immense forests, and onlv 0-4% of the area is under 
culture. The capital of the government is Uleaborg, a sea- 
port on the Gulf of Bothnia, now connected by railway with 
Helsingfors (498 m.); pop. (1904), 17,737. 

ULEMA (Arab, 'ulamd, sing, 'alim, literally " knowers," in 
the sense of scientes}, the learned of Islam, theologians, canon- 
lawyers, professors, judges, muftis, &c., all who, whether in 
office or not, are versed theoretically and practically in Muslim 
science in general. By " science " in this case is especially 
meant what is learned from tradition, books or men, and through 
the intellect. In a narrower sense, Ulema is used, in a Muslim 
state, of a council of such learned men, holding government 
appointments. If all conception of intermediary priesthood 
be eliminated, the Ulema may be said to be equivalent to the 
secular clergy of Roman Christendom (see DERVISH). Opposed 
to them, again, are the 'arifs (" knowers," " perceivers," sentientes, 
as opposed to scientes), to whom religious knowledge comes 
in the vision of the mystic, not by tradition or reason (see 
SUFIISM). 

On the training of the ulema see SUNNITES. (D. B. MA.) 

ULFELDT, KORFITS (1606-1664), Danish statesman, was 
the son of the chancellor Jacob Ulfeldt. After a careful educa- 
tion abroad he returned to Denmark in 1629 and quickly won 
the favour of Christian IV. In 1634 he was made a Knight 
of the Elephant, in 1636 became councillor of state, in 1637 
governor of Copenhagen, and in 1643 lord treasurer. In 1637 
he married the king's daughter Leonora Christina, who had 
been betrothed to him from her ninth year. Ulfeldt was the 
most striking personality at the Danish court in all superficial 



accomplishments, but his character was marked by ambition, 
avarice and absolute lack of honour or conscience. He was 
largely responsible for the disasters of the Swedish war of 
1643-45, and when the treaty of Bromsebro was signed there 
was a violent scene between him and the king, though 
Ulfeldt's resignation was not accepted. In December 1646 
he was sent as ambassador extraordinary to the Hague, but 
the results of his embassy by no means corresponded to its 
costliness, and when he returned to Denmark in July 1647 he 
found the king profoundly irritated. Ulfeldt, supported by 
the Raad and the nobility, who objected to Christian's fiscal 
policy, resisted his father-in-law, and triumphed completely. As 
lord high steward he was the virtual ruler of Denmark during 
the two months which elapsed between the death of Christian IV. 
and the election of Frederick III. (July 6, 1648); but the 
new king was by no means disposed to tolerate the outrageous 
usurpations of Ulfeldt and his wife, and this antagonism 
was still further complicated by allegations of a plot (ultimately 
proved to be false, but believed at the time to be true) 
on the part of Dina Winhavers, a former mistress of Ulfeldt, 
to poison the royal family. Dina was convicted of perjury and 
executed, but Ulfeldt no longer felt secure at Copenhagen, and 
on the day after the execution he secretly quitted Denmark 
(July 14, 1651), with his family. After living for a time in 
concealment at Amsterdam, he migrated to Earth in Swedish 
Pomerania, and began the intrigues which have branded his 
name with infamy. In July 1657 he eagerly responded to the 
invitation of Charles X. of Sweden, when he invaded Denmark, 
and entered the service of his country's deadliest foe, for the 
express purpose of humiliating his sovereign and enriching 
himself. He persuaded the commandant of Nakskov, the one 
fortress of Laaland, to surrender to Charles X., and did his 
best to convince his countrymen that resistance was useless. 
Finally, as one of the Swedish negotiators at the congress of 
Taastrup, he was instrumental in humiliating his native land 
as she had never been humiliated before. Ulfeldt's treason 
was rewarded by Charles X. of Sweden with the countship of 
Solvitsburg in Blekinge; but the discontented renegade began 
intriguing against his new master, and in May 1659 was con- 
demned to death. The Swedish regents, on the 7th of July, 
amnestied him, and he returned to Copenhagen to try to 
make his peace with his lawful sovereign, who promptly im- 
prisoned him and his wife. In the summer of 1660 they were 
conveyed to Hammershus in Bornholm, as prisoners of state. 
Their captivity was severe to brutality; and they were only 
released (in September 1661) on the most degrading conditions. 
The fallen magnate henceforth dreamed of nothing but revenge, 
and in the course of 1662, during his residence at Bruges, 
he offered the Danish crown to the elector of Brandenburg, 
proposing to raise a rebellion in Denmark for that purpose. 
Frederick William betrayed Ulfeldt's treason to Frederick III., 
and the Danish government at once impeached the traitor; on 
the 24th of July 1663 he and his children were degraded, his 
property was confiscated, and he was condemned to be beheaded 
and quartered. He escaped from the country, but the sentence 
was actually carried out on his effigy; and a pillory was erected 
on the ruins of his mansion at Copenhagen. He died at Basel, 
in February 1664. 

See Julius Albert Fridericia, Adelsvaeldens sidste dage (Copen- 
hagen, 1894) ; Danmarks riges historic, vol. iv. (Copenhagen, 
1897-1905); Robert Nisbet Bain, Scandinavia, chs. vii., ix., x. 
(Cambridge, 1905). 

ULFILAS (c. 311-383), the apostle of Christianity to the 
Gothic race, and, through his translation of the Scriptures 
into Gothic, the father of Teutonic literature, "was born among 
the Goths of the trans-Danubian provinces about the year 31 1. 1 
The Arian historian Philostorgius (Hist. eccl. ii. 5) says that 
his grand-parents were Christian captives from Sadagolthina in 
Cappadocia, who had been carried off to the lands beyond the 
Danube in the Gothic raid of 264, and became so naturalized 
that the boy received a Gothic name, Wulfila (Little Wolf). 
1 Krafft gives 313 as the date; Waitz, 318. 



566 



ULLATHORNE ULLMANN 



An authoritative record of the outlines of his life was only 
discovered early in the igth century in a writing of Auxentius 
of Milan, his pupil and companion. At an early age Ulfilas 
was sent, either as an envoy or as a hostage for his tribe, to 
Constantinople, probably on the occasion of the treaty arranged 
in 332. During the preceding century Christianity had been 
planted sporadically among the Goths beyond the Danube, 
through the agency in part of Christian captives, many of 
whom belonged to the order of clergy, and in part of merchants 
and traders. Ulfilas may therefore have been a convert to 
Christianity when he reached Constantinople. But it was 
here probably that he came into contact with the Arian doc- 
trines which gave the form to his later teaching, and here that 
he acquired his command over Greek and Latin. For some 
time before 341 he worked as a lector (reader of the Scriptures), 
probably among his own countrymen in Constantinople, or 
among those attached as foederali to the Imperial armies in 
Asia Minor. From this work he was called to return as mis- 
sionary bishop to his own country, being ordained by Eusebius 
of Nicomedia and " the bishops who were with him," probably 
at Antioch, in 341. This ordination of Ulfilas by the chiefs 
of the semi-Arian party is at once an indication of their deter- 
mination to extend their influence by active missionary enter- 
prise, and evidence that Ulfilas was now a declared adherent 
of the Arian or semi-Arian party. He was now thirty years 
of age, and his work as " bishop among the Goths " covered 
the remaining forty years of his life. For seven of these years 
he wrought among the Visigoths beyond the Danube, till the 
success which attended his labours drew down the persecution 
of the still pagan chief of the tribe. This " sacrilegus judex " 
has been identified with Athanaric, a later persecutor, but the 
identification is not beyond question. To save his flock from 
extinction or dispersion, Ulfilas decided to withdraw both 
himself and his people. With the consent of the emperor 
Constantius he led them across the Danube, " a great body of 
the faithful," and settled in Moesia at the foot of the range of 
Haemus and near the site of the modern Tirnova (349). Here 
they developed into a peace-loving pastoral people. 

The life of Ulfils during the following thirty-three years is 
marked by only one recorded incident (Sozomen iv. 24), his 
visit to Constantinople in January 360, to attend the council 
convened by the Arian or Homoean party. His work and 
influence were not confined to his own immediate flock, but 
radiated by means of his homilies and treatises, and through 
the disciples he despatched as missionaries, among all the Gothic 
tribes beyond the Danube. Thus the Church beyond the 
Danube, which had not been extinguished on Ulfilas's with- 
drawal, began to grow once more, and once more had to undergo 
the fires of persecution. Catholic missionaries had not been 
wanting in the mean-while, and in the indiscriminate persecution 
by Athanaric, between 370 and 375, Catholics and Arians stood 
and fell side by side. The religious quarrel either accentuated, 
or was accentuated by, political differences, and the rival 
chiefs, Athanaric and Frithigern, appeared as champions of 
Paganism and Christianity respectively. Then followed the 
negotiations with the emperor Valens, the general adhesion 
of the Visigoths under Frithigern to Arian Christianity, the 
crossing of the Danube by himself and a host of his followers, 
and the troubles which culminated in the battle of Adrianople 
and the death of Valens (378). The part played by Ulfilas in 
these troublous times cannot be ascertained with certainty. 
It may have been he who, as a " presbyter christiani ritus," 
conducted negotiations with Valens before the battle of Adria- 
nople; but that he headed a previous embassy asking for leave 
for the Visigoths to settle on Roman soil, and that he then, 
for political motives, professed himself a convert to the Arian 
creed, favoured by the emperor, and drew with him the whole 
body of his countrymen these and other similar stories of 
the orthodox church historians appear to be without founda- 
tion. The death of Valens, followed by the succession and the 
early conversion to Catholicism of Theodosius, dealt a fatal 
blow to the Arian party within the empire. Ulfilas lived long 



enough to see what the end must be. Hardships as well as 
years must have combined to make him an old man. when in 
383 he was sent for to Constantinople by the emperor. A split 
seems to have taken place among the Arians at Constantinople. 
Ulfilas was summoned to meet the innovators, and to induce 
them to surrender the opinion which caused the dispute. His 
pupil Auxentius describes how, " in the name of God," he 
set out upon his way, hoping to prevent the teaching of these 
new heretics from reaching " the churches of Christ by Christ 
committed to his charge." No sooner had he reached Con- 
stantinople than he fell sick, " having pondered much about 
the council," and before he had put his hand to the task which 
had brought him he died, probably in January 383. A few 
days later there died, also in Constantinople, his old enemy 
and persecutor, Athanaric. 

The Arianism of Ulfilas was a fact of pregnant consequence for 
his people, and indirectly for the empire. It had been his lifelong 
faith, as we learn from the opening words of his own confession 
" Ego Ulfilas semper sic credidi." If, as seems probable from the 
circumstances of his ordination, he was a semi-Arian and a follower 
of^iusebius in 341, at a later period of his life he departed from 
this position, and vigorously opposed the teaching of his former 
leader. He appears to have joined the Homoean party, which took 
shape and acquired influence before the council of Constantinople 
in 360, where he adhered with the rest of the council to the creed 
of Ariminum, with the addendum that in future the terms inrixrraais 
and ovala. should be excluded from Christological definitions. 
Thus we learn from Auxentius that he condemned Homoousians 
and Homoiousians alike, adopting for himself the Homoean formula, 
" liliuui similem esse patri suo. This Arian form of Christianity 
was imparted by Ulfilas and his disciples to most of the tribes of 
the Gothic stock, and persisted among them, in spite of persecution, 
for two centuries. 

The other legacy bequeathed by Ulfilas was of less questionable 
value. His version of the Scriptures is his greatest monument. By 
it he became the first to raise a barbarian tongue to the dignity 
of a literary language; and the skill, knowledge and adaptive ability 
it displays make it the crowning testimony of his powers as well as 
of his devotion to his work. 

The personal qualities of the man may be inferred from his pupil's 
description of him as " of most upright conversation, truly a con- 
fessor of Christ, a teacher of piety, and a preacher of truth a man 
whom I am not competent to praise according to his merit, yet 
altogether keep silent I dare not." 

See Waitz, Das Leben des Ulfilas (1840); W. L. Krafft, Kirchen- 
geschichte der deutschen Volker (Abth. i., 1854); H. Bohmer in 
Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie, z vol. xxi. ; W. JBessell, Das Leben 
des Ulfilas (1860); C. A. Scott, Ulfilas, Apostle of the Goths (1885). 

(C. A. S.) 

ULLATHORNE, WILLIAM BERNARD (1806-1889), English 
Roman Catholic bishop, was born at Pocklington, Yorkshire, 
on the 7th of May 1806, of an old Roman Catholic family. 
At fifteen he went to sea, and made several voyages to the 
Baltic and Mediterranean. In 1823 he entered the Benedictine 
monastery of Downside, near Bath, taking the vows in 1825. 
He was ordained priest in 1831, and in 1833 went to New South 
Wales, as vicar-general to Bishop William Morris (1794-1872), 
whose jurisdiction extended over the Australian missions. It 
was mainly Ullathorne who caused Gregory XVI. to establish 
the hierarchy in Australia. He returned to England in 1836, 
and, after another visit to Australia, settled in England in 1841, 
taking charge of the Roman Catholic mission at Coventry. 
He was consecrated bishop in 1847 as vicar-apostolic of the 
western district, in succession to Bishop C. M. Baggs (1806- 
1845), but was transferred to the central district in the follow- 
ing year. On the re-establishment of the hierarchy, in England 
Ullathorne became the first Roman Catholic bishop of Birming- 
ham. During his thirty-eight years tenure of the see 67 new 
churches, 32 convents and nearly 200 mission schools were 
built. In 1888 he retired and received from Leo XIII. the 
honorary title of archbishop of Cabasa. He died at Oscott 
College on the 2ist of March 1889. 

Of his theological and philosophical works the best known are: 
The Endowments of Man (1882); The Groundwork of the Christian 
Virtues (1883); Christian Patience (1886). For an account of his 
life see his Autobiography, edited by A. T. Drane (London, 1891). 

ULLMANN, KARL (1796-1865), German Protestant theo- 
logian, was born at Epfenbach, near Heidelberg, on the isth of 



ULM ULRICH 



March 1796. He studied at Heidelberg and Tubingen, and 
in 1820 delivered exegetical and historical lectures at Heidel- 
berg. In 1829 he went to Halle as professor to teach church 
history, dogmatics and symbolics, but in 1836 he accepted a 
chair at Heidelberg. A lifelong exponent of the mediating 
theology (Vermittelungs-Theologie), in 1828, with the help of 
Umbreit (1795-1860), he founded and edited the Theologische 
Studien und Kritiken in its interests. When Wegscheider and 
Gesenius were denounced by Hengstenberg as rationalists, he 
pleaded for freedom in theological teaching (cf. his Theol. 
Bedenken, 1830). On the other hand, he vigorously attacked 
David Strauss. His Historisch oder mythisch (1838; 2nd ed. 
1866) was a reply to Strauss's Life of Jesus, and his criticism 
resulted in Strauss making numerous concessions in later works. 
Ullmann died on the I2th of January 1865. 

In Das Wesen des Christenthums (1845; 5th ed., 1865; Eng. trans., 
1860) Ullmann explains that Christianity is independent of the 
orthodox formulas, and contends that a distinction should be made 
between faith and dogmatics. His principal historical works are 
Cregor von Nazianz (1825; 2nd ed., 1867) and Die Reformatoren 
vor der Reformation (2 vols., 1841 ; 2nd ed., 1866; Eng. trans., 1854). 
Another well-known work is Die Siindlosigkeit Jesu (1854; Eng. trans., 
1858 and 1870). See O. Pfleiderer, Development of Theology (1890); 
and cf. W. Beyschlag, Karl Ullmann (1867), and Adolf Hausrath 
in Kleine Schriften religionsgeschichtlichen Inhalts (1883). 

ULM, a fortress-city of Germany, in the kingdom of Wiirttem- 
berg, situated on the left bank of the Danube, in a fertile plain 
at the foot of the Swabian Alps, 58 m. by rail S.E. of Stuttgart 
and 63 m. N.W. of Munich. Pop. (1905), 51,680. Ulm still 
preserves the dignified and old-fashioned appearance of a free 
imperial town, and contains many medieval buildings of historic 
and of artistic interest. Among these are the town hall, of the 
1 6th century, in the Transition style from late Gothic to Renais- 
sance, restored in recent years; the Kornhaus; the Ehingerhaus 
or Neubronnerhaus, now containing the industrial museum; 
and the commandery of the Teutonic order, built in 1712-1718 on 
the site of a habitation of the order dating from the I3th century, 
and now used as barracks. The magnificent early Gothic 
cathedral is capable of containing 30,000 people. Begun in 
1377, and carried on at intervals till the i6th century, the 
building was long left unfinished; but in 1844 the work of 
restoration and completion was begun, being completed in 1890. 
Ulm cathedral has double aisles and a pentagonal apsidal 
choir, but no transepts. Its length (outside measurement) is 
464 ft., its breadth 159 ft.; the nave is 136 ft. high and 47^ 
wide; the aisles, which are covered with rich net- vaulting, are 
68 ft. in height. The massive and richly decorated square 
tower in the centre of the west facade, which for centuries 
terminated in a temporary spire, was completed in 1890, 
according to the original plans, by the addition of an octagonal 
storey and a tall open spire (528 ft.), the loftiest ecclesiastical 
erection in the world, outstripping the twin spires of Cologne 
cathedral by 21 ft. The towers of the choir, rebuilt in the 
course of the restoration, are 282 ft. high. The cathedral 
contains some fine stained glass, the largest organ in Germany 
(1856), and a number of interesting old paintings and carvings 
by Jorg Syrlin the elder, Jorg Syrlin the younger, Burkhard 
Engelberger, and other masters of the Swabian school. It 
belongs to the Protestant Church. Trinity church dates from 
1617-1621, and there are also four Roman Catholic churches and 
a synagogue. 

The Danube, joined by the Iller just above the town and by 
the Blau just below, here becomes navigable, so that Ulm 
occupies the important commercial position of a terminal 
river-port. Hence ' there is water communication with the 
Neckar, and so to the Rhine and into the interior of France. 
The market for leather and cloth is important, and Ulm is 
famous for its vegetables (especially asparagus), barley, beer, 
pipe-bowls and sweet cakes (Ulmer Zuckerbrot). Bleaching, 
brewing and brass-founding are carried on, as well as a large 
miscellany of manufactures. 

Ulm has long been a fortress of the first rank. In 1844-1859 
the German Confederation carefully fortified it, and in 1876 



the new German Empire added a comprehensive outer girdle 
of detached forts, culminating in the powerful citadel of Wil- 
helmsburg. The long straight lines of works which stretched 
to the plateau of the Michelsberg and formed the outworks 
of the main fortress on the left bank of the Danube were pur- 
chased in 1900 by the municipal authorities, in order to be 
levelled and laid out in streets for the extension of the town in 
this direction. The fortifications also of Neu-Ulm, on the 
Bavarian side of the Danube, were ordered to be razed and 
devoted to municipal purposes. The citadel of Wilhelmsburg 
remains, and also the defences on the left bank of the Danube, 
further extended and strengthened. Ulm is the basis of opera- 
tions for the German army behind the Black Forest, and can 
easily shelter a force of 100,000 men; its peace garrison is 
5600. 

Ulm is mentioned as early as 854, and under the Carolingian 
sovereigns it was the scene of several assemblies. It became 
a town in 1027, and was soon the principal place in the duchy 
of Swabia. Although burned down by Henry the Lion, it soon 
recovered from this disaster and became a free imperial town 
in 1155. Towards the close of the middle ages it appears 
several times at the head of leagues of the Swabian towns. 
Its trade and commerce prospered and in the isth century it 
attained the summit of its prosperity, ruling over a district 
about 300 sq. m. in extent, and having a population of about 
60,000. In 1803 it lost its freedom and passed to Bavaria, being 
ceded to Wiirttemberg in 1809. In October 1805 General Mack 
with 23,000 Austrians capitulated here to Napoleon. Ulm 
is remarkable in the history of German literature as the spot 
where the Meistersinger lingered longest, preserving without 
text and without notes the traditional lore of their craft. In 
1830 there were twelve Meistersinger alive in Ulm, but in 1839 
the four survivors formally made over their insignia and gild 
property to a modern singing society and closed the record of 
the Meistergesang in Germany. 

See E. Niibling, Vims Handel und Gewerle im Mitielalter (Ulm, 
1892-1900); G. Fischer, Ceschichte der Stadt Ulm (Stuttgart, 1863); 
Pressel, Ulmisches Urkundenbuch (Stuttgart, 1873); and Ulm und 
sein Miinster (Ulm, 1877); Schultes, Chronik von Ulm (Stuttgart, 
1 88 1 and 1886) ; Hassler, Ulms Kunstgeschichte im MiUelaller (Stutt- 
gart, 1872); and Das rote Buck der Stadt Ulm, edited by C. Mollvo 
(1904). 

ULPIAN (DOMITIUS ULPIANUS), Roman jurist, was of Tyrian 
ancestry. The time and place of his birth are unknown, but 
the period of his literary activity was between A.D. 211 and 
222. He made his first appearance in public life as assessor 
in the auditorium of Papinian and member of the council of 
Septimius Severus; under Caracalla he was master of the 
requests (magister libellorum). Heliogabalus banished him from 
Rome, but on the accession of Alexander (222) he was reinstated, 
and finally became the emperor's chief adviser and praefectus 
praetorio. His curtailment of the privileges granted to the 
praetorian guard by Heliogabalus provoked their enmity, and 
he narrowly, escaped their vengeance; ultimately, in 228, he 
was murdered in the palace, in the course of a riot between 
the soldiers and the mob. 

His works include Ad Sabinum, a commentary on the jus civile, 
in over 50 books; Ad edictum, a commentary on the Edict, in 83 
books; collections of opinions, responses and disputations; books 
of rules and institutions; treatises on the functions of the different 
magistrates-^- one of them, the De offifio proconsulis libri x., being a 
comprehensive exposition of the criminal law ; monographs on various 
statutes, on testamentary trusts, and a variety of other works. His 
writings altogether have supplied to Justinian's Digest about a third 
of its contents, and his commentary on the Edict alone about a fifth. 
As an author he is characterized by doctrinal exposition of a high 
order, judiciousness of criticism, and lucidity of arrangement, style 
and language. 

Domitii Ulpiani fragmenta, consisting of 29 titles, were first 
edited by Tilius (Paris, 1549). Other editions are by Hugo (Berlin, 
1834), Bocking (Bonn, 1836), containing fragments of the first book 
of the Institutions discovered by Endlicher at Vienna in 1835, and 
in Girard's Textes de droit remain (Paris, 1890). 

ULRICH, duke of Wiirttemberg (1487-1550), was a son of 
Henry, count of Montbeliard (d. 1519), younger son of Ulrich V., 



568 



ULRICI ULSTER, EARLS OF 



count of Wurttemberg. He succeeded his kinsman Eber- 
hard II. as duke of Wurttemberg in 1498, being declared of age 
in 1503- He served the German king, Maximilian I., in the 
war over the succession to the duchy of Bavaria-Landshut in 
1504, receiving some additions to Wurttemberg as a reward; 
he accompanied Maximilian on his unfinished journey to Rome 
in 1508; and he marched with the imperial army into France in 
1513. Meanwhile in Wurttemberg Ulrich had become very 
unpopular. His extravagance had led to a large accumulation 
of debt, and his subjects were irritated by his oppressive methods 
of raising money. In 1514 a rising under the name of " poor 
Conrad " broke out, and was only suppressed after Ulrich had 
made important concessions to the estates in return for financial 
aid. The duke's relations with the Swabian league, moreover, 
were very bad, and trouble soon came from another quarter also. 
In isii Ulrich had married Sabina, a daughter of Albert III.,, 
duke of Bavaria-Munich, and niece of the emperor Maximilian. 
The marriage was a very unhappy one, and having formed an 
affection for the wife of a knight named Hans von Hutten, a 
kinsman of Ulrich von Hutten, the duke killed Hans in 1515 
during an altercation. Hutten's friends now joined the other 
elements of discontent. Fleeing from her husband, Sabina 
won the support of the emperor and of her brother William IV., 
duke of Bavaria, and Ulrich was twice placed under the imperial 
ban. After the death of Maximilian in January 1519 the 
Swabian league interfered in the struggle, and Ulrich was 
driven from Wurttemberg, which was afterwards sold by the 
league to the emperor Charles V. 

Ulrich passed some time in Switzerland, France and Germany, 
occupied with brigand exploits and in service under Francis I. 
of France; but he never lost sight of the possibility of recovering 
Wurttemberg, and about 1523 he announced his conversion to 
the reformed faith. His opportunity came with the outbreak 
of the Peasants' War. Posing as the friend of the lower orders 
and signing himself " Ulrich the peasant," his former oppressions 
were forgotten and his return was anticipated with joy. Collect- 
ing men and money, mainly in France and Switzerland, he 
invaded Wurttemberg in February 1525, but the Swiss in his 
service were recalled owing to the defeat of Francis I. of France 
at Pa via; the peasantry were unable to give him any serious 
support, and in a few weeks he was again a fugitive. During 
his exile Ulrich had formed a friendship with Philip, landgrave 
of Hesse; and his restoration, undertaken by Philip, is an event 
of some importance in the political history of the Reformation. 
In 1526 Philip had declared he was anxious to restore the exiled 
duke, and about the same time Francis I. and Zwingli had 
intimated their willingness to assist in a general attack upon the 
Habsburgs. Many difficulties, however, barred the way, and 
it was 1534 before Philip was prepared to strike. In January 
of that year Francis I. had definitely promised assistance; the 
Swabian league had just been dissolved; and, after a manifesto 
had been issued by Ulrich and Philip justifying the proposed 
undertaking, Wurttemberg was invaded in April 1534. Charles 
V. and his brother, the German king, Ferdinand I., could send 
but little assistance to their lieutenants, and on the i3th of May 
the troops of the Habsburgs were completely defeated at Lauffen. 
In a few weeks Ulrich was restored, and in June 1534 a treaty 
was negotiated at Kaaden by which he was recognized as duke 
by Ferdinand, but was to hold Wurttemberg under Austrian 
suzerainty. After some hesitation Ulrich yielded to the solicita- 
tions of Philip, and signed the treaty in February 1535. 

The duke now lost no time in pressing on the teaching of the 
reformed doctrines of Luther and Zwingli. Many convents and 
monasteries were destroyed, and extensive seizures of church 
property formed a welcome addition to his impoverished 
exchequer. Taxation, however, was so heavy that he soon lost 
his temporary popularity. In April 1 536 he joined the league of 
Schmalkalden, though he did not assent to some of the schemes 
of Philip of Hesse for attacking Charles V. In 1546 his troops 
fought against the emperor during the war of the league of 
Schmalkalden, but with disastrous results for Wurttemberg. 
The duchy was quickly overrun, and the duke compelled to 



agree to the treaty of Heilbronn in January 1 547. By this treaty 
Charles, ignoring the desire of Ferdinand to depose Ulrich 
again, allowed him to retain his duchy, but stipulated that he 
should pay a large sum of money, surrender, certain fortresses, 
and appear as a suppliant before the emperor at Ulm. Having 
submitted under compulsion to the Interim issued from Augs- 
burg in May 1548, Ulrich died on the 6th of November 1550 at 
Tubingen, where he was buried. He left a son, Christopher 
(1515-1568), who succeeded him. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. L. F. Heyd, Ulrich, Herzog zu Wurttemberg 
(Tubingen, 1841-1844); B. Kugler, Ulrich, Herzog zu Wirtemberg 
(Stuttgart, 1865) ; H. Ulmann, FiinfJahrewurttembergischer Geschichte 
i$i$i5iQ (Leipzig, 1867) ; J. Janssen, Geschichte des deutschen 
Volks seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters (Freiburg, 1890), Eng. trans, 
by A. M. Christie and M. A. Mitchell (London, 1900 seq.) ; C. F. von 
Stalin, Wirtembergische Geschichte, Bd. iv. (Stuttgart, 1873); and 
J. Wille, Philipp der Grossmiithige von Hessen und die Restitution 
Ulrichs von Wirtemberg (Tubingen, 1882). 

ULRICI, HERMANN (1806-1884), German "philosopher, was 
born at Pforten, Prussia, on the 23rd of March 1806. He was 
educated for the law, but gave up his profession on the death 
of his father, and devoted four years to the study of literature, 
philosophy and science. In 1834 he was called to a professor- 
ship at Halle, where he remained till his death, on the nth of 
January 1884. His philosophical standpoint may be character- 
ized as a reaction from the pantheistic tendency of Hegel's 
idealistic rationalism towards a more pronouncedly theistic 
position. The Hegelian identity of being and thought is also 
abandoned and the truth of realism acknowledged, an attempt 
being made to exhibit idealism and realism as respectively 
incomplete but mutually complementary systems. Ulrici's 
later works, while expressing the same views, are largely 
occupied in proving the existence of God and the soul from 
the basis of scientific conceptions, and in opposition to the 
materialistic current of thought then popular in Germany. 

His first works were in the sphere of literary criticism; of his 
treatise On Shakespeare's Dramatic Art (1839; editions, 1847, 1868, 
1874), the 3rd ed. was translated into English by L. D. Schmitz 
in 1876. In 1841 he published Uber Princip u. Methode der Hegel- 
schen Philosophic, a severe criticism of the Hegelian system. This 
was continued in the Grundprincip der Philosophie (1845-1846), 
which also gives his speculative position. Complementary to this 
is his System der Logik (1852). His later works on the relation of 
philosophy to science and to the thought of his time were more 
popular in character. These are Glauben u. Wissen (1858), Colt u. 
die Natur (1862; 3rd ed., 1875), Gott und der Mensch (2 yols., 1866- 
1873; 2nd ed., 1874). From 1847 onward Ulrici edited, jointly with 
the younger Fichte, the Zeilschrift fur Philosophie u. phil. Kritik. 
See Frankel's art. in Allgemeine deutsche Biog. (1895) and works 
there quoted. 

ULSTER, EARLS OF. The earldom of Ulster was the first 
title of honour in Ireland of English creation, and for more than 
a century was the only one. By many authorities John de 
Courci (q.v.), the conqueror of Ulster, is held to have been the 
first earl of Ulster; " it is, however, certain," says J.H. Round, 
" that this title was the invention of a late chronicler, and that 
it first appears in the Book of Howth, where we read of " Sir John 
Courcey, earl and president of Ulster." The confusion probably 
arose from the words of a charter, dated the zgth of May 1205, 
by which King John confirmed to Hugh de Lacy, whom he then 
created earl of Ulster, a grant of Ulster " as John de Courci 
held it on the day when Hugh conquered and took him prisoner 
in the field "; these words referring not to the earldom but to 
the lands held by de Courci, and possibly also to the authority 
which he had exercised in the king's name. The earldom 
therefore dates from this grant to de Lacy in 1205. 

HUGH DE LACY, ist Earl of Ulster (d. 1242 ?), was descended 
from Walter de Lacy (d. 1085), who fought for William the 
Conqueror at Hastings. The family came from Lassy in 
Normandy, and after the Conquest Walter de Lacy obtained 
extensive grants of land on the Welsh marches. He was the 
first baron Lacy by tenure, and was probably a brother, certainly 
a kinsman, of Ilbert de Lacy, from whom were descended Roger 
de Lacy, justiciar in the reign of King John, and the earls of 
Lincoln (q.v.) of the de Lacy family. Although Walter had three 
sons, one of whom founded Llanthony Abbey, none of them left 



ULSTER ULTIMATUM 



569 



heirs; but his daughter's son Gilbert took the name of de Lacy 
and became the fourth baron. Gilbert's son Hugh de Lacy 
(d. 1 1 86) was one of the barons who accompanied Henry II. 
to Ireland in 1171; he obtained a grant of Meath, and governed 
Ireland as vicegerent for the king. By his wife Rose of Mon- 
mouth Hugh was father of Walter de Lacy (d. 1241), who suc- 
ceeded his father as lord of Meath and took a leading part in the 
conflict of his family with John de Courci in Ireland, and also 
of Hugh de Lacy, ist earl of Ulster. The latter was for a time a 
coadjutor of de Courci in Leinster and Munster, but after 1200 
the rivalry between the two developed into war, and in 1203 
de Lacy drove de Courci out of Down, and in the following year 
took him prisoner. He was rewarded by the king with grants 
of land in Ulster and Connaught, which were confirmed by the 
charter of the 2gth of May 1 205, when Hugh was created earl. 
He returned to Ireland with quasi-viceregal authority, and 
endeavoured without much success to reduce the O'Neill of 
Tyrone to submission. In 1207 war broke out between the earl 
of Ulster and FitzHenry, the justiciar. This brought King 
John in person to Ireland, where he expelled the earl's brother, 
Walter de Lacy, from Meath, and compelled the earl himself 
to fly from Carrickfergus to Scotland. For several years Ulster 
took part in the wars in France, and he did not return to Ireland 
till 1221, when he allied himself with O'Neill against the English. 
In 1226 his lands in Ulster were handed over to his brother 
Walter, but were restored to him in the following year, after 
which date he appears to have loyally served the king, being more 
than once summoned to England to give advice about Irish 
affairs. He died at Carrickfergus in 1242 or 1243. He left no 
surviving legitimate children, and on his death the earldom of 
Ulster reverted to the Crown. 

In 1254 the lordship of Ireland was granted by Henry III. 
to Prince Edward (afterwards Edward I.), who about 1255 
transferred " the county of Ulster " to Walter de Burgh, lord 
of Connaught, in exchange for the rich domain of Kilsilan. 
De Burgh was henceforth, or at all events within a short time 
afterwards, styled earl of Ulster, to which title he may have 
advanced some hereditary claim of a loose order through his 
mother Egidia, daughter of Walter de Lacy, the first earl of 
Ulster's brother. The earldom remained in the family of De 
Burgh until the death of William, 3rd earl of this line, in 1333, 
when it passed to his daughter Elizabeth, who married Lionel 
Plantagenet, son of Edward III. Lionel, having inherited in 
right of his wife the great estates of the family of de Clare as 
well as those of de Burgh, was created duke of Clarence in 
1362. Leaving no male heirs, Lionel was succeeded in the 
earldom of Ulster by his daughter Philippa, who married 
Edmund Mortimer, earl of March. The third Mortimer, earl of 
Ulster, died unmarried in 1425, when his titles were inherited 
by his sister's son, Richard Plantagenet, duke of York, whose 
son Edward ascended the throne as Edward IV. in 1461. 

Since that date the earldom of Ulster, which then merged in 
the Crown, has only been held by members of the royal family. 
It was granted in 1659 to James, duke of York, second son of 
Charles I., on whose accession as James II. it again merged in 
the Crown. The next prince to bear the title (1716) was Ernest 
Augustus, duke of Brunswick-Liineburg, son of the elector 
of Hanover, and youngest brother of George I. The title 
became extinct at his death without heirs in 1728. It was next 
conferred on Edward Augustus, brother of George III., in 1760, 
again becoming extinct at his death seven years later. In 1784 
Prince Frederick, second son of George III., was created earl of 
Ulster, and died leaving no children in 1827. Each of these 
last four earls of Ulster, all being of separate creations, held the 
title in conjunction with the dukedoms of York and Albany. 
On the next occasion of its revival it was united with the 
dukedom of Edinburgh, Prince Alfred Ernest Albert, second son 
of Queen Victoria, being created duke of Edinburgh, earl of 
Kent and earl of Ulster in 1866. On the death of the duke of 
Edinburgh in 1900 the earldom became extinct. 

See, for the de Lacy and de Burgh earls of Ulster, The Chronicle 
of Florence of Worcester, edited by T. Forester (London, 1854) ; 



Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters, edited by J. O'Donovan 
(7 vols., Dublin, 1851) ; The Annals of Loch Ce, edited by W. M. Hen- 
nessy, Rolls Series " (2 vols., London, 1871) ; Calendar of Documents 
Relating to Ireland, edited by H. S. Sweetman (5 vols., London, 1875- 
1886); W. W. Shirley, Royal and Historical Letters of the Reign of 
Henry III., " Rolls Series " (2 vols., London, 1862-1866); Sir J. T. 
Gilbert, History of the Viceroys of Ireland (Dublin, 1865). For the 
later history of the earldom see G. E. C., Complete Peerage, vol. viii. 
(London, 1898). (R. J. M.) 

ULSTER, a province of Ireland occupying the northern part 
of the island. It includes the counties Donegal, Londonderry, 
Antrim, Fermanagh, Tyrone, Cavan, Monaghan, Armagh and 
Down. Ulster ( Uladh) was one of the early provincial kingdoms 
of Ireland, formed, according to the legendary chronicles, at the 
Milesian conquest of the island ten centuries before Christ, 
and given to the descendants of Ir, one of the sons of Mileadh. 
Interprovincial wars frequently altered its boundaries, notably 
in 332 when the three Collas, sons of Eochaidh Doimhleln, con- 
quered the land between the river Boyne and Lough Neagh, 
which became a separate kingdom under the name of Uriel 
(Oriel or Orgial). Its princes maintained themselves until 
the close of the i6th century. In 1177 John de Courci, with the 
countenance of Henry II., set out to the conquest of Ulster. 
His operations were gradually successful, and he became lord 
deputy of Ireland in 1186 (see above). The nominal reign of 
the last king of Ulster closed in 1200. In 1585 Lord Deputy 
Sir John Perrot undertook the shiring of Ulster (excluding the 
counties Antrim and Down, which had already taken shape) ; 
and his work, though of little immediate effect owing to the 
rising of Hugh O'Neill, served as a basis for the division of the 
territory at the plantation of Ulster in the reign of James I. 

ULTIMATUM (from Lat. ultimifs, last), a word used in diplo- 
macy to signify the final terms submitted by one of the parties 
in negotiation for settlement of any subject of disagreement. 
It is accompanied by an intimation as to how refusal will be 
regarded. English diplomacy has devised the adroit reserva- 
tion that refusal will be regarded as an " unfriendly act," a 
phrase which serves as a warning that the consequences of the 
rupture of negotiations will be considered from the point 
of view of forcing a settlement. This opens up a variety of 
possibilities, such as good offices, mediation, the appointment 
of a commission of inquiry, arbitration, reprisals, pacific blockade 
and war. 1 

As regards the alternative of war, the Hague convention 
relative to the Opening of Hostilities of the iSthof October 1907, 
provides as follows: 

" Considering that it is important, in order to ensure the main- 
tenances of pacific relations, that hostilities should not commence 
without previous warning," it is agreed by the Contracting Powers 
to " recognize that hostilities between them must not commence 
without a previous and explicit warning in the form of either a 
declaration of war, giving reasons, or an ultimatum with a conditional 
declaration of war. ' 

As reasons for a declaration of war are necessarily in the 
nature of an ultimatum, the ultimatum may now be regarded 
as an indispensable formality precedent to the outbreak of 
hostilities. 

Another Hague convention of the same date respecting the 
limitation of the employment of force for the recovery of 
contract debts provides as follows: 

" Being desirous of preventing between nations armed conflicts 
originating in a pecuniary dispute respecting contract debts claimed 
from the government of one country by the government of another 
country as due to its subjects or citizens," the Contracting Powers 
agree not to have recourse to armed force for the recovery of 
contract debts claimed from the government of one country by 
the government of another country as being due to its subjects or 
citizens." 

This undertaking, however, is not applicable when the debtor 

1 To these may be added a new unofficial method devised .by 
the Turks in connexion with the Austro-Turkish difficulty over 
the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, viz. the boycotting of 
the goods and ships of the natives of the state against which the 
grievance exists. This is a method open to weaker as against more 
powerful states, which can have serious coercive and even compli- 
cated consequences under the influence of democratic institutions. 



57 



ULTRAMARINE ULTRAMONTANISM 



state refuses or neglects to reply to an offer of arbitration or, 
" after accepting the offer, renders the settlement of the cont- 
promis impossible, or, after the arbitration, fails to comply with 
the award." 

Under this convention, in the cases to which it relates, the 
alternative of the ultimatum is ipso facto arbitration, and it is 
only when the conditions of the convention have been set at 
naught that other measures may be employed. 

ULTRAMARINE, a blue pigment, consisting essentially of a 
double silicate of aluminium and sodium with some sulphides 
or sulphates, and occurring in nature as a proximate component 
of lapis lazuli (q.v.). As early at least as the nth century 
the art of extracting a blue pigment from lapis lazuli was prac- 
tised, and from the beginning of the i6th century this pigment 
began to be imported into Europe from " over the sea," as 
azurrum ultramarinum. As the mineral only yields from 2 to 
3% of the pigment, it is not surprising to learn that the pig- 
ment used to be weighed up with gold. It was valued chiefly 
on account of its brilliancy of tone and its inertness in opposi- 
tion to sunlight, oil, and slaked lime (in fresco-painting). In 
1814 Tassaert observed the spontaneous formation of a blue 
compound, very similar to ultramarine, if not identical with it, 
in a soda-furnace at St Gobain, which caused the Societe pour 
I' Encouragement d'Industrie to offer, in 1824, a prize for the 
artificial production of the precious colour. Processes were 
devised by Guimet (1826) and by Christian Gmelin (1828), 
then professor of chemistry in Tubingen ; but while Guimet kept 
his process a secret Gmelin published his, and thus became the 
originator of the "artificial ultramarine" industry. 

The details of the commercial processes are trade secrets. The 
raw materials used in the manufacture are: (i) iron-free kaolin, 
or some other kind of pure clay, which should contain its silica and 
alumina as nearly as possible in the proportion of 2S;O 2 : AUOs 
demanded by the formula assigned to ideal kaolin (a deficit of silica, 
however, it appears can be made up for by addition of the calculated 
weight of finely divided silica) ; (2) anhydrous sulphate of soda ; 
(3) anhydrous carbonate of soda ; (4) sulphur (in the state of powder) ; 
and (5) powdered charcoal or relatively ash-free coal, or colophony 
in lumps. " Ultramarine poor in silica " is obtained by fusing a 
mixture of soft clay, sodium sulphate, charcoal, soda and sulphur. 
The product is at first white, but soon turns green (" green ultra- 
marine ") when it is mixed with sulphur and heated. The sulphur 
fires, and a fine blue pigment is obtained. " Ultramarine rich in 
silica " is generally obtained by heating a mixture of pure clay, very 
fine white sand, sulphur and charcoal in a muffle-furnace. A blue 
product is obtained at once, but a red tinge often results. The 
different ultramarines green, blue, red and violet are finely ground 
and washed with water. 

Artificial, like natural, ultramarine has a magnificent blue colour, 
which is not affected by light nor by contact with oil or lime as used 
in painting. Hydrochloric acid at once bleaches it with liberation 
of sulphuretted hydrogen and milk of sulphur. It is remarkable 
that even a small addition of zinc-white (oxide of zinc) to the reddish 
varieties especially causes a considerable diminution in the intensity 
of the colour, while dilution with artificial precipitated sulphate 
of lime (" annalin ") or sulphate of baryta (" blanc fix ") acts pretty 
much as one would expect. Ultramarine being very cheap, it is 
largely used for wall painting, the printing of paperhangings and 
calico, &c., and also as a corrective for the yellowish tinge often 
present in things meant to be white, such as linen, paper, &c. Large 
quantities are used in the manufacture of paper, and especially 
for producing that kind of pale blue writing paper which is so popular 
in Great Britain. The composition of the pigment is quite similar 
to that of lapis lazuli; but the constitution of both is uncertain. 

By treating blue ultramarine with silver nitrate solution, " silver- 
ultramarine " is obtained as a yellow powder. This compound 
gives a blue potassium- and lithium-ultramarine when treated with 
the corresponding chloride, and an ethyl-ultramarine when treated 
with ethyl icdide Selenium- and tellurium-ultramarine, in which 
these elements replace the sulphur, have also been prepared. It 
has been suggested that ultramarine is a compound of a sodium 
aluminium silicate and sodium sulphide. Another view is that 
the colour is due to some comparatively simple substance suspended 
in a colourless medium. 

ULTRAMONTANISM (Lat. ultra, beyond, mantes, the moun- 
tains), the name given to a certain school of opinion in the 
Roman Catholic Church. The expression ultramontane was 
originally no more than a term of locality, characterizing the 
persons so described as living or derived from " beyond 
the mountains." The " mountains " in this case are the Alps, 



so that, from the Italian standpoint, Germans and French for 
instance were " ultramontane." In this sense the word was 
applied in the later middle ages to the Germans studying at 
Italian universities and to take a particular example to the 
French cardinals at the election of Clement V. (1305). North 
of the Alps, however, the term seems never to have been 
restricted to the sense implying locality; for from the very 
beginning we find it used as a party appellation to describe 
those who looked " beyond the mountains " in order to obtain a 
lead from Rome, who represented the papal point of view and 
supported the papal policy. Thus, as early as the nth century, 
the partisans of Gregory VII. were styled ultramontanes, and 
from the isth century onwards the same name was given to 
the opponents of the Gallican movement in France. 

It was not until the igth century that "ultramontane" 
and " ultramontanism " came into general use as broad designa- 
tions covering the characteristics of particular personalities, 
measures and phenomena within the Roman Catholic Church. 
At the present time they are applied to a tendency representing 
a definite form of Catholicism within that Church; and this 
tendency, in spite of the individual forms it has assumed in 
different countries, everywhere displays the same essential 
features and pursues the same ends. It follows, to be sure, 
from the very nature of Ultramontanism, and from the im- 
portant position to which it has attained, that the official organs 
of the Church and all the people interested in the continuance 
of the actual state of affairs deny that it exists at all as an 
independent tendency, and seek to identify it with any proper 
interpretation of Roman Catholicism. Numerous Catholics, 
on the other hand, well qualified to form a judgment, themselves 
protest against this obliteration of the dividing line. It is 
indisputably legitimate to speak of Ultramontanism as a dis- 
tinct policy, but it is very difficult to define its essential character. 
For, true to its nature, it has itself drawn up no complete pro- 
gramme of its objects, and, in addition to its avowed aims, 
its subsidiary effects claim attention. There is something 
chameleon-like in its appearances; its genuine views are kept 
in the background from tactical considerations, and first one 
aspect, then another, comes into prominence. It is evident, 
therefore, that the request for a definition of Ultramontanism 
cannot be answered with a concise formula, but that the varied 
character of its manifestations necessitates a more detailed 
examination of its peculiar objects. 

The indications given by the late Franz Xaver Kraus him- 
self a Catholic may well serve for a guide (Spectator, ep. 2). 
He classes as Ultramontane: (i) Whoever places the idea of 
the Church above that of religion; (2) whoever confounds the 
pope with the Church; (3) whoever believes that the kingdom 
of Heaven is of this world, and maintains, with medieval Catholi- 
cism, that the power of the keys, conferred on Peter, includes 
secular jurisdiction over princes and nations; (4) whoever 
holds that religious conviction can be imposed by material 
force, or may legitimately be crushed by it; (5) whoever is always 
ready to sacrifice a clear injunction of his own conscience to the 
claims of an alien authority. 

The first and fundamental characteristic of Ultramontanism 
is its championship of a logical carrying out of the so-called 
" papalistic system," the concentration, that is, of all ecclesias- 
tical power in the person of the Roman bishop. This 
tendency among occupants of the Roman see to exalt 
themselves above other bishops, and to usurp the part of a 
superior authority as compared with them, may be traced 
even in antiquity. No later than the end of the and century 
Bishop Victor made an attempt to establish this position 
during the discussions regarding the date of the Easter 
festival. But he met with a sharp rebuff, and Bishop Stephen 
fared no better when, in the middle of the 3rd century, he came 
into collision with Cyprian of Carthage and Firmilianof Caesarea 
in the dispute concerning heretical baptism. How the Roman 
bishopric rose in status till it became the papacy, how the 
individual popes in spite of these and similar repulses 
advanced steadily on their path, how they succeeded in founding 



ULTRAMONTANISM 



57 1 



their primacy within the Church, and in re-establishing and 
maintaining that primacy notwithstanding severe defeats 
and long periods in which their prestige sank to the vanishing 
point, is told elsewhere (see PAPACY). A characteristic pecu- 
liarity of the process is that the claims of the Roman see were 
always in advance of the actual facts and always encountered 
opposition; though there were many periods at the height 
of the middle ages, for instance when the voices raised in 
protest were only timid and hesitating. To the curial system, 
so evolved, and continually fortifying its position in the domains 
of theology, ecclesiastical law and politics, the episcopal system 
stands in diametrical opposition. This system admits that the 
pope represents the unity of the Church, and acknowledges 
his primacy, but only in the sense that he is primus inter pares; 
while at the same time it claims on behalf of the bishops that, 
in virtue of the divine ordinance, they possess an inalienable right 
to a share in the government of the Church (see EPISCOPACY). 
This theory of the independence of the episcopate with 
regard to the Roman bishop was first propounded by Cyprian, 
in his treatise De unitate ecdesiae. In the I5th century it 
received its classical expression in the resolutions of the 
ecumenical council at Constance; its principles were developed 
and amplified by Gallicanism, and, finally, in the i8th century, 
was restored in a modernized form by "Febronius" (Nikolaus 
von Hontheim, q.v.) and in the Punctation of Ems (see FEB- 
RONIANISM). The struggle between these two systems con- 
tinued well into the igth century; and, though episcopalism 
was not infrequently proscribed by the curia, it still survived, 
and till the year 1870 could boast that no ecumenical council 
had ventured to condemn it. This was done for the first time, 
in 1870, at the Vatican Council (q.v.), whose decrees, recognizing 
the universal episcopate and the infallibility of the pope, marked 
the triumph of that ultramontane doctrine by which they had 
been long anticipated. 

In 1865 Dollinger wrote: " The Ultramontane view can be 
summarized in a single, concise, and luminous proposition; 
but out of this proposition are evolved a doctrine and a view 
that embrace not merely religion and the Church, but science 
and the state, politics, morals and the social order in a word, 
the whole intellectual life of men and nations. The proposition 
runs: The pope is the supreme, the infallible, and consequently 
the sole authority in all that concerns religion, the Church, 
and morality , and each of his utterances on these topics demands 
unconditional submission internal no less than external." 
History, since the Vatican Council, has shown this judgment 
to have been correct. The Roman Catholic Church, in all 
countries, has become more and more dependent on the Curia: 
the bishops have lost their autonomous standing, and their 
position is little more than that of papal delegates, while all 
important questions are referred to Rome or settled by the 
nuncios. 

A second peculiarity of Ultramontanism is its confusion 
of religion with politics; it claims for the Roman Catholic 
Church the functions of a political power, and asserts that it 
is the duty of the secular state to carry out its instructions 
and wishes. Ultramontanism regards the state, not as a divinely 
established order but, like its ancient prototype, as a profane 
institution and, for that reason, not co-ordinate with, but 
subordinate to the Church. 

Since the conditions of the age no longer allow the pope to 
depose a temporal sovereign, the practical application of this 
conception of the relationship between the spiritual and tem- 
poral powers has taken other forms, all of which, however, 
clearly show that the superiority of the Church over the state 
is assumed. This may be seen in the attitude of Ultramon- 
tanism towards secular law. It assumes" that God has conferred 
on the individual and on society certain rights and competences 
as inalienable possessions. This " natural law " ranks above 
all secular law, and all state legislation is binding only in so 
far as it is in harmony with that law. As to the provisions 
of this natural law, and the consequences they entail in in- 
dividual cases, these can be decided only by the Church, i.e. 



the last resort, by the pope. This is to assert the principle 
of the invalidity of all legislation conflicting with ecclesiastical 
interests and rules. This was the attitude of Innocent III. when 
he annulled the English Magna Charta; of Innocent X. when 
he pronounced the treaty of Westphalia null and void; of 
Pius IX. when he condemned, the Austrian constitution (1868) 
and the ecclesiastical laws of Prussia so far as they affected 
the circumstances of the Roman Catholic Church (1875). Thus, 
too, even at the present time, the opinion is very clearly ex- 
pressed in Ultramontane quarters that, in the event of the 
state issuing laws contravening those of nature or of the Church, 
obedience must be refused. The attitude of Ultramontanism, 
for instance, towards the right claimed and exercised by the 
state to make laws concerning marriage is wholly negative; 
for it recognizes no marriage laws except those of the Church, 
the Church alone being regarded as competent to decide what 
impediments are a bar to marriage, and to exercise jurisdiction 
over such cases. Thus Ultramontanism disclaims any moral 
subjection to secular authority or law, and will recognize the 
state only in so far as it conforms its rules to those of the Church. 
An instance of this interference with the duties of the 
individual citizen towards the state may be found in the fact 
that, till the year 1904, the Catholics of Italy were prohibited 
by the pope from taking part in any parliamentary election. 
Since Ultramontanism cannot hope to realise its political 
ambitions unless it succeeds in Controlling the intellectual and 
religious life of Catholic Christendom, it attempts to extend 
its sphere of influence in all directions over culture, science, 
education, literature and the forms taken by devotion. This 
endeavour is the third great characteristic of Ultramontanism. 
Wherever its operations can be traced, they are dominated by 
the conviction that all stirrings of independence must be re- 
pressed, and any advance beyond the stage of immaturity and 
nonage checked at the outset. That science must be left free 
to determine the aims of her investigation, to select and apply 
her own methods, and to publish the results of her researches 
without restraint, is a postulate which Ultramontanism either 
cannot understand or treats with indifference, for it regards 
as strange and incredible the fundamental law governing all 
scientific research that there is for it no higher aim than 
the discovery of the truth. This ignorance of the very nature 
of science leads to under-estimation of the elemental force 
which science possesses; for only thus can we explain the 
pertinacity with which Ultramontanism, even at the present 
day, strives to subject her work to its own censorship and con- 
trol. Nor are its criticisms limited to theology alone: its care 
extends to philosophy, history and the natural sciences. Even 
medicine has not escaped its vigilance, as is proved by the 
prohibition of certain surgical operations. The development 
of these efforts may be easily traced from decisions of the 
Congregation of the Index and the Holy Office in Rome. 
Ultramontanism, too, labours systematically to bring the whole 
educational organization under ecclesiastical' supervision and 
guidance; and it manifests the greatest repugnance to allowing the 
future priest to come into touch with the modern spirit. Hence 
the attempts to train its growing manhood in clerically regulated 
boarding-schools and to keep it shut out from the external 
world in clerical seminaries, even in places where there are 
universities. Again, it works zealously to bring the elementary 
schools under the sway of the Church. Since it regards the 
training and instruction of childhood as inseparable, and holds 
that the former is essentially the work of the Church, it con- 
tests the right of the state to compel parents to send their children 
to the state schools and only to the state schools. In logical 
sequence to these tenets it seeks to divorce the school from the 
state a proceeding which it terms educational freedom, 
though the underlying motive is to subordinate the school to 
the Church. In the domain of religion, Ultramontanism tends 
to foster popular superstitions and to emphasize outward forms 
as the essence of teligious life, for it can only maintain its 
dominion so long as the common people remain at a low spiritual 
level. If any one desires to appreciate the intellectual plane 



572 



ULTRAMONTANISM 



and the power of this Ultramontane habit of thought, he 
will find ample material in the performances of the notorious 
swindler Leo Taxil under Leo XIII., and in the acceptance 
of his blasphemous effusions by the highest ranks of the clergy. 

In the fourth place, Ultramontanism is the embodiment of 
intolerance towards other creeds. The general presupposition 
involved is that a man cannot be saved except within the Catholic 
Church. Since, however, on the one hand in virtue of a theory 
advanced by Pius IX. against the emperor William I. of Germany, 
in a letter which has since become famous every Christian, 
whether he will or no, belongs to that Church by baptism, and 
is consequently pledged to obey her, and, on the other hand, since 
the state lies under the obligation to place the " secular arm " 
at her disposal whenever one of her members wishes to secede, 
the most far-reaching consequences result. In the past this 
principle led to the erection of the Inquisition (q.v.) and, 
even at the present day, there exists in the Curia a special 
congregation charged with its application (see CURIA ROMANA). 
On the Roman Catholic side the employment of compulsion 
against heretics has never been acknowledged as a blunder; 
and this method of silencing opposition has found champions 
in the bosom of the Church down to the most recent years. 
But the development of modern culture has rendered these 
exploits of an unbridled fanaticism impossible, and no govern- 
ment would consent to enforce the once obligatory sentences 
of ecclesiastical courts. ' As . a result of this situation, the 
Catholic condemnation of heresy though as stringent as ever 
in principle has assumed less dangerous forms for the heretic. 
Nevertheless, it proved capable, even in the loth century, 
of imposing onerous restrictions on the heterodox, and practical 
exemplifications of this hostile attitude persist to the present 
day. The embittering influence of Ultramontanism may be 
further traced in its attitude towards the baptism of non- 
Catholics, for it seeks to establish the rule that baptism 
conferred by Protestants is invalid through defect of form or 
matter, or even of intention, and that, consequently, the rite 
must be readministered, at least conditionally, to proselytes 
joining the Roman Church. Finally, ample scope for the dis- 
play of tolerance or intolerance is found in the mixed 
marriages between Protestants and Catholics, which, as a result 
of the modern facilities for intercommunication and the conse- 
quent greater mobility of the population, have shown a large 
increase during the last few decades in Germany, for instance. 
Here, again, Ultramontanism has done much to aggravate the 
pernicious feud between the two creeds, by exacting a promise 
before marriage from the Roman Catholic party that all the 
children shall be brought up as members of the Roman Catholic 
Church (see MARRIAGE: Canon Law). A like result has been 
produced when, in response to Ultramontane agitation, inter- 
dicts have been placed on churchyards in which non-Catholics 
have found their last resting-place. 

Lastly, Ultramontanism is the foe of the nationalization 
of Catholicism. This peculiarity is connected, though not 
identical, with the above-mentioned tendency towards the 
Romanization of the Church. Just as in Protestant countries 
there has often been an amalgamation of evangelical belief 
with national feeling, to the great gain of both, Catholics 
demand that Catholicism shall enter into the sphere of their 
national interests, and that the activities of the Catholic Church 
should rest on a national basis. These aspirations have been 
proclaimed with especial emphasis in France, in Germany 
(Reformkatholizismus) and in the United States (Americanism; 
see HECKER, I. T.) but are everywhere met with a blank refusal 
from the Ultramontane side. For Ultramontanism fears that 
any infusion of a national element into ecclesiastical life would 
entail the eventual independence of the people in question 
from papal control, and lead to developments opposed to its 
papalistic mode of thought. It endeavours, therefore, to 
undermine all aspirations of this nature and, its own tendency 
being essentially international, strives to ensure that national 
sentiment and national interests shall not find over-zealous 
champions among the clergy. 



The relationship of Ultramontanism to Catholicism is a 
much-disputed problem. The Ultramontane, indeed, main- 
tains that there is no justification for distinguishing between 
the two: but the motives underlying this attitude are obvious. 
For, by representing the prosecution of its party-political 
objects as a championship of the Catholic Church, Ultramon- 
tanism seeks to acquire the support of the official organs 
of that Church, and the good will of all circles interested 
in her welfare; while at the same time it strives to discredit 
any attempt at opposition by branding it as an assault on the 
orthodox faith. But, even within the pale of the Roman 
Church, this identification provokes emphatic dissent, and 
is repudiated by all who are shocked by the effects of a one- 
sided accentuation of political Catholicism en the inner life of the 
church, and are reluctant to see the priest playing the part of a 
political agitator. It was on these grounds that Count May, 
in January 1904, proposed in the chamber of the Bavarian 
Reichsrath that the clergy should be deprived of the suffrage. 
In Germany, again, the last few years have witnessed a growing 
aversion from Ultramontanism on the part of those Catholics 
who cannot reconcile its tenets with their patriotic sentiments, 
and are disinclined to submit to a limitation of their share in 
the intellectual life of the times, particularly in art, science 
and literature. It may be admitted that, in many cases, the 
distinction between Ultramontanism and Catholicism cannot be 
clearly traced; and it is impossible to draw a sharp line of 
severance between the two, which could be absolutely valid 
under all circumstances and in relation to all questions. For 
there are many almost imperceptible stages of transition from the 
one to the other; and, for all the principal contentions of Ultra- 
montanism, analogies may be found in the past history of the 
Catholic Church. Thus, in the middle ages, we find extremely 
bold pronouncements with respect to the position of the papacy 
in the universal Church; while political Catholicism had its 
beginnings in antiquity and found very definite expression, 
for instance, in the bull Unam sanctam of Boniface VIII. 
Again, the attempt to subordinate all intellectual life to 
ecclesiastical control was a feature of the medieval Church, 
and the fundamental attitude of that Church towards heresy 
was fixed during the same period. But since then much has 
been altered both in the Church and her secular environment. 
The state has become independent of the Church, legislates on 
its own sole authority, and has recognized as falling within 
its own proper sphere the civilizing agencies and social questions 
formerly reserved for the Church. Again, education, science, 
art and literature have been secularized: the printing-press 
carries knowledge into every house, the number of illiterates 
diminishes from year to year in every civilized country, and the 
clergy are no longer the exclusive propagators of culture, but 
merely one factor among a hundred others. Finally, the Roman 
Catholic Church has long forfeited the privileged position 
formerly accorded as her due. The days when she was the 
Christian Church are past: and now the civic rights of a man 
in a modern state are not curtailed, though he may neglect 
his duty to the Church or flatly refuse to acknowledge the 
existence of any such duty. The struggle for religious freedom 
has suffered no intermission since the beginning of the Reforma- 
tion; and the result is that to-day its recognition is considered 
one of the most precious trophies won in the evolution of modern 
civilization; nor can these changes be reversed, for they stand 
in the closest connexion and reciprocity one with another, 
and represent the fruits of centuries of co-operation on the part 
of the European peoples. But Ultramontanism ignores this 
latest page of history and treats it as non-existent, aspiring to 
the erection of a new order of society, similar to that which 
Rome created or, at- least, endeavoured to create in the 
halcyon days of medievalism. For the justification of this 
enterprise, it is considered sufficient to point out that the several 
elements of its programme once enjoyed validity within the 
Church. But Cyprian of Carthage said long ago, Consuetude 
sine verilale vetustas erroris esl; and the bare fact of previous 
existence is no argument for the re-introduction of obsolete 



ULUGH BEG 



573 



and antiquated institutions and theories. But, under the guise of 
a restoration on conservative lines, Ultramontanism notwith- 
standing the totally different conditions which now obtain girds 
itself to work for an ideal of religion and culture in vogue during 
the middle ages, and at the same time holds itself justified in 
adopting the extreme point of view with respect to all questions 
which we have mentioned. Thus Ultramontanism is not to be 
conceived as a theological movement, but as the programme 
of a party whose principles are in fundamental opposition to 
modern culture, modern education, modern tolerance and the 
modern state a party which seeks to carry out its campaign 
against the society of to-day, not by bridging the gulf betwixt 
creed and creed, but by widening it, by awakening religious 
fanaticism, and by closing the way to a peaceful co-operation 
of Catholics and non-Catholics in the highest tasks of culture 
and human civilization. The hierophants of this Ultramontane 
system are to be found in the Society of Jesus (See JESUITS). 
In fact, the terms Jesuitical and ultramontane may, in numerous 
cases, be regarded as equivalent. 

The origin of modern Ultramontanism is preceded and con- 
ditioned by the collapse of Catholicism in the period of the 
French Revolution. Pius VI. and Pius VII. were expelled 
from Rome, deprived of the papal states, and banished to 
France. In that country the Church almost completely lost her 
possessions; in Germany they were at least considerably cur- 
tailed; in both the hierarchical organization was shattered, 
while the Catholic laity surveyed the catastrophe in complete 
passivity. But from this severe fall the Roman Church re- 
covered with comparative readiness, and the upward movement 
is contemporaneous with the rise of Ultramontanism. The 
birth of that system, however, cannot be fixed as a definite event 
by the day and the hour; nor was it created by any single 
personality. Rather it was the product of the first post- 
revolutionary generation. Neither is it merely fortuitous that the 
reaction proceeded from France itself. For in no other country 
had hostility to religion attained such a pitch or assumed such 
grotesque forms; and consequently in no other country did the 
yearning for religion manifest itself so unequivocally, when bitter 
experience had demonstrated the necessity of a return to law and 
order. And in the other states of Europe there existed, more or 
less, a similar desire for peace and an equal dread of a fresh out- 
break of revolutionary violence. In contrast to the struggle for an 
ideal freedom, which was at first hailed with tempestuous delight 
only to reveal itself as a dangerous tyranny, men became con- 
scious of the need for a firmly established authority in the recon- 
struction of society. After the violent upheaval in the political 
world during the last few decades, the existent as such 
increased in value, and the high estimation in which the old 
r6gime was now held led to a policy of restoration. At the same 
time, the repression of idealism and sentiment during the period 
of " illumination " was amply revenged, and the barren age of 
reason gave place to Romanticism. These tendencies in contem- 
porary opinion favoured the renovation of the Roman Catholic 
Church. But the papacy signalized its reinstation by restoring 
the Society of Jesus (1814) and re-establishing the index. 
Even before this, the earliest germs can be traced back into the 
revolutionary period itself the movement characterized above 
had begun working in France on the same lines; and, as it showed 
great zeal for the increase of the papal authority, it received the 
support of the Curia. True, the principles of Bonald, Lemaitre, 
Lamennais and Lacordaire, were not carried through in the French 
Church without opposition; but, about the year 1850, they had 
become predominant there. In Germany Ultramontanism had to 
contend with great difficulties ; for here ecclesiastical affairs were 
not in so desperate a case that the most drastic remedies possessed 
the most powerful attraction; while, in addition, the clergy were 
too highly educated to be willing to renounce all scientific work. 
The result was that a series of violent struggles took place between 
the old Catholicism and the new Ultramontane species (Hermes, 
Baader, Dollinger, &c.). But even here Ultramontanism gained 
ground and derived inestimable assistance from the blunders of 
government after government witness the conflict of the 



Prussian administration with Archbishop Droste-Vischering 
(q.v.) of Cologne, 1837. Additional impetus was also lent by 
the revolution of 1848. 

The growth of the Jesuitical influence at Rome more especi- 
ally after the return of Pius IX. from exile implied a more 
definite protection of Ultramontanism by the papacy. The 
proclamation of the dogma of the immaculate conception in 
1854 was more than the decision of an old and vexed theological 
problem; it was an act of conformity to a pietistic type especially 
represented by the Jesuits. The Syllabus of 1864, however, 
carried with it a recognition of the Ultramontane condemnation 
of all modern culture (see the articles Pius IX., and SYLLABUS). 
Finally, in the Vatican Council, the Jesuits saw another of their 
favourite theories that of papal infallibility elevated to the 
status of a dogma of the Church (see VATICAN COUNCIL and 
INFALLIBILITY). 

Ultramontanism, again, though essentially averse from all forms 
of progress, had displayed great dexterity in utilizing the oppor- 
tunities presented to it by modern life. Where it appeared advis- 
able, it has formed itself into a political party, as for instance, 
the Centre Party in Germany. It has shown extreme activity in 
the creation of a press devoted to its interests, and has consoli- 
dated its influence by the formation of an extensive league- 
system. In the episcopacy it has numerous adherents; it has 
made progress in the universities, and most of the learned and 
theological reviews are conducted in its spirit. 

Whether the powerful position of this movement within 
the Roman Catholic Church be an advantage for that Church 
itself cannot be discussed here. The answer to the problem will 
mainly depend on the estimate which we form of the Society 
of Jesus and its whole activity. The outstanding event in the 
latest history of Ultramontanism is the separation between 
Church and state in France (1904), by which the republic has 
endeavoured to break the influence of this party. Similarly, the 
dissolution of the German Reichstag in December 1906 was a 
weapon directed against Ultramontanism; and, though the 
elections of 1907 failed to diminish the numbers of the Centre, 
they rendered possible the formation of a majority, in face of 
which that system forfeited the influence it had previously 
possessed. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. F. y. Dollinger, Das Papsltum (revised by Janus, 
Der Papst und das Condi, Leipzig, 1869, edited by Friedrich, Munich, 
1892); idem. Kleinere Schriften, edited F. H. Reusch (Stuttgart, 1890); 
F. Friedrich, Geschichte des vatikanischen Konzils (3 vols., Bonn, 
1877-1882-1887); F. X. Kraus, "Spectator" letters in the Miin- 
chener allgemeine Zeitung (1895, &c ) ; Hauviller, F. X. Kraus (3rd 
ed., 1905) ; Count v. Hoensbroech, Der Ultramontanismus, sein Wesen 
und seine Bekdmpfung (2nd ed., Berlin 1898) ; idem. Das Papsttum in 
seiner sozial-kulturellen Wirksamkeit (2 vols., 3rd ed., Leipzig, 
1901-1902) ; C. Mirbt, Quellen zur Geschichte des Papsttums und 
des romischen Katholizismus (2nd ed., Tubingen, 1901); L. K. 
Goctz, Der Ultramontanismus als Weltanschauung auf Grund des 
Syllabus (Bonn, 1905). 

A collection of the further literature will be found in Benrath's 
article " Ultramontanism " in the Realeucyclopadie fiir protes- 
tantische Theologie und Kirche (3rd ed., 1908, vol. xx. p. 213 seq.). 
Also, for the history of the rise of Ultramontanism in Germany, see 
C. Mirbt, Die katholisch-theolpgische Fakultat zu Marburg. Ein 
Beitrag zur Geschichte der katholischen Kirche in Kurhessen und Nassau 
(Marburg, 1905). (C. M.) 

ULUGH BEG, MIRZA MAHOMMED BEN SHAH ROK 
(1394-1449), Persian astronomer, son of the shah Rok and grand- 
son of Timur, succeeded his father as prince of Samarkand in 
1447, after having for years taken part in the government, and 
was murdered in 1449 by his eldest son. He erected an observa- 
tory at Samarkand, from which were issued tables of the sun, 
moon and planets, with an interesting introduction, which throws 
much light on the trigonometry and astronomical methods then 
in use (Prolegomenes des tables astronomiques d'Ouloug Beg, 
ed. by Sedillot, Paris, 1847, and translated by the same, 1853). 
The serious errors which he. found in the Arabian star catalogues 
(which were simply copied from Ptolemy, adding the effect of 
precession to the longitudes) induced him to redetermine the 
positions of 992 fixed stars, to which he added 27 stars from 
Al Sufi's catalogue, which were too far south to be observed at 
Samarkand. 



574 



ULUNDI UMBALLA 



This catalogue, the first original one since Ptolemy, was edited 
by Th. Hyde at Oxford in 1665 (Tabulae longitudinis el latitudinis 
stellarum fixarum ex observatione Ulugbeighi), by G. Sharpe in 1767, 
and in 1843 by F. Daily in vol. xiii. of the Memoirs of the Royal 
Astronomical Society. 

See Delambre, Histoire de V astronomic du moyen Age ; Poggendorff, 
Biographisch-litterarisches. 

ULUNDI (Zulu for " high place" ), the royal kraal of Cety- 
wayo, situated in the Mahlabatini district of Zululand, about 
3 m. north of the White Umfolosi River, and 115111. N.N.E. of 
Durban. The valley of the White Umfolosi here forms an 
extensive basin called the Emhlabatini, and from the time of 
Chaka to the overthrow of Cetywayo in 1883 was the exclusive 
place of residence of the Zulu kings. The basin on the south side 
of the river is regarded as the cradle of the Zulu race; here all 
their early chiefs are buried, hence the term Emakosini (i.e. at the 
grave of the chiefs) applied to the district (see Blue Book C. 5 143). 
During Cetywayo 's reign a garrison of 3000 was kept at Ulundi. 
About a mile from the kraal on the 4th of July 1879 a Zulu army 
some 20,000 strong was totally defeated by Lord Chelmsford. 
The British force, consisting of the second division and Wood's 
column, numbered in all 4200 Europeans and some 1000 natives. 
On the morning of the battle they formed a square, with the 
mounted troops (about 300) inside. The Zulus attacked with 
great gallantry but were received with so deadly a fire that they 
could not come within thirty yards of the rifles. After twenty 
minutes they broke and fled, and the cavalry followed them till 
broken ground rendered further pursuit impossible. The British 
loss was about 100, that of the Zulus 1500. After the fight the 
royal kraal was burned. On the ist of September following, at 
the site of the ruined kraal, Sir Garnet (after wards Lord) Wolseley 
announced the partition of Zululand into thirteen petty chief- 
tainships. But on the agth of January 1883 Cetywayo was 
reinstalled by the British at Ulundi as chief over two-thirds of 
his old dominions. Attacked at Ulundi in July 1883 by the 
rival chief Usibepu, Cetywayo and his 500x3 followers fled to the 
Nkandhla bush. The royal kraal was again destroyed and 
Ulundi ceased to be a rallying point. The magistracy for 
the district is situated 5 m. north of the site of Ulundi. (See 
ZULULAND.) 

ULVERSTON, a market town in the North Lonsdale parlia- 
mentary division of Lancashire, England, in the Furness district, 
95 m. N.E. from Barrow-in-Furness and 256 m. N.W. by N. 
from London, on the Furness railway. Pop. of urban district 
(1901), 10,064. The church of St Mary, founded in mi, retains 
the south door of the original building in the Transition style, 
but the greater portion of the structure is Perpendicular, of the 
time of Henry VIII. It contains an altar-tomb with recumbent 
figure of Walter Sandys of Conishead, dated 1588. After the 
destruction of Furness Abbey, Ulverston succeeded Dalton as 
the most important town in Furness, but the rapid rise of Barrow 
surpassed it in modern times. A monument on Hoad Hill 
commemorates Sir John Barrow, secretary of the admiralty and a 
native of the town. Conishead Priory, 2 m. south-east, a mansion 
on the site of a priory founded in the reign of Henry II., is used 
as a hydropathic establishment. Formerly Ulverston had a 
considerable trade in linens, checks and ginghams, but it is 
now dependent on large iron and steel works, chemical works, 
breweries, tan-yards, and hardware, paper, and wooden hoop 
manufactories. Through its connexion with Morecambe Bay 
by a ship canal of i m. in length, owned by the Furness railway, 
it has a shipping trade in iron and slates. 

Ulverston, otherwise Vlureston, Olvestonum, occurs in Domes- 
day Book, where Vlurestun is named as a manor in possession of 
Turulf, who was probably the original Saxon owner. Early in 
the 1 2th century the manor passed to Stephen, count of Boulogne, 
and was given by him to Furness Abbey. In 1196 the abbot 
granted the vill of Ulverstone with the inhabitants to Gilbert 
Fitz-Reinfred, who granted it a charter by which he raised it to 
the rank of a free borough. The Iord=hip became divided, 
and one-half passed to the Harringtons and finally to Henry 
Grey, duke of Suffolk, on whose attainder in 1553 it was forfeited 
to the Crown. The other moiety returned to the abbey about the 



end of the i4th century, and at the dissolution was surrendered 
to the Crown. Early in the i7th century the Crown alienated 
the manor, which is now in the family of Buccleuch. The 
yearly court-leet and court-baron are still held in October. 
In 1 280 Roger de Lancaster obtained a charter from Edward I. 
for a weekly market on Thursday and an annual fair of three 
days beginning on the eve of the nativity (Sept. 7). 

UMAft, a town of Russia, in the government of Kiev, 120 m. 
S. of the city of Kiev. Pop. 28,628, many of whom are Jews, 
and carry on the export of corn, spirits, &c. It has a park (290 
acres), planted in 1793 by Count Potocki, and now containing 
a gardening school. Uman was founded early in the i7th 
century as a fort against the Tatar raiders. The Cossacks of 
the Ukraine, who kept it, revolted against their Polish rulers 
about 1665, and sustained a fierce siege. In 1674 it was plun- 
dered and most of its inhabitants murdered by the Ukrainians 
and Turks. In 1712 its last occupants were transferred by 
Peter the Great to the left bank of the Dnieper. But by the end 
of the 1 8th century, when it again became the property of the 
Potockis, it was repeopled and became one of the busiest trading 
towns of Little Russia. In 1768, when the Cossacks revolted 
anew against the Poles, they took Uman and murdered most of 
its inhabitants. 

UMARKOT, a town in Sind, India, 7 m. from a station on the 
North-Western railway; pop. (1901), 4924. It is the head- 
quarters of the Thar and Parkar district. The Mogul emperor 
Akbar was born here in 1542, when his father, Humayun, was 
fleeing to Afghanistan. 

UMBALLA, or AMBALA, a city and district of British India, 
in the Delhi division of the Punjab. The city is 3 m. E. of the 
river Ghaggar, 902 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1901), 78,638. It 
has a station on the North-Western railway (1077 m - N.W. of 
Calcutta), with a branch line to Kalka at the foot of the hills 
(39 m.), which was continued up to Simla in 1903. Umballa owes 
its importance to a large military cantonment which was first 
established in 1843, and is the headquarters of a cavalry brigade 
belonging to the Northern army. The cantonment, which 
lies 4 m. south-east of the native town, is well laid out with broad 
roads shaded by trees. It contains a church, a club-house, 
several hotels and English shops. 

The DISTRICT OF UMBALLA has an area of 1851 sq. m. With 
one small exception it consists of a level alluvial plain, sloping 
away gradually from the foot of the Himalayas, and lying between 
the rivers Jumna and Sutlej. These rivers do not materially 
affect the district, which has a drainage system consisting of the 
numerous torrents which pour down from the hills. In the south 
these torrents run in broad sandy beds scarcely below the surface 
of the country, and vaty from 200 yds. to i m. in width, until, at 
a distance of 20 or 30 m. from the hills, they become compara- 
tively docile streams, with well-defined clay banks. Towards 
the north the torrents run in deep beds from the point where 
they debouch from the hills; they also differ from the streams 
of the south in being free from sand. The principal of these 
northern streams is the Ghaggar, intc which the minor streams 
empty themselves, some within and some beyond the limits of the 
district. Whatever surplus water of this river is not swallowed 
up by irrigation passes on through Patiala state and Sirsa, and 
is finally lost in the sands of Rajputana. The Ghaggar is the 
only perennial stream within the district, but dwindles to a tiny 
rivulet in the dry season, and disappears altogether beyond the 
border of the district. In 1901 the population was 815,880, 
showing a decrease of 5-6% in the decade. The principal crops 
are wheat, maize, pulse, millets, rice, cotton and some sugar- 
cane. There are factories for ginning and pressing cotton, and 
also for grinding wheat. Two opposite corners of the district are 
watered by the Sirhind and the Eastern Jumna canals. A por- 
tion is crossed by the main line of the North-Western railway 
and by the Delhi-Umballa-Kalka railway, which have their 
junction at Umballa city. Umballa is one of the territories 
previously held by numerous Sikh sirdars, which were attacked 
by Ranjit Singh during one of his marauding expeditions. This 
caused the movement of British troops in 1809 which resulted 



UMBELLIFERAE 



575 




in the treaty with Ranjit Singh, by which he was required 
to withdraw his army from the left bank of the Sutlej and to 
relinquish his recent conquests in Sirhind. In June 1849, 
after the second Sikh War had brought the Punjab under 
British rule, the chiefs were deprived of all sovereign power and 
the district took practically its modern form. In March 1869 
a grand durbar was held at Umballa on the occasion of the visit 
of the amir Shere Ali. 

UMBELLIFERAE, in botany, an order of polypetalous Di- 
cotyledons belonging to the series Umbelliflorae, which includes 
also the orders Araliaceae (ivy family) and Cornaceae (dogwood 
family). It contains 180 genera with about 1400 species, occur- 
ring in all parts of the world but chiefly in north temperate 
regions. It is well represented in the British flora by 35 genera. 
The plants are annual or perennial herbs, rarely shrubby as 
sometimes in Buplcurum, with generally a very characteristic 
habit, namely stout erect stems with hollow internodes, 
alternate pinnately compound exstipulate sheathing leaves and 
compound umbels of small, generally white, flowers. 

An example of an annual is the common fool's parsley, Aethusa 
Cynapium; carrot {Daucus Carota) is a biennial; others are perennial, 

persisting by means of tubers or 
rhizomes such are hogweed (Her- 
acleum), Angelica, Peucedanum, and 
others. Some genera have a creeping 
stem as in Hydrocolyle (pennywort), 
a small herb with a creeping filiform 
stem and, in the British species, 
entire leaves. Bupleurum has simple, 
entire, often perfoliate leaves (fig. i). 
Azorella, a large genus in south 
temperate regions, has a peculiar 
caespitose habit, forming dense 
cushions often several feet in dia- 
meter and persisting for many 
years. Eryngium, represented in 
"" Britain by sea-holly (E. maritimum), 

FIG. I. Perfoliate leaf of a j s a large genus of rigid often glaucous 
species of hare s-ear (Bupleu- herbs with spiny-toothed leaves, 
rum rotundifohum). The two which in some South American 
lobes at the base of the leaf species with narrow parallel-veined 
are united, so that the stalk blade and broadly sheathing base 
appears to come through the recall those of a Monocotyledon such 
leaf. as Agave or Bromelia. In sanicle 

(Sanicula), Astrantia and others the leaves are palmatejy divided; 
and there is a great variety in the degree of division in the 
characteristic pinnate leaf, which varies from simply pinnate 
to a branching of the blade to the fifth or sixth order. 

There is also considerable variety in the development of the umbel, 
which is usually compound but sometimes simple, as generally in 
Hydrocotyle and Astrantia, rarely reduced to a single flower as in 
species of Hydrocolyle. In Eryngium the flowers are crowded 
into dense heads subtended by a whorl of rigid bracts. A terminal 
flower is sometimes present as in carrot, where it is distinguished 
by its form and dark colour. The presence or absence of bracts 
and their form when present afford useful diagnostic characters. 
When present at the base of the primary rays of the umbel they 
form the involucre, and the involucel when at the base of a partial 
umbel. In Astrantia the simple umbel is enveloped by a large, often 
coloured, involucre. 

The small epigynous flowers are usually hermaphrodite and regular, 
with parts in fives. The sepals are usually very small, often repre- 
sented only by teeth on the upper edge of the ovary ; the petals are 
usually obovate or obcordate in shape, often with the tip indexed; 
the stamens have long slender filaments 
bent inwards in the bud but ultimately 
spreading; the two carpels are in the 
median plane; the two-celled ovary is sur- 
mounted by an epigynous glandular disk 
the stylopodium which bears the two 
styles. Each ovary-cell contains a single 
pendulous anatropous ovule with a ventral 

t- p.- f raphe and a single integument. In the 

HG. 2. Uiagram ,t deve i opment of the flower the stamens 
flower of Umbelhferae. appear p first> {ollowed by the petals , the 

sepals and the rudiments of the carpels in succession. The flowers 
are rendered conspicuous by being massed into more or less dense 
flat-topped inflorescences. A resemblance to the rayed heads of 
Compositae is suggested in the frequently larger size of the flowers 
on the circumference of the umbel which are often sterile and zygo- 
morphic from the larger size of the outer petals. This arrangement 
allows a large number of flowers to be visited in a short time. 
The flowers are generally white, sometimes pink or yellow, very 
rarely blue; they are generally scented, but the whole plant has an 




odour from the general presence in the tissues of an ethereal oil or 

resin. The flower is widely open, the petals and stamens radiating 

from the central disk (fig. 3, d), on which 

honey is secreted, and is thus acces- 

sible to quite short-lipped flies. Cross- 

polliriation is rendered necessary by the 

flowers being generally markedly proter- 

androus; the stamens throughout the 

umbel have generally shed their pollen 

before the stigmas have begun to be 

functional even in the outer flowers. 

The fruit is again very characteristic; a 
schizocarp which splits down the septum 
to form two dry one-seeded mericarps 
which are at first attached to, or pen- 
dulous from, an entire or split central axis 
or carpophore (fig. 3). The form of the 
mericarp affords valuable characters for 
distinguishing genera. On the outer surface 
of each are generally 5 ridges (primary 
ridges), between which are sometimes 4 
secondary ridges; oil-cavities, vittae, are 
often present in the intervening furrows. 
The fruits are variously adapted for 

distribution ; they are sometimes thin and Book of Botany, by permission 
flat as in Heracleum, when they are easily of Swan, Sonnenschein & Co.) 
carried by the wind, or, as in carrot, pro- p IG , _ ^ pistil- B 
vided with hooks. The seed contains a small Fruit of the' Caraway 
embryo embedded in oily endosperm, //-,,. ' 
which is usually cartilaginous in texture! &S* 

The order is divided into 9 tribes de- 8 ' 
pending on the form of the fruit, whether 




(From Vincs's Student's Tat 



r n ,,,i\- 
Carm > ' 



H n'io-vnniKs Hkk- f 
' P stiema ' V 

s ' 



, oar . stema 

compressed, angled, grooved, constricted, di * e ', J n B s th e'two 
&c. and he r 



&c., and the presence or absence of vittae. 
The 35 British genera include represen- 
tatives of 7 of the tribes. The following 
may be mentioned: Hydrocotyle (penny- 



havp = Pna rated 

to form W P O Seri- 
^ p rt f th 

Constitutes the 



nium (Alexanders), Bupleurum (hare's-ear) , Apium (celery, q.v.), 
Carum (caraway, q.v.), Conopodium or Bunium (earth-nut, q.v.), 
Myrrhis (Cicely), Chaerophyllum (chervil), Foeniculum (fennel, 
q.v.), Crithmum (samphire), Oenanthe (water dropwort), Aethusa 




FIG. 4. Water Dropwort, Oenanthe crocata, with thickened root 

fibres, about half nat. size. 
I, Flower; 2 and 3, Side and front view of fruit; enlarged. 

(fool's parsley, q.v.), Angelica (q.v.), Peucedanum (hcg's fennel, 
parsnip, q.v.), Heracleum (hogweed), Daucus (carrot). Petroselinum 
sativum is common parsley (q.v.).' 



57 6 



UMBER UMBRIA 



UMBER, a brown mineral pigment consisting of hydrated iron 
and manganese oxides. The finely-powdered mineral is known 
as raw umber; when calcined the beauty of the colour increases 
and the pigment is known as burnt umber. It was probably first 
obtained from Umbria in Italy, but it occurs in many localities, 
notably in Cyprus (Turkey umber); large quantities of English 
umber are mined in Devonshire and Cornwall. (See PIGMENTS.) 

UMBRA (Lat. for shade or shadow), in astronomy, the com- 
pletely dark portion of the shadow of a heavenly body, filling 
the space within which the sun is entirely hidden. The body 
being supposed spherical, the umbra is a cone circumscribing 
both the sun and the body that casts the shadow. The term 
is also given to the interior and darkest part of a sunspot. (See 
SUN; ECLIPSE.) 

UMBRELLA, a portable folding protector from rain (Fr. 
parapluie), the name parasol being given to the smaller and 
more fanciful article carried by ladies as a sunshade, and the 
en-lout-cas being available for both purposes. Primarily the 
umbrella (ombrella, Ital. dim. from Lat. umbra, shade) was a 
sunshade alone its original home having been in hot, brilliant 
climates. In Eastern countries from the earliest times the 
umbrella was one of the insignia of royalty and power. On 
the sculptured remains of ancient Nineveh and Egypt there are 
representations of kings and sometimes of lesser potentates 
going in procession with an umbrella carried over their heads; 
and throughout Asia the umbrella had, and still has, something 
of the same significance. The Mahratta princes of India had 
among their titles " lord of the umbrella." In 1855 the king of 
Burma in addressing the governor-general of India termed 
himself " the monarch who reigns over the great umbrella- 
wearing chiefs of the Eastern countries." The baldachins 
erected over ecclesiastical chairs, altars and portals, and the 
canopies of thrones and pulpits, &c., are in their origin closely 
related to umbrellas, and have the same symbolic significance. 
In each of the basilican churches of Rome there still hangs a 
large umbrella. 

Among the Greeks and Romans the umbrella ((mas, ff/aaSewc, 
umbraculum, umbella) was used by ladies, while the carrying of 
it by men was regarded as a sign of effeminacy. Probably in 
these southern climes it never went out of use, and allusions 
by Montaigne show that in his day its employment as a sun- 
shade was quite common in Italy. The umbrella was not 
unknown in England in the lyth century, and was already used 
as a rain protector. Michael Drayton, writing about the be- 
ginning of the 1 7th century, says, speaking of doves: 

" And, like umbrellas, with their feathers 
Shield you in all sorts of weathers." 

Although it was the practice to keep an umbrella in the 
coffee-houses early in the i8th century, its use cannot have 
been very familiar, for in 1752 Colonel Wolfe, writing from 
Paris, mentions the carrying of them there as a defence against 
both rain and sun, and wonders that they are not introduced 
into England. The traveller Jonas Hanway, who died in 1786, 
is credited with having been the first Englishman who habitually 
carried an umbrella. 

The umbrella, as at first used, was based on its Eastern prototype, 
and was a heavy, ungainly article which did not hold well together. 
It had a long handle, with ribs of whalebone or cane, very rarely of 
metal, and stretchers of cane. The jointing of the ribs and stretchers 
to the stick and to each other was very rough and imperfect. 
The covering material consisted of oiled silk or cotton, heavy in 
substance, and liable to stick together in the folds. Gingham soon 
came to be substituted for the oiled cloth, and in 1848 William 
Sangster patented the use of alpaca as an umbrella covering material. 
One of the most notable inventions for combining lightness, strength 
and elasticity in the ribs of umbrellas was the " Paragon " rib 
patented by Samuel Fox in 1852. It is formed of a thin strip of 
steel rolled into a U or trough section, a form which gives great 
strength for the weight of metal. Umbrella silk is chiefly made at 
Lyons and Crefeld; much of it is so loaded that it cuts readily at 
the folds. Textures of pure silk or of silk and alpaca mixed have 
better wear-resisting properties. 

UMBRIA ('Oju/3pi.Ki7), the name of an ancient and a modern 
district of Italy. 



i. The ancient district was bounded in the period of the 
Roman supremacy by the Ager Gallicus (in a line with Ravenna) 
on the N., by Etruria (the Tiber) on the W., by the Sabine terri- 
tory on the S. and by Picenum on the E. The Via Flaminia 
passed up through it from Ocriculum to Ariminum; along it 
lay the important towns of Narnia (Narni) Carsulae, Mevania 
(Bevagna), Forum Flaminii, Nuceria Camellaria (Nocera) and 
Forum Sempronii; and on the Adriatic coast Fanum Fortunae 
(Fano) and Pisaurum (Pesaro). To the east lay Interamna 
(Terni), Spoletium (Spoleto), Fulginium (Foligno on a branch 
of the Via Flaminia which left the main road at Varina and 
rejoined it at Forum Flaminii) and the important town of 
Camerinum on the side of the Apennines towards Picenum. On 
the side towards Etruria lay Ameria (Amelia) and Tuder (Todi), 
both on the direct road from Rome to Perusia, 1 Iguvium, which 
occupied a very advantageous position close to the main pass 
through the Apennines, and Hispellum (Spello). Not far off was 
Assisium (Assisi), whilst far to the north in the mountains lay 
Sarsina. Under the empire it formed the sixth region of Italy. 
In earlier times it embraced a far larger area. Herodotus 
(iv. 49) describes it as extending to the Alps, and the irtpioSoj 
ascribed to Scylax (a treatise which embodies material of the 
4th century B.C. or earlier) makes Umbria conterminous with 
Samnium. Furthermore, place-names of undoubted Umbrian 
origin abound in Etruria and are also found in the Po valley. 
Thus in the early days of Italian history Umbria may be taken 
as having extended over the greater part of northern and 
central Italy. 

The name Umbria is derived from the Umbri, one of the chief 
constituent stocks of the Italian nation. The origin and ethnic 
affinities of the Umbrians are still in some degree a matter of 
dispute, but their language proves them to have been an Aryan 
people closely allied with the Oscans and in a remoter degree 
with the Latins. Archaeological considerations further show with 
approximate certainty that the Umbri are to be identified 
with the creators of the Terramara (q.v.), and probably also of 
the Villanova (q.v.), culture in northern and central Italy, who 
at the beginning of the Bronze Age displaced the original 
Ligurian population by an invasion from the north-east. From 
the time and starting-point of their migrations, as well as from 
their type of culture, it may be provisionally inferred that the 
Umbrians were cognate with the Achaeans of prehistoric Greece. 
Pliny's statement (iii. 13, 19) that they were the most ancient 
race of Italy may certainly be rejected. 

The process by which the Umbrians were deprived of their 
predominance in upper and central Italy and restricted to their 
confines of historic times cannot be traced in any detail. A 
tradition declares that their easternmost territory in the region 
of Ancona was wrested from them by the Picentes, a branch 
of the Sabine stock. It may also be conjectured that they 
were partly displaced in the valley of the Po by the Gaulish 
tribes which began to pour across the Alps from about 500 B.C. 
But their chief enemies were undoubtedly the Etruscans. 
These invaders, whose encroachments can be determined by 
archaeological evidence as proceeding from the western seaboard 
towards the north and east, and as lasting from about 700 to 
500 B.C., eventually drove the Umbrians into that upland tract 
athwart the Apennines to which the name of Umbria belonged 
in historical times. In the course of this struggle the Etruscans 
are said to have captured 300 Umbrian towns. Nevertheless 
the Umbrian element of population does not seem to have been 
eradicated in the conquered districts. Strabo records a tradi- 
tion that the Umbrians recovered their ground in the plain 
of the Po at the expense of the Etruscans, and states that the 
colonies subsequently founded in this region by the Romans 
contained large Umbrian contingents. In Etruria proper the 
persistence of the Umbrian stock is indicated by the survival 
of numerous Umbrian place-names, and by the record of Um- 
brian soldiers taking part in Etruscan enterprises, e.g. the 

'The geographers make this road go round by Vettona (mod. 
Bettona) between Tuder and Perusia, instead of following the more 
direct modern line. 



UMFRAVILLE UMRA KHAN 



577 



attack on Cumae in 524 B.C. Indeed it is not unlikely that the 
bulk of the population in Etruria continued to be of Umbrian 
origin, and that the Romanization of this country was facilitated 
by the partial absorption of the Etruscan conquerors into the 
Umbrian multitude. 

Against the Romans the Umbrians never fought any wars of 
importance, a fact which may be explained partly by the remote- 
ness of their position, but chiefly by the common hostility of the 
two nations to the Etruscans. After the downfall of the Etrus- 
can power they made a belated attempt to aid their Samnite 
kinsmen in their decisive struggle against Rome (308 B.C.); 
but their Communications with Samnium were impeded by the 
foundation of a Roman fortress at Narnia (208 B.C.), and at 
the great battle of Sentinum (295 B.C.), which was fought in 
their own territory, the Umbrians are not reported to have 
lent the Samnites any substantial help. It is perhaps on account 
of this defection that in 200 B.C. they received from the Romans 
a portion of the Ager Gallicus reconquered from the Senonian 
Gauls. They offered no opposition to the construction of the 
Via Flaminia through the heart of their country, and in the 
Second Punic War withheld all assistance from Hannibal. 
In the Social War (90-89 B.C.), they joined the rebels tardily 
and were among the first to make their peace with Rome. 
Henceforth the Umbrians no longer played an independent part 
in Italian history. 

The material prosperity of Umbria, in spite of its unfavour- 
able position for commercial intercourse, was relatively great, 
owing to the fertility of the numerous small valleys which in- 
tersect the Apennine system in this region. The chief products 
of the soil were olives, vines and spelt ; the uplands harboured the 
choicest boars of Italy. In Pliny's time there still existed in 
Umbria 49 independent communities, and the abundance of 
inscriptions and the high proportion of recruits furnished to the 
imperial army attest its continued populousness. Among its 
most famous natives were the poets Plautus (b. at Sarsina) 
and Propertius (b. at Assisi). 

Of the Umbrians' political and municipal organization little 
is known. In addition to the city (tola) they seem to have had a 
larger territorial division in the tribus (trifu, ace.) as we gather 
from Livy (xxxi. 2, " per Umbriam quam tribum Sapiniam 
vocant" ; cf. xxxiii. 37) and from the Eugubine Tables (" trifor 
Tarsinates," vi. B. 54). Ancient authors describe the Umbrians 
as leading effeminate lives, and as closely resembling their 
Etruscan enemies in their habits (Theopompus, Fragm. 142; 
Pseudo-Scymnus, 366-368). It is almost certain that each race 
influenced and modified the other to a large extent. There 
is conclusive proof of strong Etruscan influences in Umbria. 
For instance, they undoubtedly borrowed their alphabet and the 
art of writing from the Etruscans. Their writing ran from right 
to left. The alphabet consisted of nineteen letters. It had no 
separate symbols for O, G, Q; the aspirates and X were wanting; 
on the other hand, it possessed forms for Z and V, and had 
likewise the Etruscan / (8). It also had a symbol peculiar to 
itself for expressing the sound of palatal k when followed by 
either e or i. The fact that it is only in towns on the side next 
Etruria, e.g. Tuder and Iguvium, that a coinage is found indicates 
that they borrowed the art of minting from that quarter. The 
Umbrians counted their day from noon to noon. But whether 
they borrowed this likewise from the Etruscans we do not know 
(Pliny ii. 77). In their measuring of land they employed the 
versus, a measure common to them and the Oscans (Frontinus, 
De Limit, p. 30), 3$ of which went to the Roman jugerum. 

See Strabo bk. v. ; T. E. Peet, The Stone and Bronze Ages of Italy 
and Sicily (Oxford, 1909), pp. 492-510; B. V. Head, Historia 
numorum (Oxford, 1887); B. Nissen, Italische Landeskunde; Biicheler, 
Umbrica (1883) ; R. S. Conway, Italic Dialects. (M. O. B. C.) 

2. The modern territorial division is situated in the middle 
of the peninsula, between Tuscany and the Marches on the N. 
and E., and Rome and the Abruzzi on the S. and W., and com- 
prising the one province of Perugia, with an area of 3748 sq. m.; 
pop. (1901), 675,352. Umbria and the two provinces of Ancona 
and Pesaro and Urbino taken together form an area slightly 
xxvn. 19 



more extensive than that of the sixth region of Augustus. The 
surface is mountainous, but affords good pasture, and there are 
numerous fertile valleys. Many treasures of art and architec- 
ture are preserved, and Umbria is in this respect one of the most 
interesting regions of Italy (see PERUGIA). Modern Umbria 
formed down to 1860 a part of the States of the Church. 

Two main lines of railway run through the territory. That from 
Florence to Rome skirts the borders of the province on the west, 
running north and south, while the Rome-Ancona runs across the 
province from north-east to south-west. The cross communication 
is given by three branch lines. In the north a narrow gauge line 
from Arezzo to Fossato passes through Gubbio. Perugia, the capital 
of the province, stands on the line from Terontola to Folignp, while 
on the extreme south a line passing through Rieti and Aquila, and 
ultimately reaching Sulmona, starts from Terni on the Rome- 
Ancona line. (T. As.) 

UMFRAVILLE, the name of an English baronial family, 
derived from Amfreville in Normandy. Members of this family 
obtained lands in Northumberland, including Redesdale and 
Prudhoe, from the Norman kings, and a later member, Gilbert 
de Umfraville (d. 1245), married Matilda, daughter of Malcolm, 
earl of Angus, and obtained this Scottish earldom. Gilbert's 
son, Gilbert, earl of Angus (c. 1244-1307), took part in the 
fighting between Henry III. and his barons, and in the Scottish 
expeditions of Edward I. His son, Robert, earl of Angus 
(1277-1325), was taken prisoner by the Scots at Bannockburn, 
but was soon released, though he was deprived of the 
earldom of Angus and of his Scottish estates. His son and 
heir, Gilbert de Umfraville (1310-1381), claimed the earldom, 
which he hoped to gain by helping Edward Baliol to win the 
Scottish crown, but he failed, and on his death without issue 
the greater part of his English estates passed to his niece, Eleanor, 
the wife of Sir Henry Talboys (d. 1370), while others, including 
Redesdale, Harbottle and Otterbourne, came to his half-brother, 
Sir Thomas de Umfraville (d. 1386). Sir Thomas's son, another 
Sir Thomas de Umfraville (1362-1391), left a son, Gilbert de 
Umfraville (1390-1421), who fought on the Scottish border and 
in France under his warlike uncle, Sir Robert de Umfraville 
(d. 1436). Although not related in blood he appears to have 
inherited the estates in Lincolnshire of the Kyme family, and he 
was generally known as the earl of Kyme, though the title was 
never properly conferred upon him. In 1415 he fought at Agin- 
court; he was afterwards sent as an ambassador to Charles VI. 
of France, and arranged an alliance between the English 
and the Burgundians. He was killed at the battle of Bauge 
on the 22nd of March 1421. His heir was his uncle Sir Robert, 
who died on the 29th of January 1436, when the male line of 
the Umfraville family became extinct. The chronicler John 
Hardyng was for many years in the service of Sir Robert, and 
in his Chronicle he eulogizes various members of the family. 

UMPIRE, the term used, like " referee," for a person appointed 
by consent to settle disputes arising between opposing parties, 
and particularly one chosen to see that the rules of a game are 
obeyed. The word itself stands for the Middle English nompere 
or noumpere, " a numpere " becoming " an umpire." The 
earlier form represents the Old French nompere, nonpair, i.e. not 
equal, odd. The Latin impar, unequal, was similarly used in 
the sense of " arbitrator." 

UMRA KHAN, of Jandol (c. 1860-1903), a Pathan chief on the 
north-western frontier of India, who was chiefly responsible for 
the Chitral Campaign of 1895. He was the younger son of the 
khan of Jandol; but he killed his elder brother, seized the throne, 
and made himself a power on the frontier. In 1894 he held 
undisputed sway over almost the whole of Bajour, when his 
restless ambition caused him to interfere in the internal affairs 
of Chitral. He instigated Amir-ul-Mulk, a half-witted brother 
of the Chitral chief, to murder his brother Nizam-ul-Mulk, and 
then threw over the fratricide and supported the claims of his 
uncle Sher Afzul to the throne. The government of India 
intervened and ordered Umra Khan to leave Chitral. When 
he refused, the Chitral Expedition was despatched (see CHITRAL) ; 
Umra Khan was driven into exile in Afghanistan, and died there 
in 1903. 



578 



UNAO UNEMPLOYMENT 



UNAO, a town and district of British India, in the Lucknow 
division of the United Provinces. The town is 10 m. N.E. ol 
Cawnpore, on the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway. Pop. (1901), 

The DISTRICT or UNAO has an area of 1792 sq. m. It consists 
of a flat alluvial plain, lying north of the Ganges. Rich and fertile 
tracts, studded with groves, alternate with stretches of waste 
land and plains of barren usar, the whole being intersected by 
small streams, used for irrigation. The Ganges is the only navi- 
gable river in the district, while the Sai forms its north-eastern 
boundary. The temperature varies from about 75 to 103' 
in the hot season and from 46 to 79 in the cold season. The 
annual rainfall averages about 35 in. Pop. (1901), 976,639, 
showing an increase of 2-4% in the decade. The principal 
crops are barley, wheat, pulses, rice and millets, with some 
cotton, sugar-cane and poppy. The district is crossed by the 
main line of the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway. 

During the Mutiny of 1857-58 Unao was the scene of several 
severe engagements between General Havelock's little army 
and the rebels on his march to relieve Lucknow. On the 
death of Raja Jasa Singh, one of the leading rebels, and the 
capture of his two sons, the family estates were confiscated, 
and the villages either restored to their former owners or given 
to other landholders for their loyalty. 

See Unao District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1903). 

UNCLE, the brother of a person's father or mother, also the 
husband of one's aunt (i.e. the sister of a father or mother). 
The French one le, which appears in Anglo-French as uncle, comes 
from a Late Latin unculus, a shortened form of the Latin avun- 
culus, a maternal uncle, the brother of one's mother. The word 
is a diminutive of avus, grandfather. The Latin for a paternal 
uncle is patruus. " Aunt" comes through the Old French aunte, 
ante, corrupted into the modern tante, from Latin amita, a father's 
sister, a paternal aunt, the maternal aunt being called matertera. 

UNCTION (Lat. unctio, anointing, ungere, unguere, to smear 
with ointment, to anoint; cf. " ointment," O.Fr. oignement, from 
oigner, mod. oindre, to anoint), the act of pouring, or rubbing 
oil, ointment or salve over or on to a person or object. The 
term is particularly used of the ceremonial practice of anointing 
with oil or unguents (see ANOINTING). The sacrament of the 
anointing of the sick in the Roman church is treated under 
EXTREME UNCTION. The use of the term for religious fervour 
in speech has degenerated into its common meaning of exag- 
gerated sentiment. 

UNDER-CROFT, in architecture, a synonym for crypt (q.v.), 
a vaulted chamber under ground. 

UNDERWRITER, one who insures ships and their cargoes 
from loss and damage, so called from his writing his name under 
the document or policy of insurance. A request to an under- 
writer to insure is termed the offering of a " risk," and the 
word risk in marine insurance is equivalent to the liability of 
an underwriter under a contract. When the risk is divided up 
among several underwriters, each signs his name individually, 
putting opposite thereto the amount for which he accepts 
liability. Each signature has the effect of making a separate 
contract, in the terms of the policy, for the amount set opposite 
the name of the underwriter. (See INSURANCE : Marine.) 

UNEMPLOYMENT, a modern term for the state of being 
unemployed among the working-classes. The social question 
involved is intimately bound up with that of relief of the poor, 
and its earlier history is outlined in the article CHARITY AND 
CHARITIES. It is more particularly within the 2oth century 
that the problem of unemployment has become specially 
insistent, not by reason of its greater intensity for it is open 
to considerable doubt whether, comparatively speaking, there 
was not more unemployment in the organized industrial com- 
munities of the early middle ages but because the greater 
facilities for publicity, the growth of industrial democracy, the 
more scientific methods applied to the solution of economic 
questions, the larger humanitarian spirit of the times all demand 
that remedies differing considerably from those of the past 
should at least be tried. In most civilized countries attempts 



have been made to solve this or that particular phase of the 
problem by improved methods. There is, however, always a 
great difficulty in knowing the extent of unemployment even 
in any one particular country. No census has ever been 
taken in any country of those of the whole population who 
were employed and unemployed on any particular day, and 
even if it were possible to take, such a census modern conditions 
of industry might render its results valueless almost imme- 
diately after. It would be complicated, too, by having of 
necessity to include the shiftless and unemployable sections 
of the population, as well as those on the borderland of employ- 
ment (those who are worth some sort of wage in times of pres- 
sure), while at the same time it would be necessary, to make 
the census of practical value, to obtain returns of the demand 
for labour, in order to value the true character of the supply. 
Such statistics are obtainable possibly only in theory, but 
every country makes an endeavour to obtain statistics of a 
sort. In England the Board of Trade, for example, has com- 
piled valuable memoranda on the percentages of unemployment 
in the more important trade union groups of trades, which may 
be taken as a measure of unemployment in the more highly 
organized industries; while other memoranda throwing light 
on the subject deal with the amount of time lost by workpeople 
through want of employment and other causes; with cyclical 
trade depressions; the extent to which female labour has dis- 
placed adult male labour of late years; seasonal industries 
and industries carried on by casual labour; emigration and 
immigration, &c., all intimately bound up with the study of 
the problem. The statistics issued by the Labour Bureaus of 
many of the states in the United States are of considerable value, 
in particular, those of Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, 
Connecticut and Wisconsin. Germany, France and Belgium 
also publish statistics, but like the figures of other countries, 
they far from represent the actual state of unemployment. 

The actual causes of unemployment in any one country will 
always remain to a certain extent controversial, as will the 
comparative weight to be assigned to each cause. Putting 
aside the much disputed theories of economists as to the causes 
of cyclical depressions of trade, there are certain well-observed 
facts which present themselves in connexion with the question 
of unemployment, and to each one of them some contributory 
portion of blame may be assigned. These facts causes of 
may be classified as (a) those over which the worker Unempioy- 
has no control, and (b) those which may be said meat - 
to lie in the worker himself. Some of those under (a), of 
which it is impossible to give more than the more obvious 
examples, have, of course, been operating, especially in the 
United Kingdom, sometimes potently, sometimes slowly and 
almost unnoticed, over a long range of years. They are seasonal 
industries and industries carried on by casual labour. There 
are many industries affected by certain states of the weather or 
by the changes of the seasons, as the building and allied trades, 
the furriers' trade, confectionery trades, &c. But more impor- 
ant are those industries which depend largely in times of 
pressure on casual and unskilled labour, such as port and 
riverside work of all kinds, construction works and to a certain 
extent the iron and steel industries. Then there are a number 
of skilled trades which have about them continually a fringe 
of casual labour, for which employment is very intermittent. 
To quote from the report of the British Royal Commission 
on the Poor Laws (1909): 

" The class of under-employed includes not merely the whole 
of the men in such occupations as dock and wharf labour and market 
sorters, and a waxing and waning share of the lower grades of the 
juilding operations, but also a very extensive fringe of men more or 
ess attached to particular industries, and working at them only by 
way of brief and casual jobs. " To go in " for one half-day, one day, 
:wo, three, four or five days out of the five and a half is common to 
>ootmaking, coopering, galvanizing, tank-making, oil pressing, 
sugar boiling, piano-making, as it is to dock-labouring, stevedoring, 
crane-lifting, building. Some trades, like that of the London bakers, 
regularly employ more men on one or two days of the week than 
on others. In London a large body of men is always required for 
:he Friday night baking when the work in preparation for Saturday 
and Sunday is, we are told, exceedingly heavy. The usual hours of 



UNEMPLOYMENT 



579 



working are fifteen or sixteen instead of the ten of other nights and 
twice as many men are required. These Friday night men, many 
hundreds in number, pick up odd jobs the rest of the week. At the 
factory gates every night during the. week, a number of men are 
always hanging about ready to be taken on in an emergency, or to 
fill the place of any man who, according to a very common custom, 
has " taken a night off." In busy marketing neighbourhoods, a 
whole class of butchers' assistants are engaged only for Fridays and 
Saturdays. Analogous arrangements exist in many other trades. 
Moreover, in every trade there are men whom the employer takes 
on only when he has a sudden and temporary press of business. 
They may be the " glut men " of the customs department or the 
Christmas hands of the post office. Every tramway undertaking, 
municipal or commercial, has its reserve of extra drivers, conductors, 
yard-men, washers, &c., who get a day's work now and then when 
they are wanted. At Liverpool, and indeed in all large towns, there 
is a whole class of casual carmen, who are taken on for the job as 
required." 

Then there are the accidental circumstances which inciden- 
tally produce unemployment, such as the displacement of 
labour by the progress of invention and improvement. The 
example of the distress brought upon the hand-loom weavers 
by the invention of the power-loom is only one of many, but 
the process is continually going on. The change, for example, 
from horse carriages to motor cars has brought much unem- 
ployment in its train. Then there is the unemployment due 
to decaying or declining trades, brought about through a 
persistent falling off of the demand, or through some change 
of process or of fashion; the removal of an industry from one 
place to another, the displacement of adult labour by that 
of women and boys, the continuous migration of unskilled 
labour from the country to the towns, and the depression in 
general trade caused by the occurrence of something unfore- 
seen, as war. Then too, there are to be added the numberless 
frictions of industrial life, all contributing their quota to un- 
employment, such as the bankruptcy of an employer, changes 
in management, the arbitrariness, of a foreman, &c. There 
are also what may be termed the political causes of unemploy- 
ment, which depend on the commercial policy of the nation, 
in so far as it adopts Free Trade or Protection. 

Recognizing the existence of the problem of unemployment, 
and putting aside the possibility of knowing exactly its extent, 
Bemedics we have to consider the remedies which have been 
torUaem- advanced for its solution. These may be classified 
pioymeat. as temporary and permanent. Temporary expe- 
dients, whether in the nature of voluntary relief by 
individuals or organized societies, or on the larger scale of 
municipal or state organized relief works, more properly fall 
under the description of charity (see CHARITY AND CHARITIES). 
Two particular methods of permanent remedy, however, are 
especially favoured. The first of these is the establishment 
of a system of labour exchanges, national in character if pos- 
sible, by which it is claimed that machinery would at once be 
set in motion for assisting that mobility which is so effective 
for the proper utilization of labour and which, even with the 
modern facilities for travel, labour so lacks at the present 
, time. Labour exchanges would also, it is argued, 
Exchanges facilitate the collection of data for the enumeration 
' and classification of the unemployed. Labour 
exchanges have been long established in Germany. " There 
is a network of labour exchanges of various types. The 
most important . . . are the public and municipal exchanges. 
There are over 200 such, among the 700 odd exchanges, filling 
now 150,000 places a month, which report regularly to the 
imperial statistical officer. Practically there is a public 
general exchange in every town of over 50,000 inhabitants, and 
in a very large proportion of the smaller towns. Most of the 
public labour exchanges date from 1894 to 1896 or received a 
fresh impulse then" (Report of Commission on Poor Laws, 
1909). The causes of the success of the German system of 
labour exchanges 1 are attributed by the Poor Law Commis- 
sioners to (a) the high standing given to the movement by the 
1 The German system of labour exchanges is exhaustively dealt 
with in Report to the Board of Trade on Agencies and Methods for 
Dealing with the Unemployed in certain Foreign Countries, by D. F, 
Schloss (1904). 



advocacy and practical assistance of all public authorities, 
own councils, state governments, imperial government, &c.; 
6) the association through combined committees of employers 
and employees in the management of the exchanges; (c) the 
unequivocal character of the exchanges as industrial and not 
relief institutions; (d) the excellent arrangements for the 
use of telephonic, telegraphic and postal facilities by the ex- 
changes, and (e) the preferential railway fares for men sent 
;o a situation. 

An attempt was made in England to start labour exchanges 
the Labour Bureaux (London) Act 1902, which gave metro- 
politan boroughs power to establish and maintain bureaux, 
:o be paid for out of the general rate. Before this act, however, 
certain municipalities here and there had made experiments 
in the way of exchanges, but they were never very successful, 
for they had no knowledge of what they intended to do; they 
were not properly staffed; they were hampered by bad rules; 
they were nearly all started in times of depression, exactly 
the wrong time to start a labour exchange, the time to start 
it being when trade is going up. The act of 1902 was a failure 
because it merely permitted, and did not compel borough 
councils to establish bureaux, and consequently only a very 
small part of the metropolis was covered, and there was no 
interchange of ideas amongst those established. However, 
a fresh attempt was made to establish exchanges over a greater 
part of the United Kingdom by the Labour Exchanges Act 
1909. The Labour Exchanges Act defines a labour exchange 
as any office or place used for the purpose of collecting and 
furnishing information, either by the keeping of registers or 
otherwise, respecting employers who desire to engage work- 
people and workpeople who seek engagement or employment. 
The act gave the Board of Trade power to establish and maintain 
labour exchanges in such places as they might think fit, and 
to collect and furnish information to employers and work- 
people. An important provision of the act was the authoriza- 
tion of advances by way of loan towards meeting the expenses 
of workpeople travelling to places where employment is found 
for them through a labour exchange. The regulations of the 
exchanges provide that no person shall suffer any disqualifi- 
cation or be otherwise prejudiced on account of refusing to 
accept employment found for him through a labour exchange 
where the ground of refusal is that a trade dispute which affects 
his trade exists, or that the wages offered are lower than those 
current in the trade in the district where the employment is 
found. The act also empowers the Board of Trade to establish 
advisory committees in connexion with the exchanges and 
imposes penalties for making false statements for the purpose 
of obtaining employment or procuring workpeople. For the 
carrying out of the act the whole of the United Kingdom was 
mapped out into divisions, with a divisional inspector at the 
head of each. In all the more important towns of each division 
exchanges were established, classified according to the popula- 
tion of the town. All the exchanges are in telephonic com- 
munication either with each other or with a divisional clearing- 
house, the divisional clearing-house in turn being in com- 
munication with a central clearing-house in London. The 
advantage of the English system of labour exchanges will 
be found in the fact that it is a national system, with the sup- 
port of the state behind it. Unless, as has been proposed, 
it is made compulsory in all large trades, much of its success 
will depend on the patronage extended to it by employers, 
which in its turn must be justified by the efficiency of the service 
rendered. Patronage by government and municipal authori- 
ties, while making an imposing addition to the returns of 
situations found, will not necessarily be an effective guarantee 
that the true objects of the exchanges are being fulfilled. 

The German labour registries are of seven principal types: the 
private registry office, maintained by ordinary agents for purposes , 
of gain, and occupying itself chiefly with the placing of domestic 
servants; the travellers' homes and relief stations, which endeavour 
to find s'ituations for their inmates their success is not great, as 
the better elements of the labouring classes avoid them; trade union 
registries maintained by trade unions to assist their members in 



580 



UNGAVA 



obtaining employment ; gild labour registries or associations of 
employers (mainly small employers) for the promotion of the in- 
terests of the trade in which they are engaged; agricultural labour 
registries maintained in different parts of Germany by the chambers 
of agriculture; employers' labour registries, established as a counter- 
move against the trade union registries they are chiefly in indus- 
tries employing large capital, particularly the metal industries; 
and public labour registries, established either by voluntary associa- 
tions or by municipalities. These latter have been very successful 
and have provided the model for the English registries. In Austria 
labour registries have also been established on the German model 
by many district and municipal authorities, those of Vienna and 
Prague being especially successful. Switzerland has a few registries 
established by public authorities, notably those at Basel, Bern, 
Schaffhausen and Zurich. In Belgium there are a considerable 
number of public registries, some established by associations, some 
philanthropic, some political, some organized by employers, some 
by employees, some jointly by employers and employed. Some of 
these registries are in receipt of subventions granted by municipali- 
ties, while in a few cases the municipalities themselves have started 
registries. In France labour registries are of many types. There 
are the ordinary registry offices, carried on for gain, and requiring a 
licence from the municipal authorities. They are very numerous 
and according to returns to the French Labour Department fill 
over 1,000,000 situations yearly in various occupations. There are 
also registries maintained by trade gilds, by individual trade unions, 
by a number of trade unions jointly, by joint associations of 
employers and employed, by associations of employers, by friendly 
societies, by philanthropic institutions and by municipalities. 
These last are being rapidly increased, and will without doubt 
eventually supersede all the others. In the United States the states 
of Colorado, Connecticut, Illinois, Kansas, Maryland, Massachusetts, 
Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, Ohio, West Virginia and 
Wisconsin have established free public employment offices, and in 
many of the other states the private registries are under strict 
supervision and licensing. 

The second permanent remedy is that of insurance against 
unemployment. Certain schemes have been tried in Switzer- 
lasunace l an d, notably the voluntary municipal scheme of 
against Berne, the compulsory municipal scheme of St Gall 
Uaemploy- an d a trade union scheme at Basel, 1 while there is 
in Germany a system of insurance against sickness, 
accident and incapacity (see GERMANY). Much attention 
has been devoted in England to the possibilities of insurance 
against unemployment, and in 1910 a scheme was being worked 
out by the government with a view to its discussion by parlia- 
.rnent in 1911. The lines on which such a scheme must work 
were clearly laid down by Sir H. Llewellyn Smith, the permanent 
secretary to the Board of Trade, in his presidential address 
to the Economic Science and Statistics section of the British 
Association at Sheffield in September 1910. 

" The crucial question from a practical point of view," said 
Sir H. Llewellyn Smith, " is whether it is possible to devise a scheme 
of insurance which, while nominally covering unemployment due 
to all causes other than those which can be definitely excluded, 
shall automatically discriminate as between the classes of unemploy- 
ment for which insurance is or is not an appropriate remedy. We 
can advance a step towards answering this crucial question by enu- 
merating some of the essential characteristics of any unemployment 
insurance scheme which seem to follow directly or by necessary 
implication from the conditions of the problem as here laid down. 

" I. The scheme must be compulsory; otherwise the bad personal 
risks against which we must always be on our guard would be certain 
to predominate. 

" 2. The scheme must be contributory, for only by exacting 
rigorously as a necessary qualification for benefit that a sufficient 
number of weeks' contribution shall have been paid by each recipient 
can we possibly hope to put limits on the exceptionally bad risks. 

" 3. With the same object in view there must be a maximum 
limit to the amount of benefit which can be drawn, both absolutely 
and in relation to the amount of contribution paid; or, in other words, 
we_must in some way or other secure that the number of weeks for 
which a workman contributes should bear some relation to his claim 
upon the fund. Armed with this double weapon of a maximum 
limit to benefit and of a minimum contribution, the operation of 
the scheme itself will automatically exclude the loafer. 

" 4. _The scheme must avoid encouraging unemployment, and 
for this purpose it is essential that the rate of unemployment 
benefit payable shall be relatively low. It would be fatal to any 

1 For a detailed description of these schemes see G. Schanz, 
Zur Frage der Arbeitslosen-Versicherung (Bamberg, 1895); Neue 
Bcitrdge zur Frage der Arbeitslosen-Versicherung (Berlin, 1897); and 
Driller Beitrag zur Frage der Arbeitslosen-Versicherung und der 
Bekampfung der Arbeitslosigkeit (Berlin, 1901). 



scheme to offer compensation for unemployment at a rate approxi- 
mating to that of ordinary wages. 

" 5. For the same reason it is essential to enlist the interest of all 
those engaged in the insured trades, whether as employers or as 
workmen, in reducing unemployment, by associating them with 
the scheme both as regards contribution and management. 

" 6. As it appears on examination that some trades are more 
suitable to be dealt with by insurance than others, either because 
the unemployment in these trades contains a large insurable element, 
or because it takes the form of total discharge rather than short 
time, or for other reasons, it follows that, for the scheme to have 
the best chance of success, it should be based upon the trade group, 
and should at the outset be partial in operation. 

" 7. The group of trades to which the scheme is to be applied 
must, however, be a large one, and must extend throughout the 
United Kingdom, as it is essential that industrial mobility as between 
occupations and districts should not be unduly checked. 

" 8. A state subvention and guarantee will be necessary, in addi- 
tion to contributions from the trades affected, in order to give the 
necessary stability and security, and also in order to justify the 
amount of state control that will be necessary. 

" 9. The scheme must aim at encouraging the regular employer 
and workman, and discriminating against casual engagements. 
Otherwise it will be subject to the criticism of placing an undue 
burden on the regular for the benefit of the irregular members of 
the trade. 

" 10. The scheme must not act as a discouragement to voluntary 
provision for unemployment, and for that purpose some well-devised 
plan of co-operation is essential between the state organization 
and the voluntary associations which at present provide un- 
employed benefit for their members. Our analysis, therefore, leads 
us step by step to the contemplation of a national contributory 
scheme of insurance, universal in its operation within the limits of 
a large group of trades a group so far as possible self-contained 
and carefully selected as favourable for the experiment, the funds 
being derived from compulsory contributions from all those engaged 
in these trades, with a subsidy and guarantee from the state, and the 
rules relating to benefit being so devised as to discriminate effectively 
against unemployment which is mainly due to personal defects, 
while giving a substantial allowance to those whose unemployment 
results from industrial causes beyond the control of the individual. 
Is such a scheme practicable? This is a question partly actuarial, 
partly administrative, and partly political. I may say that so far 
as can be judged from such data as exist (and those data are 
admittedly imperfect and rest on a somewhat narrow basis) a scheme 
framed on the lines I have indicated is actuarially possible, at least 
for such a group of trades as building, engineering and shipbuilding." 

In addition to insurance against unemployment by the 
state, there are various voluntary associations, such as friendly 
societies and trade unions, which make a feature of grants 
to their members when out of employment. 

In September 1910 the first International Conference on 
Unemployment was convened in Paris, the subjects of statistics 
of unemployment, labour registries and state insurance being 
the chief topics. The outcome of the conference was the 
formation of a society to study all phases of the problem, and 
to keep in touch with public and private bodies and the various 
governments. 

AUTHORITIES. Report of Royal Commission on Labour (1894); 
Report of House of Commons Committee on Distress from Want of 
Employment (1895); Report of Royal Commission on Poor Laws 
(1909) ; Reportol the Massachusetts Board to Investigate the Subject 
of the Unemployed. The following recent books will be found 
useful: P. Alden, The Unemployed (1905); W. H. Beveridge, Un- 
employment: A Problem of Industry (1909); N. B. Dearie, Problems 
of Unemployment in the London Building Trades (i<)O<)) ; J. A. Hobson, 
The Problem of the Unemployed (1904); F. W. Lewis, State Insurance 
a. Social and Industrial Need (1909); D. F. Schloss, Insurance 
Against Unemployment (1909); F. I. Taylor, A Bibliography of 
Unemployment and the Unemployed (1909). (T. A. I.) 

UNGAVA, an unorganized territory of the Dominion of 
Canada, including the north-western side of the peninsula of 
Labrador (q.v.), bounded by Hudson Bay on the W. as far 
S. as East Main River; Hudson Strait and Ungava Bay on 
the N.; and with indefinite boundaries toward Quebec on 
the S., and the coast strip of Labrador belonging to New- 
foundland on the E. The area is estimated at 354,961 sq. m. 
Ungava includes much of the lower portion of Labrador, with 
a rim of recent marine deposits along its western coast, but the 
interior has the usual character of low rocky hills of Archean 
rocks, especially granite and gneiss, with a long band of little 
disturbed iron-bearing rocks, resembling the Animikie, or 
Upper Huronian of the Lake Superior region, near its eastern 



UNGULATA UNICORN 



581 



side. Along Hudson Bay shore there is a strip of similar rocks, 
and a long row of small islands of the same age, with great 
sheets of trap or diabase forming the tops of the hills. The 
iron formation is widely spread. There is evidence that 
Ungava, like the rest of Labrador, has risen several hundred 
feet since the Ice Age, marine beaches being found up to 700 ft. 
on the Hudson Bay side; and it is interesting to find seals 
like those of the adjoining seacoasts in the Seal Lakes 100 m. 
inland and 800 ft. above the present sea-level. Owing to its 
northerly position a large part of Ungava is treeless, and belongs 
to the barren grounds where caribou roam and feed on the so- 
called caribou moss, a greyish lichen. 

UNGULATA, the name of an order of placental mammals 
in which the terminal joints of the toes are usually encased 
in solid hoofs or covered with broad hoof-like nails, while 
the molar (and not unfrequently some or all of the premolar) 
teeth have broad tuberculated crowns adapted for crushing 
vegetable substances. The teeth (when all are present) are 
differentiated into the usual four series; and milk-teeth, not 
completely discarded till the full stature is attained, are in- 
variably developed. All the existing members of the group 
are eminently adapted for a terrestrial life, and in the main 
for a vegetable diet. Though a few may in some circumstances 
kill living creatures smaller than themselves for food, none 
are habitually predaceous. In none of the existing, and in 
but few of the extinct types, are collar-bones, or clavicles, 
developed ; and the scaphoid and lunar bones of the carpus are 
separate. The typical ungulates are the members of the 
suborders ARTIODACTYLA and PERISSODACTYLA (q.v.), in both 
of which the bones of the foot articulate with each other by 
means of groove-and-tongue joints, whence the name of Dip- 
larthra (equivalent to Ungulata Vera), which has been pro- 
posed for these two groups collectively, as distinct from the 
other representatives of the order. The remaining and less 
typical subordinal groups sometimes ranked as orders by 
themselves include among living animals the Proboscidea, or 
elephants, and the Hyracoidea, or hyraxes, and among extinct 
groups the Amblypoda, Ancylopoda, Barypoda, Condylarthra, 
Litopterna and Toxodontia. The characteristics of these 
groups will be found under their respective headings, with 
the exception of the Barypoda and Condylarthra, for which see 
ARSINOITHERJUM and PHENACODUS. 

In the great majority of the Subungulata the bones of the upper 
and lower rows of the wrist-joint, or carpus, retain the primitive 

or more typical relation to each 
other (see fig., and contrast 
with PERISSODACTYLA, fig. i); 
the os magnum of the second 
row articulating mainly with 
the lunar of the first, or with 
the cuneiform, but not with 
the scaphoid. On the other 
hand in the Diplarthra, the 
group to which the vast 
majority of modern Ungulates 
belong, the second or lower 
row has been shifted altogether 
towards the inner side of the 
limb, so that the magnum is 
brought considerably into rela- 
tion with the scaphoid, and is 
entirely removed from the 
cuneiform, as in most existing 
mammals. 

In the typical Ungulata or 
Diplarthra, the feet are never 
plantigrade, and the functional 
toes do not exceed four the 
inner digit being suppressed, 
at all events in all forms which 
have existed since the Early 
Eocene period. The os magnum 
of the carpus articulates freely 
with the scaphoid. The allan- 




Right Fore Foot of Indian 

Elephant. (Xj.) 

U, ulna ; R, radius ; c, cuneiform ; 

/, lunar; sc, scaphoid; , unciform; 

m, magnum; td, trapezoid; tm, 

tra P e Z ium;/toF,firsttonfthdigit. _ 

is nondeciduate, the chorionic villi being either evenly diffused or 
collected in groups or cotyledons (in Pecora). The testes descend 
into a scrotum. There is never an os penis. The uterus is 



tois is largely developed, and 
the 



bicornuate. The teats are usually few, and inguinal, but may be 
numerous and abdominal (as in Suina), although they are never 
solely pectoral. The cerebral 'hemispheres in existing Ungulates 
are well convoluted. (R. L.*) 



UNICORN (Lat. unicornis, for Gr. /MvoKepdis, having one 
horn; Fr. licorne; Ital. alicorno), a fabulous beast, usually 
having the head and body of a horse, the hind legs of an ante- 
lope, the tail of a lion (sometimes horse's tail), sometimes the 
beard of a goat, and as its chief feature a long, sharp, twisted 
horn, similar to the narwhal's tusk, set in the middle of its 
forehead. The earliest description is that of Ctesias, who 
(Indica opera, ed. Baehr, p. 254) states that there were in India 
white wild asses celebrated for their fleetness of foot, having 
on the forehead a horn a cubit and a half in length, coloured 
white, red and black; from the horn were made drinking 
cups which were a preventive of poisoning. Aristotle mentions 
(Hist. anim. ii. i ; De part. anim. iii. 2) two one-horned animals, 
the oryx, a kind of antelope, and " the so-called Indian ass." 
In Roman times Pliny (N.H. viii. 30; xi. 106) mentions the 
oryx, the Indian ass, and an Indian ox as one-horned; Aelian 
(De not. anim. iii. 41; iv. 52), quoting Ctesias, adds that 
India produces also a one-horned horse, and says (xvi. 20) 
that the Monoceros was sometimes called Carcazonon, which 
may be a form of the Arabic Carcadan, meaning rhinoceros 
(see Rev. W. Haughton, " On the Unicorn of the Ancients," 
in Annals and Mag. of Natural History for 1862, p. 363). Strabo 
(lib. xv.) says that in India there were one-horned horses with 
stag-like heads. The origin of all these statements is probably 
to be found partly in the rhinoceros, which was well known 
to the ancients, and partly in the narwhal, specimens of the 
long tusk of which were probably brought home by travellers. 
The theory of a one-horned oryx would probably be drawn 
from the remembrance of a passing glimpse of an antelope in 
silhouette, or even of one which had broken one horn off short 
in fighting, and E. Schrader (Sitzungsberichte d. kgl. preuss. 
Akad. zu Berlin, 1892, pp. 573-581, and pi. 5) traces the idea 
of a one-horned ox to the sculptures of Persepolis and other 
places, which Ctesias would probably have seen, in which the 
ox, represented in silhouette, has apparently only one horn. 
As India became better known, and it was realized that the 
unicorn was not found there, its place of abode was changed 
to Africa. 

The medieval conception of the unicorn as possessing great 
strength and fierceness may have been partly due to the fact 
that in certain passages of the Old Testament (e.g. Num. xxiii. 
22; Deut. xxxiii. 17; Job xxxix. o-io) the Hebrew word 
R'em, now translated in the. Revised Version " wild ox," was 
translated in the Septuagint /UOVOKC/XOS, in the Vulgate unicornis 
or rhinoceros, and in the Authorised Version " unicorn," though 
in Deut. xxxiii. 17 it obviously refers to a two-horned animal. 
The early commentators applied to this beast the classical 
attributes of the juoroxepus (e.g. Isidore xii. 2, 12 tells how the 
unicorn has been known to worst the elephant in combat). 
There is also the passage in Aelian xvi. 20 which says that 
though as a rule savage and quarrelsome, even with females, 
the unicorn T at mating time becomes very gentle to his mate, 
which is supposed to have given rise to the medieval idea that 
the unicorn is subdued to gentleness at the sight of a virgin, 
and will come and lay his head in her lap, which is the only 
means by which he can be caught on account of his swiftness 
and ferocity. This story is illustrated in the tapestry figured 
in Plate II. Fig. 10 of EMBROIDERY, also on Pisanello's medal 
of Cecilia Gonzaga (see J. de Foville, Pisanello et les mtdailleurs 
italiens, 1909, p. 40), on the reverse of which is a young girl 
with a unicorn lying by her side, the unicorn here being repre- 
sented as a beautiful long-haired goat, with the long horn in the 
middle of his brow. The idea was widely spread in the middle 
ages, and Lauchert (Geschichte des Physiologus, 1889) gives 
instances of its allegorical use, as typical not only of Christ 
and the Virgin, but also of the softening influence of love upon 
the fiercest of men, and a symbol of purity. As a decoration 
of drinking cups it symbolized the ancient belief in the efficacy 



582 



UNIFORMS 



of the unicorn's horn against poison, which in England remained 
even in the time of Charles II., though Sir E. Ray Lankester 
(Science from an Easy Chair, London, 1910, p. 127) mentions 
that a cup made of rhinoceros horn was then handed over to 
the Royal Society for experiment, with the result of entirely 
disproving the superstition. In the court ceremonial of France 
as late as 1789 instruments of " unicorn's " horn were still used 
for testing the royal food for poison. So-called unicorns' horns, 
or articles made of unicorn's horn, have always been sought 
after as " curiosities "; some of them, like the cup mentioned 
above, were of rhinoceros horn; others, like the horn seen at 
Windsor by Heutzner, a German traveller, in 1598 (see E. 
Phipson, Animal-lore of Shakespeare's Time, p. 456), were pro- 
bably narwhals' tusks. Another medieval legend about the 
unicorn is that when it stooped to drink from a pool its horn, 
dipping into the water, purified and rendered it sweet. The 
traditional rivalry of the lion and the unicorn, which is generally 
considered to date at earliest from the Union of England and 
Scotland, when the lion and the unicorn appeared as the sup- 
porters of the royal arms, is referred to, curiously enough, in 
Spenser's Faery Queene, ii. 5. 

In heraldry the unicorn was sometimes used as a device (see 
HERALDRY, where two English families are enumerated who used 
the unicorn on their arms), but more frequently as a supporter, 
and subsists to the present day as the left-hand supporter of the 
royal arms. This position it assumed at the Union, the Scottish 
royal arms having previously been supported by two unicorns. 
The origin of these is uncertain. The unicorn first appears (c. 1480), 
as a single supporter, on two gold coins of James III. of Scotland, 
hence known as " unicorns " and " half-unicorns " (see Lindsay, 
Coinage of Scotland, pp. 135-137 and plate xiii. figs. 22-27). It is 
represented in a sitting posture, having round its neck a crown, to 
which is attached a chain and ring, and holding the shield between 
its front feet. Seton (Law and Practice of Heraldry in Scotland, 
Edinburgh, 1863, p. 274, foot-note) suggests that the unicorn as a 
supporter may have been introduced into Scotland by the marriage 
of James I. with Jane Beaufort, the Beauforts as dukes of Somerset 
having used it as such. 1 However this may be, the unicorn became 
established by the end of the isth century. J. A. Smith in " Notes 
on Melrose Abbey" (Proceedings of Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 
ii. 257) describes a table dated 1505 on which are sculptured the royal 
arms supported by two unicorns. The royal arms are also sup- 
ported by unicorns on the Great Seals of Scotland from the time of 
Queen Mary onwards (see Anderson, Diplomata Scotiae, plate Ixxxviii. 
xc. xci.). At the Union, when the unicorn became a supporter 
of the royal arms both of England and Scotland, a royal crown was 
added on the head of the unicorn, in addition to the crown with 
chain and ring round its neck (see Great Seal of James I. and VI. 
in Anderson, pi. xciii.), but this crown was removed after the 
Hanoverian succession. In England after the Union the unicorn 
became the left-hand supporter, but in Scotland, as late as 1766, 
it was still put on the right (Seton, p. 442), and Scotland displayed 
great reluctance to alter this, or to remove the crown from the head 
of the unicorn. Seton tells us how in 1853 a petition was made 
in favour, among other things, of retaining the crown on the unicorn, 
but without success. The rule, however, that the unicorn is to be 
the left-hand supporter, uncrowned, is still sometimes ignored, and 
Seton states (1863) that in the case of seals, such as that of the 
Board of Manufactures, which bear the Scottish arms alone, the 
two unicorns are still kept as supporters. 

AUTHORITIES. There are many treatises on the unicorn and other 
fabulous beasts, from the i6th century onwards. Of these, good 
bibliographies are given by Drexler, s.v. Monokeros, in Roscner's 
Lexicon, and by Rev. W. Haughton in Annals and Magazine of 
Natural History for 1862, p. 363, " On the Unicorn of the Ancients. 

(C. B. P.) 

UNIFORMS. The word " uniform " (Lat. unus, one, and 
forma, form), meaning adjectively homogeneous, is specifically 
used as a substantive for the distinctive naval and military 
dress, which serves, in its various styles, to give homogeneity 
to the several services, regiments and ranks. Although in 
ancient history we occasionally meet with uniformed soldiers, 
such as the white and crimson Spanish regiments of Hannibal, 
it was not until the beginning of large standing armies that 
uniforms were introduced in modern times. Before this, armed 
bodies were of two sorts, retainers and mercenaries, and while 
the former often wore their master's livery, the latter were 
dressed each according to his own taste or means. The absence 

1 Willement, Regal Heraldry, p. 70, says that it was also so used 
by Anne Boleyn and by the earls of Hertford. 



of uniforms accounts very largely for the significance attached 
to the colours and standards, which alone formed rallying points 
for the soldier and his comrades, and thus acquired the sacred 
character which they have since possessed. A man who left 
the colours wandered into the terrifying unknown, for there was 
nothing to distinguish friend and foe. Even if the generals 
had ordered the men to wear some improvised badge such as a 
sprig of leaves, or the shirt outside the coat, such badges as 
these were easily lost or taken off. The next step in advance 
was a scarf of uniform colour, such as it is supposed was worn 
by the " green," " yellow " and other similarly-named brigades 
of the Swedish army under Gustavus Adolphus. This too was 
easily removed, as in the example of the squire who at Edgehill 
put on the orange scarf of the parliamentarians and with no 
more elaborate disguise succeeded in recapturing the lost royal 
standard from the hands of Essex's own secretary. By this 
time, in France at least, the general character of the clothes and 
accoutrements to be worn on various occasions was strictly 
regulated by orders. But uniformity of clothing was not to be 
expected so long as the " enlistment " system prevailed and 
soldiers came and went, were taken in and dismissed, at the 
beginning and end of every campaign. The beginnings of 
uniform are therefore to be found in truly national armies, in 
the Indelta of Gustavus, and the English armies of the Great 
Rebellion. In the earlier years of the latter, though the richer 
colonels uniformed their men (as, for instance, the marquess of 
Newcastle's " Whitecoats " and the king's own " Bluecoats "), 
the rustics and the citizens turned out for war in their ordinary 
rough clothes, donning armour and sword-belt. But in 1645 
the parliament raised an army " all its own " for permanent 
service, and the colonels became officials rather than pro- 
prietors. The " new model " was clothed in the civilian 
costume of the date ample coat, waistcoat, breeches, stockings 
and shoes (in the case of cavalry, boots) but with the distinc- 
tive colour throughout the army of red and with regimental 
facings of various colours. The breeches were grey. Soon after- 
wards the helmet disappeared, and its place was taken by a 
grey broad-brimmed hat. From the coat was evolved the tunic 
of to-day, and the hat became the cocked hat of a later genera- 
tion, which has never altogether disappeared, and has indeed 
reverted to its original form in the now familiar " slouch-hat." 

For service in Ireland the red coat was exchanged for one of 
russet colour, just as scarlet gave way to khaki for Indian 
service in the igth century. The cavalry, however, wore buff 
leather coats and armour long after the infantry had abandoned 
them; the Austrians (see Plate I., line i, No. 2), on account of 
their Turkish wars, retained them longer than any. 

Thus the principle ever since followed uniform coat and 
variegated facings was established. Little or nothing of 
sentiment led to this. By choice or convenience the majority 
of the corps out of which the new model was formed had come 
to be dressed in red, with facings according to the colonel's 
taste, and it is a curious fact that in Austria sixty years after- 
wards events took the same course. The colonels there 
uniforming their men as they saw fit, had by tacit consent, 
probably to obtain " wholesale " prices, agreed upon a service- 
able colour (pearl grey), and when in 1707 Prince Eugene 
procured the issue of uniform regulations, few line regiments 
had to be reclothed. The preferences of the colonel were 
exhibited in the colour of the facings (Plate I., line i, fig. 3). 
In France, as in England and Austria, the cavalry, as yet rather 
led by the wealthy classes than officered by the professional, 
was not uniformed upon an army system until after the in- 
fantry. But in 1688 six-sevenths of the French cavalry was 
uniformed in light grey with red facings; and about half the 
dragoon regiments had red uniforms and blue facings. Louvois, 
in creating a standing army, had introduced an infantry uni- 
form as a necessary consequence. The native French regiments 
had light grey coats, the Swiss red, the German black and the 
Italian blue, with various facings. The French grey was 
probably decided upon, like the Austrian grey, as being a good 
" service " colour, which could be cheaply manufactured (Plate I., 



UNIFORMS. 



PLATE I. 



Franco : Austria : 

Sergeant. Cuirassier 

Alsace Rest.. IC'JO. 1704. 




France: 
Revolutionary 
Infantry, 1795. 

1815-1865. 



France: 

Voltigeur, 

51st Regt.. 1806. 



France : 

Guard 

Dragoon, ISOfi. 



England: England: 

Royal Horse 1st Royal 

Artillery, 1815. Dragoons, 1815. 




England: England: Austria: France: Austria-Hungary 

17th Lancers, 90th Light Jager, Line Infantry, Gyulai Regt., 

Officer. 1845. Infantry. 1845. 1848- 1854. 1858. 



h ranee: England: U.S.A.: 

Infantry Officer, Scots Fusilier General Officer 

1859. Guards. Officer. 1885. 1S84. 



UNIFORMS 



583 



line i, fig. i). Both these greys, however, refined themselves 
in course of time into white. 

The hat and the long coat and breeches remained the uniform 
of line infantry almost everywhere up to the advent of the 
shako and the coatee about 1790-1820. The gradual evolution 
of these two garments, from the comfortable civilian clothes 
of 1690 to the stiff, precise military garments of 1790, can be 
traced in a few words. The brim of the felt hat was first looped 
up on one side for convenience, then, for appearance' sake, on the 
other, and so became the three-cornered cocked hat, fringed 
with feathers, lace or braid, of Marlborough's wars. 1 Then 
came the fashion of looping up before and behind, which pro- 
duced the hat called the " Khevenhiiller," or the broadside-on 
cocked hat. Lastly, came the purely decorative, lace-looped 
" fore-and-aft " pattern, as worn in many states to-day. But 
before this came into vogue the cocked hat had practically dis- 
appeared from the ordinary ranks of all armies. It may be said 
that so long as the cocked hat survived in its simple, rank-and-file 
form, uniforms retained much of their looseness. Though the long 
skirts that rendered great coats unnecessary were looped back, 
and the ample cuffs of Marlborough's time were becoming 
narrower until they were at last sewn down to the sleeve, yet 
the military costume was in all essentials the civil costume of the 
time long coat, hat, sleeved waistcoat, breeches and gaiters. 

But other influences were at work. The principal was the 
introduction into armies of Slavonic irregulars, which tended to 
restrict line infantry and cavalry to parade drill and to pitched 
battles in parade order. This, and their complete separation 
from the civil population, stiffened their costume until it became 
" soldierly." Frederick the Great, indeed, could not have 
developed the infantry fire power that he needed if his soldiers 
had had tight sleeves, but in his old age the evil of sacrificing 
comfort to smartness attained a height which, except in the 1820- 
1840 period, was never surpassed. The figure of a Prussian 
fusilier, Plate I. line i, No. 7 (in which by mistake a slung sword 
is shown) shows this process beginning. The stock has made 
its appearance, soon to stiffen into a cloth collar, under which, 
as if it were not already tight enough, another stock in due 
course came to be worn. The flapped cuffs, shown in the British 
figure No. 5, have become plain round cuffs, above which are 
embroidery stripes and buttons which at one time laced the 
flaps of the cuff together and now survive as the " guard-stripe." 
This may be called the first instance of the dummy adornments, 
which are so marked in modern full-dress uniforms. Similarly 
the former cloth turnback on the front of the coat has even in 
1756 been cut off, the buttons and embroidered loops that 
retained it being kept as decorations. 

Many of these specially military adornments were borrowed 
from the national costumes of the irregulars themselves. Their 
head-gear in particular drove out the cocked hat. The grena- 
dier cap, now a towering bearskin, was its first successful rival, 
the shako the next. The grenadier cap was, in the first in- 
stance, a limp conical cap (identical with the hussar cap), edged 
with fur and having a tassel at the end. Soon the fur became 
more prominent in the front, and the tail disappeared. Then 
the cloth mitre-cap (Plate I., line i, fig. 6) appeared. This was 
originally a field-service cap, with ear-flaps and sunshade. But 
it stiffened about 1775 into a fur cap of the same shape (with 
which sometimes the old cloth tail is found), and this in turn 
evolved, through the fuller but still narrow and forward-pointing 
bearskin of Peninsular days, into the great fur cap of grenadiers 
and fusiliers of the present time. The mitre-shaped cloth cap 
survives in a few Russian and Prussian regiments. As early 
as 1755, as the Prussian figure shows, a conical leather cap with 
a large brass plate in front had come into existence. This held 
its ground for some time, and the grenadier cap of to-day in 
Russia and Prussia is a metal copy of the mitre field-service cap 
itself. A curious derivative of the low fur cap with a peak in 
front and a bag-tail behind worn by some i7th- and iSth-century 
grenadiers is the head-dress of the Russian horse-grenadiers. 

1 In the cavalry an iron-framed skull-cap was often worn under 
the cocked hat. 



The peak has become the helmet, the fur a " sausage " across 
the cap from ear to ear, and the back part of the helmet is 
covered by the bag-tail. 

The Hungarian hussars introduced the jacket and the busby. 
The latter was originally a conical cap with fur edge, but the fur 
became higher until there was nothing left of the cap but the 
ornamental " busby-bag " of to-day. It would appear also as 
if the hussars brought the shako to western Europe. This is 
a conical, bell-topped, or cylindrical head-dress of stiff material, 
commonly leather. Its prototype, the tall cylindrical cap 
of the iSth-century hussars, was tilted on one side and wound 
round with a very narrow bag-tail, the last few inches of which, 
adorned with a tassel, hung down. But the shako itself succeeded, 
as nothing else succeeded, in being accepted by line infantry 
and cavalry, and after passing through numerous forms it 
remains in every army to-day, either as a low rigid cap 
(Germany, England and Austria), a stiffened or limp k6pi 
(France and Italy), or the flat-topped peaked cap which is the 
most common military head-dress of modern Europe. 

All these adjuncts came in the first place from the national 
costume of imported auxiliaries. So also did the lancer cap, 
which, originally the Polish czapka, was a cylindrical cap, the 
upper part of which could be pushed up or down after the 
fashion of a bellows or accordion, with a square top. The original 
form is seen in Plate I., line 2, fig. 4, and the stiffened develop- 
ment of it in Plate I., line 3, fig. i. The British lancer cap (Plate 
II., line i, No. 2) has still a full middle portion, but in Austria and 
Germany this has dwindled to a very narrow neck (Plate II., line 
3, No. 6; Plate IV., line i, No. 7). The line infantry and cavalry 
coat, full-skirted in the first instance, retained its original length 
until about 1780, but from that time onwards (probably in most 
cases in the interests of the colonel's pocket) it becomes, little 
by little, shorter and scantier (Plate I., line 2, Nos. 2, 3, and 5), 
until at last it is a " coatee," not as long as the present-day tunic 
(Plate I., line 2, Nos. 6 and 8), or a swallow-tailed coat (Plate I., 
line 3, figs. 1-3). This, of course, did away with the protection 
afforded by the full skirt, and necessitated the introduction of 
the great coat, which even to-day in some cases is worn, without 
the tunic, over the " vest " that represents the sleeved waist- 
coat (Plate II., line 2, No. 3), formerly worn under the long 
skirted coat. The white breeches and gaiters, retained to 
the last, gradually gave way to trousers and ankle boots in 
1800-1820. 

Meanwhile another form of head-dress, which was purely 
military and owed nothing to Poland or Hungary, came into 
vogue. This was the helmet, which had disappeared from the 
infantry about 1650-1670, and the cavalry thirty years after- 
wards. It took two forms, both of which possessed some of the 
characteristics of ancient Greek and Roman helmets. These 
were a small helmet with sausage-shaped ornament from front 
to back, worn chiefly by British light dragoons and artillery 
(Plate I., line 2, fig. 7), and the towering crested helmet worn by 
the French, British and Austrians. The French cuirassiers and 
dragoons (Plate I., line 2, No. 3) had, and still have, long horse- 
hair tails dependent from the crest. The Austrian infantry 
helmet, worn with the white coat, similar to, but smaller than, 
that shown in Plate II., line 2, No. 5, had no ornament, but the 
British heavy cavalry helmet (Plate I., line 2, No. 8) resembled 
that of the French. To-day, besides the French, the Austrian 
dragoons and Italian heavy cavalry have this form of helmet 
(Plate II., line 3, No. i, and Plate IV., line 2, No. 8). 

It has been said above that the coatee and the shako are the 
principal novelties in .European military costumes of Napoleon's 
time. To these should be added the replacement of the gaitered 
breeches by trousers, and the adoption of hussar and lancer 
uniforms of ever-growing sumptuousness, in which the comfort 
that had originally belonged to these national irregular costumes 
was entirely sacrificed. After Waterloo, indeed, all traces of 
the old-fashioned coat disappeared, and, except for the doubtful 
gain of tight-fitting " overalls," the soldier was more showy and 
worse off in comfort and convenience than ever before or since. 
One or two examples may be quoted. In George IV.'s time 



5 8 4 



UNIFORMS 



the coatees of the lifeguards were so tight that the men were 
unable to perform their sword exercise, and their crested helmet, 
surmounted by a " sausage " ornament, was so high that the 
sword could not be raised for a downward blow. The total 
height of the lancer cap with its plume (Plate I., line 3, No. i) was 
about an arm's length, and prints exist showing British lancers 
in a cap of which the square top is very nearly as broad as the 
wearer's shoulders. The hussar furred pelisse, originally worn 
over a jacket (Plate I., line i, fig. 4), and so worn by the Austrians 
to-day, had become a magnificently embroidered and laced 
garment, always slung and never worn, and the old plain under- 
jacket had been loaded with buttons and lace, and differed from 
the pelisse only in the absence of fur. It was the Restoration 
era, too, that delighted to decorate uniforms with sewn-down 
imitations of the skirt pockets, turn-back cuffs, &c., of the old coat. 
This was, in short, the epoch of pure dandyism, and although 
some of its wilder extravagances were abolished between 1830 
and 1850, enough still remained when the British army took the 
field in the Crimea to bring about a sudden and violent reaction, 
in which the slovenliest dress was accounted the best. The 
dress regulations of 1855 introduced the low " Albert " shako 
and the tunic, abolished the epaulette an ornament which 
had grown in the i8th century out of a shoulder cord that kept 
the belts in place and was decorated at the outer end with a 
few loose strands or tassels of embroidery and made other 
changes which, without bringing back uniform to its original 
roominess and comfort, destroyed not only the ( dandyism of 
George IV. 's time, but also the chastened finery of the Early 
Victorian uniforms (Plate I., line 3, No. 7). 

The tunic, accompanied by a spiked helmet of burgonet 
shape, had been introduced in Prussia and Russia about 1835. 
Russia was too poor to allow extravagance in dress, and 
Russians, clothed as they generally were in their great coats, had 
little incentive to aim at futile splendour. Both countries, 
however, and France and Austria likewise, passed through a 
period of tight, if unadorned, uniforms, before Algeria, Italy, 
and similar experiences brought about the abandonment of the 
swallow-tailed coatee. The French adopted the tunic in 1853, 
the Austrians in 1856, and in both countries the shako became 
smaller and lighter. From about 1880, when the spiked helmet 
replaced the low shako in England, no radical changes were made 





Tunic. 


Facings. 


Helmet. 


Plume. 


ist Life Guards 
2nd ,, .... 
Royal Horse Guards (Blues) . 
1st Dragoon Guards (King's) . 
2nd .... 
3rd .... 
4th .... 
5th .... 
6th (Carabineers). 
7th .... 
1st Royal Dragoons .... 
2nd Dragoons (Scots Greys) . 
6th Inniskilling Dragoons . 


Scarlet 

Blue 
Scarlet 

Blue 
Scarlet 


Blue 

Red 
Black 
White 
Yellow 
Blue 
Dark green 
White 
Black 
Blue 

i 

Primrose 


Steel 
Brass 

Steel 
(Bearskin cap) 
Steel 


White 
Red 

Black 
Black and red 
White 
Red and white 
White 
Black and white 
Black 
White 


5th Lancers 
9th 
I2th 


Blue 


Scarlet 
ii 


Czapka top. 
Scarlet 
Black 
Scarlet 


Green 
Black and white 
Scarlet 


i6th 


Scarlet 


Blue 


Blue 


Black 


lyth 


Blue 


White 


White 


White 


2Ist .... 




Light blue 








** 






" 


3rd Hussars 


Blue 


Nil 


Busby-bag. 
Garter blue 


White 


4th 






Yellow 


Scarlet 


7th . . 






Scarlet 


White 


8th .... 










loth .... 










nth .... 











I3th .... 






' White 


White 


1 4th 






Yellow 




I5th 






Scarlet 


Scarlet 


i8th . . . 






Blue 




igth ...... 






White 


White 


20th 








Yellow 













in full dress uniforms, except that the Russian army, aban- 
doning the German pattern uniforms formerly in vogue, adopted 
a national uniform which is simple, roomy, and exceedingly plain, 
even in full dress. In 1906-1909, however, this attempt to 
combine handsomeness and comfort was given up, full dresses 
being made more decorative, and light green-grey service 
dresses being introduced. Lastly, since the South African War 
and the development of infantry fire, the attempt to wear full 
dress uniform on active service has been practically given up. 
Great Britain first of all adopted the Indian khaki, and then a 
drab mixture for " service dress " and returned, after 150 years, 
to the civilian style of field dress, adopting the " Norfolk jacket " 
or shooting coat with spinal pleat and roomy pockets. Germany, 
Italy, the United States and other countries have followed suit, 
though each has chosen its own shade, and the shades vary from 
light grey blue in Italy to deep olive drab in the United States. 
The details of the present-day uniforms in the principal states 
are given below. It might be stated, as a summary of modern 
uniforms, that Great Britain has most completely divorced 
service and full dress, and that in consequence her full dress is 
handsomer and her service dress plainer than those of any other 
country. Whether, for European war at any rate, the oblitera- 
tion of regimental distinctions has not been carried too far, is 
open to question. The method adopted for the Italian infantry 
would seem to give enough means of identification, without in- 
creasing visibility, and as this method was used by the British in 
the South African War, it will probably be revived in future wars. 

GREAT BRITAIN 

The full dress uniforms of the British service in 1910 had 
not undergone any radical change since the army reorganiza- 
tion of 1881. Many regiments had, however, resumed their 
original facings instead of the white common to all non-royal 
English regiments in the last twenty years of the igth century. 
But the Scottish regiments maintained their yellow or yellow-buff 
facings, and the single Irish regiment which is not " royal " (the 
Connaught Rangers) its green. Rifle regiments had astrakhan 
busbies, resembling in shape enlarged " glengarry " caps, with 
plume and lines. Details in all corps have been changed, rendering 
the uniforms more handsome. In September 1910 it was announced 
that the cloth helmet would be replaced by a shako. 

Cavalry. Household cavalry and dragoons wear single-breasted 
tunics with gold buttons, cuffs pointed with Austrian knot collars 
and shoulder-straps of the facings colour and white piping on the 

front and the skirt-flaps. The 
household cavalry wear steel 
cuirasses in review order, and in 
undress tight-fitting jackets and 
blue red-striped overalls. All 
wear steel or brass helmets, with 
drooping horsehair plumes, except 
the Scots Greys (2nd Dragoons), 
who have a grenadier bearskin 
with feather plume. All wear blue 
pantaloons and jack boots, except 
the household cavalry, who in 
full dress wear white leather 
breeches and high jack boots 
reaching above the knee. The 
stripes on the pantaloons are 
yellow, (white in 2nd and 6th 
DragoonGuards), white belts 1 and 
slings. See Plate II., line I, 
figs. 4 and 9. 

Lancers (Plate II., line I, No. 
2) wear double-breasted tunics 
with gold buttons, and the front 
or "plastron," the peculiar mark 
of the lancer, varies in colour 
with the facings of the regiment. 
Lancers wear lancer caps (the 
Polish czapka) with drooping 
plumes. Pantaloons are blue, 
with yellow stripes (white in 
17th), boots as in the dragoons. 
Round the waist is a girdle of 
yellow and red, and the cap is 
secured to the collar of the tunic 
by yellow lines. 



1 The 1st Life Guards have a 
red line, the 2nd a blue line, in 
the pouch belt. 



GREAT BRITAIN. 



UNIFORMS. 



PLATE II. 




kith Hussars, 12th Lancers. 10th Hussars. 
Officer. Officer. Officer. 



GREAT BRITAIN 



2nd Life Guards, Field Marshal 
Officer. 



MaioiOeneral. Royal Hors 
Artillery, 
Officer. 



Royal Field 6th Innis- 
Artillery, killing Dragoons 
Officer. Officer. 




\iray Servi 
Corps. 
Officer. 



Kind's Own 
Scottish 
Borderers. 



Scots Guards, 
Undress, 



Fusiliers, 
Officer. 



Royal 

Engineers, 

Officer. 



Grenadier 
Guards, 
Officer. 



Welsh Rifle Brigade, King's Own Argyll and 
Regiment, Officer. (Royal Lancaster), Sutherland 

Officer. Service Dress. Hichlanderg. 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 




15th Dragoons. 
Officer. 



Austrian 
18th Infantry. 



Hungarian 
82nd Infantry. 



Jager. 



UNIFORMS 



585 



The undress cap is in all the above blue, with bands of various 
colours, amongst which the most noticeable is the white zigzag on 
a black background of the Scots Greys. 

Hussars (Plate I., line I, figs. I and 3) wear a blue jacket, shorter 
than the ordinary tunic, braided with yellow or gold in front, 
along the back seams and on the collars and cuffs. They have no 
shoulder-straps, facings or waist-belt. The 3rd Hussars wear, how- 
ever, scarlet and the 1 3th white, collars. The distinctive head-dress 
is the cylindrical busby with an upright feather plume, lines, and 
a busby-bag on the right side. The pantaloons are blue, except for 
the I Ith Hussars, who wear crimson. Double stripes on the trousers, 
yellow (white, I3th). The undress cap is a red peaked cap. Officers' 
Hessian boots have gold edging and boss. 

Infantry. The uniforms of the four Foot Guard regiments are 
distinguished by the cuffs, which have slashed flaps and buttons, 
by the blue shoulder-straps and by the embroidery patches on the 
collar, cuff-flaps and skirts, which are analogous to the Garde- 
Litzen of continental armies. The only uniform which could be 
mistaken for it is the Royal Marine Light Infantry's (Plate IV. 
line 3, No. ll), which has also slashed flaps, but it has fewer and 
smaller embroidery patches and plain collars. All the Guard regi- 
ments wear scarlet tunics with blue collars, shoulder-straps and 
cuffs, bearskin caps, blue trousers with red piping (officers, red 
stripe). The regimental distinctions (Plate II., line 2, Nos. 3 and 
6) are: Grenadiers Buttons equally spaced, white plume, red 
cap-band. Coldstream Buttons spaced in twos, red plume, white 
cap-band. Scots Buttons in threes, no plume, diced red and 
white cap-band. Irish Buttons in fours, green plume, green cap- 
band. All wear in undress the white jacket, which is the old sleeved 
waistcoat, and peaked cap. 

The uniforms of the line infantry may be classed as Line, Light, 
Fusilier, Rifle, Lowland and Highland Scottish. The tunic in the 
first three is red, with pointed cuffs and collars of the facings colour 
(blue in Royal regiments, white in English and Welsh, yellow in 
Scottish, green in Irish, except where the older colours have been 
revived), red shoulder-straps, gold buttons and white piping, blue 
trousers with red piping. On the shoulder-strap in the case of the 
rank and file is the regimental title, on the collar the regimental 
badge. The line infantry have a dark blue helmet (Plate II., line 
2, No. 7), with brass spike and ornaments; the light infantry a dark 
green helmet of the same pattern; 1 the fusiliers (Plate II., line 2, 
ng. 4) bear or racoon skin cap with hackle plume; In undress all 
ranks have a blue (green for light infantry) peaked cap, with a 
black (royal regiments, scarlet, non-royal Irish, green) band. The 
rifle regiments (Plate II., line 2, No. 8) wear very dark green tunics 
and trousers without coloured cuffs or collars. In the King's Royal 
Rifles the scarlet piping and collar form a conspicuous distinction. 
The head-dress of the rifle regiments is an astrakhan cap with plume 
(red and black, K.R.R.; dark green and black, K.I.R.; black, Rifle 
Brigade), in undress a dark green peaked cap. 

The Lowland and Highland Scottish regiments wear a scarlet 
(Scottish Rifles, green) " doublet " with gauntlet cuffs (Plate II., 
line 2, Nos. 2 and 10.) In undress Highland regiments wear the 
white jacket. Highland regiments wear tartan kilt and plaid and 
sporran (varying with the regiments), diced hose-tops and white 
spats, Lowland regiments (also Scottish Rifles, Highland Light 
Infantry, and all mounted officers) tartan trews. The head-dress of 
Highland regiments is a " feather bonnet "-^-a loose fur cap of 
peculiar shape with hackle. The Highland Light Infantry wear a 
small shako with a red and white diced band and ball. Lowland 
regiments (except the Royal Scots Fusiliers) wear the Kilmarnock 
bonnet (Plate II., line 2, No. 2). The Scottish Rifles have a shako 
with black drooping plume. The undress cap of all Scottish infantry 
is the " glengarry.' 

The full dress of officers is similar to that of the men, but it is more 
ornamented (see below for badges of rank). In all English and Irish 
regiments clothed in scarlet a crimson waist-sash is worn by officers. 
Guards officers on ceremonial occasions wear a gold and crimson 
sash. On the collar and cuffs there are broad edgings of lace termi- 
nating in the case of the cuffs in a small Austrian knot. The rifle 
Jacket is of hussar pattern with black embroidery and a black pouch 
belt (Plate II., line 2, fig. 8.) The Highland officer has a special 
pattern of sword; in full dress the basket-hiked claymore (so- 
called) or a plainer sword decorated with ribbon, on service a plain 
cross-hiked sword. He has also a richly decorated dirk, a broad 
white baldric, and a very full sash over the left shoulder. Lowland 
officers have also the shoulder belt and claymore, &c. 

Royal Artillery. The Royal Horse Artillery (Plate II., line I, 
fig. 7) wears an old-fashioned hussar uniform, consisting of busby 
with red bag and white plume, a blue jacket with 18 rows of gold 
braid and scarlet collar. Trousers blue with red stripe. The Royal 
Field and Royal Garrison Artillery (Plate II., line I, No. 8) wear a 
blue tunic with red collar and gold lace (Austrian knot on the sleeve), 
blue trousers with red stripe, helmet with brass plate and ball orna- 
ment, waist-belt and pouch-belt (white for men, gold for officers). 
The badge is either a grenade or a device of a field gun on its 
carriage. 

1 To be replaced by a shako. 





Facings. 


Corresponding Corps and 
their facings in 1815. 
(S silver lace.) 


Line Infantry, English 






and Welsh. 






eueen's (R. West Surrey) . 


Blue 


2nd, blue (S). 


uffs (East Kent) 
King's Own (R.Lancaster) 
Royal Warwickshire . 


Buff yellow 
Blue 


3rd, buff (S). 
4th, blue. 
6th, yellow (S). 


King's Liverpool . 




8th, blue. 


Norfolk 


Yellow 


9th, yellow (S). 


Lincolnshire .... 


White 


loth, yellow (S). 


Devonshire . 


Lincoln green 


i 
I ith green. 


Suffolk 


Yellow 


I2th, yellow. 


Prince of Wales's Own 






(WestYorks) . . . 
East Yorkshire. 
Bedfordshire .... 


Buff yellow 
White 


I4th, buff (S). 
1 5th, yellow (S). 
i6th, yellow (S). 


Leicestershire .... 




I7th, white (S). 


Princess of Wales's Own 






(Yorkshire Regt.) . 
Cheshire 


Grass green 
Buff yellow 


1 9th, grass green. 
22nd buff vellow 


South Wales Borderers 
Gloucestershire. 


Grass green 
White 


24th, grass green (S). 
28th, yellow (S). 






6ist, yellow (S). 


Worcestershire .... 


H 


29th, yellow (S). 


East Lancashire 




36th, gosling green. 
3Oth, pale yellow (S). 






59th, white (S). 


East Surrey .... 


lt 


3ist, buffs (S). 






70th, black. 


West Riding (Duke of 
Wellington's) 


Scarlet 


33rd,red (S) ; 76th, 






red (S). 


Border 


White 


34th, yellow (S). 






55th, green. 


Royal Sussex .... 


Blue 


35th, orange (S). 


Hampshire 


Yellow 


I07th, (?). 
37th, yellow (S). 






67th, yellow (S). 


South Staffordshire 


White 


38th, yellow (S). 






8oth, yellow. 


Dorsetshire 


Grass green 


39th, grass green. 






54th, green (S). 


Prince of Wales's Volun- 






teers (S. Lancashire) 


White 


4Oth, buff yellow. 






82nd, yellow (S). 


Welsh 




4ist red (S). 




Jt 


69th, green. 


Essex 




44th, yellow (S). 


Sherwood Foresters (Notts 




56th, purple (S). 


and Derby) .... 
Loyal North Lancashire . 


H 


45th, dark green (S). 
47th, white (S). 






8ist, buff (S). 


Northamptonshire . 


u 


48th, buff. 






58th, black. 


Princess Charlotteof 






Wales's Royal Berkshire 


Blue 


49th, green. 


Queen's Own R. West Kent 




66th,gosling grn. (S). 
50th, black (S). 






97th, blue (S). 


Duke of Cambridge's Own 






Middlesex . . . . 


Lemon yellow 


57th, yellow. 






77th, yellow (S). 


Wiltshire (Duke of Edin- 






burgh's Own) . . 


Buff yellow 


62nd, buff (S). 






99th, pale yellow. 


Manchester 


White 


63rd, dark green (S). 






96th, buff (S). 


Prince of Wales's North 






Staffordshire .... 


,, 


64th, black. 






98th,, buff. 


York and Lancashire . 





6sth, white; 84th, 






yellow (S). 


Line Infantry, Irish. 






Royal Irish Regt. . 


Blue 


i8th, blue. 


Connaught Rangers . 


Green 


88th, yellow (S). . 






94th, green. 


Leinster Regt. (R. Cana- 


Blue 


(tooth and logth 


dian) 




late H.East India 


Light Infantry. 




Co.'s troops). 


Prince Albert's Somerset- 






shire 


Blue 


I3th, yellow (S). 


Duke of Cornwall's 


White 


32nd, white; 42nd, 






pale yellow (S). 


Oxfordshire and Bucks 


, : 


43rd, white (S). 






52nd, buff (S). 



586 



UNIFORMS 





Facings. 


Corresponding Corps and 
their facings in 1815. 
(S- silver lace.) 


Light Infantry continued. 
Yorkshire (King's Own) . . 


Blue 


5ist, grass green 
(losth H.E.India 






Co. s troops). 


Shropshire (the King's) . 


,, 


53rd, red; 8sth, 






yellow (S). 




Dark green 


68th, bottle green 






(S) (io6th H.E. 






India Co.'s 






troops). 




Buff yellow 


7ist, buff (S); 






74th, white. 


Fusiliers. 






Northumberland 
Royal (City of London) . 


Gosling green 
Blue 


Sth.gosling green (S). 
7th, blue. 


Lancashire 


White 


20th, yellow (S). 


Royal Scots 


Blue 


2 1st, blue. 


Royal Welsh 





23rd, blue. 


Royal Irish 


Jf 


27th, buff (io8th 






lateH.East India 






Co.'s troops). 


Royal Inniskilling 


ft 


87th, green; 8gth 






black. 


Royal Munster .... 





(loistand lO4th 






lateH. East India 






Co.'s troops). 


Royal Dublin .... 


ft 


(iO2nd and lO3rd, 






lateH.East India 






Co.'s troops). 


Rifles. 






Cameronians (Scottish Rifles) 


Dark green 


(Formerly 26th and 






9Oth line). 


King's Royal 


Red 


6oth Rifles, red. 


Royal Irish 


Dark green 


(Formerly 83rd and 






86th line). 


Rifle Brigade . ... . . 


Black 


95th Rifles, black. 


Line Infantry, Lowland 






Scottish. 






Royal Scots Lothian 


Blue 


1st, blue. 


King's Own Scottish Bor- 










25th, blue. 


Highlanders. 






.Black Watch (Royal Hrs.) 


H 


42nd, blue; 73rd, 






dark green. 


Seaforth 


Buff yellow 


72nd, yellow (S). 




Yellow 


75th, yellow; 






92nd yellow (S). 


Queen's Own Cameron Hrs. . 


Blue 


79th, dark green. 


Princess Louise's (Argyll and 




gist, yellow (S). 


Sutherland Hrs.) . 


Yellow 


93rd, yellow (S). 



Royal Engineers (Plate II., line 2, No.s). Scarlet tunic with garter, 
blue cuffs and collar, yellow shoulder-cords and piping, blue trousers 
with red stripe, helmet with royal arms on plate, and spike. Waist- 
belt white for men, gold-laced russia leather for officers, who wear also 
a pouch-belt of russia leather with a wavy gold lion in the centre. 

Army Service Corps (Plate II., line 2, No. i). Blue tunic with white 
facings and white piping. Helmet with ball and plate, trousers 
blue with double white stripe. Officers, gold belts. Royal Army 
Medical Corps, blue uniform with magenta facings; Army Veterinary 
Corps, blue with maroon facings; Army Pay Corps, blue with yellow 
facings; Army Ordnance Corps, blue with rea facings. The West India 
Regiment (negroes) wear a red sleeveless jacket over a white smock, 
baggy dark blue trousers, and a round cap with white puggaree. 

The distinguishing mark of the staff officer in full dress is the 
aiguillette and the cocked hat with upright or drooping plume; in 
undress and service dress the red gorget patches on the collar. The 
full-dress uniforms of a field marshal and a general officer are shown in 
Plate II., line I, Nos. 5 and 6. 

Badges of Rank. All officers have twisted gold shoulder-cords 
(except Foot Guards, who wear a blue cloth shoulder-strap with lace 
edges) ; on these cords badges of rank are worn as follows: 2nd lieu- 
tenant, lieutenant and captain, i, 2 and 3 stars; major, crown; lieu- 
tenant-colonel, crown and star; colonel, crown and 2 stars; brigadier- 
general, crossed swords; generals, sword and baton crossed, and (major- 
general)star; (lieutenant-general), crown; (general), crown and star ; 
field marshal, crossed batons in a laurel wreath with crown above. 
In service dress (khaki), however, the badges are worn in worsted 
on a slashed flap of the sleeve, coupled with rings of braid (i for a 
2nd lieutenant or lieutenant, 2 for a captain, &c.). Non-commissioned 
officers wear chevrons (point downwards) on the upper right arm; 
lance-corporal or acting bombardier,! ; corporal,2 ; sergeant,3 ; colour- 
sergeant, 3 chevrons and crossed colours ; staff -sergeant, 4 chevrons. 
On the lower part of the lef tarmchevrons(point up) are worn as "good 



conduct " badges. A sergeant-major is dressed as an officer, except 
that he has a crown on the lower part of the right sleeve). There 
are also badges of proficiency such as crossed rifles for marksmen, 
a spur for rough-riders, a fleur-de-lys for scouts, &c. 

Regimental Badges. The grenade in various forms is worn by the 
Royal Artillery, the Grenadier Guards and the Fusilier regiments. 
The figure of Britannia was awarded to the (gth) Norfolk regiment 
for gallantry at Almanza, 1707. The White Horse of Hanover was 
given to some regiments for service against the Jacobites. The Lion 
of England was awarded by William III. to the King's Own (Royal 
Lancaster) Regiment for services against the troops of James II. 
The Queen's (Royal West Surrey) Regiment wear a Paschal Lamb, 
the badge of Catherine of Braganza, queen of Charles II. The 
Dragon of Wales figures among the badges of all the Welsh regiments. 
Several regiments wear a castle and key in memory of services at 
Gibraltar, others have a tiger for services in India and still more a 
sphinx for Egyptian campaigns. The most general of all badges 
though not the most generally worn is the " stripped " rose. Nearly 
all corps possess several badges, which are combined in various ways. 

The special interest of these badges is that they are peculiar to the 
British army. Although a badge of the branch (infantry, cavalry, 
&c.) is common, no other army wears distinctive regimental devices. 

A few details of general practice may be added. All cavalry 
wear a pouch-belt over the left shoulder. The crimson infantry 
sash is worn by officers round the waist and by sergeants across the 
body and over the right shoulder. All officers and sergeants who 
do not wear the sash, to whatever branch they belong, have a pouch- 
belt, the pattern of course varying. Ankle boots (and sometimes 
leggings with them) are worn by dismounted men. Swords, except 
in the case of Scottish infantry, are worn suspended by slings from 
a belt (the belt in infantry, rifles and hussars being worn under the 
tunic or sash). On foreign service the uniform is varied according 
to circumstances, the most usual change being from the full dress 
head-dress to the white helmet. 

The full dress of the territorial army varies greatly, sometimes 
conforming exactly to the uniform of the corresponding regular units, 
sometimes keeping to its original " Rifle " character in grey or green 
of various shades. The latter conform to the rules of the dress 
of " Rifles " (e.g wear pouch-belts instead of sashes), and the former, 
though in many cases the silver lace and ornaments of the old volun- 
teer force are retained, to those for the regulars, the distinguishing 
mark in all cases being the letter " T " on the shoulder or collar. 
The yeomanry cavalry is variously attired, some old regiments 
possessing rich old-fashioned hussar uniforms, others of recent 
formation wearing " service " colours only. Some regiments are 
dressed as dragoons, but the great majority are hussars. The 
infantry and artillery of the Honourable Artillery Company of 
London are dressed somewhat after the fashion of the Grenadier 
Guards and the Royal Horse Artillery. 

Undress Uniforms. In " walking-out " order most troops wear 
the tunic, Household Cavalry and Dragoons with waist-belts and 
sword-slings, lancers with girdle (R.F.A. and Army Service Corps 
also wear girdles in walking-out order), infantry and all other branches 
except hussars with waist-belt. Sergeants of infantry wear the sash 
and side-arms, the latter privilege being accorded also to corporals 
of the guards regiments. White gloves are worn by sergeants. 
Since the general introduction of khaki service dress, undress uni- 
forms of red, blue, &c., have mostly disappeared, but the blue serge 
" jumper " is still retained. Officers of infantry (except in hussars 
and Rifles) have undress frock coats of various patterns. With these 
the " Sam Browne " equipment brown leather waist-belt, frog and 
the sash and slings are worn, but with the jumper and service frock, 
braces. Field officers have an edging of braid on the peak of the 
undress caps, staff and general officers an oak-leaf design. 

Service Dress. This, since the conclusion of the Boer War, is 
universally khaki serge, of shooting-coat pattern, with a spinal pleat 
and four large pockets; all buttons and badges are in bronze. It 
has a double collar. A peaked cap, breeches or trousers, and puttees 
of the same colour are worn with it. The universal pattern great- 
coat and macintosh are also khaki coloured. The guards and staff 
officers, however, wear a light grey overcoat. 

Mess Dress, for officers, after undergoing various modifications, 
now almost universally consists of a jacket with roll collar, waistcoat, 
and overalls and patent leather Wellington boots, the colours 
following in the mam those of the full dress. 

It remains to mention a few of the many regimental distinctions, 
trifling in themselves yet of the greatest importance as fostering 
regimental pride and as recalling specially gallant services in the old 
wars. The officers of the 7th Hussars and the Oxfordshire and 
Buckinghamshire Light Infantry wear linen collars with their 
undress uniforms. The Royal Welsh Fusiliers have a bow of black 
velvet (called a " flash," this being an obsolete slang word for " wig ") 
sewn to the back of the collar a survival of the old-fashioned method 
of tying the hair in a club queue. The officers of certain regiments, in 
memory of severe losses, wear a black line in their gold lace. To com- 
memorate Culloden the sergeants of the Somersetshire Light Infantry 
wear their sashes over the left shoulder as officers used to do. Until 
after the South African War the only fusilier regiment that wore 
plumed busbies was the Northumberland Fusiliers; now, however, 
all fusiliers wear a hackle (in the order of regiments shown in the 



UNIFORMS 



587 



table: red and white; white; primrose; white; white; grey; green; 
white and green; blue and green). The (28th) Gloucestershire regi- 
ment wears two badges on the helmet, to commemorate its having 
fought facing both ways, ranks back to back, at Alexandria in 1801. 

Indian Native Army. The uniforms of the Indian army vary 
infinitely in details, owing to the different methods of tying the 
turban, &c., practised by different castes and tribes, and to the 
strictly regimental system of clothing and equipping the soldier. 
But the infantry, except the Gurkha Rifles, have tunics of similar 
pattern, viz. long skirted, without collars, and (if scarlet) with 
round cuffs, flaps and broad edgings on the front of the tunic of the 
facings colour. The trousers are dark blue and wide, and spats are 
worn with them (Plate III., line 3, No. 4). Gurkhas (Plate III., line 
3, No. 5) are dressed as Rifles, except that their head-dress is a round 
cap. The pattern of cavalry uniform, which is generally followed 
whatever the colours and regimental distinctions, is shown on 
Plate III., line 3, No. 3. 

In the main the dress of the native cavalry is dark blue. Five 
of the regiments wear red, the three Madras corps French grey, the 
Hyderabad and one other green, and only three drab. One regi- 
ment, the ist, wears a yellow uniform, being perhaps the only one 
so clothed in the world. 

Native artillery units wear blue with red facings, native engineer 
units, red with blue facings. The Queen's Own Corps of Guides 
wears drab with red facings. 

The greater part of the infantry wears, in full dress, scarlet, the 
various facings following no discoverable system, although certain 
groups of regiments have a regular colour scheme. 

A large number of regiments are clothed in drab, and there are 
Gurkha and other rifles in green; the remarkable Baluchi uniforms 
(green and drab with baggy red trousers) are unique in the British 
Empire. 

The regiments of the Australian Commonwealth, with certain 
exceptions, wear khaki or drab with white facings and emu plume 
in the cavalry and green facings in the infantry. The same principle 
is carried out in other services, the intelligence corps having pale 
blue, the signal corps royal purple, the medical chocolate and the 
veterinary maroon facings. The artillery, engineers and army 
service corps are dressed as the corresponding branches of the home 
army. All the Canadian forces are uniformed very similarly to the 
British army. The 6th Dragoon Guards and the I3th Hussars are 
the models for the cavalry, and line, rifle, highland and fusilier 
uniforms are all represented, the dark rifle uniform predominating. 
In South Africa, as in Australia, khaki has become almost universal. 

FRANCE 

The Revolutionary simplification of the varied uniforms of 
the Ancien Regime has endured to the present day. Even in the 
various waves of flamboyant military fashions they have remained 
simple in the sense that all troops of an arm or branch were dressed 
practically alike, with none of the regimental differences that 
England, deferring to tradition, and Germany, systematizing the 
ordre de bataille to the last detail, preserved and introduced. 

The line infantry wears a single-breasted blue tunic with red collar, 
a small red flap on the cuff, red epaulettes and gold buttons. The 
number of the regiment appears on a blue collar patch. The cap 
is a madder-red kepi, with blue band, brass grenade, tricolour 
cockade and a ball. The trousers are loose, madder-red, and worn 
either with shoes and gaiters or with high ankle boots. The men 
usually march in the blue double-breasted greatcoat, under which 
is worn the plain veste (Plate III., line 2, No. l). With this is 
worn a kepi without ornaments and having the number in front. 
The officers wear a tunic of a different blue, almost black; otherwise, 
except for rank badges, it is similar to the men's; epaulettes and 
braid, gold. The officers' full dress kdpi has a golden ball and the 
trousers have a black stripe (Plate III., line I, No. l). 

The chasseur battalions (Plate III., line 2, No. 2) wear the same 
pattern of tunic as the line, but the collar and cuffs are self-coloured, 
the epaulettes green, the trousers grey-blue with yellow piping, 
kepidarkbluewithyellowedgingsand green ball, buttons, &c., silver. 
Chasseur officers are dressed as the men (with the usual officer's 
blue-black tunic), but have a drooping green plume. The Alpine 
battalions wear a plain dark blue jumper and soft cap (beret) or tam- 
o'-shanter. Under the jumper, which is usually half-open, they 
wear a light blue shawl round the waist. The trousers are wide, 
dark blue knickerbockers, and puttees are worn with them. 

The Zouaves (Plate III., line I , No. 8) wear dark blue red-trimmed 
jackets and waistcoats, with a light blue cummerbund, baggy red 
trousers with blue piping and <jark blue or white spats. The head- 
dress is a red tasselled cap (chechia). The " false pockets " round 
which the braid circles on the front of the jacket are red for the ist, 
white for the 2nd, yellow for the 3rd and blue for the 4th Zouaves. 
Zouave officers have the ordinary officer's tunic, with blue-black 
collar and gold ornaments, but wear it unbuttoned (showing a red 
cummerbund) and without epaulettes. The cuff is pointed and slit 
almost to the elbow, the edges of the slit being gold laced according 
to rank and having a scarlet lining. Only the service kepi is worn. 
The red trousers have the usual black stripe, and are cut very wide. 

The Turcos are dressed similarly to the Zouaves, but with light 
blue jackets and waistcoats, light blue or white trousers, red cummer- 



bund and yellow braid ; the four regiments are distinguished among 
themselves in the same way as the four Zouave units. Their officers 
have a light blue tunic with yellow collar, Zouave cuff, red trousers 
with light blue stripe; kepi red, with light blue band. 

The Foreign Legion is dressed as line infantry, with certain minor 
distinctions. The colonial (formerly marine) infantry wears a 
double-breasted tunic with gold buttons, blue grey trousers and 
dark blue kepi with red piping, plain collar and cuffs. The full 
dress cap badge is an anchor. 

Cavalry. Cuirassiers (Plate III., line I, No. 3) wear dark blue 
tunics with red collars and cuff-flaps, silver ornaments and steel 
cuirasses, steel helmet with brass ornaments, black horsehair tail, 
red " shaving-brush " at the front of this tail and another shaving- 
brush, of colour varying with the squadron, &c., on the left side of 
the helmet. The trousers are red (officers with dark blue stripes, 
men with blue piping). The number is borne on a blue collar patch. 
The officers wear silver, the men red, epaulettes. Undress cap as 
infantry, silver-laced for officers. 

Dragoons wear blue tunics (the black-braided " dolman, " shown 
on Plate III., line I, No. 6, is gradually passing out of the service) 
with white collars and cuff-flaps, silver buttons, &c., helmet as for 
cuirassiers, but without the " shaving-brush " at the front of the 
horsehair tail, trousers red with dark blue stripe. The men wear 
shoulder-cords instead of epaulettes, and the officers only wear their 
silver epaulettes on ceremonial duties. The number appears on a 
blue collar patch. Undress cap as for cuirassiers. 

Chasseurs & cheval (Plate III., line I, No. 7) wear a light blue 
tunic or dolman (the latter black-braided) with silver buttons, red 
collars and cuff-flaps. The trousers are red with light blue piping 
(two broad and one narrow light blue stripes between for officers). 
The full dress head-dress is a light blue shako, with dark green 
plume in full dress, coloured ball in other orders. The badge on 
the shako is a brass bugle. The kepi is red with light blue band 
and piping (silver braid for officers). Number on the collar. 

Hussars are dressed as chasseurs a cheval, but with white braiding 
on the dolman instead of black, and self-coloured collar. The badge 
on the shako is an Austrian knot. 

The Chasseurs d' Afrique wear the half-open veste, which is light 
blue with yellow collar and edgings. The cuff is slit in the Zouave 
style, the visible lining being yellow. A red cummerbund is worn. 
The shako is almost invariably worn with a white cover and neck 
curtain. The trousers are red. Officers as the corresponding 
chasseur officers in France, but with yellow instead of red collars, &c. 

The native Algerian cavalry, the Spahis, wear national costume 
red jacket with black braiding, red cummerbund, light blue wide 
trousers, and red morocco boots. Above this they wear a flowing 
red mantle of thick cloth, and over this mantle the ample white 
burnous, which covers the head and shoulders. Their French officers 
wear a red tunic, with self-coloured collar and cuffs, gold buttons and 
epaulettes, number with crescent in gold on the collar, gjold rings on 
cuff according to rank, trousers as for the hussars, &c., in France. 

Artillery. The rank and file wear blue tunics or dolmans (more 
usually, however, the veste). The dolman has black braiding but 
a red shoulder-cord, and has red collar, with black patch and number, 
and red pointed cuffs; buttons, &c., gold. The trousers are dark 
blue, with two broad and one narrow red stripe. The kepi is dark 
blue, with dark blue band and red ornaments, the full dress cap 
having a badge, in red, of crossed guns and grenade. Artillery 
officers wear a black-braided dolman (blue-black) with gold shoulder- 
cord and Austrian knot. Their kepi has the artillery badge in 
brass, gold braid, and a red plume. Plate III., line I, No. 5 shows 
an artijiery officer serving on the general staff. 

Engineers, dark blue tunic with gold buttons, black red-edged 
collar patches bearing the number in red, black red-edged flap on cuffs ; 
red epaulettes, trousers and kepi as for artillery. Engineer officers 
have the same tunic as infantry, without facings, and the engineer 
badge (a cuirass and helmet) on the full dress kepi. 

Train (Army Service Corps), blue-grey dolman, black-braided, 
with red collar, black braid on the cuff, and red shoulder-cord; 
infantry kepi, officers as officers of the chasseurs a cheval but with 
(silver) Austrian knot on the sleeve, and red plume. Medical officers 
have dark blue dolman, red trousers with black stripe, and red 
collars and cuffs. Their distinctive marks are a whole red kepi 
(with gold braid), awhite armlet with the red cross, Aesculapius' staff 
on the collar, gold-laced shoulder-strap, and a curious pouch-belt 
which is entirely wrapped in a red cloth cover that buttons over it. 

Generals wear in full dress the uniform shown in Plate III., 
line I, No. 4, with some distinctions of rank. In undress they wear 
a dark blue jacket with black braiding, the black Austrian knot on 
the sleeve carrying the silver stars of rank; trousers red with black 
stripe; kepi red, with a blue band covered by gold, oak leaf lace. 
General staff officers (see Plate III., line I, No. 5) wear their regi- 
mental uniform, with gold ,or silver aiguillettes, and on the collar, 
instead of the regimental number, the thunderbolt badge of the 
staff, the badge or number being removed also from the kepi. 
Their special distinctions are the armlet and the plume, which vary 
according to the staff to which the officer belongs. 

Badges of Rank. ^General officers (on the epaulette or on the 
Austrian knot), one silver star for general of brigade, two for general 
of division. Other officers (rings on the cuff and kepi band, or 



5 88 



UNIFORMS 



strands of braid on the Austrian knot), I for sub-lieutenant, 2 for 
lieutenant, 3 for captain, 4 for commandant, 5 (3 gold and 2 silver) 
for lieutenant-colonel, 5 for colonel (Plate III., line I, figs. I and 5). 
Epaulettes: sub-lieutenant, _ I with fringe on right shoulder and 
i scale on left; lieutenant, fringed on left and scale on right shoulder; 
captain, both fringed; commandant, as sub-lieutenant but with 
thicker fringe; lieutenant-colonel and colonel, both with thick fringes 
(in the case of the lieutenant-colonel the body is silver). The 
vertical braids of the kepi also vary according to rank. Field officers 
as a rule wear in full dress " shaving brush " plumes instead of a ball. 
Under-Officers. The badge is a stripe crossing the lower half of 
the sleeve diagonally; lance-corporals I, corporals 2 worsted stripes; 
sergeants i, sergeant-majors 2 gold or silver stripes. The "adju- 
tant," who corresponds to the British sergeant-major, has a ring 
of lace, like an officer's, but narrower. 

GERMANY 

The infantry of the Prussian Guard wear single-breasted dark 
Prussian blue tunics with red piping on front and skirt flaps, 
or gold buttons (ist and 5th Foot Guards and Guard Fusiliers silver), 
white belts (3rd or " Fusilier " battalions and the Guard Fusiliers 
black), red collars and cuffs, spiked helmets with, in full dress, 
white plumes (Guard Fusiliers black). Guard distinctions through- 
out Germany take the form of " guard-stripes," collar stripes of 
embroidery, and similar stripes forming false buttonholes round the 
buttons on the cuff, whether these are of the " Brandenburg " 
(plain flap with 3 buttons), " French " (slashed flap with 3 buttons), 
or " Swedish " (round cuff with buttons along the top edge) pattern. 

The ist to 4th Foot Guards have two guard-stripes on the collar, 
Swedish cuff with stripes, and white, red, yellow and light blue 
(the ordinary German indicative sequence) shoulder-straps. The 
Guard Fusiliers have the same uniform with yellow shoulder-straps 
and plume and belt as stated above. The ist to 4th Grenadier Guards 
have double guard -stripes, red " Brandenburg " cuffs with blue 
flaps and embroidered stripes, shoulder-straps coloured in the same 
order as the Foot Guards. The 5th Foot Guards and 5th Grenadier 
Guards (of later formation) wear only a single guard-stripe; these 
return to white shoulder-straps in the sequence, and both have the 
blue flap and, stripes. Service cap as in the line. For gala wear 
the 3rd battalion of the ist Foot Guards, and all battalions of the 
ist Grenadier Guards, wear the old mitre cap, once of cloth, but now 
become rigid and consisting of a metal front plate and a stiff red 
cap behind it. 

The line infantry Bother than Bavarians, Saxons, Wurttembergers, 
&c.) wear blue tunic with gold buttons, red piping, and red collar. 
The cuffs, also red, are of the " Brandenburg " pattern, plain round 
with a small red flap. The shoulder straps bear the number, or 
cipher. The head-dress is a small black leather helmet with brass 
Prussian eagle badge and spike. The trousers are dark grey with 
red piping, the equipment of black leather, the boots of Wellington 
pattern (the trousers being tucked into them). The greatcoat is 
grey with shoulder-straps as on tunic and a collar patch of the cuff- 
flap colour. The service cap is a round cap without peak, dark blue 
with red band and piping, and two cockades, " national " and 
"imperial." Exceptions to these rules are: Prussian grenadiers 
(Nos. I to 12) wear black horsehair plumes and white belts, Mecklen- 
burg grenadiers No. 89, Queen's Fusiliers No. 86, Brunswick regi- 
ment No. 92, I45th Prussian regiment, black plumes. 

The Prussian and quasi-Prussian portions of the army follow a 
clear rule as to the badge of the army corps. The infantry of each 
corps has shoulder-straps of uniform colour, and when a regiment 
changes its corps it changes its shoulder-strap. There is a further 
distinguishing mark on the cuff-flap: 





i. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


VI. 


VII. 


VIII. 


Shoulder-strap 
Cuff-flap pip- 
ing ... 


White 
White 


White 
Nfl 


Red 
White 


Red 
Nil 


Yellow 
White 


Yellow 
Nil 


Lt. blue 
White 


Lt. blue 
Nil 




IX. 


X. 


XI. 


XV. 


XVI. 


XVII. 


XVIII. 


XX.l 


Shoulder-strap 
Cuff-flap pip- 
ing 


White 
Yellow 


White 
Lt. blue 


Red 
Yellow 


Red 
Lt. blue 


Yellow 
Yellow 


Yellow 

Lt. blue 


Lt. blue 
Yellow 


Lt. blue 
Lt . blue 



Except in regiments (such as the guards of the smaller states now 
numbered in the line of the army, and a few others) where the blue 
flap and guard-stripes are worn, the greater part of the Prussian 
regiments wear the historic red flap; but there came a time when 
the system of indicating regimental variations had to be expanded, 
and thereafter (from No. 145 inclusive onwards) red and white flaps 
were given alternately to new regiments, in such a way that there 
was one " white " regiment in each .corps. The I. corps on the 
Russian frontier, being further 1 reinforced, received one regiment 
with a vellow (isoth) and one with a light blue flap (isist). 

Guard distinctions are worn by the Mecklenburg Grenadiers, 
No. 89, double guard-stripe on collar, blue cuff-flap with red piping 
and embroidery ; by the 7th Prussian Grenadiers, single guard-stripe 
and blue flap with embroidery (edged with V. corps colour) ; by the 
1st, 2nd, 3rd and 8th Prussian Grenadiers and by the 8oth Fusiliers 

* Not yet formed. 



(formerly the elector of Hesse's bodyguard), single guard-stripe 
and embroidery on the ordinary red cuff-flap. 

The infantry of Hesse-Darmstadt, Wurttemberg and Baden are 
similarly uniformed to those of Prussia, the distinctions being easily 
described. The five " Grand Ducal Hessian " regiments (115-118 
and 168) have not the corps (XVIII.) distinction, and have 
both shoulder-straps and cuff-flap of the same colour (red, white, 
light blue, yellow and red), the senior regiment, 115 (bodyguard 
regiment), having double guard-stripe on the collar and guard 
patches on the flap. A very marked distinction is in the buttons, 
which are invariably silver, and in the helmet badge, which is a lion 
rampant. The first three regiments wear a black plume. 



reg 

cuft, also plumed helmets. 1 he remainder have red shoulder-straps 
and red cuff-flaps edged with light blue, like the XV. army corps, 
and the only conspicuous distinction is the royal arms instead of the 
eagle on the helmet. The i2Oth also wears the grenadier plume. 

Of the Baden regiments, the logth and noth (guards and 
grenadiers) have white plumes and white shoulder-straps, the logth 
having the Swedish cuff with patches, the double guard stripe, and 
silver buttons. The remainder have yellow, red, light blue and green 
shoulder-straps; there is no edging to the flap. The only distin- 
guishing mark for these is the Baden device (a griffin and a shield) 
on the helmet. 

The Saxon infantry, though assimilated to the Prussian in most 
respects, is distinguished by various well-marked peculiarities. All 
shoulder-straps are self-coloured and edged with red. All Saxon 
regiments have either the " Swedish " or more usually the so- 
called " German " plain round cuff (red), with two buttons on back 
seam. The guard and grenadier regiments, looth and loist, have 
black plumes, double guard-stripes and " Swedish " cuffs. The 
helmet has an eight-pointed brass star. The io8th is a rifle regiment, 
and wears a green tunic with black red-edged collar and cuffs, dark 
grey trousers and a shako with black plume looped to one side in 
the Austrian fashion. The service cap of this corps is green with 
black piping and band. A peculiarity of the Saxons is that the 
bottom edges of the tunics are edged with red, as well as the front, 
and the skirt flaps are very short. 

The Bavarian infantry has retained its historic light blue uniform, 
though in most details the Prussian model has been accepted. Tunic 
and trousers are light blue with red piping, red cuffs, collars and 
shoulder-straps. The Bavarian bodyguard regiment has red collar 
with double guard-stripe, red Swedish cuff with stripes, red shoulder- 
straps and silver buttons, but no plume. The line has gold buttons 
and appointments and " Brandenburg " cuffs, flaps edged according 
to the usual sequence (I. corps white, II. none, III. yellow). The 
service cap is light blue with red band and piping. Belts black. 

Jagers and Schiitzen. The Jager uniform is bright green, with 
red collars, piping and Swedish cuffs (Prussian Guard, double guard- 
stripe and cuff-stripes), gold buttons, trousers as for line, and a 
small shako with drooping black plume. The Mecklenburg battalion 
No. 14, however, has light green collars, cuffs and shoulder-straps 
edged with red, and double guard-stripe and cuff-stripes. The 
Guard Schiitzen battalion (originally a French-speaking corps from 
Neuchatel) has black collars and cuffs, edged with red shoulder- 
straps, double guard-stripe and green red-edged " French " (i.e. 
slashed) cuff-flaps with stripes; and the Jager battalions of the 
XII. and XVIII. corps have exactly the same uniform as the 
Saxon Schutzen regiment already mentioned, silver buttons being 
substituted for gold. The Bavarian Jager battalions have light 
blue uniforms with green facings, Swedish cuff, and shako. In 
all these the field cap is of the colour of the uniform, the band of 
the colour of the collar, the piping as on the tunic. 

Cavalry. The heavy cavalry consists of the Prussian Gardes du 
Corps and Guard Cuirassiers, the eight line cuirassier regiments, and 
the Saxon and Bavarian " heavy cavalry." In most of these cuirasses 
of black or bright iron or of brass (with or without breast decora- 
tions), and even cuirass-shaped remnants of the old buff coat, in 
richly decorated leather, are worn on ceremonial occasions. The 
head-dress is a helmet of burgonet shape. The ordinary full dress 
of Prussian cuirassiers is a white long-skirted tunic (called a Roller) 
with white shoulder-straps and collars, edged along the collar and 
down the front (which is hooked, not buttoned) with broad braid 
(white, with lines of the regimental colour). The Swedish cuffs, 
edged with similar braid, are of the regimental colour, of which 
colour there is also a patch on the collar and piping round the 
shoulder-straps and back seams. In full dress white trousers, 
otherwise dark grey trousers with red piping, are worn. The 
undress tunic is dark blue of the ordinary buttoned pattern, but 
with braided cuffs, white shoulder-strap and collar-patch and braid 
as in full dress. The field cap is of the tunic colour with band of 
the regimental colour. The belts are white. High jack-boots are worn. 
The guard regiments have double guard-stripe and cuff-stripes. 

The Saxon heavy cavalry wears light blue braided cuirassier 
tunics, with brass scales instead of shoulder-straps, white piping, 
brass helmets with the Saxon star device, Swedish cuffs cut gauntlet- 
wise, white or light blue trousers, light blue cap, and white belts. 
In the ist Guard regiment the collar and cuffs are white, the braid 
light blue and white, the helmet ornament a silver lion, the cap- 



FRANCE. 



UNIFORMS. 



PLATE III. 




Infantry of the Line Hussar. 
Lieutenant. 



Cuirassiers, 
Captain. 



General of Brigade, Artillery (Lieut. Dragoons. Chasseurs a 3rd Zouaves. 

Full Dress. on General Staff). Cheval Sub-Lieut. 



FRANCE. 



RUSSIA. 




Infantry, 
Service 
dress. 



General 

Officer, 

Full dress 



Lieut.-Colonel, 

Infantry, 

Full dress. 



Captain, 
Infantry. 
Undress. 



UNIFORMS 



band white; in the 2nd Carabineers collar and cuffs black, braid 
black and white, helmet ornament a brass spike, cap-band black. 
The Bavarian heavy cavalry is dressed in dragoon fashion light 
blue tunic, red facings, light blue collar edging, light blue trousers 
with red stripe, helmet with white plume. 1st regiment has silver 
buttons, the 2nd gold. 



589 





Helmet. 


Facings. 


Blue Tunic 
Facings. 


Buttons. 


G. du Corps 


Brass with 


Red 


Red 


Silver 




silver eagle (or 










spike) 








G. Cuirassiers 




Blue 


Blue 




I 


Steel with 


Black 


Black 






brass spike 








2 


I* 


Dark red 


Dark red 




3 




Light blue 


Light blue 




4 


u 


Red 


Red 






ii 


Pink 


Pink 


Gold 


6 


Brass with 


Dark blue 


Poppy-red 


if 




silver spike 








7 ,- 


Steel with 


Yellow 


Yellow 






brass spike 








8 


.. 


Green 


Green 


.. 



The line dragoon regiments, other than those of Oldenburg, 
Mecklenburg, Baden, Wurttemberg, and Grand Ducal Hesse 
(Saxony and Bavaria have no dragoons) wear light blue tunics with 
collars, shoulder-straps (with number), piping and cuffs of the 
regimental colour. The cuffs are Swedish. The trousers are blue- 
black without stripe. The helmet is black leather, very similar 
to the infantry helmet, with black horsehair plume. The regimental 
distinctions follow a regular scheme thus : 



Regiment. 


I 


2 


3 


4 


S 


6 


7 


8 


Facing . . . 
Collar edging 
Buttons and 
ornaments. 


Scarlet 
Lt. blue 

Gold 


Black 
Lt. blue 

Gold 


Pink 
Lt. blue 

Silver 


Yellow 
Lt. blue 

Silver 


Scarlet 
Lt. blue 

Silver 


Black 
Lt. blue 

Silver 


Pink 
Lt. blue 

Gold 


Yellow 
Lt. blue 

Gold 


Regiment. 


9 


10 


ii 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


16 


Facing . . . 
Collar edging 
Buttons and 
ornaments. 


White 
Lt. blue 

Gold 


White 
Lt. blue 

Silver 


Crimson 
Lt. blue 

Gold 


Crimson 
Lt. blue 

Silver 


Scarlet 
White 

Gold 


Black 
White 

Gold 


Pink 
White 

Silver 


Yellow 
White 

Silver 



The 1 7th and 1 8th (Mecklenburg) have respectively scarlet 
facings and gold buttons, and black facings with silver buttons. 
They have the double guard-stripe and cuff stripes. The igth 
(Oldenburg) have the ordinary uniform with black facings and 
silver buttons, but white shoulder-straps. 

The Baden regiments (20, 21 and 22) have light blue uniforms 
with scarlet, yellow and black facings, light blue, light blue and 
red edgings, "and silver buttons. They have white plumes instead 
of black, and the Baden device on the helmet. The Hessian regi- 
ments (23 and 24) have dark green tunics; the 23rd have double 
guard-stripe, cuff stripes and scarlet facings; the 24th the ordinary 
tunic with white facings, and both silver buttons. The Wurttem- 
bergers (25 and 26) have white and yellow facings respectively, 
collar edging light blue, buttons gold and silver respectively; the 
25th regiment has double guard-stripe and cuff stripes, and white 
plume. Belts are white throughout, except in the Hessian units, 
which have black. 

The Prussian Guard Dragoons have light blue uniforms and red 
facings, double guard-stripes, and cuff stripes. Buttons gold in 
the ist, silver in the 2nd. White plumes. 

The uniforms of the eight Bavarian regiments of Chevaulegers 
resemble those of dragoons. They wear the black dragoon helmet 
and white plumes, dark green tunics, trousers and undress cap, 
and white belts. They also have the dragoon cuffs. But they have 
the double-breasted lancer tunic with front and piping of the 
regimental colour; crimson 1st and 2nd; pink 3rd and 6th ; scarlet 
4th and 5th; white 7th and 8th; the first of each pair having gold, 
the second silver ornaments. 

The Lancers (Ulanen) wear the usual lancer uniform of czapka, 
double-breasted tunic with plastron, and girdle. The trousers are 
dark grey, the plume white. The girdle is of the uniform colour 
edged with the facings colour. The cuff is the so-called " Polish," 
a round, slightly pointed cuff with a button (and where appropriate 
a guard-stripe) in the middle of the pointed portion. The collar 
is edged with the uniform colour. Regimental distinctions in the 
line are as shown in table at the top of next column. 

Guard Ulans: dark blue tunic with double guard-stripe and cuff 
stripes, and dark grey trousers; 1st, red facings, and piping, white 
turnback (piped red) , white czapka ; 2nd, scarlet facings and czapka ; 
3rd, yellow facings and czapka. 

I7th, 1 8th and 2ist (Saxon), light blue tunics and trousers, 
crimson facings, double guard-stripes and cuff stripes, brass scales, 
white piping. Czapkas white, crimson, light blue. Undress caps 
white, igth and 2Oth (Wurttemberg), dark blue uniforms, dark 



grey trousers, facings and czapkas scarlet in igth, yellow in 2Oth. 
1 9th double guard-stripe and cuff stripe. Ornaments silver, ist 
and 2nd Bavarian Ulans, dark green tunics and trousers, crimson 
lacings and czapkas, white belts instead of girdles; ist eold 2nd 
silver ornaments. 





I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Facings and 


















piping . . 
Czapka and 


Scarlet 


Scarlet 


Scarlet 


Scarlet 


Scarlet 


Scarlet 


Scarlet 


Scarlet 


ground of 


















scale . . . 
Ornaments . 


White 
Gold 


Scarlet 
Gold 


Yellow 
Gold 


Lt. blue 
Gold 


White 
Silver 


Scarlet 
Silver 


Yellow 
SUver 


Lt. blue 
Silver 




( 


lo 


ii 


13 


>3 


14 


IS 


16 


Facings and 


















piping . . 

Czapka and 


White 


Crimson 


YeUow 


Lt.blue* 


White 


Zrimson 


Yellow 


Lt.blue* 


ground of 


















scale . . . 
Ornaments . 


White 
Gold 


Crimson 
Gold 


Yellow 
Gold 


Lt. blue 
Gold 


White 
Silver 


Crimson 
SUver 


Yellow 
Silver 


Lt. blue 
Silver 



* These two regiments have white piping. 
The Hussars are very richly dressed, many having the slung 
pelisse. The front cuffs, back seams and collar are braided. The 
busby is low and slightly conical, the busby-bag hanging over 
towards the back on the left side. On the front of the busby are 
various decorations. Round the waist is a white girdle intertwined 
with the colours of the state to which the regiment belongs. A 
plain shoulder cord is worn. The trousers are dark grey with lace 
stripe. The Hessian boots have embroidered top and boss. The 
five senior regiments preserve the unusual colours indicative of 
their irregular origin. The remainder are clothed in dark and light 
blue, or green. All wear a white (gold or silver officers) pouch-belt, 
white plumes. The undress cap is of the colour of the tunic, with 
various bands. 





Uniform. 


Busby-bag. 


Lace and 
Braid. 


Pelisse. 


Guard 


Scarlet 


Scarlet 


Gold 


Dark blue 


I 

2 

3 
4 
5 


Black 

Dull vermilion 
Brown 
Dark red 


Red 
White 
Vermilion 
Yellow 
Dark red 


Silver 
ii 

Gold 
Silver 


Black 
Dark blue 


8 
14 
15 


Dark blue 

ff 
ii 


Red 
Light blue 
Red 
Yellow 


Gold 
Silver 
if 


Dark blue 
Dark blue 


9 

12 
13 

16 


Light blue 
if 
ii 


Light blue 
White 
Red 
Yellow 


Gold 
Silver 


Light blue 
Light blue 


6 
10 
ii 


Dark green 


Red 
Pink 
Red 


Gold 
Silver 






The 1 7th Brunswick Hussars, preserving the memory of the 
Black Brunswickers of the Napoleonic wars, have black uniforms 
(no pelisse), with gold lace and red busby-bag. The i8th and igth 
(Saxon) Hussars have light blue tunics and trousers (no pelisse), 
with gold and silver lace and red and crimson busby-bags respec- 
tively. No information is available as to the 2Oth Hussars, formed 
in November 1910. 

The Jagers zu Pferd (mounted rifles) have a green-grey tunic 
and trousers of cuirassier cut, with green collars, Swedish cuffs, 
shoulder-straps, and piping, green-grey cap, brown belts and a 
black helmet of cuirassier pattern. The buttons are silver. The' 
broad cuirassier braid on collar, front and cuffs is green, with white 
lines in the 1st, red in the 2nd, yellow 3rd, light blue 4th (the normal 
sequence), black 5th. The edgings of the shoulder-straps are 
similarly white, red, &c. The staff orderlies " wear the same 
uniform, with certain deviations, in particular yellow and green 
braid, gold buttons, and white undress cap. 

The machine gun detachments wear a grey uniform with red 
Swedish cuffs (guard-stripes and cuff stripes in the Guard corps), 
collar, shoulder-strap and piping. The head-dress is the Jager 
shako, and the whole uniform is of Jager type, so much so that the 
2nd Guard detachment has the black collar and " French " cuff 
of the Gardeschutzen. 

The field artillery has the dark blue tunic with red piping, black 
collar and Swedish cuffs, gold appointments, and dark grey trousers 
without stripe. The helmet has a ball ornament. The cap is blue 
with black band. The Guard regiments have double guard-stripes 
and cuff stripes and a white plume shoulder-straps, white for 
ist, red for 2nd, yellow for 3rd, light blue for 4th regiment. In the 
field artillery at large the shoulder-straps are of the corps colour. 



59 



UNIFORMS 



The Bavarian, two Wurttemberg, one Baden and two Hessian regi- 
ments have white or black (Bavarians red) plumes, otherwise as for a 
" red " Prussian corps. The Mecklenburg artillery has silver buttons. 
The Saxon field artillery uniform is altogether different, consisting of 
green tunics with red collars and Swedish cuffs, gold appointments, 
red edgings, and black plume (horse artillery have a brass scale). 
Prussian and Bavarian field artillery have white belts, others black. 

The foot artillery, which has white shoulder-straps, is distinguished 
from the field by the black Brandenburg cuff with plain blue flap 
(Guard Swedish cuff, guard-stripes, &c.) and by a red trouser piping. 
The Saxon foot artillery is distinguished from the field by the ball 
ornament instead of plume, and the " German " cuff. Belts black 
(Guard and Bavarians white). Bavarian foot artillery as Prussian, 
but with a spiked helmet and black cuff-flap, red-edged. 

The pioneers have the same uniform as artillery, but with silver 
buttons and appointments. The shoulder-straps are red, the 
helmet is spiked (Guards, black plume). The cuffs are black, red- 
edged, Swedish. Saxon pioneers as field artillery, but with " Ger- 
man " cuff. The " communication troops " wear similar uniforms 
with special badges, some having the Jager shako. The Train (army 
service corps) has dark blue dragoon uniforms with light blue facings 
and black plumes; Saxons, however, have light blue with black 
facings. Medical officers and hospital corps wear blue uniforms 
with blue collars and cuffs and red edgings; stretcher bearers, <&c., 
blue with magenta facings and silver buttons, &c. 

Rank Badges (a). Non-commissioned officers: lance-corporal 
a button on each side of the collar. Corporals and sergeants gold 
or silver lace on the collar and cuffs, small patches of the national 
colours on the collar patches of the greatcoat. Sergeants are 
distinguished from corporals by a button to the collar. There are 
numerous minor distinctions on the sword knots, lance pennons, 
hussar girdles, &c. Sergeant-majors have a narrow ring of lace on 
the cuff in addition to the broad under-officer's ring; and on the 
greatcoat patch two small national patches. Aspirant officers 
wear the uniform of their non-commissioned rank with some of 
the officer's distinctions, (b) Officers: The distinctive mark of 
the commissioned officer is the shoulder-piece (epaulette or cord). 
The epaulette is almost always silver and is worn as a " scale," 
i.e. without fringe, by captains and subalterns, with a fine fringe 
by field officers and with a thick fringe by general officers. The 
ranks within each class are distinguished by small stars on the 
circle of the epaulette, lieutenant, major, and major-general, no star; 
first lieutenant, lieutenant-colonel and lieutenant-general, one star; 
captain, colonel and general, two stars. A colonel-general has 
three stars and a field-marshal crossed batons. The number or 
cipher is also worn by all regimental officers. The body of the 
epaulette is usually of the same colour as the shoulder-strap of the 
rank and file. The shoulder cord for captains and subalterns is 
made up of straight strips of silver lace, that for field officers is of 
twisted silver cords, that of general officers is composed of two gold 
cords and one of silver and colours intertwined. In all these, lines of 
the national colours are interwoven with the silver. Badges, 
numbers, &c., as on the epaulette. A silver waist-sash (staff officers 
and adjutants shoulder-sash) is worn by all combatant officers 
(except hussars, who have girdles). An interesting survival of 
earlier uniforms is found in the full dress of general officers. The 
tunic buttons below the waist, and while on the left shoulder there 
is only a narrow silver cord, on the right the thick cord of gold, 
silver and coloured silks is extended to form an aiguillette. The 
aiguillette is also worn on the right shoulder by staff officers and 
some others. A universal custom, which is also a survival, is 
for all ranks to wear sword-knots, even with the bayonet. 

The new service dress is a loose-fitting " field-grey " uniform, 
except in Jagers, machine-gun detachments and Jagers zu Pferd, 
who wear grey-green field dress. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 

The infantry uniforms, since the abandonment of the his- 
toric white after 1866, have been of a very quiet shade of 
dark blue, and the facings colours are more varied than those 
of any other army. The " German," that is Austrian, infantry 
wears in full dress a dark blue single-breasted tunic, light blue 
trousers, and a black leather shako with double eagle and a metal 
ball ornament. The equipment is black. On the shoulders are 
straps terminating in rolls or " wings," all of the regimental colour, 
as are the collar and the (" German ") cuffs. In marching or 
service dress the tunic is replaced by a hooked jacket or blouse 
with plain cuffs, no shoulder-straps, and only collar patches of the 
regimental colour. The trousers are turned up over or tucked into 
a high ankle boot. The field cap is of cloth, cylindrical, with flaps 
buttoning in front. Hungarian infantry wears the same tunic 
but has a silver or white embroidered device in front of the cuff. 
The trousers are tight pantaloons, with a yellow piping and " Aus- 
trian " really Hungarian knots. Officers of infantry have no 
shoulder cords or straps. The full dress shako and the collar are 
ornamented with braid or lace according to rank. A yellow waist- 
sash is worn. Hungarian officers are dressed as Austrian except 
for the tunic cuff ornament. In other respects both the tunic and 
the blouse are similar to the men's. Jagers wear a broad-brimmed 
felt hat with cock's feather plume on the left. The tunic, trousers 
and cap are green-grey; the buttons gold; cuffs, collar, shoulder 



ornament and piping in full dress, and collar patch and piping in. 
undress, green. Officers wear the waist-sash and double green 
stripes on the trousers. All officers in undress wear plain dark 
grey trousers and dark grey cylindrical cloth cap, both in the line 
and the Jagers. 



Austrian. 


Hungarian. 


Facings. 


White or 
silver but- 
tons, &c. 


G6ld or 
brass but- 
tons, &c. 


White but- 
tons, &c. 


Gold but- 
tons, &c. 


Black . . . 


58th 


1 4th 


3th 


26th 


Dark brown 


I7th 


55th 


78th 


68th 


Maroon . 


7 th 


93rd 


83rd 


I2th 


Dark red 


i8th 


1st 


53rd 


52nd 


Amaranth red 


95th 


90th 




86th 


Bordeaux red 


88th 


8gth 








Cherry red . 


77th 


73rd 


23rd 


43rd 


Madder red 


74th 


1 5th 


34th 


44th 


Crimson . 


8lst 


84th 


82nd 


96th 


Scarlet 


8oth 


45th 


9th 


37th 


Vermilion 


20th 


35th 


67th 


7lst 


Pink . . . 


36th 


57th 


66th 


65th 


Rose . 


97th 


I3th 


6th 


5th 


White . . 


92nd 


94th 







Sea green . 


87th 


2ISt 


25th 


70th 


Apple green 


54th 


9th 


79th 


85th 


Bright green 


loth 


9ist 


50th 


46th 


Grass green . 


28th 


8th 


62nd 


6lst 


Seaweed green 





1 02nd 








Grey green . 


47th 


56th 


6oth 


48th 


Pike grey 


49th 


30th 


6gth 


76th 


Ash grey . 


24th 


nth 


33rd 


5ist 


Orange 


42nd 


59th 


6 3 rd 


64th 


Imperial 




* 






yellow . 


22nd 


27th 


3lst 


2nd 


Sulphur . 


4lst 


99th 


101st 


1 6th 


Sky blue . . 


8th 


4th 


igth 


32nd 


Pale blue . . 


75th 


40th 


29th 


72nd 


Pearl . . . 


98th 


looth 









Dragoons wear light blue jackets with collar and cuffs of regimental 
colour and narrow white or gold shoulder cord, red trousers, black 
crested helmets (gilded crests for officers), and slung pelisse exactly 
similar to the jacket except that the collar and cuffs are of black fur. 
The jacket is not merely an ornament, but is frequently worn, 
serving as a tunic. The field cap of the rank and file is red, shaped 
as for infantry, but without peak. Belts brown. The facings are 
dark red 1st and 3rd, black 2nd and 6th, grass green 4th and 9th, 
imperial yellow 5th and I2th, sulphur yellow 7th and loth, scarlet 
8th and nth, madder red I3th and I4th, white 15th. Silver buttons 
i, 2, 4. 5. 6, 7, II, 13; gold 3, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15. 

Hussars wear dark or light blue jackets and pelisses, the former 
braided, the latter braided and edged with black fur. The trousers 
are red with gold " Austrian " knots and piping (all hussars are 
Hungarian) and the boots have the usual hussar braid. The head- 
dress is a shako with black " shaving-brush " plume. Regimental 
distinctions are as follows: 





Shako. 


Silver. 


Gold. 




Shako. 


Silver. 


Gold. 


C OJ 

E = 

i3 

'3.* 

DQ 


White 
Dark blue 
Madder red 
Ash grey 


9th 
I3th 

5t t 
nth 


3rd 
1st 
8th 
1 5th 


e v 

~ 
.oS 

'5 -M 
,J 


White 
Light blue 
Madder red 
Ash grey 


I2th 
7 th 
4th 
1 6th 


2nd 
loth 
1 4th 
6th 



Lancers ( Uhlans, who do not carry lances) wear the lancer cap 
(czapka) with black plume looped back, and old ornaments, light 
blue double-breasted lancer tunics (slung on the shoulder as pelisses) 
with madder red cuffs and piping but no " plastron " black for 
collar and gold shoulder cord. The jacket is plain, light blue, 
with breast and skirt pockets and flaps edged red, red collar and 
cuffs, no shoulder cord. The trousers are red. Regimental distinc- 
tions top of the czapka, imperial yellow 1st and 6th, dark green 
2nd and 7th, madder 3rd and 8th, white 4th, light blue 5th, cherry 
nth, dark blue I2th and I3th. Gold buttons 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 
5th and I2th; silver 6th, 7th, 8th, nth and I3th. 

All cavalry officers wear gold or silver pouch-belts; in undress dark 
grey trousers and cap are worn. Men's undress cap as for dragoons. 
All cavalry men carry the carbine slung and have brown belts. 

Artillery wear maroon tunics, light blue trousers, red collars, 
cuffs, shoulder-straps and wings, light blue cap, shako with black 
plume looped back. Fortress artillery have a red stripe in the 
trousers, technical artiljery are dressed as field, but with dark grey 
trousers and cap and without plume. Buttons gold. On the jacket 
the whole collar is red. Officers wear pouch-belts as cavalry, and 
in undress the usual grey trousers and cap. 

Engineers have an infantry uniform, but in the Jager colours, 
grey and green. Train (A.S.C.) as artillery, but with light blue 
facings and red trousers with cap. Their shako has no plume. 



GERMANY. 



UNIFORMS. 



PLATE IV 




Bavaria : 



Infantry 
(III. Corps). 



GERMANY. 



Prussia : 

Infantry 

(V. Corps). 



Prussia: Prussia: Prussia: Prussia- 

9th Dragoons. Captain, Field Major, Officer, 3rd Zietcn 

Artillery. 7th Cuirassiers. Hussars. 

ITALY. 



Prussia : 
Uth Uhlans. 



Prussia : 

4th Grenadier 

Guards. 



Saxony : 
Jager. 




Prussia : 
General. 

NAVIES. 



;neral Staff. 
Service 
dress. 



Bersaglieri 

Marching 

order. 



Field Artillery Cavallegieri 
Officer. (12th Regt.). 



Major- Infantry Line Cavalry. Infantry, 

General. Officer. Officer Undress Service dress 

Undress (4th Genoa (Aosta Brigade). 

(Pistoia Brigade). Regt.). 




UNIFORMS 



59 1 



The staff wears a dark green tunic, short-waisted, double-breasted 
and piped all round with red. The collar and cuffs are red (cuffs 
black for general staff), buttons and lace usually gold. The trousers 
are dark grey, piped red (in some cases with stripes of yellow and 
red). The general staff wears the waist-sash; the adjutant-general's 
branch, aides-de-camp, &c., the same sash over the shoulder (as 
indeed all adjutants wear it in Germany and Austria). The cocked 
hat is small and has a green feather plume. General officers 
ordinarily wear dark grey trousers with double red stripe, pearl- 
grey tunics, cocked hats and waist-sash ; their collars and cuffs are 
red. Inspector-generals of artillery and engineers wear the colours of 
their arm (brown and Jager grey). In court dress, however, Austrian 
generals wear the old white tunic and red, gold-laced trousers; 
Hungarian generals an elaborate red hussar dress, with a white pelisse. 

Rank is shown by stars and lace on the collar. Lance-corporal, 
corporal and sergeant have I, 2 and 3 worsted stars; second lieu- 
tenant, first lieutenant and captain I, 2, and 3 gold or silver stars; 
major, lieutenant-colonel and colonel I, 2 and 3 stars on a gold- 
laced collar; major-general, lieutenant field-marshal and general (or 
Fddzeugmeister) 1, 2 or 3 stars on laced collar. 

RUSSIA 

The figures in Plate III. represent the uniforms of 1905. 
Since that time the attempt to combine bright colours with the 
looseness and comfort of service dress has been abandoned, and the 
troops have received a more handsome full dress and a grey-green 
field dress. Little information as to the details of the new uniforms 
has been published. The ordinary infantry uniform was a double- 
breasted hooked tunic of dark green cloth, dark green trousers and 
cap (in full dress a round fur cap). With a few exceptions, details 
of facings, &c., followed well-marked rules. The number of the 
regiment appeared on the cap, that of the division on the shoulder- 
strap. The two regiments of the 1st brigade in each division wore 
red shoulder-straps, the two of the 2nd brigade blue. The 1st 
regiment had a red cap band and red collar patches, the 2nd blue, the 
3rd white and the 4th green. It is not known how far this has 
been modified of late years. Regiments with royal colonels-in-chief 
wear ciphers on the shoulder-strap, and some have double guard- 
stripes on the collar. In winter a heavy grey-brown greatcoat 
is worn, usually with a loose sheepskin lining and a fur-lined hood. 
The grenadiers are distinguished by yellow shoulder-straps (with a 
narrow edging of red, blue, white and yellow, according to the 
division). The Guards wear closely fitting tunics, with guard-stripes 
on the collars and cuff-flaps. In the ist Guard division the shoulder- 
straps and piping are red and white, in the 2nd red and red, in the 
3rd yellow and yellow respectively. The cuff-flaps are red in 1st, 
and 2nd, yellow in 3rd division. The colour of the collars and cuffs 
varies according to the order of regiment within the division. 
The Pavlovsky regiment wears, instead of the fur cap, the old mitre- 
cap in brass and stiff red cloth. 

Rifles wear the universal pattern uniform with plain cap-band 
and collar and crimson shoulder-straps. The Finland rifles have 
light blue instead of crimson, and the Guard rifles have double 
guard-stripes and stripes on the cuff-flap (or Swedish cuff). 

Line dragoons wear a dark green silver or gold buttoned tunic, 
double-breasted, grey-blue trousers and knee boots; The cap, 
which was peaked, and had a dark green band, was, in 1905, red for 
the ist, blue for the 2nd, and white for the 3rd regiment of each 
division, the same colours appearing on the collar patches, piping 
and shoulder-straps. The regimental number (or colonel-in-chief's 
cipher) appears on the shoulder-strap. The fur cap is in shape a 
truncated cone, the body of the cap being of the colour of the facings 
and the sides of fur. A few regiments had special distinctions. 

The cuirassiers (guards) wear in fall dress white cuirassier 
uniforms with brass helmets and eagles, and in field order dark 
green tunics and white caps. The trousers are grey-blue with red 
stripe. The Horse Grenadiers wear dark green lancer tunic with 
red facings, double guard-stripe and cuff-stripe, red girdles and dark 
grey trousers with red stripes. They wear epaulettes and the 
curious grenadier cap mentioned above. The Guard Dragoons 
are dressed as the Horse Grenadiers, but with the dragoon busby 
and red shoulder-straps. The Guard Lancers wear a lancer uniform 
resembling the German, blue with scarlet facings, lancer caps and 
grey-blue trousers. The top of the czapka is scarlet and yellow for 
the respective regiments. The Emperor's Hussars wear scarlet 
tunics and blue trousers, and the Grodno Hussars dark green tunics 
and crimson trousers (see Plate III., line 2, No. 7), with busby, red 
busby-bag and white plume; girdles scarlet and blue and green 
and white, and braid yellow and white respectively. 

The artillery tunic, trousers and cap are dark green, the piping 
and shoulder-strap red. The Guard Artillery has black collar and 
cuffs, red-edged. The engineers are distinguished from artillery by 
their having silver buttons and appointments instead of gold. 

The greater part of the Cossacks wear a long, loose caftan. This, 
in the Don, Ural and Astrakhan contingents is dark blue, in the rest, 
except as mentioned below, dark green. Cossacks wear no spurs, 
but use a whip. As for the facings, the Don regiments have plain, 
and the other blue regiments crimson and yellow shoulder-straps 
respectively, and the green regiments have red, yellow or light blue. 
The head-dress is a conical lambskin cap, with cloth top, or a blue 
or green cap with band of the regimental colour. The Caucasus 



regiments, however, wear a more distinctly national uniform, con- 
sisting of a dark brown, collarless caftan, cut away below the throat 
to show a waistcoat, scarlet for Kuban and blue for Terek regiments 
(Plate III., line 2, No. 6). The shoulder-straps are of the colour of 
this waistcoat. The Caucasus regiments always wear the full head- 
dress and never the field cap. The Guard Cossacks have short 
tunics (scarlet, light blue and dark red) with guard-stripes on collar 
and cuffs, and caps of the same colours. These wear spurs besides 
carrying whips. The Cossacks of the tsar's escort wear a scarlet 
caftan edged with gold braid, white waistcoat and dark blue 
trousers. The Cossack artillery wears green uniforms of Cossack 
cut, with red facings. 

Badges of rank are as follows: Non-commissioned officers, one, 
two or three stripes of braid across the shoulder-strap; sergeant- 
major, a stripe of gold lace across the shoulder-strap. In and above 
the rank of corporal, gold lace is worn on the collar and cuffs as in 
Germany. Officers wear broadcloth ( red, blue, &c.) shoulder-straps 
nearly covered by strips of silver or gold lace ; on these appear the 
number or cipher and stars of rank subalterns one, two and three, 
second captains four and senior captains none. In these ranks the 
cloth of the shoulder-strap shows in one narrow strip through the lace. 
In the field ranks, the cloth, covered by three bars of lace, shows two 
strips and the same sequence is followed: lieutenant-colonel, three 
stars; colonel, none. In general officers' uniforms the lace entirely 
covers the cloth, and the stars number two for a major-general, 
three for lieutenant-general and none for a full general. 

ITALY 

The universal colour in full dress and undress coats is a dark, 
flat blue, faintly tinged with purple. Generals, cavalry and infantry 
(except Bersaglieri) wear blue-grey trousers and silver ornaments ; staff 
officers, artillery and engineers dark blue trousers and gold ornaments. 

The coat, whether tunic or frock, has a stand and fall collar, on 
the corners of which invariably figures a five-pointed silver or white 
star. The cuffs are slightly pointed, except for cavalry. The full- 
dress head-dress is a low cloth shako, the undress throughout a 
kepi. Generals wear only the kepi. The tunic, double-breasted 
for officers and single-breasted for rank and file, is cut very short, 
and has little piping. Officers have plain blue shoulder-straps 
with stars showing rank. A white collar is worn under the coat 
collar by all ranks. Officers have a blue frock, with black braid 
and plain cuffs. 

Infantry have silver buttons and (rank and file) red-edged 
shoulder-straps and shoulder wings, blue-grey trousers with red 
piping (officers, double stripe). The shako is blue with red piping 
(officers, silver braid), silver device and cockade; the kepi (in the 
rank and file pointed back and front and pressed down at the sides) 
is similar in colour, &c., to the men's shako. The belts are black. 
The Grenadier brigade alone has red collars and cuffs, all others 
are self-coloured (red edge to cuff). The greatcoat ts~ light blue- 
grey, single-breasted and unadorned except for shoulder wings. 
White or Holland gaiters are worn with the blue uniform. The 
brigades are distinguished by gorget patches of the brigade colours, 
upon which the star is worn. Officers wear a shoulder sash of 
light blue, and in full dress silver epaulettes. 

Cavalry. Line cavalry have light coloured collars, cuffs and 
shoulder-strap edges, silver buttons, and blue-grey trousers with 
double back stripe (officers, of the facings colour). Regimental 
distinctions are given in the table. The full head-dress is a singularly 
handsome helmet, partly black, partly bright steel, with a tall swan- 
neck crest (see Plate IV., lines 1,2, fig. 8) and on the front a broad 
white cross. The undress cap is a K>pi with piping as in table. 
On the men's shoulder-straps is a silver grenade. The lancers 
(Lanzieri) have coat and trousers as line cavalry with regimental 
distinctions given below. On the men's shoulder-straps are crossed 
lances. The head-dress is a fur cap, adorned with crossed lances 
and chain in silver. It has also a cockade and a small upright 
plume. The crossed lances appear also on the kepi. The light 
horse (Cavallegieri) have a similar coat and trousers, except that 
the collar has a flame-shaped patch. Shoulder-strap, full head- 
dress and kepi as for lancers, with a bugle instead of lances. All 
cavalry have brown bandoliers over the left shoulder. 

Artillery, gold buttons, dark blue trousers, with yellow piping 
(officers, double yellow stripe). Officers' tunics have black yellow- 
edged collars and cuffs, men's a black yellow-edged collar patch, 
and yellow edgings on the collars, shoulder-straps and cuff. The 
badge of the field artillery on shako, kepi and men's shoulder-straps 
is gold crossed guns; that of the horse and mountain, a gold grenade; 
fortress artillery are dressed practically as field. The shako has 
gold badge and short upright plume (horse artillery long black 
plume, looped back on the right side) ; the kepi piping is yellow. 
Gold epaulettes and light blue sash are worn by officers, and in the 
horse artillery a pouch-belt as well. Engineers have the artillery 
uniform, but with red piping, &c. instead of yellow, and badge of 
crossed axes. The departmental corps wear, as a rule, black facings 
with light blue piping, differing amongst themselves in details. 

The famous Bersaglieri (light infantry) have the infantry tunic 
and frock with gold buttons, &c. (officers in full dress, epaulettes), 
dark blue trousers with crimson stripe. Officers have crimson cuffs, 
all ranks a blue red-edged collar, with crimson flame patch. The 
distinctive feature is the dark, wide-brimmed, slouch hat with a 



592 



UNIFORMS 



large drooping cock's feather plume. The Alpine infantry (Alptm) 
have a black felt hat with silver device and eagle feather, tunic, 
trousers and kepi with green instead of red piping throughout. 
Officers wear black collar with green flame patch and green cuffs. 




Collar. 


Cuff. 


Piping. 


Line. 
i Nice] 


Crimson 
Red 
( Black, red) 
(. edged ] 
Yellow 


Crimson 
Red 
Black 
Yellow 


Crimson 
Red 

Yellow 


2 Piedmont 
3 Savoy .... 
4 Genoa .... 


Lancers. 
5 Novara . 
6 Aosta . . . . 
7 Milan. 
8 Montebello . . 
9 Florence . 
10 Victor Emmanuel II. 


White 
Red 
Crimson 
Green 
Orange 
Yellow 


- Black 


As collar 




Collar. 


Flame 
patch. 


Cuff. 


Piping. 


Light Horse. 
n Foggia 
12 Saluzzo 
13 Monferrato 
14 Alessandria 
15 Lodi 
16 Lucca . 
17 Caserta 
I 8 Piacenza . 
19 Guides 
20 Rome . 
21 Padua . 
22 Catania 
23 Humbert I . 
24 Vicenza 


Red 
Yellow 
Black 

Red 
White 
Black 
Green 
Lt. blue 
Black 
Crimson 
Orange 
White 

H 


Black 

Crimson 
Orange 
Black 

Red 
Black 
White 

Black 

Lt. blue 
Red 


Red 
Black 

It 

Red 
Black 
Lt. blue 
Black 
ii 

White 


Red 
Yellow 
Crimson 
Orange 
Reef 
White 
Red 
Green 
White 

Crimson 
Orange 
White 
Red 



General officers have a single-breasted tunic with black velvet 
collar and cuffs laced with silver, red piping, silver shoulder-straps, 
and silver buttons. Frock, trousers, &c., as shown on Plate IV., 
line 2, No. 5. Staff officers wear light blue collar and cuffs, dark 
blue trousers with gold stripe and shako somewhat as for artillery 
officers. They wear the usual light blue shoulder sash, but over the 
left, instead of, as in the army at large, over the right shoulder. 

The new service dress is blue-grey, regimental distinctions as 
on the officer's frock and kepi in all arms. Infantry equipment 
is shown on Plate IV., line 2, No. 9. The cavalry head-dress is a round 
grey helmet. 

Rank Badges. Non-commissioned officers : Red or silver chevrons 
above the cuff, and small distinctions on the shako. Officers: 
On the shoulder-strap, I, 2 and 3 silver stars for subalterns and 
captains, the same with narrow silver edging round the strap for 
field officers, 1 , 2 or 3 gold stars on a silver shoulder-strap for general 
officers; on the shako, silver or gold rings round the upper part, 
on the k6pi rings round the lower part of the cap, I, 2 or 3 for 
company officers, I broader ring and I, 2 or 3 for field officers. On 
the general's kepi there is a red, silver-embroidered band with i, 
2 or 3 rings above. 

UNITED STATES 

The uniforms, though recent changes have largely deprived 
them of their character, still in some respects follow the French 
fashion upon which they were originally modelled. The helmet, 
worn until 1899, indeed showed no trace of French influence it 
was simply a mere sho'wy parade head-dress. The French k<5pi, 
worn during and after the Civil War, has been abolished and replaced 
by a cap which, like the full-dress cap now worn, bears some 
resemblance to the Japanese cap. But the long-skirted blue tunic, 
the general's " chapeau," the sergeant's and corporal's long pointed 
chevrons still survive to recall the old uniforms, and one or two of 
the innovations, the rank badges on the sleeve, are also French. 

Infantry Officers. Full dress: universal pattern tunic (dark blue, 
double-breasted with thick gold shoulder cord) with light blue, 
gold-laced collar, light blue trousers with white stripe, badges 
of rank and branch on sleeve. Universal pattern full-dress peaked 
cap (stiff blue cloth, gold-edged band, and eagle badge, with 
light blue band)- Undress: universal pattern frock (dark blue, 
single-breasted, braided black and hooked; across the shoulder, 
flat loops edged with gold lace and bearing rank badges) ; shoulder 
loop light blue; plain collar with U.S. and branch badge in 
gold; trousers as in full dress. Sword belt under the frock, slings 
brown leather. Cap, of the same shape as full-dress cap but with 
plain black braid band. A white undress of similar pattern is worn in 
not climates. Service dress (olive drab or light khaki). Coat, 



single-breasted, four pockets, stand and fall collar, bronze buttons 
and ornaments. Brown waistbelt and braces, somewhat similar 
to British " Sam Browne," but with sword slings. Peaked cap, 
plain olive drab or khaki, with bronze eagle badge. Slouch hat, 
grey, with gold and black twisted cord. 

Evening dress and mess dress: blue, with shoulder cords and 
rank-marks as in full dress, blue trousers. Greatcoat, universal 
pattern, khaki with horn buttons; rank-marks in black braid on 
the sleeve, branch badge in bronze: 

Cavalry officers as infantry, but with yellow collar, cap-band and 
trousers stripes as full dress and branch badge. 

Artillery officers as infantry, but with red collar, cap-band and 
trousers stripes, and branch badge. 

Engineer officers as infantry, but branch badge, red ground with 
white edges on full-dress collar and cap. Full-dress trousers, dark 
blue with red, white-edged stripe; undress, light blue with red 
stripe. In full dress engineer officers have the special distinction 
of wearing red skirt-flaps with white line and gold edge. Signal 
Corps, as infantry, but with branch badge and salmon collar, cap- 
band, &c. Signal officers, alone in the army, wear a pouch-belt: 
this is of black leather crimson leather for the chief of the corps 
with gold appointments. Ordnance Corps, as infantry, but dark 
blue red-edged trousers stripes, &c., and branch badge. Medical, as 
infantry, but with magenta stripes, &c., and branch badge. 

Generals and Staff Officers. Major-generals (and with a third 
star lieutenant-generals), dark blue double-breasted tunic with 
buttons in threes, and cuffs and collar of black velvet ornamented 
with oak-leaf gold embroidery, above the cuffs two silver stars; 
gold epaulettes and aiguillette, wide yellow waist-sash; dark blue 
trousers with two gold stripes: slings, and waist-belt if worn, 
crimson leather with gold stripes. " Chapeau " or cocked hat 
(French pattern) black felt with black feather edging and gold 
ornament; full-dress cap, universal pattern, with black velvet band, 
embroidered on band and peak as on full-dress cuffs. Undress: 
blue frock, double-breasted, with buttons in threes, ." stand and 
fall " collar with U.S. in gold; rank marks on shoulder loops; 
plain dark blue trousers, universal pattern undress caps with oak- 
leaves on the peak only. White undress uniform is similar. Briga- 
dier-generals, as major-generals with the following distinctions: 
one star on the sleeve or shoulder-loop, narrow yellow sash, buttons 
in pairs, plain black strap instead of crimson waist-belt (with, how- 
ever, crimson and gold slings). Service dress and overcoats (all 
general officers) universal pattern: on the slouch hat a gold cord 
instead of black and gold. Evening and mess dress, universal 
pattern, with cuffs, collar and epaulettes as in full dress. Certain 
general officers who are chiefs of departments wear some of the 
distinctions of their branch; thus the adjutant-general, the quarter- 
master-general, &c., wear the branch badge below the stars, the 
chief of engineers the scarlet engineer skirt nap, the chief of artillery 
a crimson waist-sash instead of yellow. In undress these officers 
have a ground of their branch colour instead of dark blue on the 
shoulder loops. Staff officers are in the main uniformed in the 
same way as those of infantry, but wear dark blue trousers (in full 
dress a gold stripe), black and gold belts and slings, branch badge 
on sleeve, and full-dress collars, full-dress cap-bands and undress 
shoulder loops of the branch colour. 

Branch and Line Badges. General staff, a silver star, decorated 
with eagle device; inspector-general's department, sword and 
" fasces " crossed in wreath, gold ;adjutant-general'sdepartment, gold 
shield with U.S. arms; quartermaster-general's department, sword 
and key crossed, surmounted by eagle, over a wheel, gold ; ordnance, 
grenade; commissary or subsistence, silver crescent; infantry, gold 
crossed rifles; cavalry, gold crossed swords; artillery, gold crossed 
guns; engineers, silver castle; signal corps, crossed flags and torch; 
medical, winged Aesculapius staff. Aides-de-camp wear a shield 
like the adjutant-general's but in red, white and blue enamel and 
surmounted by an eagle; adjutants, quartermasters, commissaries, 
&c., of the combatant arms wear a shield, sword and key, crescent, 
&c., under the guns, swords, &c., of the regiment or corps. 

Branch and Arm Colours. Infantry, light blue; cavalry, yellow; 
artillery, red; engineers, red with white edge; signal corps, salmon 
with white edge; quartermaster's department, yellow ochre; ord- 
nance, blue with crimson edge; other staffs and departments, light 
blue; medical, magenta ; general staff, dark blue. 

Badges of Rank. Officers: general, lieutenant-general, major- 
general, brigadier-general, stars 4, 3, 2, and I respectively, in all 
orders of dress. Other officers, in undress, silver on a shoulder 
loop of coloured cloth according to branch; colonel, spread eagle; 
lieutenant-colonel, pair of oak-leaf sprigs; major as lieutenant- 
colonel but in gold; captain, two pairs of bars; 1st lieutenant, one 
pair of bars ; 2nd lieutenant, no badge : in full dress, evening dress and 
greatcoat, colonel fivefold, lieutenant-colonel fourfold, major three- 
fold, captain twofold, 1st lieutenant single Austrian knot of narrow 
gold braid, 2nd lieutenant no Austrian knot. Field officers have 
black leather waist-belt and slings completely covered with gold 
braid, and also oak-leaf embroidery on the peak of the full-dress 
cap. Captains and lieutenants have similar belts, but with four 
gold_ braids only; in the infantry, cavalry, artillery and engineers 
the intervening spaces (" lights ) are coloured light blue, yellow, 
&c., while in other cases the black leather is allowed to appear. 



UNION UNIONTOWN 



Enlisted men are dressed similarly to officers, with the following 
differences: tunic with dark blue cuffs, collar and shoulder-straps. 
The collar is edged top and bottom, the shoulder-straps all round 
and the cuffs along the top edge wth yellow for cavalry, light blue 
for infantry, &c. The badge of the branch in brass is on the collar. 
Lines are worn (aiguillette fashion) as an additional decoration; 
these are of the branch colours. The trousers are light blue, with, 
in full dress, stripes of branch colours. The white undress, service 
dress and greatcoat are similar to those for officers, with certain 
distinctions in detail. The full-dress cap is of the officers' pattern, 
but the band is dark blue, edged with the branch or arm colour 
above and below, and the badge is brass in a white metal wreath. 
The slouch hat has a cord of the branch colours. Rank marks of 
non-commissioned officers are long, graceful chevrons (inherited 
from France) pointing upwards, I, 2 ana 3 for lance-corporals, 
corporals and sergeants, 3 with diamond star, &c., for " first ser- 
geants " and corresponding ranks, 3 with the lower ends connected 
by bars or arcs of the chevron material for sergeant-majors and 
staff-sergeants. In full dress these chevrons are of the colour of 
the branch facings, in service dress of khaki embroidery. 

Naval Uniforms. The full-dress coat of British naval officers 
is a dark blue double-breasted swallow-tailed coat with gold buttons, 
lace and epaulettes, a white gold-edged slashed-flap on the sleeve 
with rings of lace showing rank. Dark blue trousers with gold 
stripes, and black silk cocked hat. The undress coats are frock 
coat, which may be worn with epaulettes, and double-breasted 
jumper, both having plain cuffs with rings of gold lace. The 
undress cap is a peaked cap with gold badge. Certain petty officers 
wear blue jumpers, the rest and the sailors wear sailors dress (Plate 
IV., line 3, No. 7). White is worn in the tropics, with white pith 
helmets in the case of officers and broad-brimmed straw hats in 
that of the sailors. Royal Marine Artillery and Royal Marine 
Light Infantry are dressed as artillery and infantry of the army, 
with certain distinctions; they may always be recognized by the 
badge of a globe within a laurel wreath. (Plate IV., line 3, No. I.) 

Officers' Rank Marks. (a) On the epaulette: Batons in laurel 
wreath and crown, admiral of the fleet; crown, sword and baton 
crossed, and I, 2, 3 stars, rear-admiral, vice-admiral, admiral; 
anchor and crown, with o, I, 2, stars, commander, junior captain, 
senior captain; anchor and star, senior lieutenant; anchor, junior 
lieutenant; anchor on fringeless epaulette, sub-lieutenant. (&) On 
the sleeve (in all orders of dress except white, and greatcoat) : flag 
officers, broad gold ring with I, 2, 3, 4 narrow rings (the uppermost 
with a curl) for rear-admiral, vice-admiral, &c. ; other officers, I, 2, 
2 with narrower ring between, 3 and 4 for sub-lieutenant, junior 
lieutenant, senior lieutenant, commander and captain, (c) Shoulder 
straps in greatcoat and white undress, blue strap with bars and curl 
as on sleeve in other orders, except flag officers, who have gold-laced 
shoulder-strap with rank marks as on epaulette. Non-combatant 
branches have not the " curl," and between the gold bars or rings 
there are " lights " or stripes of various colours according to branch. 
The Royal Naval Reserve officers have similar rank mark, but, 
instead of bars of plain lace, a thin twist of gold embroidery, and 
an oval badge surrounding the anchor on the epaulettes. 

The uniforms of other navies are very similar to those of the 
British. The old-fashioned jacket worn over the sailor blouse, 
and the conspicuous white lapels of the full-dress coat, are the 
principal peculiarities of the German navy. The Spanish naval 
officer has red lapels. A very marked peculiarity of the Austrian 
navy is that the officers, dressed in all other respects similarly to 
the naval officers of other countries, have the military tunic. The 
marines, where they exist, conform to the infantry of the respective 
land forces in most respects; the German marines, however, wear 
the Jager shako, and navy-blue uniforms with white collars and 
cuffs. (Plate IV., line 3, No. 3.) 

See Colonel C. Walton, British Army; and British regimental 
histories; Ottenfeld and Teuber, Oesterreichs Armee; Richard 
Knotel, Uniformen-Kunde; R. Nevill, British Military Prints; 
Lienhardt and Humbert, Les Uniformes de f Armee Franfaise; 
British Dress Regulations, 1822, 1834, 1846, 1855-64, 1874, 1883, 
1891 and 1904; Lavisse, Sac au Dos, and Moritz Ruhl's handbooks 
of the German, Austrian, Russian, Italian and French army uniforms 
of the present day. The particulars given of the United States 
army uniforms have been obtained, by the kind permission of the 
United States Embassy, from official plates. (C. F. A.) 

UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town 
of Union), a town of Hudson county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on 
the Hudson river, adjoining West Hoboken and Weehawken, 
and opposite New York City. Pop. (1900), 15,187, of whom 
5179 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 21,023. In the 
foreign element Germans predominate. The town is served 
by the railways passing through Weehawken and Hoboken. 
The principal manufactures are silk goods, shirts and malt 
liquors. In igosthe factory products were valued at $3,512,451. 
Originally a part of the township of North Bergen, Union was 
incorporated as a separated township in 1861, and as a town, 
under the name Town of Union, in 1864. 



593 



Town of Union must not be confused with Union township (pop. in 
191, 3419), Union county, incorporated in 1808; Union township 
(1910, 2756), Bergen county, incorporated in 1852; Union township 
(1910, 982), Ocean county, incorporated in 1846; and Union town- 
ship (1910, 930), Hunterdon county, incorporated in 1853. Union 
township, Camden county, became Gloucester City in 1868, and 
Union township, Hudson county, became West New York in 1898. 

UNION, a town and the county-seat of Union county, South 
Carolina, U.S.A., about 66 m. N.W. of Columbia. Pop. (1900) 
5400, of whom 1701 were negroes; (U.S. census 1910) 5623. 
Union is served by the Southern and the Union & Glenn Springs 
railways; the latter connects at Pride, 16 m. distant, with the 
Seaboard Air Line. The city is situated in the Piedmont 
region near the foot of the Blue Ridge Mountains. It is the 
seat of Clifford Seminary for Young Women (opened, 1881; 
chartered, 1883), and has a Carnegie library. Union is in a 
rich cotton-growing, farming and fruit-growing region, and 
deposits of gold, magnetic iron ore, marble and granite are 
found. The town has several large cotton mills and a large 
knitting mill. Union was settled about 1755 an d was incor- 
porated as a town in 1872. 

UNION LEAGUE OF AMERICA, THE, sometimes called 
the Loyal League, an organization for political purposes of 
Northern whites, later of Southern blacks, which originated in 
Ohio in 1862 when the Confederate military successes and 
political disaffection in the Northern states made the outlook 
for the North seem doubtful. Within one year it had spread 
over eighteen Northern states and among the Unionists of the 
South. The order raised troops, paid their expenses, sent 
supplies to the field and distributed political literature. At 
the close of the war it worked for radical reconstruction of 
the Southern states, punishment of the Southern leaders, 
confiscation of property and negro suffrage. The Southern 
Unionists hoped to make it the nucleus of a new political party, 
but this was frustrated by the admission of the blacks for 
political purposes, after which the Southern whites generally 
deserted the League. After the Freedmen's Bureau agents and 
other Northern whites obtained command of the League in the 
South it became simply a machine to control the votes of the 
blacks. The League ceased to be important in the North, 
though headquarters were in New York City. Each Southern 
state had its grand council and each county one or more 
councils. A constitution and an elaborate ritual were adopted, 
making it an oath-bound secret order, whose members were 
sworn to support one another on all occasions, to vote in elec- 
tions only for negroes or Northern men, and to overthrow the 
Southern " white oligarchy." No ex-Confederate and few 
Southern Unionists were permitted to join. At each meeting 
the members were taught from a catechism prepared by Radical 
members of Congress that they must beware of their white 
neighbours as their worst enemies, that the Democratic party, to 
which the Southern whites belonged, had opposed emancipation 
and was still opposed to any rights for the negro. In order to 
prevent moral control of the negroes by former masters, the 
League, by an " exodus order," required all negroes who were 
still living with their former masters to find other homes. 
The negroes were taught the equality of men and the right of 
the negro to his master's property. The votes of blacks, 
during reconstruction, were controlled by the few white Radical 
leaders. No negro could safely break away and vote indepen- 
dently. Negroes who voted with the mass of the Southern 
whites were persecuted, beaten or (as in a few cases) killed. 
The League died out about 1870, but not before it had suc- 
ceeded, with the Freedmen's Bureau and other forces, in per- 
manently arraying the blacks and whites into opposing political 
parties. (W. L. F.) 

UNIONTOWN, a borough and the county-seat of Fayette 
county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., about 40 m. S. by E. of 
Pittsburg. Pop. (1900) 7344 (449 foreign-born); (1910) 13,344. 
Uniontown is served by the Pennsylvania and the Baltimore 
& Ohio railways. Coal, iron and natural gas are found in 
the neighbouring region. The manufactures include glass 
products, iron, steel, enamel, radiators, coke, flour and bricks. 



594 



UNITARIANISM 



The original village was surveyed and laid out in 1776 on land 
owned by Henry Beeson, and the borough was incorporated in 
1796. From 1827 to 1832 Uniontown was the seat of Madison 
College, formed from Union Academy (founded 1808); in 1832 
the college was merged with Allegheny College, of Meadville, 
Pa. In 1866 the buildings were turned over to the Soldiers' 
Orphans' School (now at Jumonville, a suburb), which occupied 
them until 1875. In the south-eastern part of the county is 
the district known as Great Meadows; here George Washington 
built Fort Necessity in 1754, and General Edward Braddock 
died and was buried here after his defeat by the French and 
Indians in 1755. 

UNITARIANISM, a system of Christian thought and religious 
observance, based, as opposed to orthodox Trinitarianism, 
on the unipersonality of the Godhead, i.e. that the Godhead 
exists in the person of the Father alone. Unitarians carry 
their history up to the Apostolic age, claim for their 
doctrine a prevalence during the ante-Nicene period, and by 
help of Arian communities and individual thinkers trace a 
continuity of their views to the present time. However this 
may be, it is certain that the Reformaticn of the i6th century 
was in every European country attended by an outbreak more 
or less serious of anti-Trinitarian opinion. Suppressed as a rule 
in individual cases, this type of doctrine ultimately became the 
badge of separate religious communities, in Poland (extinct), 
in Hungary (still flourishing), and at a much later date 
in England. Along with the fundamental doctrine, certain 
characteristics have always marked its professors; namely, a 
large degree of toleration, a minimizing of essentials, a 
repugnance to formulated creed, an historical study of Scripture. 
Martin Cellarius (1490-1564) a friend of Luther, is usually 
regarded as the first literary pioneer (1527) of the movement; 
the anti-Trinitarian position of Ludwig Haetzer (q.v.) was not 
disclosed till after his execution (1529) for anabaptism. Both by 
his writings (from 1531) and by his fate (1553) Servetus (q.v.) 
stimulated thought in this direction. The Dialogues (1563) 
of Bernardino Ochino, while defending the Trinity, stated 
objections and difficulties with a force which captivated many. 
In his 27th Dialogue Ochino points to Hungary as a possible 
home of religious liberty. It was in Poland and Hungary 
that religious communities, definitely anti-Trinitarian, were 
first formed and tolerated. 

Poland. Scattered expressions of anti-Trinitarian opinion 
appear here early. At the age of 80, Catherine, wife cf Melchior 
Vogel or Weygel, was burned at Cracow (1539) for apostasy; 
whether her views embraced more than deism is not clear. 
The first synod of the Reformed Church was held in 1555; at 
the second (1556), Gregory Pauli and Peter Gonesius avowed 
anti-Trinitarian and anabaptist views. The arrival of Bland- 
rata (q.v.) in 1558 furnished the party with a leader. In 1565 
the diet of Piotrkow excluded anti-Trinitarians from the existing 
synod; henceforward they held their own synods as the Minor 
Church. Known by various other names (of which Arian was 
the most common), at no time in its history did this body adopt 
for itself any designation save Christian. Originally Arian 
(though excluding any worship of Christ) and anabaptist, 
the Minor Church was (by 1588) brought round to his own views 
by Fausto Sozzini, who had settled in Poland in 1579 (see 
SOCINUS). In 1602 James Sienynski established at Rak6w a 
college and a printing-press, from which the Racovian Catechism 
Was issued in 1605. In 1610 a Catholic reaction began, led by 
Jesuits. The establishment at Rakow was suppressed in 1638, 
two lads having pelted a crucifix outside the town. Twenty 
years later the Polish Diet gave anti-Trinitarians the option of 
conformity or exile. The Minor Church included many Polish 
magnates, but their adoption of the views of Sozzini, which 
precluded Christians from magisterial office, rendered them 
politically powerless. The execution of the decree, hastened by 
a year, took place in 1660. Some conformed; a large number 
made their way to Holland (where the Remonstrants admitted 
them to membership on the basis of the Apostles' Creed); 
others to the German frontier; a contingent settled in Tran- 



sylvania, not joining the Unitarian Church, but maintaining 
a distinct organization at Kolozsvar till 1793. At Amsterdam 
was published (1665-1669) the Bibliotheca fratrum polonorum, 
embracing the works of Hans Krell, their leading theologian, 
of Jonas Schlichting, their chief commentator, of Sozzini and 
of Johann Ludwig Wolzogen; the title-page of this collection, 
bearing the words quos Unitarios vacant, introduced this term 
to Western Europe. 

Transylvania and Hungary. No distinct trace of anti-Trini- 
tarian opinion precedes the appearance of Blandrata at the 
Transylvanian court in 1563. His influence was exerted on 
Francis David (1510-^1579), who was successively Catholic, 
Lutheran, Calvinist and anti-Trinitarian. In 1564 David was 
elected by the Calvinists as " bishop of the Hungarian churches 
in Transylvania," and appointed court preacher to John Sigis- 
mund, prince of Transylvania. His discussion of the Trinity 
began (1565) with doubts of the personality of the Holy Ghost. 
His antagonist in public disputations was the Calvinist leader, 
Peter Juhasz (Melius); his supporter was Blandrata. John 
Sigismund, adopting his court-preacher's views, issued (1568) 
an edict of religious liberty at the Torda Diet, which allowed 
David (retaining his existing title) to transfer his episcopate 
from the Calvinists to the anti-Trinitarians, Kolozsvar being 
evacuated by all but his followers. In 1571, John Sigismund was 
succeeded by Stephen Bathory, a Catholic, and trouble began. 
Under the influence of John Sommer, rector of the Kolozsvar 
gymnasium, David (about 1572) abandoned the worship of 
Christ. The attempted accommodation by Sozzini only pre- 
cipitated matters; tried as an innovator, David died in prison 
at Deva (1579). The cultus of Christ became an established 
usage of the Church; it is recognized in the 1837 edition of the 
official hymnal, but removed in the edition of 1865. On the other 
hand, in 1621 a new sect arose, the Sabbatarii, with strong 
Judaic tendencies; though excluded from toleration they main- 
tained an existence till 1848. The term unitarius (said to have 
been introduced by Melius, in discussions of 1560-1571) makes 
its first documentary appearance in a decree of the Lecsfalva 
Diet (1600); it was not officially adopted by the Church till 
1638. Of the line of twenty-three bishops the most distinguished 
were George Enyedi (1592-1597), whose Explicationes obtained 
European vogue, and Michael Lombard Szentabrahami (1737- 
1758), who rallied the forces of his Church, broken by persecution 
and deprivation of property, and gave them their existing 
constitution. His Summa universae theologiae secundum 
Unitarios (1787), Socinian with Arminian modifications, was 
accepted by Joseph II. as the official manifesto of doctrine, 
and so remains, though no subscription to it has ever been 
required. The official title is the Hungarian Unitarian Church, 
with a membership of over 60,000, most of them in Transyl- 
vania, especially among the Szekler population, a few in Hun- 
gary; their bishop has a seat in the Hungarian parliament. 
At Kolozsvar, the seat of the consistory, is the principal college; 
others are at Torda and at Szdkely-Keresztur. Till 1818 the 
continued existence of this body was unknown to English Uni- 
tarians; relations have since become intimate; since 1860 a 
succession of students have finished their theological education 
at Manchester College, Oxford; others at the Unitarian Home 
Missionary College. 

England. Between 1548: (John Assheton) and 1612 we have 
a thin line of anti-Trinitarians, either executed or saved by 
recantation. Those burned were George van Parris (1551), 
Flemish surgeon; Patrick Pakingham (1555), fellmonger; 
Matthew Hamont (1579), ploughwright; John Lewes (1583); 
Peter Cole (1587), tanner; Francis Kelt (1589), physician and 
author; Bartholomew Legate (1612), cloth-dealer, last of the 
Smithfield victims; and the twice-burned fanatic Edward 
Wightman (1612). In all these cases the virus seems to have 
come from Holland; the last two executions followed the rash 
dedication to James I. of the Latin version of the Racovian 
Catechism (1609). The vogue of Socinian views, which for a 
time affected men like Falkland and Chilling worth, led to the 
abortive fourth canon of 1640 against Socinian books. The 



UNITARIANISM 



595 



ordinance of 1648 made denial of the Trinity capital, but it 
was a dead letter, Cromwell intervening in the cases of Paul 
Best (1590-1657) and John Biddle (1616-1662). In 1650 John 
Knowles was an Arian lay-preacher at Chester. In 1652-1654 
and 1658-1662 Biddle held a Socinian conventicle in London; 
in addition to his own writings he reprinted (1651) and trans- 
lated (1652) the Racovian Catechism, and the Life of Socinus 
(1653). His disciple Thomas Firmin (1632-1697), mercer and 
philanthropist, and friend of Tillotson, was weaned to Sabellian 
views by Stephen Nye (1648-1719), a clergyman. Firmin pro- 
moted a remarkable series of controversial tracts (1690-1699). 

The term " Unitarian " first emerges in 1682, and appears 
in the title of the Brief History (1687). It was construed in a 
broad sense to cover all who, with whatever differences, held the 
unipersonality of the Divine Being. Firmin had later a project of 
Unitarian societies " within the Church "; the first preacher to 
describe himself as Unitarian was Thomas Emlyn (1663-1741) 
who gathered a London congregation in 1705. This was con- 
trary to the Toleration Act of 1689, which excluded all who 
should preach or write against the Trinity. It is noteworthy 
that in England the Socinian controversy, initiated by Biddle, 
preceded the Arian controversy initiated by Samuel Clarke's 
Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity (1712). Arian or semi- Arian 
views had much vogue during the i8th century, both in the 
Church and in dissent. The free atmosphere of dissenting 
academies (colleges) favoured new ideas. The effect of the 
Sailers' Hall conference (1719), called for by the alleged heresy 
of James Peirce (1673-1726) of Exeter, was to leave dissenting 
congregations to determine their own orthodoxy; the General 
Baptists had already (1700) condoned defections from the 
common doctrine. In 1689 Presbyterians and Independents 
had coalesced, agreeing to drop both names and to support a 
common fund. The union in the London fund was ruptured 
in 1693; in course of time differences in the administration of 
the two funds led to the attaching of the Presbyterian name to 
theological liberals, though many of the older Unitarian chapels 
were Independent foundations, and at least half of the Pres- 
byterian chapels (of 1690-1710) are now in the hands of Congre- 
gationalists. Leaders in the advocacy of a purely humanitarian 
christology came largely from the Independents, e.g. Nathaniel 
Lardner (1684-1768), Caleb Fleming (1698-1779), Joseph 
Priestley (1733-1804), Thomas Belsham (1750-1829). 

The formation of a distinct Unitarian denomination dates from 
the secession (1773) of Theophilus Lindsey (1723-1808) from the 
Anglican Church, on the failure of the Feathers petition to par- 
liament (1772) for relief from subscription. Lindsey 's secession 
had been preceded in Ireland by that of William Robertson, D. D. 
(1705-1783), who has been called "the father of Unitarian 
nonconformity." It was followed by other clerical secessions, 
mostly of men who left' the ministry, and Lindsey's hope of a 
Unitarian movement from the Anglican Church was disappointed. 
By degrees his type of theology superseded Arianism in 
a considerable number of dissenting congregations. The 
Toleration Act was amended (1779) by substituting belief 
in Scripture for belief in the Anglican (doctrinal) articles; in 
1813 the penal acts against deniers of the Trinity were repealed. 
In 1825 the British and Foreign Unitarian Association was 
formed as an amalgamation of three older societies, for literature 
(1791), mission work (1806) and civil rights (1818). Attacks 
were made on properties held by Unitarians, but created prior 
to 1813, The Wolverhampton Chapel case began in 1817, the 
more important Hewley Fund case in 1830; both were decided 
against the Unitarians in 1842. Appeal to parliament resulted 
in the Dissenters' Chapels Act (1844), which secures that, so 
far as trusts do not specify doctrines, twenty-five years tenure 
legitimates existing usage. 

The drier Priestley-Belsham type of Unitarianism, bound up 
with a determinist philosophy, was gradually modified by the 
influence of Channing (see below), whose works were reprinted 
in numerous editions and owed a wide circulation to the efforts 
of Robert Spears (1825-1899). Another American influence, 
potent in reducing the rigid though limited supernaturalism 



of Belsham and his successors, was that of Theodore Parker 
(1810-1860). At home the teaching cf James Martineau 
(1805-1900), resisted at first, was at length powerfully felt, 
seconded as it was by the influence of John James Tayler 
(1797-1869) and John Hamilton Thorn (1808-1894). The body 
has produced some remarkable scholars, e.g. John Kenrick 
(1788-1877), James Yates (1780-1871), Samuel Sharpe (1799- 
1881), but few very popular preachers, though George Harris 
(1794 1859) is an exception. Its year-book specifies 406 
congregations in England and Wales. For the education of its 
ministry it supports Manchester College at Oxford (which 
deduces its ancestry from the academy of Richard Frankland, 
begun 1670), the Unitarian Home Missionary College (founded in 
Manchester in 1854 by John Relly Beard, D.D., and William 
Gaskell), and the Presbyterian College, Carmarthen. 

English Unitarian periodical literature begins with Priestley's 
Theological Repository (1769-1788), and includes the Monthly 
Repository (1806-1838), The Christian Reformer (1834-1863), the 
Prospective Review (1845-1854), the National Review (1855-1864), 
the Theological Review (1864-1879), and now the Hibbert Journal, 
one of the enterprises of the Hibbert Trust, founded by Robert 
Hibbert (1770-1849) and originally designated the Anti-Trinitarian 
Fund. This came into operation in 1853, awards scholarships and 
fellowships, supported (1878-1894) an annual lectureship, and has 
maintained (from 1 894) a chair of ecclesiastical history at Manchester 
College. The general activities of the body are conducted partly 
by its association (Essex Street, Strand), partly by its (triennial) 
National Conference, established 1882. It has two weekly papers, 
the Inquirer and the Christian Life. 

Scotland. Much has been made of the execution (1697) 
at Edinburgh of the student Thomas Aikenhead, convicted of 
blaspheming the Trinity. The works of John Taylor, D.D. 
(1694-1761) on original sin and atonement had much influence 
in the east of Scotland, as we learn from Robert Burns; and such 
men as William Dalrymple, D.D. (1723-1814) and William 
M'Gill, D.D. (1732-1807), along with other " moderates," were 
under suspicion of similar heresies. Overt Unitarianism has 
never had much vogue in Scotland. The only congregation 
of old foundation is at Edinburgh, founded in 1776 by a seces- 
sion from one of the " fellowship societies " formed by James 
Fraser, of Brea (1639-1699). The mission enterprises of 
Richard Wright (1764-1836) and George Harris (1794-1859) 
produced results of no great permanence. There are now seven 
congregations. The Scottish Unitarian Association was founded 
in 1813, mainly by Thomas Southwood Smith, M.D., the sani- 
tary reformer. The McQuaker Trust was founded (1889) for 
propagandist purposes. 

Ireland. Controversy respecting the Trinity was excited 
in Ireland by the prosecution at Dublin (1703) of Thomas 
Emlyn (see above), resulting in fine and imprisonment, for re- 
jecting the deity of Christ. In 1705 the Belfast Society was 
founded for theological discussion by Presbyterian ministers 
in the north, with the result of creating a body of opinion adverse 
to subscription to the Westminster standards. Toleration of 
dissent, withheld in Ireland till 1719, was then granted without 
the requirement of any doctrinal subscription. Next year a 
movement against subscription was begun in the General Synod 
of Ulster, culminating (1725) in the placing of the advocates of 
non-subscription, headed by John Abernethy, D.D., of Antrim, 
into a presbytery by themselves. This Antrim presbytery was 
excluded (1726) from jurisdiction, though not from communion. 
During the next hundred years its members exercised great 
influence on their brethren of the synod; but the counter- 
influence of the mission of the Scottish Seceders (from 1742) 
produced a reaction. The Antrim Presbytery gradually became 
Arian; the same type of theology affected more or less the 
Southern Association, known since 1806 as the Synod of 
Munster. From 1783 ten of the fourteen presbyteries in the 
General Synod had made subscription optional; the synod's code 
of 1824 left " soundness in the faith " to be ascertained by sub- 
scription or by examination. Against this compromise Henry 
Cooke, D.D. (1788-1868), directed all his powers, and was ulti- 
mately (1829) successful in defeating his Arian opponent, Henry 
Montgomery, LL.D. (1788-1865). Montgomery led a secession 



59 6 



UNITARIANISM 



which formed (1830) the Remonstrant Synod, comprising three 
presbyteries. In 1910 the Antrim Presbytery, Remonstrant 
Synod and Synod of Munster were united as the General Synod 
of the non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland. They 
have 38 congregations and some mission stations. Till 1889 
they maintained two theological chairs in Belfast, where John 
Scott Porter (1801-1880) was a pioneer in biblical criticism; 
they now send their students to England for their theological 
education, though in certain respects their views and practices 
are more conservative than those of their English brethren. 

Irish Unitarian periodical literature began in 1832 with the Bible 
Christian, followed by the Irish Unitarian Magazine, the Christian 
Unitarian, the Disciple and now the Non-subscribing Presbyterian. 

See generally R. Wallace's Antitrinitarian Biog. (1850); G. Bonet- 
Maury s Early Sources of Eng. Unit. Christianity, trans. E. P. Hall 
(1884); A. Gordon's Heads of Eng. Unit. Hist. (1895). (A. Go.*) 

United States. Unitarianism in the United States followed 
essentially the same development as in England, and passed 
through the stages of Arminianism, Arianism, anti-tritheism, 
to rationalism and a modernism based on a large-minded accept- 
ance of the results of the comparative study of all religions. In 
the early i8th century Arminianism presented itself in New 
England, and sporadically elsewhere; this tendency was largely 
accelerated by the reaction from the excesses of the " Great 
Awakening " under Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield. 
Before the War of Independence Arianism showed itself in 
individual instances, and French influences were widespread 
in the direction of deism, though they were not organized into 
any definite utterance by religious bodies. 

As early as the middle of the i8th century Harvard College 
represented the most advanced thought of the time, and a score 
or more of clergymen in New England were preaching what was 
essentially Unitarianism. The most prominent of these men 
was Jonathan Mayhew (1720-1766), pastor of the West Church 
in Boston from 1747 to 1766. He preached the strict unity 
of God, the subordinate nature of Christ, and salvation by 
character. Charles Chauncy (1705-1787), pastor of the First 
Church from 1727 until his death, the chief opponentof Edwards 
in the great revival, was both a Unitarian and a Universalist. 
Ebenezer Gay (1696-1787) of Hingham, Samuel West (1730-1807) 
of New Bedford, Thomas Barnard (1748-1814) of Newbury, John 
Prince (1751-1836) and William Bentley (1758-1819) of Salem, 
Aaron Bancroft (1755-1836) of Worcester, and several others, 
were Unitarians. 

The first official acceptance of the Unitarian faith on the part 
of a congregation was by King's Chapel in Boston, which settled 
James Freeman (1759-1853) in 1782, and revised the Prayer Book 
into a mild Unitarian liturgy, in 1785. The Rev. William Hazlitt 
(father of the essayist and critic), visiting the United States in 
1783-1 785, published the fact that there were Unitarians in Phila- 
delphia, Boston, Charleston, Pittsburg, Hallowell, on Cape Cod 
and elsewhere. Unitarian congregations were organized at 
Portland and Saco in 1792 by Thomas Oxnard; in 1800 the First 
Church in Plymouth accepted the more liberal faith. Joseph 
Priestley came to the United States in 1794, and organized a 
Unitarian Church at Northumberland, Pennsylvania, the same 
year, and one at Philadelphia in 1796. His writings had a 
considerable influence. 

Thus from 1725 to 1825 a more tolerant and rational belief 
was developing in New England, and to some extent elsewhere. 
The first distinctive manifestation of the change was the inaugura- 
tion of Henry Ware (1764-1845) as professor of divinity at Har- 
vard College, in 1805. In the same year appeared Unitarian 
books by John Sherman (1772-1828) and Hosea Ballou (1771- 
1852), and another in 1810 by Noah Worcester (1758-1837). 
At the opening of the igth century, with one exception, all the 
churches of Boston were occupied by Unitarian preachers, and 
various periodicals and organizations expressed their opinions. 
Churches were established in New York, Baltimore, Washing- 
ton, Charleston and elsewhere during this period. 

William Ellery Channing was settled over the Federal Street 
Congregational Church, Boston, 1803; and in a few years he 



became the leader of the Unitarian movement. At first 
mystical rather than rationalistic in his theology, he took part 
with the " Catholic Christians," as they called themselves, who 
aimed at bringing Christianity into harmony with the pro- 
gressive spirit of the time. His essays on The System of Excite 
sion and Denunciation in Religion (1815), and Objections to 
Unitarian Christianity Considered (1819), made him a defender 
of Unitarianism. His sermon on " Unitarian Christianity," 
preached at Baltimore in 1819, at the ordination of Jared Sparks, 
and that at New York in 1821, on " Unitarian Christianity most 
favourable to Piety," made him its interpreter. The result was 
a growing division in the Congregational churches, which was 
emphasized in 1825 by the formation of the American Unitarian 
Association at Boston. It was organized " to diffuse the know- 
ledge and promote the interests of pure Christianity"; and it 
published tracts and books, supported poor churches, sent out 
missionaries into every part of the country, and established new 
churches in nearly all the states. Essentially non-sectarian, 
with little missionary zeal, the Unitarian movement has grown 
slowly; and its influence has been chiefly exercised through 
general culture and the better literature of the country. Many 
of its clergymen have been trained in other denominations; but 
the Harvard Divinity School was distinctly Unitarian from its 
formation, in 1816, to 1870, when it became an unsectarian 
department of the university. The Meadville (Pa.) Theological 
School was founded in 1844; and the Unitarian Theological 
School at Berkeley, California, in 1904. 

Unitarian thought in the United States has passed through 
three periods. The first, from 1800 to 1835, was formative, 
mainly influenced by English philosophy, semi-supernatural, 
imperfectly rationalistic, devoted to philanthropy and practical 
Christianity. Dr Channing was its distinguished exponent. 
The second, from 1835 to 1885, profoundly influenced by German 
idealism, was increasingly rationalistic, though its theology was 
largely flavoured by mysticism. In 1865 the National Unitarian 
Conference was organized, and adopted a distinctly Christian 
platform, affirming that its members were " disciples of the Lord 
Jesus Christ." The more rationalistic minority thereupon 
formed the Free Religious Association, " to encourage the 
scientific study of theology and to increase fellowship in the 
spirit." The Western Unitarian Association accepted the same 
position, and based its " fellowship on no dogmatic tests," but 
affirmed a desire " to establish truth, righteousness and love 
in the world." This period of controversy, and of vigorous 
theological development, practically came to an end soon after 
1885 ; and its cessation was assured by the action of the national 
conference at Saratoga in 1894, when it was affirmed by a nearly 
unanimous vote: " These churches accept the religion of Jesus, 
holding, in accordance with his teaching, that practical religion 
is summed up in love to God and love* to man. The conference 
recognizes the fact that its constituency is Congregational in 
tradition and polity. Therefore it declares that nothing in 
this constitution is to be construed as an authoritative test; 
and we cordially invite to our working fellowship any who, while 
differing from us in belief, are in general sympathy with our 
spirit and our practical aims." The leaders of this period were 
Emerson, with his idealism, and Theodore Parker, with his 
acceptance of Christianity as absolute religion. 

The third period, beginning about 1885, has been one of 
rationalism, recognition of universal religion, large acceptance 
of the scientific method and ideas a,nd an ethical attempt to 
realize the higher affirmations of Christianity. It has been 
marked by harmony and unity to a degree perhaps found in no 
other religious body, by steady growth in the number of churches 
and by a widening fellowship with all other progressive phases 
of modern religion. This last phase has been shown in the 
organization of " The International Council of Unitarian and 
other Liberal Religious Thinkers and Workers," at Boston on 
the 25th of May 1900, " to open communication with those in 
all lands who are striving to unite pure religion and perfect liberty, 
and to increase fellowship and co-operation among them." This 
council has held biennial sessions in London, Amsterdam, 



UNITED BRETHREN UNITED FREE CHURCH 



597 



Geneva and Boston. During the period since 1885 the influence 
of Emerson h become predominant, modified by the more 
scientific preaching of Minot J. Savage, who has found his guides 
in Darwin and Spencer. 

Beyond its own borders the body has obtained recognition through 
the public work of such men as Henry Whitney Bellows and Edward 
Everett Hale, the remarkable influence ofjames Freeman Clarke 
and the popular power of Robert Collyer. The number of Unitarian 
churches in the United States in 1909 was 461, with 541 ministers. 
The church membership, really nominal, may be estimated at 
100,000. The periodicals are The Christian Register, weekly, 
Boston; Unity, weekly, Chicago; The Unitarian, monthly, New 
York; Old and New, monthly, Des Moines; Pacific Unitarian, San 
Francisco. 

See Joseph Henry Allen, Our Liberal Movement in Theology 
(Boston, 1882), and Sequel to our Liberal Movement (Boston, 1897); 
John White Chadwick, Old and New Unitarian Belief (Boston, 1894), 
and specially William Ellery Charming (1903); Unitarianism: its 
Origin and History, a course of Sixteen Lectures (Boston, 1895); 
George Willis Cooke. Unitarianism in America: a History of its 
Origin and Development (Boston, 1902); and Unitarian Year Book 
(Boston). (G. W. C.) 

UNITED BRETHREN IN CHRIST, 1 an American religious 
sect which originated in the last part of the iSth century 
under the leadership of Philip William Otterbein (1726-1813), 
pastor of the Second Reformed Church in Baltimore, and 
Martin Boehm (1725-1812), a Pennsylvanian Mennonite of 
Swiss descent. Otterbein and Boehm licensed some of their 
followers to preach and did a great work, especially through 
class-meetings of a Wesleyan type; 1 in 1789 they held a formal 
conference at Baltimore, and in 1800, at a conference near 
Frederick City, Maryland, the Church was organized under its 
present name, and Otterbein and Boehm were chosen its first 
bishops or superintendents. The ecclesiastical polity of the 
Church is Wesleyan and its theology is Arminian: there is no 
hard-and-fast rule about baptism. Bishops are elected for 
four years. The first delegated general conference met at 
Mount Pleasant, Pennsylvania, in 1815, and adopted a confession 
of faith, rules of order and a book of discipline, which were 
revised in 1885-1889, when women were first admitted to 
ordination, and when the Conservatives, protesting against 
the new constitution, withdrew and formed the body now 
commonly known as the United Brethren in Christ " of the 
Old Constitution." 

The Liberal branch had 3732 organizations in 1906 with a total 
membership of 274,649. This body carries on missions in West 
Africa (since 1855), Japan, China, the Philippines and Porto Rico. 
It has a publishing house (1834) and Bonebrake Theological Seminary 
(1871) at Dayton. Ohio; and supports Otterbein University (1847) 
at Westervffle, O.; Westfield College (1865) at Westfidd, Illinois; 
Leander Clark College (1857) at Toledo, Iowa; York College (1890) 
at York, Nebraska; Philomath College (1867) at Philomath, Oregon: 
Lebanon Valley College (1867) at Annville, Pa.; Campbell 
College (1864) at Holton. Kansas, and Central University (1907) 
at Indianapolis, Indiana. 

The " Old Constitution " body had 572 organizations in 1906 with 
a total membership of 21,401. It has a publishing house at Hunting- 
ton, Indiana. 

See D. Berger, History of the Church of the United Brethren (1897), 
and his sketch (1894) in vol nL of the " American Church History 
Series"; E. L. Shuey, Handbook of the United Brethren in Christ 
(1893) ; W. J. Shuey, Year-Book of the United Brethren in Christ (from 
1867); and A. W. Drury, Life of Philip William Otterbein (1884). 

UNITED FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND, a religious organiza- 
tion, representing the union made in 1900 between the Free 
Church of Scotland (except a dissentient section who separated 
off and retained the name of Free Church) and the United 
Presbyterian Church. (See FREE CHTTRCH OF SCOTLAND and 
UMTZD PRZSBYTEBIAX CHURCH.) 

The first moderator was Dr Rainy (q.t.). The Free Church 
brought into the union 1077 congregations, the United Presby- 
terians 599; the revenue of the former amounted to 706,546, 
of the latter to 361,743. The missionaries .of both churches 

1 The sect is not to be confused with the Moravian Brethren (a.-), 
whose official name, Unitas Fratrum, is commonly rendered in 
English " United Brethren. " 

'Otterbein was an intimate friend of Francis Asbury and was 
greatly influenced by him. 



joined the union, and the United Church was then equipped with 
missions in various parts of India, in Manchuria, in Africa 
(Lovedale, Lmngstonia, &c.), in Melanesia and in the West 
Indies. The formula which was adopted allowed for develop- 
ment of doctrine, the candidate stating that he believes " in the 
doctrine of this Church, set forth in the Confession of Faith," 
the Church being thus set above the confession. The Church 
has three divinity halls, at Glasgow, Edinburgh and Aberdeen, 
served by seventeen professors and five lecturers. 

The minority of the Free Church who had refused to join the 
union lost no time in testing the legality of the act of the 
majority in entering it. Their summons, dated the i4th of 
December 1900, claimed that in uniting with the United Presby- 
terian Church, which did not hold the principles of the Free 
Church, the majority had forfeited the right to the property of 
the Free Church, which must be judged to belong to the minority 
who remained faithful to the principles of the Free Church and 
were that Church. In the Scottish courts the case was decided 
in favour of the union by Lord Low on the 9th of August 1901, 
and by the second division of the Court of Session on the 4th 
of July 1902, it being held in both trials that the old Free 
Church had a right within limits to change its views and to do 
by its Assembly what had been done. The proceedings before 
the House of Lords on appeal were protracted by the death 
of one of the judges, which involved the necessity of a second 
hearing, and it was not till the ist of August 1904 that the 
verdict was pronounced. By a majority of five to two the 
House of Lords reversed the decision of the Court of Session, 
allowed the appeal, and found the minority entitled to the 
funds and property of the Free Church. It was held that the 
majority of an independent church, adopting new standards 
of doctrine or ceasing to hold essential or fundamental doctrines 
of the church, forfeit the right to the property, which remains 
with the minority holding the church's original doctrine: 
also that the establishment principle was a fundamental doc- 
trine of the Free Church, and that by entering a union on 
terms leaving that doctrine an open question, the majority 
had violated the conditions on which the property of the 
Free Church was held. On the plea that by the Declaratory 
Act of 1892 the Free Church had abandoned its doctrinal 
position, argument was heard, but the House of Lords did not 
decide. 

Few legal decisions have occasioned so great consternation 
or such serious practical difficulties. At first sight it deprived 
the Free Church section of the United Church of all its material 
goods churches, mans^ colleges and missions, even of the 
provision for the old age of the clergy. It appeared to divert 
large amounts of church property from the uses for which it 
had been provided, and to hand it over to a body with which 
the United Church was deeply out of sympathy and which 
could have little prospect of making effective use of it. A 
conference held in September between representatives of the 
United Free and of the (now distinct) Free Church, in order 
to come to some working arrangement in view of the decision, 
found that no basis for such an agreement could be arrived at. 
Nothing remained but to invoke the intervention of parliament 
to put an end to an impossible situation, A convocation of 
ministers and elders of the United Free Church, held on the 
1 5th of December, decided that the union should go on, and 
resolved to " take every lawful means of appealing to the 
nation and to parliament to rescue the funds and buildings 
of the Church for the sacred purposes for which they had been 
provided." The Free Church' could not refuse to consent to 
this, and in December a commission was appointed, consisting 
of Lord Elgin, Lord Kinn*ar and Sir Ralph Anstruther. to 
inquire into matters connected with the two churches, while 
the question of interim possession was referred to Sir John 
Cheyne, as commissioner, for inquiry and action. The com- 
mission sat in public, and after hearing evidence on both sides, 
issued their report in April 1005. They reported that the 
state of feeling on one side and on the other had made their 
work difficult. They had concluded however that the Free Church 



598 UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 



was unable in many respects to carry out the purposes of the 
trusts, which, under the verdict of the House of Lords, was a 
condition of their holding the property, and that there was 
a case for parliamentary interference. They recommended 
that an executive commission should be set up by act of parlia- 
ment, in which the whole property of the Free Church, as at 
the date of the union, should be vested, and which should 
allocate it to the United Free Church, where the Free Church 
was unable to carry out the trust purposes. The commission 
was to entertain suggestions which might be made to them 
for friendly arrangements. 

The Churches (Scotland) Act, which gave effect to these 
recommendations, was passed on the nth of August 1905. 
It contained (see SCOTLAND, CHURCH or) a clause (No. 5) pro- 
viding for the relaxation of subscription in the Established 
Church, parliament thus interesting itself in the affairs of all 
Presbyterian churches. The commissioners were those on 
whose report the act was formed, with the addition of two 
others. In October 1906 the commission intimated that the 
Assembly Hall, with the New College Buildings dnd the High 
Church, were to be the property of the United Free Church, 
the Free Church receiving the offices in Edinburgh, and a tene- 
ment to be converted into a college, while the library was to 
be vested in the United Free Church, but open to members 
of both churches. After having occupied class-rooms in the 
university for two sessions, and held an assembly (1905) in 
another hall, the United Free Church in 1906 again occupied 
in its own right the historic buildings of the Free Church. All 
the foreign missions and all the continental stations were 
adjudged to the United Free Church. The allocation of churches 
and manses was a slow business, but in 1908 over 100 churches 
had been assigned to the Free Church. Some of the dispossessed 
United Free Church congregations, most of them in the High- 
lands, found shelter for a time in the parish churches; but it 
was early decided that in spite of the objection against the 
erection of more church buildings in districts where many were 
now standing empty, 60 new churches and manses should at 
once be built at a cost of about 150,000. (A. M.*) 



the union of the two crowns, and the adoption of the name of 
Great Britain for the common country (Teulet, Mim. Caille 
d M. de la Mothe, Dec. 20). But in England the innovation 
at first met with great opposition. Various objections, senti- 
mental and practical, were urged against it in parliament; and 
the judges, when appealed to by the king, declared that the 
adoption of the title would invalidate all legal processes. At 
length, on the zoth of October 1604, the king, weary of the dis- 
cussion, cut the knot by assuming the title by royal proclamation, 
and in due course the inscription " J. D. G. Mag. Brit. F. et H. 
Rex " appeared on his coins. In November 1604 we find 
the king instructing the lords commissioners of the Gunpowder 
Plot to try and discover if the prisoner was the author of a 
most " cruel pasquil " against him for assuming the name of 
Britain. 

For further details see Calendar of State Papers, Domestic Series ; 
and J. Spedding, Letters and Life of Lord Bacon, vol iii. (London, 
1861-1874). 

England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland are politically 
united under a parliament (q.v.), consisting of the king, the 
House of Lords 2 and the House of Commons, 3 the prerogatives 
of the Crown being exercised through responsible ministers. 
The executive government is carried on under the supervision 
of the ministers of state (see MINISTRY), the more important of 
whom are united in the cabinet (q.v.). The first minister 
of the Crown or prime minister (q.v.) is appointed by the 
king, and having made choice of his colleagues, recommends 
them for appointment. (See the separate articles on the 
various offices. For the judiciary system, see COURT; APPEAL; 
&c.) 

The table at the foot of this column shows the imperial 
revenue and expenditure, with the amount of revenue per 
head of population of the United Kingdom for various 
years. The financial year now ends on the 3ist of March 
of the year following that quoted. The figures before 1907 
did not include the revenue assigned to local purposes. 
The deficit in 1909 was due to delay in passing the Finance 
Act. 



Year ending March 3ist. 





1891. 


1896. 


1901. 


1906. 


1910. 


Funded debt 




C7Q 4.72.082 




iSq 14.6 878 




CCT 182 I C.'l 


I 




614 868 547 


Terminable annuities 
Unfunded debt 


66,550,579 
36,140,079 


49,183,748 
Q. 075,800 


60,154,800 

78.1 ^"i.ooo 


43.459.548 

65,713 ooo 


35,876,861 

62 500 ooo 


Other capital liabilities* 


1.317.719 


3.979-940 


14,464,396 


45,770,210 


49,218,217 


Total gross liabilities of the state 


683,480,459 


652,286,366 


703,934,349 


788,990,187 


762,463,625 


Assets 


?,";^2,O4Ot 


22, 62 7, OOO J 


25 806 oooj 


31 080 oooj 




Other assets 


1.74.0.^07 


Q-3Q "ICJ. 


712 760 


2 ;86 7QQ 




Exchequer balances at banks of England and Ireland 


6,370,897 


8,975,201 


5,596,918 


10,451,487 


2,831,248 



* These are in respect of sums borrowed under certain acts. f Nominal value. 

J Estimated market value on the 3ist of March each year. 



UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, 1 

the official title, since the ist of January 1801, of the political 
unity composed of England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland. 
" Great Britain " was employed as a formal flesignation from 
the time of the union of the kingdoms of England and Scotland 
in 1707. Although the name (which apparently had its origin 
in Britannia Major, the name given to the island to distinguish 
it from Britannia Minor or Brittany) had, in earlier times, been 
often used both by English and by foreign writers, especially 
for rhetorical and poetical purposes, it was not till after the 
accession of James I. that it became a recognized part of the 
royal style. Its adoption was due to the king himself, who was 
anxious to give expression to the fact that he was sovereign of 
the undivided island, and not only of England or Scotland. As 
early as 1559 the Scottish congregation had formally proposed 
'See also BRITAIN; BRITISH EMPIRE; ENGLAND; IRELAND; 
SCOTLAND; WALES; &c. 



Year. 


Total 
Revenue. 


Total 
Expenditure. 


Proportion 
of Revenue 
per head. 










s. d. 


1861 


70,283,674 


72,792,059 


2 8 10 


1871 


69,945,220 


69,548,539 


245 


1881 


81,872,354 


80,938,990 


2 7 I 


1891 


89,489,112 


87,732,855 


262 


1901 


130,384,684 


183,592,264 


3 2 10 


1902 


142,997,999 


195,522,213 


3 12 II 


1903 


151,551,698 


184,483,708 


3 ii 6 


1904 


141,545,597 


146,961,136 


362 


1905 


143,370,404 


141,956,497 


364 


1906 


143,977,575 


140,511,955 


3 5 ii 


1907 


156,537,690 


151,812,094 


365 


1908 


151,578,295 


152,292,395 


350 


1909 


131,696,456 


157,944,611 


2 18 5 


2 See PEERAGE. " See REPRESENTATION and PARLIAMENT. 



UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 599 



In separate articles throughout this Encyclopaedia the main 
subjects of interest in connexion with British institutions are 
fully dealt with; and it is only necessary here to give such details 
as are needed to supplement those given under the subject- 
heading. See AGRICULTURE ; N AV Y (also SHIP and Snip-B UILDING) ; 
EDUCATION; ENGLISH FINANCE; ENGLISH HISTORY; CIVIL SER- 
VICE; NATIONAL DEBT; POLICE; POOR LAW; &c. A separate 
section, however, is devoted to the army, the constitution of 
which in 1910 is described; the history is given under ARMY. 

National Debt (q.v.). The table on the preceding page shows 
the position of the national debt at quinquennial intervals 
during 1891-1910. 

Area and Population. The United Kingdom has an area of 
120,651 sq. m., and at the census of 1891 had a population of 
37,732,922 and in 1901 of 41,458,721. If the islands in British 
seas are included, the area is increased to 120,953 sq. m., and the 
population to 41,609,091. The main divisions are as follows: 





Area 
sq. m. 


Population. 


1891. 


1901. 


England and Wales . 
Scotland 


58,324 
29,796 

32,531 
302 


29,002,525 
4,025,647 
4,704,750 
147,842 


32,527,843 
4,472,103 
4.458,775 
150,370 


Ireland 
Islands in the British seas . 



Vital Slatistks.The following table institutes a comparison 
between the birth-rates per thousand of the population in the 
United Kingdom and certain other countries, at intervals (so 
far as possible) of five years, adding the figures for other years 
in specific years when there was a marked fluctuation: 



The number of marriages (a) and the proportion of persons 
married per thousand of the population (b) are thus shown: 



Year. 


England and 
Wales. 


Scotland. 


Ireland. 


United 
Kingdom. 


1896 
1901 
1906 
1909 


(a) (b) 
242,764 15-7 
259,400 15-9 

269,734 15-6 
260,259 J 4'6 


(a) (b) 
30,270 14-2 
31,387 14-0 
33,123 14-0 
30,092 12-3 


(a) (b) 

23.055 10-2 
22,564 IO-2 

22,557 10-3 
22,769 10-4 


(a) (b) 
296,089 15-0 

313.351 I5-I 
325,414 14-9 
313,120 13-9 



Emigration. The following table shows the number of 
passengers, distinguishing English and Welsh, Scottish and 
Irish, who left the United Kingdom for extra-European 
countries in 1895, 1900 and 1905, and the total for 1909, and 
in certain other years in which the numbers show marked 
fluctuations: 



Year. 


English and Welsh. 


Scottish. 


Irish. 


Total. 


1895 


112,538 


18,294 


54.349 


185,181 


1898 


90,679 


15.570 


34.395 


140,644 


1900 


102,448 


20,472 


45.9 5 


168,825 


1904 


175.733 


37,445 


58,285 


271-435 


I9 5 


170,408 


4i,5io 


50,159 


262,077 


1906 


219.765 


53.162 


52,210 


325-137 



In 1909 the total number to British dominions was 163,594 
and the total number to other extra-European countries was 
125,167. 

Occupations. The following table shows the occupations 
of the people (excluding children under ten years of age) as 





1881. 


1886. 


1891. 


1896. 


1901. 


1905, 1906. 


Russia in Europe * 
Hungary 
Austria 
Germany 


47-8 (1882, 50-4) 
42-9 
37-5 (1882, 38-9) 
37' 


46-5 
45-6 
38-1 
37' 


48-8 
42-3 
38-3 
37'0 


49-7 
40-5 
38-0 

36-3 


47-9 

3 I1 
36-6 

35'7 


36-0 

33-7 
33-o 


Japan 


25-6 


27-3 (1889, 30-2) 


26-7 


30-0 


32-7 


30-6 


Holland 
Denmark 
Switzerland 


35-o 
32-2 
29-8 


34-6 
32-4 
27-8 


33'7 
31-0 (1892,29-6) 

28-2 


32-7 
30-5 
28-1 


32-3 
29-7 
29-1 


30-4 
28-5 
27-4 


UNITED KINGDOM 


32-5 


31-5 (1890,29-2) 


30-4 


29-0 


28-0 


26-8 


England 


33-9 


32-8 (1890, 30-2) 


31-4 


29-6 


28-5 


27-1 


Scotland 


33-7 


32-9 (1890, 30-4) 


31-2 (1894,29-9) 


30-4 


29-5 


27-9 


Ireland 


24-5 


23-2 (1890, 22-3) 


23-1 (1892,22-5) 


23-7 


22-7 


23-6 


Norway 


30-6 


31-2 


30-9 


30-2 


29-6 


26-5 


Sweden ........ 
Belgium 
France ........ 


29-1 
31-8 
24-9 


29-8 
29-9 

23-9 


28-3 
30-0 

22-6 


27-2 
29-0 

22-5 


27-0 
29-4 

22-O 


25-7 ; 
25-7 

20-6 



The number of births in the United Kingdom in 1909 was 1,146,118, giving a rate per thousand of 25-5. 

* Not including Finjand. 



The death-rate is similarly treated : 



Denmark 
Norway 
Sweden 
Holland . . . 
UNITED KINGDOM. 


1881. 


1886. 


I89I. 


1896. 


1901. 


1905, 1906. 


18-3 
17-0 

17-7 
21-5 
18-7 


18-1 
16-2 
16-6 

21-8 

19-2 


2O-O 
17-5 

16-8 
20-7 

2O-0 


15-7 
I5-I 
15-6 
17-2 
16-9 


15-8 
14-9 

16-1 
17-2 
17-1 


13-5 
13-7 
14-4 
14-8 
15-6 


England . 
Scotland . 
Ireland . 


18-9 
19-3 
17-5 


19-5 
18-9 

17-8 


2O-2 

20-7 

18-4 


17-1 
16-6 
16-7 


16-9 
17-9 
17-8 


15-4 
1 6-0 
17-0 


Belgium 
Switzerland 
Germany 
France .... 
Japan .... 
Hungary 
Austria 
Russia in Europe*. 


21 2 
22-4 

25-5 
22-0 

18-7 
34-4 
30-5 
33-2 


21-3 
20-7 

26-2 
22-5 
24-4 
31-7 
29-5 
31-2 


21-2 
20-6 

23-4 
22-9 
21-0 

33-1 

28-1 
34-6 


17-5 
17-8 

20-8 
2O-O 

21-4 

28-9 

26- T, 

32-8 


17-2 
18-0 
20-7 
20- 1 
20-4 

25-4 
24-0 
32-1 


16-4 
17-9 
19-8 
19-9 

22-O 
24-8 
25-0 



* Not including Finland. 

The deaths in the United Kingdom in 1909 numbered 667,765, 
the rate per thousand being 14-8. 



Lllg J. 11HCII"J' 

distinguished in five great orders, according .to the census 
of 1901: 





England and Wales. 


Scotland. 


Ireland. 


Professional 
Domestic 
Commercial 
Agricultural 
Industrial . 


804,427 

1,994,197 
1,858,454 

1,152,495 
7,534,994 


101,061 
201,230 
245,715 
237,311 
1,197,495 


131,035 
219,418 
97,889 
876,062 
639.413 



Agriculture. The following table illustrates broadly the 
difference in the position of agriculture in Great Britain and 
in Ireland: 



Percentage to total area 
of area 


Great Britain. 


Ireland. 


1890. 


1909. 


1890. 


1909. 




57-7 
14-1 
5-8 
8-5 
28-2 


56-6 
12-4 

5-4 
7-9 
30-2 


73-1 
7-3 
5-8 
5-9 
53-4 


70-3 
6-1 

5-0 

II-2 

43-1 


Under grain crops .... 
Under green crops .... 
Under grasses and other crops . 
In permanent pasture 



600 UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 



Minerals and Mining. The mineral production of the Unitet 
Kingdom reached a total value in 1890 of 100,802,657 and in 
1909 of 119,394,486, with a maximum during that period o 
160,605,154 in 1900 and a minimum of 73,024,066 in 1893 
These figures include pig-iron produced from foreign ores 
About 73 % represents the value of the coal output. The figures 
for the more important minerals are as follows: 


between 1890 and 1910 was 267,830,962 tons in 1907, and th< 
minimum 164,325,795 in 1893. The maximum estimated value 
however, was 121,652,596 for the 225,181,300 tons raised ii 
1900; the value in 1907 being 120,527,378. 
In the chief coal-producing counties of England and Wale 
the quantity raised in 1900 and in 1909 will be found in the table a 
the foot of preceding column. 
Thus it appears that of the coal raised in England the county o 
Durham contributes about 22%, Yorkshire 17%, Lancashin 
16%, Stafford and Derbyshire each about 9%, and Northumber 
land 7%; while of the coal raised in Wales 85% is contributed b> 
the county of Glamorgan ; and that the coal production of Englanc 
and Wales together constitutes, in quantity and value, 85 % of th 
whole production of the United Kingdom. 
The export of coal greatly increased on the whole during the perioc 
1890-1909. The following table shows this; the figures for 1891 
are given as the lowest during the period. The tonnage of coke 
and patent fuel is included in the totals : 


Description of Minerals. 1900. 1909. Value, 1909. 


Coal. . . 
Iron ore . 


Tor 
. . . 225,181 

T/1.O2E 


is. Tons. 
,300 263,774,312 106,274,900 
,208 14,979,979 3-689,777 
,694 14,067,810 1,718,056 
,874 4,600,084 1,339,106 
,859 402,184 1,007,013 
,477 11,811,122 1,226,967 
,301 6,283,297 1,235,046 
,221 2,967,057 815,937 
,800 8,289 617,376 
,347 1,822,744 548,896 


Clay and shale . . . 14,040 
Sandstone .... 5,oic 
Slate 58; 
Limestone (not chalk) . 1 1 ,90= 
Igneous rocks . . 4,6^ 


Tin ore (dressed) . . 6 
Salt 1,861 


Year. Tons. Year. Tons. 




1890 30,442,839 i 1900 46,098,228 
1893 29,031,955 1 1905 49,359,272 
1895 33, I i,452 1909 65,694,267 


Gold ore, manganese ore and uranium ore are produced in 
small quantities, and the list of minerals worked in the United 
Kingdom also includes chalk, lead, alum, phosphate of lime, 
chert and flint, gravel and sand, zinc ore, gypsum, arsenic, 
copper, barytes, wolfram and strontium sulphate. 
Metals were obtained from the ores as follows: 


The chief receiving countries are, in order, Germany, France, 
Italy, Sweden, Spain, Russian Empire, Denmark, Egypt, Holland, 
Argentina, Norway and Brazil. 

The annual output of iron ore in the United Kingdom has 
on the whole decreased since 1882. In that year it reached a 
maximum of 18,031,957 tons; it then fell off to 
13,098,341 tons in 1887, rose in the two years follow- '"'"' 
ing to nearly 15,000,000, fell to little over 11,000,000 in 1892- 
1893, rose fairly steadily to 14,461,330 in 1899, stood in 1900 at 
14,028,208 tons of a value of 4,224,400, and then showed a 
further fall and rise, until in 1905 the tonnage was 14,590,703, 
and the value 3,482,184. 
The iron ore raised in the various countries, and in the most 
productive counties, is here shown : 


Description o 
Metal. 


1900. 


1909. 


Quantity. 


Quantity. 


Value (average 
market price). 


Iron . 
Tin ... 
Lead . . . 
Zinc . 
Copper 
Gold . . . 
Silver 


. 4,666,942 tons 
4-268 

24-364 - 
9,066 

765 
14,004 oz. 
190,850 


4,802,163 tons 

5,199 
22,463 
3,8:8 

435 
1,210- oz. 
142,146 ,, 



15,559,253 
695,546 
298,945 
87,146 
27,162 
4,400 
14,030 


1900. 1909. 


The total number of persons employed in and about all the 
mines of the United Kingdom in 1901 was 839,178, and in 1909 
1,126,372. 
The workers were thus distributed between the three kingdoms 
and the principality in 1905: 


Tons. To 
England T 072 118 1/1 ! 


ns. 
'6,658 
[6,228 
2,367 
4,896 
17,363 
'5,659 
>2,565 
4,589 
8,043 
7,276 
18,002 


Cumberland 1 1,103,430 i,2t 
Lancashire 1 . 630 361 31 


Leicester 7eo 708 si 


Lincoln .... i 924 898 2 o' 


Northampton . . . 1,622,5-19 2*8: 




Coal Mines, &c. 


Metalliferous 
Mines (a). 


Quarries (b). 


otanord * i 084 707 or 


Y rk 5,550,677 6,2; 
Wales 7,418 


England . 
Wales . . 
Scotland 
Ireland . 


606,206 

137,124 
1 14,294 

749 


I9,56l 
7,333 
974 
733 


60,725 

17.277 
12,187 

4464 


Scotland 2 . SAO oil 6c 


Ireland 99 641 ( 




The number of furnaces in blast (fractions showing the pi 
of the year furnaces were in blast) was: in England 298^ 
19^; Scotland 85 ,"2, total 403^. The total number of 
urnaces in 1900 was: in England 456, Wales 42, Scotl; 
:otal 604; so that 33% of the number stood unused, 
urnaces in blast numbered: England 244^- Wales 13^, 
?7A: total 345^; and those existing: in England 412, V 
Scotland 101 ; total 544; and the percentage unused was t 
In 1888 the imports of iron ore amounted to 3,562,071 
1898 to 5,468,396 tons, in 1899 to 7,054,578 tons, in 1900 to t 
tons, in 1901 to 5,548,888 tons and in 1909 to 6,361,571 tons, 


oportion 
i, Wales 
existing 
md 106; 
In 1905 
Scotland 
Vales 31, 
hus 36. 
tons, in 

,297,953 
of which 
iron ob- 
,976,990 
in 1905 
for the 
87). 
ingdom 
tput of 

Lead. 

ish ore 
duction 
num of 
ductive 
ined in 
ns. 

fdom. 
nes also 


The total figures given above include (a) 550 and (b) 1 66 workers 
in the Isle of Man ; and the figures quoted for production include 
that of the isle. 
The production of coal in Great Britain, though marked by 
Coa] fluctuation, has, on the whole, largely increased, 
and in 1901 the output was 42% greater than 
that of 1 88 1. The maximum quantity extracted in any one year 




1900. 


1909. 


he bulk was imported from Spain. The amount of pig- 
ained found its minimum, during the period 1890-1910, of 6 
ons in 1893, and its maximum of 10,183,860 in 1906, and 
lie quantity produced from foreign ores (4,847,899 tons) 
first time exceeded that produced from British ores (4,760,1 
The quantity of lead ore produced within the United K 
las decreased. It is now less than one-half of the on 
about 1877, and the value has decreased more than 
proportionately. In the period 1890-1908 the maxi- 
mum annual production of metallic lead from Brit 
wa 33,590 tons in 1890, valued at 449,826 ; the pro 
fluctuated somewhat, but generally fell, to the minir 
7,704 tons in 1902 (value 198,875). The most pro 
ounties are Flint, Durham and Derby; the ore obta 
he Isle of Man is increased in value by the silver it contai 

1 These counties supply the richest ore in the United Kin] 
2 In these cases the greater proportion of ore is from mi 
producing coal. 


England. 
Cumberland 
Derby 
Durham 
Gloucester . 


Tons. 
2,022,327 

15,243,031 
34,800,719 
1,578,386 
24,842,208 
2,106,343 
9,818,829 
11,514,521 
8,626,177 


Tons. 
2,309,370 
16,869,347 
41,240,612 
1,486,526 
23,705,387 
2,661,606 
13,204,357 

14,013,135 
11,106,702 
1,140,818 
13,517,101 
4,447,978 
35,896,623 

1,950,429 
2,556,612 
34,461,631 


Lancashire 
Leicester 




Monmouth 
Northumberland 
Nottingham 
Somerset 


Stafford 




14,222,743 
2.957,490 
28,247,249 

1,333,880 
2,447,092 
27,686,758 


Warwick 




York . . 


Wales. 
Carmarthen 
Denbigh 
Glamorgan 



UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 60 1 



The annual output of tin ore, which in 1878 amounted to 
15,045 tons, valued at 53,737, fell to 12,898 tons in 1881, 

though the value in that year rose to 697,444. 

During the years 1882-1892 the average output was 
over 14,000 tons, and its average value about 770,000, but in 
1893 a decline began in the output (not however accompanied 
closely by a decline in the value), slightly relieved about 1905. 



Year. 


Tin Ore. 


Value. 


1893 
1900 

1905 
1909 


Tons. 

13,689 
6,800 

7,201 

5,193 



637,053 
523-604 
574,183 
617,376 



Tin ore is obtained almost exclusively in Cornwall. 
Like others of the less important mining industries, copper 
mining in the United Kingdom has declined. In 1881 the 
output of ore amounted to 52,556 tons, in 1891 to 

Conner * 

9158 tons, in 1893 to 5576 tons, in 1905 to 7153 tons, 
valued at 32,696 and yielding 716 tons of metal by smelting. 
The total tonnage of ore included 5757 tons from England 
(chiefly from Cornwall) and 1146 from Ireland (Wicklow, &c.). 
Copper precipitate is taken from water pumped up from old 
copper mines on Parys Mountain in Anglesey. 

Zinc ore is obtained chiefly from mines in Cumberland, Wales 

and the Isle of Man. In 1881 the output reached 35,527 tons, 

valued at 110,043; in 1891 the output was only 

22,216 tons, but its value was 113,445. In 1897 

the quantity was 19,278 tons, and the value 69,134; but in 1898 

the price had risen so that the output of 23,552 tons was worth 

117,784. In 1900 the output of 24,675 tons was worth 97,606; 

and in 1905 that of 23,909 tons was worth 139,806. 

During the period 1890-1905 gold mines were worked con- 
tinuously in Merionethshire. Notices of the discovery of gold 
elsewhere (as in the Forest of Dean, Argyllshire and 
Ireland) have appeared from time to time. 
The principal fluctuations in production were as follows: 



Year. 


Ore. 


Gold. 


Value. 




Tons. 


Oz. 





1890 


575 


206 


675 


1891 


14,117 


4,008 


13,700 


1893 


4,489 


2,309 


8,691 


1895 


13,266 


6,600 


18,520 


1898 


703 


395 


1,229 


1900 


20,802 


14,004 


52,147 


1902 


29,953 


4,181 


14,570 


1904 


23,203 


19,655 


73,925 


1905 


I5,98i 


5,797 


21,222 


1908 





915 


3,3" 



It should be noted also that from imported cupreous iron pyrites, 
copper, gold and silver are extracted at some fifteen metal extraction 
works in Great Britain. From 386,858 tons of burnt ore in 1900 
there were obtained 13,925 tons of copper, 1777 oz. of gold and 
309,486 oz. of silver; and in 1905 the figures were: ore, 402,863 
tons; copper, 14,502 tons; gold, 1850 oz.; silver, 322,291 oz. 

Textile Industries. The most important of the textile in- 
dustries of Great Britain is cotton manufacture. The quantities 
of raw cotton imported, exported and retained for 
consumption for various years during the period 
1890-1910 were as follows: 



Cotton. 



Year. 


Imported. 


Exported. 


Retained. 


1890 
1893 
1895 
1898 
1900 

1905 
1907 
1909 


Ib 

1,793,495,200 
1,416,780,064 
1,757,042,672 
2,128,548,352 
1,760,206,672 
2,203,595,520 
2,386,901,104 
2,188,761,456 


ft 
214,641,840 
224,621,488 
203,284,592 
203,072,464 
215,747,168 
283,177,888 
330,352,064 
268,633,456 


ft 

,578,853,360 
,192,158,576 
,553,758,080 
,925,475,888 

,544,459,504 
,920,417,632 
2,056,549,040 
1,920,128,000 



During the same period the minimum and maximum amount of 
raw cotton (in ft) imported into the United Kingdom from the 
principal countries whence it is exported was as follows: United 



States of America (1893), 1,055,855,360; (1898), 1,805,353,424; 
Egypt (1890), 181,266,176; (1907), 423,052,448; British possessions 
in the East Indies (1898), 27,349,728; (1890), 238,746,704; (1909), 
75,621,168; Brazil (1809), 5,464,592; (1906), 54,362,000; Peru 
(1891), 6,175,344; (1909), 24,413,648. In 1905 there were imported 
7,94 I ,920 ft from Chile (only 195,328 in 1909); 6,033,104 ft from 
Canada (this also fluctuates greatly; 1,801,072 in 1909); 1,241,408 ft 
from British West Africa (4,985,232 in 1909); 1,126,720 ft from 
the British West Indies and Guiana (3,022,208 in 1908). 

According to the census returns of 1901 there were 546,065 per- 
sons employed in cotton factories, 199,920 male and 346,145 female. 
Of the total number of workpeople, 529, 131 were employed in England 
and Wales, 14,805 in Scotland and 212 in Ireland. In 1907 the total 
had risen to 576,820 (217,742 males and 359,078 females). 

The extent of the woollen and worsted manufactures of the 
United Kingdom is indicated by the following table showing 
the imports and exports of wool and the quantity 
retained for use in various years (1890-1905): 



Wool. 



Year. 


Imports. 


Exports of 
imported Wool. 


Retained. 


1890 

1895 
1898 
1900 

1905 
1907 
1909 


Ib 
633,028,131 
775,379,063 
699,555,048 
558,950,528 
620,350,885 
764,286,625 
808,710,087 


ft 

340,712,303 
404,935,226 
283,317,748 
196,207,261 
277,864,215 
313,519,282 
390,695,182 


ft 
292,315,828 
370,443,837 
416,237,300 
362,743/267 
342,486,670 

450,767,343 
418,014,905 



During the same period the minimum and maximum amount of 
wool (in ft) imported into the United Kingdom was as follows: 
Australia (1904), 220,483,961; (1895), 417,163,078; New Zealand 
(1890), 95,632,598; (1909), 176,457,150; British possessions in South 
Africa (1900), 32,219,369; (1909), 115,896,598; South America 
(1890), 11,173,692; (1908), 78,938,157; British possessions in the 
East Indies (1901), 24,069,571; (1909), 56,238,633; France (1890), 
io, 8 73,7 8 8; (1902), 27,770,790; Turkish Empire (1908), 5,705,671; 
(1897), 25,727,462. 

In the woollen and worsted industries 239,954 persons were 
employed according to the census of 1901 , of whom 99,425 were males 
and 140,529 females. Of the total number 209,700 were employed 
in England and Wales, 24,906 in Scotland and 5348 in Ireland. 

The numbers of persons employed in the other principal textile 
industries in 1901 was as follows: 





England 
and 
Wales. 


Scotland. 


Ireland. 


United Kingdom. 


Total. 


Males. 


Females. 


Flax . . 
Hemp, jute, 
&c. . . 
Silk . . 
Hosiery 


4-493 

2,750 
34,847 
48,374 


23,570 

39,200 
2,424 
n,957 


71,464 

639 
209 
611 


29,226 

11,618 
1 1 ,058 
15,067 


70,301 

30,971 
26,422 

45,875 


99,527 

42,589 
37,480 
60,942 



Commerce. British commerce received an enormous develop- 
ment after the first quarter of the igth century. In 1826 the 
aggregate value of the imports into and exports from the United 
Kingdom amounted to no more than 88,758,678; while the 
total rose to 110,559,538 in 1836 and to 205,625,831 in 
1846. In 1856 the aggregate of imports and exports had 
risen to 311,764,507, in 1866 to 534,195,956 and in 1876 to 
631,931,305. Thus the commercial transactions of the United 
Kingdom with foreign states and British colonies increased 
more than sevenfold in the course of fifty years. 

An important fact in connexion with the foreign commerce 
of the United Kingdom is that there has been a steady increase 
in imports, but there has been no corresponding steady increase 
in exports of British produce and manufactures. Many indus- 
tries, which formerly were mainly in British hands, have been 
developed on the continent of Europe, in America, and to some 
extent in the East. The movement began in 1872. Up to that 
time the exports of British home produce had kept on increasing 
with the imports, although at a lesser rate, and far inferior in 
aggregate value; but a change took place in the latter year. 
While the imports continued their upward course, gradually 
rising from 354,693,624 in 1872 to 375,154,703 in 1876, the 
exports of British produce fell from 256,257,347 in 1872 to 
200,639,204 in 1876. The decline in exports, regular and steady 
throughout the period, and with a tendency to become more pro- 
nounced every year, affected all the principal articles of British 



602 UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 



Country. 


1890. 


1895- 


1900. 


1905- 


1909. 


I. BRITISH POSSESSIONS 
India and Ceylon 

Straits SettlementsjMalaysia 
and Hong Kong 

Africa 
Canada and Newfoundland . 

West Indies, Bermudas.Hon- 
duras and Guiana . 

Australia . . . . 
New Zealand 
Other 


) Imports 
( Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 

Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
i Imports 
1 Exports 
i Imports 
1 Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
[Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 

Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 
Imports 
Exports 



37,856,598 
38,254,769 
6,412,865 
5,766,059 
11,290,022 
10,744,904 
12,444,489 
8,272,743 
2,992,472 
4,262,669 
20,992,185 
21,750,705 
8,347,430 
3,705,428 
1,720,583 
3,826,012 

44,828,148 
24,710,803 
26,073,331 
30,516,281 
17,383,776 
13,594.966 
25,900,924 
16,445,992 

7,753-389 
2,928,006 

1,728,337 
1,694,318 
4,447,159 
1,350,497 
1,962,798 
1,235,126 
3,093,918 
8,523,209 

12,508,533 
5,702,804 
2,942,194 
2,612,638 
23,750,868 
8,846,054 
8,368,851 l 
7,340,868 l 
1,024,993 

4,187,373 
4,830,850 2 
6,763,221 2 
1,223,037 

1.675.054 
8,368,851 

3.459.991 
97,283,349 
46,340,012 
1,863,284 
3,050,051 
4,350,675 

7,795,073 
4,129,802 
8,530,427 
3,473,348 
3,365,824 

376,969 
516,846 

2,345,843 
3,262,462 
2,080,466 

5,674,325 
3,206,713 
6,605,220 



31,076,761 

27,519,909 
5,404,887 
4,077,436 
12,522,366 
13,325,089 
13,400,570 
6,594,903 
2,831,343 
3,230,189 

24-954,779 
15,867,979 
8,383,058 
3-443,688 

1,952,431 
3,095,184 

47,470,583 
20,324,998 
26,992,559 
32,736,651 
17,545,169 
11,934-653 
28,419,944 
11,272,258 
9,799,328 
3,135,122 

3,831,727 
2,532,050 
8,784,256 

4,036,729 
1,221,783 
2,149,552 
2,118,505 

944,034 
1,241,406 
860,193 
3,132,720 
6,211,337 
11,314,518 
4,052,806 
2,491,926 
1,865,973 
24,736,919 
10,686,333 
5,630,240 
5,566,187 
1,143,382 
4,772,829 
3,343,865 2 
5,363,536 2 
874,313 
1,988,479 

9,524,507 
3,4H,556 
86,548,860 
44,067,703 
1,443,345 
3,035,097 
3,614,155 
7,643,739 
9,084,497 
5,480,848 
3,436,142 
3,454,332 

344.895 
720,350 
1,683,319 
3,052,023 
2,437,294 
4,489,592 
3-447.034 
3-901,551 


i 
32,861,217 
32,885,147 
8,092,057 
6,162,526 
9,703,086 
16,725,092 
22,240,325 
9,659,138 
2,483,648 

2,954,477 
23,800,820 

23,545,565 
11,615,881 
5,899,292 
2,287,537 
4,252,072 

53,618,656 

25,877453 
31,181,667 
38,542,790 
23,502,603 
14,846,307 
31,381,023 
14,931,090 
13,187,757 
4,724,121 
5,756,018 
3,910,982 
10,635,060 
6,495,223 

1,375,245 
3-157,716 
1,396,639 
616,287 
2,227,212 
1,104,196 
3,417,790 
9,444,498 
15,882,346 
6,333,857 
3,241,367 
2,529,305 
21,983,952 
16,360,475 
5.657,627 
5.372,956 
1,540,526 

9.933,925 
2,359,821 

5,634,313 
287,454 
2,881,601 
12,585,578 
6,159,468 
138,789,261 

37-343,955 
1,144,590 
3,149,652 
5,946,547 
6,156,600 
13,080,466 
7,438,238 
4,828,371 
3-535-736 

373,344 
684,440 
2,503,823 
4,686,727 
2,355,8oi 
4,088,731 
3,190,888 
6,370,943 


i 
40,540,341 

45-796,432 
7,222,215 
7,162,908 

14-755,353 
21,338,292 
26,204,205 
14,267,967 
2,717,318 
3,324,665 
26,968,977 
19,476,463 
13,391,222 
6,994,806 
3,731,132 
4,351,367 

53,072,900 
23,232,663 
35,799.758 
42,742,300 
27,751,288 
14,818,923 
35,481,059 
14,516,887 
15,606,991 
4,609,671 
5,954,870 
3,712,532 
9,827,993 
6,016,332 
i ,488,604 
2,603,223 
1,689,513 
1,305,658 
1,328,234 
1,251,642 

3,324.595 
9,787,306 
13,858,631 

4,841,774 
2,929,634 
2,826,257 
33,366,234 
14,884,050 
5,491,443 

6,9 7 9,i47 
1,860,313 
9,796,900 
2,340,346 3 
13,298,828 > 
2,129,479 
3,558,562 
14,976,188 
8,069,668 

115,573,051 
47,282,088 

2,138,574 
3,022,074 
8,109,208 
6,916,617 
25,034,325 
13,383,835 
6,068,031 
4,782,382 

611,096 
699,556 
2,901,281 
6,063,114 
3,897,595 
5,129,351 
6,289,947 
8,352,264 



40,995,633 
46,617,909 
8,948,582 
7,455,726 
13,130.724 
20,181,408 

27,674,340 
18,750,970 
2,969,772 
3,777,244 
32,655,709 
27,207,430 
17,730,556 
8,081,422 
2,800,939 
4,246,362 

50,690,785 
31,515,320 
40,115,450 
47,168,852 
29,217,560 
19,284,791 
37,371,702 
16,303,884 
19,427,483 
5,705,415 
6,574,319 
3,835.436 
9.245,303 
7,114,071 
i ,208,499 
4,333,269 

3,395,474 
1,749,996 
1,613,174 
1,513,744 
3-634,073 
13,274,764 
13,362,959 
5,352,017 
2,912,994 
2,777,201 
36,897,746 
18,325,844 

5,085,435 
7,789,432 
4,232,716 
8,618,821 
3,725,502 

8.558,275 
2,436,518 
3,768,264 
19,872,288 

8,142,325 
118,269,777 
59,254,166 
2,595,356 
3,179,577 
11,271,890 
8,809,226 
32,528,446 
19,202,496 
6,607,415 
5,054,144 

1,043,280 
1,214,041 
4,538,518 
7,783,508 
5,657,201 
6,137,748 
4,260,790 
7,440,065 


II. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 
France 

Germany 


Belgium 


'Holland 

Denmark, Faeroe, Iceland, 
Greenland 

Norway 


Sweden 


Austria-Hungary 
Rumania 


Greece .... 


Italy 


Spain 


Portugal .... 


Russian Empire .... 
Turkey .... 


Japan .... 


China 


Netherlands India . 
Egypt .... ! 


U.S.A. . 


1 
Mexico andCentral American i 
States ; 

Brazil ... 


Argentina 


Chile -.' 

Other countries in Asia . . ' 
Africa . 


' 1 
South America .... 

Other countries .... 


Total for British possessions \ I m P orts 
( Exports 


100,279,852 

94,522,469 


100,405,592 
76,138,896 


113-074-557 
102,083,109 


134.530,683 
122,712,920 


146,908,244 
136,318,471 


Total for foreign countries 5 Imports 
' ( Exports 


324,530,783 
233,729,649 


321,038,151 
209,693,511 


413-434-242 
252,290,645 


437,151,191 
284,883,607 


477,796,713 
333,206,695 


Grand total . \ Imports 
' ( Exports 


420,691,997 

328,252,118 


416,689,658 
285,832,407 


523.075-163 
354-373,754 


565,019,917 
407,596,527 


624,704,957 
469,525,166 



1 Including Cyprus in this year. 



! Including Korea. 



' Excluding Wei-hai-wei. 



UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 603 



home produce just enumerated. The value of the cotton manu- 
factures exported sank from 80,164,155 in 1872 to 67,641,268 
in 1876; woollen fabrics from 38,493, 
411 to 23,020,719; iron and steel from 
35,996,167 to 20,737,410; coals from 
10,442,321 to 8,904,463; machinery 
from 8,201,112 to 7,210,426; and 
linen manufactures from 10,956,761 
to 7,070,149. The decline during the 
four years, it will be seen, was greatest 
in all textile manufactures, and least 
in coal and machinery. 

The table 1 on p. 602 shows the sub- 
sequent movement in value of imports 
from other countries to the United 
Kingdom, and of exports to other 
countries from the United Kingdom, at quinquennial intervals; 
bullion and specie being excluded. 

As regards fluctuations not revealed by the above figures, it 
may be mentioned that the highest total figures for any one 
year during the period covered are those for 1907, viz. imports 
645,807,942; exports 517,977,167- As to minima within the 
period, the lowest totals for British possessions were: imports 
91,851,534 in 1893, and exports, the figure quoted for 1895; for 
foreign countries, imports 312,836,644 in 1893, and exports 
i9S,i33, 2 39 in 1894; grand totals, imports 404,688,178 in 1893, 
and exports 273,785,867 in 1894. It may be added that the 
maximal import figures for France within the period are 
those of 1906 (53,871,661), for Germany those of 1909, and for 
the United States those of 1901 (141,015,465). For exports 
to the United States the figures for 1909 were highest, to France 
those of 1907 (33,507>544) and to Germany those of 1907 
(56,729,988). 

The following table presents the value of the chief groups and 
articles of importation into the United Kingdom : 



The value of the chief articles and groups of export of home 
produce are similarly shown: 





I895- 


1900. 


1905- 


1909. 


Cotton yarn and manufactures . 
Iron and steel and manufactures 
Woollen yarn and manufactures 
Coal 


{. 
63,746,463 
19,428,383 ! 
2 9,094-568 


69,750,279 
31,623,353 
24.259,766 


92.010,985 
31,826.438 
29,916,807 




93,444,799 
38,192,142 
30,917,807 


Machinery 
Chemicals 
Textiles (not cotton or wool) . 
Metal manufactures (not iron) 
Clothing 
Leather and leather goods 
Ships 


15,150,522 

11,463,304 
11,986,718 
5,048,588 

5,615-594 
3-833,980 


19619.784 

!3,i54.344 
12,191,069 

6.473,197 
6,499,086 
3,875.683 
8,587,710 


24,859 .1 29 
23,260.326 
14.536,857 
13,204,899 
8,920,533 
6,021,242 
5,660,494 
5,431,298 


37,129,978 
28,057,643 
16,783,019 
12,441,525 
8,708,945 
9,824,125 
4,242,356 
5,927,114 



The proportion of imports and exports per head of population 
of the United Kinedom was: 



Year. 


Total Imports. 


Exports of British 
Produce. 


1890 

1895 
1900 

1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 


s. d. 
ii 46 

10 12 6 

12 14 3 
13 i 5 
13 18 5 
14 12 6 
13 6 3 
13 17 7 


s. d. 

707 

5 15 4 
7 i 6 
7 12 7 

8 12 

9 13 3 
894 
8 8 i 





1895- 


1900. 


1905. 


1909. 


Grain and flour 



53,077,981 



62,992,082 



70,057,290 


83,107,421 


Meat 
Other principal articles of food and 
drink 


33,334,171 


46,782,579 


49,431,748 


47,623,428 


Butter 


14,235,230 


17,450,435 


21,586,622 


22,424,962 


Sugar 


17,684,413 


19,256,439 


19,471,811 


21,691,894 


Tea 


10,242,999 


10,686,910 


9,302,713 


11,617,03! 


Wine 


5,448,088 






37 /I f\ A Sf\ 


Coffee 
Fish (preserved) 
Cocoa and chocolate .... 
Principal fruits 


3,778,305 
2,289,260 
1,610,483 


2^441726 
2,895-330 
2,398,248 


2!s78i327 
2,493,876 
2,227,141 


,74,4 B 9 
2,075,516 

2,509,573 
903,464 


Apples . 


QOO 271 


T 22/1 6^7 


_ f\Ae TOI 




Oranges 


5^**f"/O 

1,925,415 


2 1 2O 7QO 


T'O ft 


2,OO/)9^ ' 


Bananas 






17702^6 


T '5- '^ 


Tobacco .... 


7 -7C-1 Ol6 


7Q Q '^| 7 


''7 ' 5 


1 ,752, 190 


Raw materials 


o,*3oo-y 


4.799,4 7 


3,7 ,9 


4,986,663 


Cotton .... 


30,522,016 


4.1 117 "^08 


_ -J7O 878 


.- 


Wool 


28,494,249 


24!o73i9i7 


26i64s!737 


00,295,049 

35,041,766 


Oils, &c 
Wood and timber 
Textile materials excluding cotton 


18,497.573 
16,372,181 


23,564,644 
27,875,913 


23,600,927 
23,274,020 


31,039,883 
23,591,579 


and wool 
Caoutchouc 
Hides and skins 


11,378,608 
3,760,178 


11,553,114 
6,986,133 
8,465,660 


14,511,978 
9,643,153 


12,127,707 
14,138,204 

II 6l 7 *7 ^6 


Metallic ores excluding iron . 


4is7si929 


5^575^72 


7,610,990 


8!327!i93 


Iron ore, &c 
Manufactured articles 


3,027,196 


5,750,947 


5,525,575 


5,076,131 


Yarns and textile fabrics . 
Metal, excluding iron and steel . 


11,196,315 


21,844,683 


39,688,418 
21,840,696 


29,651,658 
24,346,328 


Leather 


11,035,870 


11,823,132 


",037,983 


11,617,130 


Chemicals 




8,628,279 






Iron and steel (not machinery) 




7,314,696 


8^589405 


7i97i!s94 


Paper 


2,845,730 


4,412,440 


5,256,065 


5-647,437 


Machinery 




3 471= 887 










O'T 1 / 0* / 


4OJ/i / 


4>43 8 ,33 t> 



Certain omissions are necessary in this table owing to alterations in classification of the 
returns. 



1 Adapted from the Statistical Abstract for the United Kingdom, 
where it is specified that the value of new ships and boats, with 
their machinery, was not included in exports before 1899. 



The tables on p. 604 show the value of unregistered imports of 
gold and silver bullion and specie from British possessions and from 
foreign countries into the United Kingdom, specifying the most 
important countries individually. 

Shipping. The table at foot of p. 604 shows the tonnage of 
vessels entered from and cleared to British possessions and 
foreign countries at the principal 
ports of the United Kingdom. 

_ For the purpose of showing the rela- 
tive importance of British and Irish 
ports falling below the list, the follow- 
ing figures may be quoted for 1909 
only: Methil, entered 824,375 tons, 
cleared 1,105,048 tons; Harwich, 
entered 792,980, cleared 776,595; 
Grangemouth, entered 988,007, cleared 
! ,064,2 1 7 ; Burntisland, entered 609,722, 
cleared8i5,507 ; Bristol, entered8s8,933, 
cleared 61 5,266 ;GooIe, entered 8 1 5, 1 77, 
cleared 817,226; Hartlepool, entered 
934,836, cleared 730,141 ; Newhaven, 
entered 385,313, cleared 376,083; Folke- 
stone, entered 364,524, cleared 359,697 ; 
Belfast,entered490,5i3, cleared 165,670; 
Borrowstounness (Bo'ness), entered 
301,549, cleared 292,194; Dublin, en- 
tered 219,081, cleared 80,868; Cork, 
entered 146,724, cleared 7413; Mary- 
port and Workington, entered 118,388, 
cleared 67,494. The figures for Ply- 
mouth have included vessels which 
call " off " the port to embark passen- 
gers, &c., by tender only since 1907; 
for 1909 they were: entered, 1,455,605; 
cleared, 1,292,244. 

The table at the commencement of 
page 605 shows the total tonnage of 
vessels entered from and cleared to 
British possessions and foreign countries 
at ports in the United Kingdom, and 
also the nationality of vessels under 
British and the principal foreign flags. 
Out of the following totals steam 
vessels had an aggregate tonnage of 
30,604,578 entered and 31,080,481 
cleared in 1890, and 64,327,508 entered 
and 64,968,655 cleared in 1909. The 
total tonnage of vessels entered and 
follows: (1890), 47,738,612 entered, 



cleared coastwise was as 



2 Owing to an alteration in classification these figures are not 
strictly comparable with those for 1905. 



604 UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 



GOLD. 





1890. 


1895- 


1900. 


1905- 


1909. 


From British possessions 
South Africa 
India .... 
Australia . 
Foreign countries 
Total . . . 



5,368,424 
1,876,677 

443.079 
1,398,627 
18,199,625 
23,568,049 



17,618,466 

8,353.913 
1,929,590 
5,324,498 
18,390,863 
36,009,329 



11.350,591 
378,626 
3,637,978 
6,182,718 
14,840,282 
26,190,873 



38,567,895 
21,286,374 
6,850,360 
3,440,037 
4,949,335 
43,517,230 



40,464,212 
32,912,428 

2,170,957 
2,613,002 
14,227,617 
54,691,829 



SILVER. 





1890. 


1895- 


1900. 


1905- 


1909. 


From British possessions . 
Foreign countries 
United States of America 
Total 



350,094 
10,035,565 
4,057,709 
10,385,659 



282,269 
10,384,063 
8,082,925 
10,666,332 



264,676 
13,057,624 
11,459,612 
13,322,300 



412,756 
12,579,258 
9,784,828 
12,992,014 



667,619 
11,147,270 
9,971,396 
11,814,889 



4.2,317,876, cleared; (1895), 54,304,703 entered, 47,263,791 cleared; 
(1900), 55,828,569 entered, 54,425,666 cleared; (1905), 60,066,919 
entered, 58,670,971 cleared; (1909), 60,566,043 entered, 60,060,979 
cleared. 

The number and gross tonnage of the registered sailing and steam 
vessels belonging to the United Kingdom were as follows at the end 
of each of the years named : 



Year. 


Sailing Vessels. 


Steam Vessels. 


Number. 


Gross Tonnage. 


Number. 


Gross Tonnage. 


1890 

1895 
1900 

1905 
1909 


14,181 
12,617 

io,773 
10,059 
9,392 


3,055,136 
3,040,194 
2,247,228 
1,796,826 
1,407,469 


7,410 
8,386 
9,209 
10,552 
",797 


8,095,370 
9,952,211 
11,816,924 
14,883,594 
16,994732 



These figures show not only that steamers have been rapidly taking 
the place of sailing vessels, but also that large steamers are preferred 
to small, their average tonnage having increased from 1092 tons 
in 1895 to 1440 in 1909. 

Railways. The first ordinary roads deserving the name of 
highways were made about 1660, and canal-building began in 







1890. 


1895. 


1900. 


1905. 


1909. 






Tons. 


Tons. 


Tons. 


Tons. 


Tons. 


London .... 


Entered 

(~*\ A 


7,708,705 


8,435,676 


9,580,854 


10,814,115 


11,605,698 




Cleared 

' T7 j. J 


5,772,062 


6,110,325 


7,479,008 


7,9I3,"5 


8,622,316 


Liverpool and Bir- 
kenhead 


h-ntered 
Cleared 


5,782,351 
5,159,450 


5,598,341 
4,883,199 


6,001,563 
5,778,114 


7,806,844 
6,932,687 


7,747,994 
6,593,094 


Cardiff .... 


Entered 


3,173,699 


3,739,856 


5,132,523 


4,337,720 


5,771,476 




Cleared 


5,641,5" 


6,500,510 


7,636,717 


7.476,879 


8,888,756 


Tyne Ports 1 * 2 . . 


Entered 
Cleared 


3,401,216 
5,010,098 


3,292,624 
4,822,648 


3,897,142 
4,894,157 


4,058,618 
5,158,899 


5,700,405 
6,899,023 


Southampton 


Entered 
Cleared 


888,352 
813,133 


1,420,531 
1,328,393 


1,613,913 
1-395,486 


2,087,277 
1,888,030 


4,279,052 
4,108,063 


Hull 


Entered 


1,997,138 


2,150,654 


2,666,598 


2,546,064 


3,517,953 




Cleared 


1,655,996 


1,612,385 


2,274,137 


2,102,160 


3,164,156 


Glasgow .... 


Entered 
Cleared 


1,121,700 
1,697,662 


1,184,537 
1,911,739 


1 ,454,860 
2,229,574 


1,635,609 
2,836,462 


1,917,144 
3,160,916 


Newport 


Entered 
Cleared 


920,560 
1,316,430 


871,886 
1,374,237 


1,092,068 
l,5",383 


1,250,192 
I,773,l6l 


1,548,258 
2,105,509 


Dover 


Entered 


789,846 


742,940 


973,074 


2,928,741 


1,636,530 




Cleared 


767,724 


734,334 


964,476 


2,944,774 


1.631,751 


Middlesbrough . 


Entered 
Cleared 


833,562 
623,967 


953,985 
875,059 


1,096,130 
882,156 


1,227,017 
1,092,958 


1:728,385 
1,586,148 


Blyth 2 


Entered 








974,285 


1,094,168 


1,292,353 




Cleared 








1,525,727 


i ,623,003 


1,836,503 


Sunderland 


Entered 


725,859 


730,396 


800,027 


981,606 


1,357,201 




Cleared 


956,266 


1,002,552 


1,163,310 


1,344,999 


1,676,777 


Swansea * 


Entered 


565,644 


580,481 


1,018,148 


635,458 


1,020,480 




Cleared 


858,215 


931,588 


1,427,903 


,335,134 


1,719,654 


Leith. 


Entered 


706,491 


887,842 


1,055,291 


,124,281 


1,344,898 




Cleared 


626,573 


750,257 


982,309 


,085,734 


1,314,361 


Grimsby .... 


Entered 
Cleared 


663,513 
689,165 


763,892 
829,837 


931,238 
960,236 


,094,531 
,074,495 


1,289,476 
1,334,566 


Manchester . 


Entered 
Cleared 





317,625 
288,001 


787,497 
595,757 


,133,003 
970,620 


1,275,937 
1,067,835 



1 Newcastle, North Shields, South Shields. 

4 Blyth was included with North Shields till 1897. 

3 Swansea included Port Talbot till 1904. 



the middle of the following 
century; but though roads and 
canals aided materially in raising 
the commercial and industrial 
activity of the nation, their 
fostering agency was very slight 
compared with that of railways, 
of which England is the birth- 
place. The first line of railway 
for regular passenger service, 
that from Stockton to Darling- 
ton, 14 m. in length, was opened 
on the 27th of September 1825. 
The first really important rail- 
way was the line from Man- 
chester to Liverpool, opened on 
the i sth of September 1830, 
when William Huskisson, M.P., 

was accidentally killed. It took three years to get the 
bill for the London-Birmingham railway, which was passed 
at last in the session of 1833, obtaining the royal assent 
on the Sth of May. The first sod of the great line was cut 
at Chalk Farm, London, on the ist of June 1834. Enormous 
engineering difficulties had to be overcome, originating 
not so much from the nature of the ground as from 
intense public prejudice against the new mode of locomo- 
tion. It took over four years to construct the railway 
from London to Birmingham, at a cost exceeding 4,000,000. 
Even friends of the railway presaged that such outlay 
could not by any possibility be remunerative; but the 
contrary became evident from the moment the line was 
opened on the I7th of September 1838. All the great 
railway systems of England sprang into existence within less 
than ten years after the opening of the London-Birmingham 
line. Out of this railway grew one of the largest companies, 
the London & North- Western ; while the most extensive 
system as regards mileage, the Great Western, originated in 
a line from Paddington, London, to Bristol, for which an act 
of parliament was obtained in 1835, and which was opened in 

1841. In 1836 a bill passed the 
legislature erecting the " Great 
North of England " Railway Com- 
pany, from which was developed 
the North-Eastern system. A few 
years later other acts were passed, 
sanctioning the " Midland Counties" 
and the " North Midland " lines, 
from which the present Midland 
system grew. 

The total length of railways 
conveying passengers in the United 
Kingdom at the end of the year 
1825 was 40 m., constructed at a 
cost of i 20,000. Five years later, 
at the end of 1830, there were not 
more than 95 m., built at a cost 
of 840,925, but at the end of 1835 
therewere2Q3m.,costing5,648,53i. 
Thus, in the first five years of rail- 
way construction, from 1825 to 1830, 
the mileage doubled; while in the 
second five years, from 1830 to 
1835, it trebled. It quintupled in 
the next five-yearly period, till the 
end of 1840, [when the total length 
of miles of railway in the kingdom 
had come to be 1435, built at a 
cost of 41,391,634, as represented 
by the paid-up capital of the 
various companies. The next five years saw nearly another 
doubling of length of lines, for at the end of 1845 there were 
2441 m. of railway created by a paid-up capital of 88,481,376. 



UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 605 







1890. 


1895. 


1900. 


1905. 


1909, 


Total 


Entered 
Cleared 


Tons. 
36,835-712 
37,448,157 


Tons. 
40,001,691 
40,537,483 


Tons. 
49,913,223 
50,182,439 


Tons. 
55-623,974 
56,416,760 


Tons. 

66,309,519 
66,958,163 


Rri+tcTi 


Entered 


26,777,955 


29,175,282 


32,135-745 


35,200,869 


39,661,660 


Dritisn 


Cleared 


27,195,157 


29,516,644 


32,147,060 


35,762,218 


40,102,311 


German .... 


Entered 
Cleared 


2,161,536 
2,230,419 


1,940,358 
1,948,284 


2,966,426 
3,060,782 


4,298,769 
4,346,284 


6,766,591 
6,754,026 


Norwegian 


Entered 
Cleared 


2,477,936 
2,522,865 


2,604,049 
2,660,795 


3,839,602 
3,821,969 


3,392,216 
3.387,152 


4,315,870 
4,308,221 


C J* U 


Entered 


783,045 


990,728 


1,788,844 


2,114,028 


2,456,144 


owedisn .... 


Cleared 


792,767 


1,003,634 


,808,354 


2,117,717 


2,478,534 


r u 


Entered 


901,819 


961,730 


,735-288 


2,106,717 


2,889,986 


L/tinisn .... 


Cleared 


952,183 


990,006 


,759,509 


2,123,830 


2,886,731 


riiti-/4i 


Entered 


952,695 


1,150,098 


,600,317 


1,949,161 


2,272,075 


L/ULcn .... 


Cleared 


948,196 


1,156,936 


,613,450 


1,957-107 


2,294,584 


BIMMJ4I 


Entered 


834,039 


929,250 


,417,128 


1,574-395 


i ,640,466 


r rencn .... 


Cleared 


852,935 


909,493 


,405,247 


1,587,762 


1,663,197 




Entered 


631,629 


645,210 


,309,915 


1,462,488 


1,477,199 


Spanish .... 


Cleared 


644-431 


682,184 


,399,332 


1,471,300 


1499,319 


TJ 1 * 


Entered 


449,470 


551,513 


804,472 


936,918 


1,355,135 


Belgian .... 


Cleared 


423,639 


537,969 


797,134 


920,597 


1,357,668 


TT <? A 


, Entered 


146,721 


323,700 


282,152 


664,360 


274,241 


U.S.A 


I Cleared 


145,212 


332,825 


277,400 


675,096 


280,464 



Not far from a fresh trebling took place in the course of the 
next quinquennial period, and at the end of 1850 there were 
6621 m. of railways, constructed at the cost of 240,270,745. 

The construction of railways (especially in England) was 
undertaken originally by a vast number of small companies, 
each under separate acts of parliament. But it was soon 
discovered that there could be neither harmonious nor profitable 
working of a great many systems, and this led to a series of 
amalgamations (see under ENGLAND; IRELAND; SCOTLAND). 

The number of passengers carried per mile in 1832 was 4860, 
but before ten more years were past the number of passengers 
had not only increased in proportion with the opening of new 
lines, but more than doubled per mile, and, instead of being 
under 5000, had in 1842 come to be near 12,000. In 1861 the 
number of passengers carried per mile of railway was 15,988; 
in 1876 it was 31,928; and in 1900 it was over 52,000. 

The two following tables illustrate the further development of 
railways in the United Kingdom : 



In 1909 the percentage of working 
expenses to total receipts was 63 in 
England and Wales, 57 in Scotland 
and 62 in Ireland. 

Tramways. An act passed in 
1870 to facilitate the construction 
of tramways throughout the coun- 
try marks the beginning of their 
modern development. It led to 
the laying down of " street rail- 
ways " in many large towns. 
According to a return laid before 
the House of Commons in the ses- 
sion of 1878, the total length of 
tramways authorized by parlia- 
ment up to the 30th of June 1877 
was 363 m., and the total length 
opened for traffic 213 m., compris- 
ing 125 m. of double lines and 
88 m. of single lines. On the 3Oth 
of June 1900 there were in the 
United Kingdom 70 tramway 
undertakings with 585 m. of line 

belonging to local authorities, while 107 with 592 m. of line 
belonged to other than local authorities. The capital ex- 
penditure on the former amounted to 10,203,604, on the latter 
to 11,532,384. . 

The development of tramway enterprise in the United Kingdom, 
as shown by the mileage open, the paid-up capital, gross receipts, 
working expenses and number of passengers carried, has been as 
follows : 



Years 
ending 
June 30. 


Miles 
open. 


Paid-up 
Capital. 


Gross 
Receipts. 


Working 
Expenses. 


Passengers 
carried during 
year. 


1890 

1895 
1900 

1905 
1909 


948 
982 
1177 
2117 
2526 



13,502,026 
14,111,521 
20,582,692 
51,501,410 
70,345,155 




3,214,743 
3,733,690 
5,445,629 
9,917,026 
12,641,437 



2,402,800 
2,878,490 
4,075,352 
6,565,049 
8,045,658 


526,369,328 
661,760,461 
1,065,374,347 
2,068,913,226 
2,659,981,136 



Year. 


Mileage. 


Paid-up 
Capital. 


Number of 
Passengers.* 


Traffic Receipts. 


Percentage of 
Working Expenses 
to Receipts. 


Total. 


Per Mile. 



















i860 


io,433 


348,130,127 


163,435-678 


27,766,622 


2,661 


47 


1865 


13,298 


455,478,143 


251,862,715 


35,890,116 


2,701 


48 


1870 


15,537 


529,908,673 


336,545,397 


43,417,070 


2,794 


48 


1875 


16,658 


630,223,494 


506,975,234 


58,982,753 


3,541 


54 


1880 


17,933 


728,316,848 


603,885,025 


62,961,767 


3,5" 


Si 


1885 


19,169 


815,858,055 


697,213,031 


66,644,967 


3,477 


53 


1890 


20,073 


897,472,026 


817,744,046 


76,548,347 


3-813 


54 


1895 


21,174 


1,001,110,221 


929,770,909 


81,396,047 


3.844 


56 


1900 


21,855 


I,I76,OOI,89O 


1,142,276,686 


98,854,552 


4,523 


62 


1905 


22,847 


1,272,601,000 


1,199,022,102 


105,131,709 


4,601 


62 


1909 


23,280 


1,314,406,000 


1,265,081,000 


110,682,266 


4,754 


62 



* Excluding season-ticket holders, whose number in 1880 was 502,174; in 1900, 1,749,804 
and in England and Wales alone, in 1880, 449,823; in 1900, 1,610,754. 

In the next table further details are given for 1909: 







1909. 




* 


England and 


Scotland. 


Ireland. 




Wales. 






Mileage of j i^;^ " lines | | 


10,746 

S.2QQ 


1,580 
2,264 


670 

2,721 










7 


("Passenger traffic 
T> a- ' Total goods traffic . 
Repots Including- 
Receipts Minerals .... 
I General merchandise . 
Working expenditure 


43,919,702 
50,647,426 

24,837,682 
24,885,494 
65,169,619 


5,080,603 
6,836,920 

3,286,074 
3,299,588 
7,200,173 


2,204,756 
1,992,859 

281,634 
1,392,600 
2,667,796 


Net receipts 


37,979,313 


5,489-579 


1,667,572 



AUTHORITIES. The following publica- 
tions relating to the United Kingdom 
are issued annually in London (unless 
otherwise stated): Finance Accounts; 
Financial Estimates; Return showing Re- 
venue and Expenditure (England, Scotland 
and Ireland); National Debt Accounts; 
National Debt during 60 Years; Local 
Taxation Returns; Army Estimates; Army 
Accounts; Army List (quarterly); Navy 
Estimates; Navy List (quarterly); Royal 
Commission on Agriculture, Reports (1896) ; 
Mineral Statistics; Reports of Inspectors 
of Mines ; Reports on Factories and Work- 
shops; Reports of Inspectors of Fisheries; 
Return of Fish conveyed inland by rail; 
Statement of the Trade of the United 
Kingdom; Statement of the Shipping and 
Navigation of the United Kingdom ; Report 
of the Postmaster-General. Vital statistics : 
Reports of the registrars-general respectively for England, 
for Scotland (Edinburgh), for Ireland (Dublin); Census 
Reports (decennial, 1901, &c.), ditto; Education: Reports 
of the Board of Education for England and Wales ; Report 
of the Commissioners of National Education in Ireland; 
Report of the Committee of Council on Education in Scot- 
land; Electoral Statistics (London, 1905) ; Statistical Tables 
relating to Emigration and Immigration ; Judicial Statistics 
of England and Wales, of Scotland, of Ireland; Local 
Government Reports, ditto; Statistical Abstract for the 
United Kingdom, in which the most important statistics 
are summarized for each of the fifteen years preceding 
the year of issue. Among books may be mentioned the 
following : Sir W. R. Anson, The Law and Custom of the 
Constitution (2 vols., 2nd ed., Oxford, 1892-1896) ; W. J. 
Ashley (edited by), British Industries (London, 1902); 
E. G. Boutmy, Le Developpement de la constitution 
et de la societe pplitique en Angleterre (2nd ed., Paris, 1897). 
Of this there is an English translation (from 1st ed.) 



606 UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 



by I. M. Eaden (London, 1891); Etudes de droit constitutionel 
France, Angleterre, Etats-Unis (Paris, 1885; Eng. trans, by E. M 
Dicey, London, 1891) ; Brassey, The Naval Annual (Portsmouth, .1886 
onwards) ; Casself's Gazetteer of Great Britain and Ireland (London 
1899); W. L. Clowes and other writers, History of the Royal Navy 
(London, 1896-1901); W. Cunningham, Growth of English Industry 
and Commerce (4th ed., London, 1904) ; A. V. Dicey, Introduction to 
the Study of the Law of the Constitution (sth ed., London, 1897) ; R 
Donald (edited by) Municipal Year-book (London, annual); S, 
Eardley-Wilmot, Our Fleet To-day and its Development during the 
Last Half Century (London, 1900) ; Hon. J. W. Fortescue, History of 
the British Army (London, 1906); R. Giffen, Essays in Finance 
(London, 1880 and 1886); R. von Gneist, Das englische Parlament 
intausendjdhringen Wandelungen (Berlin, 1885; translated into Eng- 
lish by A. H. Keane, History of the English Parliament, London, 
1889) ; Englische Verfassungsgeschichte (Berlin, 1882 ; Eng. trans, by P. 
A. Ashworth, London, 1891) ; E. Hull, The Coalfields of Great Britain 



(Lojndon, 1995) ; J. E. T. Rogers, Industrial and Commercial History 
idon, 1892); 
. ; Sir J. 
(2 vols.,_London, 1895); H. Taylor," The Origin and Growth of the 



of England (London, 1892); J. Holt Schooling, The British Trade 
Book (London, 1908); Sir J. R. Seeley, The Growth of British Policy 



English Constitution (2 vols., London, 1889-1899); A. Todd, Parlia- 
mentary Government in England (new ed., revised by S. Walpole, 
2 vols., London, 1892). 

British Military Forces. 

The forces of the British Crown may be classed as (a) the 
regular, or general service, army, together with the Indian army; 
and (b) the home territorial force; while there are also certain 
forces controlled by the governments of the various self- 
governing dominions. The home government raises, pays and 
controls the regular'army, its reserves, the territorial force, and 
some few details such as the militia of the smaller possessions, 
Indian native battalions employed on imperial service out of 
India, &c. But the cost of that portion of the regular army 
which is in India is borne by the Indian government, which is 
not the case with the regulars serving in other colonies or in the 
dominions. Consequently the Indian government, unlike the 
colonial governments, can within limits dispose of the British 
paid regulars within its sphere. 

Regular Army. The duties of the regular army are to garrison 
India and overseas colonies, to garrison Great Britain and Ire- 
land, and to find expeditionary forces of greater or less strength 
for war in Europe or elsewhere. The principles upon which 
the reorganization of 1905-1908 was based are: (a) that in 
peace the army at home must be maintained at such an effective 
standard that all necessary drafts for the army abroad shall be 
forthcoming, without undue depletion of the army at home; 
(b) the home army on mobilization for service should be brought 
up to war strength by the recall of reservists in sufficient, but 
not too great, numbers; (c) the wastage of a campaign shall 
be made good by drafts partly from the remaining army reserve, 
but above all from the militia, now converted into the special 
reserve; and (d) the volunteers and yeomanry, reorganized into 
the territorial force, shall be responsible, with little regular 
help, for the defence of the home country, thus freeing the 
regular army at home for general service. The first of these 
conditions entirely, the second largely, and even indirectly the 
third and fourth depend upon the recruiting, establishments 
and terms of service of the regular army. These last are a 
compromise between the opposite needs of short service, pro- 
ducing large reserves, and long service, which minimizes the sea- 
transport of drafts; they are also influenced by the state of the 
labour market at any given moment, as recruiting is voluntary. 
To enable the authorities to deal with these conditions, the 
secretary of state for war may without special legislation vary 
the terms of enlistment, not only in general but also for the 
various arms and branches. 

After the South African War, several different terms were tried 
for the line infantry and cavalry, but these experiments proved that 
the terms formerly prevailing, viz. 7 years with the colours and 
5 in the reserve, were the most convenient. In the Horse and Field 
Artillery the term is 6 and 6, in the Household Cavalry and the 
Garrison Artillery 8 and 4, and in the Foot Guards 3 and 9. 
Engineers and other specialists are recruited on various terms. A 
certain number, again varying from year to year, almost from 
month to month, are allowed to engage for the full 12 years with the 
colours (long service). Thus in 1907-1908, 1551 men were serving 



Year. 


Recruits 
offering. 


Recruits 
approved. 


Percentage 
approved. 


Percentage 
of Recruits 
to Strength 
of Army. 


Oct. 1903-Oct. 1904 
Oct. i9O4~Oct. 1905 
Oct. igos-Oct. 1906 
Oct. I9o6-Oct. 1907 
Oct. 1907-Oct. 1908 
Oct. igoS-Oct. 1909 


89,824 
81,045 
83-155 
72,855 
77,526 
75,630 


42,041 

35,551 
36,380 
34,710 
37,222 
33,766 


46-8 
43-9 
43-5 
47-6 

47-9 

447 


14-6 
13-05 
14 
14-25 
14-05 
13-6 


The army consists of about 250,000 officers and men of the regular 
forces on full pay, distributed (October 1909) as follows: 




Strength. 


Establishment. 


Staff and departments, &c. 
On regimental strength : 
Home 


3.293 

128,412 
77,866 
47,127 


3.392 

130,714 
76,009 
44,981 


India 




Total 


253,004 


253,405 





on a 12-year colour engagement, 24,856 on a term of 7 years colours 
and 5 reserve, 3589 on a 6 and 6 term, 3449 on 3 and 9 engagement, 
4529 for other terms, out of a total of 37,974 recruits or soldiers 
signing fresh engagements. 

The following figures show the inflow of recruits: 



By units, it is composed of 3 regiments of Household Cavalry, 
7 regiments of Dragoon Guards, 3 of Dragoons, 6 of Lancers and 
12 of Hussars (total cavalry, 31 regiments); 4 regiments of Foot 
Guards of 9 battalions, 51 English and Welsh, 10 Scottish and 8 
Irish line infantry and rifle regiments (total infantry, 149 battalions) ; 
the Royal Regiment of Artillery, divided into Royal Horse and 
Field Artillery, and Royal Garrison Artillery the R.H.A. con- 
sisting of 28 batteries, the R.F.A. of 150 batteries, the R.G.A. of 
100 companies (told off to garrisons, siege train and heavy field 
oatteries) and 8 batteries mountain guns; the Corps of Royal 
Engineers, organized into mounted field troops, field companies, 
'ortress, telegraph, railway, searchlight, balloon, wireless companies 
and bridging train ; the Army Service Corps, divided into transport, 
supply, mechanical-transport and other companies and sections ; the 
Royal Army Medical Corps of 35 companies; the Army Ordnance 
Corps; the Army Veterinary Corps; Army Post Office Corps (formed 
on mobilization only) and Army Pay Corps. 

In addition, there are the following colonial troops under the 
lome government: West India Regiment, 2 battalions; Royal 
Malta Artillery, 2 garrison companies; West African Frontier Force, 
2 batteries, I garrison company, I battalion M.I., 6 battalions 
nfantry; and King's African Rifles (East Africa), 5 battalions, 
>esides the Indian troops in imperial services. 

The army reserve, formed of men who have served with the colours, 
onsists of four classes. Sections A, B and C consist of men who are 
ulfilling the reserve portion of their original twelve years' liability. 
Section A, which receives extra allowances, is liable to be called 
ip in a minor emergency ; section B is the general reserve; section 
C, also part of the general reserve, consists of men who have been 
sent to the reserve prematurely; section D (which is often sus- 
>ended) consists of men who at the expiry of their twelve years' 
engagement undertake a further four years' reserve liability. 

Strength and Ages of the Army Reserve (Oct. I, 1909). 



Section. 


A. 


B&C. 


D. 


Total. 


Infantry . . . . 
Cavalry 
R.H. & F.A. . . 


4,051 
604 


70,998 
8,894 
13,849 


9,608 
1,229 
i,57i 


84,657 
10,123 
16,024 


R.G.A 





7,748 


6A2 


8 189 


R.E 


415 


4,200 


406 


5,021 


Others 


427 


9,356 


558 


10,341 




5,497 


"5,045 


14,014 


134,556 


Under 30 


98,146 


2O I 


98,347 


30-35 


21,730 


10,758 


32,488 


Over 35 


666 


3,055 


3,721 




120,542 


14,014 


134,556 



The special reserve, converted from the militia, consists of 
nfantry, field and garrison artillery, the Irish Horse (late Yeomanry), 
engineers, and a few A.S.C. and R.A.M.C. Its object is to make 
;ood on mobilization deficiencies (so far as they may exist after the 



UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 607 



calling in of the army reserve) in the expeditionary or regular 
forces, and to repair the losses of a campaign. It also acts as a 
feeder to the regular army. Its establishment and strength on the 
1st of October 1909 were 90,664 and 69,954 respectively, without 
counting in the latter figure 6172 militia and militia reserve men 
not then absorbed into the new organization. 

The war organization of the home establishment, with its 
general and special reserves, aimed at the mobilization and 
despatch overseas of 6 army divisions, each of 12 battalions 
in 3 brigades; 9 field batteries in 3 brigades, a brigade of 3 field 
howitzer batteries, and a heavy battery, each with the appro- 
priate ammunition columns; 2 field companies and i telegraph 
company R.E.; 2 companies mounted infantry; and ambulances, 
columns and parks. In addition to these 6 divisions, there 
are " army troops " at the disposal of the commander-in-chief, 
consisting of two mixed " mounted brigades " (cavalry, mounted 
infantry, and horse artillery) serving as the " protective cavalry," 
and of various technical troops, such as balloon companies and 
bridging train. The " strategical " cavalry is a division of 4 
brigades (12 regiments or 36 squadrons), with 2 brigades (4 
batteries) of horse artillery, 4 " field troops " and wireless 
company R.E., and ambulances and supply columns. The 
peace organization of the regular forces at home conforms to 
the prospective war organization. In addition to the field army 
itself, various lines of communication troops are sent abroad 
on mobilization. These number some 20,000 men, the field 
army about 135,000, with 492 field guns, 7561 other vehicles 
and 60,769 horses and mules. 

But the first condition of employing all the home regulars 
abroad is perfect security at home. Thus the pivot of the 
Haldane system is the organization of the Territorial Force as a 
completely self-contained army. The higher organization 
which the volunteers (q.v.) and yeomanry (q.v.) never pos- 
sessed varies only slightly from that in vogue in the regular 
army. The second line army consists of 14 mixed mounted 
brigades as protective cavalry and 14 army divisions of 
much the same combatant strength as the regular divisions, 
the only important variation being that the artillery consists 
of 4-gun instead of 6-gun batteries. In addition to the divisions 
and mounted brigades there are " army troops," of which the 
most important component is the cyclist battalions, recruited 
in the different coast counties and specially organized as a first 
line of opposition to an invader. Affiliated to the territorial 
force are officers' training corps, cadets, " veteran reserves," 
and some of the other organizations mentioned below, the Hal- 
dane scheme having as its express object the utilization of every 
sort of contribution to national defence, whether combatant 
or non-combatant, on a voluntary basis. 

The conditions of enlistment and reserve in the territorial 
force are a four years' engagement (former yeomen and volun- 
teers being however allowed to extend for one year at a time if 
they desire to do so), within each year a consecutive training 
in camp of 14-18 days and a number of " drills " (attendances 
at company and battalion parades) that varies with the branch 
and the year of service. The minimum is practically always 
exceeded, and trebled or quadrupled in the case of the more 
enthusiastic men, and the chief difficulty with which the officers 
responsible for training have to contend is the fact that no man 
can be compelled to attend on any particular occasion. Attend- 
ance at the camp training, in so far as the claims of men's civil 
employment do not infringe upon it, is compulsory, and 
takes place at one time for all generally the first half of 
August. 

The army troops, divisions and mounted brigades consist of 56 
regiments of yeomanry; 14 batteries and 14 ammunition columns 
R.H.A.,_ 151 batteries and 55 ammunition columns R.F.A., 3 
mountain batteries and ammunition column, and 14 heavy batteries 
and ammunition columns R.G.A.; 28 field companies, 29 telegraph 
companies, railway battalion, &c., R.E.; 204 battalions infantry 
(including 10 of cyclists, the Honourable Artillery Company, and 
certain corps of the Officers' Training Corps training as territorials) ; 
60 units A.S.C.; 56 field ambulances, 23 general hospitals and 2 
sanitary companies R.A.M.C. Told off to the defended seaports 
are 16 groups of garrison artillery companies and 58 fortress and 
electric light companies R.E. 



Establishment and Strength (April I, 1910) 


Arm or Branch. 


Establishment. 


Strength. 


Yeomanry 
R.H. & F.A. . . 


Officers. 


Men. 


Officers. 


Men. 


1,345 

1,211 
450 
571 
5,679 
322 

1,438 
I 9 8 


24,766 
32,945 
",455 
14,660 

195,297 
8,562 
13,664 
H 


i-'93 
1,015 
406 
525 
5,064 
277 
MS' 
95 


24,219 
29,658 
9-356 
12,896 
173,670 
7,577 
11,849 


R.G.A. 


R.E. . . 


Infantry . 


A.S.C. 


R.A.M.C. 


A.V.C. 




Total . . . 


11,214 


301,363 


9,726 l 


269,225 



The Territorial Force is enlisted to serve at home, but individuals 
and whole corps may volunteer for service abroad in war if called 
upon. A register is kept of those who accept this liability before- 
hand, and about 6000 officers and men had joined it in April 
1910. 

The force is trained, commanded and inspected exclusively by 
the military authorities, the regular army finding the higher comman- 
ders and staffs. But in accordance both with the growing tendency 
to separate command and administration and with the desire to 
enhst local sympathies and utilize local resources, " associations," 
partly of civilian, partly of military members, were formed in every 
county and charged by statute with all matters relating to the 
enlistment, service and discharge of the county's quota in the force, 
finance (other than pay, &c. in camp), buildings, ownership of 
regimental property, &c. To these duties of county associations 
are added that of supervising and administering cadet corps of all 
sorts (other than officers' training corps), and that of providing 
the extra horses required on mobilization, not only by the territorial 
force, but by the expeditionary force as well. 

There are several groups of more or less military character which 
are for various reasons outside war office control. These are: 
(a) boys' brigades the Church Lads' Brigade, the London Dioce- 
san Brigade, the Jewish Lads' Brigade, &c.; (b) the Legion of 
Frontiersmen, an organization intended to enroll for " irregular " 
service men with colonial or frontier experience; (c) rifle clubs, which 
exist solely for rifle practice, and have no military liabilities ; (d) boy 
scouts, an organization founded in 1908 by Lieut.-General Sir 
R. S. S. Baden-Powell. 

Command and Administration. The secretary of state for 
war is the head of the army council, which comprises the heads 
of departments and is the chief executive authority. These 
departments (see STAFF) are: the general staff; the adjutant- 
general's department; the quartermaster-general's department; 
the department of the master-general of the ordnance; the civil 
member's department; and the finance member's department. 
In addition to these departments, whose heads form the army 
council itself, there is the very important department of the 
inspector-general of the forces, whose duties are to ensure by 
inspection the maintenance of military efficiency and an adequate 
standard of instruction, &c. This department is thus in the 
main a complement of the general staff branch. In 1910 the 
commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean was appointed in- 
spector-general of the overseas forces other than those in India, 
and the inspector-general in London supervises therefore only 
the forces in the home establishment. There are, therefore, three 
single authorities of high rank for the great divisions of the 
army the two inspectors-general and the commander-in-chief 
in India. 

The United Kingdom is subdivided into 7 commands and 12 
districts, the commands under a lieutenant-general or general as 
commander-in-chief and the districts under brigadier-generals. The 
commands are the eastern, southern, western, northern, Scottish, 
Irish and the Aldershot. London is organized as a separate district 
under a major-general. In the colonial establishment the principal 
commands are the Mediterranean (including Egypt) and the South 
African. Except in South Africa, there are no imperial troops 
quartered in the self-governing colonies. 

Since 1904-1905 command and administration have been 
separated and general officers commanding in chief relieved of 
administrative details by the appointment to their staffs of major- 
generals in charge of administration (see STAFF and OFFICERS). 

Finance. The army estimates for 19101911 show a total sum 
f 27,760,000 required for the home and colonial establishments, 
made up as follows (after deducting appropriations in aid) : 



1 Does not include unattached list of officers, 853, or 736 
R.A.M.C. officers not available until mobilization. 



608 UNITED METHODIST UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH 



Regular Army, Pay and Allowances 8,733,000 

Special Reserve 833,000 

Territorial Force 2,660,000 

Medical Services 452,000 

Educational Establishments 147,000 

Quartering, Transport, Remounts 1,589,000 

Supplies, Clothing 4,397,000 

Stores and Ordnance Establishment 533,ooo 

Armament and Engineer Stores 1,482,000 

Works, Buildings and Land, &c 2,598,000 

War Office and Miscellaneous 503,000 

Pensions, &c 3,833,000 



27,760,000 

The pay of the soldiers has increased since the South African 
War. Without allowances of any kind, it was in 1910 as follows: 
Warrant officer, 53. to 6s. per day; quartermaster-sergeants, colour- 
sergeants, &c., 33. 4d. to 43. 6d. ; sergeants, 2s. 4d. to 33. 4d. ; cor- 
porals, is. 8d. to 2s. 8d. ; lance-corporals, is. 3d. to is. gd. ; privates 
is. id. to is. 9d. ; boys, 8d. In addition, all receive a messing 
allowance of 3d. per day, 2d. for upkeep of kit, and most receive 
" service " or " proficiency " pay at 3d.-6d a day; and engineers, 
A.S.C. and R.A.M.C. specialist pay at various rates. Officers' pay, 
without allowances, is for second lieutenants 55. 3d. to 73. 8d. ; lieu- 
tenants, 6s. sd. to i 8s. lod. ; captains, us. 7d. to 153.; majors, 133. 7d. 
to i8s. 6d. ; and lieutenant-colonels, i8s. to 243. gd. 

Indian Army. The forces in India consist of the British 
army on the Indian establishment and the Indian native 
army with its dependent local militias, feudatories, contingents, 
&c. In addition there is a force of European and Eurasian 
volunteers, drawn largely from railway employes. The Indian 
army consists of 138 battalions of infantry, 10 regiments of 
cavalry, 16 mountain batteries, i garrison artillery company, 
32 sapper and miner companies (2 railways companies included). 
The proportion between British and Indian troops observed since 
the Mutiny is roughly one British to two native, the Indian army 
being about 162,000 men. In addition the native army includes 
supply and transport corps, the medical service, and the 
veterinary service, officered in the higher ranks by officers of 
the A.S.C., R.A.M.C. and A.V.C. respectively. 

The Indian army is recruited from Mahommedans and Hindus 
of various tribes and sects, and with some exceptions (chiefly in 
the Madras infantry) companies, sometimes regiments, are composed 
exclusively of men of one class. The official F.S. Pocket Book 1908 
gives the following particulars: Mahommedans (Pathans of the 
frontier tribes, Hazaras Baluchis, Moplahs, Punjabi Mahommedans, 
&c-), 350 infantry companies, 76 squadrons (35% of the army). 
Hindus (Sikhs, Gurkhas, Rajputs, Jats, Dogras, Mahrattas, Tamils, 
Brahmans, Bhils, Garhwalis, &c.), 727 companies, 79 squadrons 
(63-3%). 

Enlistment is entirely voluntary, and the army enjoys the highest 
prestige. Service is for three years, but in practice the native 
soldier makes the army his career and he is allowed to extend up 
to 32 years. The native cavalry is almost entirely Silahdar, in 
which the trooper mounts and clothes himself, and practically serves 
without pay. In the infantry, too, the old system of paying men 
and requiring them to equip, clothe and feed themselves, is in vogue 
to some extent. There is a reserve of the native army, numbering 
some 35,000 men. But it is rather a draft to replace wastage than 
a means of bringing the army up to a war footing in the European 
way. Indeed, a cardinal principle of the Indian forces, British 
and native alike, is that the units are maintained in peace at full 
war effective, often a little above their field strength. Part of the 
army, nearest the north-west frontier, has even its transport practi- 
cally in readiness to move at once. The command is in the hands 
of British officers assisted by native officers, promoted from the 
ranks. The number of native officers in a unit is equal to that of 
the British officers. 

Besides the regular native army there are: (a) various frontier 
and other levies, such as the Khyber Rifles and the Waziristan 
Militia; (b) selected contingents from the armies of the native 
princes, inspected by British officers, numbering about 20,000 and 
styled " imperial service troops "; (c) the volunteers, about 32,000 
strong; and (d) the military police. 

The general organization of the forces is into two armies, the 
northern and the southern, with headquarters at Rawal Pindi and 
Poona respectively. , 

Administration. Under the governor-general in council the 
cpmmander-in-chief (himself a member of the council) is the execu- 
tive authority. Under him in the army department, now divided 
into higher committees and the headquarter staff, the latter com- 
prising (since the abolition of the military staff department under 
Lord Kitchener's reorganization) the divisions of the chief of the 
general staff, the adjutant-general and the quartermaster-general. 
India has her own staff college at Quetta, and can manufacture 



rifles, ammunition and field artillery equipment except the actual 
guns. 

The cost of the Indian army, and of the British forces on the Indian 
establishment, borne by the Indian government in 1909 was 
20,558,000. 



Regulars only. 


Northern 
Army. 


Southern 
Army. 


Total. 


British 


40,608 


34-143 


74,751 


Indian Army, white . 
native . . 

Total . . 


1,534 
85,189 


1,512 
76,772 


3,046 
161,961 


86,723 


78,284 


165,007 


Total 


127,331 


112,427 


239,758 



Forces of the Dominions and Colonies. Lord Kitchener and 
Sir John French in 1900-1910 paid visits of inspection to 
Australia and Canada in connexion with the reorganization by 
the local governments of their military forces, and a beginning 
was made of a common organization of the forces of the empire 
in the colonial military conference of 1909. Without infringe- 
ment of local autonomy and local conditions, a common system 
of drill, equipment, training and staff administration was agreed 
on as essential, and to that end the general staff in London was 
to evolve into an " imperial general staff." The object to be 
attained as laid down was twofold; (a) complete organization 
of the territorial forces of each dominion or colony; (b) evolu- 
tion of contingents of colonial general-service troops with which 
the dominion governments might assist the army of Great Britain 
in wars outside the immediate borders of each dominion. (See 
BRITISH EMPIRE; AUSTRALIA; CANADA.) 

UNITED METHODIST CHURCH, or UNITED METHODISTS, 
and English Nonconformist community formed in 1907 by the 
union of the Methodist New Connexion (1797), the Bible Chris- 
tians (1815), and the United Methodist Free Churches (1857). 
The act of parliament which enabled this amalgamation received 
the royal assent on the 26th of July 1907, and authorized the 
union " to deal with real and personal property belonging to 
the said three churches or denominations, to provide for the 
vesting of the said property in trust for the United Church so 
formed and for the assimilation of the trusts thereof, and for 
other purposes." The union was completed on the i6th of 
September 1907 in Wesley's Chapel, City Road, London. The 
Church gives power of speech and vote in its meetings to every 
member of 18 years of age and upwards. Its principal courts 
are constituted of an equal number of ministers and laymen. 
The Church had theological colleges at Manchester and Sheffield, 
boys' schools at Shebbear, in Devonshire, and at Harrogate, 
and a girls' school at Bideford. It issues a weekly and two 
monthly journals. In 1908 its statistics showed 2343 chapels 
with accommodation for 714,793 persons, 848 ministers and 
5621 local preachers, 165,463 church members and 332,756 
Sunday scholars; there were 55 foreign missionaries, and 
about 30,000 church members and probationers in the foreign 
field. 

UNITED METHODIST FREE CHURCHES, an English Non- 
conformist community merged since 1907 in the United Methodist 
Church (q.v.). The organization was itself formed in 1857 
by the amalgamation of the " Wesleyan Association " (which 
had in 1836 largely absorbed the Protestant Methodists 
of 1828) and the "Wesleyan Reformers" (dating from 1849, 
when a number of Wesleyan Methodist ministers were expelled 
on a charge of insubordination). 

UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH <of Scotland). This 
Presbyterian organization, merged since 1900 in the United 
Free Church of Scotland (see above), was formed in 1847 by 
the union of the United Secession and Relief Churches. 

The general causes which led to the first great secession from 
the Church of Scotland, as by law established in 1688, are 
indicated in the article SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF. united 
Its immediate occasion rose out of an act of assembly Secession 
of 1732, which abolished the last remnant of chufcl >- 
popular election by enacting that, in cases where patrons 



UNITED PROVINCES OF AGRA AND OUDH 



609 



might neglect or decline to exercise their right of presentation 
the minister was to be chosen, not by the congregation, but 
only by the elders and Protestant heritors. The act itself 
had been passed by the assembly, although the presbyteries 
to which it had been previously submitted as an overture had 
disapproved of it by a large majority; and in accordance with 
a previous act (1730), which had taken away even the right of 
complaint, the protests of the dissentient majority were refused. 
In the following October Ebenezer Erskine (<?..), minister 
of Stirling, preached a synod sermon, in the course of which 
he took occasion to refer to the act in question as in his opinion 
unscriptural and unconstitutional. 1 Some of his expressions 
were objected to by members of synod, and it was resolved that 
he should be censured for them. This judgment, on appeal, 
was affirmed by the assembly in May 1733, whereupon Erskine 
protested to the effect that he held himself still at liberty to teach 
the same truths and to testify against the same or similar evils 
on every proper occasion. This protest, in which he was joined 
by William Wilson (1690-1741), Alexander Moncrieff (1695- 
1761) and James Fisher (1697-1775), ministers at Perth, Aber- 
nethy and Kinclaven respectively, was regarded by the assembly 
as contumacious, and the commission of assembly was ordered 
to procure its retractation or to proceed to higher censures. 
In November accordingly the protesting ministers were severed 
from their charges, their churches declared vacant, and all 
ministers of the Church prohibited from employing them in any 
ministerial function. They replied by protesting that they still 
adhered to the principles of the Church, though now obliged to 
" make a secession from the prevailing party in ecclesiastical 
courts." 

In December 1733 they constituted themselves into a 
presbytery, but for some time their meetings were devoted al- 
most entirely to prayer and religious conferences. In 1734 they 
published their first " testimony," with a statement of the 
grounds of their secession, which made prominent reference to the 
doctrinal laxity of previous general assemblies. In 1736 they 
proceeded to exercise " judicial powers " as a church court, 
published a " judicial testimony," and began to organize churches 
in various parts of the country. Having been joined by four 
other ministers, including the well-known Ralph Erskine, they 
appointed Wilson professor of divinity. For these acts pro- 
ceedings were again instituted against them in the assembly, 
with the result that, having disowned the authority of that 
body in an " act of declinature," there were in 1740 all deposed 
and ordered to be ejected from their churches. Meanwhile the 
members of the " Associate Presbytery " and its adherents 
steadily increased, until in 1745 there were forty-five congre- 
gations under its jurisdiction, and it was reconstituted into an 
" Associate Synod." A violent controversy arose the same year 
respecting the religious clause of the oath taken by burgesses 
in Edinburgh, Glasgow and Perth (" I profess and allow with 
my heart the true religion presently professed within this realm 
and authorized by the laws thereof"), and resulted in April 
1747 in a " breach," when two bodies were formed, each claiming 
to be the " Associate Synod "; those who condemned the swear- 
ing of the burgess oath as sinful came to be popularly known 
as "Antiburghers," while the other party, who contended that 
abstinence from it should not be made a term of communion, 
were designated " Burghers." The Antiburghers not only re- 
fused to hold further friendly conference with the others, but 
ultimately went so far as to pass sentences of deposition and 
the greater excommunication on the Erskines and other ministers 
who held the opposing view. The Associate (Antiburgher) 
Synod held its first meeting in Edinburgh in the house of Adam 
Gib (q.v.) on the loth of April 1747. It grew with con- 
siderable rapidity, and in 1788 had ninety-four settled 
charges in Great Britain and nineteen in Ireland, besides 
a presbytery in America. For purposes of organization it was 
formed in that year into four provincial synods, and took 
the name of " The General Associate Synod." The " new 
light " controversies as to the province of the civil magistrate 

1 The passing of the act was certainly unconstitutional ; it was 
rescinded in 1734, " because not made according to former acts." 

XXVTI. 20 



in matters of religion led to the publication of a revised 
testimony in the " voluntary " sense in 1804, and in con- 
sequence Thomas M'Crie (1772-1835), with three other brethren, 
withdrew to form the Constitutional Associate Presbytery. The 
Associate (Burgher) Synod held its first meeting at Stirling on 
the i6th of June 1747. The number of congregations under its 
charge rapidly increased, and within thirty years there were 
presbyteries in connexion with it in Ireland and North America, 
as well as throughout Scotland. In 1782 the American presby- 
teries took the designation of the Associate Reformed Church 
in America. About the year 1795 the "voluntary" controversy 
respecting the power of the civil magistrate in matters of religion 
arose within this synod also, and a large majority was found to 
have adopted " new light " views. This led in 1799 to the seces- 
sion of the "Associate Presbytery," which in 1805 took the 
designation of the Associate Synod or Original Burgher Synod. 2 
In 1820 the General Associate or Antiburgher Synod (to the 
number of 129 congregations 3 ) united with the 154 congregations 
of the Associate or Burgher Synod. The body thus constituted, 
" The United Secession Church," had increased by 1847 to 400 
congregations. 

The Presbytery of Relief was constituted in 1761 by three 
ministers of the Church of Scotland, one of whom was Thomas 
Gillespie (q.v.), who had been deposed by the 
assembly in 1752 for refusing to take part in the cfturcft. 
intrusion of unacceptable ministers. The number 
of congregations under its charge increased with considerable 
rapidity, and a Relief Synod was formed in 1773, which in 
1847 had under its jurisdiction 136 congregations. The Relief 
Church issued no distinctive " testimonies," and a certain 
breadth of view was shown in the formal declaration of their 
terms of communion, first made in 1773, which allowed occasional 
communion with those of the Episcopal and Independent 
persuasion who are " visible saints." A Relief theological hall 
was instituted in 1824. 

In 1847 a union was formed between all the congregations 
of the United Secession Church and 118 out of 136 of the 
Relief Churches, in what now became the United United 
Presbyterian Church. It was the first Presbyterian Presbyterian 
body to relax the stringency of subscription, the chunh - 
Synod passing a declaratory act on the subject in 1879. On 
such points as that of the six days' creation it was made 
clear that freedom was allowed; but when Mr David Macrae 
of Gourock claimed that it should also be allowed on the 
question of eternal punishment, he was at once declared to 
be no longer a minister of the church. He left behind him 
many who sympathized with his position, and in the remaining 
part of the igth century the United Presbyterian Church came 
fully to share the forward movement of thought of the other 
Scottish churches. Doctrinally there was little difference 
between the United Presbyterian Church and the Free Church 
of Scotland, and between 1863 and 1873 negotiations were 
carried on for a union, which however were fruitless. But in 
1896 the United Presbyterian Church again made advances, 
which were promptly met, and on the 3ist of October 1900 
the United Free Church of Scotland came into existence. 

UNITED PROVINCES OF AGRA AND OUDH (formerly known 
as the North- Western Provinces and Oudh), a province of 
British India, lying between 23 52' and 31 18' N., and between 
77 3' and 84 39' E. The province, including native states, 
has a total area of 112,243 S Q- m - It is bounded N. by Tibet; 
N.E. by Nepal; E. by Bengal; S. by Chota Nagpur, Rewa, the 
Bundelkhand states, and the Central Provinces; and on the 
W. by Gwalior, Rajputana and the Punjab. 

2 The majority of this synod joined the Church of Scotland in 
1839. The small minority which still retained the name joined the 
Original Seceders in 1842, the resultant body assuming the designa- 
tion of United Original Seceders. A small majority (twenty- 
seven ministers in all) of the Synod of United Original Seceders 
joined the Free Church in 1852. 

3 A dissentient remnant (eight congregations) of the General 
Associate Synod united with the Constitutional Associate Presbytery 
in 1827, the resultant body being called the Associate Synod of 
Original Seceders. 

4 



6io 



UNITED PROVINCES OF AGRA AND OUDH 



Physical Aspects. The province occupies, roughly speaking, 
the upper basin of the Ganges and the Jumna, corresponding 
to the Hindostan proper of the Mahommedan chroniclers. 
A large semi-circular tract, comprising the valleys of the Gogra 
and the Gumti, has long been separated from the remainder 
of the great plain as the kingdom of Oudh; and though since 
1877 it has been under the administrative charge of a lieutenant- 
governor, it retains certain features of its former status as a 
chief-commissionership. The province includes the whole 
upper portion of the wide Gangetic basin, from the Himalayas 
and the Punjab plain to the Vindhyan plateau, and the low- 
lying ricefields of Behar. Taken as a whole, the lieutenant- 
governorship consists of the richest wheat-bearing country in 
India, irrigated both naturally by the rivers which take their 
rise in the northern mountains, and artificially by the magnifi- 
cent system of canals which owe their origin to British enter- 
prise. It is studded with villages, interspersed at greater 
distances with commercial towns. Except during the hot 
season, when the crops are off the fields, the general aspect 
in normal years is that of a verdant and well-tilled but very 
monotonous plain, only merging into hilly or mountainous 
country at the extreme edges of the basin on the south and north. 
The course of the great rivers marks the prevailing slope of the 
land, which falls away from the Himalayas, the Rajputana 
uplands, and the Vindhyan plateau south-eastwards towards 
the Bay of Bengal. The chief natural features of the province 
are thus determined by the main streams, whose alluvial deposits 
first formed the central portion of the United Provinces; while 
the currents afterwards cut deep channels through the detritus 
they brought down from the ring of hills or uplands. 

The extreme or north-western Himalayan region comprises the 
native state of Garhwal, with the British districts of Dehra Dun, Naini 
Tal, Almora and Garhwal. The economic value of this mountainous 
tract is almost confined to the export of forest produce. South of 
the Himalayas, from which it is separated by valleys or duns, is 
the Siwalik range, which slopes down to the fruitful plain of the Doab 
(two rivers), a large irregular horn-shaped tongue of land enclosed 
between the Ganges and Jumna. The great boundary rivers flow 
through low-lying valleys fertilized by their overflow or percolation, 
while a high bank leads up to the central upland, which, though 
naturally dry and unproductive except where irrigated by wells, 
has been transformed by various canal systems. This favoured 
region may be regarded as the granary of upper India. North of 
the Ganges, and enclosed between that river and the Himalayas 
and Oudh, lies the triangular plain of Rohilkhand. This tract 

E resents the same general features as the Gangetic valley, varied 
y the damp and pestilential submontane region of the tarai on 
the north-east, at the foot of the Kumaon hills. South of the Jumna 
is the poor and backward region of Bundelkhand, comprising the 
districts of Jalaun, Jhansi, Hamirpur and Banda. The soil is 
generally rocky and unfertile, and the population impoverished, 
scanty and ignorant. The southernmost portion of Bundelkhand 
is much cut up by spurs of sandstone and granite hills, running down 
from the Vindhyan system; but the northern half near the Jumna 
has a somewhat richer soil, and comes nearer in character to the 
plain of Doab. Below the junction of the Ganges and the Jumna 
at Allahabad the country begins to assume the appearance of the 
Bengal plains, and once more expands northwards to the foot of the 
Nepal Himalayas. This tract consists of three portions, separated 
by the Ganges and the Gogra. The division south of the Ganges 
comprises portions of Allahabad, Benares and Ghazipur, together 
with the whole of Mirzapur, and in general features somewhat 
resembles Bundelkhand, but the lowlands along the river bank are 
more fertile. The triangular tract between the Ganges and the 
Gogra and the boundary of Oudh is the most fertile corner of the 
Gangetic plain, and contains the densest population. The trans- 
Gogra region presents a wilder, submontane appearance. 

Oudh forms the central portion of the great Gangetic plain, sloping 
downwards from the Nepal Himalayas in the north-east to the Ganges 
on the south-west. For 60 m. along the northern border of Gonda 
and Bahraich districts the boundary extends close up to the lower 
slopes of the Himalayas, embracing the damp and unhealthy sub- 
montane region known as the tarai. To the westward of this the 
northern boundary recedes a little from the mountain tract, and the 
tarai in this portion of the range has been for the most part ceded 
to Nepal. With the exception of a belt of government forest along 
the northern frontier, the rest of the province consists of a fertile and 
densely peopled plain. The greatest elevation (600 ft.) is attained 
in the jungle-clad plateau of Khairagarh in Kheri district, while the 
extreme south-east frontier is only 230 ft. above sea-level. Four 
great rivers traverse or skirt the plain of Oudh in converging courses 
the Ganges, the Gumti, the Gogra and the Rapti. Numerous 



smaller channels seam the whole face of the country carrying off 
the surplus drainage in the rains, but drying up in the hot season. 
All the larger rivers, except the Gumti, as well as most of the smaller 
streams, have beds hardly sunk below the general level ; and in time 
of floods they burst through their banks and carve out new channels. 
Numerous shallow ponds otjhils mark the former beds of the shifting 
rivers. These jhils have great value, not only as preservatives 
against inundation, but also as reservoirs for irrigation. The soil 
of Oudh consists of a rich alluvial 'deposit, the detritus of the Hima- 
layan system washed down into the Ganges valley. Usually a light 
loam, it passes here and there into pure clay, or degenerates occa- 
sionally into barren sand. The uncultivable land consists chiefly 
of extensive usar plains, found in the southern and western districts, 
and covered by the deleterious saline efflorescence known as reh. 
Oudh possesses no valuable minerals. Salt was extensively manu- 
factured during native rule, but the British government has pro- 
hibited this industry for fiscal reasons. Nodular limestone (kankar) 
occurs in considerable deposits, and is used as road metal. 

The villages lie thickly scattered, consisting of low thatched 
cottages, and surrounded by patches of garden land, or groves of 
banyan, pipal and pakar trees. The dense foliage of the mango 
marks the site of almost every little homestead, no less an area 
than looo sq. m. being covered by these valuable fruit-trees. 
Tamarinds overhang the huts of the poorer classes, while the seat 
of a wealthy family may be recognized by clumps of bamboo. 
Plantains, guavas, jack-fruit, limes and oranges add further beauty 
to the village plots. The flora of the government reserved forests 
is rich and varied. The sal tree yields the most important timber; 
the finest logs are cut in the Khairagarh jungles and floated down 
the Gogra to Bahramghat, where they are sawn. The hard wood 
of the shisham is also valuable; and several other timber-trees afford 
materials for furniture or roofing shingle. Among the scattered 
jungles in various parts of the province, the mahua tree is prized 
alike for its edible flowers, its fruits and its timber. The jhils supply 
the villages with wild rice, the roots and seeds of the lotus, and the 
singhara water-nut. The fauna comprises most of the animals and 
birds common to the Gangetic plain ; but the wild elephant is now 
practically unknown, except when a stray specimen loses its way 
at the foot of the hills. Tigers are now only found in any numbers 
in the wilds of Khairagarh. Leopards still haunt the cane-brakes 
and thickets along the banks of the rivers ; and nilgai and antelopes 
abound. Game birds consist of teal and wild duck, snipe, jungle 
fowl and peacock. 

Rivers. The Ganges and its affluents, the Jumna, the Ramganga 
and the Gogra, rise in the Himalayas, and meet within the province. 
In addition there are the following secondary streams: the Kali- 
nadi and the Hindan flow through the Doab; the Chambal intersects 
the trans-Jumna tract; in Bundelkhand the principal streams are 
the Betwa and the Ken; the Ramgana, rising in Garhwal, pursues 
a tortuous course through Rohilkhand ; the Gumti flows past Luck- 
npw and Jaunpur to join the Ganges; the trans-Gogra region is 
divided into two nearly equal parts by the Rapti. These rivers are 
constantly modifying the adjacent lands. A small obstruction may 
divert the stream from one side to the other. The deep stream 
corrodes and cuts down the high ground; but meanwhile alluvial 
flats are gradually piled up in the shallows. The tributary streams 
get choked at the mouth and assist the process of deposition. The 
deposit is greatest when the floods of the rainy season are sub- 
siding. 

Climate. The climate as a whole is hot and dry. The Himalayan 
districts of course are cool, and have a much greater rainfall than 
the plains. They are succeeded by a broad submontane belt, the 
tarai, which is rendered moist by the mountain torrents, and is 
covered by forest from end to end. This region bears the reputation 
of being the most unhealthy in all India, and in many parts only 
the acclimatized aborigines can withstand its deadly malaria. The 
plain country is generally warm and dry, the heat becoming more 
oppressive as the general level of the country sinks towards Allahabad 
and Benares, or among the hills of Bundelkhand. There are three 
seasons. The cold changes gradually to the hot ; the hot season 
gives way abruptly to the rains ; and the rains again change gradually 
into the cold season. In point of humidity and temperature the 
province lies half-way between Bengal and the Punjab. The rainfall 
varies from 30 to 44 in. in the plains, increasing gradually towards 
the Himalaya. The temperature in the hot season ranges from 86 
to 1 15 F., and even higher, in the shade. 

Minerals. Owing to the loamy nature of the soil, few minerals 
of any kind are found. Iron and coal exist in the southern hills. A 
little coal was extracted from Mirzapur in 1896, but the enterprise 
was dropped. Iron, copper, sapphires, &c., are said to be obtain- 
able in the Himalaya. It has been suggested that the oily water 
known as telya pani indicates the presence of petroleum. 

Agriculture. -Out of a total area of 104,075 sq. m. in the British 
districts of the province, over 54,000 sq. m. are under cultivation. 
The course of tillage comprises two principal harvests: the kharif, 
or autumn crops, sown in June and reaped in October or November; 
and the rabi, or spring crops, sown in October or November, and 
reaped in March or April. The great agricultural staple is wheat, 
but millets and rice are also largely cultivated. Speaking broadly, 
rice and oilseeds predominate in the eastern and sub- Himalayan 



UNITED PROVINCES OF AGRA AND OUDH 



6n 



districts, millets and cotton in Bundelkhand and wheat in the 
greater part of the Gangetic plain. The pulses mung, urd and moth 
are grown generally in the autumn alone, or in combination with 
millets; and gram, alone or in combination with wheat and barley, is 
an important spring crop. Sugar-cane, indigo, poppy and tobacco 
are locally important; and a little tea is grown in the submontane 
districts of Almora Garhwal and Dehra Dun. 

Land Tenure. Owing to historical reasons, the system of land 
tenure is not uniform. In the Benares division, which was the 
first portion to come under British administration, the land revenue 
was permanently fixed in 1795, on the same principles that had been 
previously adopted in Bengal; and there a special class of tenants, 
as well as the landlords, enjoy a privileged status. Throughout the 
rest of the province of Agra, almost all of which was acquired 
between 1801 and 1803, temporary settlements are in force, usually 
for a term of thirty years, the revenue being assessed at one-half 
of the " assets " or estimated rental value. The settlement is made 
with the landholders or zamindars, who are frequently a group of 
persons holding distinct shares in the land, and may be themselves 
petty cultivators. No proprietary rights superior to those of the 
actual landowners are recognized. The only privileged class of 
tenants are those possessing " occupancy " rights, as defined by 
statute. These rights, which are heritable but not transferable, 
protect the tenant against eviction, except for default in payment 
of rent, while the rent may not be enhanced except by mutual 
agreement or by order of a revenue court. " Occupancy " rights 
are acquired by continuous cultivation for ten years, but the cultiva- 
tion need not be of the same holding. All other tenants are merely 
tenants-at-will. In Oudh, after the convulsion of the Mutiny, all 
rights in land were confiscated at a stroke, and the new system adop- 
ted was in the nature of a treaty between the state and the talukdars, 
or great landlords. These talukdars had not all the same origin. 
Many were Rajput chiefs, ruling over their tribesmen by ancient 
hereditary right ; while others were officials or court favourites, who 
had acquired power and property during the long period of native 
misrule. On all the same status was now conferred a status that 
has no analogy in the rest of India. By sanad (or patent) and by 
legislation the talukdars were declared to possess permanent, 
heritable and transferable rights, with the special privilege of 
alienation, either in lifetime or by will, notwithstanding the limits 
imposed by Hindu or Mahommedan law. In addition irost of them 
follow the rule of primogeniture, while a power of entail has recently 
been granted. The estates of talukdars extend over more than half 
the total area of Oudh. No " occupancy " rights based on con- 
tinuous cultivation are recognized in Oudh, but similar rights, here 
known as " sub-proprietary," were granted to all those who had 
possessed them within thirty years before annexation. On the 
other hand, there are no tenants-at-right in Oudh. Any person 
admitted to the cultivation of land is entitled to hold it for seven 
years at the same rent, which may not be advanced by more than 
6J % at the end of the term. 

Manufactures. The principal manufactures are those of sugar, 
indigo and coarse cotton cloth. Ornamental metal-work is made 
at Benares. Among the factories on the English model are the 
Elgin and Muir cotton mills at Cawnpore, the Cawnpore tanneries 
and leather factories, the Shahjahanpur rum distillery, and breweries 
at Mussoorie and Naini Tal. There are also woollen and jute mills, 
iron and brass foundries, lac factories and oil-mills. The manu- 
facture of synthetic indigo by German chemists has greatly affected 
the growth and manufacture of indigo, the indigo factories 
decreasing in 1904-1905 from 402 to 252. 

Trade. The export trade is chiefly confined to agricultural 
produce. The principal staples include wheat, oilseeds, raw cotton, 
indigo, sugar, molasses, timber and forest produce, dry-stuffs, ghee, 
opium and tobacco. The imports consist mainly of English piece- 
goods, metal-work, manufactured wares, salt and European goods. 
The chief centres of trade are Cawnpore, Allahabad, Mirzapur, 
Benares, Meerut and Moradabad. 

Irrigation. The Doab is intersected by canals drawn from the 
great rivers. The major productive works are the upper and lower 
Ganges, the eastern Jumna, and the Agra canals. The greatest 
work in the province, and one of the greatest irrigation works in 
the world, is the upper Ganges canal, which is taken from the river 
where it leaves the hills, some 2 m. above Hard war. In the first 
20 m. of its course this gigantic canal crosses four great torrents, 
whicji bring down immense volumes of water in the rainy season. 
The first two are carried in massive aqueducts over the canal, the 
third is passed through the canal by a level-crossing, regulated by 
drop-gates, and the canal is taken over the fourth by an aqueduct. 
The total length of the main canal is 213 m., navigable through- 
out, and designed to irrigate 1,500,000 acres. The lower Ganges 
canal is taken from the river at Narora, 149 m. below Hardwar. 
After crossing in 55 m. four great drainage lines, it cuts into the 
Cawnpore, and 7 m. lower down into the Etawah, branches of the 
upper Ganges canal. These branches are now below the point of 
intersection, part of the lower Ganges canal system. The irrigating 
capacity of this canal is 1,250,000 acres. 

Railways. The province is well supplied with railways. The 
main line of the East Indian runs throughout south of the Ganges, 
which is bridged at Benares and Cawnpore. North of the river 



the Oudh & Rohilkhand system connects with Bengal and with 
the Punjab. From Allahabad, Cawnpore and Agra trade finds an 
outlet to the sea at Bombay as well as at Calcutta. 

Administration. The administration is conducted by a lieu- 
tenant-governor, with five secretaries and five under-secretaries. 
There is no executive council; but the board of revenue, consist- 
ing of two members, exercises important executive duties, and 
is also the highest court of appeal in revenue and rent cases. 
For legislative purposes the lieutenant-governor has a council, 
first constituted in 1886, and enlarged in 1909. It now con- 
sists of 48 members, of whom 28 are nominated, and the re- 
mainder are elected by local bodies, landholders, Mahommedans, 
&c. In Agra the chartered high court sitting at Allahabad, 
and in Oudh the court of the judicial commissioner, sitting at 
Lucknow, have final jurisdiction in both civil and criminal 
cases, subject to appeal to the privy council. The former is 
composed of a chief justice and six puisne judges appointed 
by the Crown; the latter of a judicial commissioner and two 
additional judicial commissioners. For ordinary purposes of 
administration the provinces are divided into nine divisions, 
each under a commissioner, and into 48 districts, each under 
a collector or deputy commissioner. Two native states are 
attached to the United Provinces Rampur and Garhwal. 

Population. Out of a total population in 1901 of 47,691,782 
no fewer than 40,691,818, or over 85% were Hindus, and 
6,731,034 or 14% Mahommedans. The total number of 
persons belonging to all the other religions Sikhs, Jains, 
Buddhists, Parsees, Christians, Jews, Aryas and Brahmos 
was only 268,930, or less than 0-6%. While nearly fifty lan- 
guages in all are spoken in the provinces, out of every 10,000 
people 4527 speak Western Hindi, 3125 Eastern Hindi, 2109 
Bihari and 211 Central Pahari. 

History. If the present limits be slightly extended in either 
direction so as to include Delhi and Patna, the United Provinces 
would contain the area on which almost the whole drama of 
Indian history has been played. Here lay the scene, known as 
Madhya Desa or " middle country," of the second period of 
Aryan colonization, when the two great epics, the Maha- 
bharala and Ramayana, were probably composed, and when the 
religion of Brahmanism took form. Here Buddha was born, 
preached and died. Here arose the successive dynasties of 
Asoka, of the Guptas, and of Harshavardhana, which for a 
thousand years exercised imperial sway over the greater part of 
India. Here is Ajodhya, the home of Rama, the most popular 
of Hindu demigods; and also Benares and Muttra, the most 
sacred of Hindu shrines. Here too were the Mahommedan 
capitals Delhi, Agra, Allahabad, Jaunpur and Lucknow. 
Here finally, at the crisis of the Mutiny, British dominion was 
permanently established in India. 

The political vicissitudes through which this tract of country 
passed in earlier times are described under INDIA: History. 
It will be sufficient here to trace the steps by which it passed 
under British rule. In 1765, after the battle of Buxar, when the 
nawab of Oudh had been decisively defeated and Shah Alam, 
the Mogul emperor, was a suppliant in the British camp, Lord 
Clive was content to claim no acquisition of territory. The 
whole of Oudh was restored to the Nawab, and Shah Alam 
received as an imperial apanage the province of Allahabad 
and Kora in the lower Doab, with a British garrison in the fort 
of Allahabad. Warren Hastings augmented the territory 
of Oudh by lending the nawab a British army to conquer 
Rohilkhand, and by making over to him Allahabad and Kora 
on the ground that Shah Alam had placed himself in the power 
of the Mahrattas. At the same time he received from Oudh 
the sovereignty over the province of Benares. Subsequently 
no great change took place until the arrival of Lord Wellesley, 
who acquired a very large accession of territory in two instal- 
ments. In 1801 he obtained from the nawab of Oudh the 
cession of Rohilkhand, the lower Doab, and the Gorakhpur 
division, thus enclosing Oudh on all sides except the north. In 
1804, as the result of Lord Lake's victories in the Mahratta War, 
the rest of the Doab and part of Bundelkhand, together with 



6l2 



UNITED STATES 



Agra and the guardianship of the old and blind emperor, Shah 
Alara, at Delhi, were obtained from Sindia. In 1815 the 
Kumaon division was acquired after the Gurkha War, and a 
further portion of Bundelkhand from the peshwa in 1817. 
These new acquisitions, known as the ceded and conquered 
provinces, continued to be administered by the governor-general 
as part of Bengal. In 1833 an act of parliament was passed to 
constitute a new presidency, with its capital at Agra. But 
this scheme was never fully carried out, and in 1835 another 
statute authorized the appointment of a lieutenant-governor 
for the North-Western Provinces, as they were then styled. 
They included the Delhi territory, transferred after the Mutiny 
to the Punjab; and also (after 1853) the Saugor and Nerbudda 
territories, which in 1861 became part of the Central Provinces. 
Meanwhile Oudh remained under its nawab, who was permitted 
to assume the title of Icing in 1819. All protests against gross 
misgovernment during many years having proved useless, 
Oudh was annexed in 1856 and constituted a separate chief 
commissionership. Then followed the Mutiny, when all signs 
of British rule were for a time swept away throughout 
th^ greater part of the two provinces. The lieutenant- 
governor died when shut up in the fort at Agra, and Oudh 
was only reconquered after several campaigns lasting for 
eighteen months. 

In 1877 the offices of lieutenant-governor of the North- 
Western Provinces and chief commissioner of Oudh were 
combined in the same person; and in 1902, when the new name 
of United Provinces was introduced, the title of chief com- 
missioner was dropped, though Oudh still retains some marks 
of its former independence. 

See Gazetteer of the United Provinces (2 vols., Calcutta, 1908); 
and Theodore Morison, The Industrial Organization of an Indian 
Province (1906). 

UNITED STATES, THE, the short title usually given to the 
great federal republic which had its origin in the revolt of the 
British colonies in North America, when, in the Declaration of 
Independence, they described themselves as " The Thirteen 
United States of America." Officially the name is " The 
United States of America," but " The United States " (used 
as a singular and not a plural) has become accepted as the 
name of the country; and pre-eminent usage has now made 
its citizens " Americans," in distinction from the other 
inhabitants of North and South America. 

The area of the United States, as here considered, exclusive of 
Alaska and outlying possessions, occupies a belt nearly twenty 
degrees of middle latitude in width, and crosses 
North America from the Atlantic to the Pacific. 
The southern boundary is naturally defined on the 
east by the Gulf of Mexico; its western extension crosses obliquely 
over the western highlands, along an irregular line determined 
by aggressive Americans of Anglo-Saxon stock against Americans 
of Spanish stock. The northern boundary, after an arbitrary 
beginning, finds a natural extension along the Great Lakes, and 
thence continues along the 49th parallel of north latitude to the 
Pacific (see Bulletin 171, U.S. Geological Survey). The area 
thus included is 3,026,789 sq. m. 1 

I. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

Coast. The Atlantic coast of the United States is, with minor 
exceptions, low; the Pacific coast is, with as few exceptions, 

1 The following are the states of the Union (recognized abbrevia- 
tions being given in brackets): Alabama (Ala.), Arizona (Ariz.), 
Arkansas (Ark.), California (Cal.), Colorado (Col.), Connecticut 
(Conn.), Delaware (Del.), Florida (Fla.), Georgia (Ga.), Idaho, 
Illinois (111.), Indiana (Ind.), Iowa (la.), Kansas (Kan.), Kentucky 
(Ky.), Louisiana (La.), Maine (Me.), Maryland (Md.), Massachusetts 
(Mass.), Michigan (Mich.), Minnesota (Minn.), Mississippi (Miss.), 
Missouri (Mo.), Montana (Mont.), Nebraska (Neb.), Nevada (Nev.), 
New Hampshire (N.H.), New Jersey (N.J.), New Mexico (N. Mex.), 
New York (N.Y.), North Carolina (N.C.), North Dakota (N. Dak.), 
Ohio(O.), Oklahoma (Okla.), Oregon (Oreg.), Pennsylvania (Pa.), 
Rhode Island (R.I.), South Carolina (S.C.), South Dakota (S. Dak.), 
Tennessee (Tenn.), Texas (Tex.), Utah, Vermont (Vt.), Virginia 
(Va.), West Virginia (W. Va.), Washington (Wash.), Wisconsin (Wis.), 
Wyoming (Wyo.); together with the District of Columbia (D.C.). 



" 



hilly or mountainous. The Atlantic coast owes its oblique 
N.E.-S.W. trend to crustal deformations which in very 
early geological time gave a beginning to what later came to 
be the Appalachian mountain system; but this system had its 
climax of deformation so long ago (probably in Permian time) 
that it has since then been very generally reduced to moderate 
or low relief, and owes its present altitude either to renewed 
elevations along the earlier lines or to the survival of the most 
resistant rocks as residual mountains. The oblique trend of the 
coast would be even more pronounced but for a comparatively 
modern crustal movement, causing a depression in the north- 
east, with a resulting encroachment of, the sea upon the land, and 
an elevation in the south-west, with a resulting advance of the 
land upon the sea. The Pacific coast has been defined chiefly by 
relatively recent crustal deformations, and hence still preserves 
a greater relief than that of the Atlantic. The minor features 
of each coast will be mentioned in connexion with the land 
districts of which the coast-line is only the border. 

General Topography and Drainage. The low Atlantic coast 
and the hilly or mountainous Pacific coast foreshadow the leading 
features in the distribution of mountains within the United 
States. The Appalachian system, originally forest-covered, 
on the eastern side of the continent, is relatively low and narrow; 
it is bordered on the south-east and south by an important 
coastal plain. The CordiUeran system on the western side of 
the continent is lofty, broad and complicated, with heavy 
forests near the north-west coast, but elsewhere with trees 
only on the higher ranges below the Alpine region, and with 
treeless or desert interment valleys, plateaus and basins, 
very arid in the south-west. Between the two mountain 
systems extends a great central area of plains, stretching 
from the Gulf of Mexico northward, far beyond the national 
boundary, to the Arctic Ocean. The rivers that drain the 
Atlantic slope of the Appalachians are comparatively short; 
those that drain the Pacific slope include only two, the Columbia 
and the Colorado, which rise far inland, near the easternmost 
members of the Cordilleran system, and flow through plateaus 
and intermont basins to the ocean. The central plains are divided 
by a hardly perceptible height of land into a Canadian and a 
United States portion; from the latter the great Mississippi 
system discharges southward to the Gulf of Mexico. The upper 
Mississippi and some of the Ohio basin is the prairie region, with 
trees originally only along the watercourses; the uplands towards 
the Appalachians were included in the great eastern forested 
area; the western part of the plains has so dry a climate that its 
herbage is scanty, and in the south it is barren. The lacustrine 
system of the St Lawrence flows eastward from a relatively 
narrow drainage area. 

Relation of General Topography to Settlement. The aboriginal 
occupants of the greater part of North America were compara- 
tively few in number, and except in Mexico were not advanced 
beyond the savage state. The geological processes that placed 
a much narrower ocean between North America and western 
Europe than between North America and eastern Asia secured 
to the New World the good fortune of being colonized by the 
leading peoples of the occidental Old World, instead of by the 
less developed races of the Orient. The transoceanic invasion 
progressed slowly through the i7th and i8th centuries, delayed 
by the head winds of a rough ocean which was crossed only in 
slow sailing vessels, and by the rough " backwoods " of the 
Appalachians ; which retarded the penetration of wagon roads 
and canals into the interior. The invasion was wonderfully 
accelerated through the igth century, when the vast area 
of the treeless prairies beyond the Appalachians was offered 
to the settler, and when steam transportation on sea and 
land replaced sailing vessels and wagons. The frontier was 
then swiftly carried across the eastern half of the central 
plains, but found a second delay in its advance occasioned 
by the dry climate of the western plains. It was chiefly 
the mineral wealth of the Cordilleran region, first developed 
on the far Pacific slope, and later in many parts of the 
inner mountain ranges, that urged pioneers across the 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY) 



UNITED STATES 



613 



dry plains into the apparently inhospitable mountain region; 
there the adventurous new-comers rapidly worked out one 
mining district after another, exhausting and abandoning the 
smaller " camps " to early decay and rushing in feverish excite- 
ment to new-found river fields, but establishing important 
centres of varied industries in the more important mining dis- 
tricts. It was not until the settlers learned to adapt themselves 
to the methods of wide-range cattle raising and of farming by 
irrigation that the greater value of the far western interior was 
recognized as a permanent home for an agricultural population. 

The purchase of " Louisiana " a great area west of the Missis- 
sippi river from the French in 1803 has sometimes been said to 
be the cause of the westward expansion of the United States, but 
the Louisiana purchase has been better interpreted as the occasion 
for the expansion rather than its cause; for, as Lewis Evans 
of Philadelphia long ago recognized (1749), whoever gained pos- 
session of the Ohio Valley the chief eastern part of the central 
plains would inevitably become the masters of the continent. 

Physiographic Subdivisions. The area of the United States 
may be roughly divided into the Appalachian belt, the Cordilleras 
and the central plains, as already indicated. These large divi- 
sions need physiographic subdivision, which will now be made, 
following the guide of " structure, process and stage "; that is, 
each subdivision or province will be defined as part of the earth's 
crust in which some similarity of geological structure prevails, 
and upon which some process or processes of surface sculpture 
have worked long enough to reach a certain stage in the cycle of 
physiographic development. 

The Appalachians. The physiographic description of the Appala- 
chian mountain system offers an especially good opportunity for the 
application of the genetic method based on " structure, process and 
stage." This mountain system consists essentially of two belts: one 
on the south-east, chiefly of ancient and greatly deformed crystalline 
rocks, the other on the north-west, a heavy series of folded Palaeozoic 
strata; and with these it will be convenient to associate a third belt, 
farther north-west, consisting of the same Palaeozoic strata lying 
essentially horizontal and constituting the Appalachian plateau. 
The crystalline belt represents, at least in part, the ancient highlands 
from whose ruins the sandstones, shales and limestones of the strati- 
fied series were formed, partly as marine, partly as fluviatile deposits. 
The deformation of the Appalachians was accomplished in two chief 
periods of compressive deformation, one in early Palaeozoic, the 
other about the close of Palaeozoic time, and both undoubtedly 
of long duration; the second one extended its effects farther north- 
west than the first. These were followed by a period of minor 
tilting and faulting in early Mesozoic, by a moderate upwarping 
in Tertiary, and by a moderate uplift in post-Tertiary time. The 
later small movements are of importance because they are related 
to the existing topography with which we are here concerned. Each 
of the disturbances altered the attitude of the mass with respect 
to the general base-level of the ocean surface; each movement there- 
fore introduced a new cycle of erosion, which was interrupted by 
a later movement and the beginning of a later cycle. 

Thus interpreted, the Appalachian forms of to-day may be ascribed 
to three cycles of erosion : a nearly complete Mesozoic cycle, in which 
most of the previously folded and faulted mountain masses were 
reduced in Cretaceous time to a peneplain or lowland of small relief, 
surmounted, however, in the north-east and in the south-west by 
monadnocks of the most resistant rocks, standing singly or in groups ; 
an incomplete Tertiary cycle, initiated by the moderate Tertiary 
upwarping of the Mesozoic peneplain, and of sufficient length to 
develop mature valleys in the more resistant rocks of the crystalline 
belt or in the horizontal strata of the plateau, and to develop late 
mature or old valleys in the weaker rocks of the stratified belt, 
where the harder strata were left standing up in ridges ; and a brief 
post-Tertiary cycle, initiated by an uplift of moderate amount and 
in progress long enough only to erode narrow and relatively imma- 
ture valleys. Glacial action complicated the work of the latest cycle 
in the northern part of the system. In view of all this it is possible 
to refer nearly every element of Appalachian form to its appropriate 
cycle and stage of development. The more resistant rocks, even 
though dissected by Tertiary erosion, retain in their summit uplands 
an indication of the widespread peneplain of Cretaceous time, now 
standing at the altitude given to it by the Tertiary upwarping and 
post-Tertiary uplift; and the most resistant rocks surmount the 
Cretaceous peneplain as unconsumed monadnocks of the Mesozoic 
cycle. On the other hand, the weaker rocks are more or less com- 

:letely reduced to lowlands by Tertiary erosion, and are now trenched 
y the narrow and shallow valleys of the short post-Tertiary cycle. 
Evidently, therefore, the Appalachians as we now see them are not 
the still surviving remnants of the mountains of late Palaeozoic 
deformation; they owe their present height chiefly to the Tertiary 
upwarping and uplifting, and their form to the normal processes of 



t 



sculpture which, having become nearly quiescent at the close of the 
Mesozoic cycle, became active again in Tertiary and later times. 

The belts of structure and the cycles of erosion thus briefly 
described are recognizable with more or less continuity from the 
Gulf of St Lawrence 1500 m. south-westward to Alabama, where the 
deformed mountain structures pass out of sight under nearly hori- 
zontal strata of the Gulf coastal plain. But the dimensions of the 
several belts and the strength of the relief developed by their later 
erosion varies greatly along the system. In a north-eastern section, 
practically all of New England is occupied by the older crystalline 
belt; the corresponding northern part of the stratified belt in the 
St Lawrence and Champlain-Hudson valleys on the inland side of 
New England is comparatively free from the ridge-making rocks 
which abound farther south; and here the plateau member is 
wanting, being replaced, as it were, by the Adirondacks, an outlier 
of the Laurentian highlands of Canada which immediately succeeds 
the deformed stratified belt west of Lake Champlain. In a middle 
section of the system, from the Hudson river in southern New York 
to the James river in southern Virginia, the crystalline belt is 
narrowed, as if by the depression of its south-eastern part beneath 
the Atlantic Ocean or beneath the strata of the Atlantic coastal 
plain which now represents the ocean; but the stratified belt is here 
broadly developed in a remarkable series of ridges and valleys 
determined by the action of erosion on the many alternations of 
strong and weak folded strata ; and the plateau assumes full strength 
southward from the monoclinal Mohawk valley which separates 
it from the Adirondacks. The linear ridges of this middle section 
are often called the Alleghany Mountains. In a south-western 
section the crystalline belt again assumes jmportance in breadth 
and height, and the plateau member maintains the strength that it 
had in the middle section, but the intermediate stratified belt again 
has fewer ridges, because of the infrequence here of ridge-making 
strata as compared to their frequency in the middle section. 

The middle section of the Appalachians, rather arbitrarily limited 
by the Hudson and the James rivers, may be described first because 
it contains the best representation of the three longitu- 
dinal belts of which the mountain system as a whole is e *"*" 
composed- The mountain-making compression of the A PP ala 
heavy series of Palaeozoic strata has here produced a c " ians - 
marvellous series of rock folds with gently undulating axes, trending 
north-east and south-west through a belt 70 or 80 m. wide ; no less 
wonderful is the form that has been produced by the processes of 
sculpture. The peculiar configuration of the ridges may be appre- 
hended as follows : The pattern of the folded strata on the low-lying 
Cretaceous peneplain must have resembled the pattern of the curved 
grain of wood on a planed board. When the peneplain was uplifted 
the weaker strata were worn down almost to a lowland of a second 
generation, while the resistant sandstones, of which there are three 
chief members, retained a great part of their new-gained altitude 
in the form of long, narrow, even-crested ridges, well deserving of the 
name of Endless Mountains given them by the Indians, but here and 
there bending sharply in peculiar zigzags which give this Alleghany 
section of the mountains an unusual individuality. The post- 
Tertiary uplift, giving the present altitude of 1000 or 1500 ft. in 
Pennsylvania, and of 2500 or 3500 ft. in Virginia, has not signifi- 
cantly altered the forms thus produced ; it has only incited the rivers 
to intrench themselves 100 or more feet beneath the lowlands of 
Tertiary erosion. The watercourses to-day are, as a rule, longi- 
tudinal, following the strike of the weaker strata in paths that they 
appear to have gained by spontaneous adjustment during the long 
Mesozoic cycle; but now and again they cross from one longitudinal 
valley to another by a transverse course, and there they have cut 
down sharp notches or " water-gaps " in the hard strata that else- 
where stand up in the long even-crested ridges. 

The transition from the strongly folded structure of the Alleghany 
ridges and valleys to the nearly horizontal structure of the Appala- 
chian plateau is promptly made; and with the change of structure 
comes an appropriate change of form. The horizontal strata of 
the plateau present equal ease or difficulty of erosion in any direc- 
tion ; the streams and the submature valleys of the plateau therefore 
ramify in every direction, thus presenting a pattern that has been 
called insequent, because it follows no apparent control. Further 
mention of the plateau is made in a later section. 

The crystalline belt of the middle Appalachians, 60 or 80 m. wide, 
is to-day of moderate height because the Tertiary upwarping was 
there of moderate amount. The height is greatest along the inner 
or north-western border of the belt, and here a sub-mountainous 
topography has been produced by normal dissection, chiefly in the 
Tertiary cycle; the valleys being narrow because the rocks are 
resistant. The relief is strong enough to make occupation difficult; 
the slopes are forested ; the uplands are cleared and well occupied by 
farms and villages, but many of the valleys are wooded glens. With 
continued decrease of altitude south-eastward, the crystalline belt 
dips under the coastal plain, near a line marked by the Delaware 
river from Trenton to Philadelphia in Pennsylvania, and thence 
south-south-westward through Maryland and Virginia past the 
cities of Baltimore, Washington and Richmond. 

The Pennsylvania portion of the crystalline belt is narrow, as has 
been said, because of encroachment upon it by the inward overlap 
of the coastal plain; it is low because of small Tertiary uplift; but. 



614 



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[PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 



still more, it is discontinuous, because of the inclusion of certain 
belts of weak non-crystalline rock; here the rolling uplands are worn 
down to lowland belts, the longest of which reaches from the southern 
corner of New York, across New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Maryland, 
into central Virginia. 

The middle section of the Appalachians is further distinguished 
from the north-eastern and souni-western sections by the arrange- 
Dralnagc. ment of its drainage : its chief rivers rise in the plateau 
belt and flow across the ridges and valleys of the stratified 
belt and through the uplands of the crystalline belt to the sea. The 
rivers which most perfectly exemplify this habit are the Delaware, 
Susquehanna and Potomac; the Hudson, the north-eastern bound- 
ary of the middle section, is peculiar in having headwaters in the 
Adirondacks as well as in the Catskills (northern part of the plateau) ; 
the James, forming the south-western boundary of the section, 
rises in the inner valleys of the stratified belt, instead of in the 
plateau. The generally transverse course of these rivers has given 
rise to the suggestion that they are of antecedent origin; but there 
are many objections to this over-simple, Gordian explanation. The 
south-east course of the middle-section rivers is the result of many 
changes from the initial drainage; the Mesozoic and Tertiary up- 
warpings were probably very influential in determining the present 
general courses. 

For the most part the rivers follow open valleys along belts of 
weak strata; but they frequently pass through sharp-cut notches 
in the narrow ridges of the stratified belt the Delaware water-gap 
is one of the deepest of these notches; and in the harder rocks of 
the crystalline belt they have eroded steep-walled gorges, of which 
the finest is that of the Hudson, because of the greater height and 
breadth of the crystalline highlands there than at points where the 
other rivers cross it. The rivers are shallow and more or less broken 
by rapids in the notches; rapids occur also near the outer border 
of the crystalline belt, as if the rivers there had been lately incited 
to downward erosion by an uplift of the region, and had not yet 
had time to regrade their courses. This is well shown in the falls 
of the Potomac a few miles above Washington; in the rapids- of 
the lower Susquehanna ; and in the falls of the Schuylkill, a branch 
which joins the Delaware at Philadelphia, where the water-power 
has long been used in extensive factories. Hence rivers in the 
Appalachians are not navigable; it is only farther down-stream, 
where the rivers have been converted into estuaries and bays such 
as Chesapeake and Delaware bays by a slight depression of the 
coastal plain belt, that they serve the purposes of navigation. But 
the Hudson is strikingly exceptional in this respect; it possesses a 
deep and navigable tide-water channel all through its gorge in the 
highlands, a feature which has usually been explained as the result 
of depression of the land, but may also be explained by glacial 
erosion without change of land-level ; a feature which, in connexion 
with the Mohawk Valley, has been absolutely determinative of the 
metropolitan rank reached by New York City at the Hudson mouth. 

The community of characteristics that is suggested by the associa- 
tion of six north-eastern states under the name " New England " 
The North- ' s m ' ar e measure warranted by the inclusion of 
eastern Ap- a " these states within the broadened crystalline belt 
palachlaas ^ *he north-eastern Appalachians, which is here 
150 m. wide. The uplands which prevail through the 
centre of this area at altitudes of about 1000 ft. rise to 1500 or 
2000 ft. in the north-west, before descent is made to the lowlands 
of the stratified belt (St Lawrence-Champlain-Hudson valleys, 
described later on as part of the Great Appalachian valley), and at 
the same time the rising uplands are diversified with monadnocks 
of increasing number and height and by mature valleys cut to 
greater and greater depths; thus the interior of New England is 
moderately mountainous. When the central uplands are followed 
south-east or south to the coast, their altitude and their relief over 
the valleys gradually decrease; and thus the surface gradually 
passes under the sea. The lower coastal parts, from their accessi- 
bility and their smaller relief, are more densely populated ; the higher 
and more rugged interior is still largely forested and thinly settled ; 
there are large tracts of unbroken forest in northern Maine, hardly 
150 m. from the coast. In spite of these contrasts, no physio- 
graphic line can be drawn between the higher and more rugged 
interior and the lower coastal border; one merges into the other. 
New England is a unit, though a diversified unit. 

The Appalachian trends (N.E.-S.W.) that are so prominent in 
the stratified belt of the middle Appalachians, and are fairly well 
marked in the crystalline belt of New Jersey and Pennsylvania, are 
prevailingly absent in New England. They may be seen on the 
western border, in the Hoosac range along the boundary of Massa- 
chusetts and New York ; in the linear series of the Green Mountain 
summits (Mt Mansfield, 4364 ft., Killington Peak, 4241 ft.) and their 
(west) piedmont ridges farther north in Vermont; and in the ridges 
of northern Maine: these are all in sympathy with Appalachian 
structure; so also are certain open valleys, as the Berkshire (lime- 
stone) Valley in western Massachusetts and the corresponding 
Rutland (limestone and marble) Valley in western Vermont; and 
more particularly the long Connecticut Valley from northern New 
Hampshire across Massachusetts to the sea at the southern border 
of Connecticut, the populous southern third of which is broadly 
eroded along a belt of red Triassic sandstones with trap ridges. 



But in general the dissection of the New England upland is as irregu- 
lar as is the distribution of the surmounting monadnocks. The 
type of this class of forms is Mt Monadnock in south-western New 
Hampshire, a fine example of an isolated residual mass rising from 
an upland some 1500 ft. in altitude and reaching a summit height of 
3186 ft. A still larger example is seen in Mt Katahdin (5200 ft.) in 
north-central Maine, the greatest of several similar isolated moun- 
tains that are scattered over the interior uplands without apparent 
system. The White Mountains of northern New Hampshire may 
be treated as a complex group of monadnocks, all of subdued forms, 
except for a few cliffs at the head of cirque-like valleys, with Mt 
Washington, the highest of the dome-like or low pyramidal summits, 
reaching 6293 ft., and thirteen other summits over 5000 ft. The 
absence of range-like continuity is here emphasized by the occur- 
rence of several low passes or " notches " leading directly through 
the group; the best-known being Crawford's Notch (1900 ft.). 

In consequence of the general south-eastward slope of the high- 
lands and uplands of New England, the divide between the Atlantic 
rivers and those which flow nofthward and westward n . 
into the lowland of the stratified belt in Canada and ' 
New York is generally close to the boundary of these two physio- 
graphic districts. The chief rivers all flow south or south-east: 
they are the Connecticut, Merrimack, Kennebec, Penobscot and 
St John, the last being shared with the province of New Brunswick. 

The drainage of New England is unlike that of the middle and 
south-weste/n Appalachians in the occurrence of numerous lakes 
and falls. These irregular features are wanting south of the limits 
of Pleistocene glaciation; there {he rivers have had time, in the 
latest cycle of erosion into which they have entered, to establish 
themselves in a continuous flow, and as a rule to wear down their 
courses to a smoothly graded slope. In New England also a well- 
established drainage undoubtedly prevailed in preglacial times; but 
partly in consequence of the irregular scouring of the rock floor, 
and even more because of the very irregular deposition of unstratified 
and stratified drift in the valleys, the drainage is now in great dis- 
order. Many lakes of moderate size and irregular outline have 
been formed where drift deposits formed barriers across former 
river courses; the lake outlets are more or less displaced from former 
river paths. Smaller lakes were formed by the deposition of washed 
drift around the longest-lasting ice remnants; when the ice finally 
melted away, the hollows that it left came to be occupied by ponds 
and lakes. In Maine lakes of both classes are numerous; the largest 
is Moosehead Lake, about 35 m. long and of a very irregular shore 
line. 

The features of a coast can be appreciated only when it is perceived 
that they result from the descent of the land surface beneath the 
sea and from the work of the sea upon the shore line 

thus determined ; and it is for this reason that through- 
out this article the coastal features are described in connexion with 
the districts of which they are the border. The maturely dissected 
and recently glaciated uplands of New England are now somewhat 
depressed with respect to sea-level, so that the sea enters the valleys, 
forming bays and estuaries, while the interfluve uplands and hills 
stand forth in headlands and islands. Narragansett Bay, with the 
associated headlands and islands on the south coast, is one of the 
best examples. Where drift deposits border the sea, the shore line 
has been cut back or built forward in beaches of submature expres- 
sion, often enclosing extensive tidal marshes; but the great part of 
the shore line is rocky, and there the change from initial pattern 
due to submergence is as yet small. Hence the coast as a whole is 
irregular, with numerous embayments, peninsulas and islands; 
and in Maine this irregularity reaches a disadvantageous climax. 

As in the north-east, so in the south-west, the crystalline belt 
widens and gains in height; but while New England is an indivisible 
unit, the southern crystalline belt must be subdivided The So(l< /,. 
into a higher mountain belt on the north-west, 60 m. wes teraAp- 
wide where broadest, and a lower piedmont belt on the na i ac hian<i 

. . . f t . T , . . f, , /J.//.1C///.//J.S. 

south-east, 100 m. wide, from southern Virginia to South 
Carolina. This subdivision is already necessary in Maryland, where 
the mountain belt is represented by the Blue Ridge, which is rather 
a narrow upland belt than a ridge proper where the Potomac cuts 
across it ; while the piedmont belt, relieved by occasional monadnocks 
stretches from the eastern base of the Blue Ridge to the coastal 
plain, into which it merges. Farther south, the mountain belt 
widens and attains its greatest development, a true highland district, 
in North Carolina, where it includes several strong mountain groups. 
Here Mt Mitchell rises to 67 1 1 ft., the highest of the Appalachians, and 
about thirty other summits exceed 6000 ft., while the valleys are 
usually at altitudes of about 2000 ft. Although the relief is strong, 
the mountain forms are rounded rather than rugged; few of the 
summits deserve or receive the name of peaks; some are called 
domes, from their broadly rounded tops, others are known as 
balds, because the widespread forest cover is replaced over their 
heads by a grassy cap. 

The height and massiveness of the mountains decrease to the 
south-west, where the piedmont belt sweeps westward around them 
in western Georgia and eastern Alabama. Some of the residual 
mountains hereabouts are reduced to a mere skeleton or framework 
by the retrogressive penetration of widening vaJleys between wasting 
spurs; the very type of vanishing forms. Certain districts within 




d Engraved by Jutui P*rth,Goth.,G*rniiy. 



W AA&A O4UP % Ai 

Scale, 1 : 12, 500, 000 




Copyright in. the United Stales of America, 19JO. 
ty The Encyclopaedia Britannica Co. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY] 



UNITED STATES 



615 



the mountains, apparently consisting of less resistant crystalline 
rocks, have been reduced to basin-like peneplains in the same time 
that served only to grade the slopes and subdue the summits of the 
neighbouring mountains of more resistant rocks; the best example 
of this kind is the Asheville peneplain in North Carolina, measuring 
about 40 by 20 m. across; but in consequence of later elevation, 
its general surface, now standing at an altitude of 2500 ft., is 
maturely dissected by the French Broad river and its many branches 
in valleys 300 ft. deep; the basin floor is no longer a plain, but a hilly 
district in the midst of the mountains; Asheville on its southern 
border is a noted health resort. 

The rivers of the mountain belt, normally dividing and subdividing 
in apparently insequent fashion between the hills and spurs, generally 
follow open valleys; there are few waterfalls, the streams being as 
a rule fairly well graded, though their current is rapid and their 
channels are set with coarse waste. The valley floors always join 
at accordant levels, as is the habit among normally subdued moun- 
tains; they thus contrast with glaciated mountains such as the Alps 
and the Canadian Rockies, where the laterals habitually open as 
" hanging valleys " in the side slope of the main valleys. It is a 
peculiar feature of the drainage in North Carolina that the head- 
waters lie to the east of the highest mountains, and that the chief 
rivers flow north-westward through the mountains to the broad 
valley lowland of the stratified belt and then through the plateau, 
as the members of the Mississippi system. It is probable that these 
rivers follow in a general way courses of much more ancient origin 
than those of the Atlantic rivers in the middle Appalachians. 

The piedmont belt may be described as a maturely dissected 
peneplain over much of its extent; it is indeed one of the best 
examples of that class of forms. Its uplands are of fairly accordant 
altitude, which gradually decreases from 500 to 1000 ft. near the 
mountain belt to half that height along the coastal plain border. 
The uplands are here and there surmounted by residual monad- 
nocks in the form of low domes and knobs; these increase in height 
and number towards the mountain belt, and decrease towards the 
coastal plain: Stone Mountain, near Atlanta, Georgia, a dome of 
granite surmounting the schists of the uplands, is a striking example 
of this class of forms. The chief rivers flow south-eastward in 
rather irregular courses through valleys from 200 to 500 ft. deep; 
the small branches ramify indefinitely in typical insequent arrange- 
ment; the streams are nearly everywhere well graded; rapids are 
rare and lakes are unknown. 

The boundary between the mountains and the piedmont belt 
is called the Blue Ridge all along its length ; and although the name 
is fairly appropriate in northern Virginia, it is not deserved in the 
Carolinas, where the " ridge " is only an escarpment descending 
abruptly 1000 or 1500 ft. from the valleys of the mountain belt 
to the rolling uplands of the piedmont belt ; and as such it is a form 
of unusual occurrence. It is not defined by rock structure, but 
appears to result from the retrogressive erosion of the shorter 
Atlantic rivers, whereby the highlands, drained by much longer 
rivers, are undercut. The piedmont belt merges south-eastward 
into the coastal plain, the altitudes of the piedmont uplands and of the 
coastal plain hills being about the same along their line of junction. 
Many of the rivers, elsewhere well graded, have rapids as they pass 
from the harder rocks of the piedmont to the semi-consolidated 
strata of the coastal plain. 

There is one feature of the Appalachians that has greater con- 
tinuity than any other; this is the Great Valley. It is determined 
The Great structurally by a belt of topographically weak limestones 
Valley anc ' sna ' es ( or slates) next inland from the crystalline 

uplands; hence, whatever the direction of the rivers 
which drain the belt, it has been worn down by Tertiary erosion to 
a continuous lowland from the Gulf of St Lawrence to central 
Alabama. Through all this distance of 1500 m. the lowland is 
nowhere interrupted by a transverse ridge, although longitudinal 
ridges of moderate height occasionally diversify its surface. In 
the middle section, as already stated, the Great Valley is somewhat 
open on the east, by reason of the small height and broad interrup- 
tions of the narrow crystalline belt', on the west it is limited by the 
complex series of Alleghany ridges and valleys; in the north-east 
section the valley is strongly enclosed on the east by the New 
England uplands, and on the west by the Adirondacks and Catskills 
(see below; ; in the south-west section the valley broadens from the 
North Carolina highlands on the south-east almost to the Cumber- 
land plateau on the north-west, for here also the ridge-making 
formations weaken, although they do not entirely disappear. 

A striking contrast between New England and the rest of the 
Appalachians is found in the descent of the New England uplands 
The Atlantic * an ' mmec 'i a te frontage on the. sea; while to the south 
Coastal ^ New York harbour the remainder of the Appala- 
Plaln. chians are set back from the sea by the interposition 

of a coastal plain, one of the most characteristic 
examples of this class of forms anywhere to be found. As 
in all such cases, the plain consists of marine (with some 
estuarine and fluviatile) stratified deposits, more or less in- 
durated, which were laid down when the land stood lower 
and the sea had its shore line farther inland than to-day. An 
uplift, increasing to the south, revealed part of the shallow 
sea bottom in the widening coastal plain, from its narrow 



beginning at New York harbour to its greatest breadth of no or 
1 20 m. in Georgia: there it turns westward and is continued in 
the Gulf coastal plain, described farther on. The coastal plain, 
however, is the result, not of a single recent uplift, but of movements 
dating back to Tertiary time and continued with many oscillations 
to the present; nor is its surface smooth and unbroken, for erosion 
began upon the inner part of the plain long before the outer border 
was revealed. Indeed, the original interior border of the plain 
has been well stripped from its inland overlap; the higher-standing 
inner part of the plain is now maturely dissected, with a relief of 
200 to 500 ft., by rivers extended seaward from the older land 
and by their innumerable branches, which are often of insequent 
arrangement; while the seaward border, latest uplifted, is pre- 
vailingly low and smooth, with a hardly perceptible seaward slope 
of but a few feet in a mile ; and the shallow sea deepens very gradually 
for many miles off shore. 

South Carolina and Georgia furnish the broadest and most typical 
section of this important physiographic province: here the more 
sandy and hilly interior parts are largely occupied by pine forests, 
which furnish much hard or yellow pine lumber, tar and turpentine. 
Farther seaward, where the relief is less and the soils are richer, 
the surface is cleared and cotton is an important crop. 

A section of the coastal plain, from North Carolina to southern 
New Jersey, resembles the plain farther south in general form and 
quality of soils, but besides being narrower, it is further character- 
ized by several embayments or arms of the sea, caused by a slight 
depression of the land after mature valleys had been eroded in the 
plain. The coastal lowland between the sea arms is so flat that, 
although distinctly above sea-level, vegetation hinders drainage and 
extensive swamps or " pocossins " occur. Dismal Swamp, on the 
border of North Carolina and Virginia, is the largest example. 

The small triangular section of the coastal plain in New Jersey 
north of Delaware Bay deserves separate treatment because of the 
development there of a peculiar topographic feature, which throws 
light on the occurrence of the islands off the New England coast, 
described in the next paragraph. The feature referred to results 
from the occurrence here of a weak basal formation of clay overlaid 
by more resistant sandy strata ; the clay belt has been stripped for 
a score or more of miles from its original inland overlap, and worn 
down in a longitudinal inner lowland, while the sandy belt retains 
a significant altitude of 200 or 300 ft. overlooking the inner lowland 
in a well-defined slope dissected by many inland-flowing streams, 
and descending from its broad crest very gently seaward, thus giving 
rise to what has been called a " belted coastal plain," in which the 
relief is arranged longitudinally and the upland member, with its 
very unsymmetrical slopes, has sometimes been called a " cuesta." 
This is a form of relief frequently occurring elsewhere, as in the 
Niagara cuesta of the Great Lake district of the northern United 
States and in the Cotswold and Chiltern hills of England, typical 
examples of the cuesta class. The Delaware river, unlike its 
southern analogues, which pursue a relatively direct course to the 
sea, turns south-westward along the inner lowland for some 50 m. 

There is good reason for believing that at least along the southern 
border of New England a narrow coastal plain was for a time added 
to the continental border; and that, as in the New Jersey section, 
the plain was here stripped from a significant breadth of inland 
overlap and worn down so as to form an inner lowland enclosed by a 
longitudinal upland or cuesta; and that when this stage was reached 
a submergence, of the kind which has produced the many embay- 
ments of the New England coast, drowned the outer part of the plain 
and the inner lowland, leaving only the higher parts of the cuesta 
as islands. Thus Long Island (fronting Connecticut, but belonging 
to New York state), Block Island (part of the small state of Rhode 
Island), Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket (parts of Massachusetts) 
may be best explained. Heavy terminal moraines and outwashed 
fluviatile plains have been laid on the cuesta remnants, increasing 
their height as much as 100 ft. and burying their seaward slope 
with gravel and sand. Moreover, the sea has worked on the shore 
line thus originated, reducing the size of the more exposed islands 
farther east, and even consuming some islands which are now 
represented by the Nantucket shoals. 

The same Palaeozoic formations that are folded in the belt of 
the Alleghany ridges lie nearly horizontal in the plateau district next 
north-west. The exposed strata are in large part _. 
resistant sandstones. While they have suffered active j.-a/ac/i/aii 
dissection by streams during the later cycles of erosion, pi^ teau 
the hilltops have retained so considerable an altitude 
that the district is known as a plateau; it might be better 
described as a dissected plateau, inasmuch as its uplands are 
not continuous but are nearly everywhere interrupted by ramifying 
insequent valleys. The unity and continuity of the district, ex- 
pressed in the name Appalachian plateau, is seldom recognized 
in local usage. Its north-easterri part in eastern New York is known 
as the Catskill Mountains; here it reaches truly mountainous heights 
in great dome-like masses of full-bodied form, with two summits 
rising a little over 4000 ft. The border of this part of the plateau 
descends eastward by a single strong escarpment to the Hudson 
valley, from which the mountains present a fine appearance, and 
northward by two escarpments (the second being called the " Helder- 
berg Mountains ") to the Mohawk Valley, north of which rise the 



6i6 



UNITED STATES 



[PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 



Adirondacks; but to the south west the dissected highland continues 
into Pennsylvania and Virginia, where it is commonly known as the 
Alleghany plateau. A curious feature appears in northern Penn- 
sylvania : here the lateral pressure of the Palaeozoic mountain-making 
forces extended its effects through a belt about fifty miles wider than 
the folded belt of the Hudson Valley, thus compressing into great 
rock waves a part of the heavy stratified series which in New York 
lies horizontal and forms the Catskills; hence one sees, in passing 
south-west from the horizontal to the folded strata, a beautiful 
illustration of the manner in which land sculpture is controlled by 
land structure. Altitudes of 1200 ft. prevail in Pennsylvania and 
increase in Virginia; then the altitude falls to about 1000 ft. in 
Kentucky and Tennessee, where the name Cumberland plateau is 
used for the highest portion, and to still less in northern Alabama, 
where the plateau, like the mountain belt, disappears under the 
Gulf coastal plain. Through all this distance of 1000 m. the border 
of the plateau on the south-east is an abrupt escarpment, eroded 
where the folded structure of the mountain belt reveals a series of 
weaker strata; but in the north-west the plateau suffers only a 
gradual decrease of height and of relief, until the prairie plains are 
reached in central Ohio and southern Indiana and Illinois, about 
150 m. inland from the escarpment. Two qualifications must, 
however, be added. In certain parts of the plateau there are narrow 
anticlinal uplifts, an outlying effect of mountain-making compression ; 
here a ridge rises if the exposed strata are resistant, as in Chestnut 
ridge of western Pennsylvania ; but here a valley is excavated if the 
exposed strata are weak, as in Sequatchie Valley, a long narrow 
trough which cuts off a strip of the plateau from its greater body in 
Tennessee. Again, in Kentucky and Tennessee, there is a double 
alternation of sandstone and limestone in the plateau-making 
strata; and as the skyline of the plateau bevels across these forma- 
tions, there are west-facing escarpments, made ragged by mature 
dissection, as one passes from the topographically strong sandstone 
to the topographically weak limestone. 

In the north-east (New York and Pennsylvania) the higher parts 
of the plateau are drained by the Delaware and Susquehanna rivers 
directly to the Atlantic; farther west and south-west, the plateau 
is drained to the Ohio river and its branches. The submature or 
mature dissection of the plateau by its branching insequent streams 
results in giving it an excess of sloping surface, _usually too steep for 
farming, and hence left for tree growth. 

The Superior Oldland. An outlying upland of the Laurentian 
highlands of Canada projects into the United States west and 
south of Lake Superior. Although composed chiefly of crystal- 
line rocks, which are commonly associated with a rugged land- 
scape, and although possessing a greatly deformed structure, 
which must at some ancient period have been associated with 
strong relief, the upland as a whole is gently rolling, and the 
inter-stream surfaces are prevailing plateau-like in their even- 
ness, with altitudes of 1400 to 1600 ft. in their higher areas. In 
this province, therefore, we find a part of one of those ancient 
mountain regions, initiated by crustal deformation, but reduced 
by long continued erosion to a peneplain of modem relief, 
with occasional surmounting monadnocks of moderate height 
not completely consumed during the peneplanation of the rest 
of the surface. The erosion of the region must have been far 
advanced, perhaps practically completed, in very ancient times, 
for the even surface of the peneplain is overlapped by fossili- 
ferous marine strata of early geological date (Cambrian) ; and 
this shows that a depression of the region beneath an ancient 
sea took place after a long existence as dry land. The extent 
of the submergence and the area over which the Palaeozoic 
strata were deposited are unknown; for in consequence of renewed 
elevation without deformation, erosion in later periods has 
stripped off an undetermined amount of the covering strata. The 
valleys by which the uplands are here and there trenched to 
moderate depth appear to be, in part at least, the work of streams 
that have been superposed upon the peneplain through the now 
removed cover of stratified rocks. Glaciation has strongly 
scoured away the deeply- weathered soils that presumably existed 
here in preglacial time, revealing firm and rugged ledges in the 
low hills and swells of the ground, and spreading an irregular 
drift cover over the lower parts, whereby the drainage is often 
much disordered; here being detained in lakes and swamps 
(" muskegs ") and there rushing down rocky rapids. The region 
is therefore generally unattractive to the farmer, but it is inviting 
to the lumberman and the minef. 

The Adirondack Mountains. This rugged district of northern 
New York may be treated as an outlier in the United States of 
the Laurentian highlands of Canada, from which it is separated 



by the St Lawrence Valley. It is of greater altitude (Mt Marcy 
5344 ft.) and of much greater relief than the Superior Oldland; 
its heights decrease gradually to the north, west and south, where 
it is unconformably overlapped by Palaeozoic strata like those of 
Minnesota and Wisconsin; it is of more broken structure and form 
on the east, where the disturbances of the Appalachian system 
have developed ridges and valleys of linear trends, which are 
wanting or but faintly seen elsewhere. (See ADIRONDACKS.) 

Region of the Great Lakes. The Palaeozoic strata, already 
mentioned as lapping on the southern slope of the Superior 
Oldland and around the western side of the Adirondacks. are but 
parts of a great area of similar strata, hundreds of feet in thick- 
ness, which decline gently southward from the great oldland of 
the Laurentian highlands of eastern Canada. The strata are 
the deposits of an ancient sea, which in the earlier stage of 
geological investigation was thought to be part of the primeval 
ocean, while the Laurentian highlands were taken to be the first 
land that rose from the primeval waters. Inasmuch, however, 
as the floor on which the overlapping strata rest is, like the rest 
of the Laurentian and Superior Oldland, a worn-down mountain 
region, and as the lowest member of the sedimentary series 
usually contains pebbles of the oldland rocks, the better inter- 
pretation of the relation between the two is that the visible 
oldland area of to-day is but a small part of the primeval con- 
tinent, the remainder of which is still buried under the Palaeozoic 
cover; and that the visible oldland, far from being the first part 
of the continent to rise from the primeval ocean, was the last 
part of the primeval continent to sink under the advancing 
Palaeozoic seas. When the oldland and its overlap of stratified 
deposits were elevated again, 'the overlapping strata must have 
had the appearance of a coastal plain; but that was long ago; the 
strata have since then been much eroded, and to-day possess 
neither the area nor the smooth form of their initial extent. 
Hence this district may be placed in the class of ancient coastal 
plains. As is always the case in the broad denudation of the 
gently inclined strata of such plains, the weaker layers are worn 
down in sub-parallel belts of lower land between the oldland and 
the belts of more resistant strata, which rise in uplands. 

Few better illustrations of this class of forms are to be found than 
that presented in the district of the Great Lakes. The chief upland 
belt or cuesta is formed by the firm Niagara limestone, which takes 
its name from the gorge and falls cut through the upland by the 
Niagara river. As in all such forms, the Niagara cuesta has a 
relatively strong slope or infacing escarpment on the side towards 
the oldland, and a long gentle slope on the other side. Its relief 
is seldom more than 200 or 300 ft., and is commonly of small measure, 
but its continuity and its contrast with the associated lowlands 
worn on the underlying and overlying weak strata suffice to make it a 
feature of importance. The cuesta would be straight from east 
and west if the slant of the strata were uniformly to the south; but 
the strata are somewhat warped, and hence the course of the cuesta 
is strongly convex to the north in the middle, gently convex to the 
south at either end. The cuesta begins where its determining 
limestone begins, in west-central New York; there it separates the 
lowlands that contain the basins of lakes Ontario and Erie; thence it 
curves to the north-west through the province of Ontario to the belt 
of islands that divides Georgian Bay from Lake Huron ; then west- 
ward through the land-arm between lakes Superior and Michigan, 
and south-westward into the narrow points that divide Green Bay 
from Lake Michigan, and at last westward to fade away again with 
the thinning out of the limestone; it is hardly traceable across the 
Mississippi river. The arrangement of the Great Lakes is thus seen 
to be closely sympathetic with the course of the lowlands worn on the 
two belts of weaker strata on either side of the Niagara cuesta; 
Ontario, Georgian Bay and Green Bay occupy depressions in the 
lowland on the inner side of the cuesta ; Erie, Huron and Michigan lie 
in depressions in the lowland on the outer side. When the two low 
lands are traced eastward they become confluent after the Niagara 
limestone has faded away in central New York, and the single 
lowland is continued under the name of Mohawk Valley, an east-west 
longitudinal depression that has been eroded on a belt of relatively 
weak strata between the resistant crystalline rocks of the Adiron- 
dacks on the north and the northern escarpment of the Appalachian 
plateau (Catskills-Helderbergs) on the south ; forming a pathway of 
great historic and economic importance between the Atlantic 
seaports and the interior. 

In Wisconsin the inner lowland presents an interesting feature 
in a knob of resistant quartzites, known as Baraboo Ridge, rising 
from the buried oldland floor through the partly denuded cover 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY] 



UNITED STATES 



617 



of lower Palaeozoic strata. This knob or ridge may be appropri- 
ately regarded as an ancient physiographic fossil, inasmuch as, 
being a monadnock of very remote origin, it has long been 
preserved from the destructive attack of the weather by burial 
under sea-floor deposits, and recently laid bare, like ordinary 
organic fossils of much smaller size, by the removal of part of its 
cover by normal erosion. 

The occurrence of the lake basins in the lowland belts on either 
side of the Niagara cuesta is an abnormal feature, not to be 
explained by ordinary erosion, which can produce only valleys. 
The basins have been variously ascribed to glacial erosion, to 
obstruction of normal outlet valleys by barriers of glacial drift, 
and to crustal warping in connexion with or independent of the 
presence of the glacial sheet. No satisfactory solution of this 
problem has been reached; but the association of the Great 
Lakes and other large lakes farther north in Canada with the 
great North American area of strong and repeated glaciation is 
highly suggestive. 

Lake Superior is unlike the other lakes; the greater part of its 
basin occupies a depression in the oldland area, independent of 
the overlap of Palaeozoic strata. The western half of the basin 
occupies a trough of synclinal structure; but the making of this 
syncline is so ancient that it cannot be directly connected with 
the occurrence of the lake to-day. A more reasonable explana- 
tion ascribes the lake basin to a geologically modern depression 
within the Superior oldland area; but there is at present no direct 
evidence in favour of this hypothesis. The Great Lakes are 
peculiar in receiving the drainage of but a small peripheral 
land area, enclosed by an ill-defined water-parting from the 
rivers that run to Hudson Bay or the Gulf of St Lawrence on 
the north and to the Gulf of Mexico on the south. 

Large canals and locks on both sides of the Sault (pronounced 
Soo) Ste Marie in the outlet of Lake Superior are actively used except 
during three or four wiruer months. The three lakes of the middle 
group stand at practically the same level: Michigan and Huron are 
connected by the Strait of Mackinac (pronounced Mackinaw) ; 
Huron and trie by the St Clair and Detroit rivers, with the small 
Lake St Clair between them. The navigable depth of these two short 
rivers is believed to be the result of a slow elevation of the land in 
the north-east, still in progress, whereby the waters have risen on 
their former shores near Detroit. Niagara river, connecting lakes 
Erie and Ontario, with a fall of 326 ft. (160 ft. at the cataract) in 
30 m., is manifestly a watercourse of very modern origin; for a large 
river would now have a thoroughly matured valley had it long 
followed its present course; the same is true of the St Lawrence, 
which in its several rapids and in its subdivision into many 
channels at the Thousand Islands, presents every sign of youth. 
Canals on the Canadian side of these unnavigable stretches admit 
vessels of a considerable size to lakes Ontario and Erie. 

The Prairie Slates. The originally treeless prairies of the upper 
Mississippi basin began in Indiana and extended westward and 
north-westward until they merged with the drier region described 
beyond as the Great Plains. An eastward extension of the same 
region, originally tree-covered, extended to central Ohio. Thus 
the prairies may be described as lying in a general way between 
the Ohio and Missouri rivers on the south and the Great Lakes on 
the north. Under the older-fashioned methods of treating 
physical geography, the prairies were empirically described as 
" level prairies," " rolling prairies," and so on. The great 
advance in the interpretation of land forms now makes it possible 
to introduce as thoroughly explanatory a description of these 
fertile plains as of forms earlier familiar, such as sand dunes, 
deltas and sea cliffs. The prairies are, in brief, a contribution 
of the glacial period; they consist for the most part of glacial 
drift, deposited unconformably on an underlying rock surface 
of moderate or small relief. The rocks here concerned are the 
extension of the same stratified Palaeozoic formations already 
described as occurring in the Appalachian region and around the 
Great Lakes. They are usually fine-textured limestones and 
shales, lying horizontal; the moderate or small relief that they 
were given by mature preglacial erosion is now buried under the 
drift, but is known by numerous borings for oil, gas and water. 

The greatest area of the prairies, from Indiana to North Dakota, 
consists of till plains, that is, sheets of unstratified drift, 30, 50 or 
even 100 ft. thick, which cover the underlying rock surface for thou- 
sands of square miles (except where postglacial stream erosion has 



locally laid it bare), and present an extraordinarily even surface. 
The till is presumably made in part of preglacial soils, but it is more 
largely composed of rock waste mechanically comminuted by the 
creeping ice sheets ; although the crystalline rocks from Canada and 
some of the more resistant stratified rocks south of the Great Lakes 
occur as boulders and stones, a great part of the till has been crushed 
and ground to a clayey texture. The till plains, although sweeping 
in broad swells of slowly changing altitude, are often level to the eye, 
and the view across them stretches to the horizon, unless interrupted 
by groves of trees along the watercourses, or by belts of low 
morainic hills. Here and there faint depressions occur, occupied 
by marshy " sloughs," or floored with a rich black soil of post- 
glacial origin. It is thus by sub-glacial aggradation that the prairies 
have been levelled up to a smooth surface, in contrast to the higher 
and non-glaciated hilly country next south. 

The great ice sheets formed terminal moraines around their border 
at various halting stages ; but the morainic belts are of small relief 
in comparison to the great area of the ice ; they rise gently from the 
till plains to a height of 50, 100 or more feet; they may be one, two 
or three miles wide ; and their hilly surface, dotted over with boulders, 
contains many small lakes in basins or hollows, instead of streams 
in valleys. The morainic belts are arranged in groups of concentric 
loops, convex southward, because the ice sheets advanced in lobes 
along the lowlands of the Great Lakes; neighbouring morainic loops 
join each other in re-entrants (north-pointing cusps), where two 
adjacent glacial lobes came together and formed their moraines in 
largest volume. The discovery of this significant looped arrange- 
ment of the morainic belts is the greatest advance in interpretation 
of glacial phenomena since the first suggestion of a glacial period ; 
it is also the strongest proof that the ice here concerned was a 
continuous sheet of creeping land ice, and not a discontinuous 
series of floating icebergs, as had been supposed. The moraines 
are of too small relief to be shown on any maps but those of the 
largest scale; yet small as they are, they are the chief relief of 
the prairie states, and, in association with the nearly imperceptible 
slopes of the till plains, they determine the course of many streams 
and rivers, which as a whole are consequent upon the surface form 
of the glacial deposits. 

The complexity of the glacial period and its subdivision into 
several glacial epochs, separated by interglacial epochs of consider- 
able length (certainly longer than the postglacial epoch) has a 
structural consequence in the superposition of successive till sheets, 
alternating with non-glacial deposits, and also a physiographic 
consequence in the very different amount of normal post- 
glacial erosion suffered by the different parts of the glacial 
deposits. The southernmost drift sheets, as in southern Iowa and 
northern Missouri, have lost their initially plain surface and are 
now maturely dissected into gracefully rolling forms; here the valleys 
of even the small streams are well opened and graded, and marshes 
and lakes are wanting: hence these sheets are of early Pleistocene 
origin. Nearer the Great Lakes the till sheets are trenched only by 
the narrow valleys of the large streams ; marshy sloughs still occupy 
the faint depressions in the till plains, and the associated moraines 
have abundant small lakes in their undrained hollows: hence these 
drift sheets are of late Pleistocene origin. 

When the ice sheets fronted on land sloping southward to the 
Ohio, Mississippi and Missouri rivers, the drift-laden streams flowed 
freely away from the ice border; and as the streams, escaping from 
their subglacial channels, spread in broader channels, they ordinarily 
could not carry forward all their load; hence they acted not as 
destructive but as constructive agents, and aggraded their courses. 
Thus local sheets or " aprons " of gravel and sand are spread more 
or less abundantly along the outer side of the morainic belts; and 
long trains of gravel and sands clog the valleys that lead southward 
from the glaciated to the non-glaciated area. Later when the ice 
retreated farther and the unloaded streams returned to their earlier 
degrading habit, they more or less completely scoured out the valley 
deposits, the remains of which are now seen in terraces on either side 
of the present flood plains. 

When the ice of the last glacial epoch had retreated so far that its 
front lay on a northward slope, belonging to the drainage area of the 
Great Lakes, bodies of water accumulated in front of the ice margin, 
forming glacio-marginal lakes. The lakes were small at first, and 
each had its own outlet at the lowest depression in the height of 
land to the south; but as the ice melted back, neighbouring lakes 
became confluent at the level of the lowest outlet of the group; the 
outflowing streams grew in the same proportion and eroded a broad 
channel across the height of land and far down stream, while the lake 
waters built sand reefs or carved shore cliffs along their margin, and 
laid down sheets of clay on their floors. All of these features are 
easily recognized in the prairie region. The present site of Chicago 
was determined by an Indian portage or " carry " across the low 
divide between Lake Michigan and the headwaters of the Illinois 
river; and this divide lies on the floor of the former outlet channel of 
the glacial Lake Michigan. Corresponding outlets are known for the 
glacial lakes Erie, Huron and Superior, and for a very large sheet of 
water, named Lake Agassiz, which once overspread a broad till plain 
in northern Minnesota and North Dakota. The outlet of this 
glacial lake, called river Warren, eroded a large channel in which 
the Minnesota river of to-day is an evident " misfit." 



6i8 



UNITED STATES 



[PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 



Certain extraordinary features were produced when the retreat 
of the ice sheet had progressed so far as to open an eastward outlet 
for the marginal lakes along the depression between the northward 
slope of the Appalachian plateau in west-central New York and the 
southward slope of the melting ice sheet; for when this eastward 
outlet came to be lower than the south-westward outlet across the 
height of land to the Ohio or Mississippi river, the discharge of the 
marginal lakes was changed from the Mississippi system to the 
Hudson system. Many well-defined channels, cutting across the 
north-sloping spurs of the plateau in the neighbourhood of Syracuse, 
N.Y., mark the temporary paths of the ice-bordered outlet river. 
Successive channels are found at lower and lower levels on the 
plateau slope, thus indicating the successive courses taken by the 
lake outlet as the ice melted farther and farther back. On some of 
these channels deep gorges were eroded heading in temporary catar- 
acts which exceeded Niagara in height but not in breadth ; the pools 
excavated by the plunging waters at the head of the gorges are now 
occupied by little lakes. The most significant stage in this series 
of changes occurred when the glacio-marginal lake waters were 
lowered so that the long cuesta of Niagara limestone was laid bare 
in western New York; the previously confluent waters were then 
divided into two lakes; the higher one, Erie, supplying the outflowing 
Niagara river, which poured its waters down the escarpment of the 
cuesta to the lower lake, Ontario, whose outlet for a time ran down 
the Mohawk Valley to the Hudson : thus Niagara falls began. (See 
NIAGARA.) 

Many additional features associated with the glacial period might 
be described, but space can be given to four only. In certain dis- 
tricts the subglacial till was not spread out in a smooth plain, but 
accumulated in elliptical mounds, 100 or 200 ft. high, half a mile or a 
mile long, with axes parallel to the direction of the ice motion as 
indicated by striae on the underlying rock floor; these hills are known 
by the Irish name, drumlins, used for similar hills in north-western 
Ireland. The most remarkable groups of drumlins occur in western 
New York, where their number is estimated at over 6000, and in 
southern Wisconsin, where it is placed at 5000. They completely 
dominate the topography of their districts. 

A curious deposit of an impalpably fine and unstratified silt, known 
by the German name loess, lies on the older drift sheets near the 
larger river courses of the upper Mississippi basin. It attains a 
thickness of 20 ft. or more near the rivers and gradually fades away 
at a distance of ten or more miles on either side. It is of inexhaustible 
fertility, being in this as well as in other respects closely like the loess 
in China and other parts of Asia, as well as in Germany. It contains 
land shells, and hence cannot be attributed to marine or lacustrine 
submergence. The best explanation suggested for loess is that, 
during certain phases of the glacial period, it was carried as dust by 
the winds from the flood plains of aggrading rivers, and slowly 
deposited on the neighbouring grass-covered plains. 

South-western Wisconsin and parts of the adjacent states of 
Illinois, Iowa and Minnesota are known, as the "driftless area," 
because, although bordered by drift sheets and moraines, it is free 
from glacial deposits. It must therefore have been a sort of oasis, 
when the ice sheets from the north advanced past it on the east and 
west and joined around its southern border. The reason for this 
exemption from glaciation is the converse of that for the southward 
convexity of the morainic loops; for while they mark the paths of 
greatest glacial advance along lowland troughs (lake basins), the 
driftless area is a district protected from ice invasion by reason of the 
obstruction which the highlands of northern Wisconsin and Michigan 
(part of the Superior oldland) offered to glacial advance. 

The course of the upper Mississippi river is largely consequent 
upon glacial deposits. Its sources are in the morainic lakes in 
northern Minnesota; Lake Itasca being only one of many glacial 
lakes which supply the headwater branches of the great river. The 
drift deposits thereabouts are so heavy that the present divides 
between the drainage basins of Hudson Bay, Lake Superior and the 
Gulf of Mexico evidently stand in no very definite relation to the 
preglacial divides. The course of the Mississippi through Minnesota 
is largely guided by the form of the drift cover. Several rapids and 
the Falls of St Anthony (determining the site of Minneapolis) 'are 
signs ot immaturity, resulting from superposition through the drift 
on the under rock. Farther south, as far as the entrance of the 
Ohio, the Mississippi follows a rock-walled valley 300 to 400 ft. 
deep, with a flood-plain 2 to 4 m. wide; this valley seems to 
represent the path of an enlarged early-glacial Mississippi, when 
much precipitation that is to-day discharged to Hudson Bay and 
the Gulf of St Lawrence was delivered to the Gulf of Mexico, for 
the curves of the present river are of distinctly smaller radius than 
the curves of the valley. Lake Pepin (30 m. below St Paul), a 
picturesque expansion of the river across its flood-plain, is due to 
the aggradation of the valley floor where the Chippewa river, coming 
from the north-east, brought an overload of fluvio-glacial drift. 
Hence even the " father of waters," like so many other rivers in the 
Northern states, owes many of its features more or less directly 
to glacial action. 

The fertility of the prairies is a natural consequence of their 
origin. During the mechanical comminution of the till no 
vegetation was present to remove the minerals essential to plant 



growth, as is the case in the soils of normally weathered and dis- 
sected peneplains, such as the Appalachian piedmont, where the 
soils, though not exhausted by the primeval forest cover, are by 
no means so rich as the till sheets of the prairies. Moreover, 
whatever the rocky understructure, the till soil has been averaged 
by a thorough mechanical mixture of rock grindings; hence the 
prairies are continuously fertile for scores of miles together. 

The true prairies, when first explored, were covered with a rich 
growth of natural grass and annual flowering plants. To-day 
they are covered with farms. The cause of the treelessness has 
been much discussed. It does not seem to lie in peculiarities 
of temperature or of precipitation; for trees thrive where they are 
properly planted on the prairies; every town and farm to-day has 
its avenues and groves of trees; but it should be noted that west 
of the Mississippi river increasing aridity becomes an important 
factor, and is the chief cause of the treelessness of the Great Plains 
(see below). The treelessness of the prairies cannot be due to 
insufficient time for tree invasion since glacial evacuation; for 
forests cover the rocky uplands of Canada, which were occupied 
by ice for ages after the prairies were laid bare. A more probable 
cause is found in the fineness of the prairie soil, which is inimical 
to the growth of young trees in competition with the grasses and 
annual plants. Prairie fires, both of natural and artificial origin, 
are also a contributive cause ; for young trees are exterminated by 
fires, but annual plants soon reappear. 

The Gulf Coastal Plain. The westward extension of the 
Atlantic coastal plain around the Gulf of Mexico carries with it 
a repetition of certain features already described, and the addition 
of several new ones. As in the Atlantic coastal plain, it is only 
the lower, seaward part of this region that deserves the name of 
plain, for there alone is the surface unbroken by hills or valleys; 
the inner part, initially a plain by reason of its essentially horizon- 
tal (gently seaward-sloping) structure, has been converted by 
mature dissection into an elaborate complex of hills and valleys, 
usually of increasing altitude and relief as one passes inland. 

The special features of the Gulf Plain are the peninsular exten- 
sion of the plain in Florida, the belted arrangement of relief and 
soils in Alabama and in Texas, and the Mississippi embayment 
or inland extension of the plain half-way up the course of the 
Mississippi river, with the Mississippi flood plain there included. 

A broad, low crustal arch extends southward at the junction of 
the Atlantic and Gulf coastal plains; the emerged half of the arch 
constitutes the visible lowland peninsula of Florida; 
the submerged half extends westward under the shallow Florida. 
overlapping waters of the Gulf of Mexico. The northern part of the 
peninsula is composed largely of a weak limestone; here much of the 
lowland drainage is underground, forming many sink-holes (swallow- 
holes). Many small lakes in the lowland appear to owe their basins 
to the solution of the limestones. Valuable phosphate deposits 
occur in certain districts. The southern part of the state includes 
the " Everglades " (q.v.), a large area of low, flat, marshy land, 
overgrown with tall reedy grass, a veritable wilderness ; thus giving 
Florida an unenvied first rank among the states in marsh area. The 
eastern coast is fringed by long-stretching sand reefs, enclosing 
lagoons so narrow and continuous that they are popularly called 
" rivers." At the southern end of the peninsula is a series of coral 
islands, known as " keys "; they appear to be due to the forward 
growth of corals and other lime-secreting organisms towards the 
strong current of the Gulf Stream, by which their food is supplied : 
the part of the peninsula composed of coral reefs is less than has 
been formerly supposed. The western coast has fewer and shorter 
off-shore reefs; much of it is of minutely irregular outline, which 
seems to be determined less by the work of the sea than by the 
forward growth of mangrove swamps in the shallow salt water. 

A typical example of a belted coastal plain is found in Alabama 
and the adjacent part of Mississippi. The plain is here about 
150 m. wide. The basal formation is chiefly a weak 
limestone, which has been stripped from its original M *a ma - 
innermost extension and worn down to a flat inner lowland of rich 
black soil, thus gaining the name of the "black belt." The lowland 
is enclosed by an upland or cuesta, known as Chunnenugga Ridge, 
sustained by partly consolidated sandy strata ; the upland, however, 
is not continuous, and hence should be described as a " maturely 
dissected cuesta." It has a relatively rapid descent toward the 
inner lowland, and a very gradual descent to the coast prairies, 
which become very low, flat and marshy before dipping under the 
Gulf waters, where they are generally fringed by off-shore reefs. 

The coastal plain extends 500 m. inland on the axis of the Missis- 
sippi embayment. Its inner border affords admirable examples 
of topographical discordance where it sweeps north-westward square 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY] 



UNITED STATES 



619 



The 



across the trend of the piedmont belt, the ridges and valleys, and 
the plateau of the Appalachians, which are all terminated by dipping 
gently beneath the unconformable cover of the coastal 
plain strata. In the same way the western side of the em- 



M/ss/ss/pp/ j Da y mentj trending south and south-west, passes along the 
lower south-eastern side of the dissected Ozark plateau 
of southern Missouri and northern Arkansas, which in many ways 
resembles the Appalachian plateau, and along the eastern end of the 
Massern ranges of the Ouachita mountain system in central Arkansas, 
which in geological history and topographical form present many 
analogies with the ridges and valleys of the Appalachians; and as 
the coastal plain turns westward to Texas it borders the Arbuckle 
hills in Oklahoma, a small analogue of the crystalline Appalachian 
belt. In the embayment of the coastal plain some low cuesta-like 
belts of hills with associated strips of lowlands suggest the features 
of a belted coastal plain ; thehilly beltordissected cuesta determined by 
the Grand Gulf formation in western Mississippi is the most distinct. 
Important salt deposits occur in the coastal plain strata near the 
coast. The most striking feature of the embayment is the broad 
valley which the Mississippi has eroded across it. 

The lower Mississippi is the trunk in which three large rivers join; 
the chief figures (approximate only) regarding them are as follows : 





Drainage Area 
(square miles). 


Percentage of 
Total Discharge. 


Upper Mississippi 
Ohio 
Missouri 


170,000 
210,000 
530,000 


18 
31 
H 



The small proportion of total water volume supplied from the great 
Missouri basin is due to the light precipitation in that region. The 
_. . lower Mississippi receives no large tributary from the 

. east, but two important ones 'come from the west ; the 
Mississippi Arkansas drainage area being a little less than that 
of the Ohio, and the basin of the Red River of Louisiana 
being about half as large. The great river thus constituted drains 
an area of about 1,250,000 sq. m., or about one-third of the United 
States; and discharges 75,000 cub. yds. of water per second, or 
785,190,000,000 cubic yds. per annum, which corresponds roughly to 
one quarter of the total precipitation on its drainage basin. Its 
load of land waste (see I. C. Russell, Rivers of North America) is as 
follows : 

In suspension . . 6,718,694,400 cub. ft. or 241 ft. deep over I sq. m. 
Swept along bottom 750,000,000 ,, 26 ,, I ,, 

In solution. . . 1,350,000,000 45 ,, I ,, 

Average annual removal of waste from entire basin, j-Jjj in. or I ft. 
in 4000 years. 

The head of the coastal plain embayment is near the junction 
of the Ohio and the Mississippi. Thence southward for 560 m. 
the great river flows through the semi-consolidated strata of the 
plain, in which it has eroded a valley, 40 or 50 m. wide, and 
29,700 sq. m. in area, enclosed by bluffs one or two hundred 
feet high in the northern part, generally decreasing to the southward, 
but with local increase of height associated with a decrease in flood 
plain breadth on the eastern side where the Grand Gulf cuesta is 
traversed. This valley in the coastal plain, with the much narrower 
rock-walled valley of the upper river in the prairie states, is the true 
valley of the Mississippi river; but in popular phrase the "Mississippi 
Valley " is taken to include a large central part of the Mississippi 
drainage basin. The valley floor is covered with a flood plain of 
fine silt, having a southward slope of only half a foot to a mile. The 
length of the river itself, from the Ohio mouth to the Gulf, is, owing 
to its windings, about 1060 m.; its mean fall is about 3 in. 
in a mile. On account of the rapid deposition of sediment near 
the main channel at times of overflow, the flood plain, as is normally 
the case on mature valley floors, has a la'teral slope of as much as 
5, 10, or even 12 ft. in the first mile from the river; but this soon 
decreases to a less amount. Hence at a short distance from the 
river the flood plain is often swampy, unless its surface is there 
aggraded by the tributary streams: for this reason Louisiana, 
Arkansas and Mississippi rank next after Florida in swamp area. 

The great river receives an abundant load of silt from its tributaries, 
and takes up and lays down silt from its own bed and banks 
with every change of velocity. The swiftest current tends, by reason 
of centrifugal force, to follow the outer side of every significant 
curve in the channel; hence the concave bank, against which the 
rapid current sweeps, is worn away; thus any chance irregularity 
is exaggerated, and in time a series of large serpentines or meanders 
is developed, the most symmetrical examples at present being those 
near Greenville, Miss. The growth of the meanders tends to give 
the river continually increasing length ; but this tendency is counter- 
acted by the sudden occurrence of cut-offs from time to time, so 
that a fairly constant length is maintained. 

The floods of the Mississippi usually occur in spring or summer. 
Owing to the great size of the drainage basin, it seldom happens that 
the three upper tributaries are in flood at the same time; the coin- 
cident occurrence of floods in only two tributaries is of serious import 
in the lower river, which rises 30, 40, or occasionally 50 ft. The 



abundant records by the Mississippi River Commission and the 
United States Weather Bureau (by which accurate and extremely 
useful predictions of floods in the lower river course are made, on 
the basis of the observed rise in the tributaries) demonstrate a num- 
ber of interesting features, of which the chief are as follows : the fall 
of the river is significantly steepened and its velocity is accelerated 
down stream from the point of highest rise; conversely, the fall and 
the velocity are both diminished up stream from the same point. 

The load of silt borne down stream by the river finally, after 
many halts on the way, reaches the waters of the Gulf, where the 
decrease of velocity, aided by the salinity of the sea water, causes 
the formation of a remarkable delta, leaving less aggraded areas as 
shallow lakes (Lake Pontchartrain on the east, and Grand Lake on 
the west of the river). The ordinary triangular form of deltas, due 
to the smoothing of the delta front by sea action, is here wanting, 
because of the weakness of sea action in comparison with the strength 
of the current in each of the four distributaries or " passes " into 
which the river divides near its mouth. (See MISSISSIPPI RIVER.) 

After constriction from the Mississippi embayment to 250 m. in 
western Louisiana, the coastal plain continues south-westward 
with this breadth until it narrows to about 130 m. in _.. T 
southern Texas near the crossing of the Colorado river, _ s< " * 
(of Texas); but it again widens to 300 m. at the p la - a 
national boundary as a joint effect of embayment up the 
valley of the Rio Grande and of the seaward advance of this river's 
rounded delta front: these several changes take place in a distance 
of about 500 m., and hence include a region of over 100,000 sq. m. 
less than half of the large state of Texas. A belted arrangement of 
reliefs and soils, resulting from differential erosion on strata of unlike 
composition and resistance, characterizes almost the entire area 
of the coastal plain. Most of the plain is treeless prairie, but the 
sandier belts are forested ; two of them are known as " cross timbers," 
because their trend is transverse to the general course of the main 
consequent rivers. An inland extension from the coastal plain in 
north-central Texas leads to a large cuesta known as Grand Prairie 
(not structurally included in the coastal plain), upheld at altitudes 
of 1200 or 1300 ft. by a resistant Cretaceous limestone, which dips 
gently seaward; its scalloped inland-facing escarpment overlooks 
a denuded central prairie region of irregular structure and form; 
its gentle coastward slope (16 ft. to a mile) is dissected by many 
branching consequent streams; in its southern part, as it approaches 
the Colorado river the cuesta is dissected into a belt of discontinuous 
hills. The western cross timbers follow a sandy belt along the inner 
base of the ragged escarpment of Grand Prairie; the eastern cross 
timbers follow another sandy belt in the lowland between the eastern 
slope of Grand Prairie and the pale western escarpment of the next 
eastward and lower Black Prairie cuesta. This cuesta is supported 
at an altitude of 700 ft. or less by a chalk formation, which gives 
an infacing slope some 200 ft. in height, while its gently undulating 
or " rolling " seaward slope (2 or 3 ft. in a mile), covered with marly 
strata and rich black soil, determines an important cotton district. 
Then comes the East Texas timber belt, broad in the north-east, 
narrowing to a point before reaching the Rio Grande, a low and 
thoroughly dissected cuesta of sandy Eocene strata; and this is 
followed by the Coast Prairie, a very young plain, with a seaward 
slope of less than 2 ft. in a mile, its smooth surface interrupted 
only by the still more nearly level flood plains of the shallow, conse- 
quent river valleys. Near the Colorado river the dissected cuesta 
of the Grand Prairie passes southward, by a change to a more nearly 
horizontal structure, into the dissected Edwards plateau (to be 
referred to again as part of the Great Plains), which terminates in a 
maturely dissected fault scarp, 300 or 400 ft. in height, the northern 
boundary of the Rio Grande embayment. From the Colorado 
to the Rio Grande, the Black Prairie, the timber belt and the Coast 
Prairie merge in a vast plain, little differentiated, overgrown with 
" chaparral " (shrub-like trees, often thorny), widening eastward in 
the Rio Grande delta, and extending southward into Mexico. 

Although the Coast Prairie is a sea bottom of very modern uplift, 
it appears already to have suffered a slight movement of depression, 
for its small rivers all enter embayments ; the larger rivers, however, 
seem to have counteracted the encroachment of the sea on the land 
by a sufficiently active delta building, with a resulting forward 
growth of the land into the sea. The Mississippi has already been 
mentioned as rapidly building forward its digitate delta; the Rio 
Grande, next in size, has built its delta about 50 m. forward from the 
general coast-line, but this river being much smaller than the 
Mississippi, its delta front is rounded by seashore agencies. In 
front of the Brazos and the Colorado, the largest of the Texan rivers, 
the coast-line is very gently bowed forward, as if by delta growth, and 
the sea touches the mainland in a nearly straight shore line. Nearly 
all the rest of the coast is fringed by off-shore reefs, built up by waves 
from the very shallow sea bottom ; in virtue of weak tides, the reefs 
continue in long unbroken stretches between the few inlets. 

The Great Plains. A broad stretch of country underlaid by nearly 
horizontal strata extends westward from the 97th meridian to the 
base of the Rocky Mountains, a distance of from 300 to 500 m., and 
northward from the Mexican boundary far into Canada. This is the 
province of the Great Plains. Although the altitude of plains 
increases gradually from 600 or 1200 ft. on the east to 4000, 5000 or 
6000 ft. near the mountains, the local relief is generally small ; the 



620 



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[PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 



sub-arid climate excludes tree growth and opens far-reaching views. 
The plains are by no means a simple unit; they are of diverse 
structure and of various stages of erosional development; they are 
occasionally interrupted by buttes and escarpments; they are 
frequently broken by valleys: yet on the whole a broadly extended 
surface of moderate relief so often prevails that the name, Great 
Plains, for the region as a whole is well deserved. The western 
boundary of the plains is usually well denned by the abrupt ascent 
of the mountains. The eastern boundary of the plains is more 
climatic than topographic. The line of 20 in. of annual rainfall 
trends a little east of northward near the 97th meridian, and if a 
boundary must be drawn where nature presents only a gradual 
transition, this rainfall line may be taken to divide the drier plains 
from the moister prairies. The plains may be described in northern, 
intermediate, central and southern sections, in relation to certain 
peculiar features. 

The northern section of the Great Plains, north of latitude 44, 
including eastern Montana, north-eastern Wyoming and most of 
the Dakotas, is a moderately dissected peneplain, one of the best 
examples of its class. The strata here are Cretaceous or early 
Tertiary, lying nearly horizontal. The surface is shown to be a plain 
of degradation by a gradual ascent here and there to the crest of a 
ragged escarpment, the cuesta-remnant of a resistant stratum ; and by 
the presence of lava-capped mesas and dike-ridges, surmounting the 
general level by 500 ft. or more and manifestly demonstrating the 
widespread erosion of the surrounding plains. All these reliefs 
are more plentiful towards the mountains in central Montana. The 
peneplain is no longer in the cycle of erosion that witnessed its 
production ; it appears to have suffered a regional elevation, for the 
rivers the upper Missouri and its branches no longer flow on the 
surface of the plain, but in well graded, maturely opened valleys, 
several hundred feet below the general level. A significant exception 
to the rule of mature valleys occurs, however, m the case of the 
Missouri, the largest river, which is broken by several falls on hard 
sandstones about 50 m. east of the mountains. .This peculiar feature 
is explained as the result of displacement of the river from a better 
graded preglacial valley by the Pleistocene ice-sheet, which here 
overspread the plains from the moderately elevated Canadian high- 
lands far on the north-east, instead of from the much higher moun- 
tains near by on the west. The present altitude of the plains near the 
mountain base is 4000 ft. 

The northern plains are interrupted by several small mountain 
areas. The Black Hills, chiefly in western South Dakota, are the 
largest group: they rise like a large island from the sea, occupying 
an oval area of about 100 m. north-south by 50 m. east-west, 
reaching an altitude in Harney Peak of 7216 ft., and an effective 
relief over the plains of 2000 or 3000 ft. This mountain mass is of 
flat-arched, dome-like structure, now well dissected by radiating' 
consequent streams, so that the weaker uppermost strata have been 
eroded down to the level of the plains where their upturned edges 
are evenly truncated, and the next following harder strata have been 
sufficiently eroded to disclose the core of underlying crystalline 
rocks in about half of the domed area. 

In the intermediate section of the plains, between latitudes 44 and 
42, including southern South Dakota and northern Nebraska, the 
erosion of certain large districts is peculiarly elaborate, giving rise 
to a minutely dissected form, known as " bad lands," with a relief 
of a few hundred feet. This is due to several causes: first, the dry 
climate, which prevents the growth of a grassy turf ; next, the fine 
texture of the Tertiary strata in the bad land districts; and con- 
sequently the success with which every little rill, at times of rain, 
carves its own little valley. Travel across the bad lands is very 
fatiguing because of the many small ascents and descents; and it is 
from this that their name, " mauvaises terres pour traverser," was 
given by the early French voyageurs. 

The central section of the Great Plains, between latitudes 42 and 
36, occupying eastern Colorado and western Kansas, is, briefly 
stated, for the most part a dissected fluviatile plain; that is, this 
section was once smoothly covered with a gently sloping plain of 
gravel and sand that had been spread far forward on a broad denuded 
area as a piedmont deposit by the rivers which issued from the 
mountains; and since then it has been more or less dissected by the 
erosion of valleys. The central section of the plains thus presents 
a marked contrast to the northern section; for while the northern 
section owes its smoothness to the removal of local gravels and sands 
from a formerly uneven surface by the action of degrading rivers and 
their inflowing tributaries, the southern section owes its smoothness 
to the deposition of imported gravels and sands upon a previously 
uneven surface by the action of aggrading rivers and their outgoing 
distributaries. The two sections are also unlike in that residual 
eminences still here and there surmount the peneplain of the northern 
section, while the fluviatile plain of the central section completely 
buried the pre-existent relief. Exception to this statement must 
be made in the south-west, close to the mountains in southern 
Colorado, where some lava-capped mesas (Mesa de Maya, Raton 
Mesa) stand several thousand feet above the general plain level, and 
thus testify to the widespread erosion of this region before it was 
aggraded. 

The southern section of the Great Plains, between latitudes 35i 
and 29 J, lies in eastern Texas and eastern New Mexico; like the 



central section it is for the most part a dissected fluviatile ptain, 
but the lower lands which surround it on all sides place it in so strong 
relief that it stands up as a table-land, known from the time of Mexican 
occupation as the Llano Estacado. It measures roughly 150 m. 
east-west and 400 m. north-south, but it is of very irregular 
outline, narrowing to the south. Its altitude is 500 ft. at the highest 
western point, nearest the mountains whence its gravels were sup- 
plied ; and thence it slopes south-eastward at a decreasing rate, first 
about 12 ft., then about 7 ft. in a mile, to its eastern and southern 
borders, where it is 2000 ft. in altitude : like the High Plains farther 
north, it is extraordinarily smooth; it is very dry, except for occa- 
sional shallow and temporary water sheets after rains. The Llano is 
separated from the plains on the north by the mature consequent 
valley of the Canadian river, and from the mountains on the west by 
the broad and probably mature valley of the Pecos river. On the 
east it is strongly undercut by the retrogressive erosion of the head- 
waters of the Red, Brazos and Colorado rivers of Texas, and presents 
a ragged escarpment, 500 to 800 ft. high, overlooking the central 
denuded area of that state; and there, between the Brazos and Colo- 
rado rivers, occurs a series of isolated outliers capped by a limestone 
which underlies both the Llano on the west and the Grand Prairies 
cuesta on the east. The southern and narrow part of the table-land, 
called the Edwards Plateau, is more dissected than the rest, and falls 
off to the south in a frayed-out fault scarp, as already mentioned, 
overlooking the coastal plain of the Rio Grande embayment. The 
central denuded area, east of the Llano, resembles the east-central 
section of the plains in exposing older rocks; between these two 
similar areas, in the space limited by the Canadian and Red rivers, 
rise the subdued forms of the Wichita Mountains in Oklahoma, 
the westernmost member of the Ouachita system. 

The Cordilleran Region. From the w%stern border of the Great 
Plains to the Pacific coast, there is a vast elevated area, occupied by 
mountains, plateaus and intermont plains. The intermont plains 
are at all altitudes from sea-level to 4000 ft. ; the plateaus from 5000 
to 10,000 ft.; and the mountains from 8000 to 14,000 ft. The higher 
mountains are barren from the cold of altitude; the timber line in 
Colorado stands at 11,000 to 12,000 ft. 

The chief provinces of the Cordilleran region are: The Rocky 
Mountain system and its basins, from northern New Mexico north- 
ward, including all the mountains from the front ranges bordering 
on the plains to the Uinta and Wasatch ranges in Utah ; the Pacific 
ranges including the Sierra Nevada of California, the Cascade 
range of Oregon and Washington, and the Coast range along the 
Pacific nearly to the southern end of California ; and a great inter- 
mediate area, including in the north the Columbian lava plains and 
in the south the large province of the Basin ranges, which extends 
into Mexico and widens from the centre southward, so as to meet the 
Great Plains in eastern New Mexico, and to extend to the Pacific 
coast in southern California. There is also a province of plateaus 
between the central part of the Basin ranges and the southern part 
of the Rocky Mountains. An important geological characteristic 
of most of the Cordilleran region is that the Carboniferous strata, 
which in western Europe and the eastern United States contain 
many coal seams, are represented in the western United States by a 
marine limestone; and that the important unconformity which in 
Europe and the eastern United States separates the Palaeozoic and 
Mesozoic eras does not occur in the western United States, where the 
formations over a great area follow in conformable sequence from 
early Palaeozoic through the Mesozoic. 

The Rocky Mountains begin in northern Mexico, where the axial 
crystalline rocks rise to 12,000 ft. between the horizontal structures 
of the plains on the east and the plateaus on the west, f he Rocky 
The upturned stratified formations wrap around the Mountains. 
flanks of the range, with ridges and valleys formed on 
their eroded edges and drained southward by the Pecos river to the 
Rio Grande and the Gulf of Mexico. The mountains rapidly grow 
wider and higher northward, by taking on new complications of 
structure and by including large basins between the axes of uplift, 
until in northern Colorado and Utah a complex of ranges has a 
breadth of 300 m., and in Colorado alone there are 40 summits 
over 14,000 ft. in altitude, though none rises to 14,500. Then turning 
more to the north-west through Wyoming, the ranges decrease in 
breadth and height; in Montana their breadth is not more than 
1 50 m. , and only seven summitsexceed 1 1 ,000 ft. (one reaching 1 2,834) 

As far north as the gorge of the Missouri river in Montana, the 
Front range, facing the Great Plains, is a rather simple uplift, 
usually formed by upturning the flanking strata, less often by a 
fracture. Along the eastern side of the Front Range in Colorado 
most of the upturned stratified formations have been so well worn 
down that, except for a few low piedmont ridges, their even surface 
may now be included with that of the plains, and the crystalline 
core of the range is exposed almost to the mountain base. Here the 
streams that drain the higher areas descend to the plains through 
narrow canyons in the mountain border, impassable for ordinary 
roads and difficult of entrance even by railways; a well-known 
example is the gorge of Clear Creek east of the Georgetown mining 
district. The crystalline highlands thereabouts, at altitudes of 
8000 to 10,000 ft., are of so moderate a relief as to suggest that the 
mass had stood much lower in a former cycle of erosion and had 
then been worn down to rounded hills; and that since uplift to the 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY] 



UNITED STATES 



621 



present altitude the revived streams of the current cycle of erosion 
have not entrenched themselves deep enough to develop strong 
relief. This idea is confirmed 80 m. farther south, where Pike's 
Peak (14,108 ft.), a conspicuous landmark far out on the plains, 
has every appearance of being a huge monadnock, surmounting 
a rough peneplain of 10,000 ft. in general elevation. The idea is 
still better confirmed farther north in Wyoming, where the Laramie 
Range, flanked with upturned strata on the east and west, is for 
the most part a broad upland at altitudes of 7000 or 8000 ft., with no 
strong surmounting summits and as yet no deep carved valleys. 
Here the first of the Pacific railways chose its pass. When the sum- 
mit is reached, the traveller is tempted to ask, " Where are the 
mountains?" so small is the relief of the upland surface. This low 
range turns westward in a curve through the Rattlesnake Mountains 
towards the high Wind River Mountains (Gannett Peak, 13,775 ft.), 
an anticlinal range within the body of the mountain system, with 
flanking strata rising well on the slopes. Flanking strata are even 
better exhibited in the Bighorn Mountains, the front range of 
northern Wyoming, crescentic in outline and convex to the north- 
east, like the Laramie Range, but much higher; here heavy sheets of 
limestone arch far up towards the range crest, and are deeply notched 
where consequent streams have cut down their gorges. 

Farther north in Montana, beyond the gorge ofthe Missouri river, 
the structure of the Front Range is altogether different; it is here 
the carved residual of a great mass of moderately bent Palaeozoic 
strata, overthrust eastward upon the Mesozoic strata of the plains; 
instead of exposing the oldest rocks along the axis and the youngest 
rocks low down on the flanks, the younger rocks of the northern 
range follow its axis, and the oldest rocks outcrop along its eastern 
flanks, where they override the much younger strata ofthe plains; 
the harder strata, instead of lapping on the mountain flanks in 
great slab-like masses, as in the Bighorns, form out-facing scarps, 
which retreat into the mountain interior where they are cut down by 
outflowing streams. 

The structure of the inner ranges is so variable as to elude simple 
description; but mention should be made of the Uinta range of 
broad anticlinal structure in north-east Utah, with east-west trend, 
as if corresponding to the east -west Rattlesnake Mountains, already 
named. The Wasatch Range, trending north-south in central 
Utah, is peculiar in possessing large east-west folds, which are seen 
in cross-section in the dissected western face of the range, because 
the whole mass is there squarely cut off by a great north-south 
fault with down-throw to the Basin Range province, the fault face 
being elaborately carved. 

Volcanic action has been restricted in the Rocky Mountains proper. 
West Spanish Peak (13,620 ft.), in the Front Ranee of southern, 
Colorado, may be mentioned as a fine example of a deeply dissected 
volcano, originally of greater height, with many unusually strong 
radiating dike-ridges near its denuded flanks. In north-western 
Wyoming there are extensive and heavy lava sheets, uplifted and 
dissected, and crowned with a few dissected volcanoes. It is in 
association with this field of extinct volcanic activity that a remark- 
able group of geysers and hot springs has been developed, from which 
the Yellowstone river, a branch of the Missouri, flows north- 
eastward, and the Snake river, a branch of the Columbia, flows 
south-westward. The geyser district is held as a national domain, 
the Yellowstone Park. 

Travellers whose idea of picturesqueness is based upon the abnor- 
mally sharpened peaks of the ice-sculptured Alps are disappointed 
with the scenery of the central and southern ranges of the Rocky 
Mountains. It is true that many of these ranges are characterized 
by the rounded tops and the rather evenly slanting, waste-covered 
slopes which normally result from the long-continued action of the 
ordinary agencies of erosion; that they bear little snow in summer 
and are practically wanting in glaciers ; that forests are often scanty 
on the middle and lower slopes, the more so because of devastation 
by fires; and that the general impression of great altitude is much 
weakened because the mountains are seen from a base which itself 
is 5000 or 6000 ft. above sea-level. Nevertheless the mountains 
are of especial interest to the physiographer who wishes to make a 
comparative study of land forms as affected by normal and by 
glacial sculpture, in order to give due attention to " process " as 
well as to structure and stage " in the analysis and description of 
mountain topography. A journey along the range from south to 
north reveals most strikingly a gradual increase in the share of 
sculpture due to Pleistocene glaciers. In New Mexico, if glaciers 
were formed at all in the high valleys, they were so small as not 
greatly to modify the more normal forms. In central Colorado and 
Wyoming, where the mountains are higher and the Pleistocene 
glaciers were larger, the valley heads were hollowed out in well-formed 
cirques, often holding small lakes; and the mountain valleys were 
enlarged into U-shaped troughs as far down as the ice reached, with 
hanging lateral valleys on the way. Different stages of cirque 
development, with accompanying transformation of mountain shape, 
are finely illustrated in several ranges around the headwaters of the 
Arkansas river in central Colorado, where the highest summit of the 
Rocky Mountains is found (Mt Massive, 14,424 ft., in the Sawatch 
range) ; and perhaps even better in the Bighorn range of Wyoming. 
In this central region, however, it is only by way of exception 
that the cirques were so far enlarged by retrogressive glacial erosion 



as to sharpen the preglacial dome-like summits into acute peaks; 
and in no case did glacial action here extend down to the plains at 
the eastern base of the mountains ; but the widened, trough-like 
glaciated valleys frequently descend to the level of the elevated 
interment basins, where moraines were deployed forward on the basin 
floor. The finest examples of this kind are the moraines about 
Jackson Lake on the basin floor east of the Teton Range (Grand 
Teton, 13,747 ft.), a superb north-south range which lies close to the 
meridional boundary line between Wyoming and Idaho. Farther 
north in Montana, in spite of a decrease of height, there are to-day 
a few small glaciers with snowfields of good size ; and here the effects 
of sculpture by the much larger Pleistocene glaciers are seen in 
forms of almost alpine strength. 

The intermont basins which so strongly characterize the Rocky 
Mountain system are areas which have been less uplifted than the 
enclosing ranges, and have therefore usually become the depositories 
of waste from the surrounding mountains. 

Some of the most important basins may be mentioned. San Luis 
" Valley " is an oval basin about 60 m. long near the southern end 
of the mountain system in New Mexico and Colorado; its level, 
treeless floor, at an altitude of 7000 ft., is as yet hardly trenched by 
the Rio Grande, which escapes through an impassable canyon south- 
ward on its way to the Gulf of Mexico. The much smaller basin of 
the upper Arkansas river in Colorado is well known because the 
Royal Gorge, a very narrow cleft by which the river escapes through 
the Front Range to the plains, is followed by a railroad at river- 
level. South Park, directly west of Pike's Peak, is one of the highest 
basins (nearly 10,000 ft.), and gains its name from the scattered, 
park-like growth of large pine trees ; it is drained chiefly by the South 
Platte river (Missouri-Mississippi system), through a deep gorge in 
the dissected mass of the plateau-like Front Range. The Laramie 
Plains and the Green river basin, essentially a single structural 
basin between the east-west ranges of Rattlesnake Mountains on 
the north and the Uinta Range on the south, measuring roughly 
260 m. east-west by 100 m. north-south, is the largest intermont 
basin; it is well known from being traversed through its greatest 
length by the Union Pacific railway. Its eastern part is drained 
north-eastward through a gorge that separates the Laramie and 
Rattlesnake (Front) ranges by the North Platte river to the 
Missouri-Mississippi; its western part, where the basin floor is much 
dissected, often assuming a bad-land expression, is drained south- 
ward by the Green river, through a deep canyon in the Uinta Range 
to the Colorado river and then to the Pacific. The Bighorn basin 
has a moderately dissected floor, drained north-eastward by Bighorn 
river through a deep canyon in the range of the same name to the 
Missouri. Several smaller basins occur in Montana, all somewhat 
dissected and drained through narrow gorges and canyons by 
members of the Missouri system. 

The Plateau province, next west of the southern Rocky Mountains, 
is characterized for the most part by large-textured forms, developed 
on a great thickness of nearly horizontal Palaeozoic, yft e p/ a < eau 
Mesozoic and Tertiary formations, and by a dry climate. p rav i ace _ 
The province was uplifted and divided into great blocks 
by faults or monoclinal flexures and thus exposed to long-lasting 
denudation in a mid-Tertiary cycle of erosion; and then broadly 
elevated again, with renewed movement on some of the fault lines ; 
thus was introduced in late Tertiary time the current cycle of erosion 
in which the deep canyons of the region have been trenched. The 
results of the first cycle of erosion are seen in the widespread exposure 
of the resistant Carboniferous limestone as a broad platform in the 
south-western area of greater uplift through central Arizona, where 
the higher formations were worn away ; and in the development of a 
series of huge, south-facing, retreating escarpments of irregular 
outline on the edges of the higher formations farther north. Each 
escarpment stands forth where a resistant formation overlies a 
weaker one; each escarpment is separated from the next higher 
one by a broad step of weaker strata. A wonderful series of these 
forms occurs in southern Utah, where in passing northward from the 
Carboniferous platform one ascends in succession the Vermilion 
Cliffs (Triassic sandstones), the White Cliffs (Jurassic sandstones, of 
remarkably cross-bedded structure, interpreted the dunes of an 
ancient desert), and finally the Pink Cliffs (Eocene strata of fluviatile 
and lacustrine origin) of the high, forested plateaus. Associated 
with these irregular escarpments are occasional rectilinear ridges, 
the work of extensive erosion on monoclinal structures, of which 
Echo Cliffs, east of the Painted Desert (so called from its many- 
coloured sandstones and clays), is a good example. 

With the renewal of uplift by which the earlier cycle of erosion 
was interrupted and the present cycle introduced, inequalities of 
surface due to renewed faulting were again introduced; these still 
appear as cliffs, of more nearly rectilinear front than the retreating 
escarpments formed in the previous cycle. These cliffs are peculiar 
in gradually passing from one formation to another, and in having 
a height dependent on the displacement of the fault rather than on 
the structures in the fault face; they are already somewhat battered 
and dissected by erosion. The most important line of cliffs of this 
class is associated with the western and southern boundary of the 
plateau province, where it was uplifted from the lower ground. The 
few rivers of the region must have reached the quiescence of old age 
in the earlier cycle, but were revived by uplift to a vigorous youth in 



622 



UNITED STATES 



[PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 



the current cycle ; and it is to this newly introduced cycle of physio- 
graphic evolution that the deep canyons of the Plateau province are 
due. Thus the Virgin river, a northern branch of the Colorado, has 
cut a vertical slit, 1000 ft. deep, hardly wider at the top than at the 
bottom, in the heavy Triassic sandstones of southern Utah ; but the 
most famous example is the Grand Canyon (q.v .) of Arizona, eroded 
by the Colorado river across the uplifted platform of Carboniferous 
limestone. 

During the current cycle of erosion, several of the faults, whose 
scarps had been worn away in the previous cycle, have been brought 
to light again as topographic features by the removal of the weak 
strata along one side of the fault line, leaving the harder strata on 
the other side in relief ; such scarps are known as " fault-line scarps," 
in distinction from the original fault scarps." They are peculiar 
in having their altitude dependent on the depth of revived erosion, 
instead of the amount of faulting, and they are sometimes " topo- 
graphically reversed," in that the revived scarp overlooks a lowland 
worn on a weak formation in the upheaved fault-block. Another 
consequence of revived erosion is seen in the occurrence of great 
landslides, where the removal of weak (Permian) clays has sapped the 
face of the Vermilion Cliffs (Triassic sandstone), so that huge slices 
of the cliff face have slid down and forward a mile or two, all shattered 
into a confused tumult of forms for a score or more of miles along the 
cliff base. 

Volcanic features occur in abundance in the Plateau province. 
Some of the high plateaus in the north are capped with remnants of 
heavy lava flows of early eruption. A group of large volcanoes 
occurs on the limestone platform south of the Grand Canyon, culmin- 
ating in Mt San Francisco (12,794 ft-), a moderately dissected cone, 
and associated with many more recent smaller cones and fresh- 
looking lava flows. Mt Taylor in western New Mexico is of similar 
age, but here dissection seems to have advanced farther, probably 
because of the weaker nature of the underlying rocks, with the result 
of removing the smaller cones and exposing many lava conduits or 
pipes in the form of volcanic necks or buttes. The Henry Moun- 
tains in south-western Utah are peculiar in owing their relief to the 
doming or blistering up of the plateau strata by the underground 
intrusion of large bodies or " cisterns " (laccolites) of lava, now more 
or less exposed by erosion. 

The lava plains of the Columbia basin are among the most extensive 
volcanic outpourings in the world. They cover 200,000 sq. m. 
or more in south-eastern Washington, eastern Oregon and south- 
western Idaho, and are known to be 4000 ft. deep in some river 
gorges. The lava completely buries the pre-existent land forms over 
most of its extent. The earlier 'supposition that these vast lava 
flows came chiefly from fissure eruptions has been made doubtful 
by the later discovery of flat-sloping volcanic cones from 
which much lava seems to have been poured out in a very liquid 
state. Some of the flows are still so young as to preserve their 
scoriaceous surface; here the "shore-line" of the lava contours 
evenly around the spurs and enters, bay-like, into the valleys of the 
enclosing mountains, occasionally isolating an outlying mass. Other 
parts of the lava flood are much older and have been more or less 
deformed and eroded. Thus the uplifted, dislocated and dissected 
lava sheets of the Yellowstone National Park in the Rocky Moun- 
tains on the east (about the headwaters of the Snake river') are 
associated with the older lavas of the Columbian plains. 

The Columbia river has entrenched itself in a canyon-like valley 
around the northern and western side of the lava plains ; Snake river 
has cut a deeper canyon farther south-east where the plains are higher 
and has disclosed the many lava sheets which build up the plains, 
occasionally revealing a buried mountain in which the superposed 
river has cut an even narrower canyon. One of the most remarkable 
features of this province is seen in the temporary course taken by the 
Columbia river across the plains, while its canyon was obstructed by 
Pleistocene glaciers that came from the Cascade Mountains on the 
north-west. The river followed the temporary course long enough 
to erode a deep gorge, known as " Grande Coulee," along part of 
its length. 

The lava plains are treeless and for the most part too dry for 
agriculture; but they support many cattle and horses. Along parts 
of their eastern border, where the rainfall is a little increased by the 
approach of the westerly winds to the Rocky Mountains, there is a 
belt of very deep, impalpably fine soil, supposed to be a dust deposit 
brought from the drier parts of the plains farther west; excellent 
crops of wheat are here raised. 

The large province of the Basin ranges, an arid region throughout, 
even though it reaches the sea in southern California, involves some 
The Basla nove ' P r blems in its description. It is characterized 
Range ^V numerous disconnected mountain ranges trending 

Province. nort h and south, from 30 to 100 m. in length, the higher 
ranges reaching altitudes of 8000 or 10,000 ft., separated 
by broad, intermont desert plains or basins at altitudes varying from 
sea-level (or a little less) in the south-west, to 4000 or 5000 ft. farther 
inland. Many of the intermont plains these chiefly in the north 
appear to be heavily aggraded with mountain waste ; while others 
these chiefly in the south are rock-floored and thinly veneered with 
alluvium. _ The origin of these forms is still in discussion; but the 
following interpretation is well supported. The ranges are primarily 
the result of faulting and uplifting of large blocks of the earth s 



crust. The structure of the region previous to faulting was depen- 
dent on long antecedent processes of accumulation and deformation 
and the surface of the region then was dependent on the amount 
of erosion suffered in the prefaulting cycle. When the region was 
broken into fault blocks and the blocks were uplifted and tilted, the 
back slope of each block was a part of the previously eroded surface 
and the face of the block was a surface of fracture ; the present form 
of the higher blocks is more or less affected by erosion since faulting, 
while many of the lower blocks have been buried under the waste 
of the higher ones. In the north, where dislocations have invaded 
the field of the horizontal Columbian lavas, as in south-eastern 
Oregon and north-eastern California, the blocks are monoclinal in 
structure as well as in attitude; here the amount of dissection is 
relatively moderate, for some of the fault faces are described as 
ravined but not yet deeply dissected ; hence these dislocations appear 
to be of recent date. In western Utah and through most of Nevada 
many of the blocks exhibit deformed structures, involving folds and 
faults of relatively ancient (Jurassic) date ; so ancient that the moun- 
tains then formed by the folding were worn down to the lowland 
stage of old age before the block-faulting occurred. When this 
old-mountain lowland was broken into blocks and the blocks were 
tilted, their attitude, but not their structure, was monoclinal ; and in 
this new attitude they have been so maturely re-dissected in the new 
cycle of erosion upon which they have now entered as to have 
gained elaborately carved forms in which the initial form of the 
uplifted blocks can hardly be perceived ; yet at least some of them 
still retain along one side the highly significant feature of a relatively 
simple base-line, transecting hard and soft structures alike, and thus 
indicating the faulted margin of a tilted block. Here the less 
uplifted blocks are now heavily aggraded with waste from the dis- 
sected ranges : the waste takes the form of huge alluvial fans, formed 
chiefly by occasional boulder-bearing floods from the mountains; 
each fan heads in a ravine at the mountain base, and becomes 
laterally confluent with adjacent fans as it stretches several miles 
forward with decreasing slope and increasing fineness of material. 

In the southern part of the Basin Range province the ranges are 
well dissected and some of the intermont depressions have rock 
floors with gentle, centripetal slopes; hence it is suggested that the 
time since the last dislocation in this part of the province is relatively 
remote; that erosion in the current cycle has here advanced much 
farther than in the central or northern parts of the province; and 
that, either by outwash to the sea or by exportation of wind-borne 
dust, the depressions perhaps aggraded for a time in the earlier 
stages of the cycle have now been so deeply worn down as to 
degrade the lower and weaker parts of the tilted blocks to an evenly 
sloping surface, leaving the higher and harder parts still in relief 
as residual ranges. If this be true, the southern district will furnish 
a good illustration of an advanced stage of the cycle of arid erosion, 
in which the exportation of waste from enclosed depressions by the 
wind has played an important part. In such case the washing of 
the centripetal slopes of the depressions by occasional " sheet- 
floods " (widespreading sheets of turbid running water, supplied 
by heavy short-lived rains) has been efficient in keeping the rock 
floor at even grade toward a central basin, where the finest waste 
is collected while waiting to be removed by the winds. 

Only a small part of the Basin Range province is drained to the 
sea. A few intermont areas in the north-west part of the province 
have outlet westward by Klamath river through the Cascade range 
and by Pitt river (upper part of the Sacramento) through the Sierra 
Nevada: a few basins in the south-east have outlet by the Rio 
Grande to the Gulf of Mexico; a much larger but still narrow medial 
area is drained south-westward by the Colorado to the head of the 
Gulf of California, where this large and very turbid river has formed 
an extensive delta, north of which the former head of the gulf is 
now cut off from the sea and laid bare by evaporation as a plain 
below sea-level. It is here that an irrigation project, involving the 
diversion of some of the river water to the low plain, led to disaster 
in 1904, when the flooded river washed away the canal gates at the 
intake and overflowed the plain, drowning the newly established 
farms, compelling a railway to shift its track, and forming a lake 
(Salton Sea) which would require years of evaporation to remove 
(see COLORADO RIVER). Many streams descend from the ravines only 
to wither away on the desert basin floors before uniting in a trunk 
river along the axis of a depression ; others succeed in uniting in the 
winter season, when evaporation is much reduced, and then their 
trunk flows for a few score miles, only to disappear by " sinking " 
(evaporating) farther on. A few of the large streams may, when in 
flood, spread out in a temporary shallow sheet on a dead level of 
clay, or playn, in a basin centre, but the sheet of water vanishes in 
the warm season and the stream shrinks far up its course, the 
absolutely barren clay floor of the playa, impassable when wet, 
becomes firm enough for crossing when dry. One of the south- 
western basins, with its floor below sea-level, has a plain of salt in its 
centre. A few of the basins are occupied by lakes without outlet, 
of which Great Salt Lake (q.v.), in north-west Utah, is the largest. 
Several smaller lakes occur in the basins of western Nevada, next 
east of the Sierra Nevada. During Pleistocene times all these 
lacustrine basins were occupied by lakes of much greater depth and 
larger size; the outlines of the eastern (Lake Bonneville) and the 
western (Lake Lahontan) water bodies are well recorded by shore lines 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY] 



UNITED STATES 



623 



and deltas on the enclosing slopes, hundreds of feet above the 
present lake surfaces; the abandoned shore lines, as studied by G. K. 
Gilbert and 1. C. Russell, have yielded evidence of past climatic 
changes second in importance only to those of the Pleistocene 
glaciated areas. The duration of the Pleistocene lakes was, however, 
brief as compared with the time since the dislocation of the faulted 
blocks, as is shown by the small dimensions of the lacustrine beaches 
compared to the great volume of the ravine-heading fans on which 
the beaches often lie. 

Strong mountain ranges follow the trend of the Pacific coast, 150 
or 200 m. inland. The Cascade Range enters from Canada, trending 
southward across the international boundary through 
The Pacific Washington and Oregon to latitude 41; the Sierra 
Ranges. Nevada extends thence south-eastward through Cali- 
fornia to latitude 35. The lower coast ranges, nearer the ocean, 
continue a little farther southward than the Sierra Nevada, before 
giving way to that part of the Basin Range province which reaches 
the Pacific in southernmost California. 

The Cascade Range is in essence a maturely dissected highland, 
composed in part of upwarped Columbian lavas, in part of older 
rocks, and crowned with several dissected volcanoes, of which "the 
chief are (beginning in the north) Mts Baker (10,827 ft-). Rainier 
(14.363 ft.), Adams (12,470 ft.) and Hood (11,225 ft.); the first 
three in Washington, the last in northern Oregon. These bear 
snowfields and glaciers; while the dissected highlands, with ridges 
of very irregular arrangement, are everywhere sculptured in a fashion 
that strongly suggests the work of numerous local Pleistocene 
glaciers as an important supplement to preglacial erosion. Lake 
Chelan, long and narrow, deep set between spurless ridges with 
hanging lateral valleys, and evidently of glacial origin, ornaments 
one of the eastern valleys. The range is squarely transected by the 
Columbia river, which bears every appearance of antecedent origin : 
the cascades in the river gorge are caused by a sub-recent landslide 
of great size from the mountain walls. Klamath river, draining 
several lakes in the north-west part of the Basin Range province and 
traversing the Cascade Range to the Pacific, is apparently also an 
antecedent river. 

The Cascade Mountains present a marked example of the effect 
of relief and aspect on rainfall ; they rise across the path of the pre- 
vailing westerly winds not far inland from a great ocean; hence they 
receive an abundant rainfall (80 in. or more, annually) on the west- 
ward or windward slope, and there they are heavily forested; but 
the rainfall is light on the eastward slope and the piedmont district 
is dry ; hence the forests thin out on that side of the range and treeless 
lava plains follow next eastward. 

The Sierra Nevada may be described, in a very general way, as a 
great mountain block, largely composed of granite and deformed 
metamorphosed rocks, reduced to moderate relief in an earlier 
(Cretaceous and Tertiary?) cycle of erosion, sub-recently elevated 
with a slant to the west, and in this position sub-maturely dissected. 
The region was by no means a peneplain before its slanting uplift ; 
its surface then was hilly and in the south mountainous; in its central 
and still more in its northern part it was overspread with lavas which 
flowed westward along the broad open valleys from many vents in 
the eastern part : near the northern end of the range, eruptions have 
continued in the present cycle, forming many cones and young lava 
flows. The tilting of the mountain mass was presumably not a 
simple or a single movement; it was probably slow, for Pitt river 
(headwaters of the Sacramento) traverses the northern part of the 
range in antecedent fashion ; the tilting involved the subdivision of 
the great block into smaller ones, in the northern half of the range at 
least ; Lake Tahoe (altitude 6225 ft.) near the range crest is explained 
as occupying a depression between two block fragments; and farther 
north similar depressions now appear as aggraded highland 
" meadows." The tilting of the great block resulted in presenting a 
strong slope to the east, facing the deserts of the Basin Range 
province and in large measure determining their aridity ; and a long 
moderate slope to the west. The altitudes along the upraised edge 
of the block, or range crest, are approximately 5000 ft. in the north 
and 11,000 ft. in the south. The mountains in the southern part 
of the block, which had been reduced to subdued forms in the former 
cycle of erosion, were thus given a conspicuous height, forming the 
" High Sierra," and greatly sharpened by revived erosion, normal 
and glacial. In this way Mt Whitney (14,502 ft.) came to be the 
highest summit in the United States (excluding Alaska). The dis- 
placement of the mountain block may still be in progress, for severe 
earthquakes have happened in the depression next east of the range ; 
that of Owen's Valley in 1870 was strong enough to have been very 
destructive had there been anything in the desert valley to destroy. 
In the new altitude of the mountain mass, its steep eastern face has 
been deeply carved with short canyons ; and on the western slope 
an excellent beginning of dissection has been made in the erosion 
of many narrow valleys, whose greatest depth lies between their 
headwaters which still flow on the highland surface, and their 
mouths at the low western base of the range. The highlands and 
uplands between the chief valleys are but moderately dissected; 
many small side streams still flow on the highland, and descend by 
steeply incised gorges to the valleys of the larger rivers. Some of the 
chief valleys are not cut in the floors of the old valleys of the former 
cycle, because the rivers were displaced from their former courses by 



lava flows, which now stand up as table mountains. Glacial erosion 
has been potent in excavating great cirques and smajl rock-basins, 
especially among the higher southern surmounting summits, 
many of which have been thus somewhat reduced in height while 
gaining an Alpine sharpness of form; some of the short and steep 
canyons in the eastern slope have been converted into typical glacial 
troughs, and huge moraines have been laid on the desert floor below 
them. Some of the western valleys have also in part of their length 
been converted into U-shaped troughs; the famous Yosemite Valley, 
eroded in massive granite, with side cliffs 1000 or 2000 ft. in height, 
and the smaller Hetch-Hetchy Valley not far away, are regarded by 
some observers as owing their peculiar forms to glacial modifications 
of normal preglacial valleys. 

The western slope of the Sierra Nevada bears fine forests similar 
to those of the Cascade Range and of the Coast Range, but of more open 
growth, and with, the redwood exchanged for groves of " big trees " 
(Sequoia gigantea) of which the tallest examples reach 325 ft. The 
higher summits in the south are above the tree line and expose great 
areas of bare rock: mountaineering is here a delightful summer 
recreation, with camps in the highland forests and ascents to the 
lofty peaks. Gold occurs in quartz veins traversing various forma- 
tions (some as young as Jurassic), and also in gravels, which were 
for the ^most part deposited previous to the uplift of the Sierra 
" block." Some of the gravels then occurred as piedmont deposits 
along the western border of the old mountains ; these gravels are now 
more or less dissected by new-cut valleys. Other auriferous gravels 
are buried under the upland lava flows, and are now reached by 
tunnels driven in beneath the rim of the table mountains. The 
reputed discovery of traces of early man in the lava-covered gravels 
has not been authenticated. 

The northernmost part of the coast ranges, in Washington, is often 
given_ independent rank as the Olympic Range (Mt Olympus, 8150 
ft.) ; it is a picturesque mountain group, bearing snowfields and 
glaciers, and suggestive of the dome-like uplift of a previously 
worn-down mass; but it is now so maturely dissected as to make the 
suggested origin uncertain. Farther south, through Oregon and 
northern California, many members of the coast ranges resemble the 
Cascades and the Sierra in offering well-attested examples of the 
uplift of masses of disordered structure, that had been reduced to a 
tame surface by the erosion of an earlier cycle, and that are now again 
more or less dissected. 

Several of the ranges ascend abruptly from the sea; their base is 
cut back in high cliffs ; the Sierra Santa Lucia, south of San Francisco, 
is a range of this kind; its seaward slope is almost uninhabitable. 
Elsewhere moderatere-entrants between the ranges have a continuous 
beach, concave seaward ; such re-entrants afford imperfect harbour- 
age for vessels; Monterey Bay is the most pronounced example of 
this kind. On still other parts of the coast a recent small elevatory 
movement has exposed part of the former sea bottom in a narrow 
coastal plain, of which some typical harbourless examples are found 
in Oregon. Most of the recent movements appear to have been 
upward, for the coast presents few embayments such as would 
result from the depression and partial submergence of a dissected 
mountain range; but three important exceptions must be made to 
this rule. 

In the north, the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the intricately branch- 
ing waterways of Puget Sound between the Cascade and the Olympic 
ranges occupy trough-like depressions which were filled by extensive 
glaciers in Pleistocene times; and thus mark the beginning of the 
great stretch of fiorded coast which extends northward to Alaska. 
The waterways here afford excellent harbours. The second impor- 
tant embay ment is the estuary of the Columbia river; but the occur- 
rence of shoals at the mouth decreases the use that might otherwise 
be made of the river by ocean-going vessels. More important is 
San Francisco Bay, situated about midway on the Pacific coast of the 
United States, the result of a moderate depression whereby a trans- 
verse valley, formerly followed by Sacramento river through the 
outermost of the Coast ranges, has been converted into a narrow 
strait the " Golden Gate " and a wider intermont longitudinal 
valley has been flooded, forming the expansion of the inner bay. 

The Coast Range is heavily forested in the north, where rainfall is 
abundant in all seasons; but its lower ranges and valleys have a 
scanty tree growth in the south, where the rainfall is very light : here 
grow redwoods (Sequoia sempervirens) and live oaks (Quercus agri- 
folia). The chief metalliferous deposits of the range are of mercury 
at New Almaden, not far south of San Francisco. The open valleys 
between the spaced ranges offer many tempting sites for settlement, 
but in the south irrigation is needed for cultivation. 

The belt of relative depression between the inner Pacific ranges and 
the Coast range is divided by the fine volcano Mt Shasta (14,380 
ft.) in northern California into unlike portions. To the north, the 
floor of the depression is for the most part above baselevel, and hence 
is dissected by open valleys, partly longitudinal, partly transverse, 
among hills of moderate relief. This district was originally for the 
most part forested, but is now coming to be cleared and farmed. 

South of Mt Shasta, the " Valley of California " is an admirable 
example of an aggraded intermont depression, about 400 m. long 
and from 30 to 70 m. wide. The floor of this depression being below 
baselevel, it has necessarily come to be the seat of the mountain 
waste brought down by the many streams from the newly uplifted 



624 



UNITED STATES 



[GEOLOGY 



Sierra Nevada on the east and the coast ranges on the west ; each 
stream forms an alluvial fan of very gentle slope ; the fans all become 
laterally confluent, and incline very gently forward to meet in a 
nearly level axial belt, where the trunk rivers the Sacramento from 
the north and the San Joaquin from the south-east wander in 
braided courses; their tendency to aggradation having been increased 
in the last half century by the gravels from gold washing; their waters 
entering San Francisco Bay. Kings river, rising in the high southern 
Sierra near Mt Whitney, has built its fan rather actively, and 
obstructed the discharge from the part of the valley next farther 
south, which has thus come to be overflowed by the shallow waters 
of Tulare Lake, of flat, reedy, uncertain borders. A little north of 
the centre of the valley rise the Marysville Buttes, the remains of a 
maturely dissected volcano (2128 ft.). Elsewhere the floor of the 
valley is a featureless, treeless plain. (W. M. D.) 

II. GEOLOGY 

All the great systems of rock formations are represented in 
the United States, though close correlation with the systems 
of Europe is not always possible. The general geological 
column for the country is shown in the following table: 
Eras of Time. Periods of Time. 

Groups of Systems. Systems of Rocks. 

f Present. 

Pleistocene. 

. . J Pliocene. 

Camozoic . . . K M^ene. 

Oligocene. 
[Eocene. 

Transition (Arapahoe and Denver formations). 
f Upper Cretaceous. 

Widespread unconformity. 

Mesozoic . . -i Comanchean (Lower Cretaceous). 

Jurassic. 
^Triassic. 
Permian. 

.Coal Measures, or Pennsylvanian. 
Widespread unconformity. 
Subcarboniferous, or Mississippian. 
Palaeozoic . . -i Devonian. 
Silurian. 

Widespread unconformity. 
Ordovician. 
Cambrian. 

Great unconformity. 
Keweenawan. 

Widespread unconformity. 
Upper Huronian. 

Widespread unconformity. 
Middle Huronian. 

Widespread unconformity. 
.Lower Huronian. 

Great unconformity. 

["Great Granitoid Series (intru- 
sive in the main, Laurentian). 

Archeozoic . -\ Archean . J Great Schist Series (Mona, 

1 Kitchi, Keewatin, Quinnissec; 
Lower Huronian of some 
[ authors). 

Archeozoic (Archean) Group. The oldest group of rocks, called the 
Archean, was formerly looked upon, at least in a tentative way, as 
the original crust of the earth or its downward extension, much 
altered by the processes of metamorphism. This view of its origin 
is now known not to be applicable to the Archean as a whole, since 
this system contains some metamorphosed sedimentary rocks. In 
other words, if there was such a thing as an original crust, which 
may be looked upon as an open question, the Archean, as now defined, 
does not appear to represent it. The meta-sedimentary rocks of the 
Archean include metamorphosed limestone, and schists which carry 
carbonaceous matter in the form of graphite. The marble and 
graphite, as well as some other indirect evidence of life less susceptible 
of brief statement, have been thought by many geologists sufficient 
to warrant the inference that life existed before the close of the 
era when the Archean rocks were formed. Hence the era of their 
formation is called the Archeozoic era. 

Most of t'le Archean rocks fall into one or the other of two great 
series, a schistose series and a granitoid series, the latter being in large 
part intrusive in the former. The rocks of the granitoid series appear 
as great masses in the schist series, and in some places form great 
protruding bosses. They were formerly regarded as older than the 
schists and were designated on this account " primitive," " funda- 
mental," &c. They have also been called Laurentian, a name which 
is still sometimes applied to them. 

Nearly all known sorts of schist are represented in the schistose 
part of the system. Most of them are the metamorphic products of 



Proterozoic 



igneous rocks, among which extrusive rocks, many of them pyro- 
clastic, predominate. Metamorphosed sedimentary rocks are widely 
distributed in the schistose series, but they are distinctly subordinate 
to the meta-igneous rocks, and they are so highly metamorphic that 
stratigraphic methods are not usually applicable to them. In some 
areas, indeed, it is difficult to say whether the schists are meta- 
sedimentary or meta-igneous. The likeness of the Archean of one 
part of the country to that of another is one of its striking features. 

The Archean appears at the surface in many parts of the United 
States, and in still larger areas north of the national boundary. It 
appears in the cores of some of the western mountains, in some of the 
deep canyons of the west, as in the Grand Canyon of the Colorado in 
northern Arizona, and over considerable areas in northern Wisconsin 
and Minnesota, in New England and the piedmont plateau east of 
the Appalachian Mountains, and in a few other situations. Wher- 
ever it comes to the surface it comes up from beneath younger rocks 
which are, as a rule, less metamorphic. By means of deep borings 
it is known at many points where it does not appear at the surface, 
and is believed to be universal beneath younger systems. 

Locally the Archean contains iron ore, as in the Vermilion district 
of northern Minnesota, and at some points in Ontario. The ore is 
mostly in the form of haematite. 

Proterozoic (Algonkian) Systems. The Proterozoic group of rocks 
(called also Algonkian) includes all formations younger than the 
Archean and older than the Palaeozoic rocks. The term Archean 
was formerly proposed to include these rocks, as well as those now , 
called Archean, but the subdivision here recognized has come to be 
widely approved. 

The Proterozoic formations have a wide distribution. They 
appear at the surface adjacent to most of the outcrops of the Archean, 
and in some other places. In many localities the two groups have 
not been separated. In some places this is because the regions where 
they occur have not been carefully studied since the subdivision into 
Archeozoic and Proterozoic was made, and in others because of the 
inherent difficulty of separation, as where the Proterozoic rocks 
are highly metamorphosed. On the whole, the Proterozoic rocks 
are predominantly sedimentary and subordinately igneous. Locally 
both the sedimentary and igneous parts of the group have been 
highly metamorphosed ; but as a rule the alteration of the sedimentary 
portions has not gone so far that stratigraphic methods are in- 
applicable to them, though in some places detailed study is necessary 
to make out their structure. 

The Proterozoic formations are unconformable on the Archean 
in most places where their relations are known. The unconformity 
between these groups is therefore widespread, probably more so than 
any later unconformity. Not only is it extensive in area, but the 
stratigraphic break is very great, as shown by (i) the excess of 
metamorphism of the lower group as compared with the upper, and 
(2) the amount of erosion suffered by the older group before the depo- 
sition of the younger. The first of these differences between the two 
systems is significant of the dynamic changes suffered by the Archean 
before the beginning of that part of the Proterozoic era represented 
by known formations. The extent of the unconformity is usually 
significant of the geographic changes of the interval unrecorded by 
known Proterozoic rocks. 

The Proterozoic formations have been studied in detail in few 
great areas. One of these is about Lake Superior, where the forma- 
tions have attracted attention on account of the abundant iron ore 
which they contain. Four major subdivisions or systems of the 
group have been recognized in this region, as shown in the preceding 
table. These systems are separated one from another by uncon- 
formities in most places, and the lower systems, as a rule, have 
suffered a greater degree of metamorphism than the upper ones, 
though this is not to be looked upon as a hard and fast rule. The 
commoner sorts of rock in the several Huronian systems are quartzite 
and slate (ranging from shale to schist) ; but limestone is not wanting, 
and igneous rocks, both intrusive and extrusive, some metamorphic 
and some not, abound. Iron ore occurs in the sedimentary part of 
the Huronian, especially in Minnesota, Michigan, Wisconsin' and 
parts of Canada. The ore is chiefly haematite, and has been de- 
veloped from antecedent ferruginous sedimentary deposits, through 
concentration and purification by ground water. 

The lower part of the Keweenawan system consists of a great 
succession of lava flows, of prodigious thickness. This portion of 
the system is overlain by thick beds of sedimentary rock, mostly 
conglomerate and sandstone, derived from the igneous rocks beneath. 
A few geologists regard the sedimentary rocks here classed as 
Keweenawan as Palaeozoic ; but they have yielded no fossils, and are 
unconformable beneath the Upper Cambrian, which is the oldest 
sedimentary formation of the region which bears fossils. The 
aggregate thickness of the Proterozoic systems in the Lake Superior 
region is several miles, as usually computed, but there are obvious 
difficulties in determining the thickness of such great systems, 
especially when they are much metamorphosed. The copper of 
the Lake Superior region is in the Keweenawan system, chiefly in 
its sedimentary and amygdaloidal parts. 

The Proterozoic formations in other parts of the continent cannot 
be correlated in detail with those of the Lake Superior region. The 
number of systems is not everywhere the same, nor are they every- 
where alike, and their definite correlation with one another is not 



GEOLOGY] 



UNITED STATES 



625 



possible now, and may never be. The Proterozoic formations have 
yielded a few fossils in several places, especially Montana and 
northern Arizona; but they are so imperfect, their numbers, whether 
of individuals or of species, are so small, and the localities where they 
occur so few, that they are of little service in correlation throughout 
the United States. The carbon-bearing shales, slates and schists, and 
the limestone, are indications that life was relatively abundant, even 
though but few fossils are preserved. Among the known fossils are 
vermes, Crustacea and probably brachiopods and pteropods 

The character of the sediments of the Proterozoic is such as to 
show that mature weathering affected the older rocks before their 
material was worked over into the Proterozoic formations. This 
mature weathering, resulting in the relatively complete separation 
of the quartz from the kaolin, and both from the calcium car- 
bonate and other basic materials, implies conditions of rock decay 
comparable to those of the present time. 

In all but a few places where their relations are known, the Protero- 
zoic rocks are unconformable beneath the Palaeozoic Where 
conformity exists the separation is made on the basis of fossils, 
it having been agreed that the oldest rocks carrying the Olenellus 
fauna are to be regarded as the base of the Cambrian system. 

The Palaeozoic and later formations are usually less altered, 



12,000 ft. in eastern New York, and almost as much in the southern 
Appalachian Mountains (Georgia and Alabama) ; but its average 
thickness is much less. In Wisconsin, where the Upper Cambrian only 
is present, the thickness is about 1000 ft. The greater thickness in 
the east appears to be due in part to the fact that an extensive area 
of land, Appalachia. lay east of the site of the Appalachian Mountains 
throughout the Palaeozoic era, and quantities of sediment from it 
were accumulated where these mountains were to arise later. The 
greatness of the thickness, as it has been measured, is also due in 
part to the oblique position in which the beds of sediment were 
originally deposited. 

The Cambrian formations have not been notably metamorphosed, 
except in a few regions where dynamic metamorphism has been 
effective. The system is without any notable amount of igneous 
rock. As in other parts of the world, the system here contains 
abundant fossils, among which trilobites, brachiopods and worms 
are the most abundant. The range of forms, however, is great. 

Ordovician System. The succeeding Ordovician (Lower Silurian) 
system of rocks is closely connected with the Cambrian, geographi- 
cally, stratigraphically and faunally. Its distribution is much 
the same as that of the Upper Cambrian, with which it is conform- 
able in many places. The Ordovician system contains much more 



*/v" T v w*/ >j 

, ^V^-^V^X^^ 

K?^^jty^>^y.!y 



_ 

| iPentiian 

I & Misassippian 




more accessible, and better known than the Proterozoic and 
Archeozoic, and will be taken up by systems. 

Cambrian 'System. The lower part of the Cambrian system, 
characterized by the Olenellus fauna, 'is restricted to the borders of 
the continent, where it rests on the older rocks unconformably in 
most places. The middle part of the system, characterized by the 
Paradoxides fauna, is somewhat more widespread, resting on the 
lower part conformably, but overlapping it, especially in the south 
and west. The upper part of the system, carrying the Dicello- 
cephalus fauna, is very much more extensive; it is indeed one of 
the most widespread series of rocks on 'the continent. The lower, 
middle and upper parts of the system all contain marine fossils. 
This being the case, the distribution of the several divisions indicates 
that progressive submergence of the United States was in progress 
during the period, and that most of the country was covered by the 
sea before its close. 

The system is composed chiefly of clastic rocks, and their composi- 
tion and structure show that the water in which they were deposited 
was shallow. In the interior, the upper part of the system, the 
Potsdam sandstone, is generally arenaceous. It is well exposed 
in New York, Wisconsin, Missouri and elsewhere, about the out- 
crops of older rocks. The system is also exposed in many of the 
western mountains or about their borders, especially about those 
the cores of which are of Archean or Proterozoic rock. 

The thickness of the system has been estimated at 10,000 to 



Ordovician 



limestone, and therefore much less clastic rock, than the Cambrian, 
pointing to clearer seas in which life abounded. The succession 
of beds in New York has become a sort of standard with which 
the system in other parts of the United States has been compared. 
The succession of formations in that state is as follows : 

f Richmond beds (in Ohio 
Upper Ordovician (or I and Indiana). 
Cincinnatian) 1 Lorraine beds. 

I Utica shales. 

Middle Ordovician (or | Trenton limestone. 
Mohawkian) -s Black River limestone. 

I. Lowville limestone. 
Lower Ordovician (or f Chazy limestone. 

Canadian) -! Beekmantown limestone. 

L ( = Calciferous). 
The classification in the right-hand column of this table is not 
applicable in detail to regions remote from New York. 

There is in some places an unconformity between the Richmond 
beds (or their equivalent) and underlying formations, and this 
unconformity, together with certain palaeontological considerations, 
has raised the question whether the uppermost part of the system, 
as outlined above, should not be classed as Silurian (Upper Silunai 
Over the interior the strata are nearly horizontal, but in the mountain 
regions of the east and west, as well as in the mountains of Arkansas 



626 



UNITED STATES 



[GEOLOGY 



and Oklahoma, they are tilted and folded, and locally much meta- 
morphosed. The outcrops of the system appear for the most part 
in close association with the outcrops of the Cambrian system, but 
the system appears in a few places where the Cambrian does not, 
as in southern Ohio and central Tennessee. The thickness of the 
system varies from point to point, being greatest in the Appalachian 
Mountains, and much less in the interior. 

The oil and gas of Ohio and eastern Indiana come from the middle 
portion of the Ordovician system. So also do the lead and zinc of 
south-western Wisconsin and the adjacent parts of Iowa and Illinois. 
The lead of south-eastern Missouri comes from about the same 
horizon. 

The fossils of the Ordovician system show that life made great 
progress during the period, in numbers both of individuals and of 
species. The life, like that of the later Cambrian, was singularly 
cosmopolitan, being in contrast with the provincial character of the 
life of the earlier Cambrian and of the early (Upper) Silurian which 
followed. Beside the expansion of types which abounded in the 
Cambrian, vertebrate remains (fishes) are found in the Ordovician. 
So, also, are the first relics of insects. The departure of the 
Ordovician life from that of the Cambrian was perhaps most pro- 
nounced in the great development of the molluscs and crinoids 
(including cystoids), but corals were also abundant for the first 
time, and graptolites came into prominence. 

Silurian System. The Silurian system is much less widely 
distributed than the Ordovician. This and other corroborative 
facts imply a widespread emergence of land at the close of the Ordo- 
vician period. As a result of this emergence the stratigraphic break 
between the Ordovician and the Silurian is one of the greatest in the 
whole Palaeozoic group. 

The classification of the system in New York is as follows: 

rManlius limestone. 
Cayugan (Neo- or 
Upper Silurian) 



Niagaran (Meso- or 
Middle Silurian) 

Oswegan (Palaeo-or 
Lower Silurian) 



I Rondout waterlime. 
| Cobleskill limestone. 
[Salina beds. 
fGuelph dolomite. 

Silurian . . J Niagaran (Meso- or J Lockport limestone. 

I Rochester shale. 
I Clinton beds. 
fMedina sandstone. 
-I Oneida conglomerate. 
[Shawangunk grit. 

The lower part of this system is chiefly clastic, and is known only 
in the eastern part of the continent. The middle portion contains 
much limestone, generally known as the Niagara limestone, and is 
much more widespread than the lower, being found very generally 
over the eastern interior, as far west as the Mississippi and in places 
somewhat beyond. The Niagara limestone contains the oldest 
known coral reefs of the continent. They occur in eastern Wisconsin 
and at other points farther east and south. It is over this limestone 
that the Niagara falls in the world-famous cataract. One member 
of the middle division of the system (Clinton beds) contains much 
iron ore, especially in the Appalachian Mountain region. The ore 
is extensively worked at some points, as at Birmingham, Alabama. 
The upper part of the system is more restricted than the middle, and 
includes the salt-bearing series of New York, Ohio and Pennsylvania, 
with its peculiar fauna. It is difficult to see how salt could have 
originated in this region except under conditions very different 
climatically from those of the present time. 

In the interior the thickness of the system is less than 1000 ft. in 
many places, but in and near the Appalachian Mountains its thick- 
ness is much greater more than five times as great if the maximum 
thicknesses of all formations be made the basis of calculation. In 
the Great Plains and farther west the Silurian has little known 
representation. Either this part of the continent was largely land 
at this time, or the Silurian formations here have been worn away 
or remain undifferentiated. Rocks of Silurian age, however, are 
known at some points in Arizona, Nevada and southern California. 

Corals, echinoderms, brachiopods and all groups of molluscs 
abounded. Graptolites had declined notably as compared with the 
Ordovician, and the trilobites passed their climax before the end of 
the period. Certain other remarkable Crustacea, however, had made 
their appearance, especially in connexion with the Salina series of 
the east. 

There are numerous outliers of the Silurian north of the United 
States, even up to the Arctic regions. These outliers have a common 
fauna, which is closely related to that of the interior of the United 
States. They give some clue to the amount of erosion which the 
system has suffered, and also afford a clue to the route by which 
the animals whose fossils are found in the United States entered 
this country. Thus, the Niagara fauna of the interior of the United 
States has striking resemblances to the mid-Silurian faunas of Sweden 
and Great Britain. It seems probable, therefore, that marine 
animals found migratory conditions between these regions, probably 
by way of northern islands. The fauna of the Appalachian region 
is far less like that of Europe, and indicates but slight connexion 
with the fauna of the interior. Both the earlier and the later parts 
of the Silurian period seem to have been times when physical con- 
ditions were such as to favour the development of provincial faunas, 



while during the more widespread submergence of the middle 
Silurian the fauna was more cosmopolitan. 

Devonian System. The Devonian system appears in some parts 
of New England, throughout most of the Appalachian region, over 
much of the eastern interior from New York to the Missouri River, 
in Oklahoma, and perhaps in Texas. It is absent from the Great 
Plains, so far as now known, and is not generally present in the 
Rocky Mountains, though somewhat widespread between them and 
the western coast. As a whole, the system is more widespread than 
the Silurian, though not so widespread as the Ordovician. As in 
the case of the Ordovician and the Silurian, the New York section 
has become a standard with which the system in other parts of the 
country is commonly compared. This section is as follows: 

(Chautauquan-Chemung (including Cat- 
skill). 
Senecan /Portage beds, 

lecan . . ^ Genesee shale. 



Devonian . 



[Tully limestone. 



I Erian . 



Middle 
Devonian 



Ulsterian. 



Oriskanian 



5 Hamilton shale. 
( Marcellus shale. 

iOnpndaga (Corniferous 
limestone) 
Schoharie grit. 
Esopus grit. 
Oriskany beds. 
( Kingston beds. 

Lower i HelderbergianJ Becraft limestone. 

Devonian | New Scotland beds. 

[ tCoeymans limestone. 

The formations most widely recognized are the Helderberg lime- 
stone, the Onondaga limestone and the Hamilton shale. 

The Catskill sandstone, found chiefly in the Catskill Mountain 
region of New York, is one of the distinctive formations of the 
system. It has some similarity to the Old Red Sandstone of Great 
Britain. In part, at least, it is equivalent in time of origin to the 
Chemung formation; but the latter is of marine origin, while the 
Catskill formation appears to be of terrestrial origin. 

No other system of the United States brings out more clearly the 
value of palaeontology to palaeogeography. The faunas of the 
early Devonian seem to have entered what is now the interior of the 
United States from the mid-Atlantic coast. The Onondaga fauna 
which succeeded appears to have resulted from the commingling 
of the resident lower Devonian fauna with new emigrants from 
Europe by way of the Arctic regions. The Hamilton fauna which 
followed represents the admixture of the resident Onondaga fauna 
with new types which are thought to have come from South America, 
showing that faunal connexions for marine life had been made be- 
tween the interior of the United States and the lands south of the 
Caribbean Sea, a connexion of which, before this time, there was no 
evidence. The late Devonian fauna of the interior represents the 
commingling of the Hamilton fauna of the eastern interior with new 
emigrants from the north-west, a union which was not effected until 
toward the close of the period. 

Like the earlier Palaeozoic systems, the Devonian attains its 
greatest known thickness in the Appalachian Mountains, where 
sediments from the lands of pre-Cambrian rock to the east accumu- 
lated in quantity. Here clastic rocks predominate, while limestone 
is more abundant in the interior. If the maximum thicknesses of all 
Devonian formations be added together, the total for the system is as 
much as 15,000 ft. ; but such a thickness is not found in any one place. 

The Devonian system yields much oil and gas in western Penn- 
sylvania, south-western New York, West Virginia and Ontario; 
and some of the Devonian beds in Tennessee yield phosphates of 
commercial value. The Hamilton formation yields much flagstone. 

Among the more important features of the marine life of the 
period were (l) the great development of the molluscs, especially of 
cephalopods ; (2) the abu ndance of large brachiopods ; (3) the aberrant 
tendencies of the trilobites; (4) the profusion of corals; and (5) the 
abundance, size and peculiar forms of the fishes. The life of the land 
waters was also noteworthy, especially for the great deployment of 
what may be called the crustacean-ostracodermo-vertebrate group. 
The Crustacea were represented by eurypterids, the ostracoderms 
by numerous strange, vertebrate-like forms (Cephalaspis, Cyathaspis, 
Trematopsis, Bothriolepis, &c.), and the vertebrates by a great 
variety of fishes. The land life of the period is represented 
more fully among the fossils than that of any preceding period. 
Gymnosperms were the highest types of plants. 

The Devonian system is not set off from the Mississippian by any 
marked break. On the other hand, the one system merges into the 
other, so that the plane of separation is often indistinct. 

Mississippian System. The Mississippian system was formerly 
regarded as a part of the Carboniferous, and was described under the 
name of Lower Carboniferous, or Subcarboniferous, without the rank 
of a system. This older classification, which has little support 
except that which is traditional, is still adhered to by many geolo- 
gists; but the fact seems to be that the system is set off from the 
Pennsylvanian (Upper Carboniferous) more sharply than the 
Cambrian is from the Ordovician, the Silurian from the Devonian, 
or the Devonian from the Mississippian. 



GEOLOGY] 



UNITED STATES 



627 



The system is well developed in the Mississippi Basin, whence its 
name. Its formations are much more widespread than those of any 
other system since the Ordoyician. They appear at the surface 
in great areas in the interior, in the south-west and about many of 
the western mountains. In many places in the west they rest on 
what appear to be Ordovician beds, but without unconformity. The 
explanation of the apparent conformity of the strata from the 
Cambrian to the Pennsylvanian in some parts of the west, with no 
fossils denning with certainty any horizon between the Ordovician 
and the Mississippian, is one of the open problems in the geology of 
the United States. 

The subdivision of the system for various regions in the eastern 
part of the United States is as follows : 



Mississippi River States. 


Ohio. 


Pennsylvania. 


Maryland. 


4. Kaskaskia or Chester 
3. St Louis 
2. Osage or Augusta (in- 
cluding the Bur- 
lington, Keokuk 
and Warsaw) 
I. Kinderhook or Chou- 
teau 


7. Maxville 
6. Logan 
5. Black Hand 
4. Cuyahoga 
3. Sunbury 
2. Berea grit 
I. Bedford 


2. Mauch Chunk 
I. Pocono 


3. Mauch Chunk 
2. Greenbrier 

I. Pocono 



In the interior the Kinderhook series has a distribution similar 
to that of the Devonian; the Osage series is more widespread, 
pointing to progressive submergence; and the St Louis is still more 
extensive. This epoch, indeed, is the epoch of maximum submer- 
gence during the period, and the maximum since the Ordovician. 
Before its close the sea of the Great Basin which had persisted since 
the Devonian was connected with the shallow sea which covered 
much of the interior of the United States. The fourth series, the 
Kaskaskia or Chester, is more restricted, and points to the coming 
emergence of a large part of the United States. In the Mississippi 
Basin the larger part of the system is of limestone, though there is 
some clastic material in both its basal and its upper parts. In 
Ohio the system contains much clastic rock, and in Pennsylvania 
little else. The Mauch Chunk series (shale and sandstone) is now 
believed to be largely of terrestrial origin. 

The system ranges in thickness from nearly 5000 ft. maximum in 
Pennsylvania to 1500 ft. in the vicinity of the Mississippi river. 
In West Virginia some 2000 ft. of limestone are assigned to this 
system. The zinc and lead of the Joplin district of Missouri are in 
the limestone of this system, and the corresponding limestone in 
some parts of Colorado, as at Leadville, is one of the horizons of 
rich ore. 

The end of the period was marked by the widespread emergence 
of the continent, and parts of it were never again submerged, so far 
as is known. Certainly there is no younger marine formation of 
comparable extent in the continent. When deposition was renewed 
in the interior of the continent, the formations laid down were largely 
non-marine, and, over great areas, they rest upon the Mississippian 
unconformably. 

From the conditions outlined it is readily inferred that the faunas 
of the system were cosmopolitan. All types of life to which shallow, 
clear sea-water was congenial appear to have abounded in the 
interior. It was perhaps at this time that the crinoids, as a class, 
reached their climax, and most forms of lime-carbonate-secreting 
life seem to have thriven. Where the seas were less clear, as in 
Ohio, the conditions are reflected in the character of the fossils. 
Marine fishes had made great progress before the close of the period. 
Amphibia appeared before its close, and plant life was abundant 
and varied, though the types were not greatly in advance of those of 
the Devonian. The time of such widespread submergence was 
hardly the time for the great development of land vegetation. 

Pennsylvanian System. The Pennsylvanian or Upper Carboni- 
ferous system overlies the Mississippian unconformably over a large 
part of the United States. In the eastern half of the country the 
system consists of shales and sandstones chiefly, but there is some 
limestone, and coal enough to be of great importance economically, 
though it makes but a small part of the system quantitatively. The 
larger part of the system in this part of the country is not of marine 
origin ; yet the sea had access to parts of the interior more than once, 
as shown by the marine fossils in some of the beds. The dominantly 
terrestrial formations of the eastern half of the country are in con- 
trast with the marine formations of the west. The line separating 
the two phases of the system is a little east of the looth meridian. 
' West of the Mississippi the Coal Measures are subdivided into two 
series, the Des Moines below and the Missouri above. In the eastern 
part of the country (Pennsylvania, Ohio, &c.) the system is divided 
into four principal parts : 

' 4. Monongahela formation (or series) Upper 

Productive Coal Measures. 
3. Conemaugh formation (or series) Lower 
Pennsylvanian. .- Barren Coal Measures. 

2. Allegheny formation (or series) Lower 

Productive Coal Measures. 
I. Pottsville formation (or series). 



The Pottsville formation is chiefly clastic, and corresponds roughly 
to the Millstone Grit of England. The Allegheny and Mononga- 
hela series contain most of the coal, though it is not wanting in the 
other subdivisions of the system. Productive coal beds are found 
in five principal fields. These are (i) the Anthracite field in eastern 
Pennsylvania, nearly 500 sq. m. in extent; (2) the Appalachian 
field, having an area of about 71,000 sq. m. (75 % being pro- 
ductive), and extending from Pennsylvania to Alabama; (3) the 
northern interior field, covering an area of about 11,000 sq. m. 
in southern Michigan; (4) the eastern interior field in Indiana, 
Illinois and Kentucky, with an area of about 58,000 sq. m. 
(55 % being productive) ; and (5) the western interior and south- 
western field, some 94,000 sq. m. in extent, reaching from 
Iowa on the north to Texas on the south. There 
is also a coalfield in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, 
about 18,000 sq. m. in extent. Some of the well-known 
beds of coal are known to be continuous for several 
thousands of square miles. 

Unlike the older systems of the Palaeozoic, the 
Pennsylvanian system has not its maximum thickness 
in the Appalachian Mountains, but in Arkansas, in a 
region which was probably adjacent to high lands at 
that time. These lands perhaps lay in the present 
position of the Ouachita Mountains. 

The close of the Pennsylvanian period was marked by 
the beginning of profound changes, changes in geography 
and climate, and therefore changes in the amount and habitat of life, 
and in the sites of erosion and sedimentation. One of the great changes 
of this time was the beginning of the development of the Appalachian 
Mountain system. The site of these mountains had been, for the 
most part, an area of deposition throughout the Palaeozoic era, and 
the body of sediments which had gathered here at the western base 
of Appalachia, by the close of the Pennsylvanian period, was very 
great. At this time these sediments, together with some of Appa- 
lachia itself, began to be folded up into the Appalachian Mountains. 
These mountains have since been worn down, so that, in spite of 
their subsequent periods of growth, their height is not great. 

The chief interest of the palaeontology of this system is in the 
plants, which were very like those of the Coal Measures of other parts 
of the earth and showed a high development of forms that are now 
degenerate. Among land animals the amphibia had great develop- 
ment at this time. So also had insects and some other forms of 
land life. 

Permian Period. The Permian system appears in smaller areas 
in the United States than any other Palaeozoic system. The 
" Upper Barren Coal Measures of some parts of the east (Ohio, 
Pennsylvania, &c.) are now classed as Permian on the basis of 
their fossil plants. They represent but a part of the Permian 
period, and are commonly described under the name of the Dunkard 
series. 

The system has much more considerable development west of the 
Mississippi than east of it, especially in Texas, Kansas, Nebraska and 
beyond. Some of the Permian beds of this region are marine, while 
others are of terrestrial origin. In this part of the country the 
Permian beds are largely red sandstone, often saliferous and gypsi- 
ferpus. They are distinguished with difficulty from the succeeding 
Triassic, for the beds have very few fossils. The system has its 
maximum known thickness in Texas, where it is said to be 7000 ft. in 
maximum thickness. West of the Rocky Mountains the Permian has 
not been very generally separated from overlying and underlying 
formations, though it has been differentiated in a few places, as in 
south-western Colorado and in some parts of Arizona. Perhaps the 
most remarkable feature of the palaeontology of the system is its 
paucity of fossils, especially in those parts of the system, such as 
the Red Beds, which are of terrestrial origin. 

In the United States no direct evidence has been found of the low 
temperature which brought about glaciation in many other parts of 
the earth during this period. Salt and gypsum deposits, and other 
features of the Permian beds, together with the fewness of fossils, 
indicate that the climate of the Permian was notably arid in many 
regions. 

Triassic System. This system has but limited representation in the 
eastern part of the United States, being known only east of the 
Appalachian Mountains in an area which was land throughout most 
of the Palaeozoic era, but which was deformed when the eastern 
mountains were developed at the close of the Palaeozoic. In the 
troughs formed in its surface during this time of deformation, sedi- 
ments of great thickness accumulated during the Triassic period. 
These sediments are now mostly in the form of red sandstone and 
shale, with conglomerate, black shale and coal in some places. 
These rocks do not represent the whole of the period. They are 
often known as the Newark series, and seem to be chiefly, if not 
wholly, of terrestrial origin. The sedimentary rocks are affected 
by many dikes and sheets of igneous rock, some of the latter being 
extrusive and some intrusive. The strata are now tilted and much 
faulted, though but little folded. In the western plains and in the 
western mountains the Triassic is not clearly separated from the 
Permian in most places. So far as the system is differentiated, it is 
a part of the Red Beds of that region. The tendency of recent years 
has been to refer more and more of these beds to the Permian. The 



628 



UNITED STATES 



[GEOLOGY 



Triassic system is well developed on the Pacific coast, where its strata 
are of marine origin, and they extend inland to the Great Basin 

The climate of the period, at least in its earlier part, seems to have 
been arid like that of the Permian, as indicated both by the paucity 
of fossils and by the character of the sediments. The salt and gypsum 
constitute a positive argument for aridity. The character of some 
of the conglomerate of the Newark series of the east, and the wide- 
spread redness of the beds, so far as it is original, also point to aridity. 

As in other parts of the earth, the Triassic was the age of gymno- 
sperms, which were represented by diverse types. Reptiles were the 
dominant form of animals, and land reptiles (dinosaurs) gained over 
their aquatic allies. 

Jurassic System. This system is not known with certainty in the 
eastern half of the United States, though there are some beds on the 
mid-Atlantic coast, along the inland border of the coastal plain, 
which have been thought by some, on the basis of their reptilian 
fossils, to be Jurassic. The lower and middle parts of the system 
are but doubtfully represented in the western interior. If present, 
they form a part of the Red Beds of that region. On the Pacific coast 
marine Jurassic beds reach in from the Pacific to about the same 
distance as the Triassic system. The Upper Jurassic formations are 
much more widely distributed. During the later part of the period 
the sea found entrance at some point north of the United States to a 
great area in the western part of the continent, developing a bay which 
extended far down into the United States from Canada. In this 
great bay formations of marine origin were laid down. At the 
same time marine sedimentation was continued on the Pacific coast, 
but the faunas of the west coast and the interior bay are notably 
unlike, the latter being more like that of the coast north of the 
United States. This is the reason for the belief that the bay which 
extended into the United States had its connexion with the sea north 
of the United States. 

The Jurassic faunas of the United States were akin to those of 
other continents. The great development of reptiles and cephalo- 
pods was among the notable features. At the close of the period 
there were considerable deformations in the west. The first notable 
folding of the Sierras that has been definitely determined dates from 
this time, and many other mountains of the west were begun or 
rejuvenated. The close of the period, too, saw the exclusion of the 
sea from the Pacific coast east of the Sierras, and the disappearance, 
so far as the United States is concerned, of the great north-western 
bay of the late Jurassic. Before the close of the period, the aridity 
which had obtained during the Permian, and at least a part of the 
Triassic, seems to have disappeared. 

Comanchean System. This system was formerly classed as the 
lower part of the Cretaceous, but there are strong reasons for regard- 
ing it as a separate system. Its distribution is very different from 
that of the Upper Cretaceous, and there is a great and widespread 
unconformity between them. The faunas, too, are very unlike. 
The Comanchean formations are found (i) on the inland border of 
the coastal plain of the Atlantic (Potomac series) and Gulf coasts 
(Tuscaloosa series at the east and Comanchean at the west) ; (2) along 
the western margin of the Great Plains and in the adjacent moun- 
tains; and (3) along the Pacific coast west of the Sierras. In the 
first two of these positions, the formations show by their fossils that 
they are of terrestrial origin in some places, and partly of terrestrial 
and partly of marine origin in others. In the coastal plain the 
Comanchean beds are generally not cemented, but consist of gravel, 
sand and clay, occupying the nearly horizontal position in which they 
were originally deposited. Much plastic clay and sand are derived 
from them. In Texas, whence the name " Comanchean " comes, and 
where different parts of the system are of diverse origins, there is 
some limestone. This sort of rock increases in importance southward 
and has great development in Mexico. In the western interior there 
is difference of opinion as to whether certain beds rich in reptilian 
remains (the Morrison, Atlantosaurus, Como, &c.) should be regarded 
as Jurassic or Comanchean. On the western coast the term Shastan 
is sometimes applied to Lower Cretaceous. In the United States, 
marine Shastan beds are restricted to the area west of the Sierras, 
but they here have great thickness. 

Widespread changes at the end of the period exposed the areas 
where deposition has been in progress during the period to erosion, 
and the (Upper) Cretaceous formations rest upon the Comanchean 
unconformably in most parts of the country. The Comanchean 
system contains the oldest known remains of netted-veined leaved 
plants, which mark a great advance in the vegetable world. Reptiles 
were numerous and of great size. They were the largest type of 
life, both on land and in the sea. 

Cretaceous System. This system is much more extensively deve- 
loped in the United States than any other Mesozoic system. It is 
found (i) on the Atlantic coastal plain, where it laps up on the 
Comanchean, or over it to older formations beyond its inland margin ; 

(2) on the coastal plain of the Gulf region in similar relations; 

(3) over the western plains; (4) in the western mountains; and 
(5) along the Pacific coast. Unlike the Comanchean, the larger 
part of the Cretaceous system is of marine origin. The distribution 
of the beds of marine origin shows that the sea crept up on the eastern 
and southern borders of the continent during the period, covered the 



western plains, and formed a great mediterranean sea between the 
eastern and western lands of the continent, connecting the Gulf of 
Mexico on the south and the Arctic Ocean on the north. This 
widespread submergence, followed by the deposition of marine 
sediments on the eroded surface of Comanchean and older rocks, 
is the physical reason for the separation of the system from the 
Comanchean. This reason is reinforced by palaeontological 
considerations. 

Both on the Atlantic and over 'the western plains the system is 
divided into four principal subdivisions: 



Atlantic Coast. 
4. Manasquan formation. 
3. Rancocas formation. 
2. Monmouth formation. 
I. Matawan formation. 



Western Plains. 
4. Laramie. 
3. Montana: Fox Hills; Fort 

Pierre. 

2. Colorado: Niobrara; Benton. 
i. Dakota. 



The most distinctive feature of the Cretaceous of the Atlantic 
coastal plain is its large content of greensand marl (glauconite). 
The formations are mostly incoherent, and have nearly their original 
position. In the eastern Gulf states there is more calcareous 
material, represented by limestone or chalk. In the Texan region 
and farther north the limestone becomes still more important. 
In the western plains, the first and last principal subdivisions of 
the system (Dakota and Laramie) are almost wholly non-marine. 
The Dakota formation is largely sandstone, which gives rise to " hog- 
backs " where it has been tilted, indurated and exposed to erosion 
along the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains. The Colorado 
series contains much limestone, some of which is in the form of chalk. 
This is par excellence the chalk formation of the United States. 
That the chalk was deposited in shallow, clear seas is indicated both 
by the character of the fossils other than foraminifera and by the 
relation of the chalk to the clastic portions of the series. The 
Montana series, most of which is marine, was deposited in water 
deeper than that of the Colorado epoch, though the series is less 
widespread than the preceding. The Laramie is the great coal- 
bearing series of the west, and corresponds in its general physical 
make-up and in its mode of origin to the Coal Measures of the east. 
The coal-bearing lands of the Laramie have been estimated at not 
less than 100,000 sq. m. On the Pacific coast the Cretaceous 
formations are sometimes grouped together under the name of 
Chico. The distribution of the Chico formations is similar to that of 
the Comanchean system in this region. 

The Cretaceous system is thick. If maximum thicknesses of its 
several parts in different localities, as usually measured, are added 
together, the total would approach or reach 25,000 ft. ; but the strata 
of any one region have scarcely more than half this thickness, and 
the average is much less. 

The close of the period was marked by very profound changes 
which may be classed under three general headings: (i) the emer- 
gence of great areas which had been submerged until the closing 
stages of the period ; (2) the beginning of the development of most of 
the great mountains of the west ; (3) the inauguration of a protracted 
period of igneous activity, stimulated, no doubt, by the crustal 
and deeper-seated movements of the time. These great changes 
in the relation of land and water, and in topography, led to corre- 
spondingly great changes in life, and the combination marks the 
transition from the Mesozoic to the Cainozoic era. 

Tertiary Systems. The formations of the several Tertiary periods 
have many points of similarity, but in some respects they are sharply 
differentiated one from another. They consist, in most parts of the 
country, of unconsolidated sediments, consisting of gravel, sand, 
clay, &c., together with large quantities of tuff, volcanic agglomerate, 
&c. Some of the sedimentary formations are of marine, some of 
brackish water, and some of terrestrial origin. In the western 
part of the country there are, in addition, very extensive flows of 
lava covering in the aggregate some 200,000 sq. m. Terres- 
trial sedimentation was, indeed, a great feature of the Tertiary. 
This was the result of several conditions, among them the recent 
development, through warping and faulting and volcanic extrusion, 
of high lands with more or less considerable slopes. From these 
high lands sediments were borne down to lodge on the low lands 
adjacent. The sites of deposition varied as the period progressed, 
for the warping and faulting of the surface, the igneous extrusions, 
and the deposition of sediments obliterated old basins and brought 
new ones into existence. The marine Tertiary formations are 
confined to the borders of the continent, appearing along the Atlan- 
tic, Gulf and Pacific coasts. The brackish water formations occur 
in some parts of the same general areas, while the terrestrial forma- ' 
tions are found in and about the western mountains. As in other 
parts of the world, the chiefest palaeontological interest of the 
Tertiary attaches to the mammalian fossils. 

The Eocene beds are unconformable, generally, upon the Creta- 
ceous, and unconformable beneath the Miocene. On the Atlantic 
coast they are nearly horizontal, but dip gently seaward. Eocene 
On this coast they are nowhere more than a few System. 
hundred feet thick. In the Gulf region the system is 
more fully represented, and attains a greater thickness 1700 ft. at 
least. In the Gulf region the Eocene system contains not a little 



GEOLOGY] 



UNITED STATES 



629 



non-marine material. Thus the lower Eocene has some lignite in 
the eastern Gulf region, while in Texas lignite and saliferous 
and gypsiferous sediments are found, though most of the system 
is marine and of shallow water origin. The Eocene of the western 
Gulf region is continued north as far as Arkansas. The classifica- 
tion of the Eocene (and Oligocene) formations in the Gulf region, 
especially east of the Mississippi, is as follows: 

4. Jacksonian Upper Eocene. 

3. Claibornian Middle Eocene. 

2. Chickasawan ) T T- 

i. Midwayan { Lower Eocene. 

The Jacksonian is sometimes regarded as Oligocene. This 
classification is based almost wholly on the fossils, for there seems 
to be little physical reason for the differentiation of the Oligocene 
anywhere on the continent. 

On the Pacific coast the marine Eocene lies west of the Sierras, 
and between it and the Cretaceous there is a general, and often a 
great, unconformity. The system has been reported to have a 
thickness of more than 7000 ft. in some places, and locally (e.g. the 
Pescadero formation) it is highly metamorphic. The Eocene of 
southern California carries gypsum enough to be of commercial 
value. It is also the source of much oil. The system is wanting 
in northern California and southern Oregon, but appears again 
farther north, and has great development in Oregon, where its 
thickness has been estimated at more than 10,000 ft. As in other 
comparable cases, this figure does not make allowance for the 
oblique attitude in which the sediments were deposited, and should 
not be construed to mean the vertical thickness of the system. 

In Washington the Eocene is represented by the Puget series 
of brackish water beds, with an estimated thickness exceeding that 
of the marine formations of Oregon. Workable coal beds are 
distributed through 3000 ft. of this series. The amount of the 
coal is very great, though the coal is soft. 

Terrestrial Eocene formations eolian, fluvial, pluvial and lacus- 
trine are widespread in the western part of the United States, 
both in and about the mountains. By means of the fossils, 
several more or less distinct stages of deposition have been 
recognized. Named in chronological order, these are: 

1. The Fort Union stage, when the deposition was widespread 
about the eastern base of the northern part of the Rocky Mountains, 
and at some points in Colorado (Telluride formation) and New 
Mexico (Puerco beds), where volcanic ejecta entered largely into 
the formation. The Fort Union stage is closely associated with 
the Laramie, and their separation has not been fully effected. 

2. The Wasatch stage, when deposition was in progress over much 
of Utah and western Colorado, parts of Wyoming, and elsewhere. 

3. The Bridger stage, when deposition was in progress in the 
Wind River basin, north of the mountain of that name, and in the 
basin of Green river. 

4. The Uinta stage, when the region south of the mountains of 
that name, in Utah and Colorado, was the site of great deposition. 

More or less isolated deposits of some or all of these stages are 
found at numerous points in the western mountain region. The 
present height of the deposits, in some places as much as 10,000 ft., 
gives some suggestion of the changes in topography which have 
taken place since the early Tertiary. The thickness of the system 
in the west is great, the formations of each of the several stages 
mentioned above running into thousands of feet, as thicknesses are 
commonly measured. 

The Miocene system, generally speaking, has a distribution 
similar to that of the Eocene. The principal formation of the 
Miocene Atlantic coastal plain is the Chesapeake formation, 
largely of sand. In Florida the system contains 



System. 



calcium phosphate of commercial value. The Miocene 



of the Atlantic and Gulf regions nowhere attains great thickness. 
The oil of Texas and Louisiana is from the Miocene (or possibly 
Oligocene) dolomite. On the Pacific coast the system has greater 
development. It contains much volcanic material, and great bodies 
of siliceous shale, locally estimated at 4000 ft. thick and said to be 
made up largely of the secretions of organisms. Such thicknesses 
of such material go far to modify the former opinion that the 
Tertiary periods were short. The Miocene of California is oil- 
producing. The terrestrial Miocene formations of the western 
part of the country are similar in kind, and, in a general way, in 
distribution, to the Eocene of the same region. The amount of 
volcanic material, consisting of both pyroclastic material and lava 
flows, is great. 

At the close of the Miocene, deformative movements were very 
widespread in the Rocky Mountains and between the principal 
development of the Coast ranges of California and Oregon, and 
mountain-making movements, new or renewed, were somewhat 
general in the west. At the close of the period the topography of 
the western part of the country must have been comparable to that 
of the present time. This, however, is not to be interpreted to 
mean that it has remained unmodified, or but slightly modified 
since that time. Subsequent erosion has changed the details of 
topography on an extensive scale, and subsequent deformative 
movements have renewed large topographic features where erosion 
had destroyed those developed by the close of the Miocene. But 



in spite of these great changes since the Miocene, the great out- 
lines of the topography of the present were probably marked out 
by the close of that period. Volcanic activity and faulting on a 
large scale attended the deformation of the closing stages of the 
Miocene. 

The Pliocene system stands in much the same stratigraphic relation 
to the Miocene as the Miocene does to the Eocene. The marine 
Pliocene has but trifling development on the Atlantic pitaa-ne 
coast north of Florida, and somewhat more extensive s 
development in the Gulf region. The marine Pliocene 
of the continent has its greatest development in California (the 
Merced series, peninsula of San Francisco), where it is assigned a 
maximum thickness of nearly 6000 ft., and possibly as much as 
13,000 ft. This wide range is open to doubt as to the correlation of 
some of the beds involved. Thicknesses of several thousand feet are 
recorded at other points in California and elsewhere along the 
coast farther north. Marine Pliocene beds are reported to have an 
altitude of as much as 5000 ft. in Alaska. The position of these 
beds is significant of the amount of change which has taken place 
in the west since the Pliocene period. The non-marine formations 
of the Pliocene are its most characteristic feature. They are 
widely distributed in the western mountains and on the Great 
Plains. In origin and character, and to some extent in distribution, 
they are comparable with the Eocene and Miocene formations of 
the same region, and still more closely comparable with deposits 
now making. In addition to these non-marine formations of the 
west, there is the widespread Lafayette formation, which covers 
much of the Atlantic and Gulf coastal plain, reaching far to the 
north from the western Gulf regio.i, and having uncertain limits, so 
far as now worked out, in various directions. The Lafayette for- 
mation has been the occasion of much difference of opinion, but is 
by many held to be a non-marine formation, made up of gravels, 
sands and clays, accumulated on land, chiefly through the agency 
of rain and rivers. Its deposition seems ,to have followed a time 
of deformation which resulted in an increase of altitude in the Appa- 
lachian Mountains, and in an accentuation of the contrast between 
the highlands and the adjacent plains. Under these conditions 
sediments from the high lands were washed out and distributed 
widely over the plains, giving rise to a thin but widespread forma- 
tion of ill-assorted sediment, without marine fossils, and, for the 
most part, without fossils of any kind, and resting unconformably 
on Cretaceous, Eocene and Miocene formations. To the seaward 
the non-marine phase of the formation doubtless grades into a marine 
phase along the shore of that time, but the position of this shore 
has not been defined. The marine part of the Lafayette is probably 
covered by sediments of later age. 

. In earlier literature the Lafayette formation was described under 
the name of Orange Sand, and was at one time thought to be the 
southern equivalent of the glacial drift. This, however, is now 
known not to be the case, as remnants of the formation, isolated by 
erosion, lie under the old glacial drift in Illinois, and perhaps else- 
where. It seems probable that the Lafayette formation of the Gulf 
coastal plain is continuous northward and westward! with gravel 
deposits on the Great Plains, washed out from the Rocky Mountains 
to the west. The careful study of these fluvial formations is likely 
to throw much light on the history of the deformative movements 
and changes in topography in the United States during the late 
stages of geological history. 

Deformative movements of the minor sort seem to have been in 
progress somewhat generally during the Tertiary periods, especially 
in the western part of the country, but those at the close of the 
Pliocene seem to have exceeded greatly those of the earlier stages. 
They resulted in increased height of land, especially in the west, and 
therefore in increased erosion. This epoch of relative uplift and 
active erosion is sometimes called the Sierran or Ozarkian epoch. 
The details of the topography of the western mountains are largely 
of post-Pliocene development. The summits of some of the high 
mountains, such as the Cascades, appear to be remnants of a 
peneplain developed in post-Miocene time. If so, the mountains 
themselves must be looked upon as essentially post-Pliocene. De- 
formative movements resulting in close folding were not common at 
this time, but such movements affected some of the coast ranges 
of California. This epoch of great deformation and warping marks 
the transition from the Tertiary to the Quaternary. 

Quaternary Formations. The best-known formations of the 
Quaternary period are those deposited by the continental glaciers 
which were the distinguishing feature of the period QiaciaL 
and by the waters derived from them. The glacial 
drift covers something like half of the continent, though much 
less than half of the United States. Besides the drift of the ice- 
sheets, there is much drift in the western mountains, deposited by 
local glaciers. Such glaciers existed in all the high mountains of 
the west, even down to New Mexico and Arizona. 

The number of glacial epochs now recognized is five, not counting 
minor episodes. Four defined zones of interglacial deposits are 
detected, all of which are thought to represent great recessions of 
the ice, or perhaps its entire disappearance. The climate of some 
of the interglacial epochs was at least as warm as that of the present 
time in the same regions. The glacial epochs which have been 



630 



UNITED STATES 



[GEOLOGY 



differentiated are the following, numbered in chronological order: 
(5) Wisconsin, (4) lowan, (3) Illinoian, (2) Kansan, (i) Sub- 
Aftonian, or Jerseyan. Of these, the Kansan ice-sheet was the 
most extensive, and the later ones constitute a diminishing series. 
Essentially all phases of glacial and aqueo-glacial drift are repre- 
sented. The principal terminal moraines are associated with the 
ice of the Wisconsin epoch. Terminal moraines at the border of 
the Illinoian drift are generally feeble, though widely recognizable, 
and such moraines at the margin of the lowan and Kansan drift 
sheets are generally wanting. The edge of the oldest drift sheet 
is buried by younger sheets of drift in most places. 

Loess is widespread in the Mississippi River basin, especially 
along the larger streams which flowed from the ice. Most of the 
loess is now generally believed to have been deposited by the wind. 
The larger part of it seems to date from the closing stages of the 
lowan epoch, but loess appears to have come into existence after 
other glacial epochs as well. Most of the fossils of the loess are shells 
of terrestrial gastropods, but bones of land mammals are also found 
in not a few places. Some of the loess is thought to have been 
derived by the wind from the surface of the drift soon after the retreat 
of the ice, before vegetation got a foothold upon the new-made 
deposit ; but a large part of the loess, especially that associated with 
the main valleys, appears to have been blown up on to the bluffs 
of the valleys from the flood plains below. As might be expected 
under these conditions, it ranges from fine sand to silt which ap- 
proaches clay in texture. Its coarser phases are closely associated 
with dunes in many places, and locally the loess makes a considerable 
part of the dune material. 

Much interest attaches to estimates of time based on data afforded 
by the consequences of glaciation. These estimates are far apart, 
and must be regarded as very uncertain, so far as actual numbers 
are concerned. The most definite are connected with estimates of 
the time since the last glacial epoch, and are calculated from the 
amount and rate of recession of certain falls, notably those of the 
Niagara and Mississippi (St Anthony Falls) rivers. The estimate of 
the time between the first and last glacial epochs is based on changes 
which the earlier drift has undergone as compared with those which 
the younger drift has undergone. Some of the estimates make the 
lapse of time since the first glacial epoch more than a million years, 
while others make it no more than one-third as long. The time since 
the last glacial epoch is but a fraction of the time since the first 
probably no more than a fifteenth or a twentieth. 

Outside the region affected by glaciation, deposits by wind, rain, 
rivers, &c., have been building up the land, and sedimentation has 
,. m been in progress in lakes and about coasts.^ The non- 

l"l , glacial deposits are much like the Tertiary in kind and 
gtaaai. distribution, except that marine beds have little repre- 
sentation on the land. On the coastal plain there is the Columbia 
series of gravels, sands and loams, made up of several members. 
Its distribution is similar to that of the Lafayette, though the Co- 
lumbia series is, for the most part, confined to lower levels. Some 
of its several members are definitely correlated in time with some 
of the glacial epochs. The series is widespread over the lower part 
of the coastal plain. In the west the Quaternary deposits are not, 
in all cases, sharply separated from the late Tertiary, but the deposits 
of glacial drift, referable to two or more glacial epochs, are readily 
differentiated from the Tertiary; so, also, are certain lacustrine 
deposits, such as those of the extinct lakes Bonneville and Lahontan. 
On the Pacific coast marine Quaternary formations occur up to 
elevations of a few scores of feet, at least, above the sea. 

Igneous rocks, whether lava flows or pyroclastic ejections, are 
less important in the Quaternary than in the Tertiary, though 
volcanic activity is known to have continued into the Quaternary. 
The Quaternary beds of lakes Bonneville and Lahontan have been 
faulted in a small way since they were deposited, and the old shore 
lines of these lakes have been deformed to the extent of hundreds 
of feet. So also have the shorelines of the Great Lakes, which came 
into existence at the close of the glacial period. 

Much has been written and more said concerning the existence 
of man in the United States before the last glacial epoch. The 
present state of evidence, however, seems to afford no warrant for 
the conclusion that man existed in the United States before the end 
of the glacial period 1 . Whatever theoretical reasons there may be 
for assuming his earlier existence, they must be held as warranting 
no more than a presumptive conclusion, which up to the present 
time lacks confirmation by certain evidence. 

The following sections from selected parts of the country give 
some idea of the succession of beds in various type regions. The 
thicknesses, especially where the formations are metamorphosed, 
are uncertain. 

WEST CENTRAL MASSACHUSETTS 
Triassic. 

Chicopee shale 200 ft. (?) 

Granby tuff 580 ,, 

Blackrock diabase (cones and dikes). 

Longmeadow sandstone 1000 ,, 

Sugarloaf arkose 4660 ,, 

Mount Toby conglomerate. 
Unconformity. 



8 

$ 



Devonian. 

Bernardston series 1950 ft. 

Unconformity. 
Silurian. 

Leyden argillite 300 ft. 

Conway schist 1 

Amherst schist ^5000,, (?) 

Brinfield fibrolite-schist J 

Goshen schist 2000 (?) 

Unconformity. 
Ordovician. 

Hawley schist 2000 ft. (?) 

Savoy schist 5OOO 

Chester amphibolite 3000 

Rowe schist 4000 

Hoosic schist 1500 , 

Unconformity. 
Cambrian. 

Becket gneiss . 2000 ft.(?) 

Unconformity. 
Proterozoic. 

Washington gneiss 2000 ft.(?) 

(Base not exposed.) 

The above section is fairly representative for considerable parts 
of New England. 

WEST VIRGINIA, &c. 
Pennsylvanian. 

(Top of system removed by erosion.) 

Braxton formation 700 ft. 

Upshur sandstone 300- 500 

Pugh formation 300- 450 

Pickens sandstone 400 500 ,, 

Unconformity. 
Mississippian. 

Canaan formation 1000-1300 ft. 

Greenbrier limestone 35O- 400 

Pocono sandstone 70- 90 ,, 

Devonian. 

Hampshire formation 15001800 ft. 

Jennings formation 3000-3800 

Romney shale 1000-1300 ,, 

Unconformity. 

Monterey sandstone 50- 2OO ft. 

Silurian. 

Lewiston limestone 550-1050 ft. 

Rockwood formation . . . . . . 100 800 ,, 

Cacapon sandstone 100- 630 ,, 

Tuscarora quartzite 30- 300 ,, 

Juniata formation 205-1250 ,, 

Ordovician. 

Martinsburg shale 800-1800 ft. 

Middle and Upper Cambrian. 

Shenandoah limestone 2400 ft. 

(Base not exposed.) 

This section is fairly representative for the Appalachian Mountain 
tract, though the Cambrian is often more fully represented. 



Permian. 

Dunkard formation 
Pennsylvanian. 

Monongahela formation . 
Conemaugh formation 
Alleghany formation . 
Pottsville conglomerate . 
Unconformity. 
Mississippian. 

Maxville limestone 
Waverley series 
Logan group 

Black Hand conglomerate 
Cuyahoga shale . 
Sunbury shale 
Berea grit .... 
Bedford shale 
Devonian. 

Ohio shale 

Olentangy shale 
Delaware limestone 
Columbus limestone . 
Silurian. 

Monroe formation 
Niagara group 
Clinton limestone . 
Medina shales (?) . 
(Belfast bed.) 



OHIO 



c. 25 ft. 

200- 250 ft. 
400- 500 ,, 
165- 300 
250 ,, 



c. 25 ft. 

100- 150 ft. 

50- 500 

150- 300 

5- 30,, 

5- i?5 

50- 15 -. 

300-2600 ft. 
20- 35 .. 
30- 4 
no,, 

50- 600 ft. 

150- 35 ,- 
to- 50 ,, 
50- 150 



GEOLOGY] 

Ordovician. 

Saluda beds. 
Richmond formation 
Lorraine formation 
Eden (Utica) shale 
Trenton limestone . 



UNITED SPATES 



631 



20 ft. 
300 * 
3<x> =t 
250 
130 



IOWA 



Glacial drift. 
Unconformity. 
Upper Cretaceous. 

Benton formation o- 150 ft. 

Dakota formation 50- 100 

Unconformity. 
Pennsylvanian. 

Missouri formation 1500 ft. 

Des Moines formation 250- 400 

Unconformity. 
Mississippian. 

St Louis limestone 100 ft. 

Osage (Augusta) formation 200- 300 ,, 

Kinderhook formation 150- 200,, 

Devonian. 

Lime Creek formation 80 ft. 

State Quarry beds 20- 40 

Sweetland Creek shales 20- 40 

Unconformity. 

Cedar Valley limestone 250- 300 ft. 

Wapsipinicon formation (Independence, 

Fayette, Davenport) IOO--I5O,, 

Silurian. 

Anamosa limestone 50- 75 ft. 

Le Claire limestone 50 

Delaware stage 200 

Unconformity. 
Ordovician. 

Maquoketa shales 175 ft. 

Possible Unconformity. 

Galena-Trenton limestone 290 ft. 

St Peters sandstone 100 

Oneota formation (includes Shakopee, New 

Richmond and Oneota proper) . . . 300 ,, 

Cambrian. 

St Croix sandstone ( = Potsdam) .... 1000 ft. 
Unconformity. 
Proterozoic. 

Sioux quartzite (?) 

This section is fairly representative for much of the central 
Mississippi Basin. 

OKLAHOMA 

Pennsylvanian. 

(Summit removed by erosion.) 

Seminole conglomerate 50 ft. 

Holdenville shale 260 ,, 

Wewaka formation . 700 ,, 

Wetumka shale 120 ,, 

Calvin sandstone 145- 240 

Senora formation 140- 485 

Stuart shale 90- 280 

Thurman sandstone 80- 260 

Boggy shale 2000-2600 

Savannah sandstone 750-1100 

McAlester shale 1150-1500 

Hartshorne sandstone 150- 200 

Atoka formation (Chickahoc chert lentil) . 3200 
Wapanucka limestone 100- 150 

Mississippian. 

Caney shale 1500 ft. 

Devonian. 

Woodford chert 600 ft. 

Silurian. 

Hunton limestone 160 ft. 

Sylvan shale (upper part) 50- 100 ,, 

Ordovician. 

Sylvan shale (lower part) 250 ft. 

Viola limestone 750 

Simpson series 1600 

Arbuckle limestone 4000-6000 

Cambrian. 

Regan sandstone 50- 100 ft. 

Unconformity. 

Pre- Cambrian. 

Tishomingo granite (?) 

Composite section. The upper part is taken from vicinty of 

Coalgate, the lower part from the vicinity of Atoka. 



WEST CENTRAL COLORADO 

Eocene or later. 

West Elk breccia 3000 ft. 

Unconformity. 
Cretaceous. 

Ruby formation 2500 ft. 

Unconformity. 

Ohio formation (local only) 200 ft. 

Unconformity. 

Laramie formation 2000 ft. 

Montana formation 2800 t> 

Niobrara formation too- 200 ,, 

Benton formation 150- 300 ,, 

Dakota formation 40- 300 .. 

Jurassic. 

Gunnison formation 350- 500 ft. 

Unconformity. 
Pennsylvanian. 

Maroon conglomerate 4500 ft. 

Possible unconformity. 

Weber limestone 100- 550 ft. 

Unconformity. 
Mississippian. 

Leadville limestone 400- 525 ft. 

Apparent unconformity. 
Ordovician. 

Yule limestone 35O- 450 ft. 

Upper Cambrian. 

Sawatch quartzite 50- 350 ft. 

Unconformity. 
Archean. 

THE BIGHORN MOUNTAINS OF WYOMING 
Cretaceous. 

De Smet formation (shale and sandstone) . 4000 ft. 

Kingsbury conglomerate 0-1500 

Piney formation (shale and sandstone) . . 2500 

Parkman sandstone 350 

Pierre shale 1500-3500 

Colorado formation 1050-1700 

Comanchean. 

Cloverly formation (upper part may be 

Cretaceous) 30- 300 ft. 

Morrison formation (may be Jurassic) . 100- 300 ,, 
Jurassic. 

Sundance formation 250- 350 ft. 

Unconformity. 
Triassic and Permian. 

Chugwater formation 750-1200 ft. 

Pennsylvanian. 

Tensleep sandstone 30- 150 ft. 

Amsden sandstone 150- 350 

Mississippian . 

Madison limestone 1000 ft. 

Unconformity. 
Ordovician. 

Bighorn limestone 300 ft. 

Unconformity. 
Cambrian (Upper). 

Deadwood formation 900 ft. 

Unconformity. 
Pre- Cambrian. 
Granites. 
This section is fairly representative for the Rocky Mountains. 

SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA 
Quaternary. 

Alluvium, &c. 

Terrace deposits and dune sand. 
Pliocene (?) 

Paso Robles formation looo+ft. 

Unconformity. . 

Miocene (?) 

Pismo formation (in south part of area) . 3000 ft. 
Santa Margarita (in north part of area) . 1550=*= 
Unconformity. 
Miocene. 

Monterey shale ... .... 5000-7000 ft. 

Vaquero sandstone o- 500 ,, 

Unconformity. , 
Cretaceous. 

Atascadero formation 3000-4000 ft. 

Unconformity. 
Comanchean. 

Toro formation (Knoxville) 3000 =*= ft. 

Unconformity. 



632 



UNITED STATES 



[CLIMATE 



Jura-Trias. 

San Luis formation (Franciscan) . . . 1000* ft 

Unconformity. 

Granite age undetermined. 
This section is representative of the southern Pacific coast. 

SECTION IN CENTRAL WASHINGTON 
Pliocene (?). 

Howson andesite 250 ft. 

Miocene. 

Kcechelus andesite series 4 

Unconformity. 
Guye formation (sedimentary beds with 

some lava flows) 3500 ft. 

Eocene. 

Roslyn formation (sandstone and shale; 

coal) c. 3000ft. 

Teanaway basalt 4000 

Kachess rhyolite 0-2000 

Swauk formation (clastic rocks with some 

tuff, &c.) 200-5000 

Unconformity. 

Pre-Tertiary. 

Igneous and metamorphic rocks. 

This section is representative of the north-west part of the country. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. A detailed bibliography for North American 
geology from 1732 to 1891, inclusive, is given in U.S. Geological 
Survey Bulletin 127 (1896); for 1892-1900 in Bulletin 188 (1902); 
for 1901-1905 in Bull. 301 (1906) ; for 1906-1907 in Bull. 372 (1909) ; 
for 1908 in Bull. 409 (1909), &c. A few of the more important and 
available publications are enumerated below. 

General Treatises. T. C. Chamberlin and R. D. Salisbury, 
Geologic Processes (New York) and Earth History (2 vols., New York) ; 
J. D. Dana, Manual of Geology (New York, 1862); W. B. Scott, 
Introduction to Geology (New York, 1897); and Joseph Le Conte, 
Elements of Geology (New York, 1878). 

Official Reports. F. V. Hayden, Reports of the U.S. Geological 
and Geographical Surrey of the Territories (12 vols., Washington, 
1873-1883); Clarence King, Geological Exploration of the Fortieth 
Parallel (7 vols. and atlas, Washington, 1870-1880); George M. 
Wheeler, Geographical and Geological Exploration and Surveys West 
of the 100th Meridian (7 vols. and 2 atlases, Washington, 1877-1879) ; 
and Reports of the U.S. Geological Survey (since 1880) : (i) Monographs 
on special topics and areas, about 50 in number; (2) Professional 
Papers monographic treatment of somewhat smaller areas and 
lesser topics, about 60 in number; (3) Bulletins, between 300 and 400 
in number; and (4) Annual Reports (previous to 1903) containing 
many papers of importance, of the sort now published as Professional 
Papers. Reports of state geological surveys have been published 
by most of the states east of the Missouri river, and some of those 
farther west (California, Washington, Kansas, Nebraska and Wyom- 
ing) and south (Arkansas, Texas and Louisiana). Among the more 
important periodicals are the Bulletin of the Geological Society of 
America (Rochester, N.Y., 1889 seq.); the American Journal of 
Science (New Haven, Conn., 1818 seq.); the American Geologist 
(Minneapolis, 1888 seq.); Journal of Geology (Chicago, 1893 seq.); 
Economic Geology (Lancaster, Pa., 1905 seq.). Occasional articles 
of value are to be found in the American Naturalist and Science, 
and in the Transactions and Proceedings of various state and municipal 
academies of science, societies, &c. (R. D. S. ; T. C. C.) 

III. CLIMATE 

The chief features of the climate of the United States may be 
best apprehended by relating them to the causes by which they are 
controlled. Two leading features, from which many others follow, 
are the intermediate value of the mean annual temperatures and 
the prevalence of westerly winds, with which drift the areas of high 
and low pressure cyclonic and anticyclonic areas controlling 
the short-lived, non-periodic weather changes. The first of these 
features is determined by the intermediate position of the United 
States between the equator and the north pole; the second by the 
equatorial-polar temperature contrast and the eastward rotation 
of the planet. Next, dependent on the inclination of the earth's 
axis, is the division of the planetary year into the terrestrial seasons, 
with winter and summer changes of temperature, wind-strength 
and precipitation; these seasonal changes are not of the restrained 
measure that is characteristic of the oceanic southern temperate 
zone, but of the exaggerated measure appropriate to the continental 
interruptions of the northern land-and-water zone, to which the 
term " temperate " is so generally inapplicable. The effects of the 
continent are already visible in the mean annual temperatures, 
in which the poleward temperature gradient is about twice as 
strong as it is on the neighbouring oceans; this being a natural effect 
of the immobility of the land surface, in contrast to the circulatory 
movement of the ocean currents, which thus lessen the temperature 
differences due to latitude: on the continent such differences are 
developed in full force. Closely associated with the effect of conti 
nental immobility are the effects dependent on the low specific heat 



and the opacity of the lands, in contrast with the high specific heat 
and partial transparence of the ocean waters. In virtue of these 
Dhysical characteristics, the air over the land becomes much warmer 
n summer and much colder in winter than the air over the oceans in 
corresponding latitudes ; hence the seasonal changes of temperature in 
the central United States are strong; the high temperatures apprp- 
sriate to the torrid zone advance northward to middle latitudes in 
summer, and the low temperatures appropriate to the Arctic regions 
descend almost to middle latitudes in winter. As a result, the 
isotherms of July are strongly convex poleward as they cross the 
United States, the isotherm of 70 sweeping up to the northern 
boundary in the north-west, and the heat equator leaping to the over- 
heated deserts of the south-west, where the July mean is over 90. 
Conversely, the isotherms of January are convex southward, with a 
monthly mean below 32 in the northern third of the interior, and 
of zero on the mid-northern boundary. The seasonal bending of 
the isotherms is, however, unsymmetrical for several reasons. The 
continent being interrupted on its eastern side by the Gulf of 
Mexico and Hudson Bay, with the Great Lakes between these two 
large water bodies, the northward bending of the July isotherms is 
most pronounced in the western part of the United States. Indeed 
the contrast between the moderate temperatures of the Pacific 
coast and the overheated areas of the next interior deserts is so 
great that the isotherms trend almost parallel to the coast, and are 
even " overturned " somewhat in southern California, where the 
most rapid increase of temperatures in July is found not by moving 
southward over the ocean toward the equator, but north-eastward 
over the land to the deserts of Nevada and Arizona. So strong is 
the displacement of the area of highest interior temperatures west- 
ward from the middle of the continent that the Gulf of California 
almost rivals the Red Sea as an ocean-arm under a desert-hot atmo- 
sphere. In the same midsummer month all the eastern half of the 
United States is included between the isotherms of 66 and 82; 
the contrast between Lake Superior and the coast of the Gulf of 
Mexico, 1200 m. to the south, is not so great as between the coast 
of southern California and the desert 150 m. inland to the north-east. 
In January the northern water areas of the continent are frozen and 
snow-covered; Hudson Bay becomes unduly cold, and the greatest 
southward bending of the isotherms is somewhat east of the conti- 
nental axis, with an extension of its effects out upon the Atlantic; 
but the southward bending isotherms are somewhat looped back 
about the unfrozen waters of the lower Great Lakes. In the mid- 
winter month, it is the eastern half of the country that has strong 
temperature contrasts; the temperature gradients are twice as strong 
between New Orleans and Minneapolis as on the Pacific coast, and 
the contrast between Jacksonville, Fla., and Eastport, Me., is about 
the same as between San Diego, Cal., and the Aleutian Islands. 

The strong changes of temperature with the seasons are indicated 
also by the distribution of summer maxima and winter minima; 
summer temperatures above 1 12 are known in the south-western 
deserts, and temperatures of 100 are sometimes carried far north- 
ward on the Great Plains by the " hot winds " nearly to the Canadian 
boundary ; while in winter, temperatures of -40 occur along the 
mid-northern boundary and freezing winds sometimes sweep down 
to the border of the Gulf of Mexico. The temperature anomalies 
are also instructive: they rival those of Asia in value, though not 
in area, being from 15 to 20 above the mean of their latitude in 
the northern interior in summer, and as much below in winter. 
The same is almost true of the mean annual range (mean of July 
to mean of January), the states of the northern prairies and plains 
having a mean annual range of 70 and an extreme range of 135. 
In this connexion the effect of the prevailing winds is very marked. 
The equalizing effects of a conservative ocean are brought upon the 
Pacific coast, where the climate is truly temperate, the mean annual 
range being only 10 or 12, thus resembling western Europe; 
while the exaggerating effects of the continental interior are carried 
eastward to the Atlantic coast, where the mean annual range is 
40 or 50. 

The prevailing winds respond to the stronger poleward tempera- 
ture gradients of winter by rising to a higher velocity and a more 
frequent and severer cyclonic stormincss; and to the weaker 
gradients of summer by relaxing to a lower velocity with fewer and 
weaker cyclonic storms; but furthermore the northern zone occupied 
by the prevailing westerlies expands as the winds strengthen in 
winter, and shrinks as they weaken in summer; thus the stormy 
westerlies, which impinge upon the north-western coast and give 
it plentiful rainfall all through the year, in winter reach southern 
California and sweep across part of the Gulf of Mexico and Florida ; 
it is for this reason that southern California has a rainy winter 
season, and that the states bordering on the Gulf of Mexico are 
visited in winter by occasional intensified cold winds, inappropriate 
to their latitude. In summer the stormy westerly winds withdraw 
from these lower latitudes, which are then to be more associated 
with the trade winds. In California the effect of the strong equator- 
ward turn of the summer winds is to produce a dry season ; but in 
the states along the Gulf of Mexico and especially in Florida the 
withdrawal of the stormy westerlies in favour of the steadier trade 
winds (here turned somewhat toward the continental interior, as 
explained below) results in an increase of precipitation. The general 



FAUNA AND FLORA] 



UNITED STATES 



633 



winds also are much affected by the changes of pressure due to the 
strong continental changes of temperature. The warmed air of 
summer produces an area of low pressure in the west-central United 
States, which interrupts the belt of high pressure that planetary 
conditions alone would form around the earth about latitude 30 ; 
hence there is a tendency of the summer winds to blow inward 
from the northern Pacific over the Cordilleras toward the continental 
centre, and from the trades of the torrid Atlantic up the Mississippi 
Valley; conversely in winter time, the cold air over the lands pro- 
duces a large area of high pressure from which the winds tend to 
flow outward; thus repelling the westerly winds of the northern 
Pacific and greatly intensifying the outflow southward to the Gulf 
of Mexico and eastward to the Atlantic. As a result of these 
seasonal alternations of temperature and pressure there is something 
of a monsoon tendency developed in the winds of the Mississippi 
Valley, southerly inflowing winds prevailing in summer and northerly 
outflowing winds in winter; but the general tendency to inflow 
and outflow is greatly modified by the relief of the lands, to which we 
next turn. 

The climatic effects of relief are seen directly in the ascent of 
the higher mountain ranges to altitudes where low temperatures 
prevail, thus preserving snow patches through the summer on the 
high summits (over 12,000 ft.) in the south, and maintaining snow- 
fields and moderate-sized glaciers on the ranges in the north. With 
this goes a general increase of precipitation with altitude, so that 
a good rainfall map would have its darker shades very generally 
along the mountain ranges. Thus the heaviest measured rainfall 
east of the Mississippi is on the southern Appalachians; while in 
the west, where observations are as yet few at high level stations, 
the occurrence of forests and pastures on the higher slopes of 
mountains which rise from desert plains clearly testifies to the same 
rule. The mountains also introduce controls over the local winds; 
diurnal warming in summer suffices to cause local ascending breezes 
which frequently become cloudy by the expansion of ascent, even 
to the point of forming local thunder showers which drift away as 
they grow and soon dissolve after leaving the parent mountain. 
Conversely, nocturnal cooling produces well-defined descending 
breezes which issue from the valley mouths, sometimes attaining 
an unpleasant strength toward midnight. 

The mountains are of larger importance in obstructing and de- 
flecting the course of the general winds. The Pacific ranges, stand- 
ing transverse to the course of the prevailing westerlies near the 
Pacific Ocean, are of the greatest importance in this respect; it is 
largely by reason of the barrier that they form that the tempering 
effects of the Pacific winds are felt for so short a distance inland 
in winter, and that the heat centre is displaced in summer 
so far towards the western coast. The rainfall from the stromy 
westerly winds is largely deposited on the western slopes of the 
mountains near the Pacific coast, and arid or desert interior plains 
are thus found close to the great ocean. The descending winds 
on the eastern slopes of the ranges are frequently warm and dry, 
to the point of resembling the Fphn winds of the Alps; such winds 
are known in the Cordilleran region as Chinook winds. The ranges 
of the Rocky Mountains in their turn receive some rainfall from the 
passing winds, but it is only after the westerlies are reinforced 
by a moist indraft from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic the 
result of summer or of cyclonic inflow that rainfall increases to a 
sufficient measure on the lower lands to support agriculture without 
irrigation. The region east of the Mississippi is singularly favoured 
in this way; for it receives a good amount of rainfall, well dis- 
tributed through the year, and indeed is in this respect one of the 
largest regions in the temperate zones that are so well watered. 
The Great Plains are under correspondingly unfavourable conditions, 
for their scanty rainfall is of very variable amount. Along the 
transition belt between plains and prairies the climate is peculiarly 
trying as to rainfall ; one series of five or ten years may have sufficient 
rainfall to enable the farmers to gather good crops; but the next 
series following may be so dry that the crops fail year after year. 

The cyclonic inflows and anticyclonic outflows, so characteristic 
of the belt of westerly winds the world over, are very irregular in the 
Cordilleran region ; but farther eastward they are typically developed 
by reason of the great extent of open country. Although of reduced 
strength in the summer, they still suffice to dominate weather 
changes; it is during the approach of a low pressure centre that hot 
southerly winds prevail; they sometimes reach so high a tempera- 
ture as to wither and blight the grain crops; and it is almost 
exclusively in connexion with the cloudy areas near and south-east 
of these cyclonic centres that violent thunderstorms, with their 
occasional destructive whirling tornadoes, are formed. With the 
passing of the low pressure centre, the winds shift to west or north- 
west, the temperature falls, and all nature is relieved. In winter- 
time, the cyclonic and anticyclonic areas are of increased frequency 
and intensity; and it is partly for this reason that many meteoro- 
logists have been disposed to regard them as chiefly driven by 
the irregular flow of the westerly winds, rather than as due to 
convectional instability, which should have a maximum effect 
in summer. One of the best indications of actual winter weather, 
as apart from the arrival of winter by the calendar, is the develop- 
ment of cyclonic disturbances of such strength that the change 
from their warm, sirocco-like southerly inflow in front of their 



centre, to the " cold wave " of their rear produces non-periodic 
temperature changes strong enough to overcome the weakened 
diurnal temperature changes of the cold season, a relation which 
practically never occurs in summer time. A curious feature of 
the cyclonic storms is that, whether they cross the interior of the 
country near the northern or southern boundary or along an 
intermediate path, they converge towards New England as they 
pass on toward the Atlantic; and hence that the north-eastern 
part of the United States is subjected to especially numerous and 
strong weather changes. (W. M. D.) 

IV. FAUNA AND FLORA 

Fauna. Differences of temperature have produced in North 
America seven transcontinental life-zones or areas characterized 
by relative uniformity of both fauna and flora ; they are the Arctic, 
Hudsonian and Canadian, which are divisions of the Boreal Region; 
the Transition, Upper Austral and Lower Austral, which are divisions 
of the Austral Region, and the Tropical. The Arctic, Hudsonian 
and Canadian enter the United States from the north and the 
Tropical from the south ; but the greater part of the United States 
is occupied by the Transition, Upper Austral and Lower Austral, 
and each of these is divided into eastern and western subzones by 
differences in the amount of moisture. The Arctic or Arctic- 
Alpine zone covers in the United States only the tops of a few 
mountains which extend above the limit of trees, such as Mt 
Katahdin in Maine, Mt Washington and neighbouring peaks 
in the White Mountains of New Hampshire, and the loftier peaks 
of the Rocky, Cascade and Sierra Nevada Mountains. The larger 
animals are rare on these mountain-tops and the areas are too 
small for a distinct fauna. The Hudsonian zone covers the upper 
slopes of the higher mountains of New England, New York and 
North Carolina and larger areas on the elevated slopes of the Rocky 
and Cascade Mountains ; and on the western mountains it is the home 
of the mountain goat, mountain sheep, Alpine flying-squirrel, 
nutcracker, evening grosbeak and Townsend's solitaire. The 
Canadian zone crosses from Canada into northern and north- 
western Maine, northern and central New Hampshire, northern 
Michigan, and north-eastern Minnesota and North Dakota, covers 
the Green Mountains, most of the Adirondacks and Catskills, the 
higher slopes of the mountains in Pennsylvania, West Virginia, 
Virginia, western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee, the lower 
slopes of the northern Rocky and Cascade Mountains, the upper 
slopes of the southern Rocky and Sierra Nevada Mountains, and 
a strip along the Pacific coast as far south as Cape Mendocino, 
interrupted, however, by the Columbia Valley. Among its charac- 
teristic mammals and birds are the lynx, marten, porcupine, northern 
red squirrel, Belding's and Kennicott's ground squirrels, varying 
and snowshoe rabbits, northern jumping mouse, white-throated 
sparrow, Blackburnian warbler, Audubon warbler, olive-backed 
thrush, three-toed woodpecker, spruce grouse, and Canada jay; 
within this zone in the North-eastern states are a few moose and 
caribou, but farther north these animals are more characteristic 
of the Hudsonian zone. The Transition zone, in which the 
extreme southern limit of several boreal species overlaps the 
extreme northern limit of numerous austral species, is divided 
into an eastern humid or Alleghanian area, a western arid area, 
and a Pacific coast humid area. The Alleghanian area com- 
prises most of the lowlands of New England. New York and 
Pennsylvania, the north-east corner of Ohio, most of the lower 
peninsula of Michigan, nearly all of Wisconsin, more than half 
of Minnesota, eastern North Dakota, north-eastern South Dakota, 
and the greater part of the Appalachian Mountains from Penn- 
sylvania to Georgia. It has few distinctive species, but within 
its borders the southern mole and cotton-tail rabbit of the 
South meet the northern star-nosed and Brewer's moles and 
the varying hare of the North, and the southern bobwhite, Balti- 
more oriole, bluebird, catbird, chewink, thrasher and wood thrush 
are neighbours of the bobolink, solitary virep and the hermit and 
Wilson s thrushes. The Arid Transition life-zone comprises the 
western part of the Dakotas, north-eastern Montana, and irregular 
areas in Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Wyoming, California, Nevada, 
Utah, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico and western Texas, covering 
for the most part the eastern base of the Cascade and Sierra Nevada 
Mountains and the higher parts of the Great Basin and the plateaus. 
Its most characteristic animals and birds are the white-tailed 
jack-rabbit, pallid vole, sage hen, sharp-tailed grouse and green- 
tailed townee; the large Columbia ground-squirrel (Spermophilus 
columbianus) is common in that part of the zone which is west of 
the Rocky Mountains, but east of the Rockies it is replaced by 
another species (Cynomys) which closely resembles a small prairie 
dog. The Pacific Coast Transition life-zone comprises the region 
between the Cascade and Coast ranges in Washington and Oregon, 
parts of northern California, , and most of the California coast 
region from Cape Mendocino to Santa Barbara. It is the home of 
the Columbia black-tail deer, western raccoon, Oregon spotted 
skunk, Douglas red squirrel, Townsend's chipmunk, tailless sewellel 
(Haplodon rufus), peculiar species of pocket gophers and voles, 
Pacific coast forms of the great-horned, spotted, screech and pigmy 
owls, sooty grouse, Oregon ruffed grouse, Steller's jay, chestnut- 
backed chickadee and Pacific winter wren. The Upper Austral 



UNITED STATES 



[POPULATION 



zone is divided into an eastern humid (or Carolinian) area and a 
western arid (or Upper Sonoran) area. The Carolinian area ex- 
tends from southern Michigan to northern Georgia and from the 
Atlantic coast to western Kansas, comprising Delaware, all of 
Maryland except the mountainous western portion, all of Ohio 
except the north-east corner, nearly the whole of Indiana, Illinois, 
Iowa and Missouri, eastern Nebraska and Kansas, south-eastern 
South Dakota, western central Oklahoma, northern Arkansas, 
middle and eastern Kentucky, middle Tennessee and the Tennessee 
valley in eastern Tennessee, middle Virginia and North Carolina, 
western West Virginia, north-eastern Alabama, northern Georgia, 
western South Carolina, the Connecticut Valley in Connecticut, the 
lower Hudson Valley and the Erie basin in New York, and narrow 
belts along the southern and western borders ot the lower peninsula 
of Michigan. It is the northernmost home of the opossum, grey 
fox, fox squirrel, cardinal bird, Carolina wren, tufted tit, gnat 
catcher, summer tanager and yellow-breasted chat. The Upper 
Sonoran life-zone comprises south-eastern Montana, central, eastern 
and north-eastern Wyoming, a portion of south-western South 
Dakota, western Nebraska and Kansas, the western extremity of 
Oklahoma, north-western Texas, eastern Colorado, south-eastern 
New Mexico, the Snake plains in Idaho, the Columbia plains in 
Washington, the Malheur and Harney plains in Oregon, the Great 
Salt Lake and Sevier deserts in Utah, and narrow belts in California, 
Nevada and Arizona. Among its characteristic mammals and birds 
are the sage cotton-tail, black-tailed jack-rabbit, Idaho rabbit, 
Oregon, Utah and Townsend's ground squirrels, sage chipmunk, five- 
toed kangaroo rats, pocket mice, grasshopper mice, burrowing owl, 
Brewer's sparrow, Nevada sage sparrow, lazuli finch, sage thrasher, 
Nuttall's poor-will, Bullock's oriole and rough-winged swallow. 
The Lower Austral zone occupies the greater part of the Southern 
states, and is divided near the g8th meridian into an eastern humid 
or Austroriparian area and a western arid or Lower Sonoran area. 
The Austroriparian zone comprises nearly all the Gulf States as far 
west as the mouth of the Rio Grande, the greater part of Georgia, 
eastern South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia, and extends 
up the lowlands of the Mississippi Valley across western Tennessee 
and Kentucky into southern Illinois and'Indiana and across eastern 
and southern Arkansas and eastern Oklahoma into south-eastern 
Missouri and Kansas. It is the home of the southern fox-squirrel, 
cotton rat, ricefield rat, wood rat, free-tailed bat, mocking bird, 
painted bunting, prothonotary warbler, red-cockaded woodpecker, 
chuckwill's-widow, and the swallow-tailed and Mississippi kites. 
A southern portion of this zone, comprising a narrow strip along the 
Gulf Coast from Texas to Florida and up the Atlantic coast to 
South Carolina, is semi-tropical, and is the northernmost habitation 
of several small mammals, the alligator (A lligatormississippiensis), 
the ground dove, white-tailed kite, Florida screech owl and Chap- 
man s night-hawk. The Lower Sonoran zone comprises the most 
arid parts of the United States : south-western Texas, south-western 
Arizona and a portion of northern Arizona, southern Nevada and 
a large part of southern California. Some of its characteristic 
mammals and birds are the long-eared desert fox, four-toed kangaroo 
rats, Sonoran pocket mice, big-eared and tiny white-haired bats, 
road runner, cactus wren, canyon wren, desert thrashers, 
hooded oriole, black-throated desert sparrow, Texas night-hawk 
and Gambel's quail. It is the northernmost home of the armadillo, 
ocelot, jaguar, red and grey cats, and the spiny pocket mouse, 
and in southern Texas especially it is visited by several species 
of tropical birds. There is some resemblance to the Tropical 
life-zone at the south-eastern extremity of Texas, but this zone 
in the United States is properly restricted to southern Florida and 
the lower valley of the Colorado along the border of California and 
Arizona, and the knowledge of the latter is very imperfect. The 
area in Florida is too small for characteristic tropical mammals, 
but it has the true crocodile (Crocodilus americanus) and is the 
home of a few tropical birds. Most of the larger American mammals 
are not restricted to any one faunal zone. The bison, although 
now nearly extinct, formerly roamed over nearly the entire region 
between the Appalachian and the Rocky Mountains. The black 
bear and beaver were also widely distributed. The Virginia deer 
still ranges from Maine to the Gulf states and from the Atlantic 
coast to the Rocky Mountains. The grizzly bear, cougar, coyote, 
prairie dog and antelope are still found in several of the Western 
states, and the grey wolf is common in the West and in northern 
Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan. 

Flora. The Alpine flora, which is found in the United Statesonly on 
the tops of those mountains which rise above the limit of trees, consists 
principally of a variety of plants which bloom as soon as the snow 
melts and for a short season make a brilliant display of colours. 
The flora of the Hudsonian and the Canadian zone consists largely 
of white and black spruce, tamarack, canoe-birch, balsam-poplar, 
balsam-fir, aspen and grey pine. In the Alleghanian Transition zone 
the chestnut, walnut, oaks and hickories of the South are inter- 
spersed among the beech, birch, hemlock and sugar maple of the 
North. In the Western Arid Transition zone the flora consists 
largely of the true sage brush (Artemisia tridentata), but some tracts 
are covered with forests of yellow or bull pine (Pinus ponderosa). 
The Pacific coast Transition zone is noted for its forests of giant 



conifers, principally Douglas fir, Sitka spruce, Pacific cedar and 
Western hemlock. Here, too, mosses and ferns grow in profusion, 
and the sadal (Gaultheria shallon), thimble berry (Rubus noolkamus), 
salmon berry (Rubus spectabilis) and devil's club (Fatsia horrida) 
are characteristic shrubs. In the Carolinian zone the tulip tree, 
sycamore, sweet gum, rose magnolia, short-leaf pine and sassafras 
find their northernmost limit Sage brush is common to both the 
western arid Transition zone anjl the Upper Sonoran zone, but in 
suitable soils of the latter several greasewoods (Artiplex conferti- 
folia, A. canescens, A. nuttalli, Tetradymia canescens, Sarcobatus 
vermiculatus and Grayia spinosa) are characteristic species, and on 
the mountain slopes are some nut pines (pinon) and junipers. The 
Austroriparian zone has the long-leaf and loblolly pines, magnolia 
and live oak on the uplands, and the bald cypress, tupelo and cane 
in the swamps; and in the semi-tropical Gulf strip are the cabbage 
palmetto and Cuban pine; here, too, Sea Island cotton and tropical 
fruits are successfully cultivated. The Lower Sonoran zone is 
noted for its cactuses, of which there is a great variety, and some of 
them grow to the height of trees; the mesquite is also very large, 
and the creosote bush, acacias, yuccas and agaves re common. 
The Tropical belt of southern Florida has the royal palm, coco-nut 
palm, banana, Jamaica dogwood, manchineel and mangrove; the 
Tropical belt in the lower valley of the Colorado has giant cactuses, 
desert acacias, palo-verdes and the Washington or fan-leaf palm. 
Almost all of the United States east of the 98th meridian is naturally 
a forest region, and forests coyer the greater part of the Rocky 
Mountains, the Cascades, the Sierra Neyadas and the Coast Range, 
but throughout the belt of plains, basins and deserts west of the 
Rocky Mountains and on the Great Plains east of the Rocky 
Mountains there are few trees except along the watercourses, and 
the prevailing type of vegetation ranges from bunch grass to sage 
brush and cactuses according to the degree of aridity and the 
temperature. In the eastern forest region the number of species 
decreases somewhat from south to north, but the entire region 
differs from the densely forested region of the Pacific Coast Transi- 
tion zone in that it is essentially a region of deciduous or hardwood 
forests, while the latter is essentially one of coniferous trees; it 
differs from the forested region of the Rocky Mountains in that the 
latter is not only essentially a region of coniferous trees, but one 
where the forests do not by any means occupy the whole area, 
neither do they approach in density or economic importance those 
of the eastern division of the country. Again, the forests of most of 
the eastern region embrace a variety of species, which, as a rule, 
are very much intermingled, and do not, unless quite exceptionally, 
occupy areas chiefly devoted to one species ; while, on the other hand, 
the forests of the west including both Rocky Mountain and Pacific 
coast divisions exhibit a small number of species, considering the 
vast area embraced in the region; and these species, in a number 
of instances, are extraordinarily limited in their range, although 
there are cases in which one or two species have almost exclusive 
possession of extensive areas. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. C. H. Merriam, Life Zones and Crop Zones of 
the United States, Bulletin No. 10 of the United States Department 
of Agriculture, Division of Biological Survey (Washington, 1898); 
I. C. Russell, North America (New York, 1904); W. T. Hornaday, 
American Natural History (New York, 1904); W. Stone and W. E. 
Cram, American Animals (New York, 1902) ; E. Coues, Key to North 
American Birds (Boston, 1896); Florence M. Bailey, Handbook of 
Birds of the Western United States (Boston, 1902) ; E. D. Cope, " The 
Crocodilians, Lizards and Snakes of North America," in the Report 
of the United States National Museum for the year 1898 (Washing- 
ton, 1900) ; L. Stejneger, " The Poisonous Snakes of North America," 
ibid., 1893 (Washington, 1895). (N. D. M.) 

V. POPULATION AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 
Geographical Growth of the Nation. The achievement of 
independence found the people of the United States owning 
the entire country between the Gulf and the Great Lakes, 
excepting only Florida, as far to the west as the Mississippi; 
but the actual settlements were, with a few minor exceptions, 
confined to a strip of territory along the Atlantic shore. The 
depth of settlement, from the coast inland, varied greatly, 
ranging from what would be involved in the mere occupation 
of the shore for fishing purposes to a body of agricultural 
occupation extending back to the base of the great Atlantic 
chain, and averaged some 250 m. 1 

Westward, beyond the general line of continuous settlement, 

1 In the Statistical Atlas volume of the census of 1900 the reader 
will find for each decennial census since 1790 a map showing the dis- 
tribution of population, with indication of the density of settlement, 
and an elaborate explanatory text. In Orin Grant Libby's Geo- 
graphical Distribution of the Vote of the Thirteen States on the Federal 
Constitution, 1787-1788 (University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1894), 
along with a valuable map interesting facts are given regarding 
the social and economic characteristics of different sections. 



POPULATION] 



UNITED STATES 



635 



were four extensions of population through as many gaps in 
the Appalachian barrier, constituting the four main paths 
along which migration westward first took place: the Mohawk 
Valley in New York, the upper Potomac, the Appalachian 
Valley, and around the southern base of the Appalachian 
system. Four outlying groups beyond the mountains, with 
perhaps a twentieth part of the total population of the nation, 
one about Pittsburg, one in West Virginia, another in northern 
Kentucky, and the last in Tennessee: all determined in situa- 
tion by river highways bore witness to the qualities of strength 
and courage of the American pioneer. Finally, there were in 
1790 about a score of small trading or military posts, mainly 
of French origin, scattered over the then almost unbroken 
wilderness of the upper Mississippi Valley and region of the 
Great Lakes. 

Twelve decennial censuses taken since that time (1800-1910) 
have revealed the extraordinary spread of population over 
the present area of the country (see CENSUS : United 
States). The large percentage of the population, particularly 



no years moved more than 500 m westward, almost exactly 
along the 39th parallel of latitude: 9-5 degrees of longitude, 
with an extreme variation of less than 19 minutes of latitude. 
Growth of the Nation in Population. If the igth century was 
remarkable with respect to national and urban growth the world 
over, it was particularly so in the growth of the United States. 
Malthus expressed the opinion that only in such a land of 
unlimited means of living could population freely increase. 
The total population increased from 1800 to 1900 about fourteen 
fold (1331-6%). 1 The rate of growth indicated in 1900 was still 
double the average rate of western Europe. 2 In the whole world 
Argentina alone (1860-1895) showed equal (and greater) growth. 
At the opening of the century not only all the great European 
powers of to-day but also even Spain and Turkey exceeded the 
United States in numbers; at its close only Russia. At the 
census of 1910, while the continental United States population 
(excluding Alaska) was 01,972,266, the total, including Alaska, 
Hawaii and Porto Rico, but excluding the Philippine Islands, 
Guam, Samoa and the Canal Zone, was 93,402,151. 





Continental United States, exclusive of Alaska. 




Population enumerated. 




Areas (excluding water), in, square miles. 








Total population. 




Total area. 


Settled area. 












Number of 

{___;__ 








Total area covered by 
census. 


Density of population. 










1 


oreign 
immigrants 














Of entire census area 


Census 

Y_.__ 


Population 
within area 


Population 
within added 




1 

u .t 


entering in 
preceding 




Area 
acquired in 


Area with 
not less than 


Estimated 
area of 




V- 

fe Q 








ears. 


of 1700. 


area. 


Number. 


.So 


decade. 


Total. 


preceding 
decade. 


two persons 
per sq. m. 


isolated 
settlements 


Total. 


& M 

*fc S a* 


& 


i 


5 










is 










beyond the 




d-S 


M 





3 




















'general 




i m 3 


u 


3 


V 










y 










frontier. 




^ v yi 


g 




*o 










Q 














O |X 


B 
< 


1 


1 


1790 


3,929,625 





3,929,214 








819,466 





239,935 


13,850 


417,170 


16-4 


9-4 





9-6 


1800 


5,247,355 


61,128 


5,308,483 


35-1 





819,466 





305,708 


33,800 


434,670 


17-4 


12-6 


0-2 


12-2 


1810 


6,779,308 


460,573 


7,239,881 


36-4 





1,698,107 


878,641! 


407,945 


25,100 


556,010 


17-7 


16-3 


0-8 


I3-0 


1820 


8,293,869 


1,344,584 


9-638,453 


33-1 


25o,ooot 


1,752,347 


54-24o|| 


508,717 


4,200 


688,670 


18-9 


19-9 


2-4 


'3-9 


1830 


10,240,232 


2,625,788 


12,860,692* 


33-5 


143,439 


1,752,347 





632,717 


4,700 


877,170 


20-3 


24-5 


4'3 


'4-5 


1840 


11,781,231 


5,288,222 


17-063,353* 


32-7 


599-125 


1,752,347 





807,292 


2,150 


1,183,870 


2I-I 


28-2 




14-4 


1850 


14,569,584 


8,622,292 


23,191,876 


35-9 


1,713,251 


2,939,021 


1,186,67411 


979,249 


38,375 


1,519-170 


23-7 


34'9 


5'3 


'5-2 


1860 


17,326,157 


14,117,164 


31,443,321 


35-6 


2,598,214 


2,970,038 


31,017** 


1,194,754 


107,375 


1,951,520 


26-3 


4i-5 


5'7 


16-1 


1870 


19,687,504 


18,870,867 


38,558,371 


22-6 


2,314,824 


2,970,038 





1,272,239 


131,910 


2,126,290 


30-3 


47-2 


7-6 


'3'4 


1880 


23,925,639 


26,263,570 


50,155,783 


30-1 


2,812,191 


2,970,038 





1-569,565 


260,025 


2,727,454 


32-0 


57-4 


10-6 


18-4 


1890 


28,188,321 


34,791,445 


62,947,714 


24-9 


5,246,613 


2,970,038 





I,947,28o 





2,974,159 


32-2 


67-6 


13-6 


19-2 


1900 


33,533,630 


42,749,757 


75,994,575* 


20-7 


3,844,420 


2,970,138 


IOO 


1,925,590 





2,974,159 


39-5 


80-4 


16-7 


25-5 


1910 








91,972,266* 


2I-O 


7,753.8i6J 













2,974.159 









30-9 



Excludes persons of the military and naval service stationed abroad (5318 in 1830; 6100 in 1840; 91,219 in 1900). 
t Estimates of total up to 1820. 

j Total, 27, 604, 509, exclusive of at least some hundreds of thousands of Canadians and Mexicans. 
Louisiana purchase from France. 

|| Florida purchase from Spain; population counted first, 1830. 

If Annexation of Texas (385,926 sq. m.); peace cession from Mexico (520,068 sq. m.); extinction of British claims to Oregon (280,680 
sq. m.). 
: * Gadsden purchase from Mexico. 



of the great urban centres, that is established to-day in the 
river lowlands, reflects the r&le that water highways have 
played in the peopling of the country. The dwindlings and 
growths of Nevada down to the present day, and to not a slight 
degree the general history of the settlement of the states of 
the Rocky Mountain region, are a commentary on the fate of 
mining industries. The initial settlement of the Pacific coast 
following the discovery of gold in California in 1848, and of 
the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains after the discovery 
of gold in 1859, illustrates the same factor. The Mormons 
settled Utah to insure social isolation, for the security of their 
theological system. A large part of the Great Plains to the 
east of the Rockies was taken up as farms in the decade 1880- 
1890; abandoned afterwards, because of its aridity, to stock 
grazing; and reconverted from ranches into farms when a 
system of dry farming had proved its tillage practicable. The 
negro more or less consciously moves, individually, closer into 
the areas whose climate and crops most nearly meet his desires 
and capabilities as a farmer; and his race as a whole uncon- 
sciously is adjusting its habitat to the boundaries of the Aus- 
troriparian life zone. The country's centre of population in 



In 1790 there were about 600,000 white families in the United 
States. Speaking broadly, there were few very rich and few 
very poor. Food was abundant. Both social traditions and 
the religious beliefs of the people encouraged fecundity. The 
country enjoyed domestic tranquillity. All this time, too, 
the land was but partially settled. Mechanical labour was 
scarce, and even upon the farm it was difficult to command 
hired service, almost the only farm labourers down to 1850, 
in the north, being young men who went out to work for a few 
years to get a little money to marry upon. A change was 
probably inevitable and came, apparently, between 1840 
and 1850. 

The accessions in that decade from Ireland and Germany 
were enormous, the total immigration rising to 1,713,251 against 
599,125 during the decade preceding, and against only 143,439 
from 1820 io 1830. These people came in condition to breed 
with unprecedented rapidity, under the stimulus of an abundance, 

1 Unless otherwise explicitly stated, by " United States " is to 
be understood continental United States exclusive of Alaska. 

2 According to Lavasseur and Bodio, 14-5% from 1860 to 1880; 
21-2% from 1880 to 1900; from 1886-1900, 11-0%. 



6 3 6 



UNITED STATES 



[SOCIAL CONDITIONS 



in regard to food, shelter and clothing, such as the most fortunate 
of them had never known. Yet in spite of these accessions, 
the population of the country realized a slightly smaller pro- 
portion of gain than when the foreign arrivals were almost 
insignificant. 

For a time the retardation of the normal rate of increase 
among the native population was concealed from view by the 
extraordinary immigration. In the decade 1850-1860 it was 
seen that almost a seventh of the population of the country 
consisted of persons bom abroad. From 1840 to 1860 there 
came more than four million immigrants, of whom probably 
three and a half million, with probably as many children born 
in America, were living at the latter date. 

The ten years from 1860 to 1870 witnessed the operation 
of the first great factor which reduced the rate of national 
increase, namely the Civil War. The superintendent of the 
Ninth Census, 1870, presented a computation of the effects 
of this cause first, through direct losses, by wounds or disease, 
either in actual service of the army or navy, or in a brief term 
following discharge; secondly, through the retardation of the 
rate of increase in the coloured element, due to the privations, 
exposures and excesses attendant upon emancipation; thirdly, 
through the check given to immigration by the existence of war, 
the fear of conscription, and the apprehension abroad of results 
prejudicial to the national welfare. The aggregate effect of all 
these causes was estimated as a loss to the population of 1870 of 
1,765,000. Finally, the temporary reduction of the birth-rate, 
consequent upon the withdrawal of perhaps one-fourth of the 
national militia (males of 18 to 44 years) during two-fifths of 
the decade, may be estimated at perhaps 750,000. 

The Tenth Census put it beyond doubt that economic and 
social forces had been at work, reducing the rate of multiplica- 
tion. Yet no war had intervened; the industries of the land 
had flourished; the advance in accumulated wealth had been 
beyond all precedent; and immigration had increased. 

It is an interesting question what has been the contribution of the 
foreign elements of the country's population in the growth of the 
aggregate. This question is closely connected with a still more 
important one: namely, what effect, if any, has foreign immigration 
had upon the birth-rate of the native stock. In 1850 the foreign- 
born whites (2,244,602 in number) were about two-thirds of the 
coloured element and one-eighth of the native-white element; in 
1870 the foreign-born whites (5,567,229) and the native whites of 
foreign parentage (5,324,786) each exceeded the coloured. In 1900 
the two foreign elements constituted one-third of the total popu- 
lation. The absolute numbers of the four elements were: native 
whites of native parents, 40,949,362; natives of foreign parents, 
15,646,017; foreign-born whites, 10,213,817; coloured, 8,833,994. 

Separating from the total population of the country in 1900 the 
non-Caucasians (9,185,379), all white persons having both parents 
foreign (20,803,800), and one-half (2,541,365) of the number of per- 
sons having only one parent foreign, the remaining 43,555,250 
" native " inhabitants comprised the descendants of the Americans 
of 1790, plus those of the few inhabitants of annexed territories, 
plus those in the third and higher generations of the foreigners who 
entered the country after 1790 (or for practical purposes, after 
1800). The second element may be disregarded. For the exact 
determination of the last element the census affords no precise data, 
but affords material for various approximations, based either upon 
the elimination of the probable progeny of immigrants since 1790; 
~on the known increase of the whites of the South, where the foreign 
element has always been relatively insignificant; on the percentage 
of natives having native grandfathers in Massachusetts in 1905; or 
upon the assumed continuance through the igth century of the rate 
of native growth (one-third decennially) known to have prevailed 
down at least to 1820. The last is the roughest approximation and 
would indicate a native mass of 50,000,000 in 1900, or a foreign con- 
tribution of approximately half. The results of computations by 
the first two methods yield estimates of the contribution of foreign 
stock to the " native " element of 1900 varying among themselves 
by only 1-8%. The average by the three methods gives 8,539,626 
as such contribution, making 31,884,791 the total number of whites 
of foreign origin in 1900; and this leaves 35,015,624 as the progeny 
of the original stock of I79O. 1 Adding to the true native whites of 
1900 (35,ois,624_) the native negroes (8,813,658), the increase of the 
native stock, white and black, since 1790 would thus be about 1091 %, 
and of the whites of 1790 (3,172,006) alone about 1104%. It is 
evident that had the fecundity of the American stock of 1790 been 

1 W. S. Rossiter, A Century of Population Growth (Bureau of the 
Census, Washington, 1909), pp. 85 seq. 



equal only to that of Belgium (the most fertile population of western 
Europe in the igth century) then the additions of foreign elements 
to the American people would have been by 1900 in heavy pre- 
ponderance over the original, mainly British, elements. A study 
of the family names appearing on the census rolls of two prosperous 
and typical American counties, one distinctively urban and the other 
rural, in 1790 and 1900, has confirmed the popular impression that 
the British element is growing little, and that the fastest reproducers 
to-day are the foreign elements that have become large in the immi- 
gration current in very recent decades. In applying to the total 
population of 1790 the rate of growth shown since 1790 by the white 
people of the South, this rate, for the purpose of the above compu- 
tations, is taken in its entirety only up to 1870, and thereafter in 
view of the notorious lesser birth-rate since that year in the North 
and West only one half of the rate is used. If, however, applica- 
tion be made of the rate in its entirety from 1790 to 1900, the result 
would be a theoretical pure native stock in 1900 equal to the then 
actually existing native and foreign stock combined. 

In 1900 more than half of every 100 whites in New England 
and the Middle states (from New York to Maryland) were of foreign 
parentage (i.e. had one or both parents foreign), and in both sections 
the proportion is increasing with great rapidity. The Southern 
states, on the other hand, have shown a diminishing relative foreign 
element since 1870, and had in 1900 only 79 of foreign parentage 
in 1000 whites. Relatively to their share of the country's aggregate 
population the North Atlantic states, and those upon the Great 
Lakes the manufacturing and urbanized states of the Union hold 
much the heaviest share of immigrant population. 

The shares of different nationalities in the aggregate mass of 
foreigners have varied greatly. The family names on the registers 
of the first census show that more than 90% of the white popula- 
tion was then of British stock, and more than 80 was English. The 
Germans were already near 6%. The entry of the Irish began on a 
great scale after 1840, and in 1850 they formed nearly half of all the 
foreign-born. In that year 85-6% of this total was made up by 
natives of Great Britain and Germany. The latter took first place 
in 1880. In 1900 these two countries represented of the total only 
52-7%; add the Dutch, the Danes, Swedes, Norwegians and Swiss 
to the latter and the share was 65-1%. A great majority of all 
of these elements except the British are settled in the states added 
to the original Union the Scandinavians being the most typically 
agricultural element; while almost all the other nationalities are 
in excess, most of them heavily so, in the original states of 1790, 
where they land, and where they are absorbed into the lower grades 
of the industrial organization. Since 1880 Italians, Russians, Poles, 
Austrians, Bohemians and Hungarians have enormously increased 
in the immigrant population. Germans, Irish, British, Canadians, 
Scandinavians, Slavs and Italians were the leading elements in 1900. 

In 1790 the negroes were I9'3% of the country's inhabitants; 
in 1900 only ii'6%. While the growth of the country's aggregate 
population from 1790 to 1900 was 1833-9%, that of the whites was 
2005-9%, an d of the negroes only 1066-7%. 

Certain generalizations respecting the " South " and the 
" North," the " East " and the " West " are essential to an 
understanding of parts of the history of the past, and of social 
conditions in the present. For the basis of such comparisons 
the country is divided by the census into five groups of states: 
(i) the North Atlantic division down to New Jersey and 
Pennsylvania; (2) the South Atlantic division from Dela- 
ware to Florida (including West Virginia) ; (3) the North Central 
division including the states within a triangle tipped by 
Ohio, Kansas and North Dakota; (4) the South Central division 
covering a triangle tipped by Kentucky, Alabama and Texas; 
and (5) the Western division including the Rocky Mountains 
and Pacific states. The first and third lead to-day in manu- 
facturing interests; the third in agricultural; the fifth in mining. 

Groups I and 3 (with the western boundary somewhat indefinite) 
are colloquially known as the " North " and 2 and 4 as the " South." 
The two sections started out with population growths in the decade 
1790-1800 very nearly equal (36-5 and 33-7%); but in every suc- 
ceeding decade before the Civil War the growth of the North was 
greater, and that of the South less, than its increment in the initial 
decade. In the two twenty-year periods after 1860 the increases 
01 the North were 61-9 and 48-7%; of the South, 48-4 and 
48-5%. In 1790 the two sections were of almost equal population; 
in 1890, 1900 and 1910 the population of the North was practically 
double that of the South. In the decade 1890-1900 the increase of 
the South exceeded slightly that Of the North for the same period 
owing to the rapid development in recent years of the Southern 
states west of the Mississippi, which only the Western group has 
exceeded since i87O. 2 In general the increase of the two sections 

2 The number of inhabitants of the North at each census for 
every 1000 in the South was as follows from 1790 to 1900: 
1004; 1025; 1092; 1181; 1253; 1455; 1562; 1769; 2057; 1930; 2005; 
1932. 



SOCIAL CONDITIONS] 



UNITED STATES 



6 37 



since 1880 has been nearly equal. But while this growth was 
relatively uniform over the South, in the North there was a low 
(often a decreasing) rate of rural and a high rate of urban growth. 
Throughout the igth century the rates of growth of the North Central 
division and that of the eastern half of the South Central division 
steadily decreased. It is notable that that of the South Atlantic 
group has grown faster since 1860 than ever before, despite the Civil 
War and the conditions of an old settled region : a fact possibly 
due to the effects of the emancipation of the slaves. 

Comparing now the population of the regions east and west of 
the Mississippi, we find that the population of the first had grown 
from 3,929,214 in 1790 to 55,023,513 in 1900; and that of the second 
from 97,401 in iSiO'to 20,971,062 in 1900. From 1860 to 1890 the 
one increased its numbers decennially by one half, and the other 
by under one fifth; but from 1890 to 1910 the difference in growth 
was slight, owing to a tremendous falling off in the rate of growth 
of much of the Western and the western states of the North Central 
divisions. Only an eighth of the country's total population lived 
in 1900 west of the o6th meridian, which divides the country 
into two nearly equal parts. Although, as already stated, the 
population of the original area of 1790 was passed in 1880 by 
that of the added area, the natives of the former were still in excess 
in 1900. 

Urban and Rural Population. The five cities of the country that 
had 8000 or more inhabitants in 1790 had multiplied to 548 in IQOO. 
Only one of the original six (Charleston) was in the true South, which 
was distinctly rural. The three leading colonial cities, Philadelphia, 
New York and Boston, grew six-fold in the i8th century, and fifty- 
fold in the next. The proportion of the population living in cities 
seems to have been practically constant throughout the l8th century 
and up to 1820. The great growth of urban centres has been a 
result of industrial expansion since that time. This growth has 
been irregular, but was at a maximum about the middle of the 
century. On an average throughout the no years, the population 
in cities of 8000 considerably more than doubled every twenty 
years. 1 The rate of rural growth, on the other hand, fell very 
slowly down to 1860,* and since then (disregarding the figures 
of the inaccurate census of 1870) has been steady at about half 
the former rate. In Rhode Island, in 1900, eight out of every ten 
persons lived in cities of 8000 or more inhabitants ; in Massachusetts, 
seven in ten. In New York, New Jersey and Connecticut the city 
element also exceeded half of the population. At the other extreme, 
Mississippi had only 3% of urban citizens. If the limit be drawn 
at a population of 2500 (a truer division) the urban element of Rhode 
Island becomes 95-0%; of Massachusetts, 91-5; of Mississippi, 
7-7. All the Southern states are still relatively rural, as well to-day 
as a hundred years ago. Ten states of the Union had a density in 
1910 exceeding 100 persons to the square mile: Illinois (100-7), 
Delaware (103), Ohio (117), Maryland (130-3), Pennsylvania 
(171-3), New York (191-2), Connecticut (231-3), New Jersey (337-3), 
Massachusetts (418-8) and Rhode Island (508-5). 

There are abundant statistical indications that the line (be the 
influence that draws it economic or social) between urban centres 
of only 2500 inhabitants and rural districts is much sharper to-day 
than was that between the country and cities of 8000 inhabitants 
(the largest had five times that number) in 1790. The lower limit 
is therefore a truer division line to-day. Classifying, then, as 
urban centres all of above 2500 inhabitants, three-tenths of the 
total population lived in the latter centres in 1 880 and four-tenths 
(30,583,41 : ) in 1900 ; their population doubled in these twenty years. 
If one regards the larger units, they held naturally a little more of the 
total population of the country just a third (33-1%; ten times 
their proportion of the country's total in 1790) ; and they grew a little 
faster. The same years, however, made apparent a rapid fall, 
general and marked, yet possibly only temporary, in the rate at 
which such urban centres, as well as larger ones, had been gaining 
upon the rural districts; this reaction being most pronounced in the 
South and least so in the North Atlantic states, whose manu- 
facturing industries are concentrated in dense centres of population. 

Interstate migration is an interesting element in American national 
life. A fifth of the total population of 1900 were living in other 
states than those of birth; and this does not take account of tem- 
porary nor of multiple migration. Every state numbers among its 
residents natives of nearly every other state. This movement is 
complicated by that of foreign immigration. In 1900 the percen- 
tage of resident natives varied from 92-7% in South Carolina to 
15% in Oklahoma; almost all of the Southern states having high 
percentages. 

Sexes. The percentages of males and females, of all ages, in the 
aggregate population of 1900, were 51-0 and 49-0 respectively. The 
corresponding figures for the main elements of the population 
were as follows: for native whites, 50-7 and 49-3; foreign whites, 
54-0 and 46-0; negroes, 49-6 and 50-4. The absolute excess of males 
in the aggregate population has been progressively greater at every 
successive census since 1820, save that of 1870 which followed 
the Civil War, and closed a decade of lessened immigration. The 
relative excess of males in each unit of population has not constantly 
progressed, but has been continuous. In densely settled regions 



Average Annual Death- 
rate per 100,000 Popula- 
tion for the Cities of the 


Consumption. 


Pneumonia. 


Typhoid 
Fever. 


Diphtheria and 
Croup. 


Sections Indicated. 










New England . 


244 


22O 


30 


77 


Middle states . 


259 


268 


32 


IOI 


Lake states 


156 


159 


48 


79 


Southern states . 


277 


189 


50 


54 


West North Central 


183 


H2 


38 


61 



1 Average 62-2 % decennially. 2 Average 31 -9 % decennially. 



emales generally predominate; and males in thinly settled regions. 
In every 1000 urban inhabitants there were, in 1900, 23 (in 1890 
only 19) more females than in 1000 rural inhabitants. In the 
rural districts, so far as there is any excess of females, it is almost 
solely in the Southern cotton belt, where negro women are largely 
employed as farm hands. 

Vital Statistics, 1900. The median age of the aggregate popula- 
tion of 1900 that is, the age that divides the population into 
halves was 22-85 years. In 1800 it was 15-97 years. A falling 
birth-rate, a falling death-rate, and the increase in the number of 
adult immigrants, are presumably the chief causes of this difference. 
The median age of the foreign-born in 1900 was 38-42 years. The 
median age of the population of cities of 25,000 or more inhabitants 
was 3-55 years greater than that of the inhabitants of smaller 
urban centres and rural districts, owing probably in the main to 
the movement of middle-aged native and foreign adults to urban 
centres, and the higher birth-rate of the rural districts. The 
median age of the aggregate population is highest in New England 
and the Pacific states, lowest in the South, and in the North Central 
about equal to the country's average. The average age of the 
country's population in 1900 was 26-2 years. The United States 
had a larger proportion (59-1%) within the "productive" age 
limits of 15 and 60 years than most European countries; this being 
due to the immigration of foreign adults (corresponding figure 
80-3%), the productive group among the native whites (55-8%) 
being smaller than in every country of Europe. The same is true, 
however, of the population over 60 years of age. 

The death-rate of the United States, though incapable of exact 
determination, was probably between 16 and 17 per 1000 in 1900; 
and therefore less than in most foreign countries, neatb-nte 
The following statement of the leading causes of death 
during the eleven years 1890-1900 in 83 cities of above 25,000 
population, is given by Dr J. S. Billings: 



Among the statistics of conjugal condition the most striking 
facts are that among the foreign-born the married are more than 
twice as numerous as the single, owing to the predominance of 
adults among the immigrants; and the native whites of foreign 
parents marry late and in much smaller proportion u arr ] a . le 
than do the native whites of native parentage the 
explanation of which is probably to be found in the reaction of the 
first American generation caused on one hand by the high American 
standard of living, and on the other by the relative economic 
independence of women. In 1900 1-0% of the males and 10-9% 
of the females from 15 to 19 years of age were married; from 20 
to 24 years, 21-6% and 46-5% respectively. Of females above 
15 years of age 31-2% were single, 56-9 married, 1 1-2 widowed, 
0-5 divorced; many of the last class undoubtedly reporting them- 
selves as of the others. The corresponding figures for males were : 
40-2, 54-5, 4-6 and 0-3 %. In 1850 there were 5-6 persons (excluding 
the slave population) in an average American family; fifty years 
later there were only 4-7 a decline, which was constant, of 16-1 %. 
In 1790, 5 persons was also the normal family i.e. the greatest 
proportion (14%) of the total were of this size; but in Famllies . 
1900 the model family was that of 3 persons by a more 
decisive proportion (18%). The minimum state average of 1790, 
which was 5-4 in Georgia, was greater than the maximum of 1900. 
Within the area of 1790 there were twice as many families in 1900 
as in 1790 consisting of 2 persons, and barely half as many con- 
sisting of 7 and upward ; New England having shown the greatest 
and the South the least decrease. In 1790 about a third and in 
1900 more than one half of all families had less than 5 members. 

The data gathered by the Federal census have never made 
possible a satisfactory and trustworthy calculation of the birth- 
rate, and state and local agencies possess no such data Blrth . ratef 
for any considerable area. But the evidence is on the 
whole cumulative and convincing that there was a remarkable 
falling off in the birth-rate during the igth century. And it may 
be noted, because of its bearing upon the theory of General Francis 
A Walker, that the Old South of 179. practically unaided _by 
immigration, maintained a rate of increase at least approximating 
that attained by other sections of the country by native and 
foreign stock combined. Not a state of the Union as it existed in 
i8so showed an increase, during the half-century following, in the 
ratio of white children under 16 to 1000 white females over 16 
years- the ratio declined for the whole country from 1600 to 
1 1 oo -and it has fallen for the census area of 1790 from 1900 in 
that year to 1400 in 1850 and 1000 in 1900. On the other hand, 
elaborate colonial censuses for New York in 1/03 and 1812 show 



6 3 8 



UNITED STATES 



[EDUCATION 



Sections of the 
Country. 1 


Whites under 16 Years per 1000 
of Total Population. 


1790. 


1820. 


1850. 


1880. 


1900. 


Area of 1790 
New England 
Middle states 
Old South 
Added area 


490 
470 

494 
502 


483 
443 
485 
508 
526 


414 
358 
405 
464 

463 


373 
39 
358 

431 
406 


344 
291 
326 
402 
368 



ratios of 1900 and 2000, and reinforce the suggestions of various 
other facts that the social, as well as the economic, conditions in 
colonial times were practically constant. 

The decline in the proportion of children since 1860 has been 
decidedly less in the South (Southern Atlantic and South Central 
states as denned below) than in the North and West, but in the 
most recent decades the last section has apparently fast followed 
New England in having a progressively lesser proportion of children. 
In the North there was little difference in 1900 in the ratios shown by 
city and country districts, but in the South the ratio in the latter 
was almost twice that reported for the former. 

The decades 1840-1850, 1880-1890 and 1860-1870 have shown 
much the greatest decreases in the percentage of children ; and some 
have attributed this to the alleged heavier immigration of foreigners 
(largely adults) in the case of the two former decades, and; the 
effects of the Civil War in the third. So also the three decades 
immediately succeeding the above showed minimum decreases; 
and this has been attributed to a supposed greater birth-rate 
among the immigrants. 

These uncertainties raise a greater one of much significance, viz. 
what has been the cause of the reduction in the national birth-rate 
indicated by the census figures? The question has been very 
differently judged. In the opinion of General Francis A. Walker, 
superintendent of the censuses of 1870 and 1880, the remarkable 
fact that such reduction coincided with a cause that was regarded 
as certain to quicken the increase of population, viz. the intro- 
duction of a vast body of fresh peasant blood from Europe, afforded 
proof that in this matter of population morals are far more potent 
than physical causes. The change, wrote General Walker, which 
produced this falling off from the traditional rate of increase of about 
3 % per annum, was that from the simplicity of the early times to 
comparative luxury; involving a rise in the standard of living, 
the multiplication of artificial necessities, the extension of a paid 
domestic service, the introduction of women into factory labour. 2 
In his opinion the decline in the birth-rate coincidently with the 
increase of immigration, and chiefly in those regions where immigra- 
tion was greatest, was no mere coincidence ; nor was such immigrant 
invasion due to a weakening native increase, or economic defence; 
but the decline of the natives was the effect of the increase of the 
foreigners, which was " a shock to the principle of population among 
the native element." Immigration therefore, according to this 
theory, had " amounted not to a reinforcement of our population, 
but to a replacement of native by foreign stock. That if the 
foreigners had not come, the native element would long have filled 
the places the foreigners usurped, I entertain " says General 
Walker " not a doubt." 

It is evident that the characteristics of the " factory age " to 
which reference is made above would have acted upon native British 
as upon any other stock; and that it has universally so acted there 
is abundant statistical evidence, in Europe and even in a land of 
such youth and ample opportunities as Australia. The assumption 
explicitly made by General Walker that among the immigrants 
no influence was yet excited in restriction of population, is also 
not only gratuitous, but inherently weak; the European peasant 
who landed (where the great majority have stayed) in the eastern 
industrial states was thrown suddenly under the influence of the 
forces just referred to; forces possibly of stronger influence upon 
him than upon native classes, which are in general economically 
and socially more stable. On the whole, the better opinion 
is probably that of a later authority on the vital statistics of the 
country, Dr John Shaw Billings, 3 that though the characteristics 
of modern life doubtless influence the birth-rate somewhat, by raising' 
the average age of marriage, lessening unions, and increasing divorce 
and prostitution, their great influence is through the transmutation 
into necessities of the luxuries of simpler times; not automatically, 
but in the direction of an increased resort to means for the pre- 
vention of child-bearing. 

Education. In the article EDUCATION (United Stales), and in 
the articles on the several states, details are given generally of 
the conditions of American education. Here the statistics of 
literacy need only be considered. 

In 1900 illiterates (that is, persons unable to write, the 

1 Table from Rossiter, op. cit., p. 103. 

* See his Discussions in Economics and Statistics, ii. 422, " Im- 
migration and Degradation." 

See the Forum (June, 1893), xv. 467. 



majority of these being also unable to read) constituted nearly 
one-ninth (10-7%) of the population of at least ten years of 
age; but the greatest part of this illiteracy is due to the negroes 
and the foreign immigrants. Since 1880 the proportion of 
illiteracy has steadily declined for all classes, save the foreign- 
born between 1880 and 1890, owing to the beginning in these 
years, on a large scale, of immigration from southern Europe. 
Illiteracy is less among young persons of all classes than in the 
older age-groups, in which the foreign-born largely fall. This is 
due to the extension of primary education during the last half of 
the 1 9th century. The older negroes (who were slaves) naturally, 
when compared with the younger, afford the most striking illus- 
tration of this truth. On the other hand, a notable exception is 
afforded by the native whites of native parents, particularly in 
the South, where child illiteracy (and child labour) is highest; 
the declining proportion of illiterates shown by the age-groups 
of this class up to 24 years is apparently due to a will to learn 
late in life. 

The classification of the illiterate population (above 10 years of 
age) by races shows that the Indians (56-2%), negroes (44-5%), 
Chinese (29-0%), Japanese (18-3%), foreign white (13-0%), native 
white of native parentage (5-7%), and native whites of foreign 
parents (1-6%), are progressively more literate. The advantage of 
the last as compared with native whites of native parentage is 
apparently owing to the lesser concentration of these in cities. The 
percentages of illiterate children for different classes in 1900 were 
as follows: negroes, 30-1; foreign whites, 5-6; native whites of 
foreign parentage, 0-9; native whites of native parentage, 4-4. 
There is a greater difference in the North than in the South between 
the child illiteracy of the Caucasian and non-Caucasian elements; 
also a ranking of the different sections of the country according to 
the child illiteracy of one and the other race shows that the negroes 
of the South stand relatively as high as do its whites. All differ- 
ences are lessened if the comparison be limited to children, and still 
further lessened if also limited to cities. Thus, the illiteracy of 
non-Caucasians was 44^5 %, of their children 30-1%, and of such 
in cities of 25,000 inhabitants, 7-7%. 

In the total population of 10 years of age and over the female 
sex is more illiterate than the male, but within the age-group 
I o to 24 years the reverse is true. In 1890 females preponderated 
among illiterates only in the age-group 10 to 19 years. The excess 
of female illiteracy in the total population also decreased within 
the same period, from 20-3 to 10-8 illiterates in a thousand. The 
tendency is therefore clearly toward an ultimate higher literacy 
for females; a natural result where the two sexes enjoy equal facilities 
of schooling, and the females greater leisure. Among the whites 
attending school there was still in 1900 a slight excess of males; 
among the negro pupils females were very decidedly in excess. 
In all races there has been since 1890, throughout the country, 
a large increase in the proportion of girls among the pupils of each 
age-group; and this is particularly true of the group of 15 years 
and upward that is of the grammar school and high school age, 
in which girls were in 1900 decidedly preponderant. A similar 
tendency is marked in college education. 

Religious Bodies. According to the national census of reli- 
gious bodies taken in 1906 there were then in the country 186 
denominations represented by 212,230 organizations, 92-2% 
of which represented 164 bodies which in history and general 
character are identified more or less closely with the Protestant 
Reformation or its subsequent development. The Roman 
Catholic Church contributed 5-9% of the organizations. 
Among other denominations the Jewish congregations and the 
Latter Day Saints were the largest. The immigrant movement 
brings with it many new sects, as, for example, the Eastern 
Orthodox churches (Russian, Servian, Syrian and Greek), 
which had practically no existence in 1890, the year of the 
last preceding census of religious bodies. But the growth of 
independent churches is most remarkable, having been sixfold 
since 1890. 

The statistics of communicants or members are defective, and 
because of the different organization in this respect of different 
bodies, notably of the Protestants and Roman Catholics, comparisons 
are more or less misleading. Disregarding, however, such incom- 
parability, but excluding 15% of all Roman Catholics (for children 
under 9 years of age), the total number of church members 
was 32,936,445, of whom 61-6% were Protestants, 36-7% Roman 
Catholics and 1-7% members of other churches. The correspond- 
ing figures in 1890 were 68-0, 30-3 and 1-7%. For the reasons 
just given these figures do not accurately indicate the religious 
affiliations of the population of the United States. In this parti- 
cular they very largely understate the number of Hebrews, whose 



INDUSTRIES] 



UNITED STATES 



639 



communicants (0-3%) are heads of families only, and largely of the 
Protestants; whereas they represent practically the total Roman 
Catholic population above 9 years of age. In comparing the figures 
of 1890 with those of 1906 these cautions are not of force, since both 
census counts were taken by the same methods. The membership 
of the Protestant bodies increased in the interval 44-8%, while 
that of the Roman Catholic Church increased 93-5%. The immi- 
gration from Catholic countries could easily account for (though 
this does not prove that in fact it is the only cause of) this great 
increase of the Roman Catholic body. 

Among the Protestants, the Methodists with 17-5% of the total 
membership, the Baptists with 17-2, the Lutherans with 6-4, the 
Presbyterians with 5-6 and the Disciples and Christians with 3-5 
each of these bodies comprising more than a million members 
together include one-half of the total church membership of the 
country, and four-fifths (81-3 %) of all Protestant members. 

The Baptists and Methodists are much stronger in the South, 
relatively to other bodies, than elsewhere; the former constituting 
in the South Atlantic states 43-9% of all church members, and in 
the South Central states 39-5%. Adding in the Methodists these 
proportions become 76-3 and 65-3 %. The Lutherans are relatively 
strongest in the North Central division of the country (13-2 %) ; 
the Presbyterians in the North Atlantic and Western divisions 
(6-0%); and the Disciples in the South Central division (6-1%). 
The Roman Catholics are strongest in the Western division and 
the North Atlantic division, with 49-2 % in the former and 56-6 % 
in the latter of all church members ; their share in the North Central 
division is 36-9 %. Thus the numerical superiority of the Baptists 
and Methodists in the two Southern divisions is complementary 
to that of the Roman Catholics in the other three divisions of the 
country. New York, Rhode Island, Massachusetts and New 
Hampshire in the eastern part of the country, Louisiana in the 
south, and New Mexico, Arizona, California and Montana in the 
western part are distinctively Roman Catholic states, with not less 
than 63% of these in the total church body. Racial elements are 
for the most part the explanation. So also the immigration of 
French Canadians and of Irish explains the fact that in every state 
of one-time Puritan New England the Roman Catholics were a 
majority over Protestants and all other churches. This was true 
in 1890 of 12 states, while in one other the Roman Catholics held 
a plurality; in 1906 the corresponding figures were 16 and 20. 
The Protestant bodies are more widely and evenly distributed 
throughout the country than are the Roman Catholics. 

The total value of church property (almost in its entirety exempt 
from taxation) reported in 1906 was $1,257,575,867, of which 
$935,942,578 was reported for Protestant bodies, $292,638,786 
for Roman Catholic bodies, and $28,994,502 for all other bodies. 

Occupations. 29,073,233 persons 10 years or more of age- 
nearly two-fifths (38-3%) of the country's total population 
were engaged in gainful occupations in 1900. Occupations 
were reported first for free males in 1850, and since 1860 
women workers have been separately reported. Five main 
occupation groups are covered by the census: (i) agriculture, 
(2) professional service, (3) domestic and personal service, 
(4) trade and transportation, (5) manufacture and mechanical 
pursuits. The percentage of all wage-earners engaged in these 
groups in 1900 was 35-7, 4-3, 19-2, 16-4, and 24-4 respectively. 
Outside of these are the groups of mining and fishing. 

Although manufactures have increased tremendously of 
recent years their products representing in 1905 a gross 
total of $14,802,147,087 as compared with $6,309,000,000 for 
those of farms (according to the U.S. Department of Agri- 
culture) agriculture is still the predominant industry of the 
United States, employing nearly half of the workers, and 
probably giving subsistence to considerably more than half of 
the people of the country. 

Turning to the factor of sex, it may be stated that the total number 
of the gainfully employed in 1900 above given included 80-0 % of all 
the men and boys, and 18-8% of all the women and girls in the 
country. The corresponding figures in 1880 were 78-7 and 14-7%. 
The proportion of women workers is greatest in the North Atlantic 
group of states (22-1 %) where they are engaged in manufacturing, 
and in the South (23-8) where negro women are engaged in agri- 
cultural operations. The percentage of such wage-earners is there- 
fore increasing much more rapidly in the former region. But in 
all other parts of the country the increase is faster than in the South ; 
since aside from agriculture, which has long been in a relatively 
stable condition, there is not by any means so strong a movement 
of women into professional services in city districts. The increase 
is universal. There \3 not a state that does not show it. The 
greatest increase for any section between 1880 and 1900 was that of 
the North Central division from 8-8 to 14-3 %. Here too both 
factors farm-life, as in North Dakota, and manufacturing, as in 
Illinois showed their plain influence. 



Of all agricultural labourers 9-4% were females in 1900 (7-7 in 
1880); but in the South the proportion was much greater 16-5 in 
the South Atlantic and 14-9 in the South Central division. In 
professional service 34-2 % (in 1880, 29-4) were females, the two 
northern sections showing the highest proportions. In the occupa- 
tions of musicians and teachers of music, and of school-teachers 
and professors (which together account for seven-eighths of profes- 
sional women) women preponderate. The same sex constituted 
only 37'5 % (34-6 %jn 1880) of the wage-earners of the third group ; 
the South also showing here, as is natural in view of its coloured 
class, much the highest and the Western division of states much 
the lowest percentage. Women are in excess in the occupations of 
boarding and lodging house keepers, housekeepers, launderers, 
nurses and midwives, and servants and waiters. These account 
for almost all women in this group; servants and waitresses make 
up two-thirds of the total. Finally, in the fourth and fifth groups 
the percentage of women was 10-6 (3-4 in 1880) and 18-5 (16-7 in 
1880). In manufactures the South Atlantic states show a higher 
percentage than the North Central, owing to the element of child - 
labour already indicated. In the third group women greatly pre- 
ponderate in the occupation of stenographers and type- writers ; 
and in those of book-keepers and accountants, clerks and copyists, 
packers and shippers, saleswomen (which is the largest class), and 
telegraph and telephone operators they have a large representation 
(13 to 34 %). A great variation exists in the proportion of the sexes 
employed in different manufacturing industries. Of dress-makers, 
milliners, seamstresses (which together make up near half of the 
total in this occupation group) more than 96 % are women. Of 
the makers of paper boxes, of shirts, collars and cuffs, of hosiery and 
knitting mill operatives, of glove-makers, silk mill operatives and 
book-binders they are more than half ; so also of other textile workers, 
excluding wool and cotton mill operatives (these last the second 
largest group of women workers in manufactures), in which occupa- 
tions males are in a slight excess. The distribution of women wage- 
earners in 1900 among the great occupation groups was as follows: 
in agriculture, 18-4 %; professional service, 8-1 %; domestic and 
personal service, 39-4 %; trade and transportation, 9-4 %; manufac- 
turing and mechanical pursuits, 24-7 %. 

The proportion which children 10 to 15 years of age engaged in 
gainful occupations bore to the whole number of such children was 
in 1880 24-4 % for males, and 9-0 % for females. Twenty years 
later the corresponding figures were 26-1 and 10-2 %. In the North 
Atlantic and North Central states, notwithstanding their manufactur- 
ing industries, the proportions were much lower (17-1 and 17-0 in 
1900), and they increased very little in the period mentioned. In 
the Western group the increase was even less, and the total (10-9 % 
in 1900) also. But in the South Atlantic and the South Central 
states where agriculture, mining and manufacturing have in 
recent decades become important although the increase was very 
slight, the proportions were far above those of the other sections, 
both in 1880 and in 1900. In the former year the ratios were 40-2 
and 41 '5, in the latter 41-6 and 42-7 %. In Alabama (70-8 % 
in 1880), North and South Carolina, and Arkansas the ratio exceeded 
50 % in 1900. 

National Wealth. Mulhall has estimated the aggregate wealth 
of the United States in 1790 at $620,000,000, assigning of this value 
$479,000,000 to lands and $141,000,000 to buildings and improve- 
ments. It is probable that this estimate is generous according to 
the values of that time. But even supposing $1,000,000,000 to be 
a juster estimate according to present-day values, it is probable that 
the increase of this since 1790 has been more than a hundredfold 
and since 1850 (since when such data have been gathered by the 
census) about fifteenfold. The value of farm property increased 
from $3,967,343,580 in 1850 to $20,439,901,164 in 1900. The gross 
value of manufactures rose in the same interval from $1,019,106,616 
to $13,010,036,514; of farm products, from $2,212,540,927 in 1880 
to $6,309,000,000 in 1900. The census estimate of the true value 
of " property " constituting the national wealth was limited in an 
enumeration of 1850 to taxable realty and privately held personalty ; 
in 1900 it covered also exempt realty, government land, and 
corporation and public personalty. The estimate of the national 
wealth of 1850 was $7,135,780,228; in 1904 (made by the census 
office), $107,104,192,410. It may be added that the net ordinary 
revenue of the government was in 1850 $43,592,889, and in 1909 
$662,324,445; that the value of imports rose from $7-48 per capita 
in 1850 to $14-47 in 1909; and of exports from $6-23 to $18-50. 
The public debt on the 1st of November 1909, less certificates and 
notes offset by cash in the Treasury, was $1,295,147,432.04. 

(.r . o. i .) 

VI. INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE 

Manufactures. In the colonial period there were beginnings in 
some lines of manufacturing, but the policy of the British gov- 
ernment was generally hostile and the increase was insignificant. 
In the first decades after the establishment of independence 
the resources and energies of the nation were absorbed in the 
task of occupying the vacant spaces of a continent, and sub- 
duing it to agriculture; and so long as land was so abundant 



640 



UNITED STATES 



[INDUSTRIES 



that the spreading population easily sustained itself upon the 
fruits of the soil, and satisfied the tastes of a simple society 
with the products of neighbourhood handicrafts, there was no 
incentive to any real development of a factory economy. This 
has been, for the most part, a development since the Civil 
War. 

No attempt was made in the census enumerations of 1790 and 
1800 to obtain statistics of manufactures. In 1810 Congress 
provided for such a report, but the results were so imperfect 
that there was never published any summary for the country, 
nor for any state. Nor were the data secured in 1820 and 
1840 of much value. Since 1850, however, provision has 
been made on an ample scale for their collection, although 
the constant modifications of the schedules under which the 
statistics were arranged makes very difficult comparisons of 
the latest with the earlier censuses. 

From 1850 to 1900 fairly full industrial statistics were gathered 
as a part of each decennial census. In 1905 was taken the first of 
a new series of special decennial censuses of manufactures, in which 
only true factories that is, establishments producing standardized 
products intended for the general market were included, and mere 
" neighbourhood " (local) establishments of the hand trades were 
excluded. Without corrections, therefore, the figures of earlier 
censuses are not comparable with those of the census of 1905. Thus 
of 512,254 establishments included in the reports of 1900, six-tenths, 
employing 1 1 -2 % of the total number of wage-earners and producing 
I2- 3% of the total value of all manufactures, must be omitted as 
" neighbourhood " establishments in order to make the following 
comparison of the results of the two enumerations of 1900 and 1905. 
The magnitude in 1905 of each of the leading items, and its increase 
since 1900, then appear as follows: number of factories, 216,262, 
increase 4-2%; capital invested, $12,686,265,673, increase 41-3%; 
salaries, 574,761,231, increase 50-9%; total wages, $2,009,735,799, 
increase 29-9%; miscellaneous expenses, $1,455,019,473, increase 
60-7%; cost of materials, $8,503,949,756, increase 29-3%; value 
of products, including custom work and repairing (in such factories), 
$14,802,147,087, being an increase of 29-7%. Of the last item 
$3,269,757,067 represented the value of the products of rural factories 
(that is, those in cities of under 8000 inhabitants). The increase 
of the different items during the five years was greater in every case 
in the rural than in the urban factories. There was a very slight 
decline in the number of child labourers both in city and country, their 
total number in 1905 being 159,899 and in 1900 161,276. The total 
wages paid to children under 16 years, however, which was in 1905 
$27,988,207, increased both in the city and, especially, in the country, 
and was 13-9% greater in 1905 than five years earlier. In the 
same period there was an increase of 16-0% in the number and of 
2 7'5% > n the wages of women workers of 16 years (and upwards) 
of age. 

Deducting from the total value of manufactured products 
in 1905 the cost of partially manufactured materials, including 
mill supplies, a net or true value of $9,821,205,387 remains. 
Partially manufactured articles imported for use in manufactures 
are not included. Deducting from this the cost of raw materials 
and adding the cost of mill supplies, the result $6,743,399,718 
is the value added to materials by manufacturing processes. 

The extent to which manufactures are controlled by large factories 
is shown by the fact that although in 1905 only 1 1 -2 % of the total 
number reported products valued at $100,000 or over, these estab- 
lishments controlled 81-5% of the capital, employed 71-6% of 
the wage earners, and produced 79-3 % of the value of the products, 
of all establishments reported. 52-3 % of the total number, employ- 
ing 66-3% of all wage-earners, and producing 69-7% of the total 
product-value, were in urban centres. 

Only six establishments in a thousand employed as many as 500 
workers, and only two in a thousand employed as many as 1000 
workers. Cotton mills are most numerous in the last class of estab- 
lishments. The manufacture of lumber and timber gave employ- 
ment to the largest total number of workers; and this industry, 
together with those of foundry and machine shops (including 
locomotives, stoves and furnaces), cotton goods (including small 
wares), railway car and repair shops, and iron and steel, were (in 
order) the five greatest employers of labour. 

Measured by the gross value of products, wholesale slaughtering 
and meat packing was the most important industry in 1905. The 
products were valued at $801,757,137. In each of four other 
industries the products exceeded in value five hundred millions of 
dollars, namely, those of foundry and machine shops, flour and grist 
mills, iron and steel, and lumber and timber. In one other, cotton 
goods, the value was little less. These six industries contributed 
27-2% of the value of all manufactured products. Both in 1905 
and in 1900 the group of industries classed as of food and kindred 
products ranked first in the cost of materials used and the value 
of products; the group of iron and steel ranking first in capital and 
in wages paid; and textiles in the number of wage-earners employed. 

The close relation of manufactures to agriculture is reflected in 



the fact that, of the raw materials used, 79-4 % came from the farm. 
The remainder came from mines and quarries, 15-0%; forests, 
5-2%; the sea, 0-4%. 

Four states New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois and Massachusetts 
each manufactured in 1900 products valued at over $i ,000,000,000 ; 
New York exceeding and Pennsylvania attaining almost twice 
that sum. The manufacture of some products is highly localized. 
Thus, of silk goods, worsteds, the products of blast furnaces, of 
rolling mills and steel works, glass,' boots and shoes, hosiery and knit 
goods, slaughtering and meat products, agricultural implements, 
woollens, leather goods, cotton goods and paper and wood pulp, 
four leading states produced in each case from 88-5%, in the case 
of silk goods, to 58-6 % in the case of pulp. 

M. G. Mulhall (Industry and Weatlh of Nations, 1896) assigned 
fourth place to the United States in 1880 and first place in 1894 in 
the value of manufactured products, as compared with other 
countries. Paul Leroy-Beaulieu (Les Etats- Unis au xx*' Siecle, Paris, 
1904) would assign primacy to the United States as far back as 1885. 
Since the English board of trade estimated the exports of British 
manufactured goods at from 17 to 20% of the industrial output 
of the United Kingdom in 1902, this would indicate a manufactured 
product hardly two-thirds as great as that of the true factory estab- 
lishments of the United States in 1900. But exact data for com- 
parison do not exist for other countries than the United States. In 
the production of pig iron, the share of the United States seems to 
have been in 1850 about one-eighth and that of Great Britain one- 
half of the world's product; while in 1903 the respective shares were 
38-8 and 19-3%; and Germany's also slightly exceeded the British 
output. In the manufacture of textiles the United States holds 
the second place, after Great Britain; decidedly second in cottons, 
a close competitor with Great Britain and France in woollens, and 
with France in silks. In the manufacture of food products the 
United States holds a lead that is the natural result of immense 
advantages in the production of raw materials. No other country 
produces half so much of leather. In the dependent industry of 
boots and shoes her position is commanding. These facts give an 
idea of the rank of the country among the manufacturing countries 
of the world. The basis of this position is generally considered to 
be, partly, immense natural resources available as materials, and, 
partly, an immense home market. 

For Agriculture, see the article AGRICULTURE; for Fisheries, see 
FISHERIES; and for Forestry, see FORESTS AND FORESTRY. 

Minerals. In 1619 the erection of " works " for smelting the ores 
of iron was begun at Falling Creek, near Jamestown, Va., and iron 
appears to have been made in 1620; but the enterprise was stopped 
by a general massacre of the settlers in that region. In 1643 the 
business of smelting and manufacturing iron was begun at Lynn, 
Mass., where it was successfully carried on, at least up to 1671, 
furnishing most of the iron used in the colony. From the middle 
of the I7th century the smelting of this metal began to be of impor- 
tance in Massachusetts Bay and vicinity, and by the close of the 
century there had been a large number of ironworks established 
in that colony, which, for a century after its settlement, was the chief 
seat of the iron manufacture in America, bog ores, taken from the 
bottom of the ponds, being chiefly used. Early in the i8th century 
the industry began to extend over New England and into New Jersey, 
the German bloomery forge being employed for reducing the ore 
directly to bar iron, and by the middle of that century it had taken 
a pretty firm hold in the Atlantic colonies. About 1789 there were 
fourteen furnaces and thirty-four forges in operation in Pennsylvania. 
Before the separation of the colonies* from the mother country, the 
manufacture of iron had been extended through all of them, with 
the possible exception of Georgia. As early as 1718 iron (both pig 
and bar) began to be sent to Great Britain, the only country to which 
the export was permitted, the annual amount between 1730 and 
'775 varying ordinarily between 2000 and 3000 tons, but in one 
year (1771) rising to between 7000 and 8600 tons. 

The first metal other than iron mined by whites within the territory 
of the United States was lead, the discovery of which on the American 
continent was recorded in 1621. The first English settlers on the 
Atlantic bartered lead of domestic origin with the Indians in the 
I7th century, and so did the French in the upper Mississippi Valley. 
The ore of the metal occurring in the Mississippi basin galena is 
scattered widely and in large quantities, and being easily smelted 
by the roughest possible methods was much used at an early date. 
In the second half of the i8th century, during the period of French 
and Spanish domination in the valley, lead was a common medium 
of exchange, but no real mining development took place. Copper 
was the next metal to be mined, so far as is known. The first 
company began work about 1709, at Simsbury, Conn. The ore 
obtained there and in New Jersey seems to have been mostly 
shipped to England. A few years later attempts were made to 
work mines of lead and cobalt in Connecticut and Massachusetts. 

The first mining excitement of the United States dates back to 
the discovery of gold by the whites in the Southern states, along 
the eastern border of the Appalachian range, in Virginia, and in 
North and South Carolina. The existence of gold in that region 
had been long known to the aboriginal inhabitants, but no attention 
was paid to this by the whites, until about the beginning of the 
igth century, when nuggets were found, one of which weighed 28 Ib. 



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641 



From 1824 the search for gold continued, and by 1829 the business 
had become important, and was attended with no little excitement 
In 1833 and 1834 the amount annually obtained had risen to fully 
a million of dollars. A rapid development of the lead mines of the 
West, both in Missouri and on the Upper Mississippi in the region 
where Iowa, Wisconsin and Illinois adjoin one another, took place 
during the first quarter of the igth century, and as early as 1826 
or 1827 the amount of this metal obtained had risen to nearly 10,000 
tons a year. By this time the making of iron had also become 
important, the production for 1828 being estimated at 130,000 
tons. 

In 1820 the first cargo of anthracite coal was shipped to Phila- 
delphia. From 1830 the increase in the production was very rapid, 
and in 1841 the annual shipments from the Pennsylvania anthracite 
region had nearly reached 1,000,000 tons, the output of iron at 
that time being estimated at about 300,000 tons. The develop- 
ment of the coal and iron interests, and the increasing importance 
of the gold product of the Appalachian auriferous belt, and also of 
the lead product of the Mississippi Valley, led to a more general 
and decided interest in geology and mining; and about 1830 geo- 
logical surveys of several of the Atlantic states were begun, and 
more systematic explorations for the ores of the metals, as well as 
for coal, were carried on over all parts of the country then open to 
settlement. An important step was taken in 1844, when a cession 
of the region on the south shore of Lake Superior was obtained from 
the Chippewa Indians. Here explorations for copper immediately 
began, and for the first time in the United States the business of 
mining for the metals began to be developed on an extensive scale, 
with suitable appliances, and with financial success. An event of 
still greater importance took place almost immediately after the 
value of the copper region in question had been fully ascertained. 
This was the demonstration of the fact that gold existed in large 
quantities along the western slope of the Sierra Nevada of California. 
In five years from the discovery of gold at Coloma on the American 
river, the yield from the auriferous belt of the Sierra Nevada had 
risen to an amount estimated at between sixty-five and seventy 
millions of dollars a year, or five times as much as the total 
production of this metal throughout the world at the beginning 
of the century. 

The following details show the development of the mineral re- 
sources of the country at the middle of the igth century. In 1850 
... . the shipments of anthracite amounted to nearly 3,500,000 

/ d "trl a tons > tnose f Cumberland or semi-bituminous coal were 
to ' 1 1850 a b ut 200,000 tons. The yearly production of pig iron 
' had risen to between 500,000 and 600,000 tons. The 
annual yield of gold in the Appalachian belt had fallen off to about 
$500,000 in value, that of California had risen to $36,000,000, 
and was rapidly approaching the epoch of its culmination 
(1851-1853). No silver was obtained in the country, except what v'as 
separated from the native gold, that mined in California containing 
usually from 8 to 10 % of the less valuable metal. The ore of 
mercury had been discovered in California before the epoch of the 
gold excitement, and was being extensively worked, the yield in 
the year 1850-1851 being nearly 2,000,000 Ib. At this time the 
copper mines of Lake Superior were being successfully developed, 
and nearly 6op tons of metallic copper were produced in 1850. At 
many points in the Appalachian belt attempts had been made to 
work mines of copper and lead, but with no considerable success 
About the middle of the century extensive works were erected at 
Newark, New Jersey, for the manufacture of the oxide of zinc for 
paint; about noo tons were produced in 1852. The extent and 
value of the deposits of zinc ore in the Saucon Valley, Pennsylvania, 
had also just become known in 1850. The lead production of the 
Missouri mines had for some years been nearly stationary, or had 
declined slightly from its former importance; while that of the upper 
Mississippi region, which in the years just previous to 1850 had 
risen to from 20,000 to 25,000 tons a year, was declining, having 
in 1850 sunk to less than 18,000 tons. 

At the end of the century, in only fifty years, the United States 
had secured an easy first place among the mineral-producing countries 
_ of the world. It held primacy, with a large margin, 

Position ot '" tfle . yi e 'd f coa '> i ron , ' ea d a "d copper, the minerals 
Mining most important in manufactures; in gold its output 
Industries. was s 60011 ^ on 'Y to tnat f South Africa (though practi- 
cally equalled by that of Australia); and in silver to 
that of Mexico. Although the data are in general incomplete upon 
which might be based a comparison of the relative standing of 
different countries in the production of minerals of lesser impor- 
tance than those just mentioned, it was estimated by M. G. Mulhall 
(Industries and Wealth of Nations, edition of 1896, pp. 34-35) that 
Great Britain then produced approximately one-third, the United 
States one-third, and all other countries collectively one-third of 
the minerals of the world in weight. 

The leading products, as reported by the Geological Survey for 
1907, were as follows: coal, $614,798,898 (85,604,312 tons of anthra- 
cite coal, 394,759,112 of bituminous); petroleum, $120,106,749; 
natural gas, $54,222,399; iron ore, $131,996,147 (pig iron, 
$529,958,000) ; copper, refined, $173,799,300; gold, coinage value, 
$90,435, TOO; building-stone, $71,105,805; silver, commercial value, 
$37>299.7oo; lead, refined, $38,707,596; and zinc, refined, $26,401,910. 

XXVII. 21 



Year. 


Total Value 
of Products. 


Value of 
Non-metallic 
Products. 


Value of 
Metallic 
Products. 


1908 


$ 
'.595,670,186 


$ 
1,045,497,070 


$ 
549.923,116 


1907 
1906 


2,071,607,964 
.902,517,565 


1,167,705,720 
1,016,206,709 


903,802,244 
886,110,856 


1905 


,623,928,720 


921,075,619 


702,453,101 


1904 


,361,067,554 


859.383,604 


501,099,950 


1903 


,491,928,980 


793,962,609 


624,318,008 


1902 


,323,102,717 


617,251,154 


642,258,584 


1901 


,141,972,309 


567,318,592 


518,266,259 


1900 


,107,020,352 


512,195,262 


550,425,286 


1899 


.014,355,705 


446,090,251 


525,472.981 



The North Atlantic and the North Central census groups of states 
(that is, the territory east of the Mississippi and north of the Ohio 
rivers, and north of Maryland) produced two-thirds of the total 
output. Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, West Virginia, California, 
Colorado, Montana, Michigan, New York and Missouri were the 
ten states of greatest absolute production in 1907. The rank relative 
to area or population is of course different. Those which, according 
to the bureau of the census, produced $1000 or over per sq. m. 
'" 1902 were Pennsylvania, Ohio and West Virginia; $500 to $1000, 
Illinois, Michigan, Indiana, Vermont and Massachusetts. Seventeen 
states produced from $100 to $500 per sq. m. 

The total mineral output for the decade 1899-1908 according to 
the United States Geological Survey was as follows : 



The vastly greater part of mineral products are used in manufac- 
tures within the United States, and only an insignificant part (for 
example, 2-47% in 1902) is exported in the crude form. 

Coal exists in the United States in large quantity in each of its 
important varieties: anthracite, or hard coal; bituminous, or soft 
coal; and lignite; and in various intermediate and _ 

special grades. Geologically the anthracite and bitumi- 
nous coals mainly belong to the same formation, the Carboniferous, 
and this is especially true of the better qualities; though it is stated 
by the United States Geological Survey that the geologic age of the 
coal beds ranges from Carboniferous in the Appalachian and 
Mississippi Valley provinces to Miocene (Tertiary) on the Pacific 
coast, and that the quality of the coal varies only to a very uncertain 
degree with the geologic age. The following estimates rest upon 
the same authority: (i) total area underlaid by coal measures, 
496,776 sq. m., of which 250,531 are credited to anthracite and 
bituminous, 97,636 to sub-bituminous and 148,609 to lignite; 
(2) total original coal supply of the country, 3,076,204,000,000 
short tons, including 21,000,000,000 tons of anthracite in Pennsyl- 
vania, and small amounts elsewhere (semi-anthracite and 
semi-bituminous), 650,157,000,000 tons of sub-bituminous and 
743.590,000,000 tons of lignite; (3) easily accessible coal still avail- 
able, 1,992,979,000,000 tons; (4) available coal accessible with 
difficulty, 1,153,225,000,000 tons. 

The total production of coal from 1814 (the year in which anthracite 
was first mined in Pennsylvania) to 1908 amounted to 7,280,940,265 
tons, which represented an exhaustion adding 50% for waste in 
mining and preparation of 11,870,049,900, or four-tenths of 1% 
of the supposed original supply. 

In 1820 the total production was only 3450 tons In 1850 it 
was already more than 7,000,000. And since then, while the 
population increased 230% from 1850 to 1900, the production of 
coal increased 4,084 %. At the same time that the per capita 
consumption thus rose in 1907 to 5-6 tons, the waste was 
estimated by the National Conservation Commission at 3-0 tons per 
capita. This waste, however, is decreasing, the coal abandoned 
n the mine having averaged, in the beginning of mining, two or 
;hree times the amount taken out ; and the chief part of the remain- 
ng waste is in imperfect combustion in furnaces and fire-boxes. 
Thus, notwithstanding the fact that the supposed supply still avail- 
able at the close of 1908 was 7369 times the production of that year, 
and 4913 times the exhaustion such production represented, so 
extraordinary has been the increased consumption of the country 
:hat, in the opinion of the Geological Survey (1907), " if the rate of 
ncrease that has held for the last fifty years is maintained, the 
supply of easily available coal will be exhausted before the middle 
of the next century " (A.D. 2050). 

In 1870 both Great Britain and Germany exceeded the United 
States in the production of coal. Germany was passed in 1871 
definitively in 1877); Great Britain in 1899. Since 1901 the United 
States has produced more than one-third of the world's output. 

Coal was produced in 1908 in 30 states out of the 46 of the Union; 

and occurs also in enormous quantities in Alaska ; 690,438 men were 

employed in this year in the coal mines. Pennsylvania (117,179,527 

ons of bituminous and 83,268,754 of anthracite), Illinois (47,659,690), 

West Virginia (41,897,843), Ohio (26^270,639), Indiana (12,314,890) 

ind Alabama (11,604,593) were the states of greatest production. 

The production of each was greater still in 1907. 

The total putput amounted to 415,842,692 short tons, valued at 



.642 



UNITED STATES 



[INDUSTRIES 



$532,314,117111 tgo8;and to 480,363,424 tons, valued at $614,798,898 
in 1909. Pennsylvania produced three-fourths of the total output 
of the country in 1860, and since 1900 slightly less than one-half . 
Up to 1870 there was more anthracite mined in Pennsylvania than 
bituminous in the whole country, but since that year the production 
of the latter has become vastly the greater, the totals in 1907, in 
which year each stood at its maximum, being 83,268,754 and 
332,573.944 tons respectively. 

Inasmuch as the present production is not considered locally 
and with more or less justice^ as at all indicative of the wealth in 
coal of the respective states, it may be said that according to esti- 
mates of the Geological Survey the following states are credited 
with the deposits indicated of true bituminous coal, including local 
admixtures of anthracite, the figures being millions of short tons: 
Colorado, 296,272; Illinois, 240,000; West Virginia, 231,000; Utah, 
196,408; Pennsylvania, 112,574; Kentucky, 104,028; Ohio, 86,028; 
Alabama, 68,903; Indiana, 44,169; Missouri, 40,000; New Mexico, 
30,805; Tennessee, 25,665; Virginia. 21,600; Michigan, 12,000; 
Maryland, 8,044; Texas, 8,000; Kansas, 7,022; and Montana, 
5,000; with lesser deposits in other states. At the same time there 
are estimated deposits of sub-bituminous coal, isolated or mixed 
with bituminous, amounting to 75,498 millions of tons in Colorado 
(which is probably the richest coal area of the country) ; and in 
other states as follows: Wyoming, 423,952 millions of tons; 
New Mexico, 132,975; Washington, 20,000; Montana, 18,560; 
California and Oregon, 1,000 each; and lesser amounts elsewhere. 
Finally, of true lignite beds, or of lignite mixed with sub-bituminous 
qualities, the states of North Dakota, Montana, Texas and South 
Dakota are credited with deposits of 500,000; 279,500; 23,000; 
and 10,000 millions of tons respectively. But it is to be re- 
membered that the amount and the fuel value of both the lignite 
and, to a lesser degree, the sub-bituminous coals, is uncertain to a 
high degree. 

Petroleum, according to the report of the National Conservation 
Commission in 1908, was then the sixth largest contributor to the 
Petrol nation's mineral wealth, furnishing about one-sixteenth 
of the total. Oil was produced in 1908 in sixteen 
states. This productive area is divided by the United States 
Geological Survey into six " fields " (in addition to some scattering 
states) with reference to the quality of oil that they produce, 
such quality determining their uses. The Appalachian field (Penn- 
sylvania, New York, Ohio, West Virginia and Tennessee) produces 
oil rich in paraffin, practically free from sulphur and asphalt, 
and yielding the largest percentage of gasoline and illuminating 
oils. This is the highest grade crude oil produced in the world. 
The California field produces oil characterized by much asphalt 
and little or no paraffin, and low in volatile constituents. The 
Lima (Ohio)-Indiana, the Illinois, the Mid-Continent (Kansas, 
Oklahoma and northern Texas) and the Gulf (Texas and Louisiana) 
fields produce oils containing more or less of sulphur and asphalt 
between the extremes of the two other fields just mentioned. The 
geological conditions of the different fields, and the details of the 
composition of the oils yielded, are exceedingly varied, and their 
study has been little more than begun 

In 1859. when the total output of the country is supposed to have 
been only 2000 barrels of oil, production was confined to Pennsyl- 
vania and New York. Ohio, West Virginia and California appeared 
as producers in 1876, Kentucky and Tennessee in 1883, Colorado 
in 1887, Indiana in 1889, along with Illinois, Kansas, Texas and 
Missouri, Oklahoma in 1891, Wyoming in 1894, and, lastly, Louisiana 
in 1902. From 1859 to 1876 the Appalachian field yielded 100% 
of the total output of the country; in 1908 its share had fallen to 
!3'9 % I' 1 the same period of 50 years the yearly output rose from 
2000 to 179,572,479 barrels (134,717,580 in 1905) and to a grand 
total of 1,986,180,942 barrels, 1 worth $1,784,583,943, or more than 
half the value of all the gold, and more than the commercial value 
ot all the silver produced in the country since 1792. The production 
in 1908 exceeded in value the output of both metals. Deducing 
from the figures of production since 1859 an equation of increase, 
one finds that in each nine years as much oil has been produced 
as in all preceding years together, and in recent years the factor of 
increase has been higher. So rapid has been the extension of the 
yielding areas, so diverse the fate of many fields, so shifting their 
relative rank in output, that the outlook from year to year as regards 
all these elements is too uncertain to admit of definite statements 
respecting the relative importance of the five fields already men- 
tioned. The total output of these, it may be stated, from 1901 to 
1908 uniting the yield of the Illinois to the Lima-Indiana field 
(since their statistics were long so united, until their industrial 
differences became apparent), and adding a sixth division for the 
production of scattered areas of production was as follows: 
Appalachian. 235,999,859; Lima-Indiana-Illinois, 219,609,347; Mid- 
Continent, 136,148,892; Gulf, 159,520,306; California, 27,931,687; 
and others, 3,367,666; the leading producers in 1907-1908 being 
the Mid-Continent and the California areas. 

The world's output of oil was trebled between 1885 and 1895, and 
quadrupled between 1885 and 1900. In this increase the United 
States had the largest share. So recently as 1902 the output of the 

1 Barrels of 42 gallons. 



United States was little greater than that of Russia (the two yielding 
01-4% of the world's product), but this advantage has since then 
been greatly increased, so that the one has produced 63-1 and 
the other 21-8% of the total output of the world. In 1908 the 
Geological Survey issued a preliminary map of the then known areas 
productive of oil and natural gas in the United States, estimating 
the extent of the former at 8850 and of the latter at 9365 sq. m. 
The supply of oil in this area was estimated at from 15,000,000,000 
to 20,000,000,000 barrels; and 'the National Conservation Corn- 
mission of 1908 expressed the opinion that in view of the rapid 
increase of production and the enormous loss through misuse the 
supply cannot be expected to last beyond the middle of this 
century. 

Natural gas, as a source of light and for metallurgical purposes, 
became important in the mid-eighties. In recent years its use for 
industrial purposes has lessened, and for domestic pur- fj a f ura i n as 
poses increased. The existence of outflows or springs 
of gas in the region west of the Alleghanies had long been known, 
and much gas was used for illuminating purposes in Fredonia, New 
York, as early as 1821. Such gas is a more or less general con- 
comitant of oil all through the petroleum-bearing areas of the 
country. The total output of the country rose from a value of 
$215,000 in 1882 to one of $54,640,374 in 1908, with several fluctua- 
tions up and down in that interval Pennsylvania, with a product 
valued at $155,620,395 from 1899 to 1908, West Virginia with 
$84,955,496, Ohio with $48,172,450 and Indiana with $46,141,553 
were the greatest producers of the Union. 

The National Conservation Commission in 1908 estimated the area 
of the known gas fields of the country at 9000 sq. m. ; the portion 
of their yield in 1907 that was utilized at 400,000,000,000 cub. ft. ; 
and the waste at an equal amount more than 1,000,000,000 of 
cub. ft. daily, or enough to supply all the cities in the United States 
of above 100,000 population. 

Of other non-metallic mineral substances, apart from coal, petro- 
leum and natural gas, little need be said in detail. Stone is of the 
greatest actual importance, the value of the quarry output, includ- 
ing some prepared pr manufactured product, such as dressed and 
crushed stone, averaging $65,152,312 annually in 1904-1908. 
Limestone is by far the largest element, and with granite makes 
up two-thirds of the total value. Vermont, Pennsylvania and New 
York are the leading producers. In this, as in other cases, actual 
product may indicate little regarding potential resources, and still 
less regarding the distribution of these throughout the Union. 
Glass and other sands and gravel ($13,270,032), lime ($11,091,186), 
phosphate rock ($10,653,558), salt ($7,553,632), natural mineral 
waters ($7,287,269), sulphur ($6,668,215, almost wholly from Louisi- 
ana), slate ($6,316,817), gypsum ($4,138,560), clay ($2,599,986), 
asphalt ($1,888,881), talc and soapstone ($1,401,222), borax 
($975,000, all from California), and pyrite ($857,113) were the next 
most important products in 1908. It may be noted that the output 
in almost every item of mineral production was considerably greater 
in 1907 than in 1908, and the isolated figures of the latter year are 
of little interest apart from showing in a general way the relative 
commercial importance of the products named. In the yield of 
gypsum, phosphate rock and salt the United States leads the world. 
In sulphur it is a close second to Sicily. Phosphate rock is heavily 
exported, and in the opinion of the National Cpnservatkm Com- 
mission of 1908 the supply cannot long satisfy the increasing demand 
for export, which constitutes a waste of a precious natural resource. 
Other minerals whose production may be found stated in detail 
in the annual volume on Mineral Resources of the United States 
Geological Survey are: natural pigments, felspar, white mica, 
graphite, fluorspar, arsenic, quartz, barytes, bromine. Some dozens 
of varieties of precious stones occur widely. Of building-stone, 
clay, cement, lime, sand and salt, the country's supply was esti- 
mated by the National Conservation Commission of 1908 to be 
" ample.' 

In 1907 iron ore was mined for blast-furnace use in twenty-nine 
states only, but the ore occurs in almost every state of the Union. 
As nearly as can be estimated from imperfect statistics, j 

the total ore production of the country rose steadily from 
2,873,400 long tons in 1860 to 51,720,619 tons in 1907. The United 
States became practically independent of foreign ore imports during 
thedecade 187010 1879. The iron-producing area of the country may 
be divided, with regard to natural geographic, historic and trade 
considerations, into four districts: (i) the Lake Superior district, 
embracing the states of Minnesota, Michigan and Wisconsin; (2) 
the southern district, embracing the triangle tipped by Texas, 
Maryland and Georgia; (3) the northern district, embracing the 
triangle tipped by Ohio, New Jersey and Massachusetts, plus the 
states of Iowa and Missouri; (4) the western district, which 
includes the states of the Rocky Mountain region and Pacific coast. 
Of these districts the Lake Superior region which embraces the 
Marquette range (opened in 1854), the Menominee (1872), the 
Gogebic (1884), the Vermilion (1884) and the Mesabi (1892) first 
attracted exploration about 1844, when the copper deposits of the 
same region were opened, and produced from 1854 to 1908 a total 
of 410,239,551 long tons, of which 341,036,883 were mined in the 
period 1889-1908. From the Mesabi range alone, opened in 1892, 
no less than 168,143,661 long tons were taken up to 1908. The 



INDUSTRIES] 



UNITED STATES 



643 



share of the whole district for some years past has been practically 
four-fifths of the total output of the country; and together with 
the yield of the southern district, more than 90%. Minnesota 
alone produces more than half of the same total, having multiplied 
her product since 1889 by more than 33 times. Michigan held 
first place in output until 1901. Alabama is the third great pro- 
ducer of the Union, and with the other two made up in 1907 more 
than four-fifths of the country's total. In 1907 the product of 
Minnesota (28,969,658 long tons) was greater than that of 
Germany (with Luxemburg), and nearly twice the production of Great 
Britain. 

Of the two classes of iron minerals used as ores of that metal, 
namely, oxides and carbonates, the latter furnish to-day an insig- 
nificant proportion of the country's product, although such ores 
were the basis of a considerable part of the early iron industry, and 
even so late as 1889 represented one-thirteenth of the total. Of the 
oxides, various forms of the brown ores in locations near to the 
Atlantic coast were the chief basis of the early iron industries. 
Magnetites were also early employed, at first in Catalan forges, in 
which by means of a direct process the metal was secured from the 
ores and forged into blooms without being cast ; later they were 
smelted in blast furnaces. But in the recent and great development 
of the iron industry the red haematite ores have been overwhelmingly 
predominant. From 1889 to 1907 the average yearly percentages 
of the red haematite, brown ores, magnetite and carbonate in the 
total ore production were respectively 82-4, 10-1, 7-1 and 0-4. In 
the census of 1870 the share of the three varieties appeared almost 
equal; in 1899 that of the red ores had risen to near two-thirds of 
the total. The red and brown ores are widely distributed, every 
state in the Union in 1907, save Ohio and North Carolina, producing 
one or both. Magnetite production was confined to mountain 
regions in the east and west, and only in Ohio were carbonates 
mined. 

An investigation was made in 1908 for the National Conservation 
Commission of the ore reserves of the country. This report was made 
by Dr. C. W. Hayes of the Geological Survey. With the reservations 
that only in the case of certain red haematite bedded deposits 
can any estimate be made of relative accuracy, say within 10%; 
that the concentration deposits of brown ore can be estimated only 
with an accuracy represented by a factor varying between 0-7 and 
3 ; and that the great Lake Superior and the less known Adirondack 
deposits can be estimated within 15 to 20%, the total supply of the 
country was estimated at 79,594,220,000 long tons 73,210,415,000 
of which were credited to haematite ores and 5,054,675,000 to 
magnetite. Almost 95 % is believed to lie about Lake Superior. 

The output of pig iron and steel in 1907 was 25,781,361 and 
23,362,594 long tons respectively. It is believed that the first 
steel made in the United States was made in Connecticut in 1728. 
Crucible steel was first successfully produced in 1832, Bessemer 
and open-hearth in 1864. Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Alabama 
and New York are the leading states in production. 

The washing of the high or Tertiary gravels by the hydraulic 
process and the working of mines in the solid rock did not, on the 
Gold and w hole, compensate for the diminished yield of the 
Silver ordinary placer and river diggings, so that the product 

of gold in California continued to fall off, and by 1860 
had decreased to about half what it had been ten years before. 
Discoveries in other Cordilleran territories, notably in Montana 
and Idaho, made up, however, in part for the deficiency of Cali- 
fornia, so that in 1860 the total amount of gold produced in the 
United States was estimated at not less than $45,000,000. In the 
latter part of the decade 1850-1859 the territories adjacent to Cali- 
fornia on the east, north and south were overrun by thousands of 
miners from the Sierra Nevada goldfields, and within a few years 
an extraordinary number of discoveries were made, some of which 
proved to be of great importance. The most powerful impulse to 
mining operations, and the immediate cause of a somewhat lengthy 
period of wild excitement and speculation, was the discovery and 
successful opening of the Comstock lode in 1859, in the western part 
of what is now Nevada, but was then part of Utah. About this lode 
grew up Virginia City. From 1859 to 1902 the total yield of this 
lode was $204,653,040 in silver and $148,145,385 in gold; the 
average annual yield from 1862 to 1868 was above eleven millions; 
the maximum yield $36,301,537 in 1877; and the total product to 
July 1880 was variously estimated at from $304,752,171-54 to 
$306,181,251-25. The lode was an ore channel of great dimensions 
included within volcanic rocks of Tertiary age, themselves broken 
through pre-existing strata of Triassic age, and exhibited some of 
the features of a fissure vein, combined in part with those of a contact 
deposit and in part with those of a segregated vein. The gangue 
was quartz, very irregularly distributed in bodies often of great 
sizes, for the most part nearly or quite barren of ore. The metalli- 
ferous portion of the lode was similarly distributed in great masses, 
known as " bonanzas." The next most famous lode is that of 
Leadville, Colorado, which from 1879 to 1889 yielded $147,834,186, 
chiefly in silver and lead. In later years the Cripple Creek district 
of Colorado became specially prominent. 

The total output of gold and silver in the United States according 
to the tables published by the Director of the Mint has been as 
follows : 



Years. 


Gold. 


Silver. 


Quantity in 
Fine Ounces. 


Value. 


Quantity in 
Fine Ounces. 


Commercial 
Value. 


1792-1847 
1848-1872 
1873-1908 


1,187,170 
58,279,778 
88,833,231 


$ 

54,537,000 
1,204,750,000 
1.836,344,000 


309,500 
118,568,200 
1,664,271,300 


$ 

404,500 
'57.749,900 
1,379,892,200 


148.300,179 


$3,065,631,000 


1,783,149,000 


$'.538,046,600 



Colorado ($22,871,000), Alaska ($19,858,800), California 
($19,329,700), Nevada ($11,689,400), South Dakota ($7,742,200), 
Utah ($3,946,700), Montana ($3,160,000) and Arizona ($2,500,000) 
were the leading producers in 1908, in which year the totals for the 
two metals were $94,560,000 for gold and $28,050,600 for silver. 

The grade of precious ores handled has generally and greatly 
decreased in recent years according to the census data of 1880 and 
1902, disregarding all base metallic contents from an average 
commerical value of $29-07 to one of $8-29; nevertheless the product 
of gold and silver has greatly increased. This is due to improve- 
ments in mining methods and reduction processes, which have made 
profitable low-grade ores that were not commercially available in 
1880. 

Copper was produced in 1908 in twenty-four states of the Union. 
Their output was almost seventeenfold the quantity reported by 
the census of 1860. The quantity produced from 1845 c 
the year in which the Lake Superior district became a 
producer, and in which the total product was only 224,000 Ib up 
to 1908 was 13,106,205,634 ft. The increases from 1845 to 1850, 
in each decennial period thereafter, and from 1901 to 1908, were 
as follows, in percentages : 50-0, 27-0, 6-1, 7-2, 14-8, 9-1 and 5-8. The 
total product passed 10,000,000 ft in 1857, 20,000,000 ft in 1867, 
30,000,000 ft in 1873, 40,000,000 ft in 1875, 50,000,000 ft in 1879 and 
100,000,000 ft in 1883. Comparing the product of the United 
States with that of the world, the figures for the two respectively 
were 23,350 and 151,936 long tons in 1879, when the United 
States was second to both Spain (and Portugal) and Chile 
as a producer; 51,570 and 199,406 long tons in 1883, when the 
Unites States first took leading rank; 172,300 and 334,565 long 
tons in 1895, when the yield of the United States first 
exceeded that of all other parts of the world combined; and 
942,570,000 and 1,667,098,000 ft in 1908. 

The three leading producing states or Territories of the Union 
are, and since the early 'eighties have been, Arizona, Montana and 
Michigan. With Utah and California their yield in 1908 was 93 % 
of the total. During the decade ending with that year the average 
yearly output of the three first-named was 197,706,968 ft, 
267,172,951 Ib and 192,187,488 ft respectively. 

The production of lead was for many years limited, as already 
mentioned, to two districts near the Mississippi: one the so-called 
Upper Mines of Wisconsin, Iowa and Illinois; the other . . 

the Lower Mines of south-eastern Missouri. The 
national government, after reserving the mineral lands (1807) and 
attempting to lease them, concluded in 1847 to sell them, 
owing to the difficulty of preventing illegal entry and collecting 
royalties. The yield of the Upper Mines culminated about 
1845, and long ago became insignificant. The greatest lead dis- 
trict is in south-western Missouri and south-eastern Kansas, known 
as the Joplin-Galena district after the names of the two cities that 
are its centre. The United States is the greatest lead producer and 
consumer in the world, its percentage of the total output and con- 
sumption averaging 30-4% and 32-5% respectively in the years 
1904-1908. Since 1825 the total product of lead refined from 
domestic ores and domestic base bullion was, up to the close of 1908, 
7,091,548 short tons. An annual yield of 100,000 tons was first 
passed in 1881; of 200,000, in 1891; of 300,000, in 1898. The 
total refined domestic product in 1907 was 337,340, and the total 
domestic lead smelted was 365,166 tons. Of the smelter domestic 
product 235,559 tons were of desilverized lead and 129,607 of soft 
lead. Considerable quantities of foreign ores and base bullion are 
also refined in the United States. The average percentage of metallic 
recovery from lead ores was about 68%, in 1880, and again in 1902, 
according to the national censuses of these years. According to 
the bureau of the census the value in 1902 of the lead yielded by 
copper, by non-argentiferous lead and zinc, and by gold and silver 
ores respectively was $19,053, $5,850,721 and $12,311,239. This 
reflects the revolutionary change in the history of lead mining since 
the first discovery of argentiferous lead ores in the Rocky Mountain 
states in 1864, which became available only after the building of 
railways. Until the completion of the Union Pacific in 1869 there 
was no smelting of such ores except for their silver contents. The 
deposits in the Joplin-Galena district were discovered in 1848, but 
attracted little attention for three decades. Of the soft lead smelted 
in 1907 no less than 94-8% came from Missouri. Idaho, Utah and 
Colorado produce together almost as great a proportion of the 
desilverized lead, half of which has come in recent years from 
Idaho. 

Spelter production began in the United States in 1858 in an 
experimental way, and regular production in 1860. The censu* of 



644 



UNITED STATES 



[INDUSTRIES 



Other 

Metals. 



the latter year reported an output of product valued at $72,600 
According to the census data for 1889 and 1002 there was an in- 
2ig C crease in value of product of 184-1 % in the interval, anc 

of 109-5% m tne quantity of ore produced. The value 
of products in 1902 were reported as $340,686 from gold and silver 
ores, and $8,665,675 from non-argentiferous lead and zinc ores. 
The total product of zinc from domestic ore for the entire country 
was 7343 short tons in 1873, passed 100,000 tons in 1898, and 
200,000 in 1907, when it amounted to 223,745 tons. From 1904 to 
1908 the share of the United States in the world's output averaged 
28-2 %, and in the world's consumption (disregarding stocks) 27-5 %. 
Of the product of 1907 above stated no less than 63-4% came 
from Missouri alone; Colorado, Wisconsin, Kansas and New Jersey 
yielding together 30-8 % more. 

Most of the quicksilver produced in the United States comes from 
California (86% of the total in 1908), but a considerable quantity 
Mercury fomes from Texas, and small amounts are produced 
v ' in Utah, Arizona and Oregon. Veins of cinnabar are 
known elsewhere in the Rocky Mountain and Sierra Nevada regions 
but not in workable quantities. The mercurial ores of the Pacific 
Coast ranges occur in very irregular deposits in the form of strings 
and bunches, disseminated through a highly metamorphosed 
siliceous rock. The first locality where the metal was successfully 
mined was at New Almaden, about loo m. south of San Francisco. 
These mines have been productive since 1824. Another old mine, 
discovered in 1853, is the New Idria located another 100 m. farther 
south. These two are still among the foremost producers. 

From 1850 to 1908 California produced a total of 2,052,000 flasks 
of metal, of 76-5 ft (since June I, 1904, 75-0 Ib net) each. The year 
of greatest yield was 1877, with 79,395 flasks. The production had 
steadily fallen to 16,984 flasks in 1908, but in the opinion of the 
United States Geological Survey this reduction is mainly attribut- 
able, in recent years at least, to market conditions, and does not 
truly indicate the exhaustion of the mines, although the ores now 
available are of low grades, those of New Almaden having shown 
a decrease in yield from 36-7 % in 1850-1851 to 0-74 % in 1895-1896, 
so that only the greatest metallurgical skill and business economy 
can sustain the mines against a weak market. 

Bauxite was produced on a commercial scale in four states in 
1908: Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia and Tennessee; Arkansas pro- 
ducing as for years past more than six-tenths of 
the total product of the country. This rose from an 
insignificant amount in 1889 to 97,776 long tons (valued 
at $480,330) in 1907. The consumption of the United States is, 
however, much larger than its product, and is rapidly growing. 
The production of aluminium rose from 83 ft in 1883 to 7,500,000 ft 
in 1903, and a consumption (the Geological Survey not reporting 
the production) of 17,211,000 ft in 1907. Antimony, bismuth, 
selenium, tellurium, chromic iron ore, tin, nickel, cobalt, vanadium, 
titanium, molybdenum, uranium and tantalum are produced in the 
United States in small amounts, but such " production " in several 
cases has amounted to only slight discoveries, and in general they 
are of little importance in the market. Of tungsten the United 
States was in 1907 the greatest producer in the world (1640 tons in 
a total of 6062). Tin ores have been widely discovered, but though 
much has been hoped for from them, particularly from the deposits 
in the Black Hills region of South Dakota, there has been no more 
than a relatively insignificant commercial production. 

Commerce, Foreign and Domestic. The English colonies that 
became the United States carried on during the colonial period a 
commerce with the mother country, and also, both so far as the 
legislative trammels of the British colonial system permitted it 
and illicitly, a fairly active commerce with the West Indies. This 
latter became of increasing moment in the successive periods of 
European colonial wars of the l8th century. With the achievement 
of independence by the United States the same interest became of 
still greater importance to the new nation, so as to constitute a lead- 
ing element in its early diplomacy. Although relatively unsuccess- 
ful in securing access to the British islands, the importance of the 
United States as a supplier of the other West Indies continually 
grew, and when the communication of the French and Spanish 
islands with their metropolises was practically cut off by the British 
during the Napoleonic wars, the dependence of these colonies upon 
the American carrying trade became absolute. It was the profits 
of this neutral trade, notwithstanding the losses to which it was 
exposed by the high-handed measures of the British and the French 
governments, that caused these insults to be more or less patiently 
endured by the trading interests. When President Jefferson, and 
after him President Madison, attempted to secure redress for these 
injuries by the imposition of an embargo on American vessels, the 
West Indian trade was temporarily ruined, the war of 1812-15 with 
Great Britain contributing to the same end. The East Indian trade 
had been opened from New England ports late in the l8th century. 
The whaling and cod and mackerel fisheries were of earlier colonial 
origin. As general carriers American ships gained no importance 
until the Napoleonic wars; and this interest was greater in the West 
Indies than in Europe. Such were the main branches of national 
commerce up to the time of the second war with England. After 
the war of 1812 new outlets were found in all directions, and the 



Year. 


Imports by Land 
and Sea. 


Exports by Land 
and Sea. 


Total Commerce. 


1861 
1870 
1880 
1890 
1900 

1905 
1909 


$ 
335,650,153 
462,377,587 
667,954,746 
789,310,409 
849,941,184 

1,117,513,071 
1,475,612,580 


$ 

249,344,913 
529,519,302 
835,638,658 
857,828,684 
1,394,483,082 
1,518,561,666 
1,728,203,271 


$ 
584,995,066 
991 ,896,889 

1,503,593,404 
1,647,139,093 
2,244,424,266 
2,636,074,737 
3,203,815,851 



commerce of the country grew apace, until in the years immediately 
preceding the Civil War the United States was a close second to 
Great Britain among the trading countries of the world. The Civil 
War caused enormous losses to the merchant marine, and the world- 
wide substitution about this time of iron steamers for wooden 
steamers and sailing vessels contributed to prevent a recovery; 
because, although ship-building was one of the earliest arts developed 
in the colonies, and one that was prosecuted with the highest success 
so long as wooden ships were the dominant type, the United States 
has never achieved marked success with the iron steamer, and the 
law has precluded the registry as American of vessels built abroad. 
The American " clipper ' ships that were constructed at Baltimore 
and elsewhere during the last three decades before the Civil War 
were doubtless the swiftest sailers that have ever been built. 

The total trade of the country by land and sea, the movement 
inward and outward, is shown in the following table for various 
years since 1861 : 



The excess of exports over imports in the decade 1899-1908 totalled 
$5,728,214,844; and in the same period there was an excess of ex- 
ports of gold and silver, above imports, of $444,908,963. Of the total 
exports of 1909 $1,700,743,638 represented domestic merchandise. 
The remainder, or element of foreign exports, has been of similarly 
small relative magnitude since about 1880, but was of course much 
larger while the carrying trade was of importance. From 1820 up 
to 1880 agricultural products made up with remarkable steadiness 
almost exactly four-fifths of all exports of domestic merchandise. 
Since then the increase of manufactures, and to a slight degree that 
of minerals, has lessened much the share of agricultural products, 
which in 1906 was 56-43%, that of manufactures being 35-11% 
and of minerals 3-09 %. The following table indicates in a general 
way the increased value, in round millions of dollars, of the leading 
agricultural exports since 1860: 



Year. 


Raw 
Cotton. 


Bread 
Stuffs. 


Leaf 
Tobacco. 


Meats 
and Dairy 
Products. 


Cattle, 
and other 
Animals. 


1860 
1900 

1905 
1909 


192-0 
242-9 
381-4 
461-9 


24-0 
262-7 
107-7 
139-5 


16-0 
29-4 
29-8 
36-8 


16-9 
184-5 

2OO-O 
I52-0 


1-8 
43-6 
46-7 

20-8 



Classifying imports and domestic exports as of six groups: (l) 
crude foodstuffs and good animals; (2) foodstuffs partly or wholly 
prepared; (3) raw materials for use in manufacturing; (4) manufac- 
tured articles destined to serve as materials in further processes 
of manufacture; (5) finished manufactures; (6) miscellaneous pro- 
ducts the table on p. 645 shows the distribution of imports and 
exports among these six classes since 1820.' 

It will be seen from the table that the share of the first two classes 
in both imports and exports has been relatively constant. On 
the other hand the great increase of imports of class III., and the 
jreat decrease of class V.; and of exports the great increase of 
those of class IV., and decrease of those of classes III. and V., all 
reflect the great development of manufactures in modern times. The 
table also shows the great rapidity of this change in recent years. 

Europe takes, of course, a large share of the exports of finished 
manufactures a little more than a third of the total in the quin- 
quennial period 1903-1908; but North America takes but very 
slightly less. On the other hand, above 70 % of manufactures 
destined to serve as material in further processes of manufacture 
went, in the same years, to Europe, and from eight- to nine-tenths 
of the first three classes of exports. After Europe the largest shares 
of exports are taken by North America, Asia and Oceania, South 
America and Africa in order. The share of the five continental 
divisions in 1909 was as follows, respectively: $1,169,672,326; 
5344,767,613; $113,129,907; $83,509,047 and $17,124,298. The 
respective shares of the same divisions in the imports of the 
country were as follows: $763,704,486; $277,863,210; $223,254,724; 
(193,202,131 and $17,558,029. It will be seen that the commercial 



1 The official statistics are kept current since 1820. For the years 
789-1818 consult Adam Seybert's Statistical Annals (Philadelphia, 
818), which are based upon official documents, a large part of which 
are no longer in existence. 



COMMERCE] 



UNITED STATES 



645 





All Imports. Percentages 


Exports of Domestic Merchandise. 


Years. 


by Classes. 


Percentages by Classes. 




I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


VI. 


I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


VI. 


1820 


11-15 


19-85 


3-64 


7-48 


56-86 


i -02 


4-79 


I9-5I 


60-46 


9-42 


5-66 


0-16 


1830 


11-77 


I5'39 


6-72 


8-22 


56-97 


o-93 


4-65 


16-32 


62-34 


7-04 


9-34 


0-31 


1840 


15-54 


15-46 


11-71 


II-56 


45-09 


0-64 


4-09 


14-27 


67-61 


4-34 


9-47 


0-22 


1850 


10-38 


12-37 


6-75 


15-08 


54-93 


0-49 


5-59 


14-84 


62-26 


4-49 


12-72 


O-IO 


i860 


IO-II 


15-26 


10-48 


6-67 


56-52 


I-OO 


3-85 


12-21 


68-31 


3-99 


11-33 


0-31 


1870 


12-38 


22-08 


12-18 


12-51 


39-69 


1-16 


11-12 


13-53 


56-64 


3-66 


14-96 


O-O9 


1880 


15-01 


17-69 


19-74 


16-59 


29-43 


i-54 


32-30 


23-47 


28-98 


3-52 


11-26 


0-47 


1890 


16-28 


16-89 


21-62 


I4-8I 


29-23 


1-17 


I5-62 


26-59 


36-03 


5-50 


15-68 


0-58 


1900 


11-52 


I5-65 


32-50 


15-79 


23-90 


0-64 


16-59 


23-21 


23-75 


11-15 


24-22 


I -08 


1908 


12-19 


12-31 


30-43 


16-43 


27-77 


0-87 


10-30 


18-10 


30-34 


14-23 


26-68 


o-35 


1909 


11-67 


10-99 


35-89 


17-48 


23-24 


o-73 


6-75 


16-76 


33-62 


14-89 


27-52 


0-46 



interests in South America are relatively small. The shares of the 
ten nations having the largest part in the trade of the country were 
as follows in 1909: 





Imports from 


Exports to 




$ 
247,474,104 


$ 
521,281,999 


Germany . . 
Canada, Newfoundland and Labrador 


161,951,673 
88,321,706 
132,069,748 


247,310,084 
191,438,400 
126,361,959 




107,334,716 


48,217,689 


Brazil .... 


117,062,725 


19,765,836 


Holland 


30,905,712 


89,121,124 




52,578,454 


53,512,947 


Japan 
Belgium . 


68,116,665 
36,236,568 


23471,837 
44,477,380 



The leading imports in 1909 were as follows, indicating in each 
case, when not evidently unnecessary, the value of finished manu- 
factures and of unmanufactured materials: Silk (manufactured, 
$32,963,162; unmanufactured, $75,512,401); hides and skins, other 
than fur skins ($103,758,277); sugar and molasses ($91,535,466); 
fibres, vegetables and textile grasses (manufactured, $33,511,696; 
unmanufactured, $54,860,698); coffee ($86,524,006); chemicals 
($86,401,432); cotton (manufactured, $68,380,780; raw and waste, 
$15,421,854); rubber (manufactured, $1,462,541, unmanufactured, 
$83,682,013); wool (manufactured, $22,058,712; unmanufactured, 
$55,53 O ,366); and wood (manufactured, $43,620,591; unmanufac- 
tured, $13,584,172). Precious stones ($43,620,591); fruits and 
nuts; copper, iron and steel; tobacco (leaf $25,897,650; manufac- 
tured, $4,138,521) ; tin; spirits, wines and liquors; oils, paper, works 
of art, tea and leather ($16,270,406), being the remaining items in 
excess of $15,000,000 each. The leading exports of domestic 
merchandise in excess of the same value were the following: cotton 
($496,334,448); iron and steel, excluding ores ($157,680,331); meat 
and dairy products ($151,964,037); petroleum, vegetable and 
animal oils ($126,350,916); wheat and wheat flour ($100,529,381); 
copper, excluding ores ($92,584,640); wood ($72,312,880); leather 
($47,146,415) ; tobacco ($41 ,554,058) ; coal ($38,441,518) ; agricultural 
implements ($27,327,428) ; corn and corn meal ($27,062,128) ; animals 
($21,007,122); chemicals ($20,330,335); oil-cake ($20,245,818); 
fruits and nuts ($18,707,670); vehicles ($16,774,036); naval stores 
($16,103,076); and paper ($15,280,541). 

New York, New Orleans, Boston, Galveston, Philadelphia, 
Baltimore, San Francisco and Puget Sound are, in order, the leading 
customs districts of the country in the value of their imports and 
exports. Almost one-half of the country's foreign trade is done 
through the single port of New York. In 1909 more than eight- 
tenths of all imports of the country entered by, and more than seven- 
tenths of all exports went out through, the eight customs districts 
just named. Savannah and Charleston are other great ports and 
southern outlets, particularly for cotton. 

Of the imports and exports of 1861 two-thirds (in value) were 
carried in American vessels. By 1864 the proportion had fallen 
to 27-5 %, and except for a temporary slight recovery after the close 
of the war there has been a steady progress downward since that 
time, until in 1908 only 9-8% of the commerce of the country was 
carried on under its own flag. More than half the shipping entering 
and leaving the ports of the United States in 1908 was British; 
Germany, the Scandinavian countries, France, Holland and Italy 
ranking next in order; the United States, although ranking after 
Great Britain, contributed less than a seventh of the total. The 
total tonnage entered was 38,539,195 net tons (of 100 cub. ft. each), 
as compared with 18,010,649 tons in 1880. 

Of the total of tonnage entered in 1909, 30,443,695 tons repre- 
sented seaport entries, the remainder entering across the land 
frontiers. 

The merchant marine of the United States in 1900 totalled 5,164,839 
net tons, which was less than that of 1860 (5,353,808), in which year 
American shipping attained an amount which only in recent years 



has been again reached. In the decline that followed the Civil War 
an apparent minimum was reached of 4,068,034 tons in 1880; but 
this does not adequately indicate the depression of the shipping 
interest, inasmuch as the aggregate was kept up by the tonnage of 
vessels engaged in the coasting trade and commerce of the inland 
waters, from which foreign shipping is by law excluded. The decline 
of tonnage engaged in ocean traffic was from 2,546,237 net tons in 
1860 to 1,352,810 in 1880; and this decline continued in later years. 
On the other hand the aggregate tonnage of the country has again 
begun to rise, and in 1908 the total was 7,365,445 net tons, a third 
of this being on the Great Lakes, and somewhat under one-half on 
the Gulf and Atlantic coasts. Of the same total 6,371,865 tons 
represented the coasting trade, only 930,413 tons being engaged 
in the foreign trade of the country. New England still supplies 
a quarter of the shipping annually built along the entire seaboard 
of the country; but more is yearly built upon the Great Lakes than 
upon the seaboard. 

Internal Commerce: Railways and Canals. Large as has become 
the foreign commerce of the country, it is small beside the aggregate 
interior commerce between the states of the Union. The basis of 
this is necessarily facilities for transportation. At the end of 1908 
the railway lines 1 of the country totalled 232,046 m. more than 
those of all Europe. The traffic on these, measured in units moved 
one mile, was 28,797,781,231 passenger-miles, and 214,340,129,523 
freight miles. Various systems, with joint or separate outlets from 
the Pacific coast to the Mississippi Valley, provide for the handling 
of transcontinental freight. Rivers and canals are relatively much 
less important to-day than in the middle decades of the igth century, 
before the growth of the railway traffic made small by comparison 
the movement on the interior watercourses. According to a special 
report of the department of commerce and labour of 1906, 290 
streams are used to a " substantial degree " for navigation, affording 
together an aggregate of 2600 m. of 10 ft. navigation, or 5800 m. of 
6 Ft. navigation at ordinary water. Of the last almost half belongs 
to the Mississippi river. More than $250,000,000 has been spent 
by the national government for the improvement of waterways, yet 
no general system exists, and a large part of this enormous sum has 
been wasted on unimportant or impossible projects, especially in 
recent decades, since the river navigation has been a declining 
interest. 1360 m. of state-owned canals and 632 m. of private 
canals of " some importance " were also reported as in operation in 
1909. More than an equal length of canal ways (2444 m., costing 
$80,000,000) was reported as having been abandoned after con- 
struction. Of recent years there has been a great revival of interest 
in the improvement of inland waterways upon systematic plans, 
which promises better than an earlier period of " internal improve- 
ments " in the first half of the igth century, the results of which 
were more or less disastrous for the state and local governments 
that undertook them, and only less so for the national government. 
The Erie Canal in New York, the Chesapeake & Delaware Canal, 
and the Sault Ste Marie Canal are the most important in the 
country. 

Coal, iron ore, building materials, lumber, livestock, cotton, fruits, 
vegetables, tobacco and grain are the great items in the domestic 
commerce of the country, upon its railways, inland waterways, 
and in the coasting trade. The magnitude of these items is so great 
as to defy exact determination ; data for the formation of some idea 
of them can be found in the account of the mineral, forest and 
agricultural resourcesof the country. It wasestimated by the Bureau 
of the Census that in 1906 the tonnage of freight moved by American 
vessels within American waters, excluding harbour traffic, was 
I77SI975 8 short tons (as compared with 1,514,906,985 long tons 
handled by the railways of the country). Of this total 42-6% was 
moved on the Great Lakes, and 36-8% on the Atlantic and Gulf 
coasts and waterways. 

The Great Lakes are connected by canals with the Atlantic, th< 
St Lawrence river and the Mississippi ; the connexion with the first 
being through the Erie Canal, a 7-ft. waterway, and that with the 
St Lawrence through Canadian canals that afford a 14-ft. navigation. 
The connexion with the Mississippi is through the drainage-canal 

1 See further RAILWAY. 



646 



UNITED STATES 



[CONSTITUTION 



of Chicago, and thence into branches of the Mississippi affording as 
yet even less water than the Atlantic outlet. The commerce on the 
lakes is largely in grain, coal, iron and lumber. The tonnage of 
vessels cleared between American ports on the lakes in 1908 was 
103,271,885 net tons; the freight they carried came to 80,974,605 
long tons. Vessels aggregating 46,751,717 net tons, carrying 
5.7.895,149 tons of freight, valued at $470,141,318, passed through 
cne Sault Ste Marie Canal and 47,621 ,078 tons of freight were moved 
through the Detroit river in the same year. In these figures no 
account is taken of the trade of the Canadian ports on the lakes. 
Compared with this volume of traffic the movement through the 
Suez Canal is small. 

It has been estimated by O. P. Austin, chief of the national 
bureau of statistics, using data of 1903, that the internal commerce 
of the United States exceeds in magnitude the total international 
commerce of the world. (F. S. P.) 

VII. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 
I. Introductory. 

i. A description of the government of the United States 
falls naturally into three parts: 

First, an account of the states and their governments. 

Second, an account of the Federal system, including the relation 
of the states as communities to the Federation as representing 
the whole nation. 

Third, an account of the structure and organization of the 
Federal government considered as the general government of 
the nation. 

As the states are older than the Federal government, 
and as the latter was, indeed, in many respects modelled 
upon the scheme of government which already existed in the 
thirteen original states, it may be convenient to begin with the 
states and then to proceed to the national government, whose 
structure is more intricate and will require a fuller explanation. 

Before entering, however, on a description of the state 
governments, one feature must be noticed which is common 
both to the states and to the Federation, and gives to the 
governmental system of both a peculiar character, different from 
that of the government of Great Britain. This feature is the 
existence of a supreme instrument of government, a document, 
enacted by the people, which controls, and cannot be altered by, 
any or all of the ordinary organs of government. In Great 
Britain parliament is the supreme power, and can change any 
of the laws of the country at any moment. In the American 
Union, and in every state of the Union, there exists a docu- 
mentary or rigid constitution, creating and denning the powers 
of every authority in the government. It is the expression of 
the ultimate sovereignty of the people, and its existence 
gives to the working both of the Federal government and of 
the several state governments, a certain fixity and uniformity 
which the European, and especially the British, reader must 
constantly bear in mind, because under such a constitution 
every legislative body enjoys far scantier powers than in the 
United Kingdom and most European countries. 

II. The Stale Governments. 

2. The state is the oldest political institution in America, 
and is still the basis and the indestructible unit of the American 
Origin otthe system. It is the outgrowth from, or rather the 
American continuation of, the colony, as the latter existed 
State. before the Declaration of Independence in 1776. 

In every one of the North American colonies there was in 
operation at that date a system of self-government, in seven 
colonies under a charter from the Crown. In each there was a 
governor, with minor executive officers, a legislature, and a 
judiciary; and although the Crown retained the power of al- 
tering the charter, and the British parliament could (in strict 
legal view) legislate over the head of the colonial legislature so 
as to abrogate statutes passed by the latter, still in practice each 
colony was allowed to manage its own affairs and to enact the 
laws it desired. Thus the people were well accustomed to work 
their institutions, and when they gained their independence 
continued to maintain those institutions with comparatively 
little change. In two colonies, Rhode Island and Connecticut, 
the colonial charter was substantially maintained as the 



constitution of the state for many years, in the former case 
till 1842, in the latter till 1818. 

3. Each state was under the Confederation of 1781 sovereign 
(except as regarded foreign relations), and for most purposes 
practically independent. In adopting the Federal Klg t,tsan<i 
Constitution of 1787-1789, each parted with some Powers of a 
of . the attributes of sovereignty, while retaining state - 
others. Those which were retained have been to some extent 
diminished by the i4th and isth amendments to the Consti- 
tution, and if the right to secede from the Union ever existed 
(a point much controverted), it was finally negatived by the 
Civil War of 1861-65. Otherwise, however, these attributes 
survive. The powers of a state are inherent, not delegated, and 
each retains all such rights and functions of an independent 
government as it has not, by entering the Union, affirmatively 
divested itself of in favour of the Federal government. Each 
has its own documentary constitution; its legislature of two 
elective houses; its executive, consisting of a governor and other 
officials; its judiciary, whose decisions are final, except in cases 
involving Federal law; its system of local government and local 
taxation; its revenue, system of taxation, and debts; its 
body of private civil and criminal law and procedure; its 
rules of citizenship, which may admit persons to be voters in 
state and national elections under conditions differing from 
those prevailing in other states. 

The rights and functions of a state practically cover the 
field in which lie most of the relations of private citizens to one 
another and to the authorities with which they come into con- 
tact in daily life. An American may through a long life never 
be reminded of the Federal government, except when he votes 
at Federal elections (once in every two years), lodges a complaint 
against the post office, or is required to pay duties of customs 
or excise. His direct taxes are paid to officials acting under 
state laws. The state (or a local authority created by the state) 
registers his birth, appoints his guardian, provides schools for 
him and pays for them, allots him a share in the property of a 
parent dying intestate, licences him when he enters a trade 
(if the trade needs a licence), marries him, divorces him, enter- 
tains civil actions against him, tries and executes him for murder. 
The police that guard his house, the local boards which care for 
the poor, control highways, provide water, all derive their 
powers from the state. Nevertheless the state is (as will be 
explained later) a slightly declining factor in the public life 
of the nation, because public interest tends more and more to 
centre in the Federal or national government. 

4. The constitution of each state is framed and enacted 
by the state itself, without any Federal interference, save 
that the Federal Constitution requires that the Con- 

... i j . State Coa- 

stitution under which a new state seeks admission to s< ft u( /o ns . 
the Union must be "republican"; and under this re- 
quirement, Congress has seemed to assume a right of making 
the adoption, or omission, of any particular provision in a state 
constitution a condition of the admission of that particular 
state. Even in these cases, however, the constitution derives 
its force not from the national government, but from the people 
of the state. The invariable method of forming a constitution 
is for the citizens to elect by special popular vote a body called 
a convention to draft the document, which, when drafted and 
circulated, is usually, though not quite invariably, submitted 
to popular vote. This is done either when a state is to be 
formed out of a Territory (as to which see post, 10), or when 
an existing state desires to give itself a new constitution. 1 

A state constitution usually consists of the following parts : 

A description of the state boundaries (now frequently omitted) ; 

A bill of rights, denning the so-called " primordial rights " of 
the citizens to security of life, liberty and property; 

A declaration and enactment of the frame of state government, 
i.e. the names, functions and powers of the houses of the legislature, 

1 Details as to state constitutions will be found in J. Brvce, 
American Commonwealth, chs. xxxvii.-xxxix., which is referred to 
here and subsequently as containing a fuller treatment of all the 
topics dealt with in this article. Further details may be found 
also in the articles on the separate states. 



CONSTITUTION] 



UNITED STATES 



647 



the chief executive officials, and the courts of justice, with provisions 
regulating the electoral franchise ; 

Provisions creating, or directing the creation of, a system of local 
government for cities and rural areas; 

Miscellaneous provisions relating to law and administration, 
including the militia, revenue and taxation, state prisons and 
hospitals, agriculture, banking and other corporations, railways, 
labour questions ; 

Provisions for the amendment of the constitution; 

A schedule prescribing the method of submitting the draft 
constitution to the vote of the people, with temporary provisions 
regulating the mode of transition from the old constitutional 
arrangsments to the new ones. 

The method of amending the constitution varies in detail from 
state to state, but that most usual is for the legislature to propose 
amendments, often by a prescribed majority, and for these amend- 
ments to be voted on by the people. Such amendments have 
latterly come to include many matters not strictly constitutional, and 
so to constitute a speci3s of direct legislation by the people similar 
in principle to what is called in Switzerland the Referendum. 
Some states have recently allowed a prescribed number of voters 
to propose, by what is called the Initiative, amendments which 
are submitted to the vote of all the citizens without the inter- 
vention of the legislature. 

Two remarkable changes have passed over the state constitutions. 
In the earlier days of the republic they were comparatively short 
and simple instruments, confined to the definition of civic rights 
and the establishment of a frame of government. They have now 
become very long and elaborate documents, seven, eight or ten 
times as long as the Federal Constitution, and containing a vast 
number of provisions on all sorts of subjects, many of them partak- 
ing of the nature of ordinary statutes passed by a legislature rather 
than safeguards suitable to a fundamental instrument. And 
secondly, whereas in earlier days the constitutions were seldom 
changed, they are now frequently recast or amended. Only Maine 
and Massachusetts and a few of the newer states live under original 
constitutions, and only Massachusetts is under a constitution older 
than the igth century. Some have recast their constitutions seven 
or eight times. Some provide for the revision of the constitution at 
stated intervals. Notwithstanding the facility and frequency of 
amendments, the variations between one constitution and another 
are less conspicuous than might have been expected. There is, 
however, a distinction of type and character between those of the 
western and southern and those of the eastern states, the former 
being generally more prolix, more prone to go into details, more 
apt to contain new experiments in legislation. 

Comparing the old constitutions with the new ones, it may be 
said that the note of those enacted in the first thirty or forty years 
of the republic was their jealousy of executive power and their 
careful safeguarding of the rights of the citizen ; that of the second 
period, from 1820 to the Civil War (1861-65), the democratization 
of the suffrage and of institutions generally; that of the third 
period (since the war to the present day), a disposition to limit the 
powers and check the action of the legislature, and to commit 
power to the hands of the whole people voting at the polls. 

5. In every state the legislature consists of two houses. 
This remarkable feature, originally due to the practice that had 
prevailed in some colonies, and to the example of 
fe "fsiatures Great Britain, soon became universal, and the belief 
' in its necessity has passed into a fundamental dogma, 
the idea being that a single chamber would be either hasty, or 
tyrannical or unscrupulous perhaps all three so that there 
must always be a second chamber to keep the first in order. 
The smaller house is called the Senate, the larger one is (usually) 
called the House of Representatives, sometimes, however, the 
Assembly sometimes the House of Delegates. Both are chosen 
by popular vote, almost universally by the same voters, and 
usually in single-membered districts, and at the same time. 
The senatorial districts are, of course, larger than the house 
districts. A senator is usually chosen for a longer term (often 
four years) than a representative, and, in most cases, whereas 
the house is elected all at once, the senate is renewed only 
partially at each election. In some states by law, and in all by 
custom also, a member must reside in the district which he 
represents. 

Universal manhood suffrage, subject to certain disquali- 
fications (e.g. certain crimes or receipt of poor relief), is the rule 
in the great majority of states. Certain terms of residence 
within the United States, in the state, and in the voting district 
are generally prescribed, the periods varying from state to state. 
Nine states allow voting rights to aliens who have declared 
their intention to become citizens, and in some they can as 



taxpayers vote on financial matters submitted to a special vote. 
Kansas grants them a full municipal suffrage. Fourteen pre- 
scribe some sort of educational qualification. Five states 
Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, Idaho and Washington give the 
suffrage for all elections to women. 1 In 1905 women could vote 
at school elections in twenty-four states. Of late years seven 
Southern states, beginning with Mississippi (constitution of 
1890) and including Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, 
Georgia, Alabama and Louisiana, have so altered their constitu- 
tions as to exclude from voting the great bulk of their respective 
negro populations, by means of educational tests, property 
qualifications, a combination of both, or by other means, 
while various ingenious devices have been employed to 
admit a large part, at least, of the illiterate whites. In 1910 
Oklahoma adopted provisions of the same kind. The suffrage 
for legislature elections generally determines that for all other 
elections within the state, and as a rule it carries with it eligi- 
bility to office. And by the Federal Constitution it is also the 
suffrage for Federal elections, viz. elections of representatives 
in Congress and of presidential electors. 

Elections are now practically everywhere conducted under 
that system of secret voting, which is called in America " the 
Australian ballot," and which is very similar to that used in 
the United Kingdom since 1872. There used to be a good deal 
of fraud practised at elections, including " personating " and 
" repeating," as well as a good deal of bribery in a few states 
and in some of the larger cities. Legislation has reduced these 
evils in recent years; and efforts have been made to prevent 
the excessive expenditure of money at elections, and the making 
of contributions to party " campaign funds " by wealthy cor- 
porations who desire to secure some benefit for themselves. 
Another evil which has not yet been dealt with is the large 
number of posts for which the voter is expected at an election 
to select the best men. This, of course, does not apply to elec- 
tions to a legislature; but in city elections, and to some extent 
in state elections and county elections also, it creates great diffi- 
culties, for how is the average citizen to know (especially in a 
large city) who are the fittest men out of a long list of candidates 
for perhaps ten or twenty offices, all of which have to be filled 
by election at the same time? The perception of these difficulties 
has evoked a movement for what is called " a short ballot." 

The number of members of the legislative chambers varies 
from state to state. Delaware with 17 senators and 35 repre- 
sentatives, has the smallest; Minnesota, with 63 senators, has 
the largest Senate; and New Hampshire (a small state) has, 
with its 390 representatives, the largest House. The New York 
houses number 51 and 150 respectively; those of Pennsylvania, 
50 and 204; of Illinois, 51 and 153; of Ohio, 34 and 118; of 
Massachusetts, 40 and 240. In all states, members of the 
legislature receive a salary, which is the same for both houses, 
some states fixing an annual sum, but most preferring a per 
diem rate, while the maximum is generally determined by a 
limitation on the length of the session. 

It has become the wish of the people in most places to have 
sessions both short and few. Whereas formerly legislatures 
met annuaUy, regular sessions are now biennial except in New 
York, New Jersey, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Georgia and 
South Carolina all original states. In Alabama the legislature 
meets regularly once only in four years, though it may be 
convoked in the interval. 

The Senates act as courts for the trial of state officers im- 
peached by the house (in imitation of the British House of Lords 
and the Federal Senate), and have in some states _ 
the function of confirming or refusing appointments Functions 
made by the governor. Otherwise the powers and of the state 
procedure of the two houses are everywhere sub- ^ e f'*~ 
stantiaUy identical, though it is worth noting that 
whereas every house chooses its own Speaker, the president of 

1 Woman suffrage amendments to state constitutions have been 
rejected by the people in at least twelve states and in two territories. 
State organizations of women to oppose the extension of the suffrage 
to women exist in Illinois, Massachusetts, New York and Oregon: 
possibly in other states also. 



UNITED STATES 



[CONSTITUTION 



the Senate is, in most states, a lieutenant-governor, whom the 
people have directly elected. Bills may originate in either 
house, but in about half of the states money bills must 
originate in the House of Representatives a survival of 
British custom which has here, where both houses equally 
represent the people, no functional value. Both houses do 
most of their work by committees, much after the fashion 
(to be presently described) of the Federal Congress, and it 
is in these committees that the form of bills is usually settled 
and their fate decided. Sometimes, when a committee is taking 
evidence on an important question, reporters are present, 
and the proceedings receive comment in the newspapers; but in 
general the proceedings of committees and even debates in 
the houses are imperfectly reported and excite no great public 
interest. In all the states except one, viz. North Carolina, bills 
passed by the two houses must be submitted to the state 
governor for his approval. Should he return it to the legislature 
disapproved, it is lost unless repassed " over his veto " by a 
majority usually of two-thirds, but sometimes larger, in each 
house. A good governor is apt to use his veto freely indeed, 
a frequent exercise of the power is deemed in many states to 
be a sort of test of the governor's judgment and courage. 

Subjects of state legislation may be classified under three heads : 

1. Ordinary private law, including property, contracts, torts, 
family relations, offences, civil and criminal procedure. 

2. Administrative law, including the regulation of urban and 
rural local government, state and local taxation and finance, 
education, public works, the liquor traffic, vaccination, adultera- 
tion, charities, asylums, prisons, the inspection of mines and factories, 
general laws relating to corporations, railways, labour questions. 

3. Matters of a local or special nature, such as bills for chartering 
and incorporating gas, water, canal, tramway, railway or telephone 
companies, or for conferring franchises in the nature of monopolies 
or special privileges upon such companies, or for altering their 
constitutions, as also for incorporating cities or minor communities 
and regulating their affairs. Although there usually exist general 
laws under which corporations or companies (including railway 
and electric car companies) can be formed, laws which in some states 
and for some purposes confer a greater freedom of incorporation 
than the general law allows in the United Kingdom, there is never- 
theless a noticeable tendency to come to the legislature for special 
purposes of this kind. 

As respects class I, there is not much change in the law from 
year to year. The legal profession does not like to see the ordinary 
and established rules disturbed. Sometimes the laws belonging 
to this class are codified, or rather consolidated, and then usually 
by a special committee of competent lawyers whose work is passed 
en bloc by the legislature. 

As respects class 2, a good many measures are passed, particularly 
in matters affecting labour, and for the protection of any sections 
of the population which may be deemed to need protection. 

It is, however, in class 3 that the legislatures show most activity, 
much of it pernicious, because prompted by persons seeking to serve 
private interests which are often opposed to the interests of the 
whole community. The great " public service " corporations have, 
in particular, frequently succeeded in obtaining franchises of large 
pecuniary value without making any adequate payment therefor. 
A peculiarly notable form of this special or private bill legislation 
is that of dealing by special statutes with the governmental forms 
and details of management of municipalities; and the control 
exercised by the state legislatures over city governments is not 
only a most important branch of legislative business, but at the 
same time a means of power to scheming politicians and of enrich- 
ment to greedy ones. This has led in some states to the grant of 
power to cities to frame their own charters. Speaking generally, 
it is chiefly in the sphere of special or private legislation that state 
legislatures have shown their weak side, and incurred, in many 
states, the distrust of the people. 

The members of these bodies belong for the most part, though 
by no means entirely, and least so in the agricultural states, to the 
class of professional politicians. They are seldom persons of 
shining ability or high standing in their communities. Except 
as a stepping-stone to a seat in Congress or a high executive post, 
the place is not one which excites the ambition of aspirins; men. 
The least respected legislatures are those of the richest and most 
populous states, such as New York and Pennsylvania, because 
in such states the opportunities offered to persons devoid of scruple 
are the largest. 

The general decline in the quality of these bodies, and especially 
their proneness to pass ill-considered or pernicious bills at the 
instance of private promotors, has led to the restriction in recent 
years of their powers by the insertion in the state constitutions 
of many provisions forbidding the enactment of certain classes of 
measures, and regulating the procedure to be adopted in the passing, 



either of statutes generally or of particular kinds of statutes. Even 
these provisions, however, are frequently evaded. 

6. At the head of every state government stands an 
official called the governor, who is the descendant and representa- 
tive of the governor of colonial times. Under the 
earlier constitutions of most of the original thirteen 
states he was chosen by the legislature, but he is 
now everywhere directly elected by the people, and by the same 
suffrage as the legislature. His term of office is four years in 
twenty-three states (including Pennsylvania and Illinois), three 
years in one state, two years in twenty, and one year in 
two (Massachusetts and Rhode Island). In a few states there 
are prohibitions on re-election. 

It is the duty of the governor to see that the laws of the state 
are faithfully administered by all officials, and the judgments 
of the courts carried out. He has, in most states, the right of 
reprieving or pardoning offenders, but some recent constitutions 
place restrictions on this power. He is also commander of the 
militia or other armed forces of the state, which he can direct 
to repel invasion, or suppress insurrection or riot. He appoints 
some of the state officials, his nominations usually requiring the 
concurrence of the state senate; but his patronage is in most 
states not very large in many it is indeed insignificant 
because the offices of greatest importance are filled by 
direct popular election. He has also the almost mechanical 
function of representing the state for various formal purposes, 
such as demanding from other states the extradition of offenders, 
the issuing of writs for the election of members of the legislature 
and of members of the Federal House of Representatives, 
and the receiving of reports from various state officials or 
boards. 

Not less important than his directly executive work is the 
influence which the governor exerts upon state legislation through 
his possession (in all the states but one) of a veto power. His 
right of recommending measures to the legislature (which does 
not formally include that of framing and presenting bills, but 
practically permits him to have a bill prepared and use all his 
influence on its behalf) is of greater value according to the extent 
to which he leads the public opinion of his state. The legis- 
lature need not regard his counsels, but if he is a strong man 
whom the people trust, it may fear him and comply with his 
demands. When a commercial crisis occurs much may depend 
on his initiative. Moreover, his veto is a thing to be reckoned 
with. It is seldom overridden by the prescribed majority, 
especially if the bill against which it is directed be one of a 
jobbing nature. And as the people look to him to kill bad 
measures, he is frequently able, if he be a man both strong and 
upright, to convey intimations to the legislature, or to those who 
are influential in it, that he will not approve of certain pending 
measures, or will approve of them only if passed in a form satis- 
factory to him. The use of this potential authority, which the 
possession of the veto power gives, has now become one of a 
governor's most important duties. 

In New England, and in the greater states generally, the 
governorship is still a post of dignity, and affords an opportunity 
for a display of character and talents. During the War of 
Secession, when each governor was responsible for organizing 
troops from his state, much turned upon his energy, popularity 
and loyalty. And in recent years the danger of riots during 
strikes has, in some states, made it important to have a man 
of decision and fearlessness in the office which issues orders to 
the state militia. There has been of late years a revival in 
the case of some able governors of the old respect for, and 
deference to, the office. 

In thirty-five states there is a lieutenant-governor, elected 
by popular vote. He is usually president of the state senate, 
is sometimes a member of some administrative boards, and 
steps into the governor's place should it become vacant. 

Executive councils advising the governor, but not chosen by 
him, existed under the first constitutions of all the original 
thirteen states. In New York the council of appointment 
advised the governor only in regard to appointing officers; and 



CONSTITUTION] 



UNITED STATES 



649 



in Georgia there was no executive council after 1789. True 
executive councils have now disappeared except in Massachusetts, 
Maine and New Hampshire. 

7. The names and duties of the other officers vary from state 
to state. In every state there are a secretary of state, who is custodian 
of the documents and archives, and a treasurer. Nearly 



nlnlstra- ever y wnere there are also a comptroller or auditor, who 
a state" keeps the accounts and is the principal financial_ officer, 



live Offices 



an attorney-general or legal adviser, an adjutant- 
general, who has immediate charge of the militia, and a 
superintendent of public instruction, with some little authority 
over the public schools. Most of the states have also a board of 
charities, a board of health, a board of railway commissioners, and 
either boards or single commissioners for banking, insurance, 
agriculture, public lands and prisons. Other administrative de- 
partments found in different states are those having control of public 
works principally canals insane hospitals, factory inspection, 
labour statistics and immigration. New York state, with nearly 
fifty different administrative bureaus, has a larger number than 
any other state. In many states the most important of these 
officials are elected by the people at a general election, but some 
officials are either chosen by the legislature or appointed by the 
governor, the latter method applying mainly to offices of recent 
creation. The terms of office vary for the different offices, very 
few exceeding four years. The state officials, being thus largely 
independent of the governor, and responsible only to the people, 
are in no sense a cabinet (save in North Carolina). Each administers 
his own department, subject to the detailed regulation imposed by 
statutes, and as these statutes determine such matters as might 
come into controversy, a general agreement in policy among the 
administrative officials is not essential. 

In many states officials may be removed, not only by impeach- 
ment, but also sometimes by vote of the legislature, sometimes by 
the governor on the address of both houses, or by the governor either 
alone or with the concurrence of the senate; but such removals 
must be made for specific misconduct. 

The extent of direct state administration of public institutions 
and works is very limited, and most of the state bureaus have only 
a supervision over private enterprises, or over local administrative 
officers. On this account the subordinate civil service of the state 
is not large compared with that of either the Federal goyernment 
or of the large municipalities, and only in a few states does it possess 
any importance. However, these bureaus are seldom well manned, 
because salaries and tenure of office are seldom such as to induce 
able men to offer themselves, while the places are often given as 
rewards for political service. New York, Massachusetts and a 
few other states have systems of civil service examinations, similar 
to those in the Federal administration, which serve to keep certain 
branches out of politics. 

8. The judiciary is in every state an independent depart- 
ment of the government, directly created by the state con- 
stitution, and not controlled in the exercise of its 
Judiciary, functions either by the legislature or by the execu- 
tive. In every state it includes three sets of courts: 
a supreme court or court of appeal; superior courts of record; 
and local courts, but the particular names and relations of these 
several tribunals vary greatly from state to state. Most of 
the original thirteen colonies once possessed also separate 
courts of chancery; and these were maintained for many 
years after the separation from Great Britain, and were imitated 
in several of the earlier among the new states, but special 
chancery courts now exist only in a few of the states, chiefly 
in the East and South. In other states the common law 
judges have also equity jurisdiction; and in four states 
New York, North Carolina, California and Idaho there has 
been a complete fusion of law and equity. 

In colonial days the superior judges were appointed by the 
governors, except in Rhode Island and Connecticut, where 
the legislatures elected them. These precedents were followed 
in all the revolutionary constitutions, except in Georgia, where 
election by the people was established. During the demo- 
cratizing period from 1820 to 1860 the system of popular election 
was extended, especially in the new states, and at present this 
system prevails in thirty-six states, including practically all of 
the new states and five of the original states New York, Penn- 
sylvania, Maryland, North Carolina and Georgia. Three of the 
original thirteen have their judges elected by the legislatures, 
and in five others, together with Maine and Mississippi among 
the newer states, they are appointed by the governor, subject 
to the approval of the executive council, the Senate, or (in 



Connecticut) the General Assembly. Local judges are generally 
chosen by the voters of the district in which they hold court. 

Originally the superior judges were in most states appointed 
for life and held office during good behaviour, but only three 
states now retain this system. Eight to ten years is the average 
term of service; it is longer in New York (14), Maryland (15), and 
Pennsylvania (21), where alone superior judges are not re-eligible. 
Salaries, too, are small in most states, often not more than one- 
tenth of what a prominent lawyer can make by private practice. 

These three factors popular election, limited terms and 
small salaries have all tended to lower the character of the 
judiciary; and in not a few states the state judges are men of 
moderate abilities and limited learning, inferior (and some- 
times conspicuously inferior) to the best of the men who practise 
before them. Nevertheless, in most states the bench is respect- 
able in point of character, while in some it is occasionally 
adorned by men of the highest eminence. The changes intro- 
duced since 1870 have been, on the whole, for the better, though 
there is still room for further improvement. Corruption seems 
to be very rare, but instances of subservience to powerful political 
groups sometimes shake public confidence. Things would doubt- 
less have become worse but for the watchfulness which the 
bar generally shows in endeavouring to secure the selection of 
honest and fairly competent men. The administration of 
civil justice is decidedly better than that of criminal justice. 
The latter is in many states neither prompt nor certain, offenders 
frequently escaping through the excessive regard for techni- 
calities even more than through the indulgence of juries and 
the occasional weakness of judges. 

It must be remembered that the courts of each state form a 
judicial system, complete in itself, and independent of the Federal 
courts, and, of course, of other states. There is no appeal from the 
highest state court, except in those cases where a question of 
Federal law is involved, for then such cases may be removed, in 
manner to be explained hereafter, to the Federal courts. And, sub- 
ject only to this limitation, the jurisdiction of the state courts covers 
the entire field of civil and criminal law. The existing legal system 
of all the states, except Louisiana, whose law is based on the Roman, 
have been built upon the foundation of the principles contained in 
the common and statute law of England as that law stood in 1776, 
when the thirteen colonies declared their independence. In the 
development of the law since that time the courts of one state are not 
bound either by law or by usage to follow the decisions either of the 
Federal courts or of the courts of any other state, any more than 
they would follow English courts, although such decisions are used 
and discussed as evidence of the common law, and great deference 
is always shown to the opinions expressed by the Federal courts. 
In many states the legislatures have taken action in the develop- 
ment of law by adopting statutory codes of procedure, and in some 
instances have even enacted codes embodying the substance of the 
common law fused with the statutes. These latter codes have not, 
however, received the genera! approval of the legal profession. 

It is, of course, to the state courts that the duty belongs of con- 
struing the constitution as well as the statutes of the state, and if 
they find any state law to be inconsistent with the state constitution 
it is their duty to declare it invalid. It is also the duty of the state 
court to declare any state law invalid if it is contrary to the Federal 
constitution or to a Federal statute or treaty. As in the case of 
the similar power of the Federal judges, this is founded on no special 
commission, but arises out of the ordinary judicial function of 
expounding the law and discriminating between the fundamental 
law and laws of inferior authority (see post, 25). 

9. Wide as is the range of the rights and powers of a state, 
and elaborate as is the structure of its government, the state 
holds a practically less important position in the Change la 
American system than it once did, and has not so the Political 
strong a hold as it had in the first quarter of the Importance 
1 9th century upon the loyalty and affection of its oftheState - 
citizens. The political interest and the patriotism of the 
people generally are now given rather to the nation as a 
whole than to a state, whereas in the two generations 
following the Revolutionary War the opposite would have 
been the case. This notable difference is due not to any con- 
stitutional changes, for there has been none except those 
contained in the I3th, I4th and isth amendments to the 
Constitution, but to the three following causes: 

The first is the growth of the party system with its complicated 
machinery, which has linked the citizens of different states 



650 



UNITED STATES 



[LOCAL GOVERNMENT 



more closely together, and has led to the eclipsing of political 
issues confined to a state by issues which are matters of 
controversy throughout the nation. 

The second cause is the Civil War of 1861-65, which prac- 
tically negatived the far-reaching claims of state sovereignty 
and the right of secession made by statesmen of the type of 
Calhoun, and showed that the nation was really much stronger 
than any group of states. 

The third is the enormous development of swift and cheap 
communications by land and water, and the growth of com- 
merce and of productive industry, which have brought every 
part of the country into much closer relations with every other 
part, and have increased the sense of economic solidarity. 

10. During the entire history of the United States there 
has been a considerable area within the jurisdiction of the 
Federal government not included in that of any one 
Territories or more f the states; and the systems of government 
for the various parts of this area require some descrip- 
tion. The Territories (strictly so called) were at one time impor- 
tant, though now less so, because there icmain only two, the 
unorganized Territory or District of Alaska, and the Hawaiian 
Islands in the Pacific Ocean. Till 1910 there were the two 
organized Territories of Arizona and New Mexico, but in that 
year Congress passed an act for their admission as states. 
Previously to that year there had been ever since 1787 a large 
area of the continent which, while belonging to the United 
States, was deemed too thinly peopled to be fit to be divided 
up into states. Parts of this area were, however, set off and 
organized as Territories, receiving a qualified form of self- 
government while under the ultimate control of Congress for 
the purposes of legislation. When these parts had been suffi- 
ciently filled up by settlers, they were allowed to organize 
themselves as states, each giving, itself a constitution. The 
Territorial government consisted of a legislature of two houses 
elected by the people, with a governor appointed by the president 
of the United States, with the consent of the Senate, and judges 
similarly appointed. The Territories were not represented in 
Congress, but each could send a delegate to the House of 
Representatives, who could speak there but not vote. 

Since the Spanish War of 1898 there have been added to the 
United States various transmarine dominions, none of which 
has been formed into a state, or is likely to be so formed for a 
good while to come; and there is also one small piece of original 
area of the United States, viz. the District of Columbia, which is 
outside any state, because it contains the national capital. The 
transmarine dominions are Alaska, the Hawaiian Islands, Porto 
Rico, the Philippine Islands, and the Canal Zone on the Isthmus 
of Panama. 

III. Local Government. 

ii. Every state in the Union has its own system of local 
administrative areas and local authorities, working under its 
Rural Local own laws, these systems agreeing in many points 
Govern- with one another, and differing in many others. 
Three main types of rural local government may be 
distinguished, prevailing in different regions. The first is 
characterized by its unit, the town or township, and exists in 
the six New England states. The second is characterized by 
a much larger unit, the county, and prevails in the southern 
states. The third may be called the mixed system, combining 
some features of the first with some of the second, and is found 
under a considerable variety of forms in the middle and north- 
western states. The different types spring from the original 
differences in the character of the colonists who settled on the 
Atlantic coast, and in the conditions under which the various 
colonial communities developed. (See American Commonwealth, 
chs. xlvii. and xlix.) 

The town, or township, of New England is generally a rural com- 
munity occupying a comparatively small area, and with a population 
averaging about 3000, but ranging from 200 in newly-settled dis- 
tricts or thinly-peopled hilly districts up to 17,000 in the vicinity 
of large cities and in manufacturing neighbourhoods. Each town 
is governed by the town meeting, an assembly of all the qualified 



voters within the limits, which meets at least once a year in the 
spring, and also at other times when specially summoned. This 
assembly elects the town officials at the annual meetings, but it is 
much more than an electoral body. It is also a deliberative assembly 
and the legislative authority for local matters. It enacts by-laws 
and ordinances, receives the reports of the local officials, passes 
their accounts, manages the town property, votes appropria- 
tions for each item of expenditure, and authorizes the necessary 
taxation. Every resident citizen has the right to bring forward 
and to speak in favour of any proposal. The meeting is presided 
over by a chairman called the moderator. In rural communities 
the attendance is usually good, the debates are sensible and practical, 
and a satisfactory administration is generally secured. But when 
the town meeting has grown to exceed seven or eight hundred 
persons, and especially when the farming class of native American 
stock has been replaced by factory operatives of other nationalities, 
the institution works tar less perfectly. 

The town officials consist of the " selectmen " (usually three, 
five or seven, sometimes nine), the town clerk, treasurer, assessors, 
tax collector, school committee men, and the holders of divers 
minor offices according to local needs. These are elected annually, 
except that in some cases the " selectmen " and school committee 
have a term of several years, one member of each board being elected 
annually. The " selectmen," who receive no regular salary, but 
may charge for expenses actually incurred, form a sort of directory 
or executive committee, which manages the ordinary administrative 
and financial business under such instructions as may have been 
given by the town meeting. 

In the Middle and Western states the township is a more artificial 
organism than the rural town of New England. In one group 
of states Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Indiana, 
Iowa while the township has more or less power, and there are 
town officials, there is no town meeting. In another group 
Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, the two Dakotas the 
town meeting reappears, though in a less primitive and less perfect 
form. In the states west of the Alleghanies each township covers 
an artificial area 6 m. square, and a separate quasi-municipal 
organization is usually provided for the villages which have grown 
up in many townships. 

The county is to be found in every state of the Union, but its 
importance varies inversely with the position held in the system 
of local government by that smaller and older organism, the town. 
In New England the county was originally an aggregation of towns 
for judicial purposes, and in that part of the Union it is still in the 
main a judicial district. There is no general representative council 
or board, but judicial officers, a sheriff and a clerk, are elected in 
each county, and also a county treasurer and county commissioners. 
The latter have the management of county buildings, such as court- 
houses and prisons, have power to lay out new main highways, 
to grant licences, and to apportion among the towns and cities the 
taxation necessary to meet county expenses. Besides these officials 
there are generally to be found in New England a county school 
superintendent and an overseer of roads. In the Southern states 
the county is the local administrative unit, and in addition to its 
original judicial and financial functions it has now also control 
over public schools, the care of the poor and the construction and 
management of roads. County government is generally vested in 
a board of county commissioners, elected (in almost every state) 
by the people, and in various officials also directly elected. In 
some Southern states some counties have been subdivided into 
school districts, each of which elects a school committee, and from 
this nucleus there may possibly develop something resembling the 
New England town. In those Middle and Western states where the 
town meeting is not found, the functions and officials of the county 
tend to resemble those existing in the Southern states, while even 
in those parts of the west where the town meeting is found the county 
remains more important than in New England. Thus in many of 
these states poor relief is a county and not a town charge. In 
most states county administration belongs to a small board of three 
commissioners elected for the county at large, but in New York, 
Michigan, Illinois and Wisconsin there is a larger board of super- 
visors elected by townships and cities within each county. Although 
local affairs do not now enlist, even in New England, so large a 
measure of interest and public spirit as the town system used to 
evoke in Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut in the 
'thirties, still, broadly speaking, the rural local government of 
America may be deemed satisfactory. The administration is 
fairly cheap and fairly efficient, most so, on the whole, in the 
Northern and Western states, while jobbery and corruption are 
uncommon. The value of local self-government as a training for 
the duties of citizenship has been very great, and in many parts 
of the country, especially where the funds dealt with are small, 
elections are not fought and offices not distributed upon party lines. 

1 2. The tendency, now so marked in nearly all civilized countries, 
to the development of urban communities has been nowhere more 
marked than in the United States. The increase in cu 
the range and importance of municipal functions has Q . 

been not less striking than the growth of urban popu- ' 
lation. This can best be illustrated by the figures of municipal 



FEDERAL SYSTEM] 



UNITED STATES 



651 



expenditure. In 1810 the annual budget of New York city with 
a population of 100,000 was $100,000; to-day an average city of 
100,000 population has an annual expenditure of from $1,000,000 
to $2,000,000, and the total expenditure of the city of New York in 
1909 exceeded $150,000,000. Municipal government is therefore a 
matter of high concern to America, and plays a large part in any 
study of American political institutions. 

The historical origin of American municipal government is to be 
found in certain boroughs which had been chartered in [he colonial 
period, after the fashion of English boroughs. These American 
corporations had the usual English system of borough government, 
consisting of a mayor, aldermen and councilmen, who carried out 
the simple administrative and judicial functions needed lor the then 
small communities. The basis for the government of each American 
city is still a charter, but since the Revolution these charters have 
been granted by the state legislatures, and are subject to constant 
change by statute. The charters of cities have shown the same 
process of increasing length and detailed regulation as the state 
constitutions; and in details there are many differences between 
different cities. In some states cities are now permitted to enact 
their own charters. (See American Commonwealth, chs. l.-lii.) 

As a rule, one finds (l) a mayor, elected directly by the voters 
within the city, who is the head of the administration; (2) adminis- 
trative officers or boards, some directly elected by the city voters, 
others nominated by the mayor or chosen by the council; (3) a 
council or assembly, consisting sometimes of two, but more fre- 
quently of one chamber, elected directly by the city voters; and (4) 
judges, usually elected by the city voters, but sometimes appointed 
by the state. 

The mayor is by far the most important official in the city govern- 
ment. He is elected usually for two years, but sometimes for one, 
three or four (in New York his term is now four years). He has 
almost everywhere a veto on all ordinances passed by the council, 
modelled on the veto of the Federal president and of a state governor. 
In many cities he appoints some or all of the heads of the adminis- 
trative departments, usually with the approval of the council, 
but in some important cities the mayor has an absolute power of 
appointment. As the chief executive officer, he preserves the public 
peace. In practice he is often allowed to exert a certain discretion 
as to the enforcement of the laws, especially those providing for 
Sunday closing, and this discretion has sometimes become a source 
of mischief. He usually receives a considerable salary, varying 
with the size of the city. 

The practical work of municipal administration is carried on by 
a number of departments, some under single heads, and some under 
boards or commissions. The number and classification of these 
departments vary widely in the different cities. The board of 
education, which controls the public schools, is usually largely 
independent of the council, and in some important cities has an 
independent power of taxation. In Boston, St Louis, Baltimore, 
and some few other cities, the police board (or commissioner) is 
appointed by the governor because police matters had been 
mismanaged by the municipal authorities and occasionally allowed 
to become a means of extortion and a door to corruption. 

The city councils pass local ordinances, vote appropriations, 
levy taxes and generally exert some control over appointments 
to administrative positions. The recent tendency has been, how- 
ever, to decrease the powers of the council and to increase those of 
the mayor. In some cities the mayor has received an absolute 
power of appointment; the departments, especially the boards of 
health, have large ordinance-making powers; statutes passed by 
the state legislature determine (excepting the states where cities 
can make their own charters) the principal lines of municipal 
policy, and the real control over appropriations and taxes is occasion- 
ally found vested in a board of estimate, consisting of the mayor, 
comptroller (the chief financial officer), and a few other adminis- 
trative officials. In New York City, where the council had lost 
public confidence, and in some other places, the only important 
power still possessed by the council is that of granting franchises 
to street railways, gas companies and the like. In the smaller 
cities, however, the councils have retained a wider measure of 
authority. In 1902 the city of Galveston, in Texas, adopted a new 
form of municipal government by vesting all powers in a commission 
of five persons, elected by the citizens on a " general ticket," one 
of whom is mayor and head of the commission, while each of the 
others has charge of a department of municipal administration. 
A similar plan, differing in some details, was subsequently introduced 
in the city of Des Moines, in Iowa; and the success which has 
attended this new departure in both cities has led to its adoption 
in many others, especially, but not exclusively, in the Western states. 
In 1910 more than seventy cities were so administered. Under it 
administration would appear to have become both more pure and 
more efficient. The functions of city government may be dis- 
tributed into three groups: (a) Those which are delegated by the 
state out of its general coercive and administrative powers, includ- 
ing the police power and the granting of licences; (b) those which, 
though done under general laws, are properly matters of local 
charge and subject to local regulation, such as education and the 
relief of the poor; and (c) those which involve no questions of 



policy, but are of a purely business nature, such as the paving and 
cleansing of streets, the construction and maintenance of drains, 
the provision of water, &c. 

It is here proper to advert to a remarkable extension of 
direct popular government which has in recent years been 
applied both to states and to cities. Several state initiative, 
constitutions now contain provisions enabling a Referendum 
prescribed number (or proportion) of the voters in *"<t Recall. 
a state or city to submit a proposition to all the registered 
voters of the state (or city) for their approval. If carried, 
it takes effect as a law. This is the Initiative. These con- 
stitutions also allow a prescribed number of voters to demand 
that a law passed by the state legislature, or an ordinance 
passed by the municipal authority, be submitted to all the 
voters for their approval. If rejected by them, it falls to the 
ground. This is the Referendum. Some cities also provide in 
their charters that an official, including the mayor or a member 
of the council, may be displaced from office if, at a special 
election held on the demand of a prescribed number of the city 
voters, he does not receive the largest number of votes cast. 
This is the Recall. All these three institutions are in operation 
in some Western states and are spreading to some of the Eastern 
cities. Their working is observed with lively interest, for they 
carry the principle of direct popular sovereignty to lengths 
unprecedented except in Switzerland. But it is not merely 
to the faith of the Western Americans in the people that their 
introduction is due. Quite as much must b^ ascribed to the 
want of faith in the legislatures of states and cities, which are 
deemed too liable to be influenced by selfish corporations. 

IV. The Federal System. 

13. When, in 1776, the thirteen colonies threw off their 
allegiance to the British Crown and took the title of 
states, they proceeded to unite themselves in a league ' 
by the Articles of Confederation of 1781. This scheme 
of union proved defective, for its central authority, an 
assembly called Congress, was hopelessly weak. It had 
neither an executive nor a judiciary, nor had it proper 
means of coercing a recalcitrant state. Its weakness became 
so apparent, especially after the pressure of the war with Great 
Britain had been removed, that the opinion of the wisest men 
called for a closer and more effective union. Thus the present 
Constitution was drafted by a convention in 1787, was ratified 
by nine states (the prescribed number) in 1788, and was set 
to work under George Washington as first president in 1789. 

14. The Constitution is a document of the first importance 
in the history of the world, because it has not only determined 
the course of events in the American Republic, but The Federal 
has also influenced, or become a model for, other ConsMu- 
constitutions, such as those of Switzerland (1848 tloa - 
and 1874), Canada (1867), Australia (1900), besides Mexico and 
the numerous republics of South and Central America. It 
was in substance a compromise effected between those who 
wished for a centralized government and those who desired 
to leave very wide powers to the component states; and 
many subsequent difficulties arose from the omission to 
settle certain points, and from the somewhat vague language 
in which other points were referred to. Of these omissions 
and points left vague, some were inevitable, because an agree- 
ment could not have been reached, some were due to the im- 
possibility of foreseeing what difficulties the future would bring 
with it. But they were, considering the conditions under 
which the instrument was framed, comparatively few, and the 
Constitution, when one regards it as a piece of drafting, deserves 
the admiration which it has received from nearly all American 
and most foreign critics. It is, on the whole, admirably clear, 
definite and concise, probably superior in point of technique 
to all the documents since framed on its model. 

As respects substance, the Constitution, being enacted by 
and expressing the will of the people, who are the ultimate 
source of political power, is the supreme law of the land over 
the whole Union, entitled to prevail over all laws passed by 
Congress, the legislature which it creates, as well as over all 



652 



UNITED STATES 



[FEDERAL SYSTEM 



state constitutions and all state laws. It can be altered only 
by the people, in manner to be hereafter mentioned. It is 
a comparatively short document, and consists of seven articles, 
subdivided into sections. Art. I. deals with the Federal legis- 
lature, its structure and powers, and imposes certain restrictions 
upon the states. Art. II. provides for the election of an execu- 
tive head, the president, and assigns certain powers and duties 
to him. Art. III. treats of the judicial power, denning its range 
and the mode of its exercise. Arts. IV., V. and VI. contain 
certain miscellaneous provisions, including those which regulate 
the mode of amendment. Two alternative methods of proposing 
amendments and also two of passing them are recognized. They 
may be proposed either by a two-thirds vote in each house 
of Congress, or by a convention called by Congress on the 
application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the states. 
They may be passed either by the legislatures of three-fourths 
of the states, or by conventions in three-fourths of the states. 
Congress has in every instance preferred the .method of itself 
proposing amendments and the method of submitting them to 
the state legislatures for ratification. 

The provisions of the Constitution, which is later in date than 
the creation of the original states, and presupposes the existence 
and activity of those communities, include two sets of matters, 
which must be considered separately (a) the Federal system, 
i.e. the relations of the national government to the states; 
and (b) the structure of the national government itself. 

15. In the determination and allotment of the rights 

n tM i> ~ an d powers of the national government on one side 
Distribution f . 

O f Powers and of the states on the other, a determination 
between the which is the foundation of every federal system, 

tne American Constitution proceeds upon these 

principles: 

1. No powers are expressly allotted to the states, because 
the states are contemplated as continuing to enjoy those pre- 
existing powers which they have by their own right, and not 
as devolved upon them by the nation. 

2. The powers allotted to the national government are 
those, and those only, which are required for the purposes of 
the collective life of the nation, i.e. (a) powers which relate 
to its action in the international sphere; and (b) powers which 
can be exercised within the Union more efficiently and more 
to the benefit of the people by one central government than 
by a number of separate governments. 

3. All powers which are not expressly allotted to the national 
government are left to the states, unless specially forbidden 
to be exercised by the latter, i.e. powers not specifically 
referred to remain with the states, and if the national 
government wishes to claim any particular power, it must 
show affirmatively that that power has been granted to it by 
the Constitution. [This principle has been followed in the 
Constitution of Australia, but not in that of Canada.] 

The powers given to the national government may be described 
as those which subserve purposes of common national utility. 1 They 
are the following (see Const, art. I. 8): 

To impose and collect taxes, which must be uniform throughout 
the United States; 

To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 

To regulate foreign and inter-state commerce; 

To establish a uniform rule of naturalization and a uniform bank- 
ruptcy law; 

To coin money and fix the standard of weights and measures; 

To establish post offices and post roads ; 

To secure exclusive rights for limited time by granting patents 
and copyrights ; 

To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 

To declare war, and regulate captures on land and water; 

To raise and maintain an army and a navy ; 

To provide for calling out the militia, for organizing and arming 
them, and for governing such part of them as may be in the actual 
service of the United States ; 

To exercise exclusive jurisdiction in the area selected for the seat 
of the national government and over spots acquired for military 
or naval purposes; 

To make all laws necessary for carrying out the above powers 



1 As to the scheme and working of the Federal government in its 
relation to the states, see American Commonwealth, chs. xxvii.-xxx. 



(including laws punishing such offences as fall within Federal juris- 
diction as being transgressions of Federal law) ; 

To pass laws protecting citizens of the United States against 
unjust or discriminating legislation by any state (amendments 
xiii.andxiv.). 

16. The national government is, however, interdicted from using 
these powers in certain directions by the following prohibitions (art. 
I. 9, and first ten amendments): It may not suspend 
the writ of habeas corpus (except 1 in time of war or 
public danger) or pass a bill of attainder or an ex post me 
facto law; give any state a commercial preference over National 
another; grant any title of nobility; establish or g overnmeat 
prohibit any religion, or impose any religious test as a 
condition of holding office; abridge the freedom of speaking or 
writing, or of public meeting, or of bearing arms; try any person 
for certain offences except on the presentment of a grand jury, or 
otherwise than by a jury of his state and district; decide any 
common law action where the value in dispute exceeds $20 except 
by a jury. 

Although prima facie all powers not given to the national 
government remain with the states, the latter are debarred from 
some powers. No state may (art I. 10, and amendments 
xiii., xiv. and xv.) make any treaty or alliance; coin money 
or make anything, save gold and silver coin, a legal tender; 
pass any bill of attainder or ex post facto law, or law impairing 
the obligation of contracts; have any but a republican form of 
government; grant any title of nobility; maintain slavery; abridge 
the privileges of any citizen of the United States, or deny to him 
the right of voting on accountof race, colour or previous condition 
of servitude; deprive any person of life, liberty or property without 
due process of law; deny to any person the equal protection of the 
laws. 

There are also certain powers which, though not absolutely with- 
drawn from the states, can be exercised only with the consent of the 
national legislature, viz. those of laying duties on exports or im- 
ports, keeping troops or war-ships in time of peace, entering into 
agreements with another state or foreign power, engaging in war 
unless invaded. And it may be added that there are certain powers 
which, since they do not lie within the province of the national 
government, and have been refused to the states, are said to be 
" reserved to the people." This expression means that it is only 
the people who can confer them and direct them to be exercised. 
Should the people wish to confer them, they would have to do so 
by way of amending the Constitution; and herein lies a remarkable 
difference between the American system on the one hand and those 
of some European countries on the other, which, although they have 
created rigid constitutions, do not expressly debar the legislature 
from using any and every power of government. 

17. The aim of those who framed the Constitution was 
to avoid friction between the state governments and the 
Federal government by rendering their respective Kelatlons ot 
spheres of action as separate and distinct as possible, the National 
They saw that the less contact the less danger of Government 
collision. Their wish was to keep the two mechan- 
isms as independent of each other as was com- 
patible with the still higher need of subordinating, for national 
purposes, the state to the central government. 

Nevertheless there are, as was unavoidable, certain points of 
contact between the two, the chief of which are the following: 

The Constitution requires each state government to direct 
the choice of, and accredit to the seat of the national govern- 
ment, two senators and so many representatives as the state 
is (in respect of its population) entitled to send; to provide 
for the election, meeting and voting of presidential electors in 
each state, and to transmit their votes to the national capital; 
to organize and arm the militia forces of the state, which, when 
duly summoned by the national government for active service, 
are placed under the command of the president. 

Besides these direct services imposed upon the states, each 
state is of course practically limited in its legislative and executive 
action by the power of the Federal judiciary (in the exercise 
of its function of interpreting the Constitution) to declare 
invalid laws passed or acts done inconsistent with the Federal 
Constitution, or with statutes passed by the Federal legislature 
within the scope of its authority under the Constitution. 

So, too, when a subject, such as bankruptcy, is one on which a 
state may legislate in the absence of legislation by Congress, 
the state law is valid only so long as Congress does not legislate. 

Finally, another point of contact exists in the right of a state 
to call upon the national government to protect it against 
invasion or domestic violence. This right has been several 



FEDERAL GOVERNMENT] 



UNITED STATES 



653 



times exerted. The national government is also bound to 
guarantee to every state a republican form of government. 
(See American Commonwealth, ch. xxviii.) 

1 8. It is a fundamental principle of the American system 
that the national government possesses a direct and immediate 
Direct authority over all its citizens, quite irrespective of 
Authority of their allegiance and duty to their own state. This 
the National authority corresponds to and is coextensive with 

Govern meat . , r,iT--ii f* c *i 

over the tne sphere of the Federal government. So far as the 
citizens of functions of that government extend, it acts upon 
the states, the citizens not through the states, but as of its own 
right and by its own officers. Beyond that sphere its autho- 
rity stops, and state authority, unless inhibited by the Federal 
Constitution, begins. But Federal authority is always entitled 
to prevail, as against a state legislature or officer, in all 
matters specifically allotted to it; and in these its power 
of direct action has two great advantages. It makes the 
citizen recognize his allegiance to the power which represents 
the unity of the nation; and it avoids the necessity 
of calling upon the state to enforce obedience to Federal 
authority, for a state might possibly be weak or dilatory, or 
even itself inclined to disobedience. Thus the indirect taxes 
of customs and excise which the Federal government imposes 
are levied by Federal custom-house collectors and excisemen, 
and the judgments of Federal courts are carried out by United 
States marshals distributed over the country. Nothing has 
done more to give cohesion to the American Federal system than 
the direct action of the Federal executive and judiciary. 

V. The Federal Government. 

19. The Federal or national government was created 
de now by the Constitution of 1787-1789. It was really a 
new creation rather than a continuation of the feeble organiza- 
tion of the pre-existing Confederation. But the principles 
on which it was constructed were old principles, and most of 
its features were drawn from the state governments as they 
then existed. These states themselves had been developed 
out of the previous colonial governments, and both they and the 
national government have owed something to the example 
of the British Constitution, which had suggested the division 
of the legislature into two branches and the independent position 
of the judiciary. It was, however, mainly from the state 
constitutions, and not from the arrangements prevailing in 
Great Britain or in any other country, that the men of the 
convention of 1787 drew their ideas and precedents. 

Following what was then deemed a fundamental maxim of 
political science, they divided the government into three 
departments, the legislative, the executive and the judicial, 
and sought to keep each of these as far as possible detached 
from and independent of the other two. 

In 1787 all the states but three had bicameral legislatures 
it was therefore natural that the new national government 
should follow this example, not to add that the 
(jjyjsjgjj ; n t o ^ wo branches seems calculated to 

i . 

reduce the chances of reckless haste, and to increase 
the chances of finding wisdom in a multitude of counsellors. 
There was, however, another reason. Much controversy 
had raged over the conflicting principles of the equal 
representation of states and of representation on the basis of 
numbers, the larger states advocating the latter, the smaller 
states the former principle; and those who made themselves 
champions of the rights of the states professed to dread the 
tyrannical power which an assembly representing population 
might exert. The adoption of a bicameral system made it 
possible to give due recognition to both principles. One house, 
the Senate, contains the representatives of the states, every 
state sending two; the other, the House of Representatives, 
contains members elected on a basis of population. The two 
taken together are called Congress, and form the national 
legislature of the United States. 

20. The House of Representatives is composed of members 
elected by popular vote in each of the various states, the re- 



e e era 

L,egisiaiure. 



presentation of each state being in proportion to its population. 
Each state is at liberty under the Constitution to adopt either 
the "general ticket" system, i.e. the plan ol House of 
electing all its members by one vote over the Repnsentm- 
whole state, or to elect them in one-membered ave *' 
districts (the " district system "). The system of single-member 
districts now prevails almost everywhere. (Pennsylvania, 
however, has two representatives elected at large from 
the entire state, and there have been other similar instances.) 
The number of members in the house was originally 65, but 
it has steadily increased until, in December 1910, there were 
398. Besides the full members, each of the Territories is 
allowed to send a delegate, who has, however, no vote. The 
electoral franchise on which the house is elected is for each state 
the same as that by which, under the provisions of the state 
constitution, the members of the more numerous branch of the 
state legislature are chosen. Originally franchises varied much 
in different states, but for many years prior to 1890 what was 
practically manhood suffrage prevailed in nearly all of the 
states. In that year and since, not a few of the southern states 
have introduced restrictions which tend to exclude the bulk 
of the coloured population (see ante, 5). It has already been 
observed that paupers and convicted criminals are excluded 
in many states, illiterates in some states. Every member 
must reside in the state which sends him, and custom, rarely 
broken, requires that he should reside even in the district which 
he represents. This habit restricts the field of choice and 
has operated unfavourably on the political life of the nation. 

The House of Representatives is chosen for two years, the , 
terms of all the members expiring together. The election of a 
new house takes place in November 1 of the even years (i.e. 
1910, 1912, &c.). Members enter on their term of service in 
the March following, but the first regular session does not begin 
until the following December, or more than a year after the elec- 
tion. In fact, the old house holds its second regular session of 
three months after the new house has been elected. The rules are 
very complicated, and considerably limit the power of debate. 
A remedy against obstruction has been found in a system of 
closure called the " previous question." Speeches are limited 
to one hour, and may be confined in committee of the whole 
house to five minutes. There is comparatively little good 
debating in the European sense of the term, and this is due 
partly to the great size of the hall, partly to the system of 
legislation by committees. 

The organization of the house is entirely different from that 
of the British House of Commons or of most assemblies on the 
European continent. The ministers of the pre- The 
sident do not sit, and since there are thus no officials Committee 
to undertake the leadership of the majority and s y stem ' 
conduct business, legislative work is shaped and directed 
by a number of committees in each house. Every bill 
when introduced is referred to some committee, and each bill 
comes up for consideration by the whole house on the report 
of the committee which has dealt with it. There were in 1910 
62 regular or standing committees in the House of Represen- 
tatives, each consisting of from 3 to 20 members. The most 
important committees are the following: ways and means, 
rules, elections, appropriations (with several committees 
for different branches of public expenditure), rivers and 
harbours, banking and currency, and foreign affairs. ^ Each 
committee has complete control of all bills referred to it, and 
nineteen-twentieths of the bills introduced meet their death 
by the failure of the committee to take action on them. The 
bills taken up for action are debated and freely amended by the 
committees, and sometimes public hearings are held. The 
committees on the expenditure of the various government 
departments conduct minute investigations into the adminis- 
tration of each. A bill, as finally agreed on by a committee, 
is reported to the house, and when taken up for action the 
fate of most bills is decided by an hour's discussion, opened 
by the member of the committee making the report. The 

1 In June in Oreeon; in September in Maine and Vermont. 



6 54 



UNITED STATES 



[FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 



s eater 



more important measures, including taxation and appropria- 
tion bills, receive genuine discussion by the house at large, 
through special orders submitted by the committee on rules. 
Of the enormous number of bills brought in very few pass. 

The unifying force of this complicated system of committee 
legislation is the Speaker of the House of Representatives. 
Like the Speaker of the British House of Commons, 
^ e ' s P r i mar ily the presiding official, but the char- 
acter of his office has become different from that of 
the impartial moderator of the British house. The American 
Speaker, who of course has a vote like other members, always 
belongs to the party which commands a majority, and is, indeed, 
virtually the leader of the majority party in the House of Repre- 
sentatives. He resembles in some respects a European prime 
minister, and is second only to the president in political impor- 
tance. His power is derived from three main sources. He 
appoints the members of nearly all committees, he chooses the 
chairman of each, and he directs the reference of bills to the 
various committees. Of the committee on rules, which practi- 
cally determines the order in which important measures come 
before the house, he was formerly chairman, and he had the 
power of appointing the committee; but on the igth of March 
1 9 10, the house passed a resolution which increased the mem- 
bership of this committee from 5 to 10, excluded the Speaker, 
and transferred the appointments to the house. As presiding 
officer the Speaker exercises a right of discrimination between 
members rising to speak in debate, and can thus advance or 
retard the progress of a measure. He is elected by the House 
of Representatives at its first session for the whole Congress, 
and his election is regularly carried by a strict party vote. 

21. The Senate in 1910 consisted of 92 members, two 
persons deputed from each state, be it great or small (New York 
with 9,100,000 population and Nevada with 81,875 
' having the same representation), who must be 
inhabitants of that state, and at least thirty years of age. 
They are elected by the legislature of their state for six years, 
and are re-eligible. It used to be supposed by many Europeans, 
following Tocqueville, that this method of election was the 
cause of the (former) superiority of the senators to members of 
the House. This was an error, the true reason being that able 
men preferred a seat in the Senate owing to its larger powers 
and longer term. One-third retire every two years, so that 
the old members are always twice as numerous as the new 
members, and the body has been continuous ever since its first 
creation. Senators are re-elected more frequently than mem- 
bers of the House, so there is always a considerable proportion of 
men of long service and mature experience. 

There has long been a demand for an amendment to the Con- 
stitution which should vest the election of senators in the 
peoples of the several states, and more than one-half of the 
state legislatures have at one time or another passed resolutions 
in favour of the change. Within the last few years the object 
desired has been practically attained in a few states by pro- 
visions they have introduced for taking a popular vote as to the 
person whom the legislature ought to elect, the latter being 
expected to defer to the popular will. 

The vice-president of the United States is ex officio presiding 
officer of the Senate, and this is his only active function in the 
government. He has, however, no vote in the Senate, except 
a casting vote when the numbers are equally divided, and his 
authority on questions of order is very limited. 

The methods of procedure in the Senate are somewhat different 
from those in the House of Representatives. There is a similar 
committee system, but the Senate committees and their chair- 
men are chosen, not by the presiding officer, but by the Senate 
itself voting by ballot. Practically they are selected by caucuses 
of the majority and minority parties. The Senate rules have 
no provision for the closure of debate, nor any limitation on the 
length either of a debate or of a speech. For the consideration 
of some classes of business the Senate goes into executive or 
secret session, although what is done at this session usually 
leaks out, and finds its way to the public through the press. 



The functions of the Senate fall into three classes legislative, 
executive and judicial. In legislative matters its powers are 
identical with those of the House of Representatives, with the 
single restriction that bills for raising revenue must originate 
in the popular assembly. In practice, too, the Senate is at least 
as influential in legislation as the House. Disagreements, 
which are frequent, are usually settled in conference, and in 
these the Senate is apt to get the better of its antagonist. Serious 
deadlocks are of comparatively rare occurrence. 

The executive functions of the Senate are: (i) To approve 
or disapprove the president's nominations of Federal officers, 
including judges, ministers of state and ambassadors; (2) to 
approve, by a majority of two-thirds of those present, of treaties 
submitted by the president. Through the latter power the 
Senate secures a general control over foreign policy. Its 
approval is necessary to any important action, and in general 
the president finds it advisable to keep the leaders of the sena- 
torial majority, and in particular the Senate committee on 
foreign relations, informed of pending negotiations. Foreign 
governments often complain of this power of the Senate, because 
it prevents them from being able to rely upon the carrying out 
of arrangments they have made with the executive; but as 
the president is not responsible to Congress and is irremovable 
(except by impeachment) during his term of office, there would 
be objections to giving him an unqualified treaty-making 
authority. Through the power of confirming or rejecting 
the president's nominations to office, the senators of the presi- 
dent's party are able to influence a large amount of patronage. 
This sort of " dual control " works with less friction and delay 
than might have been expected, but better appointments would 
probably be secured if responsibility were more fully and more 
clearly fixed on the president alone, though there would no 
doubt be a risk that the president might make a serious error. 

The judicial function of the Senate is to sit as a high court 
for the trial of persons impeached by the House of Represent- 
atives, a vote of two-thirds of those present being needed for 
conviction. There have been eight cases of impeachment. The 
most important was that of President Johnson, whose con- 
viction failed by one vote 35 to 19. Five of the other seven 
cases also ended in acquittal, one for want of jurisdiction, 1 and 
one by the resignation of the official before the impeachment was 
preferred in the Senate. Two Federal judges were many years 
ago thus deprived of office, impeachment being the only process 
by which a Federal judge can be removed. 

22. The procedure of each house in framing and passing 
bills has already been noted. When a bill has passed one 
chamber it is sent to the other, and there referred coagres- 
to the appropriate committee. In course of time this slonal Legis- 
committee may report the bill as received from the tattoo and 
other house, . but frequently an amended or an Ftaaace - 
entirely new measure is presented, which is discussed and 
enacted on by the second house. When bills passed by the two 
chambers are not identical, and each persists in its own 
view, the regular procedure is to appoint a committee 
of conference, consisting of an equal number of members from 
the Senate and from the House. These meet in secret, and 
generally agree upon a compromise measure, which is forthwith 
adopted by both chambers. If no compromise can be arranged, 
the conflict continues until one side yields, or until it ends by 
the adjournment of Congress. After passing both houses, the 
bill goes to the president, and if approved by him, or not returned 
by him within ten days, becomes law: if vetoed, it returns to 
the house in which it originated; and if re-passed by a two- 
thirds vote, is sent to the other house; and if again passed 
there by a two-thirds vote, it becomes law without the president's 
consent. 

The scope of Congressional legislation has been indicated 
in the list given of the powers of the national government 

1 This case was that of the impeachment of a senator, and the 
failure to convict arose from the fact that some of the senators at 
the time held the now generally accepted opinion that a member 
of Congress is not subject to impeachment. 



FEDERAL GOVERNMENT] 



UNITED STATES 



655 



(see ante, 15). The most important measures are those 
dealing with the revenues and appropriations; and the procedure 
on these matters is slightly different from that on other bills. 
The secretary of the treasury sends annually to Congress a 
report containing a statement of the national income and 
expenditure and of the condition of the public debt, together 
with remarks on the system of taxation and suggestions for its 
improvement. He also sends what is called his annual letter, 
enclosing the estimates, framed by the various departments, 
of the sums needed for the public service of the United States 
during the coming year. With this the action of the executive 
ceases, and the matter passes into the hands of Congress. 

Revenue bills for imposing or continuing the various customs 
duties and internal taxes are prepared by the House committee 
on ways and means, whose chairman is always a leading man 
in the majority party. The report presented by the secretary 
of the treasury has been referred to this committee, but the 
latter does not necessarily in any way regard that report. 
Neither does it proceed on estimates of the sums needed to main- 
tain the public service, for, in the first place, it does not know 
what appropriations will be proposed by the spending committees; 
and in the second place, a primary object of the customs duties 
has been for many years past, not the raising of revenue, but 
the protection of American industries by subjecting foreign 
imports to a very high tariff. Regular appropriation bills 
down to 1883 were all passed by the House committee on appro- 
priations, but in that year a new committee on rivers and 
harbours received a large field of expenditure; and in 1886 
certain other supply bills were referred to sundry standing 
committees. These various appropriation committees start 
from, but are not restricted by and do not in fact adopt, the 
estimates of the secretary of the treasury. Large changes are 
made both by way of increasing and reducing his estimates. 

The financial bills are discussed, as fully as the pressure 
of work permits, in committee of the whole House. Fresh items 
of appropriations are often added, and changes are made in 
revenue bills in the interest of particular purposes or localities. 
If the Senate is controlled by the same party as the House, 
it is likely to secure the acceptance of many of its amendments. 
The majorities in the two houses then labour together to 
satisfy what they believe to be the wishes of their party. Im- 
portant legislation is almost impossible when one of the houses 
is controlled by one party and the other house by the other. 

When finally adopted by the House, the bills go to the 
Senate and are forthwith referred to the committee on finance 
or to that on appropriations. The Senate committees amend 
freely both classes of bills, and further changes may be made 
by the Senate itself. When the bills go back to the House 
that body usually rejects the amendments: the Senate declines 
to recede, and a conference committee is appointed by which 
a compromise is arranged, usually hastily and in secret, often 
including entirely new items, and this compromise is accepted 
with little or no discussion, generally at the end of the session. 

Thus it comes that comparatively slight use is made of the 
experience of the permanent financial officials in the framing 
of revenue-raising and appropriation bills. There is little 
relation between the amounts proposed to be spent in any 
one year and the amounts proposed to be raised, and there 
is a strong tendency to deplete the public treasury through 
special grants secured by individual members. These defects 
have long been felt, but Congress is not disposed either to 
admit officials to attend its sittings or to modify the methods 
to which it has grown accustomed. A tariff commission was, 
however, created by statute in 1909, the reports of which may 
have some influence on the framing of tariffs in future. 

23. The executive power of the nation is vested in a 
president of the United States of America, who holds office 
The during the term of four years. He, together with 

President, the vice-president, is nominally chosen by a system 
of double election through an electoral college, but in practice 
this system operates merely as a roundabout way of getting 
the judgment of the people, voting by states. 



The Constitution directs each state to choose a number of " presi- 
dential electors equal to the number of its representatives in Con- 
gress ' (both senators and members of the House of _. 
Representatives). Members of Congress and holders 
of Federal offices are ineligible as electors. These 22!? 
electors (in 1908, 483) meet in each state on the second 
Monday in January, and give their votes in writing for the presi- 
dent and vice-president. The votes are transmitted to Washington, 
and there opened by the president of the Senate, in the presence of 
both houses of Congress, and counted. A majority of the whole 
number of electors is necessary to elect. If no person have such 
majority, the president is chosen by the House of Representatives 
voting by states, and the vice-president is chosen by the Senate. 
This plan of creating an electoral college to select the president was 
expected to secure the choice by the best citizens of each state, in 
a tranquil and deliberate way, of the man whom they in their un- 
fettered discretion should deem fittest to be the chief magistrate 
of the Union. In fact, however, the electors exercise no discretion, 
and are chosen under a pledge to vote for a particular candidate. 
Each party during the summer preceding a presidential election 
holds a huge party meeting, called a national convention, which 
nominates candidates for president and vice-president. (See 
post, 33.) Candidates for the office of elector are also nominated 
by party conventions, and the persons who are in each state chosen 
to be electors they are chosen by a strict party vote-^-are expected 
to vote, and do in point of fact vote, for the presidential candidates 
named by their respective parties at the national conventions. 
The Constitution leaves the method of choosing electors to each 
state, but by universal custom they are now everywhere elected by 
popular vote, and all the electors for each state are voted for on a 
" general ticket." In the early days the electors were chosen in 
many states by the legislatures, but by 1832 South Carolina was the 
only state retaining this method, and in 1868 she also dropped it. 
Some states also, for a time, chose electors by districts, but by 1832 
all had adopted the " general ticket " system. Michigan, however, 
in the election of 1892 reverted to the " district " system, thereby 
dividing its electoral vote. Thus the election is virtually an election 
by states, and the struggle concentrates itself in the large states, 
where the great parties are often nearly equally divided, e.g. the 
party which carries New York by even a small majority gams all 
the 39 electoral votes of that state. The polling for electors takes 
place early in November on the same day over the whole union, and 
when the result is known the contest is over, because the subsequent 
meeting and voting of the electors is a mere matter of form. Never- 
theless, the system here described, being an election by states, is not 
the same thing as a general popular vote over the union, for it some- 
times happens that a person is chosen president who has received a 
minority of the popular vote cast. 

The Constitution requires the president to be a native-born 
citizen of the United States, not under thirty-five years of age, 
and for fourteen years resident in the United States. There is no 
legal limitation to his re-eligibility any number of times; but tradi- 
tion, dating from the refusal of George Washington to be nominated 
for a third term, has virtually established the rule that no person 
shall be president for more than two continuous terms. If the 
president dies, the vice-president steps into his place; and if the 
latter also dies in office, the succession passes to the secretary of 
state. 1 The president receives a salary of $75,000 a year, besides 
$25,000 a year for travelling expenses, and has an official residence 
called the Executive Mansion, or more familiarly the White House. 

Functions of the President. These may be grouped into three 
classes: those which (l) relate to foreign affairs; (2) concern 
legislation; (3) relate to domestic administration. 

The president appoints ambassadors and ministers to foreign 
countries, and receives those sent by foreign countries to the United 
States. He has, through his secretary of state, immediate direction 
of all negotiations with such countries, and an unfettered initiative 
in all foreign affairs. He does not, however, enjoy a free hand in 
finally determining the foreign policy of the government. Treaties 
require the approval of two-thirds of the Senate, and the foreign 
affairs committee of that body is usually kept informed of the 
negotiations which are being conducted by the executive. The 
power to declare war formally belongs to Congress; but the execu- 
tive may, without an act of Congress, virtually engage in hostilities 
and thus bring about a state of war, as happened in 1845-46, when 
war broke out with Mexico. 

As respects legislation, the position of the president is in marked 
contrast to that of the British crown. While nearly all important 
measures are brought into parliament by the ministers of the 
sovereign, and nominally under his instructions, the American 
president cannot introduce bills either directly or through his 



1 The order of succession, after the secretary of state, is as follows: 
the secretary of the treasury, the secretary of war, the attorney- 
general, the postmaster-general, the secretary of the navy, the 
secretary of the interior this order to apply only to such officers 
as " shall have been appointed by the advice and consent of the 
Senate . . . and such as are eligible to the office of president . . . 
and not under impeachment. . . ." 



656 



UNITED STATES 



[FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 



ministers. All that the Const'itution permits him to do in this 
direction is to inform Congress of the state of the nation and to 
recommend the measures which he deems to be necessary. This 
latter function is discharged by written messages addressed by the 
president to Congress, the message sent at the beginning of each 
session being usually the most important; but the suggestions made 
in these messages do not necessarily or directly induce legislation, 
although it is open to him to submit a bill or have one drafted by a 
minister presented to Congress through a member. 

More constantly effective is the president's part in the last stage 
of legislation. His so-called " veto-power " permits him to return 
to Congress, within ten days after its passage, any bill of which he 
may disapprove, and, unless this bill re-passes both houses by a 
two-thirds vote, it does not become law. Most presidents have 
made use of the veto power sparingly. Jackson, however, as well as 
Tyler, Johnson and especially Cleveland, employed it pretty boldly. 
Most of Johnson's vetoes were promptly overruled by the large 
majority opposed to him in both houses, but the vetoes of all the 
other presidents have generally prevented the enactment of the 
bills of which they disapproved. 

The domestic executive authority of the president in time of peace 
is small, because by far the larger part of law and administration 
belongs to the state and local governments, while the Federal 
administration is regulated by statutes which leave little discretion 
to the executive. The power of making appointments to the 
administrative service would invest him with a vast influence but 
for the constitutional requirement of securing the consent of the 
Senate to the more important appointments made. The president 
is given a free hand in choosing his cabinet ministers; but for most 
other appointments, whether or not they are by law in his sole gift, 
the senators belonging to the president's party have practically 
controlled the selections for offices lying within their respective 
states, and a nomination made by the president against the will of 
the senator concerned will generally be disapproved by the Senate. 
The members of the president's party in the House also demand a 
share in the bestowal of offices as a price for their co-operation in 
those matters wherein the executive may find it necessary to have 
legislative aid. Nevertheless, the distribution of offices under the 
so-called " spoils system " remains the most important ordinary 
function of the president, and the influence he exerts over Congress 
and legislation is due mainly to his patronage. 

In time of war or of public disturbance, however, the domestic 
authority of the president expands rapidly. This was markedly 
the case during the Civil War. As commander-in-chief of the army 
and navy, and as " charged with the faithful execution of all laws, ' 
he is likely to assume, and would indeed be expected to assume, all 
the powers which the emergency requires. In ordinary times the 
president may be almost compared to the managing clerk in a large 
business establishment, whose chief function is to select his sub- 
ordinates, the policy of the concern being in the hands of the board 
of directors. But when foreign affairs reach a critical stage, or when 
disorders within the Union require Federal _ intervention, immense 
responsibility is then thrown on one who is both commander-in- 
chief of the army and the head of the civil executive. In no Euro- 
pean country is there any personage to whom the president can be 
said to correspond. He may have to exert more authority, even if 
he enjoys less dignity, than a European king. He has powers which 
are in ordinary times narrower than those of a European prime 
minister; but these powers are more secure, for instead of depending 
on the pleasure of a parliamentary majority, they run on to the end 
of his term. Although he is always elected as a party candidate, 
he generally receives, if he shows tact and dignity, abundant respect 
and deference from all citizens, and is able to exert influence beyond 
the strict limits of his legal power. 

The only way of removing the president from office is by 
impeachment, an institution borrowed from Great Britain, where 
it had not become obsolete at the time when the United States 
constitution was adopted. The House of Representatives may 
impeach the president. The Senate tries him, and a two-thirds 
majority is required for conviction. Andrew Johnson is the only 
president who has been impeached. 

24. There is in the government of the United States no 
such thing as a cabinet, in the British or French or Italian 
The Cabinet sense f tne word. But the term is regularly used 
and Admin- to describe a council of the president, composed 
btraiive o { the heads of the chief administrative depart- 
otriciais. m ents: the secretary of state, the secretary of 
the treasury, secretary of war, attorney-general, secretary 
of the navy, postmaster-general, secretary of the interior, 
secretary of agriculture, and secretary of commerce and labor. 
Like the British cabinet, this council is not formally recognized 
by the law, but it is nevertheless accepted as a permanent 
feature in the government. It is really a group of persons, 
each individually dependent on, and answerable to, the pre- 
sident, but with no joint policy, no collective responsibility. 



The final decision on all questions rest with the president; who 
is solely and personally responsible. Moreover, the members of 
the cabinet are excluded from Congress, and are entirely 
independent of that body, so that an American cabinet has 
little to do in the way of devising parliamentary tactics, or 
of preparing bills, or of discussing problems of foreign policy. 
It is not a government, as Europeans understand the term, 
but a group of heads of departments, whom their chief, 
though he usually consults them separately, often finds it 
useful to bring together for a talk about current politics and 
the course proper for the administration to take in them, or in 
order to settle some administrative question which lies on the 
borderland between the provinces of two ministers. 

The principal administrative departments are those already 
named, whose heads form the president's cabinet. The most 
important are the state and treasury departments. 
The former has the conduct of foreign affairs and *f m 
interests, and directs the diplomatic service, but is " " ' p 
obliged to keep in touch with the Senate, because 
treaties require the consent of the latter. It also has charge of the 
great seal of the United States, keeps the archives, publishes the 
statutes of Congress and controls the consular service. 

The two main functions of the treasury department are the 
administration of the government revenues and expenditures, and 
of the banking and currency laws. The secretary has, however, 
a smaller range of action than a finance minister in European 
countries, for, as he is excluded from Congress, he has nothing 
directly to do with the imposition of taxes, and very little with 
the appropriations for government expenditure. 

The department of the interior is less important than in France 
or Italy, since the principal functions which there belong to it lie, 
in the United States, within the field of state powers. In the United 
States the principal matters in this department are the management 
of the public lands, the conduct of Indian affairs, the issue of patents, 
the administration of pension laws, of the national census and of the 
geological survey, and the collection of educational information. 

The department of war controls the formerly very small, but now 
largely increased, army of the United States; and its corps of 
engineers execute the river and harbour improvements ordered by 
Congress. The navy department has charge of the dockyards and 
vessels of war; and the post office department directs the postal 
system, including the railway mail service. The department of 
agriculture includes the weather bureau, the bureau of animal 
industry and other bureaus which conduct investigations and 
experiments. The attorney-general is the legal adviser of the 
president, public prosecutor and standing counsel for the United 
States, and also has general oversight of the Federal judicial ad- 
ministration, especially of the prosecuting officers called district 
attorneys and of the executive court officers called marshals. 

The department of commerce and labor controls the bureaus 
which deal with the mercantile marine, the lighthouse and life- 
saving service, commercial statistics, immigration, and the coast 
and geodetic survey, and the census is also under its charge. 

Two commissions not connected with any of the above depart- 
ments deserve some notice. The inter-state commerce commission, 
established by statute in 1887, is a semi-judicial, semi-administrative 
board of five members, with limited powers of control over inter- 
state railway transportation. The chief duty is to prevent dis- 
criminations in freight rates and secret rebates from the published 
list of charges. Its powers have been much extended by subsequent 
acts, especially that of 1910. The civil service commission, 
established in 1883, conducts competitive examinations for appoint- 
ments to subordinate positions under all of the administrative 
departments. Some 235,000 posts have now been placed under 
civil service rules and withdrawn from the category of spoils. 

25. The Federal judicial system is made by the Constitution 
independent both of the legislature and of the executive. It 
consists of the Supreme Court, the circuit court of Pederal 
appeals, the circuit courts and the district courts. judiciary. 

The Supreme Court is created by the Constitution, 
and consisted in 1910 of nine judges, who are nominated by 
the president and confirmed by the Senate. They hold office 
during good behaviour, i.e. are removable only by impeach- 
ment, thus having a tenure even more secure than that of 
English judges. The court sits at Washington from October 
to July in every year. The sessions of the court are held in 
the Capitol. A rule requiring the presence of six judges to 
pronounce a decision prevents the division of the court into two 
or more benches; and while this secures a thorough considera- 
tion of every case, it also retards the despatch of business. 
Every case is discussed twice by the whole body, once to ascer- 
tain the view of the majority, which is then directed to be set 



FEDERAL GOVERNMENT] 



UNITED STATES 



657 



forth in a written opinion; then again when the written 
opinion, prepared by one of the judges, is submitted for 
criticism and adoption by the court as its judgment. 

The other Federal courts have been created by Congress 
under a power in the Constitution to establish " inferior courts." 
The circuit courts consist of twenty-nine circuit judges, acting 
in nine judicial circuits, while to each circuit there is also allotted 
one of the justices of the Supreme Court. The judges of each 
circuit, acting with or without the justice of the Supreme 
Court for the circuit, constitute a circuit court of appeals, 
established to relieve the Supreme Court. Some cases may, 
however, be appealed to the Supreme Court from the circuit 
court of appeals, and others directly from the lower courts. 
The district courts are now eighty in number, each having 
usually a single justice, rarely two. There is also a special 
tribunal called the court of claims, which deals with the claims 
of private persons against the Federal government. It is not 
strictly a part of the general judicial system, but is a creation 
of Congress designed to relieve that body of a part of its own 
labours. A customs court of five judges was created by an 
act of 1909 for the hearing of cases relating to the tariff. 

The jurisdiction of the Federal courts extends only to those 
cases in which the Constitution makes Federal law applicable. 
All other cases are left to the state courts, from which there 
is no appeal to the Federal courts, unless where some specific 
point arises which is affected by the Federal Constitution or 
a Federal law. The classes of cases dealt with by the Federal 
courts are as follows: 

1. Cases in law and equity arising under the Constitution, 
the laws of the United States and treaties made under their 
authority; 

2. Cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and 
consuls ; 

3. Cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; 

4. Controversies to which the United States shall be "a. 
party; 

5. Controversies between two or more states, between a 
state and citizens of another state, between citizens of different 
states, between citizens of the same state claiming lands under 
grants of different states, and between a state or the citizens 
thereof and foreign states, citizens or subjects (Const, art. 
iii. 2). Part of this jurisdiction has, however, been with- 
drawn by the eleventh amendment to the Constitution, which 
declares that " the judicial power of the United States shall 
not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity com- 
menced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens 
of another state, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state." 

The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is original in cases 
affecting ambassadors, and wherever a state is a party; in other 
cases it is appellate. In some matters the jurisdiction of the 
Federal courts is exclusive; in others it is concurrent with 
that of the state courts. 

As it frequently happens that cases come before state courts 
in which questions of Federal law arise, a provision has been 
made whereby due respect for the latter is secured by giving 
the party to a suit who relies upon Federal law, and whose 
contention is overruled by a state court, the right of having the 
suit removed to a Federal court. The Judiciary Act of 1789 
(as amended by subsequent legislation) provides for the appeal to 
the Supreme Court of the United States of " a final judgment or 
decree in any suit rendered in the highest court of a state in 
which a decision in the suit could be had where is drawn in question 
the validity of a treaty or statute for an authority exercised 
under the United States, and the decision is against their 
validity; or where is drawn in question the validity of a statute 
of, or an authority exercised under, any state, on the ground 
of their being repugnant to the Constitution, treaties or laws 
of the United States, and the decision is in favour of their 
validity; or where any title, right, privilege or immunity 
is claimed under the Constitution, or any treaty or statute of, 
or commission held or authority exercised under the United 
States, and the decision is against the title, right, privilege 



or immunity specially set up or claimed by either party under 
the Constitution, treaty, statute, commission or authority." 
If the decision of the state court is in favor of the right claimed 
under Federal law or against the validity or applicability of 
the state law set up, there is no ground for appeal, because 
the applicability or authority of Federal law in the particular 
case could receive no further protection from a Federal court 
than has in fact been given by the state court. 

The power exercised by the Supreme Court in declaring 
statutes of Congress or of state legislatures (or acts of the exe- 
cutive) to be invalid because inconsistent with the Federal 
Constitution, has been deemed by many Europeans a peculiar 
and striking feature of the American system. There is, how- 
ever, nothing novel or mysterious about it. As the Federal 
Constitution, which emanates directly from the people, is the 
supreme law of the land everywhere, any statute passed by any 
lower authority (whether the Federal Congress or a state legis- 
lature) which contravenes the Constitution must necessarily 
be invalid in point of law, just as in the United Kingdom a 
railway bye-law which contravened an act of parliament 
would be invalid. Now, the functions of judicial tribunals 
of all courts alike, whether Federal or state, whether superior 
or inferior is to interpret the law, and if any tribunal finds 
a congressional statute or state statute inconsistent with the 
Constitution, the tribunal is obliged to hold such statute invalid. 
A tribunal does this not because it has any right or power of 
its own in the matter, but because the people have, in enacting 
the Constitution as a supreme law, declared that all other laws 
inconsistent with it are ipso jure void. When a tribunal has 
ascertained that an inferior law is thus inconsistent, that 
inferior law is therewith, so far as inconsistent, to be deemed 
void. The tribunal does not enter any conflict with the legis- 
lature or executive. All it does is to declare that a conflict 
exists between two laws of different degrees of authority, 
whence it necessarily follows that the weaker law is extinct. 
This duty of interpretation belongs to all tribunals, but as 
constitutional cases are, if originating in a lower court, usually 
carried by appeal to the Supreme Court, men have grown 
accustomed to talk of the Supreme Court as in a special sense 
the guardian of the Constitution. 

The Federal courts never deliver an opinion on any con- 
stitutional question unless or until that question is brought 
before them in the form of a lawsuit. A judgment of the 
Supreme Court is only a judgment on the particular case before 
it, and does not prevent a similar question being raised again 
in another lawsuit, though of course this seldom happens, 
because it may be assumed that the court will adhere to its 
former opinion. There have, however, been instances in which 
the court has virtually changed its view on a constitutional 
question, and it is understood to be entitled so to do. 

26. As the Federal Constitution is a short document, 
which deals very concisely with most of the subjects it touches, 
a vast number of questions have arisen upon its R es uitsot 
interpretation in the course of the 122 years which ConstUu- 
have elapsed since its enactment. The decisions ttoaaiinter- 
of the Supreme Court upon these questions form a pn "' 
large body of law, a knowledge of which is now indispens- 
able to a mastery of the Constitution itself. By them 
the Constitution has been so expanded in the points which it 
expressly treats of, and so filled up in the matters which it 
covers only by way of implication, that it is now a much 
more complete instrument than it was when it came from the 
hands of its framers. Thus the courts have held that, while 
the national government can exercise only such powers as 
have been affirmatively granted, it is not restricted in its 
choice of the methods for exercising such powers as have been 
granted. From this doctrine there has been derived a con- 
spicuous activity of the national government in such fields as 
taxation, borrowing of money, regulating commerce and carry- 
ing on war. Executive and legislative acts not authorized by 
the letter of the Constitution have also been allowed to remain 
unchallenged, and thus precedents have been in fact established. 



658 



UNITED STATES 



[PARTY SYSTEM 



with the tacit recognition of the courts and the people, through 
which the sphere of the national government has been en- 
larged. The purchase of Louisiana from France by President 
Jefferson is an instance. It may indeed be said that the Con- 
stitution as it now stands is the result of a long process of develop- 
ment; and that process is still going on. In 1901 the Supreme 
Court delivered several judgments in cases arising out of the 
annexation of Porto Rico, which handled, though they did 
not fully settle, divers points of novelty and of importance, 
and still more recently questions of great intricacy affecting 
the respective legislative rights of the Federal and the state 
governments have come before it. 

27. It is not, however, only by way of interpretation that 
the Constitution has been developed. A great many matters 
Development which it passed over have become the subject of 
at the Con- legislation by Congress; and there has also sprung 
stitutioaby up a i ar g e mass o f usa g es regulating matters not 
touched either by the Constitution or by any 
express enactment. These usages have in many cases lasted so 
long and become so generally accepted, that they may be 
regarded as parts of the actual or (so to speak) " working " 
Constitution, although of course they could be at any moment 
changed. Among the matters that are now thus settled by 
usage the following may be mentioned: 

The president practically is limited to two continuous terms 
of office. The presidential electors are expected to vote for 
the candidate of the party which has chosen them, exercising no 
free will of their own. The Senate always confirms the nomina- 
tions to a cabinet office made by the President. 

It may be added that in respect of one matter assigned by the 
Constitution to the states a momentous change has taken place 
since the enactment of the Constitution. This matter is the 
electoral franchise in Federal elections. In 1789 property 
qualifications were general, but now in all the northern and 
western states these have been long since abolished, and the 
electoral suffrage is practically manhood suffrage. In Wyoming, 
Colorado, Utah, Idaho and Washington universal adult suffrage 
prevails. Down till 1890 manhood suffrage had prevailed in all 
the Southern states also (as to some Southern states now see ante, 
5) . As the electoral suffrage for state legislature elections is also 
that for Federal elections (including the election of presidential 
electors), the working of the Federal Constitution has thus been 
affected without any change in the Constitution itself. 

28. Besides these changes which have been brought about 
by judicial interpretation and by usage, the Constitution has 
Amend- a ^ so ^ een a l tere d ^ n t^ 16 re gul ar an< l formal way 
meats to the which its own provisions permit (see ante, 14). 
Constitu- This has happened four times. Ten amendments 
tlaa - were enacted immediately after the adoption of 

the Constitution itself, in order to meet certain objections 
which had been taken to it. These may be described as a sort 
of bill of rights. Another, the eleventh, was enacted in 1794- 
1798 to negative the construction which the Supreme Court 
had put upon its own powers in holding that it could entertain 
a. suit by a private person against a state. Another, the twelfth 
(1803-1804), corrected a fault in the method of choosing the 
president; and three more (1865-1870) confirmed and secured 
some of the results of the victory of the North in the War 
of Secession (1861-65). I n I 99 Congress proposed an amend- 
ment for enabling the national legislature to impose an income 
tax. But few amendments pass beyond the first stage of a 
formal proposal. This is due not merely to the respect 
of the Americans for their fundamental law, but also to the 
difficulties which surround the process of change. It is hard to 
secure the requisite majorities in Congress, and still harder a 
majority in three-fourths of the states. The obstacles placed 
in the way of amendment, which are greater than in the case of 
almost any other Constitution, may be reckoned among the 
causes which led to the War of Secession. 

29. As compared with the cabinet system of Great 
Britain, of the British self-governing colonies, and of such 
European countries as France, Italy, Holland and Belgium, the 



characteristic features of the scheme of the American national 
government are the following: 

a. The legislature and the executive are independent and 
disjoined. The executive does not depend upon the Qeaeral 
legislature, but holds its powers by a direct commis-c/iarartero/ 
sion from the people. No member of the execu- *^ e w F a e ot 
tive sits in the legislature, nor 'can the legislature Qp e meni- 
eject any one from office save by impeachment. 

b. Both the legislature and the executive sit for fixed terms. 

c. No method is provided for getting rid of deadlocks, either 
between the legislature and the executive or between the two 
branches of the legislature. Should action be needed which 
cannot be legally taken without the concurrence of these differ- 
ent authorities, and should they be unable to concur, the legal 
situation must remain in statu quo until by a new election the 
people have changed one or more of the conflicting authorities, 
and so brought them into harmony. 

d. The judiciary holds a place of high importance, because 
it is the proper interpreter of the will of the people expressed 
in the supreme law, the Federal Constitution, which the people 
have enacted. 

It will be noted that the structure of the Federal Government 
is less democratic than that of the state governments. The 
only posts in the former conferred by popular election are those 
of the president and the members of the legislature, and while 
the two houses are a check on each other, the president is a 
check upon both. 

The defects which have been remarked in this system are, 
broadly speaking, the following: There is a danger that prompt 
action, needed in the interests of the nation, may fail to be 
taken owing to a deadlock between legislature and executive, 
or between the two branches of the legislature. There may 
be a difficulty in fixing responsibility upon any person, or small 
group of persons, because cases may arise in which the executive, 
being unable to act without the concurrence of the legislature, 
can hardly be blamed for failing to act, while yet it is unable 
to relieve itself by resigning; while on the other hand the 
legislature which consists of two bodies, each of them 
numerous, and in neither of which are there recognized 
leaders contains no person on whom responsibility can be fixed. 
On the other hand, the characteristic merits of the system 
may be summed up as consisting in the safeguards it provides 
against the undue predominance of any one power or person 
in the government, and therewith against any risk there may 
be that the president should become a despot, and in the full 
opportunities it secures for the due consideration of all important 
measures. It is a system amply provided with checks and 
balances; it recognizes and enforces the principle of popular 
sovereignty, while subjecting that principle to many checks in 
practice; and it is well calculated to maintain unchanged the 
relation of its component parts each to the other. There has 
been, in point of fact, no permanent shifting of weight or 
strength from any one organ of government to any other. At 
some particular epoch the president has seemed to be gaining 
upon Congress, at other epochs Congress has seemed to be gaining 
upon the president. Much depends on the personal qualities 
of the president and his power of inspiring the people with 
trust in his courage and his uprightness. When he possesses 
that power he may overawe Congress, and make them follow, 
even reluctantly, in the path he points out. Now and then the 
Senate has been more influential than the House, now and then 
it has fallen back, at least so far as the confidence of the people 
in it is concerned. The part played by the judiciary has at some 
moments been of special importance, while at others it has been 
little noticed. But, taking the history of the republic as a whole, 
that equilibrium between the several organs of the govern- 
ment which the Constitution was intended to secure has been 
substantially maintained. 

VI. The Party System. 

30. The actual working of the government of the Union 
and of the governments of the several states cannot be properly 



PARTY SYSTEM] 



UNITED STATES 



659 



of the 
Government. 



understood without some knowledge of the party system as it 
exists in the United States. That system is, as has been well 
observed by H. J. Ford, 1 a sort of link between the executive 
and the legislative departments of government, and thus the 
policy and action of the party for the time being in power 
forms a sort of second and unofficial government of the country, 
directing the legal government created by the Constitution. 
In no country have political parties been so carefully and 
thoroughly organized. In no country does the spirit of party 
so completely pervade every department of political life; 
. not that party spirit is any more bitter than 

Influence of ... ._,**. , ., . ,, , 

the Party Jt ls ln Europe, for in some respects it is usually less 
System upon bitter and less passionate than in France, the United 
the Working Kingdom or Austria, but that it penetrates farther 
into the body of the people, and exerts a more con- 
stant influence upon their minds. Party organiza- 
tions have in the United States a wide range of action, for they 
exist to accomplish five purposes. Three of these are pursued 
in other countries also. These three are: first, to influence 
governmental policy; secondly, to form opinion; and 
thirdly, to win elections. But the two others are almost 
(if now not quite) peculiar to the United States, viz. to 
select candidates for office and to procure places of emolu- 
ment for party workers. The selecting by a party of its 
candidates, instead of allowing candidates to start on their 
own account, is a universal practice in the United States, 
and rests upon the notion that the supreme authority and 
incessant activity of the people must extend not only to the 
choice of officials by vote, but even to the selection of those for 
whom votes shall be cast. So the practice of securing places for 
persons who have served the party, in however humble a 
capacity, has sprung from the maxim that in the strife of 
politics " the spoils belong to the victors," and has furnished 
a motive of incomparable and ever-present activity ever since 
the administration (1829-1837) of President Andrew Jackson. 
It is chiefly through these two practices that the party organiza- 
tions have grown so powerful, and have been developed into 
an extremely complicated system of machinery, firm yet flexible, 
delicate yet quickly set up, and capable of working efficiently 
in the newest and roughest communities. 

31. The contests over the adoption of the Federal Consti- 
tution by the several states in 1787-1790 brought to the surface 
Origin and two opposite tendencies, which may be called the 
History of centrifugal and centripetal forces, a tendency to 
the Parties, maintain both the freedom of the individual 
and the independence, in legislation, in administration 
and in jurisdiction, of the several states, and an opposite 
tendency to subordinate the states to the nation, and to 
vest large powers in the central Federal authority. These 
tendencies soon arranged themselves in concrete bodies, and 
thus two great parties were formed. One, which took the name 
of Republican, became the champion of states' rights, and 
claimed to be also the champion of freedom. It was led by 
Thomas Jefferson. The other, the Federalist party, led by 
Alexander Hamilton, stood for an energetic exercise of the powers 
of the central government, and for a liberal interpretation of the 
powers granted that government by the Federal Constitution. 
The Jeffersonian party has had an unbroken continuity of life, 
though it has been known since about 1830 as the Democratic 
party. The Federalist party slowly decayed, and ultimately 
vanished between 1820 and 1830, but out of its ruins a new party 
arose, practically its heir, which continued powerful, under the 
name of Whigs, till 1854, when it broke up over questions con- 
nected with the extension of slavery. Very soon thereafter a 
party, nominally new, but largely formed out of the Whigs, and 
maintaining many of its traditions, sprang up, and took the 
name of Republicans. Since 1856 these two great parties, 
Democrats and Republicans, have confronted one another, 
including between them the vast majority of the people. After 
the Civil War, when the questions attending Reconstruction had 
become less acute, economic discontents gave rise to other 
l Riie and Growth of American Politics. 



smaller parties, such as Greenbackers, Labor party and Popu- 
lists, and the sense of the harm done by the licensed sale of 
alcohol evoked a party which became known as the Prohibitionists. 
Still later the growth of Collectivist views, especially among 
the immigrants from Continental Europe, led to the formation 
of a Socialist Labor party and a Socialist party, some of those 
who had belonged to the Populists associating themselves with 
these new groups. 

The Democratic party began to form for itself a regular 
organization in the presidency (1820-1837) of Andrew Jackson, 
and the process seems to have been first seriously under- 
taken in New York state. The Whigs did the same; and when 
the Republicans organized themselves, shortly after the fall of 
the Whigs, they created a party machinery on lines resembling 
those which their predecessors had struck out. The estab- 
lishment of the system in its general form may be dated 
from before the Civil War, but it has since been perfected 
in its details. 

32. The machinery of an American party consists of two 
distinct but intimately connected sets of bodies, the one 
permanent, the other temporary, or rather inter- outline at 
mittent. The function of the former is to manage the System 
the general business of the party from month to of Party 
month and year to year. That of the latter is to Or z*niza- 
nominate candidates for the next ensuing elec- ' 
tions and to make declarations of party opinion intended to 
indicate the broad lines of party policy. 

The permanent organization consists of a system of com- 
mittees, one for each of the more important election areas. 
There is a committee for every city, every county, 
and every congressional district, and in some states Pa ^y c m " 

,. 1*1 tnittecSt 

even for every township and eyery state legisla- 
ture district. There is, of course, a committee for every 
state, and at the head of the whole stands a national committee 
for the whole Union, whose special function it is to make 
arrangements for the conduct of party work at a presidential 
election. Thus the country from ocean to ocean is covered 
by a network of committees, each having a sphere of action' 
corresponding to some election area, whether a Federal area 
or a state area. Each committee is independent and respon- 
sible so far as regards the local work to be done in connexion 
with the election in its own area, but is subordinate to the party 
committees above it as respects work to be^done in its own 
locality for the general purposes of the party. The ordinary 
duties of these committees are to raise and spend money 
for electioneering and otherwise in the interests of the party, 
to organize meetings, to " look after the press," to attend to 
the admission of immigrants or new-comers as voters, and 
generally to attract and enrol recruits in the party forces. 
At election times they also direct and superintend the work 
of bringing up voters to the polls and of watching the 
taking and counting of the votes; but in this work they are 
often aided or superseded by specially appointed temporary 
bodies called " campaign committees." These party committees 
are permanent, and though the membership is renewed every 
year, the same men usually continue to serve. The chairman 
in particular is generally reappointed, and is often, in a populous 
area, a person of great and perhaps autocratic power, who 
has large funds at his disposal and a regular army of " workers " 
under his orders. 

The other and parallel branch of the party organization 
consists of the bodies whose function it is to nominate party 
candidates for elective posts, whether legislative or partyNom- 
executive. (It must be remembered that many tnating 
executive state, county and city officers are chosen Conven- 
by direct popular vote.) These bodies are meetings a as - 
of the members of the party resident in each election area. 
In the smallest areas, such as the township or city ward, 
the meeting is composed of all the recognized members of 
the party who are entitled to vote, and it is then called a 
primary. In the larger election areas, such as a county or city, 
the number of voters who would be entitled to be present 



66o 



UNITED STATES 



[PARTY SYSTEM 



renders it impossible to admit all, so the nominating meetings 
in these areas are composed of delegates elected in the various 
primaries included in the area, and the meeting is called a 
nominating convention. This is the rule, but in some parts of 
the South and West nominations for members of the state 
legislature and county officials, and even for members of Con- 
gress, are made by primary assemblies meeting over the entire 
area, which all the party voters are entitled to attend. 
Where candidates are to be nominated for a state election, 
the number of delegates from primaries would be too large, 
so the state nominating convention is composed of delegates 
chosen at representative conventions held in smaller areas. 

Every registered voter belonging to the party in the local 
election area for which party candidates are to be nominated 
is presumably entitled to vote in the primary. In rural districts 
little difficulty arises, because it is known what citizens belong 
to each party; but in cities, and especially in large cities, where 
men do not know their neighbours by sight, it becomes neces- 
sary to have regular lists of the party voters entitled to attend 
a primary; and these lists are either prepared and kept by the 
local party committee, or are settled by the votes of the persons 
previously on the party rolls. The composition of these lists 
is of course a serious matter, because the primary is the foun- 
dation of the whole party edifice. Accordingly, those who 
control the local organizations usually take pains to keep on 
the lists all the voters whom they can trust, and are apt to 
keep off those whom they think likely to show a dangerous 
independence. By their constant activity in this direction, 
and by their influence over the pliable members of the party, 
they are generally able to have a primary subservient to their 
will, which is ready to nominate those whom they may suggest 
as suitable candidates, and to choose as delegates to the con- 
ventions persons on whom they can rely. In this way a few 
leaders may sometimes be able to obtain control of the nomi- 
nating machinery of a city, or even of a state, for the local 
committees usually obey instructions received from the com- 
mittees above them. (See, as to the details of party machinery, 
American Commonwealth, chs. lix.-lxiv., M. Ostrogorski on 
Democracy in England and America, and Professor Jesse Macy 
on Party Organization and Machinery, 1904.) 

The great importance of these nominating bodies lies not 
only in the fact that there are an enormous number of state, 
county and city offices (including judicial offices) filled by 
direct popular election, but also in the fact that in the United 
States a candidate has scarcely any chance of being elected 
unless he is regularly nominated by his party, that is to say, 
by the recognised primary or convention. To control the 
primary or the convention (as the case may be) of the party 
which is strongest in any given area is therefore, in ninety- 
nine cases out of a hundred, to control the election itself, so 
far as the party is concerned, and in many places one party 
has a permanent majority. 

As the desire to dominate primaries was found to lead to 
many abuses, both in the way of manipulating the lists of party 
voters and in the unfair management of the primary meetings 
themselves, a movement was started for reforming the system, 
which, beginning soon after 1890, gathered so much support 
that now in the large majority of the states laws have been 
enacted for regulating the proceedings at primary nomination 
meetings. These laws vary greatly in their details from state 
to state, but they all aim at enabling the voters to exercise 
a free and unfettered voice in the selection of their candidates, 
and they have created a regular system of elections of candidates 
preliminary to the election of office-holders from among the 
candidates. In most states the voter is required, when he obtains 
his ballot at the primary election, to declare to which party 
he belongs, but sometimes the primary is " open " and he may 
vote for any one of the persons who are put forward as desiring 
to be selected as candidates. The laws usually contain pro- 
visions punishing fraud or bribery practised at a primary, 
similar to those which apply to the subsequent elections to 
office. Although political parties were originally mere private 



organizations, little objection seems to have been felt to giving 
them statutory recognition and placing the proceedings at 
them under full official control. 

33. One nominating body is of such conspicuous magni- 
tude as to need special notice. For the selection of party 
candidates for the offices of president and vice- The National 
president of the United States, there is held once Nominating 
every four years, in the summer preceding the Convention. 
election (which takes place in November) of the president, a 
huge party assembly of delegates from conventions held in 
the several states, each state having twice as many dele- 
gates as it has electoral votes to cast (i.e. twice as many 
as its Federal senators and Federal representatives). Two 
delegates are chosen for each congressional district by a 
district convention, and four delegates for the state at large 
by a state convention. Each state delegation usually keeps 
together during the national convention, and holds private 
meetings from time to time to decide on its course. 

When the national convention has been duly organized by 
the appointment of committees and of a chairman, its first 
business is to discuss and adopt a series of resolutions (prepared 
by the committee on resolutions, but subject to amendment 
by the convention as a whole), which, taken together, embody 
the views, programme and policy of the party, and constitute 
what is called its " platform " for the ensuing election. This 
declaration of principles and plans is sometimes of importance, 
not only as an appeal to the people in respect of the past services 
and merits of the party, but as pledging them to the measures 
they are to introduce and push forward if they win the election. 
It then proceeds to receive the nomination of various aspirants 
to the position of party candidate for the presidency. The 
roll of states is called alphabetically, and each state, as reached 
in the roll, is entitled to present a candidate. Thereafter a 
vote is^taken between the several aspirants. The roll of states 
is again called, and the chairman of each state delegation 
announces the vote of the state. In Democratic conventions 
a state delegation, when instructed by the state convention 
to cast its whole vote solid for the particular aspirant favoured 
by the majority of the delegation, must do so (this is called the 
unit rule); in the conventions of the other parties individual 
delegates may vote as they please. If one aspirant has obtained 
on the first roll-call an absolute majority of the whole number 
of delegates voting or, in Democratic conventions, a majority 
of two-thirds of those voting he is held to have been duly 
chosen, and the choice is then made unanimous. If, however, 
no one obtains the requisite majority, the roll is again called 
until some one competitor secures the requisite number of 
votes. Sometimes one or two votings are sufficient, but some- 
times the process has to be repeated many times it may even 
continue for several days before a result is reached. Where 
this happens there is much room for the display of tactical 
skill by the party managers in persuading delegates who favour 
one of the less prominent aspirants to transfer their votes 
to the person who seems most likely to unite the party. 

When one aspirant has been duly selected as the party 
candidate for the presidency, the convention proceeds to 
choose in the same way a person to be candidate for the vice- 
presidency. This is a much simpler matter, because the post 
is much less sought after, and it is usually despatched with 
ease and promptitude. The two nominees are then deemed 
to be the candidates of the whole party, entitled to the support, 
at the ensuing election, of the party organizations and of all 
sound party men throughout the Union, and the convention 
thereupon dissolves. 

34. It is hardly too much to say that in the United States 
the parties work the government. The question follows, Who 
work the parties? The action of the parties influences 
depends upon and is the resultant of three factors, which guide 
which are indeed more or less present in all U>e Parties. 
constitutional representative governments. These are (a) 
individual leaders, who are powerful either by their talents 
or by the influence they enjoy over the citizens; (b) rich men, 



FINANCE] 



UNITED STATES 



661 



who can supply the party with the very large sums of money 
needed for maintaining the party machinery in efficiency and 
for fighting the elections; and (c) the opinion of the mass of 
the citizens, who, though generally disposed to adhere to the 
traditions and follow the leaders of the party to which they 
belong, do, especially in the more educated classes and in the 
most advanced parts of the country, exert a certain measure 
of independence, and may refuse to vote for the party candidates 
if they either distrust those candidates personally or disapprove 
of the policy which the party seems to be following. It need 
hardly be said that the relative importance of these three factors 
varies from time to time. Fortunately that of the second has 
grown weaker in recent years. 

35. The national parties have been so pervasive in their 
influence, and the working of their machinery has formed so 
General i m pofrtant a part of the political history of the 
Results of United States, that it is necessary here to call 
tfiePowero/attention to the high significance of this element in 
the Party jh e S y S tem of the Republic. The party system has 
made nearly all elections, including those for state 
offices and city offices, the functions of which have, as a rule, 
nothing whatever to do with national party issues, matters of 
party strife fought upon party lines. It has disposed voters 
in state and city elections to support party candidates, of 
whom they might otherwise have disapproved, for the sake of 
maintaining in full strength for national purposes the local 
party organization, and it has thereby become a fruitful source 
of municipal misgovernment. It has thrown great power into 
the hands of party managers, because where the strife between 
the two great parties is keen and the result of a contest doubt- 
ful, discipline and obedience are deemed needful for success. 
It has tended to efface state lines, and to diminish the interest 
in state issues, and has thus helped to make the nation over- 
shadow the states. (J. BR.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. General Secondary Works: James Bryce, The 
American Commonwealth (2 vols., New York, 1888; rev. ed., lOio) 
is the most satisfactory treatment of the whole subject; Alexis 
C. H. C. de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (2 vols., a translation 
by Henry Reeve edited by Francis Bpwen, New York, 1898) the 
first English edition of this philosophical work appeared in 1835, 
and it is still suggestive; A. B. Hart, Actual Government as applied 
under American Conditions (3rd ed., rev., ibid., 1908), describes the 
operation of the various parts of the government and contains 
bibliographical guides. See also R. L. Ashley, The American Federal 
State (ibid., 1902); and B. A. Hinsdale, The American Government, 
National and State (rev. ed., Chicago, 1895). State Governments: 
The chief source for each state is the Revised Statutes, General Laws 
or Code, including the Constitution. There are two official compila- 
tions of the State Constitutions, one edited by B. P. Poore (2 vols., 
Washington, 1877) and one edited by F. N. Thorpe (7 vols., ibid., 
1909). T. M. Cooley, A Treatise on the Constitutional Limitations 
which rest upon the Legislative Power of the States of the American 
Union (6th ed., Boston, 1890) is one of the most useful secondary 
works. In " Handbooks of American Government," edited by 
L, B. Evans, there is a study of the government of New York by 
W. C. Morey (New York, 1902), of Ohio by W. H. Siebert (1904), of 
Illinois by E. B. Greene (1904), of Maine by William MacDonald 
(1902), of Michigan by W. W. Cook (1905), of Minnesota by F. L. 
McVey (1901) and of Indiana by E. W. Kemp (1904). See also 
Lincoln Steffens, The Struggle for Self-Government; being an attempt 
to trace American Political Corruption to its Sources in Six States of 
the United States (New York, 1906). The American Political Science 
Review (Baltimore, 1907 sqq.) is especially useful for a comparative 
study of the state governments. For a study of the branches of 
government, Federal as well as state, see W. W. Willoughby, The 
American Constitutional System (New York, 1904); Emlin McClain, 
Constitutional Law in the United States (ibid., 1905); P. S. Reinsch, 
American Legislatures and Legislative Methods (ibid., 1907); J. H. 
Finley and J. F. Sanderson, The American Executive and Executive 
Methods (ibid., 1908) ; W. F. Willoughby, Territories and Dependen- 
cies (ibid., 1905) and S. E. Baldwin, The American Judiciary (ibid., 
1905). Local Government: The sources are the state constitutions, 
state laws and town and county reports and records. The best 
secondary works are J. A. Fairlie's Local Government in Towns, 
Counties and Villages (New York, 1906) ; and G. E. Howard's Intro- 
duction to the LocalConstitutional History of the United States (Baltimore, 
1889) is of use, although the author's theories are questionable. 
Government of Cities: The principal source is the city charters. 
For a digest of some of these see Digest of City Charters, together 
with other Statutory and Constitutional Provisions relating to Cities, 
prepared for the Chicago Charter Convention by A. R. Hatton 



(Chicago, 1906). There is much useful material in Municipal Affairs 
v ,'!;. an d vol. y. contains " A Bibliography of Municipal Problems 
City Conditions. See also Proceedings of the National Con- 
lerence for Good City Government (Philadelphia, 1894). Amone 
numerous good secondary works are F. J. Goodnow's Municipal 
Gover nmen t (New yo rk , I9O9)> cil Government in the United States 
/?/;Vi?3 4); Mun^H Problems (ibid., 1897) and Municipal Home 
foof/'n d 'ifW' JV A ' ? airlie ' Muni P"l Administration (ibid., 
1901; ; D. F Wilcox The American City: A Problem in Democracy 
(ibid., 1904); and Great, Cities in America: Their Problems and 
Government (ibid., 1910) ; H, E. Deming, The Government of American 
Cities (ibid., 1909); Lincoln Steffens, The Shame of the Cities (ibid., 

9 ^ 4 rK r C- vTi'. The City -' the H f e f Democracy (ibid., 1905) 
and Charles Zueblm, American Municipal Progress (ibid., 1902) 
/* federal Government: For a study of the constitution see the 
Documentary History of the Constitution of the United States of 

FlTTn P. - I8 L i 5 V ! S 7. Washin gtn. 1894-1905): Jonathan 
Elliot, Debates in the Several State Conventions on the Adoption of the 
Federal Constitution, &c. (2nd ed., 5 vols., Philadelphia, 1888)- 
The Federalist, edited by H. C. Lodge (New York, 1889) or by P L 
hord (ibid., 1898); Pamphlets on the Constitution of the United Stales 
Published during its Discussion by the People (Brooklyn, 1888), 
edited by PL. Ford; Joseph Story, Commentaries on the Constitution 
of the United States (sth ed., 2 vols., Boston, 1891); James Kent 
Commentaries on American Law (i4th ed., 4 vols., ibid.. 1896); 
J. I. C. Hare, American Constitutional Law, (2 vols., ibid., 1889)- 
E. G. Elliott, Biographical Story of (he Constitution (New York, 
1910) ; Woodrow Wilson, Constitutional Government in the United 
States (ibid., rev. ed., 1908); and especially important are the 
decision of the United States Supreme Court, known by the name 
of the reporter until 1874 A. I. Dallas (1790-1800), Wm. Cranch 
(1801-1815), Henry Wheaton (1816-1827), Richard Peters (1828- 
1842), B. C. Howard (1843-1860), J. S. Black (1861-1862) and J. W. 
Wallace (1863-1874) and published under the title of the United 
States Reports after 1874. The best collection of Cases on Constitu- 
tional Law is by J. B. Thayer (2 vols., Cambridge, 1894-1895). 
1 he United States Statutes at Large are published in 35 vols. (Boston 
and Washington, 1845-1909), and there is an annotated edition of 
the Federal Statutes compiled under the supervision of W. M. 
McKmneyand C. C. Moore (New York, 1903-1909). J.D.Richardson 
compiled the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1780 -1807 
(10 vols., Washington, 1896-1899). The best account of the 
presidential elections is in Edward Stanwood's History of the Presi- 
dency (Boston, 1898). For the executive departments the Annual 
Reports of each and numerous executive documents are useful. 
Some of the more important secondary works on special topics are: 
Mary P. Follett, The Speaker of the House of Representatives (New 
York, new ed., 1910) ; H. B. Fuller, Speakers of the House (Boston, 
1909): J- A. Fairlie, Natiotial Administration of the United Slates 
(New York, 1907) ; L. G. McConachie, Congressional Committees: a 
Study of the Origins and Development of our National and Local Legis- 
lative Methods (ibid., 1898); Woodrow Wilson, Congressional Govern- 
ment: a Study in American Politics (l5th ed., Boston, 1900); Jesse 
Macy, Party Organization and Machinery (New York, 1904); M. 
Ostrogorski, Democracy and the Organization of Political Parties 
(ibid., 2 vols., 1902; the second volume, revisedand enlarged, was 
published in 1910 as Democracy and the Party System in the United 
States) ; J. A. Woodburn, American Politics: Political Parties and 
Party Problems in the United States (ibid., 1903); Lucy M. Salmon, 
History ojlhe Appointing Power of 'the President, in American Histori- 
cal Association Papers, vol. i. (ibid., 1886); C. R. Fish, The Civil 
Service and Patronage (ibid., 1905) ; W. W. Willoughby, The Supreme 
Court of the United States: its History and Influence in our Constitu- 
tional System, in Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and 
Political Science, vol. vii. (Baltimore, 1890) ; F. A. Cleveland, Growth 
of Democracy in the United Slates: or the Evolution of Popular Co- 
operation in Government and its Results (Chicago, 1898) ; J. A. Smith, 
The Spirit of American Government: A Study of the Constitution, 
its Origin, Influence and Relation to Democracy (New York, 1907); 
Albert Shaw, Political Problems in American Development (New 
York, (1907); D. R. Dewey, National Problems (ibid., 1907). 

VIII. FINANCE 

The taxing powers within the United States are as follows : 

a. The national government, whose revenue powers are only 
limited by: (a) the provision of the constitution which prohibits 
all duties on exports, and (b) the provision that all direct taxes must 
be levied in proportion to population a provision which deprives 
direct taxes of nearly all their efficiency for revenue purposes. 

b. The several states, whose revenue powers are only limited by: 
(a) restrictions in their respective constitutions, and (b) the general 
principle that those powers must not be exercised in such a way as 
to contravene laws of the United States, or to destroy sources of 
the national revenue, although a state may prohibit within its borders 
the sale of liquors, from taxes upon which the United States Treasury 
derives a considerable part of its receipts. 

c. Within each state powers of taxation, to a determinate or to 
an indeterminate extent, as the case may be, are by the constitution 
and laws of the state conferred, almost always for strictly defined 



662 



UNITED STATES 



[FINANCE 



purposes, (i) upon counties, (2) upon cities, boroughs and incorporate 
villages, and (3) in nearly all the states, though in widely varying 
degrees, upon the primary geographical divisions of counties, such 
as the "town" of New England and the "township" of the Middle 
and Western states. 

The revenues of the several states, and of minor governmental 
areas within them, are mainly derived from a general property tax, 
laid directly upon realty and personalty. More than 82% of the 
tax revenues of state and local governments were thus derived in 
1902. The average real rate of assessment was $0-72 in 1880 and 
$0-74 in 1902. The details of this system, which has no other refuge 
in the civilized world save partially in Switzerland, are remarkable 
for a most extraordinary diversity in the manner of collection, which 
practically becomes, however, self-assessment, and an equally extra- 
ordinary and general evidence of the crudity and inadequacy of 
the system, which has been the target of state tax reports throughout 
the Union for half a century. Nevertheless, only recently have other 
sources of revenue been largely developed, and the general property 
tax to a degree abandoned. Thus an inheritance tax was first 
adopted by Pennsylvania in 1826, yet sixty years later only two 
states were taxing collateral inheritances. In 1907 there were 
34 such, and 19 of these were taxing direct inheritances as well. 
This is a modern democratic tax, and there are similar tendencies 
in other taxes. Business taxes are fast increasing, and many special 
property taxes, these two classes yielding in 1902 7-24% of state 
and local revenues. The taxation of corporations is recent and 
rapidly increasing. The same is true of habitation taxes. A be- 
ginning has been made with income taxes. Finally, the strain 
upon municipal finances incident to a realization of civic improve- 
ments has called attention to intangible wealth: street railways 
are no longer taxed as scrap iron but as working systems, with due 
attention to their franchises; and there is a beginning of the doctrine 
that the increase in value of unimproved realty constitutes income 
that should be taxed. The same conditions have made of impor- 
tance general theories, such as the single tax theory of Henry George, 
for taxing landed values. All these tendencies, although strongest 
in municipal finances, are general. 

Restrictions upon the taxing power, and unwise classifications 
of property for taxation purposes, embodied without good under- 
standing in state constitutions, have been a primary obstacle to 
the development of sound systems of taxation in the several states. 
A lack of interstate comity, and double taxation of certain classes 
of property, have also offered difficulties. The progress toward 
better conditions has, however, been in late years rapid. 

A similar restriction placed by the Constitution (art. I, 2) upon 
the power of the Federal government to lay " direct taxes " has 
been interpreted by the Supreme Court, by a bare majority, in such 
a way as to make very difficult, if not impossible, the imposition 
of an income tax (although, it may be added, such taxes had been 
unanimously held constitutional by the court in earlier decisions, 
which rested in turn upon interpretations of the constitutional 
provision just referred to given by the court when it counted among 
its members justices who had been members of the convention that 
framed the constitution). 

The entire Federal system is the result, partly of constitutional 
provisions, partly of experience. The Federal authority naturally 
resorted first to customs duties upon foreign commerce, because 
in this field it had exclusive authority. It adopted next excise duties 
on articles produced or consumed within the country, notably liquors 
and tobacco. These two species of indirect taxes have from the 
beginning been the main sources of national revenue. At three 
periods, namely 1800-1802, 1814-1817 and 1863-1871, direct taxes 
have contributed considerable amounts to the revenue. These 
taxes included in the last period that of the Civil War income 
and legacy taxes, taxes on commercial transactions, and taxes on 
persons and property. At times also the proceeds of the sales of 
public lands have formed an important element of the receipts of 
government, although it has been the accepted policy to sell such 
lands to actual settlers at rates so low as to be inconsistent with the 
object or attainment (relatively) of revenue. Indeed, under the 
homestead law, large portions of the public domain have been given 
away to settlers (see HOMESTEAD AND EXEMPTION LAWS), while 
even larger amounts have been alienated in aid of schools, public 
improvements, &c., so that the portion sold has not been a third 
of the total amount alienated. It is possible, however, that the 
growing consciousness of the necessity of conserving the national 
resources may lead to a much greater income in the future from the 
small amounts still remaining in the hands of the national govern- 
ment. In 1908 there still remained unappropriated and unsur- 
veyed, according to the General Land Office, 754,895,296 acres. 
Of these, 387,000,000 acres were still open to entry, but most of this 
vast extent consisted, in the opinion of the National Conservation 
Commission of 1908, of lands either arid or otherwise unsuited for 
settlement. There were also, in July 1908, about 235,000,000 acres 
of national forests, parks and other reservations for public use. 

Customs duties have been found to be in general the most cheaply 
collected, the least conspicuous, and least annoying of all taxes. 
They have, however, never been a stable source of revenue, even 
during periods when the tariff was constant; and compared with 
the steady returns shown by the selected articles of the British tariff 



list this instability has been most extraordinary. Very often their 
income has been far above the amount needed for all disbursements 
of the government. In times of war they have of course fallen to 
a minimum. Thus, in the period 1791 to 1811 their ratio to total 
government expenditure ranged from 41-6 to 189-6%; during the 
years 1812-1817, from 17-2 in 1814, when war finances reached their 
weakest point, to 131-4% in 1817, showing how rapid was their 
response under the return of peace; in the period 1817-1859 from 
29-9% in the crisis year of 1837 to 158-9%; in the period 1860-1869 
from 6-5% in 1865, when the government's bonds fell in price to 
$50-93 per hundred and the war policy of loans was most desperate, 
to 84-1%; in the years 1870-1893 from 51-4 to 85%; and, finally, 
in the years 1893-1909, from 36-9% (in 1898) to 52-7%. 

Of the total imports of 1909 47-4%, of a value of $699,799,771, 
entered duty free. More than half of these were crude materials 
for manufactures. The total imports per capita amj the duty col- 
lected upon them per capita have been as follows since 1885, taking 
every fifth year: 1885 $10-32 and $3-17; 1890 $12-35 and $3-62; 
1895 $10-61 and $2-17; 1900 $10-88 and $3-01; 1905 $13-08 
and $3-11; 1908 $13-57 and $3-24. 

The attempts of the Federalist party to create a system of internal 
taxation was a leading cause of its downfall. During the years in 
which it was in power little more than a tenth of the national revenue 
was derived from excises, yet they became a national political issue, 
and the Whisky Rebellion shows how little they were fitted to the 
nation at that time. The excise system disappeared with the in- 
coming of the Democratic party in 1801. As a temporary necessity 
such taxes were again resorted to during the war of 1812, and again 
during the Civil War. In the latter period the excise proved of 
great richness, and quickly responsive in its returns; whereas the 
customs were inelastic so long as the war continued. After the war 
a system of internal revenue was therefore continued. 

Of recent years the growing stringency of both national and 
local finances by enormously increased disbursements has made 
important the question of the relation of national with state and local 
taxation. The customs revenue, in its form of high protection, has 
always had against it a strong free trade sentiment, generally un- 
organized, and this seems to be growing. The internal revenue is 
affected by the remarkable spread of the prohibition movement. A 
considerable and growing public sentiment in favour of the use of 
the taxing power for the regulation of wealth taken from society 
demands the introduction into the Federal system of income and 
inheritance taxes. The last inasmuch as an income tax that is 
constitutional can perhaps not be framed is the only promising 
source that can give the addition to the Federal revenues that 
must be needed in case the customs or the excise revenues are 
reduced. 

From 1860 to 1870 the population increased 22-6%, and the 
net ordinary expenditures of government, not including payments 
on the national debt, rose 173%; from 1870 to 1900 the correspond- 
ing figures (using the official estimated population) were 129% and 
408%. The aggregate net ordinary receipts into the United States 
treasury, from 1791 to the 3Oth of June 1885, were as follows, in 
millions of dollars: from customs, 5642 ; from internal revenue, 3449; 
from direct taxes, 28; from public lands, 241; from miscellaneous 
sources, 578; total, 9938. The corresponding figures for the years 
from 1886 to the 3oth of June 1909 were as follows, respectively: 
5403; 4618; 0-142; 121 ; 969. 

The expenditures of the government increased steadily per capita 
up to the opening of the Civil War. The ease with which money 
was acquired in the war period, the acquiescence of the people, and 
the influences of extravagance and corruption engendered by the 
war, opened, at the return of peace, a period of extravagant expendi- 
ture that has continued with progressive increase down to the present. 
A phenomenal growth of both customs and excise revenue has made 
such expenditures easy. From 1791 to 1886 the aggregate net 
ordinary expenditures of the government these expenditures being 
exclusive of payments on account of principal and interest of the 
public debt were as follows, in millions of dollars: for the army, 
4563; navy, 1106; military pensions, 900; miscellaneous, 2168; 
total 8737. The corresponding figures for the period 1887 (June 30) 
to 1908 (June 30) were: 2003; 1219; 2884; 2790; total 8896. 

The average yearly ordinary receipts of the decade 1900-1909, dis- 
tributed by source, was as follows: from customs, $280,728,741-30; 
from excise, $257,477,356-45; from miscellaneous sources, 
$48,736,721-89; total ordinary revenue, $586,942,919-64 or $7-11 
per capita; revenue from sale of Panama bonds, $8,730,959-48; 
from premiums exclusive of Panama bonds, $397,894-20. The 
average yearly disbursements during the decade, distributed accord- 
ing to object, were as follows: for civil list and miscellaneous objects, 
$143,697,123-09; army, $130,416,902-62; navy, $96,722,000-90; 
military pensions, $144,856,529-16; Indians, $12,966,563-00; on 
account of debt, $25,632,072-60; total, $586,942,920. 

In 1909 the ordinary receipts were $637,773,165, or $7-17 per 
capita; and the ordinary disbursements $670,507,889, or $7-54 
per capita. The revenues of all the states, counties, cities and other 
local governments, plus those of the national government, aggregated 
in 1879 only $584,980,614. 

Since 1870 the national census office has determined several times 
the aggregate indebtedness of the national, state and other local 



HISTORY] 



UNITED STATES 



663 



governments. The results are stated below, for 1870 and 1902, 
in round millions of dollars. Sinking funds are deducted. 




1870. 


1902. 








v-jovcrnment. 


Total. 


Per capita. 


Total. 


Per capita. 


United States . 


$ 
2,331-2 


$ 
60-46 


$ 
925-0 


$ 
11-77 


States and territories . 


352-9 


9-15 


234-9 


2-99 


Counties .... 


187-6 


4-87 


196-6 


2-50 


Other local govern- 










ments, excluding 










rural school districts 


328-2 


8-51 


i,387-3 


17-65 


School districts out- 










side of urban centres 










of 8000 or more in 










habitants 


* 





46-2 


0-59 



* Included in 1870 in the preceding category. 

The national government set out in 1790 with a revolutionary 
debt of about 75 millions of dollars. This debt continued, slightly 
increased but without any very important change, until 1806, when 
a reduction began, continuing until 1812, when the debt was about 
45 millions. The then ensuing war with England carried the debt 
up to 127 millions in 1816. This was reduced to 96 millions in 1819, 
to 84 millions in 1825 and to 24 millions in 1832, and in the three 
years following was extinguished. The crisis of 1837, and the 
financial difficulties ensuing, created indebtedness, fluctuating in 
amount, which at the beginning of the war with Mexico was about 
1 6 millions. At the conclusion of peace the debt had risen to 63 
millions, near which point it remained until about 1852, from which 
time successive reductions brought it down to 28 millions in 1857. 
The financial crisis of that year caused an increase, which continued 
until the imminence of the Civil War, when it rose from 65 millions 
in 1860 to 91 millions in 1861, to 514 in 1862, to 1120 in 1863, to 
1816 in 1864, to 2681 in June, and its maximum (2846 millions) 
in August 1865. These figures are of gross indebtedness. The 
amount of the debt per capita of population, less cash in the treasury, 
was $15-63 in 1800; it fell to $0-21 in 1840; rose again, and in 1865 
reached a maximum of $76-98 ; since when it had fallen by the 3Oth 
of June 1908 to $10-76. The amount of the debt outstanding, minus 
gold and silver certificates and Treasury notes offset by cash in the 
Treasury, was $1,295,147,432-04 on the 1st of November 1909. 
Of this amount $913,317,490 was bearing interest. 

IX. ARMY 

The regular army has always been small, and in time of war 
reliance has been upon volunteer forces (see ARMY). This was truer 
of the Civil War than of the War of Independence or the war with 
Mexico. In the last the numbers of militia and volunteers was but 
little more than twice, and in the second little more than equal to 
the number of regulars engaged ; while in the Civil War the propor- 
tion was as one to twenty. Again, the number of regular troops 
engaged in the War of Independence (namely, 130,711 men enlisted) 
was greater, absolutely, than that engaged in the Civil War (126,587). 
Finally, it is interesting to note that in 1799, when war seemed prob- 
able with France, the army was organized with a force of 52,766 
men, and during the second war with Great Britain the number was 
made 57,351 in 1813 and 62,674 i n 1814; while the organized strength 
under the law of 1861, which was in force throughout the Civil War, 
was only 39,273 men. Small as the regular force has always been, 
its organization has been altered some two score of times in all. 

The law for its organization in force in 1910 provides that the total 
enlisted strength shall not at any one time exceed 100,000. The 
full active force of the present organization is as follows : 1 5 regiments 
of cavalry, with 765 officers and 13,155 enlisted men; 6 regiments 
of field artillery, with 236 officers and 5220 enlisted men; 30 regi- 
ments of infantry, with 1530 officers and 26,731 enlisted men; 3 
battalions of engineers, with 2002 enlisted men, commanded by 
officers detailed from the corps of engineers; a special regiment of 
infantry for Porto Rico, with 31 officers and 576 enlisted men; a 
provisional force of 50 companies of native scouts in the Philippines, 
with 178 officers and 5731 enlisted men; staff men, service school 
detachments; the military academy at West Point, Indian scouts, 
&c., totalling 11,777 enlisted men. The total number of commis- 
sioned officers, staff and line, on the active list, is 4209 (including 
219 first lieutenants of the medical reserve corps on active duty). 
The total enlisted strength, staff and line, is 78,782, exclusive of the 
hospital corps and the provisional force. ( See also NAVY AND NAVIES.) 

(F. S. P.) 

X. HISTORY 
A. Beginnings of Self-government, 1578-1690. 

i. The American nation owes its origin to colonizing activi- 
ties in which the British, Dutch, Swedes, French and Spaniards 
bore a share, and which were continued during a period of more 



than two centuries at the beginning of the modern era. The 
settlements of the Dutch and Swedes (New Netherland and New 
Sweden) were soon merged in those of the British, and of the 
territory colonized by Frenchmen and Spaniards the United 
States, as it was in 1783, included only certain outlying regions 
(Florida and certain posts on the Great Lakes and in the Missis- 
sippi Vulley). All the European nations which were interested 
in colonization shared in the enterprise, and the population of 
the region was therefore cosmopolitan from the outset. But 
the British, especially after 1660, secured a controlling influence, 
to such an extent that the history of the period can properly be 
regarded as the record of an experiment in British colonization. 
Permanent settlements on the Atlantic seaboard were first 
made in the early years of the I7th century, and they continued 
steadily to increase until after 1680. Relatively speaking, 
that was the period of settlement, but population continued 
slowly to advance westward. In the i8th century occurred 
a large immigration of Germans and Scottish-Irish, who settled 
in Pennsylvania and New York and thence overflowed into 
the western parts of Virginia and the Carolinas. The only 
colony which was founded in the i8th century was Georgia 
(1732), by means of which British outposts on the Florida 
frontier were strengthened. 

2. British colonization originated chiefly in private initiative, 
though it acted in half-conscious obedience to certain general 
principles of action. From this fact originated the General 
trend toward self-government, which was funda- Aspects of 
mental and controlling in the history of the British Coioaiza- 
on the American continent. But to an extent the tio "' 
tendencies which favoured self-government were counteracted 
by the influence of the British Crown and parliament. The 
influence of the Crown was continuous, except during the period 
of the Civil War and Commonwealth (1642-1660), while that 
of parliament was not felt until the middle of the i7th century, 
and its colonial legislation subsequent to that time was chiefly 
confined to matters of trade. The activities of Crown and parlia- 
ment were directed toward the securing of Imperial interests and 
of that degree of subordination and conformity which, in states 
that have developed from Roman and feudal origins, attaches 
to the condition of colonies or dependencies. The term " imperial 
control " therefore suggests the second tendency in colonial affairs, 
to the discussion of which the historian must address himself. 

3. Among the colonists the trend toward local independence 
and self-government was in harmony with the spirit of the 
English. Neither was it lacking among the other nationalities 
represented in the colonies. But in the case of the British 
it was greatly strengthened by the fact that the colonies were 
founded by private initiative, the government legalizing the 
efforts of the " adventurers " and planters, but leaving them in 
many cases almost wholly to themselves. Hence many small 
colonies and settlements were founded along the coast. A 
variety of motives economic, religious and political con- 
tributed to the founding of these colonies, and people corre- 
spondingly different in type came to inhabit them. As they 
differed from one another, so their descendants came to differ 
from the Europeans, out of the midst of whom they had come. 
The remoteness of the colonies from Europe and the difficul- 
ties under which communication with them was maintained 
confirmed and perpetuated the tendency toward independence 
both of England and its government. Somewhat similar con- 
ditions controlled intercolonial relations, kept the colonists 
apart from one another and checked efforts at co-operation. 
Thus it was that the causes which confirmed the colonists in the 
spirit of independence toward the mother country at the same 
time made them jealous of any external authority. 

4. The term " chartered colonies " is the one which best 
describes the forms under which the British-American settle- 
ments were founded and under which they all con- 
tinued for periods varying from a single generation 

to that of the entire duration of their colonial 
existence. They were the direct and characteristic results of 
private initiative in colonization. The discoverers and would-be 



Chartered 
Colonies. 



66 4 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1578-1690 



colonizers, acting individually or in groups, collected the ships, 
men and resources necessary for their enterprises, and pro- 
cured from the Crown a charter. By this document the king 
conveyed to them a claim to the soil which would be valid 
in English law, gave them the right to transfer Englishmen 
thither as colonists, to trade with them and with the natives, 
and to govern the colony, subject to the conditions of allegiance 
and of British sovereignty in general. The rights and liberties 
of the colonists as British subjects, without attempt to define 
what they were, were guaranteed by the charters, and the 
grantee was prohibited from passing laws or issuing orders which 
were repugnant to those of England. In only a part of the 
charters those chiefly which were issued subsequent to 1660 
was express reference made to the calling of assemblies in the 
colonies. So general were the provisions of the charters that they 
only remotely determined the forms which government should 
assume under them and what the rights of the colonists should 
be. A considerable variety of institutions and social types 
existed under them. But their very indefiniteness made them 
valuable as objects of appeal to those who in time of contro- 
versy were upholding local rights and liberties. 

5. Of the chartered colonies there were two varieties 
proprietary provinces and corporate colonies. Though alike 

in the fact that the patentees who founded them 
Provinces? were m esne tenants of the Crown, they were quite 

unlike in their internal organization and to a 
considerable extent also in the character of the people who 
inhabited them. The proprietary province was a development 
from the principle of the fief, though with many variations. 
The early charters of discovery, those for example which were 
granted to John and Sebastian Cabot and to Sir Humphrey 
Gilbert, contemplated the founding of feudal principalities in 
the New World. The grant to Sir Walter Raleigh, which resulted 
in the abortive colonial experiment at Roanoke, was of the same 
character. At the period of transition from the rule of the 
Tudors to that of the Stuarts, trading companies and companies 
whose purpose was colonization were increasing in number and 
importance. The first half of the 1 7th century was distinguished 
by the founding of many such, in France and the Netherlands as 
well as in England. The joint companies which were chartered 
London and by James I. in 1606, one to have its residence 
Plymouth at London and the other at Plymouth, were of this 
Companies, character. They were granted the right to colonize, 
the one in northern and the other in southern "Virginia"; 
the intervening territory, three degrees in breadth, being left 
common to the two. The rights of the companies were con- 
fined to those of settlement and trade. The Plymouth patentees 
achieved no permanent result; but those of London founded 
Jamestown (1607) and other settlements along the James 
river, which later became the province of Virginia (q.v.). 

6. But before this result had been reached the London paten- 
tees had secured in succession two new charters, one in 1609 
and another in 1612. By means of these grants they had 
practically separated from the Plymouth Company, had secured 
a concession of territory 400 m. broad and extending through the 
continent, and had been able to perfect the organization of their 
company. By the grant of 1606 the right to govern the colonies 
had been reserved to councils of royal appointees, one resident in 
England and one in each distinct colony which should be founded. 
But by their later charters the London patentees were fully 
incorporated, and in connection therewith received not only the 
power to grant land but rights of government as well. This 
made the Virginia Company of London in the full sense of the 
word the proprietor of the province which it was founding. 
It now appointed resident governors, councillors and other 
officials for the colony, and instructed and controlled them in 
all ways, subject of course to the general supervision of the 
king in council. Under the charter of 1606, in order to facilitate 
colonization on a strange continent, joint management of land 
and trade was temporarily instituted. But under the fully 
organized company, as managed by Sir Thomas Smith, and 
especially by Sir Edwin Sandys and the Ferrars, this system was 



abandoned, and private property in land and the control of 
trade through private " magazines " were established. A 
number of distinct plantations and settlements were founded 
which later developed into counties and parishes. From these 
localities, in 1619, under authority from the company, repre- 
sentatives were elected who met with the governor and council 
at Jamestown and formed the first colonial assembly held on 
American soil. Its acts were duly submitted to the company 
in London for its approval or disapproval. Other assemblies 
were called, the tobacco industry was established and the 
principles upon which traffic in that staple was to be conducted 
with Europe were announced. Thus Virginia assumed the form 
of a proprietary province, with an English trading company 
as its proprietor. 

7. Meantime west of England men had been making fishing 
voyages and voyages of discovery to northern " Virginia", which 
now was coming to be known as New England. In New 
1620 a new charter was procured, the reorganized England 
company being known, in brief, as the New England Couacl1 - 
Council. Like the London patentees, this body was now fully 
incorporated and received a grant of the vast territory between 
40 and 48 N. lat. and extending through to the South Sea 
(Pacific). Full rights of government, as well as of trade and 
settlement, were also bestowed. The moving spirit in this 
revived enterprise was Sir Ferdinando Gorges (q.v.), an 
Anglican and royalist from the west of England. For a 
time John Mason (q.v.) was his most active coadjutor. Such 
backing as the company received came from nobles and courtiers, 
and it had the sympathy of the court. But lack of resources 
and of active interest on the part of most of the patentees, 
together with the development of a Puritan interest in New 
England, led to the failure of this enterprise. No colony was 
established directly by the council itself, but that part of its 
vast territory which lay adjacent to the coast was parcelled 
out among the patentees and by them a few weak and struggling 
settlements were founded. They were all proprietary in char- 
acter, and those along the northern coast were more or less 
connected with Anglican and royalist interests. But, as events 
proved, Plymouth Colony (founded in 1620), which was Puritan 
and Separatist to the core, became a patentee of the New 
England Council; and the colony of Massachusetts Bay 
(founded in 1628-1630), which was to become the citadel of 
Puritanism in America, procured the original title to its soil 
from the same source. At the outset both Massachusetts and 
Plymouth must be classed as proprietary settlements, though 
far different from such in spirit and destiny. Massachusetts 
soon (in 1629) secured a royal charter for its territory between 
the Merrimac and Charles rivers, and thus took a long 
step towards independence of the council. At the same time 
the Plymouth settlers were throwing aside the system of joint 
management of land which, as in the case of Virginia, had been 
imposed upon them by adventurers who had lent money for 
the enterprise; were paying their debts to these same adven- 
turers and securing control of the trade of the colony; were 
establishing a system of self-government similar to that of 
Massachusetts. Thus a strong Puritan interest grew up in 
the midst of the domain which had been granted to the 
New England Council, and in connexion therewith the type of 
colony to which we have given the name corporate came into 
existence. 

8. In order to understand the nature of the corporate colony, 
it is necessary to explain the internal organization of that 
type of company which, like the Virginia Company corporate 
of London, was founded for purposes of trade and colonies; 
colonization. It was composed of stockholders, who ** Virginia 
became members as the result of the purchase of Com f aa y- 
shares or of migration to the colony as planters, or of both acts 
combined. In the Virginia Company they were known as the 
" generality, " in the Massachusetts and other companies as the 
" freemen. " In them, when met as a democratically organized 
body under the name of " quarter court " or " general 
court," was vested the governing power of the company. It 



HISTORY 1578-1690] 



UNITED STATES 



665 



elected the officers, chief among whom were a treasurer or 
governor, and a council or board of assistants. These, as well 
as the subordinate officers, held for annual terms only. Four 
times a year, at the law terms, the general courts met for the 
transaction of business, elections being held at the spring meeting. 
Membership in such companies might be indefinitely increased 
through the issue and sale of shares. They were, in other 
words, open companies, whereas the New England Council was 
a closed body, its membership being limited to forty. The 
Massachusetts Company was an open corporation of the type 
just described. 

9. In 1629 the prospects of Protestantism at large, and of 
Puritanism in England, were so dark that the founders of 

the Massachusetts Company, who were decidedly 
Massachu- p ur ;t an [ n spirit and inclined to nonconformity in 
Company: practice, resolved to remove with their charter and 
Removal of the governing body of their company into New 
Charter to England. Preparatory to this, John Winthrop was 
*" elected governor and a settlement was made of 

their business relations in England. After the 
removal had been made, the assistants and general court met 
in New England and business was carried on there exclusively 
by planters. An order was soon passed that none should vote 
or hold office who were not members of some one of the 
churches within the colony. As all these churches were 
Independent or Congregationalist in form and doctrine, this 
order gave a wholly new definition to the term " freemen. " 
It made of this colony something approximating to a biblical 
commonwealth, and subordinated trade, land-holding and settle- 
ment to the interests of the Puritan faith. The board of 
assistants now assumed political and judicial functions. As 
local settlements about Massachusetts Bay were founded, the 
general court, which before had been a primary assembly 
simply the freemen of the company came to consist partly of 
representatives elected by the freemen of the towns. In this 
way a second chamber that of the deputies was added to the 
assistants to form the general court of the colony. Taxes 
were levied by this body, and laws and orders proceeded from 
it which related to all functions of government. It elected or 
appointed the governor and other chief officials, and determined 
the times of its own meeting. The governor had no veto and the 
general court was the controlling organ in the system. 

10. Of primary importance hi the affairs of the colony was 
everything which concerned religious belief and church govern- 
ment. The churches and their relation to the civil power pre- 
sented the great questions upon which hinged its policy. This 
was true not only in its internal affairs, but in its relations 
with other colonies and with the mother country. An eccle- 
siastical system was developed in which Independent and Presby- 
terian elements were combined. By a rigid system of tests 
this was upheld against Antinomians, Baptists, Quakers and 
dissenters of all sorts. The securing of revenue from land and 
trade was considered subordinate to the maintenance of the 
purity of the faith. It was this which gave a point and vigour 
to the spirit of self-government in the New England colonies 
which is not perceptible elsewhere. 

As a consequence of the Puritan migration from England 
and of the expulsion of dissenters from Massachusetts, Plymouth, 
Connecticut (q.v.), the New Haven Colony, and the 
towns about Narragansett Bay which became the 
colony of Rhode Island (q.v.), were settled. These 
gji were corporate colonies, organized upon funda- 
mentally the same plan as Massachusetts but 
differing from it in minor particulars. Their settlers at the 
outset had no charters, but by means of plantation or town 
covenants assumed powers of government, which ultimately 
were vested in general courts similar to that of Massa- 
chusetts. Rhode Island was formed by a union of towns, 
but elsewhere the colony was coeval with or antedated the 
town. Connecticut and Rhode Island, the former in 1662 and 
the latter in 1663, secured royal charters by which they were 
incorporated within New England itself and the governments 



Colony, 
Rhode 



which they had established there were legalized. New Haven 
was absorbed by Connecticut in 1664 under the charter of 1662 
(see CONNECTICUT), and Plymouth remained without a charter 
from the king until, toward the close of the ryth century, it 
became a part of the enlarged province of Massachusetts. 

11. The most prominent feature of the New England land 
system was the " town grant, " which in every case became the 
territorial basis of a group settlement. Throughout New 
England, and in the outlying districts which were colonized by 
New Englanders, settlement was effected by groups. The 
process began in Plymouth and was extended through the entire 
section. The Puritan migration from Europe was of the same 
general character. Groups of people, animated by a common 
religious or political ideal, broke away from their original 
or temporary abiding-places and pushed farther into the wilder- 
ness, where tracts of land were granted to them by the general 
court. The corporate colonies did not seek profit from their land, 
but granted it freely to actual settlers, and in such amounts 
as suited their needs. No distinct land office was established 
by any New England colony. Land was not sold by the colony; 
nor, as a general rule, was it leased or granted to individuals. 
Rent formed no appreciable part of the colony revenue. 

12. Over the founding of towns the general courts, as a 
rule, exercised a watchful supervision. Not only did the courts 
fix and maintain their bounds, but they issued regulations for 
the granting of lands, for common fields, fences, herds, the 
punishment of trespass, the admission of inhabitants and free- 
holders, the requirement that records of land titles should be 
kept, and the like. But subject to these general regulations, 
the allotment and management of its land was left to each town. 
The colonies had no land system apart from the town. It was 
partly in order to manage their lands that the towns were made 
centres of local government and town meetings or boards of 
town proprietors were established. By means of town action, 
taken in town meetings and by local officials, the land of each 
settlement was laid off as house lots, common and common 
fields, meadow and pasture. Detailed regulations were made 
for the management of common fields and for their ultimate 
division and allotment among their proprietors. The same was 
true of fences and herds. The result was an organization similar 
to the English manor, but with the lord of the manor left out; 
for in the case of the New England town administrative authority 
resided in the body of the freeholders. To this peculiarity in 
the form of New England settlement is due the prominence of 
the town, as compared with the county, in its system of local 
government. The town was the unit for purposes of taxation 
and militia service as well as of elections. It was also an impor- 
tant ecclesiastical centre, the parish usually corresponding with 
it in extent. 

13. As a result of the process thus sketched, southern New 
England was settled by a population of English origin, with 
similar instincts and a form of political organization which was 
common to them all. Gorges, meantime, had secured (1639) 
a royal charter for his province of Maine, but Mason had died 
before he obtained such a guaranty for his settlements on the 
Piscataqua river. The small communities along that entire 
coast remained weak and divided. In i635 the New England 
Council surrendered its charter. The helplessness of the Gorges 
family was insured by its adherence to the royalist cause in the 
English Civil War. Massachusetts availed itself of a forced inter- 
pretation of the language of its charter respecting its northern 
boundary to extend its control over all the settlements as 
far north-east as the Kennebec river. This was accomplished 
soon after 1650, and for the time Anglican and royalist interests 
throughout New England seemed hopelessly wrecked. New 
England had thus developed into a clearly defined section under 
Puritan domination. This fact was also clearly indicated by 
the organization, in 1643, of the New England Confederacy, 
or the United Colonies of New England (see NEW ENGLAND), 
which comprised the orthodox Puritan colonies, whose leading 
magistrates, as annually elected commissioners, for twenty 
years exercised an advisory control over New England. 



666 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1578-1690 



14. The colonies of the middle and southern sections of the 
territory, which later became the United States, were wholly 
Middle and proprietary in form. This was true of New Nether- 
Southcrn land (founded by the Dutch West India Company 
Colonies, jjj T ^ ai ) and of New Sweden (settled under the 
authority of the Swedish Royal Company in 1638), as well as 
of the English colonies which were established on that 
coast. In the case of Virginia and of the Dutch and Swedish 
settlements, trading companies were the proprietors. But 
the later English colonies, beginning with Maryland in 1632, 
and continuing with the Carolinas (1663), New York (1664), 
New Jersey (1665), Pennsylvania and the Lower Counties, 
afterwards Delaware (1681), were founded by individual 
proprietors or proprietary boards. Georgia (1732), the only 
English colony settled after 1681 on the continent, existed 
for twenty years under a proprietary board of trustees. By 
the efforts of adventurers of this class, put forth chiefly 
during the period of the Restoration, the entire coast-line from 
Florida to Acadia was permanently occupied by the English. 
But, unlike New England, the population of the other sections 
was of a mixed character, as were their economic and religious 
systems, and to an extent also their political institutions. 

15- As has already been stated, in their internal structure 
and in the course of their history the proprietary provinces 
differed very materially from the corporate colonies. Those 
of later English origin also differed in some important respects 
from Virginia under the company and from New Netherland 
and New Sweden. The system of joint management of land 
and trade, which was so characteristic of early Virginia, was out- 
grown before the other proprietary provinces were founded. 
Neither did it prevail in the Dutch and Swedish provinces, but 
there the law and institutions of government of those nations 
existed, and no provision whatever was made for assemblies. 

16. In the proprietary province the proprietor, or board of 
proprietors, was the grantee of powers, while in the corporate 
colony it was the body of the freemen organized as an assembly 
or general court. The proprietor might or might not be a 
resident of the province. He might exercise his powers in 
person, or, as was usually the case, delegate them to one or more 
appointees. In any case, the form of government of the pro- 
prietary province was essentially monarchical in character. The 
powers that were bestowed were fundamentally the same as 
those which were enjoyed during the middle ages by the counts 
palatine of Chester and Durham. In some charters express 
reference was made to Durham as a model. The normally deve- 
loped provinces which resulted were miniature kingdoms, and 
their proprietors petty kings. As Coke said, their powers were 
king-like though not sovereign. This character arose from the 
fact that the grantee of power was the executive of the province. 
This branch of government was thereby brought into the fore- 
front. At the beginning and for a long time thereafter it con- 
tinued to bear the leading part in affairs. It was not so in the 
corporate colony, for there the freemen and the general court 
stood at the centre of the system, and their ultimate control, 
which no one dreamed of disputing, was maintained through a 
system of annual elections. In most of the corporate colonies 
the executive (i. e. the body of magistrates) was strong, but that 
was due to the political and social influence which its officials 
had gained, and not to their tenure of office. But the nature of 
the proprietary province demands further explanation. 

17. In every case, apart from the ordinary rights of trade 
and the guarantees of the liberties of the colonists, the powers 
Government which were bestowed on the proprietors were 
of the territorial and governmental. The territory of 
Proprietary the provinces was granted under the conditions 

which by English law controlled private estates 
of land. An entire province, or any part of it, could be 
leased, sold or otherwise disposed of like a private estate. 
It was an estate of inheritance, descending to heirs. The 
attitude of proprietors toward it was that of landlords, 
investors or speculators in land. They advertised for settlers, 
and, in doing so, an ever present motive with them was the desire 



to secure more private income from land. In 1664 the duke of 
York sold New Jersey to Berkeley and Carteret, and the sale was 
effected by deeds of lease and release. In 1708 William Penn 
mortgaged Pennsylvania, and under his will devising the 
province legal complications arose which necessitated a suit in 
chancery. Thus proprietors and proprietary boards changed 
with every generation or of-tener. All this, of course, was 
different in the corporate colony. 

1 8. In all the later proprietary charters, except that of New 
York, the operation of the statute Quid emptores was suspended, 
so far as relations between the proprietor and his immediate 
grantees were concerned. By virtue of this provision each 
proprietor, or board, became the centre from which originated 
an indefinite number of grants. These were held directly of 
the proprietor and through him of the' Crown. In practice 
the same was true also of New York. The proprietors were 
thus left free to make grants on such conditions as they 
chose limited by the nature of their patents to erect or 
permit the erection ot manors, to devise the machinery necessary 
for surveying, issuing and recording grants, and collecting rents. 
Preparatory to the exercise of this power, the proprietors issued 
so-called " concessions " or " conditions of plantation, " stating 
the terms on which they would grant lands to colonists. These 
were often accompanied by descriptions of the country, which 
were intended to be advertisements for settlers. Under a system 
of head rights, analogous to that which existed in Virginia, land 
was thus bestowed on settlers upon easy terms. Proportional 
amounts of land were granted upon the importation of servants, 
and in this way a traffic in servants and their head rights to land 
was encouraged among planters and masters of merchant vessels. 
In all the provinces, except New Netherland, a quit rent was 
imposed on all grants. In the Dutch province rents were 
sometimes imposed, but they varied in character and differed 
from the English quit rent. In Maryland fines were levied on 
alienations. In Maryland and Pennsylvania the demand for 
land became so great that it was sold. In most of the provinces 
manorial grants were made, but in none except New Netherland 
did the manor become an institution of government. In all 
the provinces territorial affairs were administered directly by 
the provincial authorities, and not by towns as in New England. 
In Maryland a land office was fully organized, towns developed 
only to a very limited extent, and when they did originate they 
were in no sense village communities. Lots in them were granted 
by provincial authorities and they were subject to a quit rent. 
They were simply more densely populated parts of the counties, 
and, unless incorporated as boroughs, had no distinct institu- 
tional life. In almost all cases land, in the provinces, was granted 
to individuals, and individual ownership, with direct relations 
between the owners or tenants and the proprietary authorities, 
was the rule. This was in marked contrast to the conditions 
which have been described as existing in the corporate colonies. 
In the corporate colony the elements of the fief had been 
eliminated, but in the provinces they still survived to a 
considerable degree. 

19. Had governmental powers not accompanied the terri- 
torial grants which have been described, these grants would 
have been estates of land, unusually large, no doubt, but nothing 
more. In cases where the governmental rights of proprietors 
were suspended or resigned into the hands of the Crown, they 
remained thereafter only private landlords. But the fact that 
rights of government were bestowed with the land made the 
territory a province and the proprietor its political head. 
The bestowment of rights of land carried with it not only the 
obligation to pay quit rent, but to take to the proprietor the 
oath of fidelity. 

20. In the discussion of the corporate colony it was necessary 
to dwell first and chiefly on the legislature. But in the case of 
the proprietary province the executive, for the reason already 
mentioned, demands first attention. The provincial charters 
made the proprietors the executives of their provinces and for 
the most part left it to them to determine how and under what 
forms the governmental powers which they had received should 



HISTORY 1578-1690] 



UNITED STATES 



667 



be exercised. The powers which were definitely bestowed were 
executive and judicial in character the ordinance power, the 
authority to appoint all officers, to establish courts, to punish 
and pardon, to organize a military force and defend the provinces, 
to bestow titles of honour, to found churches and present to 
livings. The executive thus became the centre from and around 
which development in the province chiefly occurred. It gave 
to the proprietor an importance, especially at the outset, which 
was comparable with that enjoyed by the general courts in the 
corporate colonies. It made him in a derived and inferior sense 
the source, within the province, of office and honour, the foun- 
tain of justice, the commander of the militia, the recipient of the 
provincial revenue, the constituent part of the legislature. 
But in most cases the proprietors did not attempt to exercise 
these powers in person. Even if resident in their provinces they 
needed the assistance of officials. By means of commissioners 
they appointed a group of leading officials for their provinces, 
as a governor, councillors, a secretary, surveyor-general, 
receiver-general or treasurer, and somewhat later an attorney- 
general. These all held office at the pleasure of the proprietor, 
and were subject to guidance by his instructions. 

Altogether the chief place among these officials was held by 
the governor. He was par excellence the agent for the pro- 
The prietor for all purposes of administration. He 

Provincial regularly corresponded with the proprietor and 
Governor. rece j ve( j the latter's directions. In making appoint- 
ments the proprietor was usually guided by his recommendations. 
In some cases he was a relative of the proprietor, and 
family influence in Maryland after the Restoration came to 
dominate the government of the province. In all his important 
acts the governor was required to take the advice of his council, 
and that body was expected to co-operate closely with him in 
all matters; but the governor was not bound to follow their 
advice. The relations between the two was the same as that 
between the king and his privy council in England. As settle- 
ments multiplied and counties and other local subdivisions were 
formed, other and inferior offices were created, the right of 
appointment to which rested with the governor, though it was 
exercised in the name of the proprietor. By means of an 
executive, thus organized, land was granted and the revenue 
from it collected, counties and other local divisions were 
established, relations were developed with the Indians, early 
preparations were made for defence, courts were opened and 
the administration of justice begun. 

21. But in the later proprietary charters generally, with the 
exception of that issued to the duke of York, provision was made 
for assemblies. It was made, however, in very general terms, 
and it was left to the option of the proprietors to determine 
when, where and how they would call them. These legislatures 
did not originate in the natural or pre-existent rights of English- 
men, nor did the existence of a parliament in England make 
them necessary, though it greatly increased the difficulties of 
governing the colonies without them. Though they were not 
original in the sense which attached to the executive, they were 
immediately proven to be indispensable and their activity in 
the provinces gradually opened the way for the growth of modern 
democratic institutions. 

22. When met in regular, form, the provincial legislature 
consisted of the governor, the council or upper house, and the 
The assembly or deputies. The latter, who were elected 
Provincial by the localities, constituted the only representative 
Legislature. p ar )- o f (_jj e legislature. In tenure and functions the 
governor and council were largely independent both of the 
deputies and of the electors. They were a part of the execu- 
tive and were naturally swayed by a regard for the interests 
of the proprietor and by administrative traditions. Though 
a component of the legislature, the council was the legal 
advisor of the governor. In many cases the importance of 
the councils was increased by the fact that, with the governor, 
in early times they formed the highest judicial tribunal in the 
province. As the governor had the sole power of calling, pro- 
roguing and dissolving the general assembly, the council might 



advise him in such a way as to destroy the body itself or thwart 
its plans. The joint work of the council and assembly was 
subject to the veto of the proprietor, or of both the proprietor 
and his governor. The legislature of the province, therefore, 
differed materially from the general court, though in practice 
this was somewhat offset by the fact that in the New England 
colonies the magistrates were usually re-elected for a long series 
of terms. 

23. In the province, as in the kingdom, the legislature was in 
a sense an expansion of the executive, developed out of it, 
and was to an extent controlled by it. Out of this relation 
arose the possibility of conflict between the two parts of the 
legislature that which represented the people and that which 
represented the proprietor. In the history of the provinces 
this formed the central line of cleavage. From the first the 
assemblies largely controlled taxation. Using this as a lever, 
they endeavoured to limit and define the powers of the execu- 
tive and to extend the sphere of legislation more widely. Fees, 
from which officials derived most of their support, were a 
favourite object of their regulation. Occasionally offices 
which had originally been appointive were made elective. 
Protests of various kinds were made against official cliques. 
British statutes which favoured liberty and the powers of parlia- 
ment were often referred to as guides and ideals of the opposi- 
tion. Now and again the lower house came to a deadlock 
with council or governor. Threatened or actual revolt was 
sometimes necessary to bring the executive to terms. By such 
tactics as these the popular dements in the constitutions 
of the provinces asserted themselves. The sphere of ordinance 
was gradually limited and that of statute extended, while 
incidentally the system of government became more complex. 

In a number of provinces the Carolinas, New Jersey and 
Pennsylvania the proprietors at various times initiated 
elaborate constitutions, in which not only a land 
system, but forms and functions of government tioa , 
were prescribed on a large scale. These were 
variously known as fundamental constitutions, concessions 
and agreements, frames of government, and in every case were 
submitted to the general assembly for its acceptance or rejec- 
tion. Long struggles often ensued over the question of accep- 
tance, which usually ended in the modification or rejection of 
the schemes as too cumbersome for use or because they reserved 
excessive powers to the provincial executive. 

24. Though the main features in the form and development 
of the proprietary provinces have thus been indicated, it 
should be noted that their history was by no Course of 
means uniform. In New Netherland and New York Develop- 
occurred a struggle for the establishment of a 
legislature, which continued at intervals for forty years and 
was not permanently successful until after New York had 
become a royal province. The proprietors of New Jersey 
never secured a royal charter, and therefore were not able 
to establish satisfactorily their claim to rights of govern- 
ment. As grants of land had been made to the settlers 
in certain localities within that province before its purchase by 
Berkeley and Carteret, opposition was made to the collection of 
quit rents, as well as to the enforcement of rights of government, 
and disturbances, resulting from these causes, became chronic. 
The province was also divided into East and West Jersey, the 
boards of proprietors being greatly increased in both, and West 
Jersey attaining an organization which was almost democratic 
in character. Within the vast reaches of the Carolina grant 
developed two provinces. One of these North Carolina 
was almost entirely neglected by the proprietors, and the 
weakened executive repeatedly succumbed to popular violence. 
In South Carolina many violent controversies occurred, espe- 
cially over the efforts of the proprietors to compel the acceptance 
of the Fundamental Constitutions, which originated with Locke 
and Shaftesbury. But in the end this failed, and a simple 
form of government, such as was adapted to the needs of the 
province, was developed. In Pennsylvania the liberal policy 
of the proprietor led at the beginning to unusual concessions 



668 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1606-1760 



in favour of the colonists. One of the most characteristic of 
these was the grant of an elective Council, which was intended 
to be aristocratic and the chief institution in the province. 
But owing to conflicts between it and the governors, affairs 
came to a deadlock. The total neglect of provision for defence 
by the Quaker province led to the suspension of Penn's powers 
of government for about two years after the English Revolu- 
tion and the outbreak of the war with France. This did away 
with the elective Council for the time, and an appointive Council 
was soon substituted. Finally, in 1701, the Council was de- 
prived of its powers of legislation and thereafter the legislature 
of Pennsylvania consisted of only one house the Assembly. 

B. Development of Imperial Control, 1606-1760. 

25. Turning now to the exercise of imperial control over 
the colonies, it is to be noted that it proceeded chiefly from the 

English Crown. It was exercised through the secre- 
Cro^n. tar y o j state, the privy council and a succession of 
boards subordinate to it which were known as commissioners 
of plantations or the board of trade; by the treasury and 
admiralty boards and their subordinate bureaus; by the 
attorney-general and the solicitor-general and by the bishop 
of London. The more continuous and intimate supervision 
proceeded from the privy council and the commissioners sub- 
ordinate to it, and from the treasury board. The latter caused 
the auditing of such revenue as came from the colonies, super- 
vised expenditures for them and had an oversight over appoint- 
ments in the colonial service. The privy council received letters 
and petitions on almost every kind of colonial business, 
caused hearings and inquiries to be held, and issued letters, 
instructions and orders in council on an equally great variety 
of matters. It also acted as the regular court of appeal 
for the plantations. As time advanced, more of the adminis- 
trative business passed directly into the office of one of 
the secretaries of state and the privy council became less 
active. The admiralty was concerned with the equipment of 
the navy for service in the colonies, and the high court of 
admiralty with the trial of prize cases and of cases arising 
from violations of the acts of trade. The assistance of the 
law officers of the Crown was sought in the drafting of charters, 
in the prosecution of suits for their recall, and in all cases which 
required the interpretation of the law as affecting the colonies 
and the defence of the interests of the British government in 
relation thereto. The bishop of London had supervision 
over the appointment and conduct of clergymen of the English 
Church in the colonies and over parish schools there. Not all 
of these boards and officials were active from the first, but 
they were created or brought into service in colonial affairs as 
the importance of the dominions increased. 

26. The parliament by mentioning the dominions in its 
statutes could extend their provisions to the colonies. The 

early acts of supremacy and uniformity contained 
toy Control- suc ^ re f erence > but it was dropped after the Restora- 
' tion and no serious attempt was ever made to 
enforce uniformity in the colonies. Parliament did not begin 
to legislate seriously for the colonies until after the Restora- 
tion. Then the acts of trade and navigation were passed, to 
which additions were made in the reign of William III. and 
from time to time during the i8th century. This body of 
legislation, including about fifty statutes, comprised the most 
important acts relating to the colonies which were passed by 
parliament. A few statutes relating to military affairs were 
passed about the middle of the i8th century. Certain 
other la.ws relating to currency and coinage, to naturalization, 
to the punishment of governors, to the post office, to the 
collection of debts, and to a few other miscellaneous subjects 
complete the colonial legislation of parliament prior to 1760. 
About one hundred statutes in all were passed. The colonists 
themselves imitated in a general way the organization and 
procedure of the English courts. The main features of the 
common law came spontaneously into force in the colonies. 
The legislatures of several of the colonies adopted large parts 



of the statute law of England. The colonists were always 
accustomed to avail themselves, as far as possible, of the great 
English statutes which guaranteed liberty. After about 1690 
the obligation was very generally enforced upon the colonies 
of sending the acts of their assemblies to England for acceptance 
or rejection by the king in council. Thus a general agreement 
between colonial and English law was attained. 

27. But this, though far-reaching, was only one of the 
objects which were sought through the exercise of imperial 
control. Its object was to maintain the rights of Great Britain 
over the colonies and her interests in them in all respects. 
The diplomacy of Great Britain concerned itself to an increasing 
extent, as the i8th century advanced, with the acquisition 
or losses of colonial territory, with the fixing of boundaries 
and with the securing of commercial interests. The interests 
of trade, more than any other subject, determined the colonial 
policy of England. The Church and her interests also demanded 
attention. In all these matters the English executive the Crown 
continuously, and for the most part exclusively, managed 
colonial affairs. During the Commonwealth in the i?th century 
parliament was the source of all activity, whether legislative or 
executive, but at other times, as we have seen, its legislation 
was confined chiefly to the subject of trade. The English 
courts also played a minor part except when, in conjunction 
with the executive, they were concerned in the revocation of 
colonial charters. 

28. A natural condition which affected colonial administra- 
tion as a whole and to a large extent determined its limits 
and character was the remoteness of the colonies isolation 
from England. With this the conditions of sparse of the 
and scattered settlements in a new continent in Colonies. 
the midst of savages were closely connected. At best three 
months were required for sending a despatch from London to 
America and procuring a return. This explains the large 
degree of self-government which the colonies possessed and 
the indifference with which their affairs were usually viewed, 
even by British officials. Only a relatively small part of 
colonial business came before English officials or received their 
serious attention. Only at long intervals and in summary 
fashion was it brought to the attention of parliament. It is 
believed that the affairs of the continental colonies were never 
seriously debated in parliament until after the beginning of the 
controversy which led to the American War of Independence. 
Social and political intercourse with the colonists and govern- 
mental control over them were therefore very imperfectly 
developed, as compared with that which existed within the 
realm. That is the real meaning of the distinction between 
the realm and the dominions. Over the counties and other 
local jurisdictions of the realm the control of Crown and central 
courts and parliament was continuously felt. In law and theory 
the same was true of the dominions; in fact, the control over 
them was almost wholly executive, and during most of the 
period it was to a degree unintelligent and weak. In theory the 
British Empire was a consolidated structure; in fact it was 
something more resembling a federation. 

29. The central fact in colonial history during the I7th 
century was the development of the chartered colonies. At 
their founding, as we have seen, the Crown dele- Development 
gated rights of settlement and subordinate rights of the 

of government to proprietors, who used them in Chartered 
a variety of ways. The effect of this was to Coloa y- 
introduce a number of mesne lords between the king and 
his colonial subjects, a phenomenon which centuries before 
had vanished from England itself. The patentees governed 
the colonists, and the Crown only interfered at intervals to 
adjust matters. And when the Crown did this, its dealings 
were far more with the patentees and their officials than 
with the body of the colonists. The king had no officials of 
his own in the colonies, and a practical system of immunity 
existed. Under the first two Stuarts some rather desultory 
efforts were made to check the development of such a system 
in the early stages. After a controversy over a contract for 



HISTORY 1606-1760] 



UNITED STATES 



669 



the sole importation of tobacco, which became involved with 
the political struggles of the time in England, the charter of 
the Virginia Company of London was revoked (1624). A royal 
commission was appointed to readjust the affairs of Virginia 
and to inaugurate its government as a royal province, and the 
king declared that he desired the government of all his 
dominions to be monarchical in form. Several commissions 
were later appointed to manage the tobacco trade. In 1634 
a board of commissioners of plantations was created and 
it received very large powers over the colonies. Of this body 
Archbishop Laud was the moving spirit. The year following 
the New England Council resigned its charter, a writ of quo 
warranto was issued against the Massachusetts charter, and 
a plan was nearly perfected for sending out Sir Ferdinando 
Gorges as royal governor, or rather governor-general, to New 
England. But means were lacking, the suit against the Massa- 
chusetts patent failed to accomplish its purpose, and troubles 
at home soon absorbed the attention of the government. 

30. During the Great Rebellion in England New England 
was left practically to itself. Strife broke out in Maryland, 
over which the home government was scarcely able to exercise 
even a moderating influence. The Dutch from New Netherland 
and Europe were able to monopolize a large part of the carrying 
trade in tobacco and European goods. Virginia, with Barba- 
does and a few other island colonies, assumed an attitude of 
distrust or hostility toward the new government in England. 
In 1651 and 1652 parliament sent out a commission, with an 
armed force, which reduced the island colonies to submission 
and adjusted affairs in Virginia by suspending government 
under Sir William Berkeley, the royalist governor, and leaving 
control in the hands of the Assembly. By a stretch of power 
the commissioners also took control of affairs in Maryland, 
but there they intensified rather than allayed the strife. Balti- 
more, however, managed to save his interests from total wreck, 
and at the Restoration was able fully to re-establish his 
authority. 

31. During this period of unstable government in England 
the seeds were planted of a colonial policy which was hence- 
Commcniai ^ or ' ;n * dominate imperial relations. It was then 
influences; that England entered upon the period of commercial 

a- rivalries and wars. The Cromwellian government 
s '' determined to wrest the control of the carrying 
Acts and trade from the Dutch, and the Navigation Act of 
other 1651 and the first Dutch War were the result. 

General Robert Sedgwick was sent against New 
Netherland, but ended in attacking Acadia. At this 
time also the national hatred of Spain, which had so charac- 
terized the age of Elizabeth, reasserted itself and the Spanish 
seas were invaded, Hispaniola was attacked, and Jamaica was 
conquered. In connexion with these events plans were formed 
for a more systematic colonial administration, which Cromwell 
did not live to execute, but which were taken up by 
Clarendon, the duke of York, the earl of Shaftesbury and a 
large group of officials, lawyers and merchants who sur- 
rounded them. They took definite shape after the Restoration 
in the creation of a council for trade and a council for foreign 
plantations, in the passage of the acts of trade, in the conquest 
of New Netherland and the organization within it of three 
English provinces, in the settlement of the Carolinas, in a 
resolute attempt to remedy grievances and adjust disputes in 
New England. These events and their consequences give 
greater importance to the next three or four decades than to 
any later period until the colonial revolt. 

32. The council for foreign plantations was continued, some- 
times under a patent and sometimes as a committee of the privy 
council, until, in 1696, it was commissioned as the board of 
trade. As a board of inquiry and report, subordinate to the 
privy council, the most important business relating to the 
colonies was transacted before it. The acts of trade, in which 
the principles of the system were laid down, were passed in 
1660, 1663, 1673 and 1696. They expanded and systematized 
the principles of mercantilism as they had long been accepted, 



and as in some particulars they had already been applied to 
the Virginia tobacco trade. The import and export trade of 
the colonies was required to be carried on in English and colonial 
built ships, manned and commanded by Englishmen. The 
policy of the staple was applied to the trade of the colonies 
by the enumeration of their chief products which could not be 
raised in England and the requirement that such of these as 
were exported should be brought to England and pay duties 
there, and that thence the supplies not needed for the English 
market should be sent to foreign countries. The same policy 
was applied to all colonial imports by the requirement that 
they should pass through English ports. In order to prevent 
intercolonial traffic in enumerated commodities, which might 
lead to smuggling, the act of 1673 provided for the levy of an 
export duty on them in the colonies in cases where a bond 
was not given to land them in the realm. In the i8th 
century severe restrictive measures were passed to prevent the 
growth of manufactures, especially of wool, hats and iron, 
in the colonies; but these acts proved mostly a dead letter, be- 
cause the colonies had not reached the stage where such industries 
could be developed on any scale. Certain compensations, 
favourable to the colonies, also appear in the system, e.g. 
the measures to suppress the raising of tobacco in England 
and Ireland, in order that the colonists might have the monopoly 
of that market; the payment of bounties on the importation 
of naval stores and on the production of indigo by the colonists; 
the allowance, on the re-exportation of colonial products, of 
drawbacks of part or all of the duties paid on importation; 
the admission of colonial imports at lower rates of duty than 
were charged on the same products from foreign countries. In 
order to ensure the enforcement of these acts elaborate provisions 
became necessary for the issue of bonds, and this, with the 
collection of a duty in the colonies, led to the appointment of 
colonial customs officers who were immediately responsible 
to the commissioners of the customs and the treasury board 
in England. With them the governors were ordered to co- 
operate. Courts of vice-admiralty, with authority to try 
cases without a jury, were established in the colonies; and just 
before the close of the seventeenth century they were given 
jurisdiction over violations of the acts of trade, a power which 
they did not have in England. Naval officers were very generally 
provided for by colonial law, who were to co-operate with the 
customs officers in the entry and clearance of vessels; but in 
some cases their aim was rather to keep control over trade in 
colonial hands. It thus appears that the resolve to enforce the 
policy set forth in the acts of trade resulted in a noteworthy 
extension of imperial control over the colonies. How far it 
was successful in the immediate objects sought it is impossible 
to say. In some of the colonies and at some times the 
acts were practically nullified. Illegal trading was always 
carried on, especially in time of war. In such times it was 
closely allied with privateering and piracy. But in the large 
it is probable that the acts were effective, and their existence 
always furnished a standard to which officials were required 
by their instructions and oaths to conform. By the Act 
of Union of 1707 Scotland was admitted to the advantages 
of the English trade system. In 1733, in order to check the 
development of the French colonies and prevent the importa- 
tion of their products into English possessions, the 
Molasses Act was passed. This provided for high A t * s 
specific duties on rum, molasses and sugar, when 
imported from foreign colonies into those of Great Britain. 
So high were these rates that they could not be collected, and 
therefore no serious attempt was made to enforce the act. 

33. Returning again to the I7th century, in order to trace in 
other connexions the notable advance which was then made 
in colonial administration, we are to note that the conquest 
of New Netherland by the British in 1664 was an event oi 
great importance. Taken in connexion with the settlement 
of the Carolinas, it completed the hold which the English had 
upon the North American coast and gave them for the first 
time an extent of territory which could be profitably developed. 



670 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1606-1760 



The occupation of New Motherland was effected by a royal 
commission, which was also empowered to hear complaints and 
report a plan for the settlement of disputes in New England. 
Precedents for such a commission existed in the past, and a 
little more than ten years later a similar body, accompanied 
by a military force, was sent to Virginia to adjust matters 
at the close of Bacon's rebellion. But the commission of 1664 
was the most noteworthy example of its kind. Yet, though 
it succeeded at New Amsterdam and in the southern colonies 
of New England, it failed at Boston. Massachusetts would 
not admit its right to hear appeals. It did not succeed in 
wresting from Massachusetts the territory of New Hampshire 
and Maine, which the heirs of Gorges and Mason claimed. 

34. In 1676 Edward Randolph was sent as a special agent to 
Massachusetts, to require it to send agents to England. He 
returned to England the sworn enemy of that colony and 
continued to be its tireless prosecutor. A series of negotiations 
ensued which lasted for almost a decade, and ended in the 
revocation of the Massachusetts charter by a degree in chancery, 
1684. New Hampshire had already been organized as a 
royal province. Government under the charters of Rhode 
Island and Connecticut was soon after suspended. All New 
England was then organized as a dominion or vice-royalty under 
Sir Edmund Andros. Assemblies were everywhere abolished 
and government was left wholly in the hands of the executive. 
New York also without an assembly and New Jersey were 
Dominion of soon after incorporated with the Dominion of New 
New England, its boundary being extended to the 
England. Delaware river (see NEW ENGLAND). After 
Bacon's rebellion in 1676 the lines of executive control 
were strengthened in Virginia, but the Assembly con- 
tinued active. These rapid changes involved the downfall 
of the former system of chartered colonies and the sub- 
stitution of royal provinces in their place. The effect of this 
was to introduce into the colonies a large number of officials 
of royal appointment the governors, members of the council, 
judges, secretaries, surveyors-general, receivers-general and 
attorneys-general. The entire executive and judiciary in a 
royal province was appointed directly or indirectly by the 
king. Its members held under commissions subject to the 
king's pleasure and were controlled by his instructions. The 
exclusiveness of the chartered jurisdictions no longer obtained, 
but the Crown through its officials was brought into direct 
relations with the body of the colonists. Government could 
now be carried on under relations analogous to those 
between Crown and people in England. 

35. By the abolition of assemblies and the union of colonies 
on a large scale James II. did violence to the strongest feelings 
and traditions of the colonists. The New Englanders not 
only viewed the levy of taxes by prerogative with the utmost 
aversion, but they feared a general unsettlement of land titles, 
the destruction of much that was valuable in their system 
of town government, and the introduction of Anglican worship 
among them. They shared also in the fear, which was wide- 
spread among the colonists, that the Crown intended by an 
alliance with the French and Indians to force Roman Catholicism 
upon them. Therefore the fall of the Stuart government 
in England was the signal for an uprising at Boston (April 
1689) followed by a less successful one at New York. The 
Dominion of New England at once collapsed and the old colony 
governments were generally restored. A revolt against the 
Catholic proprietor in Maryland resulted in the suspension 
of his powers of government and the organization of Mary- 
land as a royal province. William III. granted a new charter 
to Massachusetts (1691) in which full provision was made for 
an assembly, but also for a governor and secretary of royal 
appointment. Rhode Island and Connecticut were allowed 
Colonial to remain under their corporate charters. New 
Reorganha- York and New Hampshire were organized as royal 

provinces with assemblies. Proprietary government 
struggled back into existence in New Jersey. In Pennsylvania 
the governmental powers of the proprietor were suspended for 



two years (1692-1694), because of his neglect of provision for 
defence; then they were restored and Pennsylvania continued 
under proprietary government until the War of Independence. 

36. The transition from the system of chartered colonies to 
that of royal provinces was thus begun and well advanced 
towards completion. But it was a gradual process, and the later 
stages of it were not reached until the second decade of the i8th 
century. South Carolina became provisionally a royal province 
in 1719, and a parallel change was completed in North Carolina 
a decade later. Georgia received a royal government in 1752. 
But in 1715 Maryland was permitted to resume its proprietary 
form. After the Revolution of 1689 the change to royal govern- 
ments did not involve in any case the abolition of colonial 
assemblies. Henceforward the Crown had a fully equipped 
executive in every royal province, and for the maintenance of 
its rights could depend upon its efforts and the influence which 
it was able to exert upon the assemblies. The governors exercised 
the royal rights of calling, proroguing and dissolving the 
assemblies; they assisted in initiating legislation and exercised 
the right of veto. All bills passed by the assemblies were 
required to be submitted to the king in council, for acceptance 
or disallowance. The upper houses of the legislature were 
the councils of the provinces. These were small bodies and 
consisted, in every case except Massachusetts, of royal ap- 
pointees. Their support was in most cases given to the gover- 
nors, and by that means they were greatly assisted in resisting 
the encroachments of the lower houses of assembly, which 
were elected by the freeholders. But, as a rule, the Crown made 
no provision for the salaries of its governors and other officials, 
and left them largely dependent for support on appropriations 
by the assemblies. In very many cases the withholding of 
salaries was successfully resorted to by the assemblies as a 
means of thwarting the executive or forcing it into submission. 
Under this system of balanced forces, analogous in general 
to that which was reached after the Revolution in England, 
the colonies entered upon the long period of the French wars. 

C. The Struggle with the French, 1690-1760. 

37. Early French discoveries and colonization in North America 
were confined chiefly to the valley and gulf of the St Lawrence. 
These led, in the early i7th century, to the establishment of 
the province of Canada. By 1610 the French had possessed 
themselves of the valley of the lower St Lawrence, and the 
relations with the Indian tribes were being determined. 
During the next fifty years Canada grew slowly into an auto- 
cratically governed province, in which a mild form of feudalism 
existed and in which the Catholic Church was so strong as to 
contest supremacy at times with the civil power. The fur trade 
became from the first a most important industry in the province. 
The Jesuits and other priestly orders undertook missionary 
work on a large scale among the natives. The fur trader 
and the missionary soon extended French influence through 
the region of the Great Lakes and involved the province in inti- 
mate relations with the Indian tribes, and that throughout 
a large area of country. Between the Iroquois and the French 
wars were almost continuous, but with the other Indian tribes 
the French were in general on friendly terms. The Iroquois, 
on the other hand, maintained friendly relations with the Dutch 
and afterwards with the English. This deeply affected relations 
between the English and the French, as well as the entire 
development of the province of New York. 

38. Exploration was a most important incident of both the fur 
trade and the missionary enterprises of the French. Between 
1670 and 1690 their work culminated in the great exploring 
activity of Marquette, Joliet and La Salle. The Ohio and Missis- 
sippi rivers were discovered and their courses were mainly or 
wholly traced. Explorers also penetrated far into the regions 
beyond the Mississippi. Posts were established at various 
points along the Great Lakes. During the first 

two decades of the i8th century the French also e 

established themselves on the Gulf of Mexico, 

Mobile being founded in 1702 and New Orleans in 1718. 



HISTORY 1606-1760] 



UNITED STATES 



671 



Quebec and the Gulf ports were then connected by a series of 
forts which, though few and weak, sufficed for communication 
and for the establishment of a claim to the Mississippi Valley. 
They were Niagara and Detroit, commanding the approaches 
to lakes Erie and Huron; Fort Miami, on the Maumee river; 
Fort St Joseph, at the southern end of Lake Michigan; Vin- 
cennes and French Fort, on the Wabash; Fort Chartres, on 
the Mississippi opposite St Louis; Michillimackinac and Ste 
Marie, which guarded the upper lakes. French zeal and 
enterprise had thus seized upon the heart of the continent, 
and was prepared to oppose any westward movement which the 
English might in the future attempt. It seemed possible that 
English settlements might be confined to the coast, for they 
expanded slowly and no genius for exploration or sympathy 
with Indian life was shown. The tendency of British commer- 
cial policy was likewise to confine them there, for in no other 
way did it seem possible to restrict the trade of the colonists 
to British markets. The Indian alliances of the English were 
also far less extensive than those of the French. The provinces 
of South Carolina and Georgia had conflicts with the Spanish 
on the Florida frontier, and in these the Indian tribes of the 
south were also involved. But these rivalries were slight and 
local in character, when compared with the struggle for supre- 
macy which was preparing between the French and English. 

39. The conflict with the French was precipitated by events 
in Europe. It was the English Revolution of 1689 that opened 
the great conflict between France and England. The question 
of Protestantism versus Catholicism was involved, but at 
bottom the struggle was one for the balance of power among 
European states. Rival claims between the two powers in 
America, Africa and Asia existed at the beginning of the 
conflict, or originated and were intensified as it progressed. 
Questions of commercial and naval supremacy world-wide in 
extent were involved, and the colonial possessions of the two 
states were necessarily drawn into the struggle. In America it 
involved four intercolonial wars, which were closed respectively 
by the treaties of Ryswick(i69y), Utrecht (17 13), Aix-la-Chapelle 
(1748), and Paris (1763). Between the second and third wars 
intervened thirty years of peace, the early period of Hanoverian 
and Whig ascendancy in England, the so-called Walpole era. 
On the American continent during the first two wars the struggle 
was confined to the northern frontier, and consisted of devastat- 
ing raids by the French and Indians, which in turn provoked 
retaliatory efforts on the part of the English. These took the 
form in part of attacks on Acadia and of unsuccessful efforts to 
conquer Canada by means of joint expeditions by sea and land. 
The favourite land route was that from New York by way of 
Lake Champlain to Montreal, while the expeditions by sea 
were forced to make the long and perilous voyage round Nova 
Scotia and through the Gulf and River St Lawrence to Quebec. 
In 1690, and again in 1711, an enterprise of this kind was actually 
undertaken. Acadia, " with its ancient limits, " and the claim 
of France to Newfoundland and the Hudson Bay territory 
were, however, ceded to England by the treaty of Utrecht. 

40. As the great world-conflict progressed the relative 
importance of the colonial and maritime issues which were in- 
, volved increased. The first two wars had their 
between origin primarily in European questions. The third 
British and war had its beginning in the Spanish West Indies, 

'"ritJt" anc ^ c l ear ly revealed the existence of the Bourbon 
Family Compact, which bound France and Spain 
together in active alliance. On the American continent its 
most striking event was the capture, in 1745, of Louisburg, 
a stronghold which the French had recently fortified on 
Cape Breton for the purpose of defending its interests in 
the Gulf of St Lawrence. This victory was secured largely 
by the efforts of the New England colonists. In the following 
year another plan for the conquest of Canada was thwarted 
by the necessities of war in Europe. At the close of the 
war Louisburg, too, was restored to the French. After this 
fashion did the world-struggle react upon the special interests 
of the English in North America, and perplex and irritate the 



colonists. In the fourth intercolonial war (1754-63) the struggle 
between the two nationalities in North America was decided. 
Events which immediately preceded this war the occupation 
of the Ohio Valley and the building of Fort Duquesne clearly 
revealed an intention on the part of the French to exclude the 
English from the Mississippi Valley and confine them to the 
Atlantic slope. A persistent effort was also made to recover 
Acadia. The western, as well as the northern, frontier was not 
threatened, and the war which followed affected all the colonies. 
Great Britain sent over a succession of commanders-in-chief. 
Great improvement was made upon the crude efforts at joint 
colonial action which had characterized the earlier wars. To as 
great a degree did the Albany Congress of 1754 (see ALBANY, NEW 
YORK) surpass in importance the meetings of governors and 
military officers which had occasionally been held in previous 
times, though its plan of colonial union failed to meet the 
approval both of the colonists and of the government of Great 
Britain. The campaigns of this war were all upon a compara- 
tively large scale. Campaigns were carried on not merely along 
the line of Lake Champlain and in Acadia, but against Fort 
Duquesne (see PITTSBURG, PENN.), Oswego, and Fort Frontenac, 
Louisburg, and Quebec (q.v.) itself. The weak Spanish power 
was overthrown in Florida and expeditions were sent against 
the southern Indians. In all quarters, and especially after Pitt 
became secretary of state, the British assumed the offensive. 
The navy of Great Britain, as well as its army, was called into 
action on a much larger scale in America than ever before. 
The result was the conquest by the British of Canada, and with 
it of all North America east of the Mississippi river; the French 
claim to territory west of this river was ceded to Spain in 1762. 
41. The wars with the French brought the problem of colonial 
defence among the English into greater prominence than ever 
before, and added it to the other questions which had been 
of practical moment from the first. Against the Indians 
the colonists in the i7th century had provided for their own 
defence. Chiefly with this object in view, each colony had 
developed a militia system, modelled in general after that of 
England. But such a force was not fitted for long campaigns 
or large operations. It was comparatively undisciplined; both 
officers and men were inexperienced and destitute of proper 
habits of command, as well as those of subordination; the 
commissariat was poor or totally lacking, and the men were able 
to remain away from their homes for only brief periods. The 
colonists possessed no navy, and for coast defence only a few 
rude forts. So poor were means of communication and so 
isolated were the colonies from one another, that co-operation 
in joint expeditions was very difficult. Equally difficult was it 
to secure proportional contributions of money from the colonies. 
Early in the French wars the British government prescribed 
quotas both of men and money to be raised by the colonies, 
but little attention was paid to these except by the colonies 
which were in immediate peril. Because of the limited amount 
of available money and the modest resources of the colonists 
heavy taxation was impossible, and the financing of the wars 
was a matter of great difficulty. The assemblies resorted to 
the issue of bills of credit, to which they gave the legal tender 
quality, and for the redemption of which in nearly all cases they 
made inadequate provision. The paper depreciated and in 
some colonies became worthless. Great confusion resulted, 
involving loss to all, and among the sufferers were British 
merchants. Strained relations were produced between the 
assemblies and the colonial executive, because the latter, acting 
under royal instructions, persisted in vetoing bills for additional 
issues of currency. For this reason, in addition to others, 
the assemblies withheld the salaries of governors and other 
officials, and in this way sought to coerce the executives into 
submission. In some colonies the Assembly secured the right 
of electing the treasurer, and in most of them appropriations 
were made specific. Thus by skilfully utilizing their control 
over the purse, and that during a long period of war, the 
colonial assemblies were able materially to limit the authority 
of the executives and to establish not a few privileges for 



672 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1763-1776 



themselves and their constituents. It was in such ways as these 
that the constitutions of the provinces became developed and 
liberalized during the French wars. Many a precedent was then 
established which was utilized in the later struggle with the 
mother country. The home government on its part also became 
convinced that requisitions were altogether inadequate as a 
method of procuring revenue for general purposes. 

42. The quality of the rank and file of the Canadian militia 
was not essentially different from that of the British colonies. 
But the Canadian government was autocratic. The power of 
the French was also concentrated in a single large province, 
and not distributed among thirteen or more colonies. These 
conditions greatly promoted military efficiency. When taken 
in connexion with their Indian alliances, they enabled the French 
to take the offensive in the earlier wars much oftener than did 
the English, and with much greater effect. The government at 
Quebec was not subject to the limitations of quotas and requisi- 
tions. There were no assemblies to thwart its will. The 
English frontier was also more accessible and more exposed 
than was the lower part of the valley of the St Lawrence. 
Quebec was in every sense a citadel to which additional security 
was given during a large part of every year by the intense cold 
of the Canadian winter. But so superior were the training and 
enterprise of the French coureur de bois that, with his Indian 
allies, he was far better able than the English farmer or artisan to 
penetrate the wilderness, whether in winter or in summer, and 
massacre the exposed dwellers on the frontier. It was this class 
which gave the French the superiority in the long succession 
of raids by which the English frontier was laid waste. 

43. Though the French by their skill and boldness achieved 
a remarkable success, their defects and weaknesses were equally 
evident. The flow of population from France to America was 
never great, and even it was diminished by tjie exclusion of 
Huguenots. The natural growth of population within New 
France was not rapid. The result was that the French colonists 
did not become sufficiently numerous to maintain the interests 
to which their vast claims and possessions gave rise. The 
disparity between their numbers and those of the British colonists 
became greater with every generation. At the opening of the 
last intercolonial war the proportion of English to French 
colonists was approximately 15 to i. New York alone had 
about the same population as that of all the French colonies on 
the North American continent combined. The resources of the 
British exceeded those of the French colonists to a corresponding 
degree. Had the decision of the questions at issue depended 
upon population and wealth alone, the issue could not long 
have remained doubtful. But the tendencies arising from these 
fundamental conditions were to such an extent offset by other 
circumstances, already alluded to, that the result of the struggle 
was for a long time uncertain. Had it been confined to the forces 
of the colonies alone, it would perhaps never have been decided. 
The English could have defended the territory which they 
occupied; so could the French. Moreover, with the French and 
English thus facing one another, it would have been impossible 
for the latter to have declared their independence. The French 
would never have desired to do this. Therefore, the two 
peoples must apparently have remained in the condition of 
colonists for an indefinite period. But the motherlands were 
to be the decisive factors in the problem, which thus depended 
to an extent on complications which existed in Europe or even 
on remoter seas and continents. When the climax of the 
struggle was reached the result might have been different if 
France at the time had not been so deeply involved in the 
politics of central Europe. 

44. Of the first importance in reaching a decision were 
the fleets and armies of Great Britain and France, or those 
parts of them which were available for use on the continent 
of North America. During the larger part of the period under 
review the French neglected their fleet, while the English steadily 
advanced toward naval and commercial supremacy. But the 
first conspicuous service on the northern coasts was that which 
was rendered by Commodore Peter Warren and his squadron 



at the capture of Louisburg in 1745. In the next .year 
a large French fleet was despatched to North America, but it 
accomplished nothing. In the last intercolonial war the 
operations before Louisburg in 1758 and at Quebec (q.v.) in 
1759 decisively proved the superiority of the British navy. 
The colonies also, in the later stages of the struggle, 
contributed loyally toward the .result. France failed to make 
her natural military superiority effective in North America, 
and therefore her power on that continent had to yield before 
the combined attacks of Great Britain and her colonies by 
land and sea. 

D. The Colonial Revolt, 1763-1776. 

45. The Treaty of Paris (1763), by which the period of colonial 
wars but not the struggle between England and France was 
concluded, added vast stretches of territory to the British 
dominions of Great Britain in North America. The Acquisitions 
Floridas, Canada and Louisiana as far west as the f Territory. 
Mississippi river now came into the possession of the English. 
Of the islands which were occupied, the two most important 
Guadaloupe and Martinique were restored to the French. 
The retention of Canada in preference ts these involved an 
important change in the nature and objects of British coloniza- 
tion. Hitherto tropical colonies had been preferred to those 
in northern climes. The occasion of this had been the view 
that, as England was not over-populated, colonies were not 
needed as " homes for a surplus population." Instead, they 
were estimated in proportion to their commercial value. 
The ideal was a self-sufficing commercial empire. The sup- 
porters of this view now argued that the islands which had been 
conquered from the French were more valuable than Canada 
and should be retained in preference to the northern continental 
territories, which had yet produced nothing for export except 
furs. But the government did not hesitate. Following the 
lead of Pitt, it was now bent upon continental expansion. 
Canada and the West were retained and the most important 
French islands were given back. The development of modern 
industry the so-called industrial revolution had already begun 
in Great Britain. Its effect was vastly to increase the popu- 
lation of the British Isles and to necessitate an overflow into the 
unoccupied regions of the globe. Colonies therefore began to 
be regarded from this point of view, and the retention of Canada 
opened the way for the change. Henceforth, as time progressed, 
colonies were to be valued as homes for a surplus population quite 
as much as sources of raw materials and food supplies. The 
retention of Canada and the West also coincided exactly with 
the desires of the continental colonies. The chief gains of the 
war went therefore to them and not to the island colonies. They 
now possessed a continental domain which was adequate to 
their need for expansion, and their long-cherished desire to be rid 
of the French was gratified. Though, as expansion progressed, 
conflicts with the Indian tribes of the interior, and that 
on a large scale, were to be expected, the conquest of the 
French removed the sense of dependence on Great Britain 
for military aid which the northern colonies in particular had 
previously felt. 

46. In consequence of the policy thus adopted, largely 
increased burdens were devolved on the imperial government, 
while the conquest and the events which led to changed 

it strengthened imperialist sentiment and ambi- colonial 
tions. The course of action which was at first Policy of 
favoured by leading officials, both in England G ^ t ala . 
and the colonies, was a more systematic adminis- streagthea- 
t ration of Indian affairs, the employment oltogof 
sufficient regular troops under the commander-in- ^J' 
chief to defend the newly acquired territory, 
the maintenance of posts with English settlers in the 
interior on a scale sufficient to prevent the French or 
Spanish from securing the trade of the region. Improved 
methods of administration were urged through the press 
by Thomas Pownall, Henry McCulloh, Francis Bernard 
and Dr John Campbell. French methods were praised and 



HISTORY 1763-1776] 



UNITED STATES 



673 



the shortcomings of the surviving chartered colonies were 
again emphasized. This all required additional revenue, as well 
as administrative vigour, and that at a time when Great Britain 
was specially burdened with debt and when several of the 
colonies had recently incurred heavy expenditures. The large 
acquisitions of territory also necessitated some changes in the 
acts of trade. The necessity for their more vigorous enforce- 
ment was revealed by the existence of a large contraband trade 
between the colonists and the enemy during the later years of the 
war and also of a considerable illegal trade with Europe. These 
conditions, together with the conviction that, as the continental 
colonies had reaped the chief advantages of the war, some 
favour should be extended to the islands, led to the passage of 
the Sugar Act by the Grenville ministry in 1764. It also caused 
a resort to writs of assistance in two of the colonies, and finally 
the legalization of them in all the colonies by act of parliament 
(r767). The aid of the navy was directly invoked in the en- 
forcement of the trade laws, and the activity of the customs 
officials and of the admiralty courts in the colonies was increased. 
Garrisons of regular troops numbering several thousand 
with a commander-in-chief were now present in the colonies 
in time of peace, and their aid might possibly be invoked by the 
civil power to suppress disorder. The Sugar Act itself was a 
trade and revenue act combined, and the fact was expressed in 
the preamble of the measure. It was intended directly to 
affect the traffic between the northern colonies and the foreign 
West Indies in lumber and food-stuffs, molasses and rum. 
The duty on foreign molasses, for which provision had been 
made in the Molasses Act of 1733, was halved; but now it 
was proposed really to collect this duty. A cry was immediately 
raised in New England that, if the duty was collected, the manu- 
facture of rum of which molasses was the staple material 
would be lessened or wholly prevented and a most important 
industry sacrificed. The fisheries would incidentally suffer. 
The supply of coin, with which colonial balances were paid in 
England, they also said, would be lessened. Another act of 
parliament, passed about this time, prohibited the bestowment 
of the legal tender quality on colonial bills of credit. Though 
parliament regarded this act as a necessary remedy for the 
excesses of which many of the colonies had been guilty in the 
issue of paper money, it was generally regarded in America 
as a blow at a necessary system of credit. In spite, however, 
of the opposition and criticism which it provoked in the northern 
colonies, it is probable that the Sugar Act could have been per- 
manently enforced. The Act of Trade of 1673 and the Molasses 
Act though the latter was not fully executed were two early 
instances of the exercise by parliament of the right to tax 
the colonies. Had the Sugar Act been enforced, a clear and 
decisive precedent in favour of this right would have been 
established. In view of the general situation, that was pro- 
bably as far as the British government should have gone at that 
time. But it immediately committed itself to another and 
still more significant measure, and the two acts combined caused 
an outburst of protest and resistance from the colonists. 

47. Repeatedly in earlier years the imposition of a stamp 
duty upon the colonies had been suggested. Archibald Cum- 
mings, William Keith, ex-governor of Pennsylvania, and 
Governor George Clinton of New York had prominently urged 
this policy. With the outbreak of the fourth intercolonial 
war comprehensive plans of parliamentary taxation were 
repeatedly proposed. The cost of the regular troops which 
must be stationed in America was estimated at about 300,000 
annually. The Sugar Act was expected to yield about 45,000 
a year. It was thought that the colonies should raise about 
100,000 more as their reasonable share of the cost. George 
Grenville resolved to secure this by means of a stamp duty. 
This would fall upon the island colonies equally with those of 
the continent, though it would be expended chiefly for the en- 
larged military force on the mainland. Though its simplicity 
and ease of collection recommended it, the Stamp Act was a 
purely fiscal measure, and its character was not concealed by any 
features which allied it to the earlier acts for the regulation of 

XXVII. 22 



trade. It involved an extension of the British system of stamp 
duties to the colonies, and was intended to draw revenue directly 
from many lines of their activity. It was passed by parliament 
in 1765, almost without debate and with scarcely a thought that 
it would be resisted. It provided for the appointment of 
officials to distribute the stamped papers in the colonies and 
further extended the power of the admiralty courts by 
giving them jurisdiction over violations of this act. The 
legal theory upon which the act was based was that of 
the unqualified sovereignty of parliament as the represen- 
tative body for the whole empire, and that its authority, if it 
chose to use it, was as effective for purposes of taxation as for 
the regulation of trade or other objects of legislation. But 
never before, during the century and a half of 
colonial history, had the taxing power been so Stamp ACL 
unqualifiedly exercised or in such trenchant force as by this 
statute. It followed close on the heels of the Sugar Act, which 
itself had aroused much hostile criticism. The two measures 
also came at a time when the consciousness of strength among 
the colonists had been increased by the defeat and expulsion 
of the French. Moreover, at the time when the policy was 
initiated, George III. had undertaken to crush the Whig party 
and to revive the latent prerogatives of his office. This re- 
sulted in the formation of a series of coalition ministries. Vacil- 
lation and uncertainty were thus introduced into the colonial 
policy of the government. The royal policy also brought into 
the public service in England and kept there an unusually large 
group of inferior men who persistently blundered in the treat- 
ment of colonial questions. It was only with the accession of 
the North ministry, in 1770, that permanence and a certain 
consistency were secured. But, in the view of the colonists, the 
prestige of the government had by that time been seriously 
lowered, and the stubborn self-will of the king became the only 
available substitute for broad and intelligent statesmanship. 

48. Determined opposition to the Stamp Act was shown in all 
the colonies, by or before the time (Nov. i) when it was to go 
into effect. The forms assumed by this opposition were such 
as characterized the entire controversy with Great Britain until 
the opening of hostilities in 1775. It consisted in the passage 
of resolutions of protest by the lower houses of some of the 
colonial legislatures; in the calling of a congress at New York, 
which was attended by delegates from nine of the colonies; 
in the activity of mobs organized under the name of the " Sons of 
Liberty " in all the large seaports and in some smaller inland 
towns; and, finally, in a somewhat widely extended movement 
against the importation of British, or even foreign, goods and in 
favour of frugality and the encouragement of home manufactures. 
The newspaper press also sprang into much greater activity 
than ever before, and many notable pamphlets were published 
in defence of the colonial cause. The most important resolutions 
at the outset were those adopted by the Virginia House of Bur- 
gesses and by the House of Representatives of Massachusetts. 
Through the first-named body the dramatic eloquence of Patrick 
Henry (q.v.) forced five resolutions. Two others, which threat- 
ened resistance and the coercion of any who should venture to 
uphold the home government, failed to pass, but the whole 
seven were published broadcast through the colonies. The 
calling of a general congress was proposed by the House of 
Representatives of Massachusetts. Prominent among its members 
was James Otis, who had already distinguished himself by 
radical opposition to measures of the government, especially in 
the case against writs of assistance which was argued before 
the superior court in 1761. Samuel Adams (q.v.), already a 
prominent man, was now elected a member of the house from 
Boston. He almost immediately became its leader, drafting 
its most important resolutions and papers, and to a large 
extent directing its policy. With the aid of others he was 
able greatly to increase the activity of the town-meeting in 
Boston, and in the course of a few years to develop it on occasion 
into a great popular convention, which could be utilized to 
overawe the government. Throughout New England the town 
and its institutions served well the purposes of opposition and 



674 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1763-1776 



facilitated its extension over large areas. The county system 
of the provinces along the middle and southern coast was not 
so well adapted to these purposes, and their population 
was more dispersed. The intense Puritan spirit, with its 
century and a half of pronounced independence, both in 
polity and temper, was also lacking outside New England; 
though on the frontiers of the provinces from Pennsyl- 
vania southward was a Scottish-Irish population which 
exhibited many of the New England characteristics. But the 
tenant farmers of New York, the German pietist sects of Penn- 
sylvania, the Quakers wherever they had settled, and in general 
the adherents of the English Church were inclined toward 
indifference or, as the controversy progressed, toward positive 
loyalism. Hence the mixture of nationalities in the Middle 
Colonies greatly increased the difficulty of rousing that 
section to concerted action. In Pennsylvania the issues 
were obscured by a struggle on the part of the western 
counties to secure equal representation with those of the 
east. This helped to make loyalists of the Quakers. Special 
grievances also produced among the frontier settlements of 
North and South Carolina quite as much dislike of the officials 
and social leaders of the tide-water region as they could possibly 
feel toward Crown and parliament. Throughout the struggle 
New England and Virginia exhibited a unity and decision in 
action which were not equalled elsewhere. 

49. But to return to the Stamp Act. Before the meeting 
of the Congress at New York outbreaks of mob violence in 

Boston had forced the stamp distributor there to 
resign and had wrecked the house of Thomas 
' Hutchinson, the chief justice. Owing largely to 
the indecision of the elective council, the government had 
proved powerless to check the disorder. The resolutions 
passed by the Congress, as well as its petitions to the home 
government, gave authoritative form to the claims of the colonial 
opposition in general, though the body which issued them, like 
all the congresses which followed until 1776, was extra-legal 
and, judged by the letter of the law, was revolutionary. In these 
utterances, as later, the colonists sought to draw their arguments 
from British precedents and their own history. As they owed 
allegiance in common with subjects within the realm, so the 
rights of the two were the same. The two British rights which, 
it was claimed, were violated by the Stamp Act were the right 
to trial by jury and the right to be taxed only by an assembly 
in which they were represented. The former grievance was 
simply an incident of the latter, and was occasioned by the exten- 
sion of the jurisdiction of the admiralty courts. The tax was a 
direct grievance. Therefore, for purposes of legislation like 
this these bodies denied that parliament was representative 
of the whole empire (so-called virtual representation), and 
asserted that it represented only the realm. For purposes of 
taxation, their assemblies, they affirmed, were the only repre- 
sentative bodies they had known. Therefore, ignoring the earlier 
and tentative measures by which parliament had actually taxed 
the colonies, and falling back upon the sweeping declarations 
of their assemblies, they denied the right of parliament to tax 
them. They declared that the recent policy of parliament 
was wholly an innovation and insisted upon a return to the 
Constitution as it was before 1763. The doctrine of natural 
right and compact was also resorted to with increasing emphasis 
in New England utterances. For purposes of government 
they had all along acknowledged and now did so expressly 
that parliament bound them; and the inference would have 
been fair that they were represented in it. But they did not 
draw this inference, nor did they seek by any scheme of reform 
to secure representation in the imperial legislature. James Otis 
was the only colonial leader who ever contemplated the possi- 
bility of such a solution. Adams early declared it to be undesir- 
able. The British never proposed it, and therefore it played 
practically no part in the discussion. 

50. The decisive blows, however, were struck by the mobs 
in the colonies and by the government itself in England. As 
the time for the execution of the Stamp Act approached, more 



or less violent demonstrations occurred in New York 'and in 
many other localities. The stamp distributors were forced to 
resign. Everywhere in the original continental colonies the 
use of stamped papers was prevented, except to a slight extent 
in Georgia. Business requiring the use of stamps was in part 
suspended, but far more generally it was carried on without 
their use. Without the aid of the militia, which in no case was 
invoked, the colonial executives proved indisposed or powerless to 
enforce the act and it was effectively nullified. In England the 
petitions of the colonists produced little effect. There the decisive 
events were the accession of the Rockingham ministry to power 
and the clamours of the merchants which were caused by the 
decline in American trade. What might have happened if Gren- 
ville had remained in office, and if the duke of Cumberland had not 
been suddenly removed by death, it would be impossible to tell. 
But the serious lack of adjustment between British politics 
and colonial government is illustrated by the fact that, more than 
three months before the Stamp Act was to go into effect, the 
ministry whose measure it was resigned, and a cabinet which 
was indifferent, if not hostile, to it was installed in office. Pre- 
parations were soon made for its repeal. The slight extent to 
which relations with the colonies had been defined is indicated by 
the fact that the debates over the repeal contain the first serious 
discussion in parliament of the constitution of the British Empire. 
While the colonies were practically united in their views a 
great variety of opinions was expressed in parliament. On the 
question of right Lord Mansfield affirmed the absolute supremacy 
of parliament in realm and dominions, while Camden and Pitt 
drew the same sharp line of distinction between taxation and 
legislation upon which the colonists insisted, and denied the right 
of parliament to tax the colonies. The debates at this time gave 
rise to the fancied distinction between internal and external 
taxes, of which much was made for a few months and then it 
was dropped. But motives of expediency, arising both from con- 
ditions in the colonies and in England, proved decisive, and in 
the spring of 1766 the Stamp Act was repealed, while its repeal 
was accompanied with the passage of a statute (The ff epe aiofthe 
Declaratory Act) affirming the principle that Great stamp Act; 
Britain had the right to bind the colonies in all"" Declare- 
cases whatsoever. This measure was received with toly AcL 
demonstrations of joy in the colonies, but the prestige of the 
home government had received a severe blow, and the colonists 
were quick to resent further alleged encroachments. 

51. These soon came in the form of a colonial Mutiny Act and 
of the so-called Townshend Acts (1767). The former was intended 
largely to meet the needs of the troops stationed in 
the West and in the new colonies, but it also affected 
the older colonies where garrisons of regular soldiers 
existed. The act provided for a parliamentary requisition for 
barrack supplies, and partly because it included certain articles 
which were not required for the soldiers in Europe, the New 
York legislature at first refused to make the necessary appro- 
priation. Partly through the influence of the governor, it later 
came to think better of it and in a non-committal way appro- 
priated the supplies required. But meantime in England the 
Pitt-Grafton ministry had come into office, in which the brilliant 
but reckless Charles Townshend was chancellor of the exchequer. 
Pitt himself was disabled by illness, and the ministry, lacking 
his control, steadily disintegrated. Townshend availed himself 
of this situation to spring upon his colleagues and upon parlia- 
ment a new measure for colonial taxation, and with it a bill 
legalizing writs of assistance and establishing a board of 
commissioners of the customs in America, and a third bill 
suspending the functions of the assembly of New York until it 
should comply with the terms of the Mutiny Act. These Bills all 
became law. Before the last-mentioned one reached the colonies, 
the New York Assembly had complied, and therefore the necessity 
for executing this act of parliament was avoided. The establish- 
ment of a customs board at Boston, of itself, did not provoke 
much criticism. But the Act of Trade and Revenue, which pro- 
vided for the collection in the colonies of duties on glass, lead, 
painters' colours, paper and tea, and that out of the revenue 



s ' 



HISTORY 1763-1776] 



UNITED STATES 



675 



raised therefrom salaries should be paid to the governors and 
judges in America, opened anew the controversy over taxation. 

52. John Dickinson, in his Letters of a Farmer (1767-1768), 
denied in toto the authority of parliament to tax the colonies, 
and his argument was widely accepted. Massachusetts peti- 
tioned the home government, and in a circular letter conveyed 
its views to the other colonies and asked an expression of theirs 
in return. This provoked Hillsborough, the incumbent of the 
new colonial secretaryship, to order the Massachusetts house to 
rescind its action and the other colonies to treat the letter with 
contempt. The Massachusetts assembly refused to rescind and 
was dissolved by the governor. The activity of the customs 
officials at Boston in seizing John Hancock's sloop, " Liberty," 
occasioned rioting, which in turn was followed by the transfer 
of two regiments to Boston. Several vessels of war were also 
stationed in its harbour (autumn of 1768). Deprived of their 
assembly, the towns of Massachusetts chose deputies, who met 
in convention, but without important result. Favourable re- 
plies to its circular letter were, however, received from a majority 
of the colonies. Resolutions against the new act were passed 
by many colonial assemblies, and in several cases petitions were 
sent to England. But, either because these addresses were not 
sent through the regular constitutional channels, or because they 
expressed views inconsistent with the Declaratory Act, they were 
laid on the table or rejected outright. The king and ministers 
expressed the view that the Americans were opposed to all 
restrictions, and that in Massachusetts treason or misprision of 
treason had already been committed. In this they had the 
support of large majorities in parliament. The statute of 35 
Henry VIII., for the punishment in England of such offences 
when committed outside the realm, was now revived, and the 
royal officials in Massachusetts were instructed to collect evidence 
against suspected popular leaders with a view to their deportation 
across sea for trial. Though sufficient evidence was not found, 
nothing could have been better calculated to increase the exaspera- 
tion of the colonists than a threat of this kind. It drew from 
the Virginia burgesses strong addresses and resolutions of pro- 
test. Fear lest the English Church would induce the govern- 
ment to establish a colonial episcopate caused much discussion 
at this time, especially in New England, and led to plans for joint 
action on the part of Dissenters, in self-defence. Though the 
government never sanctioned the plan, the fears which were 
aroused by its discussion contributed appreciably to the general 
agitation. In the course of 1769 the policy of commercial non- 
intercourse was again revived, and resolutions in favour of its 
enforcement were passed by many local bodies. But it was found 
difficult to enforce these, and, as the colonies were prosperous, 
trade, open and illicit, with Europe continued to be large. The 
British merchants did not clamour for relief, as they had done at 
the time of the Stamp Act, but gave loyal support to the policy 
of the government. The king was also steadily gaining an 
ascendancy, which in 1770 was permanently established by the 
accession of Lord North to the premiership. Thus, on both 
sides of the ocean, parties were bracing themselves for a struggle, 
the one for and the other against the principle of the Declara- 
tory Act. The question of revenue was now largely obscured by 
that cf right and power. 

53. It cannot be said that the Townshend Revenue Act was 
nullified, for to a certain limited extent it was executed. But 
_ _ in 1770, on the specious plea that the duties were 

uncommercial because they were levied on British 
manufactures, all except the duty on tea 3d. per Ib 
were repealed, and a drawback of one-fourth and later of 
three-fifths of this duty was granted on the re-exportation of 
tea to the colonies. But the preamble of the act was retained, 
and with it the principle of taxation. For this reason opposition 
continued and non-importation agreements, especially against 
tea, were maintained. But after the collision which occurred 
between the troops and the people in Boston, in March 1770, the 
soldiers were removed from that town and affairs became more 
quiet. For more than a year it seemed as if the controversy was 
wearing itself out and that the old relations would be restored. 



But the conduct of certain naval officers and small vessels of war 
which had been trying to suppress illegal trade in Narragansett 
Bay led, in June 1772, to the destruction of the schooner "Gas- 
pee." The inquiry which necessarily followed this, together with 
legislation for the protection of the royal dockyards, ships and 
supplies, again revealed the possibility that colonists might be 
removed to England for trial. About the same time provision was 
made for the payment by the home government of the salaries 
of the governors and of the judges of the superior court of Massa- 
chusetts while those officials continued to hold at the pleasure 
of the Crown. These events occasioned a movement in Massa- 
chusetts and Virginia which led at once to the organization oi 
committees of correspondence, and these ultimately extended 
far and wide throughout the colonies. At the same time in 
England the East India Company appealed to parliament for 
relief from the losses caused by the transfer of the American trade 
so largely to the Dutch, and in response the Tea Act was passed 
authorizing the company to import its teas into the colonies and 
providing that the English duties should be wholly drawn back 
on exportation, and that no compensation need be made to the 
government for consequent loss of revenue. This, it was expected, 
would enable the company to out-compete the Dutch. But 
popular uprisings prevented the reception or sale of the tea at any 
of the ports and culminated in the destruction (Dec. 16, 1773) of 
340 chests at Boston. As the king and the North ministry were 
now fully intrenched in power, coercion was at once resorted to 
and affairs were thus brought to a crisis. 

54. Those among the colonists who were intelligent enough 
to watch the courss of events had long felt that they were being 
enveloped in a network of relations over which they 

had no control. This was a result of the develop- 
ment of the empire, with its world-wide interests 
and its policies the motives for which had their origin in conditions 
which by the colonists were dimly perceived, if perceived at all. 
They were particularists whose views and resources were alike 
narrow, but whose perception of their interests was clear. The 
Quebec Act, which was passed by parliament near the close of the 
session of 1774, furnished a case in point. Owing to the failure 
of the imperial government to secure the revenue which it had 
hoped to collect under the Stamp Act and the later statutes, it 
had been forced to abandon its plans for the vigorous administra- 
tion of Indian affairs and of the West. In view of these facts, 
it was thought wisest and cheapest to commit the immediate 
charge of the West to the province of Quebec, and therefore to 
extend its bounds southward to the Ohio. The Roman Catholic 
religion was recognized as legal within Quebec, and no provision 
was made for an assembly. Its extension also indicated a pur- 
pose to prevent the westward movement of population across the 
mountains, which was already beginning from the Middle and 
Southern colonies. It is true that this act involved the possi- 
bility of danger to the colonies, but exaggerated inferences were 
drawn respecting it and the motives which probably impelled 
its passage. So it had been with the distinctively imperialist 
measures from the first and so it was to continue. 

55. But the acts of the session of 1774 which were of most 
immediate importance were those which directly affected 
Massachusetts, where lay the centre of disturbance. One of 
these closed the port of Boston, another substituted an appointed 
for an elected council in Massachusetts and took the selection 
of jurors out of the hands of the people, and a third made 
possible the removal from Massachusetts of the trials of persons 
indicted for capital offences committed in support of the 
government into neighbouring colonies or to Great Britain, 
where a fair hearing was considered possible. General Thomas 
Gage, who had been commander-in-chief in America, was now 
appointed governor of Massachusetts, with authority to uphold 
the new acts with military force. As soon as knowledge of the 
fate impending over Boston reached the other colonies, con- 
ventions, local and provincial, were held, and the plan of a 
general congress, as proposed by Massachusetts and Virginia, 
was adopted. Delegates were chosen from all the colonies 
except Georgia, though that province fell into line when the 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1763-1776 



second Congress met. The members were instructed to the 
general effect that they should consult together and adopt such 
measures as were best calculated to secure the just rights of the 
colonists and redress their grievances. Voting by colonies, 
but occasionally listening to utterances which implied that 
Americans were now thrown into a single mass, this body sent 
addresses to the king, to the people of the colonies, of Quebec 
First and of Great Britain, and prepared a declaration 

Continental oi rights. It is a significant fact that an address 
Congress. was not sen j to e jt ner of the houses of parliament. 
In its statement of rights the Congress (known as the First 
Continental Congress) limited itself to those which it believed 
had been infringed since 1763. These acts they described as 
innovations, and claimed themselves to be the true con- 
servatives who only desired peace on the basis of the former 
Constitution. Even Joseph Galloway's elaborate plan of 
union (see GALLOWAY) between Great Britain and the 
colonies was debated at great length and was laid on the 
table by a majority of only one, though later all reference to 
it was expunged from the record. But, on the other hand, 
the warlike " Suffolk Resolves " (see MILTON, Mass.) were ap- 
proved, as was the opposition which Massachusetts was making 
to the recent acts of parliament; and the view was expressed 
that, if an attempt were made to execute them by force, all 
America should support Massachusetts. Though the work of 
this Congress was deliberative, it performed one positive act 
which contained the germ out of which new governments were 
to develop. That was the issue of the Association, or non- 
importation and non-exportation agreement, accompanied 
with resolutions for the encouragement of agriculture and 
home manufactures and for the organization of committees 
to carry these measures into effect. Coercion, according to 
the principle of the boycott, was to be applied by the colonies 
and other local bodies to all who declined to accept and obey 
the terms of the Association. This policy had been followed 
at intervals since the time of the Stamp Act. It had been 

revived and urged by very many local and pro- 
tion^orNoa". vincial bodies during the past few months. The 
importation Congress had been called with a view to its enforce- 
and Non- me nt throughout the continent. Its issue of the 
'Agreement" Association gave this policy wide extension, and 

at the same time strengthened the system of com- 
mittees, whose energies were henceforth to be chiefly devoted 
to its enforcement. The Association became the touchstone 
by which loyalty to the colonies, or loyalty to the king, was 
determined. Those whose loyalty to the king forbade their 
submission to the new regulations now felt the coercive power 
of committees, even to the extent of virtual trial, imprisonment 
or banishment. Local bodies, acting under general regula- 
tions of Congress, and all revolutionary in character, accom- 
plished these results and thus laid the foundation of the new 
governments. From this action the First Continental Congress 
derived its chief significance. 

56. The line of policy thus indicated was not such as would 
conciliate the home government, though it is doubtful if at 
that time anything short of an acknowledgment of the principle 
of the Declaratory Act would have been effective. All measures 
of congresses and committees, everything which did not emanate 
from the assemblies and come through legal channels, savoured 
of sedition and was little likely to secure a hearing. The Asso- 
ciation, with its threats and coercive spirit, and depending as 
it did upon extra-legal bodies for enforcement, was a direct 
blow at the commercial system of the empire and could scarcely 
help provoking retaliation. When the Congress adjourned, 
some of its members predicted war. In New England the im- 
pression that war was inevitable was widespread. In Massa- 
chusetts a provincial congress was at once organized, which 
assumed the reins of government and began to prepare for defence. 
A committee of safety was chosen to carry on the work during 
recesses of the Congress. Thomas Gage, the governor, began 
fortifying Boston, while he looked about for opportunities to 
seize military stores which the colonists were accumulating. 



The raising of voluntary militia companies was soon begun in 
Virginia. In South Carolina, as earlier in Boston and New 
York, a quantity of tea was now actually destroyed, and a 
general committee assumed practical control of the province. 
From New York City and Philadelphia as centres the process 
of revolutionizing the two most conservative provinces was 
carried on. When parliament met, at the close of 1774, the 
king and ministers declared that a most daring spirit of resistance 
existed in Massachusetts, which was countenanced by the other 
colonies, where unlawful combinations against the trade of 
Great Britain were already widely extended. In these opinions 
the government had the support of the majority in the two 
houses, and in a joint address the rebellion in Massachusetts 
was declared to be a fact. As a conciliatory measure Chatham 
proposed that parliament agree by resolution not to levy any 
tax upon the colonies, but that the Continental Congress be 
required to make a free grant of a perpetual revenue which 
should be fully at the disposition of parliament, the Congress 
fixing the quota which should be paid by each province. But 
the imperialist and mercantilist ideas of Chatham were expressed 
in the further provisions that the system of trade and navigation 
should not be changed and that the army might be lawfully 
kept in any part of the dominions where it was deemed necessary, 
though it should never be used to violate the just rights of the 
people. Edmund Burke, in his great speech on conciliation, 
advocated a return to the system of requisitions and did not 
consider a representation of the colonists in parliament as a 
possibility. But these motions were rejected, and a resolution 
introduced by Lord North was passed. This contained no 
recognition of extra-legal bodies, but provided that when the 
assembly of any colony should engage to support civil govern- 
ment within the colony and contribute according to its ability 
to the common defence, the king and parliament would then 
forbear to levy any more taxes on that province except what 
were necessary for the regulation of trade. The colonies, with 
the exception of New York, North Carolina and Georgia, were 
excluded from the fisheries, as a counterstroke to the Association. 
North's resolution proved utterly futile, and the two parties 
drifted steadily toward war, though, as Burke never tired of 
asserting, the British government in its military estimates 
made no adequate provision for meeting the crisis. 

57. On the ipth of April 1775 hostilities began in Massa- 
chusetts. They had been narrowly escaped two months before, 
when, on a Sunday, Gage had sent an expedition _ 

i c i u r AT Outbreak of 

by water to Salem in search of powder. Now, on a Hostilities; 
week-day, a force was sent overland to Concord, Lexington 
20 m. from Boston, to seize or destroy the military "*"' 
stores which the colonists had brought together 
that village. The minute-men were warned to 
oppose the approaching force, and at Lexington (q.v.), a village 
situated on the road to Concord, occurred a skirmish in which 
the first blood of the American War of Independence was shed. 
The troops marched on to Concord (q.v.) and destroyed such of 
the stores as had not been removed or concealed. On their 
return march they were pursued by a galling fire from behind 
fences and buildings, and had it not been for the arrival of a 
relieving force the command would have been destroyed before 
it reached the protection of the British vessels of war at 
Boston. The " Lexington alarm " brought in throngs of militia- 
men from all parts of New England. Officers were appointed 
by the provincial congress of Massachusetts and by similar 
bodies in the other colonies, and immediately the so-called siege 
of Boston began. Cannon, as well as every other form of military 
equipment, were now in great demand. In order to secure a 
supply of the former and at the same time strike a telling blow 
at British authority in the north, Ticonderoga (q.v.) was sur- 
prised and taken on the loth of May. Men from Connecticut, 
Massachusetts, and the New Hampshire Grants (later Vermont) 
co-operated in this enterprise. It was soon followed by a dash 
into Canada, by steps which involved New York in the affair, 
and by the organization of a military force under General Philip 
Schuyler for permanent service on the northern frontier. 






HISTORY 1763-1776] 



UNITED STATES 



677 



Meantime reinforcements reached Boston, led by Howe, Clinton 
and Burgoyne, and it was resolved to extend the British lines 
by occupying the heights of Dorchester on the south and those 
of Charlestown on the north. The Americans, hearing of this, 
seized Breed's Hill, overlooking Charlestown, where they 
hastily threw up a redoubt on the night of the i6th of June. 
The British might easily have entrapped them, but instead 
on the next day the American position was assaulted on the 
left and carried, though with much difficulty and after a loss 
to the assailants of more than 1000 men. Such was the battle 
of Bunker Hill (?..), one of the most dramatic encounters in 
the war which was then beginning. In connexion with all 
these events the Americans, as in their earlier conventions 
and manifestoes, claimed to be acting on the defensive. 
But it was not difficult to perceive that, especially in New 
England, this claim only imperfectly concealed an intensely 
aggressive spirit. (For military events of the war, see 
AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.) 

58. The news of the outbreak of hostilities aroused strong 
feeling throughout the colonies. The Second Continental 
Congress met under its influence. Its members, however, had 
been chosen and instructed before the clash of arms, and for that 
reason the course which had been worked out for them differed 
only slightly, if at all, from that which had been followed by 
their predecessors. To a certain extent the new body adhered 
to the former course of action. But a state of war now 
existed in New England and on the Canadian border. Troops 
were expected soon to arrive at New York. Reports of these 
events were thrust upon the attention of Congress at once, and 
the provinces involved asked for advice as to what course they 
should pursue. The northern frontier especially demanded 
attention. As a result of these events in the colonies generally 
the Association was being changed from a system of co-operation 
against British trade into a union for purposes of defence. 
This new situation the Congress was forced to meet. This it 
did largely by resolutions of advice to the colonies, but also 
by positive orders. Of the former class were the resolutions 
about the procuring of military supplies, the assumption of 
powers of government by the various colonies, and concerning 
defence at New York City, on the northern frontier and, later, 
in the Highlands of the Hudson. Of a more decisive character 
was the appointment of officers for the army, George Washington 
being made commander-in-chief, the prescribing of their pay, 
the issue of continental bills of credit, the issue of articles of 
war, the regulation of trade and of Indian affairs, and the 
establishment of postal communication. As the colonies were 
passing through a strong reaction against executive authority, 
Second the Congress did its business with the help of 
Continental temporary committees and did not seek to establish 
Congress. a permanent executive. The same was true for a 
time of the congresses and conventions in the different colonies. 
As the movement progressed through 1775 and the early 
months of 1776, executive authority in the royal and pro- 
prietary provinces collapsed. The assemblies were either 
dissolved or ceased to meet. The governors, their authority 
gone, retired on board British vessels of war, returned to 
England or, perchance, found themselves prisoners in the hands 
of the revolutionists. This gradual fall of the old governments, 
imperial and colonial, was the revolution on its negative side. 
The rise of the system of congresses, conventions and com- 
mittees, deriving their authority from the people, was the 
revolution on its positive side, and foreshadowed the new federal 
system which was rising on the ruins of the half-federated 
empire. The process in the different colonies was as varied 
as were their social and political conditions. 

59. In Connecticut and Rhode Island the corporate system 
of government, which they had inherited from the i7th century, 
necessitated no change. The general assemblies always had 
been the centres of power, and the leading officials were elective 
for short terms and were subject to the control of the electorate. 
So far as the internal organization of the colonies was concerned 
that was all which the revolution demanded. In the two 



proprietary provinces Pennsylvania and Maryland the execu- 
tives were not so directly interested and pledged to support 
the imperial government as were those of the royal provinces. 
But Governor Robert Eden of Maryland was so tactful that, 
though the last Assembly met in 1774, he was able, with the 
courts, to keep up some form of government there in the name 
of the Crown and proprietor until the early summer of 1776. In 
Pennsylvania the proprietors, though in sympathy with the 
British government, never sought actively to influence events 
in their province. So strong was the conservative spirit there 
that the proprietary Assembly even met though without a 
quorum as late as September 1776, at the time when the 
convention was completing the first constitution of the state. 
In the royal provinces the prorogation of the legislatures for 
indefinite or prolonged periods caused them early to disappear 
that of Massachusetts in October 1774. The burgesses of 
Virginia last met for business in May 1774. They were pro- 
rogued to several later dates, but the governor was CoUapae0 f 
never again able to meet them. The long and im- the Royal 
portant session of January-March 1775 was the last Govern. 
ever held by the New York Assembly. In April 1775 meats - 
Governor John Martin of North Carolina met the Assembly for 
the last time, and even then the Provincial Convention was in 
session at the same time and place and the membership of the 
two bodies was the same. In May 1 7 7 5 disappeared the Assembly 
of Georgia; in June those of New Hampshire and South Carolina 
met for the last time. Governor William Franklin was able 
to meet the Assembly of New Jersey as late as November, but 
months before that date the Provincial Convention had practi- 
cally assumed the control of affairs. The royal courts and 
executives continued some form of activity a few months 
longer and then totally vanished. 

60. After Bunker Hill the command at Boston had been 
transferred from Gage to Sir William Howe. In July Wash- 
ington took command of the colonists and gradually established 
some degree of order and discipline among them. Though the 
American levies were raw and ever fluctuating in numbers, the 
British never seriously attempted to break through their lines. 
Indeed, it was not the plan of the British to make New England 
the chief seat of war. As early as the 2nd of August 1775 Lord 
Dartmouth wrote to General Gage on " the obvious advantages 
that would attend the taking Possession of New York and the 
hazard of the Army's continuing at Boston." On the 5th of 
September he wrote to Howe that every day's intelligence 
exhibited this fact in a clearer light. Rhode Island was considered 
as a convenient naval station, and steps were soon taken to 
secure possession of it and its surrounding waters. This indicates 
what was necessarily the fact, that the British would so plan the 
war as to secure the maximum of advantage from their fleet. 
This would give them an easy command of the entire coast, 
and enable them to secure a foothold at strategic centres. 
Hence it was that, though the arrival of a fresh supply of 
cannon enabled Washington to fortify Dorchester Heights, 
this simply enabled him to hasten a process for which Howe 
had long been preparing. The evacuation occurred Evacuation 
on the i7th of March 1776, and the British force of Boston; 

withdrew temporarily to Halifax. Meantime the 2,"""%?," 
i . . * 4 ! . Expeditions 

bold expeditions of Arnold and Montgomery against against 

Canada suggesting the joint efforts of the French Canada. 
wars had met with only a partial success. Montreal 
had been occupied, but the assault upon Quebec had failed. 
A small American force awaited the return of spring in 
Canada, in order that they might renew the struggle for that 
colony. 

61. The view, as it was now repeatedly expressed by king and 
parliament, was that the colonists were in open rebellion. 
North's offer of conciliation was peremptorily rejected by Con- 
gress. The acts of parliament were being openly resisted, and 
Congress in its manifestoes had ignored the two houses. There- 
fore the British government stood committed to coercion. That 
was the meaning of the legislation of the winter of 1776 the 
prohibition of trade with the rebellious colonies, the increase 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1776-1783 



of the estimates for the army and navy, the employment of 
German auxiliaries for service in America. Preparations were 
made to send a large military and naval force against the colo- 
nies the following season, and that it should operate in part 
against the insurgents in New York and the southern colonies 
and in part through Canada. New England was no longer to 
be the direct object of attack. The Howes, as commanders of 
the royal army and navy, were appointed commissioners to 
grant assurance of peace and pardon and the repeal of the 
obnoxious acts, provided submission was made and some way 
could be found by parliament in which an imperial revenue for 
purposes of defence could be secured from the colonies. Military 
operations, meanwhile, should be directed against points of 
least resistance, and in that way, if possible, the union of the 
colonies should be broken. The trend of British policy indicated 
that an invasion from Canada might be attempted and the effort 
be made to hold Charleston, Philadelphia, and especially New 
York as strategic points on the coast. 

62. The course of events in the colonies by which this situation 
was met was the ereqtion of a system of feeble defences about 
New York and the removal thither of the army of about 9000 
men in the spring of 1776; the fitting out of privateers to prey 
on British commerce and of a few small armed vessels by the 
colonies and the general government to watch the coast and 
procure supplies; the disarming of loyalists; the opening of 
American ports to the trade of all peoples who were not subject 
to the British Crown; and the tentative opening of relations with 
France. As the result of a combination of 01 luck, bad manage- 
ment and American energy the British suffered a repulse at 
Charleston, South Carolina, in June, which was analogous to 
the affair of the year before at Bunker Hill, and which necessi- 
tated a postponement of their plans in the South. The Congress 
and the various revolutionary bodies in the colonies were forced 
to carry on war upon a constantly increasing scale. They had to 
assume powers of government and gradually to perfect their or- 
ganization for the purpose. Committees in Congress became more 
permanent. Conditions approximating to those which existed 
the year before in New England extended through the colonies 
generally. On the isth of May 1776, as the result of various 
earlier applications on the subject, and especially of one from 
certain Whigs in New York, the Congress recommended to the 
assemblies and conventions of the colonies where no government 
sufficient to the exigencies of their affairs had been established, 
" to adopt such government as shall, in the opinion of the 
representatives of the people, best conduce to the happiness of 
their constituents in particular and of America in general." 
The preamble to this resolution set forth as facts the statements 
that the colonies had been excluded from the protection of the 
Crown, that no answer had been given to their petitions for 
redress, and that the whole force of the kingdom was to be used 
for their destruction, and therefore that it was no longer reason- 
able or honest for the colonists to take the oaths or affirmations 
necessary for the support of government under the Crown. 
Organize- Though the preamble was warmly debated, it was 
tloaot State adopted. And this act marked a turning-point, for 
men*" tne P r 8 ress f events from that time to the declara- 
Dedaratloa tion of independence was rapid and decisive. The 
otindc- colonies now becoming states one after another, 
peadeace. j n response t o letters from Philadelphia, empowered 
their delegates to concur in declaring independence. On the 
7th of June R. H. Lee of Virginia introduced in Congress a 
resolution " that these United Colonies are and of right ought 
to be free and independent states," that it was expedient forth- 
with to take effectual measures for securing foreign allies, and 
that a plan of confederation should be formed. John Dickinson 
and others, speaking for the Middle Colonies, argued that the 
order of procedure should be reversed. But John Adams 
and the more aggressive party insisted that the proposed declara- 
tion would simply state the facts and would open the way for 
foreign alliances; that it was useless to wait for unanimity. The 
debate showed that the delegates from the Middle Colonies and 
South Carolina could not act, and so the decision was postponed 



for three weeks. In the interval steps were taken to draft a plan 
of treaties and articles of confederation. A board of war and 
ordnance, the earliest germ of an executive department, was also 
Created by Congress. At the end of the three weeks the dele- 
gates from all the colonies except Georgia, South Carolina and 
New York had received instructions favourable to independence. 
The two former left their delegates free, and under the influence 
of the British attack on Charleston they voted for independence. 
News had just come that Howe had landed with a large force 
at Sandy Hook as events proved, it was an admirably equipped 
army of 30,000 men, supported by a fleet. Under the impression 
of these stirring events Dickinson and his leading supporters 
ceased their opposition, and the Declaration, substantially in the 
form given to it by Thomas Jefferson, was agreed to (July 4, 
1776), only three adverse votes being cast. The delegates from 
New York took no part, but a few days later the act was 
approved by the convention of that state. The signing of the 
document by the members took place at a later time. Thus 
triumphed the tendencies toward self-government which had 
been predominant hi the continental colonies from the first, and 
which the system of imperial control had only superficially 
modified and restrained. But the most significant part 
of the document for the future was the preamble, in which 
the democratic aspirations of the new nation were set 
forth, the spirit to which Thomas Paine had just made so 
powerful an appeal in his Common Sense. Governments, it was 
said, derive their just powers from the consent of the governed, 
and when any system becomes destructive of these ends it is the 
right of the people to abolish it and to institute a new govern- 
ment, establishing it upon such principles and under such forms 
as seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. (See 
INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION or.) 

E. The Struggle to Maintain Independence, 1776-1783. 
63. Viewed from one standpoint, the declaration of indepen- 
dence was apparently an act of the utmost recklessness. The 
people were by no means a unit in its support, and in several of 
the states widespread indifference to it, or active sympathy with 
the British, prevailed. In New York, South Carolina and 
Georgia a condition of civil war came sooner or later to exist. 
The United States, as yet, had no international status, and it 
would seem that that must be secured, if at all, by a series of 
victories which would ensure independence. But how could 
these be won against the greatest naval power on the globe, 
supported by veteran armies of continental and British troops? 
The colonies had no money; the few vessels which, as a collective 
body, they did send out, were more like privateers than anything 
else. Their army was an undisciplined throng of militiamen, 
serving on short enlistments, without organized commissariat, 
and for the most part under inexperienced officers. Its numbers, 
too, were far inferior to those of the British. Taxation by the 
Continental Congress for the support of the war Finance; 
was not among the possibilities of the case. The Weaknesses 
colonies were struggling against taxation by one *"^ efeds 
imperial body, and it was not likely that they would American 
submit to similar impositions at the hands of another. Genera/ 
The Congress, moreover, as has truly been said, was Government. 
little more than a general committee or interstate council of 
safety, and had to proceed largely by way of advice. A strong 
tendency also toward the provision for immediate needs by the 
issue of bills of credit had been inherited from the period of the 
French wars, and resort was again had to that device. The 
battle of Bunker Hill had been immediately followed by an 
order of Congress for the issue of $2,000,000 in that form of 
currency. Issues followed in rapidly increasing amounts, until 
by the close of 1779 $241,000,000 had been authorized. The 
states put out nearly as much ($209,000,000), Virginia and the 
two Carolinas issuing the largest amounts. All that Congress 
could do to secure the redemption of its issues was to recommend 
to the states to provide the means therefor; but this they failed 
to do, or even to provide for the redemption of their own issues. 
The continental paper money depreciated until it became 



HISTORY 1776-1783] 



UNITED STATES 



679 



worthless, as to a large extent did that of the states also. The 
states decreed it to be legal tender, and dire threats were uttered 
against those who refused to receive the bills; but all to no 
purpose. The Congress also tried to induce the states to tax 
themselves for the general cause and was forced to rely on 
requisitions for the purpose. The colonies had insisted that 
the system of requisitions was good enough for the mother 
country, but when applied by Congress it proved as complete 
a failure as when resorted to by the Crown. The revolution 
was therefore never financed. It early became necessary to 
resort to loans and that chiefly from foreign sources. It 
was therefore an absolute necessity that the colonies should 
secure international recognition and status. Then loans were 
obtained from the governments of France and Spain and 
from private bankers in Holland to the amount of about 
$7,830,000. 

64. The collapse of royal government left the colonies 
in a chaotic state. The old institutions had disappeared and 
new ones could not be immediately developed to take their 
place. But the institutions of local government, the town and 
county systems, were left intact, and upon these as a basis the 
new fabrics were erected. It was therefore easier to construct 
the governments of the states than to define and develop the 
general government. At first little else was intended than that 
the Congress should be the mouthpiece of the patriot party. It 
proceeded mainly by way of recommendation, and looked to the' 
states, rather than to itself, as the ultimate sources of authority. 
Upon them it depended for the execution of its measures. 
The common will, as well as enactment, was lacking which would 
have given the force of positive law to the measures of Congress. 
As the war proceeded the states grew jealous of the central 
body and tried to prevent appeals to it from the state courts 
in prize cases. Under the pressure of war, moreover, the enthu- 
siasm, which had been strong at the outset, declined, and it became 
increasingly difficult to secure co-operation or sacrifice toward 
any general enterprise. At the same time, war devolved upon 
Congress an enormous burden of work. It was forced to devise 
general policies and provide for their execution, and also to 
attend to an infinite number of administrative details. This was 
due not only to the exigencies of the time, but to the fact that 
no general executive was developed. As was characteristic 
not only of this revolution, but of all others, the committee 
system underwent an enormous development. " The whole 
congress," wrote John Adams, " is taken up, almost, in different 
committees, from seven to ten in the morning. From ten to four 
or sometimes five we are in congress, and from six to ten in com- 
mittees again." " Out of a number of members," writes another, 
" that varied from ten dozen to five score, there were appointed 
committees for a hundred varying purposes." Upon its 
president and secretary the Congress was forced to depend not 
a little for the diligence and ability which was requisite to keep 
the machine going. But as the war progressed most of the able 
members were drawn off into the army, into diplomatic service 
or into official service in the states. Sectional and state 
jealousies also developed and became intense. By many the 
New Englanders were regarded with aversion, and members 
from that section looked with dislike upon the aristocrats 
from the South. As the Congress voted by states the smaller 
commonwealths were often moved by jealousy of their larger 
rivals to thwart important measures. But, above all, the con- 
duct of the war and foreign relations occasioned infinite jealousies 
and cabals, while many of the most important measures seemed 
to meet with downright indifference. Washington's corre- 
spondence abounds in evidence of these facts, while it is well 
known that he was the object against whom one of the cabals 
of the time was directed. Benjamin Franklin was the object of 
somewhat similar jealousies. But, as time passed, rudimentary 
executive departments, beginning with the board of war and the 
postmaster-general, were developed, and some advance was made 
toward a working and permanent system. In 1781 the offices 
of foreign secretary, superintendent of finance, secretary of war 
and secretary of marine were created. 



65. For a time, and indeed during most of the struggle, the 
course of the land war seemed to justify these criticisms and 
gloomy fears. Until its very close the campaign of 1776, from 
the American standpoint, was a dismal failure. The battle of 
Long Island was lost by the Americans and, as at Bunker Hill, 
it would have been quite possible for the British to have captured 
the entire force which opposed them on Long Island. Howe 
compelled Washington to evacuate New York City. On the 
1 6th of November the practical abandonment of the 

state of New York by the main army was necessitated Washington. 
by the capture of Fort Washington. Earlier in the 
year the Americans had been compelled to retire from Canada, 
while the Tories in northern New York were contributing 
valuable aid to the British. 

66. But there was another side to the picture, and already 
certain faint outlines of it might be discerned. The British 
commander was proceeding slowly, even according to established 
European methods. At almost every step he was failing to 
seize the advantages that were within his reach, while Wash- 
ington was learning to play a losing game with consummate 
patience and tact. Although he was constantly trying to rouse 
Congress and the states to more vigorous action, he showed no 
disposition to break with the civil power. Already, too, the 
physical obstacles arising from the wooded and broken character 
of the country, and from the extremely poor means of com- 
munication, were becoming apparent to the British; while the 
Americans always had the alternative, if too hard pressed, of 
withdrawing beyond the mountains. After Washington had 
crossed the Delaware, Howe, instead of seizing Philadelphia 
and driving Congress and the American army to some remote 
places of refuge, as he might have done, prepared for winter 
quarters. Washington seized the opportunity to return across 
the Delaware and surprise the British outposts at Trenton (Dec. 
26, 1776) and Princet6n (Jan. 3, 1777), and thus secured a safe 
post of observation for the winter at Morristown. Confidence 
was to an extent restored, the larger part of New Jersey was 
regained, and many loyalists were compelled to take the oath of 
allegiance. Howe's plan for the next campaign involved the 
strengthening of his army by large reinforcements from home 
and by all the men who could be spared from Canada. With 
this force he proposed to capture Philadelphia and thereby to 
bring the War of Independence to an end in Pennsylvania, New 
Jersey and New York. New England and the states farther 
south could then be dealt with in detail. But Howe was over- 
ruled by Lord George Germain, the colonial secretary, whose 
plan included an invasion from Canada, in which Tories and 
Indians should share, while Howe should advance up the 
Hudson and meet the northern forces at Albany. If this 
ambitious scheme should succeed, the British would occupy 
the valley of the Hudson and New England would be cut off 
from the rest of the colonies. General Burgoyne was appointed 
to command the northern expedition. But the failure of the 
plan was almost ensured from the outset by neglect on the part 
of British officials to instruct General Howe as to his part in its 
execution, while Burgoyne was forced to surrender near Sara- 
toga on the 1 7th of October. Meanwhile, Howe, who had long 
waited for instructions respecting the northern expedition, was 
finally informed that he might undertake the Pennsylvania 
campaign, but with the hope that at its close he would still 
be able to march up the Hudson. Thereupon, embarking his 
army, Howe sailed for Chesapeake Bay, at the head of which 
he landed and advanced towards Philadelphia. Washington's 
army opposed his march at the Brandywine (Chad's Ford), but 
was defeated (Sept. n, 1777) and forced to retire beyond Phila- 
delphia. The British then entered the city (Sept. 26) and 
the Congress withdrew to Lancaster, and later to York, in the 
interior of Pennsylvania. The British fleet had in the meantime 
arrived in Delaware Bay, and, after a prolonged and brave 
defence, had captured Forts Mercer and Mifflin. When the 
winter began the Delaware, as well as lower New York and 
Rhode Island, was in the possession of the British. With the 
fragments of an army Washington retired to Valley Forge (q.v.). 



68o 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1776-1783 



67. But the influence of Burgoyne's surrender in Europe 
was to prove a turning-point in the war. Since 1763 a strong 
sentiment at the French court had been favourable to a resump- 
tion of war with Great Britain. An opportunity was now pre- 
sented by the colonial revolt. In November 1775 the Congress 
created a committee of secret correspondence, which, in April 
1777, was developed into a committee of foreign affairs, and this 
continued until 1781, when the office of foreign secretary was 
established. To Congress, and to the members who were 
serving on its secret committee, the possible attitude of France 
was known from an early date. The necessity of securing 
supplies and loans from Europe was also imperative, though 
the United States had nothing to pledge in repayment except 
the future products of her soil. In February 1776 Silas Deane 
(q.v.) was sent to Paris, ostensibly as a business agent, and with 
the connivance of the French government supplies were sent to 
America and American vessels were received into French ports. 
Soon American privateers were bringing their prizes into French 
harbours, and British commerce began to suffer from these 
attacks. On the French side Beaumarchais and others actively 
co-operated in this. In the autumn of 1776 Congress appointed 
three commissioners to France, and resolved that Spain, Prussia, 
Austria and other European states should be approached with 
a view to securing recognition and aid. In December 1776 
Franklin, who, with Deane and Arthur Lee, had been appointed 
commissioner to France, arrived at Paris, bringing with him 
proposals for treaties of commerce and alliance. But, though 
the attitude of the French court toward the Americans was 
friendly, and though it continued to send secret aid, and to 
exert a favourable influence upon Spain, yet it could not be 
Fnach- induced to abandon its outward appearance of 
American neutrality until after the news of Burgoyne's 
Alliance. surre nder arrived. Then the real purpose of the 
French government was revealed. On the 6th of February 
1778 the treaties were signed, and in the following summer war 
between France and England began. The influence of France 
under the Family Compact was also persistently used to 
bring Spain into the alliance. The latter was naturally 
hostile to England, but her aversion to colonial revolts and her 
desire to substitute mediation for war kept her from declaring 
against England until April 1779. In October 1779 Henry 
Laurens (q.v.) was elected minister to the Netherlands, and 
sailed for Europe, taking with him a plan of a commercial treaty. 
But Laurens and his papers were captured by the British at 
sea, and partly by that event the Netherlands were forced into 
war with England. With the other states of northern Europe 
they undertook to defend the interests of neutrals against the 
arrogant enforcement by Great Britain of the rights of search 
at sea. Thus the conflict expanded into a commercial and 
naval war, Great Britain being confronted by the larger part 
of Europe. 

68. The conclusion of the treaty of alliance by France was 
immediately followed by the equipment of a fleet under the 
comte d'Estaing, which sailed from Toulon in April 1778, having 
on board M Conrad Alexandre Gerard de Rayneval, who had 
been accredited as minister to the United States, and Silas Deane, 
who was returning to report to Congress. Sir Henry Clinton had 
now succeeded Howe in command of the British army. The 
certainty that a French fleet would soon appear in American 
waters made it necessary for the British to evacuate Philadelphia 
and return to a point on the coast where the army could be in 
easy communication with the fleet. This fact shows how the 
French alliance had changed the nature of the war. It now 
became to a large extent a contest between the two navies, the 
principal evolutions of which occurred in West Indian and 
European seas. (See AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.) In the 
north the British now relatively neglected the land war, and 
refrained from sending such forces to the eastern coast as had 
supported Howe in 1776. The Americans, on the other hand, 
had a naval force upon which they relied, in the hope that 
the blockade of their coasts might be raised and trade routes 
opened more freely. On the evacuation of Philadelphia in June 



Washington's army pursued the British as they retired toward 
New York, and the indecisive battle of Monmouth was fought on 
the z8th of June. It did not prevent Clinton from reaching New 
York, and that city continued to be the centre of British power 
and operations in the north until the close of the war. The 
Congress returned to Philadelphia, where Gerard was received, 
and where he was soon exercising an influence favourable to the 
policies of Washington and opposed to the clique of which 
General Horatio Gates was the leader. Washington's army came 
gradually to occupy a line of forts, of which West Point in the 
Highlands of the Hudson was the citadel. From there as a centre 
it was possible to communicate with Newport on the east and 
with the Delaware region on the south, and at the same time to 
prevent the British from gaining access to the interior of the 
country. Though the fleet of D'Estaing carried a heavier 
equipment of cannon than did that of Admiral Howe, the 
French commander did not choose to risk an ^attack on 
New York, but passed eastward to Newport. Howe followed 
him, while Washington and his generals planned active co- 
operation with the new allies by land. But a sudden storm 
so dispersed and injured the fleets that the French admiral 
retired to Boston for repairs and later sailed for the West 
Indies. 

69. While the war and foreign relations were thus developing, 
the states were organizing their governments and Congress 
was beginning to consider articles of confederation 
between the states. In this way an effort was made s ututios. 
to gather up and make permanent the positive 
results of the revolution. As under the chartered and royal 
governments of the colonial period the source of political 
authority had been the Crown, now by a necessary reaction this 
was sought in the people. This principle had been stated in the 
Declaration of Independence, and had been implied throughout 
the earlier controversy and in much of the history of the colonies 
as well. The colonies had insisted on a more precise definition of 
the powers of government ; they had opposed parliament because 
its powers were undefined and therefore dangerous. Following 
these ideas, the states now described their institutions of govern- 
ment and defined their powers by means of written constitutions. 
These were formulated by the provincial congresses which 
had now become the legislatures or, as they came to insist upon 
a more specific expression of the popular will, by conventions 
chosen for the purpose by the electors. Connecticut and Rhode 
Island retained their colonial charters. In the earlier days of 
hasty and temporary devices, the constitutions, like statutes, 
had been promulgated by the legislatures which formed them 
and had been put into force by their authority alone. But 
as time passed and more permanent arrangements became 
necessary an express popular approval of the instruments was 
insisted upon and was obtained before they were put into 
force. The establishment of state governments in this way 
began before the issue of the Declaration of Independence. 
It was actively continued during 1776 and the early months 
of the following year, by which time all of the states had 
secured at least a temporary constitution. ' South Carolina and 
New Hampshire revised theirs before the close of the war. Massa- 
chusetts did not secure a constitution which suited her until 
1780, but then her procedure corresponded in all particulars with 
what was to be later American practice in such matters. Of the 
constitutions of the revolutionary period the two most striking 
features were the bills of rights and the provisions which were 
made concerning the executives and their relations to the legis- 
latures. The men of that generation were jealous of govern- 
ment. They insisted upon individual rights, not as acquired and 
guaranteed by the state, but as original, natural and inhering 
in time prior to all governments. Governments were instituted 
for the common benefit, protection and security. Officials 
were trustees and were accountable to the people. There should 
be no hereditary title to office or power. There should be no 
titles of nobility, and in Virginia the system of entails was swept 
away. Monopolies were declared to be inconsistent with the 
spirit of a free state. The doctrine that it was unlawful to resist 



HISTORY 1776-1783] 



UNITED STATES 



681 



arbitrary power was declared to be absurd. Freedom of the press 
and of conscience was asserted, and no obstacles to fair and 
speedy jury trials were to be tolerated. Elections should be free 
and frequent, and a preference was expressed for short terms of 
office. The legislature was universally regarded as the most 
important department of government. Although the principle of 
the separation of powers was recognized, in eight states provision 
was made that the executives should be elected by the legis- 
latures, eleven withheld from them the veto, and the states 
generally provided for a council to advise them. So manifold 
and important, however, were the restrictions on suffrage that 
the states were as yet far from being democracies. On the 
other hand, many wild and impractical ideas were cherished, 
and there were anarchic tendencies, which were revealed soon 
after the war and still later, under the influence of the French 
Revolution. 

70. The first draft of the Articles of Confederation between 
the states was prepared by John Dickinson in the early summer 
The Articles of 1776 and was reported. The report was debated 
at Con- for some weeks after the issue of the Declaration of 
federation, independence. Owing to the pressure of war it was 
then laid aside until the autumn of 1777. By that time the 
feeling in favour of state sovereignty had so increased that 
the impossibility of securing assent to the articles in any form 
had begun to be feared. But the document was completed 
and submitted to the states in November 1777, when all were 
encouraged by the news of Burgoyne's surrender. The system 
for which provision was made in this document was a " con- 
federacy," or " firm league of friendship " between the states, 
for their common defence, security and general welfare. The 
Congress was to be continued, and was to consist of delegates 
annually appointed by the legislature of each state and paid by 
their states. No attempt was made to create an executive for 
the confederacy, though authority was given to Congress to 
appoint a council of state which should manage general affairs, 
especially during recesses of Congress. To Congress various 
general powers were entrusted, as deciding on peace and 
war and superintending the conduct of the same, building 
a navy, controlling diplomatic relations, coining money and 
emitting bills of credit, establishing post offices, regulating 
Indian trade, adjusting boundary disputes between the states. 
The financial powers entrusted to Congress included those of 
borrowing money and determining necessary expenditures, 
but not the power to tax. For supplies the general government 
had to depend on requisitions from the states. The same 
system also had to suffice for the raising and equipment of 
troops. Congress could not make its laws or orders effective 
in any matter of importance. This was simply a continuation 
of the policy under which the revolution was being conducted. 
The Americans had thought that the military and financial 
concerns of the British Empire could be managed under a system 
of requisitions, and now they were bent upon trying it in their 
own imperial relations. The control of trade was also practically 
left with the states, the Americans in this matter failing to live 
up to the requirements of the British system. The predomi- 
nance of the states was further ensured by the provision that no 
votes, except those for daily adjournment, could be carried with- 
out the assent of a majority of all the states, and no important 
measure without the consent of nine states. But a common 
citizenship was declared to exist, and Congress received authority 
to establish a court of appeal which might pass finally on all 
disputes between states. Taken as a whole, the Articles of Con- 
federation would bear favourable comparison with other schemes 
of their kind, and they fairly represented the stage of develop- 
ment to which the American states had then attained. The 
defects which existed in them were reflections of the immaturity, 
political and social, which had always been apparent in the 
Americans as colonists and which was to characterize them as a 
nation for generations to come. 

71. We have seen that, on the whole, the attitude of Great 
Britain, after the peace of 1763, was not favourable to the 
colonization of the Mississippi Valley. To the colonists the 



Quebec Act gained in offensiveness by seeming to imply that 
it was intended to exclude them from the West. But all 
such plans were swept away by the outbreak of the War of 
Independence. Already, before the beginning of 
hostilities, emigrants had begun to flock across the 
mountains. Plans were on foot for the establishment of 
a number of commonwealths, or proprietary provinces, as 
the case might be. Vandalia was planned in western Virginia, 
Watauga in western North Carolina. Daniel Boone and his 
associates pushed farther west into the Kentucky region, and 
there it was proposed to establish the commonwealth of Tran- 
sylvania. Other similar projects were started, all repeating in 
one form or another the political methods which were used when 
the seaboard colonies were first settled. The backwoodsmen who 
managed these enterprises were extreme individualists, believed 
in the propriety of resistance to governments, and were in full 
sympathy with the War of Independence. They desired to 
escape to the free land and life of the West and be rid of the quit- 
rents and other badges of dependence which still lingered in the 
East. The states which had claims in the West opposed the 
founding of independent settlements there and, if possible, 
induced the settlers to be content with the status of counties 
within some one of the eastern states. After the beginning of the 
War of Independence, the British from Detroit incited Indian 
raids for the purpose of destroying or driving out the settlers, 
especially in Kentucky. These provoked the expeditions of 
George Rogers Clark (<?..), in 1778 and 1779. With a 
force of Virginians he seized Kaskaskia and later, after a long 
march, captured Vincennes and compelled General Henry 
Hamilton, who had come with a relief force from Detroit, 
to surrender. This secured to the Americans a permanent 
hold upon the North- West. But Spain, after she entered upon 
the war, was determined, if possible, to wrest the valley of the 
Mississippi from the British and to keep all, or the larger part of 
it, for herself. To that end, operating from New Orleans, her 
troops took possession of Natchez, and other posts on the lower 
Mississippi, and occupied Mobile and Pensacola. These events 
prevented the possibility of the expulsion of the Americans from 
the West, but devolved upon their representatives at Paris the 
necessity of engaging in a diplomatic contest against Spain for 
the purpose of securing the Mississippi as the western boundary 
of the United States. But meanwhile the occupation of the 
West by Americans had a notable influence upon the ratification 
of the Articles of Confederation. 

72. Within the Confederacy a fundamental line of cleavage 
was that between the large and small states. It was jealousy 
on the part of the latter, their fear lest they might ^^3 / 
be absorbed by their larger neighbours, which had coafedera- 
necessitated the adoption of the plan that in the tloa Rati- 
Congress the delegates should vote by states. When ed ' 

the articles were referred to the states for ratification, the 
difficulty reappeared. Massachusetts, Connecticut and New 
York, with Virginia and the three states to the south of it, had 
large claims to territory between the Appalachians and the 
Mississippi. New Hampshire, Rhode Island, New Jersey, 
Delaware and Maryland, which were without hope of westward 
extension, hesitated to enter the Confederacy, if the large states 
were to be still further increased by additions to their areas of 
vast stretches of western country. They insisted that before 
ratification the states which had claims to western lands should 
surrender these for the common benefit of the United States. 
Maryland insisted upon this until, in the end, the cause of 
state equality and of nationality triumphed. Congress declared 
that the ceded lands should be formed into states, which 
should become members of the union with the same rights as 
other states. When, in 1781, this course of action had 
become possible, Maryland ratified the articles and they 
came into effect. The possibility of the expansion of the 
United States through the development of territories was thus 
ensured. 

73. So far as the North American continent was concerned, 
the character of the last stage of the struggle with Great Britain 



682 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1776-1783 



was determined by the fact that the British resolved to transfer 
the main seat of war to the Southern states, in the hope 
that Georgia and South Carolina might be detached from the 
Union". At the close of 1778 Savannah was captured. In 

September 1779 D'Estaing returned and assaulted 
the South'" Savannah, but, failing to capture it, sailed for France. 

In 1780 Clinton sailed from New York, besieged 
Charleston with a force much superior to that of Lincoln, and 
captured it (May 12). State government in South Carolina 
ceased. But the chance of detaching those states from the 
Union and of bringing the war in that region to an end was finally 
lost by the British. This was chiefly due to an order which 
recalled the paroles of many of those who had surrendered at 
Charleston and required that they should perform military 
service under the British. The attempt to enforce this order, 
with the barbarities of Colonel Banastre Tarleton and certain 
Tory bands, provoked a bloody partisan conflict in the upper 
districts, especially of South Carolina, which contributed more 
than any other cause to turn the scale against the British in 
the remote South. By the winter of 1781 they were forced 
back to Charleston and Savannah. (See AMERICAN WAR OF 
INDEPENDENCE.) 

74. During the summer of 1780 Washington was prevented 
from accomplishing anything in the North by the demoralized 
condition of the finances and by the decline of public spirit. 
It was very difficult to secure recruits or supplies. The pay of 
the troops had fallen so into arrears that some of them had 
already begun mutiny. A second French squadron and military 
force, under De Ternay and Rochambeau, landed at Newport, 
but they were at once shut up there by the British. Clinton and 
Cornwallis were now planning that the latter, having put down 
resistance in the remote South, should march through North 
Carolina and Virginia to Baltimore and Philadelphia and that 
a junction of the two British forces should be effected which, it 
was believed, would complete the ruin of the American cause. 
This, too, was the period of Arnold's treason and the death of 
Andre. But the turn of the tide in favour of the Americans 
began with the partisan warfare in South Carolina, which 
delayed the northward march of Cornwallis, who retired to 

Wilmington and thence marched north with a small 
force into Virginia, and in July retired to Yorktown, 
in the peninsula of Virginia. Washington and Rochambeau had 
meantime been planning a joint move against the British at New 
York, or possibly in Virginia, and a letter was sent to De Grasse, 
the French admiral in the West Indies, suggesting his co-opera- 
tion. De Grasse replied that he would sail for the Chesapeake. 
This confirmed Washington and Rochambeau in the opinion 
that they should march at once for Virginia and, after junction 
with the force of Lafayette, co-operate with De Grasse against 
Cornwallis. By well-timed movements the forces were brought 
together before Yorktown (q.v.), and Cornwallis was forced to 
surrender on the igth of October 1781. 

75. As the effect of this event was to drive Lord North from 
power in England, it proved to be the last important operation 
_ of the war in America. The king was compelled 
Peace'. to P ve wav - Rockingham was called into office 

at the head of a cabinet which considered the 
recognition of American independence to be indispensable. 
The negotiations fell into the hands of Shelburne, the friend 
of Franklin and disciple of Adam Smith. Richard Oswald 
was the leading British agent, while Franklin, Jay, John Adams 
and Henry Laurens were the American negotiators. From the 
first the acknowledgment of independence, the settlement of the 
boundaries and the freedom of fishing were insisted on as necessary 
terms by the Americans. Free commercial intercourse and the 
cession of Canada to the United States, partly in payment of 
war claims and partly to create a fund for the compensation of 
loyalists, were also put forward as advisable conditions of peace. 
The first three points were early conceded by the British. They 
also agreed to restrict Canada to its ancient limits. But discus- 
sions later arose over the right to dry fish on the British coasts, 
over the payment of debts due to British subjects prior to the war, 



and over the compensation of the loyalists. Adams vigorously 
insisted upon the right to dry and cure fish on British coasts, and 
finally this concession was secured. Franklin was opposed to the 
demands of the loyalists, and they had to be content with a futile 
recommendation by Congress to the states that their claims should 
be adjusted. It was also agreed that creditors on either side 
should meet with no lawful impediment to the collection of their 
debts. Both France and Spain considered the claims of the 
Americans to be excessive, and were not inclined to yield to them. 
But the Americans negotiated directly with the British .and the 
articles were signed without consultation with the French 
government. This course was offensive to Vergennes, but it 
was insisted upon as necessary, especially by Jay and Adams, 
while the diplomatic skill of Franklin prevented a breach with 
France. Peace was formally ratified on the 3rd of September 

1783- 

76. The American army was now disbanded. Since the close 
of active military operations both officers and men had been 
striving to secure their pay, which was hopelessly in arrears. 
Congress had voted half -pay to the officers for h'f e, and many had 
agreed to accept a commutation of this in the form of full pay 
for a certain number of years. Certificates for these amounts 
were issued. But in this, as in other cases, it was found impos- 
sible to procure the money for the purpose from the states. 
Parts of the army repeatedly mutinied, and it was only the 
influence of Washington which prevented a general outbreak 
against Congress and the civil government. When the disband- 
ment was finally effected the officers found their certificates 
depreciated in value and the states indisposed to honour them. 
They consequently received only a small part of their due, and 
the privates scarcely anything. This deplorable result was due 
in part to poverty, but quite as much to bad faith. The country 
was left in a most demoralized condition, the result of the long 
war and the general collapse of public and private credit which 
had accompanied it. It should not be forgotten that the conflict 
had taken to a considerable extent the form of a civil war. In 
many of the states Loyalists and Whigs had been arrayed against 
one another, and had been more or less fully incorporated with 
the two contending armies. In general the Loyalists showed less 
capacity for combined action than did their opponents, and in 
the end they were everywhere defeated. The real tragedy of the 
conflict will be found, not in the defeat of the British, but in the 
ruin of the Loyalists. It was accompanied by wholesale confisca- 
tions of property in many quarters, and by the permanent exile 
of tens of thousands of the leading citizens of the republic. 
These were the emigres of the War of American Independence, 
and their removal deeply affected property relations and the 
tone and structure of society in general. Many of those who 
had been social and political leaders were thus removed, or, if 
they remained, their influence was destroyed (see LOYALISTS). 
New men and new families rose in their places, but of a different 
and in some ways of an inferior type. By this process sym- 
pathizers with the War of Independence gained and kept the 
ascendancy. British and monarchical influences were weakened, 
and in the end the permanence of republican institutions was 
ensured. But, as had been foreseen, society in this period of 
transition exhibited so many repulsive features as almost to cause 
the stoutest hearts to despair. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Sources: The records in which are contained 
the materials for the internal history of any one of the British 
colonies are the land papers, the minutes of the executive council, 
the journals of the upper and lower houses of the legislature, 
the laws and the correspondence and miscellaneous papers which 
originated from the intercourse between the colonial authorities 
especially the governor and the home government or other colonies 
and states. Every one of the original states has published these 
records in part, in series which are known under the general names 
of colonial records or archives or documents, or provincial papers. 
The first seven volumes of the Provincial Papers of New Hampshire 
(Concord) contain general records, while other volumes are filled 
with local and miscellaneous records. Massachusetts has pub- 
lished Records of the Colony of New Plymouth (12 vols., Boston, 
1885-1887), the Records of the Governor and Company of Massa- 
chusetts Bay in New England, 1628-1686 (5 vols., Boston, 1853-1854), 
the Records of the Court of Assistants (i vol.), and its laws for theentire 



BIBLIOGRAPHY] 



UNITED STATES 



683 



colonial period. Connecticut has printed The Colonial Records of 
Connecticut (15 vols., Hartford, 1850-1890), and the Records of 
the Colony of New Haven, 1638-1665 (2 vols., Hartford, 1857-1858). 
The Records of the Colony of Rhode Island fill 10 vols. (Providence, 
1856-1865). New York has published the Laws and Ordinances 
of New Netherland (l vol.), the Colonial Laws of New York from 
1664 to the Revolution (5 vols., Albany, 1894), The Journal of the 
Legislative Council, 1691-177$ (2 vols., 1861), the Journal of the 
Votes and Proceedings of the General Assembly, 1691-1765 (2 vols., 
17641766), the Documents relating to the Colonial History of 
New York (15 vols., 1853-1883), Minutes of the Albany Commissioners 
for Detecting Conspiracies (3 vols., 1909-1910) and the Documentary 
History of the State of New York (4 vols., 1849-1851). New Jersey has 
published the Grants and Concessions (i vol.), edited by Learning and 
Spier, and 28 vols. of The Archives of the State of New Jersey (Newark, 
1880 sqq.). Pennsylvania has published 16 vols. of Colonial 
Records, 1683-1790 (Philadelphia, 1852) and four series of Pennsylvania 
Archives (1852-1856, 1874-1893, 1894-1895, &c.), the latter con- 
taining miscellaneous records relating to the colonies and the War 
of Independence. Under the title of Statutes at Large (n vols.) its 
laws to the close of the War of Independence have been published. 
The Archives of Maryland (27 vols., Baltimore) contain the proceed- 
ings of the council, the assembly and the provincial court, with the 
laws, for a part of the colonial period. The Records of the Virginia 
Company of London (2 vols., Washington, 1906) have been 
printed; also Henning's Statutes at Large (13 vols., 1819-1823), 
and the Journal of the House of Burgesses for the later provincial 
period. Under the titles of Colonial Records (1886 ) and State 
Records, North Carolina has published the sources of her early history 
very fully, except the land papers and laws. Thomas Cooper's 
Statutes of South Carolina (4 vols., to 1782) contain practically all 
of its sources which that state has published. Georgia has published 
12 vols. of Colonial Records, containing minutes of the trustees 
and of the governor and council. The Calendar of State Papers, 
Colonial Series, 1574-1660 (London, 1860), and for 1661-1700 (13 
vols., London, 1880-1910), the Acts of the Privy Council Colonial, 
1613-1720 (2 vols., London, 1908-1910), and the Calendars of Treasury 
Papers (for the i8th century) cover relations between the British 
government and the colonies. Additional matter may also be found 
in many of the reports of the British Historical MSS. Commission. 
Hazard's Historical Collections (2 vols., Philadelphia, I792-I7_94) 
is still valuable. B. Parley Poore's Federal and State Constitutions 
(2 vols., Washington, 1877) contains the texts of the colonial charters 
and state constitutions; and a similar collection was edited by F. N. 
Thorpe (7 vols., ibid., 1909). The records of many New England 
towns have been printed, as a]so those of New York City, Phil- 
adelphia and Albany. The Original Narratives of Early American 
History (1906-1910), edited byj. F. Jameson, Contain reprints of 
much source material. 

Cobbett's Parliamentary History, Almon's Remembrancer (17 vols., 
London, 17751784), and the writings of the British statesmen of 
the period, contain much material which is indispensable to the 
history of the War of Independence on its British side. Of official 
matters relating to the period of the War of Independence, special 
reference should be made to the Public Journals of the Continental 
Congress (13 vols.), and the Secret Journals (4 vols.). A new and 
improved edition (1908 sqq.) has been edited by W. C. Ford and 
G. Hunt. Indispensable to the student is Peter Force's American 
Archives (9 vols., Washington, 1837-1853), covering the years 1774 
to 1776 inclusive. Francis Wharton's Revolutionary Diplomatic 
Correspondence of the United States (6 vols., Washington, 1889), 
and the earlier and less complete edition of the same by Jared Sparks 
(12 vols., Boston, 1829-1830), are also of great value. Alden 
Bradford's Massachusetts State Papers is valuable for that province. 
The journals of committees of safety, provincial congresses, con- 
ventions and early state legislatures are also for the most part in 
print. The colonial and revolutionary newspapers contain material 
of great variety. Semi-official also are the writings of the states- 
men of the War of Independence John and Samuel Adams, 
Jefferson, Dickinson, Franklin, Washington, Jay, all of which 
exist in very satisfactory editions. Henri Doniol's Histoire 
de la participation de la France a I'etablissement des Etats-Unis 
d'Amerique (5 vols., Paris, 1886-1900) is a diplomatic history of 
the War of Independence and the peace, dealing chiefly with France. 

The states all have historical societies, and there are many 
private and local societies in addition. Of these the most 
prominent are the societies of Massachusetts, New York, Penn- 
sylvania, Maryland and Virginia. In addition, mention should be 
made of the Prince Society of Boston, the American Antiquarian 
Society of Worcester, Mass., the Essex Institute of Salem, 
Mass., the Narragansett Club of Providence, R.I., and the Colonial 
Society of Massachusetts. The American Historical Association 
(Washington, D.C.) publishes valuable monographs; the second 
volume of the Report of the Association for 1905 is a detailed 
Bibliography of American Historical Societies (Washington, 1907). 

Standard Histories: Of these the histories of the states first 
demand attention. Jeremy. Belknap's History of New Hampshire 
(3 vols., 1784-1792; enlarged, 3 vols., Boston, 1813); Thomas 
Hutchinson's History of the Province of Massachusetts Bay (3 vols., 
Boston, 1767, and vol. iii., London, 1828); Samuel Greene Arnold's 



History of the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, 
1636-1790 (2 vols., New York, 1859^1860); Benjamin Trumbull's 
Complete History of Connecticut, Civil and Ecclesiastical, to 1764 
(New Haven, 1818; revised, 2 vols., New London, 1898); John 
Romeyn Brodhead's History of the State of New York (2 vols., New 
York, 1853-1871); William Smith's History of the Late Province 
of New York, from its Discovery to 1762 (2 vols., New York, 1829- 
1830); Samuel Smith's History of the Colony of Nova Ccesaria, or 
New Jersey, to 1721 (Burlington, N.J., 1765; 2nd ed., Trenton, 
1877); Robert Proud's History of Pennsylvania from 1681 till after 
the year 1742 (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1797-1798) ; John Leeds Bozman's 
History of Maryland, 1633-1660 (2 vols., Baltimore, 1837); John 
V. L. McMahon's A Historical View of the Government of Mary- 
land from its Colonization to the Present Day (Baltimore, 1833); 
William Stith's History of the First Discovery and Settlement of 
Virginia (Williamsburg, 1747); John Daly Burk's History of Vir- 
ginia (3 vols., Petersburg, 1804-1805); Francois Xavier Martin's 
History of North Carolina (2 vols., New Orleans, 1829); William 
James Rivers's Sketch of the History of South Carolina to the Close of 
the Proprietary Government by the Revolution of 1719 (Charleston, 
1856); Edward McCrady's South Carolina (4 vols., New York, 
1897-1902) covering the period from 1670 to 1783 and Charles 
Colcock Jones's (jun.) History of Georgia (2 vols., Boston, 1883) 
are especially noteworthy. William Bradford's History of Plimouth 
Plantation (latest edition, Boston, 1898), and John Winthrop's 
History o/ New England. 1630-1649 (2 vols., Boston, 1825-1826), 
are essentially original sources, as are the Writings of Captain John 
Smith (Arber's ed.) for early Virginia. So are Alexander Brown's 
Genesis of the United States (2 vols., Boston, 1890), and the First 
Republic in America (Boston, 1898). Philip Alexander Bruce's 
Economic History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century (2 vols., 
New York, 1896) and W. B. Weeden's Economic and Social History 
of New England (2 vols., Boston, 1890) are of great value. Edmund 
B. O'Callaghan's History of New Netherland (2 vols., New York, 
1846-1848), John Gorham Palfrey's History of New England 
(5 vols., Boston, 1858-1890) and I. B. Richman's Rhode Island, 
its Making and its Meaning (New York, 1902), are valuable for 
colonial New York, New England and Rhode Island respectively. 
George Bancroft's History of the United States (6 vols., 1884-1885) 
still has a great reputation, though it is altogether inadequate for 
the colonial period. Richard Hildreth's History of the United States 
(6 vols., New York, 1849-1852) is dry but accurate. John Andrew 
Doyle's English in America (5 vols., New York, 1882-1907) is valuable 
for the 1 7th century. Herbert L. Osgood's American Colonies in 
the Seventeenth Century (3 vols., New York, 1904-1907) discusses 
the institutional history of the period. John Fiske has popularized 
the history of the times in a number of excellent works, some of them 
of decided originality. Francis Parkman's France and England in 
North America (12 vols., latest ed., Boston, 1898) is a classic on the 
history of Canada and its relations with the British colonies. William 
Kingsford's History of Canada (10 vols., Toronto, 18871898), and 
Frangois Xavier Garneau's Histoire du Canada (4 vols., Quebec, 
1845-1852), may be cited as holding places of special authority. 
Justin Winsor's Christopher Columbus (Boston, 1891), Cartier to 
Frontenac (ibid., 1894), and later volumes, are especially valuable for 
the history of exploration, discovery and cartography. The American 
Nation (22 vols., New York, 1903-10.07), a co-operative history, 
edited by A. B. Hart, outlines the political history of the country 
as a whole. Edward Channing's History of the United States (8 vols., 
New York, 1905 sqq.), and Elroy McKendree Avery's History of the 
United States and Its People (15 vols., Cleveland, Ohio, 1905 sqq.) 
devote much space to the colonies and War of Independence. Sir 
George Otto Trevelyan's American Revolution (3 vols., London, 1 899^- 
1904) is a brilliant literary performance. Of special value is 
Lecky's study of the same subject in his History of England in the 
Eighteenth Century (8 vols., London, 1878-1890). George Louis 
Beer's Origins of the British Colonial System (New York, 1908) and 
his British Colonial Policy, 1754-1765 (New York, 1907), Justin 
Harvey Smith's Our Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony (2 vols., 
New York, 1907) and S. G. Fisher's Struggle for American Inde- 
pendence (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1908) are valuable monographs. For 
biography see the " American Statesmen Series " (16 vols., Boston) 
and Samuel V. Wells's Life and Public Services of Samuel Adams 
(3 vols., Boston, 1865); James Kendall Hosmer's Life of Thomas 
Hutchinson (Boston, 1896); William Garrott Brown's Life of Oliver 
Ellsworth (New York, 1905); B. J. Lossing's Life and Times of 
Philip Schuyler (2 vols., New York, 1860^1873) and Bayard Tucker- 
man's Philip Schuyler, Major-General in the American Revolution 
(New York, 1903) ; George Washington Greene's Life of Nathanael 
Greene (3 vols., Boston, 1867-1871) and William Johnson's Sketches 
of the Life and Correspondence of Nathanael Greene (Charleston, 
1822); William -Thompson Reed's Life and Correspondence of George 
Reed (Philadelphia, 1870); Charles Janeway Stille's Life and Times 
of John Dickinson (Philadelphia, 1891); William Wirt Henry's 
Patrick Henry (3 vols., New York, 1891); John Marshall's Life of 
George Washington (5 vols., Philadelphia, 1804-1807) ; C. Tower's The 
Marquis de La Fayette in the American Revolution (2vols., ibid., 1895) ; 
F. Kapp's Life of Frederick William von Steuben (New York, 1859), 
and his Life of John KoJb (New York, 1884). Moses Coit Tyler's 
Literary History of the American Revolution (2 vols., New York, 



684 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1783-1789 



1897) is of unique interest. Lorenzo Sabine's Biographical Sketches 
of Loyalists of the American Revolution (2 vols., Boston, 1864), 
and Claude Halstead Van Tyne's The Loyalists in the American 
Revolution (New York, 1902) ; Herbert Friedenwald's The Declara- 
tion of Independence (New York, 1904), and John Hampden 
Hazelton's the Declaration of Independence Its History (New York. 
1906), are valuable special studies. Many important monographs 
have appeared in the "Johns Hopkins University Studies," "the 
Columbia University Studies," the "Harvard Historical Studies," 
and among the publications of the universities of Wisconsin and 
Pennsylvania. The Carnegie Institution has issued the first volume 
of a report, edited by C. M. Andrews and F. G. Davenport, on 
materials in British archives for the period before 1783. The biblio- 
graphy of American history receives adequate treatment in Justin 
Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of America (8 vols., Boston, 
1886-1889) and in J. N. Larned's Literature of American History 
(Boston, 1902). (H. L. O.) 

F. The Struggle for National Government, 1783-1789. 

77. The long struggle to secure the ratification of the Articles 
of Confederation had given time for careful consideration of 
the new scheme of government. Maryland's persistent criticism 
had prepared men to find defects in them. Conventions of 
New England states, pamphlets, and private correspondence 
had found flaws in the new plan; but a public trial of it was a 
necessary preliminary to getting rid of it. The efforts of the 
individual states to maintain the war, the disposition of 
each state to magnify its own share in the result, the popular 
jealousy of a superior power, transferred now from parlia- 
ment to the central government, were enough to ensure the 
articles some lease of life. A real national government had to be 
extorted through the " grinding necessities of a reluctant people." 

78. Congress and its committees had already begun to declare 
that it was impossible to carry on a government efficiently under 
the articles. Its expostulations were to be continued for several 
years before they were heard. In the. meantime it did not 
neglect the great subject which concerned the essence of nation- 
ality the western territory. Virginia had made a first offer 
to cede her claims, but it was not accepted. A committee of 
Congress now made a report (1782) maintaining the validity 
of the rights which New York had transferred to Congress; and 
Territorial * n tne next year Vi r g m i a made an acceptable offer. 
Cessions. Her deed was accepted (March i, 1784); the other 

, claimant states followed; and Congress, which 

was not authorized by the articles to hold or govern territory, 
became the sovereign of a tract of some 430,000 sq. m., 
covering all the country between the Atlantic tier of states 
and the Mississippi river, from the British possessions nearly 
to the Gulf of Mexico. 

79. In this territory Congress had now on its hands the 
same question of colonial government in which the British 

parliament had so signally failed. The manner in 
Government. wn ' c ^ Congress dealt with it has made the United 

States the country that it is. The leading feature 
of its plan was the erection, as rapidly as possible, of states, 
similar in powers to the original states. The power of Congress 
over the Territories was to be theoretically absolute, but it was 
to be exerted in encouraging the development of thorough 
self-government, and in granting it as fast as the settlers should 
TheOrdi- become capable of exercising it. Copied in succeed- 
oaace of ing acts for the organization of Territories, and still 
l787 - controlling the spirit of such acts, the Ordinance of 
1787 (July 13, 1787) is the foundation of almost everything 
which makes the modern American system peculiar. 

80. The preliminary plan of Congress was reported by a com- 
mittee of which Thomas Jefferson (q.v.) was chairman, and was 
adopted by Congress on the 23rd of April 1784. It provided for 
the erection of seventeen states, north and south of the Ohio, with 
some odd names, such as Syjvania, Assenisipia, Mesopotamia, 
Polypotamia and Pelisipia. These states were for ever to be a 
part of the United States, and to have republican governments. 
The provision, "After the year 1800 there shall be neither slavery 
nor involuntary servitude in any of the said states, other than in the 
punishment of crimes whereof the party shall have been duly con- 
victed," represented Jefferson's feeling on this subject, but was lost 
for want of seven states in its favour. 

81. The final plan of 1787 was reported by a committee of which 
Nathan Dane, of Massachusetts, was chairman. The prohibition 



of slavery was made perpetual, and a fugitive slave clause was 
added. The ordinance covered only the territory north of the 
Ohio, and provided for not less than three nor more than five 
states. Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin have 
been the resultant states. At first Congress was to appoint the 
governor, secretary, judges and militia generals, and the governor 
and judges were, until the organization of a legislature, to make 
laws subject to the veto of Congress. When the population 
reached 5000 free male adult inhabitants the Territory was to have 
an assembly of its own, to consist of the governor, a legislative 
council of five, selected by Congress from ten nominations by 
the lower house, and a lower House of Representatives of one dele- 
gate for every 500 free male inhabitants. 1 This assembly was to 
choose a delegate to sit, but not to vote, in Congress, and was to 
make laws not repugnant to " the principles and articles " estab- 
lished and declared < in the ordinance. These were as follows : the new 
states or Territories were to maintain freedom of worship, the 
benefits of the writ of habeas corpus, trial by jury, proportionate 
representation, bail, moderate fines and punishments, and the 
preservation of liberty, property and private contracts ; they were to 
encourage education and keep faith with the Indians; they were 
to remain for ever a part of the United States; and they were not 
to interfere with the disposal of the soil by the United States, or to 
tax the lands of the United States, or to tax any citizen of the 
United States for the use of the navigable waters leading into the 
Mississippi or St Lawrence rivers. These articles were to be un- 
alterable unless by mutual consent of a state and the United States. 
The transformation of the Territory, with its limited govern- 
ment, into a state, with all the powers of an original state, was 
promised by Congress as soon as the population should reach 
60,000 free inhabitants, or, under certain conditions, before that 
time. 

82. The Constitution, which was adopted almost immediately 
afterwards, provided merely (art. iv, 3) that " Congress shall 
have power to dispose of, and make all needful rules and regulations 
respecting, the territory or other property belonging to the United 
States," and that " new states may be admitted by the Congress 
into this Union." Opinions have varied as to the force of the 
Ordinance of 1787. The Southern school of writers have been 
inclined to consider it ultra vires and void; and they adduce the fact 
that the new Congress under the Constitution thought it necessary 
to re-enact the ordinance (Aug. 7, 1789). The opposite school have 
inclined to hold the ordinance as still in force. Even as to the 
Territorial provision of the Constitution, opinions have varied. 

83. In the interval of the settlement of the territorial question 
the affairs of the " league of friendship," known as the United 
States, had been going from bad to worse, culminat- Difficulties 
ing in 1786. The public debt amounted in 1783 oftheCon- 
to about $42,000,000, of which $8,000,000 was '"'<"' 
owed abroad in Holland, France and Spain. Congress had 
no power to levy taxes for the payment of interest or principal; 
it could only make requisitions on the states. In the four 
years ending in 1786 requisitions had been made for $10,000,000 
and the receipts from them had amounted to but one-fourth of 
what had been called for. Even the interest on the debt was 
falling into arrears, and the first instalment of the principal fell 
due in 1787. To pay this, and subsequent annual instalments of 
$1,000,000, was quite impossible. Robert Morris, the financier 
of the War of Independence, resigned in 1783 rather than " be 
the minister of injustice," hoping thus to force upon the states 
the necessity of granting taxing powers to Congress. Washing- 
ton, on retiring from the command-in-chief, wrote a circular 
letter to the governors of all the states, urging the necessity of 
granting to Congress some power to provide a national revenue. 
Congress (April 18,1783) appealed to the states for power to 
levy specific duties on certain enumerated articles, and 5% 
on others. It was believed that with these duties and the 
requisitions, which were now to be met by internal taxation, 
$2,500,000 per annum could be raised. Some of the states 
ratified the proposal; others ratified it with modifications; 
others rejected it, or changed their votes; and it never received 
the necessary ratification of all the states. The obedience 
to the requisitions grew more lax. In 1786 a committee of 
Congress reported that any further reliance on requisitions 
would be " dishonourable to the understandings of those who 
entertain such confidence." 

1 When the total number should reach 25, the legislature itself 
was to have the power of regulating the number and proportion. 
Property qualifications were prescribed for electors, representatives 
and members ol the council. 



HISTORY 1783-1789] 



UNITED STATES 



685 



Of the 

States. 



84. In the states the case was even worse. Some of them had 
been seduced into issuing paper currency in such profusion 

that they were almost bankrupt. Great Britain, 
in the treaty of peace, had recognized the indepen- 
dence of the individual states, naming them in order; 
and her government followed the same system in all its inter- 
course with its late colonies. Its restrictive system was main- 
tained, and the states, vying with each other for commerce, 
could adopt no system of counteracting measures. Every 
possible burden was thus shifted to American commerce; and 
Congress could do nothing, for, though it asked for the power 
to regulate commerce for fifteen years, the states refused it. 
The decisions of the various state courts began to conflict, and 
there was no power to reconcile them or to prevent the conse- 
quences of the divergence. Several states, towards the end of 
this period, began to prepare or adopt systems of protection of 
domestic productions or manufactures, aimed at preventing com- 
petition by neighbouring states. The Tennessee settlers were 
in insurrection against the authority of North Carolina; and 
the Kentucky settlers were disposed to cut loose from Virginia. 
Poverty, with the rigid execution of process for debt, drove the 
farmers of western Massachusetts into an insurrection (Shays's 
Insurrection) which the state had much difficulty in suppressing; 
and Congress was so incompetent to aid Massachusetts that it 
was driven to the expedient of imagining an Indian war in that 
direction, in order to transfer troops thither. Congress itself 
was in danger of disappearance from the scene. 
' 'The necessity for the votes of nine of the thirteen 
states for the passage of important measures made the absence 
of a state's delegation quite as effective as a negative vote. 
Congress even had to make repeated appeals to obtain a 
quorum for the ratification of the treaty of peace with Great 
Britain. In 1784 Congress actually broke up in disgust, and the 
French minister reported to his government " There is now in 
America no general government neither Congress, nor president, 
nor head of any one administrative department." Everywhere 
there were symptoms of a dissolution of the Union. 

85. Congress was evidently incompetent to frame a new plan 
of national government; its members were too dependent on 
Proposals their states, and would be recalled if they took part 
fora in framing anything stronger than the articles. 
Conven</on. The idea of a convent ; on o f t h e states, independent 

of Congress, was in the minds and mouths of many; Thomas 
Paine had suggested it as long ago as his Common Sense 
pamphlet: " Let a continental conference be held ... to frame a 
continental charter . . . fixing the number and manner of choos- 
ing members of Congress, members of assembly . . . drawing the 
line of business and jurisdiction between them." To a people 
as fond of law and the forms of law as the Americans there was a 
difficulty in the way. The articles had provided that no change 
should be made in them but by the assent of every state legisla- 
ture. If the work of such a convention was to be subject to this 
rule, its success would be no greater than that of Congress; if 
its plan was to be put into force on the ratification of less than 
the whole number of states, the step would be more or less 
revolutionary. In the end the latter course was taken, though 
not until every other expedient had failed; but the act of taking 
it showed the underlying consciousness that union, indepen- 
dence and nationality were now inextricably complicated, and 
that the thirteen had become one in some senses. 

86. The country drifted into a convention by a roundabout 
way. The navigation of Chesapeake Bay and the Potomac 
needed regulation; and the states of Maryland and Virginia, 
having plenary power in the matter, appointed delegates to 
arrange such rules. The delegates met (1785) at Alexandria, 
Va. (?.i>.), and at Washington's house, Mount Vernon. Maryland, 
in adopting their report, proposed that Pennsylvania and Dela- 

, ware be asked to nominate commissioners, and 
Convention , .. . . ... ^. f 

of 1786. Virginia went further and proposed a meeting 01 

commissioners from all the states to frame com- 
mercial regulations for the whole. The convention met (1786) 
at Annapolis (q-v.), Maryland, but only five states were 



" 



represented, and their delegates adjourned, after recommending 
another convention at Philadelphia in May 1787. 

87. Congress had failed in its last resort a proposal that the 
states should grant it the impost power alone; New York's veto 
had put an end to this last hope. Confessing its 
helplessness, Congress approved the call for a second 
convention; twelve of the states (all but Rhode 

Island) chose delegates; and the convention met at Philadelphia 
(May 25, 1787), with an abler body of men than had been seen 
in Congress since the first two Continental Congresses. Among 
others, Virginia sent Washington, James Madison, Edmund 
Randolph, George Mason and George Wythe; Pennsylvania: 
Franklin, Robert and Gouverneur Morris and James Wilson; 
Massachusetts: Rufus King, Elbridge Gerry and Caleb Strong; 
Connecticut: William S. Johnson, Roger Sherman and Oliver 
Ellsworth; New York: Alexander Hamilton; New Jersey: 
William Paterson; and South Carolina the two Pinckneys and 
John Rutledge. With hardly an exception the fifty-five 
delegates were clear-headed, moderate men, with positive 
views of their own and firm purpose, but with a willingness 
to compromise. 

88. Washington was chosen to preside, and the convention 
began the formation of a new Constitution, instead of proposing 
changes in the old one. Two parties were formed 

at once. The Virginia delegates offered a plan pj^,. 
(see RANDOLPH, EDMUND), proposing a Congress, 
of two houses, having power to legislate on national subjects, 
and to compel the states to fulfil their obligations. This is 
often spoken of as a " national " plan, but very improperly. 
It was a " large-state " plan, proposed by those states which had 
or hoped for a large population. It meant to base represen- 
tation in both houses on population, so that the large states 
could control both of them, and it left the appointment of the 
president or other executive and the Federal judges to Congress 
so that the whole administration of the new government 
would fall under large-state control. On behalf of 
the "small states" Paterson of New Jersey brought 
in another plan. 1 It continued the old Confederation, 
with its single house and equal state vote, but added the power 
to regulate commerce and raise a revenue, and to compel the 
states to obey requisitions. The large states had a general 
majority of six to five, but the constant dropping off of one or 
more votes, on minor features, from their side to that of the small 
states prevented the hasty adoption of any radical measures. 
Nevertheless, the final collision could not be evaded; the basis 
of the two plans was in the question of one or two houses, of 
equal or proportionate state votes, of large-state supremacy or 
of state equality. In July the large states began to show a 
disposition to force their plan through, and the small states 
began to threaten a concerted withdrawal from the convention. 

89. The Connecticut delegates, from their first appearance 
in the convention, had favoured a compromise. They had been 
trained under the New England system, in which 

the assemblies were made up of two houses, one p mm i se 
representing the people of the whole state, according 
to population, and the other giving an equal representation to 
the towns. They proposed that the new Congress should be 
made up of two houses, one representing the states in proportion 
to their population, the other giving an equal vote to each state. 
At a deadlock the convention referred the proposition to a 
committee, and it reported in favour of the Connecticut com- 
promise. Connecticut had been voting in the large-state list, 
and the votes of her delegates could not be spared from their 
slender majority; 1 now another of the large states, North Carolina, 
came over to Connecticut's proposal, and it was adopted. 
Thus the first great struggle of the convention resulted in a 
compromise, which took shape in an important feature of the 
Constitution, the Senate. 

90. The small states were still anxious, in every new question, 
to throw as much power as possible into the hands of their 

1 A third plan was introduced by Charles Pinckney; for a dis- 
cussion of this plan see the separate article on PINCKNEY. 



686 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1783-1789 



special representative, the Senate; and that body thus ob- 
tained its power to act as an executive council as a restraint 
The Work on tne president in appointments and treaties. 
of the ' This was the only survival of the first alignment 
Convention. o f parties; but new divisions arose on almost every 
proposal introduced. The election of the president was given 
at various times to Congress and to electors chosen by the 
state legislatures; and the final mode of choice, by electors 
chosen by the states, was settled only two weeks before the end 
of the convention, the office of vice-president coming in with it. 
The opponents and supporters of the slave trade compromised 
by agreeing not to prohibit it Tor twenty years. Another com- 
promise included three-fifths of the slaves in enumerating 
population for representation. This provision gave the slave- 
holders abnormal power as the number of slaves increased. 

91. Any explanation of the system introduced by the Constitution 
must start with the historical fact that, while the national govern- 
ment was practically suspended, from 1776 until 1789, the only 
power to which political privileges had been given by the people 
was the states, and that the state legislatures were, when the 
convention met, politically omnipotent, with the exception of the 
few limitations imposed on them by the early state constitu- 
tions. The general rule, then, is that the Federal government 
has only the powers granted to it by the Federal Constitution, 
while the state has all governmental powers not forbidden to it by 
the state or the Federal Constitution. But the phrase denning the 
Federal government's powers is no longer " expressly granted, " 
as in the Articles of Confederation, but merely " granted, " so that 
powers necessary to the execution of granted powers belong to the 
Federal government, even though not directly named in the Con- 
stitution. This question of the interpretation or " construction " 
of the Constitution is at the bottom of real national politics in the 
United States: the minimizing parties have sought to hold the 
Federal government to a strict construction of granted powers, 
while their opponents have sought to widen those powers by a 
broad construction of them. The strict-construction parties, when 
they have come into power, have regularly adopted the practice of 
their opponents, so that construction has pretty steadily broadened. 

92. Popular sovereignty, then, is the basis of the American 
system. But it does not, as does the British system, choose its 

legislative body and leave unlimited powers to it. 
It makes its " Constitution " the permanent medium 
of its orders or prohibitions to all branches of the 
Federal government and to many branches of the state govern- 
ments: they must do what the Constitution directs and leave 
undone what it forbids. The people, therefore, are continually 
laying their commands on their governments; and they have 
instituted a system of Federal courts to ensure obedience to their 
commands. A British court must obey the act of parliament ; 
the American court is bound and sworn to obey the Constitution 
first, and the act of Congress or of the state legislature only 
so far as it is warranted by the Constitution. But the American 
court does not deal directly with the act in question; it deals with 
individuals who have a suit before it. One of these individuals 
relies on an act of Congress or of a state legislature; the act thus 
comes before the court for examination ; and it supports the act 
or disregards it as " unconstitutional, " or in violation of the Con- 
stitution. If the court is one of high rank or reputation, or one 
to which a decision may be appealed, as the United States Supreme 
Court, other courts follow the precedent, and the law falls to the 
ground. The court does not come into direct conflict with the legis- 
lative body; and, where a decision would be apt to produce such 
a conflict, the practice has been for the court to regard the matter 
as a " political question " and refuse to consider it. 

93. The preamble states that " we, the people of the United 
States, " establish and ordain the Constitution. Events have shown 
that it was the people of the whole United States that established 
'the Constitution, but the people of 1787 seem to have inclined 
to the belief that it was the people of each state for itself. This 
belief was never changed in the South; and in 1861 the people of 
that section believed that the ordinances of secession were merely 
a repeal of the enacting clause by the power which had passed it, 
the people of the state. An account of the form of government 
established bv the Constitution appears elsewhere (see UNITED 
STATES: VII. Constitution and Government, pp. 646 sqq.). 

94. The Constitution's leading difference from the Confederation is 
that it gives the national government power over individuals. The 

Federal courts are the principal agent in securing this 
oveladl- ess ? nt ' a l power; without them, the Constitution might 
vlduals ' eas ''y have been as dismal a failure as the Confederation. 

It has also been a most important agent in securing to the 
national government its supremacy over the states. From this point 
of view the most important provision of the Constitution is the grant 
of jurisdiction to Federal courts in cases involving the construc- 
tion of the Constitution or of laws or treaties made under it. The 



25th section of the Judiciary Act of 1 789 permitted any Supreme Court 
justice to grant a writ of error to a state court in a case in which the 
constitutionality of a Federal law or treaty had been denied, or in 
which a state law objected to as in violation of the Federal Constitu- 
tion had been maintained. In such cases, the defeated party had 
the right to carry the " Federal question " to the Federal courts. 
It was not until 1816 that the Federal courts undertook to exercise 
this power; it raised a storm of opposition, but it was maintained, 
and has made the Constitution' what it professed to be " the 
supreme law of the land. '' Treason was restricted Treason 
to the act of levying war against the United States, 
or of adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. 
The states, however, have always asserted their power to punish 
for treason against them individually. It has never been fully 
maintained in practice; but the theory had its effect in the 
secession period. 

95. The system of the United States is almost the only national 
system, in active and successful operation, as to which the exact 
location of the sovereignty is still a mooted question. 

The contention of the Calhoun school that the separate So vere/z-n(y 
states were sovereign before and after the adoption of 
the Constitution, that the Union was purely voluntary, and that the 
whole people, or the people of all the other states, bad no right to main- 
tain or enforce the Union against any state has been ended by the 
Civil War. But that did not decide the location of the sovereignty. 
The prevalent opinion is still that first formulated by Madison: 
that the states were sovereign before 1789; that they then gave up 
a part of their sovereignty to the Federal government ; that the Union 
and the Constitution were the work of the states, not of the whole 
people; and that reserved powers are reserved to the people of the 
states, not to the whole people. The use of the bald phrase " reserved 
to the people, " not to the people of the several states, in the loth 
amendment, seems to argue an underlying consciousness, even in 
1789, that the whole people of the United States was already a 
political power quite distinct from the states, or the people of the 
states; and the tendency of later opinion is in this direction. 
The restriction to state lines seems to be a self-imposed limi- 
tation by the national people, which it might remove, as in 1789, 
if an emergency should make it necessary. 

96. By whatever sovereignty the Constitution was framed and 
imposed, it was meant only as a scheme in outline, to be filled up 
afterwards, and from time to time, by legislation. The Deta n s ol 
idea is most plainly carried out in the Federal judiciary : iaeSvstem 
the Constitution only directs that there shall be a " 
Supreme Court, and marks out the general jurisdiction of all the courts, 
leaving Congress, under the restriction of the president's veto power, 
to build up the system of courts which shall best carry out the design 
of the Constitution. But the same idea is visible in every department, 
and it has carried the Constitution safely through a century which 
has radically altered every other civilized government. It has 
combined elasticity with the limitations necessary to make democratic 
government successful over a vast territory, having infinitely diverse 
interests, and needing, more than almost anything else, positive 
opportunities for sober second thought by the people. A sudden 
revolution of popular thought or feeling is enough to change the 
House of Representatives from top to bottom; it must continue for 
several years before it can make a radical change in the Senate, and 
for years longer before it can carry this change thrgugh the judiciary, 
which holds for life; and all these changes must take place before the 
full effects upon the laws or Constitution are accomplished. But 
minor changes are reached in the meantime easily and naturally in 
the course of legislation. The members of the Convention of 1787 
showed their wisdom most plainly in not trying to do too much ; if 
they had done more they would have done far less. 

97. The convention adjourned on the I7th of September 1787, 
having adopted the Constitution. Its last step was a resolution 
that the Constitution be sent to the Congress of the 
Confederation, with the recommendation that it 
submitted to conventions elected by the people 

of each state for ratification or rejection; that, if nine states 
should ratify it, Congress should appoint days for the popular 
election of electors, and that then the new Congress and 
president should, " without delay, proceed to execute this 
Constitution." Congress resolved that the report of the con- 
vention be sent to the several legislatures, to be submitted 
to conventions; and this was all the approval the Consti- 
tution ever received from Congress. Both Congress and the 
convention were careful not to open the dangerous question, 
How was a government which was not to be changed but by 
the legislatures of all the states to be entirely supplanted by 
a different system through the approval of conventions in 
three-fourths of them ? They left such questions to be opened, 
if at all, in the less public forum of the legislatures. 

98. Before the end of the year Delaware, Pennsylvania and 



HISTORY 1783-1789] 



UNITED STATES 



687 



Ratifies 
thin. 



Inaugura- 
tion. 



New Jersey had ratified; and Georgia, Connecticut and Massa- 
chusetts followed during the first two months of 1788. Thus far 
Federalists tne on 'y strong opposition had been in Massa- 
andAnti- chusetts, a " large state." In it the struggle began 
Federalists, between the friends and the opponents of the 
Constitution, with its introduction of a strong Federal power; 
and it raged in the conventions, legislatures, newspapers and 
pamphlets. In a classic series of papers, the Federalist, 
Alexander Hamilton, with the assistance of James Madison and 
John Jay, explained the new Constitution and defended it. As 
it was written before the Constitution went into force, it speaks 
much for the ability of its writers that it has passed into a 
standard textbook of American constitutional law. 

99. The seventh and eighth states Maryland and South 
Carolina ratified in April and May 1788; and, while the con- 
ventions of Virginia and New York were still wrang- 
ling over the great question, the ninth state, New 
Hampshire, ratified, and the Constitution passed out 

of theory into fact. The Anti-Federalists of the Virginia and 
New York conventions offered conditional ratifications of all 
sorts; but the Federalists stubbornly refused to consider them, 
and at last, by very slender majorities, these two states ratified. 
North Carolina refused to ratify the Constitution, and in Rhode 
Island it was referred to the several towns instead of to a con- 
vention and was rejected by an overwhelming majority, the 
Federalists, who advocated the calling of a convention, refrain- 
ing from voting (112). Congress named the first Wednesday 
of January 1789 as the day for the choice of electors, the first 
Wednesday in February for the choice of president and 
vice-president, and the first Wednesday in March 
^ or ^ e mau !? ura tion of the new government, at 
New York City. The last date fell on the 4th of 
March, which has been the limit of each president's term since 
that time. 

100. When the votes of the electors were counted before 
Congress, it was found that Washington had been unanimously 
Pan of the elected president, and that John Adams, standing 
Confedera- next on the list, was vice-president. Long before 
tion. t ne inauguration the Congress of the Confederation 
had expired of mere inanition; its attendance simply ran down 
until (Oct. 21, 1788) its record ceased, and the United States 
got on without any national government for nearly six months. 
The struggle for nationality had been successful, and the old 
order faded out of existence. 

101. The first census (1790) followed so closely upon the 
inauguration of the Constitution that the country may fairly be 
said to have had a population of nearly four millions in 1789. 
Slavery la Something over half a million of these were slaves, of 
the United African birth or blood. Slavery of this sort had taken 
states. root j n almost a u the colonies, its original establish- 
ment being everywhere by custom. When the custom had been 
sufficiently established statutes came in to regulate a relation 
already existing. But it is not true, as the Dred Scott decision 
held long afterwards (215), that the belief that slaves were 
chattels simply, things, not persons, held good at the time of the 
adoption of the Constitution. Times had changed somewhat. 
The peculiar language of the Constitution itself, describing a 
slave as a " person held to service or labour," under the laws of 
any state, puts the general feeling exactly: slaves were persons 
from whom the laws of some of the states withheld personal 
rights for the time. In accordance with this feeling most of the 
Northern states were on the high road towards abolition of 

slavery. Vermont had never allowed it. In Massa- 
*hNorfii. a cnusetts it was swept out by a summary court 

decision that it was irreconcilable with the new state 
constitution. Other states soon began systems of gradual 
abolition, which finally extinguished slavery north of Maryland, 
but so gradually that there were still 18 apprentices for life in 
New Jersey in 1860, the last remnants of the former slave system. 
In the new states north of the Ohio slavery was prohibited by the 
ordinance of 1787 (81), and the prohibition was maintained in 
spite of many attempts to get rid of it and introduce slavery. 



102. The sentiment of thinking men in the South was exactly 
the same, or in some cases more bitter from their personal 
entanglement with the system. Jefferson's language 

as to slavery is irreconcilable with the chattel notion; ^ c *""u'/i 
no abolitionist agitator ever used warmer language 
than he as to the evils of slavery; and the expression, " our 
brethren," used by him of the slaves, is conclusive. Washing- 
ton, George Mason and other Southern men were almost as warm 
against slavery as Jefferson, and there were societies for the 
abolition of slavery in the South. In the Constitutional conven- 
tion of 1787 the strongest opposition to an extension of the 
period of non-interference with the slave trade from 1800 to 1808 
came from Virginia, whereas every one of the New England 
states, in which the trade was an important source of profit, 
voted for this extension. No thinking man could face with 
equanimity the future problem of holding a separate race of 
millions in slavery. Like most slave laws, the laws of the 
Southern states were harsh: rights were almost absolutely with- 
held from the slave, and punishments of the severest kind were 
legal; but the execution of the system was milder than its legal 
possibilities might lead one to imagine. The country was as yet 
so completely agricultural that Southern slavery kept all the 
patriarchal features possible to such a system. 

103. Indeed, the whole country was almost exclusively agri- 
cultural, and, in spite of every effort to encourage manufac- 
tures by state bounties, they formed the meagrest Agriculture 
element in the national production. Connecticut, Commerce 
which now teems with manufactures, was just begin- and Manu- 
ning the production of tinware and clocks; Rhode facturt!S ' 
Island and Massachusetts were just beginning to work in 
cotton from models of jennies and Arkwright machinery 
surreptitiously obtained from England; and other states, 
beyond local manufactures of paper, glass and iron, were almost 
entirely agricultural, or were engaged in industries directly 
dependent on agriculture. Commerce was dependent on agri- 
culture for export and manufactured imports were enough to 
drown out every other form. 

104. There were but five cities in the United States having a 
population of more than 10,000 New York (33,000), Phila- 
delphia (28,500), Boston (18,000), Charleston (16,000) 

and Baltimore (13,000). The oopulation of the 
city of New York is now greater than that of the 
original thirteen states in 1790; the state of New York has now 
about twice as many inhabitants as the thirteen had in 1790; 
and the new states of Ohio and Illinois, which had hardly any 
white inhabitants in 1789, have each a larger population than the 
whole thirteen then had. Imports have swollen from $23,000,000 
to $1,475,612,580 (1909); exports from $20,000,000 to 
$1,728,203,271 (1909), since 1790. The revenues of the new 
government in 1790 were $4,000,000; the expenditures, exclud- 
ing interest on the public debt, but $i,ooo,coo; now both 
the revenues and the expenditures are about $1,000,000,000. 
It is not easy for the modern American to realize the poverty 
and weakness of his country at the* inauguration of the new 
system of government, however he may realize the simplicity of 
the daily life of its people. 

105. Outside the cities communication was slow. One stage 
a week was enough for the connexion between the great cities; 
and communication elsewhere depended on private 
conveyance. The Western settlements were just 
beginning to make the question more serious. Enterprising 
land companies were the moving force which had impelled the 
passage of the Ordinance of 1787; and the first column of their 
settlers was pouring into Ohio and forming connexion with their 
predecessors in Kentucky and Tennessee. Marietta and Cin- 
cinnati had been founded. But the intending settlers were 
obliged to make the journey down the Ohio river from Pittsburg 
in bullet-proof flat-boats, for protection against the Indians, 
and the return trip depended on the use of oars. For more 
than twenty years these flat-boats were the chief means of river 
commerce in the West ; and in the longer trips, as to New Orleans, 
the boats were generally broken up at the end and sold for lumber, 



688 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1789-1801 



the crew making the trip home on foot or on horseback. John 
Fitch and others were already experimenting on what was soon 
to be the steamboat; but the statesman of 1789, looking at 
the task of keeping under one government a country of such 
distances, with such difficulties of communication, may be 
pardoned for having felt anxiety as to the future. To almost 
all thinking men of the time the Constitution was an experiment, 
and the unity of the new nation a subject for very serious doubt. 

106. The comparative isolation of the people everywhere, the 
lack of books, the poverty of the schools and newspapers, were 

tore a ^ influences which worked strongly against any 
pronounced literary development. Poems, essays 
and paintings were feeble imitations of European models; 
history was annalistic, if anything; and the drama hardly 
existed. In two points the Americans were strong, and had done 
good work. Such men as Jonathan Edwards had excelled in 
various departments of theology, and American preaching had 
reached a high degree of quality and influence; and, in the line 
of politics, the American state papers rank among the very best 
of their kind. Having a very clear perception of their political 
purposes, and having been restricted in study and reading to the 
great masters of pure and vigorous English, and particularly 
to the English translators of the Bible, the American leaders 
came to their work with an English style which could hardly have 
been improved. The writings of Franklin, Washington, the 
Adamses, Hamilton, Jefferson, Madison, Jay and others show the 
secret of their strength in every page. Much the same reasons, 
with the influences of democracy, brought oratory, as represented 
by Patrick Henry, Fisher Ames, John Randolph and others, to a 
point not very far below the mark afterwards reached by Daniel 
Webster. The effect of these facts on the subsequent develop- 
ment of the country is not often estimated at its full value. All 
through an immigration of every language and dialect under 
heaven the English language has been protected in its supremacy 
by the necessity of going back to the " fathers of the republic " 
for the first, and often the complete, statement of principles in 
every great political struggle, social problem or lawsuit. 

107. The cession of the " North- West Territory " by Virginia 
and New York had been followed up by similar cessions by 

Massachusetts (1785), Connecticut (1786) and South 
Settlement. Carolina (1787). North Carolina did not cede 

Tennessee until early in 1790, nor Georgia her western 
claims until 1802. Settlement in all these regions was still very 
sparse. The centres of Western settlement, in Tennessee and 
Kentucky, had become more firmly established, and a new one, 
in Ohio, had just been begun. The whole western limits of settle- 
ment of the old thirteen states had moved much nearer their 
present boundaries; and the acquisition of the Western title, with 
the liberal policy of organization and government which had been 
begun, was to have its first clear effects during the first decade of 
the new government. Almost the only obstacle to its earlier 
success had been the doubts as to the attitude which the Spanish 
authorities, at New Orleans and Madrid, would take towards the 
TheMiasia- new sett l ements - They nad already asserted a claim 
sippi River. tnat tne Mississippi was an exclusively Spanish stream 

from its mouth up to the Yazoo, and that no American 
boat should be allowed to sail on this part of it. To the Western 
settler the Alleghanies and bad roads were enough to cut him off 
from any other way to a market than down the Mississippi; 
and it was not easy to restrain him from a forcible defiance of the 
Spanish claim. The Northern states were willing to allow the 
Spanish claim for a period of years in return for a commercial 
treaty; the Southern states and the Western settlers protested 
angrily; and once more the spectre of dissolution appeared, not 
to be laid again until the new government had made a treaty 
with Spain in 1795 (see PINCKNEY, THOMAS), securing common 
navigation of the Mississippi. 

1 08. Contemporary authorities agree that a marked change 
Social hac * come over tne People since 1775, and few of 
Commons, them seem to think the change one for the better. 

Many attribute it to the looseness of manners an<J 
morals introduced by the French and British soldiers; others to 



the general effects of war; a few, Tories all, to the demoralizing 
effects of rebellion. The successful establishment of nationality 
would be enough to explain most of it; and if we remember that 
the new nation had secured its title to a vast western territory, 
of unknown but rich capacities, which it was now moving to 
reduce to possession by emigration, it would seem far more 
strange if the social conditions had not been somewhat disturbed. 

G. The Development of Democracy, 178^-1801. 

109. All the tendencies of political institutions in the United 
States had certainly been towards democracy; but it cannot be 
said that the leading men were hearty or unanimous Democracy 
in their agreement with this tendency. Not a few in the United 
of them were pronounced republicans even before states - 
1775, but the mass of them had no great objections to a mon- 
archical form of government until the war-spirit had converted 
them. The Declaration of Independence had been directed 
rather against the king than against a king. Even after popular 
sovereignty had pronounced against a king, class spirit was for 
some time a fair substitute for aristocracy. As often happens, 
democracy at least thought of a Caesar when it apprehended 
class control. Certain discontented officers of the Continental 
Army proposed to Washington that he become king, but he 
promptly and indignantly put the offer by. The suggestion of 
a return to monarchy in some form, as a possible road out of 
the confusion of the Confederation, occurs in the correspondence 
of some of the leading men; and while the Convention of 1787 
was holding its secret sessions a rumour went out that it had 
decided to offer a crown to an English prince. 

no. The state constitutions were democratic, except for 
property or other restrictions on the right of suffrage, or pro- 
visions carefully designed to keep the control of at least one 
house of the state legislature " in the hands of property." The 
Federal Constitution was so drawn that it would have lent itself 
kindly either to class control or to democracy. The electoral 
system of choosing the president and vice-president was altogether 
anti-democratic, though democracy has conquered it: not an 
elector, since 1796, has disobeyed the purely moral claim 
of his party to control his choice. Since the Senate was to be 
chosen by the state legislatures, " property," if it could retain its 
influence in those bodies, could control at least one house of 
Congress. The question whether the Constitution was to have a 
democratic or an anti-democratic interpretation was to be settled 
in the next twelve years. 

in. The states were a strong factor in the final settlement, from 
the fact that the Constitution had left to them the control of the 
elective franchise: they were to make its conditions 



what each of them saw fit. Religious tests for the right of '" 
suffrage had been quite common in the colonies ; property {" 
tests were almost universal. The former disappeared ' 



shortly after the War of Independence; the latter survived in some 
of the states far into the constitutional period. But the desire to 
attract immigration was always a strong impelling force to induce 
states, especially frontier states, to make the acquisition of full 
citizenship and political rights as easy and rapid as possible. This 
force was not so strong at first as it was after the great stream of 
immigration began about 1848, but it was enough to tend constantly 
to the deyelopmentof democracy. In later times, when state lawsallow 
the immigrant to vote even before the period assigned by Federal 
laws allows him to become a naturalized citizen, there have been 
demands for the modification of the ultra state democracy; but no 
such danger was apprehended in the first decade. 

112. The Anti-Federalists had been a political party, but a 
party with but one principle. The absolute failure of that 
principle deprived the party of all cohesion; and the Q aalza . 
Federalists controlled the first two Congresses almost tloa onhe 
entirely. Their pronounced ability was shown in New 
their organizing measures, which still govern the a veram 
American system very largely. The departments " 
of state, of the treasury, of war, of justice, and of the post-office 
were rapidly and successfully organized; acts were passed for the 
regulation of seamen, commerce, tonnage duties, lighthouses, 
intercourse with the Indians, Territories, and the militia; a 
national capital was selected; a national bank was chartered; the 
national debt was funded, and the state debts were assumed as 



HISTORY 1789-1801] 



UNITED STATES 



689 



part of it. The first four years of the new system showed that 
the states had now to deal with a very different power from the 
impotent Congress of the Confederation. The new power was even 
able to exert pressure upon the two states which had not ratified 
the Constitution, though the pressure was made as gentle as possible. 
As a first step, the higher duties imposed on imports from foreign 
countries were expressly directed to apply to imports from North 
Carolina and Rhode Island. North Carolina having called a 
second convention, her case was left to the course of nature; and 
the second convention ratified the Constitution (November 21, 
1789). The Rhode Island legislature asked that their state 
might not be considered altogether foreigners, made their duties 
agree with those of the new government, and reserved the pro- 
ceeds for " continental " purposes. Still no further steps were 
taken. A bill was therefore introduced, directing the president 
to suspend commercial intercourse with Rhode Island, and to de- 
mand from her her share of the continental debt. This was passed 
by the Senate, and waited but two steps further to become law. 
Newspaper proposals to divide the little state between her two 
nearest neighbours were stopped by her ratification of the Consti- 
tution (May 29, 1 790) . The " old thirteen " were thus united under 
Completion the Constitution; and yet, so strong is the American 
of the prejudice for the autonomy of the states that these 
Union. 1^,. two were a n owe( i to enter in the full conviction 
that they did so in the exercise of sovereign freedom of choice. 
Their entrance, however, was no more involuntary than that of 
others. If there had been real freedom of choice, nine states 
would never have ratified: the votes of Pennsylvania, Massa- 
chusetts, New Hampshire, Virginia and New York were only 
secured by the pressure of powerful minorities in these states, 
backed by the almost unanimous votes of the others. 

113. Protection was begun in the first Tariff Act, whose object, 
said its preamble, was the protection of domestic manufactures. 

The duties, however, ranged only from 7! to 10%, 

era g in 8 about 8 5%- The svstem > too > had 
rather a political than an economic basis. Until 
1789 the states had controlled the imposition of duties. The 
separate state feeling was a factor so strong that secession was a 
possibility which every statesman had to take into account. 
Hamilton's object, in introducing the system, seems to have 
been to create a class of manufacturers, running through all 
the states, but dependent for prosperity on the new Federal 
government and its tariff. This would be a force which would 
make strongly against any attempt at secession, or against the 
tendency to revert to control by state legislatures, even though it 
based the national idea on a conscious tendency towards the 
development of classes. The same feeling seems to have been 
at the bottom of his establishment of a national bank, his 
assumption of state debts, and most of the general scheme 
which his influence forced upon the Federalist party. (See 
HAMILTON, ALEXANDER; and FEDERALIST PARTY.) 

114. In forming his cabinet Washington had paid attention 
to the opposing elements which had united for the temporary 

purpose of ratifying the Constitution. The national 
Cabin" element was represented by Hamilton, secretary of 

the treasury, and Henry Knox, secretary of war; the 
particularist element (using the term to indicate support of the 
states, not of a state) by Jefferson, secretary of state, and Edmund 
Randolph, attorney-general. At the end of 1792 matters were in 
train for the general recognition of the existence of two parties, 
whose struggles were to decide the course of the Constitution's 
development. The occasion came in the opening of the following 
year, when the new nation was first brought into contact with the 
French Revolution. 

115. The controlling tendency of Jefferson and his school was 
to the maintenance of individual rights at the highest possible 
TheJetter- point, as the Hamilton school was always ready to 
son School assert the national power to restrict individual rights 
of Politics. or tne g enera i good. Other points of difference are 
rather symptomatic than essential. The Jefferson school 
supported the states, in the belief that they were the best bulwarks 
for individual rights. When the French Revolution began its 



usual course in -America by agitation for the " rights of man," 
it met a sympathetic audience in the Jefferson party and a cold 
and unsympathetic hearing from the Hamilton school of Federal- 
ists. The latter were far more interested in securing the full 
recognition of the power and rights of the nation than in securing 
the individual against imaginary dangers, as they thought them. 
For ten years the surface marks of distinction between the two 
parties were to be connected with the course of events in Europe; 
but the essence of distinction was not in the surface marks. 

1 1 6. The new government was not yet four years old; it was 
not familiar, nor of assured permanency. The only national 
governments of which Americans had had previous 
experience were the British government and ^^ Jon School. 
Confederation: in the former they had had no share, 

and the latter had had no power. The only places in which they 
had had long-continued, full, and familiar experience of self- 
government were their state governments: these were the only 
governmental forms which were then distinctly associated in 
their minds with the general notion of republican government. 
The governing principle of the Hamilton school, that the con- 
struction or interpretation of the terms of the Constitution was 
to be such as to broaden the powers of the Federal government, 
necessarily involved a corresponding trenching on the powers 
of the states. It was natural, then, that the Jefferson school 
should look on every feature of the Hamilton programme as 
" anti-republican," meaning, probably, at first no more than 
opposed to the state system, though the term soon came to imply 
something of monarchical and, more particularly, of English ten- 
dencies. The disposition of the Jefferson school to claim for them- 
selves a certain peculiar title to the position of " republicans " 
developed into the appearance of the first Republican, or 
the Democratic-Republican, party, about 1793. 

117. Many of the Federalists were shrewd and active business 
men, who naturally took prompt advantage of the opportunities 
which the new system offered. The Republicans pgrt 
therefore believed and asserted that the whole Differences. 
Hamilton programme was dictated by selfish or class 
interest; and they added this to the accusation of monarchical 
tendencies. These charges, with the fundamental differences of 
mental constitution, exasperated by the passion which differences 
as to the French Revolution seemed to carry with them every- 
where, made the political history of this decade a very unpleasant 
record. The provision for establishing the national capital on 
the Potomac (1790) was declared to have been carried by a 
corrupt bargain; and accusations of corruption were renewed at 
every opportunity. In 1793 a French agent, TheNat , oaal 
Edmond Charles Edouard Genet (1765-1834), ap- capital. 
peared to claim the assistance of the United States Genet's 

for the French republic, and went to the length of Mlssloa - 
commissioning privateers and endeavouring to secure recruits, 
especially for a force which he expected to raise for the 
conquest of Louisiana from Spain. Washington decided to 
issue a proclamation of neutrality, the first act of the kind in 
American history. It was the first indication, also, of the policy 
which has made the course of every president, with the exception 
of Polk, a determined leaning to peace, even when the other 
branches of the government have been intent on war. Genet, 
however, continued his activities, and made out- The Whisky 
rageous demands upon the government, so that finally insarrec- 
Washington demanded and secured (1794) his recall. 1 *""* 
The proclamation of 1793 brought about the first distinctly party 
feeling; and it was intensified by Washington's charge that 
popular opposition in western Pennsylvania (1794) to the new 
excise law (see WHISKY INSURRECTION) had been Aamlssloa 
fomented by the extreme French party. Their name, of Vermont, 
Democrat, was applied by the Federalists to the whole Kentucky 
Republican party as a term of contempt, but it was 
not accepted by the party for some twenty years; 
then the compound title " Democratic-Republican " became, as it 

1 Genet, fearing the fate of his fellow Girondists in France, re- 
mained in the United States and became a naturalized American 
citizen. 



6go 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1789-1801 



""Treaty. 



^796 >f 



still is, the official title of the party. There was no party opposi- 
tion, however, to the re-election of Washington in 1792, or to the 
admission of Vermont (1791), Kentucky (1792) and Tennessee 
(1796) as new states. 

118. The British government had accredited no minister 
to the United States, and it refused to make any commercial 
treaty or to give up the forts in the western territory of the 
United States, through which its agents still exercised a com- 
manding influence over the Indians. In the course of its war 
with France, the neutral American vessels, without the protection 
of a national navy, fared badly. A treaty negotiated in 1 794 by 

Chief-Justice John Jay (q.v.) settled these difficulties 
^ or l ^ e following twelve years. But, as it engaged the 
United States against any intervention in the war 
on behalf of France, was silent on the subject of the right of 
search, and agreed to irksome limitations on the commercial 
privileges of the United States, the Republicans, who were 
opposed to the negotiation of any treaty at this time with Great 
Britain, made it very unpopular, and the bitter personal attacks 
on Washington grew out of it. In spite of occasional Republican 
successes, the Federalists retained a general control of national 
affairs; they elected John Adams president in 1796, 
though Jefferson was chosen vice-president with him; 
and the national policy of the Federalists kept the 
country out of entangling alliances with any of the European 
belligerents. To the Republicans, and to the French republic, 
this last point of policy was only a practical intervention against 
France and against the rights of man. 

119. At the end of Washington's administration the French 
Directory broke off relations with the United States, demand- 
ing the abrogation of Jay's treaty and a more pronounced 
sympathy with France. Adams sent three envoys, C. C. 
Pinckney (q.v.), John Marshall and Elbridge Gerry (q.v.), to 
endeavour to re-establish the former relations; they were 
The met by demands for " money, a great deal of 
"X.Y.z." money," as a prerequisite to peace. They refused; 
Mission. tne j r i e tt ers home were published, 1 and the Fede- 
ralists at last had the opportunity of riding the whirlwind of 
an intense popular desire for war with France. Intercourse 
with France was suspended by Congress (1798); the treaties 
with France were declared at an end; American frigates were 
authorized to capture French vessels guilty of depredations 
on American commerce, and the president was authorized to 
issue letters of marque and reprisal; and an American army 
was formed, Washington being called from his retirement 
at Mount Vernon to command it. The war never went beyond 

a few sea-fights, in which the little American navy 
did- itself credit, and Napoleon, seizing power the 
next year, renewed the peace which should never 
have been broken. But the quasi-war had internal consequences 
to the young republic which surpassed in interest all its 
foreign difficulties: it brought on the crisis which settled the 
development of the United States towards democracy. 

120. The reaction in Great Britain against the indefinite 
" rights of man " had led parliament to pass an alien law, a 
sedition law suspending the writ of habeas corpus, and an act 
giving wide and loosely defined powers to magistrates for the 

dispersion of meetings to petition for redress of 
raiitL grievances. The Federalists were in control of a 

Congress of limited powers; but they were strongly 
tempted by sympathies and antipathies of every sort to form 
their programme on the model furnished from England. The 
measures which they actually passed were based only on that 
construction of the Constitution which is at the bottom of all 
American politics; they only tended to force the Constitution 
into an anti-democratic direction. But it was the fixed belief 
of their opponents that they meant to go farther, and to secure 
control by some wholesale measure of political persecution. 

121. Three alien laws were passed in June and July 1798. 

1 In these letters as published the letters X, Y and Z were sub- 
stituted for the names of the French agents with whom the American 
envoys dealt ; and the letters are known as the X Y Z correspondence. 






The first (repealed in April 1802) raised the number of years 
necessary for naturalization from five to fourteen. The third 
(still substantially in force) permitted the arrest or The Allen 
removal of subjects of any foreign power with and Sedition 
which the United States should be at war. The Laws - 
second, which is usually known as the Alien Law, was limited 
to a term of two years; it permitted the president to arrest or 
order out of the country any alien whom he should consider 
dangerous to the country. As many of the Republican editors 
and local leaders were aliens, this law really put a large part of 
the Republican organization in the power of the president 
elected by their opponents. The Sedition Law (to be in force 
until March 1801 and not renewed) made it a crime, punishable 
by fine and imprisonment, to publish or print any false, 
scandalous and malicious writings against the government of the 
United States, either house of Congress, or the president, or 
to stir up sedition or opposition to any lawful act of Congress 
or of the president, or to aid the designs of any foreign power 
against the United States. In its first form the bill was even 
more sweeping than this and alarmed the opposition thoroughly. 

122. Most of the ability of the country was in the Federalist 
ranks; the Republicans had but two first-rate men Jefferson 
and Madison. In the sudden issue thus forced The 
between individual rights and national power, Republican 
Jefferson and Madison could find but one bulwark Opposition. 
for the individual the power of the states; and their use 
of it gave their party a pronounced list to state sovereignty 
from which it did not recover for years. They objected to the 
Alien Law on the grounds that aliens were under the jurisdiction 
of the state, not of the Federal government ; that the jurisdiction 
over them had not been transferred to the Federal government 
by the Constitution, and that the assumption of it by Congress 
was a violation of the Constitution's reservation of powers to 
the states; and, further, because the Constitution reserved to 
every " person," not to every citizen, the right to a jury trial. 
They objected to the Sedition Law on the grounds that the 
Constitution had specified exactly the four crimes for whose 
punishment Congress was to provide; that criminal libel was 
not one of them; and that amendment I. forbade Congress to 
pass any law restricting freedom of speech or of the press. The 
Federalists asserted a common-law power in Federal judges 
to punish for libel, and pointed to a provision in the Sedition 
Law permitting the truth to be given in evidence, as an improve- 
ment on the common law, instead of a restriction on liberty. 

123. The Republican objections might have been made 
in court, on the first trial. But the Republican leaders had 
strong doubts of the impartiality of the Federal judges, who were 
Federalists. They resolved to entrench the party in the state 
legislatures. The Virginia legislature in 1798 passed Virginia ana 
a series of resolutions prepared by Madison, Kentucky 
and the Kentucky legislature in the same year Resolutions. 
passed a series prepared by Jefferson (see KENTUCKY: 
History). Neglected or rejected by the other states, they were 
passed again by their legislatures in 1799, and were for a 
long time a documentary basis of the Democratic party. 
The leading idea expressed in both was that the Constitution 
was a " compact " between the states, and that the powers 
(the states) which had made the compact had reserved the power 
to restrain the creature of the compact, the Federal government, 
whenever it undertook to assume powers not granted to it. 
Madison's idea seems to have been that the restraint was to be 
imposed by a second convention of the states. Jefferson's 
idea is more doubtful; if it meant that the restraint should be 
imposed by any state which should feel aggrieved, his scheme 
was merely Calhoun's idea of nullification; but there are some 
indications that he agreed with Madison. 

124. The first Congress of Adams's term of office ended in 1799. 
Its successor, elected in the heat of the French war excitement, 
kept the Federalist policy up to its first pitch. Out 

of Congress the execution of the objectionable laws the Laws. 

had taken the shape of political persecution. Men 

were arrested, tried and punished for writings which the people had 



HISTORY 17891801] 



UNITED STATES 



691 



been accustomed to consider within legitimate political methods. 
The Republican leaders made every trial as public as possible, 
and gained votes constantly, so that the Federalists began to be 
shy of the very powers which they had sought. Every new 
election was a storm-signal for the Federalist party; and the 
danger was increased by schism in their own ranks. 

125. Hamilton was now a private citizen of New York; but 
he had the confidence of his party more largely than its nominal 
head, the president, and he maintained close and 
confidential relations with the cabinet which Adams 



Federalist 
Schism. 



had taken unchanged from Washington. The 
Hamilton faction saw no way of preserving and consolidating 
the newly acquired powers of the Federal government but by 
keeping up and increasing the war feeling against France; 
Adams had the instinctive leaning of an American president 
towards peace. Amid cries of wrath and despair from his party 
he accepted the first overtures of the new Napoleonic govern- 
ment, sent envoys to negotiate a peace, and ordered them to 
depart for France when they delayed too long. Then, discover- 
ing flat treachery in his cabinet, he dismissed it and blurted out a 
public expression of his feeling that Hamilton and his adherents 
were " a British faction." Hamilton retorted with a circular 
letter to his party friends, denouncing the president; the Republi- 
cans intercepted it and gave it a wider circulation than its author 
had intended; and the Hamilton faction tried so to arrange the 

electoral vote that C. C. Pinckney should be chosen 
1800 01 president in 1800 and Adams should be shelved 

into the vice-presidency. The result depended 
on the electoral vote of New York; and Aaron Burr, who had 
introduced the drill and machinery of a modern American 
political party there, had made the state Republican and secured 
a majority for the Republican candidates. These (Jefferson 
and Burr) received the same number of electoral votes (73),* 
and the House of Representatives (controlled by the Federalists) 
was thus called upon to decide which should be president. 
There was an effort by the Federalists to disappoint the Repub- 
licans by making Burr president; but Jefferson obtained that 
office, Burr becoming vice-president for four years. This 
disputed election, however, led to the adoption in 1804 of the 
1 2th amendment to the Constitution, which prescribed that each 
elector should vote separately for president and vice-president, 
and thus prevent another tie vote of this kind; this amend- 
ment, moreover, made very improbable the choice in the future 
of a president and a vice-president from opposing parties. 

126. The "Revolution of 1800" decided the future develop- 
ment of the United States. The new dominant party entered 

upon its career weighted with the theory of state 
' V ,gw'!', tt sovereignty; and a civil war was necessary before 

this dogma, put to use again in the service of slavery, 
could be banished from the American system. But the demo- 
cratic development never was checked. From that time the 
interpretation of the Federal Constitution has generally favoured 
individual rights at the expense of governmental power. As the 
Republicans obtained control of the states they altered the state 
constitutions so as to cut out all the arrangements that favoured 
property or class interests, and reduced political power to the 
dead level of manhood suffrage. In most of the states outside 
of New England this process was completed before 1815; but 
New England tenacity was proof against the advancing revolu- 
tion until about 1820. For twenty years after its downfall of 
1800 the Federalist party maintained its hopeless struggle, 
and then it faded away into nothing, leaving as its permanent 
memorial the excellent organization of the Federal government, 
which its successful rival hardly changed. Its two successors 
the Whig and the second Republican party have also 
been broad-constructionist parties, but they have admitted 
democracy as well; the Whig party adopted popular methods 
at least, and the Republican went further in the direction 
of individual rights, securing the emancipation of enslaved 
labour. 

1 Adams received 65, Pinckney 64 and John Jay I. 



127. The disputed election of 1800 was decided in the new 
capital city of Washington, to which the government had just been 
removed, after having been for ten years at Philadel- 

The New 

pma. Its streets and parks existed only on paper, capital. 
The Capitol had been begun; the Executive Mansion 
was unfinished, and its audience room was used by Mrs Adams 
as a drying room for clothes; and the congressmen could hardly 
find lodgings. The inconveniences were only an exaggeration of 
the condition of other American cities. Their sanitary condi- 
tions were bad, and yellow fever and cholera from time to time 
reduced several of them almost to depopulation. More than once, 
during this decade, the fever visited Philadelphia and New York, 
drove out most of the people, and left grass growing in the streets. 
The communication between the cities was still wretched. The 
traveller was subject to every danger or annoyance that bad 
roads, bad carriages, bad horses, bad inns and bad police pro- 
tection could combine to inflict upon him. But the war with 
natural obstacles had fairly begun, though it had little prospect 
of success until steam was brought into use as the ally of man. 

128. About this time the term "the West" appears. It 
meant then the western part of New York, the new territory 
north of the Ohio, and Kentucky and Tennessee. In 
settling land boundaries New York had transferred 

(1786) to Massachusetts, whose claims crossed her territory, 
the right to (but not jurisdiction over) a large tract of land in 
central New York, and to another large tract in the Erie basin. 
The sale of this land had carried population considerably west 
of the Hudson. After other expeditions against the Ohio 
Indians had been defeated, one under General Anthony Wayne 
had compelled them in 1794-95 to give up all the territory 
now in the state of Ohio. Settlement received a new impetus. 
Between 1790 and 1800 the population of Ohio had risen from 
almost nothing to 45,000, that of Tennessee from 36,000 to 
106,000, and that of Kentucky from 74,000 to 221,000 the 
last-named state now exceeding six of the " old thirteen " in 
population. The difficulties of the western emigrant, however, 
were still enormous. He obtained land of his own, fertile land 
and plenty of it, but little else. The produce of the soil had to 
be consumed at home, or near it; ready money was scarce and 
distant products scarcer; and comforts, except the very rudest 
substitutes of home manufacture, were unobtainable. The new 
life bore most hardly upon women; and, if the record of woman's 
share in the work of American colonization could be fully made 
up, the price paid for the final success would seem enormous. 

129. The number of post offices rose during these ten years 
from 75 to 903, the miles of post routes from 1900 to 21,000, 
and the revenue from $38,000 to $231,000. These //)// 
figures seem small in comparison with the 61,158 

post offices, 430,738 m. of post routes (besides 943,087 m. of 
rural delivery routes), and a postal revenue of $191,478,663 in 
1908, but the comparison with the figures of 1790 shows a 
development in which the new Constitution, with its increased 
security, must have been a factor. 

130. The power of Congress to regulate patents was already 
bearing fruit. Until 1789 this power was in the hands of the 
states, and the privileges of the inventor were Pateats 
restricted to the territory of the patenting state. 

Now he had a vast and growing territory within which all the 
profits of the invention were his own. Twenty patents were 
issued in 1793, and 23,471 one hundred years afterwards; but 
one of the inventions of 1793 was Eli Whitney's cotton gin. 

131. When the Constitution was adopted it was not known 
that the cultivation of cotton could be made profitable in the 
Southern states. The " roller gin " could clean Cottoa 
only 6 Ib a day by slave labour. In 1784 eight 

bags of cotton, landed in Liverpool from an American ship, 
were seized on the ground that so much cotton could 
not be the produce of the United States. Eli Whitney 
(q.v.) invented the saw-gin, by which the cotton was dragged 
through parallel wires with openings too narrow to allow the 
seeds to pass; and one slave could now clean 1000 Ib 
a day. The exports of cotton leaped from 189,000 Ib in 



692 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1801-1829 



1791 to 21,000,000 Ib in 1801, and doubled in three years 
more. The influence of this one invention, combined with the 
wonderful series of British inventions which had paved the way 
for it, can hardly be estimated in its commercial aspects. Its 
political influences were even wider, but more unhappy. The 
introduction of the commercial element into the slave system 
of the South robbed it at once of the patriarchal features which 
had made it tolerable; while it developed in slave-holders a 
new disposition to defend a system of slave labour as a " posi- 
tive good." The abolition societies of the South began to 
dwindle as soon as the results of Whitney's invention began to 
be manifest. 

132. The development of a class whose profits were merely 
the extorted natural wages of the black labourer were certain; 

and its political power was as certain, though it 
er showed itself clearly until after 1830. And 
''''this class was to have a peculiarly distorting effect 
on the political history of the United States. Aristocratic in 
every sense but one, it was ultra-Democratic (in a purely party 
sense) in its devotion to state sovereignty, for the legal basis 
of the slave system was in the laws of the several states. In 
time, the aristocratic element got control of the party which 
had originally looked to state rights as a bulwark of individual 
rights; and the party was finally committed to the employment 
of its original doctrine for an entirely different purpose the 
suppression of the black labourer's wages. 

H. Democracy and Nationality, 1801-1820 

133. When Jefferson took office in 1801 he succeeded to a 
task larger than he imagined. His party, ignoring the natural 
Democracy forces which tied the states together even against 
and their wills, insisted that the legal basis of the bond 
Nationality. was m j ne power of any state to withdraw at will. 
This was no nationality; and foreign nations naturally refused 
to take the American national coin at any higher valuation than 
that at which it was current in its own country. The urgent 
necessity was for a reconciliation between democracy and 
nationality; and this was the work of this period. An under- 
lying sense of all this has led Democratic leaders to call the war 
of 1812-15 the " Second War of Independence "; the result 
was as much independence of past ideas as of Great Britain. 

134. The first force in the new direction was the acquisition 
of Louisiana in 1803. Napoleon had acquired it from Spain, 
Louisiana and> fearm S an attack upon it by Great Britain, 

offered it to the United States for $15,000,000. The 
Constitution gave the Federal government no power to buy 
and hold territory, and the party was based on a strict construc- 
tion of the constitution. Possession of power forced the strict- 
construction party to broaden its ideas, and Louisiana was 
bought, though Jefferson quieted his conscience by talking 
for a time of a futile proposal to amend the Constitution so as 
to grant the necessary power. (See LOUISIANA PURCHASE; and 
JEFFERSON, THOMAS.) The acquisition of the western Mississippi 
basin more than doubled the area of the United States, and 
gave them control of all the great river-systems of central 
North America. The difficulties of using these 
veT& were removed almost immediately by Robert 
Fulton's utilization of steam in navigation (1807). 
Within four years steamboats were at work on western waters; 
and thereafter the increase of steam navigation and that of 
population stimulated one another. The " centre of popu- 
lation " has been carefully ascertained by the census 
Popu/awon authorities for each decade, and it represents the 
westward movement of population very closely. 
During this period it advanced from about the middle of the 
state of Maryland to its extreme western limit; that is, the 
centre of population was in 1830 nearly at the place which had 
been the western limit of population in 1770. 

135. Jefferson also laid the basis for a further acquisition 
in the future by sending an expedition under Meriwether Lewis 
(q.v.) and William Clark to explore the territory north of 
the then Spanish territory of California and west of the 



steamboat. 



Rocky Mountains the " Oregon country " as it was afterwards 
called. The explorations of this party (1804-1806), 
with Captain Robert Gray's discovery of the 
Columbia river (1792), made the best part of the 
claims of the United States to the country forty years later. 

136. Jefferson was re-elected in 1804,* serving until March, 
1809; his party now controlled almost all the states outside of 
New England, and could elect almost any one whom it 

chose to the presidency. Imitating Washington in 
refusing a third term of office, Jefferson established 
more firmly the precedent, not since violated, restricting a 
president to two terms, though the Constitution contains no 
such restriction. The great success of his presidency had been 
the acquisition of Louisiana, which was a violation of his party 
principles; but all his minor successes were, like this, recognitions 
of the national sovereignty which he disliked so much. After 
a short and brilliant naval war the Barbary pirates were reduced 
to submission (1805). The long-continued control of New 
Orleans by Spain, and the persistent intrigues of the Spanish 
authorities, looking towards a separation of the whole western 
country from the United States, had been ended by the acquisi- 
tion of Louisiana, and the full details concerning them will 
probably remain for ever hidden in the secret history of the 
early West. They had left behind a dangerous ignorance of 
Federal power and control, of which Aaron Burr (q.v.) took 
advantage (1806-07). Organizing an expedition in Kentucky 
and Tennessee, probably for the conquest of the Spanish 
colony of Mexico, he was arrested on the lower Mississippi and 
brought back to Virginia. He was acquitted; but the incident 
opened up a vaster view of the national authority than demo- 
cracy had yet been able to take. It had been said, forty years 
before, that Great Britain had long arms, but that three 
thousand miles was too far to extend them; it was something 
to know now that the arms of the Federal government were 
long enough to reach from Washington city to the Mississippi. 

137. All the success of Jefferson was confined to his first 
four years; all his heavy failures were in his second term, in 
which he and his party as persistently refused to Difficulties 
recognize or assert the inherent power of the nation w"* Great 
in international affairs. The Jay treaty expired in Bri tain. 
1806 by limitation, and American commerce. was thereafter left 
to the course of events, Jefferson refusing to accept the only 
treaty which the British government was willing to make. All the 
difficulties which followed may be summed up in a few words: the 
British government was then the representative of the ancient 
system of restriction of commerce, and had a powerful navy to 
enforce its ideas; the American government was endeavouring 
to force into international recognition the present system of 
neutral rights and unrestricted commerce, but its suspicious 
democracy refused to give it a navy sufficient to command 
respect. The American government apparently expected to gain 
its objects without the exhibition of anything but moral force. 

138. Great Britain was now at war, from time to time, with 
almost every other nation of Europe. In time of peace European 
nations followed generally the old restrictive principle 

of allowing another nation, like the United States, 
no commercial access to their colonies; but, when 
they were at war with Great Britain, whose navy controlled 
the ocean, they were very willing to allow the neutral American 
merchantmen to carry away their surplus colonial produce. 
Great Britain had insisted for fifty years that the neutral nation, 
in such cases, was really intervening in the war as an ally of her 
enemy; but she had so far modified her claim as to admit that 
" transhipment," or breaking bulk, in the United States was 
enough to qualify the commerce for recognition. The neutral 
nation thus gained a double freight, and grew rich in the traffic; 
the belligerent nations no longer had commerce afloat for 
British vessels to capture; and the " frauds of the neutral 
flags " became a standing subject of complaint among British 
merchants and naval officers. About 1805 British prize courts 

1 Jefferson received 162 electoral votes and his opponent, C. C. 
Pinckney, only 14. 



HISTORY 1801-1829] 



UNITED STATES 



693 



began to disregard transhipment and to condemn American 
vessels which made the voyage from a European colony to the 
mother country by way of the United States. This was really 
a restriction of American commerce to purely American pro- 
ductions, or to commerce with Great Britain direct, with the 
payment of duties in British ports. 

139. The question of expatriation, too, furnished a good 
many burning grievances. Great Britain maintained the 

old German rule of perpetual allegiance, -though she 
tfoa. a ' r/a " h a( i modified it by allowing the right of emigration. 
The United States, founded by immigration, was 
anxious to establish what Great Britain was not disposed to 
grant, the right of the subject to divest himself of allegiance 
by naturalization under a foreign jurisdiction. Four facts 
thus tended to break off friendly relations: (i) Great Britain's 
claim to allegiance over American naturalized subjects; (2) 
her claim to the belligerent right of search of 
neutral vessels; (3) her claim of right to impress for 
her vessels of war her subjects who were seamen 
wherever found; and (4) the difficulty of distinguishing 
native-born American from British subjects, even if the 
right to impress naturalized American subjects were granted. 
British naval officers even undertook to consider all who spoke 
the English language as British subjects, unless they could 
produce proof that they were native-born Americans. The 
American sailor who lost his papers was thus open to impress- 
ment. A particularly flagrant case of seizure of Americans 
occurred in 1807. On the 27th of June the British ship " Leo- 
pard " fired upon the American frigate " Chesapeake," which, 
after having lost 3 men killed and 18 wounded, hauled down 
its flag; the British commander then seized four of the " Chesa- 
peake's " crew. This action aroused intense anger throughout 
the country, and but for the impotence of the government 
would undoubtedly have led to immediate war. The American 
government in 1810 published the cases of such impressments 
since 1803 as numbering over 4000, about one-third of the cases 
resulting in the discharge of the impressed man; but no one 
could say how many cases had never been brought to the 
attention of a government which never did anything more than 
remonstrate about them. 

140. In May 1806 the British government, by orders in 
council, declared a blockade of the whole continent of Europe 

from Brest to the Elbe, about 800 m. In 
November, after the battle of Jena, Napoleon 
answered by the " Berlin decree," in which he assumed 
to blockade the British Isles, thus beginning his " continental 
system." A year later the British government answered by 
further orders in council, forbidding American trade with any 
Berlin and country from which the British flag was excluded, 
Milan allowing direct trade from the United States to 
Decrees. Sweden only, in American products, and permitting 
American trade with other parts of Europe only on condition 
of touching in England and paying duties. Napoleon retorted 
with the " Milan decree," declaring good prize any vessel which 
should submit to search by a British ship; but this was evidently 
a vain fulmination. 

141. The Democratic party of the United States was 
almost exclusively agricultural and had little knowledge of or 

sympathy with commercial interests; it was pledged 
vy ' to the reduction of national expenses and the debt, 
and did not wish to take up the responsibility for a navy; and, 
as the section of country most affected by the orders in council, 
New England, was Federalist, and made up of the active and 
irreconcilable opposition, a tinge of political feeling could not 
but colour the decisions of the dominant party. Various 
ridiculous proposals were considered as substitutes for a ne"ces- 
sarily naval war; and perhaps the most ridiculous was adopted. 
Since the use of non-intercourse agreements as revolutionary 
weapons against Great Britain, an overweening confidence in such 
measures had sprung up, and one of them was now resorted to 
the embargo of the 22nd of December 1807, forbidding foreign 
commerce altogether. It was expected to starve Great Britain 



into a change of policy; and its effects may be seen by comparing 
the $20,000,000 exports of 1790, $49,000,000 of 1807 and 
$9,000,000 of 1808. It does not seem to have struck 
those who passed the measure that the agricultural 
districts also might find the change unpleasant; but 
that was the result, and their complaints reinforced those of New 
England, and closed Jefferson's second term in a cloud of recog- 
nized misfortune. The pressure had been slightly relieved by the 
substitution of the Non-Intercourse Law of the ist of March 1809 
for the embargo; it prohibited commercial intercourse with Great 
Britain and France and their dependencies, leaving ff oa .i ater . 
other foreign commerce open, prohibited the impor- course Law. 
tation from any quarter of British and French goods, Election 
and forbade the entrance of British or French vessels, Otl8 8. 
public or private, into any port of the United States. Madison, 
Jefferson's secretary of state, who succeeded Jefferson in 1809, 
having defeated the Federalist candidate C. C. Pinckney in 
the election of 1808, assumed in the presidency a burden which 
was not enviable. New England was in a ferment, and was 
suspected of designs to resist the restrictive system by force; 
and the administration did not face the future with confidence. 

142. The Non-Intercourse Law was to be in force only " until 
the end of the next session of Congress " and was to be abandoned 
as to either belligerent which should abandon its attacks on 
neutral commerce, and maintained against the other. In 1810 
the American government was led to believe that France had 
abandoned its system. Napoleon continued to enforce it in 
fact; but his official fiction served its purpose of limiting the non- 
intercourse for the future to Great Britain, and thus straining 
relations between that country and the United States still 
further. The elections of 1811-1812 resulted everywhere in 
the defeat of " submission men " and in the choice of new 
members who were determined to resort to war against Great 
Britain. Henry Clay, John C. Calhoun, William H. Crawford 
and other new men seized the lead in the two houses of 
Congress, and forced Madison, it is said, to agree to a declara- 
tion of war as a condition of his renomination in 1812 when he 
defeated De Witt Clinton by an electoral vote of 1 28 to 89. (See 
MADISON.) Madison sent to Congress a confidential Elect i oa 

" war message " on the ist of June and on the i8th of 1812. 
war was declared. The New England Federalists War with 
always called it "Mr Madison's war," but the n * /aflA 
president was about the most unwilling participant in it. 

143. The national democracy meant to attack Great Britain 
in Canada, partly to gratify its western constituency, who 
had been harassed by Indian attacks, asserted to r/ ^ 
have been instigated from Canada. Premonitions J 

of success were drawn from the battle of Tippecanoe, in which 
William Henry Harrison had defeated in 1811 the north-western 
league of Indians formed by Tecumseh (q.v.). Between the 
solidly settled Atlantic states and the Canadian frontier was a 
wide stretch of unsettled or thinly settled country, which was 
itself a formidable obstacle to war. Ohio had been Theatre t 
admitted as a state in 1802, and Louisiana was u,eWar. 
admitted in 1812; but their admission had been 
due to the desire to grant them self-government rather than to 
their full development in population and resources. Cincinnati 
was a little settlement of 2500 inhabitants; the fringe of settled 
country ran not very far north of it; and all beyond was a wilder- 
ness of which little was known to the authorities. The case was 
much the same with western New York; the army which was to 
cross the Niagara river must journey almost all the way from 
Albany through a very thinly peopled country. It would have 
been far less costly, as events proved, to have entered at once 
upon a naval war; but the crusade against Canada had been 
proclaimed all through Kentucky and the West, and their 
people were determined to wipe out their old scores before the 
conclusion of the war. (For the military and naval events of 
the war see AMERICAN WAR OF 1812.) 

144. The war opened with disaster General William Hull's 
surrender of Detroit; and disaster attended it for two years. 
Political appointments to positions in the regular army were 



694 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1801-1829 



numerous, and such officers were worse than useless. The 
war department showed no great knowledge, and poverty put 
its little knowledge out of service. Futile attempts 
at i nvas i n were followed by defeat or abortion, until 
the political officers were weeded out at the end of the 
year 1813, and Jacob Brown, Winfield Scott, E. W. Ripley and 
others who had fought their way up were put in command. Then 
for the first time the men were drilled and brought into effective 
condition; and two successful battles in 1814 Chippewa and 

Lundy's Lane threw some glory on the end of 
Chippewa . . 

aodLuady's the war. So weak were the preparations even for 

Laae. defence that a British expedition in 1814 met no 

Washington e g ec ti ve resistance when it landed and burned 
Washington. For some of the disasters the responsi- 
bility rested as much, or more, upon the war department as upon 
the officers and soldiers in the field. 

145. The American navy was but a puny adversary for the 
British navy, which had captured or shut up in port all the other 

navies of Europe. But the small number of Ameri- 
theNavy can vesse l s > with the superabundance of trained 

officers, gave them one great advantage: the train- 
ing and discipline of the men, and the equipment of the vessels, 
had been brought to the very highest point. Captains who 
could command a vessel but for a short time, yielding her then to 
another officer who was to take his sea service in rotation, were all 
ambitious to make their mark during their term. " The art of 
handling and fighting the old broadside sailing frigate " had been 
carried in the little American navy to a point which unvarying 
success and a tendency to fleet -combats had now made far less 
common among British captains. Altogether the American 
vessels gave a remarkably good account of themselves. 

146. The home dislike to the war had increased steadily with 
the evidence of incompetent management by the administration. 
Feeling The Federalists, who had always desired a navy, 
la New pointed to the naval successes as the best proof of 

agaad. j o jj v ^^ wn j cn tne war na( j been undertaken 

and managed. New England Federalists complained that the 
Federal government utterly neglected the defence of their coast, 
and that Southern influence was far too strong in national affairs. 
They showed at every opportunity a disposition to adopt the 
furthest stretch of state sovereignty, as stated in the Kentucky 
Resolutions; and every such development urged the national 
democracy unconsciously further on the road to nationality. 
When the New England states sent delegates to meet at Hartford, 
Hartford Conn. (?..), and consider their grievances and 
Convention. the best remedies a step perfectly proper on the 
Democratic theory of a " voluntary Union " 
treason was suspected, and a readiness to suppress it by force was 
plainly shown. The recommendations of the convention came 
to nothing; but the attitude of the dominant party towards it is 
one of the symptoms of the manner in which the trials of actual 
war were steadily reconciling democracy and nationality. The 
object .which Hamilton had sought by high tariffs and the 
development of national classes had been attained by more 
natural and healthy means. 

147. In April 1814 the first abdication of Napoleon took place, 
and Great Britain was able to give more attention to her Ameri- 
can antagonist. The main attack was to be made on 
Louisiana, the weakest and most distant portion of 

the Union. A fleet and army were sent thither, but the British 
assault was completely repulsed (Jan. 8, 1815) by the Americans 
under Andrew Jackson. Peace had been made at Ghent fifteen 
days before the battle was fought, but the news of the battle 
and the peace reached Washington almost together, the former 
going far to make the latter tolerable. 

148. The United States really secured a fairly good treaty. It is 
true that it said not a word about the questions of impressment, 
search and neutral rights, the grounds of the war; Great Britain 
did not abandon her position on any of them. But everybody 
knew that circumstances had changed. The new naval power 
whose frigates alone in the past twenty years had shown their 
ability to fight English frigates on equal terms was not likely 



Peace. 



to be troubled in future with the question of impressment; and 
in fact, while not renouncing the right, the British government 
no longer attempted to enforce it. The navy, it must be con- 
fessed, was the force which had at last given the United States 
a recognized and cordial acceptance in the family of nations; 
it had solved the problem of the reconciliation of democracy 
and nationah'ty. 

149. The remainder of this period is one of the barrenest in 
American history. The opposition of the Federalist party to the 
war completed the measure of its unpopularity, and Extinction 
it had only a perfunctory existence for a few years of the 
longer. Scandal, intrigue and personal criticism Federalist 
became the most marked characteristics of Ameri- Party - 
can politics until the dominant party broke at the end of the 
period, and real party conflict was renewed. But the seeds 
of the final disruption are visible from the peace of 1814. The 
old-fashioned Republicans looked with intense suspicion on the 
new form of Republicanism generated by the war, a type which 
instinctively bent its energies toward the further development 
of national power. Clay was the natural leader of the new 
Democracy; but John Quincy Adams and others of Federalist 
antecedents or leanings took to the new doctrines kindly; and 
even Calhoun, Crawford and others of the Southern interest were 
at first strongly inclined to support them. One of the first 
effects was the revival of protection and of a national bank. 

1 50. The charter of the nat ional bank had expired in 1 8 1 1 , and 
the dominant party had refused to recharter it. The attempt to 
carry on the war by loans resulted in almost a bank- Bank of the 
ruptcy and in a complete inability to act efficiently. United 

As soon as peace gave time for consideration, a second staies - 
bank was chartered (April 10, 1816) for twenty years, with 
a capital of $35,000,000, one-fifth of which was to be sub- 
scribed for by the national government. It was to have the 
custody of the government revenues, but the secretary of the 
treasury could divert the revenues to other custodians, giving 
his reasons for such action to Congress. 

151. Protection was advocated again on national grounds, but 
not quite on those which had moved Hamilton. The additional 
receipts were now to be expended for fortifications 

and other national defences, and for national roads 
and canals, the latter to be considered solely as military 
measures, with an incidental benefit to the people. Business 
distress among the people gave additional force to the proposal. 
The war and blockade had been .an active form of protection, 
under which American manufactures had sprung up in great 
abundance. As soon as peace was made English manufacturers 
drove their American rivals out of business or reduced them to 
desperate straits. Their cries for relief had a double effect. 
They gave the spur to the nationalizing advocates of protection, 
and, as most of the manufacturers were in New England or New 
York, they developed in the citadel of Federalism a class which 
looked for help to a Republican Congress, and was therefore 
bound to oppose the Federalist party. This was the main force 
which brought New England into the Republican 
fold before 1825. An increase in the number of t ures 
spindles from 80,000 in 1811 to 500,000 in 1815, and 
in cotton consumption from 500 bales in 1800 to 90,000 in 1815, 
the rise of manufacturing towns, and the rapid development of 
the mechanical tendencies of a people who had been hitherto 
almost exclusively agricultural, were influences which were to be 
reckoned with in the politics of a democratic country. 

152. The tariff of 1 81 6 imposed a duty of about 2 5 % on imports 
of cotton and woollen goods, and specific duties on iron imports, 
except pig-iron, on which there was an ad valorem Tariffof 
duty of 20%. In 1818 this Suty also was made '*'* 
specific (50 cents a cwt.). The ad valorem duties carried most 
of the manufacturers through the financial crisis of 1818-1819, 
but the iron duties were less satisfactory. In English manu- 
facture the substitution of coke for charcoal in iron production 
led to continual decrease in price. As the price went down the 
specific duties were continually increasing the absolute amount 
of protection. Thus spared the necessity for improvements 



HISTORY 1801-1829] 



UNITED STATES 



695 



Erie Canal. 



in production, the American manufacturers felt English com- 
petition more keenly as the years went by, and called for more 
protection. 

153. James Monroe (q.v.) succeeded Madison as president in 
1817, and, re-elected with hardly any opposition in 1820, he 
Bra of served until 1825. ' So complete was the supremacy 
Good of the Republican party that this is often called 
Feeling." ^ era of goO( j f ee ii ng . i t came to an end when 

a successor to Monroe was to be elected; the two sections of 
the dominant party then had their first opportunity for open 
struggle. During Monroe's two terms of office the nationalizing 
party developed the policy on which it proposed to manage 
national affairs. This was largely the product of the continually 
swelling western movement of population. The influence of 
the steamboat was felt more and more every year, and the want 
of a similar improvement in land transport was correspondingly 
evident. The attention drawn to western New York by the 
war had filled that part of the state with a new population. The 
southern Indians had been completely overthrown by Andrew 
Jackson during the War of 1812, and forced to cede their lands. 
Admission The admission of the new states of Indiana (1816), 
ofNew Mississippi (1817), Illinois (1818), Alabama (1819), 
States. Maine (1820) and Missouri (1821) all but Maine 
the product and evidence of western growth were the immediate 
results of the development consequent upon the war. All the 
territory east of the Mississippi, except the northern part of 
the North-West Territory, was now formed into self-governing 
states; the state system had crossed the Mississippi; all that was 
needed for further development was the locomotive engine. The 
four millions of 1790 had grown into thirteen millions in 1830; 
and there was a steady increase of one-third in each decade. 

154. The urgent demand of western settlers for some road 
to a market led to a variety of schemes to facilitate intercourse 

between the East and the West the most successful 
being that completed in New York in 1825, the Erie 
Canal. The Hudson river forms the great natural breach in 
the barrier range which runs parallel to the Atlantic coast. 
When the traveller has passed up the Hudson through that range 
he sees before him a vast champaign country extending westward 
to the Great Lakes, and perfectly adapted by nature for a canal. 
Such a canal, to turn western traffic into the lake rivers and 
through the lakes, the canal, and the Hudson to New York 
City, was begun by the state through the influence of De Witt 
Clinton, was derisively called " Clinton's big ditch " until its 
completion, and laid the foundations for the great commercial 
prosperity of New York state and city. Long before it was 
finished the evident certainty of its success had seduced other 
states into far less successful enterprises of the kind and had 
established as a nationalizing policy the combination of high 
tariffs and expenditures for internal improvements which was 
long known as the " American system." 2 The tariffs of duties on 
The imports were to be carried as high as revenue results 

"American would justify; within this limit the duties were 
System." to be defined for purposes of protection; and the 
superabundant revenues were to be expended on enterprises which 
would tend to aid the people in their efforts to subdue the con- 
tinent. Protection was now to be for national benefit, not for 
the benefit of classes. Western farmers were to have manufac- 
turing towns at their doors, as markets for the surplus which 

1 In 1816 Monroe received 183 electoral votes and his opponent, 
Rufus King,34; in 1820 Monroe received 231 and his opponent, 
John Quincy Adams, I. 

2 For a generation the making of " internal improvements " 
by the Federal government was an issue of great political importance. 
In 1806 Congress made an appropriation for the National or 
Cumberland Road, eventually constructed from Fort Cumberland, 
Md., to Vandalia, 111. The policy of making such improve- 
ments was opposed on the ground that the Constitution gave to 
the Federal government no power to make them, that it was not 
an "enumerated power," and that such improvements were not a 
" necessary and proper " means of carrying out any of the enu- 
merated powers. Others argued that the Federal government might 
constitutionally make such improvements, but could not exercise 
jurisdiction over them when made. 



had hitherto been rotting on their farms; competition among 
manufacturers was to keep down prices; migration to all the 
new advantages of the West was to be made easy at national 
expense; and Henry Clay's eloquence was to commend the whole 
policy to the people. The old Democracy, particularly in the 
South, insisted that the whole scheme really had its basis in 
benefits to classes, that its communistic features were not such as 
the Constitution meant to cover by its grant of power to Congress 
to levy taxation for the general welfare, and that any such 
legislation would be unconstitutional. The dissatisfaction in 
the South rose higher when the tariffs were increased Tariffs of 
in 1824 and 1828. The proportion of customs l824 aod 
revenue to dutiable imports rose to 37% in 1825 l828 ' 
and to 44% in 1829; and the ratio to aggregate imports to 33% 
in 1825 and 37% in 1829. As yet, Southern dissatisfaction 
showed itself only in resolutions of state legislatures. 

155. In the sudden development of the new nation cir- 
cumstances had conspired to give social forces an abnormally 
materialistic cast, and this had strongly influenced the expres- 
sion of the national life. Its literature and its art had amounted 
to little, for the American people were still engaged in the 
fiercest of warfare against natural difficulties, which absorbed all 
their energies. 

156. In international relations the action of the government 
was strong, quiet and self-respecting. Its first weighty action 
took place in 1823. It had become pretty evident that the 
Holy Alliance, in addition to its interventions in Europe to 
suppress popular risings, meant to aid Spain in bringing her 
revolted South American colonies to obedience. Great Britain 
had been drifting steadily away from the alliance, and George 
Canning, the new secretary, determined to call in the weight 
of the transatlantic power as a check upon it. A hint to the 
American minister was followed by a few pregnant 
passages in Monroe's annual message in December, 

" We could not view," he said, " any interposition for 
the purpose of oppressing them [the South American states], 
or controlling in any other manner their destiny by any Euro- 
pean power, in any other light than as the manifestation of 
an unfriendly disposition towards the United States." If both 
the United States and Great Britain were to take this ground 
the fate of a fleet sent by the Alliance across the Atlantic was 
not in much doubt, and the project was at once given up. 

157. It was supposed at the time that Spain might transfer 
her colonial claims to some stronger power; and Monroe therefore 
said that " the American continents, by the free and independent 
condition which they have assumed and maintained, are hence- 
forth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by 
any European powers." This declaration and that quoted 
above constitute together the " Monroe doctrine " as originally 
proclaimed. The doctrine has remained the rule of foreign 
intercourse for all American parties. Added to the already 
established refusal of the United States to become entangled 
in any European wars or alliances, it has separated Europe 
and America to their common advantage. (See MONROE 
DOCTRINE.) 

158. By a treaty with Russia (1825) that power gave up all 
claims on the Pacific coast south of the present limits of Alaska. 
The northern boundary of the United States had The 
been defined by the treaty of 1783; and, after the North-west 
acquisition of Louisiana, a convention with Great Boua dary. 
Britain (1818) settled the boundary on the line of 49 N. lat. 
as far west as the Rocky Mountains. West of these mountains 
the so-called Oregon country, on whose limits the two powers 
could not agree, was to be held in common possession for ten 
years. This common possession was prolonged by another 
convention (1827) indefinitely, with the privilege to either 
power to terminate it, on giving twelve months' notice. This 
arrangement lasted until 1846 (see OREGON: History). 

159. Monroe's term of office came to an end in March 1825. 
He had originally been an extreme Democrat, who could hardly 
speak of Washington with patience; he had slowly modified 
his views, and his tendencies were now eagerly claimed by 



6 9 6 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1801-1829 



Election 
011824. 



Party 
Divergence. 



the few remaining Federalists as identical with their own. The 
nationalizing faction of the dominant party had scored almost 
all the successes of the administration, and the 
divergence between it and the opposing faction 
was steadily becoming more apparent. All the can- 
didates for the presidency in 1824 Andrew Jackson, a private 
citizen of Tennessee; William H. Crawford, Monroe's secretary of 
the treasury; John Quincy Adams, his secretary of state; and 
Henry Clay, the speaker of the House of Representatives claimed 
to be Republicans alike; but the personal nature of the struggle 
was shown by the tendency of their supporters to call themselves 
" Adams men " or " Jackson men," rather than by any real 
party title. Calhoun was supported by all groups for the vice- 
presidency, and was elected without difficulty. The choice of a 
president was more doubtful. 

160. None of the four candidates had anything like a party 
organization behind him. Adams and Clay represented the 

nationalizing element, as Crawford and Jackson 
^ not > ^ ut th ere tne likeness among them stopped. 
The strongest forces behind Adams were the new 
manufacturing and commercial interests of the East; behind 
Clay were the desires of the West for internal improvements 
at Federal expense as a set-off to the benefits which the seaboard 
states had already received from the government; and the two 
elements were soon to be united into the National Republican 
or Whig party (?..). Crawford was the representative of the old 
Democratic party, with all its Southern influences and leanings. 
Jackson was the personification of the new democracy not 
very cultured, perhaps, but honest, and hating every shade of 
class control instinctively. As he became better known the 
whole force of the new drift of things turned in his direc- 
tion. Crawford was taken out of the race, just after the 
electors had cast their votes, by physical failure, and Adams, 
later, by the revival of ancient quarrels with the Federalists of 
New England; and the future was to be with Clay or with 
Jackson. But in 1824 the electors gave no one a majority; 
and the House of Representatives, voting by states, gave the 
presidency to Adams. 

161. Adams's election in 1825 was due to the fact that Clay's 
friends in the House- unable to vote for him, as he was the 
Tne Adams lowest in the electoral vote, and only three names 
Administra- were open to choice in the House very naturally gave 
tion 1825- their votes to Adams. As Adams appointed Clay 

to the leading position in his cabinet, the defeated 
party at once raised the cry of " bargain and intrigue," one 
of the most effective in a democracy, and it was kept up through- 
out Adams's four years of office. Jackson had received the 
largest number of electoral votes, though not a majority, 1 and the 
hazy notion that he had been injured because of his devotion to 
the people increased his popularity. Though demagogues made 
use of it for selfish purposes, this feeling was an honest one, and 
Adams had nothing to oppose to it. He tried vigorously to 
uphold the " American system," arid succeeded in passing the 
tariff of 1828; he tried to maintain the influence of the United 
States on both the American continents; but he remained as 
unpopular as his rival grew popular. In 1828 Adams was 
easily displaced by Jackson, the electoral vote being 178 to 
83. Calhoun was re-elected vice-president. 

162. Jackson's inauguration in 1829 closes this period, as it 
ends the time during which a disruption of the Union by the 
Election of peaceable withdrawal of any state was even possible. 
1828. De- The party which had made state sovereignty its 
mocracyaaa bulwark in 1798 was now in control of the govern- 

atty ' ment again; but Jackson's proclamation in his first 
term, in which he warned South Carolina that " disunion by armed 
force is treason," and that blood must flow if the laws were 
resisted, speaks a very different tone from the speculations of 
1 Jackson received 99, Adams 84, Crawford 41, and Clay 37; in 
the House of Representatives Adams received the votes of 13 states, 
Jackson of 7, and Crawford of 4. For vice-president Calhoun 
received 182 electoral votes, and his principal competitors, Nathan 
Sanford, of New York, and Nathaniel Macon, of North Carolina, 
received 30 and 24 respectively. 



Jefferson on possible future divisions of the United States. And 
even the sudden attempt of South Carolina to exercise indepen- 
dent action ( 172-173) shows that some interest dependent upon 
state sovereignty had taken alarm at the drift of events, and was 
anxious to lodge a claim to the right before it should slip from 
its fingers for ever. Nullification was only the first skirmish 
between the two hostile forces of slavery and democracy. 

163. When the vast territory of Louisiana was acquired in 
1803 the new owner found slavery already estabh'shed there by 
custom recognized by French and Spanish law. 
Congress tacitly ratified existing law by taking no 
action; slavery continued legal, and spread further through the 
territory; and the state of Louisiana entered as a slave state in 
1812. The next state to be carved out of the territory was 
Missouri, admitted in 1821. ATerritory, on applying for admis- 
sion as a state, brings a constitution for inspection by Congress; 
and when it was found that the new state of Missouri proposed 
to recognize and continue slavery, a vigorous opposition spread 
through the North and West, and carried most of the senators 
and representatives from those sections with it. In the House of 
Representatives these two sections had a greatly superior number 
of members; but, as the number of Northern and Southern states 
had been kept about equal, the compact Southern vote, with one 
or two Northern allies, generally retained control of the Senate. 
Admitted by the Senate and rejected by the House, Missouri's 
application hung suspended for two years until it was successful 
by the admission of Maine, a balancing Northern state, 2 and by 
the following arrangement, known as the Missouri 
Compromise of 1820: Missouri was to enter as a 
slave state; slavery was for ever prohibited through- 
out the rest of the Louisiana Purchase north of lat. 
36 30', the main southern boundary of Missouri; and, though 
nothing was said of the territory south of the compromise line, 
it was understood that any state formed out of it was to be a slave 
state, if it so wished (see MISSOURI COMPROMISE and MISSOURI, 
History). Arkansas entered under this provision in 1836. 

1 64. The question of slavery was thus setat rest for the present, 
though a few agitators were roused to more zealous opposition 
to the essence of slavery itself. In the next decade 
these agitators succeeded only in the conversion of 
a few recruits, but these recruits were the ones who 
took up the work at the opening of the next period and never gave 
it up until slavery was ended. It is plain now, however, that 
North and South had already drifted so far apart as to form two 
sections, and it became evident during the next forty years that 
the wants and desires of these two sections were so divergent 
that it was impossible for one government to make satisfactory 
laws for both. The chief cause was not removed in 1820, 
though one of its effects was got out of the way for the time. 

165. The vast flood of human beings which had been pouring 
westward for years had now pretty well occupied the territory 
east of the Mississippi, while, on the west side of that 
stream, it still showed a disposition to hold to 
river valleys. The settled area had increased from 
240,000 sq. m. in 1790 to 633,000 sq. m. in 1830, with an 
average of 20-3 persons to the square mile. There was still 
a great deal of Indian territory in the Southern states of 
Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida, for the Southern 
Indians were among the finest of their race ; they had become semi- 
civilized, and were formidable antagonists to the encroaching 
white race. The states interested had begun preparations for 
their forcible removal, in public defiance (see GEORGIA: History) 
of the attempts of the Federal government to protect the Indians 
(1827); but the removal was not completed until 1835. In the 
North, Wisconsin and Michigan, with the northern halves of 
Illinois and Indiana, were still very thinly settled, but everything 
indicated early increase of population. The first lake steamboat, 
the " Walk-in-the-Water," had appeared at Detroit in 1818, and 
the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 added to the. number 

* A prompt admission of Missouri would have balanced the slave 
and free states, but Alabama's admission as a slave state balanced 
them in 1819. 



el 



HISTORY 1829-1850] 



UNITED STATES 



697 



of such vessels. Lake Erie had seven in 1826; and in 1830, 
while the only important lake town, Detroit, was 

steamboat, hardly yet more than a frontier fort, a daily line of 
steamers was running to it from Buffalo, carrying 

the increasing stream of emigrants to the western territory. 

166. The land system of the United States had much to do 
with the early development of the West. From the first settle- 
ment, the universally recognized rule had been that 

System 1 . ^ absolute individual property in land, with its 
corollary of unrestricted competitive or " rack " 
rents; and this rule was accepted fully in the national land system, 
whose basis was reported by Jefferson, as chairman of a com- 
mittee of the Confederation Congress (1785). The public lands 
were to be divided into " hundreds " each ten miles square and 
containing one hundred mile-square plots. The hundred was 
called a " township," and was afterwards reduced to six miles 
square, of thirty-six mile-square plots of 640 acres each. From 
time to time principal meridians and east and west base lines 
have been run, and townships have been determined by their 
relations to these lines. The sections (plots) have been sub- 
divided, but the transfer describes each parcel from the survey 
map, as in the case of " the south-west quarter of section 20, 
township 30, north, range i east of the third principal meridian." 
The price fixed in 1790 as a minimum was $2 per acre; it has 
tended to decrease, and no effort has ever been made to gain a 
revenue from it. When the nation acquired its western territory 
it secured its title to the soil, and always made it a fundamental 
condition of the admission of a new state that it should not tax 
United States lands. To compensate the new states for the 
freedom of unsold public lands from taxation, one township in 
each thirty-six was reserved to them for educational purposes; 
and the excellent public school systems of the Western states 
have been founded on this provision. The cost of obtaining a 
quarter section (160 acres), under the still later homestead system 
of granting lands to actual settlers, has come to be only about 
$26; the interest on this, at 6%, represents an annual rent of 
one cent per acre making this, says F. A. Walker, as nearly 
as possible the " no-rent land " of the economists. 

167. The bulk of the early westward migration was of home 
production; the great immigration from Europe did not begin 
until about 1847. The West as well as the East thus had its 
institutions fixed before being called upon to absorb an 
enormous foreign element. 

I. Industrial Development and Sectional Divergence, 
1829-1850. 

168. The eight years 1829-1837 have been called " the reign of 
Andrew Jackson "; his popularity, his long struggle for the 
New presidency, and his feeling of his official ownership 
Political of the subordinate offices gave to his administration 
Methods. at j east an a pp ea rance of Caesarism. But it was a 
strictly constitutional Caesarism; the restraints of written law 
were never violated, though the methods adopted within the law 
were new to national politics. Since about 1800 state politics in 
New York and Pennsylvania had been noted for the systematic 
use of the offices and for the merciless manner in which the office- 
holder was compelled to work for the party which kept him in 
place. The presence of New York and Pennsylvania politicians 
in Jackson's cabinet taught him to use the same system. Re- 
movals, except for cause, had been relatively rare before; but 
under Jackson men were removed almost exclusively for the 
purpose of installing some more serviceable party tool; and a 
clean sweep was made in the civil service. Other parties 
adopted the system, and it remained the rule at a change of 
administration until comparatively recent years. 

169. The system brought with it a semi-military reorganiza- 
tion of parties. Hitherto nominations for the more important 
The New offices had been made mainly by legislative caucuses; 
Orgaaiza- candidates for president and vice-president were 

nominated by caucuses of congressmen, and candi- 
Parties. d a t e s for the higher state offices by caucuses of 
the state legislatures. Late in the preceding period " con- 
ventions " of delegates from the members of the party in the state 



were held in New York and Pennsylvania; and in 1831-1832 
this became the rule for presidential nominations. It rapidly 
developed into systematic state, county, and city " conventions "; 
and the result was the appearance of that complete political 
machinery, the American political party, with its local organiza- 
tions, and its delegates to county, state and national conventions. 
The Democratic machinery was the first to appear, in Jackson's 
second term (1833-1837). Its workers were paid in offices, or 
hopes of office, so that it was said to be built on the " cohesive 
power of public plunder "; but its success was immediate and 
brilliant. The opposing party, the Whig party (q.i>.), had no 
chance of victory in 1836; and its complete overthrow drove its 
leaders into the organization of a similar machinery of their own, 
which scored its first success in 1 840. Since that time these strange 
bodies, unknown to the law, have governed the country by turns; 
and their enormous growth has steadily made the organization 
of a third piece of such machinery more difficult or hopeless. 

170. The Bank of the United States had hardly been heard of 
in politics until the new Democratic organization came into 
hostile contact with it. A semi-official demand Bank of the 
upon it for a political appointment was met by a United 
refusal; and the party managers called Jackson's st *te*. 
attention to an institution which he could not but dislike 
the more he considered it. His first message spoke of it in 
unfriendly terms, and every succeeding message brought a 
more open attack. The old party of Adams and Clay had by this 
time taken the name of Whigs, probably from the 

notion that they were struggling against " the reign 
of Andrew Jackson," and they adopted the cause of 
the bank with eagerness. The bank charter did not expire until 
1836, but in 1832 Clay brought up a bill for a new charter. It 
was passed and vetoed; and the Whigs made the veto an im- 
portant issue of the presidential election of that year. They were 
beaten; Jackson was re-elected, receiving 219 electoral votes, and 
Clay, his Whig opponent, only 49, and the bank party could never 
again get a majority in the House of Representatives for the 
charter. The insistence of the president on the point that the 
charter was a " monopoly " bore weight with the people. But 
the president could not obtain a majority in the Senate. He 
determined to take a step which would give him an initiative, and 
which his opponents could not induce both houses to unite in 
overriding or punishing. Taking advantage of the provision 
that the secretary of the treasury might order the Removal 
public funds to be deposited elsewhere than in the of the 
bank or its branches, he directed the secretary to DeposUs. 
deposit all the public funds elsewhere. Thus deprived of its 
great source of dividends, the bank fell into difficulties, became a 
state bank after 1836, and then went into bankruptcy. (See 
BANKS AND BANKING: United States; and JACKSON, ANDREW.) 

171. All the political conflicts of Jackson's terms of office 
were close and bitter. Loose in his ideas before 1829, Jackson 
showed a steady tendency to adopt the strictest construction 
of the powers of the Federal government, except in such official 
perquisites as the offices. He grew into strong opposition to 
all traces of the " American system," and vetoed opposition 
bills for internal improvements unsparingly; and to the 

his feeling of dislike to all forms of protection is as " Amerlca f> 
evident, though he took more care not to make it 
too public. There are many reasons for believing that his drift 
was the work of a strong school of leaders Martin Van Buren, 
Thomas H. Benton, Edward Livingston, Roger B. Taney, Levi 
Woodbury, Lewis Cass, W. L. Marcy and others who developed 
the policy of the party, and controlled it until the great changes 
of parties about 1850 took their power from them. At all 
events, some persistent influence made the Democratic party of 
1830-1850 the most consistent and successful party which had 
thus far appeared in the United States. 

172. Calhoun (q.v.) and Jackson were of the same stock^ 
Scottish-Irish much alike in appearance and charac- 
teristics, the former representing the trained and edu- 

cated logic of the race, the latter its instincts and 

passions. Jackson was led to break off his friendly relations with 



'" 



6 9 8 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1829-1850 



Nullifies- 



Calhoun in 1830, and he had been led to do so more easily because 
of the appearance of the doctrine of nullification (q.i>.), which 
was generally attributed, correctly enough, to the authorship of 
Calhoun. Asserting, as the Republican party of 1798 had done, 
the sovereign powers of each state, Calhoun held that, as a means 
of avoiding secession and violent struggle upon every occasion of 
the passage of an act of Congress which should seem uncon- 
stitutional to any state, the state might properly suspend or 
" nu ^'fy " ^ operation of the law within its juris- 
diction, in order to protect its citizens against 
oppression. The passage of the Tariff Act of 1832, 
which organized and systematized the protective system, forced 
the Calhoun party into action. A state convention in South 
Carolina (q.v.) on the 24th of November 1832 declared the Tariff 
Act null, and made ready to enforce the declaration. 

173. But the time was past when the power of a single state 
could withdraw it from the Union. The president issued a 
proclamation, warning the people of South Carolina against any 
attempt to carry out the ordinance of nullification; he ordered a 
naval force to take possession of Charleston harbour to collect 
the duties under the act; he called upon Congress for additional 
executive powers, and Congress passed what nullifiers called the 
" bloody bill," putting the land and naval forces at the disposal 
of the president for the collection of duties against " unlawful 
combinations "; and he is said to have announced, privately and 
profanely, his intention of making Calhoun the first victim of 
any open conflict. Affairs looked so threatening that an un- 
official meeting of " leading nullifiers " agreed to suspend the 
operation of the ordinance until Congress should adjourn; whence 
it derived the right to suspend has never been stated. 

174. The president had already asked Congress to reduce the 
duties; and many Democratic members of Congress, who had 
Tariff of y^ded to the popular clamour for protection, were 
1833. ver y glad to use " the crisis " as an excuse for now 

voting against it. A compromise Tariff Act, scaling 
down all duties over 20% by one-tenth of the excess every two 
years until 1842, when the remaining excess over 20% should 
be dropped, was introduced by Clay and became law. Calhoun 
and his followers claimed this as all that the nullification ordi- 
nance had aimed at; and the ordinance was formally repealed. 
But nullification had received its death-blow; even those 
Southern leaders who maintained the right of secession refused 
to recognize the right of a state to remain in the Union while 
nullifying its laws; and, when protection was reintroduced by 
the tariff of 1842, nullification was hardly thought of. 

175. All the internal conditions of the United States were 
completely altered by the introduction of railways. For twenty 
The ' y ears P ast th e Americans had been pushing in every 
Locomotive, direction which offered a hope of the means of recon- 

ciling vast territory with enormous population. 
Stephenson's invention of the locomotive came just in time, and 
Jackson's two terms of office marked the outburst of modern 
American life. The miles of railway were 23 in 1830, 1098 in 
1835, some 2800 in 1840, and thereafter they about doubled 
every five years until 1860. 

176. A railway map of 1840 shows a fragmentary system, 
designed mainly to fill the gaps left by the means of communica- 

t ' on * n use * n I ^3- ^ ne or two snort lines run back 

i nto the country from Savannah and Charleston; 

another runs north along the coast from Wilmington 
to Baltimore; several lines connect New York with Washington 
and other points; and short lines elsewhere mark the openings 
which needed to be filled at once a number in New England 
and the Middle states, three in Ohio and Michigan, and three in 
Louisiana. Year after year new inventions came in to increase 
Anthracite. ano - a *d this development. The anthracite coal 

of the Middle states had been known since 1790, 
but no means had been devised to put the refractory agent 
to work. It was now successfully applied to railways (1836), 
inn. and to tne manufacture of iron (1837). Hitherto 

wood had been the best fuel for iron-making; now 
the states which relied on wood were driven out of competition, 



Kaiiw a 
ofHS4O* 



and production was restricted to the states in which nature 
had placed coal alongside of iron. Steam navigation across 
the Atlantic was established in 1838. The telegraph oceanNavi- 
came next, S. F. B. Morse's line being erected in gation. The 
1844. The spread of the railway system brought Tele ra P 1 '- 
with it, as a natural development, the rise of the American 
system of express companies, whose first phases of individual 
enterprise appeared in 1839. No similar period in American 
history is so extraordinary for material development as the 
decade 1830-1840. At its beginning the country was an over- 
grown type of colonial life; at its end American life had been 
shifted to entirely new lines, which it has since followed. 
Modern American history had burst in with the explosiveness 
of an Arctic summer. 

177. The steamboat had aided Western development, but 
the railway aided it far more. Cities and states grew as if the 
oxygen of their surroundings had been suddenly West 
increased. The steamboat influenced the railway, settlement. 
and the railway gave the steamboat new powers. 

Vacant places in the states east of the Mississippi were filling up; 
the long lines of emigrant waggons gave way to the new and 
better methods of transport; and new grades of land were made 
accessible. Chicago was but a frontier fort in 1832; within 
a half-dozen years it was a flourishing town, with eight 
steamers connecting it with Buffalo, and dawning ideas of its 
future development of railway connexions. The maps change 
from decade to decade, as mapmakers hasten to insert new 
cities which have sprung up. Two new states, Admission 
Arkansas and Michigan, were admitted (1836 and of Arkansas 
1837). The population of Ohio grew from 900,000 M< * 
to 1,500,000, that of Michigan from 32,000 to 
212,000, and that of the country from 13,000,000 to 17,000,000, 
between 1830 and 1840. 

178. With the change of material surroundings and possi- 
bilities came a steady amelioration of social conditions and a 
development of social ideals. Such features of the 

past as imprisonment for debt and the cruel indiffer- conditions. 
ence of old methods of dealing with crime began 
to disappear; the time was past when a state could use an aban- 
doned copper mine as its state prison, as Connecticut had 
formerly done (see SIMSBURY, Connecticut). The domestic use 
of gas and anthracite coal, the introduction of expensive 
aqueducts for pure water, and the changing life of the people 
forced changes in the interior and exterior of American dwellings. 
Wood was still the common building material; imitations of 
Greek architecture still retained their vogue; but the interiors 
were models of comfort in comparison with the houses even of 
1810. In the " new " regions this was not yet the case, and here 
social restraints were still so few that society seemed to be 
reduced almost to its primitive elements. Western steamers 
reeked with gambling, swindling, duelling and every variety of 
vice. Public law was almost suspended in some regions; and 
organized associations of counterfeiters and horse-thieves 
terrorized whole sections of country. But this state of affairs 
was altogether temporary, as well as limited in its area; the older 
and more densely settled states had been well prepared for the 
change and had never lost command of the social forces, and the 
process of settling down went on, even in the newer states, with 
far more rapidity than could reasonably have been expected. 
Those who took part in the movements of population in 1830- 
1840 had been trained under the rigid forms of the previous 
American life; and these soon re-asserted themselves. The 
rebound was over before 1847, and the Western states were 
then as well prepared to receive and digest the great immigration 
which followed as the older states would have been in 1830. 

179. A distinct American literature dates from this period. 
Most of the publications in the United States were still cheap 
reprints of foreign works; but native productions Llierature 
no longer followed foreign models with servility. 
Between 1830 and 1840 Whittier, Longfellow, Holmes, Poe, 
Hawthorne, Emerson, Bancroft and Prescott joined the advance- 
guard of American writers Bryant, Dana, Halleck, Drake, 



HISTORY 1829-1850] 



UNITED STATES 



699 



Land Sales. 



Irving and Cooper; and even those writers who had already 
made their place in literature showed the influence of new condi- 
tions by their growing tendency to look less to foreign models and 
methods. (See AMERICAN LITERATURE.) Popular education was 
improved. The new states had from the first endeavoured to 
secure the best possible system of common schools. The 
attempt came naturally from the political instincts of the class 
from which the migration came; but the system which resulted 
was to be of incalculable service during the years to come. 
Their absolute democracy and their universal use of the English 
Common language have made the common schools most 
School successful machines for converting the raw material 
System. o { immigration into American citizens. This 
supreme benefit is the basis of the system and the reason 
for its existence and development, but its incidental advan- 
tage of educating the people has been beyond calculation. 
It was an odd symptom of the general change that 

American newspapers took a new form during these 
papers. ten ye ars - The old " blanket-sheet " newspaper, 

cumbrous to handle and slow in all its ways, met its 
first rival in the type of newspaper which appeared first in New 
York City, in the Sun, the Herald and the Tribune (1833, 1835 
and 1841). Swift and energetic in gathering news, and fearless, 
sometimes reckless, in stating it, they brought into American 
life, with very much that is evil, a great preponderance of good. 

1 80. The chaos into which a part of American society had 
been thrown had a marked effect on the financial institutions 

of the country, which went to pieces before it for a 
' time. It had not been meant to make the public 
lands of the United States a source of revenue so much as a 
source of development. The sales had touched their high-water 
mark during the speculative year 1819, when receipts from them 
had amounted to $3,274,000; in other years they seldom went 
above $2,000,000. When the railway set the stream of migration 
moving faster than ever, and cities began to grow like mush- 
rooms, it was natural that speculation in land should feel the 
effects. Sales rose to $3,200,000 in 1831, to $4,000,000 

B, . g. . j. . 

in 1833, to $5,000,000 in 1834, to $15,000,000 in 
1835, and to $25,000,000 in 1836. In 1835 the president an- 
nounced to Congress that the public debt was extinguished, and 
that some way of dealing with the surplus should be found. 
Calhoun's proposal, that after the year 1836 any surplus in 
excess of $5,000,000 should be divided among. the states as 
a loan, was adopted, as regards the surplus (almost $37,000,000) 
of that year; and some $28,000,000 still carried on the books 
of the treasury as unavailable funds were actually distributed 
before the crisis of 1837 put an end to the surplus and to the 
policy. The states had already taken a hand in the general 
speculation by beginning works of public improvement. Foreign, 
particularly English, capital was abundant; and states which had 
been accustomed to think a dozen times over a tax of a hundred 
thousand dollars now began to negotiate loans of millions of 
dollars and to appropriate the proceeds to the digging of canals 
and the construction of railways. Their enterprises were badly 
conceived and badly managed, and only added to the confusion 
when the crash came. If the Federal government and the 
states felt that they were rich, the imaginations of individuals 
ran riot. Every one wanted to buy; prices rose, and every one 
was growing richer on paper. The assessed value of real estate 
in New York City in 1832 was $104,000,000; in 1836 it had 
grown to $253,000,000. In Mobile the assessed value rose 
from $1,000,000 to $27,000,000. Fictitious values were the 
rule. 

181. When Jackson in 1833 ordered the government revenues 
to be deposited elsewhere than in the Bank of the United States, 
there was no government agent to receive them. The secretary 
of the treasury selected banks at various points in which the 
revenue should be deposited by the collecting officers; but these 
banks were organized under charters from their states, as were 
all banks except that of the United States. The theory of 
the dominant party denied the constitutional power of Congress 
to charter a bank, and the states had not yet learned how to 



deal with such institutions. Their grants of bank charters 
had been based on ignorance, intrigue, favouritism or corruption, 
and the banks were utterly unregulated. The Democratic 
feeling was that the privilege of forming banking Corpora- 
corporations should be open to all citizens, and it Uoas. 
soon became so. Moreover, it was not until after the crash that 
New York began the system of compelling such deposits as would 
really secure circulation, which was long afterward further 
developed into the present national bank system. In most 
of the states banks could be freely organized with or without 
tangible capital, and their notes could be sent to the West for 
the purchase of government lands, which needed to be held 
but a month or two to gain a handsome profit. (See BANKS AND 
BANKING: United States.) " Wild-cat banks " sprang up all 
over the country; and the " pet banks," as those chosen for the 
deposit of government revenues were called, went into speculation 
as eagerly as the banks which hardly pretended to have capital. 

182. The Democratic theory denied the power of Congress 
to make anything but gold or silver coin legal tender. There 
have been " paper-money heresies " in the party; 

but there was none such among the new school of circular"* 6 
Democratic leaders which came in in 1829; they were 
" hard-money men." In July 1836 Jackson's secretary of the 
treasury ordered land agents to take nothing in payment for 
lands except gold or silver. In the following spring the full 
effects of the order became evident; they fell on the adminis- 
tration of Van Buren, Jackson's successor. 1 Van Buren had 
been Jackson's secretary of state, the representative man of the 
new Democratic schocl, and, in the opinion of the opposition, 
the evil genius of the Jackson administration; and it seemed 
to the Whigs poetic justice that he should bear the weight of 
his predecessor's errors. The " specie circular " turned the tide of 
paper back to the East, and when it was presented for payment 
most of the banks suspended specie payment with hardly a 
struggle. There was no longer a thought of buying; every one 
wanted to sell; and prices ran down with a rapidity even more 
startling than that with which they had risen. Failures, to an 
extent and on a scale unprecedented in the United 
States, made up the "panic of 1837." Many of the 
states had left their bonds in the hands of their 
agents, and, on the failure of the latter, found that the bonds 
had been hypothecated or disposed of, so that the states got 
no return from them except a debt which was to them 
enormous. Saddled suddenly with such a burden, 
and unable even to pay interest, some of the states 
" repudiated " their obligations; and repudiation 
was made successful by the fact that a state could not be sued 
by its creditors except by its own consent. Even the Federal 
government felt the strain, for its revenues were locked up in 
suspended banks. A little more than a year after Congress had 
authorized the distribution of its surplus revenues among the 
states Van Buren was forced to call it into special session to 
provide some relief for the government itself. 

183. Van Buren held manfully to the strictest construction 
of the powers of the Federal government. He insisted that the 
panic would best right itself without government sub- 
interference, and, after a four years' struggle, he treasury 
succeeded in making the " sub-treasury scheme " 

law (1840). It cut off all connexion of the government 
with banks, putting collecting and disbursing officers under 
bonds to hold money safely and to transfer it under orders 
from the treasury, and restricting payments to or by the United 
States to gold and silver coin. Its passage had been preceded by 
another commercial crisis (1839), more limited in its field, but 
more discouraging to the people. It is true that Jackson, in 
dealing with the finances, had " simply smashed things," leaving 
his successor to repair damages; but it is far from certain 
that this was not the best way available at the time. The 
wisest scheme of financial reform would have had small chance 

'In the election of 1836 Van Buren received 170 electoral votes, 
W. H. Harrison (Whig) 73, Hugh L. White 26, Daniel Webster 14 
and W. P. Mangum n. 



700 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1829-1850 



Election 
of 1840. 



of success with the land-jobbers in Congress, and Van Buren,'s 
firmness found the way out of the chaos. 

184. Van Buren's firmness was unpopular, and the Whig 
party now adopted methods which were popular if somewhat 
demagogical. It nominated William H. Harrison 
in 1840; it contrasted his homely frontier virtues 
with Van Buren's " ostentatious indifference to the 
misfortunes of the people " and with the supposed luxury of 
his life in the White House; and, after the first of the modern 
" campaigns " of mass meetings and processions, Harrison was 
elected, receiving 234 electoral votes and Van Buren only 60. 
He died on the 4th of April 1841, only a month after his inaugu- 
ration, and the vice-president, John Tyler, became president. 
Tyler was of the extreme Calhoun school, which had shown some 
disposition to grant to Van Buren a support which it had refused 
to Jackson; and the Whigs had nominated Tyler to retain his 
faction with them. Now he was the nominal leader of the party, 
while his politics were opposite to theirs, and the real leader 
of the party, Clay, was ready to force a quarrel upon him. The 
quarrel took place; the Whig majority in Congress was not 
large enough to pass any measures over Tyler's veto; and the 
first two years of his administration were passed in barren 
conflict with his party. The " sub-treasury " law 
"' was re P ealecl ( l8 4!); the tariff of 1842 introduced a 
modified protection; and there the Whigs were 
forced to stop. Their dissensions made Democratic success 
comparatively easy, and Tyler had the support of a Democratic 
House behind him during the last two years of his term. 

185. The success of the Democratic machinery, and the 
reflex of its temporary check in 1840, with the influences brought 
to bear on it by the returning Calhoun faction, were such as to 
take the control of the party out of the hands of the leaders who 
had formed it. They had had high regard for political principle, 
even though they were willing to use doubtful methods for its 
propagation; these methods had now brought out new men, 
who looked mainly to success, and to close connexion with the 
controlling political element of the South as the easiest means 
of attaining success. When the Democratic convention of 1844 
met it was expected to renominate Van Buren. A majority of 
the delegates had been sent there for that purpose, but many of 
them would have been glad to be prevented from doing so. 
They allowed a resolution to be passed making a two-thirds vote 
necessary for nomination; Van Buren was unable to command 
so many votes; and, when his name was withdrawn, James K. 
Polk was nominated. The Whigs nominated Clay. 

186. The beginning of the abolitionist movement in the 
United States, the establishment of the Liberator (1831), 

and of the American Anti-Slavery Society (1833), 
Movement. an d tne subsequent divisions in it, are dealt with 

elsewhere (see GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD). Up 
to that time " abolition " had meant gradual abolition; it 
was a wish rather than a purpose. Garrison called for 
immediate abolition. The basis of the American system was in 
the reserved rights of the states, and slavery rested on their will, 
which was not likely to be changed. But the cry was kept up. 
The mission of the Abolitionists was to force the people to think 
of the question; and, in spite of riots, assaults and persecution 
of every kind, they fulfilled it manfully. In truth, slavery was 
more and more out of harmony with the new economic conditions 
which were taking complete control of the North and West, but 
had hardly been felt in the South. Thus the two sections, North 
and South, were more and more disposed to take opposite views of 
everything in which slavery was involved, and it had a faculty 
of involving itself in almost everything. The status of slavery 
in the Territories had been settled in 1820; that of slavery in the 
states had been settled by the Constitution; but even in minor 
questions the intrusive element had to be reckoned with. The 
Abolitionists sent their documents through the mails, and the 
South wished the Federal government to interfere and stop the 
practice. The Abolitionists persisted in petitioning Congress 
for the passage of various measures which Congress regarded as 
utterly unconstitutional; and the disposition of Congress to deny 



or regulate the right of petition in such matters (see ADAMS, 
JOHN QUINCY) excited the indignation of Northern men who 
had no sympathy with abolition. But the first occasion on 
which the views of the two sections came into flat contrast was 
on the question of the annexation of Texas. 

187. The United States had had a vague claim to Texas until 
1819, when the claim was surrendered to Spain in part compensa- 
tion for Florida. On the revolt of Mexico Texas 
became a part of that republic. It was colonized by 
Americans, mainly southerners and slave-holders, seceded from 
Mexico in 1835, and defeated the Mexican armies and established 
its independence in the following year. Southern politicians 
desired its annexation to the United States for many reasons. 
Its people were kindred to them; its soil would widen the area 
of slavery; and its territory, it was hoped, could be divided 
into several states, to reinforce the Southern column in the 
Senate. People in the North were either indifferent or hostile 
to the proposal; Van Buren had declared against it, and his 
action was a reason for his defeat in the Democratic convention. 
On the other hand, there were indications that the 
joint occupation of the Oregon country could not 
last much longer. American immigration into it had begun, 
while the Hudson's Bay Company, the British tenant of the soil, 
was the natural enemy of immigration. To carry the sentiment 
of both sections, the two points were coupled; and the 
Democratic convention declared for the reannexation of Texas 
and the reoccupation of Oregon. 

1 88. One of the cardinal methods of the political Abolitionists 
was to nominate candidates of their own against a doubtful 
friend, even though this secured the election of an 
open enemy. Clay's efforts to guard his condemna- 
tion of the Texas annexation project were just enough 
to push the Liberty party (q.v.), the political Abolitionists, 
into voting for candidates of their own in New York; on a 
close vote their loss was enough to throw the electoral votes of 
that state to Polk, and its votes decided the result. 5/^/011 
Polk was elected (November 1844);* and Texas of 1844. 
was annexed to the United States in the following Admission 
spring. At the next meeting of Congress (1845) ofTej "*- 
Texas was admitted as a state. 

189. West of Texas the northern prolongation of Mexico ran 
right athwart the westward movement of American population; 
and, though the movement had not yet reached the barrier, the 
Polk administration desired further acquisitions from Mexico. 
The western boundary of Texas was undefined; a strip of terri- 
tory claimed by Texas was settled exclusively by Mexicans; 
but the Polk administration directed General Zachary Taylor, 
the American commander in Texas, to cross the Nueces river 
and seize the disputed territory. Collisions with Mexican troops 
followed; they were beaten in the battles of Palo Alto and 
Resaca de la Palma, and were chased across the Rio Grande. 
Taylor followed and took the city of Monterey. 

190. On the news of the first bloodshed Congress declared 
war against Mexico, over the opposition of the Whigs. A land 
and naval force took possession of California, and a 

land expedition occupied New Mexico, so that the 
authority of Mexico over all the soil north of her 
present boundaries was abruptly terminated (1846). At the 
opening of 1847 Taylor fought the last battle in northern Mexico 
(Buena Vista), defeating the Mexicans, and General Winfield 
Scott, with a new army, landed at Vera Cruz for a march upon 
the city of Mexico. Scott's march was marked by one successful 
battle after another, usually against heavy odds; and in September 
he took the capital city and held it until peace was made (1848) 
by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Among the 
terms of peace was the cession of the present Cali- 
fornia, Utah, Arizona and New Mexico, the consideration being 
a payment of $15,000,000 by the United States and the assump- 
tion of some $3,000,000 of debts due by Mexico to American 
citizens. With a subsequent rectification of frontier (1853) 
by the Gadsden Treaty (see GADSDEN, JAMES), this cession 
1 Polk received 170 electoral votes and Clay 105. 






HISTORY 1829-1850] 



UNITED STATES 



701 



WPmot 
Proviso. 



added some 500,000 sq. m. to the area of the United States; 
Texas itself made up a large additional area. The settlement 
of the north-east and north-west boundaries (see MAINE and 
OREGON) by the Webster-Ashburton and Buchanan-Pakenham 
treaties (1842, 1846) with the Texas and Mexican cessions, gave 
the United States the complete territorial form retained until 
the annexation of Alaska in 1867. 

191. In the new territory slavery had been forbidden under 
Mexican law; and its annexation brought up the question of 
slavery la its status under American law. He who remembers 
the New the historical fact that slavery had never been more 
Territory, than a custom, ultimately recognized and protected 
by state law, will not have much difficulty in deciding about the 
propriety of forcing such a custom by law upon any part of a 
territory. But, if slavery was to be excluded from the new 
territory, the states which should ultimately be formed out of 
it would enter as free states, and the influence of the South in 
the Senate would be decreased. For the first time the South 
appears as a distinct imperium in imperio in the territorial 
difficulties which began in 1848. 

192. The first appearance of these difficulties brought out 
in the Democratic party a solution which was so closely in line 
"Squatter w ith the prejudices of the party, and apparently so 
Sove- likely to meet all the wishes of the South, that it 
relgniy." Dac j e f a j r to carrv the party through the crisis without 
the loss of its Southern vote. This was " squatter sovereignty," 
the notion that it would be best for Congress to leave the 
people of each Territory to settle the question of the existence 
of slavery for themselves. The broader and democratic ground 
for the party would have been that which it at first seemed 

likely to take the " Wilmot Proviso," a condition 
proposed to be added to the act authorizing acquisi- 
tions of territory, providing that slavery should be 
forbidden in all territory to be acquired under the act (see 
WILMOT, DAVID). In the end apparent expediency carried the 
dominant party off to " squatter sovereignty," and the Demo- 
cratic adherents of the Wilmot Proviso, with the Liberty party 
and the anti-slavery Whigs, united in 1848 under the 

Party."' name . of the Free Soil P artv (?") ' The Whi 8 s had no 
solution to offer; their entire programme, from this 

time to their downfall as a party, consisted in a persistent effort 
to evade or ignore all difficulties connected with slavery. 

193. Taylor, after the battle of Buena Vista, resigned and 
came home, considering himself ill-used by the administration. 

He refused to commit himself to any party; and the 
Whigs were forced to accept him as their candidate 
in 1848. The Democrats nominated Lewis Cass; 
and the Free Soil party, or " Free-Soilers," nominated Van Buren. 
By the vote of the last-named party the Democratic candidate 
lost New York and the election, and Taylor was elected presi- 
dent, receiving 163 electoral votes, while Cass received 127. 
Taking office in March 1849, he had on his shoulders the whole 
burden of the territorial difficulties, aggravated by the discovery 
of gold in California and the sudden rise of population there. 
Congress was so split into factions that it could for a long time 
agree upon nothing; thieves and outlaws were too strong for 
the semi-military government of California; and the Calif omians, 
with the approval of the president, proceeded to form a constitu- 
tion and apply for admission as a state. They had so framed their 
constitution as to forbid slavery; and this was really the applica- 
tion of the Wilmot Proviso to the richest part of the new territory, 
and the South felt that it had been robbed of the cream of what 
it alone had fought cheerfully to obtain. 

194. The admission of California was not secured until 
September 1850, soon after Taylor's sudden death (July 9), 
. .. , , , an d then only by the addition of a bonus to Texas, 

Admission of ., ,. . . , . , .. ,, -, ... 

California, the division of the rest of the Mexican cession into 
the Territories of Utah and New Mexico without 
prohibition of slavery, and the passage of a fugitive slave law. 
The slave trade, but not slavery, was forbidden in the District 
of Columbia. The whole was generally known as the Compro- 
mise Measures of 1850 (q.v.). Two of its features need notice. 



"" 









As has been said, slavery was not mentioned in the act; and the 
status of slavery in the Territories, was thus left uncertain. 
Congress can veto any legislation of a territorial 
legislature, but, in fact, the two houses of Congress 
were hardly ever able to unite on anything after 
1850, and both these Territories did establish slavery before 1860, 
without a Congressional veto. The advantage here was with 
the South. The other point, the Fugitive Slave Law (q.v.), 
was a special demand of the South. The Constitu- 
tion contained clauses directing that fugitive 
criminals and slaves should be delivered up, on 
requisition, by the state to which they had fled. In the 
case of criminals the delivery was directed to be made by 
the executive of the state to which they had fled; in the 
case of slaves no delivering authority was specified, and 
an act of Congress in 1793 had imposed the duty on Federal 
judges or on local state magistrates. Some of the states had 
passed " Personal Liberty Laws," forbidding or Personal 
limiting the action of their magistrates in such cases, Liberty 
and the act of 1850 transferred the decision of such Laws. 
cases to United States commissioners, with the assistance 
of United States marshals. It imposed penalties on rescues, 
and denied a jury trial. 

195. The question of slavery had taken up so much time in 
Congress that its other legislation was comparatively limited. 
The rates of postage were reduced to five and ten cents for dis- 
tances less and greater than 300 m. (1845); and the naval 
school at Annapolis was established in the same year. The 
military academy at West Point had been established as such 
in 1802. When the Democratic party had obtained complete 
control of the government, it re-established (by act of 6th 
August, 1846), the "sub-treasury," or independent treasury, 
which is still the basis of the treasury system. 

In the same year, after an exhaustive report by 
Robert J. Walker, Folk's secretary of the treasury, 
the tariff of 1846 was passed; it reduced duties, and moderated 
the application of the protective principle. Apart from a slight 
reduction of duties in 1857, this remained in force till 1861. 

196. Five states were admitted during the last ten years of 
this period: Florida (1845), Texas j (i84s), Iowa (1846), Wiscon- 
sin (1848) and California (1850). The early entrance ^ m i ssloo 
of Iowa, Wisconsin and Florida had been due largely / Florida, 
to Indian wars the Black Hawk War (see BLACK Iowa and 
HAWK) in Iowa and Wisconsin (1832), and the Semi- Wisconsin. 
nole War in Florida (1835-37), after each of which the 
defeated Indians were compelled to cede lands as the price 
of peace. The extinction of Indian titles in northern Michi- 
gan brought about the discovery of the great copper fields 
of that region, whose existence had been suspected long 
before it could be proved. Elsewhere settlement followed 
the lines already marked out, except in the new posses- 
sions on the Pacific coast, whose full possibilities were not yet 
known. Railways in the Eastern states were beginning to 
show something of a connected system; in the South Hallways 
they had hardly changed since 1840; in the West and 
they had only been prolonged on their original lines. Telegraphs. 
The telegraph was brought into use in 1844; but it is not until 
the census of 1860 that its effects are seen in the fully connected 
network of railways which then covers the whole North and West. 

197. The sudden development of wealth in the country 
gave an impetus to the spirit of invention. Charles Goodyear's 
method of vulcanizing rubber (1839) had come into laveotloa 
use. Cyrus Hall M'Cormick had made an invention 

whose results have been hardly less than that of the 
locomotive in their importance to the United States. He had 
patented a reaping machine in 1834, and this, further improved 
and supplemented by other inventions, had brought into play 
the whole system of agricultural machinery, whose existence was 
scarcely known elsewhere until the London " World's Fair " of 
1851 brought it into notice. A successful sewing-machine came in 
1846; the power-loom and the surgical use of anaesthetics in 
the same year; and the rotary press for printing in 1847. 



702 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1850-1861 



The 
Mormons. 



198. All the conditions of life were changing so rapidly that 
it was natural that the minds of men should change with them 
or become unsettled. This was the era of new sects, of 
communities, of fantastic proposals of every kind, of transcen- 
dentalism in literature, religion, and politics. Not the most 

fantastic or benevolent, but certainly the most 
successful, of these was the sect of Mormons or 
Latter-day Saints. They settled in Utah in 1847, 
calling their capital Salt Lake City, and spreading thence through 
the neighbouring Territories. They became a menace to the 
American system; their numbers were so great that it was 
against American instincts to deprive them of self-government; 
while their polygamy and total submission to their hierarchy 
made it impossible to erect them into a state having complete 
control of marriage and divorce. The difficulty was lessened 
by their renunciation of polygamy in 1890 (see MORMONS). 

199. The material development of the United States since 
1830 had been extraordinary, but every year made it more 

evident that the South was not sharing in it. It is 
plain now that the fault was in the labour system 
of the South: her only labourers were slaves, and a slave who 
was fit for anything better than field labour was prima facie 
a dangerous man. The divergence had as yet gone only far 
enough to awaken intelligent men in the South to its existence, 
and to stir them to efforts as hopeless as they were earnest, to 
find some artificial stimulus for Southern industries. In the next 
ten years the process was to show its effects on the national field. 

J. Tendencies to Disunion, 1850-1861. 

200. The Abolitionists had never ceased to din the iniquity 
of slavery into the ears of the American people. Calhoun, 
Slavery Webster and Clay, with nearly all the other political 
and the leaders of 1850, had united in deploring the wicked- 
Sectioas. ness o f t nese fanatics, who were persistently stirring 
up a question which was steadily widening the distance between 
the sections. They mistook the symptom for the disease. 
Slavery itself had put the South out of harmony with its 
surroundings. Even in 1850, though they hardly yet knew 
it, the two sections had drifted so far apart that they were 
practically two different countries. 

201. The South remained much as in 1790; while other parts 

of the country had developed, it had stood still. 
Power*" The remnants of colonial feeling, of class influence, 

which advancing democracy had wiped out else- 
where, retained all their force here, aggravated by the effects 
of an essentially aristocratic system of employment. The 
ruling class had to maintain a military control over the 
labouring class, and a class influence over the poorer whites. 
It had even secured in the Constitution provision for its political 
power in the representation given to three-fifths of the slaves. 
The twenty additional members of the House of Representatives 
were not simply a gain to the South ; they were still more a gain 
to the " black districts," where whites were few, and the slave- 
holder controlled the district. Slave-owners and slave-holders 
together, there were but 350,000 of them; but they had common 
interests, the intelligence to see them, and the courage to con- 
tend for them. The first step of a rising man was to buy slaves; 
and this was enough to enrol him in the dominant class. From 
it were drawn the representatives and senators in Congress, the 
governors, and all the holders of offices over which the " slave 
power," as it came to be called, had control. Not only was the 
South inert; its ruling class, its ablest and best men, united in 
defence of tendencies hostile to those of the rest of the country. 

202. Immigration into the United States was not an im- 
portant factor in its development until about 1847. The 

immigrants, so late as 1820, numbered but 8000 per 

annum; their number did not touch 100,000 until 

1842, and then it fell for a year or two almost to half 

that number. In 1847 it rose again to 235,000, in 1849 to 

300,000, and in 1850 to 428,000; all told, more than two and a 

quarter million persons from abroad settled in the United States 

between 1847 and 1854. Leaving cut the dregs of the immigra- 



tion, which settled down in the seaboard cities, its best part was a 
powerful nationalizing force. It had not come to any particular 
state, but to the United States; it had none of the traditional 
prejudices in favour of a state, but a strong feeling for the 
whole country; and the new feelings which it brought in must 
have had their weight not only on the gross mass of the people, 
but on the views of former leaders.' And all the influences of this 
enormous immigration were confined to the North and West. 
The immigration avoided slave soil as if by instinct. So late 
as 1880 the census reported that the Southern states, except 
Florida, Louisiana and Texas, are " practically without any 
foreign element "; but it was only in 1850-1860 that this 
differentiating circumstance began to show itself plainly. 
And, as the sections began to differ further in aims and policy, 
the North began to gain heavily in ability to ensure its success. 

203. Texas was the last slave state ever admitted; and, 
as it refused to be divided, the South had no further increase 
of numbers in the Senate. Until 1850 the admission 

of a free state had been so promptly balanced by 
the admission of a slave state that the senators of 
the two sections had remained about equal in number; in 
1860 the free states had 36 senators and the slave states only 
30. As the representation in the House had changed from 35 
free state and 30 slave state members in 1790 to 147 free state 
and 90 slave state in 1860, and as the number of presidential 
electors is the sum of the numbers of senators and representa- 
tives, political power had passed away from the South in 1850. 
If at any time the free states should unite they could control 
the House of Representatives and the Senate, elect the president 
and vice-president, dictate the appointment of judges and other 
Federal officers, and make the laws what they pleased. If 
pressed to it, they could even control the interpretation of the 
laws by the Supreme Court. No Federal judge could be removed 
except by impeachment, but an act of Congress could at any 
time increase the number of judges to any extent, and the 
appointment of the additional judges could reverse the opinion 
of the court. 

204. In circumstances so critical a cautious quiescence and 
avoidance of public attention was the only safe course for the 
" slave power," but that course had become im- 
possible. The numbers interested had become too 

large to be subject to complete discipline; all could 
not be held in cautious reserve; and, when an advanced 
proposal came from any quarter of the slave-holding lines, 
the whole army was shortly forced up to the advanced position. 
Every movement of the mass was necessarily aggressive; and 
aggression meant final collision. If collision came it must 
be on some question of the rights of the states; and on 
such a question the whole South would move as one man. 

205. The Protestant churches of the United States had 
reflected in their organization the spirit of the political in- 
stitutions under which they lived. Acting as purely 
voluntary associations, they had been organized 

into governments by delegates, much like the 
" conventions " which had been evolved in the political 
parties. The omnipresent slavery question intruded into these 
bodies, and split them. The Methodist Episcopal Church was 
thus divided into a Northern and a Southern branch in 1844, 
and the equally powerful Baptist Church met the same 
fate in the following year. Two of the four great Protestant 
bodies were thus no longer national; it was only by the most 
careful management that the integrity of the Presbyterian 
Church was maintained until 1861, when it also yielded; and 
only the Episcopal and Roman Catholic Churches retained their 
national character. 

206. The political parties showed the same tendency. 
Each began to shrivel up in one section or the other. The 
notion of " squatter sovereignty," attractive at 

first to the Western democracy, and not repudiated 

by the South, enabled the Democratic party to pass 

the crisis of 1850 without losing much of its Northern vote, while 

Southern Whigs began to drift in, making the party continually 



Tendencies 
to Disunion. 



HISTORY 1850-1861] 



UNITED STATES 



73 



more pro-slavery. This could not continue long without 
beginning to decrease its Northern vote, but this effect did not 
become plainly visible until after 1852. The efforts of the 
Whig party to ignore the great question alienated its anti-slavery 
members in the North, while they did not satisfy its Southern 
members. The Whig losses were not at first heavy, but, as the 
electoral vote of each state is determined by the barest plurality 
of the popular vote, they were enough to defeat the party almost 
everywhere in the presidential election of 1852. The Whigs 
nominated General Winfield Scott and the Democrats 
Franklin Pierce; and Pierce carried all but four of 
the thirty-one states, and was elected, receiving 254 
out of the 296 electoral votes. This revelation of hopeless 
weakness was the downfall of the Whig party; it maintained 
its organization for four years longer, but the life had gone out 
of it. The future was with the Free Soil party, though it had 
polled but few votes in 1852. 

207. During the administration of Taylor (and Vice-Pre- 
sident Millard Fillmore, who succeeded him) Clay, Webster, 

Calhoun, Polk and Taylor were removed by 

death > and there was a stead y drift of other Political 
leaders out of public life. New men were push- 
ing in everywhere, and in both sections they showed the 
prevailing tendency to disunion. The best of them were 
unprecedentedly radical. Charles Sumner, William H. Seward, 
and Salmon P. Chase came into the Senate, bringing the 
first accession of recognized force and ability to the anti- 
slavery feeling in that body. The new Southern men, such as 
Jefferson Davis, and the Democratic recruits from the Southern 
Whig party, such as Alexander H. Stephens, were ready to take 
the ground on which Calhoun had always insisted that Con- 
gress was bound not merely to the negative duty of not attacking 
slavery in theTerritories, but to the positive duty of protecting 
it. This, if it should become the general Southern position, was 
certain to destroy the notion of "squatter sovereignty," and thus 
to split the Democratic party, which was almost the last national 
ligament that now held the two fragments of the Union together. 

208. The social disintegration was as rapid. Northern 
men travelling in the South were naturally looked upon with 

increasing suspicion, and were made to feel that they 

were on a so ^ a ^ en m s y m P at hi es - Some of the 
worst phases of democracy were called into play 
in the South; and, in some sections, law openly yielded 
supremacy to popular passion in the cases of suspected 
Abolitionists. Southern conventions, on all sorts of subjects, 
became common; and in these meetings, permeated by a dawning 
sense of Southern nationality, hardly any proposition looking 
to Southern independence of the North was met with disfavour. 

209. Calhoun, in his last and greatest speech, called attention 
to the manner in which one tie after another was snapping. 

But he ignored the real peril of the situation its 

Dfn7on. 0/dan S erous ^ acts: tnat tne South was steadily grow- 
ing weaker in comparison with the North, and more 
unable to secure a wider area for the slave system; that it 
was therefore being steadily forced into demanding active 
Congressional protection for slavery in the Territories; that 
the North would never submit to this; and that the South must 
submit or bring about a collision by attempting to secede. 

210. Anti-slavery feeling in the North was stimulated by 
the manner in which the Fugitive Slave Law was enforced 

immediately after 1850. The chase after fugitive 
slave Law s l aves was prosecuted in many cases with circum- 
' stances of revolting brutality, and features of the 
slave system which had been tacitly looked upon as 
fictitious were brought home to the heart of the free states. 
(See FUGITIVE SLAVE LAWS.) The added feeling showed its 
force when the Kansas-Nebraska Act was passed by Congress 
(1854). It organized the two new Territories of 

g; ansas an( j Nebraska. Both of them were for ever 

_ ., , , , ,. . ,-, 

free soil by the terms of the Missouri Compromise 

(17.11.). But the success of the notion of squatter 
sovereignty in holding the Democratic party together while 



Divergence 

' ' 



Kansas- 
Nebraska 



destroying the Whig party had intoxicated Stephen A. Douglas 
(</..), and other Northern Democrats; and they now applied 
the doctrine to these Territories. They did not desire " to vote 
slavery up or down," but left the decision to the people of 
the two Territories and the essential feature of the Missouri 
Compromise was specifically repealed. 

211. This was the grossest political blunder in American 
history. The status of slavery had been settled, by the Con- 
stitution or by the compromises of 1820 and 1850, on every 
square foot of American soil; right or wrong, the settlement was 
made. The Kansas-Nebraska Act took a great mass of territory 
out of the settlement and flung it into the arena as a prize for 
which the sections were to struggle. The first result of the 
act was to throw parties into chaos. An American or " Know- 
Nothing" (q.v.) party, a secret oath-bound organiza- fhe 
tion, pledged to oppose the influence or power of "American 
foreign-born citizens, had been formed to take the place Party-" 
of the defunct Whig party. It had been quite successful 
in state elections for a time, and was now beginning to have 
larger aspirations. It, like the Whig party, intended to 
ignore slavery, but, after a few years of life, the questions com- 
plicated with slavery entered its organization and divided it 
also. Even in 1854 many of its leaders in the North were forced 
to take position against the Kansas-Nebraska Act, while hosts 
of others joined in the opposition without any party organiza- 
tion. No American party ever rose sc swiftly as this latter; 
with no other party name than the awkward The 

title of " Anti-Nebraska men," it carried the Republican 
Congressional elections of 1854 at the North, forced Parf y- 
many of the former Know-Nothing leaders into union with it, 
and controlled the House of Representatives of the Congress 
which met in 1855. The Democratic party, which had been 
practically the only party since 1852, had now to face the latest 
and strongest of its broad-ccnstructionist opponents, one 
which with the nationalizing features of the Federalist and Whig 
parties combined democratic feelings and methods, and, above 
all, had a democratic purpose at bottom. It acknowledged, 
at first, no purpose aimed at slavery, only an intention to ex- 
clude slavery from theTerritories; but, under such principles, 
it was the only party which was potentially an anti-slavery 
party, the only party to which the enslaved labourer of the 
South could look with the faintest hope of aid in reaching the 
status of a man. The new party had grasped the function which 
belonged of right to its great opponent, and it seized with it its 
opponent's original title. The name Democrat had quite taken 
the place of that first used Republican but the latter had never 
passed out of popular remembrance and liking at the North. 
The new party took quick and skilful advantage of this by 
assuming the old name (see REPUBLICAN PARTY), and early in 
1856 the two great parties of the present Democratic and 
Republican were drawn up against one another. 

212. The foreign relations of the United States during 
Pierce's term of office were overshadowed by the domestic 
difficulties, but were of importance. In the Koszta 

case (1853) national protection had been afforded 
on foreign soil to a person who had only taken the 
preliminary steps to naturalization (see MARCY, W. L.). 
Japan had been opened to American intercourse and commerce 
(1854). But the question of slavery was more 
and more thrusting itself even into foreign relations. 
A great Southern republic, to be founded at first by the slave 
states, but to take in gradually the whole territory around the 
Gulf of Mexico and include the West Indies, was soon to be a 
pretty general ambition among slave-holders, and its first 
phases appeared during Pierce's administration. Efforts were 
begun to obtain Cuba from Spain; and the three leading 
American ministers abroad, meeting at Ostend, Ostend 
united in declaring the possession of Cuba to be Manifesto; 
essential to the well-being of the United States Filibuster- 
(1854). (See BUCHANAN, JAMES.) " Filibustering " '"*' 
expeditions against Cuba or the smaller South American states, 
intended so to revolutionize them as to lay a basis for an 



704 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1850-1861 



of 18/6 



application to be annexed to the United States, became 
common, and taxed the energies of the Federal government. 
But these yielded in importance to the affairs in Kansas. 

213. Nebraska was then supposed to be a desert, and atten- 
tion was directed almost exclusively to Kansas. No sooner 

had its organization left the matter of slavery to be 
decided by its " people " than the anti-slavery 
people of the North and West felt it to be their duty to see 
that the " people " of the Territory should be anti-slavery in 
sympathy. Emigrant associations were formed, and these 
shipped men and families to Kansas, arming them for their 
protection in the new country. Southern newspapers called 
for similar measures in the South, but the call was less effective. 
Southern men without slaves, settling a new state, were un- 
comfortably apt to prohibit slavery, as in California. Only slave- 
holders were trusty pro-slavery men; and such were not likely 
to take slaves to Kansas and risk their ownership on the result of 
the struggle. But for the people of Missouri, Kansas would 
have been free soil at once. Lying across the direct road to 
Kansas, the Missouri settlers blockaded the way of free-state 
settlers, crossed into Kansas, and voted profusely at the first 
Territorial election. The story of the contest between the free- 
state and pro-slavery settlers is told elsewhere (see KANSAS: 
History) ; here it need only be said that the struggle passed into 
a real civil war, the two powers mustering considerable armies, 
fighting battles, capturing towns and paroling [prisoners. 
The struggle was really over in 1857, and the South was beaten. 
There were, however, many obstacles yet to be overcome before 
the new state of Kansas was recognized by Congress, after the 
withdrawal of the senators of the seceding states (1861). 

214. In the heat of the Kansas struggle came the presidential 
election of 1856. The Democrats nominated James Buchanan, 

declaring, as usual, for the strictest limitations of 
the P owers f the Federal government on a number 
of points specified, and reaffirming the principle 
of the Kansas-Nebraska Act the settlement of slavery by 
the people of a Territory. The remnant of the Whig party, 
including the Know-Nothings of the North and those Southern 
men who wished no further discussion of slavery, nominated 
the president who had gone out of office in 1853, Millard Fill- 
more. The Republican party nominated John C. Fremont; 
the bulk of its manifesto was taken up with protests against 
attempts to introduce slavery into the Territories; but it showed 
its broad-construction tendencies by declaring for appropriations 
of Federal moneys for internal improvements. The Democrats 
were successful in electing Buchanan; 1 but the position of 
the party was quite different from the triumph with which 
it had come out of the election of 1852. It was no longer 
master of twenty-seven of the thirty-one states; all New 
England and New York, all the North-West but Indiana 
and Illinois, all the free states but five, had gone against it; 
its candidate no longer had a majority of the popular vote. 
For the first time in the history of the country a distinctly anti- 
slavery candidate ha'd obtained an electoral vote, and had even 
come near obtaining the presidency. Fillmore had carried 
but one state, Maryland; Buchanan had carried the rest of the 
South, with a few states in the North, and Fremont the rest 
of the North and none of the South. If things had gone so far 
that the two sections were to be constituted into opposing 
political parties, it was evident that the end was near. 

215. Oddly enough the constitutionality of the Compromise 
of 1820 had never happened to come before the Supreme Court 
TheDred for consideration. In 1856-1857 it came up for 
Scott the first time. One Dred Scott, a Missouri slave 
Decision. who had been taken m ^^ tQ juj no j Sj a f ree state) 

and in 1836 to Minnesota, within the territory covered by 
the Compromise, and had some years after being taken back 
to Missouri in 1838 sued for his freedom, was sold (1852) to 
a citizen of New York. Scott then transferred his suit from 

1 Buchanan received 174 electoral votes, Fremont 114 and 
Fillmore 8. The popular vote was: for Buchanan, 1,838,169; for 
Fr6mont, 1,341,264; for Fillmore, 874,534. 



the state to the Federal courts, under the power given 
them to try suits between citizens of different states, and the 
case came by appeal to the Suprsme Court. Its decision, 
announced on the 6th of March 1857, put Scott out of court on 
the ground that a slave, or the descendant of slaves, could not 
be a citizen of the United States or have any standing in Federal 
courts. The opinion of Chief Justice Taney went on to attack 
the validity of the Missouri Compromise, for the reasons that one 
of the Constitutional functions of Congress was the protection 
of property; that slaves had been recognized as property by 
the Constitution, and that Congress was bound to protect, 
not to prohibit, slavery in the Territories. 2 The mass of the 
Northern people held that slaves were looked upon by the 
Constitution, not as property, but as " persons held to service 
or labour " by state laws; that the Constitutional function of 
Congress was the protection of liberty as well as of property; 
and that Congress was thus bound to prohibit, not to protect, 
slavery in the Territories. A large part of the North flouted 
the decision of the Supreme Court, and the storm of angry dissent 
which it aroused did the disunionists good service at the South. 
From this time the leading newspapers in the South maintained 
that the radical Southern view first advanced by Calhoun, 
and but slowly accepted by other Southern leaders, as to 
the duty of Congress to protect slavery in the Territories, had 
been confirmed by the Supreme Court ; that the Northern Repub- 
licans had rejected it; even the " squatter sovereignty " of North- 
ern Democrats could no longer be submitted to by the South. 

216. The population of the United States in 1860 was over 
31,000,000, an increase of more than 8,000,000 in ten years. 
As the decennial increases of population became Admission 
larger, so did the divergence of the sections in popu- of Minnesota 
lation, and still more in wealth and resources. Two aad Ore x a - 
more free states came in during this period Minnesota (1858) 
and Oregon (1859) and Kansas was clamouring loudly for the 
same privilege. The free and slave states, which had been 
almost equal in population in 1790, stood now as 19 to 12. And 
of the 12,000,000 in slave states, the 4,000,000 slaves and the 
250,000 free blacks were not so much a factor of strength as a 
possible source of weakness and danger. No serious slave rising 
had ever taken place in the South; but John Brown's j oaa 
attack (1859) on Harper's Ferry as the first move Brown's 
in a project to rouse the slaves (see BROWN, JOHN), Kald - 
and the alarm which it carried through the South, were tokens 
of a danger which added a new horror to the chances of civil 
war. It was not wonderful that men, in the hope of finding some 
compromise by which to avoid such a catastrophe, should be 
willing to give up everything but principle, nor that offers of 
compromise should urge Southern leaders further into the fatal 
belief that " the North would not fight." 

217. Northern Democrats, under the lead of Douglas, had been 
forced already almost to the point of revolt by the determination 
of Southern senators to prevent the admission of Division 
Kansas as a free state, if not to secure her admission of the 

as a slave state. When the Democratic convention Democratk 
of 1860 met at Charleston the last strand of the y ' 
last national political organization parted; the Democratic party 
itself was split at last by the slavery question. The Southern dele- 
gates demanded a declaration in favour of the duty of Congress 
to protect slavery in the Territories. It was all that the Douglas 
Democrats could then do to maintain themselves in a few 
Northern states; such a declaration meant political suicide every- 
where, and they voted it down. The convention divided into two 
bodies. The Southern body adjourned to Richmond, and the 
Northern and Border state convention to Baltimore. Here the 
Northern delegates, by seating some delegates friendly to Douglas, 

2 In his decision Taney, referring to the period before the adoption 
of the Constitution, wrote: " They (negroes) had for more than a 
century before been regarded as beings of an inferior order, and 
altogether unfit to associate with the white race, either in social 
or political relations; and so 'far inferior that they had no rights 
which the white man was bound to respect." This was intended 
to be merely a historical statement, but it is often incorrectly quoted 
as if it referred to the status of the negro in 1857. 



HISTORY 1850-1861] 



UNITED STATES 



705 



provoked a further secession of border state delegates, who, in 
company with the Richmond body, nominated John C. Breckin- 
ridge (q.v.) and Joseph Lane for president and vice-president. 
The remainder of the original convention nominated Douglas 
and H. V. Johnson. 

218. The remnant of the old Whig and Know-Nothing 
parties, now calling itself the Constitutional Union party, met 
Constitu- a ^ Baltimore and nominated John Bell (q.v.) 
tioaai Union and Edward Everett. The Republican convention 
Party; me t at Chicago. Its " platform " of 1856 had 

k een soroewhat broad-constructionist in its nature 
and leanings, but a strong Democratic element in 
the party had prevented it from going too far in this direction. 
The election of 1856 had shown that, with the votes of 
Pennsylvania and Illinois, the party would have then been 
successful, and the Democratic element was now ready to 
take almost anything which would secure the votes of these 
states. This state of affairs will go to explain the nomina- 
tion of Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, for president, with 
Hannibal Hamlin, a former Democrat, for vice-president, 
and the declaration of the platform in favour of a protective 
tariff. The mass of the platform was still devoted to the 
necessity of excluding slavery from the Territories. To sum 
The Parties U P : tne ^ e ^ P art y wished to have no discussion of 
aadsiavery slavery; the Douglas Democrats rested on " squatter 
lathe Terri- sovereignty " and the Compromise of 1850, but would 
tories. accept the decision of the Supreme Court; the 
Republicans demanded that Congress should legislate for the 
prohibition of slavery in the Territories; and the Southern 
Democrats demanded that Congress should legislate for the 
protection of slavery in the Territories. 

219. No candidate received a majority of the popular vote, 
Lincoln standing first and Douglas second. But Lincoln and 

Hamlin had a clear majority of the electoral 
of i860. vote, and so were elected, Breckinridge and Lane 

coming next. 1 It is worthy of mention that, up to 
the last hours of Lincoln's first term of office, Congress would 
always have contained a majority opposed to him but for 
the absence of the members from the seceding states. The 
interests of the South and even of slavery were thus safe 
enough under an anti-slavery president. But the drift of events 
was too plain. Nullification had come and gone, and the nation 
feared it no longer. Even secession by a single state was now 
almost out of the question; the letters of Southern governors 
in 1860, in consultation on the state of affairs, agree that no 
state would secede without assurances of support by others. If 
this crisis were allowed to slip by without action, even a sectional 
secession would soon be impossible. 

220. In October 1860 Governor W. H. Gist, of South Carolina, 
sent a letter to the governor of each of the other cotton states 
Secession. exce P t Texas, asking co-operation in case South 

Carolina should resolve upon secession, and the 
replies were favourable. The democratic revolution which, since 
1829, had compelled the legislature to give the choice of presi- 
dential electors to the people of the states had not affected South 
Carolina; her electors were still chosen by the legislature. That 
body, after having chosen the state's electors on the 6th of Novem- 
ber, remained in session until the telegraph had brought assurances 
that Lincoln had secured a sufficient number of electors to ensure 
his election; it then (on the loth ) summoned a state convention 
and adjourned. The state convention, which is a legislative 
body chosen for a special purpose, met first at Columbia and then 
at Charleston, and on the 2oth of December unanimously passed 
an " ordinance of secession," repealing the acts by which the 
state had ratified the Constitution and its amendments, and 
dissolving " the union now subsisting between South Carolina and 
other states, under the name of the ' United States of America.' " 
The convention took all steps necessary to prepare for war, and 
adjourned. Similar ordinances were passed by conventions in 

' * Lincoln received 180 electoral votes, Breckinridge 72, Bell 
39 and Douglas 12. Their popular votes were 1,866,352, 847,514, 
587.830 and 1,375,157 respectively. 

XXVII. 23 



Mississippi (Jan. 9, 1861), Florida (Jan. 10), Alabama (Jan. n), 
Georgia (Jan. 19), Louisiana (Jan. 26) and Texas (Feb. i). 

221. The opposition in the South did not deny the 
right to secede, but the expediency of its exercise. Their 
effort was to elect delegates to the state conventions The Argu- 
who would vote not to secede. They were beaten, meat for 
says A. H. Stephens, by the cry, originally uttered Secet > s 'o a - 
by T. R. R. Cobb before his state legislature (Nov. 12, 1860), 
"we can make better terms out of the Union than in it." 
That is, the states were to withdraw individually, suspend 
the functions of the Federal government within their juris- 
diction for the time, consider maturely any proposals for 
guarantees for their rights in the Union, and return as soon as 
satisfactory guarantees should be given. A second point to 
be noted is the difference between the notions Action at 
of a state convention prevalent in the North the state 
and in the South. The Northern state convention < ^^ a ' 
was generally considered as a preliminary body, 

whose action was not complete or valid until ratified by 
a popular vote. The Southern state convention was looked 
upon as the incarnation of the sovereignty of the state, and 
its action was not supposed to need a popular ratification. 
When the conventions of the seceding states had adopted 
the ordinances of secession, they proceeded to other business. 
They appointed delegates, who met at Montgomery, the 
capital of Alabama, formed a provisional constitution (Feb. 8) 
for the "Confederate States," chose a provisional ( 
president and vice-president (Jefferson Davis and / e( / era < e 
A. H. Stephens), and established an army, treasury, states." 
and other executive departments. The president 
and vice-president were inaugurated on the i8th of February. 
The permanent constitution, adopted on the nth of March, 
was copied from that of the United States, with variations 
meant to maintain state sovereignty, to give the cabinet seats 
in Congress, and to prevent the grant of bounties or any 
protective features in the tariff or the maintenance of internal 
improvements at general expense; and it expressly provided 
that in all the territory belonging to the Confederacy but lying 
without the limits of the several states " the institution of negro 
slavery, as it now exists in the Confederate States, shall be 
recognized and protected by Congress and by the Territorial 
government " (see CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA). 

222. Under what claim of Constitutional right all this 
was done passes comprehension. That a state convention 
should have the final power of decision on the Constitu- 
question which it was summoned to consider is tionai 
quite as radical doctrine as has yet been heard R <8 r * te - 
of; that a state convention, summoned to consider the one 
question of secession, should go on, with no appeal to any 
further popular authority or mandate, to send delegates to 
meet those of other states and form a new national govern- 
ment, which could only exist by warring on the United States, 
is a novel feature in American Constitutional law. It was 
revolution or nothing. Only in Texas, where the call of the 
state convention was so irregular that a popular vote could 
hardly be escaped, was any popular vote allowed. Elsewhere 
the functions of the voter ceased when he voted for delegates 
to the state convention; he could only look on helplessly while 
that body went on to constitute him a citizen of a new nation. 

223. The Border states were in two tiers North Carolina, 
Tennessee and Arkansas next to the seceding states, and Dela- 
ware, Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky and Missouri TfieBorrfe/ 
next to the .free states. None of these was willing SMtes . 

to secede. There was, however, one force which 
might draw them into secession. A state which did not 
wish to secede, but believed in state sovereignty and the abstract 
right of secession, would be inclined to take up arms to resist 
any attempt by the Federal government to coerce a seceding 
state. In this way, in the following spring, the original seven 
seceding states were reinforced by four of the Border states. 

224. In the North and West surprisingly little attention 
was given to the systematic course of procedure along the 



yo6 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1861-1865 



Gulf. The people of those sections were very busy; they had 
heard much of this talk before, and looked upon it as a kind 

of stage-thunder, the inevitable accompaniment of 
Feeling la recent presidential elections. Republican politicians, 
* with the exception of a few, were inclined to 
refrain from public declarations of intention. Some of 
them such as Seward, showed a disposition to let the " erring 
sisters " depart in peace, expecting to make the loss good by 
accessions from Canada. A few, like Senator Zachariah 
Chandler, believed that there would be " blood-letting," but most 
of them were still doubtful as to the future. In the North the 
leaders and the people generally shrank from the prospect of 
war, and many were prepared to make radical concessions to 
avert hostilities. Among the various proposals to this end 
that offered in the Senate by John J. Crittenden, of Kentucky, 
and known as the Crittenden Compromise, was perhaps received 
with most favour. This took the form of six proposed amend- 
ments to the Constitution, of which two were virtually a re- 
phrasing of the essential feature of the Missouri Compromise 
and of the principle of popular or squatter sovereignty, and 
others provided that the national government should pay to 
the owner of any fugitive slave, whose return was prevented 
by opposition in the North, the full value of such slave, and 
prohibited the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia" so 
long as it exists in the adjoining states of Virginia and Maryland 
or either." This proposed compromise was rejected by the Senate 
by a close vote on the 2nd of March 1861. A Peace Congress, 
called by Virginia, met in Washington from the 4th to the 27th of 
February 1861 , 21 states being represented, and proposed a consti- 
tutional amendment embodying changes very similar to those of 
the Crittenden Compromise, but its proposal was not acted upon 
by Congress. Democratic politicians were hide-bound by their 
repetition of the phrase " voluntary Union "; they had not yet 
hit upon the theory which carried the War Democrats through 
the final struggle, that the sovereign state of New York could 
make war upon the sovereign state of South Carolina for the 
unfriendly act of secession, and that the war was waged by the 
non-seceding against the seceding states. President Buchanan 
publicly condemned the doctrine of secession, though he added 
a confession of his inability to see how secession was to be pre- 
vented if a state should be so wilful as to attempt it. Congress 

did nothing, except to admit Kansas as a free state 

Admission . .. 

of Kansas; and adopt the protective Morrill tariff; even after 
Morriu its members from the seceding states had withdrawn, 
Tgf! Hot those who remained made no preparations for 
conflict, and, at their adjournment in March 1861, 
left the Federal government naked and helpless. 

225. The only sign of life in the body politic, the half-awakened 
word of warning from the Democracy of the North and West, 

was. its choice of governors of states. A remark- 
T" a ' 3 ' e 8 rou P f men . soon to be known as the " war 

governors" Israel Washburn of Maine, Erastus 
Fairbanks of Vermont, Ichabod Goodwin of New Hampshire, 
John Albion Andrew of Massachusetts.William Sprague of Rhode 
Island, William Alfred Buckingham of Connecticut, Edwin 
Dennison Morgan of New York, Charles Smith Olden of New 
Jersey, Andrew Gregg Curtin of Pennsylvania,William Dennison 
of Ohio, Oliver Perry Morton of Indiana, Richard Yates 
of Illinois, Austin Blair of Michigan, Alexander Williams 
Randall of Wisconsin, Samuel Jordan Kirkwood of Iowa, and 
Alexander Ramsey of Minnesota held the executive powers 
of the Northern states in 1861-1862. Some of these governors, 
such as Andrew and Buckingham, as they saw the struggle 
come nearer, went so far as to order the purchase of warlike 
material for their states on their private responsibility, and 
their action saved days of time. 

226. The little army of the United States had been almost 
Seizure of P u t ou *- f consideration; wherever its detachments 
Untied could be found in the South they were sur- 
states rounded and forced to surrender and were trans- 
*roperty. f erred to tne North. After secession, and in some 
of the states even before it, the forts, arsenals, mints, custom- 



houses, ship-yards and public property of the United States 
had been seized by authority of the state, and these 
were held until transferred to the new Confederate States 
organization. In the first two months of 1861 the authority 
of the United States was paralysed in seven states, and in at 
least seven more its future authority seemed of very doubtful 
duration. 

227. Only a few forts, of all the magnificent structures with 
which the nation had dotted the Southern coast, remained to it 
the forts near Key West, Fortress Monroe at the p os itionot 
mouth of Chesapeake Bay, Fort Pickens at Pensa- tbeRemain- 
cola and Fort Sumter in Charleston harbour. Both log Fort*. 
the last-named were beleaguered by hostile batteries, but the 
administration of President Buchanan, intent on maintaining 
the peace until the new administration should come in, 
instructed their commanding officers to refrain from any acts 
tending to open conflict. The Federal officers, therefore, were 
obliged to look idly on while every preparation was made 
for their destruction, and even while a vessel bearing supplies 
for Fort Sumter was driven back by the batteries between it 
and the sea. 

228. The divergence between the two sections of the country 
had thus passed into disunion, and was soon to pass into open 
hostility. The legal recognition of the custom 

of slavery, acting upon and reacted upon by every 
step in their economic development and every 
difference in their natural characteristics, surroundings and 
institutions, had carried North and South further and faster 
apart, until the elements of a distinct nationality had appeared 
in the latter. Slavery had had somewhat the same effect on 
the South that democracy had had on the colonies. In the 
latter case the aristocracy of the mother-country had made 
a very feeble struggle to maintain the unity of its empire. 
It remained to be seen, in the American case, whether 
democracy would do better. 

K.The Civil War, 1861-1865. 

229. Secession had taken away many of the men who had 
for years managed the Federal government, and who under- 
stood its workings. Lincoln's party was in power embarrass- 
for the first time; his officers were new to the meats of the 
routine of Federal administration; and the circum- Ooverameat. 
stances with which they were called upon to deal were such as 
to daunt any spirit. The government had become so nearly 
bankrupt in the closing days of Buchanan's administration that 
it had only escaped by paying double interest, and that by 
the special favour of the New York banks, which obtained in 
return the appointment of John A. Dix as secretary of the 
treasury. The army had been almost broken up by captures of 
men and material and by resignations of competent and trusted 
officers. The navy had come to such a pass that, in February 
1861, a House committee reported that only two vessels, one of 
twenty, the other of two guns, were available for the defence 
of the entire Atlantic coast. And, to complicate all difficulties, 
a horde of clamorous office-seekers crowded Washington. 

230. Before many weeks of Lincoln's administration had 
passed, the starting of an expedition to provision Fort Sumter 
brought on an attack by the batteries around the Port 
fort, and after a bombardment of 36 hours the Sumter. 
fort surrendered (April 14, 1861). It is not necessary nisingia 
to rehearse the familiar story of the outburst of tbeNorth - 
feeling which followed this event and the proclamation of 
President Lincoln calling for volunteers. The 75,000 volunteers 
called for were supplied three or four times over, and those who 
were refused felt the refusal as a personal deprivation. 

231. There had been some belief in the South that the 
North-West would take no part in the impending conflict, and 
that its people could be persuaded to keep up 
friendly relations with the new nationality until / s 

the final treaty of peace should establish all the 
fragments of the late Union upon an international basis. In 
the spring months of 1861 Douglas, who had long been 



HISTORY 1861-1865] 



UNITED STATES 



707 



denounced as the tool of the Southern slave-holders, was 
spending the closing days of life in expressing the deter- 
mination of the North- West that it would never submit to have 
" a line of custom-houses " between it and the ocean. The 
batteries which Confederate authority was erecting on the banks 
of the Mississippi were fuel to the flame. Far-off California, 
which had been considered neutral by all parties, pronounced 
as unequivocally for the national authority. 

232. The shock of arms put an end to opposition in the 
South as well. The peculiar isolation of life in the South 

precluded the more ignorant voter from any com- 
th state"" Prisons of the power of his state with any other; 

to him it was almost inconceivable that his state 
should own or have a superior. The better educated men, of 
wider experience, had been trained to think state sovereignty 
the foundation of civil liberty, and, when their state spoke, 
they felt bound to " follow their state." The president of the 
Confederate States issued his call for men, and it also was more 
than met. 

233. Lincoln's call for troops met with an angry reception 
wherever the doctrine of state sovereignty had a foothold. 

The governors of the Border states generally 
' returned it with a refusal to furnish any troops. 

Two states, North Carolina and Arkansas, seceded 
and joined the Confederate States. In two others, Virginia 
and Tennessee, the state politicians formed " military leagues " 
with the Confederacy, allowing Confederate troops to take 
possession of the states, and then submitted the question of 
secession to " popular vote." The secession of these states 
was thus accomplished, and Richmond became the Confederate 
capital. The same process was attempted in Missouri, but 
failed, and the state remained loyal. The politician class in 
Maryland and Kentucky took the extraordinary course of 
attempting to maintain neutrality; but the growing power 
of the Federal government soon enabled the people of the two 
states to resume control of their governments and give consis- 
tent support to the Union. Kentucky, however, had troops 
in the Confederate armies; and one of her citizens, the late 
vice-president, John C. Breckinridge, left his place in the Senate 
and became an officer in the Confederate service. Delaware 
cast her lot from the first with the Union. 

234. The first blood of the war was shed in the streets of 
Baltimore, when a mob attempted to stop Massachusetts troops 

on their way to Washington (April 19). For a time 
' there was difficulty in getting troops through Mary- 
land because of the active hostility of a part of its people, 
but this was overcome, and the national capital was made 
secure. The Confederate lines had been pushed up to Manassas 
Junction, about 30 m. from Washington. When Congress, called 
into special session by the president for the 4th of July, came 
together, the outline of the Confederate States had been fixed. 
Their line of defence held the left bank of the Potomac from 
Fortress Monroe nearly to Washington; thence, at a distance 
of some 30 m. from the river, to Harper's Ferry; thence through 
the mountains of western Virginia and the southern part of 
Kentucky, crossing the Mississippi a little below Cairo; thence 
through southern Missouri to the eastern border of Kansas; 
and thence south-west through the Indian Territory and along 
the northern boundary of Texas to the Rio Grande. The length 
of the line, including also the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, has been 
estimated at 11,000 m. The territory within it comprised about 
800,000 sq. m., with a population of over 9,000,000 and great 
natural resources. Its cotton was almost essential to the 
manufactories of the world; in exchange for it every munition 
of war could be procured; and it was hardly possible to 

blockade a coast over 3000 m. in length, on which 
Blockade. tne blockading force had but one port of refuge, and 

that about the middle of the line. Nevertheless 
President Lincoln issued his first call for troops on the isth 
of April, President Davis then issued a proclamation (on the 
1 7th) offering letters of marque and reprisal against the com- 
merce of the United States to private vessels, and on the 



Lincoln answered with a proclamation announcing the blockade 
of the Southern coast. The news brought out proclamations 
of neutrality from Great Britain and France, and, according 
to subsequent decisions of the Supreme Court, made the struggle 
a civil war, though the minority held that this did not occur 
legally until the act of Congress of the I3th of July 1861, 
authorizing the president, in case of insurrection, to shut up ports 
and suspend commercial intercourse with the revolted district. 

235. The president found himself compelled to assume 
powers never granted to the executive authority, trusting to 
the subsequent action of Congress to validate his suspension 
action. He had to raise and support armies and of "Habeas 
navies; he even had to authorize seizures of neces- Corpus," 
sary property, of railroad and telegraph lines, arrests of 
suspected persons, and the suspension of the writ of habeas 
corpus in certain districts. Congress supported him, and 
proceeded in 1863 to give the president power to suspend 
the writ anywhere in the United States ; this power he promptly ex- 
ercised. The Supreme Court, after the war, in the Milligan case 
(4 Wallace, 133) decided that no branch of the government 
had power to suspend the writ in districts where the courts 
were open that the privilege of the writ might be suspended 
as to persons properly involved in the war, but that the writ 
was still to issue, the court deciding whether the person came 
within the classes to whom the suspension applied. This 
decision, however, did not come until " arbitrary arrests," as 
they were called, had been a feature of the entire war. A 
similar suspension took place in the Confederate States. 

236. When Congress met (July 4, 1861) the x absence of 
Southern members had made it heavily Republican. It 
decided to consider no business but that connected 

with the war, authorized a loan and the raising "&*** 
of 500,000 volunteers, and made confiscation of property a 
penalty of rebellion. While it was in session the first 
serious battle of the war Bull Run, or Manassas took 
place (July 21), and resulted in the defeat of the 
Federal army. (For this and the other battles 
of the war see AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, and the supplementary 
articles dealing with particular battles and campaigns.) The 
over-zealous action of a naval officer in taking the Confederate 
envoys James M. Mason and John Slidell out of the Toe 
British steamer " Trent " sailing between two neutral "Trent" 
ports almost brought about a collision between Case ' - 
the United States and Great Britain in November. But the 
American precedents were all against the United States, and 
the envoys were given up. 

237. The broad-construction tendencies of the Republican 
party showed themselves more plainly as the war grew more 
serious; there was an increasing disposition to cut paper 
every knot by legislation, with less regard to the Currency; 
constitutionality of the legislation. A paper cur- s ' av *O'' 
rency, commonly known as " greenbacks " (?..), was adopted and 
made legal tender (Feb. 25, 1862). The first symptoms of a 
disposition to attack slavery appeared: slavery was prohibited 
(April 16) in the District of Columbia and the Territories (June 
19); the army was forbidden to surrender escaped slaves to 
their owners; and slaves of insurgents were ordered to be 
confiscated. In addition to a homestead act (see HOMESTEAD 
AND EXEMPTION LAWS) giving public lands to actual settlers 
at reduced rates, Congress began a further development of the 
system of granting public lands to railways. Another impor- 
tant act (1862) granted public lands for the establishment of 
agricultural and mechanical colleges (see MORRIIX, J. S.). 

238. The railway system of the United States was but 
twenty years old in 1850, but it had begun to assume some 
consistency. The day of short and disconnected 

lines had passed, and the connexions which were 
to develop into railway systems had appeared. 
Consolidation of smaller companies had begun; the all-rail 
route across the state of New York was made up of more 
than a dozen original companies at its consolidation in 1853. 
The Erie railway, chartered in 1832, was completed from 



708 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1861-1865 



Grants 



Piermont to Dunkirk, New York, in 1851; and another line 
the Pennsylvania was completed from Harrisburg to Pittston, 
Pennsylvania, in 1854. These were at least the germs of great 
trunk lines. The cost of American railways has been only 
from one-half to one-fourth of the cost of European railways; 
but an investment in a Far Western railway in 1850-1860 was 
an extra-hazardous risk. Not only did social conditions make 
any form of business hazardous; the new railway often had to 
enter a territory bare of population, and there create its own 
towns, farms and traffic. Whether it could do so was so 
doubtful as to make additional inducements to capital neces- 
sary. The means attempted by Congress in 1850, 
* n *-^ e case ^ ^he Illinois Central railroad, was to 
grant public lands to the corporation, reserving to 
the United States the alternate sections. At first grants were 
made to the states for the benefit of the corporations; the act 
of 1862 made the grant directly to the corporation. 

239. The vital military and political necessity of an imme- 
diate railway connexion with the Pacific coast was hardly 

open to doubt in 1862; but the necessity hardly 
justified the terms which were offered and taken. 
The Union Pacific railroad was incorporated; the 
United States government was to issue to it bonds, on the 
completion of each 40 m., to the amount of $16,000 per 
mile, to be a first mortgage; through Utah and Nevada the aid 
was to be doubled, and for some 300 m. of mountain building 
to be trebled; and, in addition to this, alternate sections of 
land were granted. The land-grant system, thus begun, was 
carried on extensively, the largest single grants being those of 
47,000,000 acres to the Northern Pacific (1864) and of 42,000,000 
to the Atlantic & Pacific line (1866). 

240. Specie payments had been suspended almost every- 
where towards the end of 1861; but the price of gold was but 
^_^ JO2's at the beginning of 1862. About May its 
Paper. " price in paper currency began to rise. It touched 

170 during the next year, and 285 in 1864; but the 
real price probably never went much above 250. Other articles 
felt the influence in currency prices. Mr D. A. Wells, in 1866, 
estimated that prices and rents had risen 90% since 1861, while 
wages had not risen more than 60%. 

241. The duties on imports were driven higher than the 
original Merrill tariff had ever contemplated. The average 
rates, which had been 18% on dutiable articles and 12% 
Tariftand on the aggregate in 1860-1861, rose, before the 
internal end of the war, to nearly 50 % on dutiable 
Revenue ar ticles and 35 % on the aggregate. Domestic 

manufactures sprang into new life under such hot- 
house encouragement; every one who had spare wealth con- 
verted it into manufacturing capital. The probability of 
such a result had been the means of getting votes for an 
increased tariff; free traders had voted for it as well as pro- 
tectionists. For the tariff was only a means of getting 
capital into positions in which taxation could be applied to it, 
and the " internal revenue " taxation was merciless beyond 
precedent. The annual increase of wealth from capital was 
then about $550,000,000; the internal revenue taxation on 
it rose in 1866 to $310,000,000, or nearly 60%. 

242. The stress of all this upon the poor must have been 
great, but it was relieved in part by the bond system on which 
Bonds. *- ne war was conducted. While the armies and 

navies were shooting off large blocks of the crops 
of 1880 or 1890, work and wages were abundant for all who 
were competent for them. It is true, then, that the poor 
paid most of the cost of the war; it is also true that the 
poor had shared in that anticipation of the future which 
had been forced on the country, and that, when the drafts 
on the future came to be redeemed, it was done mainly by 
taxation on luxuries. The destruction of a Northern railway 
meant more work for Northern iron mills and their workmen. 
The destruction of a Southern road was an unmitigated injury; 
it had to be made good at once, by paper issues; the South 
could make no drafts on the future, by bond issues, for the 



" 



blockade had put cotton out of the game, and Southern bonds 
were hardly saleable. Every expense had to be met by paper 
issues; each issue forced prices higher; every rise in p apcr 
prices called for an increased issue of paper, with issues in 
increased effects for evil. A Rebel War-Clerk's tbe Soath - 
Diary gives the following as the prices in the Richmond 
market for May 1864: " Boots, '$200; coats, $350; pantaloons, 
$100; shoes, $125; flour, $275 per barrel; meal, $60 to $80 per 
bushel; bacon, $9 per pound; no beef in market; chickens, $30 
per pair; shad, $20; potatoes, $25 per bushel; turnip greens, 
$4 per peck; white beans, $4 per quart or $120 per bushel; 
butter, $15 per pound; lard, same; wood, $50 per cord." How 
the rise in wages, always far slower than other prices, could 
meet such prices as these one must be left to imagine. Most 
of the burden was sustained by the women of the South. 

243. The complete lack of manufactures told heavily 
against the South from the beginning. As men were drawn 
from agriculture in the North and West, the in- 
creased demand for labour was shaded off into 

an increased demand for agricultural machinery; 
every increased percentage of power in reaping-machines liber- 
ated so many men for service at the front. The reaping- 
machines of the South the slaves were incapable of any such 
improvement, and, besides, required the presence of a portion of 
the possible fighting-men at home to watch them. There is an 
evident significance in the exemption from military duty in 
the Confederate States of " one agriculturist on such farm, 
where there is no white male adult not liable to duty, employ- 
ing 15 able-bodied slaves between ten and fifty years of age." 
But, to the honour of the enslaved race, no insurrection took 
place. 

244. The pressing need for men in the army made the Con- 
federate Congress utterly unable to withstand the growth of 
executive power. Its bills were prepared by the confederate 
cabinet, and the action of Congress was quite per- Congress 
functory. The suspension of the writ of habeas ""I Presi- 
corpus, and the vast powers granted to President aeat " 
Davis, or assumed by him under the plea of military necessity, 
with the absence of a watchful and well-informed public 
opinion, made the Confederate government by degrees almost a 
despotism. It was not until the closing months of the war that 
the expiring Confederate Congress mustered up courage enough 
to oppose the president's will. (See CONFEDERATE STATES OF 
AMERICA.) The organized and even radical opposition to the 
war in the North, the meddlesomeness of Congress and its 
" committees on the conduct of the war," were no doubt 
unpleasant to Lincoln but they carried the country through 
the crisis without the effects visible in the South. 

245. Another act of Federal legislation the National 
Bank Act (Feb. 25, 1863; supplemented by the act of June 
3, 1864) should be mentioned here, as it was closely con- 
nected with the sale of bonds. The banks were to National 
be organized, and, on depositing United States Banking 
bonds at Washington, were to be permitted to s fstem. 
issue notes up to 90% of the value of the bonds deposited. 
As the redemption of the notes was thus assured, they circulated 
without question all over the United States. By a subsequent 
act (1865) the remaining state bank circulation was taxed out of 
existence. (See BANKS AND BANKING: United States.) 

246. At the beginning of 1862 the lines of demarcation 
between the two powers had become plainly marked. The 
western part of Virginia had separated itself from Admission 
the parent state, and was admitted as a state (1863) of West 
under the name of West Virginia. It was certain ylr x lala - 
that Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky and Missouri had been 
saved to the Union, and that the battle was to be fought out 
in the territory to the south of them. 

247. At the beginning of the war the people and leaders 
of the North had not desired to interfere with slavery, but 
circumstances had been too strong for them. Lincoln had 
declared that he meant to save the Union as he best could 
by preserving slavery, by destroying it, or by destroying part 



HISTORY 1861-1865] 



UNITED STATES 



709 



and preserving part of it. Just after the battle of Antietam 
(17 Sept. 1862) he issued his proclamation calling on the revolted 
The Emanci- states to return to their allegiance before the next 
pationPro- year, otherwise their slaves would be declared 
ciamatioa. f ree men j,j o s t a t e returned, and the threatened 
declaration was issued on the ist of January 1863. As 
president, Lincoln could issue no such declaration; as com- 
mander-in-chief of the armies and navies of the United States 
he could issue directions only as 19 the territory within his 
lines; but the Emancipation Proclamation applied only to 
territory outside of his lines. It has therefore been debated 
whether the proclamation was in reality of any force. It may 
fairly be taken as an announcement of the policy which was to 
guide the army, and as a declaration of freedom taking effect 
as the lines advanced. At all events, this was its exact effect. 
Its international importance was far greater. The locking up 
of the world's source of cotton supply had been a general 
calamity, and the Confederate government and people had 
steadily expected that the English and French governments, 
or at least one of them, would intervene in the war for the 
purpose of raising the blockade and releasing the Southern 
cotton. The conversion of the struggle into a crusade against 
slavery made intervention impossible for governments whose 
peoples had now a controlling influence on their policy and 
intelligence enough to understand the issue. 

248. Confederate agents in England were numerous and 
active. Taking advantage of every loophole in the British 

Foreign Enlistment Act, they built and sent to sea 
e " Alabama " and " Florida," which for a time 

almost drove Federal commerce from the ocean. 
Whenever they were closely pursued by United States vessels 
they took refuge in neutral ports until a safe opportunity 
occurred to put to sea again. Another, the " Georgia," was 
added in 1863. All three were destroyed in 1864. (See 
ALABAMA ARBITRATION.) Confederate attempts to have iron- 
clads equipped in England and France were unsuccessful. 

249. The turning-point of the war was evidently in the 
early days of July 1863, when the victories of Vicksburg and 
The Current Gettysburg came together. The national govern- 
of Success ment had at the beginning cut the Confederate 
changes. States down to a much smaller area than might 
well have been expected; its armies had pushed the besieg- 
ing lines far into the hostile territory, and had held the ground 
which they had gained; and the war itself had developed 
a class of generals who cared less for the conquest of territory 
than for attacking and destroying the opposing armies. The 
great drafts on the future which the credit of the Federal govern- 
ment enabled the North to make gave it also a startling appear- 
ance of prosperity; so far from feeling the war, it was driving 
production of every kind to a higher pitch than ever before. 

250. The war had not merely developed improved weapons 
and munitions of war; it had also spurred the people on to a 
more careful attention to the welfare of the soldiers, the 
fighting men drawn from their own number. The sanitary 
commission, the Christian commission, and other voluntary 
associations for the physical and moral care of soldiers, received 
and disbursed very large sums. The national government was 
paying an average amount of $2,000,000 per day for the pro- 
secution of the war, and, in spite of the severest taxation, the 
debt grew to $500,000,000 in June 1862, to twice that amount a 
year later, to $1,700,000,000 in June 1864, and reached its maxi- 
mum on the 3ist of August 1865 $2,845,907,626. But this 
lavish expenditure was directed with energy and judgment. The 
blockading fleets were kept in perfect order and with every 
condition of success. The railway and telegraph were brought 
into systematic use for the first time in modern warfare. Late 
in 1863 Edwin M. Stanton, the secretary of waf, moved two 
corps of 23,000 men from Washington to Chattanooga, 1200 m., 
in seven days. A year later he moved another corps, 15,000 
strong, from Tennessee to Washington in eleven days, and 
within a month had collected vessels and transferred it to 
North Carolina. 



251. On the other hand, the Federal armies now held almost all 
the great southern through lines of railroad, except the Georgia 
lines and those which supplied Lee from the South. 

The want of the Southern people was merely growing <to * p ~ 
in degree, not in kind. The conscription, sweeping 
from the first, had become omnivorous; towards the end of 
the war every man between seventeen and fifty-five was 
legally liable to service, and in practice the only limit was 
physical incapacity. In 1863 the Federal government also was 
driven to conscription. The first attempts to carry it out 
resulted in forcible resistance in several places, the worst being 
the " draft riots " in New York (July), when the city was in the 
hands of the mob for several days. All the resistance was put 
down; but exemptions and substitute purchases were so freely 
permitted that the draft in the North had little effect except as 
a stimulus to the states in filling their quotas of volunteers by 
voting bounties. 

252. In 1864 Lincoln was re-elected with Andrew Johnson 
as vice-president. The Democratic Convention had declared 
that, after four years of failure to restore the Union 

by war, during which the Constitution had been vio- 

lated in all its parts under thapleaof military necessity, 

a cessation of hostilities ought to be obtained, and had nomi- 

nated General George B. McClellan and G. H. Pendleton. Farra- 

gut's victory in Mobile Bay (Aug. 5), by which he sealed up the 

last port, except Wilmington, of the blockade-runners, and the 

evidently staggering condition of the Confederate resistance in 

the East and the West, were the sharpest comment- 

aries on the Democratic platform; and its candi- 

dates carried only three of the twenty-five states 

which took part in the election. 1 The thirty-sixth state 

Nevada had been admitted in 1864. 

253. The actual fighting of the war may be said to have 
ended with the surrender of General Robert E. Lee to General U.S. 
Grant at Appomattox, Va., on the gth of April 1865. 

All the terms of surrender named -by Grant were 
generous: no private property was to be surrendered; 
both officers and men were to be dismissed on parole, not to be 
disturbed by the United States government so long as they pre- 
served their parole and did not violate the laws; and he instructed 
the officers appointed to receive the paroles " to letall the men who 
claim to own a horse or mule take the animals home with them 
to work their little farms." It should be stated, also, to Grant's 
honour that, when the politicians afterwards undertook to repu- 
diate some of the terms of surrender, he personally intervened 
and used the power of his own name to force an exact fulfilment. 
General Joseph E. Johnston, with the only other considerable 
army in the field, surrendered on much the same terms at 
Durham Station, N.C. (April 26), after an unsuccessful effort 
at a broader settlement. All organized resistance 
had now ceased; Union cavalry were ranging the 
South, picking up government property or arresting 
leaders; but it was not until May that the last detached 
parties of Confederates gave up the contest. 

254. Just after Lee's surrender President Lincoln died 
by assassination (April 15), the crime of a half -crazed enthusiast. 
Even this event did not impel the American people 

to any vindictive use of their success for the punish- 

ment of individuals. In the heat of the war, in 

1862, Congress had so changed the criminal law that the punish- 

ment of treason and rebellion should no longer be death alone, 

but death or fine and imprisonment. Even this modified punish- 

ment was not Inflicted. There was no hanging; some of the 

leaders were imprisoned for a time, but never brought to trial. 

255. The armies of the Confederacy are supposed to have 
been at their strongest (700,000) at the beginning The 

of 1863; and it is doubtful whether they contained Opposing 
200,000 men in March 1865. The dissatisfaction Armles - 
of the southern people at the manner in which Davis 

'Lincoln received 212 electoral votes and McClellan only 21; 
but Lincoln's popular vote was only about 407,000 in excess of 
McClellan's, out of about 4,000,000. 






yio 



UNITED STATES 



[BIBLIOGRAPHY 



had managed the war seems to have been profound; and 
it was only converted into hero-worship by the ill-advised 
action of the Federal government in arresting and imprisoning 
him. Desertion had become so common in 1864, and the 
attempts of the Confederate government to force the people 
into the ranks had become so arbitrary, that the bottom of the 
Confederacy, the democratic elements which had given it all 
the success it had ever obtained, had dropped out of it before 
Sherman moved northward from Savannah; in some parts the 
people had really taken up arms against the conscripting officers. 
On the contrary, the numbers of the Federal armies increased 
steadily until March 1865, when they were a few hundreds over a 
million. As soon as organized resistance ceased, the dis- 
banding of the men began; they were sent home at the rate of 
about 300,000 a month, about 50,000 being retained in service 
as a standing army. The cost of the Civil War has been variously 
estimated: by Mulhall (Dictionary of Statistics, 
co^otthe 4th ed ^ l899> p S4J) at SSS)000i000 and (p. 586) 

at 740,000,000; by Nicolay and Hay (Abraham 
Lincoln, vol. x., p. 339) at $3,250,000,000 to the North 
and $1,500,000,000 to the South; by Edward Atkinson (the 
Forum, October 1888, p. 133), including the first three years 
of Reconstruction at $5,000,000,000 to the North and 
$3,000,000,000 to the South. The last alone of these estimates 
is an approximation to the truth. The ordinary receipts of 
the government for the four fiscal years 1862 to 1865 totalled 
$729,458,336, as compared with $196,963,373 for the four 
preceding years, 1858-1861; the difference representing the 
effort of the treasury to meet the burden of war. In the same 
period more than $2,600,000,000 was secured in loans upon 
the credit of the nation; and this total was raised by later bor- 
rowings on account of the war to more than $2,800,000,000. The 
immediate and direct cost of the struggle to the North was 
therefore about $3,330,000,000. To this sum must be added, 
in order to obtain the final and total cost: (i) the military pen- 
sions paid on account of the war since 1861 about $3,600,000,000 
up to 1909, inclusive; (2) the interest on the war debt, approxi- 
mately $3,024,000,000 in the same period; (3) the expenditures 
made during the war by state and local governments, which 
have never been totalled, but may be put at $1,000,000,000; 
and (4) the abnormal expenditures for army and navy during 
some years following the war, which may be put, conserva- 
tively, at $500,000,000. The result is a total of some 
$11,450,500,000 for the North alone. But the cost to the South 
also was enormous; $4,000,000,000 cannot be an exaggeration. 
It follows that, up to 1909, the cost of the war to the nation had 
approximated the tremendous total of $15,500,000,000. 

256. In return for such an expenditure, and the death of 
probably 300,000 men on each side, the abiding gain was incal- 
culable. The rich section, which had been kept back 
* n tlle general development by a single institution, 
and had been a clog on the advance of the whole 
country, had been dragged up to a level with the rest of the 
country. Free labour was soon to show itself far superior to 
slave labour in the South; and the South was to reap the largest 
material gain from the destruction of the Civil War. The per- 
sistent policy of paying the debt immediately resulted in* the 
higher taxation falling on the richer North and West. As a 
result of the struggle the moral stigma of slavery was removed. 
The power of the nation, never before asserted openly, had 
made a place for itself; and yet the continuing power of the 
states saved the national power from a development into 
centralized tyranny. And the new power of the nation, by 
guaranteeing the restriction of government to a single nation 
in central North America, gave security against any introduction 
of international relations, international armament, international 
wars, and continual war taxation into the territory occupied 
by the United States. Finally, democracy in America had 
certainly shown its ability to maintain the unity of its empire. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Sources: The proceedings of the Continental 
Congress from 1783 to 1788 are in The Journals of Congress, vols. 
viii. to xiii., and The Secret Journals of Congress, 4 vols. There is 



a new and greatly improved .edition of the Journals (Washington, 
1904- ), edited by W. C. Ford and Gaillard Hunt from the 
originals in the Library of Congress. The debates of Congress 
for the period from 1789 to 1824, were collected from newspapers, 
abridgedand published under the title of The Annals of Congress 
(43 vols., Washington, 1834-1856). The principal debates from 1825 
to 1837 are in the Register of Debates in Congress (29 vols., Washing- 
ton, 1825-1837), and from 1833 to 1 1873 the debates are in the 
Congressional Globe (108 vols., Washington, 1834-1873). There 
is an Abridgement of the Debates of Congress, from 1789 to 1856, 
by T. H. Benton (16 vols., New York, 1860). The acts of Congress, 
together with important documents, are in the appendices of the 
Annals, Register and Globe. See also United States Statutes at Large, 
from 1789 to 1865 (13 vols., Boston, 1845-1866), vol. vii. contains 
the treaties between the United States and the Indian tribes to 
1845 ; and Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties, edited by C. J. Kappler 
under direction of the Senate committee on Indian affairs (Washing- 
ton, 1904). Treaties of the United States have been published 
in Statutes at Large, and in Treaties, Conventions, International 
Acts, Protocols and Agreements between the United States of America 
and Other Powers, 1776-1909 (Washington, 1910) which superseded 
a collection of 1889 edited by John H. Haswell. The decisions 
of the United States Supreme Court were reported from 1789 
to 1800 by A. J. Dallas (4 vols., Philadelphia, 1790-^1807); 
from 1801 to 1815 by William Cranch (9 vols., Washington, 
1804-1817); from 1816 to 1827 by Henry Wheaton (12 vols., 
New York, 1816^-1827); from 1828 to 1842 by Richard Peters (16 
vols., Philadelphia, et ^.,1828-1842); from 1843 to 1860 by B. C. 
Howard (24 vols., Philadelphia, et al., 1843-1860) ; in 1861 and 1862 
by J. S. Black (2 vols., Washington, 1862-1863); and from 1863 
to 1874 by J. W. Wallace (23 vols., Washington, 1865-1876). There 
is a valuable collection of Cases on constitutional law, in 2 vols., 
by J. B. Thayer (Cambridge, 1894-1895). A large portion of the 
important executive documents are contained in The Messages 
and Papers of the Presidents, 17891897, compiled by J. D. Richardson 
(10 vols., Washington, 1896-1899), and the American State Papers: 
Documents Legislative and Executive (38 vols., Washington, 1832- 
1861); two volumes of these State Papers relate to commerce and 
navigation, 17891823; five to finance, 17891828; six to foreign 
relations, 1789-1859; two to Indian affairs, 1789-1827; seven 
to military affairs, 1789-1838; four to naval affairs, 1789-1836; 
eight to public lands, 17891837; one to the post office depart- 
ment; two to miscellaneous affairs. There is considerable first- 
hand material on the framing and ratification of the Constitution 
in the Documentary History of the Constitution, 1786-1870 (5 vols., 
Washington, 1894-1905), and The Debates in the Several State Con- 
ventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution . . . together 
with the Journal of the Federal Convention, by Jonathan Elliot (5 vols., 
Philadelphia, i86i;2nded., 1888). See also J. F. Jameson, "Studies 
in the History of the Federal Convention of 1787," in the Annual 
Report of the American Historical Association for 1902, vol. i.; 
and Pennsylvania and the Federal Constitution (Philadelphia, 1888), 
edited by J. B. McMaster and F. D. Stone. For the Civil War by 
far the most important source is the vast compilation of the Official 
Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, in four series, an atlas 
and a general index (Washington, 1880-1900). The material in 
William MacDonald's Select Documents Illustrative of the History 
of the United States, 1776-1861 (New York, 1898) relates almost 
wholly to constitutional development, foreign relations and banking. 
A. B. Hart's American History told by Contemporaries (New York, 
1901), of which vol. iii. and part of vol. iv. are collected from this 
period, consists largely of contemporary narratives, correspondence 
and extracts from diaries on a great variety of subjects. The Library 
of Congress has 333 vols. of Washington Manuscripts, 135 vols. of 
Jefferson Manuscripts, 75 vols. of Madison Manuscripts, 64 vols. of 
Alexander Hamilton Manuscripts, more than 200 letters between 
Jackson and Van Buren, a collection of Polk papers, the more 
important part of Webster's correspondence, a few Clay letters, 
22 vols. of Salmon P. Chase papers besides over 6300 letters, and 
440 Blennerhassett manuscripts. The Massachusetts Historical 
Society has the Adams papers ; the Historical Society of Pennsylvania 
has the Buchanan papers; the Historical Society of New Hampshire 
has a large collection of Webster papers ; and the Historical Society 
of Chicago has some of the Polk papers. Various valuable reports 
on manuscript materials available to students of this period have 
been published in the Annual Reports of the Historical Manuscripts 
Commission of the American Historical Association, and there is 
much valuable material in the Annual Reports of the association 
and in the volumes of the A merican Historical Review. The American 
Historical Association has published an index in its " Bibliography 
of American Historical Societies," edited by A. P. C. Griffin, in 
vol. ii. of its Annual Report for 1905 (Washington, 1907). See also, 
for social and economic sources, Documentary History of American 
Industrial Society (Cleveland, O., 1910 sqq.). Among the most 
useful published works of the public men of the period are: 
The Writings of George Washington edited by W. C. Ford (14 vols., 
New York, 1889-1893); Complete Works of Alexander Hamilton, 
edited by H. C. Lodge (9 vols., New York, 1885-1886), and The 
Works of John Adams . . . with a Life of the Author, edited, with 



HISTORY 1865] 



UNITED STATES 



711 



Life, by C. F. Adams (ip vols., Boston, 1850-1856), representing 
the Federalists; The Writings of James Madison, edited by Gaillard 
Hunt (9 vols., New York, 1900-1010), and The Writings of Thomas 
Jefferson, edited by P. L. Ford (10 vols., New York, 1892-1899), 
representing -the Anti-Federalists OP Republicans; The Writings 
of James Monroe, edited by S. H. Hamilton (7 vols., New York, 
1898-1903); Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, comprising Portions 
of his Diary from 1795 to 1848, edited by C. F. Adams (12 vols., 
Philadelphia, 1874-1877); Works of Henry Clay, comprising his 
Life, Correspondence and Speeches, edited, with Life, by Calvin Colton 
(ip vols., New York, 1904) and Thomas Hart Benton's Thirty Years' 
View; or, a History of the Working of the American Government (2 vols., 
New York, 1854-1856), for the "Middle Period"; The Writings 
and Speeches of Daniel Webster, edited by J. W. Mclntyre (18 vols., 
Boston, 1903) ; Letters of Daniel Webster, edited by C. H. van Tyne 
(New York, 1902); Complete Works of Abraham Lincoln, comprising 
his Speeches, Letters, State Papers and Miscellaneous Writings, edited 
by J. G. Nicolay and John Hay (2 vols., New York, 1902) ; The Works 
of William H. Seward, edited by G. E. Baker (5 vols., 2nd ed., 
Boston, 1883-1890), and The Works of Charles Sumner (15 vols., 
Boston, 1870-1883), for the Northern view ; The Works of John C. 
Calhoun, edited by R. K. Cralte (6 vols., New York, 1854-1855); 
Alexander H. Stephens, Constitutional View of the Late War between 
the States (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1868-1870), and Jefferson Davis, 
Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government (2 vols., New York, 1881), 
for the Southern view. 

Secondary Works: Three large and important secondary works 
cover the whole, or nearly the whole, period from the War of Inde- 
pendence to the Civil War. They are: James Schouler, History 
of the United States of America under the Constitution (rev. ed., 6 vols., 
New York, 1899), scholarly and comprehensive, but lacking in 
clearness, and, in the latter portion, unfair to the South; J. B. 
Me Master, History of the People of the United States from the Revolu- 
tion to the Civil War (7 vols., New York, 1883-1910), especially 
valuable for its treatment of social and economic conditions and for 
material gathered from newspapers; H. E. von Hoist, Constitutional 
and Political History of the United States (2nd ed., 8 vols., Chicago, 
1899), chiefly a treatment of the constitutional aspects of slavery 
by a German with strong ethical and strong anti-slavery sentiments. 
The period is ably treated in sections by A. C. McLaughlin, The 
Confederation and the Constitution, vol. x. of " The American Nation 
Series " (New York, 1905) ; J. S. Bassett, The Federal System, vol. ii. of 
" The American Nation Series " ; Henry Adams, History of the United 
States of America during the Administrations of Jefferson and Madison 
(9 vols., New York, 1891), quotes freely from records in foreign 
archives; J. W. Burgess, The Middle Period, 1817-1858 (New York, 
1901), andl J. F. Rhodes, History of the United Slates from the Com- 
promise of 18^0 (7 vols., New York, 1900-1906), which, although 
written largely from Northern sources, is for the most part fair and 
judicial. For lists of works dealing with special events (e.g. the 
Missouri Compromise, the Compromise of 1850, the Fugitive Slave 
Law, &c.), see the articles devoted to those subjects. See also vols. 
xii. to xxi. of " The American Nation Series, " consisting of Edward 
Channing, The Jeffersonian System; K. C. Babcock, The Rise of 
American Nationality; F. J. Turner, Rise of the New West; William 
MacDonald, Jacksonian Democracy; A. B. Hart, Slavery and Aboli- 
tion; G. P. Garrison, Westward Expansion; T. C. Smith, Parties 
and Slavery; F. E. Chadwick, Causes of the Civil War; and J. K. 
Hosmer, The Appeal to Arms, and Outcome of the Civil War. For 
further study of the Civil War see Edward McPherson, Political 
History of the United States during the Great Rebellion (Washington, 
1864; 3rd ed., 1876), chiefly a compilation of first-hand material; 
J. W. Burgess, The Civil War and the Constitution (2 vols., New York, 
1901). The best account of the military operations of the Mexican 
War is in R. S. Ripley, The War with Mexico, (2 vols., New York, 
1849). For a list of works relating to the military events of the 
War of 1812 and the Civil War see the separate articles on those 
subjects. On the War with France, 1798, see G. W. Allen, Our 
Naval War with France (New York, 1909). On the development 
of the West there are: H. B. Adams, Maryland's Influence upon 
Land Cessions to the United States (Baltimore, 1885) ; B. A. Hinsdale, 
The Old North-West (revised ed., New York, 1899), a scholarly work; 
Justin Winsor, The Westward Movement (Boston, 1897), a storehouse 
of facts, but dry for the general reader; Theodore Roosevelt, The 
Winning of the West (4 vols., New York, 1889-1896), a graphic 
outline. Other important works on special subjects are: Edward 
Stanwood, History of the Presidency (Boston, 1898), a study of 
presidential campaigns; J. P. Gordy, History of Political Parlies 
in the United States (2 vols., rev. ed., New York, 1900-1902); E. D. 
Warfield, The Kentucky Resolutions of 1798 (New York, 1887); 
Freeman Snow, Treaties and Topics in American Diplomacy (Boston, 
1894) ; J. B. Moore, A Digest of International Law (6 vols., Washing- 
ton, 1906), and History and Digest of the International Arbitrations 
to which the United States has been a Party (6 vols., Washington, 
1898); E. S. Maclay, History of the United States Navy from 1775 to 
1894 (3 vols., New York, 1897-1902); G. W. Allen, Our Navy and 
the Barbary Corsairs (Boston, 1905); J. R. Spears, History of our 
Navy (4 vols., New York, 1897); D. R. Dewey, Financial History 
of the United States (New York, 1903) ; W. G. Sumner, History of 



Banking in the United States (New York, 1896); R. C. H. Catterall, 
The Second Bank of the United States (Chicago, 1903) ; F. W. Taussig, 
Tariff History of the United States (41)1 ed., New York, 1898); E. L. 
Bogart, Economic History of the United States (New York, 1907) ; 
E. D. File, Social and Industrial Conditions in the North during the 
Civil War (New York, 1910), and I. L. Bishop, History of American 
Manufactures (3 vols., 3rd ed., Philadelphia, 1867). For biographies 
of the leading statesmen of the period see American Statesmen, edited 
by J. F. Morse, jun. (32 vols., new ed., Boston, 1899); see also the 
bibliographies at the close of the biographical sketches of statesmen 
in this edition of the Ency. Brit. There is a " Critical Essay on 
Authorities " in each volume of The American Nation; and both 



The Literature of American History, edited by J. N. Larned (Boston, 
1902), and Channing and Hart's Guide to the Study oj America 
History, are valuable bibliographical guides. (A. J. ; C. C. W.) 



L. History, 1865-1910. 

257. The capitulation of Lee (April 9, 1865), followed by the 
assassination of Lincoln (April 15) and the surrender of the 
last important Confederate army, under J. E. Johnston, marked 
the end of the era of war and the beginning of that of Recon- 
struction, a problem which involved a revolution in the social 
and political structure of the South, in the relation of state and 
nation in the American Federal Union, and in the economic 
life of the whole country. 

258. Economically the condition of the South was desperate. 
The means of transport were destroyed; railways and bridges 
were ruined; Southern securities were valueless; the Confederate 
currency system was completely disorganized. Great numbers 
of the emancipated negroes wandered idly from place to place, 
trusting the Union armies for sustenance, while their former 
masters toiled in the fields to restore their plantations. 

259. The social organization of the South had been based 
on negro slavery. Speaking generally, the large planters 
had constituted the dominant class, especially s^Mond 
in the cotton states; and in the areas of heaviest Economic 
negro population these planters had belonged for Conditioner 
the most part to the old Whig party. Outside taeSouta - 
of the larger plantation areas, especially in the hill 
regions and the pine barrens, there was a population of 
small planters and poor whites who belonged in general to the 
Democratic party. In the mountain regions, where slavery had 
hardly existed, there were Union areas, and from the poor 
whites of this section had come Andrew Johnson, senator and 
war governor of Tennessee, who was chosen vice-president on 
the Union ticket with Lincoln in 1864 as a recognition of the 
Union men of the South. Accidental as was Johnson's elevation 
to the presidency, there was an element of fitness in it, for the 
war destroyed the former ruling class in the Southern States 
and initiated a democratic revolution which continued after 
the interregnum of negro government. Of this rise of the 
Southern masses Johnson was representative. 

260. The importance of personality in history was clearly 
illustrated when the wise and sympathetic Lincoln, who had 
the confidence of the masses of the victorious Distrust of 
North, was replaced by Johnson, opinionated and President 
intemperate, whose antecedents as a Tennessean and Johnson, 
Democrat, and whose state rights' principles and indifference 
to Northern ideals of the future of the negro made him 
distrusted by large numbers of the Union Republican party. 

261. The composition of this party was certain to endanger 
its stability when peace came. It had carried on the war by a 
coalescence of Republicans, War Democrats, Whigs, Ua i oa 
Constitutional Unionists and Native Americans, Republican 
who had rallied to the cause of national unity. Parf y- 

At the outset it had asserted that its purpose was not to 
interfere with the established institutions in slave states, but 
to defend the Constitution, and to preserve the Union with 
all the dignity, equality and rights of the several states 
unimpaired. But the war had destroyed slavery, as well as 
preserved the Union, and the civil status of the negro and 
the position of the revolted states now became burning 
questions, reviving old antagonisms and party factions. To the 
extremists of the Radical wing it seemed in accordance with 



712 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1865-1910 



the principles of human liberty that the negro should not 
only be released from slavery but should also receive full civil 
rights, including the right to vote on an equality with the 
whites. This group was also ready to revolutionize Southern 
society by destroying the old ascendancy of the great planter 
class. Of this idealistic school of radical Republicans, Charles 
Sumner, of Massachusetts, was the spokesman in the Senate, 
and Thaddeus Stevens, of Pennsylvania, in the House. 

262. For many years before the war parties had differed on 
such important questions as the tariff, internal improvements 
and foreign policy; and the South had used its alliance with 
the Northern Democracy to resist the economic demands of 
the industrial interests of the North. A return of Southern 
congressmen, increased in numbers by the inapplicability to 
the new conditions of the constitutional provision by which 
they had representation for only a fraction of the slaves, might 
mean a revival of the old political situation, with the South and 
the Northern Democracy once more in the saddle. 

263. Any attempt to restore the South to full rights, there- 
fore, without further provision for securing for the freedmen 
Northern the reality of their freedom, and without some 
Attitude means of establishing the political control of the 
towards the victorious party, would create party dissension. 
South. Even Lincoln had aroused the bitter opposition of 
the radical leaders by his generous plan of Reconstruction. 
Johnson could have secured party support only by important 
concessions to the powerful leaders in Congress; and these 
concessions he was temperamentally unable to make. The 
masses of the North, especially in the first rejoicings over the 
peace, were not ungenerous in their attitude; and the South, 
as a whole, accepted the results of defeat in so far as to 
acquiesce in the permanence of the Union and the emancipa- 
tion of the slaves, the original issues of the war. 

264. In the settlement of the details of Reconstruction, 
however, there were abundant opportunities for the hatred 
engendered by the war to flame up once more. As it 
became clear that the Northern majority was determined to 
exclude the leaders of the South from political rights in the re- 
construction of the Union, and especially as the radicals disclosed 

' their purpose to ensure Republican ascendancy by subjecting 
the section to the rule of the loyalist whites and, later, to 
that of the emancipated negroes, good will disappeared, 
and the South entered upon a fight for its social system. The 
natural leaders of the people, men of intelligence and property, 
had been the leaders of the section in the war. Whatever their 
views had been at first as to secession, the great majority of 
the Southern people had followed the fortunes of their states. 
To disfranchise their leaders was to throw the control into the 
hands of a less able and small minority of whites; to enfranchise 
the blacks while disfranchising the white leaders was to under- 
take the task of subordinating the former political people of a 
section to a different race, just released from slavery, ignorant, 
untrained, without property and fitted only to follow the leader- 
ship of outside elements. The history of this attempt and its 
failure constitutes much of that of the Reconstruction. 
' 265. These underlying forces were in reality more influential 
than the constitutional theories which engaged so much of the 
discussion in Congress, theories which, while they afford 
evidence of the characteristic desire to proceed constitutionally 
were really urged in support of, or opposition to, the interests 
just named. 

266. The most extreme northern Democrats, and their 
southern sympathizers, starting from the premise that con- 
Theortes stitulionally the Southern states had never been out 
Regarding f the Union, contended that the termination of 
the status hostilities restored them to their former rights in the 
of the Federal Union unimpaired and without further 
Mates action - Tnis theory derived support from President 
Lincoln's view that not states, but assemblages of 
individuals, had waged war against the government. The 
theory of the extreme Republican Radicals was formulated 
by Sumner and Stevens. The former contended that, while 



the states could not secede, they had by waging war reduced 
themselves to mere Territories of the United States, entitled 
only to the rights of Territories under the Constitution. Stevens 
went further and, appealing to the facts of secession, declared 
the Southern states conquered provinces, subject to be disposed 
of under international law at the will of the conqueror. In 
the end Congress adopted a middle ground, holding that while 
the states could not leave the Union, they were, in fact, out of 
normal relations, and that the constitutional right of the Federal 
government to guarantee republican governments to the 
various states gave to Congress the power to impose conditions 
precedent to their rehabilitation. 

267. It is necessary to recall the initiation of Reconstruction 
measures by President Lincoln rightly to understand the posi- 
tion which was taken by President Johnson. President 
Impatient of theoretical discussion, Lincoln laid Lincoln's 
down practical conditions of restoration in his pro- Policy. 
clamation of the 8th of December 1863. In this he offered 
amnesty to those who would take an oath of loyalty for the future 
and accept the acts of Congress and the proclamation of the 
president with reference to slaves. From the amnesty he 
excepted the higher military, civil and diplomatic officers of the 
Confederacy as well as those who had relinquished judicial 
stations, seats in Congress, or commissions in the army or navy 
to aid the rebellion, and those who had treated persons in the 
Federal service otherwise than lawfully as prisoners of war. 
The proclamation provided, further, that when in any of the 
seceding states (except Virginia, where the president had 
already recognized the loyal government under Governor Francis 
H. Pierpont) a number of persons not less than one-tenth of the 
voters in 1860 should have taken the above described oath, 
and, being qualified voters under the laws of the state in 1860, 
should have established a state government, republican in form, 
it should be recognized. Lincoln's comprehension of Southern 
difficulties was shown in his declaration in this proclamation 
that the president would not object to such provisions by the 
states regarding the freedmen as should, while declaring their 
freedom and providing for their education, recognize their 
condition as a labouring, landless and homeless class. 

268. Although Lincoln expressly pointed out that the 
admission of the restored states to representation Aultude of 
in Congress rested exclusively with the respective congress; 
houses, and announced his readiness to consider the First 
other plans for Reconstruction, heated opposition * cco "*' fn " > 
by the radicals in Congress was called out by 

this proclamation. They feared that it did not sufficiently 
guarantee the abolition of slavery, which up to this time rested 
on the war powers of the president, and they asserted that it 
was the right of Congress, rather than that of the president, 
to determine the conditions and the process of Reconstruction. 
In a bill which passed the House by a vote of 73 to 59 and 
was concurred in by the Senate, Congress provided that Recon- 
struction was to be begun only when a majority of the white 
male citizens of any one of the Confederate States should take 
oath to support the Constitution of the United States. The 
president should then invite them to call a constitutional con- 
vention. The electors of this convention would be required to 
take an oath of allegiance which excluded a much larger class 
than those deprived of the benefit of the amnesty proclamation, 
for it eliminated all who had voluntarily borne arms against 
the United States, or encouraged hostility to it, or voluntarily 
yielded support to any of the Confederate governments. In 
addition to entrusting the formation of a constitution to the 
small minority of thorough-going loyalists, the bill required 
that the state constitution should exclude a large proportion 
of the civil and military officers of a Confederate government 
from the right of voting, and that it should provide that 
slavery be for ever abolished and that state and Confederate 
debts of the war period should never be paid. In July 1864 
Lincoln gave a " pocket veto " to the bill and issued a pro- 
clamation explaining his reasons for refusing to sign, where- 
upon Benjamin F. Wade and Henry W. Davis (q.v.), leaders of 



HISTORY 1865-1910] 



UNITED STATES 



7*3 



the radicals, violently attacked the president. The triumph 
of Lincoln in the election of 1864 did not clearly signify the 
will of the people upon the conditions of Reconstruction, or upon 
the organ of government to formulate them, for the declaration 
of the Democratic convention that the war was a failure over-' 
shadowed the issue, and the Union party which supported 
Lincoln was composed of men of all parties. 

269. On January 3 ist 1865 the House concurred in the vote of 
the Senate in favo.ur of the Thirteenth Amendment to the 

Constitution abolishing slavery throughout the 
t Union. Four years earlier Congress had submitted 
'to the states another Thirteenth Amendment by 
the terms of which no amendment should ever authorize 
Congress to interfere with slavery within the states. But owing 
to the war this amendment had remained unratified, and now 
Congress proposed to place beyond constitutional doubt, or 
the power of states to change it, the emancipation of slaves. By 
the i8th of December 1865 the amendment had been ratified 
and was proclaimed in force. 

270. In the meantime, Louisiana, in accordance with Lincoln's 
proclamation, had adopted a constitution and abolished slavery 
within the state. Owing to the obstructive tactics of Sumner, 
aided by Democrats in the Senate, Congress adjourned on 
the 4th of March 1865 without having recognized this new 
state government as legitimate. "If we are wise and dis- 
creet," said Lincoln, " we shall reanimate the states and get 
their governments in successful operation with order prevailing 
and the Union re-established before Congress comes together in 
December." 

271. Such was the situation when Johnson took up the 
presidency upon Lincoln's death. After an interval of uncer- 
tainty, in which he threatened vengeance against various 
Southern leaders and gave the radicals some hope that he would 
favour negro suffrage, President Johnson accepted the main 
features of Lincoln's policy. Congress not being in session, he 
was able to work out an executive Reconstruction on the lines of 
Lincoln's policy during the summer and autumn of 1865. On 
the 29th of May he issued a proclamation of amnesty, requiring 
of those who desired to accept its provisions an oath to support 
the Constitution and Union, and the laws and proclamations 
respecting the emancipation of slaves. Certain specified classes 
of persons were excepted, including certain additions to those 
excluded by Lincoln, especially " all persons who have volun- 
tarily participated in said rebellion and the estimated value of 
whose taxable property is over twenty thousand dollars." 
This provision was characteristic of Johnson, who disliked 
the Southern planting . aristocracy, and aimed at placing 
the preponderant power in the hands of ihe Democratic 
small farmers, who had been his supporters. To those of the 
excepted classes who would ask pardon from the president, he 
promised a liberal clemency. As part of his system he issued 
Policy of another proclamation in which he appointed a 
President governor for North Carolina and laid down a 
Johnson. pj an f or Reconstruction. By this proclamation it 
was made the duty of the governor to call a convention chosen 
by the loyal people of the state, for the purpose of altering 
the state constitution and establishing a state government. 
The right to vote for delegates to this convention was limited 
to those who had taken the oath of amnesty and who had 
been qualified to vote prior to the secession of the state. To 
the state itself was to be left the determination of the future 
qualifications of electors and office-holders. 

272. Already Virginia, Tennessee, Louisiana and Arkansas 
had governments which had been recognized by Lincoln. Be- 
tween the i3th of June and the i3th of July 1865 Johnson 
applied the same process which he had outlined for North Caro- 
lina to the remaining states of the Confederacy. Before Congress 
met in December all the Confederate states, except Texas 
(which delayed until the spring of 1866), had formed constitutions 
and elected governments in accordance with the presidential 
plan. All of their legislatures, except that of Mississippi, 
ratified the Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery. 



273. Gradually, however, the South turned to its former 
leaders to shape its policy, and the radical Republicans of the 
North were alarmed at the rapidity of the process 6f restoration 
on these principles. The disorganized and idle condition of the 
former slaves constituted a serious element in the Southern situa- 
tion, as Lincoln had foreseen. The negroes expected a grant of 
land from confiscated Southern estates, and it was difficult to 
preserve order and to secure a proper labour supply. 

274. Under these conditions the efforts of the South to 
provide security for their communities by bodies of white 
militia were looked upon with apprehension by the North, and 
there was sufficient conflict between the two races to give 
colour to charges that the South was not accepting in good faith 
the emancipation of the slaves. Especially irritating to Northern 
sentiment were the so-called " black codes " or " peonage laws," 
passed by the newly elected Southern legislatures. Southern 
They rested on the belief that it was necessary "Black 
that the former slaves should be treated as a separate cbrfe *-" 
and dependent class, and varied in severity in the dif- 
ferent states. Some of these imposed special disabilities 
upon the negro in the matter of carrying weapons and serving 
as witnesses. Vagrancy laws and provisions regarding labour 
contracts which had precedents in colonial and English legis- 
lation, but were specifically framed to restrain the negroes 
only, were common. Mississippi denied them the right to own 
land, or even to rent it outside of incorporated towns; South 
Carolina restricted them to husbandry and to farm or 
domestic service, unless specially licensed. Although several 
of the Southern states, perceiving that their course was likely 
to arouse the North to drastic measures, repealed or mitigated 
the most objectionable laws, the North had received the im- 
pression that an attempt had been made to restore slavery 
in disguised form. 

275. The problem of succouring and protecting the negroes 
had forced itself upon the attention of the North from the 
beginning of the war, and on the 3rd of March 1865 The 
Congress had created the Freedmen's Bureau (q.v.), Freedmen's 
with the power to assign abandoned lands, in the Bureau - 
states where the war had existed, to the use of the freed- 
men; to supervise charitable and educational activities 
among them; to exercise jurisdiction over controversies in 
which a freedman was a party; and to regulate their labour 
contracts. The local agents of the bureau were usually Northern 
men; some of them gave the worst interpretation to Southern 
conditions and aroused vain hopes in the negroes that the 
lands of the former masters would be divided among them; and 
later many of them became active in the political organization 
of the negro. 

276. Although the national government itself had thus 
recognized that special treatment of the freedmen was necessary, 
Congress, on assembling in December 1865, was disposed to 
regard the course of the South in this respect with deep suspi- 
cion. Moreover, as the Thirteenth Amendment was now rati- 
fied, it was seen that the South, if restored according to the 
presidential policy, would return to Congress with added 
representatives for the freed negroes. Only three-fifths of the 
negro slaves had been counted in apportioning representa- 
tives in Congress; though now free they were not allowed 
to vote. 

277. Under the leadership of the Radicals Congress refused, 
therefore, to receive the representatives of the states which 
had met the conditions of the president's proclamations. 
A joint committee of fifteen took the whole subject of Recon- 
struction under advisement, and a bill was passed continuing 
the Freedmen's Bureau indefinitely. When this was vetoed by 
President Johnson (Feb. 19, 1866) Congress retaliated by a con- 
current resolution (March 2) against admitting any reconstructed 
state until Congress declared it entitled to recognition, thus assert- 
ing for the legislative body the direction of Reconstruction. 

278. While the measure was under consideration the pre- 
sident in an intemperate public address stigmatized the leaders 
of the radicals by name as labouring to destroy the principles 



7M- 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1865-1910 



of the government and even intimated that the assassination of 
the president was aimed at. It was hardly possible to close 

th breach after this, and the schism between the 
f^at he' President and the leaders of the Union Republican 
President party was completed when Congress passed (April 
and Con- 9, 1866) the Civil Rights Bill over Johnson's veto. 
cTtf*>/ /I w The act declared the freedmen to be citizens of the 
em. United States with the same civil rights as white 

persons and entitled to the protection of the Federal 
government. It provided punishment for those who, relying 
upon state authority, should discriminate against the negroes. 

279. To place this measure beyond the danger of overthrow 
by courts, or by a change of party majority, on the i3th of 
The June 1866 Congress provided for submitting to the 
Fourteenth states a Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution. 
Amend- This g ave constitutional guarantee of citizenship 

and equal civil rights to freedmen, and, in effect, 
provided that when in any state the right to vote should be 
denied to any of the male inhabitants twenty-one years of 
age and citizens of the United States, except for participation 
in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representation in 
the state should be reduced in the proportion which the number 
of such citizens bore to the whole number of male citizens 
twenty-one years of age in the state. This section of the amend- 
ment, therefore, left the states the option between granting the 
suffrage to the negro or suffering a proportionate reduction in 
the number of representatives in Congress. It was a fair com- 
promise which might have saved the South from a long period of 
misrule and the North from the ultimate breakdown of its 
policy of revolutionizing Southern political control by enfranchise- 
ment of the blacks and disfranchisement of the natural leaders 
of the whites. But the South especially resented that section 
of the amendment which disqualified for Federal or state office 
those who, having previously taken an oath to support the Con- 
stitution of the United States, afterwards engaged in rebellion, 
which involved the repudiation of their leaders. The amend- 
ment further safeguarded the validity of the United States 
debt and declared null the war debt of the seceding states 
and the Confederacy and forbade the payment of claims for 
emancipation. 

280. In order to ensure the passage of this amendment 
the Radical leaders proposed bills which declared that, after its 
adoption, any of the seceding states which ratified it should be 
readmitted to representation. But it also provided that the 
higher classes of officials of the Confederacy should be ineligible 
to office in the Federal government. These bills were allowed 
to await the issue of the next election. 

281. For further protection of the rights of the negro, 
Congress succeeded in passing, over President Johnson's veto, 
an act continuing the Freedmen's Bureau for two years. Ten- 
nessee having ratified the Fourteenth Amendment was (July 24, 
1866) restored to representation and Congress adjourned, leaving 
the issue between the president and the legislative body to the 
people in the Congressional elections. 

282. The campaign brought with it some realignment of party. 
President Johnson having broken with the leaders of the Union 

Republican party was more and more forced to rely 
alignments. u P on Democratic support, although his executive 

appointments were still made from the ranks of the 
Republicans. The so-called National Union Convention, which 
met in Philadelphia in midsummer in an effort to abate 
sectionalism, and to endorse the president's policy, included a 
large number of War Democrats who had joined the Union 
party after the secession of the South, many moderate 
Southerners, a fragment of the Republican party, and a few 
Whigs, especially from the Border states. They claimed that 
the southern States had a right to be represented in Congress. 
Other meetings friendly to the Radicals were called, and under 
the designation of Union-Republican party they declared 
for the Congressional policy. While the campaign for elections 
to Congress was in progress the president made a journey to 
Chicago, speaking at various cities en route and still further 



alienating the Republicans by coarse abuse of his opponents. 
As a result of the autumn elections two-thirds of the members 
of the House of Representatives were opposed to him. Almost 
contemporaneously every seceding state except Tennessee 
rejected the Fourteenth Amendment, and thereby paved the 
way for the entire triumph of the Northern extremists, who 
favoured negro suffrage on idealistic grounds or as a means for 
forcing the South to agree to the Republican policy. 

283. In the ensuing winter and spring Congress completed 
the conquest of the president, awed the Supreme Court, and pro- 
vided a drastic body of legislation to impose negro suffrage 
on the South. By the Tenure of Office Act (March 2, 1867) 
Congress forbade the president to remove civil officers without 
the consent of the Senate, and at the same time by Teaun f 
another act required him to issue military orders only off e Actf 
through the general of the army (Grant), whom 

the president was forbidden to remove from command or to 
assign to duty at another place than Washington, unless at the 
request of the officer or by the prior assent of the Senate. These 
extraordinary invasions of the presidential authority were 
deemed necessary to prevent Johnson from securing control 
of the military arm of the government, and to protect Edwin 
Stanton, the secretary of war, and General Grant. Fearing 
lest the president might take advantage of the interim during 
which Congress would not be in session, the Fortieth Congress 
was required to meet on the 4th of March immediately 
following the expiration of the thirty-ninth. 

284. The Reconstruction Act of the 2nd of March 1867 pro- 
vided for the military government of the Southern states while 
the drastic policy of Congress was being carried Kecottsiruc . 
out. It was passed over the veto of the president tloa Act of 
and declared that no legal governments or adequate March 2, 
protection for life or property existed in the 1867 ' 
seceding states, except Tennessee. These states it divided into 
five military districts, each to be placed under the command of 
a general of the army, whose duty it was to preserve law and 
order, using at discretion either local civil tribunals or military 
commissions. But the existing civil governments were declared 
provisional only and subject to the paramount authority of the 
United States to abolish, modify, control, or supersede them. 
The act further provided that a constitutional convention might 
be elected by the adult male citizens of the state, of whatever 
race, colour or previous condition, resident in the state for a 
year, except such as might be disfranchised for rebellion or 
felony. No persons excluded from holding office under the 
Fourteenth Amendment were eligible for election to the con- 
vention or entitled to vote for its members. 

285. When the convention, thus chosen under negro suffrage, 
and with the exclusion of Confederate leaders, should have 
framed a state constitution conforming to the Federal Constitu- 
tion and allowing the franchise to those entitled to vote for the 
members of the convention, the constitution was to be submitted 
for the approval of Congress. If this were obtained and if the 
state adopted the Fourteenth Amendment, and this amendment 
became a part of the Federal Constitution, then the state should 
be entitled to representation in Congress; but the senators and 
representatives sent to Congress were required to take the " iron- 
clad oath," which excluded those who had fought in the Con- 
federate service, or held office under any government hostile to 
the United States, or given support to any such authority. 

286. By the pressure of military control Congress thus aimed 
at forcing the adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment, as well as 
the acceptance of negro suffrage in the state con- Supple- 
stitutions of the South. A supplementary act of the mentary 
23rd of March 1867 and an act of interpretation Actm. 
passed on the ipth of July completed this policy of " thorough." 
In the registration of voters the district commanders were 
required to administer an oath which excluded those disfran- 
chised for rebellion and those who after holding state or Federal 
office had given aid and comfort to the enemies of the United 
States. 

287. Against this use of military power to govern states in 



HISTORY 1865-1910] 



UNITED STATES 



time of peace the Supreme Court interposed no effective 
obstacle. Like the executive it was subordinated to Congress. 
Supreme It ' s true that in the case ex parte Milligan, 
Court decided in December 1866, the court held military 
Decisions, commissions unlawful where the ordinary civil 
tribunals were open. In the case of Cummings v. Missouri 
(Jan. 14, 1867) it decided also that a state test oath excluding 
Confederate sympathizers from professions was a violation of 
the prohibition of ex post facto laws; and the court (ex parte 
Garland) applied the same rule to the Federal test oath so far 
as the right of attorneys to practise in Federal courts was 
concerned. 

288. But threats were made by the .radicals in Congress 
to take away the appellate jurisdiction of the court, and even 
to abolish the tribunal by constitutional amendment. The 
judges had been closely divided in these cases and, when the 
real test came, the court refused to set itself in opposition to 
Congress. When Mississippi attempted to secure an injunction 
to prevent the president from carrying out the Reconstruction 
acts, and when Georgia asked the court to enjoin the military 
officers from enforcing these acts in that state, the Supreme 
Court refused (April and May 1867), pleading want of juris- 
diction. Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase argued that if the 
president refused to obey the court could not enforce its 
decree, while if he complied with the order of the court, and 
if the House of Representatives impeached him for refusing 
to enforce the law, the Supreme Court would be forced to the 
vain attempt to enjoin the Senate from sitting as a court 
of impeachment. 

289. In one instance it seemed inevitable that the court 
would clash with Congress; the McCardle case involved an 

editor's arrest by military authority for criticizing that 
authority and the Reconstruction policy. But Con- 
gress, apprehending that the majority of the court 
would declare the Reconstruction acts unconstitutional, promptly 
repealed that portion of the act which gave the court jurisdiction 
in the case, and thus enabled the judges to dismiss the appeal. 
Afterwards, when the Reconstruction policy had been accom- 
plished, the court, in the case of Texas v. While (1869), held 
that the Constitution looked to " an indestructible Union com- 
posed of indestructible states "; and that although the secession 
acts were null, and the Federal obligations of the seceding 
states remained unimpaired, yet their rights were 
suspended during the war. It also held that in 
re-establishing the broken relations of the state with 
the Union, Congress, under the authority to guarantee to 
every state a republican form of government, was obliged to 
regard the freedmen as part of the people of the state, and was 
entitled to decide what government was the established one. 
This decision, though it did not involve the direct question of 
the constitutionality of theReconstructionacts, harmonized with 
the general doctrines of the Congressional majority. 

290. The powerful leaders of the Republicans in Congress 
had been awaiting their opportunity to rid themselves of 
Impeach- President Johnson by impeachment. After various 
meat of failures to convince a majority of the House that 
President articles should be preferred against him, an oppor- 
Johasoa. tun j ty seeme <} to present itself when Johnson, in 
the summer recess of 1867, suspended Secretary Stanton 
and made General Grant the acting secretary of war. The 
Senate, on reassembling, refused to consent to the suspension, 
and General Grant yielded his office to Stanton, thus spoil- 
ing the president's plan to force Stanton to appeal to the 
courts to obtain his office and so test the constitutionality of 
the Tenure of Office Act. This proved to be a turning-point 
in Grant's political career, for by his break with Johnson he 
gained new support among the masses of the Republican party. 
To Johnson's foes it seemed that the president had delivered 
himself into their hands when he next defied Congress by taking 
the decisive step of removing Stanton in defiance of the Tenure 
of Office Act, and the House announced to the Senate (Feb. 
25, 1868) its decision to bring articles of impeachment against 



Texas v. 

White. 



the president. But careful reading of the law showed that it 
could not be relied on as conclusive ground for impeachment, 
for it provided that cabinet officers should hold office during 
the term of the president by whom they were appointed 
and for one month thereafter, subject to removal with the 
consent of the Senate. As Stanton had been appointed by 
President Lincoln and had merely continued under Johnson, 
a doubtful question was raised. The leaders, therefore, incor- 
porated additional charges in the articles of impeachment 
which they pushed through the House of Representatives. 
By these the president was accused of attempting to bring 
the legislative branch into disgrace by his public utterances 
and of stigmatizing it as a Congress of only part of the states. 
This raised the question whether it was necessary to show 
a legal, technical crime or misdemeanour as the necessary 
ground of impeachment. Had the theory of the leaders that 
this was not the case been successful, the executive would 
have been reduced to an obvious dependence upon Congress. 
In the spring of 1868, however, the trial by the Acquittal by 
Senate resulted in a verdict of acquittal. (See the senate. 
JOHNSON, ANDREW.) 

291. Meanwhile the military Reconstruction of the South 
and the organization of the negro vote progressed effec- 
tively. The party management of the negroes was 
conducted by " carpet-baggers," as the Northern '^en'" 
men who came South to try their fortunes under and"Scaia- 
these new conditions were nicknamed, and by the wags"; the 
white loyalists of the South, to whom was given V l ^" 

the name " scalawags." In the work of marshal- 
ling the freedmen's vote for the Republican party secret 
societies like the Loyal League, or Union League (?.!>.), 
played an important part. As the newly enfranchised mass 
of politically untrained negroes passed under Northern influence 
politically, the Southern whites drew more and more together 
in most of the former Confederate States, and although they 
were unable under the existing conditions to take control, they 
awaited their opportunity. A " Solid South " was forming in 
which old party divisions gave way to the one dominant 
antagonism to Republican ascendancy by negro suffrage; and 
a race antagonism developed which revealed the fact that 
underneath the slavery question was the negro question. 

292. Politically the important fact was that the Republicans 
had rejected the possibility of reviving the old party lines in 
the South, and had gambled upon the expectation of wielding 
the united coloured vote with such leadership and support as 
might be gained from former Northerners and loyal whites. 
In the end negro rule failed, as was inevitable when legal dis- 
abilities and military force were removed; but the masses of 
the Southern whites emerged with a power which they had not 
possessed under the old rule of the planting aristocracy. For the 
time being, however, negro votes gave control to the Repub- 
licans. In South Carolina, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi and 
Louisiana the negroes were in a majority; in Virginia, North 
Carolina, Arkansas and Texas they were in the minority; while 
in Georgia the two races were nearly evenly balanced. 

293. The white leaders of the South were divided as to the 
best means of meeting the problem. Some advocated that 
those entitled to vote should register, and then poiicyot 
refrain from the polls, in order to defeat the con- the South; 
stitutions made under negro suffrage, for the law theKu- 
required them to be ratified by a majority of the Kla * taan ' 
qualified voters. Others would have the white race bear no 
part in the process. Societies such as the " Ku-KIux Klan " 
and the " Knights of the White Camelia " were organized to 
intimidate or restrain the freedmen. But for the present 
the Republicans carried all before them in the South. Some of 
the new state^ constitutions imposed severe disfranchise- 
ment upon the former dominant class, and before the end of 
July 1868 all of the former Confederate States, except Virginia, 
Mississippi and Texas, had ratified the Fourteenth Amendment, 
which was proclaimed in effect. By the beginning of 1870 
these three states had also ratified the amendment, as had 



716 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1865-1910 



Georgia a second time, because of her doubtful status at the 
time of her first ratification. 

294. By the summer of 1868 Arkansas, South Carolina, 
North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana and Florida, 
Slx having satisfied the requirements of the Recon- 

Souihera struction acts, were entitled to representation in 
status Re- Congress. But Georgia, did not choose her senators 
unt '' a ^ ter tne adjournment of Congress, and, inas- 
much as the state excluded the negro members of 
the legislature in September, Congress on reassembling returned 
the state to military rule until its submission. Alabama was 
restored in spite of the fact that her white voters had remained 
away from the polls in sufficient numbers to prevent a majority 
of all the voters registered from having ratified the constitu- 
tion of the state, as the Reconstruction acts had required. The 
nominating conventions and the campaign of 1868 gave in- 
teresting evidence of the trend of political and economic 
events. Party lines, which had broken down in the North when 
all united in saving the Union, were once more reasserting 
themselves. President Johnson, who had been elected by the 
Union Republican party, had found his most effective support 
among the Democrats. The Republicans turned to General 
Grant, a Democrat before the outbreak of the war. His 
popularity with the Republicans was due not only to his military 
distinction, but also to his calm judgment in the trying period 
of the struggle between the president and Congress. He was 
seriously considered by the Democrats until he broke with 
Johnson in the Stanton episode. 

295. The Republican nominating convention met on the 
2oth of May 1868, a few days after the failure of the 

impeachment proceedings, and it chose Grant as 
Relubficaa tne candidate for the presidency. The platform 
Convention; supported the Congressional Reconstruction measures. 
Grant Upon the vital question whether universal negro 

yt," e ttte<l suffrage should be placed beyond the power of 
Presidency, states to repeal it by a new constitutional amend- 
ment, the platform declared: " The guarantee by 
Congress of equal suffrage to all loyal men at the South was 
demanded by every consideration of public safety, of gratitude 
and of justice, and must be maintained; while the question of 
suffrage in all the loyal states properly belongs to the people 
of those states." Nowhere in the North was the negro an 
important element in the population, but the North had 
shown an unwillingness to apply to itself the doctrines of 
negro rights which had been imposed upon the South. Between 
1865 and 1868 Connecticut, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Kansas, 
Ohio and Michigan had refused to give the negro the right 
to vote within their own bounds, and this plank was evidence 
Of the unwillingness of the party to make a direct issue of 
universal negro suffrage. Although the platform failed to 
indicate the future proposals of the Republican leaders on the 
negro question, on the topics of finance and currency it clearly 
showed that the party was controlled by economic interests 
which were to exercise increasing influence upon it. It 
pronounced in favour of payment of the public debt, not only 
according to the letter but the spirit of the laws under which 
it was contracted. The significance of this lay in its challenge 
to the Democratic agitation on the currency question. 

296. It was this question which gave the tone to the pro- 
ceedings of the Democracy at their convention in July 1868. 
The situation can best be presented by a brief review of the 
financial history just preceding the convention. Together with 
the discussion over political Reconstruction in the South, 
Congress and the administration had been obliged to deal with 
the reconstruction of debt, taxation and currency in the nation 
at the close of four years of expensive war. At its maximum 
point the debt had risen to $2,758,000,000, of a complicated 
variety of forms, and of the total less than one-half was funded. 
The problems of funding, readjustment of taxation, and re- 
sumption of specie payments proved to be so complicated 
with the industrial growth of the nation that they led to issues 
destined to exert a long continued influence. 






297. The various war tariffs, passed primarily for the sake 
of increased revenue, had been shaped for protection under the 
influence of the manufacturing interests, and they Finance; 
had been framed also with reference to the need of the Tariff; 
compensating the heavy internal taxes which were Internal 
imposed upon the manufacturers. When the war Reveaue - 
ended public sentiment demanded relief from these heavy burdens, 
and especially from the irksome internal taxes. The rapidly 
growing grain-raising districts of the Middle West exhibited 
a lively discontent with the protective tariff, but this did 
not prevent the passage in 1867 of the Wool and Woollens 
Act, which discriminated in favour of the woollen manu- 
facturers and raised the ad valorem duty on wool. In spite 
of several large reductions of internal revenue, the national 
debt was being extinguished with a rapidity that only a 
prosperous and growing nation could have endured. 

298. The currency question, however, furnished the economic 
issue which was most debated in the period of Reconstruc- 
tion. One set of interests aimed at rapidly reducing ng 

the volume of the currency by retiring the legal currency 
tender notes, or " greenbacks," issued during the Question; 
war, on the ground that they had been provided only 
as a war measure, that the country needed a 
contraction of this currency, and that specie payments would 
be hastened by the withdrawal of the greenbacks. The secre- 
tary of the treasury, Hugh McCulloch, pressed this policy to the 
foreground, and desired authority to issue bonds to retire these 
notes. Another set of interests demanded the retention of 
the greenbacks, supporting their views by arguments varying 
according to the degree of radicalism of the speakers. The 
more moderate, like Senator John Sherman, of Ohio, who 
reflected the views of parts, of the West, argued that 
the recuperation of the nation and the rapid increase of 
business would absorb the existing currency, while gold would 
cease to go abroad. Thus, by the increasing credit of the 
government, specie payment would be automatically resumed, 
and the holders of currency certificates would convert 
them into coin obligations at a lower interest rate. Others 
wished to use the greenbacks to pay the principal of such 
of the bonds as did not explicitly specify coin as the medium 
of payment; the most extreme, so far from contracting the 
currency by retiring the greenbacks, wished to increase this 
form of money, while diminishing the circulation of the notes 
of the national banks. The discussion tended to produce a 
sectional issue with the West against the East, and a social 
issue with bondholders and the creditor class in general arrayed 
against the less well-to-do. Congress agreed with Secretary 
McCulloch, and in the Funding Act of 1866 not only provided 
for converting short-time securities into long-term bonds, but 
also for retiring ten million dollars of greenbacks in six months 
and thereafter not more than four millions monthly. But the 
agricultural depression of 1866 produced a reaction. Loud 
demands were made that bonds should be paid in greenbacks 
instead of coin, that United States securities should be taxed, 
and the national bank notes suppressed. In 1868, on the eve 
of the presidential campaign, Congress, alarmed by the extent 
of these popular demands, suspended the process of contraction 
by decisive majorities in both houses, after forty million dollars 
in greenbacks had been retired by the secretary of the treasury. 

299. Ohio was the storm centre of the agitation. The 
" Ohio idea " that greenbacks should become the accepted 
currency of the country was championed by George 

H. Pendleton, of that state, and his friends now i d / a '>, 
brought him forward for the Democratic nomina- 
tion for president on this issue. In the national convention 
of that party they succeeded in incorporating into the 
platform their demands that there should be one currency for 
the government and the people, the bondholder and the pro- 
ducer, and that where the obligations of the government did 
not expressly provide for payment in coin, they should be 
said in lawful money (i.e. greenbacks) of the United States. 

300. But another wing of the Democratic party desired to 



HISTORY 18651910] 



UNITED STATES 



717 



make prominent the issue against the Reconstruction measures 
of the Republicans. This wing added to the platform and de- 
claration that these acts were unconstitutional and void, and the 
demand that the Southern states should be restored to their 
former rights and given control over their own elective franchise. 

301. Although the followers of Pendleton had shaped the 
financial plank of the platform, they could not nominate their 

leader. The opposition was at first divided between 
Democratic the various candidates. New York, which feared 
Convention; the effect upon the conservative financial interests 
Seymour o f t ne East if Pendleton were nominated, attempted 
'forth'*'** to break the deadlock by proposing an Ohio man, 
Presidency. Chief Justice Chase. But eager as Chase was for 

the presidency he had flatly refused to abandon 
the views which he held in favour of negro suffrage. Ohio 
was, therefore, able to retah'ate by stampeding the convention 
in favour of Horatio Seymour, of New York, chairman of the 
convention. As the war governor of his state he had been a 
consistent critic of the extremes to which the Federal admin- 
istration had carried its interpretation of the war power. For 
vice-president the convention nominated Francis P. Blair, jun., 
of Missouri, who had denounced the unconstitutionality of 
the Reconstruction acts in unmeasured terms. 

302. But the popularity of Grant in the North, together 
with the Republican strength in the states of the South which 

had been reconstructed under negro suffrage, gave 
Elected an easv victory to the Republicans in the election 

of 1868. Seymour carried only Delaware, New 
Jersey, New York and Oregon, of the North; and Maryland, 
Kentucky, Georgia and Louisiana of the South. Tennessee, 
and five of the former Confederate States, upon which negro 
suffrage had been imposed under military Reconstruction 
(North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, Alabama and 
Arkansas) voted for Grant. Virginia, Mississippi and Texas 
had not yet been restored. 

303. This decisive victory and the knowledge that it had been 
won by the advantage of the negro vote in the restored states 

led the Republican leaders to ignore their recent 
Am'en'dment. platform declaration in regard to negro suffrage. 
Shortly after Congress assembled propositions were 
made to place the freedman's right to vote beyond the power 
of the states to change. To do this by constitutional enact- 
ment it was necessary to make the provision universal, and 
Congress, therefore, submitted for ratification the Fifteenth 
Amendment declaring that " the right of citizens of the United 
States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United 
States or by any state on account of race, color or previous 
condition of servitude." Congress was given power to enforce 
the amendment by appropriate legislation. By the 3Oth of March 
1870 the amendment had been ratified; but it is doubtful 
whether this could have been accomplished by legislatures 
chosen on the issue. As it was, the states of Virginia, Missis- 
sippi, Texas and Georgia were required to ratify it as a condition 
of their readmittance to representation in Congress, and the 
three former states, having been permitted to vote separately on 
the obnoxious provisions of their constitutions in regard to the 
disfranchisement of former Confederates, rejected those clauses, 
adopted the Fifteenth Amendment and were restored in 1870. 
Georgia, after a new experience of military rule, 
likewise ratified the amendment, and her repre- 
sentatives were likewise admitted to Congress. 

304. As soon as the Fifteenth Amendment was proclaimed 
in effect, and the military governments of the South were 
NewCoa- superseded, the dominant party proceeded to enact 
grcssional measures of enforcement. These seemed especially 
Measures, necessary in view of the fact that, partly by intimi- 
dation of the coloured vote, Louisiana (1868) and Tennessee 
(1869) broke away from the Republican column; while in the 
election of 1870 Tennessee, North Carolina, Georgia, Virginia 
and Alabama went Democratic. The enforcement legislation 
of 1870 provided penalties for violating the Fourteenth and 
Fifteenth amendments and re-enacted the Civil Rights Act of 



1866. Jurisdiction was given to the Federal courts to main- 
tain the equality of the races before the law. The underlying 
doctrine of the acts was that the amendments guaranteed the 
freedmen against invasion of their rights by the acts of in- 
dividuals as well as by explicit legislation of the states. In 
the next two years (1871 and 1872) acts were passed provid- 
ing for effective Federal supervision of Congressional elections, 
and the " Ku-Klux Acts" (1871 and 1872) still further in- 
creased the power of the Federal courts to enforce the amend- 
ments and authorized the president to suspend the writ of 
habeas corpus and use military force to suppress the public 
disorders occasioned by the attempts to intimidate negro 
voters. But these stern measures were accompanied by 
some efforts to restore harmony, such as the repeal of the " iron- 
clad oath " for ex-Confederates, in 1871, and the passage of the 
General Amnesty Act of 1872. The North was becoming 
restive under the long continued use of the Federal military 
arm within state borders in time of peace, and especially with 
the results of negro rule under " carpet-bag" leadership. 

305. In any case the cost of rehabilitating the public 
works and providing education and the political and judicial 
institutions which should equally apply to the Cjrrrava . 
hitherto non-political class of the blacks, would gaac eofRe- 
have been a heavy one. But the legislatures, construction 
especially of Louisiana, South Carolina, Tennessee, 
Arkansas and Alabama, plunged into an extrava- 
gance made possible by the fact that the legislatures con- 
tained but few representatives who paid considerable taxes, and 
that they were controlled by Northern men who were some- 
times corrupt, and often indifferent to the burdens laid upon the 
propertied classes of the South. In 1872 it was estimated that 
the public debts of the eleven reconstructed states amounted 
to nearly $132,000,000, two-thirds of which was composed of 
guarantees to corporations, chiefly railway companies. Legis- 
lative expenses were grotesquely extravagant, the coloured 
members in some states engaging in a saturnalia of corrupt 
expenditure. Gradually this alienated from the so-called Radical 
party the support of Southern whites, because they resented 
the concessions of the carpet-bag leaders to the negro vote, 
because they suffered from the burden of taxation, and above 
all because race friction increased, drawing the whites together, 
in spite of former antagonisms between localities and classes. 

306. By 1872 a coalition had been formed under the name of 
Conservatives. But the control of electoral machinery in the 
strongly centralized state executives chosen by negro votes, 
and coercion by the Federal authority, still upheld Republican 
rule in various Southern states. Virginia and North Carolina 
were practically bankrupt, the capitals of Louisiana, Arkansas 
and Alabama, where rival state officers claimed possession, 
were occupied by Federal troops, and many of the govern- 
ments were so corrupt that only the contemporaneous revela- 
tions of rottenness in New York City and in certain branches 
of the Federal government afford a parallel. 

307. It was a time of lax public morals after war, which was 
ill suited to the difficult experiment of transferring political 
power to a race recently enslaved. Only the strong arm of 
the Federal authority sufficed to prevent the whites of the South 
from overthrowing a condition of things which it was impossible 
under American political ideas permanently to maintain. 

308. An important economic reorganization was in progress 
in the South. White districts were recovering from the war 
and were becoming the productive cotton areas by Economic 
the use of fertilizers and by the more intelligent Changes in 
white labour. Cities were rising, and the mines and taeSoutb - 
manufactures of the southern Appalachians were developing. 
In the black belt, or region of denser negro settlement, the 
old centres of cotton production and the citadels of the Southern 
political aristocracy, the blacks became tenant farmers, or 
workers on shares, but the white farmer in other areas raised 
his cotton at less cost than the planter who lived in the rich 
soils of the former cotton areas. The effective and just direction 
of negro labour was a difficult problem and was aggravated by 



7i8 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1865-1910 



the political agitation which intensified race friction. It became 
evident that there was a negro problem as well as a slavery 
question, and that the North was unable to solve it. 

309. In the meantime important foreign relations had been 
dealt with by Secretary William H. Seward, under Johnson, 
Foreign and by Secretary Hamilton Fish, under Grant. Not 
Relations, only were many treaties of commerce and extradi- 
tion, including one with China, negotiated by Seward, but he 
also brought about a solution of more important diplomatic 
problems. The relations of the United States with France and 
England had been strained in the course of the war, by the 
evident friendliness of the governments of France and England 
for the South. Not only had Napoleon III. been inclined to 
recognize the Confederacy, but he had also taken advantage 
of the war to throw into Mexico a French army in support 
of the emperor Maximilian. The temptation to use force 
while American military prestige was high appealed even 

to General Grant; but Seward by firm and cautious 
Maxl m " aa ' diplomatic pressure induced France to withdraw her 
troops in 1867; the power of Maximilian collapsed, and the 
United States was not compelled to appeal to arms in support 
of the Monroe Doctrine. Russia's friendly attitude through- 
out the war was signalized by her offer to sell Alaska to the 
United States in 1867. Seward promptly accepted it and the 
'treaty was ratified by the Senate and the purchase 
money ($7,200,000) was voted by the reluctant 
House, which saw little in the acquisition to commend it. 
Later years revealed it as one of the nation's treasure 
houses, particularly of gold and coal. 

310. With England affairs were even more threatening than 
with France. Confederate cruisers (notably the " Alabama "), 

The built in England and permitted by the negligence of 
"Alabama" the British government to go to sea, had nearly 

Claims. swe pt the American merchant marine from the 
ocean. Unsettled questions of boundary and the fisheries 
aggravated the ill feeling, and England's refusal in 1865 to 
arbitrate made a serious situation. Prolonged negotiations 
followed a change of attitude of England with regard to 
arbitration, and in 1870 President Grant recommended to 
Congress that the United States should pay the claims for 
damages of the Confederate cruisers, and thus assume them 
against England. However, in 1871, the treaty of Washington 
was negotiated under Secretary Fish, by the terms of which 
England expressed regret for the escape of the cruisers and for 
their depredations, and provided for arbitration of the fisheries, 
the north-western boundary, and the " Alabama " claims. 
Senator Sumner had given fiery expression to demands for 
indirect damage done by the destruction of our merchant 
marine and our commerce, and for the expenses of prolonging 
the war. For a tune this so aroused the passions of the two 
nations as to endanger a solution. But Sumner, who quarrelled 
with the president, was deposed from the chairmanship of the 
committee on foreign relations, and Secretary Fish so arranged 
matters that the Geneva arbitration tribunal ruled these indirect 
claims out. Thus limited, the case of the United States 
was victorious, the tribunal awarding damages against Great 
Britain to the amount of $15,500,000. Two months later the 
German emperor gave to the United States the dis- 
puted north-west boundary, including the San Juan 
island in Puget Sound. The fisheries controversy 
was not settled until 1877. 

311. In the West Indies also important questions were pre- 
sented. Seward had negotiated a treaty of purchase of the Danish 
Danish West Indies, but the Senate refused to ratify it, nor 
West Indies; did Grant's attempt to acquire Santo Domingo meet 
flonin W ^ a Different fate at the hands of that body (1870). 

In Cuba another insurrection was in progress. Secre- 
tary Fish " pigeon-holed " a proclamation of President Grant 
recognizing the Cubans as belligerents, and secured a policy of 
neutrality which endured even the shock of the " Virginius 
affair " in 1873, when fifty of the men of the filibustering 
steamer flying the American flag were shot by the Spanish 



authorities (see SANTIAGO, CUBA). It was shown that the 
vessel had no right to the flag. Negotiations about an 
isthmian canal resulted only in a treaty with Tbe'-vir- 
Nicaragua in 1868 giving to the United States a glnitu" 
right of way across the isthmus and in provisions for Attalr. 
a government survey of the Panama route. Foreign relations 
in this period were chiefly significant in that they were con- 
ducted in a spirit of restraint and that peace was preserved. 

312. It was in the field of domestic concerns, in economic 
and social development, that the most significant tendencies 
appeared. The old issues were already diminishing in impor- 
tance before the other aspect of Reconstruction which came from 
the revived expansion of the nation toward the West and the new 
forms taken by the development of American industrial society. 

313. The Republican party, following the traditions of the 
Whigs, was especially responsive to the demands of the creditor 
class, who demanded legislation to conserve their interests. 
Its victory in 1868 was signalized by the passage in the spring of 
the following year of an act pledging the faith of the United 
States to pay in coin or its equivalent all the obligations of the 
United States, except in cases where the law authorizing the 
issue had expressly provided otherwise. In 1870 and 1871 
refunding acts were passed, providing for the issue of bonds to 
the total amount of $1,800,000,000, one billion of which was to 
run for thirty years at 4%. This abandonment of the doctrine 
of early convertibility was made in order to render the bonds 
acceptable to capitalists, but in fact they soon went to a 
premium of over 25%. Long before their maturity the govern- 
ment had a surplus, but although it could then 

borrow at 2^% these bonds could not be retired. Measures 
While the legislature was thus scrupulous of the 
credit of the nation and responsive to the views of capital, the 
Supreme Court was engaged in deciding the question of whether 
the legal tender notes (greenbacks) were constitutional. Suc- 
cessive decisions in 1868 determined that they were not legal 
tender for state taxes, that they were exempt from taxation, 
and that they were not legal tender in the settlement of con- 
tracts providing for payment in specie. In the case of Hepburn 
v. Griswold (1870) Chief Justice Chase, under whom, as secretary 
of the treasury, the notes were first issued, gave the opinion of 
the court denying that they were legal tender in settlement of 
contracts made before the first Legal Tender Act, and intimating 
that they were not legal tender for later contracts. The judges 
had divided, four to three. Within a year the court was changed 
by the appointment of one new judge to fill a vacancy, and the 
addition of another in accordance with a law enlarging the 
court. In 1871 the former decision was reversed and the con- 
stitutionality of the Legal Tender Acts sustained on loose- 
construction reasoning. In 1884 the court went to the extent of 
affirming the right of Congress to pass legal tender acts in time 
of peace, in accordance with the usage of sovereign governments, 
as an incident to the right of coinage, and it declared that the 
power to borrow money includes the power to issue obligations 
in any appropriate form. In 1871 and 1872 Secretary George S. 
Boutwell illustrated the power of the administration to change 
the volume of the currency, by issuing in all over six million 
dollars of legal tender notes; and, following the practice of his 
predecessors, he sold gold from the treasury to check specula- 
tions in that part of the currency. The most noteworthy 
instance of this was in 1869, when two Wall Street speculators, 
Jay Gould and James Fisk, jun., attempting to corner the gold 
market and relying upon a supposed influence in the councils 
of President Grant, ran up the premium on gold until Secretary 
Boutwell ordered the sale of gold by the government. The 
result was the financial crash of " Black Friday." 

314. Speculation and the rapid growth of great fortunes were 
characteristic of the period. The war itself had furnished 
means for acquiring sudden riches; the reorganization of taxa- 
tion, currency and banking increased the opportunities as well 
as the uncertainties; and the opening of new fields of speculative 
enterprise in the oil fields of Pennsylvania and Ohio and the gold 
and silver mines of the mountains of the Far West tended in the 



HISTORY 1865-1910] 



UNITED STATES 



719 



same direction. An enormous development of manufactures 

resulted from the diminished commerce and increased demand 

for manufactured goods, the protection afforded by 

the tariff, the stimulus due to rising prices, and the 

consumption of the rapidly growing West. It was 

officially reported in 1869 that " within five years more cotton 

spindles had been put in motion, more iron furnaces erected, 

more iron smelted, more bars rolled, more steel made, more coal 

and copper mined, more lumber sawn and hewn, more houses 

and shops constructed, more manufactories of different kinds 

started, and more petroleum collected, refined and exported, 

than during any equal period in the history of the country." 

315. Between the Civil War and 1872 the extension of the 
nation's activity to the industrial conquest of the great West, as 
well as the economic reorganization of the East, had a profound 
effect upon the development of the United States. Between 
1862 and 1872 grants were made to the Union Pacific and Central 

Pacific companies, and to other connecting corpora- 
Raifways. tions, for railways from the Missouri to the Pacific, 

amounting to nearly 33,000,000 acres, and in the 
same period large loans of funds were made by the general 
government for this enterprise. Construction advanced rapidly 
after 1866, and by 1869 an all-rail connexion had been 
established on the line of the Union Pacific and Central 
Pacific railways between the East and San Francisco. Various 
grants were made in these years to other roads, both trans- 
continental and Middle Western. Between 1850 and 1871 
Congress granted about 155,000,000 acres for railway construc- 
tion, but not all these grants were perfected. It is estimated 
that some $500,000,000 were invested in the construction of 
Western railways between 1868 and the panic of 1873, and about 
30,000 m. of railway had been added. 

316. The effects of this extraordinary extension of railway 
transportation were immediately apparent. In the Far West 
Effects of the railway lines rapidly made possible the ex- 
Raiiway tinction of the bison herds which had occupied 
Extension. ^ ne g rea (; pl am s. Divided into the northern and 
southern herds by the Union Pacific railway in 1869, the 
southern herds were slaughtered in the period between 1871 
and 1879, and the northern herds between 1880 and 1883. 
This opened the way for- the great extension of the cattle 
country, following the retreat of the Indians. Upon the plains 
Indians the effect was revolutionary. Their domain had been 
penetrated by the railways, at the same time that their means 
of subsistence had been withdrawn. During the Civil War 
most of these Western tribes had engaged in hostilities against 
the Federal government. In 1866 and 1867 General George 
Crook was reducing the Indians of the South- West to submission, 
while other generals trained in the Civil War were fighting the 
Indians in the northern plains and Kansas, Nebraska and Okla- 
homa. By the Peace Commission Act of the 2oth of July 1867 
commissioners, including General William T. Sherman, were 
sent to negotiate treaties. As a result the tribes of the Indian 
Territory were so concentrated as to permit the transfer of 
other Western tribes to the same region, while the Sioux of 
the northern plains were given a reservation embracing the 
western portions of the Dakotas. Discontent with these treaties 
resulted, however, in hostilities following 1867. Between the 
close of the war and 1880 some $22,000,000 were expended in 
Indian wars, although the act of 1871 inaugurated the change 
of policy whereby the Indians were no longer dealt with by 
treaty, but were regarded as wards of the nation, to be concen- 
trated on reservations and fed at the expense of the nation 
under the supervision of Indian agents. 

317. Part of these Indian difficulties were due to the opening 
up of new mining areas in the Rocky Mountains, some of them 

within the Indians' choicest hunting grounds. At 
the beginning of the Civil War a preliminary mining 
boom struck Colorado; the rich Comstock lode was opened in 
Nevada; Arizona was the scene of mining rushes; the Idaho 
mines were entered; and the Montana ores were discovered; 
so that in the period of the Civil War itself the Territories 



Mining. 



of Nevada, Idaho and Montana had been organized and 
the mountains provisionally occupied from the northern to 
the southern limit. The discovery of gold in the Black Hills 
in 1874 continued the same movement. In 1860 the nation 
produced $156,000 worth of silver, in 1861 over $2,000,000 
and in 1873 nearly $36,000,000. In the last-mentioned 
year the production of gold amounted also to $36,000,000, 
although in 1860 it had been $46,000,000. Capital in mines 
and quarries of the United States was over $65,000,000 
in 1860, over $245,000,000 in 1870, and nearly $1,500,000,000 
in 1880. i 

318. This revolution in the life of the great plains and the 
Rocky Mountains, opening the way to agriculture and to cattle 
raising, and preparing for the exploitation of the precious metals 
of that great area, was contemporaneous with the important 
development of the farming regions of the Middle West. Even dur- 
ing the Civil War the agricultural development of the northern 
half of the Mississippi Valley had continued. This was aided 
by the demand for food products to supply the armies and was 
made possible by the extension of railways, the taking up of 
the prairie lands through the operation of the Homestead Law of 
1862, the marketing of the railway land grants, and the increased 
use of agricultural machinery in those years. Between 1860 
and 1870 the population of the North Central group of states 
(engaged chiefly in grain raising) increased over 42%, and in the 
next decade by 34 %, a total addition to the popula- 
tion in those two decades of 8,000,000. Between I ^' l ^ pm 
1870 and 1880 about 200,000 sq. m. were added to the Middle West. 
farm lands of the United States, an area almost equal 

in extent to that of France. In the same decade the North 
Central states increased their improved farms from near 
78,500,000 acres to over i36,8co,ooo acres. The product of 
Indian corn about doubled between 1860 and 1880, and that of 
wheat and oats more than doubled. The addition came chiefly 
from the Middle West. In 1860 the North Central states raised 
95,000,000 bushels of wheat; in 1870 nearly 195,000,000; in 1880 
329,000,000. In 1870 the same states produced 439,000,000 
bushels of corn; in 1880 they produced over 1,285,000,000. 

319. The pressing need of increased transportation facilities 
had led, as we have seen, to lavish land grants and to subsidies 
by nation, states and municipalities to the railways. The rail- 
ways themselves, tempted by these opportunities, had extended 
their lines in some cases beyond the immediate needs of the regions 
entered in advance of settlement. Extravagances in construc- 
tion and operation, aggravated by " construction rings " of 
railway officials, who secured the contracts for 
themselves and their friends, and by rolling stock 
companies who received extravagant prices by 
favouritism, as well as the watering of stock in the creation 
of systems by absorption and consolidation of railway corpora- 
tions, brought about a condition where the roads were no longer 
able to meet the demands of their stockholders for returns on 
the investment without imposing rates that the Western farmer 
deemed extortionate. In the competitive development of these 
roads and in the struggle of business corporations and localities 
with each other, the roads also discriminated between persons 
and places. This condition chiefly accounted for the political 
unrest which manifested itself in the West in the so-called 
" Granger " movements of the 'seventies. 

320. The farmers felt the pressure of the unsettled currency, 
taxes were very heavy, the protective tariff seemed to them to 
bear unduly upon the producers of crops which exceeded the home 
consumption and had to seek the foreign markets. The price of 
Indian corn, wheat and cotton in the early 'seventies tended to 
fall as production rose, so that the gold value of the total crop was 
not greatly increased during the decade after the war, in spite of 
the extraordinary extension of agricultural settlement and the 
increase of production. Dissatisfaction with his share in the 
prosperity of the country, and especially with the charges 
of middlemen and transportation companies, discontent with 
the backwardness of rural social conditions, and a desire for 
larger political influence, all aided in fostering the growth of 



720 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1865-1910 



organizations designed to promote the farmers' interests. The 
most influential of these organizations was the Patrons of Hus- 
bandry, which was foundedin 1867 and spread chiefly after 1872 
by local clubs or " granges," especially in the West and South. 

321. The height of the movement was reached in the autumn 
of 1874. It threatened the disruption of the old political parties 
The in most of the Middle Western states. By holding 
Onager" the balance of power the Grangers secured legislation 
Movement, fa man y o f these states, fixed maximum railway 
rates, and provided for regulation through commissions to 
prevent discriminations. In the reaction after the panic of 
1873 (when nearly a fifth of the railway mileage of the 
United States had passed into the hands of receivers) many of 
the " Granger laws" were repealed, the regulation was rendered 
nominal and the railways more than regained their political 
power in the states; yet the agitation had established the 
important principle, sanctioned by decisions of the Supreme 
Court, that the railways were common carriers subject fully to 
public regulation so far as it was not confiscatory. The move- 
ment for regulation of interstate commerce by congressional 
legislation was begun at this time under the leadership of con- 
gressmen from- the Granger states. Later efforts were more 
wisely considered and more effective; but the rural democracy 
showed its opposition to the increasing political influence of 
capital, to special privileges and to the attempts of corporations 
to avoid public control periodically thereafter (see FARMERS' 
MOVEMENT). The attempt to eliminate the middlemen by 
co-operative stores and grain elevators was another feature of 
the time which gained a brief strength but soon declined. 

322. The presidential election of 1872 took place in the midst 
of this Western upheaval. At the same time in the South the 

reform Republicans and Democrats were uniting 
The Tweed un( j er t jj e name o f " Conservatives " against the 

carpet-bag rule, and control was passing into their 
hands. A reform movement was active against the evident 
corruption in national and municipal administrations, for 
Grant's trust in his appointees was grossly violated. The 
Tweed Ring was systematically looting New York City, and prior 
to Tweed's indictment in 1871 (See NEW YORK (City) ; TAMMANY 
HALL; TILDEN, S. J.) it was acquiring large power in state legisla- 
tion. Jay Gould, the railway operator, was one of the signers 
of Tweed's million dollar bail bond. Civil service reformers, 
men of moderate views with respect to Reconstruction, such as 
Carl Schurz, many War Democrats who had adhered to the 
Union party, and tariff reformers began to break away. 

323. The Liberal-Republican movement started in Missouri, 
and a national convention was called to meet at Cincinnati on 
Liberal the ist of May 1872. Their platform announced 
Republican irreconcilable differences on the tariff and left it to 
Movement. tne Congressional districts, attacked the corruption 
of civil service by the administration, supported the results 
of the war as embodied in the last three amendments and 
demanded amnesty and local civil government for the South. 
It opposed further land grants to railways, but denounced 
repudiation and demanded specie payments in terms which 
excluded from its support the advocates of inflation of the 
currency. This effort to combine the opponents of Grant's 
administration was wrecked by the nomination of Horace Gree- 
ley, a strong protectionist, who did not command the confidence 
of the masses of the disaffected. Although endorsed by the 

Democrats, Greeley was defeated by Grant, who ran 
Re-elected. on ^ ne recor( l f the Republican party, which now 

dropped the word Union from its name. Greeley 
died before the electoral count; the Democrats won only the 
states of Maryland, Kentucky, Missouri, Tennessee, Georgia and 
Texas, the votes of Louisiana and Arkansas being thrown out. 

324. The enormous cost of the war, the excessive railway build- 
ing, over-trading, and inflated credit and fluctuating currency, the 
sinking of capital in opening new farming lands and in readjust- 
ing manufactures to new conditions brought their results in the 
panic of 1873, precipitated by the failure (Sept. 18) of Jay 
Cooke, the financier of the Northern Pacific railway. For over 



five years the nation underwent a drastic purgation; railway 
building almost ceased, and so late as 1877 over 18% of the 
railway mileage of the nation was in the hands of 
receivers. The iron industry was prostrated, and 1*73! 
mercantile failures for four years amounted to 
$775,000,000. At the close of the period there was a replace- 
ment of partnerships and individual businesses by corporations, 
but in the interval political unrest was in the foreground. 

325. The charges that congressmen had been bribed by 
stock in the Credit Mobilier (q.v.), a. construction company 
controlled by Union Pacific stockholders, led to a The credit 
congressional investigation which damaged the repu- Mobiiien 
tations of prominent Republicans, including Vice- the Salary 
president Schuyler Coif ax; but the same Congress 

which investigated this scandal voted itself retroactive increases 
of salary, and this " back-pay grab " created popular indigna- 
tion. Evidences of fraud and corruption in revenue collection 
under the " moiety system," and the general demoralization 
of the civil service continued. The demand for relief from 
the stringency of the crisis of 1873 expressed itself in the so-called 
Inflation Bill (passed April 1874), providing a maximum of four 
hundred million dollars for greenback issues. This was vetoed 
by Grant, but he later signed a bill accepting as a maximum 
the existing greenback circulation of $382,000,000. This com- 
promise was satisfactory neither to contractionists nor green- 
backers. The latter especially resented the provisions regarding 
the national banks and their circulation. 

326. The " tidal wave " in the Congressional elections of 
1874 was the result of these conditions. It marked a political 
revolution. The House of Representatives, which Republicans 
exhibited a two-thirds Republican majority in 1872, lose Control 
showed an opposition majority of about seventy, o/Congnss. 
and the Senate was soon to be close. Such Republican strong- 
holds as Pennsylvania, Ohio and Massachusetts went over to 
the Democrats in the state elections, while in the grain-raising 
states of the Middle West the Grangers were holding the balance 
of power, and in the South the Republican radicals remained 
in force in few states and only by the use of Federal troops. 
President Grant in his message of December 1874 acknowledged 
that public opinion was opposed to this use of force, but declared 
that without it negro suffrage would be worse than a mockery. 
Thus by the year 1874 the era of triumphant Republicanism and 
Reconstruction was closing. The leaders perceiving power about 
to pass from them rapidly enacted a series of party measures 
before the meeting of the newly elected Congress. Under 
the leadership of Senator John Sherman an act was passed 
(Jan. 14, 1875) providing for resumption of specie payments 
on the ist of January 1879, gradually contracting greenbacks 
to three hundred million dollars and compensating this by 
expanding the circulation of the national banks. Sherman's 
personal preference was to make the greenbacks exchangeable 
for 4% bonds and thus to make the general public instead of 
the banking houses the purchasers of these securities, but he was 
unable to convince his colleagues. In the field of the tariff a 
similar policy was followed. The act of 1870 had somewhat 
reduced duties on tea, coffee, sugar and iron; but under Western 
pressure in 1872 the Republican Congress had consented to a 
10% reduction on most classes of goods in order to save the 
general system of protection. On the eve of their 
relinquishment of full power the Republicans 

(March 3, 1875) repealed the Tariff Act of 1872, increased 
the duties on molasses and sugar and increased the revenue 
tax on tobacco and spirits. Thus thg tariff was restored 
to the war basis, before the incoming Democratic House 
could block the advance. Similarly on the ist of March 
Congress passed a Civil Rights Act, milder than the 
measure for which Sumner had fought so long, ^ t " Rlght! 
guaranteeing equal rights to the negroes in hotels, 
public conveyances, and places of amusement and forbidding 
the exclusion of them from juries. But an effort to pass a 
new force bill levelled against the intimidation of negro 
voters failed. By these measures the Republicans placed the 



HISTORY 1865-1910] 



UNITED STATES 



721 



important features of their policy where they could be over- 
turned only by a Democratic capture of presidency and Senate. 

327. In the midst of these changes the Supreme Gourt handed 
down decisions undoing important portions of the Reconstruction 
Supreme system by restraining the tendency of the nation to 
Court encroach on the sphere of the state; and restricting 
Decisions tne SCO p e o f t jj e re cent constitutional amendments. 
On the I4th of April 1873, in the Slaughter House cases, the 
courts held that the amendments were primarily restrictions 
upon the states for the protection of the freedom of the coloured 
man, rather than extensions of the power of the Federal 
government under the definition of United States citizenship, 
and that general fundamental civil rights remained under state 
protection. In the case of the United States v. Reese, decided 
on the 27th of March 1876, the court declared parts of the act of 
1870 (which provided for the use of Federal force to protect 
the negro in his right to vote) unconstitutional, on the ground 
that they did not specify that the denial of suffrage must be on 
the sole ground of race or colour. A reasonable prerequisite, 
such as a poll tax, for voting was permissible. The South later 
took advantage of this decision to restrain negro suffrage indi- 
rectly. In United States v. Cruikshank (1876) the court held that 
the amendments to the Constitution left it still the duty of the 
state, rather than of the United States, to protect its citizens, even 
when whites had mobbed the negroes. The right of the nation 
in the case was held to be limited to taking care that the state 
governments and laws offered equal protection to whites and 
blacks. The affirmation of the power of the states over common 
carriers in the Granger cases (1877) has been mentioned. In 1883 
the court declared the conspiracy clause of the Ku-Klux Act un- 
constitutional and restricted the application of the law to acts 
of a state through its officers and not to private citizens. In the 
same year it declared the Civil Rights Act of 1875 invalid. 

328. In 1875 President Grant refused the appeal of the 
" carpet-bagger " Governor Adelbert Ames of Mississippi to be 
supported by troops, whereupon Ames resigned his office into the 
hands of the Conservatives. The Mississippi plan of general 
intimidation'of negroes to keep them from the polls was followed 
in Louisiana, South Carolina and Florida which alone remained 
Republican. Thus steadily the radical Reconstruction policy 
and Republican control of the South were being reversed. 
It was made clear that negro suffrage could be enforced upon 
the South only by military rule which could no longer com- 
mand Northern sympathy or the sanction of the Federal court. 
Northern interest increasingly turned to other issues, and 
especially to discontent over administrative corruption. 

329. The spoils system had triumphed over the advocates 
of civil service reform to such an extent that Grant abandoned 

the competitive system in 1875 on the ground that 
Rinx Congress did not support him in the policy. Enor- 

mous frauds in the collection of the internal revenue 
by the Whisky Ring with the connivance of Federal officials 
were revealed in 1875, and about the same time, Secre- 
tary of War William W. Belknap resigned to avoid impeach- 
ment for corruption in the conduct of Indian affairs. The 
enforced resignation in 1876 of Secretary of the Treasury Ben- 
jamin H. Bristow (q.v.) after he had successfully exposed the 
Whisky Ring, and of Postmaster-General Marshall Jewell, who 
had resisted the spoils system in his department, tended to dis- 
credit the administration. Blaine, the leader of the Republicans 
in the House of Representatives, fell under suspicion on account 
of his earlier relations with the Little Rock & Fort Smith and 
Northern Pacific railways (see BLAINE, J. G.), which left it 
doubtful, in spite of his aggressive defence, whether he bad not 
used his influence as speaker in previous Congresses to secure 
pecuniary advantages from land grant railways. This clouded 
Elaine's prospects for a presidential nomination, and the House 
of Representatives voted a resolution against the third term 
which Grant seemed not unwilling to accept. 

330. Thus the campaign of 1876 approached, with the 
Republicans divided into (i) steadfast supporters of the Grant 
administration, (2) a discontented reform wing (which favoured 



ex-Secretary Bristow), and (3) an intermediate group which 
followed Blaine. This statesman made a bold stroke to shift 
the fighting which the Democrats planned to make party 
against the scandals of the administration,to the old Platform* 
time war issues. By proposing to exclude Jefferson of ' 876 - 
Davis from amnesty, he goaded southern congressmen into 
indiscreet utterances which fanned anew the fires of sectional 
animosity. The Republican platform, while deprecating 
sectionalism, placed the war record of the party in the 
foreground and denounced the Democracy, because it counted 
upon the united South as its chief hope of success. A com- 
promise candidate was selected in the person of Governor 
Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, who had vigorously opposed the 
greenback movement in his state, and whose life and character, 
though little known to the general public, made him acceptable 
to the reform leaders of the party. The Democrats, demanding 
reform, economy, a revenue tariff and the repeal of the resumption 
clause of the act of 1875, chose the reform governor of New 
York, Samuel J. Tilden, as their candidate. The Independent 
National, or Greenback, party, which was to develop rapidly 
in the next two years, nominated Peter Cooper, a New York 
philanthropist, and demanded the repeal of the Resumption Act, 
and the enactment of a law providing a paper currency issued 
directly by the government, and convertible on demand into 
United States obligations bearing a rate of interest not exceed- 
ing one cent a day for each one hundred dollars and exchangeable 
for United States notes at par. It also proposed the suppres- 
sion of bank paper, and was in general antagonistic to the 
bond-holding and banking interests. 

331. The election proved to be a very close contest. Tilden, 
according to the count of both parties, had a plurality of over 
a quarter of a million votes, and at first the leading Hayea-TU- 
Republican journals conceded his election. He had aen Contest; 
carried New York, Indiana, New Jersey and Con- theEiectoni 
necticut and, by the Democratic count, the solid ^" I ' S " 
South. But the Republican headquarters claimed 
the election of Hayes by one electoral vote, based on the 
belief that the states of South Carolina, Florida and Loui- 
siana, 1 had gone Republican. Since these states were in the 
midst of the transition from negro to white government, and 
elections were notorious for fraudulent practices, a serious 
question was raised, first as to the proper authority to count 
the electoral vote, and second, how far it was permissible 
to go behind the returns of the state authorities to ascertain 
the validity of the canvass of the votes in the state. The 
political capacity and moderation of the nation were severely 
tested; but in the end a characteristic American solution 
was found by the creation of an Electoral Commission (q.v.) 
in which five associate justices of the Supreme Court were 
joined with an equal number of representatives from each 
of the two houses of Congress. The result was that this com- 
mission refused to " go behind the returns," and Hayes 
was declared elected by one vote. To prevent 
the threatened danger of a filibuster by Democrats 
of the House of Representatives against the com- 
pletion of the count until after legal date for the inaugu- 
ration of the president, Hayes's friends agreed with leading 
Democrats that he would withdraw the Federal troops from 
Louisiana. Thus a new era began under a moderate and reforming 
Republican president, a close Republican Senate and a Demo- 
cratic House of Representatives. The Southern question was 
not settled, but other issues of an economic and social nature 
increasingly forced themselves to the front. They were con- 
cealed in a measure by the fact that the following of each of 
the leading political parties was divided on financial policies, 
which resulted in attempts to compromise and evade the issue 
by the party managers. During the dozen years that fol- 
lowed Hayes's inauguration neither party held complete posses- 
sion of both the executive and the two houses of Congress. 
His own moderate character, the conditions of his election and 

1 There was a conflict with regard to the electoral vote of Oregon 
also. (See OREGON : History.) 



722 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1865-1910 



the check imposed during the first two years by a Democratic 
House of Representatives (and during the second two years 
by an opposition in both houses) made the period of Hayes's 
administration a transition from the era of Reconstruction to 
the era of dominant economic and reform agitation. 

332. When he withdrew the troops which sustained the 
Republican governments in Louisiana and South Carolina, 
those states returned to the rule of the white Democrats. In 
the Congress elected in 1878 the former slave states chose 101 
Democrats to the House of Representatives and only four 
Republicans. Leading Republicans like Elaine protested vigor- 
ously against the policy, declaring that the men who saved the 
Union should govern it; and on the other hand the Demo- 
crats in Congress added " riders " to appropriation bills designed 
to starve the administration into complete cessation of the 
use of troops and Federal deputy marshals at Southern elec- 
tions. Extra sessions had to be summoned in 1877 and 1879 
to provide supplies for the government, due to this policy. Hayes 
assisted his party by vetoing these coercive attempts of the 
Democrats and it was not until later that Federal attempts to 
supervise Southern elections entirely ceased. 

333. As his early policy toward the South had dissatisfied 
many of the leaders of his party, his opposition to the spoils 

system alienated others. In 1877 a Civil Service 
R e f rrn Association was formed in New York, and 
under the leadership of reformers like George William 
Curtis, Carl Schurz, John Jay and Dorman B. Eaton, it extended 
to other states. In June 1877 President Hayes issued an exe- 
cutive order against the participation of Federal officers in 
political management, and he furnished evidence of his sincerity 
by removing Alonzo B. Cornell, the naval officer of New York, 
who was also chairman of both state and national Republican 
committees, and Chester A. Arthur, collector of the port of 
New York. As both men were friends of Senator Roscoe Conk- 
ling of that state, the leader of the Grant men, this was a bold 
challenge. The " Stalwarts " answered it by soon afterward 
securing the nomination of Cornell as governor of New York 
and Arthur as vice-president of the United States. 

334. The monetary question rose to primary importance at 
this time. Hayes himself had campaigned in Ohio successfully 

against the Greenback movement, and he chose 
o '"In. ACt as nis secretarv f the treasury, John Sherman, 

former senator from that state, whose long service 
as chairman of the finance committee had made him familiar 
with conditions and influential with moderate men of all 
factions. The per capita circulation of the nation had fallen 
from $20-57 m ^65 to $15-58 in 1877 and was still de- 
clining. The remarkable increase in the production of silver, 
as the new mining regions were opened, was accompanied 
by a fall in its ratio to gold from 15 to i in 1860 to 17 to 
i in 1877. Congress had, in 1873, passed an act dropping 
the standard silver dollar from the list of coins; the 
significance of this omission of a coin not widely circulated, 
although it came at a time when European nations were 
adopting the gold standard, passed almost unnoticed at 
the moment; but the demonetization of silver was afterward 
stigmatized as a conspiracy, " the crime of 1873." As the 
date (January i, 1879) for the redemption of the green- 
backs in specie approached, demands were renewed for the 
replacement of national bank notes by greenbacks, for the 
postponement, or abandonment of resumption, for the free 
coinage of silver, and for the use of silver as well as gold 
in the payment of bonds redeemable in " coin." Sectional 
grouping of the debtor against the creditor regions, rather 
than party alignment, showed itself in the votes, for each 
party had its " soft money " as well as its " hard money " 
followers. Many who could not support the Greenback party 
in its theory that currency derived value from purchasing 
power based on the government's credit and authority rather 
than on convertibility, would, nevertheless, make larger use 
of paper money; while men who did not assent to the "free 
coinage reasoning opposed the single gold standard as too narrow 



and too much under the influence of the speculative and banking 
interests, and would adopt some system of bi-metallism. 

335. A Monetary Commission, appointed in 1876, reported 
in 1877, but without agreement or real influence upon the 
country. The president took strong ground against 

free coinage (though he would resume coinage of 
silver in limited quantities) and against the pay- 
ment of bonds in silver; but the House of Representatives 
passed the measure, known as the Bland Bill, for the free 
coinage of silver, by a vote of 163 to 34. In the Senate this was 
amended, and as it finally passed both houses it was known as the 
Bland-Allison Act after the two leaders, the Democratic repre- 
sentative from Missouri and the Republican senator from Iowa. 
This compromise was carried over the veto of President Hayes 
and became a law on the 28th of February 1878. In the vote of 
the 1 5th of February, all but one of the senators from New 
England, New York and New Jersey opposed it, while the states 
west of the Alleghanies furnished only four opposing votes. The 
law restored the legal tender character of the silver dollar and 
authorized the secretary of the treasury to buy silver bullion at 
the market price, to an amount of not less than $2,000,000 
nor more than $4,000,000 per month, and to coin the bullion 
into silver dollars. Silver certificates of denominations not 
less than ten dollars were to be issued upon deposit of silver 
dollars. As neither the silver nor the certificates circulated 
freely the denominations of the certificates were reduced in 
1886, when they filled the deficiency in the contracting bank- 
note circulation. 

336. Hardly had the Bland-Allison compromise been effected 
on the silver issue when an act was passed (May 31, 1878) for- 
bidding the further retirement of greenbacks, which remained at 
$346,681,000. Substantially the same sectional alignment was 
followed in the vote on this bill as in the silver votes. Not 
satisfied with this legislation, nearly a million voters cast their 
ballots for Greenback party candidates at the Congressional 
elections in the autumn of 1878. The preparations of Secretary 
Sherman had been so carefully made, and the turning tide of 
trade brought coin so freely to the United States, that before 
the date of resumption of specie payments a gold reserve had 
been accumulated to the amount of $133,000,000 in excess of 
matured liabilities and the greenbacks rose to par before the 
date of redemption. 

337. In the campaign of 1880, Hayes and Tilden both declined 
to stand for renomination. Thus the issue of the " fraud of 
1876," which the Democratic platform called the p ar t y 
paramount issue, was subordinated. Nor was it Platforms 
possible for the Republicans to force the tariff II88 - 
question into a commanding position, for although the 
Democratic platform declared for a tariff for revenue only, 
a considerable wing of that party led by Samuel J. Randall, of 
Pennsylvania, favoured protection. General Winfield S. 
Hancock, a distinguished soldier in the Civil War, whose 
nomination for the presidency by the Democrats was designed 
to allay Northern distrust, refused to make the tariff a 

national issue. The recent adjustment of the monetary question 
and the return of prosperity relegated the discussion of the 
currency also to a subordinate place, so that the Greenback 
party was able to poll only a little over 300,000 votes instead 
of the million which it commanded two years before. It 
favoured unlimited coinage of silver as well as the replacement 
of bank-notes by greenbacks. 

338. The Republicans, after a heated convention in which 
the followers of Grant (who had recently returned from a several 
years' trip round the world), Elaine and Sherman, Oarfieid 
fought each other to a deadlock, selected General Elected 
James A. Garfield (q.v.) of Ohio, who was political Pfesldeat - 
manager for Sherman in the convention. This was a blow 
to the Grant, or " Stalwart " wing, which was partly placated 
by the nomination of Arthur for the vice-presidency. Garfield's 
popular plurality was only a little over seven thousand out 
of a total vote of over nine millions; but his electoral vote 
was 214 to Hancock's 155. The area of the former slave 



HISTORY 1865-1910] 



UNITED STATES 



723 



President. 



states marked the boundaries between the Republican and 
the Democratic states, except that Hancock also carried New 
Jersey, Nevada and California. The Republicans won the 
elections for the House of Representatives which would meet 
in 1881, and the Senate was at first nearly evenly divided, two 
independents holding the balance. In the ensuing four years 
party lines were badly broken, factions made bitter war upon 
each other, and the independent reformers or " Mugwumps " (q.v.) 
grew in numbers. The selection of Elaine as secretary of 
state committed Garfield to the anti-Grant wing, and the breach 
was widened by his appointment of the collector of the port of 
New York against the protests of Roscoe Ccnkling and Thomas 
C. Platt, the "Stalwart" senators from New York. They 
resigned, then sought re-election in order to vindicate the right 
of senatorial recommendation; but were defeated. 

339. In the midst of this excitement the president was 
assassinated by a disappointed office-seeker of unsound mind. 
ss ;n . Vice- President Arthur, who succeeded Garfield in 
tton'of ' ' September 1881, by his tact and moderation 
fiarfieid; won the admiration of former opponents; but 
the bad crops in 1881 and the dissatisfaction 
^th ' 3OSS ru ^ e amon g independent voters caused a 
Democratic victory in the Congressional campaign 
of 1882. Garfield's assassination had given new impetus to 
the movement against the spoils system, a National Civil 
Service Reform League had been organized in 1881, President 
Arthur presented the question in his message of December 
of that year, and in 1882 George H. Pendleton, a Democratic 
senator from Ohio, urged the subject upon the 
Peadletoo attention of Congress. Stimulated by the elections 
of 1882 Congress passed an act (January 16, 1883) 
authorizing the president to appoint a commission to classify 
certain of the Federal employees, and providing for appointment 
and promotion within this classified list by competitive exami- 
nation, the employees being distributed among the states and 
territories according to population, with preference for soldiers 
and sailors of the Civil War. Congressional recommendations 
for these offices were not to be received, and political assess- 
ments for campaign purposes were forbidden. This was an 
effective beginning in the purification of the civil service; 
but the evil of assessment of employees was succeeded by the 
evil of soliciting campaign contributions from corporations 
interested in legislation. The extension of the competitive 
Anti-Poly- list proceeded gradually through succeeding :ul- 
gamyAct; ministrations. The Edmunds Anti-Polygamy Act 
Caiaesa (1882) was levelled at the Mormons (q.v.), and the 
Chinese Exclusion Act was passed at the demand 
of labour, after a long agitation in 1882, the way having 
been prepared by the Treaty of Peking in 1880. Bills to this 
effect had been vetoed by Hayes and Arthur as violative of 
international agreement, but the desire of the politicians to win 
the California vote, and the compromise by which the exclusion 
was limited to ten years finally carried the measure, and the 
Supreme Court (1889) held it constitutional. Later acts 
modified and extended the exclusion. 

340. From 1879 to 1890 the treasury showed a surplus of 
revenue over expenditure. This furnishes the explanation of 
much of the legislation of that period. It led to extravagant 
appropriations, such as the Arrears of Pensions Act of 1879, 
and the River and Harbor Act of 1882 providing for the 
expenditure of more than $18,000,000, which was passed 
over the veto of Arthur. Appropriation bills were merely 
constructed in various committees of Congress under a system 
of bargaining between interests and sections with primary 
reference to the political fortunes of the congressmen. 

341. The surplus also strengthened the demand for a reduction 
of the tariff. A tariff commission, composed of men friendly 
to protection, appointed in 1882, proposed an average reduc- 
tion of 20 to 25%. Nevertheless in the act as passed in 
1883 duties were increased in general on those protected 
articles which continued to be imported in large volume, 
especially on certain woollen goods and about two-thirds of 



the imported cotton goods, and on iron ore and some steel 
products, while they were lowered on finer grades of wool 
and cheaper grades of woollen and cotton fabrics, &c. It was 
unsatisfactory to large portions of both parties and did not 
materially lower the revenue; but the act of 1883 made extensive 
reductions in internal taxes. As the Senate had just fallen 
into the hands of the Republicans, and the House would not 
become Democratic until the new Congress met, this protective 
law gave the former the advantage of position. Moreover the 
Democrats were themselves divided, nineteen Representatives 
(one-third from Pennsylvania) voting with the Republicans on 
the act of 1883. In the next Congress (1884), when the leaders 
made an attempt to rally the Democrats to show their position 
by passing a bill for a horizontal reduction of 20% in general, 
forty-one Democrats voted against the bill and prevented its 
passage through the House. 

342. Thus the campaign of 1884 found both parties still lack- 
ing unity of policy although it seemed possible that the tariff 
might become the touchstone of the contest. The Republicans 
challenged the independents by nominating Elaine, whose 
record was objectionable to many reformers, and who had 
been chiefly identified with the Reconstruction politics. The 
Democrats, taking advantage of the situation, nominated 
Grover Cleveland (q.v.) of New York. He had won approval 
by his reform administration as mayor of Buffalo and as 
governor of New York during the past two years, when he 
had shown an independence of party " bosses " and had con- 
vinced the public of his sincerity and strength of character. 
He represented conceptions and interests which had grown up 
since the war, and which appealed to a new generation of voters. 
The platform emphasized the idea that " new issues Party 
are born of time and progress," and made the leading Platforms 
question that of reform and change in administra- o f 'SS4- 
tion, lest the continued rule of one party should corrupt the 
government. On the question of tariff the Democrats took 
a conservative attitude, emphasizing their desire to promote 
healthy growth, rather than to injure any domestic industries, 
and recognizing that capital had been invested and manufactures, 
developed in reliance upon the protective system. Subject 
to these limitations, they demanded correction of the abuses 
of the tariff and adjustment of it to the needs of the 
government economically administered. The Greenbackers 
nominated General Benjamin F. Butler of Massachusetts, 
recently chosen governor of that state on the Democratic 
ticket, but he polled only 175,000 votes, while John P. 
St John, the candidate of those who would prohibit the 
liquor traffic, secured 150,000 votes, an unprecedented gain. 
The Prohibitionist platform included a demand that all money, 
coin and paper, should be made, issued and regulated by 
the government and be a legal tender for all debts, public and 
private. 

343. The campaign abounded in bitter personalities, and 
the popular vote was close, Cleveland's plurality being only 
twenty-three thousand. The great state of New Cleveland 
York, with electoral votes enough to have turned the Elected 
scale, was carried by the Democrats by only a few President. 
more than one thousand votes out of a total of over a. 
million. Cleveland's electoral majority was 37. The election 
was nevertheless recognized as making an epoch. For the first 
time since victory came to Lincoln and the Republicans on the 
eve of the Civil War, nearly a quarter of a century earlier, 
the country had entrusted power to the Democrats, although 
over two-thirds of their electoral vote came from the former 
slave states. New York, Connecticut, New Jersey and Indiana 
constituted their Northern territory. Perhaps the most sig- 
nificant thing about the result was the evidence that in the 
North political and sectional habits and prejudices were giving 
way among a sufficient number of independent voters, respon- 
sive to strong personal leadership on reform issues, to turn the 
political scale. The transition from war issues which began 
in 1872, and became marked in 1876, was completed by the 
election of Cleveland in 1884. 



724 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1865-1910 



Civil 
Service. 



During the first half of his term President Cleveland had the 
opposition of a strongly Republican Senate. In the second half 
the Senate remained Republican by a majority of two, 
and the House continued Democratic. His civil service 
policy naturally met severe criticism not only from 
his party foes, but also from the spoilsmen among his Demo- 
cratic followers, who desired a clean sweep of Republican 
office-holders, and from those of his independent supporters who 
looked to him to establish the service on a strictly non-partisan 
basis. The outcome of the first two years of his administration 
was that, of the entire body of Federal office-holders, two-thirds 
were changed and the obnoxious Tenure of Office Act was 
repealed, thus leaving the president the right of removal with- 
out presenting his reasons. Nevertheless there was a gain, for 
Cleveland somewhat checked the political activity of office- 
holders, the criticism by the Republicans placed them on record 
against the former spoils system, and before leaving the presi- 
dency (but after the election of 1888 showed that power was 
to pass to the Republicans), he transferred the railway mail 
service to the classified list requiring competitive examination. 

344. The transition of executive power for the time to the 
Democratic party, however much it impressed the imaginations 
of the public as the end of an era, was not so significant as the 
national growth and expansion in the decade between 1880 
and 1890 whereby forces were set loose which determined the 
characteristics of the succeeding period. Between these years the 
nation grew from about fifty millions to over sixty-two millions. 
The Middle West, or North Central group of states, gained nearly 
five millions and the Western division over a million and a quarter. 
West of the Alleghanies altogether more than eight million souls 
had been added, while the old Eastern states gained but four 
millions. In 1890 the North Central division alone had achieved 
a population nearly five millions greater than that of the North 
Atlantic, while the trans- Alleghany region surpassed the whole 
East by about ten millions, and the numbers of its representatives 
in House and Senate placed the political destiny of the nation 
in its hands. 

345. One of the most important reasons for the wholesale 
taking up of Western resources in these and the following years 

was the burst of railway building subsequent to the 
' interruption of the panic of 1873. The eager 
pioneers pushed into western Kansas and Nebraska 
as they had into the northern Ohio Valley a half-century 
before. Nebraska grew from a population of one hundred 
and twenty-three thousand in 1870 to nearly half a million in 
1880 and to over a million in 1890. From about a third of a 
million in 1870, Kansas rose to almost a million in 1880, and to 
nearly a million and a half in 1890. The railway had " boomed " 
the Golden West and a cycle of abundant rains seemed to justify 
the belief that the " Great American Desert " was a myth. 
Thus settlers borrowed money to secure farms beyond the 
region of safe annual rainfall under the agricultural methods of 
traditional pioneering. Swift disappointment overtook them 
after 1886, when droughts and grasshoppers ruined the crops 
and turned back the tide of Middle Western colonists until the 
western parts of these states were almost depopulated, Kansas 
alone losing one-seventh of its population; nor did prosperity 
return for a decade. 

346. As the column of settlement along the Ohio Valley had 
extended its flanks into the old North- West between the Ohio 
and the Great Lakes, and into the old South- West of the lower 
Mississippi after the War of 1812, so the later pioneers by railway 
trains began to take possession of the remoter and vaster North- 
West and South- West. The " granger roads," centring in Chicago, 
thrust their lines out to develop wheat farms in interior Iowa, 
Minnesota and the Dakotas, where the virgin soil of the prairie 
farms brought returns that transferred the wheat belt to this 
new land of promise, and by competition forced the older 
wheat areas to develop varied agriculture. The introduction 
of the recently invented steel roller system of making flour into 
the Minneapolis mills not only built up a great flour industry 
there but created a demand for the hard wheat suited to the 



North-western prairies. The pine forests of Michigan, Wis- 
consin and Minnesota were exploited in the same era. 

347. A more impressive movement was in progress as 
additional transcontinental railways were extended from the 
frontier to the Pacific. In 1870 for a thousand miles west of 
Duluth, at the head of Lake Superior, along the line of the pro- 
jected Northern Pacific railway, there were no cities or little 
towns. Relying upon its land grant and upon the undeveloped 
resources of the vast tributary region, the railway, after halting 
for a few years subsequent to the panic of 1873 a t Bismarck on 
the Missouri rushed its construction to Seattle and was opened 
in 1883. The Great Northern, a product of the vision and sound 
judgment of James J. Hill, started from St Paul without a 
land grant and reached Puget Sound in 1893, constructing 
lateral feeders as it built. Thus a new industrial zone had been 
brought into existence. Colorado had become a state in 
1876; in 1889 North Dakota, South Dakota, Washington and 
Montana were admitted as states and the next year Idaho and 
Wyoming were added. The Western political forces, especially 
the friends of silver, were thus given the balance of power in 
the Senate and additional weight in the electoral college. 

348. As a new North- West was opened by the completion of 
the Canadian Pacific (1883), the Northern Pacific (1883) and 
the Great Northern (1893), so the new South- West 

was entered by the completion of the Southern 
Pacific from New Orleans across Texas, New 
Mexico, Arizona and southern California to San Francisco 
by 1883. In 1883 also the lines which became the Atchison, 
Topeka & Santa Fe, extending from the lower Missouri 
valley, with St Louis and Kansas City as important terminals, 
through south-eastern Colorado, northern Arizona and New 
Mexico, reached the same goal. The Denver & Rio Grande 
in the same period opened new mining areas between Denver 
and Ogden. Not only additional mines were reached by these 
lines, but a great cattle country, recently the habitat of the 
bison and the Indian, was opened. All the large cities command- 
ing the approaches to this country developed packing industries, 
but Chicago especially profited. Although her main supply 
was still the Middle Western farms, this domestic supply was 
supplemented by vast quantities of range cattle. South-eastern 
Texas was the original home of these cattle ranches, but the 
driving of herds to supply the miners of the Rocky Mountains 
revealed the fact that the whole bison country was capable 
of supporting range cattle, and the practice grew of driving the 
stock to the feeding ground of the north and returning. The 
height of the movement along the cattle trail, which in its 
largest extent ran through the public lands of the great plains 
from Texas to. the Dak<5tas and Montana, was reached in 1884. 
In that period cattlemen fought over the possession of the range, 
controlled vast tracts by seizing the approaches to the water 
supplies under perversion of the land laws, fenced in the public 
domain, either defiantly or by leases from land grant roads, and 
called out proclamations of presidents from Hayes to Cleveland. 
The steady advance of the farmer, and protective measures 
against the spread of the cattle diseases known as Texas fever, 
gradually prevented the continuance of the trail, and ultimately 
broke down the system of great ranches. The grade of cattle 
was improved and great packing interests organized the industry 
on the basis of concentrated large scale production. About 
1870 shipment of livestock from Chicago had become significant, 
and within a decade the refrigerator car revolutionized the 
packing industry by making possible the shipment of dressed 
beef not only to the markets of the Eastern United States but 
even to Europe. The value of slaughtering and packing indus- 
tries in the United States increased from less than thirty million 
dollars in 1870, to over three hundred millions in 1880, and to 
five hundred and sixty-four millions in 1890. 

349. Another important revolution in American economic 
life was effected by the opening of new iron-mines, the growth 
of the steel and coal industry and the rise of an extraordinary 
internal commerce along the whole length of the Great Lakes. 
By 1890 the output of pig-iron in the United States surpassed 



HISTORY 1865-1910] 



UNITED STATES 



725 



that of Great Britain, having doubled since 1880. The full 
meaning of the revolution is seen in the fact that by 1907 the 
ui t _ _ United States produced more pig-iron and steel 
!j,_ than Great Britain, Germany and France combined. 
As a result of the growth of the wheat, lumber 
and iron-ore production of the North- West, the traffic along the 
thousand miles of the Great Lakes grew (chiefly after 1890) 
by leaps, and changed from wooden sailing vessels to steel ships 
driven by steam. The traffic through the Sault Ste Marie 
Canal came greatly to exceed that through the Suez Canal. 

350. The South shared in these industrial transformations. 
Not only did white labour produce an increasing proportion of 

the cotton crop, which was now extended into the 
cut-over pine lands, but cheap white labour came 
from the uplands to cotton mills situated at the water-powers. 
This, with the abundant supply of raw material, enabled the 
South to develop cotton manufacture between 1880 and 1890 
on a scale that threatened New England's dominance. The 
southern Appalachians began to yield their treasures of coal 
and iron; northern Alabama became one of the great centres 
of the iron industry and the South produced nearly 400,000 
tons of pig iron in 1880 and two and a half millions twenty 
years later. By 1890 the production of coal, iron-ore and pig- 
iron in this section was as great as that of the United States 
in 1870. The value of the products of manufacture in the 
South rose from $338,000,000 in 1880 to $1,184,000,000 in 
i poo. The exploitation of the long leaf pine forests also 
attracted Northern capital. Fruit and truck gardening grew 
rapidly, and the South began to exhibit traits of industrial 
development familiar in the North and West. Protective tariffs 
and the interests of capital found recruits in the old-time 
planting states; but the negro problem continued to hold the 
South as a whole to the Democratic party. 

351. The opportunities opened to capital by these forces of 
growth in the West and South, as well as the general influence 
industrial ^ an a e * macm ' ne production, led to transforma- 
aott tions in the East which brought new difficulties for 
Financial political solution. The East began to exhibit char- 
Chaages. acteristics of other long-settled countries where 
increasing density of population and highly developed industry 
are accompanied by labour troubles, and where problems of 
democratic society and government take the form of forcible 
action or political revolt, in the absence of ample outlets into 
adjacent areas of cheap lands and new opportunities. To capital 
the opening resources of the West, and the general national 
prosperity after 1879, offered such inducements that large scale 
production by corporations and vast designs became the order 
of the day. The forces which had exhibited themselves in 
increased manufacture and railway development between the 
Civil War and the panic of 1873 now found expression in a 
general concentration of industries into fewer plants with 
vastly greater capital and output, in the combination of 
partnerships into corporations, and of corporations into agree- 
ments, pools and trusts to avoid competition and to secure the 
needed capital and economies for dealing with the new problems 
of industrial magnitude. Western farming competition led to 
the actual abandonment of much inferior land in New England 
and to agricultural disadvantages in the Middle states. As 
agriculture became less attractive and as industrial demands 
grew, the urban population of the East increased at the 
expense of the rural. The numbers of cities of the United 
States with more than 8000 people nearly doubled between 
1880 and 1890; by 1900 the urban population constituted a 
third of the total, and this phenomenon was especially marked 
in the North Atlantic division, where by 1900 over half the 
population was in cities of more than eight thousand inhabitants. 

352. In similar fashion concentration of industry in large 
establishments was in progress. In 1880 nearly two thousand 
mills were engaged in the woollen industry; in 1890 not many 
more than thirteen hundred. Even more marked was the 
change in iron and steel, where large-scale production and 
concentration of mills began to revolutionize this fundamental 



industry, and other lines of production showed the same tendency. 
The anthracite mines of Pennsylvania, the great resource for 
the nation, fell into the possession of seven coal-carrying railways 
which became closely allied in interest. In most of the important 
industries the tendency of large organizations to subject or drive 
out the small undertakings became significant. Already the 
railways to avoid " cut-throat competition " had begun to 
consolidate their systems by absorption of component lines, to 
form rate agreements and to " pool " their earnings in given 
districts. Western agitation had led to reports and bills by 
committees headed by Western congressmen, such as the report 
of William Windom, of Minnesota, in 1874, where the construc- 
tion of Federal lines to regulate rates by competition, was 
suggested; the report of George W. McCrary of Iowa, whose bill 
for regulation was passed by the House in 1874 under the stimulus 
of the Granger movement, but failed in the Senate; that of 
John H. Reagan, of Texas (1878), whose bill forbidding pooling 
and compelling publicity of rates by the machinery of the 
Federal courts, was discussed for several years, but failed to 
become law; and that of Shelby M. Cullom, of Illinois, in 1886. 

353. The decision of the Supreme Court in the Wabash case, 
made in that year, reversed the doctrine followed in the case of 
Munn v. Illinois, and held that the regulative power The later- 
of the state (even in the absence of Federal legis- state Com- 
lation) was limited to traffic wholly within the me .Ac<. 
state and not passing from one state to another. The Cullom 
bill as enacted into the Interstate Commerce Law of the 4th of 
February 1887, was framed to prevent unjust discriminations 
by the railroads between persons, places and commodities, the 
tendency of which was, as the report declared, to foster monopoly. 
The law forbade discriminations and pooling, made a higher 
charge for a short haul than for a long haul over the same road 
illegal (unless permitted after investigation by the commission), 
required publicity of rates, and provided for a commission to 
investigate and fine offenders. But the decisions of the commis- 
sion were re viewable by the Federal courts and the offender 
could be coerced, if he refused to obey the commission, only by 
judicial proceedings. The commission was empowered to pro- 
vide uniform accounting and to exact annual reports from the 
roads. The principle settled by the law was an important one, 
and marked the growing reliance of the former individualistic 
nation upon Federal regulation to check the progress of economic 
consolidation and monopoly. But the difficulties by no means 
disappeared; the Federal judiciary refusing to accept the findings 
of the commission on questions of fact, retried the cases; and 
the Supreme Court overruled the commission on fundamental 
questions, and narrowed the scope of the act by interpretation. 

354. Labour exhibited the tendency to combination shown 
by capital. The Knights of Labor, founded in 1869, on the 
basis of " the individual masses " instead of the 

trades unions, and professing the principle that combina- 
" the injury of one is the concern of all," grew 
from a membership of about one hundred thousand 
in 1885 to seven hundred and thirty thousand in 
1886. The number of strikes in 1886 was over 
twice as many as in any previous year. In one of the strikes 
on the Gould railway system six thousand miles of railway 
were held up. In New York, Henry George, author of books 
proposing the single tax on land as a remedy for social ills, 
ran for mayor of the city and received 68,000 out of 219,000 
votes. At the same time socialistic doctrines spread, even 
among Western farmers. But sympathetic strikes, anarchistic 
outbreaks, and drastic plans for social change did not appeal 
to the people as a whole. The Knights of Labor began to 
split, and the unions, organized as the American Federation of 
Labor, began to take their place with a less radical member- 
ship. President Cleveland broke with precedents in 1886 by 
sending in the first message on labour, in which he advocated, 
without success, a labour commission to settle controversies. 
A national bureau of labour to collect statistics had been estab- 
lished in 1884; state legislation increasingly provided for arbitra- 
tion of labour disputes, and regulation of factories and child 



tioas; la- 
dastrial 



726 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1865-1910 



labour. Early in 1885 a law had been enacted forbidding the 
importation of labour under contract, and in 1888 the Chinese 
Exclusion Act was continued. Immigration was 
exceptionally large in the decade from 1880 to 1890, 
amounting to about five and a quarter millions as 
compared with two million eight hundred thousand for the 
previous decade. But a large .number of these new-comers 
settled on the newly opened lands of the Middle West. By 
1890 the persons of German parentage in the Middle West 
numbered over four millions more than half the total of 
persons of German parentage in the nation. Minnesota held 
373,000 persons of Scandinavian parentage, and of the whole 
of this element the Middle West had all but about 300,000. 
The Irish constituted the largest element among the English- 
speaking immigrants. The population of foreign parentage 
amounted to one-third of the whole population of the 
United States in 1890. In the midst of this national develop- 
ment and turmoil President Cleveland struggled to unite his 
party on a definite issue. The silver question continued to 
divide each party, the continued fall of silver leading to re- 
newed agitation for free coinage. In 1886 a bill for this purpose 
was defeated by a majority of 37 in the House, 98 Democrats 
favouring it, and 70 opposing, as against 26 Republicans for 
it and 93 against. The surplus led to extravagant 
'vetoes?* * appropriation bills, such as special pension bills, 
which Cleveland vetoed by the wholesale, thereby 
incurring criticism by veterans of the Civil War, and river and 
harbour improvement measures, particularly the act of 1886, 
to which the president gave reluctant assent and the bill of 
1887 to which he gave a " pocket veto " by refusing his signature. 
But the retention of the surplus in the treasury would create a 
monetary stringency, its deposit in banks aroused opposition, 
and its use to buy bonds was unpopular with the Democrats. 
Cleveland boldly met the issue and gave purpose to his party 
by his annual message of December 1887, which he 
Message entirely devoted to an exposition of the situation 
arising from the surplus, and to a demand for a 
revision of the tariff in order to reduce revenue. He did not 
profess free trade doctrines: " It is a condition which confronts 
us, not a theory," he declared. The election of 1886 had reduced 
the Democratic majority in the House, but the president was able 
to m ^ uce his party to pass the Mills Bill (1888) 
through that body as a concrete presentation of 
policy. The bill put many important raw materials 
(including wool and unmanufactured lumber) on the free list, 
substituted ad valorem for specific duties to a large extent, and 
generally reduced the protective duties. It was believed that the 
measure would remit over fifty and a-half million dollars of duties, 
nearly twenty millions of which would result from additions to 
the free list. The Republican Senate also found party unity 
on the tariff issue and its committee on finance, under the 
leadership of Senator Nelson W. Aldrich of Rhode Island, drafted 
a counter proposal. They would reduce revenue by repealing 
the taxes on tobacco, and the taxes on spirits used in the arts 
and for mechanical purposes, and by revising the tariff so as 
to check imports of articles produced at home. 

355. On the tariff issue the two parties contested the election 
of 1888, the Republicans denouncing the Mills Bill and the 
Benjamin Democrats supporting it. Elaine having withdrawn 
Harrison from the contest, and John Sherman having secured 
PresMen< ^ ut ^^ more than half the votes necessary to 
nominate, the Republicans picked from a multitude 
of candidates General Benjamin Harrison of Indiana, grandson 
of President William Henry Harrison, to run against Mr Cleve- 
land. The popular vote was exceedingly close, but Harrison 
had an electoral majority of 65, having carried all of the states 
except the solid South, Connecticut and New Jersey. The 
increasing use of money to influence the election, and particularly 
the association of great business interests with such political 
" bosses " as Matthew S. Quay of Pennsylvania and Thomas 
C. Platt of New York, were features of the campaign. The 
Congressional elections ensured to the Republicans the undis- 



Mills 

' 



puted control of all branches of the government when the Fifty- 
first Congress should convene, and it was generally agreed that 
the party had a mandate to sustain the protective tariff. 

356. Lacking a large majority in either house the Republicans 
were not only exposed to the danger of free silver defections in 
the Senate, but to " filibustering " by the Democratic speaker 
minority in the House as a means of blocking the Thomas 
victorious pa'rty's programme. These obstructive B.Reed. 
tactics were made possible chiefly by the use of privileged motions 
and roll calls to delay business, and the refusal to respond on 
the roll call for a vote, thus preventing a quorum. Speaker 
Thomas B. Reed of Maine, a virile and keen-witted leader, 
greatly strengthened the power of the speaker, as well as expe- 
diting the business of the House, by ruling that the Constitu- 
tion required a present, not a voting, quorum; and in spite of 
disorderly protests he " counted a quorum " of those actually 
present. By securing rules sanctioning this action and empower- 
ing the speaker to refuse to entertain dilatory motions, that officer 
became the effective agent for carrying on the business of the 
party majority. As his power through the committee on rules, 
which he appointed, grew, he came, in the course of time, also to 
dominate the action of the House, refusing to recognize members 
except for motions which he approved, and through his lieu- 
tenants on important committees selecting such measures for 
consideration as seemed most desirable. This efficiency of 
action was secured at a loss to the house as a representative and 
debating body, responsive to minority proposals. 

357. But the discipline of party caucus and House rules 
enabled the Republican leaders to put through with rapidity 
a number of important laws. One of these was the fhe 
measure known as the Sherman Anti-Trust Act of Sherman 
the 2nd of July 1890, which declared combinations Anti-Trust 
affecting commerce between the several states, or with Act ~ 
foreign nations, illegal and punishable by fine or imprisonment or 
both. This act, the full power of which was not exhibited until 
later, was a response to the growing unrest of the nation as other 
corporations emulated the success of the Standard Oil Trust 
(formed in 1882). The members of a trust combined in an organiza- 
tion managed by boards of trustees whose certificates the former 
owners accepted instead of their shares of stock in the component 
companies. Competition was thus eliminated within the com- 
bination and the greatly increased capital and economies enabled 
it not only to deal with the increasing magnitude of business 
operation, but also to master the smaller concerns which opposed 
it. State legislation had proved unable to check the process, 
partly because the trust was an interstate affair. By putting 
into operation its power under the Constitution to regulate 
interstate commerce, Congress responded to the popular demand 
for Federal restraint of these great combinations which threatened 
the old American ideals of individualism and freedom of com- 
petition. The trusts, although embarrassed, soon showed their 
ability to find other devices to maintain their unified control. 
Nor was the act used, in this period, to prevent the railways from 
agreements and combinations which in large measure neutralized 
the anti-pooling clause of the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887. 

358. Another important law was the so-called Sherman 
Silver Purchase Act of the uth of July 1890. By 1889 the 
ratio of silver to gold had fallen to i to 22. In the Sherman 
twelve years of the Bland-Allison Act of 1878 silver Pur- 
over 378,000,000 silver dollars had been coined from cnase Act - 
bullion purchased at the market price. This bullion value was 
falling: it was $-89 in 1877 and $-72 in 1889. The production 
of gold in the United States in 1878 was about two and one-half 
million fine ounces, and of silver about thirty-five millions; 
in 1890 the gold production was 1,588,000 and the silver 
54,500,000. The Silver Purchase Act authorized the secre- 
tary of the treasury to purchase each month 4,500,000 oz. 
of silver at its market price and to pay for it in treasury 
notes redeemable at his discretion, in silver or gold. This law, 
passed to placate the demands of the free silver men by increasing 
the use of silver, was insufficient to prevent the Senate from pass- 
ing a free coinage bill by a combination of Democrats and the 



HISTORY 1865-1910] 



UNITED STATES 



727 



silver Republicans, chiefly from the newer states of the Far 
West; but this free coinage bill was lost in the House by a small 
majority. The explanation of this sudden re-opening of the 
question was that of party apprehension. In some of the 
Republican states of the Middle West, long relied upon as safe, 
the Farmers' Alliance had been spreading, and fomenting a 
demand for unlimited coinage of silver. A silver convention 
held at St Louis in the fall of 1889 had been attended by many 
delegates from this region as well as from the new silver-mining 
states whose increased power in the Senate was soon to be 
effective. It was feared, therefore, that a veto of a free coinage 
measure might array the West and South-West against the 
East and break up the party. 

359. The customs duties upon which the fighting of the 
campaign of 1888 had turned was promptly taken up, and in 
The the McKinley Tariff Act of the ist of October 1890 
McKinley the Republicans embodied their conceptions of 
Tariff. protection to American industry. Some of the 
main features of this law were: the addition of agricultural 
products to the protected articles; the extension of the free list, 
particularly the inclusion therein of raw sugar, which had 
been bringing in a revenue of $50,000,0x30 annually; the 
granting of compensating bounties to sugar planters to an 
amount of about $10,000,000 a year; and the raising of 
duties to the prohibitory point on many articles of general 
consumption which could be produced at home. Mr Elaine, 
then secretary of state, had just been active in promoting closer 
relations with South America wherein he hoped for an extension 
of American trade and he severely criticized the bill as it passed 
the House, because the free list opened wide the doors of American 
trade, particularly to sugar producing countries, without first 
exacting compensating advantages for our products in those 
markets. To meet this criticism a provision was finally added 
authorizing the president to impose discriminating duties where 
it was necessary to obtain the advantages of reciprocity. 

360. This tariff, which passed on the eve of the Congressional 
elections of 1890, was immediately followed by such increases 
in prices and the cost of living that it was potent in bringing 
about the political revolution, or " land slide," which swept 
the Republicans from power in the House of Representatives. 
The Republicans returned but 88 members as compared with 
nearly twice that number in the Congress which passed the 
McKinley Bill. The South sent but four Republicans; New 
England a majority of Democrats; and such strongholds of 
Republicanism as the Middle Western states of Illinois, Michigan, 
Wisconsin, Iowa and Kansas, hitherto responsive to the traditions 
of the Civil War, sent Democratic or independent delegations. 
Looked at broadly, the movement was a rural uprising, strongest 
in the South and Middle West, the old Granger areas, against 
forces which seemed to them to threaten their ideals of American 
democracy. But the movement was recruited by the silver- 
mining states and discontented labour interests. 

361. Farm products had not proportionally shared the general 
increase in prosperity. This convinced large portions of the 
Western agricultural West that the currency system had too 
Discontent, narrow a basis in gold, which was appreciating 
in value. Much of the Middle Western agricultural develop- 
ment had been made on borrowed Eastern capital, and it 
seemed to the farmer that the principal of his mortgage was 
in effect increasing with the rise in the price of gold, at the 
same time that his crops brought a smaller net profit. He 
did not give due attention to the effect of greatly increased 
production, as the new wheat lands were opened on such a grand 
scale; but he was keenly sensitive to increased freight rates and 
discriminations, to the influence of Eastern capitalists, banks, 
bondholders, trusts and railways upon Federal and state legis- 
latures and judiciary, and to the large amount of railway lands, 
unproductively held by the companies, while the land hunger 
of the nation was exhibited in the rush to newly opened Indian 
lands, such as Oklahoma (1889) and parts of the Sioux reserva- 
tion (1890). After the evidence of the power of this tide of 
Western discontent in the elections of 1890, those portions of it 



which were ripest for revolt combined in 1892 as the People's 
party or Populists, soon to prove an important political factor. 

362. The Republicans meanwhile had been actively reducing 
the surplus. In 1892 the excess of revenue over expenditures 
was ten million dollars; by 1893 only two millions. 

This was effected not only by the Tariff Act but by ' 
such measures as the Dependent Pension Act of 1890 
(resulting in. a list of pensioners of the Civil War which cost 
the nation $68,000,000 by 1893, over half of these pensioners 
having been added during Harrison's administration) ; the rapid 
construction of the new navy, raising the United States from 
twelfth to fifth in the list of naval powers; the repayment of the 
direct war tax to the states (1891) to the amount of fifty-one 
millions; and other appropriations such as those provided by 
river and harbour bills. The Democrats stigmatized this 
Congress as a " billion dollar Congress" from its expenditures, 
to which Speaker Reed replied that the United States was a 
billion dollar nation. In fact the Democrats when they regained 
power were not able greatly to diminish the cost of government. 

363. The Democratic House in the Fifty-second Congress 
repressed obstructive Republican tactics by methods like those 
adopted by Speaker Reed, and contented itself with passing a 
series of bills through that body proposing reductions of the 
tariff in special schedules, including free wool and a reduction 
of the duty on woollens, free raw material for the cotton planters 
of the South, free binding twine for the farmers of the North 
and a reduced duty on tin plate for the fruit raisers. The new 
industries of the southern Appalachians prevented action on 
coal and iron. Of course these bills failed in the Republican 
Senate. A bloody strike on the eve of the election of 1892 in 
the great steel works at Homestead, Pennsylvania, 

where armed guards engaged by the company 5^ e s 
fired upon the mob which sought higher wages, was 
not without its adverse effect upon public sentiment in regard 
to the Republican tariff for the protection of labour. 

364. During the campaign of 1892 the Democrats rejected a 
conservative tariff plank, denounced the McKinley tariff in 
violent language, and denied the constitutional power to impose 
tariff duties except for the purpose of revenue only. But Cleve- 
land, who was renominated in spite of vigorous opposition from 
leading politicians of his own state, toned down the platform 
utterances on the tariff in his letter of acceptance. In their 
declarations upon the currency the Democrats furnished a 
common standing ground for the different factions by attacking 
the Silver Purchase Act of 1890 as a cowardly makeshift. 

365. The People's party, in its national convention at Omaha 
(July 1892), drew a gloomy picture of government corrupted in 
all of its branches, business prostrated, farms covered 

with mortgages, labour oppressed, lands concen- p ^ rly p e 
trating in the hands of capitalists. Demanding the 
restoration of government to the " plain people," they proposed 
an expansion of its powers, to afford an adequate volume of 
currency and to check the tendency to " breed tramps and 
millionaires." Among their positive proposals were: the free, 
and unlimited coinage of silver at the legal ratio of sixteen to 
one; the expansion of a national currency issued directly to the 
people; the establishment of postal savings banks; government 
ownership of the railways, telegraph and telephone; restoration 
to the government of the lands held by railways and other cor- 
porations in excess of their needs; and a graduated income tax. 
In supplementary resolutions the Australian ballot system, 
which had spread rapidly in the past few years, was commended, 
as also were the initiative and referendum in law-making. 
Combining with the Democratic party in various states beyond 
the Mississippi, and with Republicans in some of the Southern 
states, they won large masses of voters in the West, and exerted 
an influence upon public opinion in that section beyond what 
was indicated in the returns, although General James B. Weaver 
of Iowa, their candidate for the presidency, received over 
1,000,000 popular votes and 22 votes in the electoral 
college. The Republicans renominated President Harrison, 
though he lacked an enthusiastic personal following. They 



728 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1865-1910 






supported the McKinley Tariff Act in spite of the wave of 
opposition shown in the elections of 1890. But, fearing party 
divisions, they, like the Democrats, made an ambiguous declara- 
tion on the currency. The result of the election of 1892 was to 
Cleveland return the Democrats under Cleveland to power 
re-elected by a pluralky of over 380,000 and an electoral 
President, plurality of 132. Congress in both branches was to 
be Democratic in 1893, and the way was open for the first 
time in a generation for that party to carry out a policy un- 
checked by any legislative or executive branch of government. 

366. But before Cleveland was fairly started in his second 
administration the disastrous panic of 1893 swept the nation, 

nor did prosperity return during the four years 
that f ji owe d. The panic is not, directly at least, 
to be traced to the silver purchases, but was the 
result of various causes, including the agricultural depression, 
farm mortgages, reckless railway financiering and unsound 
banking in the United States, as well as to Argentine and 
European financial troubles. The panic began in the spring with 
the failure of the Reading railway (which had undertaken the 
acquisition of coal land and an extension of activity beyond 
its resources) and the collapse of the National Cordage Company, 
one of the numerous examples of reckless trust financiering 
into which large banks had also been drawn. Clearing-house 
certificates were resorted to by the New York banks in June, 
followed in August by partial suspension of specie payments. 
Currency remained at a premium for a month; deposits in national 
banks shrank enormously; national bank loans contracted more 
than 14-7%; failures were common; 22,000 m. of railways 
were under receiverships, and construction almost ceased. The 
interruption to business is indicated by the decline of iron 
production by one-fourth. 

367. The panic of 1893 was in many ways a turning-point 
in American history. It focused attention upon monetary 
questions, prostrated the silver-mining states, embittered the 
already discontented farming regions of the West, produced 
an industrial chaos out of which the stronger economic interests 
emerged with increased power by the absorption of embarrassed 
companies, and was accompanied by renewed labour troubles. 
Most noteworthy of these was the Pullman Car Company 
strike near Chicago in 1894, which led to sympathetic strikes 
by the American Railway Union, extending over twenty-seven 
states and Territories from Cincinnati to San Francisco. Mobs 

of the worst classes of Chicago burned and looted cars. 
strike** The refu sal of Governor John P. Altgeld of Illinois 

to call out the militia, and the interference with the 
United States mails, led President Cleveland to order Federal 
troops to the scene, on the constitutional ground that they were 
necessary to prevent interference with interstate commerce 
and the postal service and to enforce the processes of the Federal 
courts. The latter issued a sweeping injunction requiring that 
the members of the American Railway Union or other persons 
desist from interference with the business of the railways con- 
cerned. The president of the striking organization, Eugene 
V. Debs, was imprisoned for contempt of court and conspiracy. 

368. The most immediate political effect of the panic was upon 
the silver issue. Soon after the outbreak of the financial 
crisis, the gold reserve, which protected the greenbacks and the 
treasury notes issued under the Silver Purchase Act, shrank 
ominously, while foreigners returned their American securities 
instead of sending gold. To sell bonds in order to replenish 
the gold reserve, and to repeal the Silver Purchase Act without 
substituting free coinage, would aggravate western discontent 
and turn away the promise of recruits to the Democratic party 
from the Populists of the prairie and silver-mining states; to 
carry out the Democratic platform by a tariff for revenue 
only while mills were shutting down would be hazardous in 
Repeaiof the East. The fruits of victory were turning to 
silver Pur- ashes; but Cleveland summoned a special session 
chase Act. o f Congress for August, while the panic was acute, 
and asked his party to repeal the Silver Purchase Act 
without accompanying the repeal with provisions for silver. 



Not until the last of October 1893 was repeal carried, 'by a 
vote in which the friends of repeal in the House were about 
equally divided between Democrats and Republicans, and 
nearly two-thirds of its opponents Democrats. 

369. By this time the surplus had disappeared and the gold 
reserve was drawn upon for ordinary expenses. Early in 1894 
the administration, failing to secure legislation from Congress 
to authorize the sale of gold bonds on favourable terms to 
protect the reserve, sold under the Resumption Act of 1875 
$50,000,000 5% bonds, redeemable in ten years. Part of this 
very gold, however, was withdrawn from the reserve by the 
presentation of legal tender notes for redemption, and the 
" endless chain " continued this operation to the verge of 
extinguishing the reserve, so that another loan of $50,000,000 
in 1894 was followed in 1895 by a dramatic meeting between 
Cleveland and some of his cabinet with the important 
Wall Street banker, J. Pierpont Morgan, who agreed on behalf 
of his syndicate to sell the government $65,166,000 of gold for 
$62,315,000 of bonds, equivalent to 4% bonds for thirty 
years at a price of 104. In return the syndicate agreed to use 
its influence to protect the withdrawals of gold from the treasury. 
These securities were over-subscribed when offered to the public 
at ii 2j. President Cleveland had protected the treasury 
and sustained the parity of gold and silver, . but at the cost 
of disrupting his party, which steadfastly refused to authorize 
gold bonds. Again, in the beginning of 1896, the treasury was 
forced to sell bonds, but this time it dealt directly with the 
public and easily placed $100,000,000 in bonds at about in, 
affording a rate of interest about equal to 3-4%. 

370. Before the political harvest of the monetary issue was 
reaped, the Democrats had also found party ties too weak to 
bear the strain of an effective redemption of the 

party pledges on the tariff. The Wilson BUI pre- ^ Wttso " 
pared as the administrative measure was reported 
late in 1893, while the panic was still exerting a baneful 
influence. Its leading features were the substitution of ad 
valorem for specific duties in general, the extension of the 
free list to include such materials of manufacture as iron ore, 
wool, coal, sugar and lumber, and the reduction of many pro- 
hibitory rates. The loss in revenue was partly provided for 
by an income tax, significant of the new forces affecting American 
society, and an increase in the duty on distilled liquors. 
Although the bill passed the House by an overwhelming majority, 
it met the opposition in the Senate of the representatives, 
Democratic as well as Republican, of those states whose interests 
were adversely affected, especially the iron ore and coal pro- 
ducing states of the Southern Appalachians, the sugar producers 
of Louisiana, the wool growers and manufacturers of Ohio, 
and the regions of accumulated property in the East, where 
an income tax was especially obnoxious. Led by Senators 
Arthur P. Gorman, of Maryland; Calvin S. Brice, of Ohio; 
and David B. Hill, of New York, the bill was transformed 
by an alliance between Democratic and Republican senators, 
on the plea that it would otherwise result in a deficit of 
$100,000,000. Coal, iron ore and sugar were withdrawn 
from the free raw materials and specific duties replaced ad 
valorem in many cases, while many other individual schedules 
were amended in the direction of protection. The House, 
given the alternative of allowing the McKinley Act to remain 
or to accept the Senate's bill, yielded, and the Wilson-Gorman 
Tariff Act became a law without the president's signature, 
on the 27th of August 1894. He called upon his followers 
still to fight for free raw materials, and wrote bitterly of " the 
trusts and combinations, the communism of pelf, whose machina- 
tions have prevented us from reaching the success we deserved." 
Even the income tax was soon (1895) held by the Supreme 
Court to be unconstitutional. 

371. Toward the close of his administration Cleveland's 
brusque message on the Venezuelan boundary question (see 
later) aroused such excitement and so rallied the general public 
(though not the more conservative) that the war spirit, shown 
soon afterwards against Spain, might have been a potent factor 



HISTORY 1865-1910] 



UNITED STATES 



729 



in the election of 1896 had not England exhibited exceptional 
moderation and self-restraint in her attitude. The silver 
question, therefore, became the important issue. The Republicans 
nominated McKinley and declared for the gold standard in 
opposition to free coinage, losing thereby an influential following 
in the silver-mining and prairie states, but gaining the support 
of multitudes of business men among the Democrats in the 
East and Middle West, who saw in the free-silver programme 
a violation of good faith and a menace to returning prosperity. 
The Democratic convention marked a revolution in the party. 
Free silver The old school leaders were deposed by decisive 
issue; majorities, and a radical platform was constructed 
wniiam J. w hich made " the free and unlimited coinage of 
ryaa ' both silver and gold at the present legal ratio of 
sixteen to one, without waiting for the aid or consent of any other 
nation," the paramount issue. Objecting also to the decision 
against the income tax, and to " government by injunction as a 
new and highly dangerous form of oppression," they incurred the 
charge of hostility to the Federal judiciary. William J. Bryan 
made a brilliant speech in behalf of free coinage, and so voiced 
the passion and thought of the captivated convention that he 
was nominated by it for the presidency over the 
Democrats veteran free-silver leader, Richard P. Bland of 
Missouri. The Cleveland men, or " gold Democrats," 
broke with their party after it became committed to free silver, 
and holding a convention of their own, nominated General 
John McA. Palmer of Illinois for the presidency on a platform 
which extolled Cleveland, attacked free coinage, and favoured 
the gold standard. Its main influence was to permit many 
Cleveland men to vote against Bryan without renouncing the 
name of Democrats. On the other hand the Populist con- 
vention also nominated Bryan on a platform more radical 
than that of the Democrats, since it included government owner- 
ship of the railways, the initiative and referendum, and a 
currency issued without the intervention of banks. 

372. The contest was marked by great excitement as Bryan 
travelled across the country addressing great audiences. The 
endangered business interests found an efficient manager in 
Marcus A. Hanna of Ohio, McKinley's adviser, and expended 
large sums in a campaign of education. In the event, the 
older states of the Middle West, holding the balance between 
the manufacturing and capitalistic East and the populistic 
prairie and mining states of the West, gave their decision against 
free silver. But class appeals and class voting were a marked 
feature of the campaign, the regions of agricultural depression 
and farm mortgages favouring Bryan, and those of urban life 
favouring McKinley. Labour was not convinced that its interests 
lay in expanding the currency, and Mr Hanna had conducted 
McKinley's campaign successfully on the plea that he was the 
advance agent of prosperity under the gold standard and a 
restoration of confidence. McKinley carried all the Northern 
William states east of the Missouri, and North Dakota, 
McKinley Oregon and California of the Farther West, as 

well as Maryland, Delaware, West Virginia and 
Kentucky along the borders of the South. His 
plurality over Bryan in the popular vote was more than 
600,000, and his electoral majority 95. All the departments of 
government were transferred by the election to the Republicans. 

373. Having secured power, the administration called a 
special session of Congress, and enacted the Dingley protective 

tariff (July 24, 1897), under which the deficit in the 
Tariff?' treasury was turned into a surplus. The act 

raised duties to their highest point, and as the 
protective schedules included some important articles produced 
by trusts which had a practical monopoly, such as sugar and 
petroleum, this was seized upon by the Democrats to stig- 
matize the tariff as the " mother of trusts." Many articles 
which had been placed on the free list in the Tariff Act of 1894, 
including lumber, wool and the raw material for cotton baling, 
were made dutiable. The high rates were defended, in part, 
by the provision authorizing the president to negotiate reci- 
procity treaties under which they might be lowered. Several 



elected 
President. 



such treaties were signed, but the Senate refused to ratify 
them. 

374. The Republicans also wrote their triumph into the 
Gold Standard Act of the 4th of March 1900, which ensured 
the maintenance of this standard by reserving aoid 
$150,000,000 of gold coin and bullion to redeem standard 
the United States notes and the treasury notes of Act ' 
1890, and by authorizing the sale of bonds when necessary to 
maintain the reserve. National banks were authorized in the 
smaller towns (three thousand or less) with a capital of $25,000, 
half of that formerly required, and increased circulation was 
further provided for by permitting the national banks to 
issue United States bonds up to their par value. 

375. The economic policy of the Republicans was facilitated 
by the prosperity which set in about 1898. The downfall of 
silver-mining turned the prospectors to seek new gold fields, 
and they found them, especially in Alaska, about this time; and 
contemporaneously the chemists discovered cheaper and more 
efficient methods of extracting the gold from low-grade ores. 
Within five years after the crisis of 1893 the gold produc- 
tion of the United States nearly doubled. The United States 
coined $437,500,000 in gold in the five-year period Economic 
1897-1902, while the average for five-year periods and 
since 1873 had been only $224,000,000. Thus gold industrial 
instead of silver began to inundate the market, Chan s es - 
and to diminish the demand for expansion of the currency. 
Agriculture, prostrated in the years immediately preceding 
and following the panic of 1893, turned to the scientific study 
of its problems, developed dry farming, rotation and variety 
of crops, introduced forage crops like alfalfa, fed its Indian corn 
to cattle and hogs, and thus converted it into a profitable and 
condensed form for shipment. Range cattle were brought to 
the corn belt and fattened, while packing industries moved 
closer to these western centres of supply. Dairy-farming 
replaced the unprofitable attempts of older sections of the 
Middle West and the East to compete with the wheat-fields of 
the Farther West. Truck and fruit farming increased in the 
South, and the canning industry added utility to the fruits and 
vegetables of the West. Following the trend of combination 
the farmers formed growers' associations and studied the 
demand of the market to guide their sales. The mortgaged 
farms were gradually freed from debt. The wheat crop in- 
creased from less than 400,000,000 bushels valued at 
$213,000,000 in 1893 to 675,000,000 bushels valued at 
$392,000,000 in 1898. Prosperity and contentment replaced 
agitation in the populistic West for the time, and the Repub- 
lican party gained the advantage of these changed conditions. 
Land values and the price of farm products rose. The 
farmers soon found it profitable to sell all or part of their land 
and re-invest in the cheaper virgin soils of the farther North- 
West and South-West, and thus began a new movement of 
colonization into the new West, while the landowners who 
remained gained an increasingly higher status, though farm 
labour failed to share proportionally in this advance. 

376. In the South also there was greater contentment as 
the new industries of iron, textiles and forestry grew, and as 
the cotton crops increased. Unrest was diminished 

by the new state constitutions, which after 1890 
disqualified negro voters by educational and tax requirements 
so contrived as not to disfranchise the poor whites. 

377. In the decade which followed the crisis of 1893 a new 
industrial structure was made out of the chaos of the panic. 
" High financiering " was undertaken on a scale "High 
hitherto unknown. Combinations absorbed their Financier- 
weaker rivals; Standard Oil especially gained large Iagl " 
interests in New York banks and in the iron mines and trans- 
portation lines about the Great Lakes, while it extended its 
power over new fields of oil in the South-West. In general, 
a small group of powerful financial interests acquired hold- 
ings in other lines of business, and by absorptions and " com- 
munity of interest " exerted great influence upon the whole 
business world. The group of financiers, headed by J. Pierpont 



730 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1865-1910 






Morgan, came to dominate various Southern transportation 
lines and the anthracite coal roads and mines, and extended 
their influence to the Northern Pacific railway, while a new 
genius in railway financiering, Edward H. Harriman, began 
an avowed plan of controlling the entire railway system of the 
nation. Backed by an important banking syndicate he rescued 
the Union Pacific from bankruptcy, and with its profits as a 
working basis he started in to acquire connecting and com- 
peting lines. Labour also shared in the general prosperity 
after 1898. Relative real wages increased, even allowing for 
the higher cost of living, and the length of the working day 
in general decreased except in special industries. 

378. By 1900 the continental United States had a popula- 
tion of 76,000,000; an aggregate real and personal wealth of 
$88,500,000,000; a per capita public debt of $14-52, and per 
capita money circulation of $26-94 against $21-41 in 1896. In 
1901 bank clearings amounted to nearly $115,000,000,000 

against $45,000,000,000 in 1894. Imports of mer- 
chandise had fallen in this period, while exports rose 
from about $847,000,000 in 1893 to $1,394,000,000 
in 1900. Of these exports food stuffs and food animals, 
crude and partly manufactured, aggregated nearly 40% of 
the total. The production of pig-iron, which was about 
7,000,000 long tons in 1893, was nearly twice that in 1900. 
This economic prosperity and these far-reaching processes 
of social change by which the remaining natural resources of 
the nation were rapidly appropriated, went on contempo- 
raneously with the extension of the activity of the nation over- 
seas. The first rough conquest of the wilderness accomplished, 
the long period of internal colonization drawing to a close, the 
United States turned to consider its position as a world power. 

379. To understand this position it is necessary to return to an 
earlier period and briefly survey the foreign relations since the 
close of the Reconstruction era. The most significant and 
persistent influence came from the growing interest of the 
United States in the Pacific, as its population and economic 
power extended to that ocean. The problem of an overflow 
of Chinese migration to the Pacific coast, and the jeopardizing 
of the American standard of labour by this flood, had been 
settled by various treaties and laws since 1880. The question 
of the relation of the United States to an interoceanic canal 
was not so easily settled. In 1878 Colombia granted a con- 
cession to a French company, promoted by Ferdinand de 
Lesseps, the engineer of the Suez Canal, to dig a tide-level 
canal through the Isthmus of Panama. President Hayes 
voiced the antagonism of the United States to this project 

of European capital in his message of 1880 in 
Can/."" which he declared that such a canal should be 

under the control of this nation, and that it would 
be " virtually a part of the coast-line of the United States." 
Although an American company was organized to construct 
a canal under a concession from Nicaragua in 1884, no real 
progress was made, and the French company, defeated by 
engineering and sanitary difficulties, failed at the close of 1888. 

380. Meantime, for a few months, Elaine, as secretary of 
state under President Garfield, began a vigorous foreign policy 
with especial reference to the Pacific. He attempted to get 
the consent of England to abrogate the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty 
of 1850, which contemplated the construction of an isthmian 
canal by private enterprise under joint control and neutraliza- 
tion of the United States and Great Britain, together with 
such other powers as should join them. In South America he 
actively pressed the influence of the United States to settle 
the war between Chile and Peru. Again, in the years from 
Pan. 1889 to 1892, Blaine held the portfolio of state, and 
American attempted to increase the influence of his country 
Congress. j n Spanish America by the Pan-American Congress 
of 1890, which proposed a great international railway system 
and bank, commercial reciprocity and arbitration, without im- 
mediate results. (See PAN-AMERICAN CONFERENCES.) Indeed, 
the bad feeling aroused by his earlier policy toward Chile 
found expression in 1891 in a mob at Valparaiso, when some 



of the men from the United States ship " Baltimore " on 
shore leave were killed and wounded. An apology 
averted the war which President Harrison threatened. 
Blaine also asserted, against Canada particularly, the right of 
the United States to the seals of the Bering Sea; but 
in 1893 arbitrators decided against the claim. 

381. As the navy grew and American policy increasingly 
turned to the Pacific, the need of coaling stations and positions 
advantageous to its sea power was appreciated. 

By a tripartite treaty in 1889 the Samoan islands 
were placed under the joint control of the United 
States, England and Germany, and, a decade later, they were 
divided among these powers, Tutuila and the harbour of 
Pago-Pago falling to the United States. The Hawaiian islands, 
which had been brought under the influence of civilization 
by American missionaries, were connected by commercial 
ties with the United States. Upon the attempt of the ruler 
to overturn the constitution, the American party, aided by 
the 'moral support of the United States, which landed 
marines, revolted, set up a republic, and asked 
annexation to the Union. A treaty, negotiated 
under President Harrison to this end, was withdrawn by 
President Cleveland, after investigation, on the ground that 
the part of the United States in the revolution was improper. 
He attempted without success to restore the original state of 
affairs, and on the 7th of July 1898 the islands were annexed. 

382. President Cleveland's conservatism in this and other 
matters of foreign policy had not prepared the people for 
the sudden exhibition of firmness in foreign policy 

with which he startled the nation in his message 
of December 1895 upon the question of the 
boundary of Venezuela. That nation and England had a 
long-standing dispute over the line which separated British 
Guiana from Venezuela. Great Britain declined to arbitrate, 
at the suggestion of the United States, and gave an interpre- 
tation to the Monroe Doctrine which the administration declined 
to accept. President Cleveland thereupon brusquely announced 
to Congress his belief that Great Britain's attitude was in effect 
an attempt to control Venezuela, and proposed that a commis- 
sion on the part of the United States should report upon the 
disputed boundary, and support Venezuela in the possession 
of what should be ascertained to be her rightful territory. 
Secretary -of-State Richard Olney declared: " To-day the 
United States is practically sovereign on this continent, and 
its fiat is law upon the subjects to which it confines its inter- 
position." Great Britain tactfully accepted arbitration, how- 
ever, and in the end (1899) was awarded most of the territory 
regarding which she had been unwilling to arbitrate. 

The growing activity of the United States in foreign relations 
next manifested itself against Spain. Cuba in its commanding 
position with reference to the Gulf of Mexico and the approaches 
to the proposed isthmian canal, as well as in its commercial 
relations, and its menace as a breeding spot for yellow fever, 
had long been regarded by the United States as an important 
factor in her foreign policy. Successive administrations from 
the time of Jefferson had declared that it must not fall to 
another European nation, if Spain relinquished it, and that 
it was against the policy of the United States to join other 
nations in guaranteeing it to Spain. Between 1868 and 1878 
a harsh war had been in progress between the island Cal>a . 
and the mother country, and American intervention Spanish- 
was imminent. But Spain promised reforms and American 
peace followed; again in 1895 revolt broke out, War ' 
accompanied by severe repressive measures, involving grave 
commercial injury to the United States. (See SPANISH-AMERICAN 
WAR.) 

383. By the Treaty of Paris, signed on the loth of December 
1898, Spain lost the remaining fragments of her ancient American 
Empire. She relinquished Cuba, which the United 

States continued temporarily to occupy without j 
holding the sovereignty pending the orderly estab- 
lishment of an independent government for the island. Porto 



HISTORY 1865-1910] 



UNITED STATES 



Rico, Guam and the Philippines were ceded outright to the 
United States, which agreed to pay $20,000,000 to Spain, and 
to satisfy the claims of its citizens against that power. By the 
treaty Congress was to determine the civil rights and political 
status of the native inhabitants of the ceded territory. , 

384. As a result of the Spanish-American War, the United 
States found itself in a position of increased importance and 

prestige among the nations of the world. Especially 
?he "war* m tne P ac ifi c > it was immediately involved in the 

diplomatic situation created by the efforts of 
European states to divide China into spheres of influence or 
of actual possession. The interests of the United States in 
the trade with China, as well as her new position in the 
Philippines, inclined her to oppose this policy, and Secretary- 
of-State John Hay showed himself one of the great American 
diplomats in his treatment of this difficult problem. In 
order to preserve Chinese entity and the " open door " for 
trade, he drew replies from the nations concerned, the result 
of which was to compel them to avow and moderate their 
intentions. When the Boxer insurrection broke out in China 
in 1900, and the legations were besieged at Peking, it was 
largely through the United States that a less rigorous treatment 
was secured for that disordered nation. 

385. The acquisition of Porto Rico and the acceptance of 
responsibilities in Cuba gave new importance to the isthmian 
canal and increased the relative weight of the United States 
in regard to its control. The popular excitement with which 
the voyage of the " Oregon " was followed, as it took its 
way 14,000 m. around South America to participate in the 
destruction of the Spanish fleet in the battle of Santiago, 
brought home to the American people the need of such com- 
munication between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. 

386. But the immediate political issues were concerned with 
problems of the relation of the newly won lands to the United 
States government. Bryan had persuaded his party to join 
in ratifying the treaty of Paris, expecting to determine the 
status of the islands later. But attention soon turned to the 
insurrection which broke out (Feb. 4, 1899) in the Philippines 
(q.v.) under Aguinaldo, after it became probable that the 
administration intended to retain these islands, not under a 
weak protectorate, but as a possession to be ruled and " assimi- 
lated." It was not until the spring of 1902 that 

pines P " ^is insurrection was completely put down, and in 
the interval the question of the destiny of the islands 
and the harshness of the measures of repression aroused 
political debate. The Democrats and many Republicans 
charged the administration with a policy of imperialism. 

387. The same issue was involved, in its constitutional and 
economic aspects, in the treatment of Porto Rico and Cuba. 
While the insurrection continued in the Philippines the govern- 
ment there was legally a military one, although exercised in 
part through civil officers and commissions. But in the case 
of Porto Rico the question was whether the " Constitution 
follows the flag," that is, whether it extended of its own force 
without an act of Congress to acquired territory, and covered the 
inhabitants with all the rights of citizens of the United States, 
as an integral part of the American people. Not only was it a 

question whether the native inhabitants of these 
andCuba new acquisitions could be wisely entrusted with 

this degree of political liberty, but the problem 
of the tariff was involved. The beet sugar producers of the 
United States feared the effect of the competition of Porto 
Rican sugar unless a protective tariff excluded this commodity. 
But if Porto Rico were an integral part of the United States 
the Dingley tariff could not be applied against its products, 
since this act imposed duties only on articles from " foreign 
countries." To meet this difficulty the Foraker Act of 1900 
imposed a special tariff for two years upon Porto Rico, the pro- 
ceeds to go to that island's own treasury. The act further 
asserted the principle that the inhabitants of the new possessions 
were not incorporated into the United States or entitled 
to all the privileges of citizens of the United States under the 



Constitution, by declaring that statutory acts of the United States 
locally inapplicable should not be in force in Porto Rico. The 
Supreme Court sustained this act in 1901, holding that Porto 
Rico was not so strictly a part of the United States that separate 
customs tariffs could not be imposed upon the territory. The 
close division of the court and the variety of opinions by which 
the decision was sustained left it somewhat uncertain whether 
and how far the Constitution extended of its own force to these 
annexations. The Foraker Act also provided a government for 
the island (see PORTO Rico). In Cuba the United States 
remained in authority until the 2oth of May 1902, and details 
of the work of the government there, and the subsequent 
arrangements whereby the United States secured the substan- 
tial advantages of a protectorate without destroying the 
independence of Cuba, will be found in the article on CUBA. 

388. Meantime, in the election of 1900, the Democrats 
renominated Bryan on a platform which opposed the Repub- 
lican administration's acts in relation to the newly ti 
acquired territory and declared that " imperialism " 'J S '^^ H *'' 
was the paramount issue. The platform reaffirmed 
its silver doctrine of the previous campaign and denounced 
the tariff as a breeder of trusts. The Republicans renominated 
McKinley and endorsed his administration. While the Demo- 
crats declared for publicity in the affairs of interstate corpora- 
tions and favoured enlargement of the interstate commerce 
kw to prevent discriminations in railway rates, the Republicans 
were less hostile in their attitude toward the combinations, 
admitting the necessity of honest co-operation of capital to 
meet new business conditions. The Populists divided, the 
" anti-fusionists " supporting a separate ticket, with free silver, 
government ownership of railways, and anti-imperialism 
prominent in their demands; the other wing supported Bryan. 
Marcus A. Hanna, the Republican campaign ^.e/ec^on 
manager, who was increasingly influential with the andAssas- 
great business interests of the country, appealed to sinattoncf 
labour to support the administration and thereby McKlale y- 
retain " a full dinner pail." McKinley received an electoral 
majority of 137 and a popular plurality of 849,790. Before his 
second term was fairly begun he was shot by an anarchist 
while attending the Pan-American Exposition at .Buffalo, and 
died on the i4th of September 1901. His wisdom in choosing 
able cabinet officers, his sympathetic tact in dealing with men 
and with sections, as well as the victories of the Spanish- 
American War, had brought him popularity even 'among 
his political opponents. But McKinley, like Cleveland, lacked 
the imagination to perceive and the desire to voice the aspirations 
and demands that had been gathering force for many years 
for legislation and executive action that should deal with the 
pVoblem of effective regulation of the economic forces that 
were transforming American society. This gave his oppor- 
tunity to Theodore Roosevelt (q.v.), who as vice-president now 
succeeded to office. 

It was in foreign relations, which Secretary Hay continued 
to conduct, that continuity with McKinley's administration 
was most evident. But even here a bolder spirit, Kooseveltf 
a readiness to break new paths and to take short 
cuts was shown by the new president. Venezuela had long 
delayed the payment of claims of citizens of various nations. In 
1901, the president, having been informed by Germany of its 
intention to collect the claims of its citizens by force, but with- 
out acquisition of territory, announced that the United States 
would not guarantee any state against punishment if it mis- 
conducted itself, provided that the punishment did not take 
the form of acquisition of territory. As a result, a blockade 
of Venezuela was undertaken by the joint action of Germany, 
England and Italy at the close of 1902. The diplomatic inter- 
vention of the United States early the next year resulted in 
Venezuela's agreement to pay the claims in part and to set 
aside a portion of her customs receipts to this end. But since 
the blockading powers demanded preferential treatment, the 
United States secured a reference of the question to the Hague 
court, which decided that this demand was justified. San 



732 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1865-1910 



Domingo offered a similar problem, having a debt incurred by 
revolutionary governments, beyond its power to pay, and 
being threatened with forcible intervention by 
European states. President Roosevelt, in 1904, 
declared that in case of wrongdoing or impotency 
requiring intervention in the western hemisphere the United 
States might be forced " to the exercise of an international 
police power." In 1905 San Domingo and the United States 
signed a protocol under which the latter was empowered to 
take possession of the custom-house, conduct the finances and 
settle the domestic and foreign debts of San Domingo. In 
spite of the refusal of the Senate to assent to this protocol, 
President Roosevelt put the arrangement unofficially into 
effect, until, in 1907, the Senate consented to a treaty author- 
izing it with some modifications. 

389. In the Far East the Boxer insurrection in China had been 
followed by the combined military expedition of the powers 
Poiky la the io tne reue f f Peking (in which the United States 
Far East; shared), and the exaction of a huge indemnity, of 
the Ports- which the United States relinquished nearly half of 
mouth fa snare) as m excess of the actual losses. The 

United States protested against Russian demands 
upon China, and actively participated in the negotiations 
which resulted in Russia's agreement to evacuate Man- 
churia. The delays of that power and her policy toward China 
having led Japan to declare war, Secretary Hay's diplomacy 
was influential in limiting the zone of hostilities; and the good 
offices of President Roosevelt brought about the conference 
between the two powers at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, 
which terminated hostilities in 1905. In this, and in his efforts 
to promote peace by extending the power of the various inter- 
national peace congresses and by making the Hague tribunal 
an effective instrument for settling disputes, Roosevelt won 
the approval of Europe as well as of America. The dispute 
over the boundary between Alaska and Canada was narrowed 
by diplomatic discussion, .and the remaining questions, involv- 
ing the control of important ports at the head of the great 
inlets which offered access to the goldfields, were settled by 
arbitration in 1903 favourably to the American contentions. 

390. The Isthmian Canal also received a settlement in this 
administration by a process which was thoroughly character- 
istic of the resolution of President Roosevelt. The Clayton- 
Bulwer . treaty was superseded by the Hay-Pauncefote treaty 
of 1901, by which Great Britain withdrew her objections to a 
canal constructed by the United States, and under the sole 
guarantee of neutralization by the latter power. The treaty 
also omitted a clause previously insisted on, forbidding the 
fortification of the canal. Having thus cleared the way, the 
United States next debated the advantages of the Nicaragua 
and the Panama routes. Influenced by the cost of acquiring 
the rights and property of the French company, an American 

commission reported in 1901 in favour of the Nicara- 

The Panama . . . . , 

Canal. guan route; but upon receiving information that a 
smaller sum would be accepted, the Spooner Law 
was enacted (June 28, 1902) authorizing the president to 
purchase the rights and property of the Panama Company 
for $40,000,000, to acquire upon reasonable terms the title 
and jurisdiction to a canal strip at least 6 m. wide from 
Colombia, and through the Isthmian Canal Commission to 
construct the canal. But if the president was unable to 
secure a valid title from the French company and the con- 
trol from Colombia within " a reasonable time and upon reason- 
able terms " the Nicaraguan route was to be made the line of 
the canal. With this means of pressure the president acquired 
the French rights; but Colombia declined to ratify the treaty 
negotiated for the purpose of giving the United States the 
specified control, on the terms offered. In this emergency an 
insurrection broke out in Panama on the 3rd of November 1903. 
The naval force of the United States, acting under the theory 
that it was obliged to keep open the transit across the isthmus 
by its treaty obligations, excluded armed forces from the 
canai strip, and the Republic of Panama, having declared its 



independence of Colombia, was promptly recognized on the 6th of 
November. Twelve days later a treaty was negotiated with this 
republic, by which the United States paid Panama $10,000,000, 
together with an annuity of $250,000 to begin ten years 
later, and guaranteed the independence of the republic, 
receiving in exchange the substantial sovereignty and owner- 
ship of a ten-mile strip for the canal. This treaty was ratified 
by the Senate on the 23rd of February 1904, and excavation 
was begun in 1907. (See PANAMA CANAL.) 

391. In the Philippines early in 1901 municipal and pro- 
vincial governments were provided for, and the president 
had been for a brief time granted full power to govern 

the archipelago. He appointed Judge Taft civil p/ja/pptoes. 
governor, and limited the power of the military 
governor to regions where insurrection continued. On the ist 
of July 1902 Congressional authority was substituted for that 
of the president, but Taft remained governor. The provisions of 
the Constitution guaranteeing life, liberty and property were 
in general extended specifically to the dependency, and a legis- 
lative assembly was promised, the lower house elective, and the 
upper house to consist of the Philippine Commission. By 
negotiations with Rome Governor Taft secured for the Philippines 
the " friars' lands " which had been a source of friction. On 
the 1 6th of October 1907 the first Philippine assembly was 
convened in the presence of Taft, then secretary of war. 

392. The tariff question complicated American relations 
with both the Philippines and Cuba. Beet sugar and tobacco 
interests feared the competition of these products, and opposed 
freedom of trade between the United States and the new terri- 
tories. The Philippine tariff of 1902 made a reduction of only 
25% from the Dingley tariff in the case of the products of those 
islands, instead of the 75% urged by Taft; but the duties were 
to go to the Philippines. In the case of Cuba a more heated 
controversy arose over the tariff Roosevelt strongly urged a 
substantial reduction in justice to Cuba at several regular and 
special sessions of Congress; but not until the close of 1903 was a 
treaty in operation which, under the principle of reciprocity, ad- 
mitted some products of the United States to Cuba at reduced 
rates, and allowed Cuban products a reduction of 20% from the 
Dingley tariff, stipulating at the same time that so long as this 
arrangement continued no sugar should be admitted at reduced 
rates from any other country. This sacrifice of the means of 
reciprocity with sugar countries for the advantage of the beet 
sugar raisers of the West was quickly followed by the acquisition 
of preponderant interest in the beet sugar refineries by the Sugar 
Trust, which was thus able to control the domestic market; 
but for the time being it was evident that the forces friendly 
to the protective tariff had increased their following in important 
agricultural regions. 

393. The dominant historical tendencies of the beginning 
of the aoth century in the United States, however, were charac- 
terized by huge combinations of capital and labour, the rapid 
passing of natural resources into private possession, and the 
exploitation of these resources on the principle of individualism 
by aggregations of capital which prevented effective competition 
by ordinary individuals. Pioneer conceptions of individual 
industrial achievement free from governmental restraint were 
adopted by huge monopolies, and the result was a demand for 
social control of these dangerous forces. 

394. After the Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890 the combina- 
tions found in the favourable laws of states like New Jersey 
opportunity to incorporate under the device of the " holding 
company," which was supposed to be within the law. A 
" promotion mania " set in in 1901. The steel industry, after a 
threatened war between the Standard Oil and Carnegie groups, 
was united by Pierpont Morgan into the United States Steel 
Corporation with stocks and bonds aggregating $1,400,000,000. 
This was only one of the many combinations embrac- Comblna- 
ing public utilities of all kinds. Where open consolida- <"> of 
tion was not effected, secret agreements, as in the case Ctt i >ltal - 
of the meat packers, effectively regulated the market. In the 
field of railway transportation, Harriman used the bonds of the 



HISTORY 1865-1910] 



UNITED STATES 



733 



Union Pacific to acquire the Southern Pacific with the Central 
Pacific, and by 1906 he was dictator of one-third of the total 
mileage of the United States. Meanwhile the Great Northern 
and the Northern Pacific had been brought into friendly 
working arrangements under James J. Hill, and tried to secure 
the Burlington railway. A fierce contest followed between the 
Hill, Morgan and Harriman forces, resulting in a compromise by 
which the Northern Securities Company, a holding company for 
the joint interests of the contestants, was created. It was admitted 
by the counsel for this company that the machinery provided 
The in this organization would permit the consolidation 

Northern o f all the railways of the country in the hands of 
Securities j-j^gg or f our individuals. By using notes of one 

Company. f 

railway company, based on its treasury securities, 
it was possible to acquire a controlling interest in others; 
and by watering the capital stock to recover the cost of the 
undertaking, while the public paid the added rates to supply 
dividends on the watered stock. 

395. Following a similar tendency the great Wall Street 
banking houses were dominated by the large financial groups . 
in the interest of speculative undertakings, the directors of banks 
loaning to themselves, as directors of industrial combinations, 
the funds which flowed into New York from all the banks of the 
interior. By a similar process the great insurance and trust 
companies of New York became feeder? to the same operations. 
Thus a community of control over the fundamental economic 
interests of the nation was lodged in a few hands. Rebates 
and discriminations by the railways gave advantage to the 
powerful shippers, and worked in the same direction. 

396. Such was the situation in domestic affairs which 
confronted Roosevelt when he became president. In his 
first message he foreshadowed his determination to grapple 
with these problems. In 1903 he instructed the attorney- 
general to bring suit to dissolve the Northern Securities Com- 
pany as a combination in restraint of trade, and in 1904 the 
Supreme Court held the merger illegal. But the effect was to 
increase the tendency to change from incomplete combination 
of financial interests to consolidated corporations owning the 
property, and to lead the government, on the other hand, to 
TheBikins see ' 1 to re u l ate these vast business interests by 
Law; the legislation. The Elkins Law, passed in 1903, in- 
Bureauot creased the power of the interstate commerce 
C Uoa ra ' comm i ss i n to prosecute offenders, especially those 

who violated the anti-rebating clauses. In the same 
year the creation of the Federal Bureau of Corporations provided 
for increased publicity in the affairs of these organizations. 

397. Labour was combining in its turn. Not only did local 
unions in most of the trades increase in number and power, but 
Comblna- workers in separate industries over large areas were 
tions at combined for collective bargaining and the national 
Labour. organization, the American Federation of Labor, 
had a membership by 1905 of approximately 2,000,000. Labour 
legislation by the states increased under these influences, and 
political leaders became increasingly aware of the power 
of the labour vote, while employers began to form counter 
organizations to check the growth of the movement. In 
1902 Pennsylvania members of the United Mine Workers of 
America, led by John Mitchell, struck. Inasmuch as their 
employers were the owners of the anthracite coal monopoly 
under the control of an allied group of coal-carrying railways, 
the contest was one of far-reaching importance, and soon brought 
about a coal famine felt throughout the nation. So threatening 
was the situation that President Roosevelt called a conference 
of the contestants, and succeeded in inducing them to submit 
their difficulties to an arbitration commission which, by its 
report, in the spring of 1903, awarded to the miners shorter 
hours and an increase of wages. 

398. Steadily the United States enlarged its economic func- 
tions. In 1903 Congress created a Department of Commerce and 
Labor and made the secretary a member of the cabinet. The 
reports of this department gave publicity to investigations of the 
perplexing industrial conditions. The Department of Agriculture 



enlarged its staff and its activity, investigating diseases of plants 
and animals, ascertaining means of checking insect pests, advising 
upon the suitability of soils to crops, seeking new Ec 0aom ic 
and better seeds, and circulating general information. Measures of 
The contemporaneous development of agricultural the Federal 
education in the various Western and Southern states Qovernmeat 
whose agricultural colleges had been subsidized by land grants 
and appropriations by the Federal government, and the experi- 
mental farms conducted by railways, all worked to the same end. 
Congress passed acts to limit the substitution of oleomargarine 
for butter (1902) and provided for the limitation of the spread 
of live-stock diseases (1903). The nation began also to awake 
to the need of protecting its remaining forests, which were 
rapidly falling into the hands of corporations by perversion of 
homestead and other land laws. President Cleveland had with- 
drawn large forest tracts, and in 1898 Gifford Pinchot was 
made head of a division of forestry in the Department of 
Agriculture. In 1901 the work was organized under a separate 
bureau, and four years later the National Forests were placed 
under his management. 

399. The increasing demand for lands for agriculture led 
also, under Roosevelt, to the real beginning of national irriga- 
tion actively in the vast arid area of the Far West. The 

The Reclamation Service was created by the act Reclamation 
of the i/th of June 1902, which set aside the pro- Servlce - 
ceeds of the sale of public lands in thirteen states and three 
Territories as a fund for irrigation works. The government 
itself reserved timber and coal tracts, water powers and 
other requisites for construction, and sold the irrigated lands 
to actual settlers in small farms, while retaining title to the 
reservoirs and the works. The income from the reclamation 
fund between 1901 and 1910 aggregated over $60,000,000. By the 
use of suitable crops and dry farming agricultural occupation 
was extended into formerly desert lands. 

When corruption was discovered in the Land Office and Post 
Office, Roosevelt, instead of yielding to the effort to conceal 
the scandal, compelled effective investigation. Two United 
States senators were convicted of land frauds. The application 
to all kinds of lands, whether coal lands, timber tracts, water 
rights or other natural resources, of the general principle of 
homesteads governing the acquisition of agricultural lands, 
had invited fraudulent entries. The Homestead Act of 1862, 
the Timber Culture Act of 1873, the Desert Land Act of 1877, 
the Stone and Timber Act of 1878 had all been used by cor- 
porations to secure great tracts of valuable land through em- 
ploying men to homestead them, and the laws themselves were 
loosely enforced. In successive messages, and by reports of 
public land commissions, the administration urged the 
importance of readjusting the land laws for the protection of 
the public. 

400. In the election of 1904 the popularity of President 
Roosevelt, after his strenuous activity in challenging some of 
the strongest tendencies in American life, was put to 

the test. His political management exhibited the O ti904 
fact that he was trained in the school of the New 
York politician as well as in the reformer's camp, and he was 
easily nominated by the Republicans on a platform which en- 
dorsed his administration, and made no promise of tariff changes. 
The Democrats turned to the conservative wing, omitted any 
reference to silver or the income tax, and nominated Judge 
Alton B. Parker, of New York. The radicals, who favoured 
William R. Hearst, the well-known newspaper proprietor, 
who was influential with the masses of large cities, were largely 
represented in the convention, but unable to poll a third of 
its vote. Parker accepted the nomination after telegraphing 
that he regarded the gold standard as irrevocably established. 
The issue of imperialism had been largely eliminated by the 
current of events and the anti-trust issue was professed by 
both parties. In the outcome Roosevelt won by the unpre- 
cedented popular plurality of over 2,500,000, and an 
electoral majority of 196. 

401. The state elections of the same period showed that a 



734 



UNITED STATES 



[HISTORY 1865-1910 



wave of reform and of revolt against former political forces 
was rising. In five states which Roosevelt carried by his 
popularity the machine Republican candidates for governor 
were defeated by reforming Democratic candidates, and in 
cities like Chicago and Philadelphia the issues of reform and 
radicalism won unexpected though temporary success. Roose- 
velt had " stolen the thunder " of the parties of social unrest, 
including the old populistic areas of the Middle West and the 
labour element of the cities at the same time that he retained 
control of the Republican party machinery. 

402. In his second administration President Roosevelt 
pressed his policies so hard and with such increasing radicalism 
Tne that he lost control of the regular organization 
President's in Congress before the end of his* term. In the 
Radicalism. jj ouse Speaker Joseph G. Cannon, of Illinois, 
exhibited the full power of his office in concentrating party 
policies in the hands of the few regular leaders, while in the 
Senate a directing group of New England men who had served 
for a long time, chiefly senators Nelson W. Aldrich and Eugene 
Hale, showed a similar mastery. Against this control a significant 
revolt, illustrative of revived discontent in the Middle West, 
was made by the Republican senator Robert M. La Follette, 
of Wisconsin, who had won his fight in that state against the 
faction friendly to the railways, and had secured primary elec- 
tions, railway rate regulation on the basis of expert valuation 
of the physical property of the railways, and a system of taxa- 
tion which rested more heavily upon public utilities. In 
pressing similar policies upon Congress he became isolated from 
the party leaders, but forced them to go on record by roll calls. 

403. In New York a legislative investigation of the in- 
surance companies disclosed such connexions with the high 
New York financiering of Wall Street as to create widespread 
insurance distrust and to lead to reform legislation. The 
investiga- attorney who conducted the investigation, Charles 

Evans Hughes (b. 1862), had shown such ability 
that he was chosen governor of New York in I9C-6. 1 His adminis- 
tration was marked by independence of the party machine 
and a progressive policy. Foreign relations were conducted 
during the second administration of Roosevelt by Secretary 
Elihu Root from 1905. He fostered friendly relations with the 
other American nations, allaying their concern lest ambitious 
designs of their larger neighbour might endanger their inde- 
pendence. In Cuba a signal illustration of the good faith of the 
United States was exhibited when an insurrection in the summer 
of 1906 left the republic substantially without a government. 
Mr Taft, then secretary of war, was sent, under 
the treaty provisions for intervention, to organize 
a provisional government. During his few days' service as 
governor-general he set in motion the machinery for restoring 
order. But President Roosevelt had plainly stated that if the 
insurrectionary habit became confirmed in Cuba she could not 
expect to retain continued independence. 

404. Attention was again fixed upon the Pacific coast, not 
only by the earthquake and conflagration which in 1906 
Japanese destroyed the business parts and much of the resi- 
immigra- dence section of San Francisco, but also by municipal 
tloa ' regulations there against the presence of Japanese in 
the public schools. The incident seemed to threaten grave con- 
sequences, which were averted by the popularity of Roosevelt 
both in California and in Japan. In the Immigration Act of 
the aoth of February 1907 the problem of exclusion of 
Japanese labour, which underlay the difficulty, was partly 
solved by preventing the entrance to the continental United 
States by way of neighbouring countries of persons holding 
passports issued by a foreign government for going to other 
countries or dependencies of the United States. Since Japan 
discouraged its citizens from migrating directly to the United 
States this satisfied California. 

405. As a demonstration of the naval power of the United 
States in Pacific waters, the President sent the American fleet on 

1 In 1910 Hughes was appointed a justice of the United States 
Supreme Court. 



Cuba. 



a cruise around the world, in the course of which they were 
received in a friendly spirit by Japan. The navy was increased 
to keep pace with the growth of that of other nations, both 
in numbers and size of vessels, in this period, but not to the 
extent demanded by the administration. Already a more 
efficient organization of both army and navy had been effected. 
While the nation prepared for war, it also engaged prominently 
in the successive international peace congresses between 1899 
and 1907, aiming consistently to increase the use of arbitration. 

406. The tendencies of the government to deal with social 
improvement were exemplified by the laws of 1906 providing 
for pure food and meat inspection. The Railway Railway 
Rate Regulation Act of 1906 strengthened previous RateRegu- 
inter-state acts by including pipe lines (except tatloaAct ' 
for gas and water) under the jurisdiction of the Interstate 
Commerce Commission, and extending the meaning of " common 
carrier " to include express and sleeping-car companies. 
Published rate schedules were required, not to be changed 
without thirty days' notice, and more stringent provisions 
were made to prevent rebating. The act provided for review 
by the Federal courts, and did not permit the commission to 
investigate an increase of rates until the rates went into operation, 
nor did it provide for a valuation of the railways as a basis 
of rate-making which the commission had desired. Later 
acts partly met the demands of railway employes by 
increasing the liability of common carriers and by providing 
for shorter hours. 

407. Although Roosevelt had made concessions to the rail- 
ways in the formation of the act of 1906, his utterances showed 
a tendency alarming to the large business interests and the 
holders of corporation securities generally. The unsettled 
business conditions were reflected in the stock market, and 
began to produce a reaction against the activity of government 
in this direction. The panic of 1907 started with the downfall 
of an attempted combination of a chain of banks, copper in- 
terests and other enterprises of F. Augustus Heinze and Charles 
W. Morse, two daring operators in Wall Street, and was fol- 
lowed by the collapse of the Knickerbocker Trust Company 
(October 21, 1907). Already, in 1903, liquidation had begun 
in some of the stocks so actively issued in the preceding 
years. The leading New York banks failed to check specu- 
lation, however, and were even contributors to the movement 
up to the time of the panic. The country was generally pros- 
perous, though much of the banking funds was tied up in New 
York City at this juncture. Clearing-house certificates were 
resorted to; by the ist of November, partial suspension was 
general throughout the nation; and banking facilities were more 
completely interrupted than at any time since the Civil War. 
The government greatly increased its deposits, Financial 
and offered Panama 2% bonds to the amount of Panic of 
$50,000,000, and 3% certificates for $100,000,000, l907 ' 
with the object of providing the national banks a basis 
for additional note issues. But these were taken only to a 
small amount, as they proved useful for their moral effect 
chiefly. An enormous addition to the money supply was 
made in the course of the panic, both by governmental 
activity, gold imports and national bank-notes. The crisis 
was brought to a close before the end of 1907 by the vigour of 
the government and the activity of the large financial interests 
under the lead of J. P. Morgan, who finally entered the field 
to stop the decline, at the same time that his associates in the 
Steel Trust acquired possession of their last remaining rival 
of importance, the Tennessee Coal & Iron Company. 

408. The reaction after the panic, and the loss of influence 
resulting from his announcement that he would not permit 
his renomination for the campaign of 1908, left Roosevelt 
unable to exercise the compelling power which he had displayed 
in previous years. Congress under the control of the con- 
servatives refused him legislation which he asked, Conserva- 
but before he left the presidency he raised a tlon - 
new issue to national importance in his calling of a con- 
gress of state governors and experts to consider the need 



HISTORY 1865-1910] 



UNITED STATES 



735 



of the conservation of natural resources (see IRRIGATION: 
United States; and the article ROOSEVELT). This congress 
met in May 1908 and endorsed the proposal for vigorous attention 
by state and nation to the question. 

409. In the campaign of 1908 he succeeded, against the 
opposition of both the extreme conservative and the radical 
wings, in procuring the nomination of Secretary Taft by the 
Republicans on a platform endorsing the Roosevelt policies, 
promising a revision of the tariff at a special session, on the 
basis of such protection as would equal the difference between 
the cost of production at home and abroad, together with a 
reasonable profit to American industries, and providing for 
maximum and minimum rates to be used in furthering American 
commerce and preventing discriminations by other nations. 
A postal bank was promised, a more effective regulation of the 
railways, and a modification of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. 
Labour failed to secure a thoroughgoing pledge to prevent 
the use of the writ of injunction in labour disputes, but the 
convention promised legislation to limit its use. The Democrats 
again selected William J. Bryan as their candidate; demanded 
the enforcement of criminal law against " trust magnates " and 
such additional legislation as would prevent private monopoly; 
opposed the use of injunctions in cases where they would issue 
if no industrial dispute was involved; impugned the Republicans' 
good faith in tariff revision, promising for themselves a sub- 
stantial reduction of duties; favoured an income tax and a 
guarantee fund by national banks to pay depositors of insol- 
vent banks, or a postal savings bank, if the guaranteed bank 
could not be secured; demanded election of United States 
senators by direct vote of the people, legislation to prevent 
contributions by corporations to campaign funds, and a more 
efficient regulation of railways. The party also declared 
against centralization, favouring the use of both Federal and 
state control of interstate commerce and private monopoly. 

410. The Republicans won a sweeping victory, Taft's popu- 
lar plurality reaching about r, 270,000 and his electoral 
WHHam majority 159. But it had been won by some 
H. Taft, ambiguity of utterance with respect to tariff 
President. anc j ra il wa y regulation. ' The result was made 
manifest early in the new administration, when party 
contentions over the direction of revision of the tariff, the 
thoroughness of the regulation of railways and corporations, 
and the question of where the postal bank fund should be 
placed, resulted in a movement of " insurgency " among the 
Republicans of the Middle West. The insurgents termed 
themselves " Progressive Republicans," and did not hesitate 
to join forces with the Democrats in order to shape legislation 
to their wishes. Progressives and Democrats united in over- 
turning the control of Speaker J. G. Cannon in the House of 
Representatives by modifying the rules, and a group of senators, 
chiefly from the Middle Western states, destroyed the control of 
the regular leaders in the Upper House. President Taft's 
influence over the revolting wing was further weakened by the 
charges made against his secretary of the interior, Richard A. 
Ballinger, on behalf of Gifford Pinchot, the chief forester, 
who accused the administration of obstructing Mr Roosevelt's 
" conservation " policy. 

411. Mr Pinchot was indeed removed from office, but the 
" conservation " issue was raised to primary importance by the 

return of Mr Roosevelt from his African trip. 
Roosevelt's jjis influence was revealed even while he was 
National- en Jy m g the hospitality of European countries on 
Ism." his return. There was a widely extended desire to 

know his judgment of the administration's policy; 
but he maintained silence until the close of the summer 
of 1910, when in a series of public utterances in the 
West he ranged himself, on the whole, with the progressive 
wing and announced a " new nationalism " which should 
enlarge the power of the Federal government and .drive the 
" special interests " out of politics. The " insurgents " achieved 
remarkable victories in the Middle West, California, New 
Hampshire and New York in the fall conventions and primary 



elections, retiring various leaders of the regukr wing of the 
Republicans. Senators Aldrich and Hale, former regular leaders 
in the Senate, had already announced their purpose to resign. 
President Taft's utterances indicated his intention to discontinue 
the use of patronage against the leaders of the progressive wing 
and to secure additional tariff revision by separate schedules. 
The result of the autumn elections was a pronounced victory 
for the Democratic party. 

412. At the close of the first decade of the zoth century 
the United States was actively engaged in settling its social 
economic questions, with a tendency toward radicalism 
in its dealings with the great industrial forces of the nation. 
The " sweat shops " and slums of the great cities were filled with 
new material for American society to assimilate. To the sister- 
hood of states had been added Oklahoma (1907), and in 1910 
Congress empowered New Mexico and Arizona to form con- 
stitutions preparatory to statehood, thus extinguishing the last 
Territories, except the insular dependencies and Alaska. Al- 
ready the food supply showed signs of not keeping pace with 
the growth of population, while the supply of gold flowed in 
with undiminished volume. High prices became a factor in the 
political situation. Between 1890 and 1900, in the continental 
United States, farms were added in area equal to that of France 
and Italy combined. Even the addition of improved farm 
land in that decade surpassed the whole area of France or of 
the German Empire in Europe. But intensive cultivation 
and agricultural returns hardly kept pace with the growth in 
population or the extension of farms. 

Bibliographical Guides. J. N. Larned (ed.), The Literature of 
American History (Boston, 1902), is useful so far as it extends. The 
" Critical Essays on Authorities," in vols. xxi.-xxvi. (1907) of the 
" American Nation Series " (New York, 1903-1907), edited by A. B. 
Hart, constitute the best bibliographical apparatus for the whole 
period. W. Wilson, History of the American People, vol. v., has helpful 
evaluated lists of authorities. The Cambridge Modern History, vol. 
vii., has a useful unannotated list. Periodical literature, important 
for this era, can be found through the successive volumes of the Index 
to Periodical Literature (New York, 1882 sqq.), edited by W. F. Poole 
and W. J. Fletcher. Public documents are listed in B. P. Poore, 
Descriptive Catalogue of Government Publications of the United States, 
(Washington, 1885) ; J. G. Ames, Comprehensive Index 



of Publications of the United States Government, 1881-1893 (Washing- 
ton, 1894) ; Catalogue of Public Documents of Congress and of all 
Departments of Government of the United States, 1893 1899 ; Tables of 
and Annotated Index to Congressional Series of United States Public 
Documents (Washington, 1902). For economic material see the 



Promotion and Capitalization in the United States (New York, 1909) ; 
and Miss A. R. Hasse's Index of Economic Material in the Documents 
of the United States (Washington, 1907 sqq.). 

The Library of Congress publishes, under the editorship of A. P. C. 
Griffin, lists and references to books and articles on special subjects. 

General Accounts. Much the most satisfactory treatment is in 
the volumes of the " American Nation Series " mentioned above, 
such as W. A. Dunning, Reconstruction, Political and Economic, 
1865-1877; E. E. Sparks, National Development, 1877-1885 ; D. R. 
Dewey, National Problems, 1885-1897; J. H. Latane, America as a 
World Power, and A. B. Hart, National Ideals Historically Traced. 
All these were published in 1907. The later volumes of J. F. Rhodes 
History of the United States since the Compromise of 1850 (7 vols., 
New York, 1893-1904), cover the period from 1865 to 1876 with solid 
judgment and accuracy ; Woodrow Wilson, History of the American 
People, vol. v. (New York, 1902), gives an informing presentation 
with a sympathetic treatment of Southern conditions. Lee and 
Thorpe (editors), History of North America, vols. xvi.-xx.; H. W. 
Elson, History of the United States, vols. iv and v. (New York, 
1905), and J. W. Garner and H. C. Lodge, History of the United States, 
vol. iv. (Philadelphia. 1906), deal with the period as part of a general 
history. E. B. Andrews, The United States in our own Time (New 
York, 1903), and H. T. Peck, Twenty Years of the Republic, 1885- 
1905 (New York, 1906), are popular presentations. 

Documentary Sources. The Congressional documents and state 
public documents afford valuable material. The Congressional 
debates have become too bulky for the general reader, but in the 
president's messages, as collected in J. D. Richardson (ed.), Messages 
and Papers of the_ Presidents (to 1899), the main questions are pre- 
sented, and detailed information is in the reports of the heads of 
departments and bureaus. W. MacDonald, Select Statutes of 
United States^, 1861-1898 (New York, 1903), contains important 
laws, with brief historical introductions. (F. J. T.) 



UNITED STATES NAVAL ACADEMY UNITS 



UNITED STATES NAVAL ACADEMY, an institution for the 
education of officers of the United States Navy, at Annapolis, 
Maryland, occupying about 200 acres on the banks of the Severn. 
Its principal buildings are the marine engineering building, 
the academic building (containing the library), the chapel, 
the gymnasium, the physics and chemistry building, the audi- 
torium, the armoury, the power-house, the administration 
building, Bancroft Hall (the midshipmen's quarters), officers' 
mess and club, and Sampson Row, Upshur Row and Rodgers 
Row, the officers' quarters. 1 By an Act of Congress passed in 
1903 two midshipmen (as the students have been called since 
1902; " naval cadets " was the term formerly used) were allowed 
for each senator, representative, and delegate in Congress, two 
for the District of Columbia, and five each year at large; but 
after 1913 only one midshipman is to be appointed for each 
senator, representative and delegate in Congress. Candi- 
dates are nominated by their senator, representative, or dele- 
gate in Congress, and those from the District of Columbia and 
those appointed at large are chosen by the President; but 
to be admitted they must be between sixteen and twenty 
years of age and must pass an entrance examination. Each 
midshipman is paid $600 a year, beginning with the date of 
his admission; and he must bind himself to serve in the United 
States Navy for eight years (including the years spent in the 
academy) unless he is discharged sooner. The course of in- 
struction is for four years " final graduation " comes only 
after six years, the additional years being spent at sea and 
is in eleven departments: discipline, seamanship, ordnance 
and gunnery, navigation, marine engineering and naval con- 
struction, mathematics and mechanics, physics and chemistry, 
electrical engineering, English, modern languages, naval 
hygiene and physiology. Vessels for practice work of mid- 
shipmen in the first, second, and third year classes are attached 
to the academy during the academic year, and from early in 
June to September of each year the midshipmen are engaged 
in practice cruises. The academy is governed by the Bureau 
of Navigation of 'the United States Navy Department, and is 
under the immediate supervision of a superintendent appointed 
by the secretary of the navy, with whom are associated the 
Commandant of Midshipmen, a disciplinary officer, and the 
Academic Board, which is composed of the superintendent and 
the head of each of the eleven departments. The institution 
was founded as the Naval School in 1845 by the secretary 
of the navy, George Bancroft, and was opened in October of 
that year. Originally a course of study for five years was pre- 
scribed, but only the first and last were spent at the school, 
the other three being passed at sea. The present name was 
adopted when the school was reorganized in 1850, being placed 
under the supervision of the chief of the Bureau of Ordnance 
and Hydrography, and under the immediate charge of the super- 
intendent, and the course of study was extended to seven years; 
the first two and the last two to be spent at the school, the 
intervening three years to be passed at sea. The four years 
of study were made consecutive in 1851, and the practice 
cruises were substituted for the three consecutive years at sea. 
At the outbreak of the Civil War the three upper classes were 
detached and were ordered to sea, and the academy was 
removed to Fort Adams, Newport, Rhode Island (May 1861), 
but it was brought back to Annapolis in the summer of 1865. 
The supervision of the academy was transferred from the Bureau 
of Ordnance and Hydrography to the Bureau of Navigation 
when that bureau was established in 1862; and, although it was 
placed under the direct care of the Navy Department in 1867, 
it has been (except in 1860-1889) under the Bureau of Navi- 
gation for administrative routine and financial management. 
The Spanish-American War greatly emphasized its importance, 
and the academy was almost wholly rebuilt and much enlarged 
in 1899-1906. 

1 The old quarters of the superintendent, a colonial house, once 
the official residence of the governors of Maryland, was destroyed 
in 1900. In 1909 old Fort Severn, a small circular structure with 
thick walls, built in 1809, was torn down. 



See J. R. Soley, Historical Sketch of the United States Naval Academy 
(Washington, 1876); Park Benjamin, The United States Naval 
Academy (New York, 1900) ; Randall Blackshaw, " The New Naval 
Academy," in the Century Magazine for October 1905. 

UNITS, DIMENSIONS OF. Measurable entities of different 
kinds cannot be compared directly. Each one must be specified 
in terms of a unit of its own kind; a single number attached 
to this unit forms its measure. Thus if the unit of length be 
taken to be L centimetres, a line whose length is I centimetres 
will be represented in relation to this unit by the number //L; 
while if the unit is increased [L] times, that is, if a new unit 
is adopted equal to [L] times the former one, the numerical 
measure of each length must in consequence be divided by [L]. 
Measurable entities are either fundamental or derived. For 
example, velocity is of the latter kind, being based upon a 
combination of the fundamental entities length and time; a 
velocity may be defined, in the usual form of language expres- 
sive of a limiting value, as the rate at which the distance 
from some related mark is changing per unit time. The ele- 
ment of length is thus involved directly, and the element of 
time inversely in the derived idea of velocity; the meaning 
of this statement being that when the unit of length is increased 
[L] times and the unit of time is increased [T] times, the 
numerical value of any given velocity, considered as specified 
in terms of the units of length and time, is diminished |L]/[T] 
times. In other words, these changes in the units of length 
and time involve change in the unit of velocity determined by 
them, such that it is increased [V] times where [V] = [L^T]" 1 . 
This relation is conveniently expressed by the statement 
that velocity is of + i dimension in length and of i dimen- 
sion in time. Again, acceleration of motion is defined as 
rate of increase of velocity per unit time; hence the change 
of the units of length and time will increase the corresponding 
or derived unit of acceleration [V]/[T] times, that is [L^T]" 2 
times: this expression thus represents the dimensions (i in 
length and 2 in time) of the derived entity acceleration in 
terms of its fundamental elements length and time. In the 
science of dynamics all entities are derived from the three 
fundamental ones, length, time and mass; for example, the 
dimensions of force (P) are those of mass and acceleration 
jointly, so that in algebraic form (P) = [M][L][T]" 2 . This 
restriction of the fundamental units to three must therefore 
be applicable to all departments of physical science that are 
reducible to pure dynamics. 

The mode of transformation of a derived entity, as regards 
its numerical value, from one set of fundamental units of 
reference to another set, is exhibited in the simple illustrations 
above given. The procedure is as follows. When the numerical 
values of the new units, expressed in terms of the former ones, 
are substituted for the symbols, in the expression for the 
dimensions of the entity under consideration, the number 
which results is the numerical value of the new unit of that 
entity in terms of the former unit: thus all numerical values 
of entities of this kind must be divided by this number, in 
order to transfer them from the former to the latter system of 
fundamental units. 

As above stated, physical science aims at reducing the pheno- 
mena of which it treats to the common denomination of the 
positions and movements of masses. Before the time of Gauss 
it was customary to use a statical measure of force, alongside 
the kinetic measure depending on the acceleration of motion 
that the force can produce in a given mass. Such a statical 
measure could be conveniently applied by the extension of a 
spring, which, however, has to be corrected for temperature, 
or by weighing against standard weights, which has to be 
corrected for locality. On the other hand, the kinetic measure 
is independent of local conditions, if only we have absolute 
scales;, of length and time at our disposal. It has been found 
to be indispensable, for simplicity and precision in physical 
science, to express the measure of force in only one way; and 
statical forces are therefore now generally referred in theoretical 
discussions to the kinetic unit of measurement. In mechanical 



UNITS, DIMENSIONS OF 



737 



engineering the static unit has largely survived; but the 
increasing importance of electrical applications is introducing 
uniformity there also. In the science of electricity two different 
systems of units, the electrostatic and the electrodynamic, still 
to a large extent persist. The electrostatic system arose 
because in the development of the subject statics came before 
kinetics; but in the complete synthesis it is usually found 
convenient to express the various quantities in terms of the 
electrokinetic system alone. 

The system of measurement now adopted as fundamental 
in physics takes the centimetre as unit of length, the gramme 
as unit of mass, and the second as unit of time. The choice of 
these units was in the first instance arbitrary and dictated 
by convenience; for some purposes subsidiary systems based 
on multiples of these units by certain powers of ten are found 
convenient. There are certain absolute entities in nature, 
such as the constant of gravitation, the velocity of light in free 
space, and the constants occurring in the expression giving 
the constitution of the radiation in an enclosure that corre- 
sponds to each temperature, which are the same for all kinds 
of matter; these might be utilized, if known with sufficient 
accuracy, to establish a system of units of an absolute or cosmical 
kind. The wave-length of a given spectral line might be 
utilized in the same manner, but that depends on recovering the 
kind of matter which produces the line. 

In physical science the uniformities in the course of pheno- 
mena are elucidated by the discovery of permanent or intrinsic 
relations between the measurable properties of material systems. 
Each such relation is expressible as an equation connecting 
the numerical values of entities belonging to the system. Such 
an equation, representing as it does a relation between actual 
things, must remain true when the measurements are referred 
to a new set of fundamental units. Thus, for example, the 
kinematical equation t> 2 = / 2 /, if is purely numerical, contra- 
dicts the necessary relations involved in the definitions of the 
entities velocity, acceleration, and length which occur in it. For 
on changing to a new set of units as above the equation should 
still hold; it, however, then becomes i> 2 /[V] 2 = -/"/[F] 2 //[L]. 
Hence on division there remains a dimensional relation [V] 2 = 
[F] 2 [L], which is in disagreement with the dimensions above 
determined of the derived units that are involved in it. The 
inference follows, either that an equation such as that from which 
we started is a formal impossibility, or else that the factor 
n which it contains is not a mere number, but represents n 
times the unit of some derived quantity which ought to be 
specified in order to render the equation a complete statement 
of a physical relation. On the latter hypothesis the dimensions 
[N] of this quantity are determined by the dimensional equation 
[V] 2 = [N][F] 2 [L] where, in terms of the fundamental units of 
length and time, [V] = [L][TP, IF] = [L][TP; whence b y 
substitution it appears that [N] = [L]~'[T] 2 . Thus, instead of 
being merely numerical, n must represent in the above formula 
the measure of some physical entity, which may be classified 
by the statement that it has the conjoint dimensions of time 
directly and of velocity inversely. 

It often happens that a simple comparison of the dimensions 
of the quantities which determine a physical system will lead 
to important knowledge as to the necessary relations that 
subsist between them. Thus in the case of a simple pendulum 
the period of oscillation r can depend only on the angular 
amplitude a of the swing, the mass m of the bob considered as 
a point, and the length I of the suspending fibre considered as 
without mass, and on the value of g the acceleration due to 
gravity, which is the active force; that is, r=f(a, m, I, g). 
The dimensions must be the same on both sides of this formula, 
for, when they are expressed in terms of the three independent 
dynamical quantities mass, length, and time, there must be 
complete identity between its two sides. Now, the dimensions 
of g are [L][TP; and when the unit of length is altered the 
numerical value of the period is unaltered, hence its expression 
must be restricted to the form /(a, m, l/g). Moreover, as the 
period does not depend on the unit of mass, the form is further 
xxvn. 24 



reduced to /(a, l/g) ; and as it is of the dimensions + I in time, it 
must be a multiple of (//g)*, and therefore of the form #(o)V (*/). 
Thus the period of oscillation has been determined by these 
considerations except as regards the manner in which it depends 
on the amplitude a of the swing. When a process of this kind 
leads to a definite result, it will be one which makes the un- 
known quantity jointly proportional to various powers of the 
other quantities involved; it will therefore shorten the process 
if we assume such an expression for it in advance, and find 
whether it is possible to determine the exponents definitely 
and uniquely so as to obtain the correct dimensions. In the 
present example, assuming in this way the relation T=Ao I> '/ r g*, 
where A is a pure numeric, we are led to the dimensional equa- 
tion [T] = [a]p[M][L] r [LT~ 2 ]', showing that the law assumed 
would not persist when the fundamental units of length, mass, 
and time are altered, unless q=o, s=-%, r=%; as an angle 
has no dimensions, being determined by its numerical ratio to 
the invariable angle forming four right angles, p remains unde- 
termined. This leads to the same result, r=<j>(a)t t 'lg~l, as 
before. 

As illustrating the power and also the limitations of this method 
of dimensions, we may apply it (after Lord Rayleigh, Roy. Soc. 
Proc., March 1900) to the laws of viscosity in gases. The dimensions 
of viscosity (M) are (force /area)-:- (velocity /length), giving [ML" 1 "!"" 1 ] 
in terms of the fundamental units. Now, on the dynamical theory 
of gases viscosity must be a function of the mass m of a molecule, 
the number n of molecules per unit volume, their velocity of mean 
square v, and their effective radius a; it can depend on nothing 
else. The equation of dimensions cannot supply more than three 
relations connecting these four possibilities of variation, and so 
cannot here lead to a definite result without further knowledge 
of the physical circumstances. And we remark conversely, in 
passing, that wherever in a problem of physical dynamics we know 
that the quantity sought can depend on only three other quantities 
whose dynamical dimensions are known, it must vary as a simple 
power of each. The additional knowledge required, in order to 
enable us to proceed in a case like the present, must be of the form 
of such an equation of simple variation. In the present case it 
is involved in the new fact that in an actual gas the mean free path 
is very great compared with the effective molecular radius. On 
this account the mean free path is inversely as the number of 
molecules per unit volume; and therefore the coefficient of vis- 
cosity, being proportional to these two quantities jointly, is inde- 
pendent of either, so long as the other quantities denning the system 
remain unchanged. If the molecules are taken to be spheres which 
exert mutual action only during collision, we therefore assume 

M oc m'v'a', 
which requires that the equation of dimensions 



must be satisfied. This gives x=i, y = i, z = -2. As the tem- 
perature is proportional to mv 2 , it follows that the viscosity is 
proportional to the square root of the mass of the molecule and the 
square root of the absolute temperature, and inversely proportional 
to the square of the effective molecular radius, being, as already 
seen, uninfluenced by change of density. 

If the atoms are taken to be Boscovichian points exerting mutual 
attractions, the effective diameter a is not definite; but we can still 
proceed in cases where the law of mutual attraction is expressed by 
a simple formula of variation that is, provided it is of type km*r*, 
where r is the distance between the two molecules. Then, noting 
that, as this is a force, the dimensions of k must be (M~ t L rM T~ 1 ], we 
can assume 

H oc m'vvk", 

provided [ML-'T-'] = [M]*[LT-'][M-'L'T-]'', 
which demands and is satisfied by 



so that <=- 

Thus, on this supposition, 



where represents absolute temperature. (See DIFFUSION.) 

When the quantity sought depends on more than three others, 
the method may often be equally useful, though it cannot give a 
complete result. Cf. Sir G. G. Stokes, Math, and Phys. Papers, 
v (1881) p. 106, and Lord Rayleigh, Phil. Mag. (1905), (i) p. 494, 
for examples dealing with the determination of viscosity from 
observations of the retarded swings of a vane, and with the formula- 
tion of the most general type of characteristic equation for gases 
respectively. As another example we may consider what is involved 
in Bashforth's experimental conclusion that the air-resistances 
to shot of the same shape are proportional to the squares of their 



UNITS, PHYSICAL 



linear dimensions. A priori, the resistance is a force which is deter- 
mined by the density of the air />, the linear dimensions / of the shot, 
the viscosity of the air it, the velocity of the shot v, and the velocity 
of sound in air c, there being no other physical quantity sensibly 
involved. Five elements are thus concerned, and we can combine 
them in two ways so as to obtain quantities of no dimensions; 
for example, we may choose pvl/n and v/c. The resistance to the 
shot must therefore be of the form i?pPifit>(pol/p)f(v/c). this form 
being of sufficient generality, as it involves an undetermined function 
for each element beyond three. On equating dimensions we find 
x = 2, y=l, z=o. Now, Bashforth's result shows that <Mx)=X 2 - 
Therefore the resistance is pv*Pf(v/c), and is thus to our degree of 
approximation independent of the viscosity. Moreover, we might 
have assumed this practical independence straight off, on known 
hydrodynamic grounds; and then the argument from dimensions 
could have predicted Bashforth's law, if the present application 
of the doctrine of dimensions to a case involving turbulent fluid 
motion not mathematically specifiable is valid. One of the im- 
portant results drawn by Osborne Reynolds from his experiments 
on the regime of flow in pipes was a confirmation of its validity : we 
now see that the ballistic result furnishes another confirmation. 

In electrical science two essentially distinct systems of 
measurement were arrived at according as the development 
began with the phenomena of electrostatics or those of electro- 
kinetics. An electric charge appears as an entity having 
different dimensions in terms of the fundamental dynamical 
units in the two cases: the ratio of these dimensions proves 
to be the dimensions of a velocity. It was found, first by W. 
Weber, by measuring the same charge by its static and its 
kinetic effects, that the ratio of the two units is a velocity 
sensibly identical with the velocity of light, so far as regards 
experiments conducted in space devoid of dense matter. The 
emergence of a definite absolute velocity such as this, out of a 
comparison of two different ways of approaching the same 
quantity, entitles us to assert that the two ways can be con- 
solidated into a single dynamical theory only by some develop- 
ment in which this velocity comes to play an actual part. Thus 
the hypothesis of the mere existence of some complete dynamical 
theory was enough to show, in the stage which electrical science 
had reached under Gauss and Weber, that there is a definite 
physical velocity involved in and underlying electric phenomena, 
which it would have been hardly possible to imagine as other 
than a velocity of propagation of electrical effects of some kind. 
The time was thus ripe for the reconstruction of electric theory 
by Faraday and Maxwell, 

The power of the method of dimensions in thus revealing 
general relations has its source in the hypothesis that, however 
complicated in appearance, the phenomena are really restricted 
within the narrow range of dependence on the three fundamental 
entities. The proposition is also therein involved, that if a 
changing physical system be compared with another system 
in which the scale is altered in different ratios as regards corre- 
sponding lengths, masses, and times, then if all quantities 
affecting the second system are altered from the corresponding 
quantities affecting the first hi the ratios determined by their 
physical dimensions, the stage of progress of the second system 
will always correspond to that of the first; under this form 
the application of the principle, to determine the correlations 
of the dynamics of similar systems, originated with Newton 
(Principia, lib. ii. prop. 32). For example, in comparing the 
behaviour of an animal with that of another animal of the same 
build but on a smaller scale, we may take the mass per unit 
volume and the muscular force per unit sectional area to be the 
same for both; thus [L], [M], . . . being now ratios of corre- 
sponding quantities, we have [ML~ 3 ] = i and [ML~ 1 T~ ! ]=i, 
giving [L] = [T]; thus the larger animal effects movements of 
his limbs more slowly in simple proportion to his linear dimen- 
sions, while the velocity of movement is the same for both at 
corresponding stages. 

But this is only on the hypothesis that the extraneous 
force of gravity does not intervene, for that force does 
not vary hi the same manner as the muscular forces. The 
result has thus application only to a case like that of fishes in 
which gravity is equilibrated by the buoyancy of the water. 
The effect of the inertia of the water, considered as a perfect 
fluid, is included in this comparison; but the forces arising 



from viscosity do not correspond in the two systems, so that 
neither system may be so small that viscosity is an important 
agent in its motion. The limbs of a land animal have mainly 
to support his weight, which varies as the cube of his linear 
dimensions, while the sectional areas of bis muscles and bones 
vary only as the square thereof. Thus the diameters of his 
limbs should increase in a greater ratio than that of his body 
theoretically in the latter ratio raised to the power f , if other 
things were the same. An application of this principle, which 
has become indispensable in modern naval architecture, permits 
the prediction of the behaviour of a large ship from that of a 
small-scale model. The principle is also of very wide utility 
in unravelling the fundamental relations in definite physical 
problems of such complexity that complete treatment is beyond 
the present powers of mathematical analysis; it has been 
applied, for example, to the motions of systems involving 
viscous fluids, in elucidation of wind and waves, by Helmholtz 
(Akad. Berlin, 1873 and 1889), and in the electrodynamics of 
material atomic systems in motion by Lorentz and by Larmor. 

As already stated, the essentials of the doctrine of dimensions 
in its most fundamental aspect, that relating to the comparison 
of the properties of correlated systems, originated with Newton. 
The explicit formulation of the idea of the dimensions, or the ex- 
ponents of dimension, of physical quantities was first made by 
Fourier, Theorie de la chaleur, 1822, ch. ii. sec. 9; the homogeneity 
in dimensions of all the terms of an equation is insisted on by him, 
much as explained above; and the use of this principle as a test 
of accuracy and precision is illustrated. (J. L.*) 

UNITS, PHYSICAL. In order that our acquaintance with 
any part of nature may become exact we must have not merely 
a qualitative but a quantitative knowledge of facts. Hence 
the moment that any branch of science begins to develop to 
any extent, attempts are made to measure and evaluate the 
quantities and effects found to exist. To do this we have 
to select for each measurable magnitude a unit or standard of 
reference (Latin, unilas, unity), by comparison with which 
amounts of other like quantities may be numerically defined. 
There is nothing to prevent us from selecting these fundamental 
quantities, in terms of which other like quantities are to be 
expressed, in a perfectly arbitrary and independent manner, 
and as a matter of fact this is what is generally done in the early 
stages of every science. We may, for instance, choose a certain 
length, a certain volume, a certain mass, a certain force or 
power as our units of length, volume, mass, force or power, 
which have no simple or direct relation to each other. Similarly 
we may select for more special measurements any arbitrary 
electric current, electromotive force, or resistance, and call 
them our units. The progress of knowledge, however, is greatly 
assisted if all the measurable quantities are brought into relation 
with each other by so selecting the units that they are related 
in the most simple manner, each to the other and to one common 
set of measurable magnitudes called the fundamental quantities. 

The progress of this co-ordination of units has been greatly 
aided by the discovery that forms of physical energy., can be 
converted into one another, and that the conversion is by 
definite rule and amount (see ENERGY). Thus the mechanical 
energy associated with moving masses can be converted into 
heat, hence heat can be measured in mechanical energy units. 
The amount of heat required to raise one gramme of water 
through i C. in the neighbourhood of 10 C. is equal to forty- 
two million ergs, the erg being the kinetic energy or energy of 
motion associated with a mass of 2 grammes when moving 
uniformly, without rotation, with a velocity of i cm. per second. 
This number is commonly called the " mechanical equivalent 
of heat," but would be more exactly described as the " mechan- 
ical equivalent of the specific heat of water at 10 C." Again, 
the fact that the maintenance of an electric current requires 
energy, and that when produced its energy can be wholly 
utilized in heating a mass of water, enables us to make a similar 
statement about the energy required to maintain a current of 
one ampere through a resistance of one ohm for one second, and 
to define it by its equivalent in the energy of a moving mass. 
Physical units have therefore been selected with the object of 



UNITS, PHYSICAL 



739 



establishing simple relations between each of them and the 
fundamental mechanical units. Measurements based on such 
relations are called absolute measurements. The science of 
dynamics, as far as that part of it is concerned which deals 
with the motion and energy of material substances, starts 
from certain primary definitions concerning the measurable 
quantities involved. In constructing a system of physical 
units, the first thing to consider is the manner in which we 
shall connect the various items. What, for instance, shall be 
the unit of force, and how shall it be determined by simple 
reference to the units of mass, length and time ? 

The modern absolute system of physical measurement is 
founded upon dynamical notions, and originated with C. F. 
Gauss. We are for the most part concerned in studying 
motions in nature; and even when we find bodies at rest in 
equilibrium it is because the causes of motion are balanced 
rather than absent. Moreover, the postulate which lies at 
the base of all present-day study of physics is that in the 
ultimate issue we must seek for a mechanical explanation of 
the facts of nature if we are to reach any explanation intelligible 
to the human mind. Accordingly the root of all science is the 
knowledge of the laws of motion, and the enunciation of these 
laws by Newton laid the foundation of a more exact knowledge 
of nature than had been possible before. Our fundamental 
scientific notions are those of length, time, and mass. No 
metaphysical discussion has been able to resolve these ideas 
into anything simpler or to derive them from each other. 
Hence in selecting units for physical measurements we have 
first to choose units for the above three quantities. 

Fundamental Units. Two systems of fundamental units are 
in common use: the British system, having the yard and 
pound as the standard units of length and mass, frequently 
termed the " foot-pound-second " (F.P.S.) system; and the 
"centimetre-gramme-second" system (C.G.S.), having the 
centimetre and gramme as standard units of length and mass, 
termed the " metric " system. The fundamental unit of time 
is the same in both systems, namely, the " mean solar second," 
86,400 of which make i solar day (see TIME). Since these 
systems and the corresponding standards, together with their 
factors of conversion, are treated in detail in the article 
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, we need only deal here with such 
units as receive special scientific use, i.e. other than in ordinary 
commercial practice. The choice of a unit in which to express 
any quantity is determined by the magnitude and proportional 
error of the measurement. In astronomy, where immense 
distances have to be very frequently expressed, a common unit 
is the mean radius of the earth's orbit, the " astronomical unit " 
of length, i.e. 92,900,000 miles. But while this unit serves well 
for the region of our solar system, its use involves unwieldy 
numerical coefficients when stellar distances are to be expressed. 
Astronomers have therefore adopted a unit of length termed the 
" light year," which is the distance traversed by light in a year; 
this unit is 63,000 times the mean radius of the earth's orbit. 
The relative merits of these units as terms in which astronomical 
distances may be expressed is exhibited by the values of the 
distance of the star a Centauri from our earth, namely, 
25,000,000,000,000 miles = 275,000 astronomical units = 4-35 
light years. 

As another example of a physical unit chosen as a matter of 
convenience, we may refer to the magnitudes of the wave-lengths 
of light. These quantities are extremely small, and admit of 
correct determination to about one part in ten-thousand, and 
range, in the visible spectrum, from about 6 to 4 ten-millionths 
of a metre. Since their values are determined to four significant 
figures, it is desirable to choose a unit which represents the value 
as an integer number; the unit is therefore a ten-thousand- 
millionth of a metre, termed a " tenth metre," since it is io~ 10 
metres. Sometimes the thousand-millionth of a metre, the 
" micromillimetre," denoted by up, serves as a unit for wave 
lengths. Another relatively minute unit is the " micron," 
denoted by n, and equal to one-millionth of a metre; it is espe- 
cially used by bacteriologists. 



Units in Mechanics. The quantities to be measured in 
mechanics (q.v.) are velocity and acceleration, dependent on the 
units of length and time only, momentum, force, energy or work 
and power, dependent on the three fundamental units. The 
unit of velocity in the British system is i foot, i yard, or i mile 
per second; or the time to which the distance is referred may be 
expressed in hours, days, &c., the choice depending upon the 
actual magnitude of the velocity or on custom. Thus the muzzle 
velocity of a rifle or cannon shot is expressed in feet per second, 
whereas the speed of a train is usually expressed in miles per 
hour. Similarly, the unit on the metric system is i metre, or any 
decimal multiple thereof, per second, per hour, &c. Since 
acceleration is the rate of increase of velocity per unit time, it 
is obvious that the unit of acceleration depends solely upon the 
units chosen to express unit velocity; thus if the unit of velocity 
be one foot per second, the unit of acceleration is one foot per 
second per second, if one metre per second the unit is one metre 
per second per second, and similarly for other units of velocity. 
Momentum is defined as the product of mass into velocity; 
unit momentum is therefore the momentum of unit mass into 
unit velocity; in the British system the unit of mass may be the 
pound, ton, &c., and the unit of velocity any of those mentioned 
above; and in the metric system, the gramme, kilogramme, &c., 
may be the unit of mass, while the metre per second, or any other 
metric unit of velocity, is the remaining term of the product. 

Force, being measured by the change of momentum in unit 
time, is expressed in terms of the same units in which unit 
momentum is defined. The common British unit is the 
' poundal," the force which in one second retards or accelerates 
the velocity of a mass of one pound by one foot per second. The 
metric (and scientific) unit, named the " dyne," is derived from 
the centimetre, gramme, and second. The poundal and dyne 
are related as follows: i poundal = 13,825-5 dynes. 

A common unit of force, especially among engineers, is the 
" weight of one pound," by which is meant the force equivalent 
to the gravitational attraction of the earth on a mass of one 
pound. This unit obviously depends on gravity; and since this 
varies with the latitude and height of the place of observation 
(see EARTH, FIGURE OF), the "force of one pound" of the 
engineer is not constant. Roughly, it equals 32-17 poundals or 
980 dynes. The most frequent uses of this engineer's unit are 
to be found in the expressions for pressure, especially in the 
boilers and cylinders of steam engines, and in structures, such 
as bridges, foundations of buildings, &c. The expression takes 
the form: pounds per square foot or inch, meaning a force 
equivalent to so many pounds' weight distributed over a square 
foot or inch, as the case may be. Other units of pressure (and 
therefore special units of force) are the " atmosphere " (abbrevi- 
ated " atmo "), the force exerted on unit area by the column of 
air vertically above it; the " millimetre or centimetre of 
mercury," the usual scientific units, the force exerted on unit area 
by a column of mercury one millimetre or centimetre high ; and 
the " foot of water," the column being one foot of water. All 
these units admit of ready conversion: i atmo =760 mm. 
mercury=32 feet of water =1,013, 600 dynes. 

Energy of work is measured by force acting over a distance. 
The scientific unit is the " erg," which is the energy expended 
when a force of one dyne acts over one centimetre. This unit 
is too small for measuring the quantity of energy associated, for 
instance, with engines; for such purposes a unit ten-million times 
as great, termed the " joule," is used. The British absolute 
unit is the " poundal-foot." As we noticed in the case of units 
of force, common-life experience has led to the introduction of 
units dependent on gravitation, and therefore not invariable: 
the common British practical unit of this class is the " foot- 
pound "; in the metric system its congener is the " kilogramme- 
metre." 

Power is the rate at which force does work; it is therefore 
expressed by " units of energy per second." The metric unit 
in use is the " watt," being the rate equal to one joule per 
second. Larger units in practical use are: " kilowatt," 
equal to icoo watts; the corresponding energy unit being the 



740 



UNITS, PHYSICAL 



kilowatt-second, and 3600 kilowatt-seconds or i kilowatt-hour 
called a " Board of Trade unit " or a " kelvin." This last 
is a unit of energy, not power. In British engineering 
practice the common unit of power is the " horse-power " 
(HP), which equals 550 foot-pounds performed per second, 
or 33,000 foot-pounds per minute; its equivalent in the 
metric system is about 746 watts, the ratio varying, however, 
with gravity. 

Units of Heat. In studying the phenomena of heat, two 
measurable quantities immediately present themselves: 
(i) temperature or thermal potential, and (2) quantity of heat. 
Three arbitrary scales are in use for measuring temperature 
(see THERMOMETRY), and each of these scales affords units 
suitable for the expression of temperature. On the Centigrade 
scale the unit, termed a " Centigrade degree," is one-hundredth 
of the interval between the temperature of water boiling 
under normal barometric pressure (760 mm. of mercury) and 
that of melting ice; the " Fahrenheit degree " is one-hundred- 
and-eightieth, and the " Reaumur degree " is one-eightieth 
of the same difference. In addition to these scales there is the 
" thermo-dynamic scale," which, being based on dynamical 
reasoning, admits of correlation with the fundamental units. 
This subject is discussed in the articles THERMODYNAMICS and 
THERMOMETRY. 

Empirical units of " quantity of heat " readily suggest them- 
selves as the amount of heat necessary to heat a unit mass of 
any substance through unit temperature. In the metric system 
the unit, termed a " calorie," is the quantity of heat required 
to raise a gramme of water through one degree Centigrade. 
This quantity, however, is not constant, since the specific heat of 
water varies with temperature (see CALORIMETRY). In defining 
the calorie, therefore, the particular temperatures must be 
specified; consequently there are several calories particularized 
by special designations: (i) conventional or common gramme- 
calorie, the heat required to raise i gramme of water between 
150 C. and 17 C. through i C.; (2) " mean or average gramme 
calorie," one-hundredth of the total heat required to raise the 
temperature of i gramme of water from o C. to 100 C.; (3) 
" zero gramme calorie," the heat required to raise i gramme of 
water from o C. to i C. These units are thus related: 
i common calorie= 1-987 mean calories=o-992 zero calories. 
A unit in common use in thermo-chemistry is the major calorie, 
which refers to one kilogramme of water and i C. In the 
British system the common unit, termed the " British Thermal 
Unit " (B.Th.U.), is the amount of heat required to raise one 
pound of water through one degree Fahrenheit. 

A correlation of these units of quantity of heat with the 
fundamental units of mass, length and time attended the 
recognition of the fact that heat was a form of energy; and 
their quantitative relationships followed from the experi- 
mental determinations of the so-called " mechanical equivalent 
of heat," i.e. the amount of mechanical energy, expressed in 
ergs, joules, or foot-pounds, equivalent to a certain quantity of 
heat (cf. CALORIMETRY). These results show that a gram-calorie 
is equivalent to about 4-2 joules, and a British thermal unit to 
780 foot-pounds. 

Electrical Units. The next most important units are the electri- 
cal units. We are principally concerned in electrical work with 
three quantities called respectively, electric current, electro- 
motive force, and resistance. These are related to one another 
by Ohm's law, which states that the electric current in a circuit 
is directly as the electromotive force and inversely as the re- 
sistance, when the current is unvarying and the temperature of 
the circuit constant. Hence if we choose units for two of these 
quantities, the above law defines the unit for the third. Much 
discussion has taken place over this question. The choice 
is decided by the nature of the quantities themselves. Since 
resistance is a permanent quality of a substance, it is possible 
to select a certain piece of wire or tube full of mercury, and 
declare that its resistance shall be the unit of resistance, and 
if the substance is permanent we shall possess an unalterable 
standard or unit of resistance. For these reasons the practical 



tiun 
units. 



unit of resistance, now called the international ohm, has been 
selected as one of the above three electrical units. 

It has now been decided that the second unit shall be the 
unit of electric current. As an electric current is not a thing, but 
a process, the unit current can only be reproduced when desired. 
There are two available methods for creating a standard or unit 
electric current. If an unvarying current is passed through a 
neutral solution of silver nitrate it decomposes or electrolyses 
it and deposits silver upon the negative pole or cathode of the 
electrolytic cell. According to Faraday's law and all subse- 
quent experience, the same current deposits in the same 
time the same mass of silver. Hence we may define the unit 
current by the mass of silver it can liberate per second. Again, 
an electric current in one circuit exerts mechanical force 
upon a magnetic pole or a current in another circuit suitably 
placed, and we may measure the force and define by it a unit 
electric current. Both these methods have been used. Thirdly, 
the unit of electromotive force may be defined as equal to 
the difference of potential between the ends of the unit of 
resistance when the unit of current flows in it. 

Apart, however, from the relation of these electrical units 
to each other, it has been found to be of great importance to 
establish a simple relation between the latter and the absolute 
mechanical units. Thus an electric current which is Absolute 
passed through a conductor dissipates its energy as electrical 
heat, and hence creates a certain quantity of heat ">** 
per unit of time. Having chosen our units of energy and 
related unit of quantity of heat, we must so choose the unit of 
current that when passed through the unit of resistance it shall 
dissipate i unit of energy in i unit of time. 

A further consideration has weight in selecting the size of 
the units, namely, that they must be of convenient magnitude 
for the ordinary measurements. The founders of the British 
modern system of practical electrical units were a Associa- 
committee appointed by the British Association in 
1861, at the suggestion of Lord Kelvin, which made its 
first report in 1862 at Cambridge (see B. A. Report). The five 
subsequent reports containing the results of the committee's 
work, together with a large amount of most valuable matter 
on the subject of electric units, were collected in a volume 
edited by Prof. Fleeming Jenkin in 1873, entitled Reports of the 
Committee on Electrical Standards. This committee has con- 
tinued to sit and report annually to the British Association 
since that date. In their second report in 1863 (see B.A. 
Report, Newcastle-on-Tyne) the committee recommended the 
adoption of the absolute system of electric and magnetic units 
on the basis originally proposed by Gauss and Weber, namely, 
that these units should be derived from the fundamental dy- 
namical units, but assuming the units of length, mass and time 
to be the metre, gramme and second instead of the millimetre, 
milligramme and second as proposed by Weber. Considerable 
differences of opinion existed as to the choice of the funda- 
mental units, but ultimately a suggestion of Lord Kelvin's was 
adopted to select the centimetre, gramme, and second, and to 
construct a system of electrical units (called the C.G.S. system) 
derived from the above fundamental units. On this system 
the unit of force is the dyne and the unit of work the erg. The 
dyne is the uniform force which when acting on a mass of 
i gramme for i second gives it a velocity of i centimetre per 
second. The erg is the work done by i dyne when acting 
through a distance of i centimetre in its own direction. The 
electric and magnetic units were then derived, as previously 
suggested by Weber, in the following manner: If we consider 
two very small spheres placed with centres i centimetre apart 
in air and charged with equal quantities of electricity, then if 
the force between these bodies is i dyne each sphere is said 
to be charged with i unit of electric quantity on the electro- 
static system. Again, if we consider two isolated magnetic 
poles of equal strength and consider them placed i centimetre 
apart in air, then if the force between them is i dyne these 
poles are said to have a strength of i unit on the electromag- 
netic system. Unfortunately the committee did not take into 



UNITS, PHYSICAL 



account the fact that in the first case the force between the 
electric charges depends upon and varies inversely as the di- 
electric constant of the medium in which the experiment is. 
made, and in the second case it depends upon the magnetic 
permeability of the medium in which the magnetic poles exist. 
To put it in other words, they assume that the dielectric constant 
of the circumambient medium was unity in the first case, and 
that the permeability was also unity in the second case. 

The result of this choice was that, two systems of measurement 
were created, one depending upon the unit of electric quantity 
so chosen, called the electrostatic system, and the other depend- 
ing upon the unit magnetic pole defined as above, called the 
electromagnetic system of C.G.S. units. Moreover, it was found 
that in neither of these systems were the units of very con- 
venient magnitude. Hence, finally, the committee adopted a 
third system of units called the practical system, in which con- 
venient decimal multiples or fractions of the electromagnetic 
units were selected and named for use. This system, moreover, 
is not only consistent with itself, but may be considered to be 
derived from a system of dynamical units in which the unit of 
length is the earth quadrant or 10 million metres, the unit of 
mass is icT 11 of a gramme and the unit of time is i second. The 
units on this system have received names derived from those 
of eminent discoverers. Moreover, there is a certain relation 
between the size of the units for the same quantity on the 
electrostatic (E.S.) system and that on the electromagnetic 
(E.M.) system, which depends upon the velocity of light in the 
medium in which the measurements are supposed to be made. 
Thus on the E.S. system the unit of electric quantity is a point 
charge which at a distance of i cm. acts on another equal charge 
with a force of i dyne. The E.S. unit of electric current is a 
current such that i E.S. unit of quantity flows per second across 
each section of the circuit. On the E.M. system we start with 
the definition that the unit magnetic pole is one which acts 
on another equal pole at a distance of i cm. with a force of 
i dyne. The unit of current on the E.M. system is a current 
such that if flowing in circular circuit of i cm. radius each unit 
of length of it will act on a unit magnetic pole at the centre 
with a force of i dyne. This E.M. unit of current is much larger 
than the E.S. unit defined as above. It is v times greater, 
where w=3Xio w is the velocity of light in air expressed in 
cms. per second. The reason for this can only be understood 
by considering the dimensions of the quantities with which 
we are concerned. If L, M, T denote length, mass, time, 
and we adopt certain sized units of each, then we may measure 
any derived quantity, such as velocity, acceleration, or force 
in terms of the derived dynamical units as already explained. 
Suppose, however, we alter the size of our selected units of 
L, M or T, we have to consider how this alters the correspond- 
ing units of velocity, acceleration, force, &c. To do this we 
have to consider their dimensions. If the unit of velocity is 
the unit of length passed over per unit of time, then it is 
obvious that it varies directly as the unit of length, and 
inversely as the unit of time. Hence we may say that 
the dimensions of velocity are L/T or LT" 1 ; similarly the 
dimensions of acceleration are L/T 2 or LT~*, and the dimen- 
sions of a force are MLT" 2 . 

For a fuller explanation see above (UNITS, DIMENSIONS OF), or 
Everett's Illustrations of the C.G.S. System of Units. 

Accordingly on the electrostatic system the unit of electric 
quantity is such that /=<? 2 /KcP, where q is the quantity of 

the two equal charges, d their distance, /the mechanical 
statican<i force or stress between them, and K the dielectric 
electro- constant of the dielectric in which they are im- 
magnetk me rsed. Hence since / is of the dimensions MLT" 2 , g 2 

must be of the dimensions of KMI/T" 2 , and q of the 
dimensions M J UT" 1 !^. The dimensions of K, the dielectric 
constant, are unknown. Hence, in accordance with the sug- 
gestion of Sir A. Rucker (Phil. Mag., February 1889), we must 
treat it as a fundamental quantity. The dimensions of an 
electric current on the electrostatic system are therefore those 
of an electric quantity divided by a time, since by current we 



mean the quantity of electricity conveyed per second. Accord- 
ingly current on the E.S. system has the dimensions M J L'T~*K J . 

We may obtain the dimensions of an electric current on the 
magnetic system by observing that if two circuits traversed by the 
same or equal currents are placed at a distance from each other, 
the mechanical force or stress between two elements of the circuit, 
in accordance with Ampere's law (see ELECTRO-KINETICS), varies 
as the square of the current C, the product of the elements of length 
ds, ds' of the circuits, inversely as the square of their distance d, and 
directly as the permeability n of the medium in which they are 
immersed. Hence C 2 ds ds'fi/d* must be of the dimensions of a force 
or of the dimensions MLT" 2 . Now, ds and ds' are lengths, and d 
is a length, hence the dimensions of electric current on the E.M. 
system must be M*lJT~V~-. Accordingly the dimensions of 
current on the E.S. system are M'lJT^K*, and on the E.M. system 
they are M'L*T"V. where it and K, the permeability and di- 
electric constant of the medium, are of unknown dimensions, and 
therefore treated as fundamental quantities. 

The ratio of the dimensions of an electric current on the two 
systems (E.S. and E.M.) is therefore LT~'K ! /i. This ratio must be 
a mere numeric of no dimensions, and therefore the dimensions of 
V KM must be those of the reciprocal of a velocity. We do not know 
what the dimensions of n and K are separately, but we do know, 
therefore, that their product has the dimensions of the reciprocal 
of the square of a velocity. 

Again, we may arrive at two dimensional expressions for electro- 
motive force or difference of potential. Electrostatic difference of 
potential between two places is measured by the mechanical work 
required to move a small conductor charged with a unit electric 
charge from one place to the other against the electric force. Hence 
if V stands for the difference of potential between the two places, 
and Q for the charge on the small conductor, the product Qv must 
be of the dimensions of the work or energy, or of the force Xlength, 
or of ML 2 T~^. But Q on the electrostatic system of measurement 
is of the dimensions M'L'T'K* ; the potential difference Vmust 
be, therefore, of the dimensions M'L'T 'K"'. Again, since by 
Ohm's law and Joule's law electromotive force multiplied by a 
current is equal to the power expended on a circuit, the dimen- 
sions of electromotive force, or, what is the same thing, of 
potential difference, in the electromagnetic system of measurement 
must be those of power divided by a current. Since mechanical 
power means rate of doing work, the dimensions of power must 
be ML^" 3 . We have already seen that on the electromagnetic 
system the dimensions of a current are M^lJT" 1 /*" 5 ; therefore the 
dimensions of electromotive force or potential on the electromagnetic 
system must be M^lJT"" 2 ^. Here again we find that the ratio 
of the dimensions on the electrostatic system to the dimensions on 

the electromagnetic system is L~*TK~V~^ 

In the same manner we may recover from fundamental facts and 
relations the dimensions of every electric and magnetic quantity on 
the two systems, starting in one case from electrostatic phenomena 
and in the other case from electromagnetic or magnetic. The 
electrostatic dimensional expression will always involve K, and 
the electromagnetic dimensional expression will always involve 
it, and in every case the dimensions in terms of K are to those in 
terms of M for the same quantity in the ratio of a power of LT"*K*fA 
This therefore confirms the view that whatever may be the true 
dimensions in terms of fundamental units of n and K, their product 
is the inverse square of a velocity. 

Table I. gives the dimensions of all the principal electric and 
magnetic quantities on the electrostatic and electromagnetic 
systems. 

It will be seen that in every case the ratio of the dimensions on 
the two systems is a power of LT'KV'i r of a velocity multiplied 
by the square root of the product K and >; in other words, it is the 
product of a velocity multiplied by the geometric mean of K and it. 
This quantity l/VKp must therefore be of the dimensions of a 
velocity, and the questions arise, What is the absolute value of this 
velocity? and, How is it to be determined? The answer is, that 
the value of the velocity in concrete numbers may be obtained by 
measuring the magnitude of any electric quantity in two ways, 
one making use only of electrostatic phenomena, and the other 
only of electromagnetic. To take one instance: It is easy to show 
that the electrostatic capacity of a sphere suspended in air or in 
vacuo at a great distance from other conductors is given by a number 
equal to its radius in centimetres. Suppose such a sphere to be 
charged and discharged rapidly with electricity from any source, 
such as a battery. It would take electricity from the source at a 
certain rate, and would in fact act like a resistance in permitting 
the passage through it or by it of a certain quantity of electricity 
per unit of time. If K is the capacity and n is the number of dis- 
charges per second, then nK. is a quantity of the dimensions of an 
electric conductivity, or of the reciprocal of a resistance. If a 
conductor, of which the electrostatic capacity can be calculated, 
and which has associated with it a commutator that charges and 



742 



UNITS, PHYSICAL 



TABLE I. DIMENSIONS OF ELECTRIC QUANTITIES 



Quantity. 


Symbol. 


Dimensions 
on the Electro- 
static System 
E.S. 


Dimensions 
on the Electro- 
magnetic 
System E.M. 


Ratio of E.S to 
E.M. 


Magnetic per- 
meability . 


| GO 


L- 2 T 2 K- 


M 


L^ T 2 K" 1 M "' 


Magnetic 
force or 


| (H) 


L* Mi T~* K* 


L~5 M* T~V~* 


L T"'K J ^i 


field . . . 


1 








Magnetic 


) 








flux den- 
sity or in- 


f (B) 

1 


L' Mi K"i 


L-i Mi T" 1 M 


L~ l T K"i^~i 


duction 


\ 








Total mag- 
netic flux . 


\ (Z) 


L 1 Mi K~ } 


L 3 Mi T- 1 M 


L" 1 T K"i M "i 


Magnetization 


(I) 


L -S M i K "i 


L"i M J T" 1 ^ 


L" 1 T K~i M i 


Magnetic pole 
strength 


| M 


L M* K-i 


L' M 1 T" 1 M* 


L- T ICV 


Magnetic 
moment 


(M) 


L' Mi K^ 


L' Mi T" 1 M 1 


L~ l T K'i^'i 


M agne tic 










potential or 
magneto- 
motiveforce 


(M.M.F.) 


L' Mi T- 2 Ki 


L J Mi T~ ; M-i 


L T" L Ki M J 


Specific in- 
ductive ca- 


(K) 


K 


L^ T 2 nT 1 


L 2 T^K n 


pacity 


1 








Electric force. 


(e) 


L~*M*T~ 1 K~* 


Li M J T" 2 M i 


L" 1 T K""i,T ! 


Electric dis- 
placement . 


! (D) 


L-iMiT-Ki 


IT 1 ' Mi y." 1 


L T-'Ri A^ 


Electricquan- 


(Q) 


L ? Mi T" 1 Ri 


Li M J M~ J 


L T~ l Ri ^* 


tity . 


} 








Electric cur- 
rent . 


' (A) 


L' MiT^K 5 


Li M 1 r~V J 


L T~'Ki M 1 


Electric) 


(V) "1 








potential I 
Electromo-j 
live force ' 


E.M.F.) ) 


L } Mi T~' K~* 


L' Mi T^ M i 


L" 1 T K-i M ~ 5 


Electric re- 
sistance 


(R) 


L~'T K' 1 


L T" 1 M 


L" 2 T* K~V"' 


Electric ca- 
pacity . 


; c ) 


L K 


t -1 T-' -1 

L T < 


L 2 T""K M 


Self induct- 


| 








ance . 
Mutual in- 


" (M) 1 


L"' T 2 K" 1 


L M 


L^ T 2 K-V" 


ductance 











discharges it n times per second, is arranged in one branch of a 
Wheatstone's Bridge, it can be treated and measured as if it were 
a resistance, and its equivalent resistance calculated in terms of 
the resistance of all the other branches of the bridge (see Phil. Mag., 
1885, 20, 258). 

Accordingly, we have two methods of measuring the capacity of 
a conductor. One, the electrostatic method, depends only on 
the measurement of a length, which in the case of a sphere in free 
space is its radius; the other, the electromagnetic method, deter- 
mines the capacity in terms of the quotient of a time by a resistance. 
The ratio of the electrostatic to the electromagnetic value of the 
same capacity is therefore of the dimensions of a velocity multiplied 
by a resistance in electromagnetic value, or of the dimensions of a 
velocity squared. This particular experimental measurement has 
been carried out carefully by many observers, and the result has 
been always to show that the velocity which expresses the ratio 
is very nearly equal to 30 thousand million centimetres per second ; 
v = nearly 3X10*. The value of this important constant can be 
determined by experiments made to measure electric quantity, 
potential, resistance or capacity, both in electrostatic and in electro- 
magnetic measure. For details of the various methods employed, 
the reader must be referred to standard treatises on Electricity 
and Magnetism, where full particulars will be found (see Maxwell, 
Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, vol. ii. ch. xix. 2nd ed.; 
also Mascart and Joubert, Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, 
vol. ii. ch. viii., Eng. trans, by Atkinson). 

Table II. gives a list of some of these determinations of , with 
references to the original papers. 

It will be seen that all the most recent values, especially those 
in which a comparison of capacity has been made, approximate to 
3X10' centimetres per second, a value which is closely in accord 
with the latest and best determinations of the velocity of light. 

We have in the next place to consider the question of 
Practical practical electric units and the determination and 
units. construction of concrete standards. The committee 
of the British Association charged with the duty of arranging 



a system of absolute and magnetic units settled also 
on a system of practical units of convenient magni- 
tude, and gave names to them as follows: 
io' absolute electromagnetic units of resist- 
ance = i ohm 

IO 8 ,, ,, units of electro- 

motive force = I volt 

ofan,, ,, unit of current = I ampere 

of an ,, unit of quantity =1 coulomb 

IO" 9 ,, units of capacity = I farad 

io~ 16 ,, units of capacity = i microfarad 

Since the date when the preceding terms were adopted, 
other multiples of absolute C.G.S. units have received 
practical names, thus: 

io 7 ergs or absolute C.G.S. units of energy = i joule 

10 7 ergs per second or C.G.S. units of power = i watt 
io* absolute units of inductance = I henry 

10 8 absolute units of magnetic flux = I weber 1 
I absolute unit of magnetomotive force = i gauss 1 

An Electrical Congress was held in Chicago, U.S.A., 
in August 1893, to consider the subject of international 
practical electrical units, and the result of a conference 
between scientific representatives of Great Britain, the 
United States, France, Germany, Italy, Mexico, Austria, 
Switzerland, Sweden and British North America, 
after deliberation for six days, was a unanimous 
agreement to recommend the following resolutions as 
the definition of practical international units. These 
resolutions and definitions were confirmed at other 
conferences, and at the last one held in London 
in October 1908 were finally adopted. It was agreed 
to take : 

" As a unit of resistance, the International Ohm, which is 
based upon the ohm equal to io 9 units of resistance of the 
C.G.S. system of electromagnetic units, and is represented 
by the resistance offered to an unvarying electric current 
by a column of mercury at the temperature of melting ice 
14-4521 grammes in mass, of a constant cross-sectional area 
and of the length of 106-3 cm - 

" As a unit of current, the International Ampere, which is 
one-tenth of the unit of current of the C.G.S. system of 
electromagnetic units, and which is represented sufficiently 
well for practical use by the unvarying current which, 
when passed through a solution of nitrate of silver in water, 
depasits silver at the rate of o-ooi 11800 of a gramme -per 
second. 

" As a unit of electromotive force, the International Volt, which is 
the electromotive force that, steadily applied to a conductor whose 
resistance is one international ohm, will produce a current of one 
international ampere. It is represented sufficiently well for 
practical purposes by }gfiS of the E.M.F. of a normal or saturated 
cadmium Weston cell at 20 C, prepared in the manner described 
in a certain specification. 

" As a unit of quantity, the International Coulomb, which is the 
quantity of electricity transferred by a current of one international 
ampere in one second. 

' As the unit of capacity, the International Farad, which is the 
capacity of a condenser charged to a potential of one international 
volt by one international coulomb of electricity. 

" As a unit of work, the Joule, which is equal to io 7 units of 
work in the C.G.S. System, and which is represented sufficiently 
well for practical use by the energy expended in one second by an 
international ampere in an international ohm. 

" As a unit of power, the Watt, which is equal to io 7 units of 
power in the C.G.S. System, and which is represented sufficiently 
well for practical use by the work done at the rate of one joule per 
second. 

" As the unit of inductance, the Henry, which is the induction 
in a circuit when an electromotive force induced in this circuit is 
one international volt, while the inducing current varies at the 
rate of one ampere per second." 



1 Neither the weber nor the gauss has received very general 
adoption, although recommended by the Committee of the British 
Association on Electrical Units. Many different suggestions have 
been made as to the meaning to be applied to the word " gauss." 
The practical electrical engineer, up to the present, prefers to use 
one ampere-turn as his unit of magnetomotive force, and one line 
of force as the unit of magnetic flux, equal respectively to 10/4* 
times and i times the C.G.S. absolute units. Very frequently the 
" kiloline," equal to 1000 lines of force, is now used as a unit of 
magnetic flux. 



UNITS, PHYSICAL 



743 



TABLE II. OBSERVED VALUES OF V IN CENTIMETRES PER SECOND 


Date. 


Name. 


Reference. 


Electric 
Quantity 
Measured. 


v in 
Centimetres 
per Second. 


1856 


W. Weber and 


Elfctrodynamische 


Quantity 


3-107X1010 




R. Kohlrausch 


M assbestim mitngen 










and Pogg. Ann. 










xcix., August 10, 










1856 






1867 


) Lord Kelvin 


Report of British 


Potential 


J-8i Xio> 


1 868 


Sand W. F. King 


Assoc., 1869, p. 434; 










and Reports on Elec- 










trical Standards, 










F. Jenkin, p. 186 






1868 


J. Clerk Maxwell . 


Phil. Trans. Roy. 





2-84 Xioio 






Sof., 1868, p. 643 






1872 


Lord Kelvin and 


Phil. Trans. Roy. 


,, 


2-89 Xioio 




Dugald M'Kich- 


Soc.. 1873, p. 409 








an 








1878 


W. E. Ayrton and 


Journ. Soc. Tel. Eng. 


Capacity 


2-94 Xio"> 




J. Perry 


vol. viii. p. 126 






1880 


Lord Kelvin and 


Phil. Mag., 1880, vol. 


Potential 


2-95SXioio 




Shida 


x. p. 431 






iWi 


A. G. Stoletow 


Soc. Franc, dt Pftys., 


Capacity 


2-99 Xioio 






1881 






1882 


F. Exner 


Wien. Ber., 1882 


Potential 


2-92 Xioio 


1883 


Sir J. J. Thomson 


Phil. Trans. Roy. 


Capacity 


2-963Xlo> 






Soc., 1883, p. 707 






1884 


I. Klemencic . 


Journ. Soc. Tel. Eng., 


,, 


3-oigXioio 






1887, p. 162 






1888 


F. Himstedt . 


Electrician, March 23, 


,, 


3007X1010 






1888, vol. xx. p. 530 






1888 


Lord Kelvin. Ayr- 


British Association, 


Potential 


2-92 Xioio 




ton and Perry 


Bath; and Elec- 










trician, Sept. 28, 










1888 






1888 


H. Fison 


Electrician, vol. xxi. 


Capacity 


2-965X1010 






p. 215; and Proc. 










Phys. Soc. Land., 


. 








June 9; 1888 






1889 
1889 
1889 


Lord Kelvin . 
H. A. Rowland 
E. B. Rosa . 


Proc. Roy. Inst., 1889 
Phil. Mat., 1889 
Phil. Mag..iBScj 


Potential 
Quantity 
Capacity 


3-004X1010 
2-981X1010 
3-ocoXioio 


1890 


Sir J. J. Thomson 


Phil. Trans., 1890 





2-995X1010 




and G. F. C. Searle 








1897 


M. E. Maltby. 


Wild. Ann. 1897 


Alternating 


3-oisXioio 








currents 





In connexion with the numerical values in the above de- 
finitions much work has been done. The electrochemical 
equivalent of silver or the weight in grammes deposited per 
second by i C.G.S. electromagnetic unit of current has been 
the subject of much research. The following determinations 
of it have been given by various observers: 



Name. 


Value. 


Reference. 


E. E. N. Mascart . 

F. and W. Kohlrausch . 
Lord Rayleigh and Mrs 
Sedgwick 
J. S. H. Pellat and 
A. Potier. 
Karl Kahle' 
G. W. Patterson and 
K. E. Guthe 
J. S. H. Pellat and S. A. 
Leduc 


0-011156 

0-011183 
0-011179 

0-011192 

0-011183 
0-011192 

0-011195 


Journ. de physique, 1884, 
(2), 3, 283. 
Wied. Ann., 1886, 27, i. 
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 
1884, 2, 411. 
Journ. dePhys., 1890, (2), 
9. 381. 
Wied. Ann., 1899, 67, i. 
Physical Review, 1898, 7, 
251- 
Comptes rendus, 1903, 
136, 1649. 



Although some observers have urged that the 0-01119 ' s nearer 
to the true value than 0-01118, the preponderance of the evidence 
seems in favour of this latter number and hence the value per ampere- 
second is taken as 0-0011800 gramme. The exact value of the 
electromotive force of a Clark cell has also been the subject of 
much research. Two forms of cell are in use, the simple tubular 
form and the H-form introduced by Lord Rayleigh. The Berlin 
Reichsanstalt has issued a specification for a particular H-form of 
Clark cell, and its E.M.F. at 15 C. is taken as 1-4328 international 
volts. The E.M.F. of the cell set up in accordance with the British 
Board of Trade specification is taken as 1-434 international volts 
at 15 C. The detailed specifications are given in Fleming's Hand- 
book for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room (1901), vol. i. 
chap, i ; in the same book will be found copious references to the 
scientific literature of the Clark cell. One objection to the Clark 
cell as a concrete standard of electromotive force is its variation 
with temperature and with slight impurities in the mercurous 
sulphate used in its construction. The Clark cell is a voltaic cell 
made with mercury, mercurous sulphate, zinc sulphate, and zinc 



as elements, and its E.M.F. decreases 0-08% per degree Centi- 
grade with rise of temperature. In 1891 Mr Weston proposed to 
employ cadmium and cadmium sulphate in place of zinc and 
zinc sulphate and found that the temperature coefficient for the 
cadmium cell might be made as low as 0-004 % per degree 
Centigrade. Its E.M.F. is, however, 1-0184 international volts 
at 20 C. For details of construction and the literature of the 
subject see Fleming's Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory, vol. i. 
chap. i. 

In the British Board of Trade laboratory the ampere and the 
volt are not recovered by immediate reference to the electrochemical 
equivalent of silver or the Clark cell, but by means of instruments 
called a standard ampere balance and a standard loo-volt electro- 
static voltmeter. In the standard ampere balance the current is 
determined by weighing the attraction between two coils tra- 
versed by the current, and the ampere is defined to be the current 
which causes a certain attraction between the coils of this 
standard form of ampere balance. The form of ampere balance in 
use at the British Board of Trade electrical standards office is 
described in Fleming's Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory, vol. i., 
and that constructed for the British National Physical Laboratory 
in the report of the Committee on Electrical Standards (Brit. Assoc. 
Rep., 1905). This latter instrument will recover the ampere within 
one-thousandth part. For a further description of it and for full 
discussion of the present position of knowledge respecting the 
values of the international practical units the reader is referred to 
a paper by Dr F. A. Wolff read before the International Electrical 
Congress at St Louis Exhibition, U.S.A., in 1904, and the subse- 
quent discussion (see Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng. Land., 1904-5, 34, 190, 
and 35, 3). 

The construction of the international ohm or practical unit of 
resistance involves a knowledge of the specific resistance of mercury. 
Numerous determinations of this constant have been made. The 
results are expressed either in terms of the length in cm. of the 
column of pure mercury of I sq. mm. in section which at o C. has a 
resistance of IO 9 C.G.S. electromagnetic units, or else in terms of 
the weight of mercury in grammes for a column of constant cross- 
sectional area and length of 100-3 cm - The latter method was 
adopted at the British Association Meeting at Edinburgh in 1892, 
but there is some uncertainty as to the value of the density of 
mercury at o C. which was then adopted. Hence it was proposed 
by Professor J. Viriamu Jones that the redetermination of the ohm 
should be made when required by means of the Lorentz method 
(see J. V. Jones, " The Absolute Measurement of Electrical Resist- 
ance," Proc. Roy. Inst. vol. 14, part iii. p. 601). For the length of 
the mercury column defining the ohm as above, Lord Rayleigh in 
1882 found the value 106-27 cm -> an d R. T. Glazebrook in the same 
year the value 106-28 cm. by a different method, while another 
determination by Lord Rayleigh and Mrs Sedgwick in 1883 gave 
106-22 cm. Viriamu Jones in 1891 gave the value 106-30 cm., and 
one by W. E. Ayrton in 1 897 by the same method obtained the value 
106-27 to 106-28 cm. Hence the specific resistance of mercury 
cannot be said to be known to i part in 10,000, and the absolute 
value of the ohm in centimetres per second is uncertain to at least 
that amount. (See also J. Viriamu Jones, " On a Determination 
of the International Ohm in Absolute Measure," Brit. Assoc. 
Report, 1894.) 

The above-described practical system based on the C.G.S. 
double system of theoretical units labours under several very 
great disadvantages. The practical system is derived # a/ y ona / 
from and connected with an abnormally large unit of system oi 
length (the earth quadrant) and an absurdly small electrical 
unit of mass. Also in consequence of the manner in u "" s ' 
which the unit electric quantity and magnetic pole strength are 
denned, a coefficient, 47r, makes its appearance in many practical 
equations. For example, on the present system the magnetic 
force H in the interior of a long spiral wire of N turns per centi- 
metre of length when a current of A amperes circulates in the 
wire is 4x AN/io. Again, the electric displacement or induction 
D through a unit of area is connected with the electric force E 
and the dielectric constant K by the equation D = KE/4T. In 
numerous electric and magnetic equations the constant 4ir makes 
its appearance where it is apparently meaningless. A system of 
units in which this constant is put into its right place by appro- 
priate definitions is called a rational system of electric units. 
Several physicists have proposed such systems. Amongst others 
that of Professor G. Giorgi especially deserves mention. o / oly j s 
We have seen that in expressing the dimensions of system 01 
electric and magnetic qualities we cannot do so simply electrical 
by reference to the units of length, mass and time, ualts - 
but must introduce a fourth fundamental quantity. This 
we may take to be the dielectric constant of the ether or its 
magnetic permeability, and thus we obtain two systems of 



744 



UNITS, PHYSICAL 



measurement. Professor Giorgi proposes that the four funda- 
mental quantities shall be the units of length, mass, time and 
electrical resistance, and takes as the concrete units or standards 
the metre, kilogramme, second and ohm. Now this proposal 
not only has the advantage that the theoretical units are 
identical with the actual practical concrete units, but it is also 
a rational system. Moreover, the present practical units are 
unaltered; the ampere, volt, coulomb, weber, joule and watt 
remain the actual as well as theoretical units of current, electro- 
motive force, quantity, magnetic flux, work and power. But 
the unit of magnetic force becomes the ampere-turn per metre, 
and the unit of electric force the volt per metre; thus the 
magnetic units are measured in terms of electric units. The 
numerical value of the permeability of ether or air becomes 
47rXio~ 7 and the dielectric constant of the ether or air becomes 
i/4irXgXio 9 ; their product is therefore i/QXio 8 ) 2 , which is 
the reciprocal of the square of the velocity of light in metres 
per second. 

For a discussion of the Giorgi proposal^ see a paper by Professor 
M. Ascoli, read before the International Electrical Congress at St 
Louis, 1904 (Journ. Inst. Elect. Eng. Land., 1904, 34, 176). 

It can hardly be said that the present system of electrical 
units is entirely satisfactory in all respects. Great difficulty 
would of course be experienced in again altering the accepted 
practical concrete units, but if at any future time a reformation 
should be possible, it would be desirable to bear in mind the 
recommendations made by Oliver Heaviside with regard to their 
rationalization. The British Association Committee defined 
the strength of a magnetic pole by reference to the mechanical 
stress between it and another equal pole: hence the British 
Association unit magnetic pole is a pole which at a distance of 
one centimetre attracts or repels another equal pole with a force 
of one dyne. This, we have seen, is an imperfect definition, 
because it omits all reference to the permeability of the medium 
in which the experiment takes place; but it is also unsatisfactory 
as a starting-point for a system of units for another reason. 
The important quantity in connexion with polar magnets is not 
a mechanical stress between the free poles of different magnets, 
but the magnetic flux emanating from, or associating with, them. 
From a technical point of view this latter quality is far more 
important than the mechanical stress between the magnetic 
poles, because we mostly employ magnets to create induced 
electromotive force, and the quantity we are then mostly 
concerned with is the magnetic flux proceeding from the poles. 
Hence the most natural definition of a unit magnet pole is that 
pole from which proceeds a total magnetic flux of one unit. The 
definition of one unit of magnetic flux must then be that flux 
which, when inserted into or withdrawn from a conducting 
circuit of one turn having unit area and unit conductivity, 
creates in it a flow or circulation of one unit of electric quantity. 
The definition of a unit magnetic pole ought, therefore, to have 
been approached from the definition of a unit of electric quantity. 

On the C.G.S. or British Association system, if a magnetic fila- 
ment has a pole strength m that is to say, if it has a magnetization 
I, and a section s, such that Is equals m then it can be shown 
that the total flux emanating from the pole is $trm. The factor 471-, 
in consequence of this definition, makes its appearance in many 
practically important expressions. For instance, in the well-known 
magnetic equation connecting the vector values of magnetization 
I, magnetic force H and magnetic flux density B, where we have 
the equation 

B = H+4irI, 

the appearance of the quantity 41- disguises the real physical meaning 
of the equation. 

The true remedy for this difficulty has been suggested by Heaviside 
to be the substitution of rational for irrational formulae and definitions. 
. He proposes to restate the definition of a unit magnetic 
side's P' e * n suc ' 1 a manner as to remove this constant 4?r 
rational ; rom the most frequently employed equations. His start- 
ing-point is a new definition according to which a unit 
magnetic pole is said to have a strength of m units if 
it attracts or repels another equal pole placed at a distance of 
d centimetres with a force of m ! /4Td 2 dynes. It follows from this 
definition that a rational unit magnetic pole is weaker or smaller 
than the irrational or British Association unit pole in the ratio of 



I/V4T to i, or -28205 to I. The magnetic force due to a rational 
pole of strength m at a distance of d centimetres being m/4i 2 units, 
if we suppose a magnetic filament having a pole of strength m in 
rational units to have a smaller sphere of radius r described round 
its pole, the magnetic force on the surface of this sphere is m/4irr 2 
units, and this is therefore also the numerical value of the flux 
density. Hence the total magnetic flux through the surface of 
the sphere is 

4irr 2 Xw/4Tr 2 units = m units; 

and therefore the number which denotes the total magnetic flux 
coming out of the pole of strength m in rational units is also m. 

The Heaviside system thus gives us an obvious and natural 
definition of a unit magnetic pole, namely, that it is a pole through 
which proceeds the unit of magnetic flux. It follows, therefore, 
that if the intensity of magnetization of the magnetic filament is 
I and the section is s, the total flux traversing the centre of the 
magnet is Is units; and that if the filament is an endless or poleless 
iron filament magnetized uniformly by a resultant external magnetic 
force H, the flux density will be expressed in rational units by the 
equation B = I+H. The physical meaning of this equation is that 
the flux per square centimetre in the iron is simply obtained by 
adding together the flux per square centimetre, if the iron is supposed 
to be removed, and the magnetization of the iron at that place. 
On the rational system, since_the unit pole strength has been 
decreased in the ratio of I to I/V4T, or of 3-5441 to I, when compared 
with the magnitude of the present irrational unit pole, and since 
the unit of magnetic flux is the total flux proceeding from a magnetic 
pole, it follows that Heaviside's unit of magnetic flux is larger than 
the C.G.S. unit of magnetic flux in the ratio of 3-5441 to I. 

It will be seen, therefore, that the Heaviside rational units are 
all incommeasurable with the practical units. This is a great 
barrier to their adoption in practice, because it is impossible to 
discard all the existing resistance coils, ammeters, voltmeters, &c., 
and equally impossible to recalibrate or readjust them to read in 
Heaviside units. A suggestion has been made, in modification of 
the Heaviside system, which would provide a system of rational 
practical units not impossible of adoption. It has been pointed out 
by J. A. Fleming that if in place of the ampere, ohm, watt, joule, 
farad and coulomb, we employ the dekampere, dekohm, the 
dekawatt, the dekajoule, the dekafarad and the dekacoulomb, we 
have a system ol practical units such that measurements made in 
these units are equal to measurements made in Heaviside rational 
units when multiplied by some power of 4*-. Moreover, he has shown 
that this power of 4?r, in the case of most units, varies inversely 
as the power under which /* appears in the complete dimensional 
expression for the quantity in electromagnetic measurement. 
Thus a current measured in Heaviside rational units is numerically 
equal to (4*-)* times the same current measured in dekamperes, and 
in the electromagnetic dimensional expression for current, namely, 
L"M5T~V~'. f appears as /i~. If, then, we consider the per- 
meability of the ether to be numerically \TT instead of unity, the 
measurement of a current in dekamperes will be a number which is 
the same as that given by reckoning in Heaviside rational units. 
In this way a system of Rational Practical Units (R.P. Units) might 
be constructed as follows: 

The R.P. Unit of Magnetic Force = 4* X the C.G S. Unit. 

Magnetic Polarity = I /4ir X . , 

Magnetic Flux = I 

Magnetomotive Force = I 

Electric Current = I 

Electric Quantity = I 

Electromotive Force = lo 1 

Resistance =* IO 8 

Inductance = lo 8 

Power = lo 8 

Work = 10" 

Capacity = IO" 8 

All except the unit of magnetic force and magnetic polarity 
are commensurable with the corresponding C.G.S. units, and in 
multiples which form a convenient practical system. 

Even the rational systems already mentioned do not entirely 
fulfil the ideal of a system of physical units. There are certain 
constants of nature which are fundamental, invariable, and, as far 
as we know, of the same magnitude, in all parts of the universe. 
One of these is the mass of the atom, say of hydrogen. Another 
is the length of a wave of light of particular refrangibility emitted 
by some atom, say one of the two yellow lines in the spectrum 
of sodium or one of the hydrogen lines. Also a time is fixed by 
the velocity of light in space which is according to the best 
measurement very close to 3X10" cms. per sec. Another 
natural unit is the so-called constant of gravitation, or the force 
in dynes due to the attraction of two spherical masses each of 
i gramme with centres at a distance of i cm. Very approximately 
this is equal to 648X10^ dynes. Another natural electrical 



UNIVERSALIST CHURCH 



745 



unit of great importance is the electric charge represented by 
i electron (see ELECTRICITY). This according to the latest 
determination is nearly 3-4Xio~ 10 electrostatic units of quantity 
on the C.G.S. system. Hence, 2930 million electrons are equal to 
i E.S. unit of quantity on the C.G.S. system, and the quantity 
called i coulomb is equal to 879X10" electrons. In round 
numbers 9X10"* electrons make i coulomb. The electron is 
nature's unit of electricity and is the charge carried by i hydrogen 
ion in electrolysis (see CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC, Liquids). Ac- 
cordingly a truly natural system of physical units would be one 
which was based upon the electron, or a multiple of it, as a unit 
of electric quantity, the velocity of light or fraction of it as a 
unit of velocity, and the mass of an atom of hydrogen or multiple 
of it as a unit of mass. An approximation to such a natural 
system of electric units will be found discussed in chap. 17 of a 
book on The Electron Theory, by E.E. Fournier d'Albe (London, 
1906), to which the reader is referred. 

See J. Clerk Maxwell, Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, 
vol. ii. chap. x. (3rd ed., Oxford, 1892); E. E. N. Mascart and J. 
Joubert, Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, translation by 
E. Atkinson, vol. i. chap. xi. (London, 1883); J. D. Everett, Illustra- 
tions of the C.G.S. System of Units (London, 1891) ; Magnus Maclean, 
Physical Units (London, 1896); Fleeming Jenkin, Reports on 
Electrical Standards (London, 1873) ; Reports of the British Associa- 
tion Committee on Electrical Units from 1862 to present date; 
J. A. Fleming, A Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing- 
Room (2 vols., London, 1901); Lord Rayleigh, Collected Scientific 
Papers, vol. ii. (1881-87); A. Grey, Absolute^ Measurements in 
Electricity and Magnetism, vol. ii. part ii. chap. ix. p. 150 (London, 
1893); Oliver Heaviside, Electromagnetic Theory, i. 116 (London, 
1893); Sir A. W. Riicker, "On the Suppressed Dimensions 
of Physical Quantities," Proc. Phys. Soc. Land. (1888), 10, 37; 
W. Williams, " On the Relation of the Dimensions of Physical 
Quantities to Directions in Space," Proc. Phys. Soc. Land. (1892), 
II, 257; R. A. Fessenden, On the Nature of the Electric and 
Magnetic Quantities," Physical Review (January 1900). 

(J. A. F.) 

UNIVERSALIST CHURCH, a religious body organized in 
the United States, and represented chiefly by parishes and 
churches in that country and in Canada. While the distribution 
of the denomination extends to every state in the Union, the 
greater number of organizations and members are found in New 
England and New York. 

A distinction should be noted between Universalism and the 
Universalist denomination. Universalism is found very early 
in the history of the Christian Church apparently from the 
beginning. It was certainly held and taught by several of 
the greatest of the Apostolic and Church fathers: as Clement 
of Alexandria, Gregory of Nyssa, Origen and probably by 
Chrysostom and Jerome. It was taught in a majority of the 
Christian Schools of the second and third centuries; at Alex- 
andria, at Antioch, at Edessa and at Nisibis. 1 But the Univer- 
salist denomination is of modern origin and confined mostly 
to the American continent. It dates from the arrival in Good 
Luck, N.J., of the Rev. John Murray (i 7 14-181 5), 2 of London, 
in September 1770; although there were some preachers of the 
doctrine in the country before Mr Murray came. He preached 
in various places in New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania and 
Massachusetts, and societies sprang up as the result of his 
ministry in all these states. His first regular settlement was 
in Gloucester, Mass., in 1774, whence in 1793 he removed to 
Boston, which from that time forth became the headquarters 

1 See Dr Edward Beecher's History of Opinions on the Scriptural 
Doctrine of Retribution (New York, 1878), and Hosea Ballou 2nd's 
Ancient History of Universalism (Boston, 1829). 

2 A Wesleyan, then a follower of Whitefield, Murray became a 
Universalist after reading the tract on Union (1759) written by 
James Relly (1720-1778), minister of a Universalist congregation in 
London. Murray was a chaplain in a Rhode Island brigade during 
the War of American Independence, and a friend of General Nathanael 
Greene. His Universalism was Calvinistic in its tone, arguing from 
a universal election to a universal redemption Ballou first openly 
broke with Calvinism. Murray's parish in Gloucester through him 
brought successful suit for the recovery of property appropriated 
for the use of the original (Congregational) parish, and thus gained 
the first legal recognition granted in New England to a Universalist 
society. See the Autobiography (Boston, 1816) edited by his wife, 
Judith Sargent Murray (1751-1820). 



of the denomination. A contemporary of Murray in his later 
years was Hosea Ballou (q.v.), also of Boston, who soon became 
the recognized leader of the movement, and for half a century 
was its most honoured and influential name. During his 
ministry the sect developed from twenty or thirty churches to 
five hundred, with a distribution over the Eastern and Middle 
states. In the period of Mr Ballou's domination little attention 
was paid to organization. It was the period of the propagation 
of the doctrine and of the controversies to which that gave rise. 
But about 1860 began an agitation for a more coherent organiza- 
tion, and a polity better suited to unity and progress than the 
spontaneous Congregationalism that had developed during the 
earlier period. The result of that agitation was the adoption, 
at the Centennial Convention in 1870, of a somewhat elaborate 
plan of organization, and a manual of administration under 
which the denomination has since been conducted. 

The plan of organization of the Universalist body follows, 
with necessary modifications, the scheme of the civil organiza- 
tion of the national government. While the local parish is 
the unit, the states are organized as independent federations, 
and combined into a national congress or convention. The 
parishes within the territory of a state are organized into a 
state convention; representatives, duly elected by the several 
state conventions, constitute the General Convention, which 
is the supreme legislative authority of the denomination. The 
state conventions meet annually; the General Convention 
once in two years. In the interval of sessions a Board of Trustees, 
consisting of eleven members, of whom the secretary, the chief 
administrative officer of the Convention, is one, administer the 
affairs of the denomination, except those concerns " reserved 
to the states and the people." 

Doctrine. The historic symbol of the denomination remains 
the Winchester Profession, adopted at the meeting of the 
General Convention then a spontaneous yearly gathering of 
Universalists, without ecclesiastical authority in Winchester, 
N.H., in Sept. 1803. It consists of three brief articles, as 
follows: 

Article I. We believe that the Holy Scriptures of the Old and 
New Testaments contain a revelation of the character of God and 
of the duty, interest and final destination of mankind. 

Article II. We believe that there is one God, whose nature is 
Love, revealed in one Lord Jesus Christ, by one Holy Spirit of Grace, 
who will finally restore the whole family of mankind to holiness and 
happiness. 

Article III. We believe that holiness and true happiness are 
inseparably connected, and that believers ought to be careful to 
maintain order and practise good works; for these things are good 
and profitable unto men. 8 

At the session of the General Convention in Boston in October 
1900, a still briefer " Statement of Essential Principles " was 
adopted and made the condition of fellowship, in the following 
terms: 

i. The Universal Fatherhood of God; 2. the Spiritual authority 
and leadership of His Son, Jesus Christ; 3. the trustworthiness 
of the Bible as containing a revelation from God ; 4. the certainty of 
just retribution for sin ; 5. the final harmony of all souls with God. 

Universalism, shortly described, is the belief that what 
ought to be will be. In a sane and beneficent universe the 
primacy belongs to Truth, Right, Love. These are the supreme 
powers. The logic of this conception of the natural and moral 
order is imperious. It compels the conclusion that, although 
we see not yet all things put under the sway of the Prince of 
Peace, we see the Divine plan set forth in Him, and cannot 
doubt the consummation which He embodies and predicts. 
Universalists are those members of the Christian family in 
whom this thought has become predominant. The idea that 
there is a Divine order, and that it contemplates the final 
triumph of Good over Evil, in human society as a whole and in 
the history of each individual, has taken possession of them. 
Hence they are Universalists. - 

* Certain Universalists objected to the last clause of Article II. 
as implying a universal fall in Adam's sin; and others objected to 
the material and utilitarian construction which might be put on the 
last clause of Article III. 



746 



UNIVERSAL LANGUAGES 



The Universalist Church embraces but a fraction of those who 
hold the Universalist belief. The literature of religion, the 
testimony of common knowledge, the drift of theological 
thinking, equally with the results of expert investigation, con- 
firm this conclusion. But the denomination holds aloft the 
banner, conducts the campaign of education and organization, 
and represents in the religious world the principle, that the best 
possible outcome is to be expected to the human experiment. 

Work. Some idea of the work carried on by the denomina- 
tion may be derived from the extent and variety of its organized 
forces. There were in 1907 about 1000 parishes on its roll; 
and these, with large numbers of families not included in 
parishes, were organized into 41 state and provincial conven- 
tions; into a National Young People's Christian Union of 
over 600 local societies, with a membership of 10,000; into one 
National Women's Missionary Association and several state 
societies; and into one General Convention, with its Board of 
Trustees, Secretary, Superintendent, and Committees on Mis- 
sions, Education, Investments, Ways and Means and Fellowship. 

a. The Home Missionary work devolves in the first instance on 
the several State Conventions, which have a Board and local secre- 
taries and superintendents charged with this particular business in 
their several territories. In the next place, the Home Missionary 
work in new fields and where the local organization is weak, is in 
charge of the Board of Trustees of the General Convention. They 
employ a Southern Missionary and a General Superintendent, and 
appoint and aid in maintaining superintendents and missionaries 
in the newer states and Territories as the North-Western Super- 
intendent, the California Superintendent, &c. 

6. Foreign Missions. In 1907 the Universalist denomination had 
for about fifteen years maintained a mission in Japan, where five 
American and five native missionaries were regularly employed, 
with teachers and helpers of varying numbers. The parent church 
of this mission is established in Tokyo, and plantings have been 
made at eight or nine other points throughout the empire. A Girls' 
Home is maintained in Tokyo, and a considerable work in teaching 
and training is conducted under the auspices of the Mission in uni- 
versities and other schools elsewhere. A mission under the auspices 
of the Universalist General Convention is also maintained at 
Columbia, Province of Camagiiey, Cuba. 

c. The educational interests and activities of the denomination 
are expressed in four colleges, established by the Universalists 
Tufts College (1852), at Medford, Massachusetts; Lombard College 
(1855; opened in 1852 as Illinois Liberal Institute), at Galesburg, 
Illinois; St Lawrence University (1856), at Canton, New York; 
and Buchtel College (1872), at Akron, Ohio; three theological 
schools, connected with the first three colleges just named and 
founded respectively in 1869,1881 and 1858; and three academies, 
Dean Academy, Franklin, Massachusetts, Goddard Seminary, 
Barre, Vermont, and Westbrook Seminary, Portland, Maine; and 
a publishing house in Boston with a branch in Chicago is one of 
the denomination's chief agencies for the spread of the knowledge of 
what it holds to be the truth. 

d. The Chapin Home in New York, the Church of the Messiah 
Home in Philadelphia, the Washburne Home in Minneapolis and 
the Bethany Home in Boston are examples of the benevolent 
and charitable work in which the Universalist body is interested and 
enlisted. 

As stated above, the Universalist denomination embraces about 
1000 churches, with congregations numbering about 200,000 persons; 
a membership of communicants reported in 1906 as 55,831 ; a 
membership in Sunday schools of 52,538; and church property 
valued at $10,598,100-39. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The Universalist Quarterly Review (Boston, 1843- 
91) ; T. Whittemore, Modern History of Universalism (Boston, 
1830); Richard Eddy, Universalism in America (2 vols., 1884); 
J. G. Adams, Fifty Notable Years (Boston, 1882); Abel C. Thomas, 
A Century of Univt salism (Philadelphia, 1870); J. W. Hanson, 
Universalism in the First Five Hundred Years of the Christian Church 
(Boston and Chicago, 1902) ; T. B. Thayer, Origin and History of 
the Doctrine of Endless Punishment (Boston, 1885), tracing the 
doctrine directly to heathen sources; T. B. Thayer, The Theology 
of Universalism (Boston, 1862); I. M. Atwood (ed.), The Latest 
Word of Universalism, Essays by Thirteen Representative Clergymen 
(Boston, 1880) ; Manuals of Faith and Duty, a set of eleven volumes 
by different writers, treating of the chief doctrines, institutions and 
problems of religion in the modern era; Orello Cone, The Gospel 
and its Earliest Interpretations (New York, 1898); and biographies 
of John Murray, Hosea Ballou, Edwin H. Chapin, Thomas J. Sawyer, 
Alonzo Ames Miner, James Henry Tuttle, &c. (I. M. A.) 

UNIVERSAL LANGUAGES. The inconveniences resulting 
from the diversity of languages have been felt since the dawn 
of civilization. Even the most gifted linguist cannot master 



more than a comparatively small number of languages, and 
has to rely more or less on interpreters in his intercourse with 
speakers of foreign languages. 

Advancing civilization brought with it a partial remedy at 
different periods and in different parts of the world by the spread 
of such languages as Assyrian, Greek, Latin, Arabic, English 
over a wide area as the accompaniment of political supremacy, 
or as a vehicle of culture. Even when Latin split up into the 
Romance languages, and ceased to be a living language itself, 
it still survived as the common learned language of Europe 
both in speech and writing (see LATIN LANGUAGE and CLASSICS), 
till the rapid development of modern science and modern thought 
and the rapidly increasing complexity of modern life outstripped 
the limited range of a language never suited for international 
use. 

Meanwhile the growth of the spirit of nationality has largely 
increased the number of literary languages. Russian men of 
science are no longer content to record their discoveries in 
French or German. The English student of science or philo- 
sophy has to leave unread many important works written in 
the more remote European languages, or make their acquaint- 
ance through an often inaccurate translation perhaps in a 
language of which he is only imperfectly master. 

The question of the adoption of a common language becomes, 
therefore, more and more pressing. 

The most obvious solution of the problem would be the 
adoption of some one existing language as a means of inter- 
national communication. But which? To revive the inter- 
national use of Latin is out of the question. If it is to be a 
dead language, post-classical Greek would afford a more flexible 
and perhaps an easier means of expression. If we dismiss 
dead languages as impracticable, the choice of a living language 
raises new difficulties. To exalt English, or French, or Spanish 
to the rank of a world-language would give its native speakers 
such an advantage over the other nationalities that it has been 
seriously proposed to disarm international jealously by selecting 
such a language as Norwegian, which is spoken by a small 
community and is at the same time comparatively simple in 
structure. 

But even if agreement were possible, we are still met by the 
difficulty that to the average human being it is practically 
impossible to acquire anything like an easy, thorough command 
of any foreign language. No natural language is really easy. 
In fact, we may go further and say that all languages are 
equally difficult (see H. Sweet, Practical Study of Languages, 
p. 66); although some are made more difficult than they need 
be by the way in which they are written by the crabbedness of 
their alphabet, or by their unphonetic spelling by the want of 
handbooks or their unpractical character, by the artificiality 
of their literature, and other purely external causes. Norwegian 
is easy to a Swede because it is practically a mere dialect of 
his own language: he knows two-thirds of it already. But 
that does not prove that Norwegian is easy in itself that it 
would be easy, for instance, to an Oriental. The dialects of 
Chinese are mutually unintelligible, but it takes a Chinaman 
only about six months to learn another dialect, which would 
occupy even a gifted European at least three years to learn 
to speak; and yet Chinese is, from a European point of view, 
far simpler in structure than Norwegian, or even English. 

Natural languages are difficult because they are imperfect 
expressions of thought: because language is only partly rational. 
The greatest difficulty of a language is the vocabulary; and 
the foundation of the vocabulary of all languages is practically 
arbitrary: there is no connexion between sound and mean- 
ing except in a few isolated words. And even that part of a 
language which can be brought more or less under general 
rules is full of irregularities and exceptions, ambiguities and 
redundancies of expression, and superfluous or irrational 
distinctions such as those of grammatical gender, so that 
when we have learnt one sentence we can never be sure that 
it will serve as a pattern for another. 

These considerations suggest a further step towards the 



UNIVERSAL LANGUAGES 



747 



attainment of a common language: to rationalize and make 
regular some existing language. Even if we agreed to adopt 
an existing language unaltered in itself, we should certainly 
get rid of its external difficulties: neither English nor French 
could become world-languages till they had got rid of their 
unphonetic spelling. But from this it would be a natural 
step to eliminate such grammatical difficulties as those of 
shall and will in English. If this were once agreed on, why 
not go a step further and get rid of all grammatical irregularities, 
making, for instance, better men into gooder mans, saw, seen 
into seed, and so on ? The vocabulary would offer little obstacle 
to a parallel simplification. The self-evident method would be 
to select certain words as the foundation: to use them as 
root-words from which all the other words could be formed 
by derivation and composition. The inconvenient length of 
many of the words so formed would then suggest reducing 
the root-words to a monosyllabic form, with such modifications 
as would be required to prevent confusions of form or meaning, 
or to make their pronunciation easier. 

It is on these principles that the well-known Volapuk (q.v.) 
is constructed (1880) the first artificial language that achieved 
a certain measure of success. But its roots are so disguised 
by arbitrary alterations that the English basis is not generally 
easy to recognize. 

Volapuk is mainly an adapted (borrowed) or a-posteriori 
language, as opposed to an original or a-priori one, although 
it belongs partly to the latter class as well. Its vocabulary 
is adapted, but its grammar is, to a great extent, original. 

On the ruins of Volapuk there rose Esperanto (q.v.), which 
by 1907 had become the most widely known and used of its 
numerous competitors. In its grammar Esperanto is partly 
original, partly borrowed. Its vocabulary is not based ex- 
clusively on that of any one language, but is selected from 
the chief European languages including Latin and Greek 
the words being generally unaltered except in spelling. The 
extensive use made of word-composition and of derivative 
prefixes and suffixes enables the author to reduce the number 
of his root-words to between two and three thousand. This 
does not include international literary, scientific and technical 
words such as professor, telegraph, which are not translated 
into Esperanto compounds or derivatives, but are simply in- 
corporated into the language with the minimum of change. 

The most formidable rival of Esperanto is unquestionably 
Idiom Neutral (1902). It is the collective work of the Akademi 
internasional de lingu universal, its real author being the director 
of the Akademi, M. Rosenberger, of St Petersburg. This 
academy was originally instituted by the two international 
Volapuk congresses in 1887 and 1889: it now numbers among 
its members not only many former adherents of the defunct 
Volapuk, but also many ex-Esperantists. The most marked 
feature of Idiom Neutral is that its vocabulary is definitely and 
consistently based on the principle of the maximum of inter- 
nationality for the roots. A systematic examination of the 
vocabularies of the seven chief European languages English, 
French, German, Spanish, Italian, Russian, Latin showed 
that the number of international roots and words was much 
greater than had been supposed. There are many, such as 
apetit and Iri, " three," which occur in all seven; and it is only 
occasionally that it has been found necessary to adopt a word 
or root which occurs in less than four of them. The result is 
that instead of the unpleasant mixture of Romance elements 
with words taken arbitrarily from English and German which 
makes a great part of the vocabulary of Esperanto unintelligible 
to learners who know only one language, Idiom Neutral offers 
a vocabulary which is practically Romance-Latin. Thus the 
Idiom Neutral ornit, " bird," and diurn, " day, " are almost 
self-interpreting even apart from any context, while the 
Esperanto bird and tag are unintelligible except to those who 
know English and German; and as the former is pronounced 
in Esperanto approximately as English beard, it is only intelli- 
gible to English speakers when written, not when spoken. In 
its grammar Idiom Neutral is almost entirely a-posteriori on a 



Romance basis, generally following French, sometimes in a 
somewhat slavish and unintelligent fashion, as in the use of 
eske as an interrogative particle, and of leplu as the mark of 
the superlative, although there is no definite article in Idiom 
Neutral. On the whole, there can be no doubt that Idiom 
Neutral is the simplest language that has yet been devised, 
and the most easily understood by any educated European; 
those who take several days to learn to read Esperanto find 
that they can read Idiom Neutral in as many minutes. Com- 
pare the following extract from a letter written by a Norwegian 
doctor to a colleague in Russia with the specimens given under 
the headings VOLAPUK and ESPERANTO: 

Idiom Neutral es usabl no sole pro skribasion, ma et pro perlasion ; 
sikause in kongres sekuant internasional de medisinisti mi av intension 
usar ist idiom pro mie raport di maladitet " lupus," e mi esper esar 
komprended per omni medisinisti present. 

But the construction of such languages is by no means so 
easy as would at first sight appear. All a-posteriori systems 
are liable to various defects, the inevitable result of the con- 
flict between their old and new elements, and the difficulties 
and embarrassments of an arbitrary selection. Thus Idiom 
Neutral, which ought to be the most perfect of these attempts, 
admits homonyms (kar=" carriage " and "dear," adj.), alter- 
native forms such as sientik and sientifik, and ambiguities 
such as filosofi, which is both an abstract noun and the plural 
of filosof, " philosopher." Esperanto is better constructed in 
this respect; but it often only avoids confusion by arbitrary 
alteration of its words. 

Another difficulty is that of national associations. No one 
likes to have his own language travestied. Thus Esperanto, 
which looks like bad Italian, is on that account less popular 
among the speakers of Romance languages (except in France) 
than elsewhere. It is a significant fact that none of the inventors 
of these languages base them on their native speech. 

And then, these languages are not international after all. 
A really international language ought to be as acceptable to 
speakers of Arabic, Chinese or Japanese as to a European. 
Even from a European point of view they are not wholly 
international. 

And they are not independent languages: they are only 
parasites sickly parasites on other languages. Their vocabu- 
laries are liable to incessant change and addition; and the 
meanings of their words are liable to be misunderstood in different 
ways by speakers of different languages. It is no answer to 
say that they are only auxiliary languages, which are not in- 
tended to supplant the national languages; for every artificial 
language must, at first at least, content itself with this role. 

It is evident that the a-priori is the only basis which is really 
international, neutral and independent. And it is a significant 
fact that the earlier attempts were all a-priori. But all these 
attempts beginning with Dalgarno's Ars signorum (1661) 
and Wilkins' well-known Real Character (1668) have been 
failures. They were failures because the ground was noV 
sufficiently prepared. A great part of Wilkins' folio is taken 
up with attempts to lay the necessary foundations. He saw 
what none of his successors has yet seen the necessity of a 
knowledge of the formation of sounds and the principles of 
their representation; and his sketch of phonetics is still valu- 
able. His classification of the ideas expressed by language is an 
attempt to do what was afterwards done by Linnaeus and his 
successors and by Roget in the Thesaurus of English Words and 
Phrases. 

Wilkins was only a dilettante, because the greater part 
of science was then only in the dilettante stage. We have a 
right now to demand that our universal language shall be the 
work, not of dilettantes, but of experts: that is, of trained 
philologists. 

Now that the ground has been prepared now that the 
principles of linguistic science are the common property of 
the educated world, and the chief languages of the earth have 
been made accessible, and whole families of languages have 
been included in comparative grammars and dictionaries we 



748 

have a right to ask that no one shall henceforth come before the 
public as the inventor of a new language till he has made him- 
self acquainted with those branches of the science of language 
which form the natural foundation for such a work. 

The first step in constructing an artificial language is to 
settle what sounds it is to contain. The answer, of course, is: 
the easiest. To the man in the street the only easy sounds are 
those of his own language. The question, which sounds are 
easiest in themselves, can only be settled by means of general 
practical phonetics, which often leads to conclusions directly 
contradicting popular prejudices. Then comes the question, 
how these sounds are to be written. It would be an easy 
matter to re-write Esperanto in the alphabet, say, of the Inter- 
national Phonetic Association, instead of its present antiquated 
and unpractical orthography; but the mere fact that the author of 
Esperanto did not take the trouble to make himself acquainted 
with the principles of phonetics and sound-representation before 
attacking so stupendous a problem makes us sceptical of his 
competence for the rest of his task. 

The grammar of the new language must not be a mere imita- 
tion of that of Latin or an ordinary modern European language: 
it must be based on first principles. The inventor, after care- 
fully considering the grammatical structure of languages of 
different types, must not only pick out what is best in each, but 
must consider whether he cannot do still better. 
As regards the vocabulary, we are told that the inventor 
of Esperanto in his first attempts to construct a new language 
began with forming his roots by arbitrary combinations of 
letters, but failed to arrive at any satisfactory result in this 
way. It is, in fact, impossible to construct words arbitrarily: 
the attempt to do so inevitably results in distorted remin- 
iscences of words already familiar to the experimenter. There 
are only two ways in which it is possible to construct an 
a-priori vocabulary: the schematic and the symbolic. The 
systems of Dalgarno and Wilkins belong to the former class. 
Wilkins's vocabulary is founded on a classification of all ideas 
under 40 categories, each expressed by the combination of a 
consonant and a vowel in a certain arbitrary (partly alphabetic) 
order. Thus de signifies " element," from which is formed the 
first subdivision deb, " fire," from which, again, is formed 
the further subdivision deba, " flame." The objections to this 
method are that there is no direct connexion between the words 
and their meanings, and that it involves not only knowing 
by heart the endless categories, and subdivisions of these, on 
which it is founded, but also their order and number a task 
beyond any human memory. Even if it were not, no one 
would care to learn a classification which the advance of know- 
ledge might render obsolete in a few years together with the 
language itself. 

The symbolic method, on the other hand, aims at establishing 
a direct association between the word and the idea it expresses, 
as is already the case, to some extent, in existing languages. 
Thus we have imitative words such as cuckoo, interjectional 
words, such as hush, and specially symbolic or gesture-words, 
such as thou, me, mother. 

The difficulty in carrying out the symbolic principle is that 
the associations are few and often vague. But the material 
is sufficient, if handled in a practical spirit. However far 
removed from theoretical perfection the result might be, it 
would have at least two advantages: (i) There would be 
none of that waste of material which is common to all natural 
languages and those artificial ones which are founded on them. 
(2) This would result in a brevity far exceeding that of the 
opposite type of language. 

A well constructed a-priori language would, indeed, have 
many uses far transcending those of a rough-and-ready language 
of the Esperanto type. It would be more than a mere auxiliary 
language. It would be useful not only as a means of inter- 
national communication, but as a means of expression superior 
in most respects to the native language: as an aid, not a 
hindrance, to accurate thought and scientific exactitude. It 
would repel by its unfamiliarity. It would have to be learnt; 



UNIVERSITIES 



and it would not be learnt without effort, for its use would imply 
accurate thought and emancipation from the associations of 
the native language. But the difficulties would be impartially 
distributed: the new language would not necessarily be more 
difficult for the speakers of one language than for those of 
another. 

The obstacles to the construction and adoption of an a-priori 
language are many; and meanwhile the need is pressing. So 
it is possible that the problem may be partially solved in the 
near future by the provisional adoption of an adapted language. 
Although such a language would not be very acceptable to 
non-European nations, it would still be easier to them than 
any European language. But whatever language may be 
adopted, it must be imposed by a competent tribunal, which, 
as in all analogous cases, will refuse to consider any scheme 
which has not been worked out by experts that is, by scientific 
linguists. (H. Sw.) 

UNIVERSITIES. 1 The medieval Latin term universitas 
(from which the English word " university " is derived) was 
originally employed to denote any community or corporation 
regarded under its collective aspect. When used in its modern 
sense, as denoting a body devoted to learning and education, 
it required the addition of other words in order to complete 
the definition the most frequent form of expression being 
" universitas magistrorum et scholarium " (or " discipulorum "). 
In the course of time, probably towards the latter part of the 
1 4th century, the term began to be used by itself, with the ex- 
clusive meaning of a community of teachers and scholars whose 
corporate existence had been recognized and sanctioned by civil 
or ecclesiastical authority or by both. But the more ancient 
and customary designation of such communities in medieval 
times (regarded as places of instruction) was " studium " (and 
subsequently " studium generale "), a term implying a centre 
of instruction for all. 2 The expressions " universitas studii " 
and " universitatis collegium " are also occasionally to be met 
with in official documents. 

It is necessary, however, to bear in mind, on the one hand, 
that a university often had a vigorous virtual existence long 
before it obtained that legal recognition which entitled it, 
technically, to take rank as a " studium generale," and, on the 
other hand, that hostels, halls and colleges, together with com- 
plete courses in all the recognized branches of learning, were by 
no means necessarily involved in the earliest conception of a 
university. The university, in its earliest stage of development, 
appears to have been simply a scholastic gild a spontaneous 
combination, that is to say, of teachers or scholars, or of both 
combined, and formed probably on the analogy of the trades 
gilds, and the gilds of aliens in foreign cities, which, in the course 
of the i3th and I4th centuries, are to be found springing up in 
most of the great European Centres. The design of these 
organizations, in the first instance, was little more than that of 
securing mutual protection for the craftsman, in the pursuit 
of his special calling; for the alien, as lacking the rights and 
privileges inherited by the citizen. And so the university, 
composed as it was to a great extent of students from foreign 
countries, was a combination formed for the protection of its 
members from the extortion of the townsmen and the 
other annoyances incident in medieval times to residence in 
a foreign state. It was a first stage of development in connexion 
with these primary organizations, when the chancellor of the 
cathedral, or some other authority, began, as we shall shortly 
see, to accord to other masters permission to open other schools 
than the cathedral school in the neighbourhood of his church; 
a further stage was reached when a licence to teach granted 
only after a formal examination empowered a master to carry 
on his vocation at any similar centre that either already existed 
or might afterwards be formed throughout Europe "facultas 

1 It is the design of the present article to exhibit the universities 
in their general historical development; more detailed information 
respecting the present condition of each will be found in the separate 
articles under topographical headings. 

* Denifle, Die Universitaten des Mittelalters, i. 1-29. 



UNIVERSITIES 



749 



ubique docendi." It was a still further development when it 
began to be recognized that, without a licence from either 
pope, emperor or king, no " studium generale " could be formed 
possessing this right of conferring degrees, which originally 
meant nothing more than licences to teach. 

In the north of Europe such licences were granted by the 
Chancellor Scholasticus, or some other officer of a cathedral 
Meaning church; in the south it is probable that the gilds of 
of masters (when these came to be formed) were at first 

"stadium^ f ree to grant their own licences, without any ecclesi- 
generaie." ast ; ca j or o ther supervision. But in all cases such per- 
missions were of a purely local character. Gradually, however, 
towards the end of the 1 2th century, a few great schools claimed 
from the excellence of their teaching to be of more than merely 
local importance. Practically a doctor of Paris or Bologna 
would be allowed to teach anywhere; while those great schools 
began to be known as studia generalia, i.e. places resorted to 
by scholars from all parts. Eventually the term came to have 
a more definite and technical signification. The emperor 
Frederick II. set the example of attempting to confer by an 
authoritative bull upon his new school at Naples the prestige 
which the earlier studia had acquired by reputation and general 
consent. In 1229 Gregory IX. did the same for Toulouse, and 
in 1233 added to its original privileges a bull by which any 
one who had been admitted to the doctorate or mastership in 
that university should have the right to teach anywhere without 
further examination. Other studia generalia were subsequently 
founded by papal or imperial bulls; and in 1292 even the oldest 
universities, Paris and Bologna, found it desirable to obtain 
similar bulls from Nicolas IV. From this time the notion began 
to prevail among the jurists that the essence of the studium 
generale was the privilege of conferring thejusubicunque docendi, 
and that no new studium could acquire that position without a 
papal or imperial bull. By this time, however, there were a few 
studia generalia (e.g. Oxford) whose position was too well estab- 
lished to be seriously questioned, although they had never 
obtained such a bull; these were held to be studia generalia ex 
consuetudine. A few Spanish universities founded by royal 
charter were held to be studia generalia respectu regni. The word 
Or! in at universitas was originally applied only to the scholastic 
the term gild (or gilds) within the studium, and was at first not 
univer- US ed absolutely; the phrase was always universitas 
slty '" magistrorum, or scholarium or magistrorum et scholarium. 

By the close of the medieval period, however, the distinction 
between the terms studium generale and universitas was more or 
less lost sight of, and in Germany especially the term universitas 
began to be used alone. 1 

In order, however, clearly to understand the conditions under 
which the earliest universities came into existence, it is necessary 

to take account, not only of their organization, but also 
His ory ^ their studies, and to recognize the main influences 
learning which, from the 6th to the I2th century, served to 
before the modify both the theory and the practice of education. 
"sit^era ^ n tne ^ ormer cent ury, tne schools of the Roman 

empire, which had down to that time kept alive the 
traditions of pagan education, had been almost entirely swept 
away by the barbaric invasions. The latter century marks 
the period when the institutions which supplied their place the 
episcopal schools attached to the cathedrals and the monastic 
schools attained to their highest degree of influence and 
reputation. Between these and the schools of the empire there 
existed an essential difference, in that the theory of education 
by which they were pervaded was in complete contrast to the 
simply secular theory of the schools of paganism. The cathedral 
school taught only what was supposed to be necessary for the 
education of the priest; the monastic school taught only what 
was supposed to be in harmony with the aims of the monk. 
But between the pagan system and the Christian system by 
which it had been superseded there yet existed something that 
was common to both: the latter, even in the narrow and meagre 
instruction which it imparted, could not altogether dispense 
1 Denifle i. 34-39. 



with the ancient text-books, simply because there were no 
others in existence. Certain treatises of Aristotle, of Porphyry, 
of Martianus Capella and of Boetius continued consequently 
to be used and studied; and in the slender outlines of pagan 
learning thus still kept in view, and in the exposition which they 
necessitated, we recognize the main cause which prevented 
the thought and literature of classic antiquity 'from falling 
altogether into oblivion. 

Under the rule of the Merovingian dynasty even these scanty 
traditions of learning declined throughout the Prankish 
dominions; but in England the designs of Gregory Revlval to 
the Great, as carried out by Theodorus, Bede and time of 
Alcuin, resulted in a great revival of education and charie- 
letters. The influence of this revival extended in the wa *" e - 
8th and gth centuries to Frankland, where Charlemagne, advised 
and aided by Alcuin, effected a memorable reformation, which 
included both the monastic and the cathedral schools; while 
the school attached to the imperial court, known as the Palace 
School, also became a famous centre of learned intercourse and 
instruction. 

But the activity thus generated, and the interest in learning 
which it served for a time to diffuse, well-nigh died out amid 
the anarchy which characterizes the loth century in Latin 
Christendom, and it is at least questionable whether any real 
connexion can be shown to have existed between this earlier 
revival and that remarkable movement in which the university 
of Paris had its origin. On the whole, however, a clearly traced, 
although imperfectly continuous, succession of distinguished 
teachers has inclined the majority of those who have studied 
this obscure period to conclude that a certain tradition of learn- 
ing, handed down from the famous school over which Alcuin 
presided at the great abbey of St Martin at Tours, continued 
to survive, and became the nucleus of the teaching in Qga 
which the university took its rise. But, in order ca ""sot 
adequately to explain the remarkable development formation 
and novel character which that teaching assumed in of ant 
the course of the I2th and i3th centuries, it is neces- 
sary to take account of the operation of certain more 
general causes to which the origin of the great majority of the 
earlier universities may in common unhesitatingly be referred. 
These causes are (i) the introduction of new subjects of study, 
as embodied in a new or revived literature; (2) the adoption 
of new methods of teaching which were rendered necessary 
by the new studies; (3) the growing tendency to organization 
which accompanied the development and consolidation of the 
European nationalities. 

That the earlier universities took their rise to a great extent 
in endeavours to obtain and provide instruction of a kind be- 
yond the range of the monastic and cathedral schools /y se / 
appears to be very generally admitted, but with respect untver- 
to the origin of the first European university that of *''? ol 
Salerno in Italy, which became known as a school of 
medicine as early as the gth century the circumstances are 
pronounced by a recent investigator to be " veiled in im- 
penetrable obscurity." 2 One writer 3 derives its origin from an 
independent tradition of classical learning which continued to 
exist in Italy down to the loth century. Another writer 4 
maintains that it had its beginning in the teaching at the famous 
Benedictine monastery of Monte Cassino, where the study of 
medicine was undoubtedly pursued. But the most authori- 
tative researches point to the conclusion that the medical 
system of Salerno was originally an outcome of the Graeco- 
Roman tradition of the old Roman world, and the Arabic 
medicine was 'not introduced till the highest fame of the Civitas 
Hippocratica was passing away. It may have been influenced 
by the late survival of the Greek language in southern Italy, 
though this cannot be proved. In the first half of the oth 
century the emperor at Constantinople sent to the Caliph 

2 Rashdall, Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, i. 76. 

3 De Renzi, Storia Documentata delta Scuola Medica di Salerno 
(ed. 1857), p. 145. 

4 Puccinotti, Storia delta Medicina, i. 317-26. 



750 



UNIVERSITIES 



Mamoun at Bagdad a considerable collection of Greek manu- 
scripts, which seems to have given the earliest impulse to the 
study of the Hellenic pagan literature by the Saracens. The 
original texts were translated into Arabic by Syrian Christians, 
and these versions were, in turn, rendered into Latin for the 
use of teachers in the West. Of the existence of such versions 
we have evidence, according to Jourdain, 1 long prior to the 
time when Constantine the African (d. 1087) began to deliver his 
lectures on the science at Salerno, although these early versions 
have since altogether disappeared. Under his teaching the 
fame of Salerno as a medical school became diffused all over 
Europe; it was distinguished also by its catholic spirit, and, at 
a time when Jews were the object of religious persecution 
throughout Europe, members of this nationality were to be 
found both as teachers and learners at Salerno. Ordericus 
Vitalis, who wrote in the first half of the I2th century, speaks 
of it as then long famous. In 1231 it was constituted by the 
emperor Frederick II. the only school of medicine in the king- 
dom of Naples. 

The great revival of legal studies which took place at Bologna 
about the year 1000 had also been preceded by a corresponding 
activity elsewhere at Pavia by a famous school of 
Bologna. Lombard ia Wj an d a t Ravenna by a yet more important 
school of Roman law. And in Bologna itself we have evidence 
that the Digest was known and studied before the time of 
Irnerius (1100-30), a certain Pepo being named as lecturing on 
the text about the year 1076. The traditional story about the 
" discovery " of the Pandects at Amalfi in 1135 was disproved 
even before the time of Savigny. Schulte has shown that the 
publication of the Decretum of Gratian must be placed earlier 
than the traditional date, i.e. not later than 1142. This instruc- 
tion again was of a kind which the monastic and cathedral 
schools could not supply, and it also contributed to meet a new 
and pressing demand. The neighbouring states of Lombardy 
were at this time increasing rapidly in population and in wealth; 
and the greater complexity of their political relations, their 
growing manufactures and commerce, demanded a more 
definite application of the principles embodied in the codes that 
had been handed down by Theodosius and Justinian.- But the 
distinctly secular character of this new study, and its close 
connexion with the claims and prerogatives of the Western 
emperor, aroused at first the susceptibilities of the Roman see, 
and for a time Bologna and its civilians were regarded by the 
church with distrust and even with alarm. These sentiments 
were not, however, of long duration. In the year 1151 the 
appearance of the Decretum of Gratian, largely com- 
piled from spurious documents, invested the studies 
of the canonist with fresh importance; and numer- 
ous decrees of past and almost forgotten pontiffs 
now claimed to take their stand side by side with 
the enactments contained in the Corpus Juris Civilis. 
They constituted, in fact, the main basis of those new pretensions 
asserted with so much success by the popedom in the course of 
the i2th and I3th centuries. It was necessary, accordingly, that 
the Decretum should be known and studied beyond the walls 
of the monastery or the episcopal palace, and that its pages 
should receive authoritative exposition at some common centre 
of instruction. Such a centre was to be found in Bologna. The 
needs of the secular student and of the ecclesiastical student were 
thus brought for a time into accord, and from the days of 
Irnerius down to the close of the i3th century we have satis- 
factory evidence that Bologna was generally recognized as the 
chief school both of the civil and the canon law. 2 It has, indeed, 
been asserted that university degrees were instituted there as 
early as the pontificate of Eugenius III. (1145-53), Dut the 
statement rests on no good authority, and is in every way im- 
probable. There is, however, another tradition which is in 
better harmony with the known facts. When Barbarossa 
marched his forces into Italy on his memorable expedition of 
1155, and reasserted those imperial claims which had so long 

1 Sur I'dge et Vorigine des troductions latines, &c., p. 225. 
1 Denifle, Die Universitdten, &c., i. 48. 



Decre- 
tum of 
Qratlaa 
and the 
canon 
law. 



lain dormant, the professors of the civil law and their scholars, 
but more especially the foreign students, gathered Foreiga 
round the Western representative of the Roman students 
Caesars, and besought his intervention in their favour at 
in their relations with the citizens of Bologna. A large BoI X"* 
proportion of the students were probably from Germany; and it 
did not escape Frederick's penetration that the civilian might 
prove an invaluable ally in the assertion of his imperial preten- 
sions. He received the suppliants graciously, and, finding that 
their grievances were real, especially against the landlords in 
whose houses they were domiciled, he granted the foreign 
students substantial protection, by conferring on them certain 
special immunities and privileges (November ns8). 3 These 
privileges were embodied in the celebrated Authentica, Habita, in 
the Corpus Juris Civilis of the empire (bk. iv. tit. 13), and were 
eventually extended so as to include all the other universities of 
Italy. In them we may discern the precedent for that state pro- 
tection of the university which, however essential at one time for 
the security and freedom of the teacher and the taught, has been 
far from proving an unmixed benefit the influence which the 
civil power has thus been able to exert being too often wielded for 
the suppression of that very liberty of thought and inquiry from 
which the earlier universities derived in no small measure their 
importance and their fame. 

But, though there was a flourishing school of study, it is to 
be observed that Bologna did not possess a university so early 
as 1158. Its first university was not constituted until Thg ,, ual , 
the close of the 1 2th century. The " universities " at ve rsitfes" 
Bologna were, as Denifle has shown, really student gilds, at 
formed under influences quite distinct from the pro- Bol x oa - 
tecting clauses of the Authenticated suggested, as already noted, 
by the precedent of those foreign gilds which, in the course of the 
1 2th century, began to rise throughout western Europe. These 
were originally only two in number, the Ultramontani and the 
Citramontani, and arose out of the absolute necessity, under 
which residents in a foreign city found themselves, of obtaining 
by combination that protection and those rights which they could 
not claim as citizens. These societies were modelled, Denifle 
considers, not on the trade gilds which rose in Bologna in the 
i3th century, but on the Teutonic gilds which arose nearly a 
century earlier in north-western Europe, being essentially " spon- 
taneous confederations of aliens on a foreign soil." Originally, 
they did not include the native student element and were 
composed* exclusively of students in law. 

The power resulting from this principle of combination, 
when superadded to the privileges conferred by Barbarossa, 
gave to the students of Bologna a superiority of which Their 
they were not slow to avail themselves. Under the demo- 
leadership of their rector^ they extorted from the cratic 
citizens concessions which raised them from the condition 
of an oppressed to that of a specially privileged class. 
The same principle, when put in force against the professors, 
reduced the latter to a position of humble deference to the very 
body whom they were called upon to instruct, and imparted to 
the entire university that essentially democratic character by 
which it was afterwards distinguished. It is not surprising 
that such advantages should have led to an imitation and 
extension of the principle by which they were obtained. Denifle 
considers that the " universities " at Bologna were at one time 
certainly more than four in number, and we know that the 
Italian students alone were subdivided into two the other 
Tuscans and the Lombards. In the centres formed by similar 
secession from the parent body a like subdivision took com- 
place. At Vercelli there were four universities, com- 
posed respectively of Italians, English, Provencals and 
Germans; at Padua there were similar divisions into Italians, 

8 See Savigny, Gesch. d. rant. Rechts, iii. 152, 491-92. See also 
Giesebrecht, Gesch. d. Kaiserzeit (ed. 1880), v. 51-52. The story is 
preserved in a recently discovered metrical composition descriptive 
of the history of Frederick I.; see Sitzungsberichte d. Bairisch. 
Akad. d. Wissenschaft, Phil.-Hist. Klasse (1879), ii. 285. Its authen- 
ticity is called in question by Denifle, but it would seem to be quite 
in harmony with the known facts. 



char- 
acter. 



to It&lv 



UNIVERSITIES 



75 1 



French (i.e. Francigenae, comprising both English and Nor- 
mans), Provencals (including Spaniards and Catalans). When, 
accordingly, we learn from Odofred that in the time of the 
eminent jurist Azo, who lectured at Bologna about 1200, the 
number of the students there amounted to some ten thousand, 
of whom the majority were foreigners, it seems reasonable to 
conclude that the number of these confederations of students 
(societates scholarium) at Bologna was yet greater. It is cer- 
tain that they were not formed simultaneously, but, similarly 
to the free gilds, one after the other the last in order being that 
of the Tuscans, which was composed of students from Tuscany, 
the Campagna and Rome. Nor are we, again, to look upon them 
as in any way the outcome of those democratic principles which 
found favour in Bologna, but rather as originating in the tra- 
ditional home associations of the foreign students, fostered, how- 
ever, by the peculiar conditions of their university life. As the 
Tuscan division (the one least in sympathy, in most respects, with 
Teutonic institutions) was the last formed, so, Denifle conjectures, 
the German " university " may have introduced the conception 
which was successively adopted by the other nationalities. 

In marked resemblance to the gilds, these confederations 
were presided over by a common head, the " rector schola- 
rium,"an obvious imitation of the " rector societatum " 
or " artium " of the gild, but to be carefully distin- 
guished from the " rector scholarum " or director of the 
studies, with whose function the former officer had, at this 
time, nothing in common. Like the gilds, again, the different 
nations were represented by their " consiliarii," a deliberative 
assembly with whom the rector habitually took counsel. 

While recognizing the essentially democratic character of 
the constitution of these communities, it is to be remembered 
Mature that the students, unlike the majority at Paris and later 
age of the universities, were mostly at this time of mature years. 

students, fa tne c j v jj j aw an( j t jj e canon J aw were a fi rs t jjj e on ly 

branches of study, the class whom they attracted were often 
men already filling office in some department of the church 
or state archdeacons, the heads of schools, canons of cathe- 
drals, and like functionaries forming a considerable element in the 
aggregate. It has been observed, indeed, that the permission 
accorded them by Frederick I. of choosing, in all cases of dis- 
pute, their own tribunal, thus constituting them, to a great extent, 
sui juris, seems to presuppose a certain maturity of judgment 
among those on whom this discretionary power was bestowed. 

Innocent IV., in according his sanction to the new statutes 
of the university in 1253, refers to them as drawn up by the 
Forma- " rec t res et universitas scholarium Bononiensium." 
tloa of About the year 1 200 were formed the two faculties 

O f medicine and philosophy (or " the arts " l ) , the former 
being somewhat the earlier. It was developed, as that 
of the civil law had been developed, by a succession of 
Faculties a bi e teachers, among whom Thaddeus Alderottus was 
especially eminent. The faculty of arts, down to the 
I4th century, scarcely attained to equal eminence. The 
teaching of theology remained for a long time exclusively in the 
hands of the Dominicans; and it was not until the year 1360 that 
Innocent VI. recognized Bologna as a " studium generate " in this 
branch in other words, as a place of theological education for all 
students, with the power of conferring degrees of universal validity. 
In the year 1371 the cardinal legate, Anglicus, compiled, 
as chief director of ecclesiastical affairs in the city, an account 
Account ^ tne university, which he presented to Urban V. 
of the The information it supplies is, however, defective, 
unlver- owing to the fact that only the professors who were in 
rece ipt of salaries from the municipality are mentioned. 
Of these there were twelve of civil law and six of canon 
law; three of medicine, three of practical medicine and one 
of surgery; two of logic, and one each of astrology, rhetoric 

1 The arts course of study was that represented by the ancient 
trivium (i.e. grammar, logic and rhetoric) and the quodrivium (i.e. 
arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy) as handed down from 
the schools of the Roman empire. See J. B. Mullinger's History of 
the University of Cambridge, i. 24-27. 



versi- 
tates. 



Insti- 
tuted. 



and notarial practice. The professors of theology, who, as 
members of the religious orders, received no state remuneration, 
are unmentioned. The significance of the term " college," as 
first employed at Bologna, differed, like that of " university," 
from that which it subsequently acquired. The collegia of the 
doctors no more connoted the idea of a place of residence than 
did the universilates of the students. There were the College 
of Doctors of Civil Law, the College of Doctors of Canon. Law, 
the College of Doctors in Medicine and Arts and The 
(from 1352) the College of Doctors in Theology, univer- 
Though the professors were largely dependent upon titles at 
the students, they had separate organizations of their Bol f tta - 
own; the college alone was concerned in the conferment of 
degrees. Each faculty was therefore at Bologna entirely inde- 
pendent of every other (except for the union of medicine and 
arts): the only connecting link between them was the necessity 
of obtaining their degrees (after 1219) from the same chancellor, 
the archdeacon of Bologna. The decline in the reputation of 
the studium from about 1250 was largely due to the successful 
efforts of the doctors to exclude all but Bolognese citizens from 
membership of the doctoral colleges (which alone possessed the 
valuable " right of promotion "), and from the more valuable 
salaried chairs. They even attempted and partially succeeded 
in restricting these privileges to members of their own families. 

Colleges as places of residence for students existed, however, 
at Bologna at a very early date, but it is not until the The 
i.4th century that we find them possessing any arUest 
organization; and the humble domus, as it was termed, colleges. 
was at first designed solely for necessitous students, not 
being natives of Bologna. A separate house, with a certain 
fund for the maintenance of a specified number of scholars, was 
all that was originally contemplated. Such was the character 
of that founded by Zoen, bishop of Avignon, in February 
1256 (O.S.), the same month and year, it is to be noted, in 
which the Sorbonne was founded in Paris. It was designed 
for the maintenance of eight scholars from the province 
of Avignon, under the supervision of three canons of the 
church, maintaining themselves in the university. Each 
scholar was to receive 24 Bolognese lire annually for five years. 
The college of Brescia was founded in 1326 by William of 
Brescia, archdeacon of Bologna, for poor foreign students 
without distinction as to nationality. The Spanish college, 
founded in 1364, for twenty-four Spanish scholars and two 
chaplains, is noted by Denifle as the one college founded in 
medieval times which still exists on the Continent. 

Of the general fact that the early universities rose in response 
to new wants the commencement of the university of Paris 
supplies us with a further illustration. The study origin of 
of logic, which, prior to the I2th century, was founded univer- 
exclusively on one or two meagre compends, received slf y f 
about the year noo, on two occasions, a powerful p " s ' 
stimulus in the first instance, from the memorable controversy 
between Lanfranc and Berengar; in the second, from the no 
less famous controversy between Anselm and Roscellinus. A 
belief sprang up that an intelligent apprehension of spiritual 
truth depended on a correct use of prescribed methods of 
argumentation. Dialectic was looked upon as " the 
science of sciences"; and when, somewhere in the 
first decade of the 1 2th century, William of Champeaux 
opened in Paris a school for the more advanced study of dialectic 
as an art, his teaching was attended with marked success. 
Among his pupils was Abelard, in whose hands the study made 
a yet more notable advance; so that, by the middle of the 
century, we find John of Salisbury, on returning from the 
French capital to England, relating with astonishment, not 
unmingled with contempt, how all learned Paris had gone well- 
nigh mad in its pursuit and practice of the new dialectic. 

Abelard taught in the first instance at the cathedral school 
at Notre Dame, and subsequently at the schools on Teaching 
the Montagne Ste Genevieve, of which he was the of 
founder, and where he imparted to logic its new <4* e '* 
development. But in 1147 the secular canons of Ste Genevieve 



Study of 
logic. 



752 



UNIVERSITIES 



gave place to canons regular from St Victor; and henceforth 
the school on the former foundation was merely a 
school for the teaching of theology, and was attended 
only by the members of the house. 1 The schools out of 
which the university arose were those attached to the cathedral 
on the lie de la Cite, and presided over by the chancellor a 
dignitary who must be carefully distinguished from the later 
chancellor of the university. For a long time the teachers 
lived in separate houses on the island, and it was only by degrees 
that they combined themselves into a society, and that special 
buildings were constructed for their class-work. But the flame 
which Abelard's teaching had kindled was not destined to 
Lorn- expire. Among his pupils was Peter Lombard, who 
bard's was bishop of Paris in 1159, and widely known to 
"Sen- posterity as the compiler of the famous volume of the 
fences." Sentences. The design of this work was to place before 
the student, in as strictly logical a form as practicable, the views 
(sententiae) of the fathers and all the great doctors of the church 
upon the chief and most difficult points in the Christian belief. 
Conceived with the purpose of allaying and preventing, it 
really stimulated, controversy. The logicians seized upon it 
as a great storehouse of indisputable major premises, on which 
they argued with renewed energy and with endless ingenuity 
of dialectical refinement; and upon this new compendium 
of theological doctrine, which became the text-book of the 
middle ages, the schoolmen, in their successive treatises Super 
sententias, expended a considerable share of that subtlety and 
labour which still excite the astonishment of the student of 
metaphysical literature. 

It is in these prominent features in the history of these early 
universities the development of new methods of instruction 
Rise at concurrently with the appearance of new material 
other for their application that we find the most probable 
early l ff a *~ solution of the question as to how the university, 
as distinguished from the older cathedral or monastic 
schools, was first formed. In a similar manner, it seems prob- 
able, the majority of the earlier universities of Italy Reggio, 
Modena, Vicenza, Padua and Vercelli arose, for they had 
their origin independently alike of the civil and the papal 
authority. Instances, it is true, occur, which cannot be referred 
to this spontaneous mode of growth. The university of Naples, 
for example, was founded solely by the fiat of the emperor 
Frederick II. in the year 1224; and, if we may rely upon the 
documents cited by Denifle, Innocent IV. about the year 1245 
founded in connexion with the curia a " studium generale, " 2 
which was attached to the papal court, and followed it when 
removed from Rome, very much as the Palace School of Charles 
the Great accompanied that monarch on his progresses. 

As the university of Paris became the model, not only for 
the universities of France north of the Loire, but also for the 
great majority of those of central Europe as well as 
for Oxford and Cambridge, some account of its early 
organization will here be indispensable. Such an 
account is rendered still further necessary by the fact 
that the recent and almost exhaustive researches of 
Denifle, the Dominican father, have led him to con- 
clusions which on some important points run altogether counter 
to those sanctioned by the high authority of Savigny 

The original university, as already stated, took its rise entirely 
out of the movement carried on by teachers on the island, who 
taught by virtue of the licence conferred by the chancellor of 
the cathedral. In the second decade of the i3th century, it is 
true, we find masters withdrawing themselves from his authority 
by repairing to the left bank of the Seine and placing them- 
selves under the jurisdiction of the abbot of the monastery of 
Ste Genevieve; and in 1255 this dignitary is to be found 

1 The view of Thurot (De I 'organisation de I'enseignement dans 
I'universM de Paris, pp. 4-7) that the university arose out of a 
combination of these several schools is rejected by Denifle (see Die 
Universitaten, &c., i. 653-94). 

2 Where the words studium generate are placed within marks of 
quotation they occur in the original charter of foundation of the 
university referred to. 



Early 
organiza- 
tion of 
univer- 
sity of 
Paris. 



appointing a chancellor whose duty it should be to confer 
licentia docendi on those candidates who were desirous of 
opening schools in that district. But it was around the bestowal 
of this licence by the chancellor of Notre Dame, on the lie de la 
Cite, that the university of Paris grew up. It is in this licence 
that the whole significance of the master of arts degree is con- 
tained; for what is technically .known as admission Jnceptloa 
to that degree was really nothing more nor less than 
receiving the chancellor's permission to " incept," and by 
" inception " was implied the master's formal entrance upon, 
and commencement of, the functions of a duly licensed 
teacher, and his recognition as such by his brothers in the 
profession. The previous stage of his academic career, that of 
bachelordom, had been one of apprenticeship for the The 
mastership; and his emancipation from this state bachelor 
was symbolized by placing the magisterial cap (biretto) of arts. 
upon his head, a ceremony which, in imitation of the old 
Roman ceremony of manumission, was performed by his 
former instructor, " under whom " he was said to incept. 
He then gave a formal inaugural lecture, and, after this proof 
of magisterial capacity, was welcomed into the society of his 
professional brethren with set speeches, and took his seat in 
his master's chair. 

This community of teachers of recognized fitness did not in 
itself suffice to constitute a university, but some time between 
the years 1 1 50 and 1 1 70, the period when the Sentences f^ e ua i. 
of Peter Lombard were given to the world, the uni- versity 
versity of Paris came formally into being. Its first formed. 
written statutes were not, however, compiled until about the 
year 1208, and it was not until long after that date that it 
possessed a " rector." Its earliest recognition as a legal cor- 
poration belongs to about the year 1211, when a brief of Inno- 
cent III. empowered it to elect a proctor to be its representative 
at the papal court. By this permission it obtained the right 
to sue or to be sued in a court of justice as a corporate body. 

This papal recognition was, however, very far from im- 
plying the episcopal recognition, and the earlier history of the 
new community exhibits it as in continual conflict alike 
with the chancellor, the bishop and the cathedral cuitks of 
chapter of Paris, by all of whom it was regarded as a first 
centre of insubordination and doctrinal licence. Had t ^n P ~ 
it not been, indeed, for the papal aid, the university 
would probably not have survived the contest; but with 
that powerful assistance it came to be regarded as the great 
Transalpine centre of orthodox theological teaching. Successive 
pontiffs, down to the great schism of 1378, made it one of the 
foremost points of their policy to cultivate friendly and con- 
fidential relations with the authorities of the university of Paris, 
and systematically to discourage the formation of theological 
faculties at other centres. In 1231 Gregory IX., in the bull 
Parens Scientiarum, gave full recognition to the right of the 
several faculties to regulate and modify the constitution of the 
entire university a formal sanction which, in Denifle's opinion, 
rendered the bull in question the Magna Charta of the university. 

In comparing the relative antiquity of the universities oi 
Paris and Bologna, it is difficult to give an unqualified decision. 
The university of masters at the former was probably slightly 
anterior to the university of students at the latter; but there is 
good reason for believing that Paris, in reducing its traditional 
customs to statutory form, largely availed itself of the precedents 
afforded by the already existing code of the Transalpine centre. 
The fully developed university was divided into four faculties 
three " superior," viz. those of theology, canon law and 
medicine, and one " inferior," that of arts, which was divided 
into four " nations." These nations, which included both 
professors and scholars, were (i) the French nation, composed, 
in addition to t.he native element, of Spaniards, 
Italians and Greeks; (2) the Picard nation, repre- tions"'*' 
senting the students from the north-east and from 
the Netherlands; (3) the Norman nation; (4) the English 
nation, comprising, besides students from the provinces under 
English rule, those from England, Ireland, Scotland and 



UNIVERSITIES 



753 



Germany. The head of each faculty was the dean; the head 
of each nation was the proctor. The rector, who in the first 
instance was head of the faculty of arts, by whom he was elected, 
was eventually head of the whole university. In congregations 
of the university matters were decided by a majority of faculties; 
the vote of the faculty of arts was determined by a majority of 
nations. The chancellor of Notre Dame, whose functions were 
now limited to the conferment of the licence, stood as such 
outside the university or gild altogether, though as a doctor of 
theology he was always a member of that faculty. Only 
" regents," that is, masters actually engaged in teaching, had 
any right to be present or to vote in congregations. Neither 
the entire university nor the separate faculties had thus, it will 
be seen, originally a common head, and it was not until the 
middle of the I4th century that the rector became the head of 
the collective university, by the incorporation under him, first, 
of the students of the canon law and of medicine (which took 
place about the end of the I3th century), and, secondly, of 
the theologians, which took place about half a century later. 

In the course of the i6th and I7th centuries this democratic 
constitution of the middle ages was largely superseded by the 
growth of a small oligarchy of officials. The tribunal of the 
university the rector, deans and proctors came to occupy 
a somewhat similar position to the old " Hebdomadal Board " 
of heads of colleges at Oxford and the Caput at Cambridge. 
Moreover, the teaching functions of the university, or rather of 
the faculty of arts, owing chiefly to the absence of any endow- 
ment for the regents or teaching graduates, practically passed 
to the colleges. Almost as much as the English universities, 
Paris came to be virtually reduced to a federation of colleges, 
though the colleges were at Paris less independent of university 
authority, while the smaller colleges sent their members to 
receive instruction in the larger ones (colleges de plein exercise), 
which received large numbers of non-foundation members. 
This state of things lasted till the French Revolution swept 
away the whole university system of the middle ages. It may 
be remarked that the famous Sorbonne was really the most 
celebrated college of Paris founded by Robert de 
Sorbonne circa 1257 but as this college and the college 
of Navarre were the only college foundations which 
provided for students in theology, the close connexion of the 
former with the faculty and the use of its hall for the disputa- 
tions of that body led to the word Sorbonne becoming a popular 
term for the theological faculty of Paris. 

Apart from the broad differences in their organization, 
the very conception of learning, it will be observed, was different 
Paris and at Bologna from what it was at Paris. In the former 
Bologna it was entirely professional designed, that is to say, 
con- to prepare the student for a definite and practical 

trusted, career in after life; in the latter it was sought to 
provide a general mental training, and to attract the learner 
to studies which were speculative rather than practical. In 
the sequel, the less mercenary spirit in which Paris cultivated 
knowledge added immensely to her influence and reputation, 
which about the middle of the i4th century may be said to have 
reached their apogee. It had forty colleges, governed either 
by secular or religious communities, and numbered among its 
students representatives of every country in Europe (Jourdain, 
Excursions historiques, c. xiv.). The university became known 
as the great school where theology was studied in its most 
scientific spirit; and the decisions of its great doctors upon 
those abstruse questions which absorbed so much of the highest 
intellectual activity of the middle ages were regarded as 
almost final. The popes themselves, although averse from 
theological controversies, deemed it expedient to 
cultivate friendly relations with a centre of such im- 
portance for the purpose of securing their influence 
in a yet wider field. Down therefore to the time of the great 
schism (1378), they at once conciliated the university of Paris 
and consulted what they deemed to be the interests of the 
Roman see, by discouraging the creation of faculties of theology 
elsewhere. The apparent exceptions to this policy are easily 



The Sor- 
bonne. 



Papal 
Policy. 



explained: the four faculties of theology which they sanctioned 
in Italy Pisa (1343), Florence (1349), Bologna (1362). and 
Padua (1363) were designed to benefit the Italian monasteries, 
by saving the monks the expense and dangers of a long journey 
beyond the Alps; while that at Toulouse (1229) took its rise 
under circumstances entirely exceptional, being designed as a 
bulwark against the heresy of the Albigenses. The popes, on 
the other hand, favoured the creation of new faculties of law, 
and especially of the canon law, as the latter represented the 
source from which Rome derived her most warmly contested 
powers and prerogatives. The effects of this twofold policy 
were sufficiently intelligible: the withholding of each charter 
which it was sought to obtain for a new school of theology 
only served to augment the numbers that flocked to Paris; 
the bestowal of each new charter for a faculty of law served in 
like manner to divert a certain proportionate number from 
Bologna. These facts enable us to understand how it is that, 
in the i3th and I4th centuries, we find, even in France, a larger 
number of universities created after the model of Bologna 
than after that of Paris. 

In their earliest stage, however, the importance of these 
new institutions was but imperfectly discerned alike by the 
civil and the ecclesiastical power, and the first four univer- 
sities of Italy, after Bologna, rose into existence, like Bologna 
itself, without a charter from either pope or emperor. Of these 
the first were those of Reggio nell' Emilia and Modena, both 
of which are to be found mentioned as schools of civil law 
before the close of the i2th century. The latter, throughout 
the i3th century, appears to have been resorted to Reggio 
by teachers of sufficient eminence to form a flourish- and 
ing school, composed of students not only from the Modena. 
city itself, but also from a considerable distance. Both 
of them would seem to have been formed independently of 
Bologna, but the university of Vicenza was probably 
the outcome of a migration of the students from the 
former city, which took place in the year 1204. During the 
next fifty years Vicenza attained to considerable prosperity, 
and appears to have been recognized by Innocent III.; its 
students were divided into four nations, each with its own 
rector; and in 1264 it included in its professoriate teachers, 
not only of the civil law, but also of medicine, grammar and 
dialectic. The university of Padua was unquestion- 
ably the direct result of the migration in 1222 of a 
considerable number of students from Bologna. Some 
writers, indeed, have inferred that the " studium " in the 
latter city was transferred in its entirety, but the continued 
residence of a certain proportion in Bologna is proved by the 
fact that two years later we find them appealing to Honorius III. 
in a dispute with the civic authorities. In the year 1228 the 
students of Padua were compelled by circumstances to transfer 
their residence to Vercelli, and the latter city guaranteed them, 
besides other privileges, the right to rent no less than five hun- 
dred lodging-houses at a fixed rental for a period of eight years. 
At first Padua was a school only of the civil and canon law; and 
during the oppressive tyranny of Ezzelin (1237-60) the uni- 
versity maintained its existence with some difficulty. But in the 
latter part of the century it incorporated the faculties of grammar, 
rhetoric and medicine, and became known as one of the most 
flourishing schools of Italy, and a great centre of the Dominicans, 
at that time among the most active promoters of learning. 

The university of Naples was founded by the emperor 
Frederick II. in the year 1225, as a school of theology, juris- 
prudence, the arts and medicine his design being 
that his subjects in the kingdom of Naples should 
find in the capital adequate instruction in every branch of learn- 
ing, and " not be compelled in the pursuit of knowledge to have 
recourse to foreign nations- or to beg in other lands." In 
the year 1231, however, he decreed that the faculty of medicine 
should cease to exist, and that the study should be pursued 
nowhere in the kingdom but at Salerno. The university 
never attained to much eminence, and after the death of 
Frederick came for a time altogether to an end, but was restored 



754 



UNIVERSITIES 



in 1258 by King Manfred. In 1266 its faculty of medicine 
was reconstituted, and from 1272-74 Thomas Aquinas was one 
of its teachers of theology. The commencement of the uni- 
versity of Vercelli belongs to about the year 1228; it pro- 
bably included, like Naples, all the faculties, but 
VerceUl. wou id seem to have been regarded with little favour 
by the Roman See, and by the year 1372 had ceased to exist, 
although mention of colleges of law and medicine is to be found 
after that date. The two universities of Piacenza and Pavia 
stand in close connexion with each other. The 
Pifceaza. f ormer ; s no t e d by Denifle as the earliest in Italy which 
was founded by virtue of a papal charter (6th February 1248), 
although the scheme remained for a long time inoperative. At 
length, in the year 1398, the university was reconstituted by 
Giovanni Galeazzo Visconti, duke of Milan, who in the same 
year caused the university of Pavia to be transferred thither. 
Piacenza now became the scene of a sudden but short-lived 
academic prosperity. We are told of no less than twenty- 
seven professors of the civil law among them the celebrated 
Baldus; of twenty-two professors of medicine; of professors 
of philosophy, astrology, grammar and rhetoric; and of lec- 
turers on Seneca and Dante. The faculty of theology would 
appear, however, never to have been duly constituted, and 
but one lecturer in this faculty is mentioned. With the death 
of Galeazzo in 1402, this precarious activity came suddenly 
to an end; and in 1404 the university had ceased to exist. 
Its history is, indeed, unintelligible, unless taken in conjunction 
with that of Pavia. Even before Irnerius taught at Bologna, 
Pavia had been widely known as a seat of legal studies, 
fltv **' and more especially of the Lombard law, although 
the evidence is wanting which would serve to establish a direct 
connexion between this early school and the university which 
was founded there in 1361, by virtue of the charter granted 
by the emperor Charles IV. The new " studium " included 
faculties of jurisprudence, philosophy, medicine and the arts, 
and its students were formally taken under the imperial pro- 
tection, and endowed with privileges identical with those 
which had been granted to Paris, Bologna, Oxford, Orleans 
and Montpellier; but its ' existence in Pavia was suddenly 
suspended by the removal, above noted, of its students to 
Piacenza. It shared again in the decline which overtook 
the university of Piacenza after the death of Giovanni Galeazzo, 
and during the period from 1404 to 1412 it altogether ceased 
to exist. But in October 1412 the lectures were recommenced, 
and the university entered upon the most brilliant period of its 
existence. Its professors throughout the 15th century were 
men of distinguished ability, attracted by munificent salaries 
such as but few other universities could offer, while in the 
number of students who resorted thither from other countries, 
and more especially for the study of the civil law, Pavia had no 
rival in Italy but Padua. Arezzo appears to have been 
known as a centre of the same study so early as 1215, 
and its earliest statutes are assigned to the year 1.255. By 
that time it had become a school of arts and medicine also; 
but for a considerable period after it was almost entirely de- 
serted, and is almost unmentioned until the year 1338, when 
it acquired new importance by the accession of several eminent 
jurists from Bologna. In May 1355 it received its charter as 
a studium generate from Charles IV. After the year 1373 the 
school gradually dwindled, although it did not become alto- 
gether extinct until about the year 1470. The university of 
Rome (which is to be carefully distinguished from the 
me ' school attached to the Curia) owed its foundation 
(1303) to Boniface VIII., and was especially designed by that 
pontiff for the benefit of the poor foreign students sojourning 
in the capital. It originally included all the faculties; but in 
1318 John XXII. decreed that it should possess the power 
of conferring degrees only in the canon and civil law. The 
university maintained its existence throughout the period of 
the residence of the popes of Avignon, and under the patron- 
age of Leo X. could boast in 1514 of no less than eighty pro- 
fessors. This imposing array would seem, however, to be but a 



Arezzo. 



fallacious test of the prosperity of the academic community, 
for it is stated that many of the professors, owing to the im- 
perfect manner in which they were protected in their privileges, 
were in the receipt of such insufficient fees that they were 
compelled to combine other employments with that of lecturing 
in order to support themselves. An appeal addressed to Leo X. 
in the year 1513 represents the number of students as so 
small as to be sometimes exceeded by that of the lecturers 
(" ut quandoque plures sint qui legant quam qui audiant "). 
Scarcely any of the universities in Italy in the i4th century 
attracted a larger concourse than that of Perugia, Pen/ w a 
where the study chiefly cultivated was that of the 
civil law. The university received its charter as a studium 
generate from Clement V. in the year 1308, but had already 
in 1306 been formally recognized by the civic authorities, by 
whom it was commended to the special care and protection 
of the podesta. In common with the rest of the Italian uni- 
versities, it suffered severely from the great plague of 1348-49; 
but in 1355 it received new privileges from the emperor, and 
in 1362 its first college, dedicated to Gregory the Great, was 
founded by the bishop of Perugia. The university of 
Treviso, which received its charter from Frederick 
the Fair in 1318, was of little celebrity and but short duration. 
The circumstances of the rise of the university of F/orence- 
Florence are unknown, but the earliest evidence of 
academic instruction belongs to the year 1320. The dis- 
persion of the university of Bologna, in the March and April 
of the following year, afforded a favourable opportunity for 
the creation of a studium generate, but the necessary measures 
were taken somewhat tardily, and in the meantime the greater 
number of the Bolognese students had betaken themselves 
to Siena, where for the space of three years twenty-two pro- 
fessors gathered round them a body of enthusiastic students. 
Eventually the majority returned to Bologna, and when in 1338 
that city was placed under an interdict by Benedict XII. 
another exodus of students repaired to Pisa, which in 1343 
received from Clement VI. its charter as a studium generate. 
Closed in 1406, Pisa, aided by the powerful intervention of 
Lorenzo de' Medici, reopened in 1473, to undergo, however, a 
long series of vicissitudes which at last found a termination in 
1850, when its fortunes were placed on a more stable basis, and it 
gradually acquired the reputation of ranking among the foremost 
universities of a reunited Italy. The charter of foundation for 
Florence, on the other hand, was not granted until May 31, 
1349, when Clement VI. decreed that there should be instituted 
a studium generate in theology, jurisprudence, medicine and 
every other recognized faculty of learning, the teachers to be 
professors who had obtained the degree of doctor or master 
either at Bologna or Paris, or " some other studium generate 
of celebrity." On the 2nd of January 1364 the university 
also obtained the grant of imperial privileges from Charles IV. 
On i4th February 1388 it adopted a body of statutes which 
are still extant, and afford an interesting study in connexion 
with the university history of the period. The university now 
entered upon that brilliant period in its history which was 
destined to so summary an extinction. " It is almost touching," 
says Denifle, " to note how untiringly Florence exerted her- 
self at this period to attract as teachers to her schools the 
great masters of the sciences and learning." In the year 
1472, however, it was decided that Florence was not a con- 
venient seat for a university, and its students joined the throngs 
which repaired to the reopened halls of Pisa. A special in- 
terest attaches to the rise of the university of Siena, 
as that of one which had made good its position prior 
to becoming recognized either by emperor or pope. Its be- 
ginning dates from about the year 1241, but its charter was 
first granted by the emperor Charles IV., at the petition of 
the citizens, in the year 1357. It was founded as a studium 
generate in jurisprudence, the arts and medicine. The im- 
perial charter was confirmed by Gregory XII. in 1408, and the 
various bulls relating to the university which he subsequently 
issued afford a good illustration of the conditions of academic 



Siena. 



UNIVERSITIES 



755 



life in these times. Residence on the part of the students 
appears to have been sometimes dispensed with. The bishop 
of Siena was nominated chancellor of the university, just as, 
says the bull, he had been appointed to that office by the im- 
perial authority. The graduates were to be admitted to the 
same privileges as those of Bologna or Paris; and a faculty of 
theology was added to the curriculum of studies. The uni- 
Ferrara. versity of Ferrara owes its foundation to the house 

of Este Alberto, marquess of Este, having obtained 
from Boniface IX. in 1391 a charter couched in terms precisely 
similar to those of the charter for Pisa. In the first half of the 
1 5th century the university was adorned by the presence of 
several distinguished humanists, but its fortunes were singularly 
chequered, and it would appear for a certain period to have 
been altogether extinct. It was, however, restored, and be- 
came in the latter part of the century one of the most celebrated 
of the universities of Italy. In the year 1474 its circle of studies 
comprised all the existing faculties, and it numbered no less 
than fifty-one professors or lecturers. In later times Ferrara has 
been noted chiefly as a school of medicine. 

Of the universities modelled on that of Paris, Oxford would 
appear to have been the earliest, and the manner of its develop- 
Oxford rnent was probably similar. Certain schools, opened 

within the precincts of the dissolved nunnery of St 
Frideswyde and of Oseney abbey, are supposed to have been the 
nucleus round which the university grew up. In the year 1133 
one Robert Pullen, a theologian of considerable eminence (but 
whether an Englishman or a Breton is uncertain), arrived from 
Paris and delivered lectures on the Bible. It has been main- 
tained, on the authority of Gervase of Canterbury, that Vacarius, 
a native of Lombardy, who, in the latter half of the 12th century, 
incurred the displeasure of King Stephen by lecturing in 
England on the civil law, delivered lectures at Oxford. H. S. 
Denifle, however (Die Entstehung der Uniiiersitalen, p. 241), 
maintains that the naming of Oxford is a gratuitous assumption 
on the part of Gervase, and that we have, at best, only pre- 
sumptive evidence of a studium generate there in the i2th 
century. Of this, Mr Rashdall inclines to find the beginning 
in a migration of English students from Paris about 1167 or 
1168. In the first-mentioned year we are told by John of Salis- 
bury that " France, the mildest and most civil of nations," has 
" expelled her foreign scholars " (Materials for the History of 
Thomas Becket, ed. Robertson, vi. pp. 235-36). At about the 
same time we hear of an edict of Henry II., during the quarrel 
with Becket, recalling all clerks holding benefices in England 
(as they loved their benefices), and forbidding all clerks in 
England to cross the Channel (ibid. i. pp. 53-54)- The arch- 
bishop himself remarks that " The king wills that all scholars 
shall be compelled to return to their country or be deprived of 
their benefices " (ibid. vii. p. 146). Paris was at this time the 
great place of higher education for English students. No 
English school was a recognized studium generale. Immedi- 
ately after 1168 allusions to Oxford as a studium and a studium 
generale begin to multiply. The natural inference is that the 
breaking off of relations between England and Paris in 1167 
or 1 1 68 led to the growth of a studium generale in Oxford, 
formed no doubt in the first instance of seceders from Paris. 
In the I3th century mention first occurs of university " chests," 
especially the Frideswyde chest, which were benefactions de- 
signed as funds for the assistance of poor students. Halls, or 
places of licensed residence for students, also began to be 
established. In the year 1257, when the bishop of Lincoln, 
as diocesan, had trenched too closely on the liberties of the 
community, the deputies from Oxford, when preferring their 
appeal to the king at St Albans, could venture to speak of the 
university as " schola secunda ecclesiae," or second only to 
Paris. Its numbers about this time were probably some three 
thousand; but it was essentially a fluctuating body, and when- 
ever plague or tumult led to a temporary dispersion a serious 
diminution in its numerical strength generally ensued for some 
time after. Against such vicissitudes the foundation of col- 
leges proved the most effectual remedy. Of these the three 



earliest were University College, founded in 1249 by William of 
Durham; Balliol College, founded about 1263 by John Balliol, 
the father of the king of Scotland of the same name; and 
Merton College, founded in 1264. The last-named is especially 
notable as associated with a new conception of university 
education, namely, that of collegiate discipline for the secular 
clergy, instead of for any one of the religious orders, for whose 
sole benefit all similar foundations had hitherto been designed. 
The statutes given to the society by Walter de Merton are not 
less noteworthy, as characterized not only by breadth of con- 
ception, but also by a careful and discriminating attention to 
detail, which led to their adoption as the model for later col- 
leges, not only at Oxford but at Cambridge. Of the service 
rendered by these foundations to the university at large we 
have significant proof in the fact that, although representing 
only a small numerical minority in the academic community 
at large, their members soon obtained a considerable preponder- 
ance in the administration of affairs. 

The university of Cambridge, although it rose into existence 
somewhat later than Oxford, may reasonably be held to have 
had its origin in the same century. There was prob- 
ably a certain amount of educational work carried bridge. 
on by the canons of the church of St Giles, which 
gradually developed into the instruction belonging to a regular 
studium. In the year 1112 the canons crossed the river and 
took up their residence in the new priory in Barnwell, and 
their work of instruction acquired additional importance. In 
1209 a body of students migrated thither from Oxford. Then, 
as early as the year 1224, the Franciscans established them- 
selves in the town, and, somewhat less than half a century 
later, were followed by the Dominicans. At both the English 
universities, as at Paris, the Mendicants and other religious 
orders were admitted to degrees, a privilege which, until the 
year 1337, was extended to them at no other university. Their 
interest in and influence at these three centres was conse- 
quently proportionably great. In the years 1231 and 1233 
certain royal and papal letters afford satisfactory proof that by 
that time the university of Cambridge was already an organized 
body with a chancellor at its head a dignitary appointed by 
the bishop of Ely for the express purpose of granting degrees 
and governing the studium. In 1229 and 1231 the numbers 
were largely augmented by migrations from Paris and from 
Oxford. Cambridge, however, in its turn suffered from emigra- 
tion; while in the year 1261, and again in 1381, the records 
of the university were wantonly burnt by the townsmen. 
Throughout the i3th century, indeed, the university was still 
only a very slightly and imperfectly organized community. Its 
endowments were of the most slender kind; it had no systematic 
code for the government of its members; the supervision of the 
students was very imperfectly provided for. Although both 
Oxford and Cambridge were modelled on Paris, their higher 
faculties never developed the same distinct organization; and 
while the two proctors at Cambridge originally represented 
" north " and " south," the " nations " are scarcely to be dis- 
cerned. An important step in the direction of discipline was, 
however, made in the year 1276, when an ordinance was passed 
requiring that every one who claimed to be recognized as a 
scholar should have a fixed master within fifteen days after his 
entry into the university. The traditional constitution of the 
English universities was in its origin an imitation of the Parisian 
chancellor, modified by the absence of the cathedral chancellor. 
As Oxford was not in the I2th century a bishop's see, the bishop 
(in 1214, if not earlier) appointed a chancellor for the express 
purpose of granting degrees and governing the studium. But 
he was from the first elected by the masters, and early obtained 
recognition as the head of the university as well as the representa- 
tive of the bishop. The procuratores (originally also rectores) 
remained representatives of the faculty of arts and (there being 
at Oxford no deans) of the whole university. But the feature 
which most served to give permanence and cohesion to the 
entire community was, as at Oxford, the institution of colleges. 
The earliest of these was Peterhouse, first founded as a separate 



756 



UNIVERSITIES 



institution by Hugh Balsham, bishop of Ely, in the year 1 284, 
its earliest extant code being that given in 1344 by Simon de 
Montacute, which was little more than a transcript of that 
drawn up by Walter de Merton for his scholars at Oxford. In 
1323 was founded Michaelhouse, and two years later, in 1326, 
Edward II. instituted his foundation of " king's scholars," 
afterwards forming the community of King's Hall. Both these 
societies in the i6th century were merged in Trinity College. To 
these succeeded Pembroke Hall (1347) and Gonville Hall (1348). 
All these colleges, although by no means conceived in a spirit of 
hostility to either the monastic or the mendicant orders, were 
expressly designed for the benefit of the secular clergy. The 
foundation of Trinity Hall (Aula) 1 in 1330 by Bishop Bateman, 
on the other hand, as a school of civil and canon law, was prob- 
ably designed to further ultramontane interests. That of Corpus 
Christi (1352), the outcome of the liberality of a gild of Cambridge 
townsmen, was conceived with the combined object of providing 
a house of education for the clergy, and at the same time secur- 
ing the regular performance of masses for the benefit of the souls 
of departed members of the gild. But both Trinity Hall and 
Corpus Christi College, as well as Clare Hall, founded in 1359, 
were to a great extent indebted for their origin to the ravages 
caused among the clergy by the great plague of 1349. In the 
latter half of the same century, the coming change of feeling is 
shown by the fact that the chancellor was under the necessity 
of issuing a decree (1374) in order to protect the house of the 
Carmelites from molestation on the part of the students. 

Returning to France, or rather to the territory included 
within the boundaries of modern France, we find Montpellier 
a recognized school of medical science as early as 
the 1 2th century. William VIII., lord of Montpellier, 
in the year 1181 proclaimed it a school of free resort, 
where any teacher of medical science, from whatever country, 
might give instruction. Before the end of the century it pos- 
sessed also a faculty of jurisprudence, a branch of learning for 
which it afterwards became famed. The university of medicine 
and that of law continued, however, to be totally distinct bodies 
with different constitutions. Petrarch was sent by his father 
to Montpellier to study the civil law. On 26th October 1289 
Montpellier was raised by Nicholas IV. to the rank of a " studium 
generale," a mark of favour which, in a region where papal 
influence was so potent, resulted in a considerable accession 
of prosperity. The university also now included a faculty of 
arts; and there is satisfactory evidence of the existence of a 
faculty of theology before the close of the I4th century, although 
not formally recognized by the pope before the year 1421. In 
the course of the same century several colleges for poor students 
were also founded. The university of Toulouse is to be 
noted as the first founded in any country by virtue 
of a papal charter. It took its rise in the efforts cf 
Rome for the suppression of the Albigensian heresy, and its 
foundation formed one of the articles of the conditions of peace 
imposed by Louis IX. on Count Raymond of Toulouse. In the 
year 1 233 it first acquired its full privileges as a " studium 
generale " by virtue of a charter given by Gregory IX. This 
pontiff watched over the university with especial solicitude, 
and through his exertions it soon became noted as a centre of 
that Dominican teaching which involved the extermination of 
the Catharists. As a school of arts, jurisprudence and medicine, 
although faculties of each existed, it never attained to any 
reputation. The university of Orleans had a virtual existence 
Orleans as a stu< ^' um generale as early as the first half of the 
I3th century, but in the year 1305 Clement V. endowed 
it with new privileges, and gave its teachers permission to form 
themselves into a corporation. The schools of the city had an 
existence long prior as early, it is said, as the 6th century 
and subsequently supplied the nucleus for the foundation of a 
university at Blois; but of this university no records are extant. 2 

l Aula denoting the building which the "college" of scholars 
was to inhabit; the society continued to retain this designation 
in order to distinguish it from Trinity College, founded in 1546. 

* See Ch. Desmaze, L'Universile de Paris (1200-1875). 



Toulouse. 



Angers. 



Orleans, in its organization, was modelled mainly on Paris, but 
its studies were complementary rather than in rivalry to the 
older university. The absorbing character of the study of the 
civil law, and the mercenary spirit in which it was pursued, 
had led the authorities at Paris to refuse to recognize it as a 
faculty. The study found a home at Orleans, where it was 
cultivated with an energy which attracted numerous students. 
In January 1235 we find the bishop of Orleans soliciting the 
advice of Gregory IX. as to the expediency of countenanc- 
ing a study which was prohibited in Paris. Gregory decided 
that the lectures might be continued; but he ordered that no 
beneficed ecclesiastic should be allowed to devote himself to so 
eminently secular a branch of learning. Orleans subsequently 
incorporated a faculty of arts, but its reputation from this 
period was always that of a school of legal studies, and in the 
i4th century its reputation in this respect was surpassed by no 
other university in Europe. Prior to the i3th century it had 
been famed for its classical learning; and Angers, which received 
its charter at the same time, also once enjoyed a like 
reputation, which, in a similar manner, it exchanged 
for that of a school for civilians and canonists. The roll of 
the university forwarded in 1378 to Clement VII. contains the 
names of 8 professors utriusque juris, 2 of civil and 2 of canon 
law, 72 licentiates, 284 bachelors of both the legal faculties, 
and 190 scholars. The university of Avignon was first 
recognized as a " studium generale " by Boniface VIII. 
in the year 1303, with power to grant degrees in jurisprudence, 
arts and medicine. Its numbers declined somewhat during 
the residence of the popes, owing to the counter-attractions of 
the "studium" attached, to the Curia; but after the return 
of the papal court to Rome it became one of the most frequented 
universities in France, and possessed at one time no less than 
seven colleges. The university of Cahors enjoyed the 
advantage of being regarded with especial favaur by 
John XXII. In June 1332 he conferred upon it privileges 
identical with those already granted to the university of Toulouse. 
In the following October, again following the precedent estab- 
lished at Toulouse, he appointed the scholasticus of the cathedral 
chancellor of the university. In November of the same year 
a bull, couched in terms almost identical with those of the 
Magna Charta of Paris, assimilated the constitution of Cahors 
to that of the oldest university. The two schools in France 
which, down to the close of the I4th century, most closely 
resembled Paris were Orleans and Cahors. The civil immunities 
and privileges of the latter university were not, however, 
acquired until the year 1367, when Edward III. of England, 
in his capacity as duke of Aquitaine, not only exempted the 
scholars from the.payment of all taxes and imposts, but bestowed 
upon them the peculiar privilege known as privilegium fori. 
Cahors also received a licence for faculties of theology and 
medicine, but, like Orleans, it was chiefly known as a school 
of jurisprudence. It was as a " studium generale " in the 
same three faculties that Grenoble, in the year 1339, 
received its charter from Benedict XII. The university 
never attained to much importance, and its annals are for the 
most part involved in obscurity. At the commencement of the 
i6th century it had ceased altogether to exist, was reorganized 
by Francis of Bourbon in 1542, and in 1565 was united to the 
university of Valence. The university of Perpignan, 
founded, according to Denifle, in 1379 by Clement VII. 
(although tradition had previously ascribed its origin 
to Pedro IV. of Aragon), and that of Orange, founded 
in 1365 by. Charles IV., were universities only by name and 
constitution, their names rarely appearing in contemporary 
chronicles, while their very existence becomes at times a matter 
for reasonable doubt. 

To some of the earlier Spanish universities such as Palencia, 
founded about the year 1214 by Alphonso VIII.; Huesca, 
founded in 1354 by Pedro IV.; and Lerida, founded p a hacia, 
in 1300 by James II. the same description is applic- Huesca, 
able; and their insignificance is probably indicated by Lerida. 
the fact that they entirely failed to attract foreign students. 



UNIVERSITIES 



757 



Valla- 
dolld. 



Valladolid, which received its charter from Pope Clement VI. 
in 1346, attained, however, to great celebrity; and 
the foreign teachers and students frequenting the 
university became so numerous that in 1373 King 
Enriquez II. caused an enactment to be passed for securing 
to them the same privileges as those already accorded to the 
native element. But the total number of the students in 1403 
was only 116, and grammar and logic, along with jurisprudence 
(which was the principal study), constituted the sole curriculum. 
In 1418, however, at the council of Constance, Martin V. not only 
decreed that Valladolid should take rank as a studium generate, 
but also as a " universitas theologiae," and that the new faculty 
should possess the same privileges as those of the same faculty 
in Paris. From this time accordingly the advance of the uni- 
versity in numbers was steady and continuous throughout the 
1 5th century, and, along with Salamanca, it served as the model 
for Alcala in 1499. The university which rose on the 
banks of the Henares and became famous under the direc- 
tion of the eminent Ximenes, was removed in 1623 to Madrid; 
and for the next century and a half the foremost place among the 
universities of Spain must be assigned to Salamanca, to which 
Seville, in the south, stood in the relation of a kind of subsidiary 
school, having been founded in 1254 by Alphonso the Wise, 
Seville simply for the study of Latin and of the Semitic 
andsaia- languages, especially Arabic. Salamanca had been 
manca. founded in 1243 by Ferdinand III. of Castile as a 
studium generate in the three faculties of jurisprudence, the 
arts and medicine. The king also extended his special pro- 
tection to the students, granting them numerous privileges 
and immunities. Under his son Alphonso (above named) the 
university acquired a further development, and eventually 
included all the faculties save that of theology. But the main 
stress of its activity, as was the case with all the earlier Spanish 
universities until the beginning of the isth century, was laid on 
the civil and the canon law. The provision for the payment of 
its professors was, however, at first so inadequate and precarious 
that in 1 298 they by common consent suspended their lectures, 
in consequence of their scanty remuneration. A permanent 
remedy for this difficulty was thereupon provided, by the 
appropriation of a certain portion of the ecclesiastical revenues 
of the diocese for the purpose of augmenting the professors' 
salaries, and the efforts of Martin V. established a school of 
theology which was afterwards regarded almost as an oracle 
by Catholic Europe. About the year 1600 the students are 
shown by the matriculation books to have numbered over 5000. 
According to Cervantes they were noted for their lawlessness. 
The earliest of the numerous colleges founded at Salamanca 
was that of St Bartholomew, long noted for its ancient library 
and valuable collection of manuscripts, which now form part 
of the royal library in Madrid. 

The one university possessed by Portugal had its seat in 
medieval times alternately in Lisbon and in Coimbra, until, in 
the year 1537, it was permanently attached to the 
latter city. Its formal foundation took place in 1309, 
when it received from King Diniz a charter, the provisions of 
which were mainly taken from those of the charter given to 
Salamanca. In 1772 the university was entirely reconstituted. 

Of the universities included in the present Austrian empire, 
Prague, which existed as a " studium " in the i3th century, was 
the earliest. It was at first frequented mainly by 
ague ' students from Styria and Austria, countries at that 
time ruled by the emperor Charles IV., who was also king of 
Bohemia, and at whose request Pope Clement VI., on the 26th 
of January 1347, promulgated a bull authorizing the foundation 
of a " studium generale " in all the faculties. In the following 
year Charles himself issued a charter for the foundation. This 
document, which, if original in character, would have been of much 
interest, has but few distinctive features of its own, its provisions 
being throughout adapted from those contained in the charters 
given by Frederick II. for the university of Naples and by Conrad 
for Salerno almost the only important feature of difference 
being that Charles bestows on the students of Prague all the civil 



Coimbra. 



privileges and immunities which were enjoyed by the teachers 
of Paris and Bologna. Charles had himself been a student in 
Paris, and the organization of his new foundation was modelled 
on that university, a like division into four " nations " (although 
with different names) constituting one of the most marked 
features of imitation. The numerous students and none of the 
medieval universities attracted in their earlier history a larger 
concourse were drawn from a gradually widening area, which 
at length included, not only all parts of Germany, but also Eng- 
land, France, Lombardy, Hungary and Poland. Contemporary 
writers, with the exaggeration characteristic of medieval cred- 
ulity, even speak of thirty thousand students as present in 
the university at one time a statement for which Denifle pro- 
poses to substitute two thousand as a more probable estimate. 
It is certain, however, that Prague, prior to the foundation of 
Leipzig, was one of the most frequented centres of learning in 
Europe, and Paris suffered a considerable diminution in her 
numbers owing to the counter-attractions of the great studium 
of Slavonia. 

The university of Cracow in Poland was founded in May 1364, 
by virtue of a charter given by King Casimir the Great, who 
bestowed on it the same privileges as those possessed 
by the universities of Bologna and Padua. In the Cracow - 
following September Urban V., in consideration of the remote- 
ness of the city from other centres of education, constituted it a 
" studium generale " in all the faculties save that of theology. 
It is, however, doubtful whether these designs were carried into 
actual realization, for it is certain that, for a long time after-the 
death of Casimir, there was no university whatever. Its real 
commencement must accordingly be considered to belong to the 
year 1400, when it was reconstituted, and the papal sanction 
was given for the incorporation of a faculty of theology. From 
this time its growth and prosperity were continuous; and with 
the year 1416 it had so far acquired a European reputation as to 
venture upon forwarding an expression of its views in connexion 
with the deliberations of the council of Constance. Towards 
the close of the i$th century the university is said to have been 
in high repute as a school of both astronomical and humanistic 
studies. 

The Avignonese popes appear to have regarded the establish- 
ment of new faculties of theology with especial jealousy; and 
when, in 1364, Duke Rudolph IV. founded the university 
of Vienna, with the design of constituting it a " studium 
generale " in all the faculties, Urban V. refused his asssent to the 
foundation of a theological school. Owing to the sudden death 
of Duke Rudolph, the university languished for the next twenty 
years, but after the accession of Duke Albert III., who may be 
regarded as its real founder, it acquired additional privileges, 
and its prosperity became marked and continuous. Like 
Prague, Vienna was for a long time distinguished by the com- 
paratively little attention bestowed by its teachers on the study 
of the civil law. 

No country in the i4th century was looked upon with greater 
disfavour at Rome than Hungary. It was stigmatized as the 
land of heresy and schism. When, accordingly, in 1367 King 
Louis applied to Urban V. for his sanction of the scheme of 
founding a university at Fiinfkirchen, Urban would not 
consent to the foundation of a faculty of theology, tjKben. 
although theological learning was in special need of 
encouragement in those regions; the pontiff even made it a 
condition of his sanction for a studium generale that King 
Louis should first undertake to provide for the payment of the 
professors. We hear but little concerning the university after 
its foundation, and it is doubtful whether it survived for any 
length of time the close of the century. " The extreme east 
of civilized continental Europe in medieval times," observes 
Denifle, " can be compared, so far as university education is 
concerned, only with the extreme west and the extreme south. 
In Hungary, as in Portugal and in Naples, there was constant 
fluctuation, but the west and the south, although troubled 
by yet greater commotions than Hungary, bore better fruit. 
Among all the countries possessed of universities in medieval 



758 



UNIVERSITIES 



times, Hungary occupies the lowest place a state of affairs 
of which, however, the proximity of the Turk must be looked 
upon as a main cause." 

The university of Heidelberg (the oldest of those of the 
German realm) received its charter (October 23, 1385) from 
Urban VI. as a " studium generale " in all the re- 
cognized faculties save that of the civil law the 
form and substance of the document being almost 
identical with those of the charter granted to Vienna. It was 
granted at the request of the elector palatine, Rupert I., who 
conferred on the teachers and students, at the same time, the 
same civil privileges as those which belonged to the university 
of Paris. In this case the functionary invested with the power 
of bestowing degrees was non-resident, the licences being con- 
ferred by the provost of the cathedral at Worms. But the 
real founder, as he was also the organizer and teacher, of the 
university was Marsilius of Inghen, to whose ability and energy 
Heidelberg was indebted for no little of its early reputation 
and success. The omission of the civil law from the studies 
licensed in the original charter would seem to show that the 
pontiff's compliance with the elector's request was merely 
formal, and Heidelberg, like Cologne, included the civil law 
among its faculties almost from its first creation. No medieval 
university achieved a more rapid and permanent success. 
Regarded with favour alike by the civil and ecclesiastical 
potentates, its early annals were singularly free from crises 
like those which characterize the history of many of the 
medieval universities. The number of those admitted to 
degrees from the commencement of the first session (igth 
October 1386 to i6th December 1387) amounted to 579.* 

Owing to the labours of the Dominicans, Cologne had gained 
a reputation as a seat of learning long before the founding of 
_. its university; and it was through the advocacy of 

some leading members of the Mendicant orders that, 
at the desire of the city council, its charter as a " studium 
generale " (2ist May 1388) was obtained from Urban VI. It 
was organized on the model of the university of Paris, as a 
school of theology and canon law, and " any other recognized 
faculty " the civil law being incorporated as a faculty soon 
after the promulgation of the charter. In common with the 
other early universities of Germany Prague, Vienna and 
Heidelberg Cologne owed nothing to imperial patronage, 
while it would appear to have been, from the first, the object 
of special favour with Rome. This circumstance 'serves to 
account for its distinctly ultramontane sympathies in medieval 
times and even far into the i6th century. In a report trans- 
mitted to Gregory XIII. in 1577, the university expressly 
derives both its first origin and its privileges from the Holy See, 
and professes to owe no allegiance save to the Roman pontiff. 
Erfurt, no less noted as a centre of Franciscan than 
was Cologne of Dominican influence, received its 
charter (i6th September 1379) from the anti-pope Clement VII. 
as a " studium generale " in all the faculties. Ten years later 
(4th May 1389) it was founded afresh by Urban VI., without 
any recognition of the act of his pretendec" predecessor. In 
the 1 5th century the number of its students was larger than 
that at any other German university a fact attributable 
partly to the reputation it had acquired as a school of juris- 
prudence, and partly to the ardour with which the nominalist 
and realist controversies of the time were debated in its midst; 
its readiness in according a hearing to novel theories causing 
it to be known as novorum omnium porlus. 

The collegiate system is to be noted as a feature common 
to all these early German universities; and, in nearly all, the 
professors were partly remunerated by the appropriation of 
certain prebends, appertaining to some neighbouring church, 
to their maintenance. 

During the first Lalf of the isth century the relations of the 
Roman pontiffs to the universities continued much the bt me, 
although the independent attitude assumed by the deputies 

'The statistics of Hautz (Gesch. d. Univ. Heidelberg, i. 177-178) 
are corrected by Denifle (Die Entstehung der Universitaten, p. 385). 



Erfurt. 



of those bodies at the great councils of Constance and Basel, 
and especially by those from Paris, could not fail to give rise 
to apprehensions. The papal bulls for each new f ounda- R e i at i oat 
tion begin to indicate a certain jealousy with respect to / ihe 
the appropriation of prebends by the founders. Where popes to 
such appropriations are recognized, and more particu- tbe ""'' 
larly in France, a formal sanction of the transfer gener- 
ally finds a place in the bull authorizing the foundation; but 
sometimes the founder or founders are themselves enjoined 
to provide the endowments requisite for the establishment 
and support of the university. In this manner the con- 
trol of t the pontiff over each newly created seat of learn- 
ing assumed a more real character, from the fact that his 
assent was accompanied by conditions which rendered it no 
longer a mere formality. The imperial intervention, on 
the other hand, was rarely invoked in Germany Greifs- 
wald, Freiburg and Tubingen being the only instances in 
which the emperor's confirmation of the foundation was 
solicited. 2 The inadequacy of the traditional studies to meet 
the growing wants of civilization, and the consequent lack of 
sympathy on the part of each civic population in which a new 
studium was founded, now become frequently apparent. Of such 
conditions the fortunes of the studium at Wiirzburg in 
Bavaria founded in 1402 by a bishop, with a charter 
bestowed by Boniface IX. illustrate the dangers. 
The students belonged chiefly to the faculties of law and 
theology, and the frequency of their conflicts with the citizens 
made it necessary before ten years had elapsed to close the 
university, which was not reopened until 1582. Under the 
patronage of the prince Bishop Julius Echter von Mespelbrunn, 
however, it soon became largely frequented by Catholic students. 
At the present time, under the patronage of the house of 
Wittelsbach, it is widely famed as a school of medicine. 

In Turin the university founded in 1412 by the counts of 
Savoy had to be refounded in 1431. The efforts of Parma in 
the i4th century to raise itself by papal aid to the dignity of a 
university proved altogether abortive, and it was not until 
1422 that, under the protection of the dukes of Milan, its object 
was attained. In Sicily, Catania, the earliest of its 
high schools, was created a university by Alphonso 
of Aragon in 1445. Five years later Barcelona Barct- 
received from Pope Nicholas V. the same privileges as 
Toulouse had obtained from Gregory IX. Among the Spanish 
universities, however, none has had a more chequered history, 
although now taking rank with foremost. 

In Hungary, Mathias Corvinus obtained from Paul II. in 
1465 permission to found a general studium where he thought 
best within his realms a latitude of choice conceded probably 
in consequence of the dangers which menaced the kingdom 
alike from Bohemia and from the Turks; while the Burfa st 
fact that the university at Ofen (Hungarian Budo) 
was not actually founded until some ten years later, may have 
been owing to the resolute stand made by the youthful monarch 
against the claims to nominate bishops put forward not only 
by Pope Paul but by his successor Sixtus IV. (1471-84). After 
a series of eventful experiences, the university of Budapest 
remains, at the present time, almost exclusively Magyar. It 
has a school of law at Pressburg, which is all that remains of 
the university there founded by Mathias Corvinus in 1465. 

In northern Germany and in the Netherlands, on the other 
hand, the growing wealth and prosperity of the different states 
especially favoured the formation of new centres of Fouaaa- 
learning. In the flourishing duchy of Brabant the Oonot 
university of Louvain (1426) was to a great extent Louvala, 
controlled by the municipality; and their patronage, although 
ultimately attended with detrimental results, long enabled 
Louvain to outbid all the other universities of Europe in the 
munificence with which she rewarded her professors. In the 
course of the next century the " Belgian Athens," as she is 
styled by Lipsius, ranked second only to Paris in numbers and 
reputation. In its numerous separate foundations and general 
* Meiners, Gesch. d. hohen Schulen, i. 370. 



Caianla, 



UNIVERSITIES 



759 



organization it possessed no less than twenty-eight colleges 
it closely resembled the English universities; while its active 
press afforded facilities to the author and the controversialist 
of which both Cambridge and Oxford were at that time almost 
destitute. It embraced all the faculties, and no degrees in 
Europe stood so high as guarantees of general acquirements. 
Erasmus records it as a common saying, that " no one could 
graduate at Louvain without knowledge, manners and age." 
Sir William Hamilton speaks of the examination at Louvain 
for a degree in arts as "the best example upon record of the 
true mode of such examination, and, until recent times, in fact, 
the only example in the history of universities worthy of con- 
sideration at all." He has translated from Vernulaeus the 
order and method of this examination. 1 In 1788 the faculties of 
jurisprudence, medicine and philosophy were removed to Brussels, 
and in 1 797 the French suspended the university altogether. 

In Germany the conditions under which the new centres were 
created reflect and illustrate the history of the country in a 
remarkable manner. Those connected with the rise 
of the university of Leipzig are especially noteworthy, 
it having been the result of the migration of almost the entire 
German element from the university of Prague. This element 
comprised (i) Bavarians, (2) Saxons, (3) Poles (this last- 
named division being drawn from a wide area, which included 
Meissen, Lusatia, Silesia and Prussia), and, being represented 
by three votes in the assemblies of the university, while the 
Bohemians possessed but one, had acquired a preponderance 
in the direction of affairs which the latter could no longer submit 
to. Religious differences, again, evoked mainly by the preaching 
of John Huss, further intensified the existing disagreements; and 
eventually, in the year 1409, King Wenceslaus, at the prayer of 
his Bohemian subjects, issued a decree which exactly reversed the 
previous distribution of votes, three votes being assigned to the 
Bohemian nation and only one to all the rest. The Germans 
took deep umbrage, and seceded to Leipzig, where, a bull having 
been obtained from Alexander V. (September 9, 1409), a new 
" studium generale " was founded by the landgrave of Thuringia 
and the margraves of Meissen. The members were divided into 
four nations composed of natives of Meissen,Saxony,Bavaria and 
Poland. Two colleges were founded, a greater and a smaller, but 
designed, not for poor students, but for masters of arts twelve 
being admitted on the former and eight on the latter foundation. 
At Rostock, in the north, the dukes John and Albert of 
Mecklenburg conceived the design of founding a university 
from which the faculty of theology should be excluded. 
* ' Pope Martin V., to whom they applied for his sanction, 
was scarcely in a position to refuse it, absorbed as he was with 
the pacification of Italy, the consolidation of his own temporal 
power, and the restoration of his almost ruinous capital. The 
university was accordingly founded as proposed in 1419; but in 
1431 Eugenius IV. instituted a faculty of theology, and two 
colleges were founded with the same design and on the same 
scale as at Leipzig. Six years later the whole academic com- 
munity having incurred the papal ban was fain to migrate to 
Greifswald, returning, however, to Rostock in 1443, but with 
one important exception, that of a master of arts named Henry 
Rubenow, who remained to become burgomaster of the former 
city, and succeeded in persuading Duke Wratislaw of Pommern 
to make it the seat of a university. Calixtus III. granted a 
bull in 1456, but it was stipulated that the rector should be a 
bishop, and the professorial chairs were also made parti- 
ally dependent for endowment on canonries. Greifswald 
thus became exposed to the full brunt of the struggle 
which had ensued when the endeavour to nationalize the German 
church was terminated by the Concordat of Vienna (1448). Of 
its original statutes only those of the arts faculty are extant. 

The universities of Freiburg in Baden and Tubingen in 

Wiirttemberg, on the other hand, reflect the sympathies of 

Freiburg tne Catholic party under the Austrian rule. They 

alike owed their foundation to the countess Matilda, 

by whose persuasion her husband, the archduke of Austria, 

1 Dissertations and Discussions, Append, iii. 



Orelfs- 
wald. 



known as Albrecht VI., was induced to found Freiburg in 1455, 
and Count Eberhard (her son by a former marriage) to found 
Tubingen in 1477. The first session at Freiburg opened auspici- 
ously in 1460 under the supervision of its rector, Matthew 
Hummel of Villingen, an accomplished and learned man, and 
its numbers were soon largely augmented by migrations of 
students from Vienna and from Heidelberg, while its resources, 
which originally were chiefly an annual grant from the city 
council, were increased by the bestowal of canonries and 
prebends in the neighbouring parishes. Erasmus had made 
Freiburg his residence from 1529 to 1535, during which time he 
may have originated a tradition of liberal learning, but in 1620, 
under the rule of the archduke Maximilian, the control of the 
Humanistic studies and of the entire faculty of philosophy was 
handed over to the Jesuits, who also gained possession of two 
of the chairs of theology. Although Strassburg since 1872 has 
been able to offer considerable counter-attractions, Freiburg 
has held her own, and numbers over 1600 students. The 
university of Tubingen was founded in 1477 with four faculties 
those of theology, law, medicine and the arts and numbered 
scholars such as John Reuchlin and Melanchthon _... . 

. . . I uDiofen, 

among its teachers; while in the last century it was 
famous both for its school of medicine and that of theology 
(see TUBINGEN). Its general condition in the year 1541-1542, 
and the sources whence its revenues were derived, have 
been illustrated by Hoffmann in a short* paper which shows the 
fluctuating nature of the resources of a university in the i6th 
century liable to be affected as they were both by the seasons 
and the markets. 2 

The earliest 15th-century university in France was that of 
Aix in Provence. It had originally been nothing more than a 
school of theology and law, but in 1409 it was re- 
organized under the direction of the local count as a Provence. 
studium generale on the model of Paris. The sphere 
of its activity is indicated by the fact that the students 
were divided into Burgundians, Provencals and Catalans. The 
next foundation, that of Poitiers, had a wider signi- 
ficance as illustrating the struggle that was going on 
between the French crown and the Roman see. It was insti- 
tuted by Charles VII. in 1431, almost immediately after his 
accession, with the special design of creating a centre of learning 
less favourable to English interests than Paris had at that 
time shown herself to be. Eugenius IV. could not refuse his 
sanction to the scheme, but he endeavoured partially to defeat 
Charles's design by conferring on the new " studium generale " 
simply the same privileges as those possessed by Toulouse, and 
thus placing it at a disadvantage in comparison with Paris. 
Charles rejoined by an extraordinary exercise of his own pre- 
rogative, conferring on Poitiers all the privileges collectively 
possessed by Paris, Toulouse, Montpellier, Angers and Orleans, 
and at the same time placing the university under special 
royal protection. The foundation of the university of Caen, 
in the diocese of Bayeux, was attended by conditions almost 
exactly the reverse of those which belonged to the 
foundation of that at Poitiers. It was founded under 
English auspices during the short period of the supremacy 
of the English arms in Normandy in the isth century. Its 
charter (May 1437) was given by Eugenius IV., and the bishop 
of Bayeux was appointed its chancellor. The university of 
Paris had by this time completely forfeited the favour of Eugenius 
by its attitude at the council of Basel, and Eugenius inserted 
in the charter for Caen a clause of an entirely novel character, 
requiring all those admitted to degrees to take an oath of 
fidelity to the see of Rome, and to bind themselves to attempt 
nothing prejudicial to her interests. To this proviso the famous 
Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges was Charles's rejoinder in 
the following year. On the i8th of May 1442 we find King 
Henry VI. writing to Eugenius, and dwelling with satisfaction 
on the rapid progress of the new university, to which, he says, 
students had flocked from all quarters, and were still daily 

* Okonomischer Zustand der TJniwrsitat Tubingen gegen die Mitte 
des i6ten Jahrhunderts (1845). 



Poitiers. 



760 



UNIVERSITIES 



arriving. 1 Ten years later, when the English had been expelled, 
its charter was given afresh by Charles in terms which left the 
original charter unrecognized; both teachers and learners were 
subject to the civil authorities of the city, and all privileges made 
previously conferred in cases of legal disputes were abolished. 
From this time the university of Caen was distinguished by 
its loyal spirit and firm resistance to ultramontane pretensions; 
and, although swept away at the French Revolution, it was 
afterwards restored, owing to the, sense of the services it had 
Bordeaux, th us once rendered to the national cause. 2 No especi- 
vaicnce, ' ally notable circumstances characterize the foundation 
Nantes. o f th e university of Bordeaux (1441) or that of 
Valence (1452), but that of Nantes, which received its charter 
from Pius II. in 1463, is distinguished by the fact that 
it did not receive the ratification of the king of France, and 
the conditions under which its earlier traditions were formed 
thus closely resemble those of Poitiers. It seems also to have 
been regarded with particular favour by Pius II., a pontiff who 
was at once a ripe scholar and a writer upon education. He 
gave to Nantes a notable body of privileges, which not only 
represent an embodiment of all the various privileges granted to 
universities prior to that date, but afterwards became, with their 
copious and somewhat tautological phraseology, the accepted 
model for the great majority of university charters, whether 
issued by the pope or by the emperor, or by the civil authority. 
The bishop of Nantes was appointed head of the university, 
and was charged with the special protection of its privileges 
Bournes against all interference from whatever quarter. 3 The 

bull for the foundation of the university of Bourges 
was given in 1465 by Paul II. at the request of Louis XI. and 
his brother. It confers on the community the same privileges 
as those enjoyed by the other universities of France. The royal 
sanction was given at the petition of the citizens; but, from 
reasons which do not appear, they deemed it necessary further 
to petition that their charter might also be registered and 
enrolled by the parlement of Paris. 

Founded about the same time, and probably in a spirit of 
direct rivalry to Freiburg, the university of Basel was opened 

in 1460 under the auspices of its own citizens. The 

cathedral school in that ancient city, together with 
others attached to the monasteries, afforded a sufficient nucleus 
for a studium, and Pius II., who, as Aeneas Sylvius, had been 
a resident in the city, was easily prevailed upon to grant the 
charter (November 12, 1459). During the first seventy years of 
its existence the university prospered, and its chairs were held 
by eminent professors, among them historical scholars, such 
as Sebastian Brant and Jacob Wimpheling. But with the 
Reformation, Basel became the arena of contests which menaced 
the very existence of the university itself, the professors being, 
for the most part, opposed to the new movement with which 
the burghers warmly sympathized. Eventually, the statutes 
were revised, and in the latter half of the i6th century the 
university may be said to have attained its apogee. Before he 
had signed the bull for the foundation of the university of Basel, 
Pope Pius, at the request of Duke William of Bavaria, had 
issued another bull for the foundation of a university at Ingol- 

stadt (vth April 1459). But it was not until 1472 
"tadf. tnat *he work of teaching was actually commenced 

there. Some long-existing prebends, founded by 
former dukes of Bavaria, were appropriated to the endowment, 
and the chairs in the different faculties were distributed as 
follows: theology 2, jurisprudence 3, medicine i, arts 6 
arts in conjunction with theology thus obtaining the pre- 
ponderance. As at Caen, twenty-two years before, an oath 
of fidelity to the Roman pontiff was imposed on every student 
admitted to a degree. 4 That this proviso was not subsequently 

1 Bekynton's Correspondence, i. 123. 

2 De la Rue, Essais hist, sur la ville de Caen, ii. 137-140. 
8 Meiners i. 368. 

4 Paulsen, in speaking of this proviso as one " die weder vorher 
noch nachher sonst vorkommt, would consequently seem to be 
not quite accurate. See Die GrO.nd.ung der deutschen Universitdten, 
p. 277. 



abolished, as at Caen, is a feature in the history of the university 
of Ingolstadt which was attended by important results. No- 
where did the Reformation meet with more stubborn resistance, 
and it was at Ingolstadt that the Counter-Reformation was 
commenced. In 1556 the Jesuits made their first settlement 
in the university. 

The next two universities took their rise in the archiepiscopal 
seats of Treves and Mainz. That at Treves received its charter 
as early as 1450; but the first academical session did not _ 
commence until 1473. Here the ecclesiastical influences 
appear to have been unfavourable to the project. The arch- 
bishop demanded 2000 florins as the price of his sanction. The 
cathedral chapter threw difficulties in the way of the appropria- 
tion of certain livings and canonries to the university endow- 
ment; and so obstinate was their resistance that in 1655 they 
succeeded in altogether rescinding the gift on payment of a very 
inadequate sum. It was not until 1722 that the assembly 
of deputies, by a formal grant, relieved the university from the 
difficulties in which it had become involved. The 
university of Mainz, on the other hand, was almost 
entirely indebted to the archbishop Diether for its foundation. 
It was at his petition that Sixtus IV. granted the charter, 23rd 
November 1476; and Diether, being himself an enthusiastic 
humanist, thereupon circulated a letter, couched in elegant 
Latinity, addressed to students throughout his diocese, inviting 
them to repair to the new centre, and dilating on the advan- 
tages of academic studies and of learning. The rise of these two 
universities, however, neither of which attained to much dis- 
tinction, represents little more than the incorporation of certain 
already existing institutions into a homogeneous whole, the 
power of conferring degrees being superadded. 

Nearly contemporaneous with these foundations were those 
of Upsala (1477) and Copenhagen (1479), which, although 
lying without the political boundaries of Germany, Upsala 
reflected her influence. The charter for Copenhagen and 
was given by Sixtus IV. as early as 1475. The Copen- 
students attracted to this new centre were mainly bagea. 
from within the radius of the university of Cologne, and its 
statutes were little more than a transcript of those of the 
latter foundation. 

The electorates of Wittenberg and Brandenburg were now the 
only two considerable German territories which did not possess 
a " studium generale," and the university founded 
at Wittenberg by Maximilian I. (6th July 1502) is 
notable as the first established in Germany by virtue 
of an imperial as distinguished from a papal decree. Its charter 
is, however, drawn up with the traditional phraseology of the 
pontifical bulls, and is evidently not conceived in any spirit 
of antagonism to Rome. Wittenberg is constituted a " studium 
generale " in all the four faculties the right to confer degrees 
in theology and canon law having been sanctioned by the papal 
legate some months before, on the 2nd of February 1502. The 
endowment of the university with church revenues duly received 
the papal sanction a bull of Alexander VI. authorizing the 
appropriation of twelve canonries attached to the castle church, 
as well as of eleven prebends in outlying districts ut sic per 
omnem modum unum corpus ex studio et collegia praedictis fiat et 
constituatur. No university in Germany attracted to itself a 
larger share of the attention of Europe at its commencement. 
And it was its distinguishing merit that it was the first academic 
centre north of the Alps where the antiquated methods and bar- 
barous Latinity of the scholastic era were overthrown, prank- 
The last university founded in Germany prior to the fort-oa- 
Reformation was that of Frankfort-on-the-Oder. The U">-Oder. 
design, first conceived by the elector John of Brandenburg, was 
carried into execution by his son Joachim, at whose request 
Pope Julius II. issued a bull for the foundation, isth March 
1506. An imperial charter, identical in its contents with the 
papal bull, followed on the 26th of October. The university 
received an endowment of canonries and livings similar to that 
of Wittenberg, and some houses in the city were assigned for 
its use by the elector. 



UNIVERSITIES 



761 



Andrews. 



_, 

Glasgow. 



The first university in Scotland was that of St Andrews, 
founded in 1411 by Henry Wardlaw, bishop of that see, and 
modelled chiefly on the constitution of the university 
^ P ar i s - It acquired all its three colleges St 
Salvator's, St Leonard's and St Mary's before the 
Reformation the first having been founded in 1456 by Bishop 
James Kennedy; the second in 1512 by the youthful Arch- 
bishop Alexander Stuart (natural son of James IV.), and John 
Hepburn, the prior of the monastery of St Andrews; and the 
third, also in 1512, by the Beatons, who in the year 1537 
procured a bull from Pope Paul III. dedicating the college to 
the Blessed Virgin Mary of the Assumption, and adding further 
endowments. The most ancient of the universities of Scotland, 
with its three colleges, was thus reared in an atmosphel-e of 
medieval theology, and undoubtedly designed as a bulwark 
against heresy and schism. But " by a strange irony of fate," 
it has been observed, " two of these colleges became, almost 
from the first, the foremost agents in working the overthrow 
of that church which they were founded to defend." St 
Leonard's more especially, like St John's or Queens' at Cam- 
bridge, became a noted centre of intellectual life and Reformation 
principles. That he " had drunk at St Leonard's well " became 
a current expression for implying that a theologian had imbibed 

the doctrines of Protestantism. The university of 
, r . . .... . f, . 

Glasgow was founded as a studium generale in 

1453, and possessed two colleges. Prior to the Reformation it 
acquired but little celebrity; its discipline was lax, and the 
number of the students but small, while the instruction was 
not only inefficient but irregularly given; no funds were pro- 
vided for the maintenance of regular lectures in the higher 
faculties; and there was no adequate executive power for the 
maintenance of discipline. The university of Aberdeen, which 
was founded in 1494, at first possessed only one college, 
.. . namely, King's, which was coextensive with the 

Aberdeen. ... r , , < L i si 11 

university and conferred degrees. Manschal College, 
founded in 1593 by George Keith, fifth Earl Marischal, was 
constituted by its founder independent of the university in Old 
Aberdeen, being itself also a college and a university, with the 
power of conferring degrees. Bishop Elphinstone, the founder 
both of the university and of King's College (1505), had been 
educated at Glasgow, and had subsequently both studied and 
taught at Paris and at Orleans. To the wider experience which 
he had thus gained we may probably attribute the fact that 
the constitution of the university of Aberdeen was free from the 
glaring defects which then characterized that of the university 
of Glasgow. 1 But in all the medieval universities of Germany, 
England and Scotland, modelled as they were on a common 
type, the absence of adequate discipline was, in a greater or less 
degree, a common defect. In connexion with this feature we 
may note the comparatively small percentage of matriculated 
students proceeding to the degree of B.A. and M.A. when 
compared with later times. Of this disparity the table on next 
Degrees column, exhibiting the relative numbers in the uni- 
takea at versity of Leipzig for every ten years from the year 
Leipzig. I42 ^ to jjjj, probably affords a fair average illustra- 
tion the remarkable fluctuations probably depending quite 
as much upon the comparative healthiness of the period (in 
respect of freedom from epidemic) and the abundance of the 
harvests as upon any other cause. 

The German universities in these times seem to have admitted 
for the most part their inferiority in learning to older and more 

favoured centres; and their consciousness of the fact is 
aspects of snown by the efforts which they made to attract in- 
German structors from Italy, and by the frequent resort of the 
medieval more ambitious students to schools like Paris, Bologna, 

Padua and Pavia. That they took their rise in any 

spirit of systematic opposition to the Roman see (as 
Meiners and others have contended), or that their organiza- 
tion was something external to and independent of the church, 
is an assertion somewhat qualified by the foregoing evidence. 
Generally speaking, they were eminently conservative bodies, 
1 Fasti Aberdonenses, Pref. p. xvi. 



univer- 
sities. 



Years. 


Matricu- 


Years. 


B A 


M A 


Percen 


tage of 












B.A's. 


M.A's. 


1427-1430 


737 


1429-1432 


I5i 


28 


20-4 


3-8 


1437-1440 


715 


1439-1442 


199 


50 


27-8 


6-9 


1447-1450 
1457-1460 
1467-1470 
1477-1480 
1487-1490 


808 
.447 
.137 
,163 
,858 


1449-1452 
I459-H62 
1469-1472 
1479-1482 
1489-1492 


274 
559 
410 
458 
7H 


(50) 
81 
61 

49 
62 


33-9 
38-6 
36-0 
39-4 
38-4 


5-6 
5-4 

4'2 

3-4 


1497-1500 


,288 


H99-I502 


497 


59 


38-5 


4-6 


1507-1510 


,948 


1509-1512 


5io 


65 


26-1 


3'4 


1517-1520 


M45 


1519-1522 


247 


35 


17-0 


2-4 


1527-1530 


419 


1529-1532 


77 


33 


18-4 


7.9 


1537-1540 


686 


1539-1542 


122 


27 


17-8 


3-9 


1547-1550 


1,318 


1549-1552 


2OO 


72 


15-2 


5-5 




14,969 




4418 


672 


29-5 


4'5 



and the new learning of the humanists and the new methods of 
instruction that now began to demand attention were alike for 
a long period unable to gain admission within academic circles. 
Reformers such as Hegius, John Wessel and Rudolphus Agricola 
carried on their work at places like Deventer remote from univer- 
sity influences. That there was a considerable amount of mental 
activity going on in the universities themselves is not to be 
denied; but it was mostly of that unprofitable kind which, while 
giving rise to endless controversy, turned upon questions in 
connexion with which the implied postulates and the terminology 
employed rendered all scientific investigation hopeless. At 
almost every university Leipzig, Greifswald and Prague (after 
1409) being the principal exceptions the so-called Realists and 
Nominalists represented two great parties occupied with an 
internecine struggle. At Paris, owing to the overwhelming 
strength of the theologians, the Nominalists were indeed under 
a kind of ban; but >at Heidelberg they had altogether expelled 
their antagonists. It was much the same at Vienna and at Erfurt 
the latter, from the ready reception which it gave to new 
speculation, being styled by its enemies " novorum omnium 
portus." At Basel, under the leadership of the eminent 
Johannes a Lapide, the Realists with difficulty maintained 
their ground. Freiburg, Tubingen and Ingolstadt, in the hope 
of diminishing controversy, arrived at a kind of compromise, 
each party having its own professor, and representing a distinct 
" nation." At Mainz the authorities adopted a manual of logic 
which was essentially an embodiment of Nominalistic principles. 
In Italy, almost without exception, it was decided that these 
controversies were endless and that their effects were pernicious. 
It was resolved, accordingly, to expel logic, and allow 
its place to be filled by rhetoric. It was by virtue of 
this decision, which was of a tacit rather than a formal 
character, that the expounders of the new learning in 
the isth century men like Emmanuel Chrysoloras, 
Guarino, Leonardo Bruni, Bessarion, Argyropulos and Valla 
carried into effect that important revolution in academic studies 
which constitutes a new era in university learning, and largely 
helped to pave the way for the Reformation. 2 This discourage- 
ment of the controversial spirit, continued as it was in relation to 
theological questions after the Reformation, obtained for the 
Italian universities a fortunate immunity from dissensions like 
those which, as we shall shortly see, distracted the centres of 
learning in Germany. The professorial body also 
attained to an almost unrivalled reputation. It was 
exceptionally select, only those who were in receipt 
of salaries being permitted, as a rule, to lecture; it 
was also famed for its ability, the institution of con- 
current chairs proving an excellent stimulus. These chairs 
were of two kinds " ordinary " and " extraordinary " the 
former being the more liberally endowed and fewer in number. 
For each subject of importance there were thus always two and 
sometimes three rival chairs, and a powerful and continuous 
emulation was thus maintained among the teachers. " From 

2 For an excellent account of this movement, see Georg Voigt, 
Die Wiederbelebung des classischen Alterthums (2nd ed., 2 vols., 1880). 



Abandon- 
ment of 
logical 
studies 
In Italy. 



High re- 
putation 
of Italian 
profes- 
sors. 



762 



UNIVERSITIES 



the integrity of their patrons, and the lofty standard by which 
they were judged," says Sir W. Hamilton, " the call to a Paduan 
or Pisan chair was deemed the highest of all literary honours. 
The status of professor was in Italy elevated to a dignity which 
in other countries it has never reached; and not a few of the most 
illustrious teachers in the Italian seminaries were of the proudest 
nobility of the land. While the universities of other countries 
had fallen from Christian and cosmopolite to sectarian and local 
schools, it is the peculiar glory of the Italian that, under the 
enlightened liberality of their patrons, they still continued to 
assert their European universality. Creed and country were 
in them no bar the latter not even a reason of preference. 
Foreigners of every nation are to be found among their professors; 
and the most learned man in Scotland, Thomas Dempster, 
sought in a Pisan chair that theatre for his abilities which he 
could not find at home." ' 

To such catholicity of sentiment the Spanish universities 
during the same period offer a complete contrast, their history 
being so strongly modified by political and religious movements 

that some reference to these becomes indispensable. 
eac Valencia, founded in 1 501 as a school not only of the- 
ology and of civil and canon law, but also of the arts and of medi- 
cine, and sanctioned at the petition of its council by Alexander 

VI. (see Denifle, i. 645-46), and Seville, sanctioned by 
e Julius II. in 1505, appear both to have been regarded 
without mistrust at Rome. But although the latter pontiff had 
approved the foundation of the university of Santiago as early as 
1504, the bull for its creation was not granted by Clement VII. 
until 1526. While, again, the design of establishing a university 

at Granada had been approved by Charles V. in the 
' *" same year, it was not until 1531 that Clement gave his 
consent, and even then the work of preparation was deferred for 
another six years. Little indeed is to be learnt respecting the 
new society until the foundation of the liberally endowed College 
de Sacro Monte by the archbishop of the province in 1605. 
These delays are partly to be accounted for by the well-known 
political jealousies that existed between the monarch and the 
pontiff; but it is also to be noted that at precisely the same period 
a movement of no slight importance, whereby it was sought to 
gain the recognition by the church of the writings and teaching 
of Erasmus, had been going on in the universities of Spain, and 
had ultimately died out. It died out at the uncreating voice 
of the Dominican Melchior Cano, who revived the ancient 
scholasticism and the teaching of Aquinas. Then followed the 
Jesuits, whom Cano himself had once denounced as " precursors 
of Antichrist," and under their direction the scholastic philo- 
sophy, together with a certain attention to Greek and Hebrew, 
became the dominant study. And when the council of Trent 
had done its work, and doctrinal controversy seemed to have 
been finally laid to rest, Gregory XIII. in 1574 authorized the 
Oviedo foundation of the university of Oviedo; but this was 

not opened until 1608, and then only with a faculty of 
law. After this time the universities in Spain shared in the 
general decline of the country; and even after the expulsion of 
the Jesuits in 1769 no marked improvement is discernible in 
their schools. On the contrary, the departure of a body of very 
able instructors, who, whatever objections might be taken to 
their doctrinal teaching, were mostly good scholars and men 
in close touch with the outer world, distinctly favoured that 
tendency to lifeless routine and unreasoning tradition which 
characterizes the Spanish universities until the second half of 
the i 9th century. 

The comparative unimportance of the universities founded 
during the same period in Italy is partially explained by the 
Italian number of those which previously existed. In the 
""lies'* P a P a l states Macerata and Camerino were founded 

at a wide interval; the former, according to tradition, 

Macerata. by a bul i of N i c h o l as IV. as early as the I 3 th century, 

' the latter not until the year 1727 by a bull of Benedict 

XIII. Macerata, however, ceased to exist as a university in 

the last century, retaining only a faculty of law, but contributing 

1 Hamilton, Discussions, 2nd ed. p. 373. 



to the maintenance of the medical faculty at Camerino, which 
was constituted one of the newly created " free universities " 
(along with Urbino, Ferrara and Perugia) in 1890, but con- 
tinued to exist only with the aid of contributions 
levied on the local parishes. Urbino, originally 
opened as a studium under papal patronage in 1671, was also 
constituted a free university; its chief study being that of law. 
At Modena there had long existed a faculty of the 
same study which enjoyed a high repute, but it 'was 
not until 1683 that it received its charter from Duke Francis II. 
of Este as the university of his capital. Like Camerino, Modena 
had to rely chiefly on funds collected in the commune, but was 
able nevertheless to acquire some reputation as a school of 
law and medicine, declining, when the Jesuits were installed by 
the Austrian authorities, to revive again in the general recovery 
which took place among the seats of learning after the unifi- 
cation of Italy. In Sicily, Palermo (1779) originated SJt ., 
in an earlier institution composed mainly of subjects 
of Ferdinand IV., who had followed him on his ex- 
pulsion from the throne of the Two Sicilies at Naples towards 
the end of the i8th century. It was closed in 1805, but re- 
opened in 1850 to become a school of considerable importance 
in all the faculties with over 1000 students. The two univer- 
sities of Sardinia Sassari (1634 )and Cagliari (1596) sassari 
were founded under the Spanish rule, and both died out 
when that rule was exchanged for that of Austria. Under 
the auspices of. the house of Savoy they were re-established, but 
neither can be said to have since achieved any marked success. 

For the most part, however, the Reformation represents the 
great boundary line in the history of the medieval universities, 
and long after Luther and Calvin had passed away was still 
the main influence in the history of those new foundations 
which arose in Protestant countries. Even in Catholic countries 
its secondary effects were scarcely less perceptible, as they 
found expression in connexion with the Counter-Reformation. 
In Germany the Thirty Years' War was attended by con- 
sequences which were felt long after the I7th century. In 
France the Revolution of 1789 resulted in the actual uprooting 
of the university system. 

The influence of the Humanists, and the special character 
which it assumed as it made its way in Germany in connexion 
with the labours of scholars like Erasmus, John Reuchlin and 
Melanchthon, augured well for the future. It was free from 
the frivolities, the pedantry, the immoralities and the scepticism 
which characterized so large a proportion of the corresponding 
culture in Italy. It gave promise of resulting at once in a 
critical and enlightened study of the masterpieces of classical 
antiquity, and in a reverent and yet rational interpretation of 
the Scriptures and the Fathers. The fierce bigotry 
and the ceaseless controversies evoked by the pro- nktoua 
mulgation of Lutheran or Calvinistic doctrine dispelled, influence* 
however, this hopeful prospect, and converted what fsectar - 
might otherwise have become the tranquil abodes 
of the Muses into gloomy fortresses of sectarianism. Of the 
manner in which it affected the highest culture, the observa- 
tion of Henke in his Life of Calixtus (i. 8), that for a century 
after the Reformation the history of Lutheran theology becomes 
almost identified with that of the German universities, may 
serve as an illustration. 

The first Protestant university was that of Marburg, founded 
by Philip the Magnanimous, landgrave of Hesse, 30th May 1527. 
Expressly designed as a bulwark of Lutheranism, it 
was mainly built up out of the confiscation of the 
property of the religious orders in the Hessian capital. The 
house of the Dominicans, who had fled on the first rumour of 
spoliation, was converted into lecture-rooms for the faculty of 
jurisprudence. The church and convent of the order known 
as the " Kugelherrn " was appropriated to the theological 
faculty. The friary of the Barefooted Friars was shared be- 
tween the faculties of medicine and philosophy. The university, 
which was the object of the landgrave's peculiar care, rapidly 
rose to celebrity; it was resorted to by students from remote 



UNIVERSITIES 



763 



countries, even from Greece, and its professors were of distin- 
guished ability. How much, however, of this popularity 
depended on its theological associations is to be seen in the 
fact that after the year 1605, when, by the decree of Count 
Maurice, its formulary of faith was changed from Lutheran to 
Calvinistic, its numbers greatly declined. This dictation of 
the temporal power now becomes one of the most notable 
features in academic history in Protestant Germany. The 
universities, having repudiated the papal authority, while that 
of the episcopal order was at an end, now began to pay especial 
court to the temporal ruler, and sought in every way to con- 
ciliate his goodwill, representing with peculiar distinctness the 
theory cujus regio, ejus religio. This tendency was further 
strengthened by the fact that their colleges, bursaries and 
other similar foundations were no longer derived from or 
supported by ecclesiastical institutions, but were mainly 
dependent on the civil power. 

The Lutheran university of Konigsberg was founded I7th 
August 1544 by Albert III., margrave of Brandenburg, and 
the first duke of Prussia, and his wife Dorothea, a 
berg. Danish princess. In this instance, the religious 

character of the foundation not having been determined 
at the commencement, the papal and the imperial sanction 
were both applied for, although not accorded. King Sigismund 
of Poland, however, which kingdom exercised at that time a 
protectorate over the Prussian duchy, ultimately gave the 
necessary charter (2gth September 1561), at the same time 
ordaining that all students who graduated as masters in the 
faculty of philosophy should rank as nobles of the Polish 
kingdom. When Prussia was raised to the rank of a kingdom 
(1701) the university was made a royal foundation, and the 
" collegium Fridericianum," which was then erected, received 
corresponding privileges. In 1862 the university buildings 
were rebuilt, and the number of the students soon after rose to 
nearly a thousand. 

The Lutheran university of Jena had its origin in a gymnasium 
founded by John Frederick the Magnanimous, elector of 
Jena Saxony, during his imprisonment, for the express 

purpose of promoting Evangelical doctrines and 
repairing the loss of Wittenberg, where the Philippists had 
gained the ascendancy. Its charter, which the emperor Charles 
V. had refused to grant, and which was obtained with some 
difficulty from his brother, Ferdinand I., enabled the authorities 
to open the university on the 2nd of February 1558. Dis- 
tinguished for its vehement assertion of Lutheran doctrine, its 
hostility to the teaching of Wittenberg was hardly less pro- 
nounced than that with which both centres regard Roman 
Catholicism. For a long time it was chiefly noted as a school 
of medicine, and in the i7th and i8th centuries was in bad 
repute for the lawlessness of its students, among whom duelling 
prevailed to a scandalous extent. The beauty of its situation 
and the eminence of its professoriate have, however, generally 
attracted a considerable proportion of students from other 
countries. Its numbers in 1906 were 1281. 

The Lutheran university of Helmstedt, founded by Duke 
Julius (of the house of Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel), and designated 
after him in its official records as " Academia Julia," 
received its charter, 8th May 1575, from the emperor 
Maximilian II. No university in the i6th century 
commenced under more favourable auspices. It was muni- 
ficently endowed by the founder and by his son; and its 
" Convictorium," or college for poor students, expended in the 
course of thirty years no less than 100,000 thalers, an extra- 
ordinary expenditure for an institution of such a character in 
those days. Beautifully and conveniently situated in what 
had now become the well-peopled region between the Weser 
and the lower Elbe, and distinguished by its comparatively 
temperate maintenance of the Lutheran tenets, it attracted 
a considerable concourse of students, especially from the upper 
classes, not a few being of princely rank. Throughout its 
history, until suppressed in i8og, Helmstedt enjoyed the special 
and powerful patronage of the dukes of Saxony. 



Helm, 
stedl. 



The " Gymnasium Aegidianum " of Nuremberg, founded 
in 1526, and removed in 1575 to Altdorf, represents the origin 
of the university of Altdorf. A charter was granted 
in 1578 by the emperor Rudolph II., and the university 
was formally opened in 1580. It was at first, however, em- 
powered only to grant degrees in arts; but in 1623 the emperor 
Ferdinand IL added the permission to create doctors of law 
and medicine, and also to confer crowns on poets; and in 
1697 its faculties were completed by the permission given by 
the emperor Leopold I. to create doctors of theology. Like 
Louvain, Altdorf was nominally ruled by the municipality, 
but in the latter university this power of control remained 
practically inoperative, and the consequent freedom enjoyed 
by the community from evils like those which brought about 
the decline of Louvain is thus described by Hamilton: " The 
decline of that great and wealthy seminary (Louvain) was 
mainly determined by its vicious patronage, both as vested 
in the university and in the town. Altdorf, on the other hand, 
was about the poorest university in Germany, and long one 
of the most eminent. Its whole endowment never rose above 
800 a year; and, till the period of its declension, the professors 
of Altdorf make at least as distinguished a figure in the history 
of philosophy as those of all the eight universities of the British 
empire together. On looking closely into its constitution the 
anomaly is at once solved. The patrician senate of Nuremberg 
were too intelligent and patriotic to attempt the exercise of such 
a function. The nomination of professors, though formally 
ratified by the senate, was virtually made by a board of four 
curators; and what is worthy of remark, as long as curatorial 
patronage was a singularity in Germany, Altdorf maintained its 
relative pre-eminence, losing it only when a similar mean was 
adopted in the more favoured universities of the empire." 1 

The conversion of Marburg into a school of Calvinistic 
doctrine gave occasion to the foundation of the universities 
of Giessen and of Rinteln. Of these the former, _. 
founded by the margrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, Louis V., 
as a kind of refuge for the Lutheran professors from Marburg, 
received its charter from the emperor Rudolph II. (igth May 
1607). When, however, the margraves of Darmstadt acquired 
possession of Marburg in 1625, the university was transferred 
thither; in 1650 it was moved back again to Giessen. The 
number of matriculated students, which at the beginning of 
last century was about 250, had risen before its close to over 
800. In common with the other universities of Germany, but 
with a facility which obtained for it a specially unenviable 
reputation, Giessen was for a long time wont to confer the 
degree of doctor in absentia in the different faculties without 
requiring adequate credentials. This practice drew forth an 
emphatic protest from the eminent historian Mommsen, and 
was abandoned long before his death. The university Rt f 
of Rinteln was founded i7th July 1621 by the emperor 
Ferdinand II. Almost immediately after its foundation it 
became the prey of contending parties in the Thirty Years' War, 
and its early development was thus materially hindered. It 
never, however, attained to much distinction, and in 1819 it 
was suppressed. The university of Strassburg was founded 
in 1621 on the basis of an already existing academy, Stras*- 
to which the celebrated John Sturm stood, during the *""* 
latter part of his life, in the relation of " rector perpetuus " 
and of which we are told that in 1578 it included more than 
a thousand scholars, among whom were 200 of the nobility, 24 
counts and barons and three princes. It also attracted students 
from all parts of Europe, and especially from Portugal, Poland, 
Denmark, France and England. The method of Sturm's 
teaching became the basis of that of the Jesuits, and through 
them of the public school instruction in England. In 1621 
Ferdinand II. conferred on this academy full privileges as a 
university; in the language df the charter, "in omnibus 'facul- 
tatibus, doctores, licentiatos, magistros, et baccalaureos, atque 
insuper poetas laureates creandi et promovendi." 2 In 1681 

1 Discussions, &c., 2nd ed., pp. 388-89. 

* Promulg. Acad. Privil., &c. (Strassburg, 1628). 



7 6 4 



UNIVERSITIES 



Moscow. 
Wllaa. 



Kiev. 
Odessa. 



Strassburg became French, and remained so until 1872, when it 
was refounded by the Emperor William I., and before the close 
of the century numbered over noo students. 

At the beginning of last century Russia possessed but three 
universities that of Moscow (1755), founded by 
the Empress Elizabeth; of Wilna (1578), which was 
Polish and chiefly in the hands of the Jesuits; and of 
Dorpat. D or p a t [Yuriev] in Livonia, which was virtually 
German. Under the enlightened policy of Alexander I. was 
founded the university of Charkow (1804) for New Russia, 
. that of Kazan (1804) for the countries about the 
Volga, but designed also for the populations of Fin- 
Kasan. j and and sj^eria, and that of St Petersburg (1819). 
st Each of the foregoing six universities had a definite 

Peters- district assigned to it, from whence it was entitled to 
recruit students, and, as a further incentive to the pur- 
suit of academic studies, a ukaz promulgated in 1809 proclaimed 
that in all appointments to official posts throughout the empire 
the holders of a university degree would receive the first con- 
sideration in the competition for vacancies. In 1826 the uni- 
versity at Abo in Finland was removed to Helsingfors, 
tors "^" an d s tiM preserves the charter whereby, in its original 
home, it had been constituted a university by Queen 
Christina and her chancellor Oxenstiern in the year 1640. In 
1832 the foundation of the St Wladimir University of Kiev 
absorbed both that at Wilna and the lyceum of Kre- 
menetz. Odessa, founded in 1865, was designed 
to represent the university of New Russia. Although 
at St Petersburg considerable attention was regularly given 
to the teaching of languages, especially those of Armenia, 
Georgia, and Tatary, the general status of the Russian uni- 
versities continued throughout the greater part of last century 
exceptionally low; and in 1884 they were all reconstituted 
by the promulgation of a " universal code "; with this the 
statutes of the universities at Dorpat (1632) and Warsaw (1886) 
are essentially in agreement. The former, originally founded 
at the suggestion of the governor-general, with the design of 
bringing " martial Livonia into the path of virtue and mor- 
ality," was at first almost exclusively taught by German pro- 
fessors, of whom, however, very few had retained their chairs 
at the conclusion of last century. The study of the Slavonic 
languages, on the other hand, received a considerable stimulus; 
and when, by a decree in May 1887, the use of the Russian 
language was made obligatory in all places of instruction 
throughout the Baltic provinces, Russian began to displace 
German as the language of the lecture-room, the only faculties 
in which the use of German continued to be permissible being 
Tomsk those of theology and medicine. The university of 
Tomsk in western Siberia, founded in 1888, recruited 
its numbers chiefly from students in the same faculties. It was, 
however, without endowment, and depended chiefly on a grant 
from the state aided by private liberality. 

During the ensuing twenty years the general influence of 
Dorpat rapidly spread far beyond the Baltic provinces, while 
intiuen tne num ^ er f students, which in 1879 was 1106, rose 
of Dorpat. to ng arly 2OOO. 1 In 1889, however, the appointment 
of the university officials was taken from the Senatus 
Academicus and entrusted to the state minister, a change which 
went far to deprive the university of its claim to be considered 
German. A like contest between contending nationalities 
Prague me * w * 1 ^ a fi na l solution at Prague, where a Czech 
university having been established on an independent 
basis, the German university began its separate career in the 
winter session of 1882-83. The German foundation retains 
certain revenues accruing from special endowments, but the 
state subvention is divided between the two. 

The repudiation on the part of the Protestant universities 
of both papal and episcopal authority evoked a counter-demon- 
stration among those centres which still adhered to Catholicism, 
while their theological intolerance gave rise to a great reaction, 
under the influence of which the medieval Catholic univer- 
1 See Die deutsche Universitat Dorpat im Lichte der Geschichie, 1882. 



Bamberg. 



sities were reinvigorated and reorganized (although, strictly 
on the traditional lines), while new and important centres were 
created. It was on the tide of this reaction, aided by their own 
skilful teaching and practical sagacity, that the Jesuits were 
borne to that commanding position which made them for a time 
the arbiters of education in Europe. The earliest university 
whose charter represented this reaction was that of 
Bamberg, founded by the prince-bishop Melchior 
Otto, after whom it was named " Academia Ottoniana." It 
was opened ist September 1648, and received both from the 
emperor Frederick III. and Pope Innocent X. all the civil and 
ecclesiastical privileges of a medieval foundation. At first, 
however, it comprised only the faculties of arts and of theology; 
to these was added in 1729 that of jurisprudence, and in 1764 
that of medicine. In this latter faculty Dr Ignatius Dollinger 
(the father of the historian) was for a long time a distinguished 
professor. The university library is of especial interest, as 
including that of an earlier Jesuit foundation and also valuable 
collections by private donors. Its collection of manuscripts 
in like manner includes those contained in some thirty suppressed 
monasteries, convents, and religious institutions at the time 
of the " secularization." The university of Innsbruck was 
founded in 1672 by the emperor Leopold I., from whom it 
received its name of " Academia Leopoldina." In the following 
century, under the patronage of the empress Maria Theresa, 
it made considerable progress, and received from her its 
ancient library and bookshelves in 1745. In 1782 the b"ck 
university underwent a somewhat singular change, being 
reduced by the emperor Joseph II. from the status of a uni- 
versity to that of a lyceum, although retaining in the theological 
faculty the right of conferring degrees. In 1791 it was restored 
to its privileges by the emperor Leopold II., and since that time 
the faculties of philosophy, law and medicine have been repre- 
sented in nearly equal proportions. The foundation of the 
university of Breslau was contemplated as early as the 
year 1505, when Ladislaus, king of Hungary, gave his 
sanction to the project; but Pope Julius II., in the assumed 
interests of Cracow, withheld his assent. 

Nearly two centuries later, in 1702, under singularly altered 
conditions, the Jesuits prevailed upon the emperor Leopold I. 
to found a university without soliciting the papal The 
sanction. When Frederick the Great conquered Jesuits la 
Silesia in 1741, he took both the university and the theuai- 
Jesuits in Breslau under his protection, and when in verslt y- 
1774 the order was suppressed by Clement XIV. he estab- 
lished them as priests in the Royal Scholastic Institute, 
at the same time giving new statutes to the university. 
In 1811 the university was considerably augmented by the 
incorporation of that at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and was ultim- 
ately reconstituted on lines similar to those of the newly 
founded university of Berlin. In no country was the influence 
of the Jesuits on the universities more marked than in France. 
The civil wars in that country during the thirty years which 
preceded the close of the i6th century told with disastrous 
effects upon the condition of the university of Paris, and with 
the commencement of the i7th century its collegiate coaattloa 
life seemed at an end, and its forty colleges stood O tthe 
absolutely deserted. To this state of affairs the Uaiver- 
obstinate conservatism of the academic authorities tlty r 
not a little contributed. The statutes by which the Parls ' 
university was still governed were those which had been given 
by the cardinal D'Estouteville, the papal legate, in 1452, and 
remained entirely unmodified by the influences of the Renais- 
sance. In 1579 the edict of Blois promulgated a scheme of 
organization for all the universities of the realm (at that time 
twenty-one in number) a measure which, though productive 
of unity of teaching, did nothing towards the advancement of 
the studies themselves. The theological instruction became 
largely absorbed by the episcopal colleges, and acquired, in the 
schools of the different orders, a narrower and more dogmatic 
character. The eminent lawyers of France, unable to find 
chairs in Paris, distributed themselves among the chief towns 



UNIVERSITIES 



765 



of the provinces. The Jesuits did not fail to profit by this 
immobility and excessive conservatism on the part of the 
university, and during the second half of the i6th century and 
the whole of the i7th they had contrived to gain almost a com- 
plete monopoly of both the higher and the lower education of 
provincial France. Their schools rose at Toulouse and Bordeaux, 
at Auch, Agen, Rhodez, Perigueux, Limoges, Le Puy, Aubenas, 
Colleges Beziers, Tournon, in the colleges of Flanders and Lor- 
afthe raine, Douai and Pont-a-Mousson places beyond 
Jesuits la the jurisdiction of the parlement of Paris or even 
France. Q f ^ crown O f F rance . Their banishment from 
Paris itself had been by the decree of the parlement alone, 
and had never been confirmed by the crown. " Lyons," says 
Pattison, " loudly demanded a Jesuit college, and even the 
Huguenot Lesdiguieres, almost king in Dauphine, was prepar- 
ing to erect one at Grenoble. Amiens, Rheims, Rouen, Dijon, 
and Bourges were only waiting a favourable opportunity to 
introduce the Jesuits within their walls." 1 The university was 
rescued from the fate which seemed to threaten it only by the 
excellent statutes given by Richer in 1598, and by the discerning 
protection extended to it by Henry IV., while its higher culture 
was in some measure provided for by the establishment by 
Richelieu in 1635 of the Academic frangaise. 

The " college of Edinburgh " was founded by charter of 
James VI., dated i4th April 1582. This document contains 
no reference to a sludium generate, nor is there ground 
burgh- * or su PP sm g that the foundation of a university was 
at that time contemplated. In marked contrast to the 
three, older centres in Scotland, the college rose comparatively 
untrammelled by the traditions of medievalism, and its creation 
was not effected without some jealousy and opposition on the 
part of its predecessors. Its first course of instruction was 
commenced in the Kirk of Field, under the direction of Robert 
Rollock, who had been educated at St Andrews under Andrew 
Melville, the eminent Covenanter. " He began to teach," says 
Craufurd, " in the lower hall of the great lodging, there being 
a great concourse of students allured with the great worth of the 
man; but diverse of them being not ripe enough in the Latin 
tongue, were in November next put under the charge of Mr 
Duncan Name, . . . who, upon Mr Rollock's recommendation, 
was chosen second master of the college." 2 In 1585 both 
Rollock and Nairne subscribed the National Covenant, and a 
like subscription was from that time required from all who were 
admitted to degrees in the college. 

Disastrous as were the effects of the Thirty Years' War upon 
the external condition of the German universities, resulting 
Results * D n t a ^ ew instances in the total dispersion of the 
of the students and the burning of the buildings and libraries, 
Thirty they were less detrimental and less permanent than 
those which were discernible in the tone and temper of 
these communities. Aformalpedantryandunintelligent 
method of study, combined with a passionate dogmatism in 
matters of religious belief and a rude contempt for the amenities 
of social intercourse, became the leading characteristics, and 
lasted throughout the 1 7th century. But in the year 
1693 the foundation of the university of Halle opened 
up a career to two very eminent men, whose influence, widely 
different as was its character, may be compared for its effects 
with that of Luther and Melanchthon, and served to modify the 
whole current of German philosophy and German theology. 
Halle has indeed been described as " the first real modern uni- 
versity." It was really indebted for its origin to a spirit of 
rivalry between the conservatism of Saxony and the progressive 
tendencies of the house of Brandenburg, but the occasion of its 
rise was the removal of the ducal court from Halle to Magde- 
burg. The archbishopric of the latter city having passed into the 
possession of Brandenburg in 1680 was changed into a duke- 
dom, and the city itself was selected as the ducal residence. 
This change left unoccupied some commodious buildings in 
Halle, which it was decided to utilize for purposes of education. 

1 Life of Casaubon, p. 181. 

2 Craufurd, Hist, of the Univ. of Edinburgh, pp. 19-28. 



Vears 

War. 



Halle. 



A " Ritterschule " for the sons of the nobility was opened, and 
in the course of a few years it was decided to found a university. 
Saxony endeavoured to thwart the scheme, urging the proximity 
of Leipzig; but her opposition was overruled by the emperor 
Leopold I., who granted (igth October 1693) the requisite charter, 
and in the following year the work of the university commenced. 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder had by this time become a centre of the 
Reformed party, and the primary object in founding a university 
in Halle was to create a centre for the Lutheran party; but its 
character, under the influence of its two most notable teachers, 
Christian Thomasius and A. H. Francke, soon expanded / n a ueace 
beyond the limits of this conception to assume a highly of Thorn- 
original form. Thomasius and Francke had both <"'<" *"d 
been driven from Leipzig owing to the disfavour Fnacke - 
with which their liberal and progressive tendencies were there 
regarded by the academic authorities, and on many points 
the two teachers were in agreement. They both regarded with 
contempt alike the scholastic philosophy and the scholastic 
theology; they both desired to see the rule of the civil power 
superseding that of the ecclesiastical power in the seats of learn- 
ing; they were both opposed to the ascendancy of classical 
studies as expounded by the humanists Francke regarding the 
Greek and Roman pagan writers with the old traditional dislike, 
as immoral, while Thomasius looked upon them with con- 
tempt, as antiquated and representing only a standpoint which 
had been long left behind; both again agreed as to the desira- 
bility of including the elements of modern culture in the educa- 
tion of the young. But here their agreement ceased. It was 
the aim of Thomasius, as far as possible, to secularize education, 
and to introduce among his countrymen French habits and French 
modes of thought; his own attire was gay and fashionable, 
and he was in the habit of taking his seat in the professorial 
chair adorned with gold chain and rings, and with his dagger by 
his side. Francke, who became the leader of the Pietists, re- 
garded all this with even greater aversion than he did the lifeless 
orthodoxy traditional in the universities, and was shocked 
at the worldly tone and disregard for sacred things which 
characterized his brother professor. Both, however, com- 
manded a considerable following among the students. Thom- 
asius was professor in the faculty of jurisprudence, Francke in 
that of theology. And it was a common prediction in those 
days with respect to a student who proposed to pursue his aca- 
demic career at Halle, that he would infallibly become either 
an atheist or a Pietist. But the services rendered by Thomasius 
to learning were genuine and lasting. He was the first to set 
the example, soon after followed by all the universities of Ger- 
many, of lecturing in the vernacular instead of in the customary 
Latin; and the discourse in which he first departed from the 
traditional method was devoted to the consideration of how 
far the German nation might with advantage imitate the French 
in matters of social life and intercourse. His more general 
views, as a disciple of the Cartesian philosophy and founder of 
the modern Rationalismus, exposed him to incessant attacks; 
but by the establishment of a monthly journal (at that time an 
original idea) he obtained a channel for expounding his views 
and refuting his antagonists which gave him a great advantage. 
On the influence of Francke, as the founder of that Pietistic 
school with which the reputation of Halle afterwards became 
especially identified, it is unnecessary here to dilate. 3 Christian 
Wolf, who followed Thomasius as an assertor of the new culture, 
was driven from Halle by the accusations of the Pietists, who 
declared that his teaching was fraught with atheistical prin- 
ciples. In 1740, however, he was recalled by Frederick II., and 
reinstated in high office with every mark of consideration and 
respect. Throughout the whole of the i8th century Halle was 
the leader of academic thought and advanced theology in Pro- 
testant Germany, although sharing that leadership, after the 
middle of the century, with Gottingen. The university of Qottla _ 
Gottingen (named after its founder "Georgia Augusta ") ^^ 
was endowed with the amplest privileges as a university 
by George II. of England, elector of Hanover, 7th December 
3 See Paulsen, Gesch. des gelehrten Unterrichts, &c., pp. 348-58. 



y66 



UNIVERSITIES 



1736. The imperial sanction of the scheme had been given 
three years before (i3th January 1733), and the university was 
formally opened I7th September 1737. The king himself 
assumed the office of " rector magnificentissimus," and the 
liberality of the royal endowments (doubling those of Halle), 
and the not less liberal character of the spirit that pervaded 
its organization, soon raised it to a foremost place among the 
schools of Germany. Halle had just expelled Wolf; and 
Gottingen, modelled on the same lines as Halle, but rejecting its 
Pietism and disclaiming its intolerance, appealed with remark- 
able success to the most enlightened feeling of the time. It 
included all the faculties, and two of its first professors Mos- 
heim, the eminent theologian, from Helmstedt, and G. L. Boh- 
mer, the no less distinguished jurist from Halle together with 
Gesner, the man of letters, at once established its reputation. 
Much of its early success was also due to the supervision of its 
chief curator (there were two) Baron Miinchhausen, himself a 
man of considerable attainments, who by his sagacious super- 
intendence did much to promote the general efficiency of the 
whole professoriate. Not least among its attractions was also 
its splendid library, located in an ancient monastery, and now 
containing over 200,000 volumes and 5000 MSS. In addition 
to its general influence as a distinguished seat of learning, 
Gottingen may claim to have been mainly instrumental in 
diffusing a more adequate conception of the importance of the 
study of history. Before the latter half of the i8th century the 
mode of treatment adopted by university lecturers was singu- 
larly wanting in breadth of view. Profane history was held of 
but little account, excepting so far as it served to illustrate 
ecclesiastical and sacred history; while this, again, was invariably 
treated in the narrow spirit of the polemic, intent mainly on the 
defence of his own confession, according as he represented the 
Lutheran or the Reformed Church. The labours of the pro- 
fessors at Gottingen, especially Putter, Gatterer, Schlozer and 
Spittler, combined with those of Mascov at Leipzig, did much 
towards promoting both a more catholic treatment and a wider 
scope. Not less beneficial was the example set at Gottingen of 
securing the appointment of its professors by a less prejudiced 
and partial body than a university board is only too likely to 
become. " ' The Great Miinchhausen,' says an illustrious professor 
of that seminary, ' allowed our university the right of presenta- 
tion, of designation, or of recommendation, as little as the right 
of free election; for he was taught by experience that, although 
the faculties of universities may know the individuals best 
qualified to supply their vacant chairs, they are seldom or never 
disposed to propose for appointment the worthiest within their 
knowledge.'" 1 The system of patronage adopted at Gottingen 
was, in fact, identical with that which had already been insti- 
tuted in the universities of the Netherlands by Douza. The 
university of Erlangen, a Lutheran centre, was founded 
by Frederick, margrave of Baireuth. Its charter was 
granted by the emperor Charles VII., 2ist February 1743, and 
the university was formally constituted, 4th November. From 
its special guardian, Alexander, the last margrave of Ansbach, 
it was styled " Academia Alexandrina." In 1791, Ansbach and 
Baireuth having passed into the possession of Prussia, Erlangen 
also became subject to the Prussian government, and, as the 
loth century advanced, her theological faculty became dis- 
tinguished by the fervour and ability with which it championed 
the tenets of Lutheranism. 

On comparison with the great English universities, the uni- 
versities of Germany must be pronounced inferior both in point 
Tb of discipline and of moral control over the students. 

English The superiority of the former in these respects is 
sadder- partly to be attributed to the more systematic care 
rs/(""s" wn ' c ^ they took, from a very early date, for the super- 
compared. vision of each student, by requiring that within a 
certain specified time after his entry into the university 
he should be registered as a pupil of some master of arts, 
who was responsible for his conduct, and represented him 
generally in his relations to the academic authorities. Mar- 
1 Hamilton, Discussions, p. 381. 



burg in its earliest statutes (those of 1529) endeavoured to 
establish a similar rule, but without success. 2 The development 
of the collegiate system at Oxford and Cambridge materially 
assisted the carrying out of this discipline. Although again, as 
in the German universities, feuds were not unfrequent, especi- 
ally those between " north " and " south " (the natives of the 
northern and southern counties), the fact that in elections to 
fellowships and scholarships only a certain proportion were 
allowed to be taken from either of these divisions acted as a 
considerable check upon the possibility of any one college 
representing either element exclusively. In the German uni- 
versities, on the other hand, the ancient division into nations, 
which died out with the i sth century, was revived under another 
form by the institution of national colleges, which largely served 
to foster the spirit of rivalry and contention. The demoraliza- 
tion induced by the Thirty Years' War and the increase of 
duelling intensified these tendencies, which, together with the 
tyranny of the older over the younger students, known as 
" Pennalismus," were evils against which the authorities con- 
tended, but ineffectually, by various ordinances. The institution 
of " Burschentum," having for its design the encouragement of 
good fellowship and social feeling irrespective of nationality, 
served only as a partial check upon these excesses, which again 
received fresh stimulus by the rival institution of " Landsmann- 
schaften," or societies of the same nationality. The latter 
proved singularly provocative of duelling, while the arrogant 
and even tyrannical demeanour of their members towards the 
unassociated students gave rise to a general combination of 
the latter for the purposes of self-defence and organized re- 
sistance. 

The political storms which marked the close of the i8th 
and the beginning of the igth century gave the death-blow 
to not a few of the ancient universities of Germany. Extlac- 
Mainz and Cologne ceased to exist in 1798; Bamberg, tloa at 
Dillingen and Duisburg in 1804; Rinteln and Helm- German 
stedt in 1809; Salzburg in 1810; Erfurt in 1816. iles du/ J 
Altdorf was united to Erlangen in 1807, Frankfort- on- lag 1798- 
the-Oder to Breslau in 1809, and Wittenberg to Halle I8IS - 
in 1815. The university of Ingolstadt was first moved in 1802 to 
Landshut, and from thence in 1826 to Munich, where it was 
united to the academy of sciences which was founded 
in the Bavarian capital in 1759. Miinster in Prussia 
was for the first time constituted a university in four faculties 
by Maximilian Frederick (elector and archbishop) in . 
1771. Its charter was confirmed by Clement XIV. in 
1773, and again by the Emperor Joseph II. The university was 
abolished in the year 1818; but two faculties, those of theology 
and philosophy, continued to exist, and in 1843 it received the 
full privileges of a Prussian university together with the designa- 
tion of a royal foundation. Of those of the above centres which 
altogether ceased to exist, but few were much missed or regretted 
that at Mainz, which had numbered some six hundred students, 
being the one notable exception. The others had for the most 
part fallen into a perfunctory and lifeless mode of teaching, 
and, with wasted or diminished revenues and declining numbers, 
had long ceased worthily to represent the functions of a uni- 
versity, while the more studious in each centre were harassed 
by the frequency with which it was made an arena for political 
demonstrations. Whatever loss may have attended their sup. 
pression was more than compensated by the activity and influence 
of the three great German universities which rose in the last 
century. 

Munich, after having been completely reorganized, soon 
became a distinguished centre of study in all the faculties; and 

1 " Volumus neminem in hanc nostram Academiam admitti, aut 
per rectorem in album recipi, qui non habeat privatum atque 
domesticum praeceptorem, qui ejus discipulum agnoscat, ad cujus 
judicium quisque pro sua ingenii capacitate atque Marte lecturas 
et publicas et privatas audiat, a cujus latere aut raro aut nunquam 
discedat." Koch expressly compares this provision with the discipline 
of Oxford and Cambridge, which, down to the commencement of the 
present century, was very much of the same character (Koch, Gesch. 
des academischen Pddagogiums in Marburg, p. n). 



Munich. 



UNIVERSITIES 



767 



Bonn. 



its numbers, allowing for two great wars, have been continuously 
on the increase, the eminence of its professoriate, among whom 
have been Dollinger, Liebig, Schelling, Zeuss and Giesebrecht, 
having attracted students from all parts of Europe. 

The university of Berlin, known as the Royal Friedrich Wil- 
helm University, was founded in 1809, immediately after the 
Berlin peace of Tilsit, when Prussia had been reduced to the 
level of a third-rate Power. Under the guiding in- 
fluence of Wilhelm von Humboldt, however, supported by the 
strong purpose of Frederick William III., the principles 
adopted in connexion with the new seat of learning not only 
raised it to a foremost place among the universities of Europe, 
but also largely conduced to the regeneration of Germany. It 
had not only incorporated at the time of its foundation the 
famous " Academy of Sciences " of the city, but expressly 
repudiated all attachment to any particular creed or school of 
thought, and professed subservience only to the interests of 
science and learning. " Each of the eminent teachers with 
whom the university began its life F. A. Wolfe, Fichte, Savigny, 
Reil represented only himself, the path of inquiry or the 
completed theory which he had himself propounded. Its 
subsequent growth was astonishing, and before the igth century 
closed the number of its matriculated students exceeded that of 
every other university except Vienna." 

The university of Bonn, founded in 1818 and also by Friedrich 
Wilhelm III., thus became known as the Rhenish Friedrich 
Wilhelm University it being the design of the founder 
to introduce into the Rhine provinces the classic 
literature and the newly developed scientific knowledge of 
Germany proper. With this aim he summoned to his aid the best 
available talent, among the earlier instructors being Niebuhr, 
A. W. von Schlegel, with C. F. Nasse in the faculty of medicine 
and G. Hermes in that of theology. In the last-named faculty 
it further became noted for the manner in which it combined 
the opposed schools of theological doctrine that of the 
Evangelical (or Lutheran) Church and that of the Roman 
Catholic Church here standing side by side, and both adorned by 
eminent names. After the war with Austria in 1859 the German 
universities underwent a considerable change owing to the 
enforced military service required by the law of 1867; and the 
events of 1870 were certainly not disconnected with the martial 
spirit which had been evoked in the student world, while in 
the universities themselves there had risen up a new and more 
lively interest in political affairs. 

In 1878 a comparison of the numbers of the students in the 
different faculties in the Prussian universities with those for 
the year 1867 showed a remarkable diminution in the 
tions'of faculty of theology, amounting in Lutheran centres to 
numbers more than one-half, and in Catholic centres to nearly 
la the three-fourths. In jurisprudence there was an increase 
/AI ^ near ' v two-fifths, in medicine a decline of a third, 

and in philosophy an increase of one-fourth. 
The universities of the United Provinces, like those of Pro- 
testant Germany, were founded by the state as schools for the 
Uahrer- Maintenance of the principles of the Reformation and 
sitiesot the education of the clergy, and afforded in the i6th 
United and 1 7th centuries a grateful refuge to not a few of 
those Huguenot orPort-Royalistscholarswhompersecu- 
tion compelled to flee beyond the boundaries of France, 
as well as to the Puritan divines who were driven from England. 
The earliest, that of Leiden (in what was then the county 
* Holland), founded in 1575, commemorated the 
gallant and successful resistance of the citizens to the 
Spanish forces under Requesens. Throughout the i7th century 
Leiden was distinguished by its learning, the ability of its 
professors, and the shelter it afforded to the more liberal thought 
associated at that period with Arminianism. Much of its early 
success was owing to the wise provisions and the influence of the 
celebrated Janus Douza: " Douza 's principles," says Hamilton, 
" were those which ought to regulate the practice of all aca- 
demical patrons; and they were those of his successors. He 
knew that at the rate learning was seen prized by the state in 



i ciden 



the academy, would it be valued by the nation at large 

He knew that professors wrought more even by example and 
influence than by teaching, that it was theirs to pitch high or 
low the standard of learning in a country, and that, as it proved 
easy or arduous to come up with them, they awoke either a 
restless endeavour after an even loftier attainment, or lulled 
into a self-satisfied conceit." Douza was, for Leiden and the 
Dutch, what Milnchhausen afterwards was for Gottingen and the 
German universities. " But with this difference: Leiden was 
the model on which the younger universities of the republic 
were constructed; Gottingen the model on which the older 
universities of the empire were reformed. Both Miinchhausen 
and Douza proposed a high ideal for the schools founded under 
their auspices; and both, as first curators, laboured with 
paramount influence in realizing this ideal for the same long 
period of thirty-two years. Under their patronage Leiden and 
Gottingen took the highest place among the universities of 
Europe; and both have only lost their relative supremacy by 
the application in other seminaries of the same measures which 
had at first determined their superiority." The appointment 
of the professors at Leiden was vested in three (afterwards five) 
curators, one of whom was selected from the body of the nobles, 
while the other two were appointed by the states of the pro- 
vince the office being held for nine years, and eventually 
for life. With these was associated the mayor of Leiden for 
the time being. The university of Francker was _, 

t j j L i i in. Fraaeker. 

founded in 1585 on a somewhat less liberal basis than 
Leiden, the professors being required to declare their assent to 
the rule of faith embodied in the Heidelberg Catechism and the 
confession of the " Belgian Church." Its four faculties were 
those of theology, jurisprudence, medicine, and " the three 
languages and the liberal arts." 1 For a period of twelve years 
(c. 1610-22) the reputation of the university was enhanced 
by the able teaching of William Ames (" Amesius "), a Puritan 
divine and moralist who had been driven by Archbishop Bancroft 
from Cambridge and from England. His fame and ability are 
said to have attracted to Franeker students from Hungary, 
Poland and Russia. 

With similar organization were founded the universities 
of Harderwijk (1600), Groningen (1614) and Utrecht (1634), 
the last-named being much frequented in the i8th Harder- 
century by both English and Scottish students who #* 
repaired thither to obtain instruction of a kind that Oronin- 
Oxford and Cambridge at that time failed altogether **" 
to impart more than a fourth of the students of Vtrecbt. 
Utrecht about the year 1736 being of those nationalities. In 
the ipth century, however, political considerations began seri- 
ously to diminish such intercourse between different centres, 
and during the first Napoleon's tenure of the imperial dignity 
the universities in both the "kingdom of Holland" and the 
Austrian Netherlands (as they were then termed) were in 
great peril. But on the settlement of Europe in 1814-15 the 
restoration of the house of Orange and consequent formation 
of the " kingdom of the Netherlands " brought both realms 
under a single rule. The universities of Franeker and Harder- 
wijk were suppressed, and those of Ghent and Li6ge created, 
while a uniform constitution was given both to the ohent 



Dutch and Belgian universities. It was also provided 



Liege. 



that there should be attached to each a board of 
curators, consisting of five persons, " distinguished by their love 
of literature and science and by their rank in society," to be 
.nominated by the king, and at least three of them to be chosen 
from the province in which the university was situated, the 
other two from adjacent provinces. After the lapse of another 
fifteen years, however, the kingdom of the Netherlands having 
been reduced to its present limits and the kingdom of Belgium 
(identical for the most part with the Austrian Netherlands) 
newly created, an endeavour was made in dealing with the 
whole question of secondary education to give a fuller recog- 
nition to both traditional creeds and ethnic affinities. At 
Louvain, the chief Catholic centre, the faculties of law, medicine 
1 Statula et Leges (Franeker, 1647), p. 3. 



7 68 



UNIVERSITIES 



""' 



and philosophy had already, in 1788, been removed to Brussels 
Brussels an a l most u n iq ue example of a university which 
owed its origin neither to a temporal nor an ecclesi- 
astical authority and in 1834 Brussels was constituted a free 
and independent university with a new fourth faculty of natural 
science, and supported mainly by contributions from the 
Liberal party. Having, however, no charter, it continued 
incapable by law of possessing property. While Louvain and 
Brussels thus represented to a great extent the two chief political 
parties in the realm, the universities of Ghent on the Scheldt 
and Liege on the Meuse recruited their students mainly from 
the two chief races the Flemish and the Walloon. In Holland, 
on the other hand, where no such marked racial differences 
exist, the universities of Groningen, Leiden and Utrecht have 
been assimilated (1876) in constitution, each being administered 
by a consistory of five rectors with a senate composed of the 
professors in the respective faculties. The foundation of the 
university of Amsterdam (1877) more than repaired 
the loss of Franeker and Harderwijk, and the progress 
of this new centre during the first ten years of its exist- 
ence was remarkably rapid. The higher education of women 
has made some progress in the Netherlands. 

In Sweden the foundation of the university of Upsala, 
sanctioned in 1477 by Sixtus IV. as a studium generale on the 
Uaiver- m del of Bologna, was followed at a long interval by 
sitiesof that of Lund (1666), which was created during the 
Sweden minority of Charles XI. with statutes and privileges 
a " a almost identical with those of Upsala and with an 

endowment largely derived from the alienated 
revenues of the chapter of the cathedral. The students 
were recruited from Denmark, Germany and Sweden; 
and Puffendorf, the civilian, was one of its first professors. 
During Charles's reign its resources were in turn confiscated, 
and the university itself was closed in 1676 in consequence of 
the war with Denmark. When again opened it remained for 
a long time in a very depressed condition, from which it failed 
to rally until the igth century, when it took a new departure, 
and the erection of its handsome new buildings (1882) invested 
it with additional attractions. The royal university of Upsala, 
roused to new life in the i7th century by the introduction of 
the Cartesian philosophy, has been throughout (notwithstanding 
its singularly chequered history), the chief home of the higher 
Swedish education. In the i8th century lectures began to be 
delivered in Swedish; while the medieval division of the 
students into " nations " continued, as at Lund, until the 
second quarter of the igih. The various changes and events 
during the interesting period 1872 to 1897 have been recorded 
at length in the national tongue by Reinhold Geijer in a hand- 
some quarto which appeared in 1897. Gothenburg, on the 
other hand, with its society of science and literature, dating 
from 1841, has represented rather a popular institution, existing 
independently of the state, maintained chiefly by private 
contributions, and governed by a board called the Curatorium. 
For a long time it was not empowered to hold examinations. 
Stockholm (1878) still remains a gymnasium, but its curriculum 
is to a certain extent supplemented by its connexion with 
Upsala, from which it is little more than forty miles distant by 
rail. The university of Christiania in Norway, founded in 1811, 
and the Swedish universities are strongly Lutheran 
in character; and all alike are closely associated 
with the ecclesiastical institutions of the Scandinavian 
kingdoms. The same observation applies to Copenhagen 
where, however, the labours of Rask and Madvig have done 
much to sustain the reputation of the university for learning. 
Klel The royal university of Kiel was founded in 1665 by 

Duke Christian Albrecht of Holstein (who himself 
assumed the office of rector) with faculties of theology, law, 
medicine and philosophy. It maintained its ground, although 
not without difficulty, amid the feuds that frequently arose 
between its dukes and the kings of Denmark, and under the 
rule of Catherine II. of Russia and after the incorporation of 
Schleswig-Holstein with the kingdom of Denmark made a 



at 



marked advance. In the latter half of last century it acquired 
new buildings and rose into high reputation as a school of 
chemistry, physiology and anatomy, while its library in 1904 
exceeded 250,000 volumes. 

The number of universities founded in the last century is 
in striking contrast to the paucity which characterizes the 
two preceding centuries, an increase largely resulting, however, 
from the needs of English colonies and dependencies. In the 
Mediterranean, Genoa (1812), Messina (1838) and Genoa. 
Marseilles (1854) were foundations which supplied a Messiaa. 
genuine want and have gradually attained to a fair Mar- 
measure of success. The first had previously existed seiiles. 
as a school of law and medicine, but when, along with the rest 
of the Ligurian republic, it became incorporated in the empire 
under Napoleon I., the emperor, in order to conciliate the 
population, raised it to the rank of a university in 1812. The 
university subsequently fell into the hands of the Jesuits, who 
maintained their tenure of the principal chairs until the 
unification of the Italian kingdom under Victor Emmanuel, 
when Messina, which had been founded during the rule of the 
Bourbons over the Two Sicilies, became similarly included 
under Italian rule. Of Marseilles mention has above been 
made. 

In France the fortunes of academic learning were even less 
happy than in Germany. The university of D61e in Franche 
Comte had for two hundred years been a flourishing D /e _ 
centre of higher education for the aristocracy, and 
was consequently regarded with envy by Besangon. In 1691, 
however, when the country had been finally ceded to France, 
and Savoy had been subjugated by the arms of Catina, Louis 
XIV. was induced, on the payment of a considerable sum, to 
transfer the university to Besancon. Here it forthwith acquired 
enhanced importance under the direction of the Jesuits. But 
in 1722, on the creation of a university at Dijon, the Dl , oa 
faculty of law was removed to that city, where it 
continued to exist until the Revolution. 

The university of Paris indeed was distracted, throughout 
the 1 7th century, by theological dissensions in the first 
instance owing to the struggle that ensued after the t/nh-er- 
Jesuits had effected a footing at the College de Cler- s i ty / 
mont, and subsequently by the strife occasioned by Paris 
the teaching of the Jansenists. Its studies, discipline trom the 
and numbers alike suffered. Towards the close of 
the century a certain revival took place, and a suc- 
cession of illustrious names Pourchot, Rollin, Grenan, Coffin, 
Demontempuys, Crevier, Lebeau appear on the roll of its 
teachers. But this improvement was soon interrupted by the 
controversies excited by the promulgation of the bull Uni- 
genitus in 1713, condemning the tenets of Quesnel, when Rollin 
himself, although a man of singularly pacific disposition, deemed 
it his duty to head the opposition to Clement XI. and the 
French episcopate. At last, in 1762, the parlement of Paris 
issued a decree (August 6) placing the colleges of the Jesuits 
at the disposal of the university, and this was immediately 
followed by another for the expulsion of the order from Paris, 
the university being installed in possession of their vacated 
premises. Concurrently with this measure, the curriculum of 
prescribed studies assumed a more hopeful character, and 
both history and natural science began to be cultivated with a 
certain success. These innovations, however, were soon lost 
sight of in the more sweeping changes which followed upon 
the Revolution. On the i5th of September 1793 the universities 
and colleges throughout France, together with the faculties 
of theology, medicine, jurisprudence and arts, were abolished 
by a decree of the convention, and the whole system of national 
education may be said to have remained in abeyance, until, 
in 1808, Napoleon I. promulgated the scheme which in its 
essential features is almost identical with that which at present 
obtains the whole system of education, both secondary and 
primary, being made subject to the control and direction of 
the state. In pursuance of this conception, the " university 
of France," as it was henceforth styled, became little more 



UNIVERSITIES 



769 



Lille 

Lyons 

""I 



than an abstract term 1 signifying collectively the various 
centres of professional education in their new relations to the 
state. All France was divided into seventeen districts, desig- 
nated " academies," each administered by its own rector and 
council, but subject to the supreme authority of the minister 
of public instruction, and representing certain faculties which 
varied at different centres in conformity with the new scheme 
of distribution for the entire country. 

While, accordingly, three new " academies " those of Lille, 
Lyons and Rennes date their commencement from 1808, 
many of the pre-existing centres were completely sup- 
pressed. In some cases, however, the effacement 
of an ancient institution was avoided by investing 
it with new importance, as at Grenoble; in others, 
the vacated premises were appropriated to new uses connected 
with the department, as at Avignon, Cahors and Perpignan. 
Each rector of an " academy " was also constituted president 
of a local conseil d'enseignement, in conjunction with which 
he nominated the professors of lycees and the communal school- 
masters, 2 these appointments being subsequently ratified by 
a promotion committee sitting in Paris. In 1895, however, 
... the government was prevailed upon to sanction the 
aoa of' institution of certain " free faculties," as they were 
" free termed, to be placed under the direction of the bishop, 
faculties." and depending for support upon voluntary contribu- 
tions, and each including a faculty of theology. The faculty 
at Marseilles, on the other hand, which originated in an earlier 
" faculty of sciences " founded in 1854, was now called upon 
to share the governmental grant with Aix, and the two centres 
became known as the Academic d'Aix-Marseille 
Aix-Mar- t k e f acu iti e s in the latter being restricted to mathe- 
matics and natural' science (including a medical 
school), while faculties of law and philosophy were fixed at 
Aix, which possesses also the university library properly so 
termed. In the capital itself, the university of Paris and 
the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes carried on the work 
of higher instruction independently of each other the former 
with faculties of Protestant theology, law, medicine, science, 
letters and chemistry distributed over the Quartier Latin; 
the latter with schools of mathematics, natural science, history, 
philology, and history of religions centred at the Sorbonne. 

The College de France, founded in the i6th century by 
Francis I., was from the first regarded with hostility both 
by the university and by the Sorbonne. It became, 
however, so highly esteemed as a school of gratuitous 
instruction in Latin, Greek and Hebrew, that it not 
only held its ground, but at the Revolution ultimately sur- 
vived alike the universities and their hostility. As reconstituted 
in 1831 it became chiefly known as an institution for the in- 
struction of adults, and its staff of professors, some fifty in 
number (including their deputies), has comprised from time to 
time the names of not a few of the most distinguished scholars 
and men of science in the country. The university of 
Strassburg, which in the latter part of the i8th century 
had been distinguished by an intellectual activity which 
became associated with the names of Goethe, Herder and 
others, was also swept away by the Revolution. It was re- 
vived in 1804 as a Protestant " academy," but four years 
later incorporated in the newly created " academy " of Nancy, 
with a faculty of Protestant theology which lasted only until 
1818. 

In Switzerland the universities shared in the conflicts handed 
down from the days when the Helvetic republic had been 
first created, and each with somewhat similar ex- 
periences. In 1832, Basel having joined the Sarner 
Bund or League of the Catholic Cantons, the Con- 
federates divided the canton into two, and agreed to raise the 

1 It retains a certain professional meaning, in that a student 
studying for the "university" is understood to be one who is 
himself aiming at the profession of a teacher in a lycee. 

2 The prfifet of the department has since taken the place of the 
rector with regard to nominations. 

XXVII. 25 



Strass- 
burg. 



flourishing Hochschule which already existed at Zurich to the 
rank of a university a measure which may be said .** 
to mark a turning-point in the history of the higher 
education of the republic. In 1839, however, the teaching of 
D. F. Strauss, who had been installed in the chair of theology 
at Zurich soon after his expulsion from Tubingen, gave rise 
to a popular demonstration which not only brought about the 
overthrow of the governing body, but placed the existence of 
the university itself in jeopardy. But the storm was success- 
fully weathered, and in 1859 the statutes were revised and a 
considerable addition made to the professoriate. The gym- 
nasium of Bern, originally established under the 
teaching of Ulrich Zwingli, developed in 1834 into a 
university with all the faculties, those of medicine and philo- 
sophy rising with the advance of the century into high repute. 
As early as 1586 Lausanne had been a noted school 
for the education of Protestant ministers, but it was Laiuanae - 
not until 1806 that chairs of philosophy and law were estab- 
lished, to which those of natural science and literature were 
added in 1836, and, somewhat later, that of medicine. It was 
not, however, until 1891 that Lausanne was formally consti- 
tuted a university. At Geneva the famous academy 
of the i6th and xyth centuries, long distinguished as Oeneva - 
a centre of Calvinistic teaching, became merged in 1876 in a 
university, where the instruction (given mainly in the French 
language) was carried on by a staff of forty-one professors. 
With this was also incorporated an earlier school of science, 
in which De Saussure and De Candolle had once been teachers. 
Fribourg, founded in 1889 as a university of the canton 
so named, began with only two faculties those of Prtbour z- 
law and philosophy, to which one of theology was added in 
the following year. A certain spirit of innovation character- 
ized most of the Swiss universities at this time, especially in 
connexion with female education. At Zurich, in 1872 (and some- 
what later at Geneva and Bern), women were admitted to the 
lectures, and in 1892 were permitted themselves to lecture, a 
lady, Frau Dr Emilie Kempin, succeeding to the chair of Roman 
law. At Fribourg the proposition was first brought forward 
that all professors should be appointed only for a specified 
period, a limitation which along with other questions affecting 
the professorial body gave rise to much divergence of opinion. 

In Spain the act of 1857 introduced a radical change similar 
to that in France, the whole system of education being placed 
under the responsible control of the minister for that depart- 
ment, while the entire kingdom was at the same time divided 
into ten university districts Madrid, Barcelona, Granada, 
Oviedo, Salamanca, Santiago, Seville, Valencia, Valladolid and 
Saragossa the rector of the universities in each district repre- 
senting the chief authority. The degrees to be conferred at 
each were those of bachelor, licentiate and doctor. 
Each university received a rector of its own, selected 

r , i r 

by the government from among the professors, and a 
precise plan of instruction was prescribed in which every hour 
had its appointed lecturer and subject. Philosophy, natural 
science, law and medicine were to be studied at all these uni- 
versities, and at the majority a school of chemistry was sub- 
sequently instituted, except at Oviedo, which was limited to 
a faculty of law and a school for notaries. But at Salamanca, 
Valladolid, Seville and Saragossa no school of chemistry was 
instituted, and at the first three that of medicine ultimately 
died out. No provision was made for instruction in theology, 
this being relegated to the seminaries in the episcopal cities. 
The university of Manila in the Philippines was opened in 1601 
as a school for the nobility, and ten years later the famous 
college of St Thomas was founded by the Dominican order; 
but it was not until 1857 that the university, properly speaking, 
was founded by royal Spanish decree. In Portugal, colmbra. 
Coimbra, which narrowly escaped suppression in the 
i6th century and was removed from 1380 to 1537 to Lisbon, 
has long been a flourishing school. Its instruction is given 
gratis; but, as all members of the higher courts of judicature 
and administration in the realm are required to have graduated 



Portugal. 



770 



UNIVERSITIES 



at the university, it is at the same time one of the most aristo- 
cratic schools in Europe. Of its five faculties, theology, juris- 
prudence, medicine, mathematics and philosophy, that of law 
is by far the most flourishing, the number of students in this 
faculty nearly equalling the aggregate of all the rest. In 1772 
the university received new statutes and was to a great extent 
reorganized. There is a valuable library, largely composed of 
collections formerly belonging to suppressed convents. As a 
school of theology Coimbra has always been distinctly anti- 
ultramontane. 

In Italy, as in Spain, education for the church has been 
relegated almost entirely to the numerous "seminaries," where it 
. is of an almost entirely elementary character. In 1875 

a laudable effort was made by R. Bonghi, the minister 
of education, to introduce reforms and to assimilate the uni- 
versities in their organization and methods to the German type. 
His plans were, however, to a great extent reversed by his 
successor, Coppino. 

In Austria the universities, being modelled on the same 
system as those of the German Empire, present no especially 
Austria- noteworthy features, except that the sphere of the 
Hungary, functions of a rector corresponds precisely with that of 
vieaaa. the rector in those German universities which have 
no curator, and the faculties are represented by the ordinary 
professors as a body along with two representatives of the 
" Privatdozents." Vienna has long been chiefly distinguished 
for its school of medicine, which enjoyed in the last century a 
reputation almost unrivalled in Europe. The other faculties 
were, however, suffered to languish, and throughout the first 
half of the last century the whole university was in an extremely 
depressed state. From this condition it was in a great measure 
restored by the exertions of Count Thun. The university of 
Olmutz, founded in 1581, was formerly in possession of what is 
_. ... now the imperial library, and contained also" a valuable 

collection of Slavonic works, which were carried off 
by the Swedes and ultimately dispersed. It was suppressed in 
1853, and is now represented only by a theological faculty. The 
university of Graz, the capital of Styria, was founded in 1586, 

and has long been one of the most flourishing centres, 
Oraz. with nearly 2000 students, chiefly in law and philo- 
Saizburg. sophy. The university of Salzburg, founded in 1623, 
Lemberg. was suppressed in 1810; that of Lemberg, founded in 

1784 by the Emperor Joseph II., was removed in 1805 
to Cracow and united to that university. In 1816 it was opened 
on an independent basis. In the bombardment of the town 
in 1848 the university buildings were burnt down, and the site 
was changed to what was formerly a Jesuit convent. The fine 
library and natural history museum were at the same time almost 
entirely destroyed. The most recent foundation is that of 

Czernowitz (1875), with faculties of theology (Greek 

Church), law and political economy, and philosophy. 

The universities of the Hungarian kingdom are three 
in number: Budapest, originally founded at Tyrnau in 1635 
, under the auspices of the Jesuits, now possessing four 

faculties theology, jurisprudence, medicine and philo- 
sophy (number of professors in 1903, 180; students, 3223); 
Kolozsvar (Klausenburg), the chief Magyar centre, founded in 
Kiauseo- I ^7 2 and also comprising four faculties, but where 
burg. mathematics and natural science supply the place of 
A am theology; Zagrab (Agram), the Slovack university, 

in Croatia, originally founded by Maria Theresa in 
1776 from some suppressed schools of the Jesuits, and 
reopened in 1874 with three faculties, viz. jurisprudence, 
theology and philosophy. The chief centre of Protestant 
De _ education is the college at Debreczen, founded in 

beeczeu. I 53 1 > which in past times was not infrequently sub- 
sidized from England. It has faculties of law and 
theology, courses of instruction in philosophy, and a school for 
teachers, and possesses a fine library. 

In Japan there are two imperial universities Tokyo (1868) 
and Kioto (1897) the former representing the union of two 
pre-existing foundations, on which occasion it was placed under 



Czer- 

nowitz. 



the control of the minister of instruction with yearly -grants 
from the treasury. The ordinary course of studies j, paa . 
was limited to three years, that of medicine being 
extended to four. Kioto was formed out of four previously 
existing colleges of law, medicine, science and engineering. 

The " National University " of Athens (founded May 22, 
1837) was modelled on the university systems of northern 
Germany, on a plan originally devised by Professor Athens 
Brandis. It originally included only four faculties, 
viz. theology, jurisprudence, medicine and philosophy, to which 
one of applied mathematics was subsequently added. 

In European Turkey the university of Jassy (1860) in Rumania 
was founded by its ruler, Prince Cuza, and together with the 
newly founded university of Bucharest received its Turkey 
completed organization in 1 864. Both were constituted ana 
state institutions and were represented in the senate, Bulgaria. 
although not receiving any fixed revenues from the govern- 
ment. Its students are instructed and examined gratuit- 
ously. In the university of Sophia (1888) in Bulgaria, faculties 
were established, in the course of the ensuing four years, of 
history, philology, physics, mathematics and jurisprudence, 
the main object in view being the training of competent teachers 
of schools and of lawyers, and affording them the means of 
gaining an intelligent insight into the real wants of the native 
population. The university of Constantinople was founded in 
1900 at the jubilee festival in honour of the sultan's succession 
to the throne. It included five faculties and was placed under 
the control of a director and sub-director, the former being 
invested with authority over teachers and scholars alike. 

The history of the two English universities during the i6th 
and following centuries has presented, for the most part, features 
which contrast strongly with those of the continental The 
seats of learning. Both suffered severely from con- English 
fiscation of their lands and revenues during the period "^^ 
of the Reformation, but otherwise have generally s/ - oce t ne 
enjoyed a remarkable immunity from the worst con- medieval 
sequences of civil and political strife and actual period. 
warfare. Both long remained centres chiefly of theological teach- 
ing, but their intimate connexion at once with the state and with 
the Church of England, as " by law established," and the modi- 
fications introduced into their constitutions, prevented their 
becoming arenas of fierce polemical contentions like those which 
distracted the Protestant universities of Germany. 

The influence of the Renaissance, and the teaching of Erasmus, 
who resided for some time at both universities, exercised a 
notable effect alike at Oxford and at Cambridge, influence 
The names of Colet, Grocyn and Linacre illustrate this of the 
influence at the former centre; those of Bishop Fisher, Renais- 
Sir John Cheke and Sir Thomas Smith at the latter. *"""* 
The labours of Erasmus at Cambridge, as the author of a 
new Latin version of the New Testament, with the design 
of placing in the hands of students a text free from the errors 
of the Vulgate, were productive of important effects, and the 
university became a centre of Reformation doctrine 
some years before the writings of Luther became known 
in England. The foundation of Christ's College (i 505) tion at 
and St John's College (1511), through the influence of c *"\~ 
Fisher with the countess of Richmond, also materi- 
ally aided the general progress of learning at Cambridge. 
The Royal Injunctions of 1535, embodying the views and 
designs of Thomas Cromwell, mark the downfall of the old 
scholastic methods of study at both universities; and the 
foundation of Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1547 (partly by an 
amalgamation of two older societies), represents the earliest 
conception of such an institution in England in complete inde- 
pendence of Roman Catholic traditions. Trinity (1554) an d 
St John's (1555) at Oxford, on the other hand, founded during 
the reactionary reign of Mary, serve rather as examples of a 
transitional period. 

In the reign of Elizabeth Cambridge became the centre of 
another great movement that of the earlier Puritanism, 
St John's and Queens' being the strongholds of the party led 



UNIVERSITIES 



771 



by Cartwright, Walter Travers and others. Whitaker, the 
eminent master of St John's, although he sympathized to some 
Puritan- extent with these views, strove to keep their expres- 
ism at sion within limits compatible with conformity to the 
Cam- Church of England. But the movement continued 
bridge. to g a t ner strength; and Emmanuel College, founded 
in 1584, owed much of its early prosperity to the fact that it 
was a known school of Puritan doctrine. Most of the Puritans 
objected to the discipline enforced by the university and ordinary 
college statutes especially the wearing of the cap and the 
surplice and the conferring of degrees in divinity. The Anglican 
Eliza- P art y> headed by such men as Whitgift and Bancroft, 
bethan resorted in defence to a repressive policy, of which 
statutes subscription to the Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity, 
of 1570. an( j tlle Elizabethan statutes of 1570 (investing the 
" caput " with larger powers, and thereby creating a more 
oligarchical form of government), were the most notable 
results. Oxford, although the Puritans were there headed by 
Leicester, the chancellor, devised at the same time a similar 
scheme, the rigid discipline of which was further developed in 
the Laudian or Caroline statutes of 1636. It was under these 
Laudiaa respective codes the Elizabethan statutes of 1 5 70 and 
statutes the Laudian statutes of 1636 that the two universities 
oii636. were governed until the introduction of the new 
codes of 1858. The fidelity with which both universities 
adhered to the royal cause in the Civil War caused them to be 
regarded with suspicion by the Puritan party, and under the 
Commonwealth both Oxford and Cambridge were for a brief 
period in great danger owing to the distrust, which culminated 
among the members of the " Nominated Parliament " (July- 
December 1653), of university education generally, as tending 
to foster contentiousness with respect to religious belief. It was 
even proposed by William Dell himself the master of Caius 
College to abolish the two universities altogether, as hopelessly 
pledged to antiquated and obsolete methods, and to establish 
in their place schools for the higher instruction throughout the 
country. They were saved, however, by the firmness of Crom- 
well, at that time chancellor of Oxford, and, although Aristotle 
and the scholastic philosophy no longer held their ground, a 
marked improvement was observable both in discipline and 
morality among the students, and the prescribed studies were 
assiduously pursued. At Oxford, under the influence and 
teaching of Dr Wilkins, Seth Ward and John Walk's, a flourishing 
school of mathematics was formed at a time when the study had 
died out at Cambridge. 

After the Restoration Cambridge became the centre of a 

remarkable movement (a reflex of the influence of the Cartesian 

philosophy), which attracted for a time considerable 

/ he Lam- . _ , . . .. ^- , . * 



bridge 



meat. 



attention. Its leaders, known as the Cambridge 
Piatonist Platonists, among whom Henry More, Cudworth and 
I0ve ~ Whichcote were especially conspicuous, were men of 
high character and great learning, although too much 
under the influence of an ill-restrained enthusiasm and purely 
The New- speculative doctrines. The spread of the Baconian 
ton/an philosophy, and the example of a succession of eminent 
phiio- scientific thinkers, among whom were Isaac Barrow, 
sopby. m aster of Trinity (1673-77), the two Lucasian pro- 
fessors, Isaac Newton (prof. 1669-1702) and his successor 
William Whiston (prof. 1 702-1 1) , and Roger Cotes (Plumian prof. 
1707-16), began to render the exact sciences more and more an 
object of study, and the institution of the tripos examinations 
in the course of the first half of the i8th century established the 
reputation of Cambridge as a school of mathematical science. 
At Oxford, where the study had in turn declined, and where 
the statutable requirements with respect to lectures and exercises 
were suffered to fall into neglect, the degeneracy of the whole 
community as a school of academic culture is attested by evidence 
too emphatic to be gainsaid. The moral tone at both universities 
was at this timesingularlylow; and the rise of Methodism 
as associated with the names of the two Wesleys and 
Whitefield at Oxford and that of Berridge at Cambridge, 
operated with greater effect upon the nation at large than 



Method- 
Ism. 



Simeon- 
ism. 



on either of the two centres where it had its origin. With the 
advance of the next century, however, a perceptible change 
took place. The labours of Charles Simeon at Cam- 
bridge, in connexion with the Evangelical party, and 
the far more celebrated movement known as Trac- 
tarianism, at Oxford, exercised considerable influence 
in developing a more thoughtful spirit at either 
university. At both centres, also, the range of studies was 
extended: written examinations took the place of the often 
merely formal viva voce ceremonies; at Cambridge the 
study of the classics was raised in 1824 to the dignity of a new 
tripos. The number of the students at both universities in- 
creased, the matriculations at each rising to over four hundred. 
Further schemes of improvement were put forward and discussed. 
And in 1850 it was decided by the government to appoint com- 
missioners to inquire what additional reforms might advantage- 
ously be introduced. Their recommendations were 
not all carried into effect, but the main results were as 
follows:" The professoriate was considerably increased, 
reorganized and re-endowed, by means of contributions from 
colleges. The colleges were emancipated from their medieval 
statutes, were invested with new constitutions, and acquired 
new legislative powers. The fellowships were almost universally 
thrown open to merit, and the effect of this was not merely to 
provide ample rewards for the highest academical attainments, 
but to place the governing power within colleges in the hands 
of able men, likely to promote further improvements. The 
number and value of scholarships were largely augmented, and 
many, though not all, of the restrictions upon them were abolished. 
The great mass of vexatious and obsolete oaths was swept away; 
and, though candidates for the M.A. degree and persons elected 
to fellowships were still required to make the old subscriptions 
and declarations, it was enacted that no religious test should be 
imposed at matriculation or on taking a bachelor's degree." l 

In 1869 a statute was enacted at Cambridge admitting 
students as members of the university without making 
it imperative that they should be entered at any 
hall or college, but simply be resident either with 
their parents or in duly licensed lodgings. legiate 

The entire abolition of tests followed next. After 
being rejected on several occasions in parliament Aboii- 
it was eventually carried as a government measure, tlon ol 
and passed the House of Lords in 1871. 

In 1877 the reports of two new commissions were followed 
by further changes, the chief features of which were the 
diversion of a certain proportion of the revenues 
of the colleges to the uses of the university, especially 
with a view to the encouragement of studies in natural 
science; the enforcement of general and uniform regulations 
with respect to the salaries, selection and duties of professors, 
lecturers and examiners; the abolition (with a few exceptions) 
of all clerical restrictions on headships or fellowships; and the 
limitation of fellowships to a uniform amount. 

That these successive and fundamental changes were on the 
whole in unison with the national wishes and requirements may 
fairly be inferred from the remarkable increase in numbers at 
both universities, especially at Cambridge, where the number 
of undergraduates, which in 1862 was 1526, rose in 1887 to 
2979. In the academic year 1862-63 the number of matricula- 
tions was 448, and in 1906-7 1083. The following universities 
and colleges, twenty-two in number, have since, in the /unlisted 
order of their enumeration, sought and received the univer- 
privilege of affiliation: University College, Netting- slties aa <l 
ham; university of Sheffield; university of Adelaide; ' 
St David's College, Lampeter; university of Calcutta; university 
college of Wales, Aberystwyth; university of New Zealand; 
university of the Cape of Good Hope; university of Allahabad; 
Punjab University; university of Bombay; university of 
Toronto; St Edmund's College, Ware; university of Madras; 
university of Sydney; M'Gill University, Montreal; university 
of Tasmania; university of New Brunswick; Hartley University 
1 Brodrick, University of Oxford, pp. 136, 137. 



*<"*** 



772 



UNIVERSITIES 



Further 
changes 
at Oxford 
and Cam- 
bridge. 



College, Southampton; University College of South Wales and 
Monmouthshire, Cardiff; university of King's College, Windsor, 
Nova Scotia; university of Queen's College, Kingston, Ontario. 
The changes introduced by the legislation of 1877 have been 
gradually carried out as the occurrence of vacancies in the 
colleges has made possible the appropriation of portions of their 
revenue for the foundation of professorships and other university 
purposes, though in some cases the intentions of the com- 
missioners have been frustrated by the effects of agricultural 
depression upon college revenues. The general effect of the 
revolution has been a marked diminution in the clerical character 
of the college teaching bodies, the conversion of the college 
teaching staff from a temporary employment for 
bachelors awaiting livings or other preferment into a 
permanent profession, and the growth of a resident 
and working university professoriate. At the same 
time a change of almost equal significance has taken 
place in the teaching system of the university through the 
gradual growth of " inter-collegiate lectures." At Oxford 
nearly all honour lectures given by college tutors and lecturers 
have been thrown open to all members of the university: the 
college tutor is now recognized by the university as a teacher 
in the faculty to which he belongs, and the institution of boards 
of faculties has done something to bring the organization of the 
university into harmony with that of universities outside the 
British Isles. 1 At Cambridge the system of inter-collegiate 
lectures has also developed itself, but to a considerably smaller 
extent. At both the old English universities the great widening 
of the courses of study open to senior students (honour men), 
which began about the middle of the igth century, has been 
continued, while there has been some widening and modernizing 
of the studies by which a pass or " poll " degree can be obtained. 
At Oxford there are now the following " Final Honour Schools ": 
Litterae Humaniores (Classics, Ancient History and Philosophy), 
Mathematics, Natural Science, Jurisprudence, Modern History, 
Theology, Oriental Languages, English Literature; and at 
Cambridge there are the following " Triposes ": Mathematics, 
Clas'sics, Moral Sciences, Natural Sciences, Theology, Law, 
History, Oriental Languages, Medieval and Modern Languages, 
Mechanical Sciences (Engineering). Degrees in letters and 
science have also been instituted at both Oxford and Cambridge. 
The doctorate is given for original work. At Oxford the B.Litt. 
and B.Sc. can be taken by dissertation or original research, 
without passing the examination for B.A. At Cambridge the 
B.A. can be obtained in a similar manner by advanced students. 
The strenuous efforts of both universities fully to meet the 
constantly increasing requirements of scientific education have 
necessitated appeals for public aid which have met with much 
generous response. Among the latest instances is that of the 
late Sir W. G. Pearce, who appointed to Trinity College, Cam- 
1 The proposed reforms initiated by Lord Curzon as chancellor 
of Oxford University, though largely administrative, may be 
mentioned here. In 1909 he issued his " Principles and Methods 
of University Reform." Committees of Council were formed to 
prepare definite schemes in the various directions indicated, and 
in 1910 a volume on the subject was issued to the members of 
Congregation. It was proposed, inter alia, to make Greek an optional 
subject in Responsions, thus foreshadowing changes in Moderations 
and final schools. Responsions itself was to be replaced by an 
entrance examination, though it has long practically served as such. 
The creation of " a diploma specially suitable for candidates con- 
templating a commercial career " was recommended. Additional 
provision to assist poor students, including the resignation of their 
emoluments by non-necessitous students in favour of exhibition 
funds for necessitous students in the colleges, and changes in the 
system of college fellowships, with especial reference to the encourage- 
ment of research in combination with tutorial work, were also 
indicated. Among purely administrative reforms, besides certain 
changes in the rules governing eligibility to the Hebdomadal Council 
and Congregation, it was proposed to reconstitute the method of 
election to and membership of the boards of faculties, at the same 
time creating a general board of the faculties, to control the individual 
boards, and to " relieve the Hebdomadal Council of the greater part 
of the business connected with curricula and examinations." A 
finance board was proposed to review the accounts of the university, 
all university institutions and colleges, and to act in an advisory 
and supervisory capacity. [ED.] 



Durham. 



bridge, a certain trust fund over which he had a general power 
of appointment, and also bequeathed to the society the residue 
of a considerable estate. 

So long ago as the year 1640 an endeavour had been made to 
bring about the foundation of a northern university for the 
benefit of the counties remote from Oxford and 
Cambridge. Manchester and York both petitioned to 
be made the seat of the new centre. Cromwell, however, 
rejected both petitions, and decided in favour of Durham. 
Here he founded the university of Durham (1657), endowing it 
with the sequestered revenues of the dean and chapter of the 
cathedral, and entitling the society " The Mentor or Provost, 
Fellows and Scholars of the College of Durham, of the founda- 
tion of Oliver, &c." This scheme was cancelled at the Restora- 
tion, and not revived until the present century; but on the 
4th July 1832 a bill for the foundation of a university at Durham 
received the royal assent, the dean and chapter being thereby 
empowered to appropriate an estate at South Shields for the 
establishment and maintenance of a university for the advance- 
ment of learning. The foundation was to be directly connected 
with the cathedral church, the bishop of the diocese being 
appointed visitor, and the dean and chapter governors; while 
the direct control was vested in a warden, a senate and a 
convocation. A college, modelled on the plan of those at the 
older universities, and designated University College, Durham, 
was founded in 1837, Bishop Hatfield's Hall in 1846, and Bishop 
Cosin's Hall (which no longer exists) in 1851. The university 
includes all the faculties, and in 1865 there was added to the 
faculty of arts a school of physical science, including pure and 
applied mathematics, chemistry, geology, mining, engineering, 
&c. In 1871 the corporation of the university, in conjunction 
with some of the leading landed proprietors in the adjacent 
counties, gave further extension to this design by the foundation 
of a college of physical science at Newcastle-upon-Tyne (subse- 
quently designated Armstrong College), designed to teach 
scientific principles in their application to engineering, mining, 
manufactures and agriculture. Students who had passed the 
required examinations were made admissible as associates in 
physical science of the university. There is also at Newcastle 
the College of Medicine which stands in similar relations to 
Durham, of which university Codrington College, Barbados, and 
Fourah Bay College, Sierra Leone, are likewise affiliated colleges. 

The university of London had its origin in a movement 
initiated in the year 1825 by Thomas Campbell, the poet, in 
conjunction with Henry (afterwards Lord) Brougham, univer- 
Mr (afterwards Sir) Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, Joseph sityof 
Hume and some influential Dissenters, most of them London. 
connected with the congregation of Dr Cox of Hackney. The 
scheme was originally suggested by the fact that Dissenters 
were practically excluded from the older universities; but the 
conception, as it took shape, was distinctly non-theological. 
The first council, appointed December 1825, comprised names 
representative of nearly all the religious denominations, includ- 
ing (besides those above mentioned) Zachary Macaulay, George 
Grote, James Mill, William Tooke, Lord Dudley and Ward, 
Dr Olinthus Gregory, Lord Lansdowne, Lord John Russell 
and the duke of Norfolk. On nth February 1826 the deed of 
settlement was drawn up; and in the course of the year seven 
acres, constituting the site of University College, were pur- 
chased, the foundation stone of the new buildings being laid 
by the duke of Sussex 3oth April 1827. The course of instruc- 
tion was designed to include " languages, mathematics, physics, 
the mental and the moral sciences, together with the laws 
of England, history and political economy, and the various 
branches of knowledge which are the objects of medical educa- 
tion." In October 1828 the college was opened as the university 
of London. But in the meantime a certain section of the 
supporters of the movement, while satisfied as to the essential 
soundness of the primary design as a development of national 
education, entertained considerable scruples as to the propriety 
of altogether dissociating such an institution from the national 
church. This feeling found expression in the foundation and 



UNIVERSITIES 



773 



incorporation of King's College (i4th August 1829), opened 
8th October 1831, and designed to combine with the original 
plan instruction in " the doctrines and duties of Christianity, 
as the same are inculcated by the United Church of England 
and Ireland." This new phase of the movement was so far 
successful that in 1836 it was deemed expedient to dissociate 
the university of London from University College as a " teach- 
ing body," and to limit its action simply to the institution of 
examinations and the conferring of degrees the college itself 
receiving a new charter, and being thenceforth designated as 
University College, London, while the rival institution was also 
incorporated with the university, and was thenceforth known 
as King's College, London. In the charter now given to the 
university it was stated that the king " deems it to be the duty 
of his royal office to hold forth to all classes and denominations 
of his faithful subjects, without any distinction whatsoever, 
an encouragement for pursuing a regular and liberal course of 
education." The charters of the university of London and 
of University College, London, were signed on the same day, 
28th November 1836. In 1869 both the colleges gave their 
adhesion to the movement for the higher education of women 
which had been initiated elsewhere, and in 1880 women were 
for the first time admitted to degrees. 

By the University of London Act 1898, and the statutes of 
the commissioners named therein (issued in 1900), the university 
of London was reconstituted. The senate is composed of the 
chancellor and fifty-four members, of whom four are appointed 
by the king in council, sixteen by the convocation (i.e. doctors 
and proctors) of the university, sixteen by the various faculties, 
and the remainder by various public bodies or institutions. 
The senate is the supreme governing body, and has three standing 
committees, of which one is the academic council for " internal 
students," another the council for " external students " and the 
third a board to promote the extension of university teaching. 
Provision is made for the appointment of professors and other 
teachers by the university itself, and also for the recognition as 
teachers of professors and others teaching in such institutions 
in or near London as may be recognized as schools of the uni- 
versity. The following bodies are constituted schools of the 
university: University College and King's College, London; 
the Royal Holloway College, Egham, Bedford College, London, 
and Westfield College, Hampstead (colleges for women) ; the 
Imperial College of Science and Technology; the medical schools 
of the principal London hospitals; the London School of Econo- 
mics and Political Science; the South-Eastern Agricultural 
College, Wye; the Central Technical College of the City and 
Guilds of London Institute, and the East London College; and 
several theological colleges. The " appointed " and " recognized " 
teachers in each group of subjects form the various faculties 
of the university. Of these there are eight theology, arts, 
law, music, medicine, science, engineering, economics and 
political science (including commerce and industry). Each 
faculty elects its dean. Courses of study are to be provided 
by the university for its " internal " students, i.e. those who 
pursue their studies in one of the schools of the university. Its 
degrees remain open to " external " students as heretofore, but 
separate examinations are in future to be held for " internal " 
and for " external " students respectively, and the senate is 
to " provide that the degrees conferred upon both classes of 
students shall represent, as far as possible, the same standard 
of knowledge and attainments." The whole scheme may be 
described as a compromise between the views of various schools 
of reformers as an attempt to create a teaching university 
without destroying the existing purely examining university 
or erecting two distinct universities of London, and at the same 
time, without any immediate endowments, to create a uni- 
versity which might hereafter expand by utilizing existing 
institutions. One of the most important of these, King's Col- 
lege, it may be observed, has, without losing its connexion 
with the Church of England, abandoned its theological test for 
members of its teaching body. 

The Owens College, Manchester so called after a wealthy 



Man- 
chester. 



citizen of that name, to whom it owed its foundation was 
founded on the i2th of March 1851, for the purpose 
of affording to students who were unable, on the 
ground of expense, to resort to Oxford or Cambridge, sity of 
an education of an equally high class with that given 
at those centres. The institution was, from the first , un- 
sectarian in character; and, for more than a quarter of a cen- 
tury, students desirous of obtaining a university degree availed 
themselves of the examinations conducted by the university 
of London. In July 1877, however, a memorial was presented to 
the privy council petitioning for the grant of a charter whereby 
the college should be raised to the rank of a university with 
power to grant degrees. This petition having received a 
favourable hearing, it was at first decided that the new university 
should be styled the university of Manchester, and the New 
University College at Liverpool and the Yorkshire College at 
Leeds were invited to become affiliated institutions, But 
before the charter was issued, exception having been taken to 
the localization implied in the above title, it was resolved that 
the new institution should be styled the " Victoria University 
of Manchester," and under this name the university on the 2oth 
of April 1880 received its charter. Since then, however, not only 
Liverpool (1881) and Leeds (1904), but the Mason University 
College at Birmingham (1900) and the University College at 
Sheffield (1905) have aspired to and attained like indepen- 
dence. The academic authorities at Manchester have accordingly 
since preferred, in other than legal documents, to revert to 
the original designation of the " university of Manchester." 

In Scotland the next change to be noted in connexion with 
the university of St Andrews is the appropriation in 1579 of 
the two colleges of St Salvator and St Leonard to the changes 
faculty of philosophy, and that of St Mary to theology, fa univer- 
In 1747 an act of parliament was obtained for the Cities of 
union of the two former colleges into one, while in 1880 Scotlaaa - 
the university college at Dundee was instituted as a general 
school both of arts and science in similar connexion. Glas- 
gow, in the year 1577, received a new charter, and its history 
from that date down to the Restoration was one of almost 
continuous progress. The re-establishment of episcopacy, 
however, involved the alienation of a considerable portion of 
its revenues, and the consequent suspension of several of its 
chairs. With the Revolution of 1689 it took a new departure, 
and several additional chairs were created. In 1864 the old 
university buildings were sold, and a government grant having 
been obtained, together with private subscriptions, new build- 
ings were erected from the joint fund. By the act of 1858 
important measures were passed in connexion with all the 
four universities. In Aberdeen, King's College and Marischal 
College, with their independent powers of conferring degrees, 
were amalgamated. In Glasgow the distribution of the 
" nations " was modified in order more nearly to equalize their 
respective numbers. The right of returning two members of 
parliament was bestowed on the four universities collectively 
one representing Aberdeen in conjunction with Glasgow, the 
other Edinburgh in conjunction with St Andrews. Other 
important changes were enacted, which, however, became 
merged in turn in those resulting from the commission of 1889, 
whereby, after investigations extending over nearly ten years, 
a complete transformation was effected of both the organization 
and the curriculum of each university. 

The government was transferred from the senatus to the 
courts, which were enlarged so as to include representatives 
from the senatus, the general councils of graduates, and the 
municipality within which the university is situated. In addi- 
tion to these representatives, the principal, the lord rector, his 
assessor, the chancellor's assessor, and the lord provosts of the 
cities of Aberdeen, Edinburgh and Glasgow, and the provost of 
St Andrews have seats in the courts of their respective univer- 
sities. The provost of Dundee occupies a seat in the university 
court of St Andrews. The lord rector is the president of 
the court. To the court is entrusted the management of the 
property and finances, and, in most cases, such patronage 



774 



UNIVERSITIES 



Parlia- 
mentary 



univer- 
sities. 



as does not belong to the crown; but in the case of Edinburgh, 
the patronage of some of the older chairs is in the hands of 
a body of curators. Disciplinary powers are retained by the 
senatus, and the general council remains, as under the act of 
1858, a purely advisory body. Another advisory body the 
students' representative council was added by the commis- 
sion. The curriculum of all the faculties (except divinity) was 
reorganized: the most important alterations consisted in the 
abolition of the once sacred six as compulsory subjects in arts 
(Latin, Greek, Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, Logic and 
Moral Philosophy). 1 The curriculum was greatly widened, an 
elaborate scheme of " options " introduced, and a new system 
of honours degrees was established. The length of residence 
required was reduced from four years to three, and the courts 
were empowered to institute summer sessions, and to admit 
women to lectures and degrees in all faculties. 

There has been since the act of 1858 a great development of 
student life, illustrated by the institution of student's unions in 
all four universities, by the publication of undergraduate maga- 
zines, and by the growth, in Edinburgh, of combined residences 
and settlements. 

All the four universities of Scotland were aided from 
t ' me to ^ me ' n tne ^ ast cen t ur y by grants from govern- 
grants to ment, and in 1905 received a material addition to their 
Scottish resources by the magnificent donation of 2,000,000 
from Mr Carnegie. 

Trinity College, Dublin, was founded in 1591, under 
the auspices of Sir John Perrot, the Irish viceroy. A royal 
charter nominated a provost and a minimum number of 
Trinity three fellows and three scholars as a body corporate, 
College, empowered to establish among themselves " whatever 
Dublin. j aws O f ejthe,- O f the universities of Cambridge or 
Oxford they may judge to be apt and suitable; and especially 
that no other persons should teach or profess the liberal arts 
in Ireland without the queen's special licence." The first five 
provosts of Trinity College were all Cambridge men, and under 
the influence of Archbishop Loftus, the first provost, and his suc- 
cessors, the foundation received a strongly Puritan bias. The 
original statutes were mainly the work of Temple, the fourth 
provost, modified by Bedell, the eminent bishop of Kilmore, 
and the policy of Laud and Wentworth was to make the college 
more distinctly Anglican as regards its tone and belief. At 
the Restoration its condition was found to be that of a well- 
ordered home of learning and piety, with its estates well secured 
and its privileges unimpaired. Under Bishop Jeremy Taylor, 
who succeeded to the vice-chancellorship, its progress in learn- 
ing was considerable, and the statutes underwent a further 
modification. Prior to the year 1873 the provostship, fellow- 
ships and foundation scholarships could be held only by 
members of the Church of Ireland; but all such restrictions 
were abolished by Act 36 Viet. c. 21, whereby the requirement 
of subscription to any article or formulary of faith was finally 
abrogated. 

The first departure from the above exclusive system dates 
from the creation of the Queen's University, incorporated by 
Queen's royal charter on the 3rd of September 1850. By this 
Univer- charter the general legislation of the university, to- 
*ity. . gether with its government and administration, was 
vested in the university senate. In 1864 the charter of 
1850 was superseded by a supplementary charter, and the 
university reconstituted " in order to render more complete 
and satisfactory the courses of education to be followed by 
students in the colleges "; and finally, in 1880, by virtue of 
the act of parliament known as the University Education 
(Ireland) Act 1879, the Queen's University gave place to the 
Royal Royal University of Ireland, which was practically a 
Univer- reconstitution of the former foundation, the dissolu- 
sityof tion of the Queen's University being decreed so soon 
as the newly constituted body should be in a posi- 
tion to confer degrees; at the same time all graduates of 

1 At Edinburgh there was a seventh.' viz. rhetoric and English 
literature. 



the Queen's University were recognized as graduates of 
the new university with corresponding degrees, and all 
matriculated students of the former as entitled to the same 
status in the latter. The university confers degrees in arts 
(B.A., M.A., D.Litt.), science, engineering, music, medicine, 
surgery, obstetrics and law. The preliminary pass examina- 
tions in arts were to be held at annually selected centres, 
those chosen in 1885 being Dublin, Belfast, Carlow, Cork, 
Galway, Limerick and Londonderry all honour examinations, 
and all examinations in other faculties, in Dublin. The Queen's 
Colleges at Belfast, Cork and Galway were founded Co ,/ eges 
in December 1845, under an act of parliament "to at Belfast, 
enable Her Majesty to endow new colleges for the Cork, and 
advancement of learning in Ireland," and were sub- Oalw *y- 
sequently incorporated as colleges of the university. Their 
professors were at the same time constituted professors in 
the university, and conducted the examinations. But in the 
reconstruction of 1880 the chief share in the conduct of the 
examinations and advising the senate with respect to them was 
vested in a board of fellows, elected by the senate in equal 
numbers from the non-denominational colleges and the purely 
Roman Catholic institutions. The colleges retained, however, 
their independence, being in no way subject to the control 
of the university senate except in the regulations with respect 
to the requirements for degrees and other academic distinc- 
tions. In 1907 a scheme was projected by Mr Bryce (then 
chief secretary for Ireland) for reconstructing the university, 
whereby Trinity College was to become merged in a Vniver- 
new " University of Dublin," in which the Queen's sity of 
Colleges and a new college for Roman Catholics were Dublin. 
also to be included. The control of the entire community was 
to be vested in a board, partly nominated by the crown and 
partly by the colleges and the general body of students. The 
scheme, however, was strongly opposed by the Dublin Uni- 
versity Defence Committee on the ground that the ideals 
which had hitherto dominated the aims and teaching of Trinity 
College were incompatible with a system in which regard for the 
principle of authority and the repudiation of scientific theoriza- 
tion (as it finds expression in the Index) are leading features. 
On the other hand, the Irish bishops, while admitting the need 
for more efficient scientific instruction of the Catholic youth 
throughout their respective dioceses, declined to give support 
to measures whereby such students would be attracted into 
an atmosphere inimical to their religious faith. It was conse- 
quently next proposed by the government to establish two new 
universities one in Dublin (side by side with Trinity College) 
and one in Belfast in which, although no religious tests 
were to be enforced, it should be tacitly agreed that the former 
was to be the resort for Catholics, the latter for Presbyterians, 
Trinity College remaining, as before, the recognized Episcopalian 
centre. To this considerable exception was taken the non- 
conformists, more especially, maintaining that such an arrange- 
ment could not fail to be prejudicial to the higher interests of 
the people by imparting to education a denominational bias 
which it was most desirable to avoid and eventually Mr 
Birrell's measure was brought forward and ultimately adopted, 
whereby Trinity College has been left intact, but two new uni- 
versities were created, one in Dublin and one in Belfast, the 
former involving the erection of another college (towards the 
expense of which the government was pledged to contribute) 
and the incorporation of the Queen's Colleges at Cork and 
Galway; while the college in Belfast was to form the nucleus 
of the second university. In order further to ensure their 
representative character, the new university of Dublin had a 
nominated senate of 36 members, of whom all but seven were 
to be Roman Catholics; that of Belfast had a similar body, of 
whom all but one were to be Protestants. In all these new 
centres there were to be no religious tests either for professors 
or students. On the other hand, the obligation formerly imposed 
of a preliminary course of study at one or other of the colleges 
before admission to degrees had been abolished at the founda- 
tion of the Royal University, the examinations being now open, 



UNIVERSITIES 



775 



like those of the university of London, to all matriculated 
students on payment of certain fees. 

The university of Wales, which received the royal charter in 
1893, incorporated three earlier foundations the university 
colleges of Aberystwyth, Bangor and Cardiff. St 
David's College at Lampeter was founded in 1822 
for the purpose of educating clergymen in the principles of the 
established Church of England and Wales, mainly for the 
supply of the Welsh dioceses, but, although affiliated to both 
Oxford and Cambridge, retained its independence and also the 
right of conferring the degrees of bachelor of arts and of divinity. 
Bangor in North Wales, on the other hand, which received 
its charter in 1885, is designed to " provide instruction in all 
the branches of a liberal education except theology." 

In India the three older universities all date from 1857 that 
of Calcutta having been incorporated January 24, Bombay July 
18, Madras September 5, in that year. At these three 
universities the instruction is mainly in English. " A 
university in India is a body for examining candidates for degrees, 
and for conferring degrees. It has the power of prescribing text- 
books, standards of instruction, and rules of procedure, but is not 
an institution for teaching. Its governance and management are 
vested in a body of fellows, some of whom are ex officio, being the 
chief European functionaries of the state. The remainder are 
appointed by the Government, being generally chosen as repre- 
sentative men in respect of eminent learning, scientific attainment, 
official position, social status or personal worth. Being a _mixed 
body of Europeans and natives, they thus comprise all that is best 
and wisest in that division of the empire to which the university 
belongs, and fairly represent most of the phases of thought and 
philosophic tendencies observable in the country. The fellows in 
their corporate capacity form the senate. The affairs of the university 
are conducted by the syndicate, consisting of a limited number of 
members elected from among the fellows. The faculties comprise 
arts and philosophy, law, medicine and civil engineering. A degree 
in natural and physical science has more recently been added " 
(Sir R. Temple, India in 1880, p. 145). The Punjab University 
was incorporated in 1883 the Punjab University College, prior 
to that date, having conferred titles only and not degrees. The 
main object of this university is the encouragement of the study 
of the Oriental languages and literature, and the rendering accessible 
to native students the results of European scientific teaching 
through the medium of their own vernacular. The Oriental faculty 
is here the oldest, and the degree of B.O.L. (bachelor of Oriental 
literature) is given as the result of its examinations. At the Oriental 
College the instruction is given wholly in the native languages, and 
the success of the institution was sufficiently demonstrated before 
the close of the igth century by the fact that twelve centres of 
instruction at Lahore and elsewhere had been affiliated. The 
university of Allahabad was founded in 1887 as an examining 
university for the united provinces of Agra and Oudh. In 1887 
the senate at Cambridge (mainly on the representations of Mr C. P. 
Ilbert, formerly vice-chancellor of the university of Calcutta) 
adopted resolutions whereby some forty-nine collegiate institutions 
already affiliated to the latter body were affiliated to the university 
of Cambridge, their students becoming entitled to the remission of 
one year in the requirements with respect to residence at Cam- 
bridge. 

In Australia the university of Sydney was incorporated by an 
act of the colonial legislature which received the royal assent 9th 
December 1 85 1 , and on 27th February 1 858 a royal charter 
was granted conferring on graduates of the university the 
same rank, style and precedence as are enjoyed by graduates 
of universities within the United Kingdom. Sydney is also one of 
the institutions associated with the university of London from 
which certificates of having received a due course of instruction 
may be received with a view to admission to degrees. The design 
of the university is to supply the means of a liberal education to 
all orders and denominations, without any distinction whatever. 
An act for the purpose of facilitating the erection of colleges in 
connexion with different religious bodies was, however, passed by 
the legislature during the session of 1884, and since that time 
colleges representing the Episcopalian, Presbyterian and Roman 
Catholic Churches have been founded. In the same year women 
were first admitted to degrees, and subsequently became an appreci- 
able element, numbering before the close of the igth century one-fifth 
of the entire number of students. The university of Melbourne, 
in the state of Victoria, was incorporated and endowed by royal act 
on the 22nd of January 1853. This act was amended on the 7th of 
June 1881. Here also no religious tests are imposed on admission 
to any degree or election to any office. The council is empowered, 
after due examination, to confer degrees in all the faculties 
(excepting divinity) which can be conferred in any university 
within the British dominions. It is also authorized to affiliate 
colleges; and Trinity College (Church of England), Ormond College 



Austral- 
asia. 



(Presbyterian) and Queen's College (Methodist) were all established 
in the igth century. The university of Adelaide in South Australia 
(founded mainly by the exertions and munificence of Sir Walter 
Watson Hughes) was incorporated by an act of the colonial legislature 
in 1874, m which year it was further endowed by Sir Thomas Elder. 
In 1881 degrees conferred by the university were constituted cf equal 
validity with those of any university of the United Kingdom. 
The university of Tasmania at Hobart was founded in 1890 by act 
of parliament as a state university with an annual grant, and was 
subsequently affiliated both to Oxford and Cambridge. 

The university of New Zealand, founded in 1870, and reconstituted 
in 1874 and 1875, was empowered by royal charter to grant the 
several degrees of bachelor and master of arts, and bachelor and 
doctor in law, medicine and music. Women have since been made 
admissible to degrees. To this university, University College at 
Auckland, Canterbury College at Christchurch, and the university 
of Otago at Dunedin have successively been admitted into connexion 
as affiliated institutions, while the university of New Zealand itself 
has become affiliated to that of Cambridge. Otago was founded 
in 1869 by an order of the provincial council, with the power of 
conferring degrees in arts, medicine and law, and received as an 
endowment 100,000 acres of pastoral land. It was opened in 1871 
with a staff of three professors, all in the faculty of arts. In 1872 
the provincial council further subsidized it by a grant of a second 
100,000 acres of land, and the university was thereby enabled to 
establish a lectureship in law, and to lay the foundations of a 
medical school. In 1874 an agreement was made between the 
university of New Zealand and that of Otago, whereby the functions 
of the former were restricted to the examination of candidates for 
matriculation, for scholarships and for degrees; while the latter 
bound itself to become affiliated to the university of New Zealand 
and to hold in abeyance its power of granting degrees. As the result 
of this arrangement, the university of Otago became possessed of 
10,000 acres of land which had been set apart for university purposes 
in the former province of Southland. In 1877 a school of mines 
was established in connexion with the university. 

Prior to the union of the two provinces of Lower and Upper 
Canada, the M'Gill College and University in the former province 
had been instituted in Montreal by royal charter in 1821, ,, , 
on the foundation of the Honourable James M'Gill, who 
died in that city on the igth of December 1813. It was designed 
to be Protestant but undenominational. With this a group of 
colleges in the same province the Stanstead Wesleyan, Vancouver, 
Victoria, and King's have since become associated as affiliated 
institutions, as also have the four Protestant colleges in Montreal 
itself, such affiliation, however, extending no further than the 
examinations in the faculty of arts. Into similar relation the 
University Laval in Quebec, founded as a Catholic university in 
1852, was admitted in 1878. Notwithstanding the difficulties 
presented by divergencies of race, Montreal has prospered during 
the chancellorship of Lord Strathcona, and numbers over I ipo 
students. The university of Toronto in Upper Canada, or Ontario, 
was originally established by royal charter in 1827, under the title 
of King's College, with certain religious restrictions, but in 1834 
these restrictions were abolished. In 1849 the designation of the 
university was changed into that of the university of Toronto, and 
the faculty of divinity was abolished. In 1853 the university was 
constituted with two corporations, "the university of Toronto" 
and " University College," the latter being restricted to the teaching 
of subjects in the faculty of arts. In 1873 further amendments 
were made in the constitution of the university. The chancellor 
was made elective for a period of three years by convocation, which 
was at the same time reorganized so as to include all graduates in 
law, medicine and surgery, all masters of arts, and bachelors of 
arts of three years' standing, all doctors of science, and bachelors 
of science of three years' standing. The powers of the senate were 
also extended to all branches of literature, science and the arts, 
to granting certificates of proficiency to women, and to affiliating 
colleges. The whole work of instruction was now assigned to University 
College, which is maintained out of the endowment of the provincial 
university, and governed by a council composed of the residents 
and the professors. Its several chairs include classical literature, 
logic and rhetoric, mathematics and natural philosophy, chemistry 
and experimental philosophy, history and English literature, 
mineralogy and geology, metaphysics and ethics, meteorology and 
natural history, and lectureships on Oriental literature, German 
and French. Trinity College, in the same university, is the Church 
of England college, founded in 1852 in consequence of the above- 
mentioned suppression of the theological faculty. Other univer- 
sities and colleges with power to confer degrees are the Dalhousie 
College at Halifax, which obtained the rights of a university in 
1841 and was subsequently organized as such in 1863, with the 
governor of Nova Scotia as supreme authority; the Victoria 
University at Cobourg (1836), supported by the Methodist Church 
of Canada; Queen's University, Kingston (1841). 

In South America the beginning of the " national university " of 
Buenos Aires may be assigned (in the absence of any charter) to 
about the. year 1890. Before the close of the century it had become 
a flourishing school of law, medicine and the exact sciences. 



776 



UNIVERSITIES 



Soirffi 
Africa. 



with professors in all the faculties and considerably over 2000 
students. Monte Video in Uruguay had its origin in a faculty 
of medicine established in 1876, with courses of study ex- 
tending over six years. It is here imperative when the 
diploma is taken by those who are not natives that it 
should be attested by the consul of their own country. Faculties 
of law and mathematics were subsequently created, and also a 
faculty of preparatory studies corresponding with the gymnasium 
or Reolschule of Germany. The new " national university of La 
Plata " has recently (1905-1908) been opened in the city of that name, 
under the auspices of the university of Philadelphia. It claims to 
be the exponent of the most advanced theories in relation to subjects 
and methods of instruction and to university extension. In the 
north of the continent the academy at Caracas is little more than a 
branch of the royal Spanish academy for education in the Spanish 
language, and is subsidized by the Venezuelan government. 

The university of the Cape of Good Hope (see CAPE COLONY) 
grants degrees, but is not a teaching institution. An inter-state 
commission, appointed in 1907, recommended the estab- 
lishment of a Federal University for South Africa with 
constituent colleges. While the colleges would possess 
freedom in management and teaching, it was recommended that 
the university should test all candidates seeking admission to the 
colleges and for the final examinations for degrees, &c. At the 
opening of the first Union parliament in November 1910 the ministry 
announced that a scheme for a national South African University 
would be submitted. It was also announced that the Beit bequest 
of 200,000 for a university at Johannesburg (q.v.) would be diverted 
towards the creation of a teaching university at Groote Schuur, and 
that Sir Julius Wernher would make a donation towards it of 
300,000. 

In 1903 a highly influential conference was held at Burlington 
House to promote closer relations between British and colonial 
universities, the sittings being presided over by Mr Bryce, Lord 
Strathcona and Sir Gilbert Parker. The conference held that Great 
Britain should help the colonial universities to co-operate one with 
another, and increase their own efficiency by combination and 
specialization. (J. B. M.) 

Universities in the United States. 

In the United States the word " university " has been applied 
to institutions of the most diverse character, and it is only 
since 1880 or thereabouts that an effort has been seriously 
made to distinguish between collegiate and university instruc- 
tion; nor has that effort yet completely succeeded. Harvard, 
William and Mary, and Yale, the three pioneers of colonial 
times, were organized in the days of colonial poverty, on the 
plans of the English colleges which constitute the universities 
of Oxford and Cambridge. Graduates of Harvard and Yale 
carried these British traditions to other places, and similar 
colleges grew up in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, 
New Hampshire and Rhode Island, and later in many other 
Ori ins states. The underlying principle in these institutions 
was discipline -mental, moral and religious. Dor- 
mitories and commons were provided, and attendance upon 
religious worship in the chapel was enforced. Harvard and 
Yale were the children of the Congregational churches, Columbia 
was fostered by the Episcopalians, Princeton by the Presby- 
terians, Rutgers by the Dutch Reformed and Brown by the 
Baptists. Around or near these nuclei, during the course of 
the igth century, one or more professional schools were fre- 
quently attached, and so the word " university " was naturally 
applied to a group of schools associated more or less closely 
with a central school or " college." Harvard, for example, 
most comprehensive of all, has seventeen distinct departments, 
and Yale has almost as many. Columbia and Pennsylvania 
have a similar scope. In the latter part of the igth century 
Yale, Columbia, Princeton and Brown, in recognition of their 
enlargement, formally changed their titles from colleges to 
universities. The ecclesiastical, or religious, note was a strong 
characteristic of these foundations. Protestant evangelical doc- 
trines were taught with authority, especially among the under- 
graduates, who were spoken of as constituting " the college 
proper." In the oldest and largest colleges this denominational 
influence has ceased to have the importance it once possessed. 

Noteworthy innovations came when Thomas Jefferson, the 
philosophical statesman, returned to the United States from 
France, emancipated from some of the narrow views by 
which his countrymen were bound. He led the Virginians 
to establish, on a new plan, the university of Virginia as a 



child of the state; and the freshness of his advice, the im- 
portation of distinguished foreign teachers, and the freedom of 
the student from an enforced curriculum awakened admiration 
and emulation on the one hand, and animadversion on the other. 
But this university unquestionably led to broad conceptions 
of academic work, which appeared foreign and even questionable, 
if not irreligious, to the colonial universities already mentioned, 
although many of the features which were then regarded as 
doubtful peculiarities are now familiar everywhere. Following 
Virginia's example, many of the new states in the West estab- 
lished state universities, most of which included a central 
college of the colonial type and afterwards one or more pro- 
fessional schools. Freedom from ecclesiastical control is found 
in all the foundations that make up this second group the 
state universities. Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and Cali- 
fornia present distinguished examples of such organizations. 
In earlier days, Maryland, North and South Carolina, Georgia 
and other states of the South had anticipated in a limited 
way the state support of higher education which was made so 
conspicuous in Virginia. In their plans of education, intellectual 
and moral, they adhered closely to the college methods which 
the Northern institutions had introduced from English ante- 
cedents. Since 1865 another class of universities has arisen, 
quite distinct from the colonial establishments and from the 
wards of the state. These are independent foundations due 
to individual generosity. The gifts of Cornell, Johns Hopkins, 
Rockefeller (University of Chicago), Tulane, De Pauw, Clark and 
Leland Stanford have brought into being universities which have 
no dependence upon state control, 1 and when a denominational 
character is assured this fact is not made prominent. 

Thus, looking at their origin, we see three impulses given to 
American high schools, from churches, states and individuals. 
It is true that all receive from the state some degree of authority 
as incorporations, but this authority is so easily obtained that 
in a single city there may be, and in some places there are, 
several incorporations authorized to bestow degrees and to 
bear the name of universities. A foreigner cannot understand 
nor can an American justify this anomaly. The most that can 
be said for it is that there is complete freedom of organization, 
and that the best, and only the best, are likely to survive. 
Another influence, proceeding from the national government, 
must also be borne in mind. During the Civil War, Congress, 
led by Senator Morrill of Vermont, bestowed upon every state 
a certain portion of the public domain in the Far West " land- 
scrip," as it was called the proceeds of its sale to be devoted 
to the establishment and maintenance of one or more colleges 
in each state, where instruction should be given in agriculture 
and the mechanic arts, not excluding liberal studies, and 
including military tactics. In some states this bounty was 
directed to existing universities. New departments were 
organized in old institutions. Elsewhere new institutions were 
created. While all these schools were regarded as practical 
and technical at the first, most of them as they developed 
became liberal and scientific; and when Congress made later 
large appropriations for " experiment stations " in the sciences 
relating to agriculture, an impulse of the most valuable character 
was given to many departments of scientific research. 

This sketch would not be complete without the mention 
of two foundations, each unique. The Catholic University 
in Washington has been created by the pope, and in its govern- 
ment the hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church is made 
dominant. Already the Roman Catholics had established, 
especially under the charge -of the Jesuit fathers and of the 
Sulpicians, excellent colleges for liberal education, as well as 
schools of theology; but the newer metropolitan university 
was distinctly organized on a broader plan, in closer accordance 
with the universities of continental Europe, and with a pro- 
nounced recognition of the importance of science. The univer- 
sity of the State of New York is a supervisory (not a teaching) 

1 Cornell, however, received New York's share of the Congressional 
land grant of 1862, and the state is represented on its board of 
trustees. See CORNELL UNIVERSITY. 



UNIVERSITIES 



777 



body exercising a general control over all the schools of higher 
instruction in the state, and especially guarding the conditions 
upon which degrees are conferred. 

The interior organization of these institutions may now be 
considered. Some of them have but one department, the 
philosophical, which includes the liberal arts and sciences; 
others have two, three or many correlated departments. Clark 
University, for example, has but one faculty, the philosophical; 
Harvard, as already stated, has many departments, including 
philosophy, law, medicine and theology. So has Yale. Prince- 
ton has four. Johns Hopkins has two, the philosophical 
and the medical. In most American universities a sharp 

distinction is made between undergraduates and 
?iaa" lza ' graduates, between those who are candidates for the 

baccalaureate degree (A.B., S.B., and Ph.B.) and 
those who are engaged in higher professional study, like law, 
medicine and theology, or in the manifold branches of modern 
science, like philology, historical and political science (including 
economics), philosophy (including logic, ethics and psychology), 
mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, geology, &c. In 
certain places, as at Johns Hopkins, since 1876, emphasis is 
given to the idea that college instruction is disciplinary, 
requiring definite, but not uniform methods, and a certain 
deference to the authority of a master; while university 
instruction is much freer, and the scholar is encouraged to inquire 
rather than to accept; to test and observe rather than to hear 
and recite; to walk with a friendly guide rather than to obey a 
commander. This distinction is not universally recognized. 
Indeed, it has been made but recently in American institutions, 
so that older men are often heard asking, " What is the difference 
between a college and a university? " But generally it is 
admitted that college training is one thing, and work in a uni- 
versity is another; that thorough instruction in language, 
history, mathematics, natural and physical sciences, and in 
morals, should precede the discipline of professional schools and 
the pursuit of the higher and more advanced studies in letters 
and science. In a complete university provision should be 
made, according to ancient and widespread usages, for the study 
of law, medicine and theology; but unfortunately the develop- 
ment of such schools in the United States has been fettered by 
narrow conditions. The schools of theology, with rare excep- 
tions, are under denominational control; and so established is 
this usage, that in the state universities, and in most of the 
private foundations (Chicago being an exception), theological 
departments are not encouraged, because of the dread of religious 
rivalries and dogmatism. Until recently there have been no 
Profes- endowments for medical schools to any adequate 
sionni extent, and consequently the fees paid by students 
schools. jj ave been distributed among the teachers, who 
have usually been the real managers of the institution, 
although acting under the name of some university. It is 
nearly the same in law. There are many indications that 
changes are at hand in these particulars. Theological schools 
make their denominational characteristics less pronounced, and 
the old colleges no longer speak of the schools of law and 
medicine as " outside " departments. The rapid growth of the 
physical and natural sciences during the ipth century, and the 
extension of scientific methods of inquiry and verification to 
subjects which were formerly taught by the traditional methods 
of authority, have led to the development of laboratories and 
libraries. Everywhere special buildings, well equipped with 
the latest and best apparatus, are springing up, where the 
students of chemistry, physics, biology (in its numerous sub- 
departments bacteriology among them) and electricity have 
every facility for study and research. The introduction of 
laboratories for psychology is specially noteworthy. Patho- 
logical laboratories have become essential in schools of medicine. 
Libraries are as they always have been and always will 
be storehouses where the books and manuscripts of the past 
are preserved; but in American universities they have taken 
on another characteristic. Subdivided into special depart- 
ments, or supplemented by fresh additions, they are the working- 



rooms of " seminaries," where capable teachers, sur r ounded 
by scholars properly qualified, are engaged in teaching, study- 
ing and writing. Seminaries and laboratories distinguish the 
modern philosophical departments from those of old, where 
the lecture-room was the seat of instruction. Numerous 
memoirs and monographs proceed from this active life. Books, 
periodicals and dissertations are contributions to the advance- 
ment of knowledge. Two agencies have effected these changes, 
most of which are the product of the last quarter of the igth 
century. In the first place, gifts for higher education have 
been munificent, sometimes, especially in the East, from private 
citizens often, especially in the West, from the treasuries 
of separate states. Quite as important has been the growth 
of liberal ideas. Very many of the foremost professors in 
American universities are the scholars of European teachers, 
especially Germans. Candidates for professorships are 
resuming the usages which prevailed early in the ipth century, 
of studying in France and Great Britain. On their return it 
is essential that they should keep themselves familiar with- the 
latest literature in their departments, whatsoever may be the 
language in which it appears. Hence the American universities 
are no longer provincial. They must be judged, for better or 
for worse, by the standard of universities established in Europe. 
The bestowal of academic degrees ought to be strictly governed 
by some recognized authority, and according to ancient usages 
it is one of the highest functions of a university. In the- United 
States there is but little restraint proceeding from law, tradition 
or public opinion. Every " college " is at liberty to exercise 
this privilege. Hence the variety of academic titles that have 
been introduced; hence, also, occasional and scandalous frauds 
in the issue of diplomas. The best institutions exercise due dili- 
gence; the public may be protected by requiring that every 
one who claims the privileges of his degree, or who appends 
to his name the usual abbreviations indicative of professional 
or academic authority, should make it clear where, when and 
how he received his title. 

The institutions in the United States which claim to be univer- 
sities, in the world-wide use of that designation, recognize these 
principles and, so far as their means allow, adhere to these methods: 
I. There' is a disciplinary stage in education which is the requisite 
introduction to the higher and freer work of the university. This 
is the sphere of the colleges. 2. The success of the higher work 
depends upon the intellectual and moral qualities of the professors. 
No amount of material prosperity is of value unless the dominant 
authorities are able to discover, secure and retain as teachers men 
of rare gifts, resolute will, superior training and an indomitable 
love of learning. 3. The professors in a university should be free 
from all pecuniary anxiety, so that their lives may be consecrated 
to their several callings. Pensions should be given them in cases 
of disability, and, in case of premature death, to their families. 
In methods of instruction they should have as large an amount 
of freedom as may be consistent with due regard for the co-operation 
of their colleagues and the plans of the foundation. 4. The steady 
improvement of the libraries and laboratories is essential if the 
institution is to keep in the front line. The newest books and the 
best apparatus are indispensable, for instruments and books quickly 
deteriorate and must be superseded. . For all these outlays large 
endowments are required. To a considerable extent reliance must 
be placed on wealthy and public-spirited citizens. In order to enlist 
such support, the members of a faculty should manifest their 
interest in public affairs, and by books, lectures and addresses should 
inform the public and interest them in the progress of knowledge. 
6. Publication is one of the duties of a professor. He owes it not 
only to his reputation but also to his science, to his colleagues, to the 
public, to put together and set forth, for the information and criti- 
cism of the world, the results of his inquiries, discoveries, reflections 
and investigations. Qualified students should also be encouraged, 
under his guidance, to print and publish their dissertations. 

Closely associated with the development of the university 
idea since 1875 ' s the improvement of the American college. 
Complaints are often made that the number of col- College 
leges is too large, and it is undoubtedly true that improve- 
some institutions, inferior to city high schools, have ments - 
usurped the names, the forms and some of the functions 
that should be restricted to establishments with larger endow- 
ments and better facilities for the promotion of scholarship; but 
while this is admitted, the great benefits which have resulted 



UNIVERSITIES 



from the recognition, far and wide over the vast domain of 
the United States, of the value of higher education must not 
be forgotten. The support of churches of every name and 
the gifts of states, cities and private citizens, have been every- 
where enlisted in behalf of learning. In every college worthy 
of the name, mathematics, ancient and modern languages, and 
the elements at least of modern science, are taught. More or 
less choice is permitted in the courses requisite to a bachelor's 
degree. Moral and religious influences are brought to bear 
on the formation of character. All this is favourable to the 
enlightenment of the people, and excuses, if it does not justify, 
the multiplication which is so often deprecated. The establish- 
ment of colleges for women, fully equal to the colleges for men, 
and in many places the admission of women to colleges and 
universities not originally intended for women, is one of the 
most noteworthy of the advances in higher education. Opinions 
are still divided in respect of the widsom of co-education, 
especially in the undergraduate period, but there is no longer 
any question as to the wisdom of giving to women the very best 
opportunities for intellectual culture; while the success that 
women have shown in the pursuit of many branches of science 
has led in many universities to their admission to the estab- 
lished laboratories and lecture-rooms. Separate colleges for 
women are now maintained in close connexion with Harvard, 
Columbia, Tulane and other' institutions, and this mode, 
of procedure seems likely to be introduced elsewhere. At 
the same time, independent foundations like Vassar, Smith, 
Wellesley, Bryn Mawr and Goucher are supported with so 
much vigour, and with such able faculties, that it is not easy to 
say which organization is the best, and indeed there is no occasion 
to raise the question. In the Western universities generally, 
as in Michigan, Wisconsin, California, Chicago, &c., women are 
admitted to all courses on the same terms as men. (D. C. G.) 

AUTHORITIES. On the earlier history and organization of the 
medieval universities, the student should consult F. C. von Savigny, 
Gesch. d. romischen Rechts im Mittelalter (7 vols., 1826-51); for 
the university of Paris, Du Boulay, Historia Universitatis Parisiensis 
(6 vols., Paris, 1665); Crevier, Hist, de ' I'universite de Paris 
(7 vols., Paris, 1761); and C. Jourdain, Hist, de I'universite de Paris 
au X VII' et au X VIII' siecle (Paris, 1862), and also articles on special 
points in the same writer's Excursions historiques (1888). 

The work of Du Boulay (Bulaeus)is one of great research and labour, 
but wanting in critical judgment, while that of Crevier is little 
more than a readable outline drawn from the former. The views 
of Du Boulay have been challenged on many important points 
by P. H. Denifle in the first volume of his Die Universitaten des 
Mittelalter s bis 1400 (1885), and more particularly on those relat- 
ing to the organization of the early universities. The results of 
Denifle's researches have been largely incorporated in Mr Rashdall's 
Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages (2 vols., Oxford, 1895), 
especially in connexion with the origines of Paris, Oxford and 
Cambridge; and the earlier works of Meiners, Gesch. d. Entstehung 
und Entwickelung der hohen Schulen (4 vols., 1802-5); and T. A. 
Huber, Die enghschen Universitaten (Cassel, 1839-40), translation 
by F. W. Newman (3 vols., 1845), are thus to a great extent super- 
seded. Much useful criticism on the comparative merits of the 
German and the English universities prior to the igth century is 
to be found in the Discussions (1853) of Sir W. Hamilton. For the 
German universities exclusively, Zarncke's Die deutschen Univer- 
sitaten im Mittelalter (Leipzig, 1857); Heinrich von Sybel, Die 
deutschen Universitaten (2nd ed., 1874) ; and Georg Kaufmann's 
Gesch. der deutschen Universitaten (2 vols.), are indispensable. Of 
the latter, vol. i. (1888) treats of the origines; vol. ii. (1896) carries 
the subject to the end of the middle ages, dealing generally with the 
history of academic institutions rather than the details of sepa- 
rate universities. Georg Voigt's Die Wiederbelebung des classischen 
Alterthums (2 vols., 1880-81) throws much light on the history of 
both Italian and German scholarship at the time of the Renaissance, 
and supplies a useful bibliography. The work of Professor Friedrich 
Paulsen, Gesch. d. gelehrten Unterrichts auf den deutschen Schulen 
und Universitaten (2nd ed., 2 vols., 1906; English translation by 
M. E. Sadler, London, 1906), is a masterly survey of the whole 
modern period down to the close of last century. Tholuck, Das 
academische Leben des 17 Jahrhunderts (2 vols., Halle, 1853-54); 
Dolch, Gesch. des deutschen Studententhums (1858); J. Conrad, The 
German Universities for the Last Fifty Years, translated by Hutchin- 
son, preface by Bryce (Glasgow, 1885); T. Ziegler, Der deutsche 
Student am Ende des 19 Jahrhunderts (Stuttgart, 1895), all deal with 
special periods. Adolf Harnack, Geschichte der koniglich-preussischen 
Academie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin (4 vols., 1900), is also of high 
value, the first two volumes for the medieval, the latter two for 



the modern period. To these may be added, as useful for reference, 
the Geschichte der Erziehung vom Anfang an bis auf unsere Zeti 
(Stuttgart, 1896-1901), by Dr K. A. and Georg Schmidt, containing 
critical bibliographies at the beginning of each chapter; while 
the Bibliographic der deutschen Universitalen by Wilhelm Erman 
and Ewald Horn (3 vols., Leipzig, 1904-6) is most complete for the 
literature of the entire subject down to the close of last century. 
For a comparative estimate of the history of the different faculties, 
Die Universitdt Giessen von 1607 bis lorn (2 vols., Giessen, 1907) 
is highly suggestive. The Monumenta Germaniae Paedagogica (20 
vols., 1886-1900), though relating mainly to schools, often supplies 
valuable illustrative matter. 

The statutes of the French universities, so far as ascertainable, 
have been edited by Fournier, Statutes et privileges des universites 
franchises (1890); the Chartularium of the university of Paris, as 
edited by Denifle and Chatelain (4 vols., Paris, 1889-0,7), coming 
down to 1452. Works dealing with later history are Greard, Nos 
adieux a la vieille Sorbonne (Paris, 1893) ; H. Schon, Die franzosischen 
Hochschulen seit der Revolution (Munich, 1896) ; L. Liard, L'Enseigne- 
ment superieur en France, 1789-1894 (2 vols., Paris, 1894); Joseph 
Prost, La Philosophic a I'academie protestante de Saumur, 1606-1685 
(Paris, 1907). 

For Italy, the origines of Bologna are dealt with by Chiapelli, 
Lo Studio Bolognese (Pistoia, 1888); Fitting, Die Anfange der 
Rechtsschule zu Bologna (Bologna and Leipzig, 1888); Ricci, / 
primordi d. Studio di Bologna (2nd ed., Bologna, 1888). All the 
extant statutes are edited by Carlo Malagola, Statuti d. univ. e dei 
collegi d. studio bolognese (Bologna, 1888); and a new edition has 
appeared of the learned C. J. Sarti's De Claris Archigymnasii Bonon- 
iensis Professoribus (Bologna, 1888, &c.). In connexion with Padua 
we have Die Statuten der Juristen-Universildt Padua vpm Jahre 1331, 
ed. H. Denifle, a reprint from the Archiv. For Spain, the work of 
De La Fuente (Madrid, 1855) gives a concise summary of the main 
facts in the growth of the universities and also of the other institu- 
tions for public instruction throughput the country; the Libra 
Memoria, by Solier and Vilches ( 1 895) gives the necessary information 
down to a later period, in connexion with the central institution in 
Madrid. The history of the faculty of theology at the Portuguese 
university of Coimbra has been recorded on a more elaborate scale 
by Dr Manuel Eduardo da Motta Veiga (Coimbra, 1872). The 
Universidades y Colegios of Dr Joaquin v. Gonzalez (Buenos Aires, 
1907) contains an interesting account of the new university movement 
in Argentina. For Oxford there are the laborious collections by 
Anthony Wood, History and Antiquities of the University and of 
the Colleges and Halls of Oxford, edited with continuation by Rev. J. 
Gutch (5 vols., 1786-96), and Athenae and Fasti Oxonienses, edited 
by Dr P. Bliss (4 vols., 1813-20); A History of the University of 
Oxford from the Earliest Times to 1530, by H. C. Maxwell Lyte 
(1886); and Statutes of the University of Oxford compiled in 1636 
under Authority of Archbishop Laud, ed. Griffiths (Oxford, 1888). 
The publications of the late Joseph Foster, Alumni Oxonienses, 
1500-1886 (8 vols.), supply the facts that are contained in the 
registers relating to the academic careers of graduates; his Oxford 
Men and their Colleges, 1880-92 (2 vols., 1893) contains, vol. i., 
college life and antiquities, with illustrations; vol. ii., completion 
of Alumni and Matriculation Register, 1880-92. The publications 
of the Oxford Historical Society include some valuable histories of 
separate colleges, that of Pembroke (by Macleane), Corpus Christi 
(by Fowler), Merton (by Brodrick); also Anthony Wood's Life and 
Times, ed. Rev. Andrew Clark (4 vols.) ; Hearne's Collections, ed. 
Doble and Rannie (4 vols.); and Early Oxford Press (to 1640), by 
Falconer Madan. The series of College Histories, originally pub- 
lished by F. E. Robinson (now by Hutchmson & Co.), is often service- 
able both to the historian and the biographer. For Cambridge, the 
researches of C. H. Cooper, greatly surpassing those of Wood in 
thoroughness and impartiality, are comprised in three series: 
(i) Annals of Cambridge (5 vols., 1812-1908); (2) Athenae Canta- 
brigienses, 1500-1609 (2 vols., 1858-61); (3) Memorials of Cambridge 
(3 vols. ; new ed. 1884). The Architectural History of the University of 
Cambridge and of the Colleges, by the late Robert Willis, edited and 
continued by J. Willis Clark (4 vols., 1886), is a work of admirable 
thoroughness and completeness. The Grace Books, in 3 vols., down 
to 1526, have been carefully edited and published by the University 
Press. J. B. Mullinger, History of the University of Cambridge from 
the Earliest Times to Accession of Charles I. (2 vols., 1873-85), vol. 3 
at press, and Cambridge Described and Illustrated, by T. D. Atkinson 
and J. W. Clark (1897), deal chiefly with the course of education and 
learning, and with the antiquities respectively. To these may be 
added Thomas Baker's History of the College of St John the Evangelist, 
edited by Professor Mayor (2 vols., 1869); also, by same editor, 
Admissions to St John's (3 vols., 1630-1765); and Records of same 
society (2 series), edited by R. F. Scott all three works being 
valuable aids both to the biography and history of contemporary 
times. Equally so is Dr Venn's excellent Biographical History 
of Caius College (3 vols., 1897-1901). Mr J. A. Venn's Statistical 
Chart, exhibiting conjointly the Matriculation Statistics at both 
universities from 1544 to 1906, has been reproduced, along with an 
explanatory article, in the Oxford and Cambridge Review for Lent term, 
1908, and a similar chart for the colleges (in Cambridge) has been 



UNIVERSITIES 



779 



published by the same editor. For both universities see the Documents 
issued by the Oxford and Cambridge Commissions of 1858. 

Mr M. E. Sadler's Special Report to the Education Office on the 
Admission of Women to the Universities is the most authoritative 
source of information on the subject. Of the existing endowments, 
faculties and professoriate of universities throughout the world, 
the serial entitled Minerva, edited by Dr K. Trubner (Triibner, 
Strassburg), has supplied trustworthy particulars since its first 
publication in 1891, together with concise information and references 
to original sources respecting the origin and history of the universities 
themselves. (J. B. M.) 

ACADEMIC HOODS 
i. Great Britain and Ireland 

Aberdeen. D.D., scarlet cloth, lined purple; B.D., black, 1 lined 
purple; LL.D., scarlet cloth, lined pale blue; LL.B., black, bordered 
pale blue; M.D., scarlet cloth, lined crimson; M.B., black, lined 
crimson; D.Litt., scarlet cloth, lined white; D.Phil., scarlet cloth, 
lined white; D.Sc., scarlet cloth, lined green; B.Sc., black, lined 
green; M.A., black, lined white. 

Cambridge. D.D., scarlet cloth, lined pink and violet shot, with 
loops of black cord; B.D., black, unlined; LL.M., black, lined 
white; LL.D., scarlet cloth, lined pink; LL.B., black silk or stuff, 
edged white fur; M.D. scarlet cloth, lined dark cherry colour; 
M.B., black, lined dark cherry colour; Mus.D., cream damask, lined 
cherry colour; Mus.B., dark cherry colour, lined white fur; Litt.D., 
scarlet cloth, lined scarlet; D.Sc., scarlet cloth, lined pink and 
light blue shot; M.A., black, lined white; B.A., black stuff or silk, 
edged white fur. Proctors as their Congregation habit wear the 
ruff and black and white hood; on other occasions they wear the 
hood " squared." 

Dublin. (The hoods are the same for the Royal University, 
except M.B., Mus.D. and divinity degrees, which it does not grant.) 
D.D., scarlet cloth, jined black; B.D., black, unlined; LL.D., 
scarlet cloth, lined pink; LL.B., black, bordered white; M.D., 
scarlet cloth, lined scarlet; M.B., black, lined white fur (Royal 
University, black, bordered scarlet) ; Mus.D., crimson cloth, lined 
white (Royal University, white damask, faced and lined rose satin) ; 
Mus.B., blue, lined white fur (rabbit-skin); Litt.D., scarlet cloth, 
lined white; D.Sc., scarlet cloth, lined blue; M.A., black, lined 
blue; B.A., black, edged white fur; Proctor, black silk, lined 
" ermine." 

Durham. D.D., scarlet " cassimere," lined " palatinate purple "; 
B.D., black, unlined; D.C.L., scarlet cassimere, lined white; 
B.C.L., palatinate purple, edged white fur; M.D., scarlet cassimere, 
lined scarlet, bordered palatinate purple; M.B., scarlet silk, lined 
palatinate purple, edged white fur; Mus.D., white brocade, lined 
palatinate purple; Mus.B., palatinate purple, edged white fur; 
Litt.D., scarlet cassimere, lined old-gold satin; Litt.B., old-gold 
satin, edged white fur; D.Sc., palatinate purple cassimere, lined 
scarlet; B.Sc., palatinate purple, edged white fur; M.A., black, 
lined palatinate purple; B.A., black stuff or silk, edged white fur. 

Edinburgh. D.D., black cloth, lined purple; BJD., black silk, 
lined purple, edged white fur; LL.D., black cloth, lined blue; 
LL.B., black silk, lined blue, edged white fur; B.L., black, bordered 
blue, edged white fur; M.D., black cloth, with cape attached, lined 
and faced crimson silk; M.B., black, lined crimson, edged white 
fur; Mus.D., scarlet cloth, lined white corded silk; Mus.B., scarlet 
silk, lined white, edged white fur; Litt.D., black cloth, lined royal 
blue shot with maize; D.Phil., black cloth, lined white, shot with 
"Vesuvius"; D.Sc., black cloth, lined green; B.Sc., black silk, 
lined green, edged white fur; M.A., black silk, lined white. 

Glasgow. D.D., scarlet cloth, lined white; B.D., black, lined 
light cherry colour, bordered scarlet cloth; LL.D., scarlet cloth, 
lined Venetian red; LL.B., black, lined Venetian red, bordered 
scarlet cloth; B.L., black, bordered Venetian red; M.D., scarlet 
cloth, lined scarlet; M.B., black, lined scarlet, bordered scarlet 
cloth; D.Sc., scarlet cloth, lined gold colour; B.Sc., black, lined 
gold colour, bordered scarlet cloth; M.A., black silk, lined " bell- 
heather " colour (purplish red) ; B.A., black silk or stuff, bordered 
bell-heather red. 

London. (Bachelors, if members of Convocation, have their 
hoods lined white silk, bordered with the colour of their faculty.) 
D.D., scarlet cloth, lined " sarum red"; B.D., black, bordered 
sarum red; LL.D., scarlet cloth, lined blue; LL.B., black, bordered 
blue; M.D., scarlet cloth, lined violet; M.B., and B.S., black, 
bordered violet; Mus.D., scarlet cloth, lined white, if a member of 
Convocation, if not, same as Mus.B., blue, lined white, watered 
silk; Litt.D., scarlet cloth, lined russet; D.Sc., scarlet cloth, lined 
gold colour; B.Sc., black, bordered gold colour; M.A., black, lined 
russet ; B.A., black, bordered russet. 

Oxford. D.D., scarlet cloth, lined black; B.D., black, unlined; 
D.C.L., scarlet cloth, lined rose; B.C.L., light blue, edged white 
fur; M.D., scarlet cloth, lined rose; M.B., dark blue, edged white 
fur; Mus.D., white damask, lined crimson; Mus.B., light blue, 
edged white fur; Litt.D., scarlet cloth, lined slate colour; Litt.B., 
light blue, edged white fur; M.A., black, lined red; B.A., black 
silk or stuff, edged white fur; Proctors wear a " miniver " hood. 

1 Where not otherwise stated, the hood is of silk. 



St Andrews. D.D., violet silk or cloth, lined white satin; B.D., 
violet silk or cloth, lined white satin, edged white fur; LL.D., 
scarlet silk or cloth, lined white satin; LL.B., scarlet silk or cloth, 
lined white satin, edged white fur; M.D., crimson silk or cloth, 
lined white satin; M.B., crimson silk or cloth, lined white satin, 
edged white fur; Mus.D., cerulean blue silk or cloth, lined white 
satin; Mus.B., cerulean blue, lined white satin, edged white fur; 
D.Sc., "amaranth" silk or cloth, lined white satin; B.Sc., 
amaranth silk or cloth, lined white satin, edged white fur; M.A., 
black, lined red. 

Victoria University. LL.D., gold velvet or satin, lined light gold; 
LL.B., black, bordered violet; M.D., gold velvet or satin, lined light 
gold; M.B., black, bordered red; Litt.D., gold velvet or satin, 
lined light gold; D.Sc., gold velvet or satin, lined light gold; B.Sc., 
black, bordered pale red; M.A., black, lined pale blue; B.A., 
black, bordered pale blue. 

University of Wales and Lampeter. B.D. (Lampeter), black, lined 
violet, bordered white; B.A., black, bordered blue and green shot. 

2. Australia 

Sydney. B.A., black stuff, edged white fur; M.A., black, lined 
blue; LL.B., black, bordered blue; LL.D., scarlet cloth, lined blue; 
B.Sc., black stuff, bordered amber; D.Sc., scarlet cloth, lined amber; 
B.E. (Engineering), black stuff, bordered light maroon; M.E., 
black, lined light maroon; M.B., black, bordered purple; M.C., 
black, lined French grey; M.D., scarlet cloth, lined purple. 

Adelaide. B.A., black, lined grey; M.A., black, lined dark 
grey; LL.B., black, lined blue; LL.D., dark blue, lined light blue; 
B.Sc., black, lined yellow; D.Sc., dark yellow, lined light yellow; 
M.B., black, lined rose; M.C. (Surgery), black, lined dark rose; 
M.D., dark rose, lined light rose; Mus.B., black, lined green; 
Mus.D., dark green, lined light green. 

Melbourne. B.A., black, lined dark blue; M.A., black, lined 
violet; Litt.D., black, lined dark blue; LL.B., black, lined white 
fur; LL.M., black cloth, edged red silk, lined white; LL.D., black, 
lined white; B.Sc., black, lined moss-green, edged white fur; 
M.Sc., black, lined moss-green; D.Sc., scarlet cloth, lined moss- 
green; B.E. (Engineering), black, lined light blue; M.E., black, lined 
yellow; M.B., black, lined white; M.C. (Surgery), black, lined dark 
amber; M.D., black, lined crimson; Mus.B., black, lined lavender, 
edged white fur; Mus.D., black, lined lavender. 

New Zealand. B.A., black, lined pink, edged white fur; M.A., 
black, lined pink; LL.B., black, lined blue, edged white fur; 
LL.D., black, lined light blue; B.Sc., black, lined dark blue, edged 
white fur; D.Sc., black, lined dark blue; M.B., black, lined mauve, 
edged white fur; M.D., black, lined mauve; Mus.B., black, lined 
white, edged white fur; Mus.D., black, lined white. 

3. Canada 

These follow the British model, with the exception of Laval, 
Quebec, which grants the same degrees as the University of France, 
the distinctive mark of which is the scarf. 

Dalhousie (N.S.). B.A., black stuff, lined white fur; M.A., 
black stuff, lined crimson; B.L. (Letters), black stuff, lined white, 
bordered light blue; M.L., black stuff, lined light blue; LL.B., 
black, lined white, bordered gold; LL.D., black, lined purple; 
B.Sc., black stuff, lined white silk, bordered crimson; M.Sc., black 
stuff, lined crimson; B.E. (Engineering), black stuff, lined white 
silk, bordered purple; M.C., scarlet cloth, bordered white; 
M.D., scarlet silk, bordered white; Mus.B., black stuff, lined white, 
bordered lavender. 

Fredericton (N.B.). B.A., black stuff, edged white fur; M.A., 
black, lined blue; B.C.L., black, lined blue silk, edged white fur; 
D.C.L., scarlet cloth, lined pink. 

McGill (Montreal). B.A., black stuff, edged white fur; M.A., 
black, lined blue; Litt.D. (Literature), scarlet cloth, lined pale 
blue; B.C.L., black, lined French grey, edged white fur; D.C.L., 
scarlet cloth, lined French grey; B.Sc., black, lined yellow, edged 
white fur; M.Sc., black, lined yellow; D.Sc., scarlet cloth, lined 
yellow; M.B., black, lined dark blue; M.D., scarlet cloth, lined dark 
blue; D.V.S. (Doctor of Veterinary Science), scarlet cloth, lined 
fawn. 

Toronto. D.D. (Trinity College), scarlet cloth, lined black; 
B.D. (Trinity College), black, unlined; B.A., black stuff, edged 
white fur; M.A., black, lined crimson; LL.B., blue, lined white 
fur; LL.D., scarlet cloth, lined pink; M.B., blue, lined white fur; 
M.D., scarlet cloth, lined pink. 

Windsor (N.S.). B.A., black stuff, edged white fur; M.A., black, 
lined crimson; B.C.L., blue, edged white fur; D.C.L., scarlet 
cloth, lined pink. 

4. India 

These follow the British model, but also give Oriental degrees, 
the distinctive mark of which is a sash. They also grant the degree 
of Licentiate in certain subjects, which has a hood. 

Allahabad. B.A., black, bordered amber; M.A., black, lined 
amber; LL.B., black, lined blue; LL.D., pale blue. 

Bombay. B.A., black stuff, bordered garter blue; M.A., garter 
blue, lined same; LL.B., black, bordered scarlet cloth; B.Sc., 



y8o 



UNIVERSITY COURTS UNTERWALDEN 



black stuff, bordered garter blue; L.C.E. (Engineering), black stuff, 
bordered brown; M.E., brown, lined garter blue; L.M. and S. 
(Medicine and Surgery), black stuff, bordered crimson; M.D., 
crimson, lined garter blue; L.Ag. (Agriculture), black stuff, 
bordered green. 

Calcutta. B.A., black, bordered dark blue; M.A., black, lined 
blue; LL.B., black, bordered green; LL.D., scarlet, lined white 
satin; B.Sc., black, bordered light blue; B.E., black, bordered 
orange; M.E., black, lined green; M.B., black, bordered scarlet; 
M.D., black, lined scarlet. 

Madras. B.A., black, bordered crimson; M.A., black, lined 
crimson; LL.B., black, lined purple; M.L., purple silk; LL.D., 
scarlet silk; B.E., black, lined orange; M.B., black, lined Ijght 
blue; L.M. and S., black, lined light blue; M.C., black, lined light 
blue; M.D., scarlet cloth, lined light blue; L.San.Sc. (Sanitary 
Science), black, bordered terra-cotta; L.T. (Teaching), black, lined 
gold. 

Punjab. B.A., purple, lined yellow; M.A., purple, lined claret; 
Litt.D., purple, lined scarlet; LL.B., white, lined blue; LL.D., 
scarlet silk; M.B., purple, lined purple cloth; M.D., purple, lined 
purple. 

5. South Africa 

Cape of Good Hope. B.A., black, bordered orange-brown; 
M.A., black, lined orange-brown, bordered black; Litt.D., orange- 
brown, lined white, bordered black; LL.B., black, bordered red; 
LL.D., red, lined white, bordered black; B.Sc., black, bordered 
green; M.Sc., green, bordered black; D.Sc., green, lined white, 
bordered black; M.B., black, bordered blue; M.D., blue, lined 
white, bordered black; Mus.B., black, bordered purple; Mus.M., 
purple, bordered black; Mus.D., purple, lined white, bordered black. 

6. United States 

The American universities have adopted a uniform system, 
according to which the length and shape of the hood indicate the 
degree (bachelor, master, doctor), the silk lining displays the official 
colours of the university or college granting the degree (e.g. crimson 
for Harvard, blue for Yale, orange and black for Princeton, light 
blue and white for Columbia, royal purple and white for Cornell 
and red and blue for Pennsylvania), while the velvet trimming 
indicates the faculty or department. Thus the trimming for arts 
and letters is white, for theology scarlet, laws purple, philosophy 
blue, science gold-yellow, fine arts brown, medicine green, music 
pink, pharmacy olive, dentistry lilac, forestry russet, veterinary 
science grey and library science lemon. It is also usual in America 
for a graduate of a German university to wear a hood lined with the 
colours of the university charged with a trichevron of the German 
colours, black, white and red. 

UNIVERSITY COURTS, in the English universities of Oxford 
and Cambridge, courts of inferior jurisdiction, administering 
principles of justice originally founded on the canon and civil 
law, but now denned and limited by the common law (see par- 
ticularly Ginnett v. Whittingham, 1886, 16 Q.B.D. 769). 

At Oxford the judge of the chancellor's court is the vice- 
chancellor, who is his deputy or assessor; the court has had 
since 1244 civil jurisdiction, to the exclusion of the king's 
courts, in all matters and suits wherein a scholar or privileged 
person of the university is one of the parties, except in actions 
relating to freehold. It had also, from 1290 downwards, juris- 
diction of all injuries and trespasses against the peace, mayhem 
and felony excepted, but since the Summary Jurisdiction Acts 
this is possibly no longer exercisable, but the chancellor, vice- 
chancellor and the vice-chancellor's deputy are justices of the 
peace for Oxford, Oxfordshire and Berkshire, where scholars 
are concerned, and exercise this jurisdiction under the Summary 
Jurisdiction Acts. By the Oxford University Act 1854 the 
vice-chancellor's court now administers the common and 
statute law of the realm. 

The criminal jurisdiction of Cambridge University in cases 
where any person not a member of the university is a party 
has ceased, and its jurisdiction over light women, which was 
founded on a charter and statute of Elizabeth, was taken 
away in 1894 by a private act of that year (c. 60), and an act 
of 6 Geo. IV. c. 97, dealing with them and applicable till then 
only to Oxford University, was extended to Cambridge University. 
Previous to 1891, women of light character, who had been con- 
victed of consorting with or soliciting members of the university 
in statu pupillari, were detained in a house of correction called 
the spinning house, but in that year a conviction was held bad 
(ex parte Hopkins, 1891, 61 L.J.Q.B. 240; see also, however, 
Kemp v. Nevitt, 1861, 10 C.B.N.S. 523). 



UNNA, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of West- 
phalia, 15 m. by rail E. of Dortmund, on the line to Hamm. 
Pop. (1905) 16,324. It has two Roman Catholic and two 
Protestant churches, a synagogue and several schools. Its 
chief industries are iron foundries, machine shops, salt works 
and breweries other articles of manufacture being bricks and 
cement. In the middle ages Urina formed part of the electorate 
of Cologne. It received municipal rights in 1256 and was a 
member of the Hanseatic League. 

UNTERWALDEN, one of the cantons of central Switzerland, 
extends to the south of the lake of Lucerne, 14 sq. m. of which 
are included within the canton (13 being in Nidwalden). It is 
composed of two valleys, through which run two streams, both 
called Aa, and both flowing into the lake of Lucerne. The 
more westerly of these glens is called Obwalden, and the more 
easterly Nidwalden. These names really come from the I3th 
century expression for the inhabitants, homines inlramontani 
(men dwelling in the mountains), whether of vallis superioris 
(of the upper valley) or vallis inferioris (of the lower 
valley). But in the i4th century the relative position of the 
two valleys is defined as " upper " and " lower " with reference 
to the great Kerns forest (stretching between Stans and Kerns), 
and hence is derived the historically inaccurate name of 
" Forest cantons," now so well known. The total area of the 
canton is 295-4 sq. m. (Obwalden has 183-2 and Nidwalden 
1 1 2- 1, though it must be borne in mind that the upper portion 
of what should be the territory of Nidwalden is, as regards 
the Blacken Alp, in Uri, while the Engelberg region is in 
Obwalden). Of this area 238-2 sq. m. (154-1 in Obwalden and 
84-1 in Nidwalden) are classed as " productive," forests covering 
73-8 sq. m. (47 in Obwalden and 26-8 in Nidwalden), while of 
the rest glaciers occupy 5-2 sq. m. (3-9 in Obwalden and 1-3 
in Nidwalden), the highest point in the canton being the Titlis 
(10,627 ft.) situated in the Obwalden half. The small lakes 
of Sarnen and of Lungern are wholly situated in Obwalden. 
Obwalden, as including the Engelberg region, is far more 
mountainous than Nidwalden, which is rather hilly than 
mountainous. The inhabitants in both cases are mainly devoted 
to pastoral and, in a lesser degree, to agricultural pursuits. 
In Obwalden there are 290 " alps," or mountain pastures, 
capable of supporting 13,399 cows, and of an estimated capital 
value of 5,474,400 fr. : the figures for Nidwalden are respec- 
tively 166, 5207 and 3,899,900. In 1900 the total popula- 
tion of the canton was 28,330 (15,260 in Obwalden and 
13,070 in Nidwalden), of whom all but the most insignificant 
proportion were German-speaking and Romanists. Till 1814 
the canton was in the diocese of Constance, but since then it is 
practically administered by the bishop of Coire, though legally 
included in no diocese. The capital of Obwalden is Sarnen 
(q.v.), and of Nidwalden Stans (q.v.). The other most con- 
siderable villages are all in Obwalden Kerns (2392 inhab.), 
Engelberg (1973 inhab.) and Lungern (1828 inhab.). The 
canton is traversed by the Briinig railway line from Hergiswil 
(in Nidwalden) to the top of the pass (20 m.), but most of the 
electric line from Stansstad to Engelberg (14 m.) is in Nidwalden. 
The mountain lines up Pilatus (Obwalden), the Stanserhorn, 
and to the Biirgenstock (both in Nidwalden) are also in the 
canton. Each half forms a single administrative district, and 
has its own independent local institutions, while in Obwalden 
there are 7 communes and in Nidwalden n. In each the 
supreme legislative authority is the " Lands gcmeinde," or 
primitive democratic assembly (meeting in both cases on the 
last Sunday in April), composed of all male citizens of 20 
(Obwalden) or 18 (Nidwalden) years of age. In both cases the 
Landsgemeinde elects the executive for three years (Nidwalden) 
or four years (Obwalden), while it is composed of u (Nidwalden) 
or 7 (Obwalden) members, out of whom the Landsgemeinde 
elects annually the chief officials. In each half there is also a 
sort of " standing committee " (the Landrath, Nidwalden, or 
Kantonsrath, Obwalden), which drafts measures to be submitted 
to the Landsgemeinde, supervises the cantonal administration, 
and is empowered to spend sums below a certain amount. In 



UNTON UNYAMWEZI 



781 



each case the Landrat is composed of the members of the 
executive, plus a certain number of members elected in each 
" commune, " in the proportion of i member to every 250 
inhabitants, or fraction over 125 (so Nidwalden, which allows 
them to hold office for six years), or i member to every 200 
inhabitants (Obwalden, which allows them to hold office for 
four years). These Landsgemeinden are of immemorial antiquity, 
while the other constitutional details are settled by the con- 
stitution of 1877 in Nidwalden, and by that of 1902 in Obwalden. 
In each half the single member of the Federal Stiinderat is 
elected by the Lands gemeinde, while the single member enjoyed 
by each in the Federal Nationalrat is chosen by a popular 
vote, but not by the Lands gemeinde. The people of the canton 
have always been very pious and religious. In the church of 
Sachseln (near Sarnen) still lie the bones of the holy hermit, 
Nicholas von der Flue, fondly known as " Bruder Klaus " 
(1417-1487), while at Sarnen there are several convents, though 
the most famous of all the monasteries in the canton, the great 
Benedictine house of Engelberg (founded about 1 1 20) is situated 
at the head of the Nidwalden valley, though politically in 
Obwalden. At the lower end of the Nidwalden valley is Stans, 
the home of the Winkelried family (q.v.). 

It is very remarkable that in both valleys the old " common 
lands " are still in the hands of the old gilds, and " communes " 
consist of natives, not merely residents, though in Obwalden 
these contribute to the expenses of the new "political com- 
munes " of residents, while in Nidwalden the latter have to 
raise special taxes. In Engelberg (which still retains some 
independence) the poor are greatly favoured in the division of 
the common lands and their proceeds, and unmarried persons 
(or widowers and widows) receive only half of the share of those 
who are married. 

Historically, both Obwalden (save a small bit in the Aargau) 
and Nidwalden were included in the Ziirichgau. In both 
there were many great landowners (specially the abbey of 
Murbach and the Habsburgs) and few free men; while the 
fact that the Habsburgs were counts of the Aargau and the 
Ziirichgau further delayed the development of political freedom. 
Both took part in the risings of 1245-47, and in 1247 Sarnen 
was threatened by the pope with excommunication for opposing 
its hereditary lord, the count of Habsburg. The alleged cruelties 
committed by the Habsburgs do not, however, appear in history 
till Justinger's Chronicle, 1420 (see TELL). On the i6th of 
April 1291, Rudolph the future emperor bought from Murbach 
all its estates in Unterwalden, and thus ruled this district as 
the chief landowner, as count and as emperor. On the ist of 
August 1291 Nidwalden (Obwalden is not named in the text 
of the document, though it is named on the seal appended 
to it) formed the " Everlasting League " with Uri and Schwyz 
(this being the first known case in which its common seal is 
used). In 1304 the two valleys were joined together under 
the same local deputy of the count, and in 1309 Henry VII. 
confirmed to them all the liberties granted by his predecessor 
though none is known to have been granted. However, 
this placed Unterwalden on an equal political footing with 
Uri and Schwyz; and as such it took part (1315) in Morgarten 
fight (also driving back an invasion over the Briinig Pass) and 
in the renewal of the Everlasting League at Brunnen (1315), 
as well as at Sempach (1386) and in driving back the Gugler 
or English freebooters (1375). For physical reasons, it was 
difficult for Unterwalden to enlarge its territories. Yet in 
1368 it acquired Alpnach, and in 1378 Hergiswil. So too 
Obwalden shared with Uri in the conquest of the Val Leventina 
(1403) and in the purchase of Bellinzona (1419), as well as in 
the loss of both (1422). It was Nidwalden that, with Schwyz 
and Uri, finally won (1500) and ruled (till 1798) Bellinzona, 
the Riviera, and the Val Blernio; while both shared in 
conquests of the Aargau (1415), the Thurgau (1460), and 
Locarno, &c. (1512), and in the temporary occupation of the 
Val d' Ossola (1410-14, 1416-22, 1425-26, 1512-15). In the 
Burgundian war Unterwalden, like the other Forest cantons, 
long hung back through jealousy of Bern, but came to the rescue 



in time of need. In 1481 it was at Stans that the Confederates 
nearly broke up the League for various reasons, and it was 
only by the intervention then of the holy hermit Nicholas von 
der Flue (of Sachseln in Obwalden) that peace was restored, 
and the great Federal agreement known as the compact of Stans 
concluded. Like the other Forest cantons, Unterwalden clung 
to the old faith at the time of the Reformation, being a member 
of the " Christliche Vereinigung " (1529) and of the Golden 
League (1586). 

In 1798 Unterwalden resisted the Helvetic republic, but, 
having formed part of the short-lived Tellgau, became a district 
of the huge canton of the Waldstatten. Obwalden submitted 
at an early date, but Nidwalden, refusing to accept the oath 
of fidelity to the constitution mainly on religious grounds, 
rose in desperate revolt (September 1798), and was only put 
down by the arrival of 16,000 armed men and by the storming 
of Stans. In 1803 its independence as a canton was restored, 
but in 1815 Nidwalden refused to accept the new constitution, 
and Federal troops had to be employed to put down its resistance, 
the punishment inflicted being the transfer (1816) to Obwalden 
of the jurisdiction over the abbey lands of Engelberg (since 
1462 " protected " by the four Forest cantons), which in 1798 
had fallen to the lot of Obwalden and had passed in 1803 to 
Nidwalden. Since that time the history of Unterwalden has 
been like that of the other Forest cantons. It was a member 
of the " League of Sarnen " (1832), to oppose the reforming 
wishes of other cantons, and of the " Sonderbund " (1845); 
it was defeated in the war of 1847; and it voted against the 
acceptance of the Federal constitution both in 1848 and in 1874. 

AUTHORITIES. Beitrdge z. Geschichte Nidwaldens (Stans, from 
1884); J. J. Blumer, Stoats- und Rechtsgeschichte d. schweiz. Demo- 
kratien (3 vols., St Gall, 1850-59); J. Businger, Der Kanton Unter- 
walden (St Gall, 1836) and Die Geschichte des Volkes von Unter- 
walden (2 vols., Lucerne, 1827-28); M. A. Cappeller, Pilati mantis 
historia (Basel, 1767); E. Etlin, Die Alpwirtschaft in Obwalden 
(Soleure, 1903); H. Christ, Ob dem Kernwald (Basel, i869);R. 
Durrer, Die Kunst- und Architekturdenkmaler d. Unterwaldens (in 
course of publication since 1899); J. Gander, Die Alpwirtschaft 
im Kant. Nidwalden (Soleure, 1896); Geschichtsfreund, from 1843 
(in vols. 49, 51-53, 55 and 57 the charters of Engelberg 1122-1428 
have been printed) ; Conrad Gesner, Descriptio mantis fracti 
(Pilatus) (Zurich, 1555); A. Liitolf, Sagen, Brduche, Legenden 
aus den Fiinf Orten (Lucerne, 1862); Obwaldner Geschichtsblatter 
(Zurich, from 1901); W. Oechsli, Die Anfdnge d. schweiz. Eidge- 
nossenschaft (Zurich, 1891); H. Ryffel, Die schweiz. Landsgemein- 
den (Zurich, 1903); J. Sowerby, The Forest Cantons of Switzerland 
(London, 1892). (W. A. B. C.) 

UNION (or UMPTON), SIR HENRY (c. 1557-1596), English 
diplomatist, was the second son of Sir Edward Unton, or Umpton 
(d. 1583), of Wadley, near Faringdon, Berkshire, his mother, 
Anne (d. 1588), being a daughter of Edward Seymour, duke 
of Somerset, the protector. Educated at Oriel College, Oxford, 
Unton became a member of parliament in 1584 and served with 
the English forces in the Netherlands in 1585 and 1586, being 
present at the skirmish of Zutphen. In 1 586 he was knighted. 
In 1591, through the good offices of the earl of Essex, Unton was 
sent as ambassador to Henry IV. of France; he became very 
friendly with this king and accompanied him on a campaign in 
Normandy before he was recalled to England in June 1592. 
Again securing a seat in parliament he lost for a short time the 
favour of Queen Elizabeth; however, in 1593 he went again 
as ambassador to France. He died in the French camp at La 
Fere on the 23rd of March 1596, a collection of Latin verses 
being published in his memory at Oxford later in the year. 
This was edited by his chaplain, Robert Wright (1560-1643), 
afterwards bishop of Lichfield and Coventry. 

There is an interesting picture in the National Portrait Gallery re- 
presenting Unton and various scenes in his life. Many of his official 
letters are in the British Museum and in the Public Record Office, 
London. A collection of these was edited by Joseph Stevenson 
(1847), and some are printed in W. Murdiu's Bur ghley Papers (1759). 

UNYAMWEZI, a region of German East Africa, lying S. of 
Victoria Nyanza and E. of Lake Tanganyika. It is mentioned 
as early as the i6th century by the Portuguese and by Antonio 
Pigafetta, under the name Munemugi or " Land of the Moon," 
which is the exact equivalent of the name Wu-nya-mwezi by 



782 



UNYORO UPPTNGHAM 



which the land is known to its own people. It is part of the 
plateau between the two great rift-valleys of East Africa, is 
rich in woods and grass, and has many villages surrounded 
by well cultivated farms and gardens. The western portions, 
however, are somewhat swampy and unhealthy. The people 
of Unyamwezi, called Wanyamwezi, are Bantu-negroes of 
medium size and negroid features, but with long noses and 
curly rather than woolly hair, suggestive of mixed blood. 
Dwelling on the main road from Bagamoyo to Tanganyika, the 
route by which J. H. Speke, Richard Burton, J. A. Grant, H. M. 
Stanley and others travelled, and having from early times had 
commercial relations with -the Arabs, the Wanyamwezi are 
more civilized than the neighbouring races. They practise 
tattooing, file or extract the upper incisor teeth, and load their 
legs and arms with brass wire rings. The men look after the 
flocks and poultry, while the women do the field-work. They 
often keep bees; in some cases the hives are inside the huts, 
and the bees form an efficient protection against intruders. 
Inheritance is to the direct issue, not as is often the case among 
Negro races to the nephew. In some parts, one of twins is 
always killed. On Stanley's first visit in 1871, the Zanzibar 
Arabs were predominant in the country, but later the natives 
rose and, under Mirambo, who from a common porter rose to be 
a conquering chief earning for himself the title of the " Black 
Bonaparte " a Negro kingdom was formed. Since 1890 the 
country has been under German control and the power of the 
native chiefs greatly curtailed. As a people the Wanyamwezi 
are extremely vigorous and have shown great capacity for ex- 
pansion, being energetic and enterprising. 

See H. Erode, Tippoo Tib: the Story of his Career in Central 
Africa (1907); Sir H. H. Johnston, The Uganda Protectorate 
(1902); Sir Charles Eliot, The East Africa Protectorate (1905). 

UNYORO, called by its people Bunyoro, a country of east 
central Africa lying N.W. of the kingdom of Buganda (Uganda) 
and bounded E. and N. by the Victoria Nile. On the west, 
Unyoro includes nearly all the eastern shores of Albert Nyanza 
and a strip of territory incorporated in Belgian Congo in 1910 
west of that lake. In 1896 a British protectorate was established 
over Unyoro, which now forms the S.W. part of the northern 
province of the Uganda Protectorate. The limits of Unyoro 
have varied according to the strength of its rulers; during 
the igth century the states of Bunyoro and Buganda appear to 
have been rivals for the overlordship of the region between 
the Bahr-el-Jebel and the great lakes. The Banyoro (as its 
people call themselves) had a certain degree of civilization 
and were skilled in iron-work, pottery and wood-work. The 
ruling class is of Hima stock, the Bahima possessing large 
herds . of cattle. The first Europeans to enter the country 
were J. H. Speke and J. A. Grant, who spent part of 1862 there, 
the king, Kamurasi, putting many obstacles in the way of the 
travellers continuing their journey down the Nile. Its next 
white visitors were Sir Samuel and Lady Baker, who in 1864 
discovered the Albert Nyanza. At this time ivory and slave 
traders, nominally Egyptian subjects, penetrated as far south 
as Unyoro, and a few years later (1870-74) Baker, as governor- 
general of the Equatorial Provinces, extended Egyptian influ- 
ence over the country and placed a garrison at Foweira on the 
Victoria Nile. He formally annexed Unyoro to the Egyptian 
dominions at Masindi on the i4th of May 1872. General 
Gordon, who succeeded Baker, established posts at Masindi and 
Mruli. With King Kabarega, a son of Kamurasi, the Egyptians 
had many encounters. Egyptian authority ceased altogether 
with the withdrawal of Emin Pasha in 1888, but not long after- 
wards British influence began to be felt in the country. Kabarega 
in 1891 found himself in conflict with Captain F. D. Lugard, 
who entered Unyoro from the south. From this point the history 
of Unyoro is traced in the article UGANDA. It need only be 
stated here that in 1899 Kabarega was captured by the British 
and deported to the Seychelles, and that one of his sons (Yosia, 
a minor) was subsequently recognized as chief in his place, though 
with very restricted powers, the province being virtually ad- 
ministered directly by the British government. 



Unyoro has played rather an important r&le in the past 
(unwritten) history of Equatorial Africa as being the region 
from which the ancient Gala (Hamitic) aristocracy, coming 
from Nileland, penetrated the forests of Bantu Africa, bringing 
with them the Neolithic civilization, the use of metals, and the 
keeping of cattle. Unyoro, though not a large country, is in 
many ways remarkable. It is thought to contain gold in the 
north and north-east. In the west and south-west are the 
vast primeval forests of Budonga and Bugoma, containing 
large chimpanzees and a peculiar sub-species of straight-tusked 
elephants (only found in Unyoro). 

See the works of Speke, Grant and Baker; also Colonel Gordon in 
Central Africa (4th ed., 1885); J. F. Cunningham's Uganda and 
its Peoples (1905); and Winston Churchill's My African Journey 
(1908). (H. H. J.) 

UPAS, a Javanese word meaning poison, and specially 
applied to the poison derived from the gum of the anchar tree 
(Antiaris toxicaria), a member of the fig-family (Moraceae), 
and a native of the Sunda Islands, which was commonly used to 
envenom the darts of the natives. The name of the upas tree 
has become famous from the mendacious account (professedly 
by one Foersch, who was a surgeon at Samarang in 1773) 
published in the London Magazine, December 1783, and popu- 
larized by Erasmus Darwin in " Loves of the Plants " (Botanic 
Garden, pt. ii.). The tree was said to destroy all animal life 
within a radius of 15 m. or more. The poison was fetched by 
condemned malefactors, of whom scarcely two out of twenty 
returned. All this is pure fable, and in good part not even 
traditional fable, but mere invention. The milky juice of the 
tree contains an active principle named antiarin, which has been 
recommended as a cardiac stimulant. It is without any pro- 
perties, however, that entitle it to clinical employment. The 
tree is described as one of the largest in the forests of Java, the 
straight cylindrical stem rising without a branch to the height of 
60 to 80 ft. It has a whitish bark and on being wounded yields 
plentifully the milky juice from which the poison is prepared. 

For a full account of the tree, see Bennett and Brown, Plantae 
Javanicae rariores, p. 52 (1838). 

UPHOLSTERER, in modern usage, a tradesman who supplies 
coverings, cushions, padding and stuffing for chairs, sofas or 
beds, or who repairs the same, and more generally one who also 
provides carpets, curtains and household furniture. The word 
first appears as " upholder, " then as " upholdster " or " up- 
holster, " and finally with repetition of -er, as in " poulterer," 
" upholsterer. " The first meaning seems to have been a broker 
or dealer in small wares. Probably the name was given to a 
broker who sold such goods by auction, holding them up to 
pubh'c view as is the manner of auction-rooms. 

UPPER SIND FRONTIER, a district of British India, in the 
Sind province of Bombay, with administrative headquarters at 
Jacobabad. Area, 2621 sq. m. In the north-east the country 
is hilly; the remainder consists of a narrow strip of level plain, 
one half being covered with jungle and subject to inundation, 
from which it is protected by artificial embankments. The land 
is watered by canals from the Indus, of which the chief are the 
Begari and Desert canals. The district contains several thriving 
timber plantations. The climate is remarkable for its dryness 
and for its extraordinary variations of temperature. The 
annual rainfall at Jacobabad averages less than 5 in. In 1901 
the population was 232,045, showing an increase of no less than 
33% in the decade, chiefly due to immigration from Baluchistan. 
The principal crops are millets, oil-seeds, pulses, wheat and rice. 
The internal trade is principally in grain, the greater part of 
which is sent to the sea-board; the transit trade from Central 
Asia into Sind crosses the district, bringing wool and woollen 
goods, fruits, carpets and horses. The district is crossed by 
the Quetta branch of the North-Western railway. The wild 
Baluchi inhabitants were pacified by General John Jacob 
between 1847 and his death in 1858. 

UPPINGHAM, a market town of Rutland, England, 98 m. 
N.N.E. of London, on a branch of the London & North- 
Western railway. Pop. (1901) 2588. The church of St Peter 



UPS ALA UR 



783 



and St Paul has Decorated portions in the nave, tower and spire. 
The pulpit is of the i;th century. Jeremy Taylor was rector 
here at the outbreak of the Civil War. The principal institu- 
tion of Uppingham is the school. It is coeval with the grammar 
school of Oakham (1584), and had the same founder, Robert 
Johnson, archdeacon of Leicester. It rose in the last half of 
the i pth century to a place of distinction among English public 
schools, owing to the exertions of its headmaster (1853-77), the 
Rev. Edward Thring. A new group of school-buildings, with 
chapel, was erected in 1863 from the designs of G. E. Street. 
New (Tercentenary) class-rooms were opened in 1890, and a 
memorial chapel, containing a statue of Edward Thring, by 
T. Brock, R.A., was erected in 1891. The Victoria Building, 
containing museum, laboratory and lecture theatre, was opened 
in 1897. The quadrangle is by T. G. Jackson, R.A., and over 
the gateway is a statue of the founder, by G. J. Frampton, R.A. 
The school contains about 450 boys. There are general ex- 
hibitions to the universities, and also several, in which scholars 
of this school and Oakham school have preference, at St John's, 
Clare, Emmanuel and Sidney Sussex colleges, Cambridge. The 
town of Uppingham has some agricultural trade. 

UPSALA, or UPPSALA, a city of Sweden, the seat of a university 
and of the archbishop of Sweden, chief town of the district 
(Ian) of Upsala, 41 m. N. of Stockholm by the Northern rail- 
way. Pop. (1900) 22,855. It has water-communication with 
Stockholm by the river Fyris and .the northward arm of Lake 
Malar, into which it flows. The older part of the city lies on 
its sloping west bank, the cathedral and castle occupying 
dominating heights, with the university buildings below. West 
and south is a girdle of gardens. The new town occupies the 
flat east bank, and the whole is set in a fertile plain. 

The university, the chief and oldest in Sweden, was founded 
in 1477 by Archbishop Jakob Ulfsson. The university build- 
ing, completed in 1887, lies west of the cathedral. It has a 
fine vestibule with galleries, lit from a cupola, a senate-hall, 
rooms for the governing body, and lecture rooms. The whole 
is very richly adorned. The library building was erected in 
1810-41. It is on the site of the Academia Carolina, founded 
by Charles IX., and is known in consequence as Carolina Redi- 
uiva. Since 1707 the library has had the right of receiving a 
copy of every work printed in Sweden, and its MS. collection 
is also large and valuable. Among the MSS. is the famous 
Codex Argenteus (6th century), a translation of the Gospels in 
the Gothic of Bishop Ulfilas (4th century). Other univer- 
sity institutions are the chemical laboratory, the chemical, 
physical and pathological institutes, the anatomy house, 
and the collection of Northern antiquities. The last is situ- 
ated in the old botanic garden, where Rudbeck and Linnaeus 
worked, and Linnaeus had his residence. The new botanic 
garden, W. of the castle hill, was given by Gustavus III. in 1787. 
The astronomical observatory was founded in 1730, though 
there was a professorial chair in the preceding century. The 
Victoria Museum contains Egyptian antiquities. The Royal 
Society of Sciences, founded in 1710 by Archbishop Erik Ben- 
zelius, occupies a house of its own and has a valuable library. 
Among other learned societies in the university are the Royal 
Association for Literary Science, and the Society for Swedish 
Literature. The annual expenditure of the university amounts 
to about 56,000, a large proportion of which is covered by a 
grant from parliament. The revenue of the university itself, 
however, amounts to about 25,000, a considerable part of 
which is still drawn from the property with which Gustavus 
Adolphus endowed it in 1624 from his private estates, amount- 
ing to 360 farms. There are about sixty professors, and a 
large number of assistants, lecturers and docents. The number 
of students is from 1500 to 2000, but it fluctuates considerably; 
the average in 1886-90 was 1825. Every student must belong 
to a " nation " (landskap), of which there are thirteen, each 
comprising mainly students from a particular part of the 
country. Each nation has generally its own club-house and 
fund. There are also societies for special branches of study, 
athletics and music, especially singing, for which the students 



have a deservedly high reputation. A cap of white velvet 
with a black border is worn by the students. 

The cathedral stands nobly above the town; its tall western 
towers with their modern copper-sheathed spires are visible 
for many miles. It is of simple form, consisting of a nave 
with aisles and flanking chapels, short transepts, and choir 
with ambulatory and chapels and an apsidal eastern end. It is 
French in style (the first architect was a Frenchman, Etienne 
de Bonneuil) modified by the use of brick as building material. 
Ornamentation is thus slight except at the southern portal. 
The church was building from 1287 to 1435. It suffered from 
several fires, and a thorough restoration was completed in 
1893. The easternmost chapel is the fine mausoleum of 
Gustavus Vasa. The castle was founded in 1548 by Gustavus I. 
but was not finished till a century later, when it was often used 
as a royal residence. It was destroyed by fire in 1702, and is 
still in part ruined, but part is used as the offices of the govern- 
ment of the Ian and the residence of the governor. Apart from 
the cathedral and a few insignificant buildings, there are no 
other medieval remains. Among institutions may be mentioned 
the Ultuna Agricultural Institute, immediately south of the 
city. The industries are unimportant. 

The name of Upsala originally belonged to a place still called 
Old Upsala nearly 2 m. N. of the present city. This Upsala, 
mentioned as early as the gth century, was famous throughout 
Scandinavia for its splendid heathen temple, which, gleaming 
with gold, made it the centre of the country, then divided into 
a great number of small kingdoms. Three huge grave mounds 
or barrows remain here. In the same place the first cathedral 
of the bishops of Upsala was also erected (c. noo). On the 
destruction of this building by fire, the inconvenient situation 
caused the removal in 1273 of the archiepiscopal see to the 
present city, then called Ostra Aros, 1 but within a short 
time it came to be generally called Upsala. During the middle 
ages the cathedral and the see of the archbishop made Upsala 
a kind of ecclesiastical capital. Here the kings were crowned, 
after their election had taken place at the Mora Stones, 10 m. 
S.E. of Upsala. In 1567 Eric XIV. murdered in the castle five 
of the most eminent men of the kingdom, three of them belong- 
ing to the family of Sture. In 1593 was held the great synod 
which marks the final victory of Protestantism in Sweden; in 
the same year the university was restored by Charles IX. In the 
castle, Christina, daughter of Gustavus Adolphus, resigned her 
crown to Charles X. in 1654. In 1702 nearly the whole city, 
with the castle and the cathedral, was burnt down. Among the 
teachers of the university who have carried its name beyond 
the boundaries of their own country the following (besides 
Linnaeus) deserve to be mentioned: Olof Rudbeck the elder, 
the author of the Atlantica (1630-1702); Torbern Bergman 
(1735-1784), the celebrated chemist; and Erik Gustaf Geijer 
(1783-1847), the historian. 

UR, one of the most important of the early Babylonian 
cities, represented to-day by the ruin mounds called Mughair 
(Moghair), or, more properly, Muqayyar (Mukayyar), " the 
pitched," or " pitch-built." It lay 140 m. S.E. of Babylon 
(3 95' N., 46 5' E.), about 6 m. S. of the present bed of the 
Euphrates, half-way between that and the low, pebbly sand- 
stone hills which form the border of the Syrian desert, and 
almost opposite the mouth of the Shatt-el-Hal, on the Sa'ade 
canal. It was the site of a famous temple, E-Nannar, " house 
of Nannar," and the chief seat in Babylonia of the worship of 
the moon-god, Nannar, later known as Sin (q.v.). Under the 
title Ur of the Chaldees, it is mentioned in the Bible as the 
original home of Abraham. It is worthy of notice that Haran, 
in upper Mesopotamia, which also was a home of Abraham, was 
likewise a famous site of worship of the god Sin, and that the 
name of that god also appears in Mount Sinai, which was his- 
torically connected with the origin of the Hebrew nation 
and religion. While not equal, apparently, in antiquity, and 

1 The name first occurs in Snorro Sturluson in connection with 
events of the year 1018; it signifies " the mouth of the eastern 
river." 



7 8 4 



URAL-ALTAIC 



certainly not in religious importance, to the cities of Nippur, 
Eridu and Erech, Ur, from a very early period, played a most 
important part politically and commercially. Lying at the 
junction of the Euphrates and Tigris, at the head of the Persian 
Gulf, it enjoyed very extensive water-communications with 
rich and important regions. Lying close to the Syrian desert, 
at a natural point of communication with Arabia, it was 
the centre of caravan communication with interior, southern 
and western Arabia. In the Sumerian period, antedating the 
time of Sargon, about or before 3000 B.C., we find Ur exercising 
hegemony in Babylonia under a king whose name is read 
Lugal-Kigub-Nidudu. Comparatively early, however, it be- 
came a centre of Semitic influence and power, and immediately 
after the time of the Sargonids it comes to the front, under 
King Ur-Gur, or Ur-Engur, the great builder of ziggurats (stage- 
towers) in the ancient Babylonian cities, as mistress of both 
northern and southern Babylonia, and even seems to have 
exacted tribute from countries as far remote as southern Syria. 
With relatively brief intervals, during which Erech and Isin 
come to the fore, Ur held the hegemony in Babylonia until or 
shortly before the Elamite invasion, when Larsa became the 
seat of authority. After the period of the Elamite dominion 
and the establishment of the empire of Babylon, under Kham- 
murabi, about or shortly after 2000 B.C., Ur lost its political 
independence and, to a considerable extent, its political im- 
portance. The gradual filling up of the Persian Gulf had 
probably also begun to interfere with its trade supremacy. 
It continued, however, to be a place of religious and literary 
importance until the close of the Babylonian period. The 
ruins of the ancient site were partly excavated by Loftus and 
Taylor in 1854. They are egg-shaped, with the sharper end 
towards the north-west, somewhat elevated above the sur- 
rounding country, which is liable to be inundated by the 
Euphrates, and encircled by a wall 2946 yards in circumference, 
with a length of 1056 and a greatest breadth of 825 yds. The 
principal ruin is the temple of E Nannar, in the north-western 
part of the mounds. This was surrounded by a low outer wall, 
within which rose a platform, about 20 ft. in height, on which 
stood a two-storeyed ziggurat, or stage-tower, a right-angled 
parallelogram in shape, the long sides towards the north-east 
and south-west. The lower stage measured 198 ft. in length 
by 133 ft. in breadth, and is still standing to the height of 27 ft. 
The second storey was 14 ft. in height and measured 119 by 
75 ft. The ascent to the first storey was by a stairway 8 ft. 
broad, on the north-east side. Access to the summit of the 
second storey was had on the same side, either by an inclined 
plane or a broad stairway it is not clear which extending, 
apparently, the whole length of that stage. Ruins on the 
summit show that there was a chamber on top, apparently of 
a very ornamental character, like that at Eridu. The bricks of 
the lower stage are laid in bitumen, and bear the inscription of 
Ur-Gur. The bricks of the upper stage are laid in mortar, and 
clay cylinders found in the four corners of this stage bore an 
inscription of Nabonidus, the last king of Babylon (639 B.C.), 
closing with a prayer for his son Belshar-uzur (Bel-sarra-Uzur), 
the Belshazzar of the book of Daniel. Between these two ex- 
tremes were found evidences of restoration by Ishme-Dagan 
of Isin and Gimil-Sin of Ur, somewhere towards the middle of 
the 3rd millennium B.C., and of Kuri-galzu, a Cossaean (Kassite) 
king of Babylon, of the I4th century B.C. Nebuchadrezzar 
also claims to have rebuilt this temple. Taylor further ex- 
cavated an interesting Babylonian building, not far from the 
temple, and part of an ancient Babylonian necropolis. All 
about the city he found abundant remains of burials of later 
periods. Apparently, in the later times, owing to its sanctity, 
Ur became a favourite place of sepulture, so that after it had 
ceased to be inhabited it still continued to be used as a necropolis. 
The great quantity of pitch used in the construction of these 
ruins, which has given them the name by which they are to-day 
known among the Arabs, is evidence of a peculiarly close relation 
with some pitch-producing neighbourhood, presumably Hit, 
which lay at the head of the Sa'ade canal on which Ur was 



located. Large piles of slab and scoria, in the neighbourhood 
of Ur, show, apparently, that the pitch was also used for manu- 
facturing purposes, and that Ur was a manufacturing as well as 
a commercial city. Since Taylor's time Mughair has been visited 
by numerous travellers, almost all of whom have found ancient 
Babylonian remains, inscribed stones and the like, lying upon 
the surface. The site is rich in remains, and is relatively easy 
to explore. 

See J. E. Taylor, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1855), 
vol. xv.; W. K. Loftus, Chaldaea and Susiana (1857); John P. 
Peters, Nippur (1897); H. V. Hilprecht, Excavations in Assyria 
and Babylonia (1904). (J. P. PE.) 

URAL-ALTAIC, the general term for a group of languages 
(also called Turanian, Finno-Tatar, &c.) constituting a primary 
linguistic family of the eastern hemisphere. Its subgroups 
are Turkish, Finno-Ugrian, Mongol and Manchu. Philologists 
have differentiated various forms of the languages into numerous 
subdivisions; and considerable obscurity rests on the relation- 
ship which such languages as Japanese or ancient Accadian and 
Etruscan bear to the subgroups already named, which are dealt 
with in other articles. 

In its morphology Ural-Altaic belongs to the agglutinating 
order of speech, differing from other languages of this order 
chiefly in the exclusive use of suffixes attached to the unmodified 
root, and partly blended with it by the principle of progressive 
vowel harmony, in virtue of which the vowels of all the suffixes 
are assimilated to that of the root. Thus the typical formula is 
R+R+R+R, &c., where R is the root, always placed first, and 
R, R, R . . . the successive postfixed relational elements, whose 
vowels conform by certain subtle laws of euphony to that of the 
root, which never changes. These suffixes differ also from 
the case and verbal endings of true inflecting languages (Aryan, 
Semitic) in their slighter fusion with the root, with which they 
are rather mechanically united (agglutinated) than chemically 
fused into a term in which root and relational element are no 
longer separable. Hence it is that the roots, which in Aryan 
are generally obscured, blurred, often even changed past the 
possibility of identification, inUral- Altaic are always in evidence, 
unaffected by the addition of any number of formative particles, 
and controlling the whole formation of the word. For instance, 
the infinitive element mak of the Osmanli yaz-mak = to write 
becomes mek in sev-mek = to love (vowel harmony), and shifts 
its place in sev-il-mek = to be loved (imperfect fusion with the 
root), while the root itself remains unchanged as to form and 
position in sev-ish-il-mek = to be impelled to love, or in any other 
possible combination with suffixed elements. The facility with 
which particles are in this way tacked on produces an exuber- 
ance, especially of verbal forms, which in Osmanli, Finnish, 
Magyar, Tungus and Mordvinian may be said to run riot. This 
is particularly the case when the numerous modal forms become 
further complicated by incorporating the direct pronominal 
object, as in the Magyar varjak = they await him, and the 
Mordvinian palasa = l embrace him. Thus arise endless verbal 
combinations, reckoned in Turki at nearly 30,000, and past 
counting in the Ugrian group. 

Another marked peculiarity of the Ural-Altaic, at least as 
compared with the inflecting orders of speech, is weak subjec- 
tivity, the subject or agent being slightly, the object of the 
action strongly accentuated, so that " it was done by him " 
becomes " it was done with him, through him, or in his place " 
(apud eum). From this feature, which seems to be characteristic 
of all the branches, there follow some important consequences, 
such as a great preponderance of locative forms in the declension, 
the nominative, and often even the possessive, being expressed 
by no special suffix. Hence also the object normally precedes 
the subject, while the idea of possession (to have) is almost 
everywhere replaced by that of being (to be), so that, even in 
the highly developed Osmanli, " I have no money " becomes 
" money-to-me not-is " (Akchehlm yokdur). In fact the verb is 
not clearly differentiated from the noun, so that the conjugation 
is mainly participial, being effected by agglutinating pronominal, 
modal, temporal, negative, passive, causative, reciprocal,. 



URAL ALTAIC 



785 



reflexive and other suffixes to nominal roots or gerunds: I write = 
writing-to-me-is. Owing to this confusion of noun and verb, 
the same suffixes are readily attached indifferently to both, as in 
the Osmanli jdn = soul, jdn-lcr= souls, and ydzdr = he will write, 
ydzdr-ler they will write. So also, by assimilation, the Yakut 
kotordor kotdttor = the birds fly (from root kot = flying), where 
kotol stands for kotor, and dor for lor, the Osmanli ler, or suffix 
of plurality. 

But, notwithstanding this wealth of nominal or verbal 
forms, there is a great dearth of general relational elements, 
such as the relative pronoun, grammatical gender, degrees 
of comparison, conjunctions and even postpositions. Byrne's 
remark, made in reference to Tungus, that " there is a great 
scarcity of elements of relation, very few conjunctions, and no 
true postpositions, except those which are given in the declension 
of the noun," 1 is mainly true of the whole family, in which 
nouns constantly do duty for formative suffixes. Thus nearly 
all the Ostiak postpositions are nouns which take the possessive 
suffix and govern other nouns in the genitive, precisely as in the 
Hindi: admi-ki-t&r af (men) g#ya=man-of -direction (in) I went 
= I went towards the man, where the so-called postposition tartif, 
being a feminine noun = direction, requires the preceding posses- 
sive particle to be also feminine (ki for he). 

As there are thus only two classes of words the roots, 
which always remain roots, and the suffixes, which always 
remain suffixes it follows that there can be no true com- 
position or word-building, but only derivation. Even the 
numerous Magyar nominal and adjectival compounds are not true 
compounds, but merely two words in juxtaposition, unconnected 
by vowel harmony and liable to be separated in construc- 
tion by intervening particles. Thus in aran-sinu = gold-colour 
= golden, the first part aran receives the particle of comparison, 
the second remaining unchanged, as if we were to say " gold- 
er-colour " for "more golden"; and ata-fi = relative becomes 
ata-m-fi-a = my relative, with intrusion of the pronominal m 
= my. 

But, while these salient features are common, or nearly 
common, to all, it is not to be supposed that the various groups 
otherwise present any very close uniformity of structure or 
vocabulary. Excluding the doubtful members, the relationship 
between the several branches is far less intimate than between 
the various divisions of the Semitic and even of the Aryan 
family, so that, great as is, for instance, the gap between English 
and Sanskrit, that between Lapp and Manchu is still greater. 

After the labours of Castren, Csink, Gabelentz, Schmidt, Boht- 
lingk, Zenker, Almqyist, Radlov, Munkacsi-Berat and especially 
Winkler, their genetic affinity can no longer be seriously doubted. 
But the order of their genetic descent from a presumed common 
organic Ural-Altaic language is a question presenting even greater 
difficulties than the analogous Aryan problem. The reason is, not 
only because these groups are spread over a far wider range, but 
because the dispersion from a common centre took place at a time 
when the organic speech was still in a very low state of development. 
Hence the various groups, starting with little more than a common 
first germ, sufficient, however, to give a uniform direction to their 
subsequent evolution, have largely diverged from each other 
during their independent development since the remotest prehis- 
toric times. Hence also, while the Aryan as now known to us 
represents a descending line of evolution from the synthetic to the 
analytic state, the Ural-Altaic represents on the contrary an upward 
growth, ranging from the crudest syntactical arrangements in 
Manchu to a highly agglutinating but not true inflecting state in 
Finnish. 2 No doubt Manchu also, like its congeners, had formerly 
possessive affixes and personal elements, lost probably through 
Chinese influences ; but it can never have possessed the surprisingly 
rich and even superabundant relational forms so characteristic of 

1 Gen. Prin. of Struct, of Lang. i. 391 (London, 1885). 

" Meine Ansichten werden sich im Fortgange ergeben, so nament- 
lich dass ich nicht entfernt die finnischen Sprachen fur flexivische 
halten kann " (H. Winkler, Uralallaische Volker, 1884, i. p. 54). 
Yet even true inflexion can scarcely be denied at least to some of 
the so-called Yenisei Ostiak dialects, such as Kotta and others still 
surviving about the middle Yenisei and on its affluents, the Agul 
and Kan (Castren, Yen., Ostjak und Kort. Sprachlehre, 1858, Preface, 
pp. v-viii). These, however, may be regarded as aberrant members 
of the family, and on the whole it is true that the Ural-Altaic system 
nowhere quite reaches the stage of true inflexion. 



Magyar, Finn, Osmanli and other western branches. As regards 
the mutual relations of all the groups, little more can now be said 
than that they fall naturally into two main divisions Mongolo- 
Turkic and Finno-Ugro-Samoyedo-Tungusic according to the 
several methods of employing the auxiliary elements. Certainly 
Turkic lies much closer to Mongolic than it does to Samoyedic 
and Tungusic, while Finno-Ugric seems to occupy an intermediate 
position between Turkic and Samoyedic, agreeing chiefly in its 
roots with the former, in its suffixes with the latter. Finno-Ugric 
must have separated much earlier, Mongolic much later, from the 
common connexion, and the latter, which has still more than half 
its roots and numerous forms in common with Turkic, appears on 
the whole to be the most typical member of the family. Hence 
many Turkic forms and words can be explained only by reference 
to Mongolic, which has at the same time'numerous relations to Finno- 
Ugric and Samoyedic that have been lost in Turkic and Tungusic. 
It may therefore be concluded that the Finno-Ugric migrations to 
the north and west and the Tungusic to the east had been completed 
while the Turkic and Mongolic tribes were still dwelling side by side 
on the Altai steppes, the probable cradle of the Ural-Altaic peoples. 

How profoundly the several groups differ one from the other 
even m their structure is evident from the fact that such assumed 
universal features as unchangeable roots and vowel harmony are 
subject to numerous exceptions, often spread over wide areas. 
Not only is assimilation of final consonants very common, as in 
the Osmanli bulun-mak for the Uighur bulul-mak, but the root 
vowel itself is frequently subject to umlaut through the influence 
of suffixed vowels, as in the Aryan family. Thus in the Surgut 
dialect of Ostiak the long vowels of nominal stems become modified 
before the possessive suffix, a and e to 1 and o to u (Castren). It 
is still more remarkable to find that the eastern (Yenisei) Ostiak 
has even developed verbal forms analogous to the Teutonic strong 
conjugation, the presents tabdq', abbatag'an and datpaq" becoming 
in the past tobaq', abbatog'an and datpiyaq' respectively; so also 
taig,_ torg and tdrg, present, past and imperative, are highly sug- 
gestive of Teutonic inflexion, but more probably are due to Tibetan 
influences. In the same dialects many nouns form their plurals 
either by modifying the root vowel, in combination with a suffixed 
element, or by modification alone, the suffix having disappeared, 
as m the English foot feet, goose geese. So also vowel harmony, 
highly developed in Finnish, Magyar and Osmanli, and of which 
two distinct forms occur in Yakutic, scarcely exists at all in Chere- 
missian, Votyak and the Revel dialect of Esthonian, while in 
Mordvinian and Syryenian, not the whole word, but the final vowels 
alone are harmonized. The unassimilated Uighuric kilur-im answers 
to the Osmanli kilur-um, while in Manchu the concordance is 
neglected, especially when two consonants intervene between the 
root and the suffixed vowels. But too much weight should not be 
attached to the phenomenon of vowel harmony, which is of com- 
paratively recent origin, as shown in the oldest Magyar texts of 
the 1 2th century, which abound in such discordances as haldl-nek, 
tiszta-seg, for the modern haldl-nak, tiszta-sag. It clearly did not 
exist in the organic Ural-Altaic speech, but was independently 
developed by the different branches on different lines after the 
dispersion, its origin being due to the natural tendency to merge 
root and suffix in one harmonious whole. 

This progressive vocalic harmony has been compared to a sort of 
progressive umlaut, in which the suffixed vowels are brought by 
assimilation into harmony with those of the root. All vowels are 
broadly divided into two categories, the guttural or hard and the 
palatal or weak, the principle requiring that, if the root vowel be 
hard, the suffixed must also be hard, and vice versa. But in some 
of the groups there is an intermediate class of " neutral " vowels, 
which do not require to be harmonized, being indifferent to either 
category. In accordance with these general principles the vowels 
in some of the leading members of the Altaic family are thus classified 
by L. Adam : 3 





Gutturals. 


Palatals. 


Neutrals. 


Finnish .... 


u, o, a 


u, 6, a 


e, i 


Magyar .... 


u, o, a 


ii, o 


e, i 


Mordvinian 


u, o, a 


a, 




Syryenian .... 


6, a 


a, ,e 




Osmanli .... 


u, o, a, e 


u, o, e, i 




Mongolian .... 


u, o, a 


u, 6, a 


j 


Buriat .... 


u, o, a 


ii, 6, a 


e, i 


| Manchu .... 


6, o, a 


e 


u, i 



A close analogy to this law is presented by the Irish rule of 
" broad to broad " and " slender to slender," according to which 
under certain conditions a broad (a, o, u) must be followed in the 
next syllable by a broad, and a slender (e, i) by a slender. Obvious 
parallelisms are also such forms in Latin as annus, perennis, ars, 
iners, lego, diligo, where, however, the root vowel is modified by the 
affix, not the affix by the root. But such instances suffice to show 



* De I'harmonie des voyelles dans les langues Ouralo-Altdiques 
(Paris, 1874). 



786 



URAL MOUNTAINS 



that the harmonic principle is not peculiar to the Ural-Altaic, but 
only more systematically developed in that than in most other 
linguistic families. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Besides the references given above, the chief 
general treatises on Ural-Altaic philology are: Winkler, Das 
Uralaltaische und seine Gruppen (Berlin, 1885); Kellgren, Die 
Grundziige der finnischen Sprachen mit Rucksicht auf die Ural- 
altaischen Sprachstamme (Berlin, 1847) ; Castren, Ueber die Ursitze 
des finnischen Volkes (Helsingfors, 1849); ibid., Syrjaen. Gran?., 
Samojed. Gram., and numerous other comparative grammars, 
dictionaries and general treatises, chiefly on the Finno-Ugric and 
Samoyedic groups; W. Thomson, Ueber den Einfluss der german- 
ischen Sprachen auf die Finnisch-Lappischen (Germ, trans, by 
Sievers, Halle, 1870 a classical work) ; Abel Remusat, Recherches 
sur les langues Tartares (Paris, 1820); L. Adam, Gram, de la langue 
Afandchoue(Paris, 1 872), and Gram.de la langue Tongouse(Paris, 1 874) ; 
Bohtlingk, Die Sproche der Jakuten (St Petersburg, 1851); Radloff, 
Volksliteratur der tiirkischen Stdmme Siid-Sibiriens (St Petersburg, 
1872), and " Remarks on the Codex Comanicus," Bull. St Petersb, 
Acad. Sc. xxxi. No. I ; Zenker, Gram, der tiirkischen-tatarischen 
Sprachen; Schmidt, Mongol. Gram.; Gabelentz, Gram. Mandchoue 
(Altenburg, 1833); Csink, Hung. Gram. (London, 1853); and 
Vambery, Das Turkenvolk (Leipzig, 1885), and U'igurische Sprach- 
Monumente u. das Kudatkii Bilik (Innsbruck, 1870). (A. H. K.) 

URAL MOUNTAINS, a system of mountains which extends 
from the Arctic Ocean southwards nearly to the Caspian Sea, 
and is regarded as separating Europe from Asia. Russians 
describe them either as Karnefi (stone) merely, or by the appro- 
priate name of Poyas (girdle), while the name of Urals (Uraly) 
derived either from the Ostyak urr (chain of mountains) or from 
the Turkish aral-tau or ural-tau has with them become a 
generic name for extensive mountain chains. Although the 
real structure of the Urals, both orographical and geological, is 
imperfectly ascertained, enough is known to warrant the 
statement that they have been affected by a series of separate 
upheavals, some having a north-western strike and some a 
north-eastern, and that they reach their maximum altitudes 
along a zone stretching nearly north and south. The com- 
posite nature of the Urals is best seen at the northern and 
southern extremities of the system, where the upheavals 
assume the character of distinct chains of mountains. 

The Pae-khoy or coast ridge (Samoyedic " stony ridge ") is quite 
independent of the Urals proper, from which it is separated by a 
marshy tundra, some 30 m. wide. It has a distinct north-north- 
westerly and north-westerly trend along the shores of the Kara Sea ; 
and, although it is cut through by the Ugrian Strait (Yugorskiy- 
shar), there is no doubt that it is continued in Vaygach Island and 
Novaya-Zemlya. Its dome-shaped summits, which rise 1000 ft. above 
the tundra (Vozaipae, 1312 ft.), are completely destitute of trees, 
and its stony crags are separated by broad marshy tundras. 

The Obdorsk or Northern Urals, which begin within a few miles 
of the head of Kara Bay (Konstantinov Kamen, in 68 30' N., 
1465 ft.), and extend south-west as far as the 64th parallel, form a 
distinct range, stony and craggy, sloping steeply towards the south- 
east and gently towards the marshes of European Russia. Its 
highest elevations (e.g. Khard-yues, 3715 ft., and Pae-yer, 4650 ft.) 
are on the 66th and 67th parallels. Sometimes the main chain has 
on the west two or three secondary chains, formed by the upheaval 
of sedimentary rocks, and it is towards the southern extremity of 
one of these that the highest peaks of the Urals occur (Sablya, 
5135 ft., in 64 47' N., and T6ll-poz-iz or Mura'i-chakhl, 5535 ft. in 
63 55')- Dense forests, chiefly fir, pine and larch, clothe the slopes 
of the mountains and the narrow valleys; but, as the less hospitable 
latitudes are approached, every species except the larch gradually 
disappears and the upper limit of vegetation (2400 ft. in the south) 
rapidly descends till it reaches the very base of the mountains 
towards the Arctic Circle, and forest vegetation disappears alto- 
gether about 65 N. (67 in the plains of Russia and Siberia). 

Although usually reckoned to the Northern Urals, the section 
between 64 and 61 N. has again a wholly distinct character. 
Here the main chain (or, more correctly, the main water-parting) 
of the Urals is a succession of plateaus stretching in a north-westerly 
direction, and dimpled with broad, flat, marshy valleys, rising here 
and there into isolated dome-shaped, flattened summits, mostly 
under 3000 ft. (Yang-tump, 62 43' N., 4170 ft.). The whole region, 
except the mountain summits, is densely clothed with coniferous 
forests, birch appearing only occasionally in the south, and even 
the Scotch pine only in a few valleys. This part of the range is 
also uninhabited. 

The Middle Urals, between 61 and 55 30' N. and about 80 m. 
in breadth, are the best known, as they contain the richest iron, 
copper and gold mines (Bogoslovsk, Goroblagodatsk and Ekaterin- 
burg Urals). The Denezhkin Kamen in the north (5355 ft.) and 



the Tara-tash in the south (2800 ft.) may be considered as marking 
the limits of this section. Here the orographical structure is still 
more complicated. In the north (6ist to 6oth parallel) there is a 
succession of chains with a distinct north-eastern trend ;, and it 
still remains an open question whether, for two degrees farther 
south, the whole of the Bogoslovsk Urals (4795 ft. in the Konzha- 
kovski-Kamen, and from 3000 to 4000 ft. in several other summits) 
do not consist of chains having the same direction. South of Kach- 
kanar (2885 ft.), i.e. from the s8th to the 56th parallel, the Urals 
assume the appearance of broad swellings 1000 to 2000 ft. in height, 
deeply trenched by ravines. These low and ravine-broken plateaus, 
the higher parts of which can be reached from Russia on a very 
gentle gradient, have been utilized for centuries as the chief highway 
to Siberia. The water-parting between the Russian and Siberian 
rivers is here not more than 1245 ft. above sea-level on the great 
Russo-Siberian highway (W. of Ekaterinburg). The eastern slope 
is steeper, but even there Ekaterinburg is only 435 ft. below the 
water-parting. The valleys have a decidedly south-eastern direction, 
and such is also the course of the railway from Perm to Tyumen, as 
soon as it reaches the Siberian slope. The Middle Urals are densely 
forested. The valleys and lower slopes are covered with a thick 
sheet of rich humus and have become the site of large and wealthy 
villages. The mines also support a considerable population. 

The Southern Urals (55 30' to 51 N.), instead of being made up 
of three chains of mountains radiating from Mount Yurma, as was 
formerly supposed, consist of three parallel chains running north- 
east and south-west, and therefore constitute a quite independent 
part of the Ural system. The Urals proper are a low sinuous chain 
extending due south-west and hardly exceeding 2200 to 2800 ft. 
in altitude. They slope gently towards the north-west and abruptly 
towards the south-east, where several short, low spurs (Ilmen, 
Irenly) rise in the basins of the Miyas and the Ui. In the west a 
chain, separated from the main range, or Ural-tau, by a longi- 
tudinal valley, accompanies it throughout its entire length. This, 
although pierced by the rivers which rise in the longitudinal valley 
just mentioned (Ai, Upper Byelaya), nevertheless rises to a much 
greater height than the main range. Its wild stony crest reaches 
an extreme altitude of 5230 ft. Farther west, another series of 
chains reach nearly the same altitudes. The gorges by which the 
rivers pierce the Devonian limestones on their way towards the 
lower terraces are most picturesque in the west, where the Urals 
assume an alpine character. The forests are no longer continuous; 
the gentle slopes of the hilly tracts are dotted with woods, mostly 
of deciduous trees, while the hollows contain rich pasture grounds. 
The whole region, formerly the exclusive abode of the Bashkirs, is 
being colonized by Russians. 

Farther south, between the 53rd and sist parallels, the main range 
continues in the same direction, and, except when deeply trenched 
by the rivers, assumes the appearance of a plateau which hardly 
reaches 1500 ft. It is continued farther south-west (towards the 
Volga) under the name of Obshchiy Syrt. 

As a rule, the Urals are not considered to continue south of the 
great bend of the Ural river, where quite independent ranges of 
hills, or flat swellings, appear (e.g. Dzhaman-tau, Mugodzhar Hills). 
It appears, however, that the Mugodzhar Hills may safely be regarded 
as an actual prolongation of the upheavals which constitute the 
Urals. These consist of diorites and crystalline slates, and reach 
their maximum in A'iryuk (1885 ft.). A range of heights connects 
the Mugodzhar Hills with the Ust-Urt plateau (see TRANSCASPIAN 
REGION). 

Geology. The Ural Mountains are no more than the western 
edge of a broad belt of folding of which the greater part is buried 
beneath the Tertiary deposits of western Siberia. Throughout the 
greater portion of the chain a broad strip of granites, diorites, peri- 
dotites, gneisses and other crystalline rocks rises directly from the 
Siberian plain, and is covered towards the west by Silurian, Devonian, 
Carboniferous, Permian and Triassic strata, which are thrown into 
numerous folds parallel to the length of the chain and usually rise 
to much greater heights than the crystalline zone. In the north, 
however, folded sedimentary rocks lie to the east as well as to the 
west of the crystalline axis, and between 60 40' and 46 50' N. 
Fedorov distinguishes three zones: (i.) the eastern hill region, 
where one finds Mesozoic rocks (Chalk, Jurassic) in the north, and 
Devonian limestones, porphyrites and quartz-porphyries farther 
south; in this zone most gold placers are found; (ii.) the central 
mountain zone consists of various amphibolitic metamorphic slates, 
and also of syenite and gabbro; granites, gneisses, and occasionally 
serpentines and porphyrites are found subordinately ; and (iii.) 
the western hilly zone consists chiefly of Carboniferous and Permo- 
Carboniferpus deposits; Middle and Upper Devonian limestones 
and, occasionally, crystalline slates are found in a few meridional 
ridges. The crystalline rocks are usually believed to be of Archean 
age. The Carboniferous deposits coal-bearing in the Middle and 
Southern Urals although appearing at the surface only as a narrow 
strip in the west Urals, occupy an extensive area, but are concealed 
by the largely developed Permian deposits, and that series of 
sediments which must be considered as intermediate between the 
Carboniferous and the Permian. These latter, described as " Permo- 
Carbon " by Russian and German geologists, are largely developed 



URALSK 



787 



in the west Urals. The Permian deposits cover a wide zone all 
along the western slope of the Urals from north to south, and are 
most important on account of their copper ores, salt beds and 
salt springs. They are also covered with variegated marls which 
are almost destitute of fossil organisms, so that their age is not yet 
quite settled. 

Climatic, Gee-Botanical and Geo-Zoological Importance. The 
importance of the Urals as a climatic and geo-botanical boundary 
can no longer be regarded as very great. Most European species 
of plants freely cross the Urals into Siberia, and several Siberian 
species travel across them into northern Russia. But, being a 
zone of hilly tracts extending from north to south, the Ural Moun- 
tains necessarily exercise a powerful influence in pushing a colder 
northern climate, as well as a northern flora and fauna, farther 
south along their axis. The harshness of the climate at the meteoro- 
logical stations of Bogoslovsk, Zlatoust and Ekaterinburg is not 
owing merely to their elevation a few hundred feet above sea-level. 
Even if reduced to sea-level, the average temperatures of the Ural 
meteorological stations are such as to produce a local deflexion of 
the isotherms towards the south. The same is true with regard 
to the limits of distribution of vegetable and animal species. The 
reindeer, for instance, is met with as far south as the 52nd parallel. 
The Southern Urals introduce into the Cis-Caspian steppes the flora 
and fauna of middle Russia. 

In the distribution of the races of mankind the Urals have played 
an important part. To the present day the Northern Urals are 
inhabited by Finnish races (Samoyedes, Syryenians, Voguls and 
Permians) who have been driven from their former homes by Slav 
colonization, while the steppes on the slopes of the Southern Urals 
have continued to be inhabited by the Turkish Bashkirs. The 
Middle Urals were in the gth century the abode of the Ugrians, 
and their land, Bjarmeland or Biarmia (now Perm), was well known 
to the Byzantine historians for its mineral wealth, there being 
at that time a lively intercourse between the Ugrians and the 
Greeks. Compelled to abandon these regions, they moved (in the 
9th century) south along the Ural slopes towards the land of the 
Khazars, and through the prairies of south-eastern and southern 
Russia (the Ae/SeSa of Constantino Porphyrogenitus) towards the 
Danube and to their present seat Hungary leaving but very few 
memorials behind them in the Northern and Middle Urals. 1 At 
present the Urals, especially the Middle and the Southern, are being 
more and more colonized by Great Russian immigrants, while the 
Finnish tribes are rapidly melting away. 

Metallurgy and Mining. The mineral wealth of the Urals was 
known to the Greeks in the gth century, and afterwards to the 
Novgorodians, who penetrated there in the nth century for trade 
with the Ugrians. When the colonies of Novgorod (Vyatka, Perm) 
fell under the rule of Moscow, the Russian tsars soon grasped the 
importance of the Ural mines, and Ivan III. sent out German 
engineers to explore that region. In 1558 the whole of the present 
government of Perm was granted by the rulers of Moscow to the 
brothers Stroganov, who began to establish salt-worjcs and mines 
for iron and copper. Peter the Great gave a new impulse to the 
mining industry by founding several iron- works, and from 1745, 
when gold was first discovered, the Russian colonization of the Urals 
took a new departure. The colonization was of a double character, 
being partly free chiefly by Nonconformists in search of religious 
freedom and partly compulsory, the government sending peasant 
settlers who became serfs at the iron and copper works. Until 
1861 all work at the mines was done by serfs belonging either to 
private persons (the Stroganovs, Demidoys and others) or to the 
crown. Not only are the Urals very rich in minerals, but the vast 
areas covered with forests afford an almost inexhaustible supply of 
cheap fuel for smelting purposes. Thus for a long time the Urals 
were the chief mining region in Russia. But when coal began to be 
used for smelting purposes, south Russia generally, and Ekaterino- 
slav in particular, became the chief iron-producing region. Attention 
has, however, again been directed to the great mineral wealth locked 
up in the mountain region, and the last two years of the igth century 
witnessed a " boom " in the purchase of iron and gold mines by 
foreign companies. The chief pig-iron and iron- works are at Nizhniy- 
Tagilsk, and the principal steel-works at Bogoslovsk. The manu- 
facture of agricultural machinery has increased in the southern Urals, 
especially at Krasno-ufimsk, and the manufacture of tea-urns has 
grown in importance at Perm. 

Gold is met with in the Urals both in veins and in placers; the 
output increased from about 30,000 oz. in 1883 to three times that 
amount at the end of the century. The Urals have also rich placers 
of platinum, often mixed with gold, iridium, osmium and other 
rare metals, and supply annually some 13,000 Ib, i.e. 95% of all 
the platinum obtained in the world. Silver, mercury, nickel, zinc 
and cobalt ores are found. Rich mines of copper are found at 
Turinsk, Gumishev and other places, yielding as much as 5 % of 
pure copper; nickel is obtained at Revdinsk, and the extraction 



1 Comp. Moravia and the Madiars, by K. J. Groth ; Zabyelin' 
History of Russian Life, and the polemics on the subject in Izvesti( 
of the Russ. Geogr. Soc., xix. (1883). 



of iron chromates has developed. Coal exists in many places on 
the western slope of the Urals, mainly on the Yaiva river, in the 
basin of the Kama, and on the Usva (basin of the Chusovaya), 
and about 500,000 tons are raised annually. Several beds of coal 
have been found on the eastern slope; excellent anthracite exists 
at Irbit and good coal at Kamyshlov. Sapphires, emeralds, beryls, 
chrysoberyls, tourmalines, aquamarines, topaz, amethysts, rock- 
crystals, garnets and many kinds of jade, malachite and marble 
are cut and polished at several stone-cutting works, especially at 
Ekaterinburg; and diamond-mining may prove successful. Good 
asbestos is extracted, and pyrites is worked for the manufac- 
ture of sulphuric acid Many varieties of mineral waters occur 
in the Urals, the best being those at Serginsk, Klyuchevsk and 
Elovsk. 

AUTHORITIES. Sir R. J. Murchison, Geol. of Russia (2nd ed., 
1853); E. Hofmann, Nordl. Ural (St Petersburg, 1853-56); 
Meglitzky and Antipov, Bergbau im Ural (1861); Ruprecht, Verbr. 
der Pflanzen im nordl. Ural; Panaev, Climatology of the Urals 
(Russian, 1882); P. Semenov, Geographical Dictionary (Russian); 
E. Fedorov, Geological Researches in Northern Urals (1884-96), and 
Bogoslovsk District (1901); Chupin, Geogr. and Stat. Diet, of the 
Government of Perm; Mendeleev, The Ural Iron Industry (1900). 

(P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) 

URALSK, a province of Asiatic Russia, lying N. of the Caspian 
Sea, with an area of 140,711 sq. m. It is bounded by the govern- 
ment of Astrakhan on the W., Samara and Orenburg on the N., 
Turgai and the Sea of Aral on the E., and the Caspian Sea and 
Transcaspian region on the S. It is geographically situated 
mostly within the boundaries of Asia, i.e. E. of the Ural river, 
and both its physical features and its inhabitants are, to a 
very large extent, Asiatic. Administratively, it belongs to the 
" Kirghiz provinces," or governor-generalship of the Steppes. 
Apart from a narrow strip of land in the north, where the slopes 
of the Obshchiy-Syrt plateau, covered with fertile black earth 
and stretches of forest, descend towards the Ural river, and the 
gentle slopes of the Mugojar Hills in the north-east, Uralsk 
consists of arid steppes and deserts, which incline with an im- 
perceptible gradient towards the Caspian. Most of the province 
is below sea-level, the zero altitude line running from Kamyshin 
on the Volga to the south of the town of Uralsk. 

Uralsk is drained by the river Ural or Yaik, which rises in Orenburg 
and flows south, west and south, entering the Caspian after a course 
of 900 m. Its chief tributaries, the Sakmara, the Qr and the Ilek, 
are in the north ; along its lower course the Great and Little Uzen 
and many small streams on the left bank become lost in lakes before 
reaching the Ural. The Emba, which flows through the north of 
the Ust-Urt plateau, reaches the Caspian by a series of shallow 
lagoons, which were navigable in the i8th century. 

The climate is influenced by the Central Asian steppes. A cold 
and dry winter is succeeded by a hot and still drier summer, during 
which the grass, and sometimes all the crops, are destroyed by the 
burning heat. Uralsk, although lying wholly to the south of 
52 N., has the same average yearly temperature as Moscow and 
south Finland (39-5); its January is colder than that of north 
Finland (3), while July averages 73. 

The estimated population in 1906 was 730,300. It consists of 
three different elements Ural Cossacks, who constitute about 
one-fifth; some 15,000 Russian peasants, and Kirghiz. The 
Kirghiz are almost entirely dependent on pastoral pursuits. The 
Cossacks, descendants of those independent communities of free 
settlers and Raskolniks who are so often mentioned in Russian 
history under the name of Yaik Cossacks, owing to theiriunwilling- 
ness to submit to the rule of the tsars, are fine representatives of the 
Great Russian race, though not without some admixture of Tatar 
and Kalmuck blood. Their chief occupations are live-stock breed- 
ing and fishing. 

History. In the first half of the i6th century Uralsk was 
occupied by the Nogai horde, a remnant of the Mongol Golden 
Horde, which retired there after the fall of Astrakhan and 
Kazan; the khans resided at Saraichik on the river Ural. At 
the same time the lower parts of the Ural were occupied by 
Russian runaway serfs and free Cossacks who did not recognize 
the authority of Moscow. They took Saraichik in 1560 and 
formed an independent community, like that of the Zaporogian 
Cossacks. When the Moscow princes attempted to bring them 
under their rule and prosecuted them for nonconformity, the 
Cossacks revolted, first under Stenka Razin (1667-71) and 
afterwards under Pugachev (1773-75). After the latter rising, 
the name of Ural was officially given to the Yaik river and the 
Yaik Cossacks. The disbanding of their artillery, the planting 



7 88 



URALSK URANUS 



of Russian garrisons within the domains of the voisko, and the 
interference of Russian officials in their interior organization 
during the ipth century occasioned a series of smaller outbreaks, 
the latest of which, in 1874, resulted in the deportation of 2500 
Cossacks, with their families, to Turkestan. 

URALSK, a town of Asiatic Russia, the capital of the pro- 
vince of the same name, on the Ural river, 165 m. W.S.W. 
of Orenburg, and 270 m. by rail E. of Saratov. Pop. (1885) 
26,055; (JQ 01 ) 38,919- It is rapidly developing owing to its 
trade with the nomad Kirghiz in cattle, sheep and animal pro- 
ducts, all of which are exported to Russia; it is also a centre 
for trade in grain. It has two cathedrals, founded, one in the 
i8th century, the other in 1837; a small museum, a school farm, 
a people's palace, free libraries, and branches of the Russian 
Geographical and the Fisheries Societies. 

URANIUM [symbol U, atomic weight 238-5 (0=i6)], a 
metallic chemical element. In 1789 Klaproth isolated from 
pitchblende a yellow oxide which he viewed as the oxide of a 
new metal, which he named uranium, after the newly discovered 
planet of Herschel. By reducing the oxide with charcoal 
at a high temperature, he obtained a product which he took 
to be metallic uranium. Berzelius about 1823 found that the 
yellow oxide, when treated with excess of sulphuric acid, gave 
a sulphate not unlike the ferric salt. He concluded that the 
uranium salt was Ur 2 O 3 3SO 3 , where Ur 2 O 3 , according to his 
analysis, represents 864 parts of yellow oxide (O=i6). Like 
Fe 2 O 3 , the yellow oxide lost 48 parts or oxygen per Ur 2 O 3 
( = 864 parts) as water, while Ur 2 = 8i6 parts of metal remained. 
These results were adopted until Peligot in 1840 discovered 
that Berzelius's (and Klaproth's) metal contains oxygen, and 
that his (Ur 2 )O 3 really is (U 6 O 6 )-O3 = 3U2O 3 , where U=i2o is 
one equivalent weight of real uranium. Peligot's results, though 
called in question by Berzelius, have been amply confirmed by all 
subsequent investigators; only now, on theoretical grounds, first 
set forth by Mendeleeff , we double Peligot's atomic weight, so that 
U now signifies 240 parts of uranium, while UO 3 stands as the 
formula of the yellow oxide, and UOj as that of Berzelius's metal. 

The only practically available raw material for the extraction of 
uranium is pitchblende (q.v.). Pure pitchblende is UsOs, which, in 
relatively good specimens, forms some 8q% or more of the whole. 
It is remarkable as always containing helium (q.v.) and radioactive 
elements (see RADIOACTIVITY). To extract the metal, the pitch- 
blende is first roasted in order to remove the arsenic and sulphur. 
In one process the purified ore is disintegrated with hot nitric acid 
to produce nitrates, which are then converted into sulphates by 
evaporation with sulphuric acid. The sulphates are treated with 
water, which dissolves the uranium and other soluble salts, while 
silica, lead sulphate, &c., remain; these are removed by filtration. 
From the solution the arsenic, copper, &c., are precipitated by 
sulphuretted hydrogen as sulphides, which are filtered off. The 
filtrate contains the uranium as uranous and the iron as ferrous salt. 
These are oxidized and precipitated conjointly by excess of ammonia. 
The precipitate, after having been collected and washed, is digested 
with a warm concentrated solution of ammonium carbonate, 
which dissojves the uranium as a yellow solution of ammonium 
uranate, while the hydrated oxide of iron, the alumina, &c., remain. 
These are filtered on hot, and the filtrate is allowed to cool, when 
crystals of the uranate separate out. The mother liquor includes 
generally more or less of nickel, cobalt, zinc and other heavy metals, 
which, as Wohler showed, can be removed as insoluble sulphides by 
the addition of ammonium sulphide; uranium, under the circum- 
stances, is not precipitated by this reagent. The filtrate, on being 
boiled down, yields a second crop of uranate. This uranate when 
ignited in a platinum crucible leaves a green oxide of the composition 
UaOg, i.e. artificial pitchblende, which serves as a starting-point for 
the preparation of uranium compounds. The green oxide, as a 
rule, requires to be further purified. One method for this purpose 
is to convert it into a solution of the nitrate UOstNOs)*, and from it 
to precipitate the metal as oxalate by oxalic acid (Peligot). The 
latter (UOj-CjOO yields a purer oxide, UO 2 , or, in the presence of 
air, UsOs, on ignition. 

Metallic uranium, as shown by Peligot, can be obtained by 
the reduction of a mixture of dry chloride of potassium and 
dry uranous chloride, UC1 4 , with sodium at a red heat. A 
better process is that of H. Moissan (Compt. rend., 1896, 122, 
p. 1088), in which the oxide is heated with sugar charcoal in 
the electric furnace. Uranium is a white malleable metal, 
which is pretty hard, though softer than steel. Its specific 



gravity has the high value 18-7; its specific heat is 0-02765, 
which, according to Dulong and Petit's law, corresponds to 
U=240. It melts at bright redness. The compact metal 
when exposed to the air tarnishes only very slowly. The 
powdery metal when heated in air to 150 or 170 C. catches 
fire and burns brilliantly into U 3 Og; it decomposes water 
slowly at ordinary temperatures, but rapidly when boiling. 
It burns in oxygen at 170, in chlorine at 180, in bromine at 
210, in iodine at 260, in sulphur at 500, and combines with 
nitrogen at about 1000. Dilute sulphuric acid attacks it 
but slowly; hydrochloric acid, especially if strong, dissolves 
it readily, with the formation, more immediately, of a hyacinth- 
coloured solution of U 2 Cl6, which, however, readily absorbs 
oxygen from the air, with the formation of a green solution 
of UClj, which in its turn gradually passes into one of yellow 
uranyl salt, UO 2 -C1. 

Uranium is chemically related to chromium, molybdenum 
and tungsten. If forms two series of salts, one, the uranous 
compounds, are derived from the oxide UO 2 , the other, the 
uranyl compounds, contain the divalent group UO 2 . 

Uranous Compounds. Uranium dioxide, UO 2 (Berzelius's metal), 
is a brown to copper-coloured powder, obtained by heating UaOs or 
uranyl oxalate in hydrogen. It fires when heated in air, and 
dissolves in acids to form uranous salts. It may be obtained as 
iet black octahedra (isomorphous with thoria) by fusion with borax. 
Uranous hydrate is obtained as reddish-brown flakes by precipitat- 
ing a uranous solution with alkali. The solution in sulphuric acid 
deposits green crystals of the sulphate, U(SO4) 2 -8H 2 O, on evapora- 
tion. Uranous chloride, UCU, was first prepared by Peligot by 
heating an intimate mixture of the green oxide and charcoal to 
redness in a current of dry chlorine; it is obtained as sublimate 
of black-green metallic-looking octahedra. The chloride is very 
hygroscopic. By heating in hydrogen it yields the trichloride, 
UC1 3 , and by direct combination with chlorine the pentachloride, 
UCls. With hydroflouric acid it yields uranous fluoride, UF<, which 
forms double salts of the type MF-UF. Uranous bromide, UBr, 
and uranous iodide, UI4, also exist. 

Uranyl or Uranic Compounds. Uranic oxide, UO or UOz-O, is 
obtained by heating uranyl nitrate to 250 as a yellow solid, insoluble 
in water, but soluble in acids with the formation of uranyl salts. 
Various hydrates have been described, but they cannot be formed 
by precipitating a uranyl salt with an alkali, this reagent giving 
rise to salts termed uranates. These salts generally resemble the 
bichromates; they are yellow in colour, insoluble in water, soluble 
in acids, and decomposed by heat. Sodium uranate, Na 2 U 2 O?, is 
used as a pigment for painting on glass and porcelain under the name 
of uranium yellow. It is manufactured by neating pitchblende with 
lime, treating the resulting calcium uranate with dilute sulphuric 
acid, and adding sodium carbonate in excess. Dilute sulphuric 
acid precipitates uranium yellow, Na 2 U 2 O?-6H 2 O, from the solution 
so obtained. Ammonium uranate heated to redness yields pure 
U 3 Os, which serves as a raw material for uranium compounds. 
Uranyl nitrate, yO 2 (NOs) 2 -6H 2 O, is the most important uranium 
salt. It is obtained as fine lemon yellow deliquescent prisms by 
evaporating a solution of any of the oxides in nitric acid. By 
electrolysis it yields uranium dioxide as a pyrophoric powder, and 
peruranic hydroxide, Up 4 -2H 2 O, when treated with hydrogen 
peroxide. The latter gives rise to salts, the peruranates, e.g. 
(Na 2 O 2 ) 2 UO4-8H 2 O. Uranyl nitrate is used in photography, and 
also in analytical chemistry as a precipitant for phosphoric acid 
(as uranyl ammonium phosphate, UCVNH4-PO4). Uranyl chloride, 
UO 2 C1 2 , is a yellow crystalline mass formed when chlorine is passed 
over uranium dioxide at a red heat. It is also obtained by dissolving 
the oxide in hydrochloric acid and evaporating. It forms double 
salts with metallic chlorides and with the hydrochlorides of organic 
bases. Uranyl sulphide, UO 2 S, is a black precipitate obtained by 
adding ammonium sulphide to a uranyl solution. Exposed to air 
this mixture is oxidized to the pigment uranium red, Ue(NH4) 2 SO, 
which is a fine blood-coloured amorphous powder. 

Analysis. A borax bead dissolves uranium oxides in the reducing 
flame with a green, in the oxidizing flame with a yellow, colour. 
Solutions of uranyl salts (nitrate, &c.) behave to reagents as follows: 
sulphuretted hydrogen produces green uranous salt with precipita- 
tion of sulphur; sulphide of ammonium in neutral solutions gives 
a black precipitate of UO 2 S, which settles slowly and, while being 
washed in the filter, breaks up partially into hydrated UO 2 and 
sulphur; ammonia gives a yellow precipitate of uranate of ammonia, 
characteristically soluble in hot carbonate of ammonia solution; 
prussiate of potash gives a brown precipitate which in appearance is 
not unlike the precipitate produced by the same reagent in cupric salts. 

URANUS, in astronomy, the seventh major planet in the 
order of distance from the sun, and denoted by the symbol 
6 or !$ It was discovered by the elder Herschel on the 



URANUS URBAN 



789 



i3th of March 1781. He saw it as a round nebulous disk, slowly 
moving among the stars, and at first supposed it to be a comet, 
and announced it as such to the Royal Society. But a few 
weeks' observation showed it to be moving in a nearly circular 
orbit at a distance from the sun about nineteen times that of 
the earth. Its planetary character was thus established, and 
Herschel named it the Georgium Sidus in honour of his royal 
patron. This name was long recognized in England, and " the 
Georgian " was officially used in the Nautical Almanac up to 
1850. But it was never received with favour on the continent 
of Europe, nor was that of the discoverer, which was proposed 
by Lalande. The name Uranus was proposed by Bode, and 
adopted everywhere outside of England. 

As seen in a telescope of the highest power, Uranus presents 
to the eye the appearance of a disk about four seconds in 
diameter of a faint sea-green tint. No trace of a marking 
can be seen on the surface, and, so far as measures have yet 
been made on it, no deviation of the disk from a circular form 
has been established. Nothing is therefore known as to its 
axial rotation. Although the planet is commonly considered 
a telescopic one, it is really of the sixth magnitude, and therefore 
faintly visible to the naked eye if one knows precisely where 
to look for it. Long before its discovery it had been observed 
as a fixed star by J. Flamsteed. P. C. Lemonnier also made 
eight observations of it during the opposition of 1768-69, which 
would have revealed its planetary character had he reduced 
and compared them. For other particulars relating to Uranus, 
its spectrum, &c., see PLANET. 

Satellites of Uranus. In January 1787 Herschel detected 
two satellites of Uranus of which the inner one, now known 
as Titania, had a period of 9 days, the outer, Oberon, of 133 
days. He also on other occasions saw what he supposed to 
be two additional satellites, but careful investigation of his 
observations has shown that the supposed objects could not 
have been of this character. But in 1851-52 William Lassell 
at Malta, in conjunction with his assistant A. Marth, observed 
two satellites yet nearer the planet than those of Herschel. 
These are now known as Ariel and Umbriel. Their periodic 
times are about 25 and 4 days respectively. Lassell's telescopes, 
which were reflectors, were superior to others of his time in 
light-power, and these inner satellites were not seen by other 
astronomers for more than twenty years after their discovery. 
Indeed, doubts of their reality sometimes found expression 
until, in 1873, they were observed with the Washington 26-inch 
telescope, and observations upon them showed their identity 
with the objects discovered by Lassell. The greater difficulty 
in seeing the inner than the outer satellites arises from their 
proximity to the planet. There is no very great difference in 
the actual brightness of the four objects. It is found that 
Umbriel, though less easy to see than Titania, actually exceeds 
it in light. But none of them has been seen except in a few 
of the most powerful telescopes. The most remarkable feature 
of these bodies is that, instead of the planes of their orbits 
being near that of the ecliptic, they are actually inclined to it 
nearly 90. The result is that, as the planet performs its 
orbital revolution, there are two opposite points near which the 
orbits are seen edgewise, and the satellites seem to us to swing 
north and south on each side of the planet. This was the 
case in 1882, and will be the case again in 1924. At the points 
midway between these two, through which the planet passed 
in 1861 and 1903, and will pass again in 1945, the orbits are 
seen almost perpendicularly, so that the apparent orbit, like 
the real one, is nearly circular. 

Orbits of the Satellites of Uranus. So far as has yet been 
determined, the four satellites all revolve in the same plane, the 
position of which, referred to the Earth's equator and equinox, 
is 

R.A. of ascending node, i66 -O5+o -oi42O/. 
Inclination of orbit, 75-28-o-ooi32. 

None of the orbits seems to have a measurable eccentricity. 
The positions of the satellites in the orbits at any time may 
be found from the following elements, where u is the angular 



distance from the node upon a plane parallel to that of the 
Earth's equator, and the motion is that in a Julian year. 


Satellite. 


u at 
Epoch. 


Annual Motion. 


Daily 
Motion. 


Mean 
Dist. 


Ariel 
Umbriel 
Titania 
Oberon 


22-6l 

!36-49 
2290-93 

i54-90 


579 rev. +242 "-64 

352 +I95'3J 
167 +294-20 
108 + i86-27 


i42-836 
86-869 

4i-35i 
26-739 


13*78 

I9"-2O 

3 1 ''48 

42"-IO 



The epoch force is 1872, January o, Washington mean noon. 
The mean distance is the angle subtended by the radius of the 
orbit as seen at the mean distance of Uranus from the Sun 
(log 0=1-28310). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Details as to Uranus are found in Chambers's 
Descriptive Astronomy, and all the current treatises on popular 
astronomy. For researches on the spectrum of the planet see 
Sir William Huggins in Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xix., 
(1871); H. C. Vogel, Astrophysical Journal, vol. i. ; and P. Lowell, 
Bulletin of the Lowell Observatory, No. 13. Tables of the motions of 
this planet were published by Alexis Bouvard in 1813, S. Newcomb 
in 1873 (Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, No. 262), Leverrier 
in 1877 (Annales de I'observatoire de Paris, Memoires, tome xiv.), 
and Newcomb again in Astronomical Papers of the American 
Ephemeris, vol. vii. Tables of the four satellites are found in New- 
comb, Uranian and Neptunian Systems (Appendix I. to Washington 
Observations for 1873). Observations are found in the Bulletins of 
the Lick Observatory and elsewhere. (S. N.) 

URANUS (Heaven), in Greek mythology, the husband of 
Gaea (Earth), and father of Cronus (Saturn) and other deities. 
As such he represents the generative power of the sky, which 
fructifies the earth with the warmth of the sun and the moisture 
of rain. For the legend of his treatment by Cronus and its 
meaning, see SATURN. Uranus and other Greek gods anterior 
to Zeus were probably deities worshipped by earlier barbarous 
inhabitants of the land. 

The Roman Caelus (or Caelum) is simply a translation of 
the Greek Oupa.i'os, not the name of a distinct national divinity. 
There is no evidence of the existence of a cult of Caelus, the 
occurrence of the name in dedicatory inscriptions being due 
to Oriental influences, the worship of the sky being closely con- 
nected with that of Mithras. Caelus is Sometimes associated 
with Terra, represented in plastic art as an old, bearded man 
holding a robe stretched out over his head in the form of an 
arch. 

See Wissowa, Religion der Romer (1902), p. 304, and his article 
in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie, iii. pt. I (1897); also Steuding 
in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie and De Vit's Onomasticon 
(suppt. to Forcellini's Lexicon). 

URA-TYUBE, or ORA-TEPE, a town of Russian Turkestan, 
in the province of Samarkand, lying 37 m. S.W. of Khojent, 
on the road from Ferghana to Jizak across the Zarafshan range. 
Pop. (1900) 22,088, chiefly Uzbegs. It is surrounded by a 
wall and has a citadel. The inhabitants carry on trade in 
horses and camel- wool cloth, and manufacture cottons, boots 
and shoes, oil, and camel's-hair shawls. Ura-tyube is sup- 
posed to have been founded by Cyrus under the name of Cyro- 
pol, and was taken in 329 B.C. by Alexander the Great of 
Macedon. Later it was the capital of an independent state, 
though often held by either Bokhara or Kokand. The Russians 
took it in 1866. 

URBAN (Urbanus), the name of eight popes. 

St URBAN, first pope of that name, was bishop of Rome 
from 222 to 230. He had been preceded by Calixtus, and was 
followed by Pontianus. 

URBAN II. (Odo or Otho or Eudes de Lagary), pope from 
the 1 2th of March 1088 to the 29th of July 1099, was born 
of knightly rank at Lagary (or Lagery or Lagny), near Reims. 
He studied for the church, became archdeacon of Auxerre, 
and later joined the congregation of Cluny. Displaying great 
ability as reformer and theologian, he was chosen subprior 
of the celebrated monastery. He was created cardinal-bishop 
of Ostia in 1078 by Gregory VII., to whom he displayed such 
loyalty, especially as papal legate in Germany (1084), that 



790 



URBAN 



he was imprisoned for a time by Henry IV. He was designated 
by Gregory as one of four men most worthy to succeed him, 
and, after a vacancy of more than five months followirig the 
decease of Victor III., he was elected pope on the I2th of March 
1088 by forty cardinals, bishops, and abbots assembled at Ter- 
racina, together with representatives of the Romans and of 
Countess Matilda. He frankly took up the policy of Gregory 
VII., but, while pursuing it with equal determination, showed 
greater flexibility and diplomatic skill. Throughout the major 
part of his pontificate he had to reckon with the presence of the 
powerful antipope Clement III. (Guibert of Ravenna) in Rome; 
but a series of well-attended synods at Rome, Amalfi, Benevento 
and Troia, supported him in renewed declarations against 
simony, lay investiture, and clerical marriages, and in a policy 
of continued opposition to Henry IV. He maintained an 
alliance with the Norman Duke Roger, Robert Guiscard's son 
and successor, and united the German with the Italian op- 
position to the emperor by promoting the marriage of the 
Countess Matilda with young Welf of Bavaria. He aided 
Prince Conrad in his rebellion against his father and crowned 
him king of the Romans at Milan in 1093, and likewise en- 
couraged the Empress Praxedis in her charges against her 
husband. By excommunicating Philip I. of France for matri- 
monial infidelity in 1095, Urban opened a struggle which was 
not terminated until after his death. Invited to Tuscany by 
the Countess Matilda, he convoked a council at Piacenza in 
March 1095, attended by so vast a number of prelates and 
laymen that its sessions were held in the open air, and addressed 
by ambassadors of Alexis, the Byzantine emperor, who sought 
aid against the Mussulmans. Urban crossed the Alps in the 
summer, and remained over a year in France and Burgundy, 
being everywhere reverently received. He held a largely 
attended council at Clermont in November 1095, where the 
preaching of the First Crusade marked the most prominent 
feature of Urban's pontificate. Thenceforth until his death 
he was actively engaged in exhorting to war against the infidels. 
Crusaders on their way through Italy drove the antipope 
Clement III. finally from Rome in 1097, and established Urban 
firmly in the papal see. With a view to facilitating the crusade, 
a council was held at Bari in October 1098, at which religious 
differences were debated and the exiled Anselm of Canterbury 
combated the Eastern view of the Procession of the Holy Ghost. 
Urban died suddenly at Rome on the 29th of July 1099, fourteen 
days after the capture of Jerusalem, but before the tidings of 
that event had reached Italy. His successor was Paschal II. 

It is well established that Urban preached the sermon at 
Clermont which gave the impetus to the crusades. The sermon 
was written out by Bishop Baudry, who heard it, and is to be 
found in full in J. M. Watterich, Pontif. Roman. Vitae. Letters 
of Urban are published in J. P. Migne, Patrol. Lat., vol. 151. 

See J. Langen, Geschichte der romischen Kirche von Gregor VII. 
bis Innocenz HI. (Bonn, 1893); F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle 
Ages, vol. 4, trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-2); 
K. J. von Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, vol. 5 (2nd ed., 1873-90); 
Jaffe-Wattenbach, Regesta pontif. Roman, vol. I (1885-88); H. H. 
Milman, History of Latin Christianity, vol. 3 (London, 1899); M. F. 
Ste'n, Zur Biographic des Papstes Urbans II. (Berlin, 1883); A. 
de Brimont, Un Pape au moyen age Urbain II. (Paris, 1862); W. 
Norden, Das Papsttum und Byzanz (Berlin, 1903); Gigalski, " Die 
Stellung des Papstes Urbans II. zu den Sacramentshandlungen der 
Simonisten, Schismatiker und Haretiker," in the Tubinger theol. 
Quartalschrift (1897). 

URBAN III. (Uberto Crivelli), pope from the 25th of November 
1185 to the 2oth of October 1187, was a Milanese, and had been 
made cardinal-priest of St Lorenzo in Damaso and archbishop 
of Milan by Lucius III., whom he succeeded. His family had 
suffered greatly at the hands of Frederick I., and he now took 
up vigorously his predecessor's quarrels with the emperor, 
including the standing dispute about the territories of the 
Countess Matilda. His opposition to the pretensions of the 
Roman senate to govern the Papal States, moreover, com- 
pelled him to remain in exile through his pontificate. He 
suspended the patriarch of Aquileia for crowning the emperor's 



son, Henry, king of Italy (January 1186), in violation' of his 
own rights as archbishop of Milan; and only the entreaties 
of the citizens of Verona, where he was stopping, prevented him 
from excommunicating Frederick. In 1187 he exhorted the 
Christian kings to renewed endeavours in the Holy Land, and 
the fall of Jerusalem on the and of October is said to have 
caused his death. He died at Ferrara and was succeeded by 
Gregory VIII. His letters are in J. P. Migne, Patrol. Lat., vol. 
202. 

See J. Langen, Geschichte der romischen Kirche von Gregor VII. 
bis Innocenz III. (Bonn, 1893); Jaff-Wattenbach, Regesta pontif. 
Roman. (1885-88) ; F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 4, 
trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1896); P. Scheffer- 
Boichorst, Friedrichs I. letzter Streit mit der Curie (Berlin, 1866) ; 
W. Meyer, " Zum Streite Kaiser Friedrichs I. mit Papst Urban III.," 
in Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, vol. 19 (1879). 

URBAN IV. (Jacques Pantaleon), pope from the 29th of 
August 1261 to the 2nd of October 1264, was the son of a shoe- 
maker of Troyes. Having received a monastic education, he 
became archdeacon of Liege and papal legate of Innocent IV. 
to Poland and Prussia; he was consecrated bishop of Verdun 
in 1253, and two years later was translated to the patriarchate 
of Jerusalem. While on a trip to Italy to explain at court a 
quarrel with the Hospitallers he was elected to succeed Alex- 
ander IV., after a three months' vacancy in the Holy See. He 
never visited Rome, but lived most of his pontificate at Orvieto. 
He favoured his own countrymen, and under him began that 
preponderance of the French in the curia which later led to the 
papal residence at Avignon, and indirectly to the Great Schism. 
He endeavoured without success to stir up Louis IX. of France 
to undertake a new crusade. In 1264 he instituted the festival 
of Corpus Christi. His chief domestic problems arose out of 
the competing claims for the crown of the Two Sicilies. He 
favoured Charles of Anjou, and declared in June 1263 that the 
papal grant of the kingdom to Edmund, son of Henry III. of 
England, had expired because of the latter's inability to oust 
the usurper Manfred. Urban died before the arrival of Charles 
of Anjou, and was succeeded by Clement IV. 

The registers of Urban IV. have been published by L. Dorez and 
J. Guiraud in the Bibliothbque des Scales franfaises d'Athenes et de 
Rome (Paris, 1892). 

See F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 5, trans, by 
Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-2); H. H. Milman, Latin 
Christianity, vol. 6 (London, 1899) ; K. Hampe, " Urban IV. und 
Manfred " in A bhandlungen zur mittleren u. neueren Geschichte (Heidel- 
berg, 1905) ; Sievert, " Das Vorleben Papst Urbans IV." in Die rom- 
ische Quartalschrift (1898); A. Potthast, Regesta pontif. Roman. 
(Berlin, 1875). 

URBAN V. (Guillaume Grimoard or Grimaud de Beauvoir), 
pope from the 28th of October 1362 to the igth of December 
1370, was born in 1309 near Lozere in Languedoc, and entered 
the Benedictine priory of Chiriac. After receiving orders he 
became successively professor of canon law at Avignon and 
Montpellier, vicar-general of the dioceses of Clermont and Uzes, 
abbot of St Germain d'Auxerre, abbot of St Victor at Marseilles, 
administrator of the bishopric of Avignon, and papal legate to 
Naples. He was returning from his mission to Italy when news 
reached him at Corneto that he had been chosen to succeed 
Innocent VI. He announced his acceptance from Marseilles, 
and was consecrated at Avignon on the 6th of November 1362. 
Urban witnessed the completion of the work of tranquillizing 
Italy under the able Cardinal Albornoz, and hi 1364, in the 
interests of peace, made heavy concessions to Bernabo Visconti. 
Moved by Peter of Lusignan, king of Cyprus, and by the cele- 
brated Carmelite Peter Thomas, who had come to Avignon in 
February 1363, the pope proclaimed another crusade, which 
found some echo in France and resulted in the temporary occu- 
pation of Alexandria (1365). Urban, yielding to the entreaties 
of the Emperor Charles IV. and of Petrarch, left Avignon on the 
3Oth of April 1367, despite the opposition of the French cardinals, 
and made his entry into Rome on the i6th of October. The 
following year he was visited by Charles IV., and crowned the 
Empress Elizabeth (ist of November); and in 1369 he received 
the Greek emperor, John Palaeologus, who renounced the 



URBAN 



791 



schism but for whom the pope was unable to secure assistance. 
Urban sanctioned the order of Jesuates and founded the 
medical school at Montpellier. On account of the poor repair 
of Rome, the restlessness of the Romans and the discontent of 
the French cardinals in Italy, he at length announced his in- 
tention of returning to France, avowedly to settle trouble 
between France and England. He took ship at Corneto on 
the sth of September 1370, and, arriving at Avignon on the 
24th of the same month, died on the ipth of December. Urban 
was serious and humble, opposed to all nepotism, simony, and 
secular pomp. He was himself of blameless morality and 
reformed many abuses in the curia. He was honoured as a 
saint immediately after his death, and beatified by Pius IX. in 
1870. Urban's successor was Gregory XI. 

See H.T. Tomaseth, " Die Register u. Secretare Urbans V. u. 
Gregors XI." in Mittetiungen des Instituts fur osterreichische Ge- 
schichtsforschung (1898) ; Baluzius, Vitae Pap. Avenion., vol. I 
(Paris, 1693); L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. I, trans, by 
F. I. Antrobus (London, 1899); F. Gregoroyius, Rome in the Middle 
Ages, vol. 6, trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-2) ; 
J. P. Kirsch, Die Riickkehr der Pdpste Urban V. u. Gregor XI. von 
Avignon nach Rom (Paderborn, 1898); J. H. Alban^s, Actes anciens 
concernant le bienheureux Urbain V. (Paris, 1897); J. B. Magnan, 
Histoire d' Urbain V. (2nd ed., Paris, 1863); H. J. Wurm, Cardinal 
Albornoz (Paderborn, 1892); H. H. Milraan, Latin Christianity, 
vol. 7 (London, 1896); J. B. Christophe, Histoire de la papaute 
pendant le XIV em siecle, vol. 2 (Paris, 1853). 

URBAN VI. (Bartolommeo Prignano), pope from the 8th of 
April 1378 to the isth of October 1389, was born at Naples in 
1318. He was made bishop of Acerenza in 1364, and in 1377 
was translated to the archiepiscopal see of Bari and placed in 
charge of the papal chancery. On the death of Gregory XI., 
who had finally returned to Rome from Avignon, he was elected 
pope in a conclave held under circumstances of great excite- 
ment, owing to popular apprehension of an intention of the 
French cardinals to elect a French pope and again abandon 
Rome. The populace broke into the hall after the election had 
been made and dispersed the cardinals, but the latter returned 
and confirmed their action on the following day. Urban VI. 
turned his attention at once to the reformation of the higher 
clergy, and, in spite of the warnings of Catherine of Siena, so 
angered the cardinals by his harsh and ill-tempered measures 
that they assembled at Anagni in July 1378, and revoked his 
election, in which they declared they had acted under fear of 
violence. On the 2oth of September they elected at Fondi the 
Cardinal Robert of Geneva, who called himself Clement VII. 
and took up his residence at Avignon. Urban, on the other 
hand, remained at Rome, where he appointed twenty-six new 
cardinals and excommunicated Clement and his adherents. 
Thus began the Great Schism which divided the Western 
Church for about fifty years. Urban deposed Joanna of Naples 
(2ist of April 1380) for adhering to France and Savoy in sup- 
port of the antipope, and gave her kingdom to Charles of 
Durazzo. Charles was crowned at Rome on the ist of June 
1381, but three years later quarrelled with the pope and shut 
him up in Nocera. Urban succeeded in escaping to Genoa, 
where he put several of his cardinals to death for suspected 
disloyalty. On the death of Charles he set out with an army 
apparently to seize Naples for his nephew if not for himself. 
To raise funds he proclaimed, by bull of the nth of April 1389, 
a jubilee for every thirty-three years, but before the celebration 
could be held he died of injuries caused by a fall from his mule. 
Urban was frugal and never practised simony, but harshness, 
lack of tact, and fondness for unworthy nephews disgraced his 
pontificate. He was succeeded by Boniface IX. 

The chief sources for the life of Urban VI. are in Baluzius, Vitae 
Pap. Avenion. (Paris, 1693); Theoderici de Nyem De schismate 
Libri tres, ed. by G. Erler (Leipzig, 1890) ; Sauerlande, " Acten- 
stiicke zur Gesch. des Papstes Urban VI.," in Hist. Jahrbuch der 
Gorres-Gesellschaft, xiv. (1893); " Acta Urbani VI. et Bonifatii 
IX.," ed. C. Krofta, in Monumenta vaticana res gestas Bohemicas 
Mustrantia (Prague, 1905) ; Der Liber Cancellariae Apostolicae vom 
Jahre 1380, ed. by G. Erler (Leipzig, 1888) ; II Trattato di S. Vincenzo 
Ferrer intorno al grande schisma d'Occidente, ed. by A. Sorbelli 
(Bologna, 1906). 



See L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. I, trans, by F. I. Antrobus 
(London, 1899); M. Souchon, Die Papstwahlen in der Zeit des 
grossen Schismas, vol. I (Brunswick, 1898); N. Valois, La France 
et le grand schisme d'Occident (Paris, 1896-1902); M. Creighton, 
History of the Papacy, vol. I (London, 1899); F. Gregorovius, 
Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 6, trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton 
(London, 1900-2) ; R. Jahr, " Die Wahl Urbans VI." in Hallische 
Keitrage zur Geschichtsforschung (1892) ; T. Lindner, " Papst 
Urban VI., ' in Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte, iii. (1879) ; W. St C. 
Baddeley, Charles III. of Naples and Urban VI. (1894); J. B. 
Christophe, Histoire de la papaute pendant le XIV*" siecle, vol l 
(Paris, 1853). (C. H. HA.) 

URBAN VII. (Giovanni Battista Castagna), successor of 
Sixtus V., was born on the 4th of August 1521. He became 
governor of Bologna, archbishop of Rossano, and was long 
nuncio to Spain. Gregory XIII. made him a cardinal, 1583; 
and in 1590 he was elected pope by the Spanish faction, but 
died twelve days later, on the 27th of September 1590, and 
was succeeded by Gregory XIV. 

See Ciaconius, Vitae et res gestae summorum Pontiff. Rom. (Rome, 
1601-2); Cicarella, continuator of Platina, De vitis Pontiff. Rom. 
(both contemporary; the latter prolix and tedious); Arrigho 
Vita Urbani VII. (Bologna, 1614) ; and Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans 
Austin), ii. 227. 

URBAN VIII. (Maffeo Barberini), pope from 1623 to 1644, 
was born in 1568, of a wealthy Florentine family. He early 
entered the prelacy, became prefect of Spoleto, twice nuncio to 
France, cardinal (1606), and finally, on the 6th of August 1623, 
succeeded Gregory XV. as pope. Urban was vain, self-willed 
and extremely conscious of his position; he accepted the papacy 
chiefly as a temporal principality, and made it his first care to 
provide for its defence and to render it formidable. He built 
Castelfranco on the northern frontier; fortified the port of 
Civita Vecchia; and strengthened the Castel Sant' Angelo, 
equipping it with cannon made from the bronze of the Pantheon, 
an act of vandalism which the Romans punished by the epigram, 
" Quod non fecerunt barbari, fecerunt Barberini." He also 
established an arsenaV and a factory of arms. But all this 
provision was to no purpose. The only territory gained during 
Urban's pontificate, the duchy of Urbino, the last addition to 
the papal states, was acquired by reversion (1631); and in his 
one war, with the duke of Parma, for the district of Castro, he met 
defeat and humiliation (1644). The Thirty Years' War Urban 
professed to regard as waged for political, not for religious, ends. 
He therefore took counsel merely with his interest as a temporal 
prince, threw in his lot with France, supported the duke of 
Nevers in the Mantuan Succession, and, under stress of fear 
of Habsburg supremacy, suffered himself to be drawn into 
closer relations with the Protestants than beseemed his office, 
and incurred the reproach of rejoicing in the victories of heretics. 
Later, in keeping with his position, he opposed all concessions 
to the Protestants; but still showed himself so vacillating that 
the papacy ceased to be regarded as a serious political factor, and 
was entirely ignored in the final settlement of Westphalia, 1648. 

Urban was the last pope to practise nepotism on a grand scale. 
He failed to found a princely house; but he enriched his family 
to an extent that astonished even the Romans. Urban bore a 
hand in the condemnation of Galileo. He acknowledged the 
genius of the astronomer, and had not approved of the action 
of the Inquisition in 1616; but subsequently, believing himself 
to have been caricatured in the Dialogo, he permitted the 
Inquisition to have its way and to compel an abjuration (1633). 
Urban also denounced the doctrines of Jansen, 1644 (see 
JANSENISM). He promulgated the famous bull In Coena 
Domini in its final form, 1627; published the latest revision 
of the Breviary, 1631; founded the College of the Propaganda 
for the education of missionaries, 1627; and accorded the title 
of " eminence " to the cardinals, 1630. Urban did mucto to 
embellish the city. Conspicuous among his works are the 
Barberini Palace, the College of the Propaganda, the Fountain 
of the Triton, and the baldachin of St Peter's. His hymns 
and poems, which have frequently been published, are evidence 
of his literary taste and ability. Urban died on the 2Qtb of 
July 1644, and was succeeded by Innocent X. 



792 



URBANA URBINO 



For contemporary accounts of Urban see: Tommasucci, in 
Platina, De vitis Pontiff. Rom. ; Oldpin, continuator of Ciaconius, 
Vitae et res gestae summorum Pontiff. Rom.; and Simonin, Gesta 
Urbani (Antwerp, 1637). A rich collection of materials was made 
by Andrea Niccoletti, Delia vita di Papa Urbano VIII. e storia 
del suo pontificate, never published, but extensively used by Ranke 
and others. See also Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans., Austin), ii ; ..552 
seq., iii. I seq., 21 seq. ; v. Reumont, Gesch. der Stadt Rom, iii. 2, 
611 seq., 702 seq.; Santa Pieralisa, Urbano VIII. e Galileo Galilei 
(Rome, 1875) ; Gregorovius, Urban VIII. im Widerspruch zu Spanien 
u. dem Kaiser (Stuttgart, 1879); and Weech, Urban VIII. (London, 
1905). (T. F. C.) 

URBANA, a city and the county-seat of Champaign county, 
Ohio, U.S.A., about 47 m. W. by N. of Columbus. Pop. (1890) 
6510; (1900) 6808, including 796 negroes and 405 foreign-born; 
(1910) 7739. Urbana is served by the Erie, the Pittsburg, 
Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Cleveland, Cincinnati, 
Chicago & St Louis railways, and by the Ohio Electric inter- 
urban line. It has a public library (1890) and a county children's 
home (1892), and is the seat of Urbana University (co-educa- 
tional), founded in 1850 under the auspices of the New Church. 
The city is situated in a fertile farming region. Its manu- 
factures include furniture, telephones, woollen goods, paper, 
foundry and machine-shop products, &c. Urbana was laid out 
in 1805 by Colonel William Ward, of Greenbriar, Va., who 
owned the land included in the original survey and gave many 
lots to the county on condition that the proceeds from their 
sale should be used for public improvements; it was incor- 
porated as a village in 1816 and was chartered as a city in 1867. 
Colonel Ward was the grandfather of the sculptor J. Q. A. 
Ward, who was born here and here first pursued, unaided, 
his study of art. Urbana was also the home for several years 
(after 1802), and is the burial place, of Simon Kenton, the 
famous pioneer and Indian fighter. 

URBINO (anc. Urvinum Mataurense), a city and archiepiscopal 
see of the Marches, Italy, in the province of Pesaro and Urbino, 
19 m. direct S.W. of Pesaro and 50 m. by rail N. by W. of Fabriano, 
a junction on the line from Ancona to Rome. Pop. (1901) 6809 
(town), 18,244 (commune). It is picturesquely situated on an 
abrupt hill 1480 ft. above sea-level; its streets are narrow and 
crooked, and the town has a medieval aspect. It is dominated 
by the ducal palace erected by Luciano da Laurana, a Dalmatian 
architect, in 1460-82, for Federigo Montefeltro, and regarded 
by the contemporaries of the founder as the ideal of a princely 
residence. The sculptured doorways, chimneys and friezes of 
the interior are especially fine. Some are by Domenico Rosselli 
of Florence, others by Ambrogio d' Antonio da Milano. The 
rich and beautifully executed intarsia work may be due to Baccio 
Pontelli. The massive irregularity of the exterior is due to the 
unevenness of the site. The decoration of the exterior was never 
completed; but the arcaded courtyard is the finest of the 
Renaissance, except perhaps that of the Cancelleria at Rome 
(Burckhardt). The palace is now partly used for government 
purposes, and also contains the municipal archives, a collection 
of ancient inscriptions, formed by the epigraphist Raffaele 
Fabretti (many of them from Rome), a gallery of sculpture of 
various periods and a picture gallery. This last contains a 
small but interesting collection of pictures, including works 
by Paolo Uccello, Giovanni Santi, Justus of Ghent, Timoteo 
della Vite, and other 15th-century artists, also a " Resurrection " 
by Titian (a late work). The picture of the " Last Supper " 
by Justus is specially valuable from its containing fine portraits 
of the Montefeltro family and members of the ducal court. 
The cathedral, a building of no special interest, stands in the 
great piazza close to the ducal palace. It was erected in 1801 
after the collapse of the former structure. In the sacristy 
there is a very beautiful miniature-like painting of the " Scourging 
of Christ," by Piero della Francesca, and other pictures by later 
artists. In the crypt there is a fine pieta in marble by Giovanni 
da Bologna. Opposite the palace is the church of S. Domenico, 
a Gothic building* with a good early Renaissance portal and a 
relief in the lunette by Luca della Robbia (1449). The interior 
was spoilt in the i7th century. S. Francesco has a fine 14th- 
century loggia and campanile, and a handsome portal of a 



chapel in the interior by Constantino Trappola (isth century). 
S. Bernardino, outside the town, is a plain early Renaissance 
structure. On the walls of the chapel of the gild or con- 
fraternity of San Giovanni Battista are some valuable early 
frescoes, painted by Lorenzo and Giacomo Salimbene da San 
Severino in 1416. In the church of S. Spirito are two paintings 
by Luca Signorelli, the " Crucifixion " and the " Day of Pen- 
tecost," originally intended for a processional banner. The 
modest house where Raphael was born and spent his boyhood 
is preserved. It is now the property of a society of artists. Its 
rooms form a museum of engravings and other records of 
Raphael's works, together with a picture of the Madonna by 
his father, Giovanni Santi, formerly thought to be by Raphael 
himself. A monument was erected to him in the piazza, in 1897. 
The theatre, decorated by Girolamo Genga, is one of the earliest 
in Italy; in it was performed the first Italian comedy, the 
Calandria of Cardinal Bibbiena, the friend of Leo X. and 
Raphael. The magnificent library formed by the Montefeltro 
and Delia Rovere dukes was removed to Rome, and incorporated 
in the Vatican library (but with a separate numbering) in 1657. 
There is a free university founded in 1564 which has two faculties 
(with 163 students in 1902-03), and also a technical school. The 
town has manufactures of silk, majolica and bricks. 

The ancient town of Urvinum Mataurense (taking its name 
from the river Mataurus or Metaurus) is mentioned a few times 
in classical literature, and many inscriptions relating to it 
exist. The course of its walls can still be traced. It was an 
important place in the Gothic wars, and is frequently mentioned 
by Procopius. At the end of the i2th or beginning of the I3th 
century it came into the possession of the family of Monte- 
feltro. Of this by far the most important member was Federigo 
da Montefeltro, lord of Urbino from 1444 to 1482, one of the 
most successful condottieri chiefs of his time, and not only a 
man of great military and political ability, but also an enthusiastic 
patron of art and literature, on which he lavished immense 
sums of money. Federigo much strengthened his position, 
first by his own marriage with Battista, one of the powerful 
Sforza family, and secondly by marrying his daughter to 
Giovanni della Rovere, the favourite nephew of Pope Sixtus IV., 
who in return conferred upon Federigo the title of duke. 
Federigo's only son Guidubaldo, who succeeded his father, 
married in 1489 the gifted Elizabeth Gonzaga, of the ruling 
family in Mantua. In 1497 he was expelled from Urbino by 
Caesar Borgia, son of Alexander VI., but regained his dukedom 
in 1503, after Caesar's death. Guidubaldo was the last duke 
of the Montefeltro line; at his death in 1508 he bequeathed his 
coronet to Francesco Maria della Rovere, nephew of Julius II., 
and for about a century Urbino was ruled by its second dynasty 
of the Delia Rovere family. In 1626 the last descendant of 
Francesco, called Francesco Maria II., when old and childless 
abdicated in favour of Pope Urban VIII., after which time 
Urbino, with its subject towns of Pesaro, Fano, Fossombrone, 
Gubbio, Castel Durante, Cagli and about 300 small villages, 
became part of the papal states until the suppression of the 
temporal power in 1870. 

During the reigns of Federigo and Guidubaldo, Urbino was one 
of the foremost centres of activity in art and literature in Italy. 
The palace erected by Federigo has already been mentioned. 
It was at his court that Piero della Francesca wrote his celebrated 
work on the science of perspective, Francesco di Giorgio Martini 
his Trattato d' architettura (published by Saluzzo, Turin, 1841), 
and Giovanni Santi his poetical account of the chief artists 
of his time. The refined magnificence of Guidubaldo's court 
is eloquently described by Baldassare Castiglione (q.i>.) in 
his Cortegiano. When Henry VII. of England conferred the 
order of the Garter on Guidubaldo, Castiglione was sent to 
England with a letter of thanks and with the small picture, 
now in the Louvre, of " St George and the Dragon," painted by 
Raphael in 1504, as a present to the English king. This painting 
was among Charles I.'s collection which was sold by order of 
the Commonwealth in 1649. 

Throughout the whole of the :6th century the state of Urbino 



URBS SALVIA UREA 



793 



was one of the chief centres for the production of majolica, 
especially the towns of Gubbio and Castel Durante. Most of the 
finest pieces of Urbino ware were made specially for the dukes, 
who covered their sideboards with the rich storied piatti di pompa. 
Among the distinguished names which have been associated with 
Urbino are those of the Ferrarese painter and friend of Raphael, 
Timoteo della Vite, who spent most of his life there, and 
Bramante, the greatest architect of his age. The Milanese 
sculptor, Ambrogio, who worked so much for Federigo, married 
a lady of Urbino, and was the progenitor of the Baroccio family, 
among whom were many able mathematicians and painters. 
Federigo Baroccio, Ambrogio's grandson, was a very popular 
painter, some of whose works still exist in the cathedral and 
elsewhere in Urbino. This city was also the birthplace of Pope 
Clement XI., of several cardinals of the Alban family, and of 
Bernardino Baldi, Fabretti, and other able scholars. An 
interesting view of Urbino, in the first half of the i6th century, 
occurs among the pen drawings in the MSS. Arte del -oasajo, 
by the potter Piccolpasso, now in the Victoria and Albert 
Museum. 

See also E. Calzini, Urbino e i suoi monumenti (1897); G. Lip- 
parini, Urbino (Bergamo, 1903). 

URBS SALVIA (mod. Urbisaglia), an ancient town of Picenum, 
Italy, about 8 m. S. of the modern Macerata, and 10 m. S. of 
Ricina. It was the meeting-point of several ancient roads; 
the road leading south from Ancona through Ricina and Falerio 
to Asculum was crossed here at right angles by that from 
Fanum to Tolentinum, Septempeda (S. Severino) and Nuceria 
Camellaria, while another led north-east from Urbs Salvia to 
Pausulae and the coast at Potentia (near mod. Porto Recanati). 
It seems to have been also called Pollentia. The date of its 
foundation is unknown, but it became a colony in the time of 
Trajan, and its importance seems to begin from this period. 
It was utterly destroyed by Alaric, and both Procopius (B.C. 
ii. 16, 17) and Dante (Paradise, xvi. 73) speak of its desolation. 
"The arx is occupied by the modern village; below it consider- 
able remains of the city walls and of the buildings within 
them, alike of brickwork of the imperial period, are preserved 
an amphitheatre 328X249 ft., with an arena 190X112 ft., a 
theatre, baths, tombs, &c. A subterranean aqueduct and a 
number of inscriptions have been found on the site. Close by 
is a little chapel with paintings of the early i6th century. The 
Romanesque abbey church of the Fiastra, about 3 m. to the 
north, is noticeable. The territory of Urbs Salvia probably 
extended as far as the old Romanesque church of S. Maria di 
Rambona, 8 m. to the north-west. 

URDU, the name of that variety of Hindostani which borrows 
a great part of its vocabulary from Persia and Arabic, as con- 
trasted with " Hindi," the variety which eschews such words, 
but borrows from Sanskrit instead. It is spoken by Mussulmans 
and those Hindus who have come under Mussulman influences, 
and has a considerable literature. See HINDOSTANI and HIN- 
DOSTANI LITERATURE. 

UREA, or CARBAMIDE, CO(NH 2 ) 2 , the amide of carbonic 
acid, discovered in 1773 by H. M. v. Rouelle, is found in the 
urine of mammalia, birds and some reptiles; human urine 
contains approximately 2-3%, a grown man producing about 
30 grammes daily. It is also a constituent of the blood, of 
milk, and other animal fluids. Its synthesis in 1828 by 
F. Wohler (Fogg. Ann., 1828, 12, p. 253) is of theoretical 
importance, since it was the first organic compound obtained 
from inorganic materials. Wohler oxidized potassium ferro- 
cyanide to potassium cyanate by fusing it with lead or 
manganese dioxide, converted this cyanate into ammonium 
cyanate by adding ammonium sulphate, and this on evapora- 
tion gives urea, thus: 

K 4 Fe(NC) r -*KCNO-NH 4 CNO->CO(NHi)i- 

It may also be prepared by the action of ammonia on carbonyl 
chloride, diethyl carbonate, chlorcarbonic ester or urethane; 
by heating ammonium carbamate in a sealed tube to 130-140 
C; by oxidizing potassium cyanide in acid solution with 



potassium permanganate (E. Baudrimant, Jahresb., 1880, 
P- 393); by the action of 50 % sulphuric acid on cyanamide: 
CN-NH 2 +H 2 0=CO(NH 2 ) 2 ; by the action of mercuric oxide 
on oxamide (A. Williamson): (CONH 2 ) 2 +HgO=CO(NH 2 ) 2 + 
Hg+CGy, by decomposing potassium cyanide with a dilute 
solution of sodium hypochlorite, followed by adding ammonium 
sulphate (A. Reychler, Bull. Soc. Chim., 1893 [3], 9, p. 427); 
and by oxidation of uric acid. It may be obtained from urine 
by evaporating to dryness on the water bath, taking up the 
residue in absolute alcohol and evaporating the alcoholic solution 
to dryness again. The residue is then dissolved in water, 
decolorized by animal charcoal and saturated at 50 C. with 
oxah'c acid. The urea oxalate is recrystallized and decolorized 
and finally decomposed by calcium carbonate (J. J. Berzelius, 
Pogg. Ann., 1830, 18, p. 84). As an alternative method, 
A. N. E. Millon (Ann. Mm. phys [2], 8, p. 235) concentrates 
the urine and precipitates the urea by nitric acid. The pre- 
cipitate is dissolved in boiling water, decolorized by potassium 
permanganate and decomposed by barium carbonate. The 
solution is then evaporated to dryness and extracted by alcohol. 
Urea crystallizes in long needles or prisms which melt at 
132 C. and sublime when heated in vacua. It is readily 
soluble in water and in alcohol, but is insoluble in chloroform 
and ether. When heated above its melting-point, it yields 
ammonia, cyanuric acid, biuret and ammelide. On. warming 
with sodium, it yields cyanamide. Dry chlorine gas passed into 
melted urea decomposes it with formation of cyanuric acid and 
ammonium chloride, nitrogen and ammonia being simultaneously 
liberated. Alkaline hypobromites or hypochlorites or nitrous 
acid decompose urea into carbon dioxide and nitrogen. It is 
also decomposed by warm aqueous solutions of caustic alkalis, 
with evolution of ammonia and carbon dioxide. When heated 
with alcohol in sealed tubes, it yields carbamic esters; with 
alcohol and carbon bisulphide at 100 C., carbon dioxide is 
liberated and ammonium sulphocyanide is formed. Acid 
potassium permanganate oxidizes it to carbon dioxide and 
nitrogen. It acts as a monacid base. 

Urea may be recognized by its crystalline oxalate and nitrate, 
which are produced on adding oxalic and nitric acids to concen- 
trated solutions of the base; by the white precipitate formed on 
adding mercuric nitrate to the neutral aqueous solutions of urea; 
and by the so-called " biuret " reaction. In this reaction urea is 
heated in a dry tube until it gives off ammonia freely; the residue 
is dissolved in water, made alkaline with caustic soda, and a drop of 
copper sulphate solution is added, when a fine violet-red coloration 
is produced. Several methods are employed for the quantitative 
estimation of urea. R. Bunsen (Ann., 1848, 65, p. 875) heated 
urea with an ammoniacal solution of barium chloride to 220 C., 
and converted the barium carbonate formed into barium sulphate, 
which is then weighed (see also E. Pfltiger and K. Bphland, Zeit. 
f. anal. Ghent., 1886, 25, p. 599; K. A. H. Morner, ibid., 1891, 30, 
p. 389). Among the volumetric methods used, the one most 
commonly employed is that of W. Knop (ibid., 1870, 9, p. 226), 
in which the urea is decomposed by an alkaline hypobromite and 
the evolved nitrogen is measured (see A. H. Allen, Commercial 
Organic Analysis'). J. v. Liebig (Ann., 1853, 85, p. 289) precipitates 
dilute solutions of urea with a dilute standard solution of mercuric 
nitrate, using alkaline carbonate as indicator. In this process 
phosphates must be absent, and the nitric acid liberated during 
the reaction should be neutralized as soon as possible. Chlorides 
also prevent the formation of the precipitate until enough of the 
mercury solution has been added to convert them into mercuric 
chloride (see also E. Pfluger, Zeit. f. anal. Chem., 1880, 19, p. 378). 
E. Riegler (ibid., 1894, 33, p. 49) decomposes urea solutions by means 
of mercury dissolved in nitric acid, and measures the evolved gas. 

Urea chlorides are formed by the action of carbonyl chloride - 
on ammonium chloride (at 400 C.), or on salts of primary amines. 
They are readily hydrolysed by water, and combine with bases 
to form a'.kyl ureas, and with alcohols to form carbamic esters. 
Substituted urea chlorides are formed by the direct action of 
chlorine (F. D. Chattaway and D. F. S. Wunsch, Jour. Chem. Soc., 
1909, 95, p. 129). Urea chloride, NH 2 -COC1 (L. Gattermann, 
Ann., 1888, 244, p. 30), melts at 50 C. and boils at 61-62 C. In 
the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride it reacts with aro- 
matic hydrocarbons to form the amides of aromatic acids. Nitro- 
urea, H 2 N-CO-NH-NO 2 , prepared by adding urea nitrate to well- 
cooled concentrated sulphuric acid (J. Thiele and A. Lachmann, 
Ann., 1895, 288, p. 281), is a crystalline powder, soluble in water, 
and which decomposes on heating. It is a strong acid and is 
stable towards oxidizing agents. Diazomethane converts it into the 



794- 



URETHANE 



methyl derivatives of isocyanic acid, and nitramide, NH 2 NO 2 . 
Amidourea, or semicarbazide, NH 2 'CONH-NH 2 , is best prepared 
from hydrazine sulphate and potassium cyanate (J. Thiele and O. 
Stange, Ber., 1894, 27, p. 31). It may also be obtained by reducing 
nitrourea in acid solution with zinc dust. It crystallizes in prisms, 
which melt at 96 C., and are easily soluble in water. It reduces 
Fehling's solution in the cold. It reacts with carbonyl compounds, 
giving semi-carbazones, and in consequence is frequently used for 
characterizing such substances. Hydroxy-urea, NH 2 -CO-NH-OH, 
is produced from hydroxylamine and cyanic acid (W. F. Dresler 
and R. Stein, Ann., 1869, 150, p. 242), or from ammonium hypo- 
chlorite and potassium cyanate (A. Hantzsch, Ann., 1898, 299, 
p. 99). It crystallizes in needles, which melt at 128-130 C., and is 
decomposed on long heating. It is readily soluble in water and 
reduces warm silver solutions. Hyponitrous acid is formed by 
passing nitrous fumes into its methyl alcohol solution. 

Alkyl ureas are formed by the action of primary or second- 
ary amines on isocyanic acid or its esters: CONH+NH 2 R = 
R-NHCONH 2 ; CONR+NHR 2 = NR 2 -CO-NHR; by the action of 
carbonyl chloride on amines: COC1 2 +2NHR 2 = CO(NR 2 ) 2 +2HC1; 
and in the hydrolysis of many ureides. The tetra-alkyl derivatives 
are liquids, the remainder being solids. Hydrolysis by alkalis 
decomposes them into carbon dioxide, amines and ammonia. The 
symmetrically substituted ureas are generally tasteless, while the 
asymmetrical derivatives are sweet. For example, oa-dimethyl 
urea is sweet, o/3-dimethyl urea is tasteless; p-phenetol carbamide 
ordulcin, NH 2 -CO-NH-C 6 H 4 -OC 2 H 6 , is sweet, while the di-p-phenetol 
carbamide, COCNH-CeHi-OCjHs)^, is tasteless. 

The derivatives of urea containing acid radicles are known as 
ureides. Those derived from monobasic acids, obtained by the 
action of acid chlorides or anhydrides on urea, decompose on heating 
and do not form salts. Those containing more than one acyl group 
are formed by the action of carbonyl chloride on acid amides : 

COC1 2 +2CH 3 CONH 2 = CO(NHCOCH 3 ) 2 +2HC1. 

Acetyl urea, NH 2 -CONH-COCH 8 , formed by the action of acetic 
anhydride on urea, crystallizes in needles which melt at 212 C. and, 
on heating, strongly decomposes into acetamide and cyanuric acid. 
Methyl acetyl urea, CH 3 NH-CO-NHCOCH 3 , is formed by the action 
of potash on a mixture of bromine (l mol.) and acetamide (2 mols.) 
(A. W. v. Hofmann, Ber., 1881, 14, p. 2725), or of methylamine on 
acetylurethane (G. Young, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1898, 73, p. 364). 
When heated with water it is decomposed into carbon dioxide, 
ammonia, methylamine and acetic acid. Bromural or a-brom- 
isovaleryl urea, NH 2 -CO-NH-CO-CHBr-CH(CH 3 ) 2 , has been intro- 
duced as an hypnotic ; its action is mild, and interfered with by the 
presence of pain, cough or delirium. 

The ureides of oxy-acids and dibasic acids form closed chain 
compounds (see ALLANTOIN; ALLOXAN; HYDANTOIN; PURIN). 
Parabanic acid (oxaVyl urea), CO[NH-CO] 2 , is formed by oxidizing 
uric acid ; or by condensing oxalic acid and urea in the presence of 
phosphorus oxychloride. It crystallizes in needles and is readily 
hydrolysed by alkalis. It behaves as a monobasic acid and forms 
unstable salts. When heated with urea, it forms oxalyl diureide, 
H 2 N-COCONH-CONH-CO-NH 2 . Dimethylparabanic acid (choles- 
terophane), CO[NCH 3 -CC>] 2 , is formed by oxidizing caffeine or by 
metnylating parabanic acid. It crystallizes in plates, which melt at 
145-5 C., and is soluble in cold water. Hydrochloric acid at 200 C. 
decomposes into oxalic acid, carbon dioxide and methylamine, 
whilst an alcoholic solution of a caustic alkali gives dimethyl urea and 
oxalic acid. Barbituric acid (malonyl urea), CH 2 [CO-NH]CO-2H 2 O, 
formed by condensing malonic acid with urea (E. Grimaux, Bull. 
Soc. Chem., 1879, 31, 146), crystallizes in prisms, which decompose 
on heating. It yields a nitroso derivative, is nitrated by nitric 
acid to dilituric acid and brominated by bromine. It is a dibasic 
acid. Veronal (q.v.) is diethyl malonyl urea. For isobarbituric 
acid see T. B. Johnson and E. V. McCollum, Jour. Biol. Chem., 
1906, i, p. 437. Tartronyl urea (dialuric acid), CO[NH-CO]CH-OH, 
formed by the reduction of alloxan (J. v. Liebig and F. Wohler, 
Ann., 1838, 26, p. 276), or of alloxantin (A. 'Baeyer, Ann., 1863, 
127, p. 12), crystallizes in needles or prisms and possesses a very 
acid reaction. It becomes red on exposure, and in the moist 
condition absorbs oxygen from the air, giving alloxantin. Allo- 
phanic acid, NH 2 -CQ-NH-CO 2 H, is not known in the free state, as 
when liberated from its salts, it is decomposed into urea and carboji 
dioxide. Its esters are formed by passing the vapours of cyanic 
acid into alcohols (W. Traube, Ber., 1889, 22, p. 1572): 

CONH->NH 2 -CO 2 R-^NH 2 CO-NH-C0 2 R; 

by the action ol chlorcarbomc esters on urea (H. Schiff, Ann., 1896, 
291, p. 367); and by the action of urethanes on urea chloride (L. 
Gattermann, Ber., 1888, 21 , p. 293 R). They are readily decomposed 
by alkalis, yielding cyanuric acid and ammonia. Biuret (allophana- 
mide), NH 2 -CO-NH-CO-NH 2 , is formed by heating urea; by the 
action of ammonia on allophanic ester; and by heating urea to 
140 C. and passing chlorine into the melt at 140-150 C. (J. Thiele, 
Ann., 1898, 303, p. 95 Anm.). It crystallizes in needles which melt 
at 190 C. (with decomposition), and is readily soluble in hot water. 
When heated strongly it is decomposed into ammonia and cyanuric 
acid. Baryta water hydrolyses it to carbon dioxide, ammonia and 



urea. With silver nitrate and caustic soda it yields a silver salt, 
Ag 2 C 2 H 3 N 3 O 2 . With nitric acid in the presence of sulphuric acid 
it yields a nitro derivative. 

Thiourea, or sulphocarbamide, CS(NH 2 ) 2 , is formed by pro- 
longed fusion of ammonium thiocyanate (E. Reynolds, Ann., 
1869, 150, p. 224), by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into an 
ethereal solution of cyanamide (E. Baumann, Ber., 1873, 6, 
p. 1375), or by heating isopersulpho-cyanic acid (F. D. Chatta- 
way, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1897, 71, p. 612). It crystallizes in 
thick prisms which melt at 180 C. and is readily soluble in 
water. When heated for some time with water to 140 C. in a 
sealed tube, it is transformed into ammonium thiocyanate, a 
similar result being obtained by heating the base alone for 
some hours to 160-170 C. On heating alone for some hours to 
170-180 C. it is converted into guanidine thiocyanate. It is 
hydrolysed by alkalis, giving carbon dioxide, ammonia and 
sulphuretted hydrogen. It is readily desulphurized by silver 
oxide, mercuric oxide or lead oxide. Potassium permanganate 
oxidizes it to urea (R. Maly, Monats., 1890, n, p. 278). It acts 
as a weak base and forms salts with one equivalent of an acid. 

The alkyl derivatives of thiourea are obtained by the action of 
ammonia and of primary and secondary amines on the mustard 
oils (A. W. Hofmann, Ber., 1867, I, p. 27): 

CSNR+NH 8 = NH 2 -CS-NHR;CSNR+NH 2 R = R.NH-CS-NHR, 
or by heating the amide salts of the alkyl dithio-carbaminic acids, 
viz., NR-CS-S(NH 3 R). The monoalkyl derivatives are desul- 
phurized by lead hydroxide in the presence of sodium carbonate, 
the o/S dialkyl and trialkyl derivatives being unaffected (A. E. 
Dixon, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1893, 63, p. 325). The dialkyl thipureas 
when digested with mercuric oxide and amines give guanidines. 
CS(NHR) 2 +NH 2 R+HgO->HgS + RN:C(NHR) 2 . 

Thiourea and many of its unsymmetrical derivatives have marked 
physiological action; thiourea causes a slowing of the pulse and 
respiration, cardiac failure, and death in convulsions; phenyl-, 
ethyl- and acetyl-thiourea are actively toxic. The most important 
derivative pharmacologically is allyl-thiourea, also known as 
thiosinamine or rhodallin, NH 2 -CS-NH-CH 2 -CH:CH 2 . 

Thiosemicarbazide, NH 2 -CS-NH-NH 2 , prepared from hydrazine 
sulphate, potassium carbonate and thiocyanate (N. Freund, Ber., 
1895, 28, p. 946; 1896, 29, p. 2501), crystallizes in long needles,* 
which melt at 181-183 C. The addition of sodium nitrite to an 
aqueous solution of its hydrochloride converts it into amido-triaz- 



sulphol 



J . The hydrochloride with potassium cyanate 



gives hydrazothio-carbonamide, NH 2 -CO-NH-NH-CS-NH 2 . 

Medicine. Urea has been given in medicine in doses of 10 to 
60 grs. either in mixture or hypodermically. It has been used with 
success as an antiperiodic and antipyretic in ague, and also as a 
diuretic in gout and kidney affections. Thiosinamine is given 
internally in doses of J to I gr. in capsule. Larger doses usually 
upset the digestion. It has been used for the cure of lupus and of 
keloid, in which case it is administered hypodermically. In keloid 
20 minims of a 10% solution is injected directly into the part. It 
causes a local reaction with absorption of the scar tissue. For this 
reason it is used to remove corneal opacities, deafness due to thickening 
of the membrane, stricture of the oesophagus and hypertrophy of 
the pylorus, it has also been successful in the treatment of adhesive 
parametritis. Fibrolysin is a modified form of thiosinamine made 
by mixing it with sodium salicylate Fibrolysin is freely soluble 
and may be given in hypodermic or intra-muscular injection. Like 
thiosinamine it has a specific action on scar tissue and has been 
used in urethral strictures. Both these preparations should only 
be used in cases where it is possible to exclude any tuberculous 
foci, or by their action in breaking down protective fibrous tissues 
they may cause a quiescent lesion to become active. In large 
doses toxic symptoms are produced, death following on coma. 



URETHANE, NH^CC^CjHs, the ethyl ester of carbamic acid, is 
synthesized from ammonia and chlorcarbonic ester or diethyl 
carbonate; by prolonged boiling of urea with alcohol (A. W. 
Hofmann, Ber., 1871, 4, p. 268); by the action of alcoholic 
hydrochloric acid on cyanogen; by the action of alcohol on urea 
chloride (L. Gattermann, Ann., 1888, 244, p. 40); and by 
warming alcoholic hydrochloric acid with an alcoholic solution 
of potassium cyanate (O. Folin, Amer. Chem. Jour., 1897, 19, 
p. 341). It crystallizes in large plates, readily soluble in water 
and melting at 49-50 C. When heated with ammonia to 
1 80 C., it gives urea. Cold alcoholic potash decomposes it into 
potassium cyanate and alcohol. 

Nitroso-urethane, NO-NH-CO 2 C 2 H 6 , formed by reducing ammonium 
nitro-urethane with zinc dust and glacial acetic acid (J. Thiele, 



URFE URI 



795 



Ann., 1895, 288, p. 304), crystallizes in needles which melt at 
51-52 C. (with decomposition). It is decomposed by alkalis and 
by acids : 

C 3 H 6 N 2 O 3 = CO 2 +C. ! H 6 OH+N2 (alkalis), 

2CsH 6 N 2 O 3 = 2CO 2 +C2H 6 OH+2N 1 !+H2O+C2H4 (acids). 
On oxidation it yields nitro-urethane. With a methyl alcoholic 
solution of potash it yields a yellow precipitate, which is probably 
the potassium salt of nitrosocarbamic acid, NK-NOCO2K. Nitro- 
urethane, NO2-NH-CO2C2H 6 , formed by dissolving urethane in 
concentrated sulphuric acid and adding ethyl nitrate to the well- 
cooled mixture (J. Thiele, ibid.), crystallizes in plates which melt 
at 64 C. and is soluble in water. It has a strongly acid reaction, 
its salts, however, being neutral. Its silver salt with methyl 
iodide gives a methyl ether, which is readily split by ammonia 
into methyl nitramine and methyl urethane (cf . A. P. Franchimont, 
Rec. trail. Mm., 1894, 13, p. 309). On reduction with zinc dust and 
acetic acid it yields hydrazine carboxylic ester. Phenyl urethena, 
C6H 6 NH-CO 2 C2H5, is formed by the action of cyanformic ester on 
aniline at 100 C.; by the action of absolute alcohol on benzoyl 
azoimide (T. Curtius, Jour. prak. Chem.[2\, 52, p. 214); and by the 
action of bromine and sodium ethylate on benzamide (E. Jeffreys, 
Amer. Chem. Jour., 1899, 22, p. 41). It crystallizes in long needles 
which melt at 51-52 C. and boil at 227-228 C. (with partial de- 
composition). It is easily soluble in alcohol and when heated 
in a sealed tube yields aniline and urea. With phosphorus penta- 
sulphide it yields phenyl mustard oil. 

Physiologically urethane has a rapid hypnotic action, producing 
a calm sleep and having no depressant effect on the circulation. 
It is much used as an anaesthetic for animals. Di-urethane, 
NH(CO2C 2 H 6 )2, and hedonal, NH 2 CO2CH(CH 3 )- (C 8 H 7 ), are also nar- 
cotics, the latter being, in addition, a powerful diuretic. Phenyl 
urethane or euphorin has a physiological action more like that of 
acetanilide and phenacetin than of urethane. It depresses the 
temperature and is an analgesic. It is of little value as an hypnotic. 

URFfi, HONORS D', MARQUIS DE VALBROMEY, COMTE DE 
CHATEAUNEUF (1568-1625), French novelist and miscellaneous 
writer, was born at Marseilles on the nth of February 1568, and 
was educated at the College de Tsarnon. A partisan of the 
League, he was taken prisoner in 1595, and, though soon set at 
liberty, he was again captured and imprisoned. During his 
imprisonment he read Ronsard, Petrarch and above all the 
Diana enamorada of George de Montemayor and Tasso's Aminta. 
Here, too, he wrote the Epttres morales (1598). Honore's 
brother Anne, comte D'Urfe, had married in 1571 the beautiful 
Diane de Chateaumorand, but the marriage was annulled in 
1598 by Clement VIII. Anne D'Urfe was ordained to the 
priesthood in 1603, and died in 1621 dean of Montbrison. 
Diane had a great fortune, and to avoid the alienation of the 
money from the D'Urfe family, Honore married her in 1600. 
This marriage also proved unhappy; D'Urfe spent most of his 
time separated from his wife at the court of Savoy, where he 
held the charge of chamberlain. The separation of goods 
arranged later on may have been simply due to . money em- 
barrassments. It was in Savoy that he conceived the plan of 
his novel Astr&e, the scene of which is laid on the banks of the 
Lignon in his native province of Forez. It is a leisurely romance 
in which the loves of Celadon and Astree are told at immense 
length with many digressions. The recently discovered cir- 
cumstances of the marriages of the brothers have disposed of 
the idea that the romance is autobiographical in its main idea, 
but some of the episodes are said to be but slightly veiled 
accounts of the adventures of Henry IV. The shepherds and 
shepherdesses of the story are of the conventional type usual to 
the pastoral, and they discourse of love with a casuistry and 
elaborate delicacy that are by no means rustic. The two first 
parts of Astree appeared in 1610, the third in 1619, and in 1627 
the fourth part was edited and a fifth added by D'Urfe's secre- 
tary Balthazar Baro. Astree set the fashion temporarily in 
the drama as in romance, and no tragedy was complete without 
wire-drawn discussions on love in the manner of Celadon and 
Astree. D'Urfe also wrote two poems, La Sireine (1611) and 
Sylvanire (1625). He died from injuries received by a fall from 
his horse at Villafranca on the ist of June 1625 during a cam- 
paign against the Spaniards. The best edition of Astree is that 
of 1647. In 1908 a bust of D'Urfe was erected at Virien (Ain), 
where the greater part of A stree was written. 

URGA (the Russian form of the Mongol Orgo = palace of a high 
official) , a city of Mongolia, and the administrative centre of the 



northern and eastern Kalka tribes, in 48 20' N., 107 30' E., 
on a tributary of the Tola river. It is the holy city of the 
Mongols and the residence of the " Living Buddha," metro- 
politan of the Kalka tribes, who ranks third in degree of 
veneration among the dignitaries of the Lamaist Church. This 
" resplendently divine lama " resides in a sacred quarter on the 
western side of the town, and acts as the spiritual colleague of 
the Chinese amban, who controls all temporal matters, and who 
is specially charged with the control of the frontier town of 
Kiakhta and the trade conducted there with the Russians. 

Hurae, as the Mongols call Urga (Chinese name, K'ulun), 
stands on the high road from Peking to Kiakhta (Kiachta), 
about 700 m. N.W. of Peking and 165 m. S. of Kiakhta. There 
are three distinct quarters: the Kuren or monastery, the residence 
of the " Living Buddha "; the Mongol city proper (in which live 
some 13,000 monks); and the Chinese town, two or three miles 
from the Mongol quarter. Besides the monks the inhabitants 
number about 25,000. The Chinese town is the great trading 
quarter. The houses in this part are more substantially built 
than in the Mongol town, and the streets have a well-to-do 
appearance. The law which prohibits Chinamen from bringing 
their wives and families into the place tends to check increase. 
There is considerable trade between the Russians, Mongols and 
Chinese, chiefly in cattle, camels, horses, sheep, piece-goods and 
milk. Until the second half of the igth century bricks of tea 
formed the only circulating medium for the retail trade at Urga, 
but Chinese brass cash then began to pass current in the markets. 
The trade of Urga is valued at over i ,000,000 a year. 

The temples in the Mongol quarter are numerous and imposing, 
and in one is a gilt image of Maitreya Bodhisattva, 33 ft. in 
height and weighing 125 tons. When in 1004, on the occasion 
of the British expedition to Tibet, the Dalai Lama withdrew from 
Lhassa he went to Urga, where he remained until 1908. During 
his residence there the Dalai Lama would have no communica- 
tion with the Urga Lama described as a drunken profligate (see 
The Chinese Empire, ed. M. Broomhall, London, 1907, p. 357). 
The Chinese contemplate building a railway from Peking to 
Urga. The first section, to Kalgan, was completed in 1909 (see 
CHINA, Communications). 

URI, one of the cantons of central Switzerland, and one of 
the earliest members of the confederation. The name is prob- 
ably connected with the same obscure root as Reuss and Ursern, 
and is popularly derived from Urochs or Auerochs (wild bull), 
a bull's head having been borne for ages as the arms of the 
region. The total area of the canton is 415-3 sq. m., of which 
184-3 are reckoned as " productive " (forests covering 43-9 
sq.m.), while of the rest 44-3 are occupied by glaciers and7jsq. m. 
by the cantonal share of the Lake of Lucerne. The highest sum- 
mit in the canton is the Dammastock (11,920 ft.). The canton 
is composed of the upper valley of the Reuss, a mountain torrent 
that has cut for itself a deep bed, save in case of the basin of 
Ursern, near its upper end, and the plain of Altdorf, just before 
it forms the Lake of Lucerne. Hence, save in these two cases, 
the canton is made up of a wild Alpine valley, very picturesque 
in point of scenery, but not offering much chance of cultivation. 
Through nearly the whole of this savage glen runs the main line 
of the St Gotthard railway (opened in 1882), the part (285 m.) 
in the canton being that between Sisikon, on the Lake of 
Lucerne, and Goschenen, at the northern mouth of the great 
tunnel (95 m.) through the Alps, and at the lower end of the 
wild Schollenen gorge that cuts it off from the basin of Ursern. 
The most remarkable engineering feats are near Wassen. There 
is also an electric tramway from Altdorf to its port, Fliielen. 
On the other hand, several magnificent carriage roads are within 
the borders of the canton, leading to or over the mountain passes 
that give access either to Glarus (the Klausen Pass, 6404 ft.), 
or to Ticino (St Gotthard Pass, 6936 ft.), or to the Grisons 
(Oberalp Pass, 6719 ft.), or to the Valais (Furka Pass, 7992 ft.). 
Owing to the physical conformation of the canton, it was difficult 
for it to extend its rule save towards the south (see below), 
but since very early days it has held the splendid pastures of 
the Urnerboden, on the other slope of the Klausen Pass, as well 



79 6 



URIC ACID 



as the Blacken Alp, at the head of the Engelberg valley, though 
the northernmost slope of the St Gotthard Pass still belongs 
to Ticino. In 1900 the population of the canton was only 
19,700, of whom 18,685 were German-speaking, 947 Italian- 
speaking (this number varied much during the construction 
of the St Gotthard railway, mainly by Italian navvies), and 
24 French-speaking, while 18,924 were Romanists, 773 Pro- 
testants, and i a Jew. The capital is Altdorf (q.v.), indis- 
solubly connected with the legend of William Tell (q.v.). The 
only other important villages are Erstfeld (2416 inhab.), a great 
railway centre, where the mountain engines are put on, and 
Silenen (1892 inhab.). The population is all but exclusively 
pastoral, natural causes limiting much effort in the way of 
agriculture, save near Altdorf. In the canton there are 102 
" alps " or mountain pastures, capable of supporting 10,354 
cows, and of an estimated capital value of 5,771,000 fr. Till 
1814 Uri formed part of the diocese of Constance (save Ursern, 
which has always been in that of Coire), while since that date 
it is administered by the bishop of Coire, though legally in no 
diocese. The inhabitants are very industrious and saving, 
though not rich in worldly goods, as their land is so barren. 
They are extremely conservative, and passionately attached 
to their religion. Wooden sandals are still commonly worn in 
the Alpine glens. Of recent years the canton has been much 
visited by travellers, who have brought much money into it. 
It forms a single administrative district, which comprises twenty 
communes. The legislature of the canton is the time-honoured 
primitive democratic assembly, called the Lands gemeinde, com- 
posed of all male citizens of 20 years of age, and meeting once 
annually near Altdorf on the first Sunday in May. It has 
retained many curious antique ceremonies and customs. It 
elects the single member of the Federal Standerat, as well 
as the cantonal executive of seven members (holding office for 
four years), two of whom are the highest officials, the Landam- 
mann and his deputy. There is also a sort of standing com- 
mittee, called the Landrat, which is charged with the adminis- 
tration and minor legislative matters. It is composed of 
members elected for four years by a popular vote in the pro- 
portion of one to every 400 (or fraction over 200) inhabitants, 
though each commune, even if not attaining this standard of 
population, is entitled to a member. The single member of 
the Federal Nalionalrat is elected by a popular vote. The 
constitutional details, apart from the Lands gemeinde, are 
settled by the cantonal constitution of 1888 (since revised 
slightly). 

Uri is first mentioned in 732 as the place of banishment 
of Eto, the abbot of Reichenau, by the duke of Alamannia. 
In 853 it was given by Louis the German to the nunnery 
(Frauenmilnster) at Zurich which he had just founded, and 
of which his daughter, Hildegard, was the first abbess. Hence 
the "abbey folk" in Uri enjoyed, as such, the privilege of 
exemption from all jurisdictions save that of the king's Vogt 
or " steward of the manor " at Zurich, this Vogtei being cut 
off from the country of the Ziirichgau. The rule of the abbess 
was mild, so that the other inhabitants of Uri either became 
her tenapts or obtained similar privileges. Little by little the 
gathering together of all the inhabitants for the purpose of 
regulating the customary cultivation of the land created a 
corporate feeling and led to a sort of local government. On 
the extinction of the Zaringen dynasty (1218), the Vogtei 
reverted to the king, who gave it to the Habsburgs. But in 
1231 King Henry bought Uri from them, and thus it became 
again immediately dependent on the king, the purchase being 
perhaps due to the rising importance of the route over the 
St Gotthard Pass (first distinctly mentioned in 1236). As early 
as 1243 Uri had a common seal, and in the confirmation of its 
privileges (1274) granted by Rudolf of Habsburg mention is 
made of its " head-man " (Amman) and of the " commune " 
(universitas) . Uri therefore was quite ready to take part, 
with Schwyz and Unterwalden, in founding the " Everlasting 
League " (germ of the later Swiss confederation) on the ist of 
August 1291, defending its liberty in the fight of Morgarten 



(1315) and renewing the League of the Three at Brunnen (1315). 
Later it took part in the victory of Sempach (1386). In 1403, 
with the help of Obwalden, it won the Val Leventina from the 
duke of Milan, but it was lost in 1422, though in 1440 Uri alone 
reconquered it and kept it (winning the bloody fight of Giornico 
in 1478) till 1798. In 1419, with Obwalden, Uri bought Bellin- 
zona, but lost it at the battle of Arbedo (1422), though, with 
Schwyz and Nidwalden, it won it back in 1500, keeping it 
also till 1798. In 1512 Uri shared in the conquest of Lugano, 
&c., by the Confederates, her natural position forcing her to 
extend her rule towards the south, though many attempts on 
and temporary occupations of the Val d'Ossola (1410-1515) 
ultimately failed. In 1410 a perpetual alliance was made with 
the valley of Ursern or Val Orsera, the latter being allowed 
its own head-man and assembly, and courts under those of Uri, 
with which it was not fully incorporated till 1888. Ursern 
originally belonged to the great Benedictine monastery of 
Disentis, at the head of the Vorder Rhine valley, and was 
most probably colonized in the i3th century by a German- 
speaking folk from the Upper Valais. At the Reformation 
Uri clung to the old faith, becoming a member of the " Christ- 
liche Vereinigung " (1529) and of the Golden League (1586). 
In 1798, on the formation of the Helvetic republic, Uri be- 
came part of the huge canton of the Waldstatten and lost all 
its Italian possessions. In September 1799 Suworoff and the 
Russian army, having crossed the St Gotthard to Altdorf, 
were forced by the French to pass by the Kinzigkulm Pass 
into Schwyz, instead of sailing down the lake to Lucerne. In 
1803 Uri became an independent canton again, with Ursern, 
but without the Val Leventina. It tried hard to bring back 
the old state of things in 1814-15, and opposed all attempts 
at reform, joining the League of Sarnen in 1832 to maintain 
the pact of 1815, opposing the proposed revision of the pact, 
and being one of the members of the Sonderbund in 1845. 
Despite defeat in the civil war of 1847, Uri voted against the 
Federal constitution of 1848, and by a crushing majority against 
that of 1874. 

AUTHORITIES. J. J. Blumer, Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte d. 
schweiz. Demokratien (3 vols., St Gall, 1850-1859). Geschichtsfreund, 
from 1843. Historisches Neujahrsblatt (published by the Cantonal 
Hist. Soc.), Altdorf, from 1895. K. F. Lusser, Der Kanton Uri (St 
Gall, 1834), and Geschichte des Kant. Uri (Schwyz, 1862); A. Lutolf, 
Sagen, Brauche, Legenden aus den Fiinf Orten (Lucerne, 1862); 
E. Motta, Dei personaggi celebri che varcarono il Gottardo nei tempi 
antichi e moderni (Bellinzona, 1884); C. Nager, Die Alpwirtschaft 
im Kant. Uri (Soleure, 1898); W. Oechsli, Die Anfange der schweiz. 
Eidgenossenschaft (Zurich, 1891); R. von Reding-Biberegg, Der 
Zug Suworoff' s durch die Schweiz in 1799 (Stans, 1895); H. Ryffel, 
Die schweiz. Lands gemeinden (Zurich, 1903); F. V. Schmid, All- 
gemeine Geschichte d. Freistaats Uri (2 vols., Zug. 1788-90); 
J. Sowerby, The Forest Cantons of Switzerland (London, 1892); 
Uri: Land und Leute (Altdorf, 1902) ; '"' Urkunden aus Uri, 1 196-1500," 
published by A. Denier in vols. 41-44 ( 1 886-89) of the Geschichtsfreund 
(as above) ; M. Wanner, Geschichte a. Baues a. Gotthardbahn (Lucerne, 
1885). See also TELL. (W. A. B. C.) 

URIC ACID, Cs^NiOs, in organic chemistry, an acid 
which is one of the penultimate products of the tissue waste 
in the human body. While the bulk of the nitrogen of the 
albuminoids passes off through the bladder as urea, a small 
portion of it stops at the uric acid stage. Human urine 
contains only a fraction of a per cent, of the acid, chiefly as 
sodium salt; abundance of uric acid is met with in the ex- 
crement of serpents and birds, with whom it is the principal 
nitrogenous product of tissue waste. For its preparation 
guano is boiled repeatedly with a solution of borax in 120 
parts of water. The filtered solution is acidified with hydro- 
chloric acid, when impure uric acid separates out as a brown 
precipitate, which is washed with cold water; it is then 
dissolved in hot dilute caustic potash or soda, the solution 
filtered, and the filtrate saturated with carbon dioxide. An 
almost insoluble urate is precipitated, which is filtered, washed 
and decomposed by hot dilute hydrochloric acid. Uric acid 
separates as a white precipitate, which is filtered off, washed 
and dried, to be repurified by a repetition of the alkali 
process or otherwise. Pure uric acid forms a snow-white 



URICONIUM URINARY SYSTEM 



797 



micro-crystalline powder, devoid of smell or taste, soluble in 
1800 parts of boiling and in 14,000 parts of cold water, but in- 
soluble in alcohol and in ether. For its detection in urine, the 
urine is mixed with excess of hydrochloric acid, and allowed 
to stand, when the uric acid separates out, generally coloured 
reddish by impurities. The precipitate is dissolved in a few 
drops of nitric acid and the solution cautiously evaporated to 
dryness. The residue when exposed to ammonia gas assumes 
the intense purple colour of murexide. 

The acid, which was discovered by C. Scheele in 1776 in 
urinary calculi, was afterwards investigated by Liebig and 
Wohler. The determination of its constitution, and its relation 
to other vegetable and animal products, followed from the 
researches of A. von Baeyer and E. Fischer (see PURIN). 

URICONIUM (more correctly Viroconium), a large Romano- 
British country town, chef-lieu of the Cornovii, now Wroxeter 
on the Severn, 5. m. E. of Shrewsbury. At first perhaps 
(A.D. 45-55) a Roman legionary fortress, held by Legio 
XIV. Gemina against the Welsh hill-tribes, its garrison was 
soon removed and it became a flourishing town with stately 
town hall, baths and other appurtenances of a thoroughly 
civilized and Romanized city. It was larger and probably 
richer than for example SUchester. The lines of its walls 
can still be traced, enclosing an area of 170 acres, and parts 
of the town hall and baths have been uncovered. Its originally 
Celtic name seems to survive in the names of Wroxeter and 
the neighbouring hill, Wrekin. 

See Victoria History of Shropshire, i. 215-56. (F. J. H.) 

URIM AND THUMMIM, in the Bible. These descriptive 
terms are applied to one of the methods of divination employed 
by the ancient Hebrews, which, it is now generally agreed, 
consisted in a species of sacred lot. Together with " dreams " 
and the prophetic oracle it formed the recognized channel by 
which divine communications were given (cf. i Sam. xxviii. 6). 
That some method of casting lots is denoted by the terms 
is evident from i Sam. xiv. 41 f. The Hebrew text in this 
passage, as emended by the LXX and in this form generally 
accepted, runs as follows: " And Saul said: ' O Jehovah, 
God of Israel, why dost Thou not answer Thy servant to-day? 
If this fault be in me or in Jonathan my son, give Urim, and 
if it be in Thy people Israel, give Thummim.' And the lot 
fell upon Saul and Jonathan, and the people escaped. And 
Saul said: ' Cast (the lot) between me and Jonathan my 
son, and on whomsoever Jehovah shall cause the lot to fall 
let him die.' So they cast (the lot) between him and Jonathan 
his son, and Jonathan was taken." 

From this illuminating passage it is clear (a) that by means 
of the Urim and Thummim the guilt or innocence of the 
suspected parties was determined; (b) that this was effected 
by a series of categorical questions implying the simple alterna- 
tive of " yes " or " no," or something positive or negative. 
A further inference (c) from a comparison of i Sam. xiv. 41 f. 
with ver. 36 (Greek text) is that this method of casting the sacred 
lot was closely connected with divination by the ephod (q.v.), 
and was the prerogative of the priests. This last point appears 
explicitly in the " Blessing of Moses " (Deut. xxxiii.), where 
the opening words of the Benediction on Levi run thus (text as 
emended by Ball, following LXX; P.S.B.A. 1896, 118 f.): 
" Give to Levi Thy Thummim, 
And Thy Urim to the man of Thy favour." 

Similar modes of divination were practised, it would seem, 
among the pre-Islamic Arabs. The following custom is cited 
by Professor G. F. Moore, 1 on the testimony of Moslem writers, 
as having been in vogue: " Two arrow shafts (without heads 
or feathers), on one of which was written ' Command,' on the 
other 'Prohibition,' or words of similar purport, were placed 
in a receptacle, and according as one or the other of them was 
drawn out it was known whether the proposed enterprise was 
in accordance with the will of the god and destined to succeed 
or not '' (cf. Prov xvi 33; Acts i. 26). 

Regarding the form and material of the Urim and Thummim 
1 Encyd. Biblica, iv. (col. 5236), where further details are given. 



no details are given in the Old Testament. They seem to 
have fallen into desuetude at a comparatively early period. 
No mention is made of their use in the historical books after 
the time of David and Solomon, though it is probable that 
such use is implied in passages where the ephod is mentioned 
(e.g. Hosea iii. 4). In the post-exilic Priestly Code (i.e. the 
bulk of the Levitical legislation of the Pentateuch), however, 
the Urim and Thummim figure as part of the equipment of the 
high priest (cf. Ex. xxviii. 30; Lev. viii. 8; Num. xxvii. 21). 
Here it is stated that they are kept in a square pouch which is 
worn upon the high priest's breast ("the breastplate of. judg- 
ment "), and attached to the ephod. Thus the association of the 
Urim and Thummim with the ephod, which appears in the oldest 
narratives, is retained in the Priestly Code (P). It is doubtful, 
however, whether P had any clear notion as to what exactly 
the Urim and Thummim were. The priestly writer gives no 
directions as to how they were to be made. They were retained 
in his ideal legislation, apparently, because their use was already 
invested with the mystery of a long-vanished past, and they 
were regarded as having formed one of the most venerable 
adjuncts of the priesthood. That this method of divination 
was not in actual use after the Exile is shown by Neh. vii. 65 
(Ezra ii. 63; i Esdras v. 40) where an important point 
affecting the priestly families is reserved " till there stood up a 
priest with Urim and Thummim." Later references (Ecclus. 
xiv. 10; in Josephus and the Talmud) prove that no real tra- 
dition survived on the subject. The identification of them 
with the jewels of the breastplate and on the shoulders of the 
high priest (which apparently has the authority of Josephus) 
is unwarranted; other ancient guesses are equally baseless. 
Nor has any satisfactory explanation of the names Urim and 
Thummim been proposed. As vocalized in the Massoretic 
Hebrew text the names = " Lights and perfection." But the 
Greek translators read the former 'orim and connected it 
with torah, "decision"; it would thus =" doctrine "; so 
Symmachus, cf. i Esd. v. 40, where " a high priest wearing 
Urim and Thummim " (R.V.) is given as " a high priest clothed 
in doctrine and truth " in A.V. Nor can the attempt of the 
American scholar Muss-Arnolt to explain them as cognate 
with the Babylonian Tablets of Destiny be pronounced success- 
ful. Perhaps the conjecture least open to objection is that 
which regards the terms Urim and Thummim as the names 
of two lots 2 (perhaps actually written on them) of opposite 
import. In this case the former of the two names might be 
derived from the root 'arar, "to curse"; the other from a 
root meaning " to be without fault." The one would thus 
signify " that a proposed action was satisfactory to God, the 
other that it provoked His wrath " (Professor G. F. Moore). 
But all such explanations are highly precarious. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the older views, see Spencer, De leg. Hebr. 
rit. Diss. VII.; and a useful summary by Plumptre in Smith's 
Bib. Diet. For modern discussions, see the articles " Urim and 
Thummim " in the Bible dictionaries; the relevant sections in the 
treatises on archaeology; and W. Muss-Arnolt, The Urim and 
Thummim (reprinted from the American Journal of Semitic Lan- 
guages, July 1900). (G. H. Bo.) 

URINARY SYSTEM. The urinary system in the fully 
developed human being consists of (i) the kidneys, (2) the 
ureters, (3) the urinary bladder, and (4) the urethra. 

As the greater part of the male urethra is a generative as well as 
a urinary canal, its description will be found in the article on the 
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM. 

_ The kidneys are two bean-shaped granular masses, firm in con- 
sistence and reddish brown in colour, about 43 in. long, and placed 
obliquely behind the other abdominal viscera one on each 
side of the last thoracic and three upper lumbar vertebrae. Kidneys. 
Each is imperfectly covered on its ventral surface by peritoneum and 
is moulded to some extent by the viscera which press on it. Around 
them there is usually a considerable amount of fat and areolar 
tissue, by which, as well as by the peritoneum and by the presence of 
the surrounding viscera, the kidneys are retained in their place. 
In rare cases the kidney may slip from its usual place in the loins 
to a lower position (movable kidney), and may even be movable 



2 The lots may have been small pebbles, or small tablets of wood 
or bone. 



798 



URINARY SYSTEM 



in the abdomina) cavity (floating kidney) a condition often 
productive of serious consequences. The kidney in the foetus 
is tabulated, but the intervals between the lobes become 
smoothed out in later years of childhood. Each gland is invested 




FIG. I. Vertical Section through the Kidney. A, branch of renal 
artery; U, ureter. I, cortical substance with cortical pyramids, 
and labyrinth substance of tortuous tubes; 2 and 3, medullary 
pyramids of straight tubules; 4, fatty masses around blood 
vessels (5); 6, papilla; 7, pelvis. 

Labyrinth Medullary ray 



Glomerulus 




Efferent 
' ves.se! 

.Afferent 

vessel 

Glomerulus 
Capsule 
From A. F. Duron, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. 

FIG. 2. Diagrammatic, Representation of the Structures 

forming a Kidney Lobe. 

In the middle part of the figure the course of one of the kidney 
tubules is indicated, and in the lateral parts the disposition 
of the larger arteries. A, cortex; B, intermediate zone; 
C, papillary portion. 

The diagram at the right-hand side of the lower part of the figure 
illustrates the connexions of the structures composing a Mal- 
pighian corpuscle. 

by a firm, closely adherent, fibrous capsule, under which is an 
imperfect lamina of unstriped muscle. The inner and ventral 
margin of each kidney is concave, and into this hilum or concavity 



the renal artery from the aorta passes. Here also the renal vein 
escapes and joins the vena cava inferior. The ureter or meta- 
nephric duct, always behind and below the blood vessels, emerges 
here and passes downward to the bladder. When the kidney is 
longitudinally divided from hilum to outer edge, the cut surface 
is seen to consist of two parts an outer layer, the cortex, and an 
inner part, the medulla (fig. l). The latter consists of a series of 
eight to sixteen pyramids, whose bases and sides are invested with 
cortical matter, and whose apices or papillae project into the hilum, 
where they are severally surrounded by membranous tubes (calices), 
which by their union make up the ureter. The part of the ureter 
situated in the hilum is dilated, and is named the pelvis of the 
kidney. 

In minute structure the kidney is the most complex gland in the 
body. Each of the papillae consists of a large number of straight 
tube* collecting tubules which open by pores on its surface. 
When these are traced into the pyramid, they are seen to divide 
several times, their fine end-branches projecting in little tufts into 
the cortical matter at the base of each pyramid. Here the branches 
coming from the tube change in structure and become convoluted 
in the cortex the convoluted tubules. Next, each suddenly dips 
back again as a long straight loop the loop of Henle into the 
pyramid, reaching nearly to the papillary region; then turning 
sharply on itself, passes back straight to the cortex, where it again 
becomes convoluted, ultimately ending by dilating into a flask-like 
bulb called a Malpighian corpuscle. The renal artery, after breaking 




FIG. 3. Vertical Section through Pelvis, showing urinary bladder 
and rectum in situ. I, peritoneum; 2, pubic symphysis; 
3, muscular coat of bladder; 5, mucous membrane folded and 
wrinkled; 6, opening of ureter; 8, prostate; 10, vena dorsalis 
penis; 12, corpus spongiosum; 14, testis in its sac; 15, bulbo- 
cavernosus muscle; 16, bulb; 17, sphincters of the anus; 
22, anal opening; 30, coccyx; *, vesicula seminalis. 

up into branches between the pyramids, ends in minute end-arteries 
in the cortex. Each of these pierces into one of the flasks just 
described, and there becomes branched, the branches being col- 
lected into a little ball or glomerulus which nearly fills the flask. 
From this an efferent vessel escapes, which, joining with its neigh- 
bouring vessels of the same kind, makes a close network around the 
convoluted tubes, ultimately ending in the renal vein. It is sup- 
posed that the different constituents of the urine are eliminated in 
different parts of these tubesy-some, especially the watery parts, 
in the flask, and some, especially the more solid constituents, in 
the convoluted tubular apparatus. A peculiar form of glandular 
epithelium lines the two convoluted areas of the tubes and the limb 
of the loop nearer the straight or collecting tubes. 

The ureter or duct of the kidney begins at the hilum and descends 
on the back wall of the abdominal cavity to open into the bladder. 



It is usually about 12 in. in length and as thick as a goose 
quill. At its termination it passes obliquely through the 
coats of the bladder, 39 that when the bladder is distended 



quill. At its termination it passes obliquely through the 
coats of the bladder, so that when the bladder is distended 
the lumen of its end is closed. The urinary bladder is a 
membranous bag lying in the pelvic cavity directly behind and above 
the dorsal surface of the pubes. In the foetus and infant, how- 
ever, the bladder lies in the abdomen, not in the pelvis. During 
life it is seldom distended so as to hold more than about 10 oz., 
but when the abdomen is opened it can be dilated to more than double 
that size. When distended it rises and is applied closely against the 
back of the ventral abdominal wall. The bladder has a strong 
muscular investment of unstriped muscle in several layers, which 



URINARY SYSTEM 



799 



are innervated by branches from the sacral nerves. It has a peculiar 
epithelial lining of several strata, the superficial cells of which are 
cubical when the sac is collapsed, but become flattened and scale- 
likq when it is distended. At the lower part of the bladder there is 
a triangular space known as the trigone, the angles of which are 
formed by the openings of the two ureters and the urethra. In 
this space the mucous membrane is smooth and firmly bound to the 
subjacent muscle; elsewhere it is thrown into numerous folds when 
the bladder is empty. A muscular band called the torus uretericus 



Bladder apex 



Infero-Iateral 
area 




Ureter 



Posterior surface of prostate 

Seminal vesicle 

From A. F. Dixon, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. 

FIG. 4. The Bladder, Prostate and Seminal Vesicles, viewed from 
below. Taken from a subject in which the viscera were hardened 
in situ. The bladder contained but a small amount of fluid. 

or Mercier's bar joins the orifices of the ureters. The female urethra 
is only i$ in. in length and is comparable only with that part of the 
male urethra which extends from the bladder to the openings of the 
seminal ducts (fig. 3). 

Embryology. 

The excretory organs of the embryo are developed as a series of 
small tubes in the intermediate cell mass (see fig. 5), the ventral 
part of which projects to form the Wolffian ridge. Three sets of 
these tubes appear in succession and occupy the whole length of the 
body from the cervical to the lumbar region. The most anterior 
pronephros or head kidney is represented in man by only two or 
three small tubules on each side which appear as ingrowths from 
the neighbouring coelorn (fig. 6, Pro.N.). From the study of com- 
parative anatomy it is probable that these are mere vestiges. 
Although the pronephros is rudimentary, the duct which in lower 

Neural tube 



Notochord 



Somite 



Wolffian duct 
and mesonephros 



Intermediate cell mass 

Mesonephros and 
Wolffian duct 
Body cavity 




From A. F. Dixon, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. 

FIG. 5. Transverse Section through the Body of a Fowl Embryo. 

types carries away its excretion is well developed. This is the 
Wolffian duct, which appears in man before the pronephric tubes are 
formed, and runs longitudinally back in each intermediate cell mass 
to open into the cloaca (fig. 6, W.D.). In certain parts of its 
course it is at an early date in very close relation with the skin on 
the dorsal side of the intermediate cell mass, and many embryologists 
hold that it is originally ectodermal in origin, and has sunk into the 
mesoderm secondarily. Others think that it is primarily meso- 
dermal but has gained secondary connexions with the ectoderm. 
From a morphological point of view, as will be explained in the com- 
parative anatomy section, the former view seems the more likely. 

When the pronephric tubules disappear, which they do at an 
early stage of the embryo's development, the Wolffian duct persists 
and acts as the drain for another and much more important series 
of tubules, which are formed in the intermediate cell mass behind 
the region of the pronephros, and make up the mesonephros or 
middle kidney (fig. 6, M.N.). There is some doubt as to whether 
these tubes are strictly homologous and in series with those of the 
pronephros; but they are certainly of later development. 



By about the sixth week of intra-uterine life these tubules reach 
their maximum development and form the Wolffian body, which 
projects into the coelom as the now very definite Wolffian ridge 
and acts as the functional excretory organ of the embryo (see 
fig. 7). When the permanent kidney is formed this organ degener- 
ates and its ultimate fate is discussed in the article on the REPRO- 
DUCTIVE SYSTEM. 

The metanephros or hind kidney begins as a diverticulum from 
the dorsal side of the Wolffian duct close to its opening into the 



Ep.O. 



M.N. 




FIG. 6. Diagram of the Formation of the Genito-Urinary 
Apparatus. The first figure is the generalized type, the second 
the male and the third the female specialized arrangements. 
Suppressed parts are dotted. 

Nephrostome. 

Malpighian corpuscle. 

Testis. 

Epididymis. 

Organ of Giraldes. 

Vas defcrens. 



Pro. N. Pronephros. 

M. N. Mesonephros. 

Mt. N. Metanephros. 

B. Bladder. 

Clo. Cloaca. 

R. Rectum. 

M.D. Mullerian duct. 

W.D. Wolffian duct. 

Ur. Ureter. 

S. H. Sessile hydatid. 

P. H. Peduncuht-d hydatid. 

S. G. Sexual gland. 



N. 

M.C. 

T. 

E. 

O.G. 

V.D. 

U. M. Uterus masculinus. 

O. Ovary. 

Ep. O. Epoophoron. 

Par. O. Paroophoron. 

F. 1'. Fallopian tube. 

U. Uterus. 



cloaca (see fig. 6, Mt.N.) ; this occurs about the fourth week of 
intra-utenne life, and the diverticulum grows forward (cephalad), 
dorsal to the hind end of the Wolffian body. In doing this it forms 
a duct the metanephric duct or ureter the cephalic end of which 
enlarges and divides to form the calices of the kidney. From the 
calices numerous smaller ducts grow into the mesoderm of the hind 
(caudal) end of the intermediate cell mass and become the collecting 



Neural tube*"~- 




Aorta 



Mesentery 
Blood-vessel 



From A. F. Dixon, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. 

FIG. 7. Transverse Section through the Body of a Rat Embryo. 
The position where the germinal epithelium arises is indicated at a. 

tubes of the kidney. While this is going on another set of tubules, 
probably in series with the mesonephric tubules, develop inde- 
pendently in the intermediate cell mass and so form all the rest of 
the tubular system of the kidney. Toward these tubules, at one 
point, branches from the aorta push their way and invaginate each 
tube, thus forming the Malpighian corpuscles. 

By the eighth week the kidney is definitely formed and takes 
over the excretory work of the mesonephros, which now atrophies; 
its surface is distinctly lobulated, a condition which persists until 
after birth. 



8oo 



URMIA URMIA, LAKE OF 



At first, as has been stated, the ureters open into the Wolffian 
ducts, but later on each gains a separate opening into the cloaca, 
and eventually these shift in a ventral direction until they reach 
their permanent connexion with the allantoic bladder. 

The bladder is developed from that part of the cloaca from which 
the allantois has grown out, and also trom that part of the allantois 
which is nearest the cloaca. At first it is a tubular structure, but 
after the second month becomes more pyriform, the stalk of the pear 
corresponding to the fibrous urachus which reaches the umbilicus. 
Most of that part of the tubular allantois which lies between the per- 
manent openings of the ureters and the Wolffian ducts becomes the 
urinary sinus and does not dilate in the same way that the permanent 
bladder does. This, in the female, forms the whole of the urethra, 
and in the male the upper part of the prostatic urethra. Behind 
(caudad) the urinary sinus is the urogenital sinus, which is treated 
of in the article on the REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM. 

The Miillerian ducts (fig. 6, M.D.) are formed after the Wolffian 
ducts are fully developed. A ridge appears in the intermediate 
cell mass ventral to the Wolffian duct, and into the anterior (cephalic) 
end of this a tubular process of the coelom forces its way back- 
ward (caudad). Before reaching the cloaca the two Miillerian 
ducts coalesce and open between the orifices of the two Wolffian 
ducts. These ducts, as is shown in the article on the REPRO- 
DUCTIVE SYSTEM, form the oviducts, uterus and at least part of 
the vagina. 

For further details and literature see Quain's Anatomy, vol. i. 
(Longmans, Green & Co., London, 1908) ; J. M'Murrich, The Develop- 
ment of the Human Body (Rebman, London, 1906), and A. Keith, 
Human Embryology and Morphology (Arnold, London). 

Comparative Anatomy. 

In the Acrania (Amphioxus) the nephridial tubules are segment- 
ally arranged and are only found in the pharyngeal region; each 
opens into the coelom by several ciliated funnels called nephrostomes, 
and also into the atrium, which is practically the exterior of the 
animal, by an opening called the nephridiopore. There is reason 
to believe that we have here a pronephros of a very primitive type 
and arranged on the same plan, in many respects, as the simple 
nephridia of such lowly forms as the earthworm. There is nothing 
to indicate that a mesonephros is present, norarethereany Malpighian 
corpuscles or longitudinal ducts. 

Among the Cyclostomata (lampreys and hags) the pronephros 
persists throughout life in Bdellostoma and probably in the hag 
(Myxine), but a Wolffian (archinephric) duct has been evolved so 
that the tubules no longer open on the surface by nephridiopores. 
It has been surmised that in a transitional type the tubules opened 
into a groove on each side of the surface of the animal and that the 
edges of this, coming together, formed a duct. At any rate the 
superficial openings of the primitive nephridia make it probable 
that the Wolffian duct was originally of ectodermal origin. A 
mesonephros has now appeared behind (caudad) the pronephros, 
though it is not certain whether its tubules (mesonephridia) are in 
series with those of the pronephros or whether they are structures 
on a more dorsal plane; but they certainly open into the Wolffian 
duct, which also drains the pronephros, and so this duct is func- 
tionally simply a ureter and has nothing to do with the sexual 
glands. No Miillerian duct has yet been evolved. 

In the Teleostomi (bony and ganoid fish) the pronephros is usually 
aborted in the adult and the mesonephros is the functional kidney. 
As the genital glands have special coelomic relations the Wolffian 
duct is still merely a ureter, and in the Teleostei at least there is 
no true Miillerian duct. 

In the Elasmobranchii (sharks and rays) the pronephros is more 
completely and more early aborted than in the last subclass, and 
the mesonephros is divided into an anterior or genital part, which 
receives the vasa efferentia in the male from the testis and thus is 
the first appearance phylogenetically of an epididymis and a posterior 
or renal part. The Wolffian duct therefore acts both as a vas 
deferens for the sperm and a ureter for the urine, though in the 
female it is merely a ureter. In the hindmost part of the mesone- 
phros there are separate ducts which are called ureters and open 
into the lower part of the Wolffian duct in the same way that the 
metanephric ducts of the Amniota do; it is, however, very doubtful 
whether they are really homologous with these ducts. The Miillerian 
duct (see REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM) is present in elasmobranchs and 
according to modern views arises as a backgrowth from the coelom 
as in the Amniota. 

The Dipnoi or mudfish are remarkable for having a cloacal 
caecum which probably functions as an urinary bladder. It is 
situated on the dorsal wall of the cloaca and is not homologous with 
the allantoic bladder of higher forms. A good deal of the kidney 
(mesonephros) as it appears to the naked eye is composed of lymphoid 
tissue. 

In the Amphibia the snake-like forms (Gymnophiona) show a 
very primitive arrangement of the kidney tubules, each having 
its nephrostome, Malpighian capsule and short convoluted part 
leading to the Wolffian duct which acts both as ureter and vas 
deferens. 

In the adult Anura (frogs and toads) the nephrostomes lose their 



connexion with the nephridia and communicate with the renal 
veins. In the amphibians a true allantoic bladder first appears 
as a diverticulum from the ventral wall of the cloaca; in different 
forms it may be single, bilobed or even double. 

In Reptilia the hind kidney or metanephros is developed and 
takes over all the excretory work; it is usually lobulated, its 
nephridia are never provided with nephrostomes and its duct (the 
ureter) opens into the Wolffian duct or vas deferens before reaching 
the cloaca. The allantoic bladder is present in the Lacertilia 
(lizards) and Chelonia (turtles), but is absent in others. Birds 
resemble reptiles very closely in their urinary system except that 
there is never any bladder and that the ureters and vasa deferentia 
open independently into the cloaca. 

In the Mammalia the bean shape of the kidney is fairly character- 
istic. In foetal life the organ is always lobulated, and this sometimes 
persists throughout adult life as in the ox, bear, seal and whale. 
More often the lobulation disappears on the surface and is only 
imperfectly represented, on making a section, by the pyramids; 
even these in some cases fuse so closely that their apices appear as 
a single papilla. This is the case in many monkeys, carnivores and 
rodents. 

In the Monotremata (Ornithorhynchus and Echidna) there is 
an allantoic bladder, but the ureters open into the cloaca as they do 
in birds. In all other mammals they have reached the bladder 
and open into it by valvular orifices. 

On comparing the embryology (ontogeny) of the urinary system 
with its comparative anatomy (phytogeny) the harmony of the two 
from a broad point of view is very striking. 

For further details see Parker and Haswell, Text-Book of Zoology 
(Macmillan, London, 1897); Wiedersheim's Comparative Anat. of 
Vertebrates, translated by W. N. Parker (London, 1907) ; Gegenbaur, 
Vergleich. Anat. der Wirbeltiere (Leipzig, 1901). 

URMIA (the name as written by the Persians is Urumieh and 
Urmieh; the inhabitants of the place say Urmi), a town in the 
province of Azerbaijan in Persia, situated at an elevation of 
4400 ft., in an extremely fertile and highly cultivated plain, 
78 m. S.W. of Tabriz (120 by road), n to 12 m. from the western 
shore of the lake of the same name, in 37 34' N. and 45 4' E. 
It is surrounded by a wall and deep dry ditch that can be flooded, 
and is encircled by orchards and gardens which extend all round 
for miles and even penetrate the heart of the town. The 
streets are broader than is usual in Persian cities, and most of 
them have a stream of water running down the middle. There 
are a busy bazaar and some old mosques. The population is 
about 3S,oo, and there are post and telegraph offices. The 
only building of importance is the ark, or citadel, a walled 
building in the centre of the town containing an arsenal and 
barracks for a small garrison. Urmia has for many years been 
the headquarters of various missions to the Nestorians of the 
neighbourhood: an American mission (since 1833) representing 
the " Board of the Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian church 
of the United States of America "; the French Lazarists 
(since 1840); British, "The Anglican Mission" founded by 
Archbishop Benson (1884), and a Russian mission (Orthodox, 
since 1902). Urmia is the capital of a fertile district 5 n. 
long and about 20 m. broad, having the same name and con- 
taining more than 300 flourishing villages. It exports great 
quantities of dried fruit and excellent tutun, tobacco for chibuks, 
or Turkish pipes. 

URMIA, LAKE OF (also spelt URUMIAH), a lake in north- 
western Persia, between 37 10' and 38 20' N. and between 
45 10' and 46 E., which takes its name (Pers. Deryacheh i Urmia, 
Turk. Urmi gol) from the town of Urmia, situated near its western 
shore, but is also known as the Deryacheh i Shahi and Shahi gol. 
The limits of the lake vary much, the length, N.-S., from 80 to 
90 m., the width, E.-W., from 30 to 45, being greater in the 
season of high water in spring when the snows melt and 
considerably less in the season of low water. A rise of the level 
by only a few inches extends the shore of the lake for miles 
inland, and it may be estimated that the surface covered by 
the lake during high water is half as much again as that during 
low water. The Shahi peninsula, which juts out into the lake 
from the eastern bank, is an island during the season of high 
water and also sometimes after heavy autumnal rains, separated 
from the mainland by several miles of shallow water. The 
mean depth of the lake is 15 to 16 ft., and its greatest depth 
probably does not exceed 50 ft. The lake has in recent years 
exhibited extraordinary changes of level, and it is not certain 



URN URQUHART, SIR T. 



801 



whether some occasional extraordinary rises of level were due 
to a movement of the earth's crust or merely to an increase of 
rainfall as compared with evaporation. Giinther calculated 
that the lake covered 1795 sq. m., but he did not state whether 
during high or low water. De Morgan gives 4000 and 6000 
sq. kilometres (1544 and 2317 sq. m.) for low and high water 
respectively. In the southern half of the lake is a cluster of 
about fifty rocky islands composed of Miocene strata with 
marine shells, echinoderms and corals, much resembling the 
beds of the Vienna basin. The largest of these islands, Koyun 
daghi, i.e. " Sheep-mountain," is 3 to 4 m. long and has a spring 
of sweet water near which a few people settle occasionally for 
looking after herds of goats and sheep taken there for grazing. 
All the islands are uninhabited and some are mere bare rocks 
of little extent. Although fed by many rivers and streams of 
sweet water the lake is very saline and its water is about three- 
fifths as salt as the water of the Dead Sea far too salt to 
permit the existence of fish life. The specific gravity of the 
water is 1-155 during low water and 1-113 during high water. 
The principal salts contained in solution are sodium chloride, 
bromide and iodide and sulphates of magnesia, soda and iron. 
The only organisms living in the lake are a species of artemia, 
a crustacean known from other brine lakes in Europe and 
North America, the larva of a species of dipterous insect, probably 
allied to ephydra, and green vegetable masses composed of 
bacterial zoogloeae covered with a species of diatom. The 
rivers which flow into the lake drain an area of nearly 20,000 
sq. m.; chub and roach are found in all of them, silurus in 
some. The lake is navigated by a few round-bottomed boats 
with round bows and flat sterns, each of about 20 tons burden 
and carrying an enormous square sail. 

Strabo (xi. c. 13, 2) mentions the lake with the name Spauta, a 
clerical error for Kapauta, from Pers. Kapaut, New Pers. Kebud, 
meaning " blue." Old Armenian writers have Kapoit-dzov, " the 
blue sea." In the Zendayesta and Bundahish it is called " Chae- 
chasta," and Firdousi in his Shahnamah (nth century) has 
" Chichast." 

See J. de Morgan, Mission scientifique en Perse (1894); R. T. 
Giinther, " Lake Urmi and its Neighbourhood," Geogr. Journ. 
(November 1899). (A. H.-S.) 

URN (Lat. urna, either from root of were, to burn, being 
made of burnt clay, or connected with urceus, Gr. Cpxa, jar), 
a vessel or vase, particularly one with an oviform body and a 
foot. The Roman term urna was used primarily of a jar for 
carrying or drawing water, but was also specifically applied 
to the vessel in which the voting-tablets (tabellae) and lots 
(sortes) were cast, whence its figurative use for the urn of fate 
from which are drawn the varying lots of man's destiny. The 
ashes of the cremated dead were deposited in cinerary urns, a 
custom perpetuated by the marble or other urns placed upon 
funeral monuments. The Roman urna was also a liquid 
measure containing half an amphora, or about 3^ gallons. 
Modern usage has given the name to large silver or copper 
vessels containing tea or coffee with a tap for drawing off the 
liquids and heated either by a spirit lamp or, as in the older 
forms, by the insertion of a hot iron in a special receptacle 
placed in the body of the vessel. 

UROTROPIN (hexamethylenetetramine) , known also in the 
United States under the name Uritone, a medicinal preparation 
due to the action of ammonia on formaldehyde. It consists of 
colourless granular crystals freely soluble in water and having 
an alkaline reaction. Urotropin is among the most powerful 
of urinary antiseptics. It was formerly thought that its action 
was due to the setting free of formaldehyde in the urine, but it is 
now known by the researches of P. Cammidge that this is not so. 
It is used to render the urine acid in cases where it is alkaline, 
loaded with phosphates or purulent, and is thus useful in cases 
of cystitis. It is slightly diuretic. Experimentally it has been 
shown to have a solvent action on uric acid, but its action in this 
direction in the body requires confirmation. Urotropin is very 
valuable in sterilizing the urine of patients who have suffered 
from typhoid fever and thus preventing the spread of the 
disease by what are known as " typhoid carriers." Analogous 

xxvn. 26 



preparations are cystamine, helmitol and hetralin. Chinotropin 
is urotropin quinate, and borovertin is urotropin triborate. 

URQUHART, DAVID (1805-1877), British diplomatist and 
publicist, born at Braelangwell, Cromarty. He came of a 
good Scottish family and was educated in France, Switzerland 
and Spain, and then at St John's College, Oxford. In 1827 
he went under Lord Cochrane (Duhdonald) to fight for the 
Greeks in the War of Independence; he was present at the 
action of the 28th of September when Captain Hastings 
destroyed the Turkish squadron in the Bay of Salona, and as 
lieutenant of the frigate " Hellas " he was severely wounded 
in the attack on Scio. In November 1828 he left the Greek 
service. In 1830 he privately examined the new Greek frontier 
as determined by the protocol of March 22, 1829, and the value 
of his reports to the government led to his being named British 
commissioner to accompany Prince Leopold of Coburg to 
Greece, but the appointment fell to the ground with that 
prince's refusal of the Greek throne. His knowledge of the 
local conditions, however, led to his being appointed in November 
1831 attache to Sir Stratford Canning (Lord Stratford de Red- 
cliffe, q.v.), ambassador extraordinary to the sultan, for the 
purpose of finally deliminating the frontiers of Turkey and 
Greece. On his return to England he published in 1833 Turkey 
and its Resources, a violent denunciation of Russia. In 1833 
he was sent on a secret mission to Turkey to inquire into pos- 
sible openings for British trade, and at Constantinople he gained 
the complete confidence of the Turkish government. The 
situation, however, was a delicate one, and Urquhart's out- 
spoken advocacy of British intervention on behalf of the 
sultan against Mehemet AH, the policy of Stratford Canning, 
made him a danger to international peace; he was conse- 
quently recalled by Palmerston. At this time appeared his 
pamphlet England, France, Russia and Turkey, the violent 
anti-Russian character of which brought him into conflict 
with Richard Cobden. In 1835 he was appointed secretary 
of embassy at Constantinople, but an unfortunate attempt 
to counteract Russian aggressive designs in Circassia, which 
threatened to lead to an international crisis, again led to his 
recall in 1837. In 1835, before leaving for the East, he founded 
a periodical called the Portfolio, and in the first issue printed 
a series of Russian state papers, which made a profound im- 
pression. From 1847 to 1852 he sat in parliament as member 
for Stafford, and carried on a vigorous crusade against Lord 
Palmerston's foreign policy. The action of England in the 
Crimean War provoked indignant protests from Urquhart, who 
contended that Turkey was in a position to fight her own 
battles without the assistance of other Powers. To attack the 
government, he organized " foreign affairs committees " which 
became known as " Urquhartite," throughout the country, 
and in 1855 founded the Free Press (in 1866 renamed the 
Diplomatic Review), which numbered among its contributors 
the socialist Karl Marx. In 1860 he published his book on 
The Lebanon. From 1864 until his death Urquhart's health 
compelled him to live on the continent, where he devoted his 
energies to promoting the study of international law. He died 
on the i6thof May 1877. His wife (Harriet ChichesterFortescue), 
by whom he had two sons and two daughters, and who died in 
1889, wrote numerous articles in the Diplomatic Review over 
the signature of " Caritas." 

To Urquhart is due the introduction into Great Britain of 
hot-air Turkish baths. He advocated their use in his book 
called Pillars of Hercules (1850), which attracted the attention 
of the Irish physician Dr Richard Baxter (1802-1870), and the 
latter introduced them in his system of hydropathy at Blarney, 
Co. Cork. The Turkish baths in Jermyn Street, London, were 
built under Urquhart's direction. 

URQUHART, or URCHARD, SIR THOMAS (1611-1660), 
Scottish author and translator of Rabelais, was the son of Sir 
Thomas Urquhart of Cromarty, the representative of a very 
ancient family, and of Christian, daughter of the fourth Lord 
Elphinstone. Sir Thomas was hard pressed by his creditors, 
and after part of the family estate had been alienated received 



802 



URSA MAJOR URSINS 



a " letter of protection " from his creditors from Charles I. in 
1637. In the same year, his son Thomas and a younger one were 
accused of forcibly detaining their father in an upper room, but 
the matter was settled without further proceedings. Thomas 
was educated at King's College, Aberdeen, spending his spare 
tune in the pursuit of physical science. On leaving the univer- 
sity he travelled over Europe, succeeded to his embarrassed 
inheritance, and got together a remarkable library, which, 
however, fell into the hands of his creditors. All his later life 
was disturbed by pecuniary and political difficulties. He was an 
enthusiastic Royalist; and, so far as religious matters went, his 
principles may be judged from his favourite signature, " C. P.," 
for Christianus Presbyteromastix. He took part in the " Trot 
of Turrifi" in 1639, and was rewarded by being knighted on 
7th April 1641 by the king's own hand at Whitehall. He took 
occasion by this visit to London to see through the press his first 
work, a collection of Epigrams of no great merit. Four years 
later, in 1645, he produced a tract called Trissotetras, a treatise 
on logarithms, adjusted to a kind of memoria technica, like that 
of the scholastic logic. In 1649 he was proclaimed a rebel and 
traitor at the Cross of Edinburgh for taking part in the abortive 
rising at Inverness on behalf of Charles II. in that year; but 
no active proceedings were taken against him. He took part 
in the march to Worcester, and was there wounded and taken 
prisoner. His MSS. were destroyed after the battle, with the 
exception of a few pages of the preface to his Universal Language. 
Urquhart was imprisoned in the Tower and at Windsor, but 
was released by Cromwell's orders in 1651. He published in 
rapid succession during 1652 and 1653 three tracts with quaint 
titles and quainter contents. Tiavroxpovoxavov is an amazing 
genealogy of the house of Urquhart up to Adam, with the names 
extemporized for the earlier ages in a kind of gibberish. 'E/CCTKU- 
fiaXavpov is supposed to be a treatise on the virtues of a jewel 
found in the streets of Worcester. The jewel is the recovered 
sheets of his manuscript. The defence of his system for a 
universal language was supplemented by a eulogy of the 
Scottish character, as shown in the Admirable Crichton and 
others. Finally, in Logopandecteision he again handled the 
subject of a universal language. The Translation of Rabelais 
(Books I. and II.), which Urquhart produced in 1653, is of the 
highest value as literature, and, by general testimony, one of 
the great masterpieces of translation. Though by no means a 
close rendering, it reproduces the spirit of the original with 
remarkable felicity. The translation was reprinted in 1664; 
and in 1693 that of the Third Book was added. Next to nothing is 
known of Urquhart after 1553; it is said that he sought refuge, 
like other cavaliers, on the continent, and died (1660) of a fit 
of laughing, brought on by joy at hearing of the Restoration. 

His original Works, with such scanty particulars of his life as are 
known, and with reproductions of two original and curious frontis- 
pieces, which represent him as a handsome and dandified wearer of 
full cavalier costume, were published by the Maitland Club (1834). 
See also Sir Thomas Urquhart of Cromartie, by John Willcock (1899), 
and the articles in the New Review (July 1897) and Diet. Nat. Biog. 
The Rabelais has been frequently reprinted; Peter Motteux s 
translation of the whole appeared in 1708, and Ozell's in 1737, each 
incorporating Urquhart's portions. Theodore Martin in 1838, and 
Henry Morley in 1883, published editions of Urquhart's text. 

URSA MAJOR (" THE GREAT BEAR "), in astronomy, a con- 
stellation of the northern hemisphere, supposed to be referred 
to in the Old Testament (Job ix. 9, xxxviii. 22), mentioned by 
Homer, "ApKToj 6', fy /cat a/j.a^av iiriK\rjai.v xaXeoyrat (//. 18. 487), 
Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.). 
The Greeks identified this constellation with the nymph Callisto 
(q.v.), placed in the heavens by Zeus in the form of a bear 
together with her son Areas as " bear- warder," or Arcturus (q.v.); 
they named it Arctos, the she-bear, Helice, from its turning 
round the pole-star. The Romans knew the constellation as 
Arctos or Ursa; the Arabians termed the quadrilateral, formed 
by the four stars a, ft, y, 5, Na'sh, a bier, whence it is sometimes 
known as Ferelrum majus. The Arabic name should probably 
be identified with the Hebrew name 'Ash and ' Ayish in the 
book of Job (see G. Schiaparelli, Astronomy in the Old Testament, 



1905). Ptolemy catalogued 8 stars, Tycho 7 and Hevelius 12. 
Of these, the seven brightest (a of the ist magnitude, /3, y, e, f , if 
of the 2nd magnitude, and 5 of the 3rd magnitude) constitute 
one of the most characteristic figures in the northern sky; 
they have received various names Septentriones, the wagon, 
plough, dipper and Charles's wain (a corruption of " churl's 
wain," or peasant's cart). With the Hindus these seven stars 
represented the seven Rishis. a and /3 are called the "pointers," 
since they are collinear with, or point to, the pole-star. Ursae 
majoris is a beautiful binary star, its components having magni- 
tudes 4 and 5; this star was one of the first to be recognized as 
a binary i.e. having two components revolving about their 
common centre of gravity and the first to have its orbit 
calculated, f Ursae majoris is perhaps the best known double 
star in the northern hemisphere, the larger component is itself 
a spectroscopic double. The nebula M. 97 Ursae majoris is 
of the planetary type; the earl of Rosse observed two spiral 
condensations turning in opposite directions, hence its name, 
the " Owl nebula." 

URSA MINOR (" THE LITTLE BEAR "), in astronomy, a 
constellation of the northern hemisphere, mentioned by 
Thales (7th century B.C.) and by Eudoxus and Aratus. By the 
Greeks it was sometimes named Cynoswa (Gr. KVVOS, dog's; 
obpa, tail), alleging this to be one of the dogs of Callisto, who 
became Ursa major. The Phoenicians named it Phoenice, or 
the Phoenician constellation, possibly in allusion to the fact 
that the brightest star is a Ursae minoris or the pole-star, 
which being situated very close to the north pole is of incalcul- 
able service to navigators. Ptolemy catalogued 8 stars, Tycho 
Brahe 7 and Hevelius 12. a Ursae minoris, more generally 
known as the pole-star or Polaris, a star of the 2nd magnitude, 
describes a circle of 2 25' daily about the north pole; it has a 
9th-magnitude companion, and is also a spectroscopic binary. 

URSINS, MARIE ANNE DE LA TREMOILLE, PRINCESS DES 
(1642-1722), lady of the Spanish court, was the daughter of the 
duke of Noirmontier and his wife Renee Julie Aubri. She was 
born in 1642, and was married young to Adrien Blaise de 
Talleyrand, Prince de Chalais. Her husband, having been 
concerned in the duel of four against four, in which the duke 
of Beauvilliers was killed in 1663, was compelled to fly the 
country. He died soon afterwards in Spain, and his widow 
established herself in Rome. In 1675 she married Flavio 
Orsini, duke of Bracciano. The marriage was far from har- 
monious, but her husband left her his fortune. It brought her 
a series of lawsuits and troubles with Livio Odescalchi, who 
claimed that he had been adopted by the duke. At last the 
widow sold the title and estates to Odescalchi. She then 
assumed the title of Princess des Ursins, a corruption of Orsini, 
and was tacitly allowed to use it, though it had no legal exist- 
ence. The Princess des Ursins had indulged in a great deal of 
unofficial diplomacy at Rome, more particularly with Nea- 
politans and Spaniards of rank, whom it was desirable to secure 
as French partisans in view of the approaching death of Charles 
II. of Spain, and the plans of Louis XIV. for placing his family 
on the Spanish throne. Her services were rewarded in 1699 by 
a pension which her spendthrift habits made necessary to her. 
When Philip, duke of Anjou, grandson of the French king, was 
declared heir by the will of Charles II., the princess took an 
active part in arranging his marriage with a daughter of the 
duke of Savoy. Her ambition was to secure the post of 
Camarera Mayor, or chief of the household to the young queen, 
a mere child of twelve. By quiet diplomacy, and the help of 
Madame de Maintenon, she succeeded, and in 1701 she accom- 
panied the young queen to Spain. Till 1714 she was the most 
powerful person in the country. Her functions about the king 
and queen were almost those of a nurse. Her letters show that 
she had to put them to bed at night, and get them up in the 
morning. She gives a most amusing description of her em- 
barrassments when she had to enter the royal bedroom, laden 
with articles of clothing and furniture. But if the Camarera 
Mayor did the work of a domestic servant, it was for a serious 
political purpose. She was expected to look after French 



URSINUS URSULA, ST 



803 



interests in the palace, and to manage the Spanish nobles, many 
of whom were of the Austrian party, and who were generally 
opposed to foreign ways, or to interferences with the absurdly 
elaborate etiquette of the Spanish court. Madame des Ursins 
was resolved not to be a mere agent of Versailles. During the 
first period of her tenure of office she was in frequent conflict 
with the French ambassadors, who claimed the right of sitting 
in the council and of directing the government. Madame des 
Ursins wisely held that the young king should rely as much as 
possible on his Spanish subjects. In 1704 her enemies at the 
French court secured her recall. But she still had the support 
of Madame de Maintenon, and her own tact enabled her to 
placate Louis XIV. In 1705 she returned to Spain, with a free 
hand, and with what was practically the power to name her own 
ministry. During the worst times of the war of the Spanish 
Succession she was the real head of the Bourbon party, and was 
well aided by the spirited young queen of Philip V. She did 
not hesitate to quarrel even with such powerful personages as 
the Cardinal Archbishop of Toledo, Portocarrero, when they 
proved hostile, but she was so far from offending the pride of 
the nation, that when in 1 709 Louis the XIV., severely pressed by 
the allies, threatened, or pretended, to desert the cause of his 
grandson, she dismissed all Frenchmen from the court and 
threw the king on the support of the Castilians. Her influence 
on the sovereigns was so strong that it would probably have 
lasted all through her life, but for the death of the queen. 
Madame des Ursins confesses in her voluminous correspondence 
that she made herself a burden to the king in her anxiety to 
exclude him from all other influence. She certainly rendered 
him ridiculous by watching him as if he were a child. Philip 
was too weak to break the yoke himself, and could only insist 
that he should be supplied with a wife. Madame des Ursins 
was persuaded by Alberoni to arrange a marriage with Eliza- 
beth Farnese of Parma, hoping to govern the new queen as she 
had done the old. Elizabeth had, however, stipulated that she 
should be allowed to dismiss the Camarera Mayor. Madame 
des Ursins, who had gone to meet the new queen at Quadraque 
near the frontier, was driven from her presence with insult, and 
sent out of Spain without being allowed to change her court 
dress, in such bitter weather that the coachman lost his hand by 
frostbite. After a short stay in France, she went to Italy, and 
finally established herself in Rome, where she had the satis- 
faction of meeting Alberoni after his fall, and where she died on 
the sth of December 1722. Madame des Ursins has the credit 
of having begun to check the overgrown power of the church 
and the Inquisition in Spain, and of having attempted to bring 
the finances to order. 

A readable life of Madame des Ursins was published in Paris in 
1858 by N. F. Combes, and there is an English life by C. Hill, The 
Princess des Ursins in Spain (London, 1899). See her Lettres 
infdites, edited by A. Geoffrey (Paris, 1859), and her correspondence 
with Madame de Maintenon (Paris, 1826). 

URSINUS, ZACHARIAS (1534-1583), German theologian, and 
one of the authors of the Heidelberg Catechism (q.v.), was born 
at Breslau on the i8th of July 1534, and became a disciple of 
Melanchthon at Wittenberg. He afterwards studied divinity 
at Geneva under Calvin, and Hebrew at Paris under Jean 
Mercier. In 1561 he was appointed professor in the Collegium 
Sapientiae at Heidelberg, where in 1563 at the instance of the 
elector-palatine, Frederick III., he drew up the Catechism in 
co-operation with Kaspar Olevian. The death of the elector 
in 1576 led to the removal of Ursinus, who from 1578 till his 
death in 1583 occupied a professorial chair at Neustadt-an- 
der-Haardt. 

His Works were published in 1587-89, and a more complete edition 
by his son and two of his pupils, Pareus and Reuterus, in 1612. 

URSULA, ST, and her companions, virgins and martyrs, 
are commemorated by the Roman Catholic church on the 2ist 
of October. The Breviary gives no legend; but in current 
works, such as Butler's Lives of the Saints, it is to the effect that 
" these holy martyrs seem ... to have met a glorious death 
in defence of their virginity from the army of the Huns. . . . 



They came originally from Britain, and Ursula was the con- 
ductor and encourager of the holy troop. " The scene of the 
martyrdom is placed near the lower Rhine. 

The date has been assigned by different writers to 238, c. 283 
and c. 451. The story, however, is unknown both to Jerome 
and to Gregory of Tours and this though the latter gives a 
somewhat detailed description of the Cologne church dedicated 
to that Theban legion with which the tradition of the martyred 
virgins was very early associated. The story of their fate is 
not entered under 2ist October in the martyrology of Bede 
(ob. c. 735), of Ado (c. 858), of Usuard (ante 877), Notker Bal- 
bulus (896) or Hrabanus Maurus (845); but a 9th-century 
life of St Cunibert (ob. 663) associates a prominent incident 
in the life of this saint with the basilica of the sacred virgins 
at Cologne (Surius vi. 275, ed. 1575). Not only does Arch- 
bishop Wichfrid attest a grant to the church of the sacred virgins 
outside the walls of Cologne (in 927), but he was a large donor 
in his own person. Still earlier a Cologne martyrology, written, 
as Binterim (who edited it in 1824) argues, between 889 and 891, 
has the following entry under 2ist October: " xi. virg. Ursule 
Sencie Gregorie Pinose Marthe Saule Britule Satnine Rabacie 
Saturie Paladie." Much shorter entries are found in two of the 
old martyrologies printed in Migne (cxxxviii. 1207, 1275). A 
more definite allusion to the legend may be found (c. 850) in 
Wandelbert of Priim's metrical martyrology (2ist October): 

" Tune numerpsa simul Rheni per Httpra fulgent 
Christo virgines erecta tropaea maniplis 
Agrippinae urbi, quarum furor impius olim 
Millia mactavit ductricibus inclyta sanctis." 

The full legend first makes its appearance in a festival dis- 
course (sermo) for the 2ist of October, written, as internal 
evidence seems to show, between 731 and 839. This sermo 
does not mention St Ursula, but makes Pinnosa or Vinnosa the 
leader of these spiritual " amazons," who, to avoid Maximian's 
persecution, left their island home of Britain, following their 
bridegroom Christ towards that East whence their faith had 
come a hundred years before. The concurrent traditions of 
Britain, Batavia, i.e. the Netherlands (where many chapels 
still preserved their memory), and Cologne are called in evidence 
to prove the same origin. The legend was already very old 
and the festival " nobis omni tempore celeberrima "; but, as 
all written documents had disappeared since the burning of the 
early church erected over the sacred bones, the preacher could 
only appeal to the continuous and careful memory of the society 
to which he belonged (nostrates).- Even in his time there were 
sceptics who pointed dubiously to the full-grown bones of 
" widows " and of men among the so-called virgin relics. The 
author of the sermo pointedly rejects the two theories that 
connected the holy virgins with the Theban band and brought 
them as pilgrims from the East to the West; but he adds that 
even in his days there still existed an inscription in the church, 
showing how it had been restored from its foundations by a 
certain " Clematius, vir consularis, ex parlibus Orientis." 

Two or three centuries later the Passio XI. MM. SS. Vir- 
ginum, based apparently on the revelations made to Helen- 
trude, a nun of Heerse near Paderborn, gives a wonderful in- 
crease of detail. The narrative in its present form may date 
somewhere between 900 and 1 100, while Helentrude apparently 
flourished before 1050. According to her account, the son of a 
powerful pagan king demands in marriage Ursula, the beautiful 
daughter of Deonotus, a king " in partibus Britanniae." Ursula 
is warned by a dream to demand a respite of three years, during 
which time her companions are to be 11,000 virgins collected 
from both kingdoms. After vigorous exercise in all kinds of 
manly sports, to the admiration of the populace, they are carried 
off by a sudden breeze in eleven triremes to Thiel on the Waal 
in Gelderland. Thence they sail up the Rhine by way of 
Cologne to Basel, at which place they make fast their vessels 
and proceed on foot to Rome. Returning, they re-enter their 
ships at Basel, but are slaughtered by the Huns when they 
reach Cologne. Their relics are then collected and buried 
" sicut hodie illic est cernere," in a spot where " to this day " 



8 04 



URSULINES URSWICK 



no meaner sepulture is permitted. Then follows the usual allu- 
sion to Clematius; the date is expressly fixed at 238, and 
the whole revelation is seemingly ascribed to St Cordula, one 
of the 11,000 who, after escaping death on the first day 
by hiding in one of the vessels, on the morrow gave her- 
self up to death of her own accord. Towards the beginning of 
the 1 2th century Sigebert of Gembloux (ob. 1112) gives a brief 
risumS of the same story. He is the first to introduce the name 
of Attila, and dates the occurrence 453. 

Passing over the visions and exhumations of the first half 
of the 1 2th century, we come to the singular revelations of 
St Elizabeth of Schonau. These revelations, delivered in 
Latin, German or a mixed jargon of both languages, were 
turned into simple Latin by Elizabeth's brother Egbert, from 
whose words it would seem that in 1156 an old Roman burial- 
ground had lately been laid open near Cologne. The cemetery 
was naturally associated with the legend of St Ursula; and, 
this identification once accepted, it is not unlikely that when 
more careful investigations revealed male skeletons and tomb- 
stones bearing the names of men, other and more definite 
epitaphs were invented to reconcile the old traditions with the 
facts of such a damaging discovery. Hence perhaps the bare- 
faced imposture: " Cyriacus, papa Romanus, qui cum gaudio 
suscepit sanctas virgines et cum eis Coloniam reversus mar- 
tyrium suscepit." One or two circumstantial forgeries of this kind 
would form the basis of a scheme for explaining not a few other 
problems of the case, such as the plain inscription " Jacobus," 
whom St Elizabeth promptly transformed into a supposititious 
British archbishop of Antioch, brother to the equally imaginary 
British Pope Cyriacus. For these epitaphs, with others of a 
humbler kind, were brought before St Elizabeth to be identified 
in her ecstatic converse with St Verena, her cousin St Ursula, 
and others. Elizabeth herself at times distrusted her own revela- 
tions: there was no Cyriac hi the list of the popes; Antherus, 
who was said to be his successor (235-36), died more than 
two centuries before Attila, to whom common report assigned 
the massacre; and it was hardly credible that James of 
Antioch could cut 11,000 epitaphs in less than three days. 
Every doubt, however, was met by the invention of a new 
and still more improbable detail. According to St Verena, the 
virgins suffered when Maximus and " Africanus " were principes 
at Rome (? 387-88). 

In 1183 the mantle of St Elizabeth fell upon Hermann Joseph, 
a Praemonstratensian canon at Steinfeld. He had to solve a 
more difficult problem than St Elizabeth's; for the skeletons of 
little children, ranging in age from two months to seven years, had 
now been found buried with the sacred virgins. But even 
such a difficulty Hermann explains away: the little children 
were brothers, sisters or more distant relatives of the 
11,000. Hermann's revelations are mainly taken up with an 
attempt to show the mutual relationship of nearly all the 
characters he introduces. The names are a most extraordinary 
mixture. Among British bishops we have Michael, William, 
James and Columbanus. Sovereign princes an Oliver, a 
Clovis and a Pepin start out in every page, till the writer 
finds it necessary to apologize for the number of his kings and 
his own blunders. But, for all this, Hermann exposes his own 
doubts when he tells that often, as he was preparing to write, 
he heard a voice bidding him lay down the pen, " for whatever 
you write will be an unmixed lie." Hermann makes St Ursula 
a native of Brittany, and so approximates to the version of 
the story given by Geoffrey of Monmouth (Historic, Britonum), 
according to whom Maximian, after fleeing from Rome and 
acquiring Britain by marriage, proceeds to conquer Brittany and 
settle it with men from the island opposite. For these settlers 
he has to find British wives, and to this end collects 11,000 
noble and 60,000 plebeian virgins, who are wrecked on their 
passage across. Certain of the vessels being driven upon " bar- 
barous islands," their passengers are slain by Guanius and Melga, 
" kings of the Huns and Picts," whom Gratian had called in 
to his aid against Maximian. In this version St Ursula is 
a daughter of Dionotus, king of Cornwall. Hermann alludes 



more than once to the Historia Britonum, and even to King 
Arthur. 

The legend of St Ursula is perhaps the most curious instance 
of the development of an ecclesiastical myth. Even in the 
earliest form known to us this legend is probably the complex 
growth of centuries, and any claim to the discovery of the first 
germ can hardly approve itself to the historic sense. These 
remarks apply especially to that venerable rationalization which 
evolves the whole legend from a misreading of UndecimUla, 
the name of Ursula's companion, into undecim millia, i.e. 11,000. 
A more modern theory makes St Ursula the Christianized 
representative of the old Teutonic goddess Freya, who, in 
Thuringia, under the name of Horsel or Ursel, and in Sweden 
Old Urschel, welcomed the souls of dead maidens. Not a few 
singular coincidences seem to point in the same direction, 
especially the two virgins, " Martha and Saula," whom Usuard 
states to have suffered " cum aliis pluribus " on the 2oth of 
October, whence they were probably transferred to the 2ist. 
It is curious to note that Jerome and many of the earliest 
martyrologies extant have on the 2ist of October the entry, 
" Dasius Zoticus, Gaius cum duodecim militibus." Even in 
copies of Jerome this is transformed into millibus; and it is 
perhaps not impossible that to this misreading we may indirectly 
owe the " thousands " in the Ursula legend. The two entries 
seem to be mutually exclusive in all the early martyrologies 
mentioned in this article, and in those printed in Migne, cxxxvii. 
The earlier " Dasius " entry seems to disappear steadily, 
though slowly, as the Ursula legend works its way into current 
martyrologies. 

See H. Crombach, Vita et Martyrium S. Ursulae (Cologne, 1647), 
and the Bollandist Acla Sanctorum, 2 1st October, where the story 
fills 230 folio pages. The rationalization of the story is to be found 
in Oscar Schade, Die Sage von der he-Uigen Ursula (Hanover, 1854), 
of which there is a short resume in S. Baring-Gould's Lives of the 
Saints. See also S. Baring-Gould, Popular Myths of the Middle 
Ages; A. G. Stein, Die Heilige Ursula (Cologne, 1879). The 
credibility of some of the details was doubted as early as the isth 
century by Jacobus de Voragine in the Legenda aurea. For further 
works, especially medieval, see A. Potthast, Bibliolheca hist. med. 
aevi (Berlin, 1896), p. 1616. (T. A. A.; A. J. G.) 

URSULINES, a religious order founded at Brescia by Angela 
Merici (1470-1 540) in November 1 53 5, primarily for the education 
of girls and the care of the sick and needy. It was approved 
in 1544 by Paul III., and in 1572 Gregory XIII., at the instance 
of Charles Borromeo, declared it a religious order under the 
rule of St Augustine. In the following century it was powerfully 
encouraged and supported by St Francis of Sales. In most 
cases, especially in France, the sisters adopted enclosure and 
took solemn vows; they were called the " religious " Ursulines 
as distinct from the " congregated " Ursulines, who preferred 
to follow the original plan. There were Ursulines in Canada 
in 1639, who taught the catechism to Indian children, and 
subsequently helped to preserve a religious spirit among the 
French population and to humanize the Indians and half-breeds. 
Towards the beginning of the i8th century, the period of its 
greatest prosperity, the order embraced some 20 congregations, 
with 350 convents and from 15,000 to 20,000 nuns. The 
members wear a black dress bound by a leathern girdle, a black 
sleeveless cloak, and a close-fitting head-dress with a white veil 
and a longer black veil. Their patron is the St Ursula mentioned 
above. The founder was beatified by Clement VIII. in 1768 
and canonized as St Agnes of Brescia by Pius VII. in 1807. 
The Irish Ursulines were established at Cork in 1771 by Miss 
Nano Nagle. The Ursulines do not increase now as rapidly 
as they did, congregations taking simple vows like the Sisters 
of Mercy being apparently more adapted to modern needs. 

URSWICK, CHRISTOPHER (1448-1522), English diplomatist, 
was born at Furness in Lancashire and was probably educated 
at Cambridge. He became chaplain to Margaret, countess of 
Richmond and Derby, and was employed by her to forward the 
schemes for securing the English throne for her son, Henry of 
Richmond, afterwards Henry VII. He crossed from Harfleui 
to Wales with Henry in August 1485, and was present at the 



URTICACEAE URUGUAY 



805 



battle of Bosworth; then followed for him a series of ecclesi- 
astical preferments, the most important of which was to the 
deanery of York. He was sent on several weighty embassies, 
including one to Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain to arrange 
the marriage between Prince Arthur and Catherine of Aragon, 
and another to France in 1492, when he signed the treaty of 
Etaples. In 1495 he became dean of Windsor, and he died 
on the 24th of March 1522. Urswick was very friendly with 
Erasmus and with Sir Thomas More. He did some building 
at Windsor, and one of the chapels in St George's chapel there 
is still called the Urswick chapel. Urswick's kinsman, Sir 
Thomas Urswick, was a Yorkist partisan, who was recorder of 
London and chief baron of the exchequer. 

See Urswick, Records of the Family of Urwick or Urswick (1893). 

URTICACEAE (nettle family), in botany, an order of 
Dicotyledons belonging to the series Urticiflorae, which includes 
also Ulmaceae (elm family), Moraceae (mulberry, fig, &c.) 
and Cannabinaceae (hemp and hop). It contains 41 genera, 
with about 500 species, mainly tropical, though several species 
such as the common stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) are widely 
distributed and occur in large numbers in temperate climates. 
Two genera are represented in the British Isles, Urtica (see 
NETTLE) and Parietaria (pellitory, q.v.). 

The plants are generally herbs or somewhat shrubby, rarely, as 
in some tropical genera, forming a bush or tree. The simple, 
often serrated, leaves have sometimes an alternate sometimes an 
opposite arrangement and are usually stipulate-^-exstipulate in 
Parietaria. The position of the stipules vanes in different genera; 
thus in Urtica they are lateral and distinct from the leaf-stalk, in 
other cases they are attached on the base of the leaf-stalk or stand 
in the leaf-axil when they are more or less united. Stinging hairs 
often occur on the stem and leaves (fig. i). The bast-fibres of the 





FIG. 2. Male Flowerof the 
Nettle ( Urtica). The four 
sepals are arranged sym- 
metrically, an outer 
median and an inner 
lateral pair. A stamen 
is opposite each sepal, 
and in the centre of the 
flower is the rudiment of 
a pistil. 




From Strasburger's Lehrbuck 
dfr Botanih, by permission 
of Gustav Fischer. 



From Vines's Students' Texl- 
Book of Botany, by permission 
of Swan Sonnenschein & Co. 

FIG. 3. A staminal dj"), 
B carpellary (?) flower 
of the Nettle, p, peri- 
anth; a, stamen; n', 
rudimentary ovary of 
the<^ flower; ap, outer, 
ip, inner, whorl of the 
perianth; n, stigma of 
the 9 flower (enlarged). 



FIG. I. Stinging Hair 
of Urtica dioica, with 
a portion of the epi- 
dermis, and, to the 
right, a small bristle 
(X6o). 

stem are generally long and firmly attached end to end, and hence 
of great value for textile use. Thus in ramie (q.v., Boehmeria nivea) 
a single fibre may reach nearly 9 in. in length, and in stinging nettle 
as much as 3 in. The small inconspicuous regular flowers (figs. 3 
and 4) are arranged in definite (cymose) inflorescences of ten crowded 



into head-like clusters. They are unisexual and monoecious or 
dioecious. The four or five green perianth leaves (or sepals) are 
free or more or less united; the male flowers (fig. 2) contain as 
many stamens, opposite the sepals, which bend inwards in the bud 




FIG. 4. Urtica urens (after Curtis, Flora Londinensis), f nat. size, 
i, male flower; 2, female flower in fruiting stage-^the dry com- 
pressed fruit 3 escaping from the persistent perianth; 4, fruit 
cut open, revealing the seed within the large straight embryo e. 
I, 2, 3, enlarged. 

stage, but when mature spring backwards and outwards, the 
anther at the same time exploding and scattering the pollen. 
The flowers are thus adapted for wind-pollination. The female 
flower contains one carpel bearing one style with a brush-like 
stigma and containing a single erect ovule. The fruit is dry and 
one-seeded; it is often enclosed within the persistent perianth. 
The straight embryo is surrounded by a rich oily endosperm. 

URUGUAY (officially the Oriental Republic of the Uruguay, 
and long locally called the Banda Oriental, meaning the land 
on the eastern side of the river Uruguay, from which the country 
takes its name), the smallest independent state in South 
America. It runs conterminous with the southern border of 
Brazil, and lies between 30 and 35 S. and between 53 25' 
and 57 42' W. (for map, see ARGENTINA). It has a seaboard 
on the Atlantic Ocean of 120 m., a shore-line to the south 
on the Rio de la Plata of 235 m., and one of 270 m. along 
the Uruguay on the west. The boundaries separating it from 
Rio Grande do Sul, a province of Brazil, are Lake Mirim, the 
rivers Chuy, Jaguarao and Quarahy, and a cuchilla or low 
range of hills called Santa Ana. The extent of the northern 
frontier is 450 m. The southern half of the country is mostly 
undulating grass land, well watered by streams and springs. 
The northern section is more broken and rugged; barren 
ridges and low rocky mountain-ranges, interspersed with 
fertile valleys, being its characteristic features. There is no 
forest, timber of any size being found only in the valleys near 
running water. Uruguay is intersected nearly from west to 
north-east by the river Negro and its affluent the Yi. The 
Uruguay is navigable all the year by steamers from the island 



8o6 



URUGUAY 



of Martin Garcia at the mouth to Salto (200 m.). Above 
this place the navigation is interrupted by rapids. The 
ordinary volume of water in the Uruguay averages n millions 
of cub. ft. per minute. Excluding the Uruguay, the Negro, of 
which the principal port is Mercedes, is the principal navigable 
river. Others are navigable only for short distances by 
steamers of light draught. Besides the rivers mentioned, 
the chief streams are the Santa Lucia, which falls into the 
Plata a little west of Montevideo; the Queguay, in Paysandu; 
and the Cebollati, rising in the sierras in Minas and flowing 
into Lake Mirim. These rivers as well as the Uruguay are 
fed by innumerable smaller streams or arroyos, such as the 
Arapey in Salto, the Dayman in Paysandu, the Jaguary (an 
affluent of the Negro) in Tacuarembo, the Arroyo Grande 
between the departments of Soriano and San Jose, and the 
San Jose (an affluent of the Santa Lucia). None of the sierras 
or mountains in Uruguay exceeds (or perhaps even attains) 
a height of 2000 ft.; but, contrasting in their tawny colour 
with the grassy undulating plains, they loom high and are often 
picturesque. They are ramifications of the highlands of Brazil. 
The main chains are the Cuchilla de Haedo on the north and 
west and the Cuchilla Grande on the south and east. 

Geology. Little is known of the geology of Uruguay. There is a 
foundation of schists and crystalline rocks upon which rests a series 
of sandstones.' The latter is, no doubt, identical with the similar 
sandstone series which is found in the neighbouring Brazilian 
province of Rio Grande do Sul, and which has there yielded plants 
which prove it to belong to the Permian or the upper part of the 
Carboniferous. The plains are covered by a formation similar to 
that of the Argentine pampas and by the alluvial deposits of the 
present rivers. 

Climate. Uruguay enjoys the reputation of possessing one of the 
most healthy climates in the world The geographical position 
ensures uniformity of temperature throughout the year, the summer 
heat being tempered by the Atlantic breezes, and severe cold in the 
winter season being unknown. Endemic diseases are unknown and 
epidemics are rare. In the interior, away from the sea and the 
snores of the great rivers, the temperature frequently rises in 
summer to 86 F. and in winter falls to 35-6. In the districts 
bordering on the coast the thermometer seldom falls below 37; 
and only for a few moments and at long intervals has it been known 
to rise as high as 105. The annual rainfall is about 43 in. 

Flora. The pastoral wealth of Uruguay, as of the neighbouring 
Argentine Republic, is due to the fertilizing constituents of " pampa 
mud," geologically associated with gigantic antediluvian animals, 
whose fossil remains are abundant. The country is rich in hard 
woods, suitable for cabinet work and certain building purposes. 
The principal trees are the alder, aloe, palm, poplar, acacia, willow 
and eucalyptus. The mantes, by which are understood plantations 
as well as native thickets, produce among other woods the algarrobo, 
a poor imitation of oak; the guayabo, a substitute for boxwood; 
the quebracho, of which the red kind is compared to sandalwood ; 
and the urunday, black and white, not unlike rosewood. Indigenous 
palms grow in the valleys of the Sierra Jos6 Ignacio, also to some 
extent in the departments of Minas, Maldonado and Paysandu. 
The myrtle, rosemary, mimosa and the scarlet-flowered ceibo are 
common. The valleys within the hill ranges are fragrant with 
aromatic shrubs. In the plains below, the swards are gay with the 
scarlet and white verbena and other brilliant wild flowers. The 
country abounds in medicinal plants. The sarsaparilla even colours 
the water of the Rio Negro and gives it its name the " black river." 

Fauna.' Among wild animals the tiger or ounce called in the 
Guarani language the ja-gud or " big dog " and the puma are 
found on the frontier of Brazil and on the wooded islets and banks of 
the larger rivers. The tapir, fox, deer, wild cat, wild dog, carpincho 
or water hog and a few small rodents nearly complete the list of 
quadrupeds. A little armadillo, the mulita, is the living repre- 
sentative of the antediluvian giants Mylodon, Megatherium, &c. 
The ostrich Rhea americana roams everywhere in the plains; 
and there are a few specimens of the vulture tribe, a native crow 
(lean, tall and ruffed), partridges and quails. Parakeets are plentiful 
in the mantes, and the lagoons swarm with waterfowl. The most 
esteemed is the pato real, a large duck. Of the birds of bright 
plumage the humming-bird and the cardinal the scarlet, the 
yellow and the white are the most attractive. The fish of the 
lagoons and streams are coarse, and some of them primitive in type ; 
but two or three kinds, found generally in the large rivers, are much 
prized. The varieties of fish on the sea coast are many and excellent. 
More than 2000 species of insects have been classified. The scorpion 
is rare, but large and venomous spiders are common. The principal 
reptiles are a lizard, a tortoise, the vivora de la cruz (a dangerous 
viper, so called from marks like a cross on its head) and the rattle- 
snake in Maldonado and the stony lands of Minas. 



Departments. 


Area, 
Sq. Miles. 


Population, 
1908. 


Artigas 


4.392 


26,298 


Canelones 


1,833 


87,931 


Cerro Largo 


5-753 


44,806 


Colonia 


2,192 


54,679 


Durazno 


5-525 


42,313 


Flores 


1.744 


16,158 


Florida 


4,763 


45,393 


Maldonado 


1,584 


28,804 


Minas 


4,844 


51,170 


Montevideo 


256 


309,231 


Paysandu 


5,"5 


38,528 


Rio Negro 


3,269 


19,909 




^.7QO 


^S 6s^ 


Rocha 


O> / s 
4,28O 


OO' JJ 

34.no 


Salto . . .... 


4.863 


46,304 


San Jos<5 


2,687 


46,267 


Soriano 


3.560 


39.431 


Tacuarembo 


8,074 


46,927 


Treinta-y-Tres 


3,686 


28,756 


Total . 


72,210 


1,042,668 



Area and Population. The area of the republic is estimated 
at 72,210 sq. m., and has a population of 1,042,668 according 
to the census of 1908 (in 1900 it was 915,647). The country 
is divided into 19 departments, the area and the population 
of which, according to the census of 1908, are given in the 
subjoined table: 



The average density of population on the above figures is 
12-9 per sq. m., ranging (exclusive of Montevideo) from 47-9 
in Canelones to 5-8 in Tacuarembo and 6 in Artigas. The 
great majority of the foreign population are Italians or 
Spaniards, with lesser numbers, in descending scale, of Brazilian, 
Argentine and French birth. British, Swiss and Germans are 
comparatively few. In 1907, 26,105 Italian immigrants arrived, 
21,927 Spanish, 2355 British, 2315 French and 1823 German. 

The natives of Uruguay, though living in conditions similar 
to those of the Argentine population, are in general more 
reserved, showing more of the Indian type and less of the 
Spaniard. In the north there is a strong Brazilian element 
and the people are intensely conservative. The average annual 
birth-rate is about 35 per 1000, and the death-rate about 15-5. 
About 26% of the births are illegitimate. The principal 
towns are Montevideo, Salto, Paysandu and San Jose. 

Agriculture. The condition of agriculture is fairly satisfactory. 
In 1885 Uruguay imported most of her breadstuffs; now not only 
is wheat grown in sufficient quantities to meet the local demand, 
but a surplus (about 20,000 metric tons in 1908-9) is annually 
available for export. Land for farming purposes is expensive, and 
wages are high, leaving small profit, unless it happens that a man, 
with his family to assist him, works his own land. The farmers are 
chiefly Italians, Canary Islanders and Frenchmen. The principal 
crops in addition to wheat are oats, barley, maize, linseed and bird 
seed. Since 1890 the cultivation of the grape and the manufacture 
of wine have considerably extended, especially in the department 
of Salto, Montevideo, Canelones and Colonia. Red wine, a smaller 
quantity of white, grape alcohol and wine alcohol are produced. 
The olive-planting industry is becoming important ; the trees thrive 
well, and the area devoted to their cultivation is annually increasing. 
Tobacco is also cultivated. 

Cattle-breeding and sheep-farming, however, are the principal 
industries. The lands are admirably adapted for cattle-breeding 
purposes, although not capable of fattening animals. The cattle 
are destined chiefly for thesaladero establishments for the prepara- 
tion of tasajo, or jerked beef, for the Brazilian and Cuban markets, 
and for the Liebig factory, where large quantities of extract of meat 
are prepared for the European trade. Cattle-breeding is carried 
on in all parts of the republic, but chiefly in the departments of 
Salto, Paysandii and Rio Negro. In the southern districts, where 
the farmers are Europeans, the breed of cattle is being steadily 
improved by the introduction of Durham and Hereford bulls. 
Dairy-farming is making some progress, especially in the Swiss 
colony near San ]os&. 

Sheep-farming flourishes chiefly in Durazno and Soriano. 
Uruguayan wool is favourably regarded in foreign markets, on 
account of the clean state in which it is shipped, this being largely 
due to the natural conditions of the land and climate. The business 
of shipping live sheep and frozen mutton has not been attempted 



URUGUAY 



807 



on a large scale, owing principally to the lack of facilities for loading 
at the port of Montevideo or elsewhere. 

Mining. Minerals are known to exist in the northern section 
of the republic, and gold-mining is carried on to a small extent. 
Expert opinions have been advanced stating that gold-mining in 
Uruguay is capable of development into an important industry. 
The other minerals found are silver, lead, copper, magnesium and 
lignite coal. 

Commerce. The economic development of Uruguay was re- 
tarded by the corruption of successive governments, by revolu- 
tionary outbreaks, by the seizure of farm stock, without adequate 
compensation, for the support of military forces, by the consequences 
of reckless borrowing and over-trading in 1889 and 1890, and also 
by the transference of commercial undertakings from Montevideo 
to Buenos Aires between 1890 and 1897, on the opening of the har- 
bour and docks at that port. The annual value of the imports 
(4-7 dollars taken at i) was 5,101,740 in 1900 and 7,365,703 in 
1908; that of exports was 6,257,600 in 1900 and 7,932,026 in 
1908. 

The principal imports consist of machinery, textiles and clothing, 
food substances and beverages, and live stock. The chief exports 
are animal products and agricultural products. Of the imports 
about 27% in value are from Great Britain, 14% from Germany, 
and smaller proportions from France, Argentina, Italy, Spain, the 
United States and Belgium. Of the exports, France, Argentina, 
Belgium and Germany take the bulk. Trade is controlled by 
foreigners, the British being prominent in banking, finance, railway 
work and the higher branches of commerce; Spaniards, Italians 
and French in the wholesale and retail trade. Uruguayans find an 
insignificant place in commerce. The foreign trade passes mainly 
through Montevideo, where the port has been greatly improved. 

In addition to the natural lines of communication provided by 
the rivers bordering on or belonging to the republic, there are about 
2240 m. of national road, besides more than 3000 m. of departmental 
roads. The railways had a length of 1380 m. open for traffic, and 
the system is steadily extending. There are over 170 m. of tramway 
in operation. 

Government. The legislative power of the state rests with 
the general assembly, consisting of two chambers, one of 
senators (19 in number) and one of representatives (75). The 
deputies of the lower house are elected for three years directly 
by the people, one deputy for every 3000 male adults who can 
read and write. One senator is named for each department 
by an electoral college, whose members are elected directly 
by the people. The senators are elected for six years, and 
one-third of their number retire every two years. The executive 
power is exercised by the president of the republic, who is 
elected by the general assembly for a four years' term. He is 
assisted by a council of ministers representing the departments 
of the interior, foreign affairs, finance, war and marine, industry, 
labour and instruction and public works. Each department 
or province of the republic has a governor appointed by the 
executive, and an administrative council, whose members are 
chosen by popular vote. The judicial power is vested in a 
high court and many subordinate courts. The general assembly 
elects the five judges who compose the high court. There are 
civil, commercial and criminal courts in Montevideo, a depart- 
mental court in each departmental capital, and a justice of the 
peace in each of 205 judicial districts into which the republic 
is divided, with sub-district courts under deputy judges in 
addition. The administration of justice in Uruguay has long 
been of bad repute. It was reformed on the above lines in 1907. 

Education is much neglected, and the public-school system is 
inefficient. The attendance of children at the schools is small, 
and the instruction they receive is inferior. Primary instruction 
is nominally obligatory; nevertheless at the beginning of the 2oth 
century nearly half the population over six years of age was illiterate. 
Montevideo possesses a university and a number of preparatory 
schools, a state-supported technical school and a military college. 
The state religion is Roman Catholic, and there is an archbishop 
of Montevideo with two suffragan bishops. A number of semin- 
aries are maintained throughout the republic. Other religions are 
tolerated. 

Army. There is a standing army with a peace strength of about 
7000 officers and men. Service is nominally voluntary, though it 
appears that a certain amount of compulsion is exercised. In 
addition to this there is compulsory service in the National Guard 
(a) in the first class, consisting of men between seventeen and thirty 
years of age, liable for service with the standing army, and number- 
ing some 15,000; (6) in the second class, for departmental service 
only, except in so far as it may be drawn upon to make up losses 
in the more active units in time of war, consisting of men from thirty 
to forty-five years of age, and (c) in the third class, for local garrison 



Years. 


Revenue. 


Expenditure. 


1894-1895 
1899-1900 
1904-1905 
1909-1910' 


3,403-324 
3,236,300 
3,438,300 
4,971,660 


3,438,510 
4,704,500 



duty, consisting of men between forty-five and sixty years old. 
The army and guard are well equipped with modern arms. 

Finance. Of the national revenue nearly half is derived from 
customs duties, taxes being levied also on real estate, licences, 
tobacco, stamped paper and in other ways. Nearly half the ex- 
penditure goes to meet debt charges, while government, internal 
development and defence absorb most of the remainder. The 
receipts for the years specified were as follows, Uruguayan dollars 
being converted into sterling at the par value, 4-7 = 1 : 



1 Estimate. 

In 1891, when the debt of the republic amounted to $87,789,973, 
or about 18,678,710, the government suspended payment of 
interest, and an arrangement was made with the bondholders. A 
new consolidated debt of 20,500,000 was issued at 3J % interest, 
and, as security for payment of interest, 45 % of the customs re- 
ceipts at Montevideo was assigned. At the same time the interest 
guaranteed to the railway companies was reduced from 7 to 3i%. 
In 1896 a 5 % loan of 1,667,000 was issued, and the debt was subse- 
quently increased, until on January I, 1909, it was 27,692,795, and 
in the same year the annual debt charge amounted to 2,185,347. 

The Bank of the Republic was established in 1896 with a nominal 
capital of $12,000,000, and in 1899 it received the right to issue 
further shares amounting to $5,000,000. Its note issue (for which 
it has an exclusive right) may not exceed the value of half the sub- 
scribed capital. Besides a number of local banks, branches of 
German, Spanish, French and several British banks are established 
in Montevideo. 

There is no Uruguayan gold coin in circulation, but the theoretical 
monetary unit is the gold peso national, weighing 1-697 grammes, 
917 fine. The silver peso weighs 25 grammes, -900 fine. A half, 
fifth and tenth of a peso are coined in silver, in addition to bronze 
coins. 

The metric system of weights and measures has been officially 
adopted, but the old Spanish system is still in general use. 

History. In 1512 Juan Diaz de Solis entered the Paranaguazu 
or " sealike " estuary of the Plata and landed about 70 miles 
east of the present city of Montevideo. Uruguay at that time 
was inhabited by Indians, of whom the dominant tribe was 
called Charrua, a people described as physically strong and 
well-formed, and endowed with a natural nobility of character. 
Their habits were simple, and they were disfigured neither by 
the worst crimes nor by the primitive superstitition of savages. 
They are said to have revealed no vestige of religion. The 
Charruas are generally classified as a yellow-skinned race, of 
the same family as the Pampa Indians; but they are also 
represented as tanned almost black by the sun and air, without 
any admixture of red or yellow in their complexions. Almost 
beardless, and with thin eyebrows, they had on their heads 
thick, black, lustrous hair, which neither fell off nor turned grey 
until extreme old age. They lived principally upon fish, venison 
and honey. In the Guarani language " Charrua " means turbu- 
lent, and by their enemies the Charruas were accounted as such, 
and even ferocious, although admitted to be generous to their 
captives. They were a curiously taciturn and reticent race. 
Their weapons were the bow and arrow and stones. 

Solis, on his second visit, 1515-1516, was slain by the Charruas 
in Colonia. Eleven years later Ramon, the lieutenant of 
Sebastian Cabot, was defeated by the same tribe. In 1603 
they destroyed in a pitched battle a veteran force of Spaniards 
under Saavedra. During the next fifty years three unsuccessful 
attempts were made by the Spaniards to subdue this courageous 
people. The real conquest of Uruguay was begun under 
Philip III. by the Jesuit missions. It was gradually con- 
summated by the military and commercial settlements of the 
Portuguese, and subsequently by the Spaniards, who estab- 
lished themselves formally in Montevideo under Governor 
Zavala of Buenos Aires in 1726, and demolished the rival Portu- 
guese settlement in Colonia in 1777. From 1750 Montevideo 
enjoyed a provincial government independent of that of Buenos 
Aires. The American rebellion, the French Revolution and the 
British invasions of Montevideo and Buenos Aires (1806-7) , under 
Generals Auchmuty(i756-i822)andJohnWhitelocke (1757-1833), 



8o8 



URUGUAYANA USEDOM 



all contributed to the extinction of the Spanish power on the 
Rio de la Plata. During the War of Independence, Montevideo 
was taken in 1814 by the Buenos-Airean general Alvear (see 
further MONTEVIDEO). A long struggle for dominion in Uruguay 
between Brazil and the revolutionary government of Buenos 
Aires was concluded hi 1828, through the mediation of Great 
Britain, Uruguay being declared a free and independent state. 
The republic was formally constituted in 1830. Subsequently 
Juan Manuel Rosas, dictator of Buenos Aires, interfered in 
the intestine quarrels of Uruguay; and Montevideo was be- 
sieged by his forces, allied with the native partisans of General 
Oribe, for nine years (1843-52). 

After the declaration of independence the history of Uruguay 
becomes a record of intrigues, financial ruin, and political folly 
and crime. The two great political factors for generations have 
been the Colorados and the Blancos. So far as political 
principles are concerned, there is small difference between them. 
Men are Colorados or Blancos largely by tradition and not 
from political conviction. The Colorados have held the govern- 
ment for many years, and the attempts of the Blancos to oust 
them have caused a series of revolutions. The military element, 
moreover, has frequently conspired to elect a president amenable 
to its demands. In 1875 General Latorre headed a conspiracy 
against President Ellauri and at first placed Dr Varela in 
power as dictator, but in 1876 proclaimed himself. In the follow- 
ing year Latorre caused himself to be elected president, but 
political unrest caused him to resign in March 1880. The 
president of the senate, Dr Vidal, nominally administered 
the government for two years, when General Santos, who had 
held the real power, became president. His administration 
was so vicious and tyrannical that the opposition organized 
a revolution. Their forces, however, were surprised by the 
government troops at Quebracho, on the Rio Negro, and 
defeated. Ultimately the Colorados themselves exiled Santos. 
He had plundered the national revenues and scorned constitu- 
tional government. The Colorados now made General Tajes 
president, the practical direction of the administration being 
in the hands of Julio Herrera y Obes. In March 1890 General 
Tajes handed over the presidency to Herrera y Obes, a clever 
but unscrupulous man, who filled every official post with his own 
friends and ensured the return of his supporters to the chamber. 
In 1891 he was obliged to suspend the service of the public 
debt and make arrangements by which the bondholders accepted 
a reduced rate of interest. The country was at this period 
conducted practically as if it were the private estate of the 
president, and no accounts of revenue or expenditure were 
vouchsafed to the public. In 1894 the Colorados nominated 
Senor Idiarte Borda for the presidency. He seemed at first 
inclined to govern honestly, but corruption soon became as 
marked as under the preceding regime. The Blancos, using 
the fraudulent elections in 1896 as a pretext, now broke out in 
armed revolt under the leadership of Aparicio Saraiva. The 
president made no attempt to conciliate them, and in March 
1897 a body of government troops suffered a reverse. On the 
25th of August 1897 Borda, after attending a Te Deum at 
the cathedral in Montevideo, was shot dead by a man named 
Arredondo, who was sentenced in 1899 to two years' imprison- 
ment. The defence was that the murder was a political offence, 
and therefore not punishable as an ordinary case of assassination 
for personal motives. 

The president of the senate, Juan Cuestas, in accordance with 
the constitution, assumed the duties of president of the republic. 
He arranged that hostilities should cease on the conditions 
that representation of the Blancos was allowed in Congress for 
certain districts where their votes were known to predominate; 
that a certain number of the jefes politico! should be nominated 
from the Blancos; that free pardon be extended to all who had 
taken part in the revolt; that a sufficient sum in money be 
advanced to allow the settlement of the expenses contracted 
by the insurgents; and that the electoral law be reformed on 
a basis allowing the people to take part freely in elections. 
Cuestas, on attempting to reform corrupt practices, was soon 



threatened with another revolution, and on the loth of February 
1898 he assumed dictatorial powers, dissolved the Chambers and 
suspended all constitutional guarantees. In the following year 
he resigned and was re-elected to the presidency on the ist 
of March 1899. His second term was marked by premonitions 
of further disorder. In July 1902 a plot for his assassination 
was frustrated, and in 1903, on the election of Jose Battle to 
the presidency, civil war broke out. On September 3, 1904, the 
revolutionary general Saraiva died of wounds received in battle; 
and later in the year peace was declared. Claudio Williman 
became president in 1907. The Colorados favoured Battle as his 
successor, and before the elections to the chamber in November 
1910 the Blancos were again in arms. 

See F. Bauza, La Domination Espanola en el Uruguay (Montevideo, 
1880); F. A. Berro, A. de Vedia and M. de Pena, Album de la 
Republica Oriental del Uruguay (Montevideo, 1882) ; R. L. Lomba, 
La Republica Oriental del Uruguay (Montevideo, 1884); The Uruguay 
Republic, Territory and Conditions, reprinted by order of the Consul- 
General of Uruguay (London, 1888); V. Arreguine, Historic del 
Uruguay (Montevideo, 1892); M. G. and E. T. Mulhall, Handbook 
of the River Plata (London, 1892); H. Roustan and C. M. de Pena, 
Uruguay en la Exposition . . . de Chicago (Montevideo, 1893); 
O. Aranjo, Compendia de la Geografia National (Montevideo, 1894); 
Uruguay, its Geography, History, &c. (Liverpool, 1897); P. F. 
Martin, Through Five Republics (London, 1905) ; Anuario Estadistico 
and A nuario Demografico (official, Montevideo) ; British and American 
Consular Reports ; Publications, Bureau of American Republics. 

URUGUAYANA, a city and river port of the state of Rio 
Grande do Sul, Brazil, on the left bank of the Uruguay river, 
348 ft. above sea-level (at the R. R. station) and about 360 m. 
in a direct line W. of Porto Alegre. Pop. (1900) 13,638. A 
railway connects with Quarahim (47 m.) on the Uruguayan 
frontier, and thence by a Uruguayan line with Montevideo by 
way of Paysandii. The same line extends N. 62 m. to the 
naval station of Itaquy. A cross-country line was under con- 
struction in 1909 to Cacequy, which is in direct communication 
with Porto Alegre and the city of Rio Grande. The upper 
Uruguay is navigable from the Quarahim to the town of Sao 
Tome, and small river steamers ply regularly between Ceibo, 
on the Argentine side, and the latter. Opposite Uruguayana 
is the Argentine town of Restauracion, or Paso los Libres. The 
river is 2 m. wide at this point, and 154 ft. above sea-level. 
Uruguayana is prettily situated on a low hill rising gently from 
the riverside and its low houses are surrounded by orange 
groves. There are large military barracks near the shore, a 
theatre and a custom-house. The surrounding country is 
chiefly pastoral, but there is a small area under vineyards, 
and in addition to grapes some other fruits are produced. 
Uruguayana was captured by a Paraguayan force under General 
Estigarribia on the 5th of August 1865, and was recaptured 
without a fight by the allied forces under General Bartolome 
Mitre on the i8th of September. The Paraguayan occupation 
left the town partially in ruins, and it remained in a decadent 
condition until near the end of the century, when reviving 
industries in the state and a renewal of railway construction 
promoted its commercial activity and growth. 

USAS (from the root lias, to shine, and cognate to Latin 
Aurora and Greek 'Ho>s,) in Hindu mythology, the goddess of 
dawn. She is celebrated in some twenty hymns of the Rig 
Veda, and is the most graceful creation of Vedic poetry. She 
is borne on a shining car drawn by ruddy cows or bulls. She 
is the daughter of the sky and the sun is her lover. She is 
described as " rising resplendent as from a bath, showing her 
charms she comes with light . . . ever shortening the ages of 
men she shines forth . . . she reveals the paths of men and 
bestows new life . . . she opens the doors of darkness as the 
cows their stalls." Scarcely the name of the goddess survives 
to-day, so completely was she associated with the Vedism long 
dead and gone. 

See A. A. Macdonell, Vedic Mythology (Strassburg, 1897). 

USEDOM, an island of Germany, in the Prussian province 
of Pomerania, lying off the Baltic coast, and separated by the 
Swine from the island of Wollin, which together with it divides 
the Stettiner Haff from the open sea. It is 31 m. in length, 



USELIS USHER, J. 



809 



13 broad and 160 sq. m. in area. The surface is generally flat 
(only a few sand-hills rising to any height) and is diversified 
by moor, fen, lakes and forest. Agriculture, cattle-rearing, 
fishing and other maritime pursuits are the chief occupations 
of the inhabitants. Swinemiinde and Usedom (pop. 170x3) are 
the chief towns, and Heringsdorf, Ahlbeck and Zinnowitz are 
frequented watering-places. Pop. (1900) 33,000. 

See Gadebusch, Chronik der Insel Usedom (Anklam, 1863), and 
C. Muiler, Die Seebdder der Inseln Usedom und Wottin (6th ed., 
Berlin, 1896). 

USELIS (mod. Usellus), an ancient town of Sardinia, situated 
in the hills to the S.E. of Oristano, 900 ft. above sea-level. A 
bronze tablet of A.D. 158 (a tabula palronatus, setting forth 
that M. Aristius Balbinus had accepted the position of patron 
of the town for himself and his heirs) speaks of the place as 
Colonia Julia Augusta Uselis. From this it would seem that 
it had become a colony under Augustus, were it not that Pliny 
(H.N. iii. 85) asserts that Turris Libisonis was the only colony 
in Sardinia at his time. It may be that civic rights were 
obtained from Augustus (Th. Mommsen in Corp. Inscr. Lat. x. 
p. 8 1 6). The site of the ancient town is marked by the church 
of S. Reparata, and various antiquities have been found there. 
The episcopal see was transferred to Ales in the izth century, 
though the old name is still officially used. _, 

USES, in law, equitable or beneficial interests in land. In 
early law a man could not dispose of his estate by will nor could 
religious houses acquire it. As a method of evading the common 
law arose the practice of making feoffments to the use of, or 
upon trust for, persons other than those to whom the seisin or 
legal possession was delivered, to which the equitable juris- 
diction of the chancellor gave effect. To remedy the abuses 
which it was said were occasioned by this evasion of the law 
was passed the famous Statute of Uses (1536), which, however, 
failed to accomplish its purpose. Out of this failure of the 
Statute of Uses arose the modern law of TRUSTS, under which 
heading will be found a full history of uses. See also CON- 
VEYANCING. 

USHAK, a town of Asia Minor, altitude 3160 ft. in the Kutaiah 
sanjak of the Brusa vilayet, situated in a fertile district, 
on a tributary of the Menderes, and connected with 
Smyrna and Konia by rail. Pop. 9000 Moslems and 2000 
Christians. It is noted for its heavy pile carpets, khali, known 
as " Turkey carpets." The Oriental character of the carpets 
has been almost destroyed by the adoption of aniline dyes and 
the introduction of Western patterns. The town has a trade in 
valonia, cereals and opium. 

USHANT (Fr. Ouessanf), the most westerly of the islands off 
the coast of France, about 14 m. from the coast of Finistere, of 
which department it forms a canton and commune. Pop. (1906) 
2761. Ushant is about 3850 acres in extent and almost entirely 
granitic, with steep and rugged coasts accessible only at a few 
points, and rendered more dangerous by the frequency of fogs. 
The island affords pasturage to a breed of small black sheep, and 
about half its area is occupied by cereals or potatoes. The male 
inhabitants are principally pilots and fishermen, the women 
working in the fields. Ushant was ravaged by the English in 
1388. The lordship was made a marquisate in 1597 in favour 
of Rene de Rieux de Sourdeac, governor of Brest. In 1778 
a naval action without decisive result was fought off Ushant 
between the English under Keppel and the French under the 
Count d'Orvilliers. 

USHER (or USSHER), JAMES (1581-1656), Anglican divine 
and archbishop, was born in the parish of St Nicholas, Dublin, 
on the 4th of January 1581. He was descended from the house 
of Nevill, one of whose scions, accompanying John Plantagenet 
to Ireland in the capacity of usher in 1185, adopted his official 
title as a surname. James Usher was sent to a school in Dublin 
opened by two political agents of James VI. of Scotland, who 
adopted this manner of averting the suspicions of Elizabeth's 
government from their real object, which was to secure a party 
for James in Ireland in the event of the queen's death. In 1594 
Usher matriculated at the newly founded university of Dublin, 



whose charter had just been obtained by his uncle, Henry Usher, 
archbishop of Armagh. He proved a diligent student, devoting 
much attention to controversial theology, graduated as M.A. 
in 1600 and became a fellow of Trinity College. On the death 
of his father in 1598 he resigned the family estate to his younger 
brother, reserving only a small rent-charge upon it for his own 
maintenance, and prepared to take orders. When he was but 
nineteen he accepted a challenge put forth by Henry Fitzsimons, 
a learned Jesuit, then a prisoner in Dublin, inviting discussion 
of Bellarmine's arguments in defence of Roman Catholicism, 
and acquitted himself with much distinction. In 1600 he was 
appointed proctor of his college and catechetical lecturer in the 
university, though still a layman, and was ordained deacon and 
priest on the same day, in 1601, while still under the canonical 
age, by his uncle the primate. In 1607 he became regius pro- 
fessor of divinity and also chancellor of St Patrick's cathedral, 
Dublin. He was a frequent visitor to England, and made the 
acquaintance of contemporary scholars like Camden, Selden, 
Sir Thomas Bodley and Sir Robert Cotton. In 1613 he 
published his first printed work, though not his first literary 
composition Gravissimae Quaestionis de Christianarum Ecclesi- 
arum, in Occidentis praesertim partibus, ab Aposlolicis tempori- 
bus ad nostram usque aetatem, continua successione et slalu, 
Historica Explicatio, wherein he took up the history of the 
Western Church from the point where Jewel had left off in his 
Apology for iKe Church of England, and carried it on from the 6th 
till past the middle of the I3th century, but never completed it. 
In 1615 he took part in an attempt of the Irish clergy to impose 
a Calvinistic confession, embodying the Lambeth Articles of 
1595, upon the Irish Church, and was delated to King James 
in consequence. But on his next visit to England in 1619 he 
brought with him an attestation to his orthodoxy and high 
professional standing, signed by the lord deputy and the 
members of the privy council, which, together with his own 
demeanour in a private conference with the king, so influenced 
the latter that he nominated Usher to the vacant see of Meath, 
of which he was consecrated bishop in 1621. In 1622 he 
published a controversial Discourse of the Religion anciently 
Professed by the Irish and British, designed to show that they 
were in agreement with the Church of England and opposed to 
the Church of Rome on the points in debate between those 
churches. In 1623 he was made a privy councillor for Ireland, 
and in the same year was summoned to England by the king 
that he might more readily carry on a work he had already 
begun upon the antiquity of the British churches. While he 
was detained on this business the archbishop of Armagh died in 
January 1625, and the king at once nominated Usher to the 
vacant primacy; but severe illness and other causes impeded 
his return to Ireland until August 1626. 

For many years Usher was actively employed both in the 
government of his diocese and in the publication of several 
learned works, amongst which may be specified Emmanuel (a 
treatise upon the Incarnation), published in 1638, and Britan- 
nicarum Ecclesiarum Antiquitates, in 1639. In 1629 he dis- 
countenanced Bishop William Bedell's proposal to revive the 
Irish language in the service. In 1634 he took part in the 
convocation which drafted the code of canons that formed the 
basis of Irish ecclesiastical law till the disestablishment of the 
Irish Church in 1869, and defeated the attempt of John Bram- 
hall, then bishop of Derry and later his own successor in Armagh, 
to conform the Irish Church exactly to the doctrinal standards 
of the English. He put the matter on the ground of preserving 
the independence of the Irish Church, but the real motive at 
work was to maintain the Calvinistic element introduced in 
1615. In 1640 he paid another visit to England on one of his 
usual scholarly errands, meaning to return when it was accom- 
plished. But the rebellion of 1641 broke out while he was still 
at Oxford, and he never saw his native country again. He 
published a collection of tracts at Oxford in that year, including 
a defence of episcopacy and the doctrine of non-resistance. All 
Usher's property in Ireland was lost to him through the rebellion, 
except his books and some plate and furniture, but he was 



8io 



USHER USKOKS 



assigned the temporalities of the vacant see of Carlisle for his 
support. In 1643 he was offered a seat in the Assembly of 
Divines at Westminster, but declined it publicly in terms which 
drew upon him the anger of the House of Commons, and an 
order for the confiscation of his library was averted only by the 
interposition of Selden. He quitted Oxford in 1645 and went 
into Wales, where he remained till 1646, when he returned to 
London, and was in 1647 elected preacher to the Society of 
Lincoln's Inn, an office which he continued to hold until near 
his death. During his residence in Wales a hyper-Calvinistic 
work entitled A Body of Divinity; or the Sum and Substance of 
the Christian Religion, was published under his name by John 
Downham; and, although he repudiated the authorship in 
a letter to the editor, stating that the manuscript from which 
it was printed was merely a commonplace-book into which he 
had transcribed the opinions of Cartwright and other English 
divines, often disapproving of them and finding them dissonant 
from his own judgment, yet it has been persistently cited ever 
since as Usher's genuine work, and as lending his authority to 
positions which he had long abandoned, if he ever maintained 
them. In 1648 he had a conference with Charles I. in the 
Isle of Wight, assisting him in the abortive negotiations with 
parliament on the question of episcopacy. About this time 
Richelieu offered him a pension. In 1650-54 he published the 
work which was long accounted his most important production, 
the Annales Veteris el Noiii Testamenti, in which he propounded 
a now disproved scheme of Biblical chronology, whose dates were 
inserted by some unknown authority in the margin of reference 
editions of the Authorized Version. In 1655 Usher published 
his last work, De Graeca LXX Interpretum Versione Syntagma. 
He died on the 2oth of March 1656, in Lady Peterborough's 
house at Reigate, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
He was long remembered, not only for his great learning but 
for his modesty and kindly disposition. His daughter sold his 
library to the state, and in 1661 it was placed in the library of 
Trinity College, Dublin, of which it still forms a part. 

Usher's works are very numerous, and were first collected by 
C. R. Elrington and J. H. Todd, Dublin (1847-64, in 17 vols.). 
See Life by Carr (1895); W. B. Wright, The Ussher Memoirs 
(1889). 

USHER (O. Fr. ussier, uissier, mod. huissier, from Lat. 
ostiarius, a door-keeper, ostium, doorway, entrance, os, mouth), 
properly an official or servant who guards the entrance to a 
building, admits those who have the right of admission and 
keeps out strangers; such functions as the introduction of 
those who are admitted, the conducting them to their seats 
or to the presence of the persons receiving them and the keeping 
of order and silence are also performed by them. The " ushers " 
of a law-court are familiar officials of this kind. The name 
is also applied to various members of the British royal household, 
in which there are several " gentlemen-ushers." The four 
principal British orders of knighthood style one of their chief 
officers " usher "; thus there is a gentleman-usher of the 
Black Rod, who is also one of the high officials of the House 
of Lords (see further, BLACK ROD, and KNIGHTHOOD AND 
CHIVALRY, Orders of Knighthood). A common usage of the 
word, now obsolescent, is for an undermaster at a school. 

USK, THOMAS (d. 1388), the author of The Testament of 
Love, was born in London. His name was first added to the 
history of English literature in 1897 by Mr Henry Bradley's 
discovery that The Testament of Love, an important prose 
work hitherto attributed to Chaucer, bore in the initial letters 
of its chapters a statement of authorship) " Margarete of virtw, 
have merci on thin Usk." By the light of this perception, 
various autobiographical statements became luminous, and 
there remained no possible doubt that the author was Thomas 
Usk, who was clerk of the closet to John of Northampton 
when he was mayor of London from 1381 to 1383. In July 
1384 Usk was seized and put in prison, but was released on 
promise of bringing charges against the mayor. Usk had no 
wish to be what he called " a stinking martyr," and he freely 
produced evidence which sent John of Northampton to gaol. 



For this he was not forgiven by the duke of Gloucester's party, 
although he continued to hold confidential posts in London 
until the close of 1386, when he was appointed sub-sheriff of 
Middlesex. But he fell with the king, in the triumph of the 
duke of Gloucester, and on the 3rd of February 1388 Usk, 
among others, was tried for treason and condemned. He 
was sentenced " to be drawn, hung and beheaded, and that 
his head should be set up over Newgate." John of Malvern, 
in his continuation of Ralph Higden's Polychronicon, 1 gives a 
horrid description of his execution, which occurred on the 
4th of March 1388, in circumstances of rude barbarity; it 
took thirty blows of a sword to sever Usk's head from his 
shoulders. Professor Skeat has shown that the date of his 
book must be about 1387, for in it he reviews the incidents 
of his career, including the odd facts that, after his first 
imprisonment in 1384, he challenged any one who " contraried " 
his " saws " that is to say, denied his allegations to fight, 
but that no one took up his wager of battle. From 1381 to 
1383, while Chaucer was comptroller of customs, Usk was 
collector, and they were doubtless acquainted. In The 
Testament of Love, the god is made to praise " mine own true 
servant, the noble philosophical poet in English," who had 
composed " a treatise of my servant Troilus." Usk had at 
one time been a Lollard, but in prison he submitted to the 
Church and thought he was forgiven. His solitary work is 
remarkable, and the most elaborate production in original 
English prose which the end of the I4th century has bequeathed 
to us. It is, however, excessively tedious, and of its obscurity 
and dullness a very amusing proof is given by the fact that 
successive editors and even Dr Henry Bradley and Professor 
Skeat did not discover till too late that the leaves of the 
original MS. had been shuffled and the body of the treatise 
misarranged. No MS. of The Testament of Love has been 
preserved; it was first printed by W. Thynne in his edition of 
Chaucer, 1532. In 1897 Professor Skeat, with cancelled sheets 
to cover the unlucky mistake above referred to, issued a revised 
and annotated text in his Chaucerian and other Pieces. 

(E.G.) 

USK, a river of Wales and England, rising on the borders 
of Carmarthenshire and Brecknockshire, and flowing to the 
Bristol Channel with a course of 70 m., and a drainage area 
of 540 sq. m. The source lies at an elevation of 1700 ft. on 
the north flank of Carmarthen Van, a summit of the Brecon 
Beacons; and the course is at first northerly, but soon turns 
east through a beautiful valley closely beset with lofty hills. 
The river passes the finely situated town of Brecon, and then 
turns south-east past Crickhowell and south past Abergavenny. 
Between these towns it forms a short stretch of the Welsh 
boundary before entering England (Monmouthshire). The 
valley now broadens, and the course of the river becomes sinuous 
as it flows by the ancient towns of Usk and Caerleon. The 
scenery throughout is most beautiful. Not far from the 
mouth lies Newport, with its extensive docks, to which the 
estuary gives access. Except in this part, the Usk is not 
used for navigation, but the Monmouthshire and Brecon and 
Abergavenny canals, in part following the valley, carry a small 
trade up to Brecon. The Usk is noted for its salmon and 
trout fishing. 

USK, a small market town, is beautifully situated on the 
right bank of the Usk river, 10 m. N.N.E. of Newport. Pop. 
of urban district (1901), 1476. It unites with Newport and 
Monmouth to form the Monmouth parliamentary district of 
boroughs, returning one member. It is of high antiquity, 
occupying the site of a Roman-British village or fort; and 
there are picturesque ruins of an ancient castle erected in de- 
fence of the Welsh marches, and as such, a scene of frequent 
strife from Norman times until the days of the warlike Owen 
Glendower, about 1400. The church of St Mary originally 
belonged to a Benedictine nunnery of the I2th century. 

USKOKS, or Uscocs. During the early years of the i6th 
century, the Turkish conquest of Bosnia and Herzegovina 
1 Ed. J. R. Lumby, Rolls Series (1886), vol. ix. p. 147. 



USKUB USURY 



8n 



drove large numbers of the Christian inhabitants from their 
homes. A body of these Uskoks, as they were called, from a 
Serbo-Croatian word meaning " refugee," established itself in the 
Dalmatian fortress of Clissa, near Spalato, and thence waged 
continual war upon the Turks. Clissa, however, became un- 
tenable, and the Uskoks withdrew to Zengg, on the Croatian 
coast, where, in accordance with the Austrian system of plant- 
ing colonies of defenders along the Military Frontier, they were 
welcomed by the Emperor Ferdinand I., and promised an 
annual subsidy in return for their services. Their new strong- 
hold, screened by mountains and forests, was unassailable by 
cavalry or artillery, but admirably suited to the light-armed 
Uskoks, whose excellence lay in guerilla warfare. The Turks, 
on their side, organized a body of equally effective troops called 
Martelossi, for defence and reprisals. Thus, checked on land, 
and with their subsidy rarely paid, the Uskoks turned to piracy. 
Large galleys could not anchor in the bay of Zengg, which is 
shallow and exposed to sudden gales, so the Uskoks fitted out 
a fleet of swift boats, light enough to navigate the smallest 
creeks and inlets of the Illyrian shore, and easily sunk and 
recovered, if a temporary landing became necessary. With 
these they preyed upon the commerce of the Adriatic. Their 
ranks were soon swelled by outlaws from all nations, and by their 
own once peaceful neighbours, from Novi, Ottocac and other 
Croatian towns. After 1540, however, Venice, as mistress of 
the seas, guaranteed the safety of Turkish merchant vessels, 
and provided them with an escort of galleys. The Uskoks re- 
taliated by ravaging the Venetian islands of Veglia, Arbe and 
Pago, and by using the Venetian territories in Dalmatia as an 
avenue of attack upon the Turks. Meanwhile the corsairs of 
Greece and Africa were free to raid the unprotected southern 
shores of Italy; and Venice was besieged with complaints 
from the Porte, the Vatican, the Viceroy of Naples and his 
sovereign, the king of Spain. An appeal to Austria met with 
little success, for the offences of the Uskoks were outweighed 
by their services against the Turks; while, if Minucci may be 
trusted, a share of their spoils, in silk, velvet and jewels, went 
to the ladies of the Archducal Court of Graz, where the matter 
was negotiated. From 1577 onwards, Venice endeavoured to 
crush the pirates without offending Austria, enlisting Albanians 
in place of their Dalmatian crews, who feared reprisals at home. 
For a time the Uskoks only ventured forth by night, in winter 
and stormy weather. In 1592 a Turkish army invaded Croatia, 
hoping to capture Zengg, but it was routed and dispersed in the 
following year. Austria being thus involved in war with Turkey, 
the Venetian Admiral Giovanni Bembo blockaded Trieste and 
Fiume, whither the pirates forwarded their booty for sale. They 
also erected two forts to command the passages from Zengg 
to the open sea. In 1602 a raid by the Uskoks upon Istria 
resulted in an agreement between Venice and Austria, and the 
despatch to Zengg of the energetic commissioner Rabatta with 
a strong bodyguard. All these measures, however, availed 
little. Rabatta was murdered, the fugitive Uskoks returned 
to Zengg and piracy was resumed, with varying fortunes, until 
1615, when a grosser outrage than usual led to open war be- 
tween Venice and Austria. By the treaty of peace concluded 
at Madrid, in 1617, it was arranged that the Uskoks should be 
disbanded, and their ships destroyed. The pirates and their 
families were, accordingly, transported to the interior of Croatia, 
where they gave their name to the Uskoken Gebirge, a group of 
mountains on the borders of Carniola. Their presence has also 
been traced near Monte Maggiore, in Istria, where such signifi- 
cant family names as Novlian (from Novi) , Ottocian (from Ottocac) 
and Clissan (from Clissa), were noted by Franceschi in 1879. 

See Minuccio Minucci, Historic, degli Uscochi (Venice, 1603) ; 
enlarged by P. Sarpi, and translated into French as a supplement 
to Amelot de la Houssaye's Histoire du gouvernement de Venise 
(Amsterdam, 1705). Minucci was one of the Venetian envoys at 
Graz. See also the conciser narratives in C. de Franceschi's 
L' Istria, chap. 37 (Parenzo, 1879); and T. G. Jackson's Dalmatia, 
the Quarnero and Istria, chap. 27 (Oxford, 1887). 

USKUB, USCUP, or SKOPIA (anc. Scupi, Turk. Ushkiib, 
Slav. Skoplye), the capital of the vilayet of Kossovo, European 



Turkey; on the left bank of the river Vardar, and at the junction 
of the railways from Nish and Mitrovitza to Salonica. Pop. 
(1905) about 32,000, consisting chiefly of Slavs (Serbs and 
Bulgars), Turks, Albanians and a few gipsies. Uskub occupies 
a picturesque and strategically important position at the foot 
of a valley which severs two mountain ranges, the Shar Planina 
and Kara Dagh. Main roads radiate N.W. to Prizren, W. to 
Gostivar, an important centre of distribution, E.N.E. to Kuma- 
novo, and thence into Bulgaria, and S. to Koprulii and Monastir. 
The city is the headquarters of an army corps, and the see of 
an Orthodox Greek archbishop, of the archbishop of the Roman 
Catholic Albanians and of a Bulgarian bishop. Its principal 
buildings are the citadel, the palace of the vali or provincial 
governor, the Greek and Bulgarian schools, numerous churches 
and mosques and a Roman aqueduct. The industries include 
dyeing, weaving, tanning and the manufacture of metal-work, 
wine and flour, but Uskiib is chiefly important as the com- 
mercial centre of the whole vilayet of Kossovo (q.v.). The 
Imperial Ottoman Bank and the Banque de Salonique have 
branches in the city, and French is to a remarkable extent 
the language of commerce. Uskiib retains in a modified 
form the name of Scupi, one of the chief cities of northern 
Macedonia. A few unimportant ruins mark the ancient site, 
about 15 m. N.W. Scupi was destroyed by an earthquake in 
A.D. 518, but was rebuilt by Justinian under the name of 
Justiniana Prima. Up to the I4th century it was at times the 
capital of the Servian tsars. 

USTARANA, a Pathan tribe who inhabit the outer hills opposite 
the extreme south portion of Dera Ismail Khan district in the 
North-West Frontier Province of India. Originally the Ustar- 
anas were entirely a pastoral and trading tribe; but a quarrel 
with their neighbours, the Musa Khel, put a stop to their annual 
westward immigration, and they were forced to take to agri- 
culture, and have since acquired a good deal of the plain country 
below the hills. Their territory includes only the eastern slopes 
of the Suliman mountains, the crest of the range being held 
by the Musa Khel, Isots and Zmarais (see SULIMAN HILLS). 
The Ustaranas are venturesome traders, carrying goods from 
Kandahar as far as Bengal. They are a fine manly race, quiet 
and well-behaved, and many of them enlist in the Indian army 
and police. 

USTICA, an island off the N. coast of Sicily, 41^ m.N.N.W. 
of Palermo. Pop. (1861) 2231; (1901) 1916. It is the Oste- 
odes of the Greeks, but in Roman times was known as Ustica. 
The island is entirely volcanic and subject to earthquakes, 
and is fertile. There is a considerable penal colony. There 
are some Roman tombs excavated in the rock. 

USTYUG VELIKIY, a town of Russia, in the government of 
Vologda, 216 m. N.E. from the city of Vologda, on the navigable 
Sukhona river, near its confluence with the Yug. Pop. (1885) 
8119; (1897) 11,309. It manufactures hosiery, woollens and 
linens, has sawmills, and carries on an active trade in corn, 
hemp, flax, bristles and butter, which it exports. It has two 
important yearly fairs. Its artisans are famous for their 
jewelry, for engraving upon silver and the fabrication of boxes 
with secret locks. 

USURY. An ancient legal conception, it has been said, 
corresponds not to one but to several modern conceptions; 
and the proposition is equally true when economic is substituted 
for legal. Until quite recent times the term " usury " (Lat. 
usura, use, enjoyment, interest, from usus, use) covered a 
number of essentially different social phenomena. " Thou 
shalt not lend upon usury to thy brother; usury of money, 
usury of victuals, usury of anything that is lent upon usury. 
Unto a stranger thou mayest lend upon usury; but unto thy 
brother thou shalt not lend upon usury, that the Lord thy God 
may bless thee " (Deut. xxiii. 19, 20). In this sentence we find 
interest of all kinds blended together, and the natural economic 
tendencies directly counteracted by the moral and religious law. 
At the present day, " usury," if used in the old sense of the term, 
would embrace a multitude of modes of receiving interest upon 
capital to which not the slightest moral taint is attached. 



8l2 



USURY 



The man who does not in some shape or other lend his capital 
upon " usury " is, in the modern world, generally considered as 
lacking in his duty to himself or his family. The change in 
the moral attitude towards usury is perhaps best expressed 
by saying that in ancient times so much of the lending at interest 
was associated with cruelty and hardship that all lending was 
branded as immoral (or all interest was usury in the moral sense), 
whilst at present so little lending takes place, comparatively, 
except on commercial principles, that all lending is regarded 
as free from an immoral taint. This change in the attitude of 
common-sense morality in respect to " anything that is lent 
upon usury" is one of the most peculiar and instructive features 
in the economic progress of society. 

" It is worthy of remark," says Grote (History of Greece, 
iii. 144), " that the first borrowers must have been for the 
most part men driven to this necessity by the pressure of want, 
and contracting debt as a desperate resource without any fair 
prospect of ability to pay; debt and famine run together in the 
mind of the poet Hesiod. The borrower is in this unhappy 
state rather a distressed man soliciting aid than a solvent 
man capable of making and fulfilling a contract; and if he 
cannot find a friend to make a free gift to him in the former 
character he would not under the latter character obtain a loan 
from a stranger except by the promise of exorbitant interest and 
by the fullest eventual power over his person which he is in 
a position to grant." This remark, though suggested by the 
state of society in ancient Greece, is largely applicable throughout 
the world until the close of the early middle ages. Borrowers 
were not induced to borrow as a rule with the view of employing 
the capital so obtained at a greater profit, but they were com- 
pelled of necessity to borrow as a last resort. The conditions 
of ancient usury find a graphic illustration in the account of 
the building of the second temple at Jerusalem (Neh. v. 1-12). 
The reasons for borrowing are famine and tribute. Some said, 
" We have mortgaged our lands, vineyards and houses, that 
we might buy corn, because of the dearth." Others said, 
" We have borrowed money for the king's tribute, and that 
upon our lands and vineyards . . . and, lo, we bring into 
bondage our sons and our daughters to be servants, . . . 
neither is it in our power to redeem them, for other men 
have our lands and vineyards." In ancient Greece we find 
similar examples of the evil effects of usury, and a law of bank- 
ruptcy resting on slavery. In Athens about the time of Solon's 
legislation (594 B.C.) the bulk of the population, who had originally 
been small proprietors or metayers, became gradually indebted 
to the rich to such an extent that they were practically slaves. 
Those who still kept their property nominally were in the 
position of Irish cottiers: they owed more than they could pay, 
and stone pillars erected on their land showed the amount of the 
debts and the names of the lenders. Usury had given all 
the power of the state to a small plutocracy. The remedy 
which Solon adopted was of a kind that we are accustomed 
to consider as purely modern. In the first place, it is true 
that according to ancient practice he proclaimed a general 
seisachtheia, or shaking off of burdens: he cancelled all the 
debts made on the security of the land or the person of the 
debtor. This measure alone would, however, have been of 
little service had he not at the same time enacted that hence- 
forth no loans could be made on the bodily security of the debtor, 
and the creditor was confined to a share of the property. The 
consequence of this simple but effective reform was that Athens 
was never again disturbed by the agitation of insolvent debtors. 
Solon left the rate of interest to be determined by free contract, 
and sometimes the rate was exceedingly high, but none of the 
evils so generally prevalent in antiquity were experienced. 

When we turn to Rome, we find exactly the same difficulties 
arising, but they were never successfully met. As in Athens 
in early times, the mass of the people were yeomen, living on 
their own small estates, and in time they became hopelessly 
in debt. Accordingly, the legislation of the XII. Tables, about 
500 B.C., was intended to strike at the evil by providing a maxi- 
mum rate of interest. Unfortunately, however, no alteration 



was made in the law of debt, and the attempt to regulate the 
rate of interest utterly failed. In the course of two or three 
centuries the small free farmers were utterly destroyed. By the 
pressure of war and taxes they were all driven into debt, and 
debt ended practically, if not technically, in slavery. It would 
be difficult to overestimate the importance of the influence of 
usury on the social and economic history of the Roman republic. 
In the provinces the evils of the system reached a much greater 
height. In 84 B.C. the war tax imposed by Sulla on the province 
of Asia was at first advanced by Roman capitalists, and rose 
within fourteen years to six times its original amount. It is 
interesting to observe that the old law of debt was not really 
abolished until the dictatorship of Julius Caesar, who practically 
adopted the legislation of Solon more than five centuries before; 
but it was too late then to save the middle class. About this 
time the rate of interest on first-class security in the city of 
Rome was only about 4%, whilst in the provinces from 
25 to 50% were rates often exacted. Justinian made the 
accumulation of arrears (anatocismus ) illegal, and fixed the rate 
at 6%, except for mercantile loans, in which the rate re- 
ceived was 8%. On the whole, it was truly said of usury 
during the republic and early years of the empire: " Sed vetus 
urbi faenebre malum et seditionum discordiarumque creberrima 
causa." Even when it came to be authoiized by Roman law 
under certain restrictions, it was still looked upon as a pernicious 
crime. " Cicero mentions that Cato, being asked what he 
thought of usury, made no other answer to the question than by 
asking the person who spoke to him what he thought of murder." 
It was only natural, considering the evils produced by usury 
in ancient Greece and Rome, that philosophers should have tried 
to give an a priori explanation of these abuses. The opinion of 
Aristotle on the barrenness of money became proverbial, and 
was quoted with approval throughout the middle ages. This 
condemnation by the moralists was enforced by the Fathers of 
the church on the conversion of the empire to Christianity. 
They held usury up to detestation, and practically made no 
distinction between interest on equitable moderate terms and 
what we now term usurious exactions. 1 The consequence of 
the condemnation of usury by the church was to throw all the 
dealing in money in the early middle ages into the hands 
of the Jews. A full account of the mode in which this traffic 
was conducted in England is given by Madox in chapter vii. 
of his History of the Exchequer (London, 1711). The Jews were 
considered as deriving all their privileges from the hand of the 
king, and every privilege was dearly bought. There can be no 
doubt that they were subjected to most arbitrary exactions. 
At the same time, however, their dealings were nominally under 
the supervision of the Jews' exchequer, and a number of regula- 
tions were enforced, partly with the view of protecting borrowers 
and partly that the king might know how much his Jews could 
afford to pay. It was probably mainly on account of this 
money-lending that the Jews were so heartily detested and liable 
to such gross ill-treatment by the people. A curious illustration 
of this popular animosity is found in the insertion of a clause in 
the charters granted by Henry III. to Newcastle and Derby, 
forbidding any Jew to reside in either place. Ultimately 
in 1290 the Jews were expelled in a body from the kingdom 
under circumstances of great barbarity, and were not allowed 
to return until the time of Cromwell. Before the expulsion 
of the Jews, however, in spite of canonical opposition, Christians 
had begun to take interest openly; and one of the most interest- 
ing examples of the adaptation of the dogmas of the Church of 
Rome to the social and economic environment is found in 
the growth of the recognized exceptions to usury. In this 
respect the canonical writers derived much assistance from 
the later Roman law. Without entering into technicalities, 
it may be said generally that an attempt was made to distinguish 
between usury, in the modern sense of unjust exaction, and 
interest on capital. Unfortunately, however, the modifications 

1 For a popular account of the reasons given in support of the 
canonical objections to usury, and of the modifications and excep- 
tions admitted in some quarters, see W. Cunningham's Usury. 



UTAH 



which were really admitted were not openly and avowedly made 
by a direct change in the statutes, but for the most part they 
were effected (as so many early reforms) under the cover of 
ingenious legal fictions. One of the most curious and instructive 
results of this treatment has been well brought out by Walter 
Ross in the introduction to his Lectures on the Law of Scotland 
(1793). He shows, in a very remarkable manner and at consider- 
able length, that " to the devices fallen upon to defeat those 
laws (i.e. against usury) the greatest part of the deeds now in 
use both in England and Scotland owe their original forms " 
(i. 4). One of the consequences of this indirect method 
of reforming the law was that in some cases the evil was much 
exaggerated. " The judges," says Ross, " could not award 
interest for the money; that would have been contrary to law, 
a moral evil, and an oppression of the debtor; but, upon the 
idea of damages and the failure of the debtor in -performance, 
they unmercifully decreed for double the sum borrowed." He 
may well remark that imagination itself is incapable of conceiving 
a higher degree of inconsistency in the affairs of men (compare 
Blackstone, iii. 434, 435). 

In the limits assigned to this article it is impossible to enter 
further into the history of the question (see also MONEYLENDING), 
but an attempt may be made to summarize the principal results 
so far as they bear upon the old controversy, which has again 
been revived in some quarters, as to the proper relation of law 
to usury and interest, (i) The opinion of Bentham that the 
attempt directly to suppress usury (in the modern sense) will 
only increase the evil is abundantly verified. Mere prohibition 
under penalties will practically lead to an additional charge as 
security against risk. The evils must be partly met by the 
general principles applicable to all contracts (the fitness of the 
contracting parties, &c.) and partly by provisions for bank- 
ruptcy. Peculiar forms of the evil, such as mortgaging to 
excessive amounts in countries largely occupied by peasant 
proprietors, may be met by particular measures, as, for example, 
by forbidding the accumulation of arrears. (2) The attempt 
to control interest in the commercial sense is both useless and 
harmful. It is certain to be met by fictitious devices which at 
the best will cause needless inconvenience to the contracting 
parties; restraints will be placed on the natural flow of capital, 
and industry will suffer. (3) In the progress of society borrowing 
for commercial purposes has gradually become of overwhelming 
importance compared with borrowing for purposes of necessity, 
as in earlier times. By far the greater part of the interest now 
paid in the civilized world is, in the language of the English 
economists, only a fair reward for risk of loss and for manage- 
ment of capital, and a necessary stimulus to saving. 

See Capital and Interest (Eng. trans., 1890), by E. Boehm von 
Bawerk; Nature of Capital and Income, by Irving Fisher (1906). 

UTAH, 1 one of the Central Western states of the United States 
of America. It lies between latitudes 37 and 42 N. and 
between longitudes 32 and 37 W. from Washington (i.e. 
about 109 i' 34* and 114 i' 34" respectively W. of Greenwich). 
The state is bounded wholly by meridians and parallels, and is 
bordered on the N. by Idaho and Wyoming, on the E. by Wyom- 
ing and Colorado, on the S. by Arizona, and on the W. by 
Nevada. Utah has an area of 84,990 sq. m., of which 2806 
sq. m. are water surface, including Great Salt, Utah and other 
lakes. The state has a maximum length of 345 m. N. and S., 
and a maximum width of about 280 m. E. and W. 

Physical Features. The eastern portion of Utah consists of high 
plateaus, and constitutes a part of the Colorado Plateau province. 
The remaining western portion of the state is lower, belongs in the 
Great Basin province, and is characterized by north-south mountain 
ranges separated by desert basins. The high plateaus consist of 
great blocks of the earth's crust which are separated from each 
other by fault-lines, and which have been uplifted to different 
heights. Erosion has developed deep and sometimes broad valleys 
along the fault-lines and elsewhere, so that many of the blocks and 
portions of blocks are isolated from their neighbours. As a rule 

*The name is that of a Shoshonean Indian tribe, more commonly 
called Ute. 



the blocks have not been greatly tilted or deformed, but consist 
of nearly horizontal layers of sandstone, shales and limestone. 
In some cases these sedimentary rocks lie deeply buried under 
lavas poured out by volcanoes long extinct. The plateau summits 
rise to elevations of 9000, 10,000 and 11,000 ft., are generally 
forested, but are too difficult of access to be much inhabited. The 
people live along the streams in the valleys between the plateaus. 
In the southern part of the state the high plateaus are terminated 
by a series of giant terraces which descend to the general level of 
the Grand Canyon Platform in northern Arizona. The terraces 
represent the out-cropping edges of hard sandstone layers included 
in the series of plateau sediments, and are named according to 
the colour of the rock exposed in the south-facing escarpments, 
the Pink Cliffs (highest), White Cliffs and Vermilion Cliffs. A still 
lower terrace, terminating in the Shinarump Cliffs, is less conspicuous ; 
but the higher ones afford magnificent scenery. The northernmost 
member of the high plateaus is a broad east-west trending arch 
known as the Uinta Mountains. Local glaciation has carved the 
higher levels of this range into a maze of amphitheatres contain- 
ing lakes, separated from each other by aretes and alpine peaks. 
Among the peaks are King's Peaks (13,498 ft. and 13,496 ft.), the 
highest points in the state; Mt. Emmons (13,428 ft.); Gilbert 
Peak (13,422 ft.); Mt. Lovenia (13,250 ft.); and Tokewanna Peak 
(13,200 ft.). In the south-eastern part of the state are lower 
desert plateaus, and several mountain groups which do not properly 
belong to the plateau system. Most interesting among these are 
the Henry Mountains, formed by the intrusion of molten igneous 
rock between the layers of sediments, causing the overlying layers 
to arch up into dome mountains. Stream erosion has dissected 
these domes far enough to reveal the core of the igneous rock and 
to give a rugged topography. The highest peaks exceed 11,000 ft. 
By far the greater part of the high plateau district is drained by 
the Colorado river and its branches, the most important of which 
are the Green, Grand and San Juan, portions of whose courses lie 
in canyons of remarkable grandeur. The western members of the 
high plateaus drain into the Great Basin for the most part, and in 
this drainage system the Sevier river is perhaps most prominent. 
Inasmuch as the streams entering the basin have no outlet to the 
ocean, their waters disappear by evaporation, either directly from 
alluvial slopes over which they pass, or from saline lakes occupying 
depressions between the mountain ranges. 

The lower basin portion of Utah is separated from the high plateaus 
by a series of great fault scarps, by which one descends abruptly to 
a level of but 5000 or 6000 ft. One of the fault scarps is known 
as the Hurricane Ledge, and continues as a prominent landmark 
from a point south of the Grand Canyon in Arizona to the central 
part of Utah, where it is replaced by other scarps farther east. 
The floor of the Basin Region is formed of alluvium washed from 
the high plateaus and mountain ranges, a part of which has 
accumulated in alluvial fans, and part in the greatly expanded lakes 
which existed here in the glacial period v This alluvium gives gently 
sloping or level desert plains, from which isolated mountain ranges 
rise like islands from the sea. The barren " mud flats," frequently 
found on the desert floor, result from the drying up of temporary 
shallow lakes, or playas. Lake Bonneville is the name given to 
the most important of the much greater lakes of the glacial period, 
whose old shore-lines are plainly visible on many mountain slopes. 
Great Salt Lake (q.v.) is a shrunken remnant of Lake Bonneville. 
The mountain ranges of the Basin Region are most frequently 
formed by faulted and tilted blocks of the earth's crust, which 
have been carved by stream erosion into rugged shapes. Oquirrh, 
Tintic, Beaver, House and Mineral-Mountains are typical examples 
of these north-south " basin ranges," which rise abruptly from the 
desert plains and are themselves partial deserts. The Wasatch 
Mountain range constitutes the eastern margin of the Great Basin 
in central and northern Utah, and resembles the true basin ranges 
in that it is formed by a great block of the earth's crust uptilted 
along a north-south fault-line. Its steep fault scarp faces west, 
and rises from 4000 to 6000 ft. above the basin floor; the eastern 
slope is more gentle, but both slopes are much scored by deep canyons, 
some of which have been modified in form by ancient glaciers. 
Among the highest summits are Timpanogos Peak (11,957 ft-). 
Mt. Nebo (11,887 ft.), Twin Peak (11,563 ft.), and Lone Peak 
(11,295 ft.). At the western base of the Wasatch are Salt Lake 
City, Ogden, Provo and other smaller towns, situated where streams 
issue from the mountains, soon to disappear on the desert plains. 
In such places agriculture is made possible by irrigation, and the 
Mormon villages, both here and farther south along the base of 
the Hurricane Ledge, depend largely on this industry. Important 
mining operations are carried on in the Wasatch Mountains and in 
a number of the basin ranges. Mercur, Tintic, Bingham and Park 
City are well-known mining centres. 

Fauna. In the open country the mule deer, the pronghorn 
antelope and the coyote are found, and the bison formerly ranged 
over the north-eastern part of the state; the side-striped ground- 
squirrel, Townsend's spermophile, the desert pack-rat and the 
desert pack-rabbit inhabit the flat country. In the mountainous 
districts and high plateaus are the grizzly, formerly more common, 
the black bear, the four-striped chipmunk and the yellow-haired 



814 



UTAH 



porcupine. Various species of small native mice and voles are 
abundant. 

In the marshes of the Salt Lake breed grebes, gulls and terns, 
and formerly the white pelican. Many ducks breed here, and many 
others pass through in migration: of the former, the most numerous 
are mallard and teal; of the latter, pintail, shoveler, scaup, ring-neck 
ducks, and mergansers. Wood and glossy ibises are commonly 
seen, and the white ibis breeds in numbers; the sand-hill crane is 
less common than formerly. A few varieties of shore birds breed 
here, as the Western willet, the Bartramian sandpiper, and the long- 
billed curlew. Gambel's partridge is resident in the southern part 
of the state, and the sage-hen and sharp-tail grouse on the plains. 
The dusky grouse and grey ruffed grouse are confined to the mountains 
and plateaus. The California vulture is very rare; various species 
of hawks and golden and bald eagles are common. The burrowing 
owl is found on the plains, and various species of small birds are 
characteristic of the different physical divisions of the state. A few 
lizards are found in the arid districts. The trout of the Utah 
mountain streams is considered a distinct species. 

Flora. Western Utah and vast areas along the Colorado river 
in the east and south-east are practically treeless. The lower 
plateaus and many of the basin ranges, as well as the basins them- 
selves, are deserts. The higher plateaus, the Uinta and Wasatch 
mountains, bear forests of fir, spruce and pine, and the lower slopes 
are dotted with pifion, juniper, and scrub cedar. On the slopes 
of mountain valleys grow cedars, dwarf maples and occasional 
oaks. Willows and cottonwoods grow along streams. The west 
slope of the Wasatch has been largely denuded of its forests to supply 
the demands of the towns at its base. Among other plants common 
to the state are the elder, wild hop, dwarf sunflower, and several 
species of greasewood and cacti. The sagebrush, artemisia, is 
characteristic of the desert areas. Bunch grass is abundant on 
the hillsides the year round, and affords valuable pasturage. 

Climate. On account of its great diversity in topography, the 
state of Utah is characterized by a wide range in climatic conditions. 
Extremely cold weather may occur on the lofty plateaus and moun- 
tain ranges, while the intervening valleys and basins have a milder 
climate. The mean temperature of the state ranges from 58 in 
the extreme south to 42 in the north. Winter temperatures as 
low as 36 below zero are known for the higher altitudes; in the 
south, summer temperatures of 110 and higher have been recorded. 
At Salt Lake City the mean winter temperature is 31, the mean 
summer temperature 73. Corresponding figures for St George, in 
the south-western part of the state, are 38 and 80. In general 
Utah may be said to have a true continental climate, although the 
presence of Great Salt Lake has a modifying effect on the climate of 
that portion of the Basin Region in which it lies. Killing frosts 
occur early in September and as late as the last of May, and in 
the higher valleys they may occur at any time. The mean annual 
precipitation is only II in., the greater part of which occurs in the 
Form of snow in the winter months, summer being the dry season. 
At Salt Lake City the annual precipitation is 15.8 in., of which 2 in. 
fall in summer. For St George the figures are: annual precipita- 
tion, 6.6 in.; summer, 1.3 in. Both Salt Lake City and St George 
are near the boundary between the Basin Region and the high 
plateaus. Well out in the basin deserts the precipitation is still 
less; and the same holds true for the low desert plateaus in the 
south-eastern part of the state, where Hite has an annual precipita- 
tion of only 2.3 in., of which 0.4 in. falls in the summer. On the 
other hand, the precipitation on the high plateaus probably exceeds 
30 in. in places. In the inhabited parts of the state, irrigation is 
generally necessary for agriculture. 

Soil. The alluvium of the desert basins furnishes much good 
soil, which produces abundant crops where irrigated. Alkali soils 
are also common in the basins, but when water is available they can 
often be washed out and made productive. Very rich floodplain 
soils occur along the larger streams. Vast areas of unreclaimable 
desert exist in the west and south-east. In the protected valleys 
between the high plateaus alluvial soils are cultivated; but the 
plateau summits are relatively inaccessible, and, being subject to 
summer frosts, are not cultivated. Comparatively poor, sandy 
soil is found on the lower desert plateaus in the south-east, where 
population is scanty. 

Forests. The forest resources of Utah are of little value: the 
total wooded area was about 10,000 sq. m. in 1900, or about I2j % 
of the land area of : the state. The only timber of commercial 
importance is found in the Uinta Range in the north-eastern corner 
of the state, and is chiefly yellow pine. The timber of the Wasatch 
Range is small and scattering. In 1910 there were in the state 
fourteen national forests varying in size from 1,250,610 acres (the 
Uinta reserve), 947,490 acres (the Ashley reserve), and 786,080 acres 
(the Manti reserve), down to the smallest Pocatello (10,720) on the 
Idaho border. The total area of these reserves was 7,436,327 acres. 

Irrigation. Under the Federal Reclamation Fund, established 
in 1902, $830,000 was allotted to Utah in 1902-9, and $200,000 
more in 1910, for the development of the Strawberry Valley project. 
This project, which was about one-third completed in the beginning 
of 1910, provides for the irrigation in Strawberry Valley (Utah and 
Wasatch counties, S. of Provo), of 60,000 acres, by a 68oo-acre 



reservoir of 110,000 acre-feet capacity, on Strawberry river; 
by a tunnel, 19,000 ft. long, connecting the reservoir with Diamond 
Fork, a tributary of Spanish Fork river; by a storage dam, 50 ft. 
high, of 60,000 cub. yds. contents, diverting water from Spanish 
Fork river into two canals, one on each side of the river, for the 
irrigation of land in the valley of Utah lake; by a hydro-electric 
power plant about 3 m. below the diversion dam ; and by the enlarge- 
ment of existing canal systems. The diversion dam, the power 
canal, and the first unit of the power plant were completed in 1909. 
Irrigation of the arid western regions of the United States began in 
the Great Basin of Utah when the Mormon pioneers in 1847 diverted 
the waters of City Creek upon the parched soil of Salt Lake Valley. 
In 1900 nearly 90% of the land reclaimed by irrigation in the whole 
state lay within the Great Basin. Between 1889 and 1899 the 
number of irrigators in the state (exclusive of Indian reservations) 
increased from 9724 to 17,924, or 84.3%, and the number of acres 
irrigated from 263,473 to 629,293, or 138.8%. In 1900, of the total 
improved acreage (1,029,226 acres) 61.2% (629,293 acres) was 
irrigated; and in 1899, of the 686,374 acres in crops, 537,588 acres, 
or 78.3 %. 

Agriculture. The number of farms in Utah (not including those 
of less than 3 acres and of small productivity) in 1880 was 9452; 
in 1890, 10,517; and in 1900, 19,007: their average size in 1880 was 
69.4 acres; in 1890, 125.9 acres; and in 1900, 216.6 acres. The 
total number of all farms in the state in 1900 was 19,387; and the 
number of white farmers, 19,144. The greatest number of farms 
were between 100 acres and 500 acres 1916 in 1880, and 5565 in 
1900. Other holdings were as follows: between 20 acres and 50 
acres, 3688 in 1880, and 5261 in 1900; between 50 acres and 100 
acres, 2056 in 1880 and 3741 in 1900; less than 10 acres, 434 in 1880 
and 1622 in 1900; 1000 acres and more, 9 in 1880 and 248 in 1900. 
The proportion of farms operated by owners decreased from 95.4 % 
(9019 farms) in 1880 to 91.2% (17,674 farms) in 1900; those 
operated by cash tenants increased from 0.6 % (60 farms) in 1880 to 
2.6% (506 farms) in 1900, and those operated by share tenants from 
4% (373 farms) in 1880 to 6.2% (1207 farms) in 1900. The total 
area of farms increased from 655,524 acres in 1880 to 4,116,951 
acres in 1900, but the proportion of improved land decreased from 
63.5% (416,105 acres) in 1880 to 25.1 % (1,032,117 acres) in 1900, 
indicating the great increase in land used for grazing. 

The value of farm property, including land with improvements, 
implements and machinery, and live-stock was $19,333,569 in 1880 
and $75,175,141 in 1900; the average value per farm was $2045 
in 1880 and $3878 in 1900; and the average value per acre of farm 
land was $29.49 in 1880 and $18.26 in 1900. The value of all farm 
products was $3,337,410 in 1879 and $16,502,051 in 1899, and the 
amount expended for fertilizers increased only from $ 1 1 ,394 to $ 14,300. 

In 1899 hay and grain furnished the principal income from 
35.4% of all farms in the state, and live-stock from 28.1 % of all 
farms. In 1899, 255,699 acres, or 37.3 % of the acreage of all crops, 
was sown to cereals, which were valued at $2,386,789, or 29 % of the 
value of all crops. The production of cereals (which grow chiefly 
in the northern counties of the state) was 130,842 bu. in 1849, 
770,287 bu. in 1869, 2,395,744 bu.' in 1889, and 5,381,125 bu. in 1899. 
The principal cereal was wheat, the value of which was $1,575,064 
(3,413,470 bu.) in 1899, and $5,481,000 (6,090,000 bu.) in 1909.' 
The value and product of oats in 1899 was $553, 847 (l, 436,225 bu.), 
and in 1909, $1,319,000 (2,536,000 bu.); of Indian corn, in 1899, 
$121,872 (250,020 bu.), and in 1909, $355,000 (408,000 bu.); of 
barley, in 1899, $121,826 (252,140 bu.), and in 1909, $343,000 
(520,000 bu.); of rye in 1899, $13,761 (28,630 bu.), and in 1909, 
$46,000 (66,000 bu.).. The value of the hay and forage crop in 1899 
was $3,862,820, or 46.9% of the value of all crops, and its acreage 
was 388,043 acres, or 56.5% of the acreage of all crops; in 1909, 
the acreage in hay was 375,000 acres, and its value was $9,792,000. 
Alfalfa (or lucerne) formed the principal part of the hay crop in 
1899, and was produced chiefly in the counties of Utah (95,316- 
tons), Salt Lake (91,266 tons), Cache (64,543 tons) and Boxelder 
(50,019 tons), all in the northern part of the state. 

The vegetable crop in 1899 occupied 24,042 acres, or 3.5% of the 
acreage of all crops, and its value was $1,250,713, or 15.2% of the 
value of all crops. The product of potatoes increased very rapidly 
from 519,497 bu. in 1889 to 1,483,570 bu. valued at $487,816 in 
1899, and to 2,700,000 bu. valued at $1,161,000 in 1909. The pro- 
duction of other vegetables in 1899 was as follows: water-melons, 
620,440; musk-melons, 516,500; tomatoes, 254,052 bu.; cabbages, 
997,690 heads, and sweet corn, 16,192 bu. For the important sugar- 
beet crop, see below under Manufactures. On Gunnison and Hat 
islands in Great Salt Lake are valuable guano deposits which are 
used as fertilizers for vegetable gardens. 

The value of live-stock on farms and ranges in 1890 was $9,914, 766; 
on farms in 1900, $21,474,241. The number of neat cattle in 1900 
was 343,690, valued at $7,152,844; on January I, igio, 2 415,000, 



1 1909 statistics are from the Year Book of the U.S. Department 
of Agriculture. 

* These 1910 figures for live-stock are taken from the Year Book 
(1909) of the United States Department of Agriculture. 



UTAH 

Scale 1:2,535,000 



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UTAH 



815 



valued at $8,976,000, of which 88,000 were milch cows valued at 
$2,992,000. The number and value of other live-stock were as 
follows: sheep, in 1900, 3,818,423 ($10,256,488), and on January I, 
1910, 3,177,000 ($13,026,000); horses, in 1900, 115,884 ($3,396,313), 
and in 1910, 130,000 ($11,050,000); mules, in 1900, 2116 ($58,850), 
and in 1910, 3000 ($240,000); swine, in 1900, 65,732 ($293,115), and 
in 1910, 61,000 ($549,000). 

The total value of dairy products in 1899 was $1,522,932. The 
principal products were: milk, in 1890, 8,614,694 gals., and in 1899, 
25,124,642 gals, (received from sales, $645,550); butter, in 1890, 
I,759,354lbandini899,2,8i2,i22lb(receivedfrom sales, $214,910); 
cheese, in 1890, 163,539 ft, and in 1899, 169,215 Ib (received from 
sales, $122,933). The value of all poultry raised in 1899 was 
$262,503; the product of eggs was 3,387,340 doz., and their value, 
$424,628. 

The product of wool in 1890 (exclusive of wool shorn after the 
ist of June) was 9,685,513 Ib, in 1900, 17,050,977 R>. and in 1910, 
14,850,000 Ib. The value of the honey and wax produced in 1899 
was $94,364. Honey was a large crop with the early settlers, who 
put a hive and honey-bees on the state-seal of Deseret and of Utah. 

Mining. The mineral resources of Utah are varied and valuable, 
but their development was retarded for many years by the policy 
of the Mormon Church, which practically forbade its members to 
do any mining; more recently the development has been slow be- 
cause of inadequate transportation facilities, and the inaccessibility 
of some of the deposits. In 1902 the state ranked fourteenth among 
the states in the value of its mineral products, $12,378,350, and 
took thirteenth rank in 1907, with a product of $38,099,756, but 
dropped to the fifteenth rank in 1908, when the total value of its 
product was $26,422, 12i. 1 The value of products manufactured 
From minerals in 1902 was $9,123,228, or 43-1% of all the manu- 
factures in the state. The relative importance of mining and man- 
ufacturing maybe shown thus: in 1902 the mines and quarries of 
the state employed 5712 wage-earners and paid to them $5,089,122, 
and in 1900 manufacturing industries employed 6615 wage-earners, 
who received $3,388,370 in wages. 

Systematic prospecting for the precious metals did not begin 
in Utah until 1862, when Colonel Patrick E. Connor (1820-1891) 
of the Third California Infantry established Camp Douglas near 
Salt Lake City. He permitted many members of his regiment 
who had been prospectors in California to prospect the territory, 
with the result that mines were located at Stockton, Bingham 
Canyon, Little Cottonwood and elsewhere; but attempts to smelt 
lead-silver ore near Stockton about 1866 were not successful, and 
the mining of precious metals did not become an established in- 
dustry in the Territory until about 1870. Ores of good quality 
are now known to be quite generally distributed throughout the 
state. In 1902 the state ranked third in the value of its gold and 
silver production, $8,500,904; in 1908 it ranked sixth in gold, 
$3,946,700 (a decrease of $1,174,900 since 1907), and fourth in 
silver, $4,520,600 (a decrease of $3,007,900 since 1907). In 1908 
the richest producers of gold were Salt Lake (60,872-63 oz.), Juab 
(58,679-17 oz.) and Tooele (41,969-96 oz.) counties, which produced 
about nine-tenths of the total for the state; in Salt Lake and Juab 
counties the principal source was copper ore, but in Tooele county 
almost all the gold was from siliceous ores. For the whole state, 
of a total of 179,054-60 oz. in 1908, 111,086-12 were from copper 
ore, 47,439-15 from siliceous ores, and 19,986-36 from lead ores. 
In the same year the largest producing gold mines were the Cen- 
tennial Eureka in Juab county, the Mercur in Tooele county, and 
the Utah Consolidated and the Utah Copper in Salt Lake county. 
The principal silver regions in 1908 were the Tintic, in Juab and 
Utah counties, and the Park City, in Summit and Wasatch counties. 
Of the total production, 8,451,338 oz. (valued at $4,479,209) in 
1908, 2,748,289 oz. (of which more than two-thirds was from copper 
ores) were from Juab county; 2,463,735 oz. (all but 9586 oz., which 
were from lead zinc ore, being from lead ores) were from Summit 
and Wasatch counties; 1,561,983 oz. (all from lead ore, except 
1158 oz. from copper ore) were from Utah county; 1,125,209 oz. 
(704,358 from copper ore, 329,276 from lead ore, 47,130 from copper- 
lead ore and 44,445 from siliceous ore) were from Salt Lake county; 
and 378,373 oz. (of which 341,375 oz. were from lead ore) were 
from Tooele county. The principal source of the silver was the 
lead ores mined, from which in 1908 about two-thirds of the total 
of the silver was secured. 

Far larger in value than either gold or silver, and larger than both 
together, was the output of copper in Utah in 1907 ($12,851,377) 
and in 1908 ($11,463,383). Up to 1905 the output of silver in the 
state was greater than that of copper. In the production of copper 
in 1908 Utah ranked fourth among the states. Most of the metal 
was produced in the Bingham, or West Mountain district, Salt 
Lake county, where there were four mines in 1908 with an output 
of more than 1,000,000 Ib; the Tintic district in Juab county; 
the Frisco district in Beaver county; and the Lucin district 

1 The 1907 and 1908 statistics are from the Mineral Resources 
of the United States, published by the United States Geological 
Survey. 



in Boxelder county. In 1908 more than two-thirds of the total 
output was from the low-grade porphyry ores mined at New- 
house, Beaver county, and at Bingham, Salt Lake county. There 
are copper smelters at Garfield, Copperton and Binghamton. An 
anti-smoke injunction in 1908 closed the furnaces in the immediate 
vicinity of Salt Lake City. The production of copper in 1883 was 
341,885 ft; in 1890, 1,006,636 ft; in 1895, 2,184,708 ft; in 1900, 
18,354,726 ft; in 1904, 46,417,234 Ib; in 1907, 64,256,884 ft; 
and in 1908, 81,843,812 ft. 2 

Third in value (less than copper or silver) in 1908, but usually 
equalling silver in value, was the state's output of lead. The maxi- 
mum production, 125,342,836 ft, was in 1906; in 1908 the output 
was 88,777,498 ft (valued at $3,728,655). The decrease in output 
and value is largely due to the lower price of lead in the market 
and the higher smelting rate. In 1908 the following mines produced 
more than 5,000,000 ft each of lead: Silver King at Park City, 
the Colorado in the Tintic district, the Daly West and the Daly 
Judge in the Park City district, and the Old Jordan and the Tele- 
graph at Bingham, and there were fifteen other mines that pro- 
duced between 1,000,000 and 3,000,000 ft of lead. 

Zinc has been produced in commercial quantities in Summit, 
Tooele and Beaver counties. In 1906 the output was 6,474,615 ft, 
valued at $394,952; in 1908 it was 1,460,554 ft, valued at 
$68,646, and almost the entire output was from Summit county. 

The apparently inexhaustible supplies of iron ore in southern 
Utah, and especially in Iron county, had been little worked up to 
1910 on account of their inaccessibility. The beds of magnetite 
and hematite, in the southern portion of the Wasatch Mountains, 
are the largest in the western United States; in 1902 the four pro- 
ductive mines in Milford, Juab and Utah counties produced 16,240 
tons of ore, valued at $27,417. There are valuable manganese 
deposits in the sandstone of the eastern plateau. 

Coal was first discovered in Utah in 1851 along Coal Creek near 
Cedar City (in what is now Iron county) in the south-western part 
of Utah, and there was some mining of coal at Wales, Sanpete 
county, as early as 1855, but there was no general mining until about 
twenty years later, and the industry was not well established until 
1888. Thereafter its development was rapid, and the discovery 
of outcroppings throughout the central and southern parts of the 
state gave evidence of the existence of great bodies of the mineral. 
The only important region of coal mining in the state up to 1910 
was in Carson county, where more than nine-tenths of the total 
output of the state was mined in 1907 and in 1908. The production 
in 1870 was 5800 tons; in 1880, 14,748 tons (probably an under- 
estimate); in 1890, 318,159 tons; in 1900, 1,147,027 tons; in 
1903, 1,681,409 tons; in 1907, 1,947,607 tons (the maximum); 
and in 1908, 1,846,792 tons. The total production from 1870 to 
1908 was 20,683,974 tons, or allowing for coal lost, about 31,000,000 
tons, which is estimated to represent 0-016% of the original 
supply. In 1909 the United States Geological Survey reported 
workable beds of coal aggregating 13,130 sq. m. in area, and 2000 
sq. m. more in which it seemed probable that coal might be found. 
The shales of Utah, Sanpete, Juab and San Juan counties may 
furnish a valuable supply of petroleum if transportation facilities 
are improved; and there are rich supplies of asphalt 19,033 tons 
(valued at $100,324) was the output for 1908. 

Salt is obtained by solar evaporation chiefly of the waters of 
Great Salt Lake and other brine found in that vicinity; at Nephi 
City, Juab county; near Gunnison, Sanpete county; in Sevier and 
Millard counties, and at Withee Junction in Weber county. The 
value of this product in 1907 was $199,779 (345,557 bbls.), and in 
1908, $169,833 (242,678 bbls.). 

Of other non-metallic products, among'the most important were 
limestone valued in 1902 at $186,663, and in 1908 at $253,088 
and sandstone^ valued in 1902 at $105,011 and in 1908 at $25,097. 
Some marble is quarried at Beaver in Beaver county, and Utah 
onyx has been used for interior decoration, notably in the city 
and county building of Salt Lake City. The clay products of the 
state in the same year were valued at $658,517. There are con- 
siderable deposits of sulphur, of varying degrees of richness, near 
Black Rock in Beaver county. Many semi-precious and precious 
stones are found in Utah, including garnet (long sold to tourists 
by the Navaho Indians), amethyst, jasper, topaz, tourmaline, opal, 
variscite (or " Utahlite "), malachite, diopside and Smithsomte. 
In 1908 the reported value of precious stones from Utah was 
$20,350. 

Manufactures. The manufacturing industry was long com- 
paratively unimportant, being largely for local markets. It is 
still largely dependent on local raw 'material. But, with the 
growth of the mineral industry and of the cultivation of sugar beets, 
there was a remarkable growth in manufacturing between 1900 
and 1905: the amount of capital increased from $13,219,039 to 
$26,004,011, or 96-7%; the average number of wage-earners from 
5413 to 8052, or 48-8; and the value of factory products from 
$17,981,648 to $38,926,464, or 116-5%. I n the period under 

8 These statistics for 1904, 1907 and 1908 are from Mineral Re- 
sources of the United States for 1908. 



8i6 



UTAH 



discussion, urban establishments (i.e. those in the two munici- 
palitiesSalt Lake City and Ogden having a population in 1900 
of at least 8000), increased in number from 205 to 256 or 24-9%, 
and rural establishments decreased in number from 370 to 350 
(5'4 %) ; the capitalization of urban establishments increased 
from $4,212,972 to $7,700,750 (82-8%), and that of the rural from 
$9,006,067 to $18,303,361 (103-2%); the average number of wage- 
earners in urban establishments increased from 2832 to 3859 
(36-3%), and those in rural establishments from 2581 to 4193 
(62-5%); the value of the products of urban establishments 
increased from $5,521,140 to $10,541,040 (90-9%) and that of rural 
establishments from $12,460,508 to $28,385,424 (127-8%). This 
unusual predominance of rural over urban manufacturing is further 
shown by the fact that in 1900, 64-3 % of the establishments report- 
ing, and 69-3 % of the value of their products were from factories 
classified as rural, and in 1905 the proportion of rural factories was 
58-8%, and the value of their products 72-9% of the total. This 
predominance was largely due to the smelting and refining industry, 
the smelters being chiefly in the rural districts. 

The flour and grist mill industry was the most important in the 
state, with products valued at $1,659,223 in 1900, and $2,425,791 
in 1905. The values of the products of other industries in 1900 and 
1905, in the order of their importance, were as follows: Car and 
general shop construction and repairs by steam railway companies, 
in 1900, $1,306,591, and in 1905, $1,886,651; printing and publish- 
ing, in 1900, $770,848, and in 1905, $1,466,549; confectionery, in 
1900, $403,379, and in 1905, $1,004,601; canning and preserving 
fruit and vegetables in 1900, $300,349, and in 1905, $801,958. The 
value of the products of industries of lesser importance in 1905 were : 
slaughtering and meat packing (wholesale), $653,314; malt liquors, 
$636,688; and foundry and machine shop products, $587,484. 

The beet sugar industry is one of growing importance in Utah: 
there were in 1900 3 refineries, having a daily total capacity of noo 
tons of beets; in 1905, 4, with a daily total capacity of 2850 tons; 
and in 1909," 5, which treated 455,064 tons of beets and produced 
48,884 tons of sugar. In 1853 a sugar factory bought in England 
was erected at Provo, but no sugar was manufactured there, and 
none was successfully refined until 1889. Sugar beets were first 
grown by irrigation in Utah ; under that system it becomes possible 
to estimate closely the tonnage of the product. Slicing stations 
established at distances of from 12 to 25 m. from a factory receive 
the beets, extract the mice and force it through pipes to the factory. 

Transportation. The first trade route to be established by white 
men within the present boundaries of Utah was the old Spanish 
trail from Santa F6 to Los Angeles. The trail entered what is now 
Utah, just east of the Dolores river, crossed the Grand river near the 
Sierra La Salle and the Green river at the present crossing of the 
Denver & Rio Grande railway, proceeded thence to the Sevier river 
and southward along its valley to the headwaters of the Virgin 
river, which it followed southward, and then westward, so that its 
line" left the present state near its south-west corner. The presence 
of this and other trails to California was of great importance during 
the gold excitement of 1849, when many miners outfitted at Salt 
Lake City and the Mormons grew rich in this business. The first 
considerable railway enterprise in the territory was the Union Pacific, 
which was completed to Ogden in 1869. This system (which 
includes the Oregon Short line) has since been supplemented by the 
Denver & Rio Grande, the Southern Pacific, the San Pedro, Los 
Angeles & Salt Lake, and various connecting lines. The railway 
mileage in 1870 was 257m.; in 1890, 1265 m.;and in 1909, i962-87m. 

Population. The population in 1850 was 11,380; in 1860, 
40,273; in 1870, 86,786; in 1880, 143,963; in 1890, 207,905; in 
1900, 276,749; and in 1910, 373,351. Of the population in 1900, 
219,661 were native whites, 53,777, or 19-4%, were foreign- 
born, 2623 were Indians (of whom 1472 were not taxed), 672 
were negroes, 572 were Chinese and 417 were Japanese. The 
reservation Indians in 1909 were chiefly members of the Uinta, 
Uncompahgre and White River Ute tribes on the Uinta Valley 
reservation (179,194 acres unallotted) in the north-eastern part 
of the state. 2 Of the 1900 native-born population 3870 were 
born in Illinois, 3032 in New York, 2525 in Ohio and 2519 in 
Pennsylvania. Of the foreign-born by far the largest number, 
18,879, were natives of England, 9132 were Danes, 7025 were 
Swedes; and natives of Scotland, Germany, Wales and Nor- 
way were next in numbers. The large English immigration 
is to be ascribed to the successful proselytizing efforts of the 
Mormons in England. The same influence may be traced in 
the other immigration figures. There was, however, a relative 

1 Year Book of the United States Department of Agriculture. 

The Report of the commissioner of Indian Affairs for 1909 gives 
the following figures for the Indian population: under the Panguitch 
School, Kanab Kaibab, 81, Shivwitz Paiute, 118; under the Uinta 
and Puray Agency, Uinta Ute, 443, Uncompahgre Ute, 469, White 
River Ute, 296; not under agency, Paiute 370. 



decrease in the number of foreign-born in the state from 1890 
to 1900. Of the total 1900 population 169,473 were of foreign 
parentage (i.e. either one or both parents were foreign-born), 
and 42,735 were of English, 18,963 of Danish and 12,047 of 
Swedish parentage, both on the father's and on the mother's 
side. The Latter-Day Saints (Mormons) are far more numerous 
than any other sect, this church having a membership in 1906 
of 151,525 (of these 493 were of the Reorganized Church of 
Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints) out of a total of 172,814 in all 
denominations; there were 479 members of this denomination to 
every 1000 of the population in the state, and the next largest 
sect, the Roman Catholics, had only 26 per 1000 of population 
and no Protestant body more than 6 per 1000. In the same 
year there were 8356 Roman Catholics, 1902 members of the 
Northern Presbyterian Church, 1537 members of the Northern 
Methodist Episcopal Church, 1174 Congregationalists, and 
987 Baptists (of the Northern Conference). The state in 1900 
had 3-4 inhabitants to the sq., m. While this approached the 
average 3-5 for all the states west of the Rocky Mountains 
taken together, with the exception of Colorado, which had 5-2 
it was noticeably higher than that of its immediate neighbours, 
Idaho (1-9), Arizona (i-i) and Nevada (0-4). At the census 
of 1880 the density of the population was 1-8 and in 1890 
it was 2-6. From 1890 to 1900 the urban population (i.e. the 
population of places having 4000 inhabitants or more) increased 
from 69,456 to 81,480, or 17-3%, the urban population in 
1900 being 29-4% of the total; the semi-urban population 
(i.e. population of incorporated places, or the approximate 
equivalent, having less than 4000 inhabitants) increased from 
36,867 to 83,740, 71-1% of the total increase in population; 
while the rural population (i.e. population outside of incorporated 
places) increased from 104,456 to 111,529, 10-7% of the total 
increase. The principal cities of the state are: the capital, 
Salt Lake City, pop. (1910) 92,777; Ogden, 25,580; Provo, 
8925; and Logan, 7522. 

Administration. The state is governed under the first 
constitution adopted on the 5th of November 1895, and 
amended in November 1900, November 1906, and November 
1908. An amendment may be submitted to the people at the 
next general election by a two-thirds vote of the members 
elected to each house of the legislature, and only a majority 
of the electors voting thereon is required for approval. By a 
two-thirds majority the legislature may recommend that a 
constitutional convention be called; and if a majority of the 
electors at the next general election approve, the legislature 
shall provide for the convention, but the approval of a majority 
of the electors voting is necessary for ratification of the work 
of the convention. Article III., which guarantees religious 
freedom, forbids sectarian control of public schools, prohibits 
polygamy and defines the relation of the state to the public 
lands of the United States, is irrevocable except by consent 
of the United States. Every citizen of the United States, 
male or female, twenty-one years old or over, who has lived 
one year within the state, four months within the county and 
sixty days within the precinct has the right of suffrage, except 
that idiots, insane, and those convicted of treason or crime 
against the elective franchise are disfranchised; but in elections 
levying a special tax, creating indebtedness or increasing the 
rate of state taxation, only those who have paid a property 
tax during the preceding year may vote. A form of the 
Australian ballot with party columns is provided at public 
expense. As in so many of the newer Western states, the 
constitution specifies minutely many details which in the older 
instruments are left to be fixed by statute. For example, 
the employment of women or of children under fourteen in 
mines and the leasing of convict labour by contract are for- 
bidden, and eight hours must constitute a day's work in state, 
county or municipal undertakings. 

Executive. The executive department consists of the 
governor, secretary of state, auditor, treasurer, attorney- 
general and superintendent of public instruction, all elected 
by the people at the time of the presidential election, and 



UTAH 



817 



holding office for four years from the first day of January 
following. All these officers must be qualified electors and must 
have resided within the state for five years preceding their 
election. The auditor and treasurer may not succeed them- 
selves, and governor and secretary of state must be at least thirty 
years old. The governor may call the legislature in extra- 
ordinary session or may summon the Senate alone. With the 
consent of the Senate he appoints all officers whose election 
or appointment is not otherwise provided for, including the 
bank examiner, state chemist, dairy and food commissioners, 
the boards of labour and health, the directors of the state 
institutions, &c., and fills all vacancies in elective offices until 
new officers are chosen and qualified. The governor, justices 
of the supreme court and the attorney-general constitute a 
board of pardons. The governor and other state officers form 
other boards, but the legislature is given power to establish 
special boards of directors. The veto of the governor, which 
extends to separate items in appropriation bills, can be over- 
come only by a two-thirds vote of each house of the legislature; 
but if the bill is not returned to the legislature, within five 
days it becomes a law without the governor's approval. The 
governor may not be elected to the United States Senate 
during his gubernatorial term. 

Legislative. The legislative power is vested in (i) the legis- 
lature, consisting of the Senate and House of Representatives, 
and (2) in the people of Utah. The legislature meets biennially 
on the second Monday in January of the odd-numbered years. 
No person is eligible to either house who is not a citizen of the 
United States, twenty-five years of age, a resident of the state 
for three years and of the district from which he is chosen for 
one year. Senators are elected for four years, but one-half 
the membership of the Senate retires every two years. The 
representatives are elected for two years. No person who 
holds any office of profit or trust under the state or the United 
States is eligible to the legislature, and no member, during the 
term for which he was chosen, shall be appointed or elected 
to any office created, or the emoluments of which have been 
increased during his term. Each house is the judge of the 
election and qualification of its own members. The member- 
ship of ^each house is fixed by law every five years, but the 
number of senators must never exceed thirty, and the number 
of representatives must never be less than twice nor more than 
three times the number of senators. In 1909 the Senate had 
eighteen and the House forty-five members. The legislature 
is forbidden to pass any special act where a general law can 
be made applicable, and is specifically forbidden to pass special 
acts on a number of subjects, including divorce, the rate of 
interest, and the incorporation of cities, towns or villages, or 
the amendment of their charters, &c. Neither the state nor any 
political subdivision may lend its credit or subscribe to the 
stock of any private corporation. The powers of the houses 
are the same, except that the Senate confirms or rejects the 
governor's nominations and sits as an impeachment court, 
while the Representatives initiate impeachments. By an 
amendment of 1900, the legislature was instructed to provide 
that a fixed fraction of the voters might cause any law to be 
submitted to the people, or that they might require any legis- 
lative act (except one passed by a two- thirds vote of each 
house) to be so submitted before going into effect, but up to 
1910 no law had been passed putting the amendment into force. 

Judiciary. The judicial power is vested in the Senate 
sitting as a court of impeachment, in the Supreme Court, the 
district courts, in justices of the peace, and in " such inferior 
courts as may be established by law." The Supreme Court 
is composed of three justices (but the number may be increased 
to five whenever the legislature shall deem it expedient) each 
of whom must be thirty years old, learned in the law, and a 
resident of the state for five years preceding his election. They 
are elected by the people for a term of six years, but the term 
of one expires every two years, and that justice who shall have 
the shortest time to serve acts as chief justice. The court has 
original jurisdiction to issue writs of mandamus, cerliorari, 



prohibition, quo warranlo and habeas corpus. Otherwise its 
jurisdiction is exclusively appellate, and every final decision 
of a district court is subject to review. The court holds three 
terms yearly in the capital. The state is divided into seven 
districts, in which from one to four judges are elected for terms 
of four years. They must be twenty-five years old, residents 
of the state for three years, and of the district in which they 
are chosen. They have original jurisdiction of civil, criminal 
and probate matters, not specifically assigned to other tribunals, 
and appellate jurisdiction from the inferior courts. At least 
three terms yearly must be held in each county. In cities of 
the second class (5000-30,000 inhabitants) municipal courts may 
be established. In cities of the first class (30,000 or more) a 
city court was established in 1901. Special juvenile courts 
may be established in cities of the first and second class. 
Each precinct elects a justice of the peace, who has civil 
jurisdiction when the debt or damage claimed does not exceed 
three hundred dollars, and has primary criminal jurisdiction. 

Local Government. The county is the unit of local government. 
The chief fiscal and police authority is the Board of County Com- 
missioners of three members, two elected every two years, one for 
two years and one for four. They create and alter subdivisions, 
levy taxes, care for the poor, construct, maintain and make regula- 
tions for roads and bridges, erect and care for public buildings, 
grant franchises, issue licences, supervise county officers, make 
and enforce proper police regulations (but the authority does not 
extend to incorporated towns or cities), and perform such other 
duties as may be authorized by law. Other county officers are the 
clerk (who is ex officio clerk of the district court and of the com- 
missioners), sheriff, treasurer, auditor, recorder, surveyor, assessor, 
attorney and superintendent of district schools, but where the 
assessed valuation of any county is less than #20,000,000 the clerk 
is ex officio auditor, and the commissioners may consolidate offices. 
The precincts are laid off by the commissioners and each elects a 
justice of the peace and a constable. Cities are divided into classes 
(see above) according to population, and are governed by a mayor 
and a council. In cities of the first class fifteen, and of the 
second ten, councilman are elected by wards, while in cities of the 
third class (all having less than 5000 inhabitants) five councilmcn 
are elected on a general ticket. 

Miscellaneous Laws. Men and women may hold and dispose of 
property on the same terms, except that a husband cannot devise 
more than two-thirds of real estate away from his wife without her 
consent, and that a woman attains her majority at eighteen or when 
she marries. The property of an intestate leaving a widow or 
widower, but no issue, goes to the survivor if not over $5000 in 
value; if over that amount, one-half the excess goes to the survivor 
and one-half to the father and mother of the deceased or to either of 
them. If neither father nor mother survives, their share goes to the 
brothers and sisters of the deceased or to their descendants. If 
there are no descendants, the whole goes to the surviving husband or 
wife. If a husband or wife and one child survive, they share the 
estate equally; if more than one child, the surviving husband or 
wife takes one-third and the children divide the remainder. If the 
intestate leaves issue but no husband or wife, the issue takes the 
whole. Failing all these, the estate goes to the next of kin. An 
illegitimate child is an heir of its mother and of the person who 
acknowledges himself to be its father. Estates exceeding $10.000 pay 
an inheritance tax of 5 % on the excess. A homestead not exceeding 
$1500 for the head of the family and $500 additional for the husband 
or wife and $250 additional for each other member of the family is 
not subject to execution except for the purchase price, or mechanic's 
and labourer's liens, lawful mortgage or taxes. The district courts 
have exclusive jurisdiction in divorce, which may be granted because 
of impotency at time of marriage, adultery, wilful desertion for more 
than one year, wilful neglect to provide the necessities of life, habitual 
drunkenness, conviction for felony, intolerable cruelty, and per- 
manent insanity which has existed for at least five years. An 
interlocutory decree is entered which becomes absolute at the end 
of six months, unless appeal is entered. The guilty party forfeits all 
rights acquired through marriage. Children over ten years of age 
may select the parent to whom they will attach themselves. A 
marriage may be annulled on ground of idiocy, insanity, bigamy, 
loathsome disease at time of marriage, epilepsy, miscegenation 
(white and negro or white and Mongolian), or when a male is less 
than sixteen or a female less than fourteen years of age. A marriage 
licence is required. No female and no male under fourteen may 
work in a mine. Eight hours is the limit of a day's work in mines 
and smelters. A person sentenced to death may choose one of two 
methods of execution hanging or shooting. 

Education. Before 1890 some districts in the state under a local 
option law had established free schools, but the general free school 
system was founded in 1890 by a law which consolidated all the 
districts in each city into one large school district and classified 
Salt Lake City as a city of the first class, and Ogden, Logan and 



8i8 



UTAH 



Provo as cities of the second class for school purposes; in 1908-9 
six county school districts of the first class were formed. In 1892- 
1893 text-books and supplies were first furnished free to pupils 
in the grades; and in the same year supervisory work was intro- 
duced. At the head of the public school system is a state 
superintendent of public instruction, elected for four years, and a 
board of education, composed of the state superintendent, the presi- 
dent of the state university, the president of_ the Agricultural 
College, and two appointees of the governor serving for four years. 
There is a county superintendent whose term is two years. And 
in each district there is a board of three trustees, one retiring each 
year. Two or more contiguous districts may unite to form a high 
school district. School attendance is compulsory for twenty weeks 
each year in rural districts and for thirty weeks each year in cities 
of the first and second class for all children between eight and 
sixteen years. In 1900 the percentage of illiterates at least ten 
years old was 3-1. In 1909 there were 685 public schools in the 
state; the total number of pupils of school age (six to eighteen years) 
was 102,050, the number enrolled in the public schools was 84,804, 
and the average daily attendance was 66,774; the total number of 
teachers was 2255 (1645 women), and the average monthly salary 
of men teachers was $88-13 an .d of women $57-44; and the total 
expenditure for public education was $2,762,581 for the year, 
being more than twice as much as was expended by the state ten 
years before. The laws of the state provide for a commission, 
in cities and counties, for the retirement of public school teachers 
on a pension. The university of Utah at Salt Lake City was 
opened in 1850 as the state university of the " state of Deseret." 
The State Agricultural College and Experiment Station (1888) is 
at Logan. At Cedar City, in Iron county, is a branch normal 
school, connected with the state university. There is a state school 
for the deaf and the blind (1884) at Ogden. The Art Institute at 
Salt Lake City has an annual art exhibit, a state art collec- 
tion, and a course of public lectures on art. There is a state com- 
mission which promotes the establishment of free libraries and 
gymnasiums. The Mormons control Brigham Young University 
(1876) at Provp, Brigham Young College (1878) at Logan, the Latter- 
day Saints University (1887) at Salt Lake City, and academies at 
Ogden, Ephraim, Castle Dale, Beaver and Vernal. Other denomina- 
tional schools are : St Mary's Academy (1875; Roman Catholic) 
in Salt Lake City; All Hallows College (1886; Roman Catholic) in 
Salt Lake City; Westminster College (1897; Presbyterian) in Salt 
Lake City, and Presbyterian academies at Logan, Springville and 
Mt. Pleasant; Rowland Hall Academy (1880; Protestant Episcopal) 
for girls at Salt Lake City; and Gordon Academy (1870; Congre- 
gational) at Salt Lake City. 

Charitable and Penal Institutions. The state supports a Mental 
Hospital (1884, with provision for feeble-minded and non-insane 
epileptics since 1907) at Provo, a state Industrial School (1889) at 
Ogden and a state prison (1850) at Salt Lake City. Under a law 
of 1905, amended in 1907 and 1909, provision is made for separate 
juvenile courts in all districts in which there are cities of the first 
(Salt Lake City) or the second class (Ogden, Logan and Provo) with 
jurisdiction over children under eighteen years of age; and similar 
jurisdiction is given to district courts elsewhere. In connexion 
with the juvenile court detention homes have been established, 
and in certain conditions justices of the peace are empowered to 
act as judges of the juvenile court in their respective precincts. 
There are many denominational chanties, especially Mormon, the 
entire state being divided into ecclesiastical units or " stakes " for 
charity organization. 

Finance. The principal source of public revenue is the property 
tax. An amendment of 1908 provides for the taxation of mines 
and mining property. The state assumed the Territorial debt of 
$700,000, and has added to it a bonded indebtedness of $200,000; 
the bonds, formerly 5 %, have been refunded at 33 and 3 %. There 
were only private banks until 1872, when Brigham Young organized 
a national bank. The first savings bank was organized in 1873, and 
state banks now outnumber national banks. The banking business 
for many years was largely in the hands of high Mormon officials, 
and the loyalty of church members built up a remarkable financial 
confidence, so that no Utah banks failed even in the panic of 1893. 

History. Existing documents seem to indicate that Fran- 
cisco Vasquez de Coronado, the Spanish explorer, sent out 
an expedition of twelve men under Captain Garcia Lopez de 
Cardenas in 1540, which succeeded in reaching the Colorado 
river at a point now within the state of Utah. But more 
extended exploration was conducted by two Franciscan friars, 
Francisco Atanasio Dominguez and Silvestre Velez de Escalante, 
who, on the 29th of July 1776, left Santa F6 with seven others 
to discover a direct route to Monterey on the coast of Alta 
California. This party came in sight of Utah lake on the 
23rd of August. Almost half a century later, in the winter 
of 1824-25, James Bridger, a trapper, discovered the Great 
Salt Lake while seeking the source of the Bear river. Many 



trappers in their skin boats followed his lead, notably William 
H. Ashley, of the Rocky Mountain Fur Company, who, in 
1825, at the head of about 120 men and a train of horses, left 
St Louis and established the fort named for him at Lake 
Utah. In 1843 General John C. Fremont with Kit Carson and 
three others explored the Great Salt Lake in a rubber boat. 
With Brigham Young and his little band of Mormon followers 
(between 140 and 150 members), who entered the Great Salt 
Lake Valley in July 1847, begins the story of settlement and 
civilization (see MORMONS). Before the end of 1848 about 
5000 Mormons had settled in the Salt Lake Valley. The 
treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (Feb. 2, 1848) ceded to the United 
States the vast western territory which included Utah. Early 
in 1849 the Mormon community was organized as the state 
of Deseret l with Brigham Young as governor. Deseret then 
comprised not only the present state of Utah, but all Arizona 
and Nevada, together with parts of New Mexico, Colorado, 
Wyoming and California. Application was made to Congress 
to admit it as a state or Territory, and on the gth of September 
1850 the Territory of Utah, then comprising the present state 
and portions of Nevada, Colorado and Wyoming, was established 
under an Act, which provided that it should be admitted as a 
state, with or without slavery, as the constitution adopted at 
the time of admission prescribed. (See COMPROMISE OF 1850.) 
The Republican party and (less violently) the Democratic in 
their national platforms and in Congress attacked and opposed 
the Mormon institution of polygamy. Statehood, therefore, 
was not granted until the 4th of January 1896, owing to the 
apparent hostility of the Mormon authorities to non-Mormon 
settlers and to repeated clashes between the Mormon Church 
and the United States government regarding extent of control, 
polygamous practices, &c. And even after the admission of 
the state these questions arose in the matter of seating prominent 
Mormons who were elected to Congress. For a detailed account 
of these difficulties and of the growth of the " Gentile " or non- 
Mormon element see the article MORMONS. 

Through irrigation experiments agriculture became the indus- 
trial foundation of the desert community. The waters of 
City Creek were at first diverted and a canal was built; and 
the results were encouraging, though in the summer of 1848 
crops were destroyed by a swarm of black crickets; but in turn 
this pest was devoured by sea-gulls, and the phrase " gulls and 
crickets " has become one of peculiar historic significance in 
Utah. After 1849 the gold-fever horde bound for California 
furnished a source of revenue to the Mormons, as their settle- 
ment afforded an admirable post for supplies. 

The division of land among the Mormons was singularly 
equitable. Each city block consisted of 10 acres divided into 
eight ij-acre lots, which were assigned to professional and 
business men. Then a tier of s-acre lots was apportioned 
to mechanics, and 10- and 2o-acre parcels of land were given 
to farmers, according to the size of their families. As Great 
Salt Lake City grew all landholders benefited, either by the 
location of their property or because of its size, the smaller lots 
being closer to the business centre and the larger tracts being 
in the outlying districts. 

In 1847 Brigham Young had succeeded Joseph Smith as presi- 
dent of the Mormons, and he held that position of veritable 
dictator until his death (1877); John Taylor succeeded him, 
and Wilford Woodruff in 1890 was chosen head of the organiza- 
tion; then Lorenzo Snow was president in 1898-1901, and 
Joseph Fielding Smith was elected in 1901. 

From time to time the Indians have risen against the Mormons. 
Between 1857 and 1862 outbreaks were frequent, and on the 
29th of January 1863 occurred the battle of Bear river, where 
some 300 Shoshones and Bannocks and about 200 of Colonel 
P. E. Connor's command participated in a bloody engagement. 
In April 1865 an Indian war broke out under the leadership of 
Blackhawk, which lasted intermittently until the end of 1867. 
But in June 1865 treaties were concluded with the majority 

'According to the Book of Mormon, "Deseret" means "land of 
the working bee." 



UTAMARO UTICA 



819 



of Utah tribes, whereby they agreed to remove to Uinta Valley, 
where a reservation had been made for them. One other 
important reservation, the Uncompahgre, has also been opened 
for the Indians of the state. 

The state has chosen Republican governors and, except in 
1896, when it gave its electoral vote to W. J. Bryan, the Demo- 
cratic candidate for the presidency, has voted for the Republican 
nominees in presidential elections. 



Brigham Young 



GOVERNORS 
State of Deseret 



Territorial 



Brigham Young 

Alfred Gumming 

John W. Dawson 

Frank Fuller (Acting Governor) 

Stephen S. Harding 

James Duane Doty 

Charles Durkee. 

Edwin Higgins (Acting Governor) 

S. A. Mann (Acting Governor). 

J. Wilson Schaffer 

Vernon H. Vaughan (Acting Governor) 

George L. Woods 

S. B. Axtell 

George B. Emery 

Eli H. Murray 

Caleb W. West 

Arthur L. Thomas 

Caleb W. West 

STATE GOVERNORS 

Heber M. Wells (Republican) . 
John C. Cutler (Republican) 
William Spry (Republican) 



1849-1850 

1850-1857 

1857-1861 

1861 

1861-1862 

1862-1863 

1863-1865 

1865-1869 

1869-1870 

1870 

1870 

1870-1871 

1871-1874 

1874-1875 

1875-1880 

1880-1886 

1886-1889 

1889-1893 

1893-1896 



1896-1905 
1905-1909 
1909- 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. On the physiography of Utah see Henry 
Gannett, Gazetteer of Utah (Washington, 1900), being Bulletin 166 
of the U.S. Geological Survey ; J. W. Powell, Geology of the Uinta 
Mountains (ibid., 1876), Exploration of the Colorado River of the 
West (ibid., 1875), and The Lands of Utah (ibid., 1879); W. M. 
Davis, " An Excursion to the Plateau Province of Utah and 
Arizona " and " The Mountain Ranges of the Great Basin," in vol. 42 
(1903) of Bulletin of the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology; 
S. F. Emmons, " Uinta Mountains," in vol. 18 (1907) of the Bulletin 
of the Geological Society of America; C. E. Dutton, The High 
Plateaus of Utah (Washington, 1880); and G. K. Gilbert, Lake 
Bonneville (ibid., 1890), Monograph I. of the U.S. Geological Survey. 
On mineral wealth see Nichols, Mineral Resources of Utah (Pitts- 
burg, 1873). For administration see James T. Hammond and Grant 
H. Smith (edd.), Compiled Laws of the State (Salt Lake City, 1908). 
The important titles for the history of the state are those given 
in the article MORMONS, especially H. H. Bancroft, History of Utah 
(San Francisco, 1889), and O. F. Whitney, History of Utah (4 vols., 
Salt Lake City, 1892-98). 

UTAMARO (1754-1806), one of the best known of the 
Japanese designers of colour-prints, was born at Kawayoye. 
His father was a well-known painter of the Kano School, Tori- 
yama Sekiyen (Toyofusa), a pupil of Kano Chikanobu; and 
Utamaro traced his descent from the old feudal clans of the 
Minamoto, whose war with the Taira family belongs to the 
romantic period of Japanese history. Utamaro's personal name 
was Yusuke; and he first worked under the signature Toriyama 
Toyo-aki; but after a quarrel with his father substituted the 
name Kitagawa for the former appellation. His distinct style 
was the outcome of that of his father, tempered with the 
characteristics of the Kano school. As a painter, his landscapes 
and drawings of insects are most highly considered by Japanese 
critics; but his fame will always rest among Europeans on his 
designs for colour-prints, the subjects of which are almost 
entirely women professional beauties and the like. These were 
done for the most part while he lived, in a sort of bondage, in 
the house of a publisher, Tsutaya Shigesaburo. His talents 
were wasted by an unbroken career of dissipation, culminating 
in a term of imprisonment for a pictorial libel on the shogun 
lyenari, in 1804. From this he never recovered, and died on 
the third day of the fifth month, 1806. The colour-prints of 
Utamaro are distinguished by an extreme grace of line and of 
colour. His composition is superb; and even in his lifetime 



he achieved such popularity among his contemporaries as to 
gain the title Ukiyo-ye Chuko-no-so, " great master of the 
Popular School." His work has a considerable reputation with 
the Dutch who visited Nagasaki, and was imported into 
Europe before the end of the i8th century. His book illustra- 
tions are also of great beauty. Three portraits of him are 
known: two colour-prints by himself, and one painting by 
Chobunsai Yeishi (in the collection of Mr Arthur Morrison). 
His prints were frequently copied by his contemporaries, 
especially by the first Toyokuni and by Shunsen; and many 
of those bearing his name are really the work of Koikawa 
Harumachi, who had been a fellow-student, and afterwards 
married his widow. That artist is known by the name of 
Utamaro II. Most of these imitations were made between 1808 
and 1820. Utamaro II., who afterwards changed his name to 
Kitagawa Tetsugoro, died between 1830 and 1843. 

See E. de Goncourt, Oulama.ro (1891); E. F. Strange, Japanese 
Illustration (1897); and Japanese Colour- Prints (Victoria and Albert 
Museum Handbook, 1904). (E. F. S.) 

UTE, or UTAH, a tribe of North American Indians of Sho- 
shonean stock. They originally ranged over central and western 
Colorado and north-eastern Utah. They were divided into 
five sub-tribes, all acknowledging the authority of one chief. 
They were a wild warlike people, constantly fighting the Plain 
Indian s and raiding as far sou th as New Mexico. Their relations 
with the whites have been generally friendly. The outbreak of 
the White River Band in 1879 is almost the only exception. 
They are now on reservations in Utah and Colorado, and 
number over 2000. 

UTICA, a city of ancient Africa on the sinus Ulicensis, 1 55 m. 
N.W. of Carthage and Tunis, on the route from Carthage to 
Hippo Diarrhytus (Bizerta) and Hippo Regius (Bona). The 
modern marabout of Sidi Bu Shater, at the foot of Jebel Menzel 
el Gul, occupies the site of the ruins of Utica, which in ancient 
times stood at the mouth of the Bagradas (Mejerda). The 
mouth of the river is now 12 m. to the north, owing to alluvial 
deposits, and the level of the ancient town is covered with low- 
lying meadows, pools of water and marshes. The name Utica is 
of uncertain origin; the coins give the form :nx (Atag, Atig); 
it is therefore with justification that Movers, Tissot and other 
scholars have suggested a form Kp-ny (Aliqa) meaning " the 
ancient " or " the magnificent," or Stalio nautarum (Movers, 
Die Phonizier, ii. and part, p. 512; Olshausen in Rheinisches 
Museum, 1853, p. 329; Tissot, Geogr. comp. de Vane. prov. 
d'Afrique, ii. p. 58). The Greeks transliterated the Punic name 
as TTIIKTJ, OUTIKT;, OVT'LKO. and the Romans by Utica. According 
to tradition, Utica was one of the oldest Phoenician settlements 
on the African coast, founded three centuries before Carthage. 
It soon acquired importance as a commercial centre, and was 
only partially eclipsed by Carthage itself, of which it was always 
jealous, though it had to submit to its authority. It is men- 
tioned in the commercial treaty of 348 B.C. between Rome 
and Carthage (Polyb. iii. 24). Agathocles easily captured it in 
his expedition to Africa in 310. It remained faithful to Caesar 
during the First Punic War (Polyb. i. 82), but soon withdrew its 
support in view of the revolt of the Mercenaries. In the Third 
Punic War it declared for the Romans (Livy, Epit. xlix.; 
Polyb. xxxvi. i; Appian viii. 75). After the destruction of 
Carthage it received the rank of a civitas libera with an accession 
of territory (Appian viii. 135; C.I.L. i. 200; Caesar, De bell, 
civ. ii. 36; A. Audollent, Carthage romaine, p. 30). Having 
become the city of an administration of the new Roman province 
up to the time of the rebuilding of Carthage, it played an im- 
portant part in the wars at the end of the Republic. After the 
battle of Thapsus in 46 Cato shut himself up in Utica for the 
final struggle against Caesar, and there committed suicide. 
Augustus gave the town the rank of municipium with full civic 
rights (Dio Cass. xlix. 16; Pliny, Hist. not. v. 4, 24); its 
inhabitants were enrolled in the Quirinal tribe (municipium 
Julium U license}. Under Hadrian it became a colonia romana, 
with the title Colonia Julia Aelia Hadriana Augusta, Utica 
(Aul. Cell. Noct. Attic, xiii. 4; C.I.L. viii. 1181 and 1183). 



820 



UTICA UTILITARIANISM 



Septimius Severus conferred upon it the I us Halicum (Digest. 
50. 15; 8. n). 

We find evidence of the African Church at Utica as early as at 
Carthage; it was the seat of a bishop and had its martyrs from 
the 3rd century onwards. But its harbour was beginning to 
silt; the Stadiasmus Maris Magni (cxxvi.) states that already 
it was no longer a harbour but merely an anchorage. It was 
captured by Genseric and the Vandals in 439, reconquered by 
the Byzantines in 534, and finally, in 698, it fell into the hands 
of the Arabs and was depopulated. The last inhabitants were 
driven away by fever after the 8th century. 

The ruins of the left bank of the Mejerda are often visited by 
travellers, but very little is left above the level of the ground. 
In 1869 A. Daux, the French engineer, explored them and made 
some important investigations. He was able to distinguish 
the fortifications, the acropolis, the quays of the commercial 
harbour and also of the military harbour or Cothon. Conjec- 
tural attempts have been made to identify the remains of large 
buildings with a temple of Apollo, the municipal Curia, the 
Arsenal and the Palace. The only certain identification, how- 
ever, is that of the ruins of the amphitheatre, which was capable 
of holding 20,000 spectators, of the theatre, the baths, the 
reservoirs and the aqueduct which brought drinking water to 
the city. Subsequently there was found a Punic cemetery 
dating from the 5th century B.C. (Delattre, Comptes-rendus de 
I'Acad. des Inscrip. et Belles Lettres, 1906, p. 60). A number of 
coins have been found with Punic legends with the name Utica 
and heads of the Dioscuri Castor and Pollux. For the Roman 
period the coins have Latin legends and heads of Livia and 
Tiberius; they have also the names of the pro-consuls of the 
African province and of the local Duumvirs. 

AUTHORITIES. H6risson, Relation d'une mission arcUologique 
en Tunisie (1881); Sainte-Marie, Mission a Carthage (1884); Revue 
archeologique (1881 and 1882); A. Daux in Le Tour du Monde 
(1872) (views of the ruins); a mo^ic of Utica is in the British 
Museum: Graeco-Roman Sculpture, ii. p. 86; A. Daux, Recherches 
sur forigine et I' emplacement des emporia pheniciens dans le Zeugis 
et le Byzacium (1869); Ch. Tissot, Geographie comparee de la pro- 
vince romaine d'Afrique (1888), ii. pp. 57 et seq. ; Lud. M tiller, Numis- 
matique de I'ancienne Afrique, ii. p. 159. (E. B.*) 

UTICA, a city and the county-seat of Oneida county, New 
York, U.S.A., on the Mohawk river, about 45 m. E. of Syracuse 
and about 85 m. W. of Albany. Pop. (1890) 44,007; (1900) 
56,383, of whom 13,470 were foreign-born, including 3696 
Germans, 2458 Irish, 1661 Italians and 1165 Welsh; (1910, 
census) 74,419. Utica is served by the New York Central 
& Hudson River and several lines leased by it, including the 
Rome, Watertown & Ogdensburg; the Delaware, Lackawanna 
& Western; the New York, Ontario & Western; and the West 
Shore railways; by the Erie Canal, and by interurban electric 
railways. The city is situated on ground rising gradually 
from the river. There are many fine business and public 
buildings, especially on Genesee Street, the principal thorough- 
fare, and Utica is known for the number of its institutions, 
public and private. Those of an educational character include, 
in addition to the public schools and the Utica Free Academy, 
the New School (for girls) and the Utica Catholic Academy. 
Among the libraries are included the Public Library (1893) with 
54,000 volumes in 1909, the library of the Oneida Historical 
Society (which occupies the Munson- Williams Memorial Building) , 
the Utica Law Library and the Deutscher Leserverein. The 
city is the seat of a State Hospital for the Insane (1843). Among 
its many charitable institutions are a Masonic Home and School 
(1893), a Home for the Homeless (1867), St Elizabeth's Home 
(1886), St Luke's Home (1869), a Home for Aged Men and 
Couples (1879), Utica Orphan Asylum (1830), St Joseph's Infant 
Home (1893) and St John's Female Orphan Asylum (1834), both 
under the Sisters of Charity; the House of the Good Shepherd 
(1872; Protestant Episcopal); and the General (1873; City of 
Utica), Homeopathic (1895), St Luke's (1869; supported by 
the Protestant Episcopal Churches), St Elizabeth's (1866; 
Sisters of the Third Order of St Francis) and Faxton (1873) 
hospitals. Among the public buildings are a Federal building, 



the city hall, the County Court House, a Y.M.C.A. building, 
a Masonic Temple, an Odd-Fellows' Temple and a State Armoury 
and Arsenal. The city has a number of fine parks. In Forest 
Hill Cemetery are the graves of Horatio Seymour and Roscoe 
Conkling. On West Canada creek, about 15 m. N. of Utica, 
are Trenton Falls, which descend 312 ft. in 2 m., through a sand- 
stone chasm, in a series of cataracts, some of them having an 
80 ft. fall. From the geological formation here the name Trenton 
is applied to the upper series of the Ordovician (or Lower Silurian) 
system, and, particularly, to the lowest stage of this series. 

Utica has varied and extensive manufactures. In 1905 the 
capital invested in manufacturing industries was $21,184,033, 
and the total value of the factory products was $22,880,317, 
an increase of 38-8% since 1900. Of this product, hosiery 
and knit goods, with a total value of $5,261,166, comprised 
23% of all, and] cotton goods ($4,287,658), 18-7%. The 
hosiery and knit goods constituted 3-9% of the total value of 
that product of the entire country. Other important products 
were: men's clothing ($2,943,214); foundry and machine- 
shop products ($1,607,258); steam fittings and heating ap- 
paratus ($1,010,755); ma -lt liquors ($933,278); and lumber 
products ($869,000). Among the other manufactures are food 
preparations, wooden ware, wagons and carriages, stoves and 
furnaces, boots and shoes, tobacco and cigars, flour, candy, 
gloves, bricks, tile and pottery, furniture, paper boxes and 
firearms. Utica is a shipping point for the products of a fertile 
agricultural region, from which are exported dairy products 
(especially cheese), nursery products, flowers (especially roses), 
small fruits and vegetables, honey and hops. 

The territory on which Utica was built was part of the 22,000- 
acre tract granted in 1734 by George II. to William Cosby 
(c. 1695-1736), colonial governor of New York in 1732-36, and 
to his associates, and it was known as Cosby's Manor. During 
the Seven Years' War a palisaded fort was erected on the south 
bank of the Mohawk at the ford where Utica later sprung up. 
It was named Fort Schuyler, in honour of Colonel Peter Schuyler, 
an uncle of General Philip Schuyler. A fort subsequently built 
at Rome also was at first called Fort Schuyler (and afterwards 
Fort Stanwix), and the fort at Utica was then distinguished 
from it by the prefix " old " and it was as " Old Fort Schuyler " 
that Utica was first known. The most used trade route to the 
western country crossed the Mohawk here. In default of pay- 
ment of arrears of rent Cosby's Manor was sold at sheriff's sale 
in 1792 and was bid in by General Philip Schuyler, General 
John Bradstreet, John Morin Scott and others for 1387, or 
about 15 cents an acre. Soon after the close of the War of Inde- 
pendence a settlement was begun, most of the newcomers being 
Palatine Germans from the lower Mohawk. In 1786 the pro- 
prietors had the manor surveyed. An inn was erected in 1788, 
and new settlers, largely New Englanders, began to arrive. 
Among these, in 1789, was Peter Smith (1768-1837), later a 
partner of John Jacob Astor, and father of Gerrit Smith, who 
was born here in 1797. In 1792 a bridge was built across the 
Mohawk. In 1797 Oneida county was established, and the 
village was incorporated under the name of Utica. The first 
newspaper, the Gazette, began publication in the same year, and 
the first church, Trinity (Protestant Episcopal), was built. The 
Erie Canal, completed in 1825, added to Utica's prosperity. 
Utica was chartered as a city in 1832. 

See Pomroy Jones, Annals and Recollections of Oneida County 
(Rome, N.Y., 1851); M. M. Bagg, Pioneers of Uttca (Utica, 1877); 
Outline History of Utica and Vicinity (Utica, 1900) ; and the publica- 
tions of the Oneida Historical Society (Utica, 1881 sqq.). 

UTILITARIANISM (Lat. utilis, useful), the form of ethical 
doctrine which teaches that conduct is morally good according 
as it promotes the greatest happiness of the greatest number of 
people. The term " utilitarian " was put into currency by 
J. S. Mill, who noticed it in a novel of Gait; but it was first 
suggested by Bentham. The development of the doctrine has 
been the most characteristic and important contribution of 
British thinkers to philosophical speculation. While British 
philosophizing up to a recent date has been notably lacking in 



UTILITARIANISM 



821 



width of metaphysical outlook, it has taken a very high place 
in its handling of the more practical problems of conduct. This 
is due in part, no doubt, to national character; but in the 
main, probably, to religious and political freedom, and the 
habit of discussing philosophical questions with regard to 
their bearing upon matters of religious and political controversy. 
The British moralists who wrote with political prepossessions 
are interesting, not merely as contributors to speculation, but 
as exponents of spiritual tendencies which were expressed practi- 
cally in the political agitations of their times. 

The history of utilitarianism (if we may use the term for the 
earlier history of a philosophic tendency which appeared long 
before the invention of the term) falls into three divisions, which 
may be termed theological, political and evolutional respec- 
tively. Hobbes, when he laid it down that the state of nature 
is a state of war, and that civil organization is the source of all 
moral laws, was under the influence of two great aversions, 
political anarchy and religious domination. It is in a clerical 
work written to refute Hobbes, Bishop Cumberland's De Legibus 
Naturae (pub. in 1672), that we find the beginnings of utili- 
tarianism. Hobbes's conception of the state of nature ante- 
cedent to civil organization as a state of war and moral anarchy 
was obviously very offensive to churchmen. Their interest 
was to show that the gospel precept of universal benevolence, 
which owes nothing to civil enactment, was both agreeable to 
nature and conducive to happiness. Cumberland, therefore, 
lays it down that " The greatest possible benevolence of every 
rational agent towards all the rest constitutes the happiest 
state of each and all. Accordingly common good will be the 
supreme law "; and this supreme and all-inclusive law is 
essentially a law of nature. This important principle was 
developed by Cumberland with much originality and vigour. 
But his handling of it is clumsy and confused; and he does not 
make it sufficiently clear why the law of nature should be 
obeyed. He does, however, lay much stress upon the naturally 
social character of man; and this points forward to that treat- 
ment of morality as a function of the social organism which 
characterizes modern ethical theory. The further development 
of theological utilitarianism was conditioned by opposition to 
the Moral Sense doctrine of Shaftesbury and Hutcheson. Both 
these writers, more particularly the latter, had postulated in 
controverting Hobbes the existence of a moral sense to explain 
the fact that we approve benevolent actions, done either by 
ourselves or by others, which bring no advantage to ourselves. 
There was a general feeling that the advocates of the moral 
sense claimed too much for human nature and that they assumed 
a degree of unselfishness and a natural inclination towards 
virtue which by no means corresponded with the hard facts. 
The fire of human enthusiasm burnt low in the i8th century, 
and theologians shared the general conviction that self-interest 
was the ruling principle of men's conduct. Moral sense seemed 
to them a subjective affair, dangerous to the interests of religion. 
For, if the ultimate ground of obligation lay in a refined sensi- 
tiveness to differences between right and wrong, what should 
be said to a man who might affirm that, just as he had no ear 
for music, he was insensitive to ethical differences commonly 
recognized? Moreover, if mere sense were sufficient to direct 
our conduct, what need had we for religion? Such considera- 
tions prevailed where we might least expect to find them, in 
the mind of the idealist Berkeley. And it was another clergy- 
man, John Gay, who in a dissertation prefixed to Law's trans- 
lation of Archbishop King's Origin of Evil (pub. in 1731) made 
the ablest and most concise statement of this form of doctrine. 
What he says comes to this: that virtue is benevolence, and 
that benevolence is incumbent upon each individual, because 
it leads to his individual happiness. Happiness arises from 
the rewards of virtue. The mundane rewards of virtue are 
very great, but need to be reinforced by the favour or disfavour 
of God. Further advances along the same line of thought were 
made by Abraham Tucker in his Light of Nature Pursued (pub. 
1768-74). Gay and Tucker supplied nearly all the important 
ideas of Paley's Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy 



(pub. in 1785), in which theological utilitarianism is summarized 
and comes to a close. Paley, though an excellent expositor 
and full of common sense, had the usual defect of common-sense 
people in philosophy that of tame acquiescence in the pre- 
judices of his age. His two most famous definitions are that 
of virtue as " the doing good to mankind, in obedience to the 
will of God and for the sake of everlasting happiness," and that 
of obligation as being " urged by a violent motive resulting 
from the command of another ": both of which bring home 
to us acutely the limitations of iSth-century philosophizing in 
general and of theological utilitarianism in particular. Before 
we proceed to the next period of utilitarian theory we ought 
to go back to notice Hume's Inquiry concerning the Principles 
of Morals (pub. in 1751), which though utilitarian is very far 
from being theological. Hume, taking for granted that bene- 
volence is the supreme virtue, points out that the essence of 
benevolence is to increase the happiness of others. Thus he 
establishes the principle of utility. " Personal merit," he says, 
" consists entirely in the usefulness or agreeableness of qualities 
to the person himself possessed of them, or to others, who have 
any intercourse with him." This is plain enough; what re- 
mains doubtful is the reason why we approve of these qualities 
in another man which are useful or agreeable to others. Hume 
raises the question explicitly, but answers that here is an 
ultimate principle beyond which we cannot hope to penetrate. 
For this reason Hume is sometimes classed as a moral-sense 
philosopher rather than as a utilitarian. From his point of 
view, however, the distinction was not important. His purpose 
was to defend what may be called a humanist position in moral 
philosophy; that is, to show that morality was not an affair 
of mysterious innate principles, or abstract relations, or super- 
natural sanctions, but depended on the familiar conditions of 
personal and social welfare. 

The rise of political utilitarianism illustrates most strik- 
ingly the way in which the value and dignity of philosophical 
principles depends on the purpose to which they are applied. 
Abstractly considered, Bentham's interpretation of human 
nature was not more exalted than Paley's. Like Paley, he 
regards men as moved entirely by pleasure and pain, and 
omits from the list of pleasures most of those which to well- 
natured men make life really worth living: and he treats 
all pleasures as homogeneous in character so that they can 
be measured into equal and equally desirable lots. But his 
purpose was the exalted one of effecting reforms in the laws 
and constitution of his country. He took up the greatest 
happiness principle not as an attractive philosopheme, but 
as a criterion to distinguish good laws from bad. Sir John 
Bowring tells us that when Bentham was casting about for such 
a criterion " he met with Hume's Essays and found in them 
what he sought. This was the principle of utility, or, as he 
subsequently expressed it with more precision, the doctrine 
that the only test of goodness of moral precepts or legislative 
enactments is their tendency to promote the greatest possible 
happiness of the greatest possible number." These opinions are 
developed in his Principles of Morals and Legislation (pub. in 
1789) and in the Deontology (published posthumously in 1834). 
Philosophically Bentham makes but little advance upon the 
theological utilitarians. His table of springs of actions shows 
the same mean-spirited omissions that we notice in his pre- 
decessors; he measures the quantity of pleasures by the coarsest 
and most mechanical tests; and he sets up general pleasure 
as the criterion of moral goodness. It makes no considerable 
difference that he looked for the moral sanction not to God 
but to the state: men, in his scheme, are to be induced to obey 
the rules of the common good by legally ordained penalties 
and rewards. He never faced the question how a man is to 
be induced to act morally in cases where these governmental 
sanctions could be evaded or did not exist in the particular 
state in which a man chanced to find himself. These principles 
of Bentham were the inspiration of that most important school 
of practical English thinkers, the Philosophic Radicals of the 
early ipth century; these were the principles on which they 



822 



UTMAN KHEL 



relied in those attacks upon legal and political abuses. From 
Bentham the leadership in utilitarianism passed to James 
Mill, who made no characteristic addition to its doctrine, and 
from him to John Stuart Mill. John Mill wrote no elaborate 
treatise on the subject. But he did something better than 
this. His essay Utilitarianism (pub. in 1863) sums up in brief 
and perfect form the essential principles of his doctrine, and 
is a little masterpiece worthy to be set beside Kant's Metaphysic 
of Morals as an authoritative statement of one of the two main 
forms of modern ethical speculation. Though in its abstract 
statement John Mill's doctrine may not differ very greatly 
from that of his predecessors, actually there is a vast change. 
To say that pleasure is the moral end is a merely formal state- 
ment: it makes all the difference what experiences you regard 
as pleasant and which pleasures you regard as the most 
important. Mill belonged to a generation in which the most 
remarkable feature was the growth of sympathy. He puts 
far greater stress than his predecessors upon the sympathetic 
pleasures, and thus quite avoids that appearance of mean 
prudential selfishness that is such a depressing feature in Paley 
and Bentham. Moreover, it is in sympathy that he finds the 
obligation and sanction of morality. " Morality," he says, 
" consists in conscientious shrinking from the violation of 
moral rules; and the basis of this conscientious sentiment is 
the social feelings of mankind; the desire to be in unity with 
our fellow-creatures, which is already a powerful principle in 
human nature, and happily one of those which tend to become 
stronger from the influences of advancing civilization." Such 
passages in Mill have their full significance only when we take 
them in connexion with that rising tide of humanitarian senti- 
ment which made itself felt in all the literature and in all 
the practical activity of his time. The other notable feature 
of John Mill's doctrine is his distinction of value between 
pleasures: some pleasures, those of the mind, are higher and 
more valuable than others, those of the body. It is commonly 
said that in making this distinction Mill has practically given 
up utilitarianism, because he has applied to pleasure (alleged 
to be the supreme criterion) a further criterion which is not 
pleasure. But the validity of this criticism may fairly be 
questioned. Pleasure is nothing objective and objectively 
measurable: it is simply feeling pleased. The merest pleasure- 
lover may consistently say that he prefers a single glass of 
good champagne to several bottles of cooking-sherry; the 
slight but delicate experience of the single glass of good wine 
may fairly be regarded as preferable to the more massive but 
coarser experience of the large quantity of bad wine. So also 
Mill is justified in preferring a scene of Shakespeare or an hour's 
conversation with a friend to a great mass of lower pleasure. 
The last writer who, though not a political utilitarian, may be 
regarded as belonging to the school of Mill is Henry Sidgwick, 
whose elaborate Methods of Ethics (1874) may be regarded as 
closing this line of thought. His theory is a sort of recon- 
ciliation of utilitarianism with intuitionism, a position which 
he reached by studying Mill in combination with Kant and 
Butler. His reconciliation amounts to this, that the rule of 
conduct is to aim at universal happiness, but that we recognize 
the reasonableness of this rule by an intuition which cannot 
be further explained. 

Even before the appearance of Sidgwick's book utilitarianism 
had entered upon its third or evolutional phase, in which 
principles borrowed from biological science make their entrance 
into moral philosophy. The main doctrine of evolutional or 
biological ethics is stated with admirable clearness in the 
third chapter of Darwin's Descent of Man (pub. in 1871). The 
novelty of his treatment, as he says, consists in the fact that, 
unlike any previous moralist, he approached the subject 
" exclusively from the side of natural history." Theological 
and political utilitarianism alike had been individualistic. 
But Darwin shows how the moral sense or conscience may 
be regarded as derived from the social instincts, which are 
common to men and animals. To understand the genesis 
of human morality we must study the ways of sociable animals 



such as horses and monkeys, which give each other assistance 
in trouble, feel mutual affection and sympathy, and experience 
pleasure in doing actions that benefit the society to which they 
belong. Both in animals and in human societies individuals 
of this character, being conducive to social welfare, are en- 
couraged by natural selection: they and their society tend 
to flourish, while unsociable individuals tend to disappear 
and to destroy the society to which they belong. Thus, in 
man, do sentiments of love and mutual sympathy become 
instinctive and, when transmitted by inheritance, innate. 
When man has advanced so far as to be sensitive to the opinions 
of his fellow-men, their approbation and disapprobation rein- 
force the influence of natural selection. When he has reached 
the stage of reflection there arises what we know as conscience. 
He will approve or disapprove of himself according as his 
conduct has fulfilled the conditions of social welfare. " Thus 
the imperious word ought seems merely to imply the conscious- 
ness of a persistent instinct, either innate or partly acquired, 
serving as a guide, though liable to be disobeyed." 

The most famous of the systematic exponents of evolutional 
utilitarianism is, of course, Herbert Spencer, in whose Data of 
Ethics (1879) the facts of morality are viewed in relation with 
his vast conception of the total process of cosmic evolution. He 
shows how morality can be viewed physically, as evolving from 
an indefinite incoherent homogeneity to a definite, coherent 
heterogeneity; biologically, as evolving from a less to a more 
complete performance of vital functions, so that the perfectly 
moral man is one whose life is physiologically perfect and there- 
fore perfectly pleasant; psychologically, as evolving from a 
state in which sensations are more potent than ideas (so that the 
future is sacrificed to the present) to a state in which ideas are 
more potent than sensations (so that a greater but distant 
pleasure is preferred to a less but present pleasure); sociologic- 
ally, as evolving from approval of war and warlike sentiments 
to approval of the sentiments appropriate to international peace 
and to an industrial organization of society. The sentiment 
of obligation Spencer regards as essentially transitory; when a 
man' reaches a condition of perfect adjustment, he will always 
do what is right without any sense of being obliged to it. The 
best feature of the Data of Ethics is its anti-ascetic vindication 
of pleasure as man's natural guide to what is physiologically 
healthy and morally good. For the rest, Spencer's doctrine is 
valuable more as stimulating to thought by its originality and 
width of view than as offering direct solutions of ethical problems. 
Following up the same line of thought, Leslie Stephen with less 
brilliance but more attention to scientific method has worked 
out in his Science of Ethics (1882) the conception of morality as a 
function of the social organism: while Professor S. Alexander in 
his Moral Order and Progress (pub. in 1889) has applied the prin- 
ciples of natural competition and natural selection to explain the 
struggle of ideals against each other within society: moral evil, 
says Professor Alexander, is in great part a defeated variety of 
moral ideal. There is no doubt that much remains still to be 
done in illustrating human morah'ty by the facts and principles 
of biology and natural history. A. Sutherland's Origin and 
Growth of the Moral Instinct (pub. in 1898) is a capable piece of 
work in this direction. Professor L. T. Hobhouse's Morals in 
Evolution and Professor Westermarck's Origin and Development 
of the Moral Ideas (both published in 1906) deal with the matter 
from the side of anthropology. 

See E. Albee's History of English Utilitarianism (1902), a com- 
plete and painstaking survey. Leslie Stephen's English Utilitarians 
(pub. in 1900) deals elaborately with Bentham and the Mills, but more 
as social and political reformers than as theoretic moralists. See 
also ETHICS. (H. ST.) 

UTMAN KHEL, a Pathan tribe who occupy the hills to the 
north of Peshawar in the North-West Frontier Province of 
India. Their country lies between the Mohmands and the 
Ranizais of Swat, to the west and south-west of the junction of 
the Swat and Panjkora rivers. They claim to be descendants 
of Baba Utman, who accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni in his 
expedition into India in 997. The Utman Khel are a tall, 



UTOPIA UTRECHT 



823 



stout and fair race, but in their dress and general customs have 
assimilated themselves to the neighbouring peoples of Bajour. 
They have none of the vices of the Yusafzais. Their country 
is very hilly and difficult, but well cultivated in terraces. They 
number some 40,00x5, and their fighting strength is about 8000 
men. British expeditions were necessary against them in 1852, 
1878 and 1898. 

UTOPIA, an ideal commonwealth, or an imaginary country 
whose inhabitants are supposed to exist under the most perfect 
conditions possible. Hence the terms Utopia and Utopian are 
also used to denote any visionary scheme of reform or social 
theory, especially those which fail to recognize defects inherent 
in human nature. The word first occurs in Sir Thomas More's 
Utopia, which was originally published in Latin under the title 
De Optimo Reipublicae Statu, deque N ova Insula Utopia (Louvain, 
1516). It was compounded by More (g.v.) from the Greek oi;, 
not, and TOTTOS, a place, meaning therefore a place which has no 
real existence, an imaginary country. 

The idea of a Utopia is, even in literature, far older than More's 
romance; it appears in the Timaeus of Plato and is fully developed 
in his Republic. The idealized description of Sparta in Plutarch's 
life of Lycurgus belongs to the same class of literary Utopias, though 
it professes to be historical. A similar idea also occurs in legends 
of world-wide currency, the best known of these being the Greek, 
and the medieval Norse, Celtic and Arab legends which describe 
an earthly Paradise in the Western or Atlantic Ocean (see ATLANTIS). 
Few of these survived after the exploration of the Atlantic by 
Columbus, Vasco da Gama and others in the 1 5th century; but in 
literature More's Utopia set a new fashion. An ideal state of society 
is described in the writings of Hobbes, Sir Robert Filmer and J. J. 
Rousseau. In Bacon's New Atlantis (1624-29) science is the key to 
universal happiness; Tommaso Campanella's Civitas Salts (1623) 
portrays a communistic society, and is largely inspired by the 
Republic of Plato; James Harrington's Oceana (1656), which had a 
profound influence upon political thought in America, is a practical 
treatise rather than a romance, and is founded on the ideas that 
property, especially in land, is the basis of political power, and that 
the executive should only be controlled for a short period by the 
same man or men. Bernard de Mandeville's Fable of the Bees is 
unique in that it describes the downfall of an ideal commonwealth. 
Other Utopias are the " Voyage en Salente " in F6nelon's Telemaque 
(1699); Etienne Cabet's Voyage en Icarie (1840); Bulwer Lytton's 
The Coming Race (1871); Samuel Butler's Erewhon (1872) and 
Erewhon Revisited (1901); Edward Bellamy's Looking Backward 
(1888); William Morris's News from Nowhere (1890); H. G. Wells's 
Anticipations (1901), A Modern Utopia (1905) and New Worlds for 
Old (1908). Many Utopias, such as the Fable of the Bees and Erewhon, 
are designed to satirize existing social conditions as well as to depict 
a more perfect civilization. There are separate articles on all the 
authors mentioned above. A large number of the more recent 
Utopias have been inspired by socialistic or communistic ideals; 
among these may be mentioned Freiland, ein soziales Zukunftsbild 
(1890) and Reise nach Freiland (1893), by the Austrian political 
economist Theodor Hertzka (b. Budapest, 1845), which portray an 
imaginary communistic colony in Central Africa. 

UTRECHT, a town of northern Natal, 30 m. by rail E. by N. 
of Newcastle. Pop. (1904) 1315. It is the chief place in a 
district of the same name, originally settled in 1848 by emigrant 
Boers from Natal. They formed an independent community 
and in 1854 obtained, in exchange for a hundred head of cattle, 
formal cession of the territory from Panda, the Zulu king. In 
1858 the district was united with the republic of Lydenburg, and 
in 1860, with Lydenburg, became part of the South African 
Republic. In 1903 it was, with the neighbouring district of 
Vryheid, annexed to Natal. The town of Utrecht is built in a 
hollow among the foothills of the Drakensberg. In the neigh- 
bourhood are extensive coal-fields. 

UTRECHT, the smallest province of Holland, bounded S. by 
Gelderland and South Holland, W. by South Holland, N. by 
North Holland and the Zuider Zee and E. by Gelderland. It 
has an area of 534 sq. m. and a pop. (1905) of 276,543. It 
belongs chiefly to the basin of the Rhine; the Lower Rhine, 
which skirts its southern border, after sending off the Crooked 
Rhine at Wijk, becomes the Lek, and the Crooked Rhine in its 
turn, after sending off the Vecht at Utrecht to the Zuider Zee, 
becomes the Old Rhine. The north-eastern portion of the 
province is drained by the Eem, which falls into the Zuider Zee. 
The watershed between the Rhine and the Eem is formed by 



a plateau of sand and gravel hills which extend from the south- 
east corner on the Rhine to Zeist near Utrecht, and also north- 
wards to Huizen on the Zuider Zee. On its western side the 
plateau declines into the clay lands (and in the north-west low 
fen) which characterize the western half of the province. The 
region of sand and gravel is covered with bare heaths and 
patches of woods, and the occupations of the scanty population 
are chiefly those of buckwheat cultivation and peat-digging, 
as in Drente. Amersfoort is here the only town of any size, 
but along the western edge of this tract there is a row of thriv- 
ing villages, namely, Amerongen, Leersum, Doom, Driebergen 
and Zeist. Bunschoten on the Zuider Zee is a fishing village; 
Venendaal, on the south-eastern border, originally a fen-colony, 
is now a market for the bee-keeping industry in the east. On 
account of the picturesqueness of this part of the province, 
many country houses and villa residences are found scattered 
about it. The western 'half of the province is flat and often 
below sea-level. Cattle-rearing and the making of cheese 
(of the Gouda description) and butter are here the chief occu- 
pations. Agriculture is practised along the Crooked Rhine, 
wheat, barley, beans and peas being the chief products, and 
there is considerable fruit-farming in the south-west. The 
development of towns, however, has here been restricted by 
the rise of Utrecht, the chief town of the province, as a com- 
mercial centre. A number of small old towns are found along 
the Rhine, the Lek and the Holland Ysel, such as Rhenen 
(or Reenen), Wyk-by-Duurstede, Yselstein, Montfoort. Rhenen 
was once the seat of an independent lordship, though after- 
wards joined to the bishopric of Utrecht. The ancient church 
has a fine tower (1492-1531). Wyk-by-Duurstede, originally 
a Roman settlement, was of some commercial importance as 
early as the 7th and 8th centuries, but decayed owing to Norman 
raids in the loth century. The ruined castle of the bishops of 
Utrecht still remains. The lordship of Yselstein can be traced 
back to the younger brother of Gysbrecht IV. of Amstel, who 
bought lands and built a castle here before 1279. In the 
beginning of the next century it had grown to the size of a small 
town and was granted civic rights and surrounded with walls, 
and in the course of the following centuries was frequently 
attacked and even devastated. About 1377 Ystelstein de- 
scended to the house of Egmont, and in 1551 to the house of 
Orange, and by paying an annual contribution to the United 
Provinces remained an independent barony till 1795. The 
remains of the castle are picturesque. Montfoort owes its 
origin to a castle built by the bishop of Rhenen in 1170, which 
was frequently besieged in the I4th and I5th centuries. In 
1833 it was bought by the government, and now serves as a 
reformatory for women. Vreeland on the Vecht has a similat' 
origin in the castle built by Bishop Hendrik of Vianen in 1253-59 
as a .protection to the province against the lords of Amstel. 
The castle was demolished in 1529 when the province came 
under Burgundian rule. The province is traversed by the 
main railway lines, which all converge at Utrecht, and is also 
amply provided with navigable waterways. 

The province represents the bulk of the territories once 
comprised in the ancient prince-bishopric of the same name, 
het Sticht (the see) of Dutch historians. The see was founded 
in 722 by St Willibrord, and the diocese thus formed, saving 
for a short time when it was an archbishopric, was subordinate 
to the see of Cologne. It covered all the northern Netherlands 
between the Scheldt and the Ems. The bishops, in fact, as 
the result of grants of immunities by a succession of German 
kings, and notably by the Saxon and Franconian emperors, 
gradually became the temporal rulers of a dominion as great 
as the neighbouring counties and duchies. Bishop Balderic 
(918-76) successfully defended the see against the Northmen, 
and received from the emperor Otto I. the right to coin money 
and all the land between the Leek and the Zuider Zee. The 
bishopric was weak, however, as compared with the neighbouring 
states, Holland, Gelderland and Brabant, from the mere fact 
of its ecclesiastical character. The bishop had no hereditary 
or dynastic interest in his land, and, as a temporal ruler, his 



824 



UTRECHT 



powers were limited by the necessity of having to secure the 
goodwill of the higher clergy, of the nobles and of the cities, and 
also because of his relations to the German king and the pope 
as an ecclesiastical prince of the empire. The middle ages 
were marked by constant wars between the bishops of Utrecht 
and the counts of Holland and Gelderland. The growth of the 
power of Holland, however, under a succession of strong and 
capable rulers led to the bishopric becoming, during the I4th 
century, almost a dependency of the county. The death of 
every bishop was always the signal for violent disputes among 
the neighbouring feudal states, each of them intriguing to 
secure the election of its own candidate; but, as stated above, 
Brabant and Gelderland had at last to recognize the fact of the 
supremacy of Holland over the see. In the isth century this 
supremacy passed to the dukes of Burgundy, and finally, 
in 1527, Bishop Henry of Bavaria sold his temporal rights to 
the emperor Charles V. In 1559 the see of Utrecht was by Pope 
Paul IV. raised to the dignity of an archbishopric. At the 
time of the revolt against Spain Utrecht took the Protestant 
side, and was one of the seven provinces which signed the 
Union of Utrecht in 1579. Each of these provinces retained in 
a large measure its sovereign rights and its own laws, privi- 
leges and customs. During the republican period the estates 
of Utrecht consisted of three " members." The chapter of the 
see was secularized, and out of the members of the five colleges 
a certain number, known as " the Elected " (GeSligerden) , were 
chosen by the other two " members " of the estates. They 
held office for life, and were reckoned as the " first member " of 
the estates. The knights formed the " second member," the re- 
presentatives being chosen by co-option. The city of Utrecht, 
with the four smaller towns of Amersfoort, Rheenen, Wijk-by- 
Duurstede and Montfoort, made up the " third member." 

(G. E.) 

The later history of the see of Utrecht is of considerable 
ecclesiastical interest. The last archbishop of Utrecht, Frederick 
van Schenk van Toutenburg, died in 1580, a few months before 
the suppression of Roman Catholic public worship by William 
of Orange. Two successors were nominated by Spain, both of 
whom were unable from political causes to take possession of 
the see. In 1583 the chapter elected Sasbold Vosmeer, Catholic 
priest at the Hague, vicar-general; the election was confirmed 
in 1590 by the papal nuncio at Brussels, and in 1602 Vosmeer 
was consecrated at Rome archbishop of Philippi in parlibus. 
After Vosmeer's death (1612) Philip Rovenius van Ardensul 
was elected by the chapter and confirmed by the pope. In 
1631 he formed the surviving members of the chapters of 
Utrecht and Haarlem into a collegiate body which became 
known as the chapter of Utrecht. Rovenius was succeeded 
as vicar-general in 1651 by Jacob de la Torre, consecrated 
as archbishop of Ephesus. Under his vicariate trouble with 
Rome began, the pope insisting on his right as universal 
bishop to appoint the vicar-general's coadjutor and successor. 
It was not, however, until the vicariate of Peter Codde, 
consecrated vicar-general with the title of bishop of Sebaste 
in partibus in 1669, that the quarrel came to a head. Codde 
was the nominee of the Dutch secular clergy, and these 
had for years past been at violent odds with the Jesuits, the 
champions of the ultramontane principle. The publication of 
an anonymous pamphlet in 1697, entitled " A Short Memoir 
on the State and Progress of Jansenism in Holland " (Kort 
gendenkschrift van den staat en wortgang van het Jansenisme 
in Holland), gave the latter their opportunity. Codde was 
accused of being its author, and though he successfully refuted 
this charge, he was ultimately deposed for Jansenism (1702), 
his opponent, Theodor de Kock, being appointed in his place. 
The result was a schism which was only temporarily checked 
by the expulsion of de Kock from the country by the states- 
general. Codde himself died in 1710. The Church of Utrecht 
was now without a bishop, and it was believed at Rome that 
the movement of revolt would soon perish for want of priests, 
especially as, with the constant influx of regulars, the number 
of Codde's adherents had steadily decreased. As a result of 



the publication of the bull Unigenitus by Pope Clement VII. 
in 1713, however, many French Jansenist priests took refuge 
in Holland, and so kept the church alive. In 1723 the chapter 
of Utrecht, in order to preserve the canonical succession of the 
Dutch clergy, elected Cornelius Steenoven archbishop. He 
was consecrated (isth October 1724) by Dominique Varlet, 
bishop of Babylon in parlibus, -who, having been deposed by the 
pope for Jansenism, had settled in Amsterdam in 1720. The 
pope replied to this by excommunicating all those who had 
taken part in the election and consecration. Undeterred by 
this, the chapter, on the death of Steenoven, elected as arch- 
bishop Cornelis Jan Burchman, who was consecrated by the 
bishop of Babylon on the 30th of September 1725. From this 
time onward the Jansenist Church of Holland has continued 
as an independent body, accepting the authority of the general 
councils, up to and including that of Trent, but basing itself on 
the Gallican theory of Episcopacy (q.v.) and rejecting the 
Vatican council, the infallibility of the pope and the papal 
dogma of the Immaculate Conception. Under Archbishop 
Peter Jan Meindaerts (d. 1767) two suffragan sees were 
created, that of Haarlem in 1742, that of Deventer in 1757. 
The Church had shrunk considerably since the i8th century, 
but in the first decade of the 2oth showed signs of revival as 
a point d'appui for Catholics restive under the yoke of the 
ultramontanism dominant in the Roman Church. With the 
Church of Utrecht the Old Catholic movement in Germany 
at first established close relations, the first German Old Catholic 
bishop, Dr Reinkens, being consecrated by H. Heykamp, 
bishop of Deventer, in 1873. The Jansenist Church is, however, 
intensely conservative, and viewed with extreme disapproval 
the departures made by the German Old Catholics from Catholic 
tradition, notably in the matter of clerical celibacy. It 
refused, moreover, to recognize the validity of Anglican orders, 
and consequently to follow the example of the other Old 
Catholics in establishing intercommunion with the Church of 
England. This attitude towards the English Church was 
accentuated by the consecration, on the 28th of April 1908, of 
Mr Arnold Harris Mathew 1 as bishop of the Old Catholics 
in England by Dr Gerard Gul, Jansenist archbishop of Utrecht. 
The singular offshoot of the Church of Utrecht thus created 
established its headquarters in a former Congregational chapel 
(dedicated significantly to the Englishman St Willibrord, the 
first bishop of Utrecht) in River Street, London, N., the minister 
of which had joined the movement with his congregation. In 
1910 Bishop Mathew claimed that his community numbered 
between 500 and 600, with ten priests, and that he had had 
many inquiries from both Roman Catholic priests, discontented 
with the Vatican policy, and Anglican clergy, uneasy about the 
validity of their orders (see an " interview " in the Daily 
Graphic, September 4, 1910). Meanwhile, in Holland itself the 
Roman Catholic hierarchy had been restored by Pope Pius IX. in 
1 8 5 1 , with Utrecht as the archiepiscopal see. (W. A. P .) 

AUTHORITIES. K. Burmen, Utrechtsche Jaarboeken, &c., annals 
and documents (3 yols., 1750); A. Buchelius, De Episcopis Ultra- 
jectensibus, containing the chronicles of J. de Beka and G. Heda 
(Utrecht, 1643); J. van d. Water, Croat Placaetboek der Stadt 
Utrecht (3 vols., Utrecht, 1729); J. J. de Geer, Bijdraeen tot de 
Geschied. enOiidheiden der Provincie Utrecht (Utrecht, i86i);T. van 
Riemsdijk, Geschied. van de Kerspelkerk van St Jacob te Utrecht 
(Leiden, 1882); S. Muller, Openbare verzamelingen der Gemeente 
Utrecht (Utrecht, 1881); V. T. Blondeel, Beschnjving der Stad 
Utrecht, de opvolging der Bischoppen (Utrecht, 1757); S. Muller, 
Rechtsbronnen der Stad Utrecht (2 vols., Utrecht, 1883); R. Fruin, 
Geschied. der Staats-Instellingen in Nederland (the Hague, 1901). 
For the Old Catholic Church see the article "Jansenistenkirche," by 
Dr J. A. Gerth van Wijk, in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie (3rd 
ed., Leipzig, 1900), pp. 599-606, where further references are given. 

UTRECHT, a city of Holland, capital of the province of 
Utrecht, on the Crooked Rhine, which here divides into the 

1 Bishop Mathew (b. 1855) about the year 1892 claimed and for 
a while assumed the title of earl of Llandaff (sic), as grandson of 
Arnold Nesbit Mathew (d. 1820), who was said to have been the 
eldest son of the first earl of Llandaff, though neither he nor his 
eldest son ever claimed the title (see G. E. C(okayne)), Complete 
Peerage; corrigenda to vol. v. in vol. viii. p. 450). 



UTRECHT 



825 



Old Rhine and the Vecht. Pop. (1905) 114,321. It is an 
important junction station 22 m. by rail S.S.E. of Amsterdam. 
Tramways connect it with Vreeswyk on the Lek (where are the 
large locks of the Merwede canal), Amsterdam, and by way of 
De Bilt with Zeist, and thence with Arnhem. It is a picturesque 
and interesting old town with more regular streets and shady 
squares and fewer canals than most Dutch towns. It is an 
important fortress, forming the principal point d'appui of the 
line of defensive inundations called the " New Holland Water 
Line," in addition to its position as a railway centre. The 
defences consist of an inner line of works which preserve the 
place against surprise, and of an outlying chain of detached 
forts of fairly modern construction, forming roughly two-thirds 
of a circle of three miles radius. Of these the works facing 
the east would in war time cover the assembly of troops destined 
to operate outside the Water Line, while those of the north and 
south fronts would be surrounded by inundations and serve 
chiefly to control the sluices. The line of the ancient ramparts, 
demolished in 1830, is now only marked by the Singel, or outer 
canal, which surrounds the oldest part of the city, with pleasant 
gardens and promenades laid out on the inside. Two canals, the 
Oude and the Nieuwe Gracht, intersect the town from end to end. 
On the Oude Gracht the roadway and quay are on different levels, 
the roadway lying over vaults, which open on the quay wall and 
are used as cellars and poor dwelling-houses. On the east of the 
town is the Maliebaan or Mall, consisting of an ancient triple 
avenue of lime trees, now largely replanted. Utrecht is the seat 
of a university, and of a Roman Catholic archbishopric. It 
is also the seat of the archbishop of the Dutch Old Catholics. 
The Domkerk, dedicated to St Martin, the former cathedral 
church of the bishops of Utrecht, is a large Gothic building, 
erected in 1254-1267 on the site of the original church founded 
by St Willibrord about 720 and completed by Bishop Adelbold 
about 1015. An open space forming the heart of the square 
in which the church stands separates the solitary western tower 
(i4th century) from the choir and transept, the nave having 
been blown down by a violent hurricane in 1674 and never 
rebuilt. The interior (30 ft. wide and 115 ft. high) has been 
clumsily fitted up with pews and galleries for Protestant worship, 
so that the effect of its slender columns is spoilt. It contains 
the monuments of Admiral van Gent (d. 1672) and of Bishops 
Guy of Hainaut (d. 1317) and George of Egmont (d. 1559), 
while in the crypt are preserved the hearts of the German 
emperors Conrad II. (1039) and Henry V. (1125). The Roman 
Catholic cathedral of St Catherine dates from 1524 and has been 
restored in modern times. Other churches of very early founda- 
tion in Utrecht are the Pieterskerk and the Janskerk. Attached 
to the Domkerk by fine old Gothic cloisters is the university, 
which was founded in 1634 and enlarged in 1894. The students 
number some 750, and there are five faculties of theology, law, 
medicine, mathematics and science, and letters. The aula 
(restored in 1879) was originally the chapter-house of the 
cathedral. Connected with the university are a valuable 
library, occupying the palace built for Louis Bonaparte, king of 
Holland, in 1807 and containing upwards of 200,000 volumes 
and MSS.; a museum of natural history; an ophthalmic 
institute; physical and chemical laboratories; a veterinary 
school; a botanic garden; and an observatory. The archi- 
episcopal museum (1872) contains examples of all branches 
of sacred art in the Netherlands. In the Museum Kunstliefde 
is a small picture-gallery, chiefly remarkable for some pictures 
by Jan Scorel (1495-1562); the museum of antiquities contains 
a miscellaneous collection. Other buildings of interest are the 
museum of industrial art; the so-called " Pope's house," built in 
1517 by Adrian Floriszoon Boeyens, afterwards Pope Adrian VI., 
and a native of Utrecht; the royal mint of Holland; the Fleshers' 
Hall (1637); the home for the aged, occupying a 14th-century 
mansion; the town hall (1830); and the large hospital 
prison and barracks. The most important industrial establish- 
ments are cigar manufactories, manufactories of chemicals and 
earthenware, and brass foundries, and there is also an active 
trade in the agricultural produce of the surrounding country. 



The country round about Utrecht is pretty and plentifully 
studded with country houses, especially on the road to Arnhem. 
Close by, on the north-east, is the village of De Bilt, the 
seat of the Dutch Meteorological Institute. In this parish was 
formerly situated the famous Benedictine convent of Oostbroek, 
founded in the beginning of the I2th century. The abbey was 
demolished in 1850. The manor of Zuilen on the Vecht, four 
miles north-west of Utrecht, was partly held in fief from this 
abbey and partly from the bishops of Utrecht. The lords of 
Zuilen grew very powerful and built a castle here at the end of 
the I3th century. In 1302 this possession passed by marriage 
to the influential family of van Borsele, lords*pf Veere and 
governors of Zeeland. But on the extinction of that house 
towards the end of the isth century the castle passed through 
various hands until it came by marriage in 1665 to the family 
of Baron van Tuyll van Serooskerke. The castle was carefully 
restored in 1752, and is still in excellent preservation. Five 
miles east of Utrecht is the village of Zeist, the seat of a Moravian 
settlement established here in 1746. There are also a fine 
castle (1667) and grounds, a sanatorium for children and 
numerous modern villa residences. At Ryzenburg, close by, is 
a Roman Catholic seminary, founded in connexion with the 
establishment of the Roman Catholic hierarchy in 1853 and 
practically serving as an archiepiscopal palace. 

Utrecht (i.e. Oude Trecht or Old Ford, rendered in Latin docu- 
ments Vetus Trajectum) is a city of great antiquity and much his- 
toric interest, especially as illustrating the growth of civic liberties 
during the middle ages. The place existed in Roman times and is 
mentioned in the itinerary of Antoninus. Though the name Trecht 
or Trajectum is almost universally found in old documents and 
on coins, the town was known by another name among the Frisians 
and Franks. Bede, writing in the 8th century, speaks of Wiltaburg, 
id est oppidum Wiltorum, lingua autem Gallica Trajectum vocatur. 
That any such people as the Wilten existed there is little evidence, 
but Wiltaburg (or variants of it) occurs in chronicles as late as the 
1 2th century, and it is still preserved in the name Wildenburg, 
given to a Roman camp near the city. 

The earliest authentic record of the town is that of the building 
of a chapel afterwards destroyed by the heathen Frisians by 
Dagobert I., king of the Franks, in 636; but the importance of the 
place began when St Willibrord (q.v.), the apostle of the Frisians, 
established his see there. This fact determined the development of 
the city. The bishop's seat had to be fortified against the incur- 
sions of the heathen Frisians and Northmen, and the security thus 
afforded attracted population till, after the destruction of its rival 
Dorestad by the Normans in the 9th century, Utrecht became 
the chief commercial centre of the northern Netherlands. Bishop 
Balderic (A.D. 918-976) was the real founder of the prosperity of the 
town. On his accession to the see Utrecht had just been sacked by 
the Northmen. He succeeded in driving the raiders away, rebuilt 
the walls, and during the fifty-eight years of his episcopate the town 
grew and prospered. Its gradual acquisition of civic rights followed 
the same line of development as in the German episcopal cities. 
At first the bishop, holding immediately of the Empire, was supreme. 
In feudal subordination to him a royal count, who was also Vogt 
(advocatus) of the cathedral church of St Martin, had his seat at 
Utrecht as the chief town of the Gouw (Gau, pagus) of Ifterlake. In 
the nth century a burgrave (chatelain, castellanus) , who was an 
episcopal officer, is found exercising jurisdiction in the city as well as 
the Vogt. Bishop Godebald (1122-1127) granted to the inhabitants 
of Utrecht and of Muiden, the neighbouring port on the Zuider Zee, 
their first privileges, which were confirmed on the 22nd of June 1 122 
by the emperor Henry V., who died at Utrecht in 1125. The extant 
imperial charter does not specify what were the municipal rights that 
were conceded, but it is certain that at this time they were very 
limited. The magistrates, the Schout or high bailiff and his assessors, 
the Schepenen (scabini, echevins), were nominated by the burgrave 
from the order of knights. In 1196 we read for the first time of 
councillors (consules, consiliarii, adjurati) as assessors of the magis- 
trates, but these, who a little later were known as the Rood or council, 
were also nominated. The position was simplified when, in 1220, 
Albert van Cuyck, the last of the hereditary burgraves, sold his 
rights to the bishop. These ecclesiastical princes were churchmen 
in little but name, and their desire to be absolute rulers found itself 
confronted by the determination of the burghers to secure greater 
independence. As the I3th century advanced, the council, repre- 
senting the wealthy and powerful gild of merchants, began to take 
a larger share in the government, and to restrict more and more the 
direct exercise of the episcopal authority. Of the rise of the craft 
gilds in Utrecht there is no record. They appear suddenly as fully 
developed organized corporations, able to impose their will upon 
bishop and aristocracy. All through the 1 3th century a continual 
struggle went on, but at last the gilds were victorious and were able 



826 



UTRECHT, TREATY OF 



to secure in the Gildebrief of 1304, confirmed by the bishop in 1305, 
a new constitution for the city. According to this, as emended by 
a later Gildebrief of I347> the existing board of seven Schepenen 
were to retain office for life, but the new ones, elected yearly, were 
in future to be chosen by the Raad either in or outside the gilds. 
The Raad itself was to be chosen by the aldermen of the gilds. 
Two aldermen, later styled burgomasters, were to preside, the one 
over the Schepenen, the other over the Raad, sharing this presidency 
with two_ episcopal officials. The Schout was still to be nominated 
by the bishop from among the knights, but his powers were now 
comparatively insignificant. The two chief aldermen of the gilds, 
with the two episcopal official presidents above mentioned, together 
were to form the supreme government of the city. The victory of 
the democratic principle was entirely new in the Netherlands, 
though it had been anticipated in Florence, and was perhaps inspired 
by Italian example. In all other cities of the Netherlands the craft 
gilds remained in humble subjection to a council co-opted from a 
limited number of wealthy patrician families. In Utrecht, however, 
power was henceforth concentrated in the gilds, which became not 
only trade but political associations, which together constituted the 
sovereign community. In this government, though the Schepenen 
retained a dignified precedence, all power was practically concen- 
trated in the popularly elected Raad, even the estates of the see 
(Sticht) had " nothing to say in the city." 

The new liberties, as might be expected, did not tend to improve 
the relations between the town of Utrecht and its ecclesiastical 
sovereign; and the feud reached its climax (1481-84) in the " groote 
vorlag," or great quarrel, between the citizens and Bishop David, 
the Bastard of Burgundy, who had been foisted upon the unwilling 
chapter by the combined pressure of Duke Philip of Burgundy, his 
half-brother, and the pope. With the aid of John, burgrave of 
Montfoort, who had been called in, after the manner of the Italian 
podestas, and endowed with supreme power for the defence of the 
town, the Utrechters defeated all the efforts of their bishop, aided 
by the Hollanders and an aristocratic faction. They only succumbed 
when the weight of the archduke Maximilian was thrown into the 
scale against them (1484). Even then Bishop David was once more 
expelled in 1491. The last prince-bishop of Utrecht was Henry of 
Bavaria, who was elected, in May 1524, in succession to Philip of 
Burgundy. He took the part of the nobles against the burghers, but 
Duke Charles of Gelderland, jealous of the growing power of the 
house of Habsburg, intervened, put an end to the strife, and, in 
1527, himself occupied the city. In July of the next year Bishop 
Henry was back again, having gained possession of the city by 
surprise; and in the following October he sold his temporal rights 
to the emperor Charles V. Utrecht, thus brought into immediate 
relations with the Spanish Habsburgs, proved no more tolerant of 
their rule than of that of its bishops, and took a leading part in 
the revolt of the Netherlands. The union of the seven northern 
provinces, proclaimed at Utrecht in 1579, laid the foundation of 
Dutch independence (see NETHERLANDS). The city proved indeed 
a refractory member of the new league; and, after the death of 
William the Silent, the Utrechters, jealous of the influence of their 
old enemies the Hollanders, refused to recognize the authority of 
the council of state, and elected a stadtholder of their own. Inside 
the city the old aristocratic and democratic factions still carried on 
their traditional struggle, complicated now by religious difficulties. 
The Roman Catholics, though still in the majority in the bishopric, 
had little influence on the politics of the city, where the aristocrats 
inclined to the moderate (libertine) opinions advocated by the 
preacher Hubrecht Duifhuis, while the democrats were organized in 
the new church order introduced by the uncompromising Calvinist 
Petrus Dathenus (d. 1581). The adhesion of Utrecht to the party of 
revolt was the work of the aristocratic party, and the critical state 
of affairs made it for a while dominant in the town. The gilds and 
burgher militia were deprived of all voice in the government, and the 
town council became an hereditary body. After the advent of the 
earl of Leicester as governor-general of the Netherlands in 1585, a 
change took place. The ultra-Calvinistic Adolph, count of Nuenar, 
who was elected stadtholder.overthrew the aristocratic government 
and placed the people in power. The Utrechters, under the leader- 
ship of Gerard Prouninek, otherwise Deventer, vehemently took the 
side of Leicester in his quarrel with the estates of Holland, and the 
English governor-general made the town his headquarters during 
residence in the Netherlands, and took it under English protection. 
Though heartily disliked in Holland, Leicester made himself so 
popular in Utrecht that the burgher guard even presented him with 
a petition that he would assume the sovereignty. The withdrawal 
of Leicester from the Netherlands was followed by the defeat of 
Deventer and the return of the aristocratic party to power. The 
issue was decided (October 5, 1558) when the democrats were 
defeated in battle. Deventer was imprisoned and banished, and 
the former Schout, Nicolas van Zuylen van Sevender, was restored 
to office. An attempt of the democratic party to regain power was 
temporarily successful (January 10, 1610) ; but the estates appealed 
t0 j^ States General and Maurice of Nassau, who had been appointed 
stadtholder on the death of Nuenar, put down the movement with 
a strong hand, and the Utrechters found themselves compelled to 
yield. From this time, until the French Revolution, the ancient 



democratic institutions of the city remained nothing but a name; 
the rights of the community were exercised by a municipal aristo- 
cracy, who held all power in their own hands. The gilds, once 
supreme, henceforth ceased to have any political importance. At 
Utrecht the treaty which closed the War of the Spanish Succession 
was signed on the nth of April 1713. (G. E.) 

AUTHORITIES. Pieter Bondam, Charterboek der Hertogen van 
Gelderland, &c., prig, documents with notes (1783); Codex diplo- 
maticus Neerlandicus, tome i. (Utrecht, 1848) the documents of the 
first part concern the trade of Utrecht; De Geer van Oudegain, 
Het oude Trecht (1875); W. Tunghans, " Utrecht im Mittelalter " 
(in Forschungen zur deutsch. Gesch. ix. 513-526) ; Laurent P. C. van 
Bergh, Handboek der Middel Nederlandsche Geographic (Leiden, 
1852); Karl Hegel, Stddte der Germanischen Volker im Mittelalter 
(Leipzig, 1891), vol. ii. pp. 291300. Other works are cited in the 
bibliography to the article on the see and province of Utrecht, above. 

UTRECHT, TREATY OF, the general name given to the im- 
portant series of treaties which in 1713 and 1714 concluded the 
great European war of the Spanish Succession (q.v.), and by 
which inter alia England obtained possession of Newfoundland, 
Nova Scotia and Gibraltar. 

Worsted, mainly through the genius of Marlborough, in his 
efforts to secure the whole of the great Spanish monarchy for 
his grandson, Philip, duke of Anjou, Louis XIV. made overtures 
for peace in 1706 and again in 1709. These were rejected, and 
failure also attended the negotiations between France and the 
United Provinces which took place at Gertruydenberg in 1710, 
negotiations only entered upon by the Dutch after they had 
by a treaty with England (October 1709) secured a guarantee 
that they would obtain the coveted barrier of fortresses against 
France. But matters changed greatly during 1710 and 1711. 
In England in August and September 1710, the Tories, the 
party of peace, succeeded the Whigs, the party of war and the 
inheritors of the tradition of William III., in the conduct of 
affairs. In the Empire in April 1711, the archduke Charles, 
Philip's rival for the throne of Spain, succeeded his brother 
Joseph I. as ruler of Austria and became prospective emperor, 
and England and the United Provinces, having waged a long 
and costly war to prevent the union of the crowns of France and 
Spain, were equally averse from seeing Spain and Austria under 
the same ruler. Moreover, the allies realized at last that it was 
impossible to dislodge Philip from Spain, and all the peoples were 
groaning under the expenses and the sufferings of the war. 
France and England came to terms, and the preliminaries of 
peace were signed in London in October 1711, their basis being 
a tacit acquiescence in the partition of the Spanish monarchy. 

The congress opened at Utrecht on the 29th of January 1712, 
the English representatives being John Robinson, bishop of 
Bristol, and Thomas Wentworth, earl of Strafford. Reluctantly 
the United Provinces accepted the preliminaries and sent repre- 
sentatives, but the emperor refused to do so until he was assured 
that these preliminaries were not binding. This assurance was 
given, and in February the imperial representatives made their 
appearance. As Philip was not yet recognized, as king, Spain 
did not at first send plenipotentiaries, but the duke of Savoy 
sent one, and Portugal was also represented. 

One of the first questions discussed was the nature of the 
guarantees to be given by France and Spain that these crowns 
would be kept separate, and matters did not make much 
progress until after the icth of July 1712, when Philip signed 
a renunciation. Then, England and France having concluded a 
truce, the pace was quickened and the main treaties were signed 
on the i ith of April 1713. 

By the treaty between England and France Louis XIV. re- 
cognized the Protestant succession in England and undertook 
to give no further aid to the Stuarts. France ceded to England 
Newfoundland, Nova Scotia or Acadia, the island of St Kitts 
or St Christopher, and the Hudson's Bay Territory (" sinum et 
fretum de Hudson, una cum omnibus terns, maribus, maritimis, 
fluviis, locisque, in dicto sinu et freto sitis "), and promised to 
demolish the fortifications of Dunkirk and to fill up its harbour. 
A commercial treaty signed between the two countries on the 
same day provided that each should allow the other the most 
favoured nation treatment, while each gave up the claim to 



UTRERA UTTOXETER 



827 



the indiscriminate seizure of shipping which had been practised 
during the war. 

The treaty between France and the United Provinces was 
mainly concerned with securing the barrier of fortresses. These 
arrangements were somewhat complicated and to a large extent 
provisional, as Austria and Bavaria, two countries which were 
deeply interested in the fate of the Netherlands, had not yet 
assented to the terms of peace. By a commercial treaty con- 
cluded on the same day, France gave to the Dutch commercial 
privileges similar to those enjoyed by England. Other treaties 
concluded at the same time were between France and Savoy, 
France and Prussia, and France and Portugal. By the first the 
duke of Savoy regained Savoy and Nice, taken from him during 
the war, and France undertook to obtain for him the island of 
Sicily and the title of king. By the second Prussia secured 
some small additions of territory, including part of Gelderland 
and Neuchatel; in return France definitely and finally obtained 
the principality of Orange. It is interesting to note that as a 
constituent of the Empire Prussia was still fighting against 
France. The treaty between France and Portugal mainly 
concerned the Portuguese settlements in Brazil, her claim to 
these being recognized by France. 

Other treaties were signed at Utrecht between Spain and the 
allies, Philip now concluding these as the recognized and lawful 
king of Spain. On the I3th of July 1713 a treaty was signed 
between England and Spain, which embodied certain com- 
mercial arrangements previously made between the two 
countries. Spain ceded to England Gibraltar and Minorca 
and promised to give up Sicily to Savoy. She gave also to 
England the monopoly for thirty years of the lucrative slave 
trade with Spanish America, hitherto enjoyed by France: 
this was the famous Asiento treaty. Finally, there was an 
article concerning the inhabitants of Catalonia, who had fought 
bravely for Charles of Austria, and who had a large claim upon 
the protection of England. However, the protection granted 
to them was a mere sham, and the Catalans were soon the victims 
of the revenge of Philip of Spain. The peace between Spain and 
the United Provinces was signed on the 26th of June 1714, but 
the conclusion of the one between Spain and Portugal was 
delayed until the following February. The former was con- 
cerned mainly with commercial matters, Spain giving the United 
Provinces the treatment of a most favoured nation, except as 
regards Spanish America. The latter dealt with the frontier 
between the two countries and with the colony of St Sacrament 
in Uruguay, which was transferred to Spain. 

The treaty of Utrecht also provided some compensation for 
the emperor Charles VI. as so'on as he surrendered his claim to 
Spain. It was arranged that he should receive Naples and 
Milan, and also the Spanish Netherlands, henceforward known 
as the Austrian Netherlands. 

But the general pacification was still incomplete, as France 
and the Empire continued the war, albeit somewhat languidly. 
It was not long, however, before Charles VI. realized how in- 
adequate were his forces, unsupported by those of England and 
of Holland, to meet the armies of France, and towards the close 
of 1713 he was for the first time seriously inclined to consider 
conditions of peace. Accordingly, his representative, Prince 
Eugene, met the French marshal Villars at Rastatt in November 
1713, and here, after negotiations had been broken off and 
again resumed, peace was made on the 7th of March 1714, 
Charles VI. concluding the treaty without waiting for the assent 
of the different states of the Empire. This consent, however, 
was necessary, and a little later the representatives of some of 
the princes of the Empire met those of France at Baden, where, 
on the 7th of September 1714, the treaty of Baden, the last of 
the treaties included in the general peace of Utrecht, was signed. 
This dealt entirely with the question of the frontier between 
France and the Empire, which was restored as it was before the 
outbreak of the war except that France gained Landau. 

One important matter dealt with at Utrecht remains to be 
mentioned. A second barrier treaty between England and 
the United Provinces was signed on the 3oth of January 1713, 



and a third treaty signed at Antwerp on the 15th of November 
1715 clinched the matter. Seven fortresses were to be garrisoned 
by a total of 35,000 men, three-fifths of the cost being borne 
by the imperial government and the remainder by the United 
Provinces. 

The treaty of Utrecht is second to none in importance in 
English history. Its provisions were a most potent factor in 
assisting the expansion of England's colonial empire and also 
in the building up of the country's commercial greatness. In 
the domestic politics of the i8th century, too, the peace has a 
great and recurring importance. Its terms were bitterly assailed 
by the Whigs, and after the accession of George I. four of its 
Tory authors, Bolingbroke, Oxford, Ormonde and Strafford, 
were impeached for concluding it, the charges brought against 
them being that they had corresponded with the queen's enemies 
and had betrayed the honour and interest of their own country, 
while the abandonment of the Catalans was not forgotten. 

The text of the treaty of Utrecht is published as the Actes, 
memoires et autres pieces authentiques concernant la paix d' Utrecht 
(Utrecht, 1714-1715) ; and by C. W. von Koch and F. Scholl in the 
Histoire abrigee des traites (1817-1818). As far as it concerns the party 
politics of England, there is much about the peace in Dean Swift's 
works. See also C. Giraud, La Paix d' Utrecht (Paris, 1847); I. S. 
Leadarn, Political History of England 1702-1760 (1909) ; A. W. 
Ward in the Cambridge Modern History^, vol. v. (1908), and the State 
Trials for the proceedings against the impeached English ministers. 
But perhaps the most valuable work on the whole peace is O. Weber's 
Der Friede von Utrecht. Verhandlungen zwischen England, Frank- 
reich, dem Kaiser und den Generalstaaten 1710-1713 (Gotha, 1891). 

(A. W. H.*) 

UTRERA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of 
Seville; on the Arroyo de la Antigua, a right-hand tributary 
of the river Guadalquivir, and at the junction of the Seville- 
Cadiz and Cordova-Utrera railways. Pop. (1900) 15,138. 
Utrera contains few noteworthy buildings, although it is an 
ancient town, still partly surrounded by medieval fortifications. 
The principal church, Santa Maria, is Gothic in style, dates 
from the i5th century, and contains some interesting tombs; 
but it was to a great extent restored in the i7th century. Agri- 
culture and especially stock-farming are foremost among the 
local industries, which also include manufactures of leather, 
soap, oil and spirits. Large numbers of horses, sheep and 
fighting bulls are bred in the moorlands and marshes which 
extend eastward towards the Gaudalquivir, and a fair is held 
yearly in September for the sale of live stock and farm produce. 
Utrera was occupied by the Moors in the 8th century, and, 
though retaken by St Ferdinand (1230-52), was not finally 
incorporated in the kingdom of Castile until 1340. In the 
middle ages it was notorious as a favourite refuge of brigands 
and outlaws. 

UTTARPARA, a town of British India, in the Hugli district 
of Bengal, on the river Hugli. Pop. (1901) 7036. It is famous 
for the public library founded and endowed by Jai Krishna 
Mukharji, which is specially rich in books on local topography. 
There is an aided college, and a girls' school supported by a 
native association. 

UTTOXETER, a market town in the Burton parliamentary 
division of Staffordshire, England, ism. N.E. by E. of Stafford 
by a branch of the Great Northern railway. Pop. of urban 
district (1901) 5133. It is also served by the North Stafford- 
shire railway. The town lies pleasantly on high ground near 
the river Dove, a western tributary of the Trent, here the 
boundary with Derbyshire. There are large works for the 
manufacture of agricultural implements, and brewing and 
brick-making are carried on. Several agricultural fairs are held 
annually. The church of St Mary has a fine decorated tower 
and spire; the rest of the fabric dates from 1828. Alleyn's 
grammar-school was founded in 1558. In the market-place 
here Dr Johnson stood hatless in the rain doing voluntary 
penance for disobedience to his father. A bas-relief com- 
memorates the incident. The name of the town is locally 
Uxeter, or an approximate pronunciation. At Denstone, 5 m. N. 
of Uttoxeter, is St Chad's College, a large middle-class school for 
boys, founded in connexion with St Nicholas' College, Lancing. 



828 



UXBRIDGE UZ, J. P. 



Uttoxeter (Wotocheshede, Ultokeshather, Ulcester, Ultoxater) 
was probably not a Roman site, although the termination of the 
name suggests one, and a few remains have been discovered. 
It formed part of the estates of Algar, earl of Mercia; at the 
time of the Domesday Survey it was held by the king; later it 
passed to the Ferrers family and was included in the honour of 
Tutbury. In the early I2th century Earl Robert de Ferrers 
constituted Uttoxeter a free borough, and granted to the 
inhabitants freedom from all tolls, tonnage, poundage and 
other exactions. These privileges were confirmed and amplified 
by a charter, dated August 15, 1251, from William de Ferrers, 
earl of Derby. Uttoxeter, with the rest of the honour of Tut- 
bury, escheated to the Crown in 1 266 owing to the complicity of 
Robert Ferrers in the barons' rebellion; it was regranted to 
Edmund Crouchback, ancestor of the dukes of Lancaster, under 
whom it became part of the duchy of Lancaster, from which it 
was not severed until 1625. The Wednesday market, which 
is still held, was granted by Henry III. to William Ferrers, earl 
of Derby, together with a fair to be held on the feast of the 
Nativity of the Blessed Virgin (September 8), which was kept 
up in the i8th century. In 1308 Thomas, earl of Lancaster, 
obtained the grant of a fair on the vigil, day and morrow of 
St Mary Magdalene. In Leland's time " the men of the town 
used grazing " in the " wonderful pastures upon Dove," and in 
the i7th and i8th centuries the market was the greatest in that 
part of England for cattle and provisions; in the i8th century 
it furnished cheeses to many London cheesemongers. In 1648, 
on the defeat of the invading Scottish army under the marquis of 
Hamilton by Cromwell, its leader was captured here by Lambert. 

UXBRIDGE, a market town in the Uxbridge parliamentary 
division of Middlesex, England, 18 m. W. by N. of St Paul's 
Cathedral, London, on the river Colne, and on branches of the 
Great Western and Metropolitan railways. Pop. of urban 
district (1901), 8585. There are breweries, foundries and 
engineering works, and a considerable traffic is carried on by 
means of the Grand Junction Canal. The town, which is con- 
nected by electric tramway with Hammersmith, London, has 
extended considerably in modern times as a residential centre. 
The church of St Margaret is Perpendicular, and retains a fine 
font in that style, and several ancient monuments. 

Uxbridge is an ancient borough, stated to have been one of 
those originated by Alfred the Great, but it is not mentioned in 
Domesday. Here negotiations were begun, on the 3oth of 
January 1645, between the commissioners of Charles I. and the 
parliament, but were broken off on the 22nd of February. A 
part of the " Treaty House," in which they were carried on, 
remains. In 1647 the parliamentary forces had for some time 
their headquarters in the town. It remained a garrison town 
until 1689. It obtained the grant of a market from Henry II. 

UXMAL, a deserted city of the Mayas in the state of Yucatan, 
Mexico, 20 m. W. of Tikul, a station on the railway between 
Merida and Valladolid. The ruins stand on a wooded plain, 
and cover an area of a little more than half a mile square, 
although fragments are found over a much larger space. Uxmal 
is the largest and most important of the deserted cities of 
Yucatan, and shows some of the finest specimens of Maya archi- 
tecture. The climate is much drier than that of Chiapas, and 
the structures are in a better state of preservation than those 
of Palenque, but the rank vegetation and the decay of the 
wooden lintels over the doorways have broken down many of 
the walls. Uxmal was inhabited for some time after the 
Spanish conquest, but perhaps only by a remnant of a popu- 
lation once much larger. The neighbourhood is now very 
unhealthy, and it may be presumed that the process of depopula- 
tion, caused by increasingly unhealthy conditions and diminish- 
ing sources of food supply, was gradual. There are no streams 
near the ruins, and the water-supply was derived from cisterns 
and from a few pools now filled with soil and vegetation. A 
rather soft limestone was used in the buildings, but the locality 
of the quarries has not been discovered. The walls are com- 
monly about 3 ft. thick, in some cases much thicker, and the 
stones were set in a whitish mortar. Stone implements were 



used. The outer surfaces of the walls are usually divided by 
a horizontal moulding into two unequal zones, the lower one 
plain with a band of sculptured ornaments at the base, and the 
upper elaborately sculptured. The interior walls were gener- 
ally plastered and rarely ornamented. There are no windows, 
but large doorways. The jambs were of dressed stone, usually 
plain, and the longer lintels were of zapote wood; some of 
them, where protected from the weather, are still to be seen, 
sometimes covered with inscriptions. The buildings are 
rectangular in shape, long and narrow, divided usually into two 
ranges of rooms. They are generally arranged in groups of 
four, enclosing a quadrangular court, and sometimes singly on 
massive eminences. The interiors are cut up into numerous 
small rooms by transverse partitions, while numerous beam- 
holes and dumb-sheaves indicate other divisions. The rooms 
are covered by acutely pointed vaults, the stones forming the 
sides of the vault being bevelled to the angle, and the apex being 
covered by capstones covering spaces of one to two feet. The 
spaces between the vaults are filled with solid masonry, and 
above all is the roof covering, also of masonry, which is some- 
times surmounted with an ornamental roof-comb. The build- 
ings stand upon raised terraces, or upon truncated pyramids, 
approached by broad stairways, usually of cut stone. 

There are five principal buildings or groups the Temple of the 
Magician, Nunnery Quadrangle, House of the Turtles, House of the 
Pigeons and Governor's Palace. There are other structures and 
groups, smaller and more dilapidated. One of them, standing 
immediately S. of the Nunnery, consists of two parallel walls only; 
it is usually described as the ball-court, or gymnasium, a structure 
common to most Maya cities. The Temple of the Magician crowns 
an unusually steep pyramid 240 X 180 ft. at the base and 80 ft. high. 
It has three rooms, and a smaller temple is built against the upper 
western side of the pyramid. A broad steep stairway ascends to the 
summit platform on the E., and a narrower stairway to the lower 
temple on the W. The west front is filled with remarkable figures 
and designs, including the lattice work common in Uxmal. The 
Nunnery Quadrangle consists of four large rectangular independent 
buildings, enclosing a quadrangular court, the whole occupying a 
terrace over 300 ft. square at the base and upwards of 15 ft. above 
the level of the plain. The buildings resemble each other in the 
arrangement of their rooms, and their elaborately ornamented 
facades face inwards upon the court. The division of the buildings 
into numerous small rooms is understood to signify that they were 
used as communal habitations, possibly of priestly orders. The 
Governor's Palace, standing upon a triple terrace S. of the Nunnery, 
is, according to W. H. Holmes, " the most important single structure 
of its class in Yucatan, and for that matter in America." It is 
320 ft. long, 40 ft. wide and 25 or 26 ft. high, divided into a long 
central and two end sections, separated by recesses and two trans- 
verse archways about 25 ft. long, 10 ft. wide and 20 ft. high. These 
archways were subsequently blocked, and may have been intended 
originally as portals to a quadrangle which was never built. The 
upper zone of the exterior walls is about 10 ft. wide, exclusive of the 
mouldings and ornamental frieze, and its total length of 720 ft. is 
crowded with sculptures, in which there are three principal motives 
the mask, the fret and the lattice. The projecting snouts in the 
line of masks forming the upper part of this zone are a peculiar 
feature of Uxmal ornamentation. The House of the Turtles is a 
comparatively small structure near the N.W. corner of the Governor's 
Palace. It has the same features found in the other structures 
except for a line of sculptured turtles on the mouldings of the frieze. 
Immediately S.W. of the Governor's Palace is a huge truncated 
pyramid, 200X300 ft. at the base and 60 to 70 ft. high. Beyond 
this is another large quadrangular group known as the House of the 
Pigeons. It resembles the Nunnery Quadrangle, except that the 
northern building carries a peculiar roof-comb of colossal size, 
running its entire length and rising to a height of about 16 ft. The 
base of this comb is 4 It. high, capped by a moulding and perforated by 
over 50 openings. Above this the comb is divided into nine sections 
rising by large steps to the apex, each pierced by 30 or more openings, 
like an immense dovecote. Projecting stones suggest that they were 
built to carry statues or figures like the roof -combs of Palenque. 

UZ, JOHANN PETER (1720-1796), German poet, was born at 
Ansbach on the 3rd of October 1720. He studied law, 1730-43, 
at the university of Halle, where he associated with the poets 
Johann Ludwig Gleim (q.v.) and Johann Nikolaus Gotz (g.v.), 
and in conjunction with the latter translated the odes of Ana- 
creon (1746). In 1748 Uz was appointed unpaid secretary 
to the Justizcollegium, an office he held for twelve years; in 1763 
he became assessor to the imperial court of justice at Nurem- 
berg, in 1790 was made a judge and, on the annexation of 



UZ UZZIAH 



829 



Ansbach to Prussia (2nd of December 1791), entered the Prussian 
judicial service, and died, shortly after his appointment as 
Landrichter, at Ansbach on the I2th of May 1796. Uz wrote 
a number of graceful lyrics in Gleim's style, and some patriotic 
odes; he is the typical representative of the rococo period in 
German poetry. In 1749 the first collection of his Lyrische 
Gedichte was anonymously published. He also wrote, in 
alexandrines, Der Sieg des Liebesgottes (1753), a close imitation 
of Alexander Pope's Rape of the Lock, and a didactic poem, 
Versuchuber die Kunst stets frohlich zu sein (1760). 

A complete edition of Uz's works Samtliche Poetische Werke 
was published at Leipzig, 1768; a new edition (Vienna, 1804), which 
has been often reprinted. A critical edition was published by A. 
Sauer in 1890. See Henriette Feuerbach, Uz and Cronegk (1866), 
Briefe von Uz an einen Freund aus den Jahren 1753-82 (published 
by A. Henneberger (1866) and E. Petzet, Johann Peter Uz (Ansbach, 
1896). 

UZ. The " land of Uz " (pp pn) is best known as the 
scene of the story of Job. Its precise location is a matter of 
uncertainty, opinion being divided between a position N. of 
Palestine (" Aram Naharaim ") and one to the S.E., in the 
neighbourhood of Edom. In favour of the former are the refer- 
ences in Gen. x. 23, xxii. 21, the inclusion of Job among " the 
children of the East," the possibility that Bildad the Shuhite 
(cf. Gen. xxv. 2, 6) belonged to the Suhu, a people living on the 
right bank of the Euphrates, and the description of Elihu as a 
Buzite (xxxii. 2). Whether the name Uz is found or not in 
the cuneiform inscriptions is disputed. In favour of the S.E. 
position we have the description of Elihu as of the family 
of Ram 1 which (i Chron. ii.) was a distinctly southern people, 
the fact that Eliphaz was a Temanite (i.e. he came from Edom, 
cf. Gen. xxxvi. 4) and the references in Gen. xxxvi. 28 and Lam. 
iv. 21. The mention of Uz in Jer. xxv. 20 is probably a gloss. 
While Edom and Uz are not to be identified, the traditional 
association of " wisdom " with Edom may incline us to place 
the Uz of Job in its neighbourhood rather than in that of 
the Euphrates. The tradition which places Job's home in 
Hauran has no value. It is worth noting that the Septuagint 
forms from Uz the adjective Atoms, which points to a pro- 
nunciation Aus= Arabic Aud, the name of a god whose worship 
was widely spread and might therefore be readily borne by 
tribes or attached to districts in several regions. 

UZfiS, a town of southern France, capital of an arrondisse- 
ment in the department of Gard, finely situated on an eminence 
above the Alzon, 16 m. N. by E. of Nimes by road. Pop. (1906) 
4008. Uzes, the seat of an episcopal see from the $th century 
to 1790, has a cathedral almost destroyed by the Protestants 
during the religious wars and rebuilt in the I7th and i8th 
centuries, but still flanked by a round tower of five storeys 
lighted by arched openings and dating from the I2th century. 
The Duche, a chateau of powerful lords, at first viscounts, and 
in 1565 dukes, of Uzes, preserves a donjon originally of the 
1 2th century; the main building, flanked by a Gothic chapel, 
is Renaissance in style. The most ancient structure in the 
town is a crypt beneath a private house, attributed to the early 
centuries of the Christian era. The sub-prefecture and the 
tribunal of first instance occupy the old bishop's palace (i7th 
century). There is a statue of Admiral Brueys (1753-1798), 
a native of the town. Uzes has a communal college for boys, 
and carries on the manufacture of silk, bricks and fireproof 
earthenware, and liquorice, and trade in the truffles for which 
the district is noted. 

UZHITSE (also written Uzice and Ushitsa), the capital of 

the Uzhitse department of Servia. As implied by its name, 

which may be translated " the narrow places," Uzhitse is built 

in a narrow and lonely glen amongst the south-western moun- 

1 Perhaps a mistake or an abbreviation for Aram. 



tains, 1385 ft. above the sea. The surrounding heights, though 
rugged and barren, produce some of the finest Servian tobacco. 
Weaving is taught in the girls' school, and fairs are held for the 
sale of farm produce; but the absence of a railway and the 
badness of the roads retard commerce. Uzhitse possesses a 
court of first instance and a prefecture. Despite the prevailing 
poverty, it has also a real-school with good buildings, founded 
in 1865, and attended by about 300 pupils in 1900. The houses 
in Uzhitse are quite unlike those of more prosperous Servian 
towns, being tall, narrow structures of timber, frequently 
blackened by the damp. Pop. (1900) about 7000. 

Early in the I3th century Uzhitse was the seat of St Sava, 
the first archbishop, and the patron saint of Servia. The 
archbishopric was soon removed to Ipek, in Old Servia; but 
after the Turkish garrison had been expelled in 1862 the city 
became once more the head of a diocese. At Arilye, 13 m. 
E.S.E., there is a 13th-century church, dedicated to St Aril, 
who, according to tradition, was martyred in the gth century 
by unconverted Serbs. On the Bosnian frontier, 15 m. W. by 
N., are the mineral springs of Bayina Bashta (i.e. " the Garden 
Bath "), with Racha monastery close by; and in the neigh- 
bourhood is Dobrinye, the home of the Obrenovich family, with 
a church built by Milosh Obrenovich, called " the Liberator 
of Servia "(1818-1839). 

UZZIAH (Heb. for " Yah[weh] is [my] strength"), more 
correctly AZARIAH (Hebrew for " Yah[weh] helps "), son of 
Amaziah, grandson of Joash I., and king of Judah (2 Kings 
xiv. 22, xv. 1-7). Of his long reign of fifty-two years little is 
recorded. He recovered Elath at the head of the Aelanitic 
Gulf, evidently in the course of a successful campaign against 
Edom (a possible reference in Isa. xvi. i); we read further in 
2 Chron. xxvi. of great wars against Philistines, Arabians and 
Meunim, of building operations in Jerusalem (probably after 
the attack by Joash), and of political and social reforms. 
The prosperity which Judah enjoyed during this period (middle 
of 8th century) is illustrated by the writings of Amos and by the 
earliest prophecies of Isaiah (e.g. ii. 6 sqq.). In his old age 
Uzziah was a leper (2 Kings xv. 5), and the later history (2 Chron. 
xxvi. 16 sqq.) regarded this as a punishment for a ritual fault 
of which the king was guilty; whilst Josephus (Ant. ix. 10. 4) 
records the tradition that on the occasion of his transgression 
the land was shaken by the terrible earthquake to which Amos 
i. i and Zech. xiv. 5 refer. During Uzziah's seclusion his son 
Jotham acted as regent. The growing power of Judah, however, 
aroused the jealousy of Israel, which, after the death of Jero- 
boam (2), had fallen on evil days (see MENAHEM). Jotham 's 
victory over Ammon (2 Chron. xxvii. 5) could only increase the 
hostility, and preparations were made by Israel for an alliance 
with Damascus which culminated in an attack upon Judah in 
the time of Jotham 's son, Ahaz (q.v.). 

The identification (Schrader, McCurdy, &c.) of Azariah with 
Azriyau of Ja'udi, the head of a North Syrian confederation at 
Hamath (Hainan) overcome by Tiglath-Pileser IV. (738 B.C.), 
conflicts with the chronological evidence, with what is known 
of Uzziah's life and policy, and with the historical situations 
represented in the Biblical narratives (see Winckler, Alttest. 
Forschungen [1893], i. 1-23; S. A. Cook, Ency. Bib. col. 5244; 
Whitehouse, Diet. Bib. iv. p. 844 seq. ; id. Isaiah, p. 9 seq.; 
Skinner, Kings, p. 359). On the other hand, the interrelation of 
events in Palestine and Syria during this period combine with the 
sudden prominence of Judah (under Uzziah) and the subsequent 
anti-Judaean and anti-Assyrian coalition (against Ahaz) to suggest 
that Uzziah had been supported by Assyria (cf. Winckler, 
Keilinschr. u. d. Alte Test., 3rd. ed., p. 262). In fact, since the 
Biblical evidence is admittedly incomplete, and to a certain extent 
insecure, the question of the identification of Azariah of Judah and 
Azriyau of Ja'udi may be reopened. See H. M. Haydn, Journ. of 
Bibl. Li<.,xxviii.(i909),pp.i82-i99, and artt. JEWS, 13 (beginning), 
15; PALESTINE, Old Test. Hist. (S. A. C.) 



8 3 o 



V VACARESCU 



VThis letter was originally, like Y, only one of the earlier 
forms of the letter U. According to Florio (1611) V is 
"sometimes a vowel, and sometimes a consonant." In 
modern times attempts have been made to assign to it 
the consonantal value of U, but in English another symbol W is 
used for this, while V has received the value of the voiced form of 
F, which itself had originally a sound resembling the English W (see 
under F) . V is therefore a voiced labio-dental spirant, the breath 
escaping through a very narrow slit between the lower lip and 
the upper teeth. In German, however, V is used with the same 
value as F, while W takes the value that V has in English. 
Apart from some southern dialect forms which have found 
their way into the literary language, as vat (for fat or wine-fat 
which still survives in the English Bible) and vixen the feminine 
oifox, all the words in English which begin with V are of foreign, 
and most of Latin origin. In the middle of words between 
vowels / was originally regularly voiced: life, lives; wife, 
wives, &c. The Latin V, however, was not a labio-dental spirant 
like the English v, but a bi-labial semivowel like the English w, 
as is clear from the testimony of Quintilian and of later gram- 
marians. This quality has remained to it in southern Italy, 
in Spain and Gascony. In Northern French and in Italian 
it has become the labio-dental v, and from French English 
has adopted this value for it. Early borrowings like wine 
(Latin vinum), wall (Latin vallum), retain the w sound and 
are therefore spelt with w. In the English dialects of Kent, 
Essex and Norfolk there is a common change of v to w, but 
Ellis says (English Pronunciation, V, pp. 132, 229) that 
though he has made diligent search he has never been able to 
hear the v for w which is so characteristic of Sam and Tony 
Weller in the Pickwick Papers. It is, however, illustrated in 
Pegge's Anecdotes of the English Language (1803) and confirmed 
by the editor of the 3rd edition (1844), pp. 65-66. The 
history of V as the Latin numeral for 5 is uncertain. An old 
theory is that it represents the hand, while X=io is the two 
hands with the finger tips touching. This was adopted by 
Mommsen (Hermes, xxii. 598). The Etruscan used the same 
fl-symbol inverted. V with a horizontal line above it was used 
for 5000. (P. Gi.) 

VAAL, a river of South Africa, chief affluent of the Orange 
{q.v.}. It rises at an elevation of over 5000 ft. above the sea on 
the slopes of the Klipstapel, in the Drakensberg mountains, 
Ermelo district of the Transvaal, and about 170 m. in a direct 
line west of Delagoa Bay. It flows in a general S.W. direction, 
with a markedly winding course, across the plateau of inner 
South Africa, joining the Orange in 29 3' S., 23 36' E. The 
river valley is about 500 m. long, the length of the river being 
some 750 m. 

The first considerable tributary is the Klip (80 m. long), which 
rises in the Draken's Berg (the hill which gives its name to the 
range) and flows N.W., its junction with the Vaal being in 27 S., 
29 6' E., 12 m. S.W. of Standerton. From this point to the 
eastern frontier of the Cape the Vaal forms the boundary between 
the Orange Free State and the Transvaal. The river is usually 
shallow and is fordable at many places, known as drifts. But 
after the heavy summer rains the stream attains a depth of 30 or 
more feet. At such times the banks, which are lined with willows 
and in places very steep, are inundated. As a rule little water is 
added to the Vaal by its tributaries. Of these, the Wilge (190 m.), 
which also rises on the inner slopes of the Drakensberg, flows first 
S.W., then N.W. across the eastern part of Orange Free State and 
joins the Vaal 60 m. below the Klip confluence. Lower down the 
river receives from the south the Rhenoster, Valsch, Vet and other 
streams which drain the northern part of the Orange Free State. 
On the north the basin of the Vaal is contracted by the Witwaters- 
rand and Magaliesberg range, and its tributaries are few and, save 
in the case of the Harts river, short. The Klip, not to be con- 
founded with the southern Klip already described, rises on the 
south side of the Witwatersrand about 15 m. W. of Johannesburg, 
is joined by several small streams, and after a S.E. course of 70 m. 
reaches the Vaal 2 m. E. of Vereeniging. The Klip is of importance 
in the supply of water to many of the Black Reef gold mines. The 



Mooi rises in the Witwatersrand west of the Klip and, after running 
almost due S. 75 m., unites with the main stream about 90 m. 
below Vereeniging. It gets its name Mooi (Beautiful) on account of 
the picturesqueness of its banks., Some of its sources are at Wonder- 
fontein, where they issue from stalactite caves. The Harts river 
(200 m.) rises on the S.W. slopes of the Witwatersrand and flowing 
S. by W. unites with the Vaal about 65 m. above the confluence of 
that stream with the Orange. The volume of water in the Harts is 
often very slight, but that part of the country, the eastern division 
of Griqualand West, in which the Vaal receives its last tributaries 
and itself joins the Orange, is the best watered of any of the inland 
districts of the Cape. The Vaal here flows in a wide rocky channel, 
with banks 30 ft. high, through an alluvial plain rendered famous 
in 1867-70 by the discovery of diamonds in the bed of the river and 
along its banks. The diamonds are washed out by the water and 
found amid debris of all kinds, frequently embedded in immense 
boulders. The last affluent of the Vaal, the Riet river, rises in the 
Beyers Bergen S.E. of Reddersburg and flows N.W. 200 m. through 
Orange Free State, being joined, a mile or two within the Cape 
frontier, by the Modder river (175 m.), which rises in the same 
district as the Riet but takes a more northerly course. The united 
Riet-Modder joins the Vaal 1 8 m. above the Orange confluence. 

The name Vaal is a partial translation by the Dutch settlers of 
the Hottentot name of the river Kai Gariep, properly Garib 
(yellow water) , in reference to the clayey colour of the stream. The 
Transvaal is so named because the first white immigrants reached 
the country from the south by crossing the Vaal. 

VAALPENS (dusty-bellies), a little-known nomadic people of 
South Africa, who survive in small groups in the Zoutpansberg 
and Waterberg districts of the Transvaal, especially along the 
Magalakwane river. They are akin to the Bushmen (q.v.). 
In 1905 their total number was estimated by the Transvaal 
military authorities at " a few hundreds." The Vaalpens 
were so called by the Boers from the dusty look of their bodies, 
due, it is said, to their habit of crawling along the ground when 
stalking game. But their true colour is black. In height the 
men average about 4 ft., i.e. somewhat less than the shortest 
Bushmen. Socially the Vaalpens occupy nearly as low a 
position as even the Fuegians or the extinct Tasmanians. 
They were nearly exterminated by the Aman'debele, a tribe 
of Zulu stock which entered the Transvaal about the beginning 
of the i gth century. The Vaalpens, who live entirely by 
hunting and trapping game, dwell in holes, caves or rock- 
shelters. They wear capes of skins, and procure the few 
implements they need in exchange for skins, ivory or ostrich 
feathers. They form family groups of thirty or forty under 
a chief or patriarch, whose functions are purely domestic, as 
must be the case where there are no arts or industries, nothing 
but a knowledge of hunting and of fire with which to cook 
their meals. Their speech appears to be so full of clicks as 
to be incapable of expression by any clear phonetic system. 
Hence it is impossible to say whether the Vaalpens possess 
any folklore or other oral literature analogous to that of the 
Bushmen. 

VACARESCU, the name, according to tradition, of one of the 
oldest noble families in Walachia. Its mythical founder is 
said to have been a certain Kukenus, of Spanish origin, settled 
in Transylvania as lord over Fogaras. Others connect the 
family with Ugrin, count of Fogaras. The first member of 
historical importance was lanache (b. 1654), the grand 
treasurer of Walachia, who was killed with his master, Prince 
Brancovan, in Constantinople, 1714. His grandson through 
his son Stephan, also called lanache (or " Enakitza the Ban," 
1730-1796), starts a line of Rumanian scholars and poets; 
he was the author of the first known Rumanian grammar in 
the vernacular, printed in 1787. While in exile in Nicopolis 
he wrote the contemporary history of the Turkish empire in 
two volumes (1740-1799). He was also the first to attempt 
Rumanian versification. Greater as a poet is his son Alecu 
(Alexander), who died as a prisoner in Constantinople in 1798. 
In 1796 a collection of his poems appeared in Rumania. His 
brother Nikolaes (d. 1830) also wrote some poems, but they 
remained in MS. until 1860, when they were published. By 



VACARIUS VACCINATION 



831 






far the greatest member of the Vacarescu family in the male 
line was lancu (1786-1863), the son of Alexander. He received 
an excellent education not only in Greek but also in German 
and French, and was well versed in the literature of the West. 
An ardent patriot, he sided with the national movement in 
1821, and assisted in establishing the Rumanian theatre, trans- 
lating many books and plays from German and French into 
Rumanian, notably the Britannicus of Corneille, a literary event 
of no small importance at the time. He inaugurated modern 
Rumanian poetry. In 1830 appeared his first volume of verse. 
He died in 1863. A niece of Alexander is the gifted writer 
Elena Vacarescu (Helene Vacaresco), who inherited the poetical 
talent of her family and has enriched Rumanian literature with 
her Bard of the Dimbovitza, and other poems and novels in 
Rumanian and in French. (M. G.) 

VACARIUS (1120-1200?), Italian civilian and canonist, the 
first known teacher of Roman law in England, was doubtless 
of the school of Bologna, though of a later generation than 
the hearers of Irnerius. He was brought to Canterbury, 
possibly by Becket, together with a supply of books upon the 
civil law, to act as counsel (causidicus) to Archbishop Theobald 
in his struggle, which ended successfully in 1146, to obtain the 
transfer of the legateship from the bishop of Winchester to 
himself. We next hear of Vacarius as lecturing at Oxford, in 
1 149, to " crowds of rich and poor," and as preparing, for the 
use of the latter, a compendium, in nine books, of the Digest 
and Code of Justinian, " sufficient," it was said, " if thoroughly 
mastered, to solve all legal questions commonly debated in the 
schools." It became a leading text-book in the nascent univer- 
sity, and its popular description as the Liber pauperum gave 
rise to the nickname pauperistae applied to Oxford students 
of law. Nearly complete MSS. of this work are still in existence, 
notably in the cathedral libraries at Worcester and Prague and 
in the town library at Bruges. Fragments of it are also pre- 
served in the Bodleian and in several college libraries at Oxford. 

The new learning was not destined to make its way without 
opposition. King Stephen silenced Vacarius, and ordered the 
destruction of the books of civil and canon law which had been 
imported by Theobald. The edict to this effect seems, however, 
not to have been in force after the death of its royal author in 
1154 (" eo magis virtus legis invaluit quo earn amplius nitebatur 
impietas infirmare," Joh. Sarisburiensis). There is ample evi- 
dence that the civil law was soon once more a favourite study 
at Oxford, where we learn that, in 1190, two students from 
Friesland were wont to divide between them the hours of the 
night for the purpose of making a copy of the Liber pauperum. 
Whether or no Vacarius ever resumed his Oxford lectures after 
their interruption by Stephen we are not informed. In any 
case he was soon called off to practical work, as legal adviser 
and ecclesiastical judge in the northern province, by his old 
friend and colleague at Canterbury, Roger de Pont 1'Eveque, 
after the promotion of the latter, in the year of Stephen's death, 
to the archbishopric of York. Thenceforth the name of 
" magister Vacarius " is of very frequent occurrence, in papal 
letters and the chronicles of the period, as acting in these 
capacities. He was rewarded with a prebend in the collegiate 
church of secular canons at Southwell, half of which he was 
allowed in 1191 to cede to his " nephew " Reginald. He is last 
heard of in 1198, as commissioned, together with the prior of 
Thurgarton, by Pope Innocent III. to carry into execution, 
in the north of England, a letter with reference to the crusade. 
It is doubtless to the second half of the life of Vacarius that the 
composition must be attributed of two works the MS. of which, 
formerly the property of the Cistercian Abbey of Biddleston, 
is now in the Cambridge University library. One of these, 
Summa de assumpto homine, is of a theological character, dealing 
with the humanity of Christ; the other, Summa de matrimonio, 
is a legal argument, to the effect that the essential fact in 
marriage is neither, as Gratian maintains, the copula, nor, as 
Peter Lombard, consent by verba de praesenti, but mutual Iradilio. 

AUTHORITIES. Most of the original authorities are textually set 
out and annotated by Prof. T. E. Holland in vol. ii. of the Oxford 



Historical Society's Collectanea (1890). Wenck, in his Magister 
Vacarius (1820), prints the prologue, and a table of contents, of the 
Liber pauperum, from a MS. now lost. He returns to the subject 
in Stieber s Opuscula academica (1834). F. Maitland in the Law 
Quarterly Review, xiii. pp. 133, 270 (1897), gives a full account of 
the Cambridge MSS., printing in extenso the Summa de matrimonio. 
See also Munlenbruch, Obs. juris Rom. i. 36; Hanel, in the Leips. 
Lit. Zeitung (1828), No. 42, " Intelligenzblatt," p. 334; Savigny, 

denunt. 



Geschichte, iv. 423; Stolzel, Lehre von der operis novi 



(1865), 



pp. 592-620, and in the Zeitschrift fur Rechtsgeschichte, vi. p. 234; 
Catalogue general des MSS. des bibliotheques publiques de France: 
Departements, t. x. Lieberman, in the English Historical Review, xi. 
(1906), pp. 305, 514, identified Vacarius with one " Vac." of Mantua, 
the author of Contraria legum Longobardorum, but withdrew this 
antecedently improbable suggestion (ib. vol. xiii.) after T. Patella 
had shown, in the Atti delta R. Academia di Torino, xxxii., that 
" Vac. Mantuanus," the author of the Contraria, must have been 
" Vacella," who, in 1189, was a judge at Mantua. (T. E. H.) 

VACCINATION (from Lat. vacca, a cow), the term originally 
devised for a method of protective inoculation against small- 
pox, consisting in the intentional transference to the human 
being of the eruptive disease of cattle called cow-pox (vaccinia). 
The discovery of vaccination is due to Dr Edward Jenner (<?..), 
at the time a country medical practitioner of Berkeley, in the 
vale of Gloucester, whose investigations were first published 
in 1798 in the form of a pamphlet entitled An Inquiry into the 
Causes and Effects of the Variolae Vaccinae, &c. Many years 
previously, while he was an apprentice to a medical man at 
Sodbury, near Bristol, his attention was directed to a belief, 
widely prevalent in Gloucestershire during the latter half of 
the 1 8th century, that those persons who in the course of their 
employment on dairy farms happened to contract cow-pox 
were thereby protected from a subsequent attack of small-pox. 
In particular, his interest was aroused by a casual remark 
made by a young countrywoman who happened to come to 
the surgery one day for advice, and who, on hearing mention 
made of small-pox, immediately volunteered the statement 
that she could not take the disease, as she had had cow-pox. 
On coming up to London in 1770, to finish his medical education, 
Jenner became a pupil of John Hunter, with whom he fre- 
quently discussed the question of the possibility of obtaining 
protection against small-pox. On his return to his native 
village of Berkeley in 1773, to practise as a medical man, he 
took every opportunity of talking over and investigating the 
matter, but it was not until May 1796 that he actually began 
to make experiments. His first case of vaccination was that 
of a boy eight years of age, named James Phipps, whom he 
inoculated in the arm with cow-pox matter taken from a sore 
on the hand of Sarah Nelmes, a dairymaid, who had become 
infected with the disease by milking cows suffering from cow- 
pox. It was apparently not until 1798 that he made his first 
attempt to carry on a strain of lymph from arm to arm. In 
the spring of that year he inoculated a child with matter 
taken directly from the nipple of a cow, and from the resulting 
vesicle on the arm of the child first operated upon, he in- 
oculated, or, as it may now be more correctly termed, " vac- 
cinated," another. From this child several others were 
vaccinated. From one of these a fourth remove was success- 
fully carried out, and finally a fifth. Four of these children 
were subsequently inoculated with small-pox the " variolous 
test " without result. The success of many such experi- 
ments, in his own hands and in those of his contemporaries, 
led Jenner to express his belief a mistaken one, as events 
have proved that the protective influence of vaccination 
would be found to last throughout the lifetime of the person 
operated on. Obviously he did not realize the fact that the 
data at his disposal were insufficient for the formation of an 
accurate judgment on this point, since time alone could prove 
the exact duration of the protection originally obtained. Sub- 
sequent experience has demonstrated that, as has been well 
said by a writer in the Edinburgh Review, " even after 
efficient vaccination a slow progress away from safety and 
towards danger is inevitable, and re-vaccination at least 
once after childhood is necessary if protection is to be 
maintained. " 



VACCINATION 



In applying to cow-pox the term " variolae vaccinae," 
Jenner gave expression to his belief that this disease was in 
reality nothing more nor less than small-pox of the 
cow. But soon it was discovered that if there were 
small- such a malady as " small-pox of the cow," there 
pox and was a i SO; as j) r L O y fi rs (- satisfactorily demonstrated, 
<wpox. a sma n_p OX o f the horse, which, under the name of 
" grease," was resorted to from time to time as a source 
of vaccine lymph. Jenner had, indeed, put forward the 
suggestion that " grease " was a necessary antecedent to cow- 
pox; but even taking this term to have been used by him in 
the sense of horse-pox, he was, in all probability, mistaken 
in his assumption. At the same time, however, there can be 
little doubt that these two diseases are very closely allied, 
if indeed they be not identical. As evidence of a definite 
relationship between human small-pox and cow-pox, it may 
be mentioned that whereas, prior to the introduction of vac- 
cination, epidemics of these disorders frequently arose con- 
currently, the so-called " natural " cow-pox has now in great 
measure disappeared. There is, moreover, no appreciable 
difference in the minute anatomical appearances characteristic 
of the eruption following on inoculation of one or other of these 
two affections in the human subject. But of far greater im- 
portance in this connexion are the results obtained by numerous 
observers who, in various parts of the world, and almost from 
the time of Jenner onwards, have set themselves the task of 
attempting, by experimental methods, to solve the problem 
of the true relationship of variola to vaccinia. vAs the outcome 
of this work it may now be definitely stated that small-pox 
lymph, more especially, as the present writer has shown, if 
obtained from the primary vesicle of a case of the inoculated 
form of the disease, by passage through the system of the calf 
can be so altered in character as to become deprived of its 
power of causing a generalized eruption, while inducing at the 
site of inoculation a vesicle indistinguishable from a typical 
vaccine vesicle; and, more important still, that when trans- 
ferred again to man, it has by such treatment completely lost 
its former infectious character. Such being the case, it may 
fairly be asserted that cow-pox, or rather that artificially 
inoculated form of the disease which we term vaccinia, is nothing 
more nor less than variola modified by transmission through 
the bovine animal. An outbreak of small-pox, indeed, may 
be turned to account for raising, by appropriate experimental 
methods, a fresh stock of vaccine lymph. 

There is much evidence to prove that the results following 

on vaccination are due to a specific contagium, and, moreover, 

that the particular micro-organism concerned is capable 

of existing, during one period of its life-cycle, in a 

resting or spore form, in which condition it is more 

resistant to the germicidal effects of glycerine than is the case 

with non-sporing microbes. Advantage is taken of this fact, 

in the method devised by the present writer, and now employed 

officially in England, as also on the Continent and in America, 

for ensuring the bacteriological purity of vaccine lymph. Up 

to the present, unfortunately, no satisfactory method has 

been discovered by which the micro-organism of vaccinia 

can be unfailingly cultivated on artificial media while still 

retaining its specific properties. 

The publication in 1896 of the final report of the English Royal 
Commission on Vaccination, in which the various phases of the 
vaccination question are discussed on the basis of evidence 
obtained from witnesses of all shades of opinion during 
a period extending over no less than six years, consider- 
ably simplifies the task of dealing with this subject. The 
Royal Commission, originally numbering fifteen members, 1 
with Lord Herschell as president, was appointed in May 1889, the 

1 The original Commissioners were Lord Herschell, C. Bradlaugh, 
Dr Bristowe, Dr Collins, Sir C. Dalrymple, J. S. Dugdale, Q.C., 
Prof. M. Foster, Sir E. H. Galsworthy, Sir Guyer Hunter, J.Hutchin- 
son, Sir James Paget, J. A. Picton, Sir William Savory, S. Whitbread, 
F. Meadows White, Q.C. Mr Bradlaugh, Dr Bristowe and Sir William 
Savory died during the progress of the inquiry. Only one of the 
vacancies thus caused was filled up, Mr J. A. Bright having been 
appointed on the death of Mr Bradlaugh. 



terms of reference being as follows : " To inquire and report as to (i) 
The effect of vaccination in reducing the prevalence of, and mortality 
from, small-pox. (2) What means, other than vaccination, can be 
used for diminishing the prevalence of small-pox; and how far 
such means could be relied on in place of vaccination. (3) The 
objections made to vaccination on the ground of injurious effects 
alleged to result therefrom; and the nature and extent of any 
injurious effects which do, in fact, so result. (4) Whether any, and, 
if so, what means should be adopted for preventing or lessening the 
ill effects, if any, resulting from vaccination; and whether, and, if 
so, by what means, vaccination with animal vaccine should be 
further facilitated as a part of public vaccination. (5) Whether any 
alterations should be made in the arrangements and proceedings 
for securing the performance of vaccination, and, in particular, 
in the provisions of the Vaccination Acts with respect to prosecutions 
for non-compliance with the law." 

The evidence given before the Royal Commission was published 
at intervals in a series of Blue-books, but, as stated, it was not 
until August 1896 that the final report made its appearance. As 
regards the effect of vaccination in reducing the prevalence of, and 
mortality from, small-pox, the following conclusions were arrived 
at, Dr Collins and Mr Picton alone dissenting: " (i) That it 
diminishes the liability to be attacked by the disease. (2) That it 
modifies the character of the disease and renders it (a) less fatal, 
and (b) of a milder or less severe type. (3) That the protection it 
affords against attacks of the disease is greatest during the years 
immediately succeeding the operation of vaccination. It is im- 
possible to fix with precision the length of this period of highest 
Erotection. Though not in all cases the same, if a period is to be 
xed, it might, we think, fairly be said to cover in general a period 
of nine or ten years. (4) That after the lapse of the period of 
highest protective potency, the efficacy of vaccination to protect 
against attack rapidly diminishes, but that it is still considerable 
in the next quinquennium, and possibly never altogether ceases, 
(5) That its power to modify the character of the disease is also 
greatest in the period in which its power to protect from attack is 
greatest, but that its power thus to modify the disease does not 
diminish as rapidly as its protective influence against attacks, and 
its efficacy, during the later periods of life, to modify the disease is 
still very considerable. (6) That re-vaccination restores the pro- 
tection which lapse of time has diminished, but the evidence shows 
that this protection again diminishes, and that, to ensure the 
highest degree of protection which vaccination can give, the opera- 
tion should be at intervals repeated. (7) That the beneficial effects 
of vaccination are most experienced by those in whose case it has 
been most thorough. We think it niay fairly be concluded that 
where the vaccine matter is inserted in three or four places, it is 
more effectual than when introduced into one or two places only, 
and that if the vaccination marks are of an area of half a square 
inch, they indicate a better state of protection than if their area be 
at all considerably below this." 

For the evidence, statistical or otherwise, on which these conclusions 
are based, the Reports of the Royal Commission should be consulted. 
But reference may here be made to two facts of which proof is 
overwhelming, (i) Small-pox, in pre-vaccination days a disease 
of infancy and childhood like measles at the present day has in 
the United Kingdom become a disease mainly of adults. The 
shifting of age-incidence can only be accounted for by the custom 
of vaccination in infancy. To this day, when small-pox attacks 
young unvaccinated children, it is found to be as virulent as, or 
even more virulent than, small-pox in the unvaccinated at higher 
ages. On the other hand, small-pox is practically unknown among 
well-vaccinated children. When, quite exceptionally, such children 
have been attacked, the disease has been so trivial [in character as 
to be liable to escape recognition altogether. (2) Medical men, 
nurses and other persons exposed to the disease habitually protect 
themselves by efficient re-vaccination, and when this precaution 
has been taken, never contract small-pox. 

The clinical activity and bacteriological purity of the lymph 
employed for vaccination; the skilful performance of the 
operation itself; the making an adequate number Boldest 
of insertions of lymph over a sufficient area; the vaccina- 
observance of precautions needful for ensuring strict tloa. 
asepsis, both at the time of vaccination and subsequently 
until the vaccination wounds are soundly healed all these 
are matters to be regarded as essential to " efficient vaccina- 
tion." Certain principles in respect of them are generally 
recognized, and in the case of public vaccinators, whose work 
comes under government inspection, a series of instructions on 
these several points are prescribed by the Local Government 
Board. First in regard to lymph. That which is now almost 
universally employed in Great Britain is glycerinated calf 
lymph, the use of which has entirely superseded, in public 
vaccinations, the arm-to-arm method which for many years 
previously had been employed as the best means then attainable 



VACCINATION 



833 



of ensuring the activity and comparative purity of the lymph. 
Glycerinated lymph, under proper conditions, usually retains 
its potency for many weeks or months; but nevertheless, in 
certain circumstances at present imperfectly understood, is liable 
to become gradually weakened, and even eventually to become 
altogether inert. Possibly the condition of the calves from which 
the lymph is obtained, especially as regards their general health 
and the suppleness or the reverse of their skins, or exposure 
of the lymph to the action of light or to a high temperature, 
are of special importance. Consequently, in order to ensure 
the best results from its use, it is not only necessary that great 
care should be exercised in its manufacture, but it is also advis- 
able that the lymph should be employed for vaccination as soon 
as possible after bacteriological examination has demonstrated 
its freedom from suppurative and other extraneous micro- 
organisms. As regards the carrying out of the operation itself, 
it is somewhat unfortunate that there exists no official definition 
of what constitutes a " successful vaccination," and in conse- 
quence it is open to any practitioner to give a certificate of 
successful vaccination in cases where but one minute vesicle 
may have been produced. It is to be feared that such certificates 
are too frequently given, and it cannot be too strongly urged 
that vaccination of this sort involves incomplete protection. 
The standard laid down by the Local Government Board 
the production, namely, of a total area ot vesiculation of not less 
than half a square inch, divided among four separate vesicles or 
groups of vesicles, not less than half an inch from one another 
has for the most part proved easily attainable in practice, and 
it is much to be desired that in private as in public work the 
attainment of this standard should be aimed at in every instance. 
The protection afforded by a primary vaccination tends 
gradually to diminish, and eventually to disappear more or 
less completely, with the lapse of time. In consequence, it is 
desirable that the operation should be repeated at the age of 
from seven to ten years, and thereafter, if it be possible, at 
intervals during later life. The final report of the Royal 
Commission thus summarizes the evidence as to the value of 
such additional procedure: 

" Where re-vaccinated persons were attacked by, or died from, 
small-pox, the re-vaccination had for the most part been performed 
a considerable number of years before the attack. There were very 
few cases where a short period only had elapsed between the re- 
vaccination and the attack of small-pox. This seems to show that 
it is of importance, in the case of any persons specially exposed to 
the risk of contagion, that they should be re-vaccinated, and that 
in the case even of those who have been twice re-vaccinated with 
success, if a long interval since the last operation has elapsed, the 
operation should be repeated for a third, and even a fourth time." 

It not unfrequently happens that in the case of a re-vaccination 
the process runs a somewhat different course from that witnessed 
in a typical primary vaccination. In a successful re- vaccination, 
the site of the operation may be distinctly reddened and some- 
what irritable by the second day, while papules will probably 
make their appearance about the third to the fifth day. The 
papules may or may not develop further into vesicles and 
pustules. Occasionally a re-vaccination appears to fail alto- 
gether; but, as pointed out by the Royal Commission, 
it is advisable, as in the case of a primary vaccination, to make 
further attempts with lymph of known potency before con- 
cluding that the individual is really insusceptible. 

In a certain small proportion of cases the operation of 
vaccination has been followed, after a longer or shorter inter- 
Aiieged val, by various complications, of which by far the 
injurious most important are those of an inflammatory nature, 
effects. suc jj as cr y S ip e i aSj which are not peculiar to vaccina- 
tion, but which constitute the danger of any local lesion 
of the skin, however caused. During the many decades in 
which vaccination from arm to arm was practised, in many 
millions of children, a few authenticated cases were recorded 
in which there was reason to believe that syphilis could have 
been invaccinated. Such an occurrence could at no time have 
happened if proper care had been taken by the vaccinator; 
and now that the use of calf lymph has become practically 
xxvn. 27 



universal, the possibility of such occurrence in the future 
may be disregarded, since the calf is not capable of contracting 
this disease. Tubercle in its various forms and leprosy have 
also been included in the list of possible complications of 
vaccination, though without any sufficient proof. The employ- 
ment of calf lymph, treated with glycerine after the manner 
first advocated by S. Monckton Copeman, will obviate any 
such danger, for even if tubercle bacilli or the streptococcus of 
erysipelas were by chance present in the lymph material when 
collected, it has been found experimentally that they are quite 
unable to survive prolonged exposure to the action of a 50% 
solution of glycerine in water. Leprosy is not communicable 
to the calf. In view of the frequency of various skin eruptions 
in infancy, it is to be expected that in a proportion of cases they 
will appear during the weeks following vaccination. Eczema 
and impetigo in particular have, post hoc, been attributed to 
vaccination, but no direct connexion has been proved to exist 
between the operation and the occurrence of these disorders. 
In section 434 of the final report of the Royal Commission 
on Vaccination the extent to which other inoculable diseases 
are liable to complicate vaccination is thus summed up: 

" A careful examination of the facts which have been brought 
under our notice has enabled us to arrive at the conclusion that 
although some of the dangers said to attend vaccination are un- 
doubtedly real, and not inconsiderable in gross amount, yet when 
considered in relation to the extent of vaccination work done, they 
are insignificant. There is reason, further, to believe that they are 
diminishing under the better precautions of the present day, and 
with the additions of the future precautions which experience 
suggests, will do so still more in the future." (S. M. C.) 

Legislation making vaccination compulsory was first intro- 
duced in Bavaria (1807), Denmark (1810), Sweden (1814), Wiirt- 
temburg, Hesse and other German states (1818), com- 
Prussia (1835), the United Kingdom (1853), German puisory 
empire (1874), Rumania (1874), Hungary (1876), v t f' aa ' 
Servia (1881), Austria (1886). But in many cases 
there had been earlier provisions indirectly making it necessary. 
In the same way, though there is no federal compulsory law in 
Switzerland, most of the cantons enforce it; and though there 
is no statutory compulsion in France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, 
Belgium, Norway, Russia or Turkey, there are government 
facilities and indirect pressure, apart from the early popularity 
of vaccination which made it the usual practice. In the United 
States there is no federal law, but many of the separate states 
make their own compulsion either directly or indirectly, Massa- 
chusetts starting in 1809. 

The benefit of vaccination proved itself in the eyes of the 
world by its apparent success in stamping out small-pox; but 
there continued to be people, even of the highest competence, 
who regarded this as a fallacious argument post hoc, ergo 
propter hoc. The cause of " anti-vaccination " has had many 
followers in England, and their persistence has had important 
effect in English legislation. Under the provisions of the 
Vaccination Act 1898, and of the Vaccination Order (1898) of 
the Local Government Board, with some minor changes in 
succeeding acts, numerous changes in connexion with vaccina- 
tion administration and with the performance of the English 
operation were introduced, in addition to the super- legisia- 
session of arm-to-arm vaccination, by the use of a "' 
glycerinated calf lymph. Thus, whereas by the Vaccination 
Acts of 1867 and 1871 the parent or person having the cus- 
tody of any child was required to procure its vaccination 
within three months of birth, this period by the act of 1898 
was extended to six months. Again, parents were relieved of 
any penalty under the compulsory clauses of the Vaccination 
Acts who afforded proof that they had, within four months of 
the birth of a child, satisfied a stipendiary magistrate, or two 
justices in petty sessions, that they conscientiously believed 
that vaccination would be prejudicial to the health of the child. 
Moreover, proceedings were not to be taken more than twice 
against a defaulting parent, namely, once under section 29 of the 
act of 1867, and once under section 31 of the same act, provided 
that the child had reached the age of four years. Finally, the 



834 



VACHEROT VACUUM TUBE 



public vaccinator was now required to visit the homes of children 
for the purpose of offering vaccination with glycerinated calf 
lymph, " or such other lymph as may be issued by the Local 
Government Board." The operative procedure in public vac- 
cinations was formerly based on the necessity of carrying on 
a weekly series of transferences of vaccine lymph from arm to 
arm; and for the purposes of such arm-to-arm vaccination the 
provision of stations, to which children were brought first for 
the performance of the operation, and again, after a week's 
interval, for inspection of the results, was an essential. The 
occasional hardships to the mothers, and a somewhat remote 
possibility of danger to the children, involved in being taken 
long journeys to a vaccination station in bad weather, or arising 
from the collecting together in one room of a number of children 
and adults, one or more of whom might happen to be suffering 
at the time from some infectious disorder, are a few of the 
reasons which appeared to render a change in this regulation 
desirable; as a matter of fact, it would appear that nothing but 
good has arisen from the substitution of domiciliary for stational 
vaccination. There have naturally been some curious dis- 
cussions before the magistrates as to what is " conscientious " 
or not, but the working of the so-called " conscience clause " by 
no means justified the somewhat gloomy forebodings expressed, 
both in Parliament and elsewhere, at the time of its incorpora- 
tion in the act of 1898. On the contrary, its operation appeared 
to tend to the more harmonious working of the Vaccination 
Acts, by affording a legal method of relief to such parents and 
guardians as were prepared to affirm that they had a conscien- 
tious belief that the performance of the operation might, in any 
particular instance, be prejudicial to the health of the child. 

AUTHORITIES. Acland, " Vaccinia," Allbutt and Rolleston, 
System of Medicine (1906); Baron, Life of Jenner; Henry Colburn 
(London, 1838); Copeman, Vaccination: Its Natural History and 
Pathology (Milroy Lectures) (Macmillan, London, 1899); " Modern 
Methods of Vaccination and their Scientific Basis," Trans. Royal 
Med. and Chir. Society (1901-2); M'Vail, "Criticism of the Dis- 
sentient Commissioners' Report," Trans. Epidemiological Society 
(1897); Reports of the Royal Commission on Vaccination (1889- 
1896); "The History and Effects of Vaccination," Edinburgh 
Review, No. 388 (1899); Vaccination Law of German Empire 
(Berlin, 1904). 

VACHEROT, ETIENNE (1800-1897), French philosophical 
writer, was born of peasant parentage at Torcenay, near Langres, 
on the 29th of July 1809. He was educated at the Ecole Nor- 
male, and returned thither as director of studies in 1838, after 
some years spent in provincial schoolmasterships. In 1839 he 
succeeded his master Cousin as professor of philosophy at the 
Sorbonne. His Histoire critique de I'ecole d'Alexandrie (3 vols. 
1846-51), his first and best-known work, drew on him attacks 
from the Clerical party which led to his suspension in 1851. 
Shortly afterwards he refused to swear allegiance to the new 
imperial government, and was dismissed the service. His work 
Democratic (1859) led to a political prosecution and imprisonment. 
In 1868 he was elected to the French Academy. On the fall of 
the Empire he took an active part in politics, was maire of a 
district of Paris during the siege, and in 1871 was in the National 
Assembly, voting as a Moderate Liberal. In 1873 he drew 
nearer the Conservatives, after which he was never again 
successful as a parliamentary candidate, though he maintained 
his principles vigorously in the press. He died on the 28th of 
July 1897. Vacherot was a man of high character and adhered 
strictly to his principles, which were generally opposed to those 
of the party in power. His chief philosophical importance con- 
sists in the fact that he was a leader in the attempt to revivify 
French philosophy by the new thought of Germany, to which 
he had been introduced by Cousin, but of which he never had 
more than a second-hand knowledge. Metaphysics he held to 
be based on psychology. He maintains the unity and freedom 
of the soul, and the absolute obligation of the moral law. In 
religion, which was his main interest, he was much influenced by 
Hegel, and appears somewhat in the ambiguous position of a 
sceptic anxious to believe. He sees insoluble contradictions in 
every mode of conceiving God as real, yet he advocates religious 



belief, though the object of that belief have but an abstract or 
imaginary existence. 

His other works are: La Metaphysique et la science (1858), Essais 
de philosophic critique (1864), La Religion (1869), La Science el la 
conscience (1870), Le Nouveau Spiritualisme (1884), La Democratic 
liberate (1892). 

See Olle Laprune, Etienne Vacherot (Paris, 1898). 

VACQUERIE, AUGUSTE (1819-1895), French journalist and 
man of letters, was born at Villequier (Seine Inferieure) on the 
igth of November 1819. He was from his earliest days an 
admirer of Victor Hugo, with whom he was connected by the 
marriage of his brother Charles with Leopoldine Hugo. His 
earlier romantic productions include a volume of poems, 
L'Enfer de I' esprit (1840); a translation of the Antigone (1844) in 
collaboration with Paul Meurice; and Tragaldabas (1848), a 
melodrama. He was one of the principal contributors to the 
Evenement and followed Hugo into his exile in Jersey. In 1869 
he returned to Paris, and with Paul Meurice and others founded 
the anti-imperial Rappel. His articles in this paper were more 
than once the occasion of legal proceedings. After 1870 he 
became editor. Other of his works are Souvent homme varie 
(1859), a comedy in verse; Jean Baudry (1863), the most suc- 
cessful of his plays; Aujourd'hui et demain (1875); Futura 
(1900), poems on philosophical and humanitarian subjects. 
Vacquerie died in Paris on the igth of February 1895. He 
published a collected edition of his plays in 1879. 

VACUUM-CLEANER, an appliance for removing dust from 
carpets, curtains, &c., by suction, and consisting essentially 
of some form of air-pump drawing air through a nozzle which 
is passed over the material that has to be cleaned. The dust 
is carried away with the air-stream and is separated by filtra- 
tion through screens of muslin or other suitable fabric, sometimes 
with the aid of a series of bafHe-plates which cause the heavier 
particles to fall to the bottom of the collecting receptacle by 
gravity. In the last decade of the igth century compressed air 
came into use for the purpose of removing dust from railway 
carriages, but it was found difficult to arrange for the collection 
of the dust that was blown out by the jets of air, and in con- 
sequence recourse was had to working by suction. From this 
beginning several types of vacuum cleaner have developed. 

In the first instance the plants were portable, consisting of a pump 
driven by a petrol engine or electric motor, and were periodically 
taken round to houses, offices &c., when cleaning was required. 
The second stage was represented by the permanent installation 
of central plants in large buildings, with a system of pipes running 
to all floors, like gas or water pipes, and provided at convenient 
points with valves to which could be attached flexible hose termin- 
ating in the actual cleaning tools. The vacuum thus rendered 
available is in some cases utilized for washing the floors in combina- 
tion with another system of piping connected to a tank containing 
soap and water, which having been sprayed over the floor by com- 
pressed air is removed with the dirt it contains and discharged into 
the sowers; or in a simpler arrangement the soap and water is 
contained in a portable tank from which it is distributed, tobesucked 
up by means of the vacuum as before. In their third stage vacuum 
cleaners have become ordinary household implements, in substitu- 
tion for, or in addition to the broom and duster, and small machines 
are now made in a variety of forms, driven by hand, by foot, or 
by an electric motor attached to the lighting circuit. In addition 
to their domestic uses, other applications have been found for them, 
as for instance in removing dust from printers' type-cases. 

VACUUM TUBE. The phenomena associated with the pas- 
sage of electricity through gases at low pressures have attracted 
the attention of physicists ever since the invention of the fric- 
tional electrical machine first placed at their disposal a means 
of producing a more or less continuous flow of electricity through 
vessels from which the air had been partially exhausted. In 
recent years the importance of the subject in connexion with 
the theory of electricity has been fully realized; indeed, the 
modern theory of electricity is based upon ideas which have 
been obtained from the study of the electric discharge through 
gases. Most of the important principles deduced from these 
investigations are given in the article CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC 
( Through Gases) ; here we shall confine ourselves to the consider- 
ation of the more striking features of the luminous phenomena 
observed when electricity passes through a luminous gas. 



VACUUM TUBE 



835 



Methods of producing the Discharge. To send the curren 
through the gas it is necessary to produce between electrode 
in the gas a large difference of potential. Unless the electrode 
are of the very special type known as Wehnelt electrodes, thi 
difference of potential is never less than 200 or 300 volts anc 
may rise to almost any value, as it depends on the pressure o 
the gas and the size of the tube. In very many cases by fa 
the most convenient method of producing this difference o 
potential is by means of an induction coil; there are som< 
cases, however, when the induction coil is not suitable, the dis 
charge from a coil being intermittent, so that at some times 
there is a large current going through the tube, while at others 
there is none at all, and certain kinds of measurement canno 
be made under these conditions. Not only is the current inter- 
mittent, but it is apt with the coil to be sometimes in one 
direction and sometimes in the opposite; there is a tendency 
to send a discharge through the tube not only when the current 
through the primary is started but also when it is stopped 
These discharges are in opposite directions, and though that 
produced by stopping the current is more intense than that 
due to starting it, the latter may be quite appreciable. The 
reversal of the current may be remedied by inserting in series 
with the discharge tube a piece of apparatus known as a 
" rectifier " which allows a current to pass through it in one 
direction but not in the opposite. A common type of rectifier 
is another tube containing gas at a low pressure and having 
one of its electrodes very large and the other very small; a 
current passes much more easily through such a tube from the 
small to the large electrode than in the opposite direction. 
Sometimes an air-break inserted in the circuit with a point for 
one electrode and a disk for the other is sufficient to prevent 
the reversal of the current without the aid of any other rectifier. 
There are cases, however, when the inevitable intermittence of 
the discharge produced by an induction coil is a fatal objection. 
When this is so, the potential difference may be produced by a 
battery of a large number of voltaic cells, of which the most 
convenient type, where more than a few milli-amperes of current 
are required, are small storage cells. As each of these cells only 
produces a potential difference of two volts, a very large number 
of cells are required when potential differences of thousands of 
volts have to be produced, and the expense of this method becomes 
prohibitive. When continuous currents at these high potential 
differences are rquired, electrostatic induction machines are most 
generally used. By means of Wimshurst machines, with many 
plates, or the more recent Wehrsen machines, considerable currents 
can be produced and maintained at a very constant value. 

The exhaustion of the tubes can, by the aid of modern mer- 
cury pumps, such as the Topler pump or the very convenient 
automatic Gaede pump, be carried to such a point that the 
pressure of the residual gas is less than a millionth of the at- 
mospheric pressure. For very high exhaustions, however, the 
best and quickest method is that introduced by Sir James 
Dewar. In this method a tube containing small pieces of 
dense charcoal (that made from the shells of coco-nuts does 
very well) is fused on to the tube to be exhausted. The 
preliminary exhaustion is done by means of a water-pump 
which reduces the pressure to that due to a few millimetres 
of mercury and the charcoal strongly heated at this low pressure 
to drive off any gases it may have absorbed. The tube is then 
disconnected from the water-pump and the charcoal tube 
surrounded by liquid air; the cold charcoal greedily absorbs 
most gases and removes them from the tube. In this way 
much higher exhaustions can be obtained than is possible by 
means of mercury pumps; it has the advantage, too, of getting 
rid of the mercury vapour which is always present when the 
exhaustion is produced by mercury pumps. Charcoal does 
not absorb much helium even when cooled to the temperature 
of liquid air, so that the method fails in the case of this gas; 
the absorption of hydrogen, too, is slower than that of ether 
gases. Both helium and hydrogen are vigorously absorbed 
when the charcoal is cooled to the temperature of liquid 
hydrogen. 

When first the discharge is sent through an exhausted tube, a 
considerable amount of gas (chiefly hydrogen and carbon monoxide) 
is liberated from the electrodes and the walls of the tube, so that 



to obtain permanent high vacua the exhaustion must be continued 
until the discharge has been going through the tube for a consider- 
able time. One of the greatest difficulties experienced in getting 
these high vacua is that even when all the joints are carefully 
made there may be very small holes in the tube through which 
the air is continually leaking from outside, and when the hole 
is very small it is sometimes very difficult to locate the leak. The 
writer has found that a method due to Goldstein is of the greatest 
service for this purpose. In this method one of the electrodes 
in the tube and one of the terminals of the induction coil are put to 
earth, and the pressure of the gas in the tube is reduced so that 
a discharge would pass through the tube with a small potential 
difference. The point of an insulated wire attached to the other 
terminal of the induction coil is then passed over the outside of the 
tube. When it comes to the hole, a very bright white spark may 
be seen passing through the glass, and in this way the leak located. 
The appearance of the discharge when the exhaustion is going on 
is a very good indication as to whether there is any leakage in the 
tube or not. If the colour of the discharge remains persistently 
red in spite of continued pumping, there is pretty surely a leak in 
the tube, as the red colour is probably due to the continued influx 
of air into the tube. Platinum is the only metal which can be fused 
through the glass with any certainty that the contact between 
the glass and the metal will be close enough to prevent air leaking 
into the tube. Platinum, however, when used as a cathode at 
low pressures " sputters," and the walls of the tube get covered 
with a thin deposit of the metal: to avoid this, the platinum is 
often fastened to a piece of aluminium, which does not spi-tter 
nearly so much. Tantalum is also said to possess this property, 
and it has the advantage of being much less fusible than 
aluminium. This sputtering depends to some extent on the kind 
of gases present in the tube, as in monatomic gases, such as 
mercury vapour, even aluminium sputters badly. 

Electrodeless Tubes. As some gases, such as chlorine and 
bromine, attack all metals, it is impossible to use metallic 
electrodes when the discharge through these gases has to be 
investigated. In these cases " electrodeless " tubes are some- 
times used. These are of two kinds. The more usual one is 
when tin-foil is placed at the ends of the tube on the outside, and 
the terminals of the induction coil connected with these pieces 
of foil; the glass under the foil virtually acts as an electrode. 
A more interesting form of the electrodeless discharge is what 
is known as the " ring " discharge. The tube in this case is 
placed inside a wire solenoid which forms a part of a circuit: 
connecting the outside coatings of two Leyden jars, the inside 
coatings of these jars being connected with the terminals of 1 
an induction coil or electri, al machine; the jars are charged 
up by the machine, and are discharged when sparks pass 
between its terminals. As the discharge of the jars is oscillatory 
(see ELECTRIC WAVES), electric currents surge through the 
solenoid surrounding the discharge tube, and these currents 
reverse their direction hundreds oi thousands of times per second. 
We may compare the solenoid with the primary coil of an 
induction coil, and the exhausted bulb with the secondary; 
the rapidly alternating currents in the primary induce currents 
^n the secondary which show themselves as a luminous ring 
inside the tube. Very bright discharges may be obtained 
n this way, and the method is especially suitable for spectro- 
scopic purposes (see Phil. Mag. [5], 32, pp. 321, 445). 

Appearance of the Discharge in Vacuum Tubes. Fig. 15 b of 
the article CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC (Through Gases) represents 
the appearance of the discharge when the pressure in the tube 
s comparable with that due to a millimetre of mercury and 
'or a particular intensity of current. With variations in the 
pressure or the current some of these features may disappear 
or be modified. Beginning at the negative electrode k, we meet 
with the following phenomena: A velvety glow runs, often in 
rregular patches, over the surface of the cathode; this glow 
s often called the first negative layer. The spectrum of this 
ayer is a bright line spectrum, and Stark has shown that it 
hows the Doppler effect due to the rapid motion of the luminous 
particles towards the cathode. Next to this there is a com- 
>aratively dark region known as 'the " Crookes' dark space," 
>r the second negative layer. The luminous boundary of this 
lark space is approximately such as would be got by tracing 
he locus of the extremities of normals of constant length 
Irawn from the negative electrode; thus if the electrode is a 
isk, the luminous boundary of the dark sphere is nearly plain 



8 3 6 



VACUUM TUBE 



over a part of its surface as in fig. i, while if the electrode is 
a ring of wire (fig. 2) the luminous boundary resembles that 




FIG. 2. 



FIG. i. 

shown in fig. 17 of the article CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC (Through 
Gases). The length of the dark space depends on the pressure 
of the gas and on the intensity of the 
current passing through it. The width 
of the dark space increases as the 
pressure diminishes, and may, according 
to the experiments of Aston (Pro. Roy. 
Soc. 79, p. 81), be represented with 
considerable accuracy by the expression 
a+b/p or a-)-cX, where a, b, c are con- 
stants, p the pressure and X the mean 
free path of a corpuscle through the gas. The thickness of 
the dark space is larger than this free path; for hydrogen, for 
example, the value of c is about 4. 

When the current is so large that the whole of the cathode is 
covered with glow the width of the dark space depends upon the 
current decreasing as the current increases. In helium and 
hydrogen Aston (Pro. Roy. Soc. 80 A., p. 45) has detected the 
existence of another thin dark space quite close to the cathode 
whose thickness is independent of the pressure. The farther 
boundary of the Crookes' dark space is luminous and is known as 
the negative glow or the third negative layer. Until the current gets 
so large that the glow next the cathode covers the whole of its sur- 
face the potential difference between the cathode and the negative 
glow is independent of the pressure of the gas and the current 
passing through it; it depends only on the kind of gas and the 
metal of which the cathode is made. This difference of potential 
is known as the cathode fall of potential; the values of it in volts 
for some gases and electrodes as determined by Mey (Verh. deuts. 
Phys. Ges., 1903, v. p. 72) are given in the table. 

CATHODE FALL 



GAS 










EL 


ECTF 


ODE 












Pt 


Hg 


Ag 


Cu 


Fe 


Zn 


Al 


Mg 


Na 


\a-K 


K 


Oa 


160 















































H 2 


300 




295 


280 


230 


213 


190 


1 68 


185 


169 


172 


N 2 


232 


226 












207 


178 


125 


170 


He 


??6 
















80 


78-S 


69 


























Arg 


167 












IOO 











The cathode fall of potential measures the smallest difference 
of potential which can produce a spark through the gas. Thus, 
for example, it is not possible to produce a spark through nitrogen 
with platinum electrodes with a potential difference of less than 
232 volts, except when the electrodes are placed so close together 
that with a smaller potential difference the electric force between 
the terminals amounts to more than a million volts per centimetre; 
for this to be the case the distance between the electrodes must be 
comparable with the wave-length of sodium light. 

When the current is small the glow next the cathode does not 
cover the whole of the surface, and when this occurs an increase 
in the current causes the glow to cover a greater area, but does 
not increase the current density nor the cathode fall. When the 
current is so much increased that the glow covers the whole of the 
cathode an increase in current must result in an increase of the 
current density over the cathode, and this is accomplished by a rapid 
increase in the cathode fall of potential. The cathode fall in this 
case has been investigated by Stark (Phys. Zeit. in, p. 274), who 
finds that its value K can be represented by the equation 

K = K n +k(C-xpf)'*/p}\ 

where K n is the normal cathode fall, / the area of the cathode, C the 
current through the tube, p the pressure of the gas and k and * 
constants. 

The increase in the potential fall is much more marked in small 
tubes than in large ones, as with small tubes the formation of the 
negative glow is restricted; this gives rise to a greater concentra- 
tion of the current at the cathode and an increase in the cathode 



fall. The intensity of the electric field in the dark space has been 
measured by many observers. Aston used very large plain cathodes 
and measured the electric force by observing the deflection of a small 
pencil of cathode rays sent across the dark space at different dis- 
tances from the cathode. He found that the magnitude of the 
force at a point in the dark space was proportional to the distance 
of the point from the junction of the negative glow and the dark 
space. This law of force shows that positive electricity must be 
in excess in the dark space, and that the density of the electrifica- 
tion must be constant throughout that space. The force inside the 
negative glow if not absolutely zero is so small that no one has as 
yet succeeded in measuring it ; thus the surface of this glow must be 
very approximately an equi-potential surface. In the dark space 
there is a stream of positively electrified particles moving towards 
the cathode and of negatively electrified corpuscles moving away 
from it, these streams being mutually dependent ; the impact of 
the positive particles against the cathode gives rise to the emission 
of corpuscles from the cathode; these, after acquiring kinetic 
energy in the dark space, ionize the gas and produce the positive 
ions which are attracted by the cathode and give rise to a fresh supply 
of corpuscles. The corpuscles which carry the negative electririty 
are very different from the carriers of the positive ; the former have 
a mass of only -iVira f the atom of hydrogen, while the mass of 
the latter is never less than that of this atom. 

The stream of positive particles towards the cathode is often 
called the Ganalstrahlen, and may be investigated by allowing the 
stream to flow through a hole in the cathode and then measuring, 
by the methods described in CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC (Through 
Gases), the velocity and the value of ejm when e is the charge on a 
carrier and m its mass. It has been found that this stream is some- 
what complex and consists of 

o. A stream of neutral particles. 

ft. A stream of positively electrified particles moving with a con- 
stant velocity of 2X10* cm. /sec., and having e/m = lo 4 . This is a 
secondary stream produced by the passage of a through the gas, and 
it is very small when the pressure of the gas is low. 

y. Streams of positively electrified atoms and perhaps molecules 
of the gases in the tube. The velocity of these depends upon the 
cathode fall of potential. 

The streams of negative corpuscles and positive particles produce 
different kinds of phosphorescence when they strike against a solid 
obstacle. The difference is especially marked when they strike 
against lithium chloride. The corpuscles make it phosphoresce 
with a steely blue light giving a continuous spectrum; the positive 
particles, on the other hand,' make it shine with a bright red light 
giving in the spectroscope the red lithium line. This affords a 
convenient method of investigating the rays; for example, the dis- 
tribution of the positive stream over the cathode is readily studied 
by covering the cathode with fused lithium chloride and observing 
the distribution of the red glow. Goldstein has observed that the 
film of metal which is deposited on the sides of the tube through the 
sputtering of the cathode is quickly dissipated when the positive 
stream impinges on it. This suggests that the sputtering of the 
cathode is caused by the impact against it of the positive stream. 
This view is supported by the fact that the] sputtering is not very 
copious until the increase in the current produces a Targe increase 
in the cathode fall of potential. The magnitude of the potential 
fall and the length of the dark space are determined by the condition 
that the positive particles when they strike against the cathode 
must give to it sufficient energy to liberate the number of cathode 
particles which produce, when they ionize the gas, sufficient positive 
particles to carry this amount of energy. Thus the cathode fall 
may be regarded as existing to make the cathode emit negative 
corpuscles. If the cathode can be made to emit corpuscles by other 
means, the cathode fall of potential is not required and may dis- 
appear. Now Wehnelt (Ann. Phys., 1904, 14, p. 425), found that 
when lime or barium oxide is heated to redness large quantities of 
negative corpuscles are emitted; hence if a cathode is covered with 
one of these substances and made red hot it can emit corpuscles 
without the assistance of an electric field, and we find that in this 
case the cathode fall of potential disappears, and current can be sent 
through the gas with very much smaller differences of potential than 
with cold cathodes. With these hot cathodes a luminous current 
can under favourable circumstances be sent through a gas with a 
potential difference as small as 18 volts. 

The dimensions of the parts of the discharge we have been con- 
sidering the dark space and the negative glow depend essentially 
upon the pressure of the gas and the shape of the cathode, and do 
not increase when the distance between the anode and cathode is 
increased. The dimensions of the other part of the discharge which 
reaches to the anode and is called the positive column depends upon 
the length of the tube, and in long tubes constitutes by far the greater 
part of the discharge. This positive column is separated from the 
negative glow by a dark interval generally known as the Faraday 
dark space; the dimensions of this dark interval are very variable it 
is sometimes altogether absent. 

The positive column assumes a considerable variety of forms 
as the current through the gas and the pressure are varied : some- 
times it is a column of uniform luminosity, at others it breaks up into 



VACZ VAGRANCY 



837 



a series of bright and dark patches known as striations. Some 
examples of these are given in fig. 17 of CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC 
(Through Gases). The distance between the striations varies with 
the pressure of the gas and the diameter of the tube, the bright parts 
being more widely separated when the pressure is low and the dia- 
meter of the tube large, than when the pressure is high and the 
tube small. The striations are especially brilliant and steady when 
a Wehnelt cathode covered with not lime is used and the discharge 
produced by a number of storage cells ; by this means large currents 
can be sent through the tube, resulting in very brilliant striations. 
When the current is increased the positive column shortens, retreat- 
ing backwards towards the anode, and may, by using very low 
currents, be reduced to a glow over the surface of the anode. 
The electric force in the positive column has been measured by 
many observers. It is small compared with the forces which exist 
in the dark space; when the luminosity in the positive column is 
uniform, the force there is uniform; when the positive column is 
striated there are periodic variations in the electric force, the force 
being greater in the bright parts of the striation than in the dark. 

Anode Drop of Potential. Skinner (Wied. Ann. 68, p. 752; 
Phil. Mag. [6], 8, p. 387) has shown that there is a sudden 
change in potential between the anode itself and a point in the 
gas close to the anode. This change amounts to about 20 volts 
in air; it is thus much smaller than the cathode fall of potential, 
and it is also much more abrupt. There does not seem to be 
any region at the anode comparable in dimensions with the 
Crookes' dark space in which the drop of potential occurs. 

The highly differentiated structure we have described is 
not the only way in which the current can pass through the 
tube. If a large Leyden jar is suddenly discharged through 
the tube the discharge passes as a uniform, continuous column 
stretching without interruption from anode to cathode; Gold- 
stein has shown (Verh. deutsch. phys. Ges. 9, p. 321) that 
the spectrum of this discharge shows very interesting char- 
acteristics. (J. J. T.) 

VACZ (Ger. Wailzcri), a town of Hungary, in the county of 
Pest-Pilis-Solt-Kis-Kun, 20 m. N. of Budapest by rail. Pop. 
(1900) 16,563. It is situated on the left bank of the Danube, 
at the point where this river takes its southern course, and at 
the foot of the Nagyszal (Ger. Waitzenberg), on the outskirts 
of the Carpathians. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric, 
founded in the nth century, and contains a beautiful cathedral, 
built in 1761-1777, after the model of St Peter's at Rome. 
Amongst other buildings are the episcopal palace, with a museum 
of Roman and medieval antiquities, several convents, and the 
principal deaf and dumb institute in the country. There are 
large vineyards in the neighbouring hilly district, and the ex- 
portation of grapes is extensively carried on. Va.cz was the scene 
of two victories gained by the Austrians against the Turks, one 
in 1597 and the other in 1684. 

VADE-MECUM, a Latin phrase meaning literally " come 
with me " (vade, imperative of tiadere, to go or come; cum, with; 
me, abl. of ego, I), and used in French, Spanish and English 
for something that a person is in the habit of constantly taking 
about with him, especially a book of the nature of a handy guide 
or work of reference. 

VAGRANCY (formed from " vagrant," wandering, unsettled; 
this word appears in Anglo-Fr. as wakeranl and O.Fr. as wancrant, 
andis probably ofTeut. origin, ct.M.L.G.welkern, to walk about; 
it is allied to Eng. " walk," and is not to be directly referred to 
Lat. vagari), the state of wandering without any settled home; 
in a wider sense the term is applied in England and the United 
States to a great number of offences against the good order of 
society. An English statute of 1547 contains the first mention 
of the word " vagrant," using it synonymously with " vaga- 
bond " or " loiterer." Ancient statutes quoted by Blackstone 
define vagrants to be " such as wake on the night and sleep on 
the day and haunt customable taverns and alehouses and routs 
about; and no man wot from whence they come ne whither 
they go." The word vagrant now usually includes idle and 
disorderly persons, rogues, vagabonds, tramps, unlicensed 
pedlars, beggars, &c. 

The social problem of vagrancy is one that in 1910 had not 
yet been satisfactorily dealt with, so far as the United Kingdom 
is concerned. Indeed, the legislation of the early igth century 



remained still in force in England and Wales. In early times, 
legislation affecting the deserving poor and vagrants was blended. 
It was only very gradually that the former were allowed to run 
a freer course, but provisions as to vagrancy and mendicity, 
including stringent laws in relation to constructive " sturdy 
beggars," " rogues " and " vagabonds," formed, until well on 
in the igth century, a prominent feature of Poor Law legislation. 
In 1713 an act was passed for reducing the laws relating to 
rogues, vagabonds, sturdy beggars and vagrants into one act, 
and for more effectually punishing them and sending them to 
their homes, the manner of conveying them including whipping 
in every county through which they passed. This act was 
in turn repealed in 1740; the substituted consolidation act 
(13 Geo. II. c. 24), embracing a variety of provisions, made a dis- 
tinction between idle and disorderly persons, rogues and vaga- 
bonds and incorrigible rogues. Four years later was passed 
another statute which continued the rough classification already 
mentioned. The laws relating to idle and disorderly persons, 
rogues and vagabonds, incorrigible rogues and other vagrants 
in England were again consolidated and amended in 1822, but 
the act was superseded two years later by the Vagrancy Act 
(5 Geo. IV. c. 83), which in 1910 was the operative statute. 

The offences dealt with under the act of 1824 may be classified as 
follows: (i) offences committed by persons of a disreputable 
mode of life, such as begging, trading as a pedlar without a Hcence, 
telling fortunes, or sleeping in outhouses, unoccupied buildings, 
&c., without visible means of subsistence; (2) offences against 
the poor law, such as leaving a wife and family chargeable to the 
poor rate, returning to and becoming chargeable to a parish after 
being removed therefrom by an order of the justices, refusing or 
neglecting to perform the task of work in a workhouse, or damaging 
clothes or other property belonging to the guardians; (3) offences 
committed by professional criminals, such as being found in pos- 
session of house-breaking implements or a gun or other offensive 
weapon with a felonious intent, or being found on any enclosed 
premises for an unlawful purpose, or frequenting public places for 
the purpose of felony. 

Offences specially characteristic of vagrancy are begging, sleeping 
out, and certain offences in casual wards, such as refusal to perform 
a task of work and destroying clothes. Persons committing these 
last-mentioned offences are classed as " idle and disorderly persons " 
and are liable on summary conviction to imprisonment with hard 
labour for fourteen days or on conviction by a petty sessional court 
to a fine of 5 or a month's imprisonment with or without hard 
labour. A second conviction makes a person a " rogue and vaga- 
bond " liable on summary conviction to imprisonment for fourteen 
days or on conviction by a petty sessional court to a fine of 25 
or imprisonment for three months with or without hard labour. 
Any person sleeping out without visible means of subsistence is 
a rogue and vagabond, or on second conviction an incorrigible 
rogue, while an ordinary beggar is an idle and disorderly person. 
Under the poor law as reformed in 1834 the primary duty of boards 
of guardians was to relieve destitute persons within their district, 
but legislation and administration gradually widened that duty, 
so that eventually they came to administer relief to vagrants also, 
or casual paupers, as they are officially termed. 

Within the limits prescribed by the local government board the 
treatment in English casual wards varies in a striking degree. 
Before admission to a casual ward a vagrant requires Casual 
an order, obtained either from a relieving officer or his wards 
assistant. In cases of sudden or urgent necessity, however, 
the master of the workhouse has power to admit without an order. 
Generally speaking, vagrants are not admitted to the casual wards 
before 4 p.m. in winter or 6 p.m. in summer. On admission, they 
are supposed to be searched, but this is not usually done with much 
thoroughness; broken food found on them is sometimes allowed 
to be eaten in the ward; money, pipe, tobacco, &c., are restored 
to them on discharge. As soon as practicable after admission vagrants 
are required to be cleansed in a bath with water of suitable tempera- 
ture. Their clothes are taken away and disinfected and a night- 
shirt provided. Sleeping accommodation is provided either on the 
cellular system or in associated wards, the proportion of work- 
houses providing the former being 2 to I. Vagrants are, as a general 
rule, supposed to be detained two nights and are required to perform 
a task of work. This consists of stone-breaking, wood-sawing, 
wood-chopping, pumping, digging or oakum picking, and should 
represent nine hours work. 

The supervising authority has endeavoured, in prescribing the 
work to which vagrants are put, to make it as deterrent as possible, 
but in practice the work presents little difficulty to the habitual 
vagrant, and very few workhouses enforce the two nights' detention 
rule. The fare provided for vagrants is a welcome relief, too, from 
their usual scanty fare, and in many of the moderii workhouses the 
wards are almost luxurious in their style and equipment. 



8 3 8 



VAISON 



The consequence of this generous treatment of those who are 
" work-shy " is that instead of being repelled or reformed by their 



treatment, the class is continually on the increase. This 
orm increase has received the serious attention of social re- 
formers, and in 1904 the president of the local government 
m ' board appointed a departmental committee to inquire into 

the subject of vagrancy. The committee presented its report in 1906, 
which with the evidence of witnesses is a most vajuable exposition 
of the subject. Among the various recommendations of the com- 
mittee the most important were the transference of casual wards to 
the control of police authorities; the issue of way-tickets, as used 
on the continent of Europe and a very few English counties, by 
the police to bona fide work-seekers, and more especially the de- 
tention of habitual vagrants in labour colonies. This last recom- 
mendation was also that of the Royal Commission on the Poor Laws 
which reported in 1909, to which those interested are also referred 
for valuable information. 

The system of way-tickets has been found useful in Germany 
and Switzerland in assisting the genuine work-seeker on his way 
and in discriminating between him and the idle vagrant. In 
Germany those leaving their districts must carry certain papers of 
identification in addition to a Wanderschein or way-ticket. For the 
relief of the destitute wayfarer there is the Herberge or lodging-house, 
maintained by a voluntary society, and the Verpflegungs-station, 
or relief station, maintained by the local authorities, In each, 
those in search of work can obtain lodging and food either for a 
small payment or by the performance of three hours' work, such 
as wood-chopping or stone-breaking. In Switzerland way-tickets 
are issued by a society named the Inter-Cantonal Union to those 
who can prove that they have worked for an employer within the 
three preceding months, and that at least five days have elapsed 
since that employment ceased. The Vagrancy Committee recom- 
mended that the English way-ticket in book form should give the 
man's personal description, his usual trade, his reason for wanting 
to travel and his proposed destination, and should contain his 
signature and, possibly, his finger-prints for the purpose of testing 
identity. The name of each casual ward visited should be stamped 
on the ticket. The duration of the ticket should be limited to a 
certain period, possibly a month. With such a ticket, a man 
should be entitled at the casual ward to a night's lodging, supper 
and breakfast, and after performing two hours' work to help to pay 
for his food and lodging he should be free to leaVe whenever he 
liked. The name of the next ward on the direct line of his route, 
which he could reach that night, should be entered on the ticket, 
and on his arrival at that place he should be treated in the same 
manner. The ticket would thus form a record of his journey and 
show whether he was genuinely in search of work. 

The remedy which has been considered as most likely to be 
effective for the cure of habitual vagrancy in England is that of 
labour colonies, which have been tried on the continent 
of Europe with a substantial measure of success. 
These European labour colonies are described in detail 
in the appendices to the Report and Evidence of the Vagrancy 
Committee and in the books mentioned at the end of this article, 
but a resume of the more important colonies may here be given. 

Holland. There are two classes of colonies, both originally 
established by the Maatschaapij van Weldadigheid (Society of 
Beneficence), a society founded by General van den Bosch (1780- 
1844) in 1818. The Free Colonies were designed for the reception of 
indigent persons, for the purpose of teaching them agriculture, and 
so enabling them eventually to earn their own living independently. 
There are three of these free colonies, viz. Frederiksoord, Willem- 
soord and Wilhelminasoord, forming practically one colony, with a 
population of about 1500. The expenses of the colonies are met 
by voluntary subscriptions, but it has been found that the persons 
who enter the free colonies remain there and few fresh cases are 
received. The number of inmates has been steadily decreasing. 
The society also maintained Beggar Colonies for the compulsory 
detention of persons committing the offence of begging. They 
were more penal than reformatory institutions, and the inmates 
were taught certain occupations by which they might support 
themselves on leaving. They did not prove self-supporting and 
were eventually taken over by the state. The chief institution 
is that at Veenhuizen, which occupies some 3000 acres of land, 
and where some 4000 men of the vagrant class are detained for 
periods varying from not less than six months to not more than 
three years. There is a similar institution' for women at Leiden. 

Belgium. In Belgium the institutions for the repression of 
vagrancy are maintained by the state under a law of November 27th, 
1891. They are of three kinds: (l) Depots de mendicite (beggars' 
depots) ; (2) maisons de refuge (houses of refuge) ; and (3) ecoles de 
bienfaisance (reformatory schools). The beggars' depots are 
" exclusively devoted to the confinement of persons whom the 
judicial authority shall place at the disposal of the government" 
for that purpose, and these are classified as (a) able-bodied persons 
who, instead of working for their living, depend upon charity as 



Labour 
colonies. 



professional beggars; (6) persons, who, owing to idleness, drunken- 
ness or immorality, live in a state of vagrancy ; and (c) souteneurs. 
There are two of these depots : one for men at Merxplas, and another 
for women at Bruges. Persons are committed to the depots on 
summary conviction for a period of not less than two years or 
more than seven years. The population of Merxplas is over 5000; 
the colonists are employed in land reclamation, farming and various 
industries. Small daily wages, varying from id. to 3d., are paid, 
but these may be withheld for disciplinary purposes. One half of 
the wages is retained by the management and paid out to the 
colonist on leaving, the other half being given monthly in the shape 
of tokens to spend at the canteen in articles of food, tobacco, &c. 

The houses of refuge are for men who from age or infirmity are 
unable to work, or who have been driven to begging or vagrancy by 
the want of work or misfortune. The chief house of refuge is at 
Hoogstraeten, where the helpless and sick are received; that at 
Wortel being reserved for the able-bodied. The colonists earn 
wages ranging from id. to 7d. a day, one-third of this being given 
to them to spend, and they may take their discharge when they 
have saved I2s. from their earnings or can show that they have 
work to go to. The maximum period of detention is one year. 

Germany. In Germany there are between thirty and forty labour 
colonies, under the management of a charitable association, the 
Labour Colony Central Board. There is however, no compulsory 
detention. The institutions which deal with vagrants and persons 
who neglect to maintain themselves are termed " workhouses " 
(Arbeitshduser), but they correspond to the compulsory colonies of 
Belgium and Holland. Under the penal code of 1900, any one 
(a) who wanders about as a vagabond; (6) who begs, or causes 
or allows his children to beg; (c) who through gambling, drunken- 
ness or idleness is forced to apply for relief for himself, or those for 
whose maintenance he is responsible; (d) who while in receipt of 
public relief refuses to do work given him by the authorities; (e) who 
after losing his lodging fails to procure another within a certain 
time, is liable to detention in a workhouse for a period not exceeding 
two years. The workhouses are under strict military discipline, the 
inmates being termed prisoners. They are taught domestic, agri- 
cultural and industrial occupations. 

Switzerland. Labour colonies are of two kinds, voluntary and 
compulsory. The voluntary colonies, of which there are three in 
Switzerland, are managed by philanthropic societies. Entry and 
discharge are voluntary, but those seeking admission must agree to 
stay a stated time, usually one or two months. Compulsory colonies 
are established in every canton, under the management of the 
cantonal council. Beggars can be arrested, and, if habitual offenders, 
can be sent to a labour colony for a period varying from six months 
to two years. If the man is found to have refused work, he can be 
sent to a labour colony as a " work-shy " for from three months to 
two years. Owing in great measure to the success of these labour 
colonies, vagrancy has considerably diminished in Switzerland, 
and the colonies everywhere are small; that at Witzwyl, the 
largest, having less than 200 inmates. Punishment is generally 
inflicted by reduction of food; the inmates receive no wages, but 
by industry may earn a remission of their period of detention 

AUTHORITIES. For a history of vagrancy see C. J. Ribton-Turner, 
History of Vagrants and Vagrancy (1887); see also Reports, Evidence 
and Appendices of Departmental Committee on Vagrancy, 1906 
a most valuable publication as well as The Vagrancy Problem 
(1910), by W. H. Dawson, who was a witness before th-a committee, 
and whose work quoted is full of first-hand information. Two 
Board of Trade Reports on " Agencies and Methods for dealing with 
the Unemployed," 1893 and 1904, will be found useful, as also Rev. 
W. Carlile and V. W. Carlile's The Continental Outcast (1906). 

(T. A. I.) 

VAISON, a town of south-eastern France, in the department 
of Vaucluse, 26 m. N.N.E. of Avignon by road. Pop. (1906) 
2148. The Ouveze, a tributary of the Rhone, divides Vaison 
into two quarters the Roman and early medieval town on the 
right bank, and the town of the later middle ages on the left 
bank, the two communicating by an ancient Roman bridge 
consisting of a single arch. On the right bank is the church 
(once the cathedral) of Ste Marie, the choir of which is thought 
to date in parts from the 9th century, while the nave belongs to 
the 1 2th century. A Romanesque cloister containing a collection 
of old sculpture flanks the church on the north. Remains of a 
Roman amphitheatre and the chapel of St Quenin (dedicated 
to a bishop of the 6th century), with a curious apse of the end 
of the nth century, are also to be seen in the old town. On the 
left bank are the parish church (isth and i6th centuries), remains 
of the medieval fortifications, and the keep of a castle of the 
counts of Toulouse. The industries of the town include the 
manufacture of wooden shoes, bellow's and agricultural imple- 
ments. Vaison, under the name of Vasio, was one of the principal 
towns of the Vocontii, and was a place of great importance under 



VALAIS 



839 



the Romans, as is shown by an abundance of objects unearthed 
by excavation, amongst which may be mentioned a fine statue 
of an athlete (the Diadumenos) in the British Museum. The 
bishopric established in the 3rd century was suppressed in 1791. 
Its holders, towards the end of the I2th century, were despoiled 
of the temporal power in the town by the counts of Toulouse. 
Subsequently Vaison came, together with the rest of Comtat- 
Venaissin, under the power of the popes. 

VALAIS (Ger. Wallis, Ital. Vallese), one of the cantons of 
southern Switzerland. Its name has been explained as meaning 
the " Walsch " (i.e. non-Teutonic) land. But it is pretty 
certainly derived from vallis or vallensis pagus, for the 
region is simply the old Vallis Poenina, or upper valley 
of the Rhone from its source in the Rhone glacier to the gorge 
of St Maurice, together with the left bank of the Rhone from 
that gorge to the Lake of Geneva. The spelling " Vallais " 
prevailed till the end of the i8th century, and was officially 
superseded early in the ipth century by " Valais," a form that 
is very rarely found previously. 

The total area of the canton is 2016-6 sq. m. (exceeded only 
by that of the Grisons and of Bern), of which, however, only 
1107 is reckoned as " productive " (forests covering 297-4 sq. m. 
and vineyards 10-7 sq. m.), while of the rest no fewer than 
375 sq. m. (the most considerable stretch in Switzerland) is 
occupied by glaciers, and 41! sq. m. by the cantonal share of 
the Lake of Geneva. It is therefore naturally one of the poorest 
cantons in the confederation. It would be still poorer were it 
not for its excellent wines, and for the fact that in summer- 
time it is visited by many thousands of travellers, for whom 
inns have been built in nearly every glen and on many high 
pastures (Zermatt, Saas, Riffel Alp, Evolena, Arolla, Zinal, 
Champery, in the Val de Bagnes, in the Lotschen valley, the 
Bel Alp, the Rieder Alp, the Eggishorn, Binn, and near the 
Rhone glacier). It consists of a deep and long trench, which 
becomes a mere gorge between Niederwald and Brieg, the 
general direction being south-west, till at Martigny the valley 
makes a sharp bend to the north-west. The loftiest point in the 
canton is the culminating summit or Dufourspitze (15,217 ft.) 
of Monte Rosa, which rises on a short spur projecting from the 
watershed, but the highest mountain which is wholly situated 
in the canton is the Dom (14,942 ft.), the culminating point of 
the Mischabel range. 

A railway line runs through the canton from Le Bouveret, on 
the Lake of Geneva, to (73 m.) Brieg, at the N. mouth of the mag- 
nificent Simplon tunnel (i2j m., opened in 1906), the line from 
St Maurice (about 14 m. from Bouveret) onwards forming the 
through line from Lausanne towards Milan. There are also 
mountain railways from Visp up to Zermatt (thence a branch up 
to the Gornergrat), and from Vernayaz (near Martigny) past Salvan 
towards Chamonix, while the new tunnel, begun in 1906, beneath 
the Lotschen Pass or Lotschberg, connects Kandersteg, in the 
Bernese Oberland, with Brieg, and thus opens up a new direct 
route from London and Paris to Italy. As the canton is shut in 
almost throughout its entire length by high mountain ranges it 
is as a rule only accessible by foot paths or mule paths across this 
lofty Alpine barrier. But there are excellent carriage roads over 
the Great St Bernard Pass (8111 ft.), as well as over the Simplon 
Pass (659*2 ft.), both leading to Italy. At the very head of the 
Rhone valley two other finely engineered carriage roads give 
access to Uri over the Furka Pass (7992 ft.) and to the canton of 
Bern over the Grimsel Pass (7100 ft.;. Being thus shut in it was 
almost impossible for the canton to extend its boundaries, save 
in 1536, when it won the left bank of the Rhone below the gorge 
of St Maurice. But at early though unknown dates it acquired 
and still holds the upper bit of the southern slope of the Simplon 
Pass, as well as the Alpine pastures on the northern slope of the 
Gemmi. The mineral waters of Leukerbad, and, to a lesser degree, 
those of Saxon, attract some summer visitors, the vast majority 
of whom, however, prefer the glorious scenery of the various high 
Alpine glens. 

The canton forms the diocese of Sion (founded in the 4th century), 
and has St Theodule (or Theodore) as its patron saint. Till 1513 
the diocese was in the ecclesiastical province of Mofltiers in the 
Tarentaise (Savoy), but since then has been immediately dependent 
on the pope. Within its limits are the three famous religious 
houses (all now held by Austin Canons) of St Maurice (6th century), 
of the Great St Bernard, and of the Simplon. Since 1840 the 
abbot of St Maurice has borne the title of bishop of Bethlehem 
" in partibus infidelium." Ecclesiastical affairs are managed 



without any control or interference on the part of the state, though 
the cantonal legislature presents to the pope as bishop one of four 
candidates presented by the chapter of Sion. 

In 1900 the population was 114,438, of whom 74,562 were 
French-speaking, 34,339 German-speaking, and 5469 Italian- 
speaking, while 112,584 were Romanists, 1610 Protestants, and 
25 Jews. The linguistic frontier has varied in the course of 
ages. Nowadays from Sierre (10 m. above Sion) upwards a 
dialect of German is generally spoken (though it is said that the 
opening of the Simplon through route has given a considerable 
impetus to the extension of French among the railway officials), 
while below Sierre a French dialect (really a Savoyard patois) 
is the prevailing tongue. To a considerable degree the history 
of the Valais is a struggle between the German element (pre- 
dominant politically till 1798) and the French element. Good 
wines are produced in the district, especially Muscat and Vin 
du Glacier. Otherwise the inhabitants of the main valley (at 
least from Brieg onwards) are engaged in agriculture, though 
suffering much from the inundations of the Rhone, against 
which great embankments have been constructed, while many 
swampy tracts have been drained, and so the plague of malarial 
fever abated to a certain extent. 

In the higher valleys the inhabitants are employed in pastoral 
occupations. The number of " alps " or mountain pastures is 
547 (319 in the Lower Valais and 228 in the Upper Valais, the 
line of division being drawn a little above Sierre), capable of sup- 
porting 50,735 cows (33,192 and 17,54.3 respectively) and of an 
estimated capital value of 10,873,900 fr. (7,969,500 and 2,904,400 
respectively), so that, as might be expected for other reasons, the 
lower portion of the valley where the climate is less rigorous is 
richer and more prosperous than the upper portion where other 
conditions prevail. The capital is Sion (q.v.). Next in point of 
population came (in 1900) Naters (3953), on account of the numbers 
of Italian workmen engaged in piercing the Simplon tunnel. The 
neighbouring town of Brieg had then 2182 inhabitants, and the 
wide commune of Monthey 3392. 

The canton is divided into 13 administrative districts, which 
comprise 166 communes. The cantonal constitution was little 
advanced till 1907 when it was entirely remodelled. The legis- 
lature (Grand Conseil or Gross Rath) is composed of members 
elected in the proportion of -one for every 1000 (or fraction over 
500) citizens, and holds office for four years. The executive 
(Conseil d'Etat or Staatsrath) is composed of five members, named 
by the Grand Conseil , and holds office for four years. The ' 'obligatory 
referendum " prevails, while 4000 citizens (6000 in the case of a 
revision of the cantonal constitution) have the right of " initiative " 
as to legislative projects. The two members of the Federal Stande- 
ralh are named by the Grand Conseil, but the six members of the 
Federal Nationalrath are elected by a popular vote. The 1907 
cantonal constitution has a curious provision (art. 84) that while 
members of the cantonal legislature are ordinarily elected by all 
the voters of a Bezirk or district, yet if one or several communes 
(numbering over 500 inhabitants) demand it, this commune or 
these communes form a kreis or cercle and elect a member or 
members. 

The Vallis Poenina was won by the Romans after a great 
fight at Octodurus (Martigny) in 57 B.C., and was so thoroughly 
Romanized that the Celtic aboriginal inhabitants and the 
Teutonic Burgundian invaders (5th century) became Romance- 
speaking peoples. According to a tradition which can be 
traced back to the middle of the 8th century, the " Theban 
legion " was martyred at St Maurice about 285 or 302. Valais 
formed part of the kingdom of Transjurane Burgundy (888), 
which fell to the empire in 1032, and later of the duchy of Bur- 
gundia Minor, which was held from the emperors by the house 
of Zahringen (extinct 1218). In 999 Rudolph III. of Burgundy 
gave all temporal rights and privileges to the bishop of Sion, 
who was later styled " praefect and count of the Valais," and 
is still a prince of the Holy Roman Empire; the pretended 
donation of Charlemagne is not genuine. The bishops had 
much to do in keeping back the Zahringen, and later the counts 
of Savoy. The latter, however, succeeded in winning most of 
the land west of Sion, while in the upper part of the valley there 
were many feudal lords (such as the lords of Raron, those 
of La Tour-Chatillon, and the counts of Visp). About the 
middle of the i3th century we find independent communities 
or " tithings " (dizains or Zehnien) growing up, these, though 
seven in number, taking their name most probably from a very 



8 4 o 



VALDEMAR I. 



ancient division of the bishop's manors for administrative and 
judicial purposes. In the same century the upper part of the 
valley was colonized by Germans from Hasli (Bern), who 
thoroughly Teutonized it, though many Romance local names 
still remain. In 1354 the liberties of several of the seven "tith- 
ings " (Sion, Sierre, Leuk, Raron, Visp, Brieg and Conches) 
were confirmed by the Emperor Charles IV. A little later 
the influence of Savoy became predominant, and the count 
secured to his family the bishopric of Sion, of which he was 
already the suzerain. His progress was resisted by the tithings, 
which in 1375-76 crushed the power of the house of La Tour- 
Chatillon, and in 1388 utterly defeated the forces of the bishop, 
the count and the nobles at Visp, this being a victory of the 
Teutonic over the Romance element in the land. From 1384 
the Morge stream (a little below Sion) was recognized as the 
boundary between Savoyard or Lower Valais and episcopal 
or Upper Valais. In 1416-17 the Zehnten of the upper bit of the 
valley made an alliance with Lucerne, Uri and Unterwalden, 
with a view partly to the conquest of the Val d'Ossola, which 
was finally lost in 1422, and partly to the successful crushing of the 
power of the lords of Raron (1420). By the election of Walther 
von Supersax of Conches as bishop in 1457 the Teutonic element 
finally won the supremacy. On the outbreak 'of the Burgundian 
War the bishop of Sion and the tithings made a treaty with 
Bern. In November of the same year (1475) they seized all 
Lower or Savoyard Valais up to Martigny, and in 1476 (March), 
after the victory of Grandson, won St Maurice, Evian, Thonon 
and Monthey. The last three districts were given up in 1477, 
but won again in 1536, though finally by the treaty of Thonon 
in 1569 Monthey, Val d'llliez and Bouveret alone were per- 
manently annexed to the Valais, these conquests being 
maintained with the help of their old allies, Uri, Schwyz and 
Unterwalden. These conquered districts (or Lower Valais) 
were always ruled as subject lands by the bishop and tithings 
of Upper Valais. The Valais took part in the Milanese war of 
1512-16, and henceforth was reckoned as an " ally " of the 
Swiss Confederation. In 1533 a close alliance was made with 
the Romanist cantons; but by 1551 the Protestants had won 
so much ground that toleration was proclaimed by the local 
assembly. In 1586 Upper Valais became a member of the 
Golden League, and finally in 1603-04 the four tithings of 
Conches, Brieg, Visp and Raron carried the day in favour of the 
old faith against those of Leuk, Sierre and Sion. In 1790-91 
Lower Valais rose in revolt; but it was not finally freed till 
1798, when the whole of Valais became one of the cantons of the 
Helvetic Republic. Such prolonged and fierce resistance was, 
however, offered to French rule by the inhabitants that in 1802 
Bonaparte declared Valais an independent state under the 
name of the " Rhodanic Republic," yet in 1810, for strategic 
reasons, he incorporated it with France as the " department 
of the Simplon," and it was not freed till the Austrians came in 
1813. In 1815 a local assembly was created, in which each of the 
seven tithings of Upper and each of the six of Lower Valais 
(though the latter had nearly double the population of the 
former) elected four members, the bishop being given four votes. 
This constitution was approved by the Federal Swiss Diet, 
which thereupon (1815) received the Valais as a full member 
of the Swiss Confederation. In 1832 the Valais joined the 
League of Sarnen to maintain the Federal Pact of 1815. In 
1830-40 it was convulsed by a struggle between the Conserva- 
tive and Radical parties, the split into two half cantons being 
only prevented by the arrival of Federal troops. The constitu- 
tion was revised in 1839, the local assembly was to be elected 
according to population (i member for every 1000 inhabitants), 
and the bishop was given a seat instead of his four votes, while 
the clergy elected one deputy. In 1844 civil war raged, many 
Liberals being slain at the bridge of Trient (May 1844), and the 
Valais becoming a member of the Sonderbund. By the 1844 
constitution the clergy elected a second deputy. The intro- 
duction of the Jesuits embittered matters, and the Valais 
was the last canton to submit in the Sonderbund War (1847); 
it contented itself, however, with voting steadily against the 



acceptance of the Federal constitutions of 1848 and 1874. By 
the constitution of 1848 all ecclesiastical exemptions from 
taxation were swept away, and the bishop lost his seat in the 
assembly. New constitutions were framed in 1852, in 1875 
and in 1907. 

AUTHORITIES. F. Barbey, La Route du Simplon (Geneva, 1906) ; 
J. Bernard de Montmehan, St Maurice el la legion Thebeenne (2 vols., 
Paris, 1888); M. Besson, Recherches sur les origines des eveches 
de Geneve, Lausanne, Sion (Fribourg, 1906) ; Blatter aus der Walliser- 
Geschichte (Sion, from 1889); L. Cpurthion, Le Peuple du Valais 
(Geneva, 1903); S. Furrer, Geschichte, Statistik und Urkunden- 
Sammlung uber Wallis (3 vols., Sion, 1850-52); H. Gay, Histoire 
du Vallais (2nd ed., Geneva, 1903), and Melanges d'histoire val- 
laisanne (Geneva, 1891); F. de Gingins-la-Sarraz, Developpement 
de I'independance du Haul- Valais, &c. (Zurich, 1844); J. Gremaud, 
Documents relatifs d I'histoire du Vallais(8 vols. (to 1457), Lausanne, 
1875-1898); P. A. Grenat, Histoire moderne du Valais de 1536 d 
1815 (Geneva, 1894); J. Heierli and W. Oechsli, Vrgeschichte des 
Wallis (Zurich, 1896); A. Heusler, Rechtsquellen des Cant. Wallis 
(Basel, 1890); R. Hoppeler, Beitrage z. Geschichte des Wallis im 
Mittelalter (Zurich, 1897); K. Pressel, Bauarbeiten am Simplon- 
Tunnel (Zurich, 1906); B. Rameau, Le Vallais historique (Sion, 
1886); M. Schiner, Description du departement du Simplon (Sion, 



alpestre du Bas-Valais (Soleure, 1902); Walliser-Sagen (Sion, 1872); 
Walliser Sagen (2 vols., Brieg, 1907); F. O. Wolf, The Valais, 
forming several numbers of the series " Illustrated Europe" (pub- 
lished at Zurich); J. Zimmerli, Die Sprachgrenze im Wallis (vol. iii. 
of his larger work, Die deutsch-franzosische Sprachgrenze in der 
Schweiz), Basel and Geneva, 1899. (W. A. B. C) 

VALDEMAR I., king of Denmark (1131-1182), the son of the 
chivalrous and popular Canute Lavard and the Russian princess 
Ingeborg, was born a week after his father's murder, and was 
carefully brought up in the religious and relatively enlightened 
household of Asser Rig, whose sons Absalon and Esbjorn Snare, 
or " the Swift," were his playmates. On the death of King Eric 
Lam in 1147 Valdemar came forward as one of the three pre- 
tenders to the Danish crown, Jutland falling to his portion 
(compact of Roskilde, gth of August 1157). Narrowly escaping 
assassination, at a banquet a few days later, at the hands of his 
rival, King Sweyn III., he succeeded only with the utmost diffi- 
culty in escaping to Jutland, but on the 23rd of October utterly 
routed Sweyn at the great battle of Grathe Heath, near Viborg, 
Sweyn perishing in his flight from the field. Valdemar had no 
longer a competitor. He was the sole male survivor of the 
ancient royal line; his valour and ability were universally recog- 
nized, and in Absalon, elected bishop of Roskilde in 1158, he 
possessed a minister of equal genius and patriotism. The first 
efforts of the new monarch were directed against the Wendish 
pirates who infested the Baltic and made not merely the political 
but even the commercial development of the Danish state im- 
possible. What the Northmen were to the Western powers in 
the 8th and 9th the Wends were to the Scandinavian lands in 
the nth and I2th centuries. But the Wendish pirates were 
more mischievous because less amenable to civilization than the 
Vikings. They lived simply for plunder, and had neither the 
ambition nor the ability to found coloiiies like Normandy or 
Northumbria. We may form some idea of the extent and the 
severity of their incursions from the fact that at the beginning 
of the reign of Valdemar the whole of the Danish eastern coast 
lay wasted and depopulated. Indeed, according to Saxo, one- 
third of the realm was a wilderness. The stronghold of the 
Wends was the isle of Rugen. Here lay Arkona their chief 
sanctuary and Garz their political capital. Both places were 
captured in 1169 by a great expedition under the command of 
Valdemar and Absalon; the hideous colossal idol of Riigievit 
was chopped into firewood for the Danish caldrons, and the 
Wends were christened at the point of the sword and placed 
beneath the jurisdiction of the see of Roskilde. This triumph 
was only obtained, however, after a fierce struggle of ten years, 
in which the Danes were much hampered by the uncertain and 
selfish co-operation of their German allies, chief among whom was 
Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony and Bavaria, who appropriated 
the lion's share of the spoil. For at the beginning of his reign 
Valdemar leaned largely upon the Germans and even went the 



VALDEMAR II. 



841 



length, against the advice of Absaion, of acknowledging the over- 
lordship of the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa at the reichstag 
of Dole, 1162. Very different was Valdemar's second conference 
with Barbarossa, on the banks of the Eider, in 1182, when the two 
monarchs met as equals in the presence of their respective armies, 
and a double marriage was arranged between two of Valdemar's 
daughters and two of the emperor's sons. The only serious 
domestic trouble during Valdemar's reign was the rebellion of 
the Scanian provinces, which objected to the establishment of a 
strong monarchy inimical to local pretensions and disturbances, 
and especially to the heavy taxes and tithes necessary to support 
the new reign of law and order. The rising was ultimately 
suppressed by Absalon at the battle of Dysiaa, 1181. In the 
following year died King Valdemar. His services to his country 
are aptly epitomized in the epitaph on his ancient monument 
at Ringsted church which describes him as " Sclavorum domi- 
nator, patriae liberator et pacis conservator." His fame has been 
somewhat obscured by that of his great minister Absalon, whom 
their common chronicler Saxo constantly magnifies at the expense 
of his master. Valdemar's worst faults were a certain aloof- 
ness and taciturnity. He is the only one of Saxo's heroes in 
whose mouth the chronicler never puts a speech. But his long 
reign is unstained by a single ignoble deed, and he devoted 
himself heart and soul to the promotion of the material and 
spiritual welfare of Denmark. 

See Da.nma.rks Rige.s Historic, vol. i. pp. 570-670 (Copenhagen, 
1897-1905); Saxo, Gesta Danorum, books 10-16 (Strassburg, 1886). 

(R. N. B.) 

VALDEMAR II., king of Denmark (1170-1241), was the 
second son of Valdemar I. and brother of Canute VI., whom he 
succeeded on the izth of November 1202. Already during his 
brother's lifetime, as duke of Schleswig, Valdemar had success- 
fully defended Denmark against German aggression. In 1 201 he 
assumed the offensive, conquered Holstein, together with Ham- 
burg, and compelled Count Henry of Schwerin to acknowledge 
the over-lordship of the Danish crown. Immediately after bis 
coronation, he hastened to his newly won territories, accom- 
panied by the principal civil and ecclesiastical dignitaries of 
Denmark, and was solemnly acknowledged lord of Northalbingia 
(the district lying between the Eider and the Elbe) at Liibeck, 
Otto IV., then in difficulties, voluntarily relinquishing all German 
territory north of the Elbe to Valdemar, who in return recognized 
Otto as German emperor. Thus the three bishoprics of Liibeck, 
Ratzeburg and Schwerin, which hitherto had been fief of the 
Reich, now passed under Danish suzerainty. Liibeck was a 
peculiarly valuable possession. The city had been founded in 
1158 with the express object of controlling the Baltic trade. 
Only through Liibeck, moreover, could supplies and reinforce- 
ments be poured into the German military colonies in Livonia. 
By closing Liibeck Valdemar had German trade and the German 
over-seas settlements entirely at his mercy. This state of things 
was clearly recognized by German statesmen, and in 1208, when 
the Emperor Otto felt more secure upon his unstable throne, he 
became overtly hostile to Denmark and would have attempted 
the recovery of the lost German territory but for the interposition 
of Pope Innocent III., who threatened to excommunicate any 
German prince who should attack Valdemar, the equally pious 
and astute Danish king having undertaken, at the bidding of 
the holy see, to lead a crusade against the heathen Esthonians. 
Valdemar's position was still further strengthened when 
Frederick II., the successful rival of Otto IV., was, in 1215, 
crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle. Valdemar at once cultivated the 
friendship of the new emperor; and Frederick, by an imperial 
brief, issued in December 1214 and subsequently confirmed by 
Innocent III. and Honorius III., formally renounced all the 
German lands north of the Elbe and Elde, as well as the Wendish 
lands on the Baltic, in favour of Valdemar. 

An attempt by Otto in 1215 to recover Northalbingia was 
easily frustrated by Valdemar, who henceforth devoted himself 
to the extension of the Danish empire over the eastern Baltic 
shores. Here, however, he had already been forestalled. At 
the end of the I2th century the whole of the Baltic littoral from 



semi-Christian Pomerania to orthodox Pleskow was fiercely and 
obstinately pagan. The connecting link between the western 
and the eastern Baltic was the isle of Gotland, where German 
merchants from Liibeck had established a depot (the later Visby). 
The fur-trade with the Esthonians and Livonians proved so 
lucrative that a German colony was planted in Livonia itself 
at what was afterwards Riga, and in 1201 for its better security 
the colony was converted into a bishopric. A still firmer footing 
was gained by the Germans on Livonian soil when Abbot Theo- 
derick of Riga founded the order of the Sword (a foundation 
confirmed by the pope in 1204), whose duty it was to convert 
the heathen Esths and Livs and appropriate as much of their 
land in the process as possible. Two years later Valdemar, 
urged by Archbishop Anders Suneson, also appeared off the 
Esthonian coast and occupied the isle of Oesel. In 1210 Valde- 
mar led a second expedition eastwards, this time directed against 
heathen Prussia and Samland, the chief result of which was the 
subjection of Mestwin, duke of Pomerania, the leading chieftain 
in those parts. 

Now was to be seen the determining influence of sea-power 
even in those days. Despite its superior weapons and mode 
of warfare, the German east Baltic colony was constantly in 
danger of being overborne by the endless assaults of the dogged 
aborigines, whose hatred of the religion of the Cross as preached 
by the knights is very intelligible; and in 1218 Bishop Albert 
of Riga was driven to appeal for assistance to King Valdemar. 
Valdemar cheerfully undertook a new crusade " for the honour 
of the Blessed Virgin and the remission of my own sins." In 
1218 he set sail for Esthonia with one of the largest fleets ever 
seen in northern waters, including a Wendish contingent led by 
Prince Vitslav. Landing at Lyndantse (the modern Reval) in 
north Esthonia, Valdemar at once received the submission of 
the inhabitants, but three days later was treacherously attacked 
in his camp and only saved from utter destruction by his own 
personal valour and the descent from heaven, at the critical 
moment, of a red banner with a white cross on it, the Dannebrog 
(Danes' Cloth), of which we now hear for the first time, and 
which henceforth was to precede the Danish armies to victory 
till its capture by the Ditmarshers, three hundred years later. 
This victory was followed by the foundation of Reval and the 
occupation of Harrien and Wirland, the northern districts of 
Esthonia, by the Danes. 

Valdemar was now, after the king of England, the most 
powerful potentate in the north of Europe. The south-western 
Baltic was a Danish Mediterranean, and Danish territory extended 
from the Elbe to lake Peipus. But this scattered and hetero- 
geneous .empire required a large standing army and a strong 
central government to hold it together. It is doubtful whether 
even the genius of Valdemar would have proved equal to 'such 
a stupendous task. He never had the opportunity of attempting 
it. In May 1223 he was seized at midnight in his tent on the 
isle of Lyo, whither he had come to hunt, by his vassal and guest 
Count Henry of Schwerin, and conveyed with his son and many 
other valuable hostages to the inaccessible castle of Dannenberg- 
on-Elbe. In this dungeon he languished for two and a half years, 
and, despite all the efforts of Pope Honorius III. on his behalf, 
was ultimately forced to pay a heavy ransom, and surrender 
Northalbingia and all his Wendish conquests except Riigen. 
On his release Valdemar attempted to retrieve his position by 
force of arms, but was utterly defeated at the battle of Bornhoved 
(22nd of July 1227), which deserves a place among the decisive 
battles of history, for it destroyed at once and for ever the 
Danish dominion of the Baltic and established the independence 
of Liibeck, to the immense detriment in the future of all the 
Scandinavian states. On the other hand Valdemar, by prudent 
diplomacy, contrived to retain the greater portion of Danish 
Esthonia (compact of Stensby, 1238). With rare resignation 
Valdemar devoted the remainder of his life to the great work 
of domestic reform. His noblest achievement in this respect 
is the codification of the Danish laws known as iheJydske Lov 
(Jutland Code), which he lived to see completed a few days before 
his death at Vordingborg on the a8th of March 1241. Valdemar 



842 



VALDEMAR IV. 



was twice married, his first consort being Dragomir (Dagmar) of 
Bohemia, his second Berengaria of Portugal. All his four sons, 
Valdemar, Eric, Abel and Christopher became kings of Denmark. 

See Danmarks Riges Historic, vol. i. pp. 736-849 (Copenhagen, 
1897-1905). (R- N. B.) 

VALDEMAR IV., king of Denmark (c. 1320-1375), was the 
youngest son of Christopher II. of Denmark. Valdemar was 
brought up at the court of the German emperor, Louis of 
Bavaria, during those miserable years when the realm of 
Denmark was partitioned among Holstein counts and German 
Ritler, while Scania, " the bread-basket " of the monarchy, 
sought deliverance from anarchy under the protection of 
Magnus of Sweden. Even the Hanse Towns, the hereditary 
enemies of Denmark, regarded the situation with disquietude. 
" One would gladly have seen a single king in Denmark if only 
for peace sake," says the contemporary Liibeck chronicle, " for 
peace was not to be had either at sea or on land." The 
assassination at Randers of the detested Holstein tyrant Count 
Gerhard III. (1340), who for nine years had held Jutland and 
Funen and dominated the rest of Denmark, first opened Valde- 
mar's way to the throne, and on midsummer day 1340 he was 
elected king at a Landsting held at Viborg, after consenting to 
espouse Helveg, the sister of his most important confederate, 
Valdemar, duke of Schleswig. 

Neither the time nor the place of Valdemar's birth is known, 
but he could not have been more than twenty when he became 
the nominal king of Denmark, though, as a matter of fact, 
his territory was limited to the northernmost county of Jutland. 
His precocious maturity is strikingly evident from the first. 
An energy which never slackened, a doggedness which no 
adversity could crush, a fiery ambition coupled with the coolest 
calculation, and a diplomatic unscrupulousness which looked 
always to the end and never to the means, these were the 
salient qualities of the reconstructor of the dismembered 
Danish state. First Valdemar aimed at the recovery of Zealand, 
which was actually partitioned among a score of Holstein 
mortgagees who ruled their portions despotically from their 
strong castles, and sucked the people dry. The oppressed 
clergy and peasantry regarded Valdemar as their natural 
deliverer; but so poor and friendless was he that the work 
of redemption proved painfully slow. In November 1343 he 
obtained the town and castle of Copenhagen from King Magnus 
Smek of Sweden, by reconfirming in still more stringent terms 
the previous surrender of the rich Scanian provinces, and by 
the end of the following year he had recovered the whole of 
North Zealand. In 1347 the remainder of Zealand was redeemed, 
and the southern isles, Laaland, Falster and Mon, also fell into 
the king's strenuous hands. By this time, too, the whole of 
Jutland (except the province of Ribe) had fallen to him, county 
by county, as their respective holders were paid off. In 1349, 
at the Landsting of Ringsted, Valdemar proudly rendered an 
account of his stewardship to the Estates of Zealand, and the 
bishop of Roskilde congratulated him on having so miraculously 
delivered his people from foreign thraldom. In August 1346, 
he prudently rid himself of the distant and useless province of 
Esthonia by selling it very advantageously to the Livonian Order. 
Valdemar now gave full play to his endless energy. In north 
German politics he interfered vigorously to protect his brother- 
in-law the Margrave Louis of Brandenburg against the lords of 
Mecklenburg and the dukes of Pomerania, with such success 
that the emperor, Charles IV., at the conference of Bautzen, 
was reconciled to the Brandenburger and allowed Valdemar 
an annual charge of 16,000 silver marks on the city of Ltibeck 
(1349). Some years later Valdemar seriously thought of re- 
viving the ancient claims of Denmark upon England, and 
entered into negotiations with the French king, John, who in 
his distress looked to this descendant of the ancient Vikings for 
help. A matrimonial alliance between the two crowns was even 
discussed, and Valdemar offered, for the huge sum of 600,000 
gulden, to transport 12,000 men to England. But the chronic 
state of rebellion in western Denmark, which, fomented by the 
discontented Jutish magnates, lasted with short intervals from 



1350 to 1360, compelled Valdemar to renounce these far- 
reaching and fantastic designs. On the other hand, he proved 
more than a match for his domestic rebels, especially after his 
great victory at Brobjaerg in Funen (1357). Finally, the com- 
pact of Kalundborg restored peace to the kingdom. 

Valdemar now turned his eyes from the west to the east, 
where lay the " kingdom of Scania." Valdemar had indeed 
pledged it solemnly and irrevocably to King Magnus of Sweden, 
who had held it for twenty years; but profiting by the diffi- 
culties of Magnus with his Norwegian subjects, after skilfully 
securing his own position by negotiations with Albert of Meck- 
lenburg and the Hanseatic League, Valdemar suddenly and 
irresistibly invaded Scania, and by the end of 1361 all the old 
Danish lands, except North Holland, were recovered. 

By the recovery of Scania Valdemar had become the lord of 
the great herring-fishery market held every autumn from St 
Bartholomew's day (24th of August) to St Denis's day (gth of 
October) on the hammer-shaped peninsula projecting from the 
S.W. corner of Scania containing the towns of Skanor and 
Falsterbo. This flourishing industry, which fully occupied 
40,000 boats and 300,000 fishers assembled from all parts of 
Europe to catch and salt the favourite Lenten fare of the whole 
continent, was the property of the Danish crown, and the in- 
numerable tolls and taxes imposed by the king on the frequenters 
of the market was one of his most certain and lucrative sources 
of revenue. Foreign chapmen eagerly competed for special 
privileges of Skanor and Falsterbo, and the Hanseatic merchants 
in particular aimed at obtaining a monopoly there. But 
Valdemar was by no means disposed to submit to their dictation, 
and political conjunctures now brought about actual hostilities 
between Valdemar and the Hansa, or at least that portion of it 
known as the Wendish Towns, 1 whose commercial interests 
lay principally in the Baltic. 

From time immemorial the isle of Gotland had been the 
staple of the Baltic trade, and its capital, Visby, whose burgesses 
were more than half German, the commercial intermediary 
between east and west, was the wealthiest city in northern 
Europe. In July 1361 Valdemar set sail from Denmark at the 
head of a great fleet, defeated a peasant army before Visby, and 
a few days later the burgesses of Visby made a breach in their 
walls through which the Danish monarch passed in triumph. 
The conquest of Gotland at once led to a war between Valdemar 
and Sweden allied with the Hanseatic towns; but in the spring 
of 1362 Valdemar repulsed from the fortress of Helsingborg a 
large Hanseatic fleet provided with " shooting engines " (cannon) 
and commanded by Johan Wittenburg, the burgomaster of 
Liibeck. In Sweden proper he was equally successful, and the 
general pacification which ensued in April 1365, very greatly in 
his favour, was cemented by the marriage of his daughter 
Margaret with Hakon VI. of Norway, the son of King Magnus. 

Valdemar was now at the height of his power. Every 
political rival had been quelled. With the papal see, since his 
visit to Avignon in 1364, he had been on the best of terms. His 
ecclesiastic patronage was immense, and throughout the land 
he had planted strong castles surely held by the royal bailiffs. 
But in the winter of 1367-68 a hostile league against him of 
all his neighbours threatened to destroy the fruits of a long and 
strenuous lifetime. The impulse came from the Hansa. At a 
Hametag held at Cologne on the nth of November 1367, three 
groups of the towns, seventy in number, concerted to attack 
Denmark, and in January 1368 Valdemar's numerous domestic 
enemies, especially the Jutlanders and the Holstein counts, 
acceded to the league, with the object of partitioning the realm 
among them. And now an astounding and still inexplicable 
thing happened. At Easter-tide 1368, on the very eve of this 
general attack, Valdemar departed for three years to Germany, 
leaving his realm in the capable hands of the earl-marshal 
Henning Podbusk. Valdemar's skilful diplomacy, reinforced 
by golden arguments, did indeed induce the dukes of Brunswick, 
Brandenburg and Pomerania to attack the confederates in the 
rear; but fortune was persistently unfriendly to the Danish king, 
1 Rostock, Greifswald, Wismar and Stralsund. 



VALDEPENAS VALDES 



843 



and peace was finally concluded with the towns by Podbusk 
and the Danish Council of State at the congress of Stralsund, 
1370. The conditions of peace were naturally humiliating for 
Valdemar, 1 though, ultimately, he contrived to render illusory 
many of the inordinate privileges he was obliged to concede. 
He was also able, shortly before his death on the 24th of October 
1375, to recover the greater part of Holstein from the rebels. 

We know astonishingly little of him personally. A few 
caustically witty sayings of his, and St Bridget's famous com- 
parison of him to a fowler who could entice the shyest birds 
with his fluting, are almost all his personalia. It would be a 
mistake to regard him as a patriot. He was too unscrupulous 
and self-centred to play for anything but his own hand. Yet 
no other Danish king did so much for his country. His states- 
manship, as judged from his acts, was all but flawless, and he was 
certainly one of the greatest of the medieval diplomatists. His 
character peeps forth most clearly perhaps in the saying which 
has become his epithet, Atterdag (" There will be a to-morrow "), 
which is an indication of that invincible doggedness to which 
he owed most of his successes. 

See Danmarks Riges Historic, vol. ii. pp. 275-356 (Copenhagen, 
1897-1905). (R. N. B.) 

VALDEPEfltAS, a town of Spain, in the province of Ciudad 
Real; near the right bank of the river Jabalon, a tributary of 
the Guadiana, and on the Madrid-Cordova and Valdepenas-La 
Calzada railways. Pop. (1900) 21,015. Valdepenas is the 
largest town in the Campo de Calatrava, an extensive plain 
north of the Sierra Morena. Its commerce developed rapidly 
in the last quarter of the ipth century, largely as a result of 
improvements in its communications by road and rail; the 
population in the same period increased by more than one-third. 
Valdepenas contains large distilleries, tanneries, flour mills, 
cooperages, and other factories; but its trade is chiefly in the 
red wines for which the district is famous throughout Spain. 
There are hot mineral springs near the town. 

VALDES, JUAN DE (c. 1500-1541), Spanish religious writer, 
younger of twin sons of Fernando de Valdes, hereditary regidor 
of Cuenca in Castile, was born about 1500 at Cuenca. He has 
been confused with his twin-brother Alphonso (in the suite of 
Charles V. at his coronation in Aix-la-Chapelle, 1520; Latin secre- 
tary of state from 1524, died in 1532 at Vienna). Juan, who prob- 
ably studied at the university of Alcala, first appears as the 
anonymous author of a politico-religious Di&logo de Mercurio y 
Caron, written and published about 1528. A passage in this 
work may have suggested Don Quixote's advice to Sancho 
Panza on appointment to his governorship. The Di&logo 
attacked the corruptions of the Roman Church; hence Valdes, 
in fear of the Spanish Inquisition, left Spain for Naples in 1530. 
In 1531 he removed to Rome, where his criticisms of papal 
policy were condoned, since in his Didlogo he had upheld the 
validity of Henry VIII. 's marriage with Catherine of Aragon. 
On the 1 2th of January 1533 he writes from Bologna, in attend- 
ance upon Pope Clement VII. From the autumn of 1533 he 
made Naples his permanent residence, his name being Italian- 
ized as Valdesso and Val d'Esso. Confusion with his brother 
may account for the statement (without evidence) of his appoint- 
ment by Charles V. as secretary to the viceroy at Naples, Don 
Pedro de Toledo; there is no proof of his holding any official 
position, though Curione (in 1544) writes of him as " cavalliere 
di Cesare." His house on the Chiaja was the centre of a literary 
and religious circle; his conversations and writings (circulated 
in manuscript) stimulated the desire for a spiritual reformation 
of the church. His first production at Naples was a philological 
treatise, Didlogo de la Lengua (1533). His works entitle him to a 
foremost place among Spanish prose writers. His friends urged 
him to seek distinction as a humanist, but his bent was towards 
problems of Biblical interpretation in their bearing on the 
devout life. Vermigli (Peter Martyr) and Marcantonio Flaminio 
were leading spirits in his coterie, which included Vittoria 
Colonna and her sister-in-law, Giulia Gonzaga. On Ochino, for 

1 They even gave the Hansa a vote in the future election of the 
Danish kings. 



whose sermons he furnished themes, his influence was great. 
Carnesecchi, who had known Valdes at Rome as " a modest 
and well-bred courtier," found him at Naples (1540) " wholly 
intent upon the study of Holy Scripture," translating portions 
into Spanish from Hebrew and Greek, with comments and 
introductions. To him Carnesecchi ascribes his own adoption 
of the Evangelical doctrine of justification by faith, and at the 
same time his rejection of the policy of the Lutheran schism. 
Valdes died at Naples in May 1541. 

His death scattered his band of associates. Abandoning 
the hope of a regenerated Catholicism, Ochino and Vermigli 
left Italy. Some of Valdes's writings were by degrees pub- 
lished, in Italian translations. Showing much originality and 
penetration, they combine a delicate vein of semi-mystical 
spirituality with the personal charm attributed to their author 
in all contemporary notices. Llorente traces in Valdes the 
influence of Tauler; any such influence must have been at 
second hand. The Aviso on the interpretation of Scripture, 
based on Tauler, was probably the work of Alphonso. Valdes 
was in relations with Fra Benedetto of Mantua, the anonymous 
author of Del Benefizio di Gesii Cristo Crocefisso, revised by 
Flaminio (reprinted by Dr Babington, Cambridge, 1855). The 
suggestion that Valdes was unsound on the Trinity was first 
made in 1567 by the Transylvanian bishop, Francis David (see 
article SOCINUS); it has been adopted by Sand (1684), Wallace 
(1850) and other anti-Trinitarian writers, and is countenanced 
by Bayle. To this view some colour is given by isolated expres- 
sions in his writings, and by the subsequent course of Ochino 
(whose heterodox repute rests, however, on the insight with 
which he presented objections). Valdes never treats of the 
Trinity (even when commenting on Matt, xxviii. 19), reserving 
it (in his Latte Spirituale) as a topic for advanced Christians; 
yet he explicitly affirms the consubstantiality of the Son, whom 
he unites in doxologies with the Father and the Holy Spirit 
(Opusc. p. 145). Practical theology interested him more than 
speculative; his aim being the promotion of a healthy and 
personal piety. 

The following is a list of his writings: 

(1) Didlogo de Mercurio y Caron (no date or place; 1528?). An 
Italian translation by Nicolo Franco, Venice (no date) ; reprinted, 
Venice, 1545. Bound with the original (and with the translation) 
will usually be found a Didlogo by Alphonso de Valdes on the sack 
of Rome in 1527; this is also ascribed to Juan in the reprint, Dos 
Didlogos (1850). 

(2) Didlogo de la Lengua (written, 1533; first printed, Madrid, 
1737; reprinted, 1860, 1873). 

(3) Qual Maniera si devrebbe tenere a informare . . . gli figliuoli de 
Christian! delle Cose della Religione (no date or place; before 1545, 
as it was used by the Italian translator of Calvin's catechism, 1545). 
No Spanish original is known. Reproduced as Latte Spirituale, 
Basel, 1549; Paris, 1550; in Latin, by Pierpaolo Vergeno, 1554; 
'557! in Spanish, by Ed. Boehmer, 1882 ; in English, by J. T. 
Betts, 1882; also in German (twice) and in Polish. 

(4) Trataditos, Bonn, 1881, from a manuscript in the Palatine 
Library, Vienna; in Italian, / Cinque Tratatelli Evangelici, Rome, 
1545; reprinted, 1869; in English, by J. T. Betts, in XVII 
Opuscules, 1882. 

(5) Alfabeto Christiana (written about 1537), in Italian, Venice, 
1545; in English, by B. B. Wiffen, 1861; no Spanish original is 
known. 

(6) Ciento i Diez Confiderafiones all copies of the original edition 
suppressed by the Spanish Inquisition; thirty-nine of the Con- 
(iderafiones, published with the Trataditos, from a Vienna manu- 
script; in Italian, by Celio Secondo Curione, Le Cento et Died Divine 
Consideration, Basel, 1550; in French, by Claude de Kerquifinen, 
Lyons, 1563; Paris, 1565; in English, by Nicholas Ferrar (at the 
instance of George Herbert), Oxford, 1638; Cambridge, 1646; 
another version by J. T. Betts, 1865; in Spanish, by Luis Usoz i 
Rio, 1855. 

(7) Seven Doctrinal Letters (original published with the Trataditos 
from Vienna manuscript), in English, by J. T. Betts, with the 
Opuscules. 

(8) Comentario Breve . . . sobre la Epistola de San Pablo a los 
Romanes, Venice, 1556 (with text; edited by Juan Perez de Pineda) ; 
reprinted, 1856; in English, by J. T. Betts, 1883. 

(9) Comentario Breve . . . sobre la Primera Epistola de san 
Pablo a los Corintios, Venice, 1557 (edited, reprinted and translated 
as No. 8). 

(10) El Evangelic de San Mates (text and commentary), 1881, 
from Vienna manuscript; in English, by J. T. Betts, 1883. 



VALDIVIA VALENCIA 



(n) El Salterio (the Psalms from Hebrew into Spanish), published 
with the Trataditos from Vienna manuscript. 

(12) At Vienna is an unpublished commentary in Spanish on 
Psalms i.-xli. 

(13) Sand mentions a commentary on St John s Gospel, not known 
to exist. 

Notices of Valdes in Sand (Biblioth. Antilrinitar, 1684), Bayle and 
Wallace (Antitrin. Biog., 1850) are inadequate. Revival of interest 
in him is due to McCrie (Hist. Ref. in Italy, 1827 ; Hist. Re}, in Spain, 
1829). Fuller knowledge of his career was opened up by Benjamin 
B. Wiffen, whose Life of Valdes is prefixed to Betts's translation of 
the Considerations, 1865. Discoveries have since been made in the 
Aulic Library, Vienna, by Dr Edward Boehmer; cf. his Span. 
Reformers of Two Centuries (1874), his Lives of J. and A. de Valdes 
(1882), and his article in Realencyklopadie fur prot. Theol. und 
Kirche (1885). See also M. Young, Aonio Paleario (1860); K. Ben- 
rath, Bernardino Ochino (1875;) Menendez Pelayo, Los Heterodoxos 
Espanoles (1880); G. Bonet-Maury, Early Sources of Eng. Unit. 
Christ, (trans. E. P. Hall, 1884). (A. Go.*) 

VALDIVIA, a southern province of Chile, bounded N. by 
Cautin, E. by Argentina, S. by Llanquihue and W. by the 
Pacific. Area, 8649 sq. m. Pop. (1895) 60,687; (1902, esti- 
mated) 76,000. The province is roughly mountainous in the 
E., is heavily forested and is traversed by numerous rivers. 
There is a chain of lakes across its eastern side near the Andes, 
the largest of which are Villarica, Rinihue and Ranco. The 
rivers are the Tolten on the northern boundary, the Valdivia, 
or Calle-Calle, with its large tributaries in the central part of 
the province, and the Bueno on the southern frontier. The 
Valdivia (about 100 m. long) has its sources in the Andes and 
flows W. to the Pacific. Its largest tributary on the N. is the 
Rio Cruces. The Valdivia is the outlet for Lake Rinihue and 
is navigable for a long distance. Valdivia is one of the most 
recently settled provinces and has a large immigrant element, 
chiefly German. Its most important industry is that of clear- 
ing away the heavy forests and marketing the timber. Stock- 
raising is an important industry, and wheat is grown on the 
cleared lands. Lumber, cattle, leather, flour and beer are ex- 
ported. The capital is Valdivia, a flourishing city on the Valdivia 
river, 12 m. above its port, Corral, near the mouth of the river. 
Pop. (1895) 8062; (1902, estimated) 9704. It is a roughly 
built pioneer town, in which wood is the principal building 
material. The mean annual temperature is S9'9 an d its annual 
rainfall is 1 1 5 in. A government railway runs to Osorno on the 
S., and in 1909 was being connected with the central line running 
S. through Bio-Bio and Cautin. The port of Corral, at the 
mouth of the Valdivia river, in lat. 39 49' S., long. 73 19' W., 
is situated on the S. side of a broad, lagoon-like sheet of water, 
forming one of the best natural harbours on the coast. It is a 
port of call for several lines of steamers, including those of the 
Pacific Mail running between Liverpool and Valparaiso. 

VALDOSTA, a city and the county-seat of Lowndes county, 
Georgia, U.S.A., about r55 m. S.W. of Savannah. Pop. (1890) 
2845; (1900) 5613 (2958 negroes); (1910) 7656. Valdosta 
is served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Georgia Southern 
& Florida, and the Georgia & Florida railways. The city 
has a public library; the principal public buildings are the 
County Court House and the Federal building. Valdosta is in 
a rich farming and forest country; among its manufactures are 
cotton products, lumber, &c. The city owns and operates the 
water works. Valdosta was first settled in 1859, was incor- 
porated as a town in 1860, and was chartered as a city in igoi. 

VALENCE, a town of south-eastern France, capital of the 
department of Dr6me, situated on the left bank of the Rhone, 
65 m. S. of Lyons on the railway to Marseilles. Pop. (1906), 
town, 22,950; commune, 28,112. The river is here crossed by a 
fine suspension bridge. The cathedral of St Apollinaris, which 
has an interesting apse, was rebuilt in the nth century in the 
Romanesque style of Auvergne and consecrated in 1095 by 
Urban II. It was greatly injured in the wars of religion, but 
restored in the first decade of the I7th century. The porch 
and the stone tower above it were rebuilt in 1861. The church 
contains the monument of Pius VI., who died at Valence in 1799. 
A curious house (Maison des Tetes) of the i6th century has a 
sculptured front with heads of Homer, Hippocrates, Aristotle, 



Pythagoras, &c. The Maison Dupre-Latour with a beautifully 
carved doorway and the sepulchral monument known as the 
Pendentif date from the same century. The library and the 
museum containing Roman antiquities, sculptures and a 
picture gallery, are housed in the old ecclesiastical seminary. 
The most notable of the monuments erected by Valence to its 
natives are those to Emile Augier the dramatist by the duchess 
of Uzes (1897) and to General Championnet (1762-1800). 

Valence is the seat of a bishop, a prefect and a court of assizes, 
and has a tribunal of first instance, a board of trade arbitration, 
a chamber of commerce, a branch of the Bank of France, 
training colleges for both sexes, and a communal college. 
Among the industries are flour-milling, cooperage and the 
manufacture of furniture, liquorice, whitewash, and tapioca and 
similar foods. Trade, in which the port on the Rhone shares, 
is in fruit, cattle and live-stock, wine, early vegetables and 
farm produce, &c. 

Valentia was the capital of the Segalauni, and the seat of 
a celebrated school prior to the Roman conquest, a colony 
under Augustus, and an important town of Viennensis Prima 
under Valentinian. Its bishopric dates probably from the 4th 
century. It was ravaged by the Alani and other barbarians, 
and fell successively under the power of the Burgundians, the 
Franks, the sovereigns of Aries, the emperors of Germany, the 
dukes of Valentinois, the counts of Toulouse, and its own 
bishops. The bishops were often in conflict with the citizens 
and the dukes of Valentinois, and to strengthen their hands 
against the latter the pope in 1275 united their bishopric with 
that of Die. The citizens put themselves under the protection 
of the dauphin, and in 1456 had their rights and privileges con- 
firmed by Louis XI. and put on an equal footing with those of 
the rest of [Dauphine, the bishops consenting to recognize the 
suzerainty of the dauphin. In the i6th century Protestantism 
spread freely under Bishop Jean de Montluc, and Valence 
became the capital of the Protestants of the province in 1563. 
The town was fortified by Francis I. It had become the seat of 
a celebrated university in the middle of the isth century; but 
the revocation of the edict of Nantes struck a fatal blow at its 
industry, commerce and population. 

VALENCIA, or VALENTIA, an island off the south-western 
coast of Ireland, county Kerry, forming the southern horn of 
Dingle Bay. It is about 7 m. long and 3 broad at its widest part. 
The strait between the island and the mainland forms a fine 
natural harbour, land-locked with narrow entrances, and a 
depth of about 40 ft. at low tide, and thus capable of accommo- 
dating large vessels. At its north end is the Valencia Harbour 
station on a branch of the Great Southern & Western railway, 
with a ferry across the strait to Knightstown, the town on the 
island. The harbour is sometimes visited by warships, and is 
extensively used by fishing vessels, for which it is the head- 
quarters of a district. At Knightstown are the buildings of the 
Anglo-American Telegraph Company, for it was from Valencia, 
after several unsuccessful attempts from 1857 onward, that 
the steamer " Great Eastern " first succeeded in laying the 
cable to Newfoundland in 1866. There are four cables across 
the Atlantic and one to Emden in Germany. On the island 
are Protestant and Roman Catholic churches, constabulary 
barracks and a coastguard station. The meteorological reports 
received by the central office in London from Valencia are of 
high importance as giving the first indication from any station 
in the United Kingdom of weather influences from the Atlantic. 
Valencia formerly exported slate of fine quality. Its cliff 
scenery is magnificent, and its luxuriant semi-tropical vegetation 
remarkable. Its name is of Spanish origin; the Irish originally 
called it Dairbhre, or Darrery, the oak forest. 

VALENCIA, the name of a maritime province of eastern 
Spain, and of the kingdom in which this province was formerly 
included. The province is bounded on the N. by Teruel and 
Castellon de la Plana, E. by the Mediterranean, S. by Alicante 
and W. by Albacete and Cuenca. Pop. (1900) 806,556; area, 
4150 sq. m. Along the coast the surface is for the most part 
low and level, the fertile vegas, or cultivated plains, of Valencia, 



VALENCIA 



845 






Jativa and Gandia in many places rising very little above 
sea-level. To the west of these is a series of tablelands with a 
mean elevation of about 1000 ft., which in turn rise into the 
mountains that form the eastern boundary of the tableland of 
New Castile, and attain within the province a maximum eleva- 
tion of nearly 4000 ft. The coast is skirted by considerable 
stretches of sand-dune, and by a series of these the lagoon called 
the Albufera (q.v.) de Valencia is separated from the Mediter- 
ranean. The principal rivers are the Guadalaviar or Turia and 
the Jucar (q.v.). The Guadalaviar enters the province in the 
extreme north-west, flows south-east, and falls into the sea 
below the city of Valencia; it receives numerous tributaries of 
little importance, and it dispenses fertility by numerous aque- 
ducts, mostly of Moorish origin, throughout the lower part of 
its course. Both the Jucar and its right-hand tributary the 
Albaida supply water for an extensive system of irrigation 
canals. 

In the lowlands, especially towards the coast, very little rain 
falls; but heavy rain and melting snow among the highlands in 
which the principal rivers rise occasionally cause sudden and 
disastrous floods. The vegas have an exceptionally fine, almost 
sub-tropical climate. In their low-lying portions rice is the favourite 
crop; elsewhere wheat, maize and all kinds of fruit are abundantly 
grown; the mulberry is cultivated for silk; and wine and oil are 
produced. Esparto grass is grown in the less fertile areas. The 
tablelands produce, according to their elevation and exposure, figs, 
almonds, olives or vines. The pastures of the higher grounds 
sustain numerous sheep and goats; but cattle and horses are 
relatively few. The hillsides are somewhat bare of timber. The 
mineral resources of the province are little developed. The fishing 
industry on the coast is considerable, and there are manufactures of 
silk, carpets and tapestry, woollen, hemp and linen fabrics, glass, 
pottery and leather; there are also iron foundries, distilleries, 
cooperages and oil refineries. These industries are important, 
although the silk manufactures declined after three decades of 
prosperity (from 1850 to 1880). The coast railway from Barcelona 
traverses the province, passing through the city of Valencia on the 
way south to Alicante and Murcia. From Jativa another important 
line diverges westward to Albacete, and there are branch lines from 
Valencia to Liria and to Utiel, from Silla to Cullera, from Carcagente 
to Gandia, and thence to D6nia and Alcoy in the province of 
Alicante. Valencia, the capital and principal seaport, and the 
towns of Alcira, Requena, Sueca, J&tiva, Carcagfinte, Cullera, Utiel, 
Ontcniente and Gandia, are described in separate articles. Other 
towns of more than 7000 inhabitants are Algemcsi, Catarroja, 
Liria, Sagunto, Tabernas de Valldigna and Torrente. 

When the ancient kingdom of Valencia was incorporated 
into Aragon in 1238, it included the provinces of Castellon de 
la Plana (q.v.) and Alicante (q.v.). It was bounded inland on 
the N. by Catalonia, W. by Aragon and New Castile, and S. 
by Murcia. This region has an area of 8830 sq. m. ; its present 
population is about 1,600,000. For its history see VALENCIA 
(city). The inhabitants are of very mixed race, owing to the 
successive occupation of the country by Iberians, Greeks, 
Carthaginians, Romans, Visigoths and Moors. Their dialect 
resembles Catalan but is softer, and contains a larger percentage 
of Arabic words. On the physique of the people, as on their 
customs and the architecture of their houses, Moorish rule 
left a durable imprint. The elaborate irrigation-works and 
the system of intensive agriculture which have rendered the 
kuertas or gardens of Valencia celebrated were initiated by 
the Moors; the fame of the Elche date-groves, the Alicante 
vineyards and the Valencia orange plantations, was also 
originally due to them. With the decline of the caliphate of 
Cordova early in the nth century, Valencia became an in- 
dependent kingdom, which passed successively into the power 
of the Almoravides and Almohades. When James I. of Aragon 
captured the city of Valencia in 1238, he found so large a number 
of Mozarabic Christians who had adopted the Arabic language 
and many of the customs of their rulers, that it was found 
necessary to translate the Bible into Arabic for their use. In 
1609, 200,000 Moriscoes, or Moors who outwardly professed 
Christianity, were banished from the country. In 1833 
Valencia was divided into the three provinces already named. 

VALENCIA, the capital of the Spanish province of Valencia, 
on the right bank of the river Guadalaviar or Turia, 3 m. from 
the Mediterranean Sea, and 304 m. by rail E.S.E. of Madrid. 



Pop. (1877) 143,856; (1900) 213,550. Valencia is connected 
by numerous railways with all parts of Spain, and has one of 
the most secure and capacious harbours on the east coast. It 
is the seat of an archbishop, a court of appeal, a university, 
a captain-general and an army corps. All round it stretches 
the beautiful and closely cultivated Huerta de Valencia, an 
alluvial plain planted with groves of oranges, lemons and 
mulberries. The climate is mild and very dry; rain hardly 
ever falls except when the east wind blows from the sea. The 
white houses of the city, often Moorish in many details of their 
architecture, and the multitude of domes and towers overlaid 
with blue, white and gold tiles, give to Valencia an oriental 
appearance which is remarkable even in south-eastern Spain. 
Until 1871 it was enclosed by a wall founded by the Romans 
and rebuilt in 1356 by Pedro IV.; two picturesque gateways 
with machicolated towers still remain, but few other remnants 
are left of the old fortifications, the site of which is now occupied 
by fine boulevards. The river, reduced, except in time of flood, 
to a scanty stream by the demands made upon it for irrigation, 
is crossed by several bridges, of which the longest has thirteen 
arches. The streets are for the most part narrow, crooked 
and somewhat gloomy, but in the more modern quarters there 
are some broad and handsome thoroughfares. Towards the 
close of the igth century Valencia was lighted by gas and 
electricity; electric tramways were laid down and a good 
water-supply and drainage system secured. 

The cathedral (La Seo), begun in 1262, was in 1459 lengthened 
in its original Gothic style, but in such a way as to spoil its 
proportions, and in the i8th century it was further injured by 
pseudo-Classic additions. It possesses some fine examples 
of the sculpture and metal- work of the isth century, as well 
as of the Valencian school of painting. The campanile (el 
Miguelete), an isolated octagonal Gothic tower, 152 ft. in height, 
commands an extensive view of the town and surrounding 
country. Near the cathedral is the episcopal palace; its 
large and valuable library, rich in medals and other antiquities, 
suffered greatly during the French occupation in 1812. Besides 
the cathedral, Valencia has numerous parish churches and 
other ecclesiastical buildings, none of them of great architectural 
beauty or interest; the church of St Nicholas (of Moorish 
origin) has, however, good specimens of paintings by Vicente 
Juanes as well as frescoes by Dionis Vidal; and Ribalta can be 
studied in the chapel of the Colegio de Corpus or del Patriarcha. 

Valencia University was formed about 1500 by the fusion 
of an episcopal school of theology with a municipal school of 
arts, medicine and law, both dating from the middle of the 
i4th century. New colleges were soon added, and up to 1600 
the university attained much prosperity and a high reputation. 
It then began to decline, but was reorganized after 1848, and 
resumed its place as one of the leading universities. The 
average number of students is 1750; law, philosophy, natural 
science and medicine are the subjects taught. The large but 
uninteresting university buildings date from the i6th century. 
The library, containing about 60,000 volumes, was robbed of 
its chief treasures by the French in 1812. There is a rich 
provincial museum, with paintings by Velazquez, Ribera, 
Diirer, Juanes, Bosco, Goya and many modern artists. Among 
other public buildings may be mentioned the court-house, a 
Doric edifice, dating from the time of Ferdinand the Catholic, 
and having curious frescoes (1592) in its main hall; the custom- 
house (1758), now a cigar manufactory, employing some 3500 
women; and the silk exchange, a large and elegant Gothic 
hall (1482). The citadel, on the north-east of the town, was 
built by Charles V. as a protection against Khair-ed-Din 
Barbarossa, the sea-rover; in the south-west cf the town is 
the former College of Saint Augustine, now used as a model 
prison, adjoining which is a large hospital. Beyond the old 
line of the walls there are a botanic garden, a large bull-ring, 
and various shady promenades, including the beautiful 
" Glorieta," and, on the north side of the river, the alameda, 
leading to the port (El Grao). The principal manufacture 
is silk, and the town is also celebrated for its coloured tiles 



8 4 6 



VALENCIA VALENCIENNES 



or " azulejos," and its oranges. Linen, woollen and esparto 
fabrics, hats, fans, leather, paper, cigars, glass and pottery 
are also manufactured, and there are foundries and printing- 
works. Corn, rice, silk, saffron, oranges, raisins, almonds, figs 
and other fruits are extensively exported, and iron, hardware, 
timber, manure, grain and colonial produce are imported. 

The port and the village of Villanueva del Grao are 3 m. E. by N. 
of Valencia, and are connected with it by two railways and two tram- 
ways. The harbour works, begun in 1792 at local expense, have 
been steadily improved, and now provide many facilities for loading 
or discharging on the moles and wharves. During the five years, 
1901-5, about 2600 ships of 1,500,000 tons entered at the port every 
year. About 2000 of these were Spanish, including a large number 
of small coasters. The majority of the foreign ocean-going ships 
were British. The fishing fleet of El Grao comprises about 600 
boats with 2800 hands. About I m. N. is the town of Pueblo Nuevo 
del Mar or El Cabanal, to which large numbers of the Valencians 
migrate in summer for sea-bathing. 

The earliest historical mention of Valencia (Valentia) is by 
Livy (Epit. lv.), according to whom Junius Brutus settled 
the soldiers of Viriathus here in 138 B.C., and invested the 
town with the jus Latinum. It sided with Sertorius (c. 77 B.C.), 
and was accordingly taken and partially destroyed by Pompey 
in 75 B.C.; but it must have recovered speedily, as it is men- 
tioned by Pliny (iii. 4) as a colony in the region of the Edetani, 
and by Mela as an important place. It was taken by the 
Visigoths in A.D. 413, and by the Moors in 714. After the 
downfall of the caliphate of Cordova, an independent Moorish 
kingdom of Valencia was established in 1021, and extended 
along the coast from Almeria to the Ebro estuary. The 
Almoravides occupied the city in 1094, but it was retaken 
within a few months by the Christians under the Cid (q.v.), 
from whom it is sometimes called Valencia del Cid. The 
Moors recovered possession in 1101 and the kingdom was 
re-established in 1146. After 1172 it became tributary to 
Aragon, and in 1238 James I. of Aragon added it to his 
dominions. The first Spanish printing-press is said to have been 
set up here in 1474. Towards the close of the isth century 
Valencia was annexed to Castile and placed under the rule 
of a viceroy. In the i6th and i7th centuries it became the 
seat of a considerable school of painting, of which Vicente 
Juanes (1523-1579) may be regarded as the founder, and to 
which belonged also Francisco de Ribalta (1550-1628), Juan 
de Ribalta (1597-1628), Jose Ribera (1588-1656), Pedro 
Orrente (1560-1644) and J. G. Espinosa (1600-1680). In the 
beginning of the i7th century Valencia and its surrounding 
district suffered greatly from the expulsion of the Moriscos, 
its most industrious and enterprising cultivators. In the War 
of Succession Valencia sided emphatically with the house of 
Austria, for which it was punished by being deprived of many 
of its ancient privileges. In 1808 an abortive attempt to 
capture it was made by the French; they succeeded, however, 
in 1812, and held it till June 1813. Queen Christina signed 
her abdication at Valencia in 1840. 

VALENCIA, a city of Venezuela and capital of the state of 
Carabobo, in m. by rail W.S.W. of Caracas, and 24 m. direct 
(33! m. by rail) S. by E. of Puerto Cabello. Pop. (1894) 38,654. 
There is railway connexion with Caracas by the Great Venezuela 
line (German) and with Puerto Cabello by the Puerto Cabello 
and Valencia line (English), which crosses the N. range of the 
Maritime Andes. There is also a steamboat service on Lake 
Valencia. The city is situated on the N.W. border of a lacustrine 
plain occupied in great part by Lake Tacarigua, or Valencia, 1 and 
nearly 2 m. from its western margin. It is beautifully situated 
in a large fertile valley between parallel ranges of the Maritime 
Andes, about 1625 ft. above sea-level, and in the midst of rich 
plantations and luxuriant tropical vegetation. The climate is 
mild and pleasant, the temperature ranging from 66 to 87 F. 

1 Lake Valencia occupies one of the so-called Aragua valleys, 
enclosed between the parallel ranges of the Maritime Andes. It is 
1348 ft. above the sea, is about 30 m. long, has an area of 216 sq. m., 
and a catchment basin of 1782 sq. m., and lies partly in the state 
of Aragua. It includes a number of small islands, some inhabited, 
and receives the waters of a score of small streams from the sur- 
rounding mountains. 



with an annual mean of 76, and the rainfall being about the same 
as that of Caracas, or 23 to 30 in. Near Valencia on the Puerto 
Cabello railway are the Las Trincheras thermal springs. Among 
Valencia's public edifices and institutions are some good churches, 
the government palace, a university, a national college for women, 
a normal school for men and a public library. 

Valencia was founded in 1555 and is older than Caracas. It 
was occupied for a time in 1561 by Aguirre and his band of out- 
laws. At the beginning of the War of Independence it was made 
the capital of Venezuela, and the patriot congress was in session 
there in 1812 when Caracas was destroyed by an earthquake. 
It changed masters several times during the war, its most famous 
events being two successful defences in 1814 against Spanish 
besieging forces. The town suffered much in the war and from 
subsequent revolutions, but the remarkable productiveness 
of the surrounding districts and its advantageous commercial 
position ensured a prompt recovery from all reverses. 

VALENCIA DE ALCANTARA, a town of western Spain, in the 
province of Caceres; on the Madrid-Caceres-Lisbon railway, 
near the right bank of the Sever, a small stream which here 
divides Spain from Portugal. Pop. (1900) 9417. Valencia de 
Alcantara is the most important custom-house for direct traffic 
between the Peninsular kingdoms except Badajoz, and has a 
flourishing trade in farm produce of all kinds, and in phosphates 
from the neighbouring mines. The town is occupied by a 
garrison, and retains its old-fashioned loopholed walls and 
dismantled citadel. A Roman aqueduct still brings water to 
the main street, and there are other Roman remains in the 
district ; the courtyards and windows of many houses are Moorish 
in style. The interesting church of Roqueamador dates from the 
i4th century, the church of Encarnacion, the town hall and a 
fine convent, from the i6th. From the i6th century to the i8th 
Valencia was a celebrated border fortress; it was captured by the 
Portuguese in 1664 and 1698. 

VALENCIENNES, a town of northern France in the depart- 
ment of Nord on the Scheldt, at its confluence with the Rhonelle, 
30 m. S.E. of Lille by rail. Pop. (1906), town, 25,977; commune, 
31,759. The Scheldt here divides into two branches, one of 
which flows through the town, while the other, canalized and 
forming a port, skirts it on the west. Of the fortifications, dis- 
mantled in 1892, and replaced by boulevards, the Tour de la 
Dodenne (i3th and isth centuries) and the citadel (i?th century) 
are the chief remains. Valenciennes is the centre of a rich coal- 
field, to which Anzin (q.v.), an industrial town a little over a 
mile to the north-west, has given its name. To this fact is due 
the existence of the important foundries, forges, rolling-mills, 
wire-works and machine shops which line the bank of the Scheldt. 
There is also an extensive beetroot cultivation, with attendant 
sugar-works and distilleries, and glass, starch, chemicals and 
soap are produced. Hosiery, trimmings and handkerchiefs 
are manufactured and cotton weaving and printing are carried 
on, though little of the famous lace is now made. Other 
industries are brewing and malting. There are a sub-prefecture, 
courts of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, 
a board of trade arbitration, and a branch of the Bank of France, 
a lycee, a school of music and a school of fine art (founded in 
1782). The town hall is a fine building of the early i7th century, 
but its facade was rebuilt in 1867 and 1868. The museum 
contains galleries of painting and sculpture, with works by 
Antoine, Louis and Francois Watteau, Carpeaux, all of whom 
were natives of the town, and by Rubens and other Flemish 
artists. Opposite the museum there is a monument commemor- 
ating the defence of the town in 1793. The principal church is 
that of Notre-Dame du Cordon, a fine modern building in the 
Gothic style surmounted by a tower 272 ft. in height. The 
church of St Gery preserves a few pillars dating from the i3th 
century. Near it stands the statue of Antoine Watteau, and 
there is also a statue of Jean Froissart, born at Valenciennes. 

Valenciennes is said to owe its name and foundation to one of 
the three Roman emperors named Valentinian. In the middle 
ages it was the seat of a countship which in the nth century was 
united to that of Hainaut. In the i6th century Valenciennes 



VALENCY 



847 



became the stronghold of Protestantism in Hainaut, but was 
conquered by the Spaniards, who committed all sorts of excesses. 
In 1656 the Spaniards under Conde made a successful defence 
against the French under Turenne; but in 1677 Louis XIV. took 
the town after an eight days' siege, and Vauban constructed the 
citadel. Valenciennes, which then became the capital of Hainaut, 
has since always belonged to France. In 1793, after forty-three 
days' bombardment, the garrison, reduced to 3000 men, sur- 
rendered to the allied forces numbering some 140,000 or 150,000 
men, with 400 cannon. In 1815 it defended itself successfully. 

VALENCY. The doctrine of valency, in chemistry, may 
be defined as the doctrine of the combining power of the 
atoms or elementary radicles of which compound molecules 
consist. The conception that each elementary atom has a de- 
finite atom-fixing power, enunciated by Frankland in 1852, is 
the foundation of the system of rational or structural formulae 
which now plays so great a part in chemical science. Frank- 
land dealt more particularly with the valency of the metallic 
elements, in which he was specially interested at the time; 
but in conjunction with his co-worker Kolbe, he subsequently 
applied it to compounds of carbon. At that time (1852-56), 
the application of Avogadro's theorem to the determination 
of atomic weights was not yet recognized; it was only when 
Cannizzaro 1 made this clear that it became possible to develop 
the doctrine of valency upon a consistent basis. Kekule, 
whose services in this field rank with those of Frankland, was 
the first to develop the consequences of the conception that 
carbon is a quadrivalent element and to apply it in a logical 
manner to the explanation of the structure of carbon compounds 
generally; his paper published in 1858, " On the Constitution 
and Metamorphoses of Chemical Compounds and on the Chemical 
Nature of Carbon," is admittedly the foundation of the modern 
theory of the structure of these compounds. 

An admirable though brief summary of the historical develop- 
ment of the doctrine of valency is to be found in the lecture 
delivered in 1898 by Professor Japp in memory of Kekule 
(Journ. Chem. Soc. 73, p. 97). Several discoveries have since 
been made which have an important bearing on the doctrine. 

Frankland held that each element has a certain maximum 
valency but may manifest one or more subordinate valencies, 
the affinities in abeyance in cases in which only the lower 
valency is manifest satisfying each other mutually. By a logical 
extension of this view, elements have been divided into those 
of odd and those of even valency; apart from a few excep- 
tional compounds, elements are to be reckoned as belonging 
either to the one or to the other of these two classes. 

Kekule always maintained that valency could not vary and 
in discussing this question Professor Japp goes so far as to 
say: " Of all the doctrines which we owe to Kekule, that of 
fixed valency is probably the one that has met with least 
acceptance even among chemists of his own school. At the 
present day it is, so far as I am aware, without supporters." 
But he adds, " Yet Kekule held it to the last." And such a fact 
cannot be overlooked: that Kekule went too far in asserting that 
valency could not vary is probably true; the essential feature 
in his objection that in many cases valency was overestimated 
by the Frankland school cannot be so easily disposed of. 

He saw clearly that structure is the determining factor to be 
taken into account in all such discussions; he also considered 
that it was necessary always to make use of univalent or 
monad elements in determining valency; moreover, that the 
only compounds on which valid arguments could be based were 
those which could be volatilised without undergoing decom- 
position a condition that must be fulfilled if the molecular 
weight of a compound is to be placed beyond question. He 
therefore objected to the use of compounds such as ammonium 
chloride and phosphorus pentachloride as criteria of valency, 
as they undergo decomposition when volatilized. This objec- 
tion has been somewhat robbed of its force by Brereton Baker's 
observation that decomposition can be prevented if the utmost 

1 Stanislao Cannizzaro, A Course of Chemical Philosophy (1858). 
Alembic Club Reprints, No. 18. [1910.] 



care be taken to exclude moisture. In objecting to the use of 
such compounds, however, Kekule took the further important 
step of dividing compounds into two classes that of atomic 
compounds, such as ammonia and hydrogen chloride, in which 
the components are held together by atomic affinities; and 
that of molecular compounds, such as ammonium chloride, 
containing atomic, compounds held together by molecular 
affinities: but Kekule never gave any very clear explana- 
tion of the difference. Notwithstanding Brereton Baker's 
observations, the question remains with us to-day, the only 
difference, being that we have substituted the more precise 
term "residual affinity" for Kekule's term " molecular affinity." 

Hydrogen is the one element which at present can be affirmed 
to be of unvarying valency: as no compound of determinable 
molecular weight is known in which a single atom of this element 
can be supposed to be present in the molecule in association 
with more than a single atom of another element, the hydrogen 
atom may be regarded as a consistent univalent or monad 
radicle. As the element of unit valency, hydrogen is, therefore, 
the one fit atomic measure to be used in ascertaining valency; 
unfortunately, it cannot always be applied, as so few elements 
form volatile hydrides. Hydrocarbon radicles such as methyl, 
CH 3 , however, are so entirely comparable with the hydrogen 
radicle that they form equally efficient standards; as many 
elements form volatile methides, some assistance may be 
obtained. by the use of such radicles. But in all other cases 
the difficulty becomes very great; indeed, it is doubtful if a 
trustworthy standard can then be found we are still forced, 
in fact, to recognize the wisdom of Kekule's contentions. The 
greatest difficulty of all that we have to meet is due to the fact 
that valency is a dependent variable in the case of many if not 
of most elements, the degree in which it is manifest depending 
on the reciprocal affinities of the associating elements, as well 
as on environmental conditions. 

Among univalent elements, carbon is the only one that appears 
to have a determinate maximum valency; this is manifest in 
methane, CH4, the simplest hydride the element forms, the first 
parent of the mighty host of compounds numbering thousands 
upon thousands which are the subject-matter of organic chem- 
istry. Carbon, it is well known, is distinguished from all other 
elements by forming a great variety of compounds with hydro- 
gen the hydrocarbons; from these, in turn, other series of 
compounds are formed by the displacement of hydrogen atoms 
in the hydrocarbons by various radicles. The chemistry of the 
carbon compounds is, in fact, the chemistry of substitution 
compounds; no other element can be said to give rise to sub- 
stitution compounds. It is because of this fact because of 
the simple relationship obtaining between the various series of 
hydrocarbons and between these and their substitution com- 
pounds that we are able to deduce structural formulae for carbon 
compounds with a degree of certainty not attainable in the 
case of any other element; and we are consequently able to infer 
the valency of carbon with a degree of definiteness that cannot be 
approached in any other case. Several of the simpler deriva- 
tives of carbon exhibit peculiarities which may be referred to as 
of particular interest, as showing how difficult it is to arrive at 
any understanding of the manner in which valency is exercised. 
Apparently the compound represented by the symbol CHj 
cannot exist, all attempts to isolate it having failed, the hydro- 
carbon ethylene, formed by the union of two such groups, being 
obtained in its place. This would be in no way surprising were 
it not that the corresponding oxygenated compound, carbon 
monoxide, CO, has no tendency whatever to undergo polymer- 
ization under ordinary conditions and is, in fact, speaking 
generally, a remarkably inert substance, although in certain 
cases it forms compounds without difficulty yet always in a 
very quiet manner. A single, atom of oxygen apparently has 
the power, if not of satisfying, at least of stilling the needs of 
the carbon atom. One other case which makes the behaviour 
of carbon monoxide still more exceptional may be referred to, 
that of the analogous sulphur compound carbon monsulphide, 
CS, recently discovered by Sir James Dewar and Mr H. O. 



VALENCY 



Jones. This compound is so unstable, so active, that it poly- 
merizes with explosive violence at temperatures slightly 
above that at which liquid air boils. Such illustrations afford 
clear proof that, as before mentioned, valency is a reciprocal 
function that it is impossible to regard the units of affinity of 
the atoms of different elements as of equivalent value and capable 
of satisfying each other mutually. 

There is no reason to suppose that an uneven number of 
affinities can be active in the carbon atom; in devising structural 
formulae, it is therefore always considered necessary to account 
for the disposition of the four units of affinity, the four valencies, 
of the carbon atom. In 1900 some excitement was aroused by 
the discovery by Gomberg of a remarkable hydrocarbon formed 
by the withdrawal of the chlorine atom from chlorotriphenyl- 
methane, C(C 6 H 6 ) 3 C1: at first it was contended that this was a 
compound of triad carbon, triphenylmethyl; it is now generally 
admitted, however, that such cannot well be the case and that 
one of the phenyl groups becomes altered in structure and 
converted into a dyad radicle (see TRJPHENYLMETHANE). 

The homologues of methane the hydrocarbons of the paraffin 
or C n H2n + 2 series, in which the carbon atoms are associated 
by single affinities, their remaining affinities being engaged by 
hydrogen atoms behave chemically as saturated compounds 
and are apparently incapable of entering into combination with 
other molecules. But it is important to guard against the 
assumption that they are actually saturated in any absolute 
sense. Even gases such as helium and argon, destitute as they 
appear to be of all chemical activity, must be credited with the 
possession of some measure of affinity as they can be liquefied; 
moreover, as Sir James Dewar has shown, when helium is lique- 
fied in contact with charcoal a not inconsiderable amount of heat 
is liberated beyond that given out in the mere liquefaction of 
the gas. The argument may be extended to hydrogen and 
the paraffins and it may even pe supposed that the amount of 
residual affinity increases gradually as the series is ascended 
this would account for the fact that their activity, the readiness 
with which they are attacked, increases slightly as the series is 
ascended. In any case, it cannot well be supposed that carbon 
and hydrogen mutually satisfy each other even in the paraffins. 

The manner in which the valencies of the carbon atom are 
disposed of in the case of unsaturated hydrocarbons that is to say, 
those containing a lower proportion of hydrogen than is indicated 
by the formula C n H2 n +2 has given rise to much discussion, 
the subject being one which affords an opportunity for great 
difference of opinion. In ethylene, C2H 4 , each carbon atom is 
attached to only two hydrogen atoms, as two affinities of each 
atom are therefore free to enter reciprocally into combination. 
These atoms certainly do not combine twice over in the way in 
which the two atoms of carbon in ethane, HsC-CHs, enter into 
combination if they did, ethylene should be a saturated com- 
pound, whereas actually it behaves as an eminently unsaturated 
substance. It was contended by Julius Thomsen, on the basis 
of determinations of the heat of combustion of the hydrocarbons, 
that the two carbon atoms in ethylene are less firmly united in 
ethylene than are those in ethane; moreover, that in acetylene, 
CzH2, in which there are three affinities at the disposal of each of 
the two carbon atoms, the union is even less firm than in ethy- 
lene. The argument on which these conclusions are founded 
has been called in question and the data are clearly insufficient 
to justify their acceptance; moreover, the stability of acetylene 
at high temperatures, also the readiness with which ethylene is 
often formed and with which ethenoid compounds revert to the 
paraffin type may be cited as arguments against them. 

In dealing with such a problem, it is necessary to take into 
account the evidence we have that valency is a directed function. 
The tetrahedron is now accepted as the most suitable model of 
the carbon atom to be visualized whenever carbon is thought 
of; moreover, it is held that the directions in which valency 
acts are appropriately pictured if they are regarded as proceed- 
ing from the centre of mass to the four solid angles of the tetra- 
hedron. In such a case, two affinities proceeding from each 
of two carbon atoms do not meet and overlap but cross, each 



pair at a considerable angle through which they must be 
deflected to bring them into contact. Von Baeyer has sug- 
gested that this angle, 5(109 28'), is the measure of the strain 
imposed upon the affinities and that the existence of this strain 
affords an explanation of the readiness with which ethylene lapses 
into a derivative of ethane when suitable opportunity is given 
to combine with some other substance. Another way of looking 
at the matter is to suppose that the affinities do not, as it were, 
overlap but merely cross each other and that the angle of 
approach referred to is a direct measure of the degree of unsatur- 
atedness: such a view is more in accordance with Thomson's 
contention. In any case, the ethenoid condition of unsatur- 
atedness at the junction of two carbon atoms is a centre at 
which altogether peculiar properties, chemical and physical, 
are developed the most noteworthy being the enhanced 
refractive power. The ethenoid symbol C = C is therefore of 
peculiar significance. It is a remarkable fact that the pro- 
perties of ring systems generally are in accordance with the 
above hypothesis the degree of unsaturatedness diminishing 
as " the angle of approach " is diminished, the more nearly 
the affinities can be pictured as overlapping. 

The most stable arrangement of the carbon affinities would 
appear to be that in benzene and compounds of the benzene 
type whatever that may be. The determination of the 
" structure " of this hydrocarbon has given rise to a large 
amount of paper warfare. Two tendencies may be said to have 
been brought together in the course of this discussion: on the 
one hand, the desire to arrive at a determination of the actual 
structure; on the other, the desire to devise formulae which 
shall be faithful expressions of functional behaviour and 
broadly indicative of the structural relationship of the con- 
stituent elements. The latter is perhaps the tendency which 
is now in the ascendant: we are beginning to realise, parti- 
cularly in the case of carbon compounds, that formulae are 
primarily expressive of behaviour being based on the observa- 
tion of behaviour. Thus in the case of all paraffinoid com- 
pounds, the symbol C-C has a distinctive meaning, as in- 
dicating saturation; in the case of ethenoid compounds, the 
symbol C = C has an equally distinctive meaning, indicating 
a particular degree of unsaturatedness. 

From this point of view, therefore, the benzene symbol 
originally proposed by Kekul6 is misleading, inasmuch as it 
indicates that the hydrocarbon contains three ethenoid junctions; 
it should therefore be an eminently unsaturated compound, which 
is not the case. On this account the centric formula is to be 
preferred as an expression of the properties of the compound. 

The non-metallic elements other than carbon all form volatile 
hydrides and methides from which their fundamental valencies 
can be deduced without difficulty. Chlorine, oxygen, nitrogen 
and silicon may be regarded as typical of the four classes into 
which the non-metals fall. But the number of hydrogen and 
methyl radicles which the atom carries cannot be taken as 
the measure of absolute valency in the case of elements of 
the chlorine, oxygen and nitrogen classes. The hydrides of the 
elements of these classes must all be regarded as more or less 
unsaturated compounds, the fact that gases such as hydrogen 
chloride and ammonia are intensely soluble in water being 
clearly a proof that their molecules are greatly attracted by 
and have great attraction for water molecules; it is remark- 
able, however, that although hydrogen chloride and ammonia 
are easily soluble in water and also combine readily with one 
another, they are gases which are by no means easily condensed 
in other words, the molecules in each gas have little tendency 
to associate among themselves. It may also be pointed out 
that, to account for the properties of liquid water, it is necessary 
to suppose that the simple molecules represented by the symbol 
H 2 O have a very considerable mutual affinity and that water 
consists largely of _ complex molecules. 1 Taking into account 

1 On this account it is desirable to confine.the term water to the 
liquid and to distinguish the simple molecule represented by the' 
symbol H 2 O by a separate name that proposed is Hydrone. 
Liquid water is probably a mixture of several polyhydrones together 
with more or less hydrone. 



VALENCY 



849 



the estimate we are able to form, on the one hand, of the 
functions of hydrogen, on the other of those of elements such 
as chlorine, oxygen and nitrogen, it seems probable that in the 
hydrides of these elements the extra attractive power is exercised 
entirely by the element which enters into combination with the 
hydrogen in other words, that chlorine in hydrogen chloride, 
oxygen in hydrone and nitrogen in ammonia are each possessed 
of considerable residual affinity. The great question at issue has 
been and still is What is the nature of this residual affinity 
and how is it exercised? This is the question raised by Kekule 
and left by him as a legacy to be decided upon. When hydrogen 
chloride and ammonia enter into combination to form am- 
monium chloride, for example, do they combine in some special 
manner, molecularly, so that each molecule retains its individ- 
uality as a radicle in the new compound; or is a redistribution 
effected, so that the several atams become arranged around 
the one which exercises the dominant influence much as they 
are in the parent compound ammonia? In the former case, 
two orders of affinity would come into operation; in the latter, 
only one. The general opinion has always been in favour 
of the latter view. 

The discovery that compounds of sulphur containing four 
different monad radicles together with a single sulphur atom, 
such as the chloride, S(CH 3 )(C 2 H 6 )(CH 2 -CO 2 H)C1, are optic- 
ally active may be said to have set the question at rest, 
as optical activity is only to be expected in the case of a 
compound of asymmetric structure having the four radicles 
separately associated with and arranged around the sulphur 
atom. If it be granted that sulphur can thus function as a 
tetrad, it may equally be admitted that nitrogen can function 
as a pentad element in the ammonium compounds. 

The discussion has entered on another stage, however, now 
that Barlow and Pope have been successful in subjecting the 
problem to geometric treatment by correlating crystalline form 
with chemical constitution. The fundamental conception upon 
which the relationship is based is that each atom present in 
a compound occupies a distinct portion of space by virtue of 
an influence which it exerts uniformly in every direction. A 
crystalline structure is regarded as a close-packed, homogeneous 
assemblage of the spheres of influence of the component atoms. 
According to this view, valency acquires volume significance. 
For example, the hydrogen atom being represented by a sphere 
of unit volume, that of the tetrad carbon atom is represented 
by one of four times this unit volume; the monad elements 
chlorine, bromine and iodine are supposed, in like manner, 
to occupy approximately unit spheres of influence. Whilst 
they are prepared to admit that the spheres of atomic influence 
of the univalent elements, for example, are not quite the same 
moreover, that the volume ratios of the spheres of influence of 
various elements may alter slightly under changes of condition 
Barlow and Pope contend that the relative magnitudes are only 
slightly affected in passing from compound to compound. In 
their view, however, the absolute magnitudes of the spheres of 
influence often change considerably. 

For example, taking the spheres of atomic influence of carbon 
as of volume 4 and those of hydrogen, chlorine and bromine 
as of volume i, they find that benzene, CeH 6 , hexachloro- 
benzene, CsCU, and hexabromobenzene, CeBre, present an 
almost identical spatial arrangement of the spheres of atomic 
influence. This could not be the case if the atoms of carbon, 
hydrogen, chlorine and bromine appropriated respectively the 
volumes n-o, 5-5, 22-8 and 27-8 the so-called atomic volumes 
deduced by Kopp. Barlow and Pope therefore consider that, 
both in benzene of molecular volume 77-4 and in a derivative 
such as tetrabromobenzene of molecular volume 130-2, the sphere 
of influence of the carbon atom is about four times as large as 
that of either hydrogen or bromine; on displacing the hydrogen 
atoms by bromine atoms, however, the volumes of the carbon 
atoms in the benzene molecule and of the remaining hydrogen 
atoms expand proportionally in the ratio of 77-4 : 130-2. 
This remarkable conclusion is a most helpful addition to the 
doctrine of valency. The relative fundamental valency volume, 



according to Barlow and Pope, is a constant when compounds 
of a " higher type " are produced, greater number of atoms 
become arranged about the centralizing atom but the relative 
valency volumes do not change. They have shown that if an 
atom of valency i be inserted into the space already occupied by 
an atom of valency m, a gap is produced which must be filled 
up by another atom of valency i if the close packing is to be re- 
stored without remarshalling, thus accounting for the progression 
of valency by two units. Ammonium chloride, for example, 
is to be regarded as formed by the insertion into the ammonia 
assemblage of a chlorine atom of volume i and of an atom of 
hydrogen of volume i, the nitrogen atom retaining its funda- 
mental valency 3. This geometric conception affords a justifica- 
tion of Kekule's conception of fixed valency; at the same time 
it gives expression to the view he advocated that a distinction 
was to be drawn between atomic and molecular compounds; 
but it also supports the contention of Kekule's opponents 
that in the two classes of compound the atoms must be regarded 
equally as arranged about a centralizing atom. The two points 
of view are therefore brought into harmony. But the problem 
is by no means solved other modes of arrangement than 
those pictured must also be possible. To take the case of a 
solution of ammonia, for example: it is generally admitted 
that only a very small proportion is present as the hydroxide 
NH 4 -OH; far the greater part must be held in solution in 
some other form, either as H 3 N = OH2 or in the form of more 
complex molecules of the polymethylene type. These may be 
regarded as Kekule's molecular compounds and as the fore- 
runners of the " more organized " compounds in which the 
atoms are centralized in the crystal structure. It has not been 
found necessary hitherto to attribute spheres of atomic influence 
of different relative volumes to the same element under different 
conditions that is to say, elements such as sulphur and nitrogen 
always exhibit the fundamental valencies 2 and 3 respectively; 
moreover, in the case of per- and proto-metallic salts all known 
facts accord with the assumption of one and only one funda- 
mental valency of the metal. One other conclusion of interest 
which Barlow and Pope are inclined to draw may be referred 
to, namely, that although silicon apparently functions as a 
tetrad element, its relative valency volume is probably only 2; 
they even question whether any element other than carbon 
has a valency volume four times that of hydrogen. It may 
well be that the peculiar stability of carbon compounds is to be 
sought in this peculiarity. 

The Barlow-Pope hypothesis, however, affords a purely 
static representation of the facts: we are still unable to apply 
dynamic considerations to the explanation of valency. From 
the time of Faraday onwards, chemists have been willing to 
regard chemical affinity as electrical in its origin; on this 
account, the atomic-charge hypothesis advocated by Helmholtz 
has been most favourably received: but this hypothesis does 
not in any way enable us to understand the many qualitative 
peculiarities which are apparent when the reciprocal affinities 
of various elements are taken into account; moreover, it 
affords no explanation of the apparent variations in valency 
which are so frequently manifest; and it affords no satisfactory 
explanation of the fact that many compounds of like radicles, 
such as the elementary gases hydrogen, nitrogen and chlorine, 
for example, are among the most stable compounds known 
more stable than many compounds consisting of elements of 
opposite polarity. Attempts have been made of late to apply 
the electronic hypothesis these attempts, however, have in- 
volved little more than a paraphrase of current static views 
and they are in no way helpful in the directions in which help 
is most needed. It is no way surprising, however, that we 
should know so little of the origin of a property that may be 
said to be the fundamental property of matter if we could ex- 
plain it, we could explain most things; what we have reason to 
be surprised at is that it should have been possible to develop 
so consistent a doctrine as that now at our disposal. 

It is scarcely necessary to point out that the sketch above 
given is but a bare outline of the subject, one in which attention 



850 



VALENS VALENTINE 



is drawn to certain points of importance in the hope that it may 
be clear that the problems cannot be discussed usefully in the 
formal manner which is too frequently adopted. Our knowledge 
of valency cannot be expressed in a few symbols or in a few 
formal statements. ( H - E - A ') 

VALENS, East Roman emperor from 364 to 378, owed his 
elevation in the thirty-sixth year of his age to his brother 
Valentinian, who chose him to be his associate in the empire, 
of which a formal division into East and West was now once 
for all definitively arranged (see VALENTINIAN I.). Valens had 
been attached to Julian's bodyguard, but he did not inherit the 
military ability of his father, Gratian of Pannonia, who had 
risen from the ranks to a high position. A revolt headed by 
Procopius in the second year of his reign, and backed up by 
the public opinion of Constantinople and the sympathy of the 
Gothic princes and chiefs on the Danube, seemed so alarming 
to him that he thought of negotiation; but in the following 
year the revolt collapsed before the firmness of his ministers 
and generals. In the year 366 Valens at one stroke reduced the 
taxes of the empire by one-fourth, a very popular measure, 
though one of questionable policy in the face of the threatening 
attitude of the Goths on the lower Danube. Before venturing 
on a campaign against them, Valens received baptism from 
Eudoxus, the bishop of Constantinople and the leader of the 
Arian party. After some small successes over the Goths, won 
by his generals (367-9), Valens concluded a peace with them, 
which lasted six years, on a general understanding that the 
Danube was to be the boundary between Goths and Romans. 
On his return to Constantinople in 360-70 Valens began to 
persecute his orthodox and Catholic subjects, but he lacked 
the energy to carry out his edicts rigorously. 

In the years 371 to 377 Valens was in Asia Minor, most of 
the time at the Syrian Antioch. Though anxious to avoid an 
Eastern war, because of danger nearer home from the restless- 
ness of the Goths, he was compelled to take the field against 
Shapur II. who had invaded and occupied Armenia. It 
seems that Valens 1 crossed the Euphrates in 373, and in 
Mesopotamia his troops drove back the king of Persia to the 
farther bank of the Tigris. But the Roman success was by no 
means decisive, and no definite understanding as to boundaries 
was come to with Persia. Valens returned to Antioch, wherein 
the winter of 373-4 he instituted a persecution of magicians 
and other people whom he foolishly believed to imperil his life. 
Between 374 and 377 we read of grievous complaints of injustice 
and extortion perpetrated under legal forms, the result probably 
of the recent panic, and pointing to an increasing weakness 
and timidity at headquarters. Although preparations were 
made for following up the war with Persia and securing the 
frontier, a truce was patched up, rather to the disadvantage 
of the empire, Armenia and the adjacent country being half 
conquered and annexed by Shapur. The armies of Rome, in 
fact, were wanted in another quarter. The Huns, of whom 
we now hear for the first time, were beginning in 376 to press 
the Goths from the north, and the latter asked leave of the 
emperor to cross the Danube into Roman territory. This they 
were allowed to do, on the condition that they came unarmed, 
and their children were transported to Asia as hostages. The 
conditions, however, were not observed by the imperial generals, 
who for their own profit forced the new settlers to buy food at 
famine prices. Accordingly, the enraged Goths, under their 
chief Fritigern, streamed across the Balkans into Thrace and the 
country round Adrianople, plundering, burning and slaughter- 
ing as they went. They were driven back for a time, but re- 
turned in the spring of 378 in greater force, with a contingent 
of Huns and Alans; and again, after some repulses, they 
penetrated to the neighbourhood of Adrianople. Valens, who 
had now returned to Constantinople, left the capital in May 
378 with a strong and well-officered army. Without awaiting 
the arrival of his nephew Gratian, emperor of the West, who 
had just won a great victory over one of the barbarous tribes 

'Arnm. Marc. xxix. I ; the narrative is brief and not very 
clear. 



of Germany in Alsace, Valens attacked the enemy at oncei 
although his troops had to go into action heated and fatigued 
by a long march on a sultry August day. The battle, which 
was fought on confined ground in a valley, was decided by 
a cavalry charge of the Alans and Sarmatians, which threw 
the Roman infantry into confusion and hemmed it in so closely 
that the men could scarcely draw their swords. The slaughter, 
which continued till the complete destruction of the Roman 
army, was one of the greatest recorded in antiquity. Valens 
either perished on the field, or, as some said, in a cottage fired 
by the enemy. From the battle of Adrianople the Goths per- 
manently established themselves south of the Danube. 

See Ammianus Marcellinus, bks. 2631; E. Gibbon, The Decline 
and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed. Bury, London, 1896), chs. 25-26; 
W. Judeich in Deutsche Zeitschrift fur Geschichtswissenschaft (1891), 

pp. 1-2 1. 

VALENTIA, SIR FRANCIS ANNESLEY, VISCOUNT (1585- 
1660), Anglo-Irish statesman, son of Robert Annesley of Newport 
Pagnel in Buckinghamshire, was born in 1585, and settled in 
Ireland at an early age, acquiring property in various parts of 
the island. His friendship with the lord deputy, Sir Arthur 
Chichester, procured for him government employment and the 
favour of King James I., who conferred on him a grant of the 
land and fort of Mountnorris, county Armagh, in 1612. He 
was returned to the Irish parliament by the county Armagh in 
1614, and four years later was appointed secretary for Ireland, 
being created a baronet in 1620. In the following year he 
received, by an unusual patent, a reversionary grant of the 
viscountcy of Valencia after the death without male issue of a 
kinsman (Sir Henry Power, created viscount of Valentia in 1621), 
the then living viscount. In 1625 Sir Francis Annesley was 
elected member for the county of Carmarthen in the English 
parliament; and in the same year he was made vice-treasurer 
and receiver-general of Ireland. In 1628 he was created Baron 
Mountnorris in the peerage of Ireland. He strongly opposed 
the policy of Lord Falkland, who became lord deputy in 1622, 
and procured his recall in 1629. When Sir Thomas Wentworth, 
afterwards the famous earl of Strafford, went to Ireland in 1633, 
he took action against Mountnorris, whom he accused of corrup- 
tion and malversation of public money. The two men became 
violent opponents, and at a dinner at the lord chancellor's house 
in April 1635 Mountnorris used insulting and threatening lan- 
guage in reference to the lord deputy. Wentworth brought 
him before a court-martial on a charge of insubordination as 
an officer in the army, and by this tribunal Mountnorris was 
condemned to death. The sentence was not carried out, but he 
was imprisoned and deprived of all his offices on the report of 
a committee appointed by the privy council to inquire into the 
charges of corruption. The vindictiveness of the proceedings 
against Mountnorris, which afterwards constituted one of the 
counts in the impeachment of Strafford, has been strongly 
condemned by some historians and extenuated by others; 
that the trial by court-martial and the sentence were at all events 
not illegal, has been shown by S. R. Gardiner. Mountnorris 
was not long detained in prison, and in 1640 his relations with 
Strafford were examined by a committee of the Long Parliament, 
which pronounced the sentence passed on him unjust and 
illegal. In 1642 he succeeded, under the above-mentioned 
reversion, to the title of viscount of Valentia. During the 
Commonwealth he again held the post of secretary in Ireland 
to the lord deputy, Henry Cromwell, with whom he was on 
friendly terms. Valentia died in 1660. His wife was Dorothy, 
daughter of Sir John Phillipps of Picton, Pembrokeshire, by 
whom he was the father of Arthur Annesley, earl of Anglesey 
(q.v. for later history). 

See S. R. Gardiner, History of England, vol. viii. (London, 
1883-84); Straff ord's Letters and Dispatches, edited by W. Knowler 
(2 vols., Dublin, 1740); G. E. C., Complete Peerage, vol. v. (London, 
1893)- 

VALENTINE, or VALENTINUS, the name of a considerable 
number of saints. The most celebrated are the two martyrs 
whose festivals fall on the I4th of February the one, a Roman 



VALENTINE AND ORSON VALENTINIAN 



851 



priest, the other, bishop of Terni (Interamna). The Passion 
of the former is part of the legend of SS. Marius and Martha 
and their companions; that of the latter has no better historical 
foundation: so that no argument can be drawn from either 
account to establish the differentiation of the two saints. It 
would appear from the two accounts that both belonged to 
the same period, i.e. to the reign of the emperor Claudius 
(Gothicus); that both died on the same day; and that both 
were buried on the Via Flaminia, but at different distances from 
Rome. The Martyrologium Hieronymianum mentions only one 
Valentinus: " Interamnae miliario LXIIII. via Flaminia natale 
Valentini." It is probable that the basilica situated at the 
second milestone on the Via Flaminia was also dedicated to 
him. It is impossible to fix the date of his death. The St 
Valentinus who is spoken of as the apostle of Rhaetia, and 
venerated in Passau as its first bishop, flourished in the sth 
century. Although the name of St Valentine is very popular in 
England, apparently no church has been dedicated to him. For 
the peculiar observances that used to be commonly connected 
with St Valentine's Eve and Day, to which allusion is frequently 
made by English writers, such works as John Brand's Popular 
Antiquities (edited by W. C. Hazlitt, vol. ii. pp. 606-11, London, 
1905), W. Hone's Every-Day Book, and Chambers's Book of 
Days may be consulted. Their appropriateness to the spring 
season is, in a general way perhaps, obvious enough, but the 
association of the lovers' festival with St Valentine seems to be 
purely accidental. 1 

See Acta Sanctorum, February, ii. 753, 756, and January, i. 
1094; G. B. de Rossi, BuUettino di archeologia cristiana (1871), 
p. 101 and (1878) p. 59. (H. DE.) 

VALENTINE AND ORSON, a romance which has been attached 
to the Carolingian cycle. It is the story of twin brothers, 
abandoned in the woods in infancy. Valentine is brought up 
as a knight at the court of Pippin, while Orson grows up in 
a bear's den to be a wild man of the woods, until he is over- 
come and tamed by Valentine, whose servant and comrade 
he becomes. The two eventually rescue their mother Bellisant, 
sister of Pippin and wife of the emperor of Greece, by whom 
she had been unjustly repudiated, from the power of a giant. 
There are versions of the tale, which appears to rest on a tost 
French original, in French, English, German, Icelandic, Dutch 
and Italian. In the older versions Orson is described as the 
" nameless " one. The kernel of the story lies in Orson's up- 
bringing and wildness, and is evidently a folk-tale the connexion 
of which with the Carolingian cycle is purely artificial. The 
story of the wife unjustly accused with which it is bound up is 
sufficiently common, and was told of the wives both of Pippin 
and Charlemagne. 

The French prose romance was printed at Lyons in 1489 and often 
subsequently. The Historye of the two Valyannte Brethren: Valentyne 
and Orson ... by Henry Watson, printed by William Copland 
about 1550, is the earliest known of a long series of English versions. 
A ballad on the subject was printed in Bishop Percy's Reliques of 
English Poetry, and the tale adapted for the nursery was illustrated 
by Walter Crane in the Three Bears' Picture Book (1876). For a 
detailed bibliography of the English, French, German, Dutch and 
Italian forms of the tale/see W. Seelman, " Valentin und Namelos " 
(Norden and Leipzig, 1884), in vol. iv. of Niederdeutsche Benkmdler, 
edited by the Verein fur niederdeutsche Sprachforschung. 

VALENTINIAN I., Roman emperor of the West from A.D. 364 
to 375, was born at Cibalis, in- ; Pannonia. He had been an 
officer of the guard under Julian and Jovian, and had risen 
high in the imperial service. Of robust frame and distinguished 
appearance, he possessed great courage and military capacity. 
He was chosen emperor in his forty-third year by the officers 
of the army at Nicaea in Bithynia in 364, and shortly after- 
wards named his brother Valens (q.v.) colleague with him in 
the empire. The two brothers, after passing through the 
chief cities of the neighbouring district, arranged the partition 

1 Until nearly the close of the igth century the custom of sending 
"valentines" -i.e. anonymous love-tokens, written or otherwise 
on St Valentine's day was fairly general. They gradually lost 
their original significance, and the custom, where it survives, has 
become completely vulgarized. 



of the empire at Naissus (Nissa) in Upper Moesia. As emperor 
of the West, Valentinian took Italy, Illyricum, Spain, the Gauls, 
Britain and Africa, leaving to Valens the eastern half of the 
Balkan Peninsula, Greece, Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor as far 
as Persia. During the short reign of Valentinian there were 
wars in Africa, in Germany and in Britain, and Rome came 
into collision with barbarian peoples of whom we now hear for 
the first time Burgundians, Saxons, Alamanni. The emperor's 
chief work was guarding the frontiers and establishing mili- 
tary positions. Milan was at first his headquarters for settling 
the affairs of northern Italy; next year (365) he was at Paris, 
and then at Reims, to direct the operations of his generals 
against the Alamanni. This people, defeated at Scarpona 
(Charpeigne) and Catelauni (Chalons-sur-Marne) by Jovinus, 
were driven back to the German bank of the Rhine, and checked 
for a while by a chain of military posts and fortresses. At the 
close of 367, however, they suddenly crossed the Rhine, attacked 
Moguntiacum (Mainz) and plundered the city. Valentinian 
attacked them at Solicinium (Sulz in the Neckar valley or 
Schwetzingen) with a large army, and defeated them with 
great slaughter, but his own losses were so considerable that he 
abandoned the idea of following up his success. Later, in 374, 
he made peace with their king, Macrianus, who from that time 
remained a true friend of the Romans. The next three years 
he spent at Trier, which he chiefly made his headquarters, 
organizing the defence of the Rhine frontier, and personally 
superintending the construction of numerous forts. During 
his reign the coasts of Gaul were harassed by the Saxon pirates, 
with whom the Picts and Scots of northern Britain joined 
hands, and ravaged the island from the wall of Antoninus to the 
shores of Kent. In 368 Theodosius was sent to drive back the 
invaders; in this he was completely successful, and established 
a new British province, called Valentia, in honour of the emperor. 
In Africa the Moorish prince, Firmus, raised the standard of 
revolt, being joined by the provincials, who had been rendered 
desperate by the cruelty and extortions of Count Romanus, 
the military governor. The services of Theodosius were again 
requisitioned. He landed in Africa with a small band of vet- 
erans, and Firmus, to avoid being taken prisoner, committed 
suicide. In 374 the Quadi, a German tribe in what is now 
Moravia and Hungary, resenting the erection of Roman forts 
to the north of the Danube in what they considered to be their 
own territory, and further exasperated by the treacherous 
murder of their king, Gabinius, crossed the river and laid waste 
the province of Pannonia. The emperor in April of the following 
year entered Illyricum with a powerful army, but during an 
audience to an embassy from the Quadi at Brigetio on the 
Danube (near Pressburg) died in a fit of apoplexy. His general 
administration seems to have been thoroughly honest and able, 
in some respects beneficent. If he was hard and exacting in 
the matter of taxes, he spent them in the defence and im- 
provement of his dominions, not in idle show or luxury. Though 
himself a plain and almost illiterate soldier, he was a founder of 
schools, and he also provided medical attendance for the poor 
of Rome, by appointing a physician for each of the fourteen 
districts of the city. He was an orthodox Catholic, but he 
permitted absolute religious freedom to all his subjects. Against 
all abuses, both civil and ecclesiastical, he steadily set his face, 
even against the increasing wealth and worldliness of the clergy. 
The great blot on his memory is his cruelty, which at times was 
frightful, and showed itself in its full fierceness in the punish- 
ment of persons accused of witchcraft, soothsaying or magical 
practices. 

See Ammianus Marcellinus xxv.-xxx. ; Gibbon, Decline and 
Fall, chap. 25; T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, bk. i. chap. 3; 
H. Schiller, Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit (Gotha, 1883-87), 
bk. iii. chap. iv. 27-30; H. Richter, Das westromisehe Reich (Berliu, 
1865), pp. 240-68. 

. After his death, his son, VALENTINIAN II., an infant of four 
years of age, with his half-brother Gratian (q.v.) a lad of about 
seventeen, became the emperors of the West. They made 
Milan their home; and the empire was nominally divided 



VALENTINIAN III. VALENTINUS 



between them, Gratian taking the trans-Alpine provinces, 
whilst Italy, Illyricum in part, and Africa were to be under 
the rule of Valentinian, or rather of his mother, Justina. 
Justina was an Arian, and the imperial court at Milan pitted 
itself against the Catholics, under the famous Ambrose, bishop 
of that city. But so great was his popularity that the court 
was decidedly worsted in the contest, and the emperor's authority 
materially shaken. In 387 Magnus Maximus (q.v.), who had 
commanded a Roman army in Britain, and had in 383 (the 
year of Gratian's death) made himself master of the northern 
provinces, crossed the Alps into the valley of the Po and threat- 
ened Milan. The emperor and his mother fled to Theodosius, 
the emperor of the East and husband of Galla, Valentinian's 
sister. Valentinian was restored in 388 by Theodosius, through 
whose influence he was converted to Orthodox Catholicism. 
Four years later he was murdered at Vienne in Gaul, probably 
at the instigation of his Frankish general Arbogast, with whom 
he had quarrelled. 

See Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chap. 27; Schiller, Geschichte der 
romischen Kaiserzeit, bk. iii. vol. iv. pp. 32, 33 ; L. Ranke, Weltgeschichte, 
bk. iv. vol. i. chap. 6 ; and especially H . Richter, Das westromische Reich 
unter den Kaisern Gratian, Valentinian II. und Maximus (Berlin, 
1865), pp. 577-650, where full references to authorities are given. 

VALENTINIAN III., emperor of the West from 425 to 455, 
the son of Constantius and Placidia, daughter of the great Theo- 
dosius. He was only six years of age when he received the 
title of Augustus, and during his minority the conduct of affairs 
was in the hands of his mother, who purposely neglected his 
education. His reign is marked by the dismemberment of the 
Western Empire; the conquest of the province of Africa by 
the Vandals in 439; the final abandonment of Britain in 446; 
the loss of great portions of Spain and Gaul, in which the bar- 
barians had established themselves; and the ravaging of Sicily 
and of the western coasts of the Mediterranean by the fleets 
of Genseric. As a set-off against these calamities there was 
the great victory of Aetius over Attila in 451 near Chalons, and 
his successful campaigns against the Visigoths in southern 
Gaul (426, 429, 436), and against various invaders on the Rhine 
and Danube (428-31). The burden of taxation became more 
and more intolerable as the power of Rome decreased, and 
the loyalty of her remaining provinces was seriously impaired 
in consequence. Ravenna was Valentinian's usual residence; 
but he fled to Rome on the approach of Attila, who, after ravag- 
ing the north of Italy, died in the following year (433). In 
454 Aetius, between whose son and a daughter of the emperor a 
marriage had been arranged, was treacherously murdered by 
Valentinian. Next year, however, the emperor himself was 
assassinated by two of the barbarian followers of Aetius. He 
not merely lacked the ability to govern the empire in a time of 
crisis, but aggravated its dangers by his self-indulgence and 
vindictiveness. 

Our chief original sources for the reign of Valentinian III. are 
Jordanes, Prosper's Chronicles, written in the 6th century, and the 
poet Apollinaris Sidonius. See also Gibbon, Decline and Fall, 
chaps. 33-35; J. B. Bury, Later Roman Empire, bk. ii. chaps. 6-^8; 
E. A. Freeman, " Tyrants of Britain, Gaul and Spain " (Eng. Hist. 
Review, January 1886), and " Aetius and Boniface " (ibid., July 
1887). 

VALENTINOIS, the name of a countship in France, the 
chief town of which was Valence (Drome). From the I2th to 
the isth century Valentinois belonged to a family of Poitiers, 
which must not be confused with that of the counts of Poitiers. 
To the detriment of his kinsmen, the lords of St Vallier, 
Count Louis II. (d. 1419) bequeathed his counties of Valentinois 
and Diois to the Dauphin Charles, afterwards King Charles VII. ; 
and in 1498 Louis XII. erected the countship of Valentinois 
into a duchy, and gave it to Caesar Borgia, son of Pope Alexander 
VI. A few years later Borgia was deprived of the duchy, 
which, in 1548, was given by Henry II. to his mistress, Diane 
de Poitiers, a descendant of the counts of Valentinois. Having 
again reverted to the Crown, the duchy was given by Louis XIII. 
to Honore Grimaldi, prince of Monaco, whose descendants 
retained it until the French Revolution. The new duchy of 
Valentinois, however, did not consist of the lands attached to 



the former one, but was made up of several scattered lordships in 
Dauphine. The title of duke of Valentinois is still borne by the 
prince of Monaco. 

See J. Chevalier, Memoires pour servir d, I'histoire des comtes 
de Valentinois et de Diois (Paris, 1897-1906). 

VALENTINUS, pope for thirty or forty days in 827, in suc- 
cession to Eugenius II. (824-27). He was a Roman by birth, 
and, according to the Liber Pontificates, was first made a deacon 
by Paschal I. (817-24). Nothing further is known of his 
history. His successor was Gregory IV. (827-44). 

VALENTINUS and THE VALENTINIANS. I. Valentinus, the 
most prominent leader of the Gnostic movement, was born, 
according to Epiphanius (Haer. 31,2), near the coast in Lower 
Egypt, and was brought up and educated in Alexandria. He 
then went to Rome, as we learn from Irenaeus, Adv. haer. 
iii. 4, 3; Valentinus came to Rome during the episcopate of 
Hyginus, flourished under Pius and stayed till the time of 
Anicetus. The duration of the episcopates of the Roman 
bishops at this period is not absolutely established, but we can 
hardly go altogether wrong if, with Harnack (Chronologic der 
altchristlichen Literatur, i. 291), we fix the period 135-60 for 
Valentinus's residence in Rome. This is confirmed by the fact 
that Justin Martyr in his Apology, i. 26, begun about 150, 
mentions that in his earlier work against heresy, the Syntagma, 
he attacked, among others, Valentinus; so that his heresy must 
have begun to appear at least as early as 140. According to 
Irenaeus iii. 3, 4, Polycarp, during his sojourn in Rome under 
the episcopate of Anicetus, converted a few adherents of the 
Valentinian sect. Tertullian (Adv. Valentin, cap. 4) declares 
that Valentinus came to Rome as an adherent of the orthodox 
Church, and was a candidate for the bishopric of Rome, but 
he abandoned the Church because a confessor was preferred to 
him for this office. The credibility of this statement may be 
questioned. There is nothing impossible in it, but it has rather 
the appearance of a piece of the usual church gossip. Great 
uncertainty attaches to the residence of Valentinus in Cyprus, 
recorded by Epiphanius (loc. oil.), who places it after his stay 
in Rome, adding that it was here that he definitely accom- 
plished his secession from the Church. Scholars are divided 
as to whether this stay in Cyprus was before or after that in 
Rome. But on the whole it seems to be clear from the various 
notices that Valentinus did not, e.g. like Marcion, break with 
the Church from the very beginning, but endeavoured as long 
as possible to maintain his standing within it. 

II. The authorities which we have to consider deal for the most 
part with Valentinianism in its fully developed form, and not 
with the original teaching of the master. Justin's Syntagma (v.s.), 
which treats of Valentinus, is unfortunately lost. Irenaeus in his 
section i. 11, 1-3, has preserved what is obviously an older docu- 
ment, possibly from Justin, dealing with Valentinus's own teaching 
and that of two of his disciples. The sketch which he gives is the 
best guide for the original form of Valentinianism. For Valentinus 
himself we have also to consider the fragments of his writings pre- 
served by Clemens Alexandrinus. The best edition of and com- 
mentary on them is Hilgenfeld's Ketzergeschichte des Urckristentums 
(pp. 293-307). Irenaeus in his treatise Adv. haer. gives a detailed 
account of the two chief schools following Valentinus, the school 
of Ptolemaeus (i. i-io), and Marcus and the Marcosians (i. 13-21). 
For his account of the Ptolemaeans, Irenaeus seems to have 
used various writings and expositions of the school, especially 
prominent being a collection of Scripture proofs which may have 
once had a separate literary existence (i. I, 3; 3, 1-5 (6); 8, 2-4). 
To this work is appended in a somewhat disconnected fashion a 
commentary on the prologue to the fourth Gospel (i. 8, 5). Irenaeus 
himself twice prefaces his remarks by saying he is indebted to other 
authorities for his exposition (i. 2, 3-4; 7, 2-5). Section 6, 2-4, 
interrupts and disturbs the continuity, and section 5, 1-3, is a dupli- 
cate of 5, 4. We see how the account of Irenaeus is built up from 
small fragments. In his account ot Marcus and the Marcosians 
the chapters on the sacraments (i. 13 and 20) seem originally to 
have formed part of the same whole. Very valuable too are the 
Excerpta ex Theodoto which are to be found in the works of Clemens 
Alexandrinus, and may be looked upon as a collection made by 
the author with a view to the eighth book of his Stromateis, which 
was never finished. Of these excerpts paragraphs 4, 5, 8-15, I7b- 
20, 27, should be distinguished as Clemens's own observations; the 
remaining parts are extracted from Gnostic writings (cf. Zahn, 
Geschichte des Kanons, ii. pp. 269 seq.). Yet the Excerpta, as their 



VALENTINUS 



853 



contents show, are not homogeneous, and cannot have been bor- 
rowed from one writing. The question as to whether Clemens' 
method of quotations, which mentions sometimes Theodotus, some- 
times the Valentinians as his sources for these excerpts, is of any 
use as a guide to an estimate between these sources, must be left 
undecided. The most important sections are paragraphs 29-68, in 
which an attempt is made at a continuous exposition of the system 
(though here again from various sources), and section 69-86, which 
deals with the Gnostic doctrine of the sacraments and that of the 
liberation of the Heimarmene. The lost Syntagma^ of Hippolytus, 
which, as we know, is preserved in the works of Philastrius and the 
pseudo-Tertullian, seems to furnish us with valuable information 
as to the earlier doctrines of the sect, and in his second treatise 
against heretics, the so-called Philosophumena (6, 29 seq.). Hip- 
polytus gives a homogeneous and continuous exposition of a later 
Valentinian system, possibly connected with the school of Ptole- 
maeus. Important, too, are Hippolytus' references to an Italic 
and an Anatolian branch of the Valentinian sect (6, 35). Ter- 
tullian gives at the beginning of his treatise against the Valentinians 
a few separate notices of the life and disciples of Valentinus, but 
his further argument is closely dependent upon Irenaeus' exposition 
of the Ptolemaean system, which he embellishes in his usual fashion 
with bitterly sarcastic comments. Epiphanius deals with Valen- 
tinus and his school in sections 31-36 of his work. In cap. 31, 
1-8, he gives an account of the Valentinians, which seems to be 
based on his own observation. Thus in 31, 5-6, we find yet another 
verbal extract from a Valentinian doctrinal work. For the rest he 
copies the text of Irenaeus word for word, which has the advantage 
of preserving for us Irenaeus' Greek phraseology, which we other- 
wise should only know in a Latin translation. In his section on 
Ptolemaeus, cap. 33, Epiphanius has preserved for us a valuable 
letter of Ptolemaeus to Flora, which is a document of the highest 
importance for the understanding of Gnosticism. 

III. Valentinus is the only one of the Gnostics who had a 
whole series of disciples who are known by name indeed, in 
the accounts of the Church Fathers his own system and views 
are almost entirely obscured by the accounts of those of his 
disciples. His fundamental ideas can be with difficulty recon- 
structed from Irenaeus i. n, from the fragments contained in 
Clemens, and to a certain extent from the Syntagma of Hippo- 
lytus, with the aid of later systems connected with his. Two 
early disciples of Valentinus are enumerated in Irenaeus ii. 
2-3, one of whom is named Secundus; according to Irenaeus 
we have to trace back to him the division of the Valentinian 
Sophia into the double form of an aeon abiding in heaven, and 
her daughter, Sophia Achamoth. The second disciple is not 
named by Irenaeus; it is conjectured that he may have been 
Colorbases, the teacher of Marcus (i. 14, i). The most important 
disciples of Valentinus, then, are the two dealt with at length 
by Irenaeus, Ptolemaeus and Marcus, who both seem to have 
had a numerous following. Besides these we should also 
mention Herakleon, of whose commentary on the gospel of St 
John extensive fragments are preserved by Origen. Ptolemaeus 
and Herakleon are counted by Hippolytus (6, 35) among the 
Italic branch of Valentinianism. There was also the Anatolian 
branch, as representative of which Hippolytus mentions 
Axionicus, who is also referred to by Tertullian as having 
actually been taught in Antioch. The Excerpta ex Theodoto 
in Clemens are also, according to the superscription, fragments 
from the Anatolian Gnosticism. It is, however, an error when 
Hippolytus speaks of Bardesanes as representative of this 
branch, for he had an entirely distinct position. 

IV. In the important section of Irenaeus (i. n) devoted to 
Valentinus, his teaching is definitely connected with the so- 
called " falsely reputed Gnostics." It will be useful, in trying 
to ascertain the teaching and view of life of Valentinus, to 
keep closely before us that of the " Gnostics " in the narrower 
sense of the word, as preserved in the expositions of Irenaeus 
(i. 29, 30) and Epiphanius (passim). The Gnostics were par 
excellence worshippers of the supreme Mother-goddess, the 
MI^TT/P, in whom we have no difficulty in recognizing the 
characteristics of the goddess of heaven of anterior Asia. This 
" Meter " is, in the system of these Gnostics, also at one time 
the stern, austere goddess, the Mother, who dwells in heaven, 
at other times the licentious goddess of love, the great courtesan 
(Prunikon), who, e.g. in the Simonian system, takes the form 
of the prostitute Helena, in whose worship all kinds of obscene 
rites were celebrated. She dwells in the eighth or highest 



heaven, whence her name Ogdoas. Next to her stands the 
supreme and shadowy form of the unknown and nameless 
Father; below her in the seven lower heavens reign the seven 
planetary, world-creating angelic powers, headed by Jaldabaoth, 
who was later to be identified with the God of the Old Testament. 
The Gnostics are children of the supreme Mother; from her 
the heavenly seed, the divine spark, descended in some way 
to this lower world, and thus the children of heaven still exist 
in this gross material world, subject to the Heimarmene and in 
the power of hostile spirits and powers; and all their sacraments 
and mysteries, their formulae and symbols, must be part of her 
worship, in order to find the way upwards, back to the highest 
heaven, " where the Mother dwells." This idea that the 
Gnostics know themselves to be in a hostile and evil world 
reacted in the same direction upon the conception of the Mother 
of heaven. She became likewise a fallen goddess, who has 
sunk down into the material world and seeks to free herself 
from it, receiving her liberation at the hands of a heavenly 
Redeemer, exactly like the Gnostics. Various myths have 
contributed towards this; one of these is the widespread naive 
pagan myth of a goddess who disappears, carried off by the 
powers of evil, to be set free and taken back to her home by a 
divine liberator, a brother or betrothed. The moon-goddess 
with her disappearance may have been the prototype of this 
mythical figure (there are, indeed, certain analogies to be 
remarked between the Simonian Helena and Selene). With 
this myth are connected certain Jewish Theologumena; the 
goddess who sinks down into the material may readily be 
identified with Ruach (Rucha), the Spirit of God, who broods 
over Chaos, or even with the later Sophia (Chokma Achamoth), 
who was generally conceived of as a world-creating agent. 
Thirdly, the chief influence at work here seems to have been 
the oriental myth of the Primal Man sunk in the material world, 
which appears in its simple form in individual Gnostic systems, 
e.g. in Poimandres (in the Corpus hermeticum) and in Manichaeism. 
In the Gnostic systems of Irenaeus i. 29, 30, the Anthropos 
(i.e. the Primal Man) no longer appears as the world-creative 
power sinking down into the material world, but as a celestial 
aeon of the upper world (or even as the supreme god), who 
stands in a clearly defined relationship to the fallen goddess; 
it is possible that the r61e of the Anthropos is here transferred 
to Sophia Achamoth. The fallen Sophia next becomes, in 
like manner, a world creative power. And now the highest 
of the world-creating angels, Jaldabaoth, appears as her son, 
and with this whole conception are then linked up the ideas 
of liberation and redemption. Next to the Sophia stands a 
male redeeming divinity. In all the Gnostic systems known 
to us Christ already appears as the Saviour, and so in this 
respect a Christianizing of Gnosticism has been carried out; 
but originally this Saviour-divinity had nothing in common 
with the figure of the Christian Redeemer. This is clear from 
Irenaeus's account of the Gnostics (i. 30). For here the redemp- 
tion is actually and essentially effected through the uniting 
in marriage of the fallen goddess with her higher celestial 
brother, and they are expressly described as the bride and 
bridegroom. That is to say, we have here the purely mythical 
idea of the deliverance of a goddess by a god, and of the celestial 
marriage of a divine pair. This myth can only with difficulty 
be connected with the historic redemption through Jesus of 
Nazareth, by further relating that Christ, having been united 
to the Sophia, descends into the earthly Jesus. 

V. This primitive " Gnosticism " was very closely followed 
by Valentinus, who may have come to know these doctrines 
in Egypt. This can be seen from the fact that in Valentinianism 
the Mother-goddess always stands absolutely at the centre of 
the system. Irenaeus (i. 6, i) is very instructive on this point, 
characterizing the Gnostics as the pneumatici who have a perfect 
knowledge of God, and have been initiated into the mysteries 
of Achamoth. A mighty system is certainly erected here out 
of the modest elements of Gnosticism. 

(i) More especially, the superstructure of the celestial system, the 
celestial world of aeons, which exists above the fallen goddess, is 



VALENTINUS 



here developed in the most complicated way. Valentinus has a 
system of thirty aeons, but we can with but little trouble recognize 
the simple system underlying this great superstructure. The quite 
shadowy plurality of ten and twelve aeons (the Dekas and the 
Dodekas) of the Valentinian system we may at once set aside as 
mere fantastical accretions. We have left only a group of eight 
celestial beings, the so-called Ogdoas, and of these eight figures 
four again are peculiar to the Valentinian system, and are probably 
artificial interpolations. For instance, when for the third pair of 
aeons we find the Logos and Zoe, figures which occur only here, and 
perceive, moreover, that the place of this pair of aeons is not firmly 
established, but that in this Valentinian tradition they occur some- 
times before and sometimes after the fourth pair of aeons, the 
Anthropos and the Ekklesia, we cannot be far wrong in suspecting 
that here already we find Valentinus to have been influenced by 
the prologue of the fourth Gospel (we also find the probably Johan- 
nine names Monogenes and Parakletos in the series of aeons). 

(2) The first pair of aeons, Bythos and Sige, is likewise an original 
innovation of the Valentinian school, and clearly betrays a monistic 
tendency. According to Irenaeus's account of the" Gnostics" (1.29), 
their theory was that Sophia casts herself into the primal sub- 
stratum of matter to be found outside the celestial world of aeons. 
In the Valentinian system, primal matter (Bythos), the original 
Chaos, is brought into connexion with the celestial world of aeons. 
And thus it is effected that matter is here not found originally and 
irretrievably separated from the higher celestial world, but that the 
latter originally exists for itself alone; the fall or disturbance is 
accomplished within the celestial world, and the material world first 
comes into existence through the fall. When we subtract from the 
Ogdoas the two pairs of aeons whose later introduction into the 
Valentinian system has been demonstrated, we are left actually with 
a double pair of aeons, the Father and Truth, the Anthropos and the 
Ekklesia. These strongly recall the Gnostic systems set forth in 
Irenaeus i. 29 and 30 (cf. i. 29, 3). And thus the Anlhropoi (man), a 
leading figure of primitive Gnosticism, now half- forgotten, moves 
back into the centre of the system and the direct vicinity of the fallen 
goddess. It is also clear why the Ekklesia appears together with the 
Anthropos. With the celestial Primal Man of whom the myth 
originally relates that he has sunk into matter and then raised him- 
self up from it again is associated the community of the faithful 
and the redeemed, who are to share the same fate with him. Simi- 
larly among the Gnostics of Irenaeus i. 29, 3, perfect Gnosis (and thus 
the whole body of Gnostics) is connected with the Anthropos. 

(3) The fallen goddess, mentioned above, occurs in the Valentinian 
system, as in the Gnostic systems described by Irenaeus, and in the 
older systems it is again the celestial aeon himself who falls, and 
whose fate outside the Pleroma is related (cf. the exposition in 
Irenaeus i. II, Excerpta ex Theodoto, 31 seq., and Hippplytus, Syn- 
tagma, in the pseudo-Tertullian). In the later Valentinian systems, 
probably from Secundus onwards (see above), the figure appears 
in double guise. The higher Sophia still remains wkhm the upper 
world after creating a disturbance, and after her expiation and 
repentance; but her premature offspring, Sophia Achamoth, is re- 
moved from the Pleroma, and becomes the heroine of the rest of 
the drama (we have dealt in the preceding section with the other 
conception of the fall of Sophia). 

(4) In the true Valentinian system the so-called Christos is the 
son of the fallen Aeon, who is thus conceived as an individual. 
Sophia, who in a frenzy of love had sought to draw near to the un- 
attainable Bythos, brings forth, through her longing for that higher 
being, an aeon who is higher and purer than herself, and at once 
rises into the celestial worlds. Among the Gnostics of Irenaeus 
we find a kindred conception, but with a slight difference. Here 
Christos and Sophia appear as brother and sister, Christos represent- 
ing the higher and Sophia the lower element. In the enigmatic figure 
of Christos we again find hidden the original conception of the Primal 
Man, who sinks down into matter but rises again. (In the later 
Valentinian systems this origin of the Christos is entirely obscured, 
and Christ, together with the Holy Spirit, becomes a later offspring 
of the celestial world of aeons; this may be looked upon as an ap- 
proximation to the Christian dogma). 

(5) A figure entirely peculiar to Valentinian Gnosticism is that of 
Horos (the Limiter). The name is perhaps an echo of the Egyptian 
Horus. The peculiar task of Horos is to separate the fallen aeons 
from the upper world of aeons. At the same time he becomes (first, 
perhaps, in the later Valentinian systems) a kind of world-creative 
power, who in this capacity helps to construct an ordered world out 
of Sophia and her passions. He is also called, curiously enough, 
Stauros (cross), and we frequently meet with references to the figure 
of Stauros. But we must not be in too great a hurry to conjecture 
that this is a Christian figure. Speculations about the Stauros are 
older than Christianity, and a Platonic conception may have been at 
work here. Plato had already stated that the world-soul revealed 
itself in the form of the letter Chi (X) ; by which he meant that 
figure described in the heavens by the intersecting orbits of the sun 
and the planetary ecliptic. Since through this double orbit all the 
movements of the heavenly powers are determined, so all " becom- 
ing " and all life depend on it, and 'thus we can understand the state- 
ment that the world-soul appears in the form of an X, or a cross. The 



cross can also stand for the wondrous aeon on whom depends the 
ordering and life of the world, and thus Horos-Stauros appears here 
as the first redeemer of Sophia from her passions, and as the orderer 
of the creation of the world which now begins. This explanation of 
Horos, moreover, is not a mere conjecture, but one branch of the 
Valentinian school, the Marcosians, have expressly so explained this 
figure (Irenaeus i. 17, i). Naturally, then, the figure of Horos- 
Stauros was often in later days assimilated to that of the Christian 
Redeemer. 

(6) Peculiarly Valentinian is the above-mentioned derivation of 
the material world from the passions of Sophia. Whether this 
already formed part of the original system of Valentinus is, indeed, 
questionable, but at any rate it plays a prominent part in the 
Valentinian school, and consequently appears with the most diverse 
variations in the account given by Irenaeus. By it is effected the 
comparative monism of the Valentinian system. The dualism of 
the conception of two separate worlds of light and darkness is over- 
come by the derivation of the material world from the passions of 
Sophia. Older myths may here have served as a model ; for instance, 
we may recall the myth of the derivation of the world from the 
body and limbs of the Primal Man (Bousset, Hauptprobleme der 
Gnosis, p. 21 1). 

(7) This derivation of the material world from the passions of the 
fallen Sophia is next affected by an older theory, which probably 
occupied an important place in the true Valentinian system. Ac- 
cording to this theory the son of Sophia, whom she forms on the 
model of the Christos who has disappeared in the Pleroma, becomes 
the Demiourgos, and this Demiourgos with his angels now appears 
as the real world-creative power. These two conceptions had now to 
be combined at all costs. And it is interesting to observe here what 
efforts were made to give the Demiourgos a better position. Ac- 
cording to the older conception, he was an imperfect, ignorant, half- 
evil and malicious offspring of his mother, who has already been 
deprived of any particle of light (Irenaeus i. 29, 30). In the Valen- 
tinian systems he appears as the fruit of Sophia's repentance and 
conversion. Even his name has been changed from that of the older 
Gnosticism. He' is no longer called Jaldabaoth, but has been 
assigned the better name, drawn from the philosophy of Plato, of 
Demiourgos. We must not forget here that the Demiourgos of the 
Gnostic is known to have corresponded to the God of the Old Testa- 
ment, who was the God of the Christian Church, and that we can 
thus lay our finger here on a compromise with the faith of the great 
Christian community. 

(8) With the doctrine of the creation of the world is connected the 
subject of the creation of man. We fortunately know, from a frag- 
ment preserved by Clemens, that Valentinus here preserved the old 
Gnostic myth practically unaltered in his system. According to it, 
the world-creating angels not one, but many create man, but the 
seed of the spirit comes into their creature without their knowledge, 
by the agency of a higher celestial aeon, and they are then terrified by 
the faculty of speech by which their creature rises above them, and 
try to destroy him. In the Valentinian system known to us this myth 
has practically lost its original freshness and colour, and can only 
be arrived at from allusions. On the other hand, the speculations of 
the Valentinians delight in accounts of the artificial and complicated 
putting together of the first man out of the various elements. And a 
specifically Valentinian idea is here added in that of the threefold 
nature of man, who is represented as at once spiritual, psychical and 
material. In accordance with this there also arise three classes of 
men, the pneumatici, the psychici and the hylici (v\ij, matter). It 
is significant that Valentinus himself is credited with having written 
a treatise upon the three natures (Schwartz, Aporien, i. 292). Here 
we have another instance of the theological compromise of the Valen- 
tinians. All the other Gnostic systems recognize only a dual division, 
the children of light and the children of darkness. That the Valen- 
tinians should have placed the psychici between the pneumatici and 
hylici signifies a certain recognition of the Christian Church and its 
adherents. They are not numbered simply among the outcasts, but 
considered as an intermediate class, to whom is left the choice between 
the higher celestial nature and the lower and earthly. 

(9) Atthecentreof the whole Valentinian system naturally stands 
the idea of redemption, and so we find here developed particularly 
clearly the myth of the heavenly marriage already known from 
Irenaeus i. 30 to be Gnostic. Redemption is essentially accomplished 
through the union of the heavenly Soter with the fallen goddess. 
There is great uncertainty in the Valentinian system as to who this 
celestial Soter is. In the Gnostic systems of Irenaeus i. 30 he is the 
Christos, the celestial brother who turns bacjc to the fallen sister. In 
the Valentinian system the redeemer is likewise sometimes brought 
into relation with the Christos, sometimes, in a significant way, with 
the Anthropos, and sometimes again with Horos-Stauros. In the 
fully developed Ptolemaean system he appears as the common off- 
spring of the whole Pleroma, upon whom all the aeons confer their 
best and most wonderful qualities (we may compare here the Marduk 
myth, in which it is related that all the gods transfer their qualities 
and powers to the young god Marduk, who is recognized as their 
leader). And this celestial redeemer-aeon now enters into a marriage 
with the fallen goddess; they are the " bride and bridegroom." It is 
boldly stated in the exposition in Hippolytus's PhUosophumena that 



VALENTINUS 



855 



they produce between them 70 celestial sons (angels). (In the other 
accounts these angels no longer appear as the sons of the celestial 
pair, but as the heavenly attendants accompanied by whom the Soter 
approaches Sophia.) It is obvious from the number 70 that we 
have here a marriage between a celestial and divine pair. This 
marriage relation between the Soter and Sophia is expounded 
in quite a material way even in Irenaeus iii. 3, 4, where the Old 
Testament phrase irav &ppev Siavotyov niTpav is translated, " the Pan 
(the all, a name for the Soter), the masculinity which opens the 
mother's womb." This myth of the redeemer, as we shall see more 
fully below, and as may be mentioned here, is of great significance for 
the practical piety of the Valentinian Gnostics. It is the chief idea 
of their pious practices mystically to repeat the experience of this 
celestial union of the Soter with Sophia. In this respect, conse- 

uently, the myth underwent yet wider development. Just as the 
oter is the bridegroom of Sophia, so the heavenly angels, who some- 
times appear as the sons of the Soter and Sophia, sometimes as the 
escort of the Soter, are the males betrothed to the souls of the 
Gnostics, which are looked upon as feminine. Thus every Gnostic had 
his angel standing in the presence of God, and the object of a pious 
life was to bring about and experience this inner union with the 
celestial abstract personage. This leads us straight to the sacra- 
mental ideas of this branch of Gnosticism (see below). And it also 
explains the expression used of the Gnostics in Irenaeus i. 6, 4, 
that they always meditate upon the secret of the heavenly union 
(the Syzygia). 

(10) With this celestial Soter of the Valentinians and the redemp- 
tion of Sophia through him is connected, in a way which is now not 
quite intelligible to us, the figure of Jesus of Nazareth and the histori- 
cal redemption connected with his name. The Soter, the bridegroom 
of Sophia, and the earthly Jesus answer to each other as in some way 
identical. Here again we recognize the entirely artificial compro- 
mise between Gnosticism and Christianity. It is characteristic of 
this that in one passage in the account of Irenaeus it is directly 
stated that the redeemer came specially on account of the psychici, 
for the pneumatici (the Gnostics) already belong by nature to the 
celestial world, and no longer require any historical redemption, while 
the hylici have fallen beforehand into damnation, so that with the 
psychici only is there any question as to whether they will turn to re- 
demption or damnation, and for them the historical redeemer is of 
efficacy (Irenaeus i. 6, l). This assertion is in thorough agreement 
with the fundamental tendency of Gnostic piety; for the Gnostics 
individual redemption has actually been accomplished in the union 
between the Soter and Sophia, and is effected for the individual 
Gnostics in repeating the experience of this union. So that in effect 
they no longer require the historical redemption through Jesus. 

(11) Among the manifold confusion of opinions as to the nature 
and characteristics of the Redeemer Jesus of Nazareth, certain ex- 
planations stand out as characteristically Valentinian, especially 
those in which it is laid down that even the redeemer has a 
threefold nature; from his mother, Sophia, he derived his 
nature as a pneumaticos , in the world of the Demiourgps he was 
united with the Christos, and finally a wondtrful bodily nature 
was formed for him from celestial elements, which was yet not of 
earthly material. As such he was miraculously born of the Virgin, 
as through a canal (Sid ffuXfjros). The compromises with the 
Catholic Church are here obvious. According to this theory Jesus, 
having an element of the psychical nature, can appear in virtue of 
this as the son of the Demiourgos, i.e. of the Old Testament God, 
and as the Redeemer of the psychici; and when we read of this 
miraculous bodily nature, which is not composed of earthly material, 
there is an obvious compromise between the fundamental heresy of 
Gnosticism, Docetism and the dogma of the Christian Church as to 
the true bodily nature of the Redeemer. Into this already com- 
plicated Christology is now introduced by an obscure combination, 
in the systems known to us, the idea that upon this Jesus, so con- 
stituted, yet another celestial nature, the Christos or the Soter, has 
descended at his baptism. This is the older and peculiar Gnostic 
conception of Irenaeus i. 30, which appears to have been introduced 
into Valentinianism at a late stage of its development. The express 
statement ia Hippolytus 6, 35, that this doctrine was shared only by 
the Italic branch of the Valentinians, but disclaimed by the Anatolian 
branch, also bears on the point. 

(12) The close of the drama and the final accomplishment of the 
redemption is also depicted by the Valentinian writings in accordance 
with the old Gnosticism. A general ascent takes place, the Soter 
returns with the liberated Sophia into the Pleroma, and likewise the 
Gnostics with the angels with whom they are connected. But it is 
characteristic of the Valentinian system that the Demiourgos and 
the psychici who are connected with him also ascend to the eighth 
or highest heaven of Achamoth, while the remaining material world 
sinks into flames. 

VI. The first survey of these confused speculations, these 
myths gathered together and preserved from the ancient world, 
this marshalling together of the most varied traditions, and 
above all, these artificial attempts at compromise dictated by 
practical prudence, makes us inclined to doubt whether it was 
possible for any true piety to coexist with all this. Yet such 



piety existed, indeed we have here a set of regular mystics. It 
is not, indeed, a purely spiritual and mystical piety, but a mysti- 
cism much distorted and over-grown with sacramental additions 
and a mysterious cult. But all this is not without an inner 
value and an attractive atmosphere. Our information, it is 
true, is scant; most of it is to be found in the fragments of the 
letters and homilies of the master of the school preserved for us 
by Clemens. The central point of the piety of Valentinus seems 
to have been the mystical contemplation of God; in a letter 
preserved in Clemens ii. 20, 114, he sets forth that the soul 
of man is like an inn, which is inhabited by many evil spirits. 
" But when the Father, who alone is good, looks down and 
around him, then the soul is hallowed and lies in full light, and 
so he who has such a heart as this is to be called happy, for he 
shall behold God." But this contemplation of God, as Valen- 
tinus, closely and deliberately following the doctrines of the 
Church, and with him the compiler of the Gospel of John de- 
clares, is accomplished through the revelation of the Son. 
This mystic and visionary also discusses the Psalm which is 
preserved in the Philosophumena of Hippolytus (6, 37). With 
celestial enthusiasm Valentinus here surveys and depicts the 
heavenly world of aeons, and its connexion with the lower 
world. 1 Exalted joy of battle and a valiant courage breathe 
forth in the sermon in which Valentinus addresses the faith- 
ful (Clemens iv. 13, 91): "Ye are from the beginning im- 
mortal and children of eternal life, and desire to divide death 
amongst you like a prey, in order to destroy it and utterly to 
annihilate it, that thus death may die in you and through you, 
for if ye dissolve the world, and are not yourselves dissolved, 
then are ye lords over creation and over all that passes away." 
From Tertullian, de came Christi cap. 17, 20, we learn that 
Valentinus composed psalms. We may conjecture that these 
psalms were similar in their kind to the beautiful odes of Solomon 
which have lately been discovered, though without suggesting that 
these particular psalms were specifically Gnostic or Valentinian. 

VII. But with this mysticism, of which we possess only a 
few of the beautiful flowers, is connected the mystery and cult 
of the sacrament. The lofty spirituality of the Gnostic de- 
generates over and over again into a distinctly material and 
sensual attitude, in which all kinds of efforts are made actually to 
assimilate to oneself the divine through external means. Our 
authorities for the sacramental practices of the Valentinians are 
preserved especially in the accounts of the Marcosians given in 
Irenaeus i. 13 and 20, and in the last section of the Excerpta 
ex Theodoto. We must point out once again how the mother 
aeon stands absolutely at the centre of this cult. There are 
moreover various figures in the fully developed system of the 
Valentinians who are in the Gnostic's mind when he calls upon 
the Mother goddess; sometimes it is the fallen Achamoth, 
sometimes the higher Sophia abiding in the celestial world, 
sometimes Aletheia, the consort of the supreme heavenly father, 
but it is always the same person, the Mother goddess, on whom 
the fervent faith of the Gnostics is fixed. Thus a baptismal 
confession of faith of the Gnostics (Irenaeus i. 21, 3) runs, " In 
the name of the unknown Father of all, by Aletheia, the mother 
of all, by the name which descended upon Jesus." And in 
almost all the sacramental prayers of the Gnostics handed down 
to us by Irenaeus, the mother is the object of the invocation. 
If the interpretation generally given of the Aramaean baptismal 
formula by Irenaeus in the same passage is correct, it began 
with the words: " In the name of Achamoth." Hence we can 
understand how, according to Irenaeus i. 5, 3, Sophia Achamoth 
had among the Valentinians the title of kyrios (lord), and, a 
question closely connected with this, why they did not call 
Jesus kyrios, but Soter, as Irenaeus expressly assures us 
(i. i, 3). Kyrios is the title given to the hero who is the 
subject of a cult among a given body of people, and the 
heroine of the cult of the Valentinians, Sophia Achamoth, 
therefore receives this title. 

1 Cf. Goethe's Faust, I.: 

" Wie Himmelskrafte auf und niedersteigen 
Und sich die goldnen Eimer reichen." 



856 



VALENTIN US 



The chief sacrament of the Valentinians seems to have been 
that of the bridal chamber. 

We have stated above the relation of this sacrament with the 
Valentinian speculations. .Just as the apostle Paul represented his 
Christianity as a living, dying and rising again with Christ, so the 
first concern of the pious Valentinian was the experience of the divine 
marriage feast of Sophia. As Sophia was united with the Soter, her 
bridegroom, so the faithful would experience a union with their angel 
in heaven (i.e. their ' ' double, ' ' Doppelganger) . The ritual of this sacra- 
ment is briefly indicated by Irenaeus i. 2 1 , 3 : "A few of them prepare 
a bridal chamber and in it go through a form of consecration, employ- 
ing certain fixed formulae, which are repeated over the person to be 
initiated, and stating that a spiritual marriage is to be performed 
after the pattern of the higher Syzygia." Through a fortunate 
chance, a liturgical formula which was used at this sacrament appears 
to be preserved, though in a garbled form and in an entirely different 
connexion, the author seeming to have been uncertain as to its 
original meaning. It runs: " I will confer my favour upon thee, for 
the father of all sees thine angel ever before his face ... we must 
now become as one ; receive now this grace from me and through me ; 
deck thyself as a bride who awaits her bridegroom, that thou mayest 
become as I am, and I as thou art. Let the seed of light'descend 
into thy bridal chamber; receive the bridegroom and give place to 
him, and open thine arms to embrace him. Behold, grace has de- 
scended upon thee." 

Besides this the Gnostics already practised baptism, using the same 
form in all essentials as that of the Christian Church. The name given 
to baptism, at least among certain bodies, was apolytrosis (liberation) ; 
the baptismal formulae have been mentioned above. Great import- 
ance attaches in the Gnostic sacramental speculations to invocation 
(of the name). The Gnostics are baptized in the mysterious name 
which also descended upon Jesus at his baptism. The angels of the 
Gnostics have also had to be baptized in this name, in order to bring 
about redemption for themselves and the souls belonging to them 
(excerpta ex Theodoto, 22). In this connexion we also find the 
formula Xiirpoxru' A'yyeXuc^i' (f r the angelic redemption, Irenaeus i. 
21, 3). In the baptismal formulae the sacred name of the Re- 
deemer is mentioned over and over again. In one of the formulae 
occur the words: " I would enjoy thy name, Saviour of Truth." 
The concluding formula of the baptismal ceremony is: " Peace over 
all upon whom the Name rests " (Irenaeus i. 21, 3). This name pro- 
nounced at baptism over the faithful has above all the significance 
that the name will protect the soul in its ascent through the heavens, 
conduct it safely through all hostile powers to the lower heavens, 
and procure it access to Horos, who frightens back the lower souls by 
his magic word (exc. ex Theodoto, 22). And for this life also baptism, 
in consequence of the pronouncing of the protecting name over the 
baptized person, accomplishes his liberation from the lower daemonic 
powers. Before baptism the Heirmarmene is supreme, but after 
baptism the soul is free from her (exc. ex Theod. 77). 

With baptism was also connected the anointing with oil, and hence 
we can also understand the death sacrament occurring among the 
Valentinians consisting in an anointing with a mixture of oil and 
water (Irenaeus i. 21, 4). This death sacrament has naturally the 
express object of assuring the soul the way to the highest heaven " so 
that the soul may be intangible and invisible to the higher mights 
and powers " (Irenaeus, loc. cit.). In this connexion we also find a 
few formulae which are entrusted to the faithful, so that their souls 
may pronounce them on their journey upwards. One of these 
formulae runs: " I am a son of the Father, the Father who was before 
the whole world I came to see everything, that which is strange and 
that which is my own ; and deep down there is nothing strange, but 
only that which belongs to Achamoth. For she is the feminine aeon, 
and she has made all things. I draw my sex from that which was 
before^the world, and take back to it the property from which I 
came ]' (Irenaeus i. 21, 5). Another formula is appended, in which 
there is a distinction in the invocation between the higher and lower 
Sophia. Another prayer of the same style is to be found in Irenaeus 
i. 13, and it is expressly stated that after prayer is pronounced the 
Mother throws the Homeric helmet (cf. the Tarnkappe) over the 
faithful soul, and so makes him invisible to the mights and powers 
which surround and attack him. 

On the other hand, we see how here and there a reaction took place 
against the absurdity of this sacramental superstition. Thus Iren- 
aeus (i. 21,4) tells us of certain Gnostics who would admit no external 
holy practices as efficacious: "The completed apolytrosis is the 
actual knowledge of the inexpressible majesty (of God), for through 
ignorance arose all faultiness and suffering, and through knowledge 
will be removed all the conditions which arose from ignorance; and 
therefore knowledge (gnosis) is the perfecting of the inner man." A 
pure piety, rising above mere sacramentalism, breathes in the words 
of the Gnostics preserved in excerpta ex Theodoto, 78, 2: " But not 
baptism alone sets us free, but knowledge (gnosis) : who we were, 
what we have become, where we were, whither we have sunk, 
wn'.ther we hasten, whence we are redeemed, what is birth and what 
1 rebirth. 

VIII. It has already been seen clearly that Valentinian Gnosti- 
cism affected the nearest approach of all the Gnostic sects to the 



Catholic Church. Valentinus's own life indicates that he for a 
long time sought to remain within the official Church, and had at 
first no idea of founding a community of his own. Many com- 
promises in his theories point the same way. The Johannine 
tendencies of his doctrine of the aeons (Logos, Zoe, Aletheia, 
Parakletos) ; the attempt to modify the sharp dualism of Gnosti- 
cism in a monistic direction; the derivation of the world from 
the fallen Sophia; the favourable judgment of the Demiourgos, 
and his origin in the repentance and conversion of Sophia, which 
are peculiar to the Valentinian system; the triple division of 
mankind into pneumatici, psychici and hylici, which is obviously 
contrived for the benefit of the psychici; the inclusion of an 
element of the psychici in the composition of the Redeemer; the 
theory that Jesus possessed a miraculous body formed in the 
upper world; the emphasis on the fact that the redemption of 
Jesus was primarily for the psychici; the doctrine that by the 
final redemption the Demiourgos and the psychici find a place in 
the Ogdoas; the adoption of Christian baptism all this, and 
perhaps more, indicates a definite and deliberate approach 
towards the doctrine of the Church. 

These Gnostics, as in the case of most of the other Gnostic 
sects, possessed their own peculiar holy writings and books, 
but they also made a great use in their own circle of the 
canon of the Christian Church, especially the canon of the New 
Testament and though with a few reservations of the Old 
Testament. Irenaeus in his account of the Ptolemaean sects 
has used a source which contained a detailed scriptural ex- 
position of the Valentinian doctrines based on the New Testa- 
ment. We can even and this is of great interest and sig- 
nificance for the history of the canon establish the contents of 
the Gnostic canon. It included the three first gospels and the 
apostle Paul. The proofs are constantly drawn firstly from the 
utterances of the Saviour, and then from the Epistles of Paul. 
The Gospel of John does not seem to have yet found a place in 
this canon, for the very good reason that it was not yet widely 
known and circulated. Later Valentinian Gnosticism delighted 
in making use of the Johannine Gospel as a crowning testimony. 
Thus to the older and ancient scriptural evidences which we 
mentioned above, Irenaeus (i. 8, 5) directly appends a com- 
mentary on the Gospel of John, which is ascribed to Ptolemaeus 
himself. And in the excerpta ex Theodoto, 6 seq., we also find a 
commentary on the prologue to this Gospel. And we know that 
the later Valentinian Herakleon wrote a detailed exposition of 
the whole Gospel. But the Old Testament too was a sacred 
book of these Gnostics, and its statements were used as evidence 
and proofs. This was done with some diffidence and caution. 
The attitude, at least of the later Valentinians, is best indicated 
by the letter of Ptolemaeus to Flora, which is preserved in 
Epiphanius 33, 3-7. Ptolemaeus here openly attacks the 
doctrine that the Old Testament is the work of the devil, or that 
it cannot at least be ascribed unconditionally to the Supreme 
God. The Old Testament he considers to contain a system of 
laws given by God himself, a system of laws given by Moses 
according to his own ideas, and precepts interpolated by the 
elders of the people. The laws of God himself fall then into 
three classes: the true law, which is not interwoven with evil; 
the law permeated with unrighteousness, which the Redeemer 
has dissolved; and the typical and symbolical law, which the 
Redeemer has translated from the material into the spiritual. 
Thus there is a gradual approach to the Christian Church's con- 
ception of the Old Testament. (It should indeed be remarked 
that Ptolemaeus in the above-mentioned letter has purposely 
expounded the exoteric doctrine in special approximation with 
the Catholic Church, while for the actual difficult questions 
as to the nature of the Demiourgos and his relation with the 
unity of the Divine nature he consoles Flora with a further 
and more intimate instruction.) 

And yet this reconciliation of Gnosticism was a fruitless and 
henceforward a purposeless undertaking. Oriental dualism and 
wildly intemperate Oriental mythology had grown into so radical 
and essential a part of Gnosticism that they could not be sepa- 
rated from it to make way for a purer and more spiritual view of 



VALENZUELA VALERA Y ALCALA GALIANO 



857 



religion. And at a time when the prevailing tendency of Christi- 
anity was a struggle out of the darkness of Oriental mythology 
and eschatology into clearness, and an effort towards union with 
the lucid simplicity of the Hellenic spirit, these Gnostics, for all 
their efforts, and even the most noble of them, had come too 
late. They are not the men of a forward movement, but they 
are, and remain, in spite of all clearer insight, the rear-guard 
in the history of piety, who have gone under and disappeared 
in a struggle with the impossible. None the less we cannot omit 
the observation that the Christian Church in later centuries to a 
certain extent travelled again over Gnostic ground in its sacra- 
mental theories and fully developed Christological speculations. 

See Bibliography to article GNOSTICISM. Also A. Harnack, Dog- 
mengeschichte, vol. i. (4th ed., 1909) ; W. Bousset, Hauptprobleme der 
Gnosis (1907). See also Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyklopadie des 
klassischen Altertums, s.v. Gnosticismus, Gnostiker. More particu- 
larly devoted to Valentinianism are: G. Heinrici, Die Valentinian- 
ische Gnosis und die heiligen Schriften (1871) ; E. Schwartz, " Aporien 
im 4 Evangelium " in Nachrichten der Go'tt. Gesellsch. der Wissensch. 
(1908), ii. 12741; A. Harnack, Brief des Ptolemaeus an die Flora, 
Sitzungsber. der Berl. Akademie (1909). (W. Bo.) 

VALENZUELA, FERNANDO DE (1630-1692), Spanish 
royal favourite and minister, was born at Naples on the igth 
of January 1630. His father, Don Francisco de Valenzuela, 
a gentleman of Ronda, had been compelled to flee from Spain in 
consequence of a brawl, and had enlisted as a soldier in Naples, 
where he married Dona Leonora de Encisa. Francisco de 
Valenzuela having died young, his son was placed by his mother 
as a page in the household of the duke of Infantado. He lost 
his place owing to a reduction of the duke's establishment, 
and for several years he lived obscurely; but by good fortune 
he succeeded in persuading Maria de Uceda, one of the ladies- 
in-waiting of Mariana, second wife of Philip IV., to marry him. 
By her help Valenzuela obtained a footing in the palace. He 
was appointed introducer of ambassadors on the I2th of October 
1671, and it became notorious that whoever had a petition to 
present or a place to ask for must apply to him. He became 
popularly known as the duende, the fairy or brownie of the 
palace, and was believed to be the lover of the queen. In 1675 
a court intrigue, conducted by his rivals and supported by the 
younger Don John of Austria, was so far successful that he was 
driven from court; but the queen gave him the title of mar- 
quis of Villa Sierra, and appointed him ambassador to Venice. 
Valenzuela succeeded in getting the embassy exchanged for the 
governorship of Granada. His stay at this post was short, for 
he was able to organize a counter-intrigue which soon brought 
him back to court. The queen-regent now openly appointed 
him prime minister, gave him official quarters in the palace, and 
conferred a grandeeship on him, to the profound indignation of 
the other grandees. In January 1678 a palace revolution broke 
out against the queen-regent, who was driven from Madrid, and 
Valenzuela fled for refuge to the monastery of the Escorial. He 
Was, however, taken out by force, and his house was pillaged. 
His property was confiscated his jewels, furniture and ready 
money were estimated to amount to 120,000 he was degraded 
from the grandeeship and exiled to the Philippines. At a later 
period he was released from close confinement and allowed to 
settle in Mexico, where a pension was given him. He died in 
Mexico, from the kick of a horse he was breaking in, on the 7th 
of February 1692. Part of his property, and the title of Villa 
Sierra, but not the grandeeship, were restored to his wife and 
children. The career of Valenzuela probably helped to suggest 
the subject of Ruy Bias to Victor Hugo. 

See Documentos Ineditos para la Historia de Espana, vol. Ixvii. 
(Madrid, 1842, &c.), which contain an artful and well-written defence 
of himself addressed to King Charles II. of Spain from Mexico. 

VALERA Y ALCALA GALIANO, JUAN (1824-1905), Spanish 
novelist, son of a retired commodore, Jose Valera, who married 
Dona Dolores Alcala Galiano, marquesa de la Paniega, widow of 
a Swiss general named Freuller, was born on the i8th of October 
1824 at Cabra (Cordova). Valera' was educated at Malaga and 
at the university of Granada, where he took a degree in law. 
Entering diplomacy in 1847, he became unpaid attache to the 



Spanish embassy at Naples under the famous Duke de Rivas, 
the leader of the romantic movement in Spain. Valera wit- 
nessed the events of the Revolution, was promoted second 
secretary to the embassy at Lisbon in 1850, and in 1851 was 
transferred as first secretary to Rio de Janeiro, where he re- 
mained for two years. After a short'period passed at Dresden, 
he was appointed to the permanent staff of the Foreign Office at 
Madrid, and in 1857 was attached to the special embassy to 
St Petersburg under the Duke de Osuna. In 1858 he resigned 
his post, was elected deputy for Archidona, in the province of 
Malaga, took his seat with the advanced Liberal Opposition, 
and joined with Albareda and Fabie in founding El Conlem- 
pordneo, a very influential journal. An expert in the art of 
covering an opponent with polite ridicule, his writings in the 
press attracted general attention. He was elected a member of 
the Spanish Academy in 1861, and remained in Opposition till 
1865, when O'Donnell appointed him minister at Frankfort; 
on the flight of Isabella II. in 1868 he was elected deputy for 
Montilla in the province of Cordova, became under-secretary 
of state for foreign affairs, and was one of the deputation who 
offered the crown to Amadeus of Savoy in the Pitti Palace at 
Florence. Though he always called himself a Moderate Liberal, 
Valera invariably voted for what are considered Radical measures 
in Spain, and a speech delivered by him in February 1863 against 
the temporal power of the pope created a profound sensation. 
However, though a member of the revolutionary party, he 
steadily opposed organic constitutional changes, and therefore 
he retired from public life during the period of republican 
government. After the Bourbon restoration he acted as 
minister at Lisbon (1881-1883), at Washington (1885), at Brussels 
(1886) and as ambassador at Vienna (1893-1895), retiring from 
the diplomatic service on the sth of March 1896. During the 
last ten years of his life he took no active part in politics. He 
died on the i8th of April 1905. 

Valera's first publication, Canciones, Romances y Poetnas, was 
published in 1856. His verses are melodious, finished and 
various in subject; but they are rather the imitative exercises 
of a scholarly man of the world than the inspirations of an 
original poet. That they failed to attract notice is not altogether 
to be regretted, for, as Valera himself confessed later in his half- 
ironical, half-ingenuous preface to the second edition (1885), 
" In spite of my idleness, I should have shown a most deplorable 
fecundity had I been received with favour and applause." 
However, if he published little more in the shape of verse, he 
wrote incessantly in prose. More than two-thirds of his work 
is still uncollected, buried in reviews and newspapers; but we 
may take it that he rescued what he thought most valuable. 
His criticism may be read in the Estudios criticos sobre literatura 
(1864), in the Disertaciones y juicios lilerarios (1878) and in the 
Nuevos estudios criticos (1888); yet, with all his penetration 
and taste, Valera laboured under one disadvantage not frequent 
in critics. He suffered from an excessive amiability. He said 
a hundred incisive, wise, witty, subtle and suggestive things 
concerning the mysticism of St Theresa, the art of novel- 
writing, Faust, the Inquisition, Don Quixote, Shakespeare, the 
psychology of love in literature; but, to do himself justice, it 
was an almost indispensable condition that he should deal with 
the past. In the presence of a living author Valera was dis- 
armed. Unless the writer were an incurable pessimist, Valera 
would find something in his work to praise, exhausting the 
vocabulary of compliment and graceful tribute; but, except 
in the Carlas americanas (1889), where the laudation was mani- 
festly so exaggerated that no harm could come of it, this trick 
of eulogy became perplexing and misleading. Valera, in effect, 
refused to criticize contemporary literature; as a rival author 
it seemed to him an indelicacy to censure his competitors, and 
he was either laudatory or silent. It is regrettable, for criticism 
was and is greatly needed in Spain. 

Valera, then, excelled neither as a poet nor as an impartial 
critic; he had the vocation of the novelist, though he was slow 
in discovering it, since he was in his fiftieth year before he 
published the novel which was to make him famous. Pepita 



858 



VALERIA, VIA VALERIAN 



Jimenez (1874) is a recital of the fall of Luis de Vargas, a semin- 
arist who conceived himself to be a mystic and a potential 
saint, and whose aspirations dissolve at the first contact with 
reality. It is easy to point out blemishes: the story is not well 
constructed, and it has pa.uses during which the writer's fantasy 
plays at pleasure over a hundred subjects not very germane 
to the matter; but its characters are as real as any in fiction, 
the love story is told with the most refined subtlety and malicious 
truth, while page upon page is written in such Spanish as would 
do credit to the best writers of the i6th and iyth centuries. 
Unquestionably Pepita Jimenez is a very remarkable achieve- 
ment so remarkable, that contemporaries were reluctant to 
admit the superiority of its successors. It is certain that 
Valera's second novel, Las ilusiones del Doctor Faustina (1875), 
was received with marked disfavour, and that it has the faults 
of over-refinement and of cruelty; yet in keen analysis and in 
humour it surpasses Pepita Jimenez. The Comendador Mendoza 
(1877) is more pathetic and of a profounder significance; and 
if Dona Luz (1879) repeats the situation and the general idea 
already used in Pepita Jimenez, it strikes a deeper and more 
tragic note, which came as a surprise to those familiar only with 
the lighter side of Valera's genius. Besides these elaborate 
psychological studies, Valera issued a volume of Cuentos (1887), 
some of these short tales and dialogues being marvels of art and 
of insight. Thenceforward he was silent for eight years, but 
after his retirement from politics he published several good 
books El hechicero (1895), Juanita la larga (1896), Genio y 
figura (1897), De varies colores (1898) and Morsamor (1899). 
These are not all of equal excellence, but they are characteristic 
of their author, and abound in understanding, humorous com- 
ment and sympathetic creation. 

At the close of the igth century Valera was recognized as 
the most eminent man of letters in Spam. He had not Pereda's 
force nor his energetic realism; he had not the copious invention 
nor the reforming purpose of Perez Galdos; yet he was as 
realistic as the former and as innovating as the latter. And, 
for all his cosmopolitan spirit, he fortunately remained in- 
tensely and incorrigibly Spanish. His aristocratic scepticism, 
his strange elusiveness, his incomparable charm are his own: his 
humour, his flashing irony, his urbanity are eminently the gifts 
of his land and race. He is by no means an impersonal artist; 
in almost every story there is at least one character who talks 
and thinks and subtilizes and refines as Valera himself wrote 
in his most brilliant essays. This may be a fault in art; but, 
if so, it is a fault which many great artists have committed, from 
Cervantes to Thackeray. It is dangerous to attempt a forecast 
of Valera's final place in literary history, yet it seems safe to say 
that, though his poems and essays will be forgotten, Pepita 
Jimenez and Dona Luz will survive changes of fashion and of 
taste, and that their author's name will be inseparably connected 
with the renaissance of the modern Spanish novel. (J. F.-K.) 

VALERIA, VIA, an ancient highroad of Italy, the continuation 
north-eastwards of the Via Tiburtina (q.v.). It probably owed 
its origin to M. Valerius Messalla, censor in 154 B.C. It ran first 
up the Anio valley past Varia (q.v.), and then, abandoning it at 
the 36th mile, where the Via Sublacensis diverged, ascended to 
Carseoli (q.v.), and then again to the lofty pass of Monte Bove 
(4003 ft.), whence it descended again to the valley occupied by 
the Lago di Fucino (q.v.). It is doubtful whether it ran farther 
than the eastern point of the territory of the Marsi at Cerfennia, 
to the N.E. of the Lacus Fucinus, before the time of Claudius. 
Strabo states that in his day it went as far as Corfinium. and this 
important place must have been in some way accessible from 
Rome, but probably, beyond Cerfennia, only by a track. The 
difficult route from Cerfennia to the valley of the Aternus a drop 
of nearly 1000 ft., involving too the crossing of the main ridge of 
the Apennines(367s ft.) by the Monslmeus(mod. Forca Caruso) 
was, however, probably not made into a highroad until Claudius's 
reign: one of his milestones (Corp. Inscr. Lai. ix. 5973) states 
that he in A.D. 48-49 made the Via Claudia Valeria from Cerfennia 
to the mouth of the Aternus (mod. Pescara). He also con- 
structed a road, the Via Claudia Nova, connecting the Via 



Salaria, which it left at Foruli (mod. Civitatomassa, near Amiter- 
num) with the Via Valeria near the modern Popoli. This road 
was continued south (we do not know by whom or when) to 
Aesernia. From Popoli the road followed the valley of the 
Aternus to its mouth, and there joined the coast-road at Pescara. 
The modern railway from Rome to Castellammare Adriatico 
follows closely the line of the Via Valeria. 

See E. Albertini in 'Melanges de V fxole franchise de Rome (1907), 
463 sqq. (T. As.) 

VALERIAN, a genus of herbaceous perennial plants of the 
natural order Valerianaceae. Two species Valeriana officinalis 
and V. dioica are indigenous in Britain, whileathird, V. pyrenaica, 
is naturalized in some parts. The valerians have opposite leaves 
and small flowers, usually of a white or reddish tint, and arranged 
in terminal cymes. The limb of the calyx is remarkable for being 
at first inrolled and afterwards expanding in the form of a 
feathery pappus which aids in the dissemination of the fruit. 
The genus comprises about 150 species, which are widely dis- 
tributed in the 
temperate parts 
of the world. In 
medicine the root 
of V. officinalis is 
intended when 
valerian is men- 
tioned. The plant 
grows throughout 
Europe from Spain 
to the Crimea, and 
from Iceland 
through northern 
Europe and Asia 
to the coasts 
of Manchuria. 
Several varieties 
of the plant are 
known, those grow- 
ing in hilly. situa- 
tions being con- 
sidered the most 
valuable for medi- 
cinal purposes. 

Valerian is 
cultivated in Eng- 
land (in several 
villages near 
Chesterfield in 
Derbyshire), but 
to a much greater 
extent in Prussian 

Saxony (in the Habit after Curtis, Flora Londinemis. 

neighbourhood of FIG. I. Valerian (Valeriana officinalis), one- 

Colleda, north of third natural size. I, flower; 2, flower after 

Weimar) in Hoi- removal of corolla ; 3, fruit crowned by the 

, , j . feathery pappus. I, 2, 3 enlarged, 
land and in the 

United States (Vermont, New Hampshire and New York). 
The dried root or rhizome consists of a short central erect 
portion, about the thickness of the little finger, surrounded by 
numerous rootlets about fa of an inch in diameter, the whole 
being of a dull brown colour. When first taken from the 
ground it has no distinctive smell; but on drying it acquires a 
powerful odour of valerianic acid. This odour, now regarded as 
intolerable, was in the i6th century considered to be fragrant, the 
root being placed among clothes as a perfume (Turner, Herbal, 
1568, part iii. p. 76), just as V. celtica and some Himalayan 
species of the genus are still used in the East. By the poorer 
classes in the north of England it was esteemed of such medi- 
cinal value that " no broth, pottage or physical meat " was con- 
sidered of any value without it (Gerard, Herball, 1633, p, 1078). 
The red valerian of gardens is Centranthus ruber, also belonging 
to the Valerianaceae; but Greek valerian is Polemonium coeru- 
leum, belonging to the natural order Polemoniaceae. Cats are 




VALERIANUS VALERIUS FLACCUS 



859 



nearly as fond of the smell of this plant as of the true valerian, 
.and will frequently roll on the plant and injure it. 

The chief constituent of valerian is a volatile oil, which is present 
in the dried root to the extent of 1-2 %, plants growing on dry or 
stony soil being said to yield the largest quantity. The oil is of 
complex composition, containing valerianic (valeric), formic and 
acetic acids combined with a terpene, CicHie; the alcohol known 
as borneol; and pinene. The valerianic acid present in the oil is 
not the normal acid, but isovalerianic acid. It occurs in many 
plants and in cod-liver oil. It is strongly acid, burning to the palate, 
and with the odour of the plant. The oil is soluble in thirty parts 
of water and readily in alcohol and ether. The British Pharmacopeia 
contains the tinctura valerianae ammoniata, containing valerian, 
oil of nutmeg, oil of lemon and ammonia. It is an extremely 
nauseous and offensive preparation. The valerianate of zinc is 
also official in Great Britain, but, like valerianic acid itself, it is 
pharmacologically inert and therapeutically useless. 

Valerian acts medicinally entirely in virtue of its volatile oil, 
which exerts the actions typical of its class. The special use of 
this drug, like that of others which contain an offensive volatile 
oil such as asafoetida is in hysteria or, as it is more properly 
styled, neuromimesis. It is generally believed that the drug acts 
in virtue of its unpleasant odour and taste, which cause the patient 
to display so much volition as shall enable him or her to control 
the symptoms and thereby obtain the discontinuance of the drug. 
Good results are sometimes obtained, however, when the drug is 
given in capsules or in some other form which puts this mode of 
action out of the question. Binz of Bonn has shown that the 
volatile oils act as sedatives of the motor cells in the anterior horns 
of grey matter in the spinal cord, and it is probable that this action 
may account for the good results often obtained by the use of 
valerian in neuromimesis; though there is little doubt that the 
modus operandi above described may also come into play. The 
valerianates of iron, quinine, guaiacol and sodium share with that of 
zinc the disability of exerting no action attributable to their acid 
radicle, but have frequently been employed. Valerianic diethylamide, 
or valyl, has also been employed as a substitute for the preparations 
in ordinary use. 

VALERIANUS, PUBLIUS LICINIUS, Roman emperor from 
A.D. 253 to 260. He was of noble family, and in 238 was princeps 
senatus. In 251, when Decius revived the censorship with legis- 
lative and executive powers so extensive that it practically 
embraced the civil authority of the emperor, Valerian was chosen 
censor by the senate. After the death of Decius Valerian retained 
the confidence of his successor, Trebonianus Callus, who sent him 
to fetch troops to quell the rebellion of Aemilianus, governor of 
Moesia and Pannonia. The soldiers in Raetia, however, pro- 
claimed Valerian emperor; and marching slowly towards Rome 
he found both his rivals dead, slain by their own soldiers. 
Valerian was about sixty-three years of age, and had scarcely 
the vigour to deal with the enemies that threatened every 
frontier of the empire. Taking his son Gallienus as colleague, 
he left the wars in Europe to his direction, under which matters 
went from bad to worse and the whole West fell into disorder. 
Valerian chose for his own part the war in the East, where Antioch 
had fallen into the hands of a Persian vassal and Armenia was 
occupied by Shapur (Sapor) I., while in 258 the Goths ravaged 
Asia Minor. Valerian recovered Antioch, fought in Mesopotamia 
with mixed success and finally was taken captive. It is said that 
he was subjected to the greatest insults by his captors, and that 
after his death his skin was stuffed with straw and preserved as 
a trophy in the chief Persian temple. Owing to imperfect and 
contradictory authorities, the chronology and details of this 
reign are very uncertain. 

See Trebellius Pollip, Life of Valerian (frags.); Aurelius Victor, 
Caesares, 32; Eutropius ix. 6; Ammianus Marcellinus xxiii. 5; 
Zosimus i. 27; Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chap. 10; H. Schiller, 
Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit, i. pt. 2. 

VALERIC ACID, or VALERIANIC ACID, C 4 H 9 -CO 2 H, an organic 
acid belonging to the fatty acid series, which exists in four 
isomeric forms, one of which contains an asymmetric carbon 
atom and consequently occurs in two optically active modifica- 
tions and one optically inactive modification. Ordinary valeric 
acid (baldrianic acid) is a mixture of isovaleric acid or isopro- 
pylaceticacid, (CH 3 ) 2 CH-CH 2 -CO 2 H, and optically active methy- 
lethylacetic acid, (CH 3 ) (C 2 H 6 )CH-CO 2 H, which occur free or as 
esters in the vegetable and animal kingdoms, chiefly in the roots 
of Angelica archangelica and Valeriana officinalis. It may be 
extracted by boiling with water or soda. A similar product is 



obtained by oxidizing fermentation amyl alcohol with chromic 
acid. Isovaleric acid is an oily liquid having the odour of stale 
cheese and boiling at 174; the salts are usually greasy to the 
touch. Potassium permanganate oxidizes it to /3-oxyisovaleric 
acid (CH 3 )2-C(OH)-CH2-CO 2 H, whilst nitric acid gives, among 
other products, dinitropropane, (CH3)2C(NO 2 ) 2 . The acid has 
been synthesized, as has also the inactive form of methylethyl- 
acetic acid; this modification is split into its optical antipodes 
by crystallization of its brucine salt. Normal valeric acid or 
propylacetic acid, CH3-CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 2 -C0 2 H, is a liquid boiling at 
1 86. The remaining isomer, pivalic or trimethylacetic acid, 
(CH 3 ) 3 C-CO 2 H, melts at 35 and boils at 163. Both these acids 
are synthetic products. 

VALERIUS, PUBLIUS, surnamed PUBLICOLA (or POPLICOLA), 
" friend of the people," the colleague of Brutus in the consulship 
in the first year of the Roman republic (509 B.C.). According 
to Livy and Plutarch, his family, whose ancestor Volusus had 
settled in Rome at the time of King Tatius, was of Sabine origin. 
He took a prominent part in the expulsion of the Tarquins, and 
though not originally chosen as the colleague of Brutus he 
soon took the place of Tarquinius Collatinus. On the death 
of Brutus, which left him sole consul, the people began to fear 
that he was aiming at kingly power. To calm their apprehensions 
he discontinued the building of his house on the top of the Velian 
Hill, and also gave orders that the fasces should be lowered 
whenever he appeared before the people. He further introduced 
two laws to protect the liberties of the citizens, one enacting 
that whosoever should attempt to make himself a king might be 
slain by any man at any time, while another provided an appeal 
to the people on behalf of any citizen condemned by a magistrate 
(lex Valeria de provocations: see ROME, History, II. " The 
Republic"). He died in 503, and was buried at the public 
expense, the matrons mourning him for ten months. 

Livy ii. 6-8; Dion. Halic. iv. 67, v. 1240; Life by Plutarch. 

VALERIUS FLACCUS, GAIUS, Roman poet, flourished 
under Vespasian and Titus. He has been identified on in- 
sufficient grounds with a poet friend of Martial (i. 61. 76), a 
native of Padua, and in needy circumstances; but as he was 
a member of the College of Fifteen, who had charge of the 
Sibylline books (i. 5), he must have been well off. The sub- 
scription of the Vatican MS., which adds the name Setinus 
Balbus, points to his having been a native of Setia in Latium. 
The only ancient writer who mentions him is Quintilian (Instil. 
Oral. x. i. 90), who laments his recent death as a great loss, 
although it does not follow that he died young; as Quintilian's 
work was finished about A.D. 90, this gives a limit for the death 
of Flaccus. His work, the Argonautica, dedicated to Vespasian 
on his setting out for Britain, was written during the siege, or 
shortly after the capture, of Jerusalem by Titus (70). As the 
eruption of Vesuvius (79) is alluded to, it must have occupied 
him a long time. The Argonautica is an epic in eight books 
on the Quest of the Golden Fleece. The poem is in a very 
corrupt state, and ends abruptly with the request of Medea to 
accompany Jason on his homeward voyage. It is a disputed 
question whether part has been lost or whether it was ever 
finished. It is a free imitation and in parts a translation of 
the work of Apollonius of Rhodes (q.v.), already familiar to the 
Romans in the popular version of Varro Atacinus. The object 
of the work has been described as the glorification of Vespasian's 
achievements in securing Roman rule in Britain and opening 
up the ocean to navigation (as the Euxine was opened up by 
the Argo). Various estimates have been formed of the genius 
of Flaccus, and some critics have ranked him above his original, 
to whom he certainly is superior in liveliness of description 
and delineation of character. His diction is pure, his style 
correct, his versification smooth though monotonous. On the 
other hand, he is wholly without originality, and his poetry, 
though free from glaring defects, is artificial and elaborately dull. 
His model in language was Virgil, to whom he is far inferior in 
taste and lucidity. His tiresome display of learning, rhetorical 
exaggeration and ornamentations make him difficult to read, 
which no doubt accounts for his unpopularity in ancient times. 



86o 



VALERIUS MAXIMUS VALKYRIES 



The Argonautica was unknown till the first four and a half books 
were discovered by Poggio at St Gall in 1417. The editio princeps 
was published at Bologna (1474). Recent editions by G. Thilo 
(1863), with critical notes; C. Schenkl (1871), with bibliography; 
E. Bahrens (1875), with critical introduction; P. Langen (1896), 
with Latin notes, and short introductions on the style and language ; 
Caesar Giarratano (1904); see also J. Peters, De V. F. Vita et Car- 
mine (1890); W. C. Summers, Study of the Argonautica (1894). 

VALERIUS MAXIMUS, Latin writer, author of a collection 
of historical anecdotes, flourished in the reign of Tiberius. 
Nothing is known of his personal history except that his family 
was poor and undistinguished, and that he owed everything to 
Sextus Pompeius (consul A.D. 14), proconsul of Asia, whom he 
accompanied to the East in 27. This Pompeius was a kind of 
minor Maecenas, and the centre of a literary circle to which 
Ovid belonged; he was also the intimate of the most literary 
prince of the imperial family, Germanicus. The style of 
Valerius's writings seems to indicate that he was a professional 
rhetorician. In his preface he intimates that his work is in- 
tended as a commonplace book of historical anecdotes for use 
in the schools of rhetoric, where the pupils were trained in the 
art of embellishing speeches by references to history. According 
to the MSS., its title is Nine Books of Memorable Deeds and 
Sayings. The stories are loosely and irregularly arranged, each 
book being divided into sections, and each section bearing as 
its title the topic, most commonly some virtue or vice, or some 
merit or demerit, which the stories in the section are intended to 
illustrate. Most of the tales are from Roman history, but each 
section has an appendix consisting of extracts from the annals 
of other peoples, principally the Greeks. The exposition exhibits 
strongly the two currents of feeling which are intermingled 
by almost every Roman writer of the empire the feeling that 
the Romans of the writer's own day are degenerate creatures 
when confronted with their own republican predecessors, and 
the feeling that, however degenerate, the latter-day Romans 
still tower above the other peoples of the world, and in particular 
are morally superior to the Greeks. 

The author's chief sources are Cicero, Livy, Sallust and Pompeius 
Trogus, especially the first two. Valerius's treatment of his material 
is careless and unintelligent in the extreme; but in spite of his 
confusions, contradictions and anachronisms, the excerpts are apt 
illustrations, from the rhetorician's point of view, of the circum- 
stance or quality they were intended to illustrate. And even on 
the historical side we owe something to Valerius. He often used 
sources now lost, and where he touches on his own time he affords 
us some glimpses of the much debated and very imperfectly recorded 
reign of Tiberius. His attitude towards the imperial household has 
often been misunderstood, and he has been represented as a mean 
flatterer of the same type with Martial. But, if the references to the 
imperial administration be carefully scanned, they will be seen to 
be extravagant neither in kind nor in number. Few will now grudge 
Tiberius, when his whole action as a ruler is taken into account, 
such a title as salutaris princeps, which seemed to a former genera- 
tion a^ specimen of shameless adulation. The few allusions to 
Caesar's murderers and to Augustus hardly pass beyond the con- 
ventional style of the writer's day. The only passage which can 
fairly be called fulsome is the violently rhetorical tirade against 
Sejanus. But it is as a chapter in the history of the Latin language 
that the work of Valerius chiefly deserves study. Without it our 
view of the transition from classical to silver Latin would be much 
more imperfect than it is. In Valerius are presented to us, in a 
rude and palpable form, all the rhetorical tendencies of the age, 
unsobered by the sanity of Quintilian and unrefined by the taste 
and subtlety of Tacitus. Direct and simple statement is eschewed 
and novelty pursued at any price. The barrier between the diction 
of poetry and that of prose is broken down; the uses of words are 
strained; monstrous metaphors are invented; there are startling 
contrasts, dark innuendoes and highly coloured epithets; the 
most unnatural variations are played upon the artificial scale of 
grammatical and rhetorical figures of speech. It is an instructive 
lesson in the history of Latin to compare minutely a passage of 
Valerius with its counterpart in Cicero or Livy. In the MSS. of 
Valerius a tenth book is given, which consists of the so-called Liber 
de Praenominibus, the work of some grammarian of a much later 
date. The collection of Valerius was much used for school purposes, 
and its popularity in the middle ages is attested by the large number 
of MSS. in which it has been preserved. Like other schoolbooks 
it was epitomated. One complete epitome, probably of the 4th or 5th 
century, bearing the name of Julius Paris, has come down to us; also 
a portion of another by Januarius Nepotianus. Editions by C. Halm 
(1865) , C. Kempf (1888), contain the epitomes of Paris and Nepotianus. 



VALET (Fr. valet; O. Fr. vaslet), a term now restricted 
in meaning to that of a gentleman's personal servant. The 
origin of the word is debated. Du Cange (Glossarium, s. Valeti) 
explains it as the diminutive of vassallus, a vassal, the sons of 
vassalli being termed vasseleti (and so vasleti, valeti), on the 
analogy of domicelli (damoiseaux) for the sons of domini. This 
view is also taken by W. W. Skeat (Etym. Diet. s. " Varlet ") ; 
but Hatzfeld and Darmesteter (Diet. gen. de la langue franc_aise) , 
dispute this derivation as phonetically impossible, preferring 
that from vassulittus from a hypothetical vassulus, diminutive 
of vassus, from which vassallus also is ultimately derived (see 
VASSAL). Just as vassus was in Merovingian times the Gallo- 
Roman word for " servitor," which the Franks_borrowed to 
designate the domestic soldiers of their kings, so " valet " 
retained this, its sole surviving sense, throughout the middle 
ages. Yet the phrase " gentleman's gentleman," commonly 
used of the modern valet, is more historical than may at first 
sight appear. For valet, like esquire (ecuyer), long signified 
the apprentice stage of knighthood, at first with a certain 
difference, the esquire being mounted, the valet unmounted, 
but afterwards with scarce a shade of distinction. Later, 
" valet " became the usual term for gentlemen who were not 
knights. In England it was not till the early years of the 
1 4th century that valletus in this sense was superseded by 
armiger, and that " valet " (valete, vadlete, verlet, varlet 1 ) 
began to be applied to the class of free men below the rank 
of esquire. In France the word valet, though in Saintonge and 
Poitou it survived till the close of the i4th century, had else- 
where like damoiseau much earlier been replaced generally 
by ecuyer as the designation of an unknighted gentleman. 

At the outset, " valet " had meant no more than " youth " 
or " boy." Thus Wace in the Roman de Ron (III. v. 2903), 
speaking of William the Conqueror, says: Guillaume / vadlet 
petiz (" William was a little boy "). The various develop- 
ments of the word are closely parallel with those of some of its 
synonyms. Youth suggested both strength and service, the 
qualifications for nobility in a primitive society, where service 
in arms was the title to rank. Puer (boy) was early used, 
as a synonym for vassus, of the soldiers of the Frankish body- 
guard (pueri ad ministerium) ; the Greek Ttwov (" child ") 
is etymologically related to O.H. Ger. degan, M.H. and Mod. 
Ger. degen, "warrior," A.S. thegn, "thane"; "child" itself 
was applied in the I3th and i4th centuries to young men of 
gentle birth awaiting knighthood, as a title of dignity, and was 
perhaps a translation of valet (see CHILD), with which may be 
compared the Spanish infanzon and German junker. So, too, 
cniht (a "lad" or "servant"), becomes first a warrior and 
then develops into a title of dignity as " knight," while in 
Germany the parallel word knecht remains as " servant." But 
valet has also shared with other synonyms a downward de- 
velopment. Just as " knave " (cnafa) meant originally a boy 
(cf. Ger. knabe) or servant, and has come to mean a rogue, 
so valet in its English (isth century) form of "varlet" 
had decayed, before it became obsolete, from its meaning of 
" servant " to signify a " scoundrel " or " low fellow." 

See Du Cange, Glossarium (ed. Niort, 1887) ; A. Luchaire, Manuel 
des institutions franchises (Paris, 1892); P. Giulhiermoz, Essai sur 
I'origine de la noblesse en France au nioyen dge (Paris, 1902); Note 
on the word " Valet " by Maurice Church, App. xix. to Sir R. 
Hennell's Hist, of the Yeomen of the Guard (Westminster, 1904). 

(W. A. P.) 

VALHALLA (Old Norse Valholl, i.e. " hall of the slain "), 
the name given by the heathen Scandinavians to the abode 
in which the god Odin received the souls of those who had 
Fallen in battle. There they are represented as spending their 
time in constant fighting and feasting in his service. See 
TEUTONIC PEOPLES, ad fin. 

VALKYRIES (Old Norse valkyriur, "choosers of the slain "), 
Figures of Northern mythology, generally represented as divine 
(less frequently human) maidens who ride through the air 
on Odin's service. Clad in full armour they are sent forth 
. * The form valectus led to the spelling valect in transcribing from 
Latin documents. 



VALLA VALLADOLID 



861 



to determine the course of battles and to select brave warriors 
for Valhalla (q.v.). Beings with the same name (waelcyrgean) 
were known also in England, where we find them associated with 
witches. The name is used in Anglo-Saxon glossaries to translate 
various Latin terms for " War-goddess " or " Fury " (Bellona, 
Erinys, &c.). See TEUTONIC PEOPLES, ad fin. (H. M. C.) 

VALLA, LORENZO, or LAURENTIUS (c. 1406-1457), Italian 
humanist, was born at Rome, of parents from the neighbour- 
hood of Piacenza, about 1406, his father, Luca delle Vallea, 
being an advocate. He was educated at Rome, attending the 
classes of eminent professors, among them Leonard! Bruni and 
Giovanni Aurispa (c. 1369-1459), from whom he learned Latin 
and Greek. In 1431 he became a priest, and after trying 
vainly to secure a position as apostolic secretary in Rome he 
went to Piacenza, whence he proceeded to Pavia, where he 
obtained a professorship of eloquence. Valla wandered from 
one university to another, accepting short engagements and 
lecturing in many cities. During this period he made the 
acquaintance of Alphonso V. of Aragon, whose service he 
entered about 1435. Alphonso made Valla his private secre- 
tary, defended him against the attacks of his numerous enemies, 
and at a later date encouraged him to open a school in Naples. 

By this time Valla had won a high reputation by his dialogue 
De Voluptate, and by his treatise De Elegantiis Latinae Linguae. 
In the former work he contrasted the principles of the Stoics 
with the tenets of Epicurus, openly proclaiming his sympathy 
with those who claimed the right of free indulgence for man's 
natural appetites. It was a remarkable utterance. Here for 
the first time the paganism of the Renaissance found deliberate 
expression in a work of scholarly and philosophical value. 
De Elegantiis was no less original, although in a different sphere 
of thought. This work subjected the forms of Latin grammar 
and the rules of Latin style and rhetoric to a critical examina- 
tion, and placed the practice of composition upon a foundation 
of analysis and inductive reasoning. The same originality 
and critical acumen were displayed in his treatise on the 
Donation of Constantine (Defalso credila et ementita Constantini 
donatione declamatio) , written in 1439 during the pontificate 
of Eugenius IV., in which the nature of the forged document 
known as the Constitutum Constantini was for the first time 
exposed (see DONATION OF CONSTANTINE). From Naples Valla 
continued his war against the Church. He showed that the 
supposed letter of Christ to Abgarus was a forgery, and by 
throwing doubt upon the authenticity of other spurious docu- 
ments, and by questioning the utility of monastic life, he 
aroused the anger of the faithful. He was compelled to appear 
before an inquisitory tribunal composed of his enemies, and 
he only escaped by the special intervention of Alphonso. He 
was not, however, silenced; he ridiculed the Latin of the 
Vulgate and accused St Augustine of heresy. In 1444 he 
visited Rome, but in this city also his enemies were numerous 
and powerful, and he only saved his life by flying in disguise 
to Barcelona, whence he returned to Naples. But a better 
fortune attended him after the death of Eugenius IV. in Feb- 
ruary 1447. Again he journeyed to Rome, where he was 
welcomed by the new pope, Nicholas V., who made him an 
apostolic secretary, and this entrance of Valla into the Roman 
Curia has been justly called " the triumph of humanism over 
orthodoxy and tradition." Valla also enjoyed the favour of 
Pope Calixtus III. He died in Rome on the ist of August 1457. 

All the older biographical notices of Valla are loaded with 
long accounts of his many literary and theological disputes, 
the most famous of which was the one with Poggio (q.v.), which 
took place after his settlement in Rome. It is almost impossible 
to form a just estimate of Valla's private life and character 
owing to the clouds of dust which were stirred up by this and 
other controversies, in which the most virulent and obscene 
language was employed. He appears, however, as a vain, 
jealous and quarrelsome man, but he combined the qualities 
of an elegant humanist, an acute critic and a venomous writer, 
who had committed himself to a violent polemic against the 
temporal power of Rome. In him posterity honours not so 



much the scholar and the stylist as the man who initiated a 
bold method of criticism, which he applied alike to language, 
to historical documents and to ethical opinions. Luther had 
a very high opinion of Valla and of his writings, and Cardinal 
Bellarmine calls him praecursor Lulheri, while Sir Richard Jebb 
says that his De Elegantiis " marked the highest level that had 
yet been reached in the critical study of Latin." 

Collected, but not quite complete, editions of Valla's works were 
published at Basel in 1540 and at Venice in 1592 fol., and De 
Elegantiis was reprinted nearly sixty times between 1471 and 
1536. For detailed accounts of Valla's life and work see G. Voigt, 
Die Wiederbelebung des classischen Alterthums (1880^-81); J. A. 
Symonds, Renaissance in Italy (1897-99); G. Mancini, Vita di 
Lorenzo Valla (Florence, 1891); M. von Wolff, Lorenzo Valla 
(Leipzig, 1893); J. Burckhardt, Kultur der Renaissance (1860); 
J. Vahlen, Laurentius Valla (Berlin, 1870); L. Pastor, Geschichte 
der Papste, Band ii. English trans, by F. I. Antrobus (1892); the 
article in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie, Band xx. (Leipzig, 
1908); and J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Class. Schol. ii. (1908), pp. 66-70. 

VALLADOLID, an inland province of Spain, one of the 
eight into which Old Castile was divided in 1833; bounded 
on the N. by Leon and Palencia, E. by Burgos, S. by Segovia, 
Avila and Salamanca, and W. by Zamora. Pop. (1900) 
278,561; area, 2922 sq. m. The province belongs entirely 
to the basin of the Duero (Douro), which traverses it from E. 
to W., and within its limits receives the Pisuerga (with the 
Esgueva) on the right, and the Duraton, the Cega, the united 
Adaja and Eresma, the Zapardiel and the Trabancos on the 
left. The country watered by these rivers is for the most 
part flat and exceedingly fertile, the only part that can be called 
in any sense hilly being in the north-west, where the low Montes 
de Torozos occur. For the excellence and abundance of its 
grain crops Valladolid shares with the Tierra de Campos in 
Palencia the title of granary of the Peninsula. 

Besides wheat, maize, barley and oats, the province produces 
hemp, flax, various fruits, red and white wine, oil and madder. 
The Montes de Torozos are thinly covered with oaks and other 
timber, and there are forests in the S.E. The pastures are ex- 
tensive and large numbers of asses, mules and sheep, as well as 
some horses and cattle, are reared. Honey, wax and silk are 
also produced. The woollen fabrics of Valladolid were once highly 
esteemed, but this industry has now greatly declined, although 
in the larger towns there are still linen and cloth factories, besides 
iron foundries, tanneries, saw-mills and flour-mills. But agri- 
culture is by far the foremost industry of the province. Trade is 
facilitated by the Canal de Castilla, which connects Valladolid, 
on the Pisuerga, with Alar del Rey, in Palencia, also on that river. 
See PALENCIA (province). Valladolid is traversed by the national 
highways from Madrid to Santander, Leon and Corunna, and 
by the Calatayud and Salamanca roads. It is also traversed from 
N. to S. by the northern railway from Madrid to France via Irun, 
which has branches from Valladolid to Medina del Rioseco, and 
from Medina del Campo to Salamanca and Zamora. Apart from 
the capital Valladolid, Nava del Rey (6148), Medina del Campo 
(597 1 ) and Medina del Rioseco (5007) are the only towns with 
more than 5000 inhabitants. For an account of the people and 
history of the province, see CASTILE. 

VALLADOLID, a town of Mexico, in the state of Yucatan, 
90 m. S.E. of Merida, with which it is connected by rail. Pop. 
about 5000. It is situated in a healthy and fertile part of 
Yucatan, and is a resort for invalids. It has a number of old 
churches, a Jesuits' college, town hall, hospital and aqueduct, 
and the better class of residences are of the usual type, low, 
large-roomed structures in the midst of gardens. It was founded 
in 1544, soon after the conquest, and was planned to be a great 
ecclesiastical centre, but these plans were not realized and its 
churches and other fine buildings have fallen into decay. Its 
manufactures include cotton goods and tobacco. The in- 
habitants, chiefly descendants of the ancient Mayas, have 
frequently revolted against their rulers. In 1910 they were 
in a state of insurrection, assisted by the wild tribesmen of the 
neighbouring territory of Quintana Roo, on which occasion 
Valladolid was captured by them and many of its officials and 
prominent white residents were massacred. 

VALLADOLID, the capital of the Spanish province of Val- 
ladolid, situated 2228 ft. above sea-level, at the confluence of 
the river Pisuerga with the Esgueva. Pop. (1900) 68,789. 
Valladolid is an archbishopric, and the seat of an army corps, 



862 



VALLANDIGHAM VALLE 



a court of appeal and a university. It is connected by numerous 
railways with every province of Spain. Its site is a small valley, 
enclosed by steep and rugged but not very high hills, which 
merge into the vast upland plain of Castile. The city was 
formerly surrounded by walls and entered by four principal 
gates, but it has been to a great extent modernized, and possesses 
many fine streets and squares. There are broad avenues and 
public gardens beside the rivers. Among the chief open spaces 
are the arcaded Plaza Mayor, the Campo Grande, a wooded 
park and the Paseo de la Avenida, a wide boulevard in which 
is the statue of the poet Jose Zorilla (1817-1893). The granite 
cathedral was begun in 1585 by Juan de Herrera in the Re- 
naissance style. Herrera's original model is preserved in the 
muniment-room, but only the nave and one tower (out of four) 
were completed after his design, and the tower fell in 1841. 
The building was continued by Churriguera (d. 1725). The 
interior contains some pictures by Luca Giordana (1623-1705) 
and the celebrated silver monstrance wrought by Juan de 
Arphe (b. 1523), which is 6? ft. high; it is in the form of a 
temple, decorated with figures of Adam and Eve in the garden 
of Eden. The tower and nave of the church of Santa Maria la 
Antigua date from about 1200. The church of San Pablo is 
later (1286); its chief feature of interest is a beautiful Flam- 
boyant portal, and formerly it had exquisite cloisters. Adjoin- 
ing is San Gregorio (isth century) with a fine Plateresque 
facade. San Benito, dating from the end of the I4th century, 
is a Gothic building with a lofty roof finely groined. The 
Plateresque college of Santa Cruz, built by Enrique de Egas 
in 1479-92, contains an interesting collection of pictures and 
sculptures, including three pictures by Rubens, which have 
been somewhat damaged, and some remarkable wooden statues 
by Alonso Berruguete (d. 1581) and others. The college of San 
Gregorio, dating from the same period, was wrecked by the 
French in 1808, but has a magnificent late Gothic facade. This 
building has been converted into municipal offices. The uni- 
versity is attended by about 1200 students, and has faculties of 
law, medicine, natural science, philosophy and literature. 
Originally founded at Palencia early in the I3th century, it was 
transferred to Valladolid before 1250 and attained its greatest 
prosperity from the i6th century to the i8th. The library 
contains many rare MSS. The university buildings date from 
the 1 7th century and are extravagantly ornate. Among 
other public buildings of Valladolid may be mentioned the 
royal palace, built in the beginning of the I7th century, the 
court-house, the town hall, several convents used as barracks, 
the provincial institute, training schools for teachers and primary 
schools, royal academy for cavalry cadets, provincial lunatic 
asylum, hospitals, seminary (raised in 1897 by Pope Leo XIII. 
to the rank of a pontifical university), archaeological museum, 
picture gallery and public library. The house in which Cervantes 
lived (1603-1606) is owned by the state. The principal industries 
are the manufacture of linen, silk and woollen fabrics, pottery, 
gold and silver work, flour, wine, beer, chocolate, leather, iron- 
ware and paper. There is also a large agricultural trade. 

Valladolid is sometimes identified with the ancient Pintia of 
Ptolemy, described as a town of the Vaccaei on the road from 
Asturica to Caesaraugusta. Its Roman origin is uncertain. 
The present name is undoubtedly Moorish, but its meaning is 
obscure. Valladolid was recovered from the Moors in the loth 
century, but is first named in a public document by Sancho II. 
of Leon in 1072. The cortes of Castile frequently met here in 
the following centuries, and in the beginning of the i sth century 
John II. made it his principal residence. After the removal 
of the capital to Madrid by Philip II. in 1560 it began rapidly 
to decay. In December 1808 it was taken and sacked by 
the French, who destroyed many fine buildings and works of 
art. Columbus died (1506) and Philip II. was born (1=527) at 
Valladolid. 

VALLANDIGHAM, CLEMENT LAIRD (1820-71), American 
politician, was born in New Lisbon, Ohio, on the 2gth of July 
1820. He was educated in the common schools and afterwards 
studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1842. Elected to 



the Ohio House of Representatives in 1845, he became one of the 
extremest of the state rights Democrats of his section, emphasiz- 
ing his principles in the legislature in the local and national 
party conventions, and in the columns of a newspaper, the 
Western Empire, which he edited at Dayton, Ohio, in 1847-49. 
From 1858 to 1863 he was in the lower house of Congress, where 
he was noted for his strong opposition to the principles and 
policies of the growing Republican party, his belief that the 
South had been grievously wronged by the North, his leader- 
ship of the Peace Democrats or Copperheads, who were opposed 
to the prosecution of the war, and his bitter attacks upon 
the Lincoln administration, which, he said, was destroying the 
Constitution and would end by destroying civil liberty in the 
North. Attempts were made to expel him, but without 
success. In 1863 he made violent speeches in Ohio against the 
administration, and for these he was arrested by the military 
authorities, tried by military commission, and sentenced to 
imprisonment. President Lincoln commuted this sentence to 
banishment, and Vallandigham was sent into the Confederate 
lines, whence he made his way to Canada. While in exile he 
was elected supreme commander of the Knights of the Golden 
Circle in Ohio and received the Democratic nomination for 
governor of Ohio, but was defeated. In 1864 he returned to 
Ohio, took active part in the campaign of that year, wrote 
part of the National Democratic platform at Chicago, and 
assisted to nominate McClellan for the presidency. After the 
war he denounced the Reconstruction policy of the Republicans 
as unconstitutional and tyrannical, but in 1870, seeing the use- 
lessness of further opposition, he advised his party to accept the 
situation and adopt new issues. He thus initiated what was 
known as the " New Departure " Democratic movement. 
Vallandigham was a good lawyer and a popular politician. He 
was fanatically devoted to the Constitution as he understood 
that document, and in his course during the war he was not, as 
his enemies asserted, trying to aid the Confederates, but merely 
desirous of restoring " the Union as it was. " He died in Lebanon, 
Ohio, on the 1 7 th of June 1 8 7 1 . 

See J. L. Vallandigham, Life of Clement L. Vallandigham (Balti- 
more, 1872); and J. F. Rhodes, History of the United States from 
the Compromise of 1850 (New York, 1893-1906). 

VALLE, PIETRO DELLA (1586-1652), Italian traveller in 
the East, came of a noble Roman family, and was born on the 
nth of April 1586, in the family palace built by Cardinal 
Andrea. His early life was divided between the pursuits of 
literature and arms. He saw active service against the Moors 
of Barbary, but also became a member of the Roman academy 
of the Umoristi, and acquired some reputation as a versifier 
and rhetorician. The idea of travelling in the East was sug- 
gested by a disappointment in love, as an alternative to suicide, 
and was ripened to a fixed purpose by a visit to the learned Mario 
Schipano, professor of medicine in Naples, to whom the record 
of Pietro's travels was addressed in the form of very elaborate 
letters, based on a full diary. Before leaving Naples he took a 
vow of pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and, sailing from Venice 
on the 8th of June i6r4, reached Constantinople, where he re- 
mained for more than a year, and acquired a good knowledge of 
Turkish and a little Arabic. On the 25th of September 1615 he 
sailed for Alexandria with a suite of nine persons, for he travelled 
always as a nobleman of distinction, and with every advantage 
due to his rank. From Alexandria he went on to Cairo, and, 
after an excursion to Mount Sinai, left Cairo for the Holy Land 
on the Sth of March 1616, in time to assist at the Easter cele- 
brations at Jerusalem. Having visited the holy sites, he 
journeyed by Damascus to Aleppo, and thence to Bagdad, 
where he married a Syrian Christian named Maani, a native of 
Mardin, who died in 1621. He now desired to visit Persia; 
but, as that country was then at war with Turkey, he had to 
leave Bagdad by stealth on the 4th of January 1617. Accom- 
panied by his wife he proceeded by Hamadan to Isfahan, and 
joined Shah Abbas in a campaign in northern Persia, in the 
summer of 1618. Here he was well received at court and 
treated as the shah's guest. On his return to Isfahan he began 



VALLEJO VALLETTA 



863 



to think of returning by India rather than adventure himself 
again in Turkey; but the state of his health, and the war 
between Persia and the Portuguese at Ormuz, created difficulties. 
In October 1621 he started from Isfahan, and, visiting Persepolis 
and Shiraz, made his way to the coast; but it was not till 
January 1623 that he found passage for Surat on the English 
ship " Whale." In India he remained till November 1624, his 
headquarters being Surat and Goa. He was at Muscat in 
January 1625, and at Basra in March. In May he started by 
the desert route for Aleppo, and took ship at Alexandretta on a 
French vessel. Touching at Cyprus he reached Rome on the 
28th of March 1626, and was received with much honour, not 
only by literary circles, but by Pope Urban VIII., who appointed 
him a gentleman of his bedchamber. The rest of his life was 
uneventful; he married as second wife a Georgian orphan of 
noble family, Mariuccia (Tinatin de Ziba), whom his first wife 
had adopted as a child, and who had accompanied him in all his 
journeys. By her he had fourteen sons. He died at Rome on 
the 2ist of April 1652. 

In Pietro della Valle's lifetime there were printed (l) a Funeral 
Oration on his Wife Maani, whose remains he brought with him 
to Rome and buried there (1627); (2) an Account of Shah Abbas, 
printed at Venice in 1628, but not published; (3) the first part 
of the letter describing his Travels (Turkey, 1650). The Travels 
in Persia (2 parts) were published by his sons in 1658, and the 
third part (India) in 1663. An English translation appeared in 
1665 (fol.). Of the Italian text the editon of Brighton, 1843 
(2 vols. 8vo), is more esteemed than the other reprints. It contains 
a sketch of the author's life by Gio. P. Bellori (1622). Delia Valle's 
story is often prolix, with a tendency to the rhetorical; but he 
is clear and exact, well informed and very instructive, so that his 
work still possesses high value. 

VALLEJO, a city of Solano county, California, U.S.A., on the 
San Pablo Bay, at the mouth of the Napa river, about 24 m. 
N.E. of San Francisco. Pop. (1890) 6343; (1900) 7965 (2033 
foreign-born); (1910) 11,340. It is served by a branch of the 
Southern Pacific railway, by steamboats to San Francisco, 
and by an interurban electric line. The city is situated at the 
mouth of the great interior valley of the state, and has a good 
harbour, the channel of which, since the removal of a shoal by 
the Federal government in 1902-1906, has a maximum depth at 
low tide of 24 ft. Directly opposite the city, half a mile distant 
and connected by ferry, is Mare Island, the headquarters of the 
Pacific Naval Squadron of the United States, with a large 
United States Navy Yard, a naval arsenal, two stone dry docks 
(one 750 ft. long) and a lighthouse. The Navy Yard was 
established in 1854, and its first commandant was D. G. Farra- 
gut. In the city are a Carnegie library, St Vincent's Academy 
and a Good Templars' Home (1869) for orphans. Vallejo is the 
outlet of the beautiful Napa Valley, one of the finest fruit-grow- 
ing regions of the state, and, besides fruit, ships large quantities 
of wheat. Among its manufactures are flour, leather, dairy 
products and lumber. The municipality owns and operates 
its waterworks, the water-supply being obtained from the 
mountains 25 m. distant. The city takes its name from General 
Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo, a prominent Mexican leader in the 
years immediately preceding the annexation of California to 
the United States. It was a dull and out-of-the-way settle- 
ment in 1851, when, through General Vallejo's efforts, it became 
the state capital. The state legislature met here in 1851, 1852 
and 1853. In 1871 Vallejo ranked third in population among 
the cities of the state, and its position and the excellence 
of its harbour made it a rival of Oakland in the struggle 
(1860-72) for the terminus of the Central Pacific railway; 
but Vallejo was unsuccessful, and after 1872 began to decline 
in relative importance. 

VALLES, JULES (1832-1885), French journalist and author, 
was born at Puys, France, on the icth of June 1832. Coming to 
Paris, he joined the staff of the Figaro, and became a constant 
contributor to the other leading journals. In 1866 he repub- 
lished much of his newspaper work in Refractaires, the volume 
forming a romance of the seamy side of Paris life. He was in 
Paris during the siege of 1870, and after the capitulation was a 
member of the Commune and founded Le Cri du Peuple. He 



took a conspicuous part in the fighting in the Paris streets, but 
finally made his escape to London, whence he contributed anony- 
mously to the French press. In 1878 he began in the Siecle the 
serial publication of his principal work, Jacques Vinglras, a long 
autobiographical romance. He died in Paris on the i4th of 
February 1885. 

VALLETTA, or VALETTA, the capital of Malta (since 1570). 
Pop. (1901) 24,685; or 40,406, including suburbs. The nucleus' 
of the city is built on a ridge of rock (Mount Sceberras) which 
runs like a tongue into the middle of a bay, which it thus divides 
into two harbours, the Grand Harbour to the east and the Marsa- 
muschetto to the west, which are subdivided again by three other 
peninsulas into creeks. On two of these peninsulas on the east 
side of the Grand Harbour, and at their base, are built the aggre- 
gate of towns called the Three Cities Vittoriosa, Conspicua and 
Senglea (see MALTA). On the main promontory, with Valletta, 
stands the suburb Floriana; Fort St Elmo, with a lighthouse, 
stands on the extremity of the promontory; the suburb Sliema 
lies on the point which encloses the Marsamuschetto harbour; 
Fort Ricasoli on the opposite point enclosing the east, Grand, or 
Great Harbour. The streets of Valletta, paved with stone, run 
along and across the ridge, and end on each side towards the 
water in steep flights of steps. Many of the houses, which are 
of stone throughout, with flat roofs, are large and luxuriously 
built; wooden-covered balconies project from the windows and 
give a peculiar aspect to the streets. There are several fine 
public buildings, as the governor's palace, the new opera-house, 
the public library and museum of Maltese antiquities, and the 
auberges or lodges of the Knights of Malta (especially the Auberge 
de Castile) which are now used for military offices, club-rooms, 
and other purposes. Roman Catholic churches in Valletta are 
very numerous; the cathedral of S. Giovanni, dating from 1576, 
is famous for its rich inlaid marbles, its Brussels tapestries, its 
roof painted by Matteo Preti (1661-1699) > t ne picture by Michael 
Angelo da Caravaggio of the beheading of John the Baptist, 
numerous memorials of the knights and other relics. 

The governor's palace was formerly that of the grand master of 
the Maltese Order, and it also contains relics of the knights, 
tapestries, armour, &c. Extensive bagnios under the rock, 
formerly occupied by the slaves of the knights, are now used 
for stores. The knights strengthened Valletta and its harbour 
by bastions, curtain-walls, lines and forts, towards the sea, 
towards the land and on every available point, taking advantage 
in every particular of the natural rock and of the marvellous 
advantages of situation, rendering it then almost impregnable. 
The work of fortifying the place has been carried on by the 
British government, which possesses here a naval hospital, 
military prison and other necessary institutions. Since the 
British occupation Valletta has been a naval and military station 
of the first importance. The dock and victualling yards occupy 
together an area of some 100 acres spread over the shores on 
both sides of those arms of the great harbour known as " Dock- 
yard " and " French " creeks, the dockyard being partly on the 
former, but principally on the latter creek. In 1880 the graving 
dock accommodation consisted of one double dock at the 
extremity of Dockyard creek, known as Nos. i and 2 Docks, with 
a total length of about 525 ft. and with 25 ft. over the sill at 
average water-level, the tidal range at Malta being but slight; 
and opening into French creek a dry dock of more modern 
construction, known as No. 3, or the Somerset Dock, 427 ft. 
long on floor, and with 34 ft. over the sill. Subsequently to this 
period the fine range of buildings known as the iron ship repairing 
shop was erected close to the Somerset Dock, and added greatly 
to the repairing resources of the yard. Dock No. 4, or the Hamilton 
Dock, was completed in 1891, having a length on floor of 520 ft., 
a width of entrance of 94 ft. and with 35 ft. 5 in. depth over the 
sill at average water-level. Associated with this dock was the 
construction of adjacent deep-water wharf walls, together with 
the great i6o-ton crane. Among later additions were gun- 
mounting stores, boiler shop, boat sheds, canteen, coal stores. 
&c., together with a double dock 750 ft. long over all, and a 
single dock 550 ft. long. The large transit trade and the local 



864 VALLEYFIELD V ALOIS, COUNTS AND DUKES OF 



trade of the island centre upon Valletta. The influx of winter 
visitors adds to the wealth of the city. 

VALLEYPIELD, town and port of entry, Beauharnois county, 
Quebec, Canada, 25 m. S.W. of Montreal, at the foot of Lake 
St Francis an expansion of the river St Lawrence and at the 
head of the Beauharnois canal. Pop. (1891) 5515; (1901) 11,055. 
It is a station on the Canada Atlantic and New York Central 
railways, and a port of call for all steamers plying between 
Montreal and Lake Ontario ports. It is the see of a Roman 
Catholic bishop, and contains a college and a convent. It has 
extensive cotton, flour, canning and paper mills. 

VALLEY FORGE, a small village in Chester county, Penn- 
sylvania, U.S.A., on the S. bank of the Schuylkill river, about 
20 m. N.W. of Philadelphia. It is served by the Philadelphia 
& Reading railway. The village lies in part of the tract occu- 
pied in the winter of 1777-1778 by the American army (under 
General Washington), whose sufferings from cold, starvation 
and sickness made the place historic. On the igih of December 
(after the battles of Brandywine and Germantown and the 
occupation of Philadelphia by the British) the army, numbering 
about 10,000, went into camp here, the site having been selected 
by Washington partly because the hilly ground was favourable 
for defence, and partly because the army was thus placed between 
the British forces and York, Pennsylvania (about 65 m. W. of 
Valley Forge), where Congress was in session. The camp was 
almost unapproachable from the west by reason of the pre- 
cipitous hillsides and Valley Creek, a small stream flowing 
northward at their base into the Schuylkill river which 
afforded a barrier on the north; on the east a series of intrench- 
ments and rifle-pits were built. In this vicinity the army 
remained encamped until the middle of June. As a result of 
the mismanagement and general incapacity of the Commissary 
Department, the army received little food or clothing during 
the winter months; in the latter part of December nearly 2900 
men were unfit for duty on account of sickness or the lack of 
clothing, and by the istof February this number had increased 
by nearly 1000, a state of affairs which Washington said was 
due to "an eternal round of the most stupid mismanagement 
[by which] the public treasure is expended to no kind of 
purpose, while the men have been left to perish by inches 
with cold and nakedness." There were many desertions and 
occasional symptoms of mutiny, but for the most part the 
soldiers bore their suffering with heroic fortitude. On the 
27th of February Baron Steuben (q.v.) reached the camp, where 
he drilled and reorganized the army. In 1893 the state of 
Pennsylvania created a commission of ten members, which 
(with $365,000 appropriated up to 1911) bought about 475 
acres (in Chester and Montgomery counties) of the original 
camp ground, now known as the Valley Forge Park, preserved 
Washington's headquarters (built in about the year 1758) and 
other historic buildings, and reproduced several bake-ovens 
and huts of the kind used by the army. The state has also 
erected (1908) a fine equestrian statue by Henry K. Bush-Brown 
to General Anthony Wayne, and a number of granite markers 
which indicate the situation of the camps of the different brigades. 
The state of Maine erected in 1907 a granite memorial to the 
soldiers from Maine who camped here, and in 1910 Massa- 
chusetts appropriated $5000 for a memorial to her troops. 
Valley Forge took its name from an iron forge (also called 
" Mountjoy forge ") built on the east side of Valley Creek, near 
its mouth, in about 1750, and destroyed by the British in 1777. 

VALLOMBROSA, a summer resort of Tuscany, Italy, in the 
province of Florence, reached by a cable railway 5 m. long 
from the station of S. Ellero (which is 16 m. S.E. of Florence) 
and 328 ft. above sea-level, on the N.W. slope of the Prato 
Magno chain. The former monastery, suppressed in 1816, is 
occupied by the Royal School of Forestry. A number of hotels 
have been built. Similar summer resorts are situated among 
the woods above the Casentino or upper valley of the Arno to 
the east, such as Camaldoli, Badia di Prataglia, &c. Camaldoli 
was the original headquarters of the Camaldulensian order, 
now partly occupied by an hotel. Five hours' journey to the 



S. of the last on foot and 7^ m. to the E. of Bibbiena by road 
is the monastery of La Verna, 3660 ft. above sea-level, founded by 
St Francis in 1215. 

VALLOMBROSIANS, an order of monks under the Benedictine 
rule, founded by St John Gualbert in 1038. He was son of a 
Florentine nobleman, and became first a Benedictine and then 
a Camaldulian. Finally, about 1030, he withdrew to Vallom- 
brosa, a shady dale on the side of a mountain in the Apennines, 
10 m. from Florence, and for some years led a completely 
solitary ^life. Disciples, however, gathered around him, and he 
formed them into an order in which the cenobitical and the 
eremitical lives should be combined. The monks lived in 
a monastery, not in separate huts like the Camaldulians, and 
the Benedictine rule was the basis of the life; but the contem- 
plative side was strongly emphasized, and every element of 
Benedictine life was eliminated that could be supposed to in- 
terrupt the attention of the mind to God even manual labour. 
The Vallombrosians spread in Italy and France, but they never 
had more than sixty houses. They now have three, with some 
sixty monks in all. The habit was originally grey, but it 
became black; and the life also has been assimilated to that of 
the Benedictines. There were some convents of Vallombrosian 
nuns. 

See Helyot, Histoire des Ordres religieux (1718), v. cc. 28, 29; 
Max Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregationen (1907), I. 44. 

(E.C.B.) 

VALLS, a town of north-eastern Spain, in the province of 
Tarragona; n m. N. of Tarragona, on the Picamoixons-Roda 
railway. Pop. (1900) 12,625. Vails is an old town, and its 
walls and towers still remain. Wool and cotton spinning 
and weaving, dyeing, distilling, paper-making and tanning are 
carried on here with considerable activity. 

VALOIS, COUNTS AND DUKES OF. The French countship 
of Valois (pagus Vadensis) takes its name from Vez (Latin 
Vadum), its early capital, a town in the department of the Oise. 
From the loth to the i2th century it was owned by the counts 
of Vermandois and of Vexin; but on the death of Eleanor, 
sister and heiress of Count Raoul V. (d. 1167), it was united to 
the crown by King Philip Augustus. Soon detached from the 
royal domain, Valois was the property of Blanche of Castile, 
widow of Louis VIII., from 1240 to 1252, and of Jean Tristan, 
a younger son of Louis IX., from 1268 to 1270. In 1285 
Philip III. gave the county to his son Charles (d. 1325), whose 
son and successor, Philip, count of Valois, became king of 
France as Philip VI. in 1328. Sixteen years later Valois was 
granted to Philip's son, Philip, duke of Orleans; then passing 
with the duchy of Orleans in 1392 to Louis (d. 1407), a son of 
Charles V., it was erected into a duchy in 1406, and remained the 
property of the dukes of Orleans until Duke Louis became king 
of France as Louis XII. in 1498, when it was again united with 
the royal domain. 

After this event the duchy of Valois was granted to several 
ladies of the royal house. Held by Jeanne, countess of Taille- 
bourg (d. 1520), from 1516 to 1517, and by Marie, countess of 
Vend6me, from 1530 until her death in 1546, it was given to 
Catherine de Medici, the widow of Henry II., in 1562, and in 
1582 to her daughter, Margaret of Valois, the wife of Henry of 
Navarre. In 1630 Louis XIII. granted Valois to his brother 
Gaston, duke of Orleans, and the duchy formed part of the 
lands and titles of the dukes of Orleans from this time until the 
Revolution. 

The house of Valois, a branch of the great Capetian family, 
is thus descended from Charles, a son of Philip III., and has 
been divided into several lines, three of which have reigned in 
France. These are: (i) the direct line, beginning with Philip 
VI., which reigned from 1328 to 1498; (2) the Orleans branch, 
descended from Louis, duke of Orleans, a son of Charles V., 
from 1498 to 1515; (3) the Angouleme branch, descendants 
of John, another son of the same duke, from 1515 to 1589. 
Excluding the royal house, the most illustrious of the Valois 
branches are: the dukes of Alengon, descendants of Charles, a 
younger son of Charles I., count of Valois; the dukes of Anjou, 



VALOIS, HENRI DE VALPY 



865 



descendants of Louis, the second son of King John II.; and 
the dukes of Burgundy, descendants of Philip, the fourth son 
of the same king. 

VALOIS, HENRI DE [VALESIUS] (1603-1676), French scholar, 
was born at Paris on the loth of September 1603. He was a 
pupil of the Jesuits at the college of Clermont, then studied law 
at Bourges. He was called to the bar in 1623, but before 
long devoted himself entirely to literature. He had an extra- 
ordinary memory and a thorough knowledge of the classics, 
and to him we owe editions of several of the Greek historians, 
with excellent Latin translations, the only fault found with 
which is that they are too elegant: Polybii, Diodori Siculi, 
Nicolai Damasceni, Dionysii Halicarnassii, Appiani et Joannis 
Antiocheni excerpta (1634; Henri de Valois used for this edition 
a manuscript coming from Cyprus, which had been acquired by 
Peiresc); Ammiani Marcellini rerum gestarum libri 18 (1636); 
Euscbii ecclesiastica historia, et vita imperatoris Constantini, 
graece et latine (1659); Socratis, Sozomeni, Theodoreti et Evagrii 
Historia ecclesiastica (1668-1673). When almost sixty years of 
age, and nearly blind, he married Marguerite Chesneau (1664), 
and had by her four sons and three daughters. He died in 
Paris on the 7th of May 1676. 

His brother, ADRIEN DE VALOIS (1607-1692), was also a well- 
known scholar. He made the acquaintance of Father Petau, 
Father Sirmond and the brothers Dupuy, who turned his attention 
towards medieval studies. He was appointed historiographer in 
1660. He undertook the task of writing a critical history of France, 
but did not get further than the deposition of Childeric III. (752). 
He devoted, however, to this period three folio volumes (Gesta 
Francorum seu rerum francicarum tomi tres, 1646-1658), which form 
a critical commentary of much value, and in many points new, 
on the chroniclers of the Merovingian age. His study on the 
palaces constructed by the Merovingian kings (De basilicis quas 
primi Francorum reges condiderunt, 1658-1660) is noteworthy in 
this connexion. In 1675 appeared his Notitia Galliarum ordine 
litterarum digesta, a work of the highest merit, which laid the 
foundations of the scientific study of historical geography in France ; 
but, like all the scholars of his age, he had no solid knowledge of 
philology. His last work was a life of his elder brother (De Vita 
Henrici Valesii, 1677). 

Adrien's son, CHARLES DE VALOIS (1671-1747), was a distin- 
guished numismatist, and formed a fine collection of medals, chiefly 
Roman. He entered at an early age the Academie des Inscrip- 
tions et Belles Lettres, where he became first a pupil (1705), then 
an associate (1714) and finally a pensionnaire (1722). He published 
little; we know, however, an Histoire des Amphictyons by him. 
His best work, the Valesiana (1694), was inspired by filial affection; 
in it he collected a number of historical and critical observations, 
anecdotes and Latin poems of his father. His Eloge, by Fr6ret, 
is in the Memoires de V Academie des Inscriptions, vol. xxi. p. 234 
(1747)- 

VALPARAISO, a province of Chile on the Pacific coast, 
bounded N. by Aconcagua, E. and S. by Santiago and W. by 
the ocean. Area, 1953 sq. m. Pop. (1895) 220,756; (1902, 
estimated) 249,885. Its surface is chiefly mountainous, and in 
great part barren. The river and mountain valleys, however, 
are fertile, and where irrigation is possible yield large crops, 
especially cereals. The valley of the Aconcagua, which flows 
across the N. end of the province, is celebrated for its fertility, 
especially in the vicinity of Quillota, sometimes called the 
" garden of Chile." The capital is Valparaiso, and the principal 
town outside the capital is Quillota. 

VALPARAISO, a city and seaport of Chile, capital of the 
province of Valparaiso, on a broad open bay of the Pacific in 
lat. 33 o' 2" S., long. 71 41' 15" W., about 70 m. N.W. of 
Santiago. Pop. (1902) 142,282; (1907, estimated) 180,600. 
The almost semicircular Bay of Valparaiso is slightly over 
3 m. across from Punta Angeles to Punta Gruesa, and the city 
stands on the south side, on the slopes of a spur of barren hills 
projecting into the Pacific and forming a rocky peninsula 
terminating in Punta Angeles. This point affords good shelter 
from southerly and westerly storms, but the bay is open to 
those from the north. The city occupies a narrow strip of beach 
extending around the head of the bay, and extends up the 
steep slopes and valleys of the enclosing hills, which have an 
altitude of 1000 to 1400 ft. The extreme outer points of the 
bay are strongly fortified. Valparaiso is pre-eminently a com- 
xxvii. 28 



mercial city. The foreign trade is largely in the hands of foreign 
merchants. Among industrial establishments are the govern- 
ment railway shops, large foundry and machine shops, coach- 
building works, a large sugar refinery, breweries, distilleries, 
bottling works and numerous small factories. The trade of the 
port, which is the largest and most important on the Pacific 
coast of South America, makes it a terminal and port of call for 
several regular lines of steamers, which afford frequent com- 
munication with Europe and the United States. The trans- 
continental railway line between Valparaiso and Buenos Aires 
(the Andean tunnel was opened in April 1910) adds to the traffic 
of the port, through the transhipment of passengers and freight 
to escape the long and dangerous voyage by way of the Straits 
of Magellan. Two cable lines give telegraphic communication 
with Europe and the United States a West Coast line running 
N. to Panama, and a land line across the Andes to Buenos 
Aires in connexion with the cable to Europe from that port. 
There is but one railway out of Valparaiso the government 
line to Santiago, with a branch running to Los Andes and the 
international tunnel through the Andes. There are a wireless 
telegraph station in regular communication with the islands 
of Juan Fernandez, state telegraph lines communicating with 
all parts of the republic, and an efficient telephone service. 
Valparaiso has an attractive suburb, Vina-del-Mar, immedi- 
ately E. of Punta Gruesa, only 15 minutes by rail from the city. 

Valparaiso was founded in 1536 by Juan de Saavedra, who 
named it after his birthplace near Cuenca, Spain. It was an 
ill-chosen name, however, for there is nothing in it descriptive 
of the barren hills, dirty streets and foul-smelling shores of 
Valparaiso (Paradise Valley). The port and town were of but 
little note during the colonial period, for free commercial inter- 
course with the colony was forbidden. In 1819, near the end 
of the war with Spain, its population barely reached 5000. 
In 1578 it was captured by Sir Francis Drake, and in 1596 by 
Sir John Hawkins. In 1600 it was sacked by the Dutch under 
Van Noort. On the 3ist of March 1866, it was bombarded by 
a Spanish fleet under the command of Admiral Nunez, when 
a large part of the town was laid in ruins, and on the 28th of 
August 1891, after the victory of the congressional troops over 
Balmaceda's forces in the vicinity, it was partially sacked by 
the Chileans themselves. Valparaiso has suffered much from 
earthquakes in 1730, 1822, 1839, 1873 and 1908. The last- 
mentioned caused the destruction of a large part of the city, 
including public edifices, private residences, the water mains, 
public lighting service and transportation facilities. A large 
part of the population was deprived of shelter and had to take 
refuge on the plateau above. Aid was promptly 'given by the 
national government, and assistance was sent from foreign 
countries; and the national government made a grant for the 
rebuilding of the city. 

VALPARAISO, a city and the county-seat of Porter county, 
Indiana, U.S.A., about 40 m. S.E. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 
5090; (1900) 6280, including 660 foreign-born; (1910) 6987. It is 
served by the Grand Trunk, the New York, Chicago & St Louis, 
and the Pennsylvania railways. The city has a public library 
(1905), and is the seat of an Institute of Telegraphy (founded 
in 1874; chartered in 1900) and of Valparaiso University 
(1873; formerly known as the Valparaiso Normal Training 
School). This university was founded to furnish a practical 
education at a low cost, and in 1910 had 187 instructors and a 
total enrolment of 5367 students. Valparaiso was settled about 
1835, incorporated in 1856 as a village and chartered as a city 
in 1865. 

VALPY, RICHARD (1754-1836), English schoolmaster, was 
born in Jersey on the 7th of December 1754. He was sent to 
schools in Normady and Southampton, and completed his 
education at Pembroke College, Oxford. In 1777 he took orders, 
and in 1781 became head master of Reading grammar school,' 
a post which he held for fifty years. He was the author of 
Greek and Latin grammars which enjoyed a large circulation. 
He died in London on the 28th of March 1836. 

His second son, ABRAHAM JOHN VALPY (1787-1854), 

5 



866 



VALS VALTELLINA 



printer and publisher, is remembered in connexion with two 
great undertakings in the department of classical literature. 
These were reissues of (i) Stephanus's Greek Thesaurus, for 
which E. H. Barker was chiefly responsible; (2) the Delphin 
Classics in 143 volumes with variorum notes, under the editorial 
superintendence of George Dyer. He also founded the Classical 
Journal in 1810. 

VALS (Vals-les-Bains), a village of south-western France, in the 
department of Ardeche, 3 m. N.N.W. of Aubenas, with which 
it communicates by tramway. Pop. (1906) town, 2694; com- 
mune, 4352. Vals is situated on the Volane amongst volcanic 
mountains. It is celebrated for its numerous cold mineral springs 
impregnated in most cases with bicarbonate of soda. They are 
used chiefly for drinking but also as baths, and are efficacious 
in maladies of the digestion, liver and kidneys, and for gravel 
and gout. Seven or eight million bottles annually are exported. 
Wood-turning and silk-milling are carried on. 

VALTELLINA (Ger. Veltlin; the name comes from the former 
capital, Teglio, near Tresenda), properly the name of the upper 
valley of Adda, in north Italy. Historically and officially, it 
also comprises the Italian Liro or San Giacomo valley, which 
extends from the Spliigen Pass past Chiavenna (where the 
Liro is absorbed by the Mera, flowing from the Swiss Val 
Bregaglia) to the Lake of Como, the Mera entering this lake 
slightly to the north of the Adda. These two valleys (but not 
Colico, which is in the province of Como) form together the 
province of Sondrio. Pop. 145,265 (exclusive of Colico) or 
122,466 (omitting Chiavenna). Politically the whole valley 
belongs to the kingdom of Italy, except the side valley of 
Poschiavo (Puschlav), which belongs to the Swiss canton of 
the Grisons (Graubiinden). The chief town is Sondrio (7172), 
other important places being Tirano (5870), Chiavenna (4592) 
and Morbegno (3603). Near Bormio (Ger. Worms) there are 
some frequented mineral springs (sulphur and lime), known in 
Pliny's time, and efficacious in diseases of the skin. There are 
several other baths in the side valleys, such as Santa Caterina 
(chalybeate), Masino and Le Prese (sulphur). 

The highest points in the ranges enclosing the valley are the 
Piz Zupo (13,131 ft.) in the Bernina group and the Konigsspitze 
(12,655 ft.) in the Ortler district; the Monte della Disgrazia (12,067 
ft.) is the highest peak comprised entirely within the water-basin 
of the valley. Four well-marked Alpine passes are traversed by 
good carriage-roads the Stelvio Pass or Stilfserjoch (9055 ft., 
the highest carriage-road in Europe) from Bormio to Meran in the 
Adige valley, the Bernina Pass (7645 ft.) from Tirano to Samaden 
in the Upper Engadine, and the Aprica Pass(3875 ft.) from Tirano 
to the Val Camonica and the Lake of Iseo, while from near the top 
of the Stelvio a fourth road leads over the Umbrail Pass (8242 ft., 
the highest in Switzerland) to the Swiss valley of MiinBter, which is 
reached at the village of Santa Maria. The main valley is traversed 
from end to end by a magnificent carriage-road constructed by 
the Austrian Government in 1820-1825. A railway runs from Colico, 
on the Lake of Como, past Sondrio to Tirano, a distance of 42 m., 
while there is another from Colico to Chiavenna (l6| m.). 

The population is wholly Italian-speaking and Roman Catholic, 
the valley being in the diocese of Como. The shrine of the Madonna 
of Tirano (founded I52o)annually attracts a large number of pilgrims. 
The valley, particularly in its lower portion, is extremely fertile; 
and of late years vigorous measures have been taken to prevent the 
damage caused by the frequent inundations of the Adda. Chestnuts, 
vines, mulberry trees and fig trees abound; and there are many 
picturesquely situated churches, castles and villages. The chief 
articles exported are wine and honey. The wine is largely consumed 
in north Italy and Switzerland, the best varieties being Grumello, 
Sassella and Montagna. Large quantities of honey are annually 
sent abroad. 

History. The political history of Valtellina is made up of 
the histories of three districts (i) the " free community " of 
Poschiavo (first mentioned as such in 1200-1201); (2) the county 
of Bormio (first mentioned as a county in 1347); and (3) Valtel- 
lina proper, extending from the defile of the Serra di Morignone 
on the east to the Lake of Como on the west. After the defeat 
of the Lombards (774) these three districts were given (775) by 
Charlemagne to the abbey of St Denis near Paris, which never 
seems to have exercised its rights. In 824 Lothair I., confirming 
an earlier donation (803) made by Charlemagne, gave the 
churches of Poschiavo and Bormio to the bishop of Como. 



Bormio was in 1205 won by the men of Como, who in 1006 
had received one-half of Valtellina from the emperor, and by 

1114 they were masters of the entire valley. They retained 
Bormio till 1300, when it freed itself; but in 1336 it belonged 
to the bishop of Chur. In 1335 the Visconti, lords (later dukes) 
of Milan, became lords of Como, and therefore of Valtellina. In 
1350 they seized on Bormio and Poschiavo, the latter being 
won back by the bishop of Chur in 1394. and again lost to the 
Visconti in 1470. As early as 1360 the men of Rhaetia made 
incursions into Valtellina under the pretext that it had formed 
part of ancient Rhaetia. This idea was confirmed in 1404, 
when, in return for kind treatment received during his exile, 
Mastino Visconti (son of Barnabo) gave to the bishop of Chur 
his share of the Milanese, including Poschiavo, Bormio and 
Valtellina. Relying on this donation, the men of the Three 
Leagues of Rhaetia (best known by the name of one, Graubiinden) 
invaded the valley in 1486-1487, Poschiavo becoming in 1486 per- 
manently a member (not a subject land) of the Gotteshausbund. 
This donation served too as the excuse for seizing, in 1512, on 
Chiavenna, Bormio and Valtellina, which were harshly ruled as 
" subject bailiwicks." Under the governor at Sondrio there 
were four " podestas " for the three divisions of Valtellina 
(Morbegno and Traona, Sondrio and Tirano), besides one at 
Teglio and one at Bormio. Mastino Visconti's donation was 
solemnly confirmed in 1516 by the emperor Maximilian I. In 
1530 the bishop of Chur was forced to sell to the Three Leagues 
for a small sum his title to these two districts. At the time 
of the Reformation Poschiavo became Protestant. The other 
two districts clung to the old faith and came under the influence 
of Carlo Borromeo, who, when, founding in 1579 his " Collegium 
Helveticum " at Milan for Swiss students for the priesthood, 
reserved for Valtellina six out of the forty-two places. Val- 
tellina was extremely important to the Habsburgs as affording 
the direct route between their possessions of the Milanese and 
Tirol. Hence a great struggle, into which religious questions 
and bribery largely entered, took place between Austria and 
Spain on one side and France and Venice on the other. In 
1603 Fuentes, the Spanish governor of the Milanese, built a 
fortress (of which traces still remain) close to the Lake of Como, 
and at the entrance to the valley, in order to overawe it. The 
religious conflicts in Graubiinden led to reprisals in the " sub- 
ject land" of Valtellina. In 1620 (igth July-4th August) the 
Spanish and Romanist faction (headed by the Planta family) 
massacred a great number of Protestants in the valley, 350 to 
600 according to different accounts (Veltliner Mord). For the 
next twenty years the valley was the scene of great strife, being 
held by the Spaniards (1621-23, 1629-31, 1637-39), by the 
French (1624-27, 1635-37), and by the pope (1623, 1627). At 
length George Jenatsch, a former pastor, who had been the 
active and unscrupulous leader of the Protestant party, became 
a Romanist (1635) in order to free the land from the French by 
aid of the Spaniards (1637), who finally (1639) gave.it back to 
its old masters on condition that the Protestants were excluded 
Erom the valley. In this way the local struggles of Valtellina 
came to be mixed up with the Thirty Years' War. In 1797 
Bormio and Valtellina were annexed to the Cisalpine republic, 
in 1805 to the kingdom of Italy (of which Napoleon was king), 
and in 1815 (despite the remonstrances of the Raetian leagues) 
to the kingdom of Lombardo-Venetia, held by the emperor 
of Austria. In 1859 they became, like the rest of Lombardy, 
part of the kingdom of united Italy. Poschiavo followed the 
fortunes of the " Gotteshausbund." It became (after 1798) 
part of the canton Raetia of the Helvetic republic, and in 1803 
of the canton of the Graubunden or Grisons, which was then 
first received a full member of the Swiss Confederation. 

See G. Leonhardi, Das Veltlin (1859) and Das Poschiavinolhal 
(1860); Romegialli, Storia della Valtellina (1834-39, 5 vols.); 
2. von Moor, Geschichle von Curratien (1870-74.); P. C. von Planta, 
Die curratischen Herrschaften in der Feudalzeit (1881); W. Coxe, 
Travels in Switzerland, &c. (4th ed., 1801 ; Letters 74-78); G. B. 
Crollalanza, Storia del Contado di Chiavenna (Milan, 1870); D. W. 
Freshfield, Italian Alps (London, 1875); Edmondo Brusoni, Guida 
della Valtellina (Sondrio, 1906) ; A. Giussani, II Forte di Fuentes 






VALUATION AND VALUERS VALUE 



867 



(Como, 1905) ; P. A. Lavizari, Storia della Valtellina (2 yols., Capolago 
(Tessin), 1838) ; A. Lorria and E. A. Martel,e Massif de la Bernina 
(Zurich, 1894); E. Rott, Henri IV., les Suisses, et la Haute Italic 
la Lutte pour les Alpes, 1598-1610 (Paris, 1882); E. Rott, Histoire 
de la representation diplomatique de la France aupres des cantons 
Suisses (Bern; vols. iii. (1906) and iv. relate to the French in the 
Valtellina from 1620 sqq.) ; E. Haffter, Georg Jenatsch (Davos, 1894) ; 
F. Pieth, Die Feldzuge des Herzogs Rohan im Veltlin und in Grau- 
biinaen (Bern, 1905) ; F. Fossati, Codice Diplomatico della Rezia 
(originally published in the Periodico of the Societa Storica a Comense 
at Como; separate reprint, Como, 1901); L. von Ranke, History 
of the Popes, bk. vii.; and H. Reinhardt, " Das Veltliner Mord," in 
Geschichtsfreund (vol. xl., 1885). 

VALUATION AND VALUERS. A valuation of property may 
be required in view of a proposed sale or purchase, or in order to 
ascertain the amount for which it will constitute a sufficient 
security if mortgaged, or which should be paid by way of com- 
pensation where it is compulsorily taken or wrongfully damaged. 
It may also be necessary with a view to the assessment of 
property for rating, or for fiscal or other purposes. Where it is 
desired to ascertain the amount which may properly be invested 
in the purchase of land or buildings, the valuer will consider 
their character and situation, and the greater or less degree of 
risk incidental to their nature, in order to determine the rate'of 
interest which they ought to yield. The valuation will proceed 
upon the basis that the property should return to the purchaser 
the capital which he invests together with interest at the rate 
so settled, or afford him security for such interest while he keeps 
the property and the return of the capital when he desires to 
realize it. Accordingly, the net rent which it may be expected 
to yield must be ascertained by deducting the known and 
estimated outgoings and any other allowances which have to 
be taken into consideration from the gross amount which a 
knowledge of the local circumstances indicates as the probable 
return. Where the property is leasehold held for a term of 
fixed duration, the number of years' purchase will depend upon 
the length of the unexpired portion of the term, and can be 
ascertained without special calculation by reference to a table 
in common use. If the duration of the term or other interest 
in the property is uncertain, as, for example, in the case of a 
lease for lives, the number of years' purchase which may fairly 
be taken will be found in some other of the tables (e.g. Inwood's 
or Willich's), which have been prepared to meet the different 
classes of cases with which valuers have to deal. If the property 
is freehold the number of years' purchase can be found by 
dividing one hundred by the rate of the interest required. 

A valuation or appraisement, under English law, need not be 
stamped where it is made (i) for, and for the information of, one 
party only, and is not obligatory as between parties; (2) in pur- 
suance of the order of a court of admiralty or on appeal therefrom ; 
(3) of property of a deceased person for the information of an 
executor, or other person required to deliver an affidavit of the 
estate of such deceased person; or (4) of any property for the 
purpose of ascertaining the legacy or succession or account duty 
payable in respect thereof. Any other valuation or appraisement, 
whether of property or any interest therein or of the annual value 
thereof, or of any dilapidations or of any repairs wanted or of the 
materials and labour used, or to be used, in any building or of 
any artificer's work, must be stamped. An appraiser who makes 
an appraisement or valuation chargeable with stamp duty must, 
within fourteen days after making it, write it out in words and figures 
showing the full amount thereof upon duly stamped material. If 
he omits to do so, or in any other manner discloses the amount, he 
becomes liable to a fine of 50. Any person who receives from an 
appraiser, or pays for the making of, any such appraisement or 
valuation not so written out and stamped, becomes liable to a fine 
of 20. 

Where a contract has been made for the sale of property at a 
valuation, a valuation made in accordance with its terms will be 
conclusive as between the parties, in the absence of fraud, collusion 
or mistake. Where there has been an agreement to sell goods on the 
terms that the price is to be fixed by the valuation of a third party 
and such third party cannot or does not make such valuation, the 
agreement is avoided; but if the goods or any part thereof have 
been delivered to and appropriated by the buyer he must pay a 
reasonable price therefor. Where the third party is prevented from 
making the valuation by the fault of the seller or buyer, the party 
not in fault may maintain an action for damages against the party 
in fault. Where the fixing of a value by valuers is not of the essence 
of an agreement, but is wholly subsidiary to it, the courts will, if 
justice require it, ascertain the value in order to carry the agreement 



into effect. Where an agreement had been entered into for the sale 
of a house at a fixed price and of the fixtures and furniture therein 
at a valuation by a person named by both parties, and he undertook 
the valuation but was refused permission by the vendor to enter 
the premises for that purpose, the vendor was ordered to allow the 
entry so that the valuation might proceed. 

A person who exercises the calling of an appraiser or who, for or 
in expectation of any fee or reward makes any valuation or appraise- 
ment chargeable with stamp duty, must (unless he is licensed as an 
auctioneer or house agent) have an appraiser's licence, upon which 
a duty o' 2 is charged and which continues in force from the day of 
its date until the following 5th of July. By default in this respect 
a liability to a penalty of 50 is incurred. Moreover, an unlicensed 
appraiser cannot recover remuneration. A valuer is liable to the 
person who has employed him for the consequences of negligence or 
want of due care and skill on his part. If his services are thereby 
rendered worthless he will not be able to recover anything by way 
of remuneration. A valuation of a house taken by a railway 
company made by a surveyor who did not enter the house was held 
not to be a proper valuation. Although a valuer cannot be expected 
to possess a minute and accurate knowledge of the law, he ought to 
be acquainted with the general principles applicable to the valuations 
which he undertakes so far as is necessary in order to enable him to 
make them properly. The valuer, however, will be liable for the 
consequences of his negligence only towards the person who employed 
him, and not to any one else who may happen in fact to have been 
prejudiced thereby. (H. HA.)- 

VALUE (0. Fr. value, from valoir, to be worth, Lat. valere), 
in general usage a term signifying worth. It has, however, a 
special meaning in economics, which is the subject of this article. 

In some departments of economic theory it is still convenient 
to use as the basis of the exposition the opinions of J. S. Mill, 
because he embodied in his treatise on Political Economy in a 
remarkable manner nearly everything of importance from the 
theoretical standpoint in the work of his predecessors, and to a 
considerable extent subsequent advances in economic science 
have been made by way of criticism or development of his 
version. This observation is especially true of the theory of 
value. In this subject Mill had digested the mass of previous 
learning with such effect that he commences his treatment with 
the remark: "Happily there is nothing in the laws of value 
which remains for the present or any future writer to clear up; 
the theory of the subject is complete. The only difficulty to be 
overcome is that of so stating it as to solve by anticipation 
the chief perplexities which occur in applying it." Curiously 
enough this part of economic theory was the first to receive at 
the hands of Jevons and others serious modification, the nature 
and need for which can, however, only be properly understood 
after a preliminary examination of the old orthodox position. 

As regards the question of definition, Mill starts with the 
distinction somewhat loosely drawn by Adam Smith between 
value in use and value in exchange. When we say that a thing 
possesses a certain value in use, we say in more words than are 
necessary that it is useful: that is to say, value in use is an 
awkward phrase for utility. The conception of utility (see 
WEALTH) is the most fundamental in economics. It is held by 
Mill to mean the capacity to satisfy a desire or serve a purpose, 
and thus " useful," the corresponding adjective, is as fitly 
applied to ices as to steam-engines. It has always seemed 
rather paradoxical to apply the term utility (with its adjective 
useful) to things which the common sense of mankind (or of any 
representative section) considers to be deleterious or trivial. 
Accordingly V. Pareto has proposed the term ophelimitt 
(Gr. w$eXi;Uos) for this wider interpretation of "utility." But 
utility in this sense is obviously much wider than value, and 
Mill proceeds to say that by value in political economy we 
should always understand exchange value. This language 
seems familiar and definite, but on analysis it is clear that 
exchange implies two terms at least. If we say that a thing can 
be exchanged, we imply that it can be exchanged for something 
else, and when we speak of the exchange value of a thing we 
must directly or indirectly refer to the value of some other thing 
or things. In practice in modern societies this other thing is 
standard money: an Englishman who. talks of the exchange 
value of anything means the number of pounds sterling (or parts 
thereof) which it will fetch in the market or be appraised at by 
a fair arbitrator. On this view then the value of a thing is its 



868 



VALUE 



price; but a very little experience in the theory or history of 
economics will show that it is often desirable, and sometimes 
necessary, to contrast value with price. " At the same time 
and place," says Adam Smith, " money is the exact measure of 
the real exchangeable value of all commodities. It is so, how- 
ever, at the same time and place only." If, however, the ex- 
change value of a thing is not its price, what is it? According 
to Mill, " The value of a thing is its general power of purchasing, 
the command which its possession gives over purchasable com- 
modities in general." But what, we may well ask with Mill, is 
meant by command over commodities in general? Are we to 
understand the complete national inventory of wealth, or the 
total of things consumed in a given time by a nation? Obvi- 
ously such [conceptions are extremely vague and possibly 
unworkable. If, however, we make a selection on any repre- 
sentative principle, this selection will be more or less arbitrary. 

The elaborate work of C. M. Walsh on the Measurement 
of General Exchange Value (1901) gives a critical analysis of 
the views of the chief writers on the subject and indicates the 
advances made since Mill. Mill is to some extent aware of the 
difficulties, although he never subjected them to a rigorous 
analysis; and he points to the obvious fact that a coat, for 
example, may exchange for less bread this year than last, but 
for more glass or iron, and so on through the whole range of 
commodities it may obtain more of some and less of others. 
But in this case are we to say that the value of the coat has 
risen or fallen? On what principles are we to strike an average? 
The attempt to answer these questions in a satisfactory manner 
is at present engaging the attention of economists more than 
any other problem in the pure theory. Mill, however, instead 
of attempting to solve the problem, frankly assumed that it is 
impossible to say except in one simple case. If, owing to some 
improvement in manufacture, the coat exchanges for less of all 
other things, we should certainly say that its value had fallen. 
This line of argument leads to the position: "The idea of 
general exchange value originates in the fact that there really 
are causes which tend to alter the value of a thing in exchange for 
things generally, that is, for all things that are not themselves 
acted upon by causes of similar tendency." There can be no 
doubt as to the truth of the latter part of this statement, especi- 
ally if we substitute for one commodity groups of commodities. 
But it is doubtful if the idea of general exchange value arises 
from a consideration of the causes of value; and later writers 
have constantly emphasized the distinction between any change 
and the causes of the change. Following out the idea in the last 
sentence quoted, Mill goes on to say that any change in the value 
of one thing compared with things in general may be due either 
to causes affecting the one thing or the large group of all other 
things, and that in order to investigate the former it is convenient 
to assume that all commodities but the one in question remain 
invariable in their relative values. On this assumption any 
one of them may be taken as representing all the rest, and thus 
the money value of the thing will represent its general purchasing 
power. That is to say, if for the sake of simplicity we assume 
that the prices of all other things remain constant, but that one 
thing falls or rises in price, the fall or rise in price in this thing 
will indicate the extent of the change in its value compared with 
things in general. There can be no doubt that, in discussing 
any practical problem as to the changes in the relative value 
of any particular thing, it is desirable to take the changes in 
price as the basis, and much confusion and cumbrousness of 
expression would have been avoided in the theory of the subject 
if, to adapt a phrase of Cournot's, money had by Mill and others 
been used to oil the wheels of thought, just as in practice it is 
used to oil the wheels of trade. 

By this method of abstraction the treatment of the theory of 
value becomes essentially an examination of the causes which 
Kequi- determine the values of particular commodities rela- 
sHestor lively to a standard which is assumed to be fixed. 
Cournot compares this hypothetical point of the 
standard of value to the "mean sun" of astronomers. In 
order that anything may possess value in this sense, that it 



may exchange for any portion of standard money or its repre- 
sentatives, it is evident on the first analysis that two conditions 
must be satisfied. First, the thing must have some utility; and 
secondly, there must be some difficulty in its attainment. As 
regards utility, Mill apparently regards it simply as a kind of 
entrance examination which every commodity must pass to enter 
the list of valuables, whilst the place in the list is determined by 
variations in the degree of the difficulty of attainment. Later 
writers, however, have given much more prominence to utility, 
and have drawn a careful distinction between final or Final or 
marginal and total utility. Following Jevons, most marginal 
economists have adopted this distinction, and the and total 
writers of the Austrian school in particular have made it uiult y- 
of 'vital importance, and by attempting to introduce it when the 
conception is inappropriate have often caused much unnecessary 
complexity. The distinction is certainly useful in throwing 
light on the advantages of, and motives for, exchanging com- 
modities. Suppose that on a desert island A possesses all the 
food, so many measures (say) pecks of corn, and B all the 
drinking water, so many measures (say) pints. Then A, taking 
into account present and future needs, might ascribe to the posses- 
sion of each portion of his stock so much utility. The utility of 
the first few pecks of corn might be regarded as practically 
infinite; but, if his stock were abundant, and a speedy rescue 
probable, the utility ascribed to successive portions would be 
less and less. In the same way B might make an estimate of the 
utility of successive measures of the drinking water. Now, if we 
regard only total utilities from the point of view of each, both are 
infinite. If an exchange were made of the total stocks of both 
men, the position of neither would be improved. But, if A sets 
aside (say) half his stock, then it may well happen that he could 
advantageously exchange the rest against part of B's drinking 
water. In precisely the same way B might set aside so much of 
his stock for his own consumption, and then the utility of the 
remaining portion would be much less than the utility he would 
gain if he obtained in exchange A's surplus. Thus, if the two 
men exchange their remainders, both will gain in utility; in the 
case supposed they will make an enormous gain. For simplicity 
we have supposed each stock to be divided into two portions, 
but nothing has been said of the principles of the division. It is, 
however, clear that A can advantageously go on exchanging 
a measure of corn for a measure of water so long as by doing so 
he makes a gain of utility. Conversely B can advantageously 
offer water so long as he gains greater utility from the corn 
received in exchange. The utility of the last portion of corn 
retained by A (or of water by B) is the final or marginal utility 
ofjthe stock retained, and similarly the utility of the last measure 
obtained in exchange may be called the final utility of the stock 
purchased. A will have done his best if these utilities are just 
equal. For at this point, if he were to offer (at the same rate of 
exchange) more corn, it is clear that he would lose more utility 
than he would gain. Mutatis mutandis, the same reasoning 
applies to B; and thus the rate of exchange will be so adjusted 
as to bring about this equality of marginal utilities on both sides. 
It follows that, if A gains on the last portion received just as much 
utility as he loses on the portion parted with, on all the other 
portions received he will have gained more than he lost. The 
total of these gains over successive portions has been called by 
Professor Marshall consumer's rent or surplus. 

However useful this theory of marginal utility may be in 
throwing light on the fundamental nature of value, and on 
the advantages of exchange, it is obviously too abstract oiffl- 
to be applied to the explanation of the relative values cuity of 
of the endless series of commodities and services attain- 
which constitute a nation's stock of valuables at any 
time. For this purpose we must resort to the law of supply 
and demand, which requires a very careful statement owing to 
the ambiguities of popular language. Mill has succeeded in 
getting rid of most of these ambiguities, but he has hardly given 
due emphasis to the fundamental character of the law. He 
argues, after the brief consideration allotted to the element of 
utility, that the other preliminary condition necessary for value 



VALUE 



869 



difficulty of attainment is not always the same kind of diffi- 
culty, and he arrives at three distinct laws of value, according to 
three forms or degrees of this difficulty, (i) In the first place, 
the difficulty may consist in an absolute limitation of the supply, 
Three an l m this case the corresponding law is said to be the 
laws of law of supply and demand. Even on Mill's view the 
class of commodities which conies under this heading 



value. 



is both large and important, for it includes not only the 
favourite examples of old pictures, china, &c., but also land, and 
especially building sites in large cities. Again, it is pointed out 
that, although comparatively few commodities may be absolutely 
limited, almost all commodities may be so locally and tempor- 
arily, which is really only another way of saying that the law of 
supply and demand governs all market values; for it is obvious 
that the supply actually forthcoming or obtainable in a specified 
time in any market is limited a point which may be well 
illustrated by the extreme case of a " corner." Again, under 
certain circumstances the supply may be artificially limited, as 
in the case of monopolies, the classical example being the destruc- 
tion by the Dutch of some of their spice, in order that the limited 
quantity might sell for a total higher price. Besides all these 
important instances of the operation of the law of supply and 
demand, Mill is compelled also to bring under the same law the 
wages of labour, the values of the staples of international trade, 
and some other peculiar cases of value. In fact, step by step 
he is almost forced to the conclusion, 'now generally accepted, 
that the law of supply and demand is the fundamental law of 
value, of which the other laws are only particular cases. At the 
outset, however, he appears to consider the two others as of 
co-ordinate importance. (2) When the difficulty of attainment 
consists not in the absolute limitation but simply in the fact that 
the article requires labour and capital to produce it, the normal 
or natural value is said to be determined by the cost of pro- 
duction. (3) In the last case taken by Mill it is supposed that an 
article can be increased in quantity, but only at an increasing 
cost, and in this case the corresponding law of value is the cost of 
production of that portion which is obtained under the most 
unfavourable circumstances. These three laws of value may now 
be examined critically and their mutual relations discussed, for 
the last two, if not properly of co-ordinate importance with the 
first, are at any rate wide generalizations. 

In order to understand the law of supply and demand, it is 
best to take separately the general law of demand and the 
Supply general law of supply, and then effect a combination. 
Bod Demand must be defined as the quantity of any article 

demand, demanded at some particular price, it being assumed 
of course that the bidder of the price can meet his engage- 
ments, or, as is sometimes said, that the demand is an 
effectual demand. It is quite clear that by demand we cannot 
simply mean desire to possess, because in a sense every one 
desires everything, and the less the means of payment so much 
greater in general is the desire. Again, it is obviously necessary 
to insert the qualifying clause " at some particular price," 
because, as a rule, with a change in price a different quantity 
will be demanded. It is, indeed, this variation of quantity 
demanded, according to variation in price, which gives rise 
to the statement of the general law of demand, namely: As 

the price of any article falls, other things remaining 
demand ^ ne same, the quantity demanded increases, and, 

conversely, as the price rises the quantity demanded 
decreases. A very good example of this law is found in the 
effects of the remission of taxes. The repeal of a tax leads 
to a fall in price, and the fall in price is accompanied by increased 
consumption. Conversely, it has often been found that to 
increase the amount of a tax does not increase the revenue from 
it, because the demand for the article falls off. The general 
law of demand is best expressed as by Cournot by saying that 
the quantity demanded is a function of the price. If we suppose 
that corresponding to the smallest change in price there is a 
change in the quantity demanded the law of demand may be 
Tlustrated by curves. Marshall has introduced the idea of 
demand schedules, the quantities demanded being written 



in one column and the corresponding prices in another. The 
precise connexion between the price and the quantity demanded 
differs in different cases, and, strictly speaking, is probably 
never the same for any two commodities. Every commodity 
has its own curve or schedule. At the same time, however, 
commodities may be placed in large classes according to the 
general character of the variation. The variation of quantity 
demanded according to price will ultimately rest on the principle 
of marginal utility explained above. A person with a h'mited 
amount of money to spend will hit the economic mark in the 
centre if the final utilities of his several purchases are equal. 
This is a rather technical way of saying that a prudent man will 
not spend a penny more on any particular thing if the penny 
spent upon some new object would give him a little greater 
satisfaction. Reverting to the variations of demand according 
to price, a contrast will at once be observed between necessaries 
and luxuries. However much the price rises, so long as people 
have the means they must consume a certain amount of 
necessaries, but, however much the price falls, the limit of 
consumption of bread, for example, must soon be reached. 
On the other hand, a great fall in price of many luxuries may 
cause an enormous increase in the demand, whilst a great rise 
may almost destroy the demand. The rate of charge the 
quantity demanded according to the changes in price is referred 
to as elasticity of demand. If for a small change in price there 
is a considerable increase in the quantity demanded, the demand 
is said to be very elastic. Other characteristics of demand 
are indicated by the terms direct, derived, compounded, &c., 
the demand for any one thing being obviously affected by the 
possible use of substitutes on the one side and on the other by 
the emergence of other uses. Recent writers, notably Marshall, 
have given much attention to the development of the law of 
demand in its various aspects, which has been too much 
neglected in the Ricardian analysis followed by Mill. A great 
deal of light might be thrown on many interesting problems in 
the progress of a nation and of its various component classes, 
if the laws of demand, or the statistics of consumption according 
to price, were obtainable. 

Turning to the element of supply, this term in a similar way 
may be defined as the quantity offered for sale at some particular 
price, and the general law of supply may be stated 
thus: As the price rises, other things remaining the supply. 
same, the quantity offered tends to increase, and, con- 
versely, as the price falls the quantity offered tends to diminish. 
Expressed in this manner, supply appears to be exactly analogous 
to demand, and the analogy seems to hold good even when we 
push the analysis up to the utility to the seller as compared 
with the utility to the buyer. For, as the price rises, the seller 
will obtain greater utility, and will thus retain less for his own 
use or will be induced to produce more. On closer inspection, 
however, the law of supply is found to be not so simple as the 
law of demand. It would only be so if the seller had simply 
to compare the relative advantages of exchanging his com- 
modity and of retaining it for his own use, without any further 
reference to the conditions of, or the motives for, production. 
In most commodities, however, the determining influence is 
not the comparative utility of consumption by the owner 
on the one hand or of the consumption of something else 
obtained by exchange on the other, but it is rather a comparison 
of the trouble of producing with the advantage of selling the 
article when produced. Of course, if we are considering finished 
products in any market the case is more simple; but even here 
the question of the relative advantages of present sale and 
reservation for a future market or distant place must be deter- 
mined, and then the element of cost of production will again be 
brought back. The law of supply may be developed on lines 
corresponding to the law of demand, and we may construct 
supply schedules on curves indicating the relations between 
the range of prices and the quantities offered at those prices. 

Before considering the relation of cost of production to 
supply, it will be convenient to combine the laws of supply 
and demand, taking the former in its simplest aspect, and 



870 



VALUE 



to state the general law of supply and demand as governing 
value. Excluding the simple case of the barter of two com- 
modities of which the rate of exchange will be determined 
as explained above in reference to marginal utility, and meaning 
by 'demand the quantity demanded in a market at a certain 
price, and by supply the quantity there and then offered at a 
certain price, the general law may be stated thus: In any 
E uatloa mar ^ et tne P r i e f an X article will be so adjusted 
between that the quantity demanded will exactly equal the 
demand quantity offered at that price. The force by which the 
at>a adjustment is made is, in general, competition. Thus, 

if the price were above the point indicated by the law, 
there would be a lessened demand, and the competition of 
sellers would tend to lower the price. Conversely, if the price 
were lower the competition caused by the increased demand 
would tend to raise it. The law as thus stated corresponds 
to what Mill calls the equation between demand and supply. 
He was induced to adopt this phrase in place of the more popular 
expression, the ratio of demand to supply, on the ground of its 
greater accuracy. And, if the term ratio is to be taken strictly, 
no doubt Mill's criticism is perfectly just. At the same time 
the equation must be stated very carefully to avoid falling 
into the truism suggested by Cairnes, namely, that in any 
market the quantity bought at any price is equal to the quantity 
sold at that price. The point is that in accordance with the 
general principles of supply and demand the quantities offered 
and demanded vary with the price. And, however inaccurate 
the literal use of the term ratio may be, it has the advantage 
of suggesting a change of price according to changes in demand 
and supply. The equilibrium between demand and supply was 
illustrated by Cournot by the intersection of the demand and 
supply curves, and for purposes of theory this mathematical 
method offers great advantages. 

It may be useful at this point to consider the principles by 
which monopoly values are regulated. The simplest case is 
Mono- when one individual possesses the whole stock, and 
poly the cost of production is so small that it may be 

values. neglected. Take the case, for example, of some 
natural well having a unique character for the mineral waters 
it supplies. The monopolist will, in the first place, have to 
discover the law of demand for his article. If he fixes a very 
high price, he may only occasionally sell a pint to a king or a 
millionaire; whilst, if he fixes a very low price, he may sell 
to every peasant and yet get a very poor return. He will, 
in fact, have to work out a problem in mathematics, and must 
so adjust his price that the quantity sold multiplied by the 
price per unit will be a maximum. The same kind of difficulty 
is found in the case in which the expenses of production, although 
considerable, are practically fixed or only increase slightly in 
proportion to the quantity furnished. The minimum price 
will be given by the expenses of production, whilst the actual 
price will tend to be such as to yield the maximum profit. 
Take, for example, the case of a steamer which has a practical 
monopoly and is not controlled by government. The owner 
will not send out the steamer at all unless the passengers and 
cargo pay the expenses; but, if there is a great demand, he 
will raise the price so as to secure a maximum profit. In general, 
however, any increase in the quantity of the article produced 
(or the service rendered) will be accompanied by an increase 
in the necessary outlays, and this increase may be greater or 
less per unit. In these cases the calculation of the maximum 
profit is a matter of great difficulty. Take, for example, the 
case of a railway which has a monopoly in a certain tract of 
country. The manager may aim at keeping down expenses 
and charging high rates, being contented with a moderate 
traffic; or he may lower his charges and incur additional 
expense to increase the gross income. It is worthy of remark 
that in many cases the monopolist has a choice of two methods 
which give practically equally good results, one starting with 
low and the other with high prices. But it is clear that the 
mass of the general public or the great body of consumers 
have an interest in low prices being adopted, whilst, on the 



other hand, the tendency is usually for the monopolist to .charge 
higher prices than are really profitable in a maximum degree. 
The simplicity of the method of high prices is always attractive 
and often deceptive. Accordingly, even on these very general 
grounds, the interference of government with monopolies may 
sometimes be defended as being in the interests of the public 
and not against the interests of the monopolists. The case 
of the parliamentary third-class tickets furnishes an instructive 
example. At first the railways made their parliamentary 
trains as slow and inconvenient as possible, whereas now there 
is hardly a train which does not carry passengers at parlia- 
mentary rates without compulsion. As a rule, however, in 
modern commercial countries legal 'monopolies are competl- 
an exception. Any one, for example, can prosecute tion 
any trade or manufacture if he can provide the re- values - 
quisite . skill, labour and capital; and even as regards land 
at any rate in the greater part of England and Scotland 
there is from the point of view of cultivation no real monopoly. 
But although legal monopolies (apart from patents and the 
like) are not general, and in most countries the law is adverse 
to the creation of monopolies, 1 as a matter of fact in modern 
times there has been an increasing tendency to the amalgama- 
tion of businesses of all kinds into large combinations (trusts, 
kartells, &c.), which have the power of monopolies. In the 
same way in the relation of labour and capital the method 
of collective bargaining partakes of the character of monopoly. 
There may be buyers' as well as sellers' monopoly, and capitalistic 
combinations operate by this method in dealing with the 
production of raw material or other requisites and also with 
labour. 

The theory of monopolies being a case of the determination 
of maxima is essentially mathematical, and many of the 
problems, especially as regards the incidence of taxes and the 
benefits of the public acquisition of " natural " monopolies, 
can only be fully explained mathematically as by Marshall. 
In recent years great attention has been given to the realistic 
study of monopolies (J. W. Jenks, H. W. Macrosty, &c.; see 
TRUSTS). When competition arises, and is effective, exceptional 
profit ceases, and thus a new principle for determining values 
comes into play. If the producer of any article is obtaining 
more than the usual rate of profit, he at once provokes com- 
petition, and thus even the dread of this possible competition 
may keep down prices. This is often expressed by saying that 
the potential supply affects prices almost as much as the actual 
supply. It thus becomes obvious that, as regards freely pro- 
duced commodities the production of which may be extended 
indefinitely at the same or at a decreasing cost, the value tends 
to conform to the minimum cost of production, and that any 
other value is consequently unstable. It will be observed, 
however, that cost of production only determines values by 
operating through the actual or potential supply, and thus 
that the law of demand and supply is fundamental. Once 
a thing is made, the actual cost of production has no influence 
on its value, except as indicating the conditions of future 
possible supply. 

At this point it becomes necessary to analyse and explain 
the nature of cost of production. In the last resort it will 
be found that nothing can be produced without Cost of 
labour, and in a modern society capital must be produc- 
added. Thus the component elements of production **"" 
are labour and capital acting by natural forces upon raw 
material. But, since both the forces and the produce of nature 
require labour and capital for their exploitation, the elements 
that must be considered primary and fundamental in the case 
of commodities that can be indefinitely increased are labour 
and capital. Capital, again, is itself a product of labour, and 

it is also wealth set aside by the owner for future use instead 



1 The general theory of monopolies was admirably treated by the 
French mathematician and economist Cournot, Recherches sur les 
principes mathematiques de la theorie des richesses (1838), and as far 
as possible without mathematics in the Revue sommaire des doctrines 
bconomiques (1877). 



VALUE 



871 



of for present consumption. Accordingly, in order that a 
thing may be continuously produced, labour must obtain 
a sufficient reward for toil, and capital a sufficient reward for 
" abstinence " or " waiting," or for preservation and accumula- 
tion of wealth. Thus the ultimate elements in the real cost 
of production are the toil and trouble and irksomeness of labour 
and of saving. But this toil and trouble will not be submitted 
to unless in any particular case the fair reward of industrial 
competition is forthcoming. However much pleasure a good 
workman may take in his work or a prudent man in his savings, 
in the industrial world as at present constituted both labour 
and capital will be attracted towards the point of highest 
reward (compare WAGES); and, accordingly, it is a necessary 
condition of the production of any article that the price obtained 
will yield the average rate of wages and profit obtainable for 
that species of work. Now these rates of wages and profit 
Expenses can be expressed in terms of money, and may be desig- 
otpm- nated, following Marshall, the expenses of production 
auction. as distinguished from the real cost. The real cost of 
production would on analysis consist of a confused unwork- 
able mass of " efforts and abstinences," or " disutilities," and 
the relation of these mental strains to their material rewards 
is the problem of wages and profits. But for the purpose of 
relative values it is not necessary to push the analysis so far; 
and thus, if we regard the capitalist as the producer, we may 
look on the elements of production as consisting of wages 
and profits. And this is quite in accordance with customary 
thought and language: every one who asks for the details 
of the cost of a thing expects to have a statement of the wages 
and profits directly involved, and of the material, which again 
directly involves wages and profits. So far, then, as freely 
produced commodities are concerned, the general law is that 
they tend to sell at such a price as will yield on the average the 
ordinary rate of wages and profits which by industrial com- 
petition the occupation can command. It is at this point 
Wages that the difficulty emerges as to the precise nature 
and of the connexion between the prices of commodities 

values. an( j jjjg mone y wa g es an( j profits of producers. Are 
we to consider that the former are determined by the latter, 
or the latter by the former ? If, for example, commodity 
A sells for twice as much as commodity B, are we to say that 
this is because wages are higher in the former case, or are the 
wages higher because the price is higher? The answer to this 
question is given in the theory of WAGES (q.v.). It is sufficient 
to state here that, in discussing relative values, we may assume 
that industrial competition has established certain relative 
rates of wages and profits in various employments, and that 
any prices of articles which yielded more than these rates, whilst 
in other cases no corresponding rise took place, would be un- 
stable. Thus, in discussing the normal values of freely pro- 
duced commodities, we have to consider the quantity of labour 
and the rates of wages and the quantity of capital and the rate 
of profits, the normal rates of these wages and profits being 
given. 

The use of the term " normal " requires some explanation. 
The word norma properly refers to the square used by masons 

and carpenters, &c., and thus a thing may be said to 
Normal ..." ,' .' . ... , , 

value. be in its normal position when no change will be made: 

that is to say, the normal position is the stable position, 
or it is the position to which the workman will try to adjust his 
work. And, similarly, by the use of normal as applied to wages 
and profits, we mean the stable rate or the rate towards which 
they are attracted. It is thus quite possible that the normal 
rate may differ from the average rate or the rate obtained over 
a term of years. For it may easily happen that as regards 
wages, for example, a high rate for a short period may lead to 
such an increase in that kind of production that for a much 
longer period the rate will fall below the normal. The normal 
rate seems to refer to the actual conditions of industry, the rate 
which can be obtained for a given amount of exertion, taking 
the average of employments at the time, rather than to the par- 
ticular rate obtained for some class of work over a period of years. 



With these explanations the proposition holds good that the 
normal values of freely produced commodities tend to be equal 
to their cost, or rather expenses, of production, and any price 
which yields a greater or less return to labour and capital is 
unstable. 

Marshall (Principles of Economics, bk. v. sth ed., 1907) has 
treated very fully the subject of normal values and the relations 
of normal and market values from the side of theory; but the 
nature and importance of the distinction is perhaps best realized 
if we compare the normal relative values of important com- 
modities over a period of centuries, as was done by Adam Smith 
and in the monumental work by Thorold Rogers on the History 
of Agriculture and Prices. At this stage in the analysis the 
difficulty must be met that even in a position of stable equi- 
librium, i.e. when the normal demand is just satisfied by the 
normal supply, the different portions of the aggregate supply 
may be produced at different costs according to differences 
in the natural environment or in the availability of different 
factors of production. In dealing with this difficulty the modern 
conception of marginal cost is of importance. If a commodity 
is produced at a uniform cost per unit whatever the amount, 
then the normal value depends simply on this uniform or normal 
cost; any temporary divergence in market prices will lead to 
a contraction or increase in the supply until the exceptional 
gains or losses are got rid of. It may happen, however, that 
portions of the supply can be obtained at different costs, and in 
this case the normal value is determined by the cost at the 
margin. It is this marginal cost which just gives the rates of 
remuneration to labour and capital which suffice to keep up 
the continuous supply of the requisite factors of production. 
If a commodity is produced according to the law of diminishing 
return, or, what is the same thing, if the supply can only be 
increased after a certain point at an increasing cost per unit, 
then the marginal portion just pays its expenses and the previous 
portions yield a differential remuneration which constitutes 
economic rent. If the conditions of difference in cost are 
natural and permanent we have the case of pure economic rent 
(see below), but if the factors of production in response to the 
stimulus of extra remuneration can be increased or improved 
the extra rates of remuneration tend to disappear with the 
increase in supply of the more advantageous factors, and instead 
of pure economic rent we have various species of quasi-ients. 
" Even the rent of land is seen not as a thing by itself but as the 
leading species of a large genus; though indeed it has peculiari- 
ties of its own which are of vital importance from the point of 
view of theory as well as of practice " (Marshall). Marshall has 
given special attention to the development of this application 
of the principle of continuity, of which Cournot was the first 
writer to realize the significance. 

If a commodity is produced according to the law of increasing 
return (or diminishing cost per unit as the quantity is increased) 
the solution of the problem of normal value presents peculiar 
difficulties which cannot be treated in a preliminary survey. 
Two results, however, of practical importance may be noted. 
In the first, under increasing return the first established business 
can be expanded more easily than it is possible to start a new 
concern, and if new competing concerns are started there are 
obvious advantages in amalgamation, so that we arrive at the 
modern generalization that the natural tendency of increasing 
return production is to monopoly. This again gives the chief 
economic justification for " trusts "; it being said that through 
the adoption of various external and internal economies they 
more than neutralize the higher prices of monopoly. 

The other result of importance is that under competition 
the less advantageous methods of production tend to be extruded 
and the law of increasing return gives way to that of constant 
return. For further consideration of these difficulties the 
reader may refer to the analysis by Marshall (Principles of 
Economics, bk. v. ch. xi.). The economic analysis of cost of 
production (or if we take the money measures of the 
various elements involved, expenses of production) involves a 
reference to the other great departments of economics, namely, 



872 



VALUE 



production and distribution; and it is necessary to take account 
of the interconnexion and mutual dependence of these depart- 
ments and that of exchange, in which the idea of value is pre- 
dominant. In the last resort production will not be carried on 
unless labour and capital receive a sufficient reward and the 
sufficient reward is the normal value of the factors of production. 
But when we are comparing the relative values of commodities 
and are seeking to explain, for example, how it is that for long 
periods of time these relative values are stable, or conform 
to some regular law, we have to break up the elements of value 
into the constituents of the expenses of the various factors of 
production. This leads up to the analysis of cost (or expenses) 
of production as dependent on the amounts and qualities of the 
labour and capital required. 

If all commodities were produced directly by the expenditure 
of labour, and in such a way that capital need not be considered, 

meats as in the simple natural state of society taken by 
o/e-" ' Ricardo, then the only element to consider in value 
peases of would be the quantity of labour. And in a society 
produc- o f a more developed character, in which wages are 
***"" paid, if we consider that the rate of wages is uniform, 

and that profits may be disregarded in comparison with wages, 
the quantity of labour is the most important consideration, 
and a fall in the relative value of any article can only take 
place through some economy of labour. But, as we approach 
more nearly to the actual constitution of modern industrial 
societies, we find serious differences in the rates of wages in 
different employments, the use of fixed capital becomes of 
greater importance, and in some cases the lapse of time neces- 
sary for the completion of the commodity is considerable. 
Thus interest and profits, as well as the differential rates of 
wages, have to be taken into account just as much as the quantity 
of labour, and it is generally convenient to consider also the 
established differences in various returns to capital under 
different conditions (risk, irregularity, &c.). Indirectly, of 
course, since all capital in the ordinary sense is the result of 
labour, the quantity of labour is always of primary importance; 
but, in considering the proximate causes of relative values, it 
is best to consider capital and labour as independent factors. 
It follows, then, that, in order to compare the relative values 
of two commodities, A and B, freely produced in a modern 
industrial society, we must take into account, first of all, the 
relative wages and relative profits, and the relative amounts 
of labour and capital employed. If the producers of A are 
skilled workmen, and if the return to the capital is uncertain, 
whilst in the case of B the labour is unskilled and profit steady, 
then the value of A will be higher than that of B, supposing 
each produced by the same amount of capital and the same 
quantity of labour. Obviously, too, any change in the relative 
wages and profits will affect the relative values. If the com- 
modities considered are not capable of division into similar 
parts (such as yards of cloth or silk), but must be considered in 
their entirety (e.g. ships and houses), then we must take into 
account also the different quantities of labour and capital re- 
quired for their completion, as well as the relative rates of 
wages and profits. As regards changes of value in this case, 
it will be observed that, if the proportions are different in 
which labour and capital are employed in the production of 
two commodities, then any change in the general rates of wages 
and profits will affect relative values. By making various 
suppositions as to changes in the different elements of the 
expenses of production, a great many cases may be obtained, 
as is done, for example, by Mill (Pol. Econ. bk. iii. ch. iv.). 

All the cases enumerated and others may, however, be deduced 
from a general formula. Let Ei represent the total expenses of 
General P rod uction of commodity A. Let Q i be the quantity 
formula * ^ xe< ^ ca pital employed, and let r t be the rate of wear 
for ex- and tear per annum, so that the loss is Q,/ri. Let PI 
peases of be the rate of profits per cent, per annum which must 
fton. be obtained on the whole capital. Let Q 2 be the number 
of labourers, and w 2 the rate of wages per annum. Let 
ti represent the time taken for production reckoned in years 



(/i may be less than unity, thus /i/Q 2 would be weeks). Then 
the total expenses of production are 



This simply means that the commodity must return in the 
normal case profits on the fixed capital with repair of waste, and 
also the wages expended (the' amount depending on the number 
of labourers and the rate of wages), with profit on the circulating 
capital over all the time necessary to complete production. In 
some cases, it may be observed, it would be necessary to take t 
differently for the fixed capital and the labour or circulating 
capital. Then, in a similar way Ej, the expenses of production 
of B, may be expressed: 



,= j (- 
( T\I 



Thus the relative values of A and B will be found by comparing 
the aggregate [of these several elements expressed on the right- 
hand sides of the equations. It will now be evident chaaret 
on what a number of variable elements relative values i n re- 
must depend, even when we consider that the com- latlve 
modities can be indefinitely increased by the proper val ues. 
expenditure of capital and employment of labour. With 
the progress of invention and the development of industrial 
competition, constant changes are taking place in the various 
elements, and in the somewhat complicated formula given 
certain practical elements have been eliminated. Even if we 
suppose, for the sake of simplicity, that PI and P 3 are equal, 
as also wz and Wi and t\ and fc that is, if we suppose a uniform 
rate of wages and profits, and the same amount of time required 
still any change in these general rates will affect relative values, 
owing to the different proportions in which fixed and circulating 
capital may be employed in the two cases. Thus, for example, 
we arrive at Mill's statement: " All commodities in the produc- 
tion of which machinery bears a large part, especially if the 
machinery is very durable, are lowered in their relative value 
when profits fall." And it will be found on trial that by making 
various suppositions as to the identity of certain of the elements, 
or as to their disappearance, many other causes of changes in 
relative values may be deduced. Two important practical 
conclusions of a general character may be drawn from this 
analysis, (i) Relative values are liable to constant disturbances, 
and accordingly, since relative prices tend to be adjusted to 
relative values, relative prices must be constantly changing. 
(2) It is extremely difficult to measure changes in the value of the 
monetary standard, or movements in the general level of prices, 
or variations in the purchasing power of money incomes. 

These difficulties are further increased by the importance 
of the group of commodities which can only be increased (the 
arts of production remaining the same) at an increasing 
cost, and which are placed by Mill under a third law of J^" e * ad 
value. The most important examples of this law are 
agricultural and mining produce. In order to make the principles 
on which this law depends clear and intelligible, it is necessary 
to proceed at first by the abstract method. Assume then that 
there is an isolated country and that its agricultural produce 
consists of corn. Then at any given stage of the growth of wealth 
and population the amount of corn may be increased (the art of 
agriculture remaining stationary) either by taking into cultiva- 
tion inferior lands or else by cultivating with greater care and 
expense the lands already in cultivation. But in either case 
what is known as the law of diminishing return would come into 
play, and the additional supply could only be obtained at an 
additional cost. It may be assumed that at any stage of develop- 
ment the cultivation would be carried to such a point as to give 
just the ordinary return to capital on the last " dose " of capital 
expended. Further it cannot be carried, for no farmer will work 
at a continuous loss; and competition will ensure that it is 
carried so far, for, if this last application of capital yields ordinary 
profit, the former " doses " must yield more, that is to say, rent 
as well as profit. It thus becomes manifest that, under the con- 
ditions supposed, the extent to which " the margin of cultivation " 



VALUE 



873 



will extend depends upon the price of the produce, and in the 
normal case The price must be equal to the expenses of 
production of that part which is produced under the most un- 
favourable circumstances. This then is the third law of value, 
from which the economic theory of rent is an immediate 
deduction. For, if the last dose obtains just a sufficient return, 
the former doses must yield more, and the sum of these extra 
profits is rent. It thus appears, also, that rent depends upon 
price and not price upon rent. 

The pure theory of rent is arrived at by making certain 
hypotheses and abstractions, and accordingly it must not be 
applied to particular practical cases without further 
cation's consideration. The theory certainly indicates the 
of pure effect of very important causes, but requires in 
theory practice a certain amount of qualification, (i) The 
"*'' essence of the theory is that the return to each dose of 
capital applied can be separated, and that the application of 
capital will cease when the last dose yields only ordinary profits; 
and no doubt it is roughly true to say that a farmer will discover 
on trial at what point he should cease applying capital, and that 
this will depend upon the price of the produce. At the same 
time, however, it is quite possible that a farmer who owns the 
land which he tills may find it advantageous to carry cultivation 
to a further pitch than if he only rented his land. For he will 
apply his own labour and capital at a less return on his own land. 
There can be little doubt that, very many important improve- 
ments made by landowners have yielded less than the ordinary 
rate of profit, just as peasant proprietors obtain a poor return by 
way of wages for their own labour. A landowner cultivating 
his own land has the whole margin of economic rent to fall back 
upon, but a farmer has to pay his rent as a first charge. Thus 
it is possible, provided always that the land is cultivated in both 
cases with the same skill, that food would be cheaper if all the 
land were cultivated by the owner and not by tenants farming 
for a profit, and thus the fact that many American farmers pay 
no rent may account partially for the lower prices at which they 
sell their corn. (2) Again, the pure theory takes no account 
of the size of the portions into which the land is divided, nor of 
the kinds of crops which are grown. But, when most of the land 
of a country is rented, both of these factors have to be considered, 
and it may be more convenient to the landowner to let the land 
with certain restrictions, which again indirectly operate on the 
price. (3) It has been well observed by Passy 1 that the 
principal effect of various land laws is to increase or diminish 
the amount of the gross produce, which in Ricardian phrase- 
ology would mean to extend or contract the margin of cultiva- 
tion. It thus appears that it is not always true to say that the 
payment of rent makes no real difference to the general public, 
and that it is simply a necessary method of equalizing farmers' 
profits. At the same time, however, with the necessary qualifica- 
tions, there is no doubt that price determines rents, and not rent 
price, especially when prices are affected by foreign competition. 
In Great Britain a striking example has been afforded both 
of the abandonment of inferior lands (the contraction of the 
margin) and of a heavy fall in rent under the influence of falling 
prices. 

The hypothetical history implied in Ricardo's theory as to 
the effects of the progress of society upon the value of agri- 
Progress cultural produce also requires some criticism, such as 
and that given by the historian of agriculture and prices, 

**"' Thorold Rogers. The theory assumes that in the first 

place population increases, and thus there is a greater 
demand for food, and that therefore the margin of cultiva- 
tion extends and the price rises, and rent rises also. But, 
as Rogers observes, history shows that agricultural improve- 
ments of all kinds have first of all increased the amount of 
food, and thus allowed of an increase in population. It is 
worth noticing that in our own times an increasing population 
in rural districts (e.g. the Highlands of Scotland and the west of 
Ireland) may indirectly tend to lower or destroy rents through 
minute subdivision. Ricardo's theory, however, accounts very 
1 Systemes de culture en France. 



well for the rise in the ground-rents of towns and cities, and it 
is there far more than in the rural districts that the unearned 
increment is to be found. 

The value of mining produce is determined generally in the 
same way as that of agricultural produce; but similar qualifica- 
tions must be introduced. The theory is that both value ot 
extensively and intensively the produce of mines is mining 
subject to the law of diminishing return, that the produce. 
margin recedes as the price falls and extends as it rises, 
and that thus the price is determined by the most costly 
portion which it just pays to bring to market. The principal 
point to observe is that mines are gradually quite exhausted. 
In general the produce of mines is, like that of land, consumed 
in a comparatively short time, and thus the value is subject to 
fluctuations according to the conditions of the annual demand 
and supply. 

The peculiar durability of the precious metals, however, 
makes them in this respect differ widely from most mining 
produce. It is of course undeniable that (supposing 
coinage free) the value of standard coins will be equal 
to the value of the same amount of bullion, and, con- 
versely, that the bullion will be equal in value to the same 
amount of coins. The older economists argued that the precious 
metals had their value determined by their cost of production 
under the most unfavourable circumstances, and then argued 
that in consequence the value of money (or coins) tended to be 
governed by the cost of production of bullion. If, however, it 
is remembered that the annual production does not probably 
amount to 2% of the quantity in the hands of man, that cost 
of production can only operate through actual or potential 
supply, and that in the case of money the increase must be 
real to affect prices, it will be readily seen that the value of 
bullion is determined by the general level of prices (or the value 
of money) , and- not that the value of money depends upon the 
value of the bullion. At the same time, however, it is true that, 
if prices become very high, in other words, if the value of 
money, and thus of bullion, becomes very low, then a check 
is placed upon production from the mines, and, conversely, with 
falling prices or a rise in the value of the precious metals mining 
for them is extended and encouraged. But the difference in 
the annual supply due to this influence will be small under 
present or similar conditions. On the whole, this case of the 
precious metals furnishes perhaps the best example of the way 
in which the cost of production can only act through the law of 
supply and demand. 

There is one other part of the general theory of value which 
requires some notice. Some articles can only be produced in 
conjunction with others (e.g. hides and beef, wool and Law 
mutton), and some modification of the theory is governing 
needed to suit this case. The law deduced is that value of 
The sum of the values must be equal to the joint ex- 1'"' 

* ntv*Hn 

penses of production, and the relative values inter se 
are determined by demand and supply. Thus the Australian 
sheep-farmers will extend their sheep-farms so long as for wool 
and mutton together they obtain a fair profit, but the amount 
contributed by each portion will be determined by the relative 
demand. It is interesting to observe that in the progress of 
society the value of the meat has risen as compared with that 
of the hides and the wool. The same principle determines 
the kind of produce which will be raised from land, though 
the application is rather more difficult owing to rotation of 
crops, &c. 

Much discussion has taken place recently on the question 
whether a distinct theory of international values is required. 
In the limits assigned to this article it is only possible Theory 
to indicate the principal points in dispute. The ofinter- 
" orthodox " theory, as held by Ricardo, Mill and national 
Cairnes, has been attacked by Cournot, Sidgwick and v ues ' 
others, and has been re-stated with admirable clearness and 
much original power by C. F. Bastable. 2 The best way to 
answer the question seems to be to make clear the assumptions 
1 Theory of International Trade. 



products. 



8 7 4 



VALVE VALVES 



on which the values of commodities produced within any 
" nation " are determined, and then to consider whether any 
change must be made when we bring in other nations. We are 
at once met with the difficulty, What is a " nation " ? The 
orthodox answer appears to be that within any nation (for 
which the term " economic area " might perhaps be advantage- 
ously substituted) there is effective industrial and commercial 
competition. This appears to imply no more than is contained 
in the principle noticed above, that relative values tend to be 
equal to the normal expenses of production (commercial com- 
petition), and that the expenses tend to be proportioned to the 
real cost (industrial competition). The question then arises, 
Com- Do these conditions not exist in international trade? 
oarative The answer appears to be, first, that commercial com- 
mst - petition certainly holds good; for as soon as a trade 

is established the commodities will sell at the same prices 
in both countries (allowance being made for cost of carriage). 
It would plainly be absurd to say that the value of Manchester 
goods is determined by their expenses of production if they are 
consumed in England, but by something else if they are sent to 
India. If then there is any difference between domestic and 
international values, it must arise owing to the absence of 
effective industrial competition; that is to say, in the same 
country (or economic area) the real cost determines the expenses 
of production on account of the supposed perfect mobility of 
labour and capital, but between different economic areas these 
agents of production do not pass with sufficient readiness to 
secure a similar correspondence. It thus follows that a country 
may import articles which it could produce at less real cost, 
provided that it pays for these imports with exports which cost 
even less. A very striking example of this doctrine of compara- 
tive cost, as it is termed, was furnished by Victoria after the great 
gold discoveries. All kinds of produce were imported and paid 
for with gold, because there was less real cost involved in ob- 
taining the gold to pay for imports than in making the articles. 
According to this theory every country will devote its labour 
and capital to its most productive uses; and, if by some new 
imports a domestic industry is checked or abolished, it is argued 
that the labour and capital will be devoted to increasing the 
exports so as to pay for the new imports. It must clearly be 
assumed as axiomatic that in the absence of loans, tributes, &c., 
imports can in the long run only be paid for by exports, and also 
that those articles will be exported which can be produced at 
the least comparative real cost. This theory then may be held 
to explain in a satisfactory manner the origin and development 
of international trade; but the question of values is still un- 
Recip- determined. Consistently with exports paying for 
"**l imports many different rates of exchange are possible, 
demand. an j tne p ar ti cu lar rate actually adopted is said to 
depend entirely on reciprocal demand. And in an extreme 
case, in which new countries trade solely in articles of 
which each has a monopoly, this answer would seem to be 
correct; but, when we consider that under present conditions 
trading countries have many articles in common, and that a 
slight margin of profit suffices to expand or diminish an export 
trade, this answer seems too vague and unreal. In general 
Foreign it is clear that the rate will be determined independ- 
* ently of the foreign trade, or at least that the foreign 

changes. t ra( Je is only one factor to be considered. If the 
rate of profit falls, a trade which before was impossible 
becomes possible. The opinion may be hazarded that the 
best way of explaining the general theory of international 
values would be to start with the foreign exchanges; but such 
an investigation is too technical and difficult for this place (see 
EXCHANGE). 

See J. S. Nicholson's Principles of Political Economy, vol. ii. 
book iii. ch. 25-28, for the development of this line of criticism of 
the Ricardian theory ; and C. F. Bastable's Theory of International 
Trade (Appendix) for reply to this and other criticisms. (J- S. N.) 

VALVE (Lat. valna, a leaf of a double or folding door, allied 
to where, to roll, as of a door on its hinges) , a term applied 
to many mechanical appliances, devices or natural features, 



which control, by opening and shutting, the flow of air,. liquids, 
vapour, gas, &c., through a passage, tube, pipe or other vessel. 

VALVES, or PISTONS (Fr. pistons, cylindres; Ger. Ventile; 
Ital. pistoni), in music, mechanical contrivances applied to 
wind instruments in order to establish a connexion between 
the main tubing and certain supplementary lengths required 
for the purpose of lowering, the pitch. Various devices have 
been tried from the days of ancient Greece and Rome to produce 
this effect, the earliest being the additional tubes (irXc^ioi 66oi) 
inserted into the lateral holes of the aulos and tibia in order to 
prolong the bore and deepen the pitch of each individual hole; 
these tubes were stopped by the fingers in the same manner 
as the holes. This device enabled the performer to change 
the mode or key in which he was playing, just as did the crooks 
many centuries later. But the resourcefulness of the ancients 
did not stop there. The tibiae found at Pompeii (see AULOS) 
had sliding bands of silver, one covering each lateral hole in 
the pipe; in the band were holes (sometimes one large and one 
small, probably for semitone and tone) corresponding with 
those on the pipe. By turning the band the holes could be 
closed, as by keys when not required. By fixing the 65oi 
in the holes of the bands, the bore was lengthened instantly 
at will, and just as easily shortened again by withdrawing 
them; this method was more effective than the use of the 
crooks, and foreshadowed the valves of eighteen centuries later. 
The crooks, or coils of tubing inserted between the mouthpiece 
and the main tube in the trumpet and horn, and between the 
slide and the bell joint in the trombone, formed a step in this 
direction. 

Although the same principle underlies all these methods, i.e. 
the lengthening of the main column of air by the addition of 
other lengths of tubing, the valve itself constitutes a radical 
difference, for, the adjustment of crooks demanding time and 
the use of both han,ds, they could only be effective for the purposes 
of changing the key and of rendering a multiplicity of instru- 
ments unnecessary. The action of the valve being as instan- 
taneous as that of the key, the instrument to which it was 
applied was at once placed on a different basis; it became a 
chromatic instrument capable of the most delicate modulations 
from key to key. The slide had already accomplished this 
desirable result, but as its application was limited to instru- 
ments of which the greater part of the bore was cylindrical, i.e. 
the trumpet and trombone, its influence on concerted musical 
composition could not be far-reaching. In fact it is doubtful 
whether the chromatic possibilities of the slide were fully 
realized until the end of the i8th century, when key mechanism 
having made some advance, it was being applied successfully 
to the transverse flute and to the clarinet and oboe families. 
In 1760 Kolbel, a Bohemian horn-player engaged in the St 
Petersburg Imperial Orchestra, turned his attention to this 
method of extending the compass of brass instruments. His 
experiments, followed up by Anton Weidinger of Vienna at 
the beginning of the ipth century, produced a trumpet with 
five keys and a complete chromatic compass. Halliday followed 
with the keyed bugle in 1810. Halary applied the principle 
of the keyed bugle to the bass horn in 1817, and produced the 
ophicleide an ideal chromatic bass as far as technical possi- 
bilities were concerned. The horn had become a chromatic 
instrument through Hampel's discovery of bouche sounds, but 
the defects in intonation and timbre still remained. 

Such were the conditions prevailing among the wind instru- 
ments of the orchestra when the successful application of the 
valve to brass wind instruments by Heinrich Stolzel of Silesia 
caused an instantaneous revolution among makers of wind 
instruments. Further efforts to perfect the key system as 
applied to the brass wind were abandoned in favour of valves. 
The short space of two decades witnessed the rise of the Fliigel- 
horns, the tubas, the saxhorns and the cornet-a-pistons; the 
trombone,, French horn and trumpet having led the van. 

Sound is produced on brass wind instruments by overblowing 
the members of the harmonic series (see HORN). The harmonic 
series itself is invariable, whether obtained from a string or a column 



VALVES 



875 



of air; the structural features of the instrument determine which 
members of the series it is able to produce. 

HARMONIC SERIES IN C 



r 



W 



3 



E 



& 



15 16 






i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ii 12 13 14 

Although the valves of brass wind instruments vary in form and 
detail according to the makers, the general principles governing 
their action are the same for all types. The piston placed on some 
branch of the main tube must be so constructed that on being de- 
pressed it closes the natural windways through the main bore and 
opens others into the additional piston length. The piston seated 
on a spring instantly regains its normal position when the finger 
is removed. After the actual shape and construction of the valve 
and its box had been successfully evolved, it was the boring and 
disposition of the windways which engaged the attention of makers, 
whose object was to avoid complexity and sharp angles and turns in 
the tubing. The pitch of all tubes is determined by the length of 
the column of air set in vibration therein. Any variation in the 
length of this column of air produces a proportional variation in 
the pitch of the instrument. When the piston is depressed, there- 
fore, a partition wall is removed and the column of air within the 
additional length of tubing representing a definite interval is added 
to the main column, so that the length of the sound wave is pro- 
portionally increased whether the column is vibrating as a. whole 
(when it gives the fundamental or first note of the series) or whether 
it has been induced to divide into equal portions in which sound 
waves of equal length are simultaneously generated. The numbers 
under the notes of the harmonic series represent the aliquot parts 
into which the column of air must divide in order to produce the 
harmonics. The length of tubing attached to each valve is there- 
fore calculated on the basis of the length of the main column, to 
give for the first piston a tone, for the second a semitone, for the 
third a tone and a half, and for the fourth two tones. 

In order to illustrate the working of the pistons, we will take as 
an example the bombardon or bass tuba in Eb. Depressing the 
second piston lowers the pitch of the instrument to D, giving it the 
harmonic series proper to that key; the third harmonic, which 
on the open tube would be Bb, now becomes A; the fifth harmonic, 
which was G, is now F#, and so on. The first piston on being de- 
pressed similarly transforms the Eb bombardon into an instrument in 
fob, a tone lower; the third piston lowering the pitch ii tones changes 
the key to C. So far the intonation of the notes produced by means 
of the pistons is as accurate as that of the harmonics. The varia- 
tions in the length of the column of air correspond to the positions 
of the slide on the trombone, the first position being that of the instru- 
ment with all valves in their normal position. The use of the three 
pistons in turn gives the second, third and fourth positions. In order 
to obtain a complete chromatic compass there must be seven positions 
or different lengths of tubing available, as on the trombone, each 
having its proper harmonic series. On valve instruments the three 
other positions are obtained by means of combinations of pistons; the 
fifth position consists of a combination of pistons 2 and 3 (i and ii 
tones), which would transpose our bombardon into the key of B; 
the sixth position consists of a combined use of pistons I and 3, pro- 
ducing a drop in pitch of 2 \ tones from Eb to B!?. Inthe seventh posi- 
tion all three pistons come into play simultaneously, lowering the 
pitch three tones. The intonation of the notes obtained in positions 
5, 6, 7 is not so faultless as that of notes from the other positions, for 
the following reason :-^On the bombardon in Eb piston I lowers the 
pitch one tone to Db ; in the sixth position, when pistons I and 3 are 
used simultaneously, the third piston is no longer attached to a 
bombardon in Eb, on which it would produce the effect of C, but to 
one in Db, on which it lowers the pitch to Bb; it is clear, therefore, 
that the supplementary tubing will not be quite long enough to give 
the correct intonation, and that the Bb obtained as the 2nd harmonic 
in the sixth position will be a little too sharp, a defect which the 
performer corrects as best he can with his lip. The exact differences 
in length can be found from the table of ratios given by Victor 
Mahillon in La Trompette, son histoire, sa theorie, sa construction 
(Brussels and London, 1907), p. 38. 

This inherent defect of the valve system was understood and 
explained a few years after the invention of valves by Gottfried 
Weber, 1 and the record of the successive endeavours of brass instru- 
ment makers to overcome this defect without unduly complicating 
the mechanism or adding greatly to the weight of the instruments 
constitutes the history of valve' instruments. 

The accredited inventor and patentee of valves applied to musical 
instruments was Heinrich Stolzel 2 of Pless in Silesia in 1815. The 
credit, however, is really due to Bltimel, 3 also a Silesian, who sold his 
rights to Stolzel. ___ _ 



1 Caecilia (Mainz, 1835), xvii. 89-91. 

1 See Captain G. B. Bierey in Allg. musik. Ztg. (Leipzig, 1815), 
p. 309, and idem for patent 1817, p. 814. 
Ibid. 1818, p. 531. 



The first valves made by Stolzel worked in large square brass 
boxes and consisted of square blocks of solid brass through which the 
windways were bored in the same horizontal plane. A trumpet 
having two valves of this make is preserved in the museum of the 
Brussels Conservatoire (No. 1310 in catalogue). In 1825 Stolzel 
had improved upon this primitive valve, making it tubular and 
calling it Schub-Ventil: its action was lighter and more rapid than 
that of the original valve. Charles Sax of Brussels took up the 
manufacture of these valves and applied them to the cornet with two 
pistons. The scale of instruments with only two pistons had several 
gaps, and could not be strictly termed chromatic. In order to 
complete the scale, C. A. M tiller of Mainz constructed a trumpet in 
the early 'thirties which not only had three valves, but also tuning- 
slides for all three additional lengths of tubing 4 and key crooks, 
for which corresponding piston lengths could be inserted. This 
was, therefore, the first attempt at compensation, for which the 
honour is due to Germany. 

The early improvements and modifications of Stolzel's invention 
may be briefly * summed up as follows: 

In 1824 John Shaw, of GIossop, invented a system of valves 
known as transverse spring slides, both ascending and descending, 
i.e. respectively having pistons which cut off certain lengths of 
tubing, thereby raising the pitch, or pistons adding certain lengths, 
and lowering the pitch thereby. These transverse slides were 
afterwards improved by Schott in 1830, and became known as the 
Wiener Venlil, which had an enormous success on the continent of 
Europe, and were applied to all kinds of brass instruments. In 
1827 Bliimel invented the rotary valve or cylinder action known as 
Dreh or cylinder Venlil, a system still in use in Germany and Austria, 
and preferred to piston systems by many. 

In 1833 I. G. Moritz (who was associated with Wieprecht, in- 
ventor of the batyphone and bass tuba) made the large pistons of 
generous diameter known as Berliner Pumpen. In 1835 John Shaw 
patented a variation of the rotary valve, known as patent lever. 
In 1839 PeVinet of Paris invented the most modern form of valve, 
called by his name, similar to the Schub-Ventil and Berliner 
Pumpen, but of a diameter between the two. In 1851 and 1852 
Dr J. P. Gates made his equilateral valves adopted by Antoine 
Courtois for his cornets; the same clever acoustician invented a 
piston with four straight windways, afterwards patented by A. Sax 
of Paris. 

Various attempts to improve the windways and get rid of angu- 
larities were made by Gustave Besson in 1851, 1854 and 1855, 
when a system was devised having the same bore throughout the 
windways. This decided improvement forms the basis of the present 
system of the same firm. Until now efforts had mainly been 
directed towards the improvement of the technical construction 
of valves and windways. The first attempt since Muller's (which 
appears to have passed unnoticed in France and England) to remedy 
by compensation the inherent defect of the valve system when 
pistons are used in combination was made in 1850, when Adolphe 
Sax devised a system of six pistons, one for each position, in which 
it was impossible to use any two pistons in combination : this system 
was ascending instead of descending. Gustave Besson's registre in 
1856-57 followed, providing a large horizontal piston, which, by con- 
necting other duplicate lengths of tubing of the proper theoretical 
length, gave eight independent positions. In 1858 G. Besson and 
Girardin produced the trans positeur, in which two extra pistons 
when depressed automatically lengthened the slides of the three 
usual pistons to the required length for combination. In 1859 
came the first suggestion for automatic compensation made by 
Charles Mandel in his book on the Instrumentation of Military 
Bands, p. 39. It does not appear that he put his suggestion into 
practice or patented it. In this ingenious system the valves were so 
constructed that when two or three pistons were used simultaneously 
the length of tubing thrown open was automatically adjusted to the 
correct theoretical length required. The same ingenious principle, 
elaborated and admirably carried out in practice, was patented by 
D. J. Blaikley in 1878. The working of his device differs from the 
action of ordinary valves only when the pistons are used in com- 
bination. The exact theoretical length is then obtained by bringing 
into use extra compensating lengths of tubing corresponding to the 
difference between the piston length for a semitone, a tone and 
one and a half tones on the open tube and on the tube already 
lengthened by means of one of the other pistons. The value of 
this invention, enhanced by the advantage of leaving the fingering 
unaltered, is more especially appreciated on the large brass instru- 
ments, in which correction of faulty intonation by means of the 
lips is more difficult to accomplish satisfactorily than on the smaller 
instruments. A similar device was patented in France in 1881 by 
Sudre. 

Victor Mahillon, who had been for some years at work on simi- 
lar lines, did not patent his invention till 1886, when his piston 

* Gottfried Weber, op. cit. p. 98. 

6 Fulleraccounts may be derived from Captain C. R. Day , Descriptive 
Catalogue of Musical Instruments (London, 1891), pp. 182 seq.; Victor 
Mahillon, Catalogue descriptif, vol. i. 2nd ed. pp. 282 seq. ; and from 
the pages of the Allg. musik. Ztg. (Leipzig) and Caecilia (Mainz). 



876 



VALYEVO VAMPIRE 



regulateur was introduced: this first device was not automatic, and 
was shortly afterwards improved and patented as the automatic regu- 
lating pistons. 

A later valuable development in the history of valve systems is the 
enharmonic, invented by Messrs Besson & Co., in which they have 
perfected and simplified the principle of independent positions tried 
m the registre of the fifties. In the enharmonic valve system each 
position has its independent length of tubing theoretically accurate, 
which conies into play as the valves are depressed, and there is 
besides a tuning slide for the open notes. 

Finally, there is an improvement in a different direction to be 
chronicled, unconnected with compensation, in Rudall Carte & Co.'s 
system (Klussmann's patent) of conical bore throughout, the open 
tube and the valve slides, which by means of ingeniously combined 
joints and slides preserve the tone without loss of air. This system 
has been applied to all valve instruments, and has been found to 
produce a remarkable improvement in the timbre. (K. S.) 

VALYEVO (sometimes written Valjevo or Valievo), a town 
of western Servia, prettily situated on the river Kolubara, 
in a well- wooded valley, 627 ft. above the sea. Valyevo gives 
its name to the department of which it is the capital. It is 
a garrison town, with streets lighted by electricity, a high-school 
or gymnasium, a prefecture and a court of first instance. 
In the neighbouring Medvenik mountains lead-mining and 
smelting are carried on by an English company; lead and 
antimony being also worked at Podgora and other places in 
the same department. Besides being the centre of the plum- 
growing and distilling industries, Valyevo has a considerable 
trade in cattle, for which the pastures watered by the Kolubara 
are celebrated. Pop (1900) about 6800. 

VAMBERY, ARMIN (1832- ), Hungarian Orientalist and 
traveller, was born of humble parentage at Duna-Szerdahely, a 
village on the island of Shiitt, in the Danube, on the igth of 
March 1832. He was educated at the village school until the 
age of twelve, and owing to congenital lameness had to walk 
with crutches. At an early age he showed remarkable aptitude 
for acquiring languages, but straitened circumstances compelled 
him to earn his own living. After being for a short time ap- 
prentice to a ladies' tailor, he became tutor to an innkeeper's son. 
He next entered the untergymnasium of St Georgen, and pro- 
ceeded thence to Pressburg. Meanwhile he supported himself 
by teaching on a very small scale, but his progress was such that 
at sixteen he had a good knowledge of Hungarian, Latin, French 
and German, and was rapidly acquiring English and the 
Scandinavian languages, and also Russian, Servian and other 
Slavonic tongues. At the age of twenty he had obtained 
sufficient knowledge of Turkish to lead him to go to Constan- 
tinople, where he set up as teacher of European languages, 
and shortly afterwards became a tutor in the house of Pasha 
Hussein Daim. Under the influence of his friend and instructor, 
the Mollah Ahmed Effendi, he became, nominally at least, a 
full Osmanli, and entering the Turkish service, was afterwards 
secretary to Fuad Pasha. After spending six years in Con- 
stantinople, where he published a Turkish-German Dictionary 
and various linguistic works, and where he acquired some 
twenty Oriental languages and dialects, he visited Teheran; 
and then, disguised as a dervish, joined a band of pilgrims 
from Mecca, and spent several months with them in rough 
and squalid travel through the deserts of Asia. He succeeded 
in maintaining his disguise, and on arriving at Khiva went 
safely through two audiences of the khan. Passing Bokhara, 
they reached Samarkand, where the emir, whose suspicions were 
aroused, kept him in audience for a full half-hour; but he stood 
the test so well that the emir was not only pleased with " Resid 
Effendi" (Vambery 's assumed name), but gave him handsome 
presents. He then reluctantly turned back by way of Herat, 
where he took leave of the dervishes, and returned with a 
caravan to Teheran, and subsequently, in March 1864, through 
Trebizond and Erzerum to Constantinople. By the advice of 
Prokesch-Osten and Eotvos, he paid a visit in the following 
June to London; there his daring adventures and linguistic 
triumphs made him the lion of the day. In the same year he 
published his Travels in Central Asia. In connexion with this 
work it must be remembered that Vambery could write down 
but a few furtive notes while with the dervishes, and dared 



not take a single sketch; but the weird scenes, with their 
misery and suffering, were so strongly impressed on his memory 
that his book is convincing by its simplicity, directness and 
evidence of heroic endurance. Vambery also called the atten- 
tion of politicians to the movements of Russia in Central Asia, 
and aroused much general interest in that question. From 
London he went to Paris, and he notes in his Autobiography that 
the Parisians were much more interested in his strange manner 
of travelling than in the travels themselves. He had an inter- 
view with Napoleon III., who failed to impress him " as the 
great man which the world in general considers him." Returning 
to Hungary, he was appointed professor of Oriental languages in 
the university of Budapest: there he settled down, contributing 
largely to periodicals, and publishing a number of books, 
chiefly in German and Hungarian. His travels have been 
translated into many languages, and his Autobiography was 
written in English. Amongst the best known of his works, 
besides those alluded to, are Wanderings and Adventures in 
Persia (1867); Sketches of Central Asia (1868); History oj 
Bokhara (1873); Manners in Oriental Countries (1876); 
Primitive Civilization of the Turko-Tatar People (1879); 
Origin of the Magyars (1882); The Turkish People (1885); and 
Western Culture in Eastern Lands (1906). 

VAMPIRE, a term, apparently of Servian origin (wampir), 
originally applied in eastern Europe to blood -sucking ghosts, 
but in modern usage transferred to one or more species of blood- 
sucking bats inhabiting South America. 

In the first-mentioned meaning a vampire is usually supposed 
to be the soul of a dead man which quits the buried body by 
night to suck the blood of living persons. Hence, when the 
vampire's grave is opened, his corpse is found to be fresh and 
rosy from the blood which he has thus absorbed. To put a stop 
to his ravages, a stake is driven through the corpse, or the head 
cut off, or the heart torn out and the body burned, or boiling 
water and vinegar are poured on the grave. The persons who 
turn vampires are generally wizards, witches, suicides and 
those who have come to a violent end or have been cursed by 
their parents or by the church. But any one may become a 
vampire if an animal (especially a cat) leaps over his corpse 
or a bird flies over it. Sometimes the vampire is thought to be 
the soul of a living man which leaves his body in sleep, to go in 
the form of a straw or fluff of down and suck the blood of other 
sleepers. The belief in vampires chiefly prevails in Slavonic 
lands, as in Russia (especially White Russia and the Ukraine), 
Poland and Servia, and among the Czechs of Bohemia and the 
other Slavonic races of Austria. It became specially prevalent 
in Hungary between the years 1730 and 1735, whence all 
Europe was filled with reports of the exploits of vampires. 
Several treatises were written on the subject, among which may 
be mentioned Ranft's De masticatione mortuorum in tumulis 
(1734) and Calmet's Dissertation on the Vampires of Hungary, 
translated into English in 1750. It is probable that this super- 
stition gained much ground from the reports of those who had 
examined the bodies of persons buried alive though believed to 
be dead, and was based on the twisted position of the corpse, 
the marks of blood on the shroud and on the face and hands 
results of the frenzied struggle in the coffin before life became 
extinct. The belief in vampirism has also taken root among 
the Albanians and modern Greeks, but here it may be due to 
Slavonic influence. 

Two species of blood-sucking bats (the only species known) 
Desmodus rufus and Diphylla ecaudata representing two 
genera (see CHIROPTERA), inhabit the tropical and part of the 
subtropical regions of the New World, and are restricted to South 
and Central America. They appear to be confined chiefly to the 
forest-clad parts, and their attacks on men and other warm- 
blooded animals were noticed by some of the earliest writers. 
Thus Peter Martyr (Anghiera), who wrote soon after the con- 
quest of South America, says that in the Isthmus of Darien 
there were bats which sucked the blood of men and cattle when 
asleep to such a degree as to even kill them. Condamine, a 
writer of the i8th century, remarks that at Borja (Ecuador) 



VAMPYRELLA VAN 



877 



and in other places they had entirely destroyed the cattle intro- 
duced by the missionaries. Sir Robert Schomburgk relates 
that at Wicki, on the river Berbice, no fowls could be kept on 
account of the ravages of these creatures, which attacked their 
combs, causing them to appear white from loss of blood. The 
present writer, when in South and Central America, had many 
accounts given him as to the attacks of the vampires, and it 
was agreed upon by most of his informants that these bats when 
attacking horses showed a decided, preference for those of a grey 
colour. It is interesting to speculate how far the vampire bats 
may have been instrumental when they were, perhaps, more 
abundant in causing the destruction of the horse, which had 
disappeared from America previous to the discovery of that 
continent. 

Although these bats were known thus early to Europeans, 
the species to which they belonged were not determined for a 
long time, several of the large frugivorous species having been 
wrongly set down as blood-suckers, and named accordingly. 
Thus the name Vampyrus was suggested to Geoffrey and adopted 
by Spix, who also considered that the long-tongued bats of the 
group Glossophaga were addicted to blood, and accordingly 
described Glossophaga soricina as a very cruel blood-sucker 
(sanguisuga crudelissima), believing that the long brush-tipped 
tongue was used to increase the flow of blood. Vampyrus spec- 
trum, a large bat inhabiting Brazil, of sufficiently forbidding 
aspect, which was long considered by naturalists to be thoroughly 
sanguivorous in its habits, and named accordingly by Geoffrey, 
has been shown by the observations of travellers to be mainly 
frugivorous, and is considered by the inhabitants of the countries 
in which it is found to be perfectly harmless. Charles Waterton 
believed Artibeus planirostris, a common bat in British Guiana, 
usually found in the roofs of houses, and now known to be fru- 
givorous, to be the veritable vampire; but neither he nor any 
of the naturalists that preceded him had succeeded in detecting 
any bat in the act of drawing blood. It fell to the lot of Charles 
Darwin to determine one of the blood-sucking species at least, 
and the following is his account of the circumstances under 
which the discovery of the sanguivorous habits of Desmodus 
rufus was made: " The vampire bat is often the cause of 
much trouble by biting the horses on their withers. The injury 
is generally not so much owing to the loss of blood as to the in- 
flammation which the pressure of the saddle afterwards produces. 
The whole circumstance has lately been doubted in England; 
I was therefore fortunate in being present when one was actually 
caught on a horse's back. We were bivouacking late one 
evening near Coquimbo, in Chile, when my servant, noticing 
that one of the horses was very restive, went to see what was 
the matter, and, fancying he could detect something, suddenly 
put his hand on the beast's withers, and secured the vampire" 
(Naturalist's Voyage Round the World, p. 22). 

Desmodus rufus, the common blood-sucking bat, is widely spread 
over the tropical and subtropical parts of Central and South America 
from Oaxaca to southern Brazil and 
Chile. It is a comparatively small 
bat, a little larger than the noctule, 
the head and body about 3 in. in 
length, the forearm 2j, with a remark- 
ably long and strong thumb; it is 
destitute of a tail, and has a very 
peculiar physiognomy (fig. i). The 
body is covered with rather short fur 
of a reddish-brown colour but vary- 
ing in shade, the extremities of the 
hairs sometimes ashy. The teeth are 
peculiar and characteristic, admirably 
adapted for the purposes for which 
they are employed. The upper front 
teeth (incisors), of which there are only two, are enormously 
enlarged (see fig. 2), and in shape obliquely triangular like small 
guillotines. The canines, though smaller than the incisors, are 
large and sharp; but the cheek-teeth, so well developed in 
other bats, are very small and reduced in number to two above 
and three below, on each side, with laterally compressed crowns 
rising but slightly above the level of the gum, their longitudinally 
disposed cutting edges (in the upper jaw) being continuous with 
the base of the canine and with each other. The lower front teeth 
(incisors) are small, bifid, in pairs, and separated from the canines, 




FIG. I. Head of Blood- 
sucking Vampire (Desmo- 
dus rufus). 




FIG. 2. Teeth of D. rufus. 



with a space in front. The lower cheek-teeth are narrow, like 

those in the upper jaw, but the anterior tooth is slightly larger than 

the others, and separated 

by a small space from the 

canines. Behind the lower 

incisors the jaw is deeply 

hollowed out to receive the 

extremities of the large 

upper incisors. 

With this peculiar denti- 
tion there is associated as 
remarkable a departure ' 
from the general type in 
the form of the digestive 
apparatus. The exceed- 
ingly narrow oesophagus 
opens at right angles into 
a narrow, intestine-like stomach, which almost immediately 
terminates on the right, without a distinct pylorus, in the 
duodenum, but on the left forms a greatly elongated caecum, bent 
and folded upon itself, which appears at first sight like part of the 
intestines. This, the cardiac extremity of the stomach, is, for a 
short distance to the left of the entrance of the oesophagus, still 
very narrow, but soon increases in size, till near its termination it 
attains a diameter quite three times that of the short pyloric portion. 
The length of this cardiac diverticulum of the stomach appears to 
vary from 2 to 6 in., the size in each specimen probably depending 
on the amount of food obtained by the animal before it was captured. 

The only other known species of blood-sucking bat, Diphylla 
ecaudata, inhabits Brazil, and appears to be much less abundant 
than Desmodus rufus, from which it is distinguished by its slightly 
smaller size, by the absence of a groove in the front of the lower 
lip, the non-development of the interfemoral membrane in the 
centre, and the presence of a short calcaneum (absent in D. rufus), 
but more particularly by the presence of an additional rudimentary 
cheek-tooth (?molar) above and below, and the peculiar form of 
the lower incisors, which are much expanded in the direction of the 
jaws and pectinated, forming a semicircular row touching each 
other, the outer incisors being wider than the inner ones, with six 
notches, the inner incisors with three each. 

Travellers describe the wounds inflicted by the large sharp-edged 
incisors as being similar to those caused by a razor when shaving: 
a portion of the skin is shaved off and, a large number of severed 
capillary vessels being thus exposed, a constant flow of blood is 
maintained. From this source the blood is drawn through the 
exceedingly narrow gullet too narrow for anything solid to pass 
into the intestine-like stomach, whence it is, probably, gradually 
drawn off during the slow progress of digestion, while the animal, 
sated with food, is hanging in a state of torpidity from the roof of 
its cave or from the inner sides of a hollow tree. (G. E. D.) 

VAMPYRELLA (L. Cienkowski), a genus of azoosporous Pro- 
teomyxa (q.v.) , parasitic on freshwater algae. 

VAN. (i) The chief town of a vilayet of the same name in 
Asiatic Turkey; altitude, 5400 ft. Pop. 28,000, of whom 14,000 
are Armenians, and the remainder Moslems, mostly of a mixed 
Kurdish race. It is situated about a mile from the eastern 
shore of Lake Van, and built along the south side of the citadel 
rock, an isolated rocky ridge 1300 yds. long, rising 360 ft. out 
of a plain which extends up to the sharply denned rocky mass 
of the Varak range, 8 m. distant. On the gently sloping ground 
east of the citadel are the Gardens, covering an area of 5 m. 
by 3, and containing several suburbs and detached houses, 
along central avenues fringed with trees, and having channels 
of running water by the sides for irrigation. 

The town itself is a poor place with flat-roofed mud houses, 
narrow winding streets, and surrounded by a ruinous mud wall; 
but it still contains the business quarter, the government offices 
and the principal bazaars. In the Gardens are vineyards and 
orchards of apple, pear, quince, plum and apricot; the houses 
of the wealthier inhabitants are imposing, built of a wood-frame- 
work on a stone foundation and filled in with sun-dried bricks. 
Many of them are brightly ornamented in the Persian style. Water 
comes from karez or underground channels and streams from 
Varak, fed from the Sikhe Lake, an ancient reservoir which pre- 
serves the snow waters on the summit of the mountain. For the 
southern quarter there is the Shemiram Canal, also of very ancient 
construction, which derives its supply from a large spring 19 m. 
distant, near Meshingird. There are British, Russian and French 
consuls who reside in the Gardens. There are a large American 
Mission with schools, orphanage and a resident doctor, a French 
(Dominican) Mission with schools, and also a branch of the arch- 
bishop of Canterbury's Mission to the Nestorian Christians who 
live in the mountains to the south. The climate is generally healthy, 
extremely cold in winter, with 2 to 3 ft. of snow from December 
to March, while the summer heat is not excessive. The Persian 



VAN VANADIUM 



trade of Van has declined ; European goods, with which the bazaars 
are fairly well supplied, come from Trebizond through Erzerum. 
There is a fair local trade in wheat and agricultural produce, also 
sheep and cattle, wool, hides and furs for export. A thick woollen 
cloth called shayak, coarse cotton chintzes and a kind of soap 
prepared from the efflorescences of the lake, with dried and salted 
fish, are also produced. 

The cuneiform inscriptions of Van are very numerous, the 
town having been the capital of the Vannic kingdom of the 
Assyrian period. At the end of the Gardens is the rocky mass 
of Toprak Kale, on which was a fire temple and altar; near it is 
the Meker Kapusi (" Door of Mithridates "), a large inscribed 
slab of rock with the names of several deities. On the citadel 
rock are several inscriptions, the principal being a trilingual 
one of Xerxes on the southern face. Many other inscribed 
stones and tablets have been found built into modern buildings, 
while the excavation of a mound brought to light relics of a 
stone age. 

Van occupies the site of Dhuspas, of which the native name 
was Biainas (Assyrian, Urardhu), the Byana of Ptolemy and 
the Ivan of Cedrenus, whence the modern Van. Dhuspas, the 
Thospia of Ptolemy, gave its name to the district of Thospitis, 
the modern Thosp. The Biainian dynasty, of which Sarduris I. 
(c. 833 B.C.)was the first king, died out with Sarduris II., who in 
645 B.C. entered into an alliance with Assur-bani-pal. Inscrip- 
tions of nearly all the kings exist, and the various excavations at 
Toprak Kale show an advanced state of civilization and great 
technical skill (see illustrations in Maspero's Histoire ancienne, 
vol. iii., Les Empires). In the 6th century B.C. Van passed into 
the hands of the Persians, and shortly before it fell to Alexander 
the Great it was rebuilt, according to Armenian historians, by 
a native prince called Van. In 149 B.C. Valarsaces or Vaghar- 
shag, the first Armenian king of the Arsacidae, rebuilt the town, 
and a colony of Jews was settled in it by Tigranes (94-56 B.C.). 
In the middle of the 4th century A.D. it was taken by Sapor 
(Shapur) II., and became the capital of an autonomous province 
of the Sassanian Empire, until it fell into the hands of the Arabs 
(c. 640), under whom it regained its autonomy. About 908 the 
governor of Van or Vaspuragan was crowned king by the caliph 
Moktadir, and in 1021 his descendant Senekherim was persuaded 
by Basil II. to exchange his kingdom for the viceroyalty of the 
Sebasteian theme. After having formed part of the possessions 
of the Seljuks, Mongols, Tatars and Persians, Van passed in 1514, 
after the defeat of Shah Ismail by Selim I. at the battle of Kal- 
deran, to the Osmanlis, who only occupied the town in 1543. In 
1636 it was taken by the Persians, but soon recovered. In 1845 
the town was held for a time, by the Kurd chief Khan Mahmud, 
who eventually surrendered and was exiled. 

(2) The vilayet of Van lies along the Persian frontier between 
the vilayets of Erzerum and Mosul. The northern sanjak 
comprises open plateau country N. and E. of the lake (with 
a large Armenian agricultural population and Kurdish semi- 
nomad tribes occupied chiefly in cattle and sheep raising), also 
of several fertile districts along the south shore of the lake. The 
southern sanjak is entirely mountainous, little developed and 
having the tribes only partly under government control. This 
comprises most of the upper basin of the Great Zab, with the 
country of the Nestorian Christians and many districts inhabited 
by Kurdish tribes, some of them large nomad tribes who descend 
for the winter to the plains of the Tigris. 

The mineral wealth of the vilayet has never been fully explored, 
but is believed to be great. There are petroleum springs at Kordzot, 
deposits of lignite at Sivan and Nurduz, several hot springs at 
Zilan Deresi and Julamerk. Excellent tobacco is grown in Shems- 
dinan for export to Persia. 

(3) LAKE VAN, called Arsissa Palus and also Thospitis from its 
Armenian names, is roughly rectangular 55 m. long and 40 broad, 
with a long north-eastern arm which increases the greatest 
length to 80 m. It stands about 5260 ft. above sea-level. It is 
without an outlet, and its greatest depth is along the southern 
shore. It has constant steady fluctuations, rising and falling 
some 8 ft. in a periodic movement of five years. In the middle 
of the i gth century a sudden rise submerged several places on 



the banks, including Arjish Kale, and the waters did not again 
subside. The north-eastern arm is much shallower than the 
rest. The water is bitter and undrinkable, being largely im- 
pregnated with carbonate and sulphate of soda with some borax. 
The salts are evaporated in pans, and called perek, being sold 
for washing purposes. There is, however, good water along the 
coast from springs and streams. 

The lake has been navigated from the earliest times, and about 
80 sailing boats, carrying about 20 tons burden, now ply on it, 
chiefly with wheat and firewood. Severe storms make navigation 
dangerous in winter. The southern shore is fringed by a steep 
range of mountains, with several thriving villages along the coast. 
The hills have now been almost denuded of trees. At the south- 
eastern corner is the island of Akhtamar with its ancient church, 
erected (c. 928) by Gagig, first king of the Ardzrunian dynasty. 
The Cathohcos of Akhtamar is one of the highest offices in the 
Armenian Church, and dates from 1113. The small islands of 
Lim and Gdutz have also monasteries and churches. Large numbers 
of darekh, a kind of herring, exist in the lake, and are caught in 
nets from boats or when they enter the shallow lagoons in the 
spring and summer. Either fresh or salted they form an important 
article of diet of the poorer people. 

See Sayce, " Cuneiform Inscriptions of Lake Van," in Journal 
of Royal Asiatic Society, vols. xiv., xx. and xxvi.; Lynch, Armenia, 
vol. ii. (1901); Belck and Lehmann, papers in Verhand. d. Berliner 
Ges. fur Anthropologie (1892-99); Zeit. fur Ethnologie (1892, 1899); 
Mitt. d. Geog. Ges. (Hamburg, 1898, 1899). (C. W. W.; F. R. M.) 

VAN, an homonymous word, whose different meanings have 
no etymological connexion. In the most common sense " van " 
is merely an abbreviation of the Oriental word " caravan " (q.v.), 
and is applied to any large covered cart or vehicle used for the 
conveyance of goods, especially furniture, or, on railways, to a 
closed carriage for passengers' luggage, or for the accommodation 
of the guard. In the sense of the front portion of an army 
or fleet, or the advanced portion of any body, actually or meta- 
phorically, " van " represents the French avant (Lat. ab ante), in 
front, as in avant-garde, van-guard, the earliest form in which the 
word came into English. Lastly, the word is used as a variant of 
" fan " (Lat. vannus), for a contrivance for winnowing grain, for 
a bird's wing, and in mining to an appliance for separating ore 
by washing. 

VANADINITE, a mineral consisting of lead chloro-vanadate, 
(PbCl)Pb4(VO4)s, crystallizing in the hexagonal system and 
isomorphous with pyromorphite and mimetite (q.v.). The 
crystals are usually six-sided prisms terminated by the basal 
planes, but are sometimes modified by numerous pyramidal 
planes which exhibit parallel hemihedrism. Rounded crystals 
and groups also occur. The colour is usually light brown or 
yellow, but crystals from Arizona are bright red. Owing to 
isomorphous replacement of the vanadium by phosphorus 
and arsenic, the specific gravity varies from 6-6 to 7-2; a 
variety containing much arsenic is called endlichite. The 
hardness is 3. The mineral is one of secondary formation in 
veins of lead ore. It was first found in Mexico, and in 1801 
was asserted to contain a new element, which was called 
" erythronium "; this was later proved to be identical with 
the subsequently discovered element vanadium. Other well- 
known localities are Wanlockhead in Dumfriesshire, Kappel 
(Eisen-Kappel), near Klagenfurt in Carinthia, Arizona and 
New Mexico. (L. J. S.) 

VANADIUM [symbol, V; atomic weight, 31-2 (O=i6)], a 
metallic chemical element. It was first mentioned in 1801 by 
M. del Rio (Gilb. Ann., 1801, 71, p. 7), but subsequently thought 
by him to be an impure chromium. Later, it was examined 
by N. G. Sefstrom, who found it in the slags of the Taberg iron 
ores (Pogg. Ann., 1830, 21, p. 48), by J. J. Berzelius (ibid., 1831, 
22, p. i), and finally by Sir H. Roscoe (Trans. Roy. Soc., 1868- 
1870), who showed that the supposed vanadium obtained by 
previous investigators was chiefly the nitride or an oxide of 
the element. In his researches, Roscoe showed that the atomic 
weight of the metal as determined by Berzelius and the formulae 
given to the oxides were incorrect, and pointed out that the 
element falls into its natural place in group V of the periodic 
classification along with phosphorus and arsenic, and not in 
the chromium group where it had originally been placed. 

In small quantities, vanadium is found widely distributed, 



VAN BEERS 



879 



the chief sources being vanadite, mottramite, descloizite, 
roscoelite, dechenite and pucherite, whilst it is also found as 
a constituent of various clays, iron-ores and pitchblendes 
Vanadium salts may be obtained from mottramite by digesting 
the mineral with concentrated hydrochloric acid, the liquic 
being run off and the residue well washed; the acid liquic 
and the washings are then evaporated with ammonium chloride 
when ammonium metavanadate separates. This is recrystal- 
lized and roasted to vanadium pentoxide, which is then sus- 
pended in water into which ammonia is passed, when ammonium 
metavanadate is again formed and may be purified by re- 
crystallization. The pure metal may be obtained by reducing 
vanadium dichloride in hydrogen, the operation being exceed- 
ingly difficult (for details, see Roscoe's original papers). In a 
somewhat impure condition it may be obtained by the reduction 
of vanadium pentoxide with a mixture of the rare earth metals 
which are obtained by reduction of the waste oxides formed 
in the manufacture of thoria (Weiss and Aichel, Ann., 1904, 
33 7> P- 380); from the oxide by Goldschmidt's thermite 
method (Koppel and Kaufmann, Zeil. anorg. Chem., 1905, 45, 
p. 352); by electrolysis in a bath of fused fluorspar containing 
a steel cathode and an anode composed of carbon and vanadium 
pentoxide (M. Gin, L' ' Electricien, 1903, 25, p. 5); and by the 
electrolysis of vanadium trioxide when heated in an evacuated 
glass tube (W. v. Bolton, Zeit.f. Elektrochem., 1905, n, p. 45). 
H. Moissan (Comptes rendus, 1896, 122, p. 1297) obtained a 
vanadium containing from 10 to 16% of carbon by fusing 
vanadic anhydride with carbon in the electric furnace. For 
other methods of obtaining vanadium and its compounds, see 
Cowper Cowles, Engin. and Mining Journ. 67, p. 744; Her- 
renschmidt, Comptes rendus, 1904, 139, p. 635; M. Gin, 
Elektrochem. Zeit., 1906, 13, p. 119; W. Prandtl and B. Bleyer, 
Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1909, 64, p. 217. 

Vanadium is a light-coloured metal of specific gravity 5-5. 
It is not volatilized even when heated to redness in a current 
of hydrogen, and it burns readily to the pentoxide when heated 
in oxygen. It dissolves slowly in hydrofluoric acid and in 
nitric acid, the solution turning blue; it is insoluble in hydro- 
chloric acid. When fused with caustic soda, hydrogen is 
liberated and a vanadate is formed. It precipitates platinum, 
gold and silver from solutions of their salts, and also reduces 
mercuric, cupric and ferric salts. It absorbs nitrogen when 
heated in a current of that gas, forming a nitride. Vanadium 
may be detected by converting it into the pentoxide, which 
on passing sulphuretted hydrogen through its acid solution 
becomes reduced to the dioxide, the solution at the same time 
becoming lavender blue in colour; or if zinc be used as a 
reducing agent, the solution becomes at first green and ulti- 
mately blue. 

Five oxides of vanadium are known (cf. NITROGEN), the mono-, 
di- and tripxides being basic in character, the tetra- and pentoxides 
being acidic and also feebly basic. The monoxide, V 2 O, is formed 
when the metal is oxidized slowly in air. In a hydrated form 
it is obtained by the reduction of yanadyl monochloride, VOC1, 
with sodium amalgam, being precipitated from the liquid by the 
addition of ammonia (Locke and Edwards, Zeit. anorg. Chem., 
1899, 19. P- 378). _ The dioxide, V 2 O 2 , is formed in the reduction 
of yanadyl trichloride by hydrogen (Roscoe). It is a grey powder 
which is insoluble in water, but dissolves in acids to give a lavender- 
blue solution which possesses strong reducing properties. The 
addition of ammonia to this solution precipitates a brown hydrated 
oxide. _ The dioxide when heated in oxygen burns, forming the 
pentoxide. The trioxide, V 2 O 3 , is formed when the pentoxide is 
reduced at a red heat in a current of hydrogen, or by the action of 
oxalic acid on ammonium metavanadate. It forms a black amor- 
phous powder or a dark green crystalline mass, and is insoluble 
in water and in most acids. The tetroxide, V 2 O 4 , results when the 
pentoxide is heated with dry oxalic acid and the resulting mixture 
of the tri- and pentoxide is warmed in the absence of air, or when 
the pentoxide is reduced by sulphur dioxide. It is an amorphous 
or crystalline mass of indigo-blue or steel-grey colour, which is 
insoluble in water and is also infusible. It oxidizes slowly in 
moist air, and dissolves easily in acids with the formation of blue 
solutions. The pentoxide, V 2 O 6 , is obtained when ammonium 
metavanadate is strongly heated, on calcining the sulphide, or by 
the decomposition of vanadyl trichloride with water. According 
to Ditte (Comptes rendus, 101, p. 698) it exists in three forms: 



| a red amorphous soluble form which results when ammonium 
metavanadate is heated in a closed vessel and the residue oxidized 
with nitric acid and again heated; a yellow amorphous insoluble 
form which is obtained when the vanadate is heated in a current 
of air at 440 C. ; and a red crystalline form which is almost in- 
soluble in water. It is soluble in hot concentrated sulphuric acid 
and in concentrated hydrochloric acid. It is an energetic oxidizing 
agent and is consequently readily reduced when heated with various 
metals (zinc, magnesium, &c.), with carbon and with oxalic acid. 
On fusion with the caustic alkalis and alkaline carbonates it yields 
vanadates. It forms numerous compounds with potassium fluoride. 
Many complex derivatives are known, such, for example, as phos- 
phor- vanadates, arsenio- vanadates, tungsto- vanadates, molybdo- 
vanadates, &c. For the use of this oxide in the electrolytic oxida- 
tion and reduction of organic compounds, see German Patents 
172654 (1903) and 183022 (1905). 

Many salts of oxy-acids of vanadium are known, but of the more 
common oxy-acids, metavanadic acid, HVOa, and pyrovanadic 
acid, H 4 V 2 C>7, alone appear to have been isolated. Metavanadic 
acid is obtained in the form of yellow scales by boiling copper 
vanadate with an aqueous solution of sulphur dioxide. It is only 
very slightly soluble in water. Pyrovanadic acid is deposited as 
a dark brown unstable powder when an acid vanadate is decom- 
posed by nitric acid. Of the salts of these acids, those of the 
ortho- and pyro-acids are the least stable, the prthovanadates 
being obtained on fusion of vanadium pentoxide with an alkaline 
carbonate. The metavanadates are usually yellowish or colour- 
less solids. Ammonium metavanadate is obtained when the 
hydrated vanadium pentoxide is dissolved in excess of ammonia 
and the solution concentrated. It has been used in dyeing with 
aniline black. Tetra- and hexavanadates have also been de- 
scribed (see Ditte, Comptes rendus, 104, pp. 902, 1061 ; 102, p. 918; 
Manasse, Ann. 240, p. 23). The hypovanadates are insoluble in 
water, except those of the alkali metals, which are obtained by 
the addition of caustic alkalis to concentrated solutions of the 
chloride or sulphate of the tetroxide. They are brown in colour 
and easily oxidize. Pure hypo vanadic acid has been obtained 
by G. Gain (Comptes rendus, 1906, 143, p. 823) by calcining 
ammonium metavanadate and saturating a solution of the resulting 
oxides with sulphur dioxide; the resulting blue solution (from 
which a sulphate of composition 2V 2 O 4 -3SO 2 -10H 2 O can be isolated) 
is then boiled with water, when sulphur dioxide is liberated and 
a pale red crystalline powder of hypovanadic acid, H^Os, is 
precipitated. 

Vanadium dichloride, VC1 2 , is a green crystalline solid obtained 
when the tetrachloride is reduced with hydrogen at a dull red 
heat. It is very deliquescent and readily soluble in water. The 
trichloride, VC1 3 , is a deliquescent solid formed when the tetra- 
chloride is heated in a retort as long as chlorine is given off (Roscoe), 
or by heating vanadium trisulphide in a current of chlorine and 
fractionally distilling the resulting product at 150 C. in a current 
of carbon dioxide (Halberstadt, Ber., 1882, 15, p. 1619). The 
tetrachloride, VC1 4 , is formed by the direct union of vanadium 
and chlorine or by the action of sulphur chloride on vanadium 
pentoxide (Matignon, Comptes rendus, 1904, 138, p. 631). It is 
a fuming liquid, which is soluble in benzene and in acetic acid; 
it dissolves in water to form a deep blue solution. Several oxy- 
chlorides have also been described. Vanadium carbide, VC, was 
prepared by H. Moissan (Comptes rendus, 1896, 122, p. 1297) by 
heating vanadium pentoxide and carbon for a few minutes in the 
electric furnace. It is a volatile compound which burns when 
heated in oxygen and which is unacted upon by sulphuric and 
hydrochloric acids. 
For vanadium steels, see IRON AND STEEL MANUFACTURE. 

VAN BEERS, JAN (1821-1888), Belgian poet, usually called 
' the elder " to distinguish him from his son, Jan van Beers, 
:he well-known painter, was born at Antwerp on the 22nd of 
February 1821. He was essentially a Netherlander, though 
iolitically a Belgian, expressing his thoughts in the same 
anguage as any North Netherland writer. In fact, the poems 

of Jan van Beers are perhaps more popular in Holland than 
n Belgium, and of many of them there exist more editions 

printed in Holland than in his political fatherland. Van Beers 
tarted life as a teacher of Dutch language and literature, first 

at Malines, then at Lierre, and in 1860 was appointed a professor 

of both at the Athenaeum (high school) in Antwerp, where 
le had also been a sub-librarian in the communal library. 

Van Beers as a teacher was early in the field, with Hendrik 
'onscience, Willems and others, when the Flemish movement 
>egan. He composed a Dutch grammar (1852), which, in 

enlarged editions, still holds the field, and a volume of selections 
rom Dutch authors, both books being so much appreciated 
hat the Belgian government made them text-books in the 
mblic schools. Van Beers's historical poems, the principal 



88o 



VANBRUGH 



of which is, perhaps, Jakob Van Maerlant (Amsterdam, 1860), 
helped the Flemish revival in Belgium as powerfully as his 
school-books. He is best known, however, as the writer of 
ballads and songs. J ' ongdingsdroomen (" A Young Man's 
Dreams ") first appeared at Antwerp and Amsterdam in 1853. 
These poems were followed by Levensbedden (" Life Figures 
or Pictures," Amsterdam, 1858) and by Gevoel en Leven 
(" Feeling Living," Amsterdam, 1861). His Rijzende Bidden 
(" Rising Leaves ") first made its appearance at Ghent and 
Rotterdam in 1883. In the following year an edition de luxe 
of his poetry was published, adorned with pen-and-ink sketches 
by Jan van Beers the younger, and a popular edition of his 
collected poems was published at Ghent and Rotterdam in 
1873 and 1884. Among the best known are De Blinde 
(" Blind "), De Zieke Jongding (" Young and Doomed "), 
Bij 't Kerkportaal ("At the Church Porch"). Van Beers's 
poetry, full of glow and pathos, simple yet forcible, is somewhat 
akin to that of Longfellow. Van Beers died at Antwerp on 
the 1 4th of November 1888. 

VANBRUGH, SIR JOHN (1664-1726), British dramatist and 
architect, was born in the parish of St Nicolas Aeons in the City 
of London, and christened on the 24th of January 1664. His 
grandfather, Gillis van Brugg, of Ghent, migrated to England in 
the reign of James I., was naturalized, resided as a merchant 
and was buried in the parish of St Stephen's Walbrook. The 
dramatist's father, Giles (1631-1689), a wealthy sugar baker, 
who married into the Carleton family, was driven from London 
by the plague and settled at Chester. The mother (Elizabeth 
Carleton, of the Dorchester family) survived to see her son 
famous; she died at Claygate, near Esher, in 1711, and was 
buried at Thames Ditton. After a few years at the King's 
School, Chester, John at nineteen was sent to France to study 
the arts; after two years' absence he returned to take up a com- 
mission in the regiment soon to be known as the I3th Foot. In 
the early autumn of 1690 Vanbrugh was arrested at Calais on 
a charge of espionage. The informant against him was a lady. 
He was imprisoned at Vincennes, but on the ist of Feb. 1692, 
by a lettre de cachet, he was removed to the Bastille. On 
the 1 2th of November he found surety to the extent of one 
thousand pistoles, but was confined to the fortifications of Paris 
until his exchange was effected on the cartel. His enforced 
leisure was responsible for the first draft of the Provok'd Wife. 
Voltaire said in his Letlres sur les Anglais that he could not 
imagine what had gained such a comic writer the distinction 
of detention in such a grim fortress. As a matter of fact, a 
considerable number of English officers were arrested about 
this time on a similar charge, as may be seen from the Bastille 
archives. 1 For a time after his return he resumed his commis- 
sion and was known as Captain Vanbrugh. 

The production of Gibber's Love's Last Shift at the Theatre 
Royal in January 1696 kindled afresh his attachment to the 
comic muse. He thought it would be interesting to develop 
the situation upon which Gibber had rung down the curtain, 
and the result was The Relapse, " got, conceived and bom in six 
weeks' space." It was given on Boxing Day 1696, with Cibber 
as Foppington, one of the three parts borrowed from the preced- 
ing comedy. The Sir Novelty Fashion of Cibber was developed 
in this play into Lord Foppington, who has been pronounced 
" the best fop ever brought upon the stage." The play has been 
revived in various forms: Sheridan adapted it in A Trip to 
Scarborough, and it inspired two modern versions in 1870 and 
1890, The Man of Quality and Miss Tomboy. A esop produced 
at Drury Lane immediately after The Relapse was an adapta- 
tion of Boursault's dramatic sermon on the same subject. It 
ran for a week only, but the success of The Relapse was so 
triumphant that Montague, afterwards Lord Halifax, asked at 
once for the Provok'd Wife for the theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields, 
and it was produced at that theatre in May 1697. All that could 
be said in answer to those who condemned it on account of its 
Unblushing libertinism was that Sir John Brute is sufficiently 

1 Ravaisson ; and Funck-Brentano, Lisle des prisonniers de la 
Bastille. 



brutal to drive any woman into rebellion, and that since the 
glorious days of the Restoration a wife's rebellion and a wife's 
adultery were synonymous terms. The play was a complete 
triumph, and Brute was one of Garrick's great parts. Vanbrugh 
was fiercely attacked by Jeremy Collier for immorality in 1698, 
and wrote nothing more for the stage until 1700, when an 
adaptation of the Pilgrim of Beaumont and Fletcher was pro- 
duced at Drury Lane. In this play, in the part of Alinda, Anne 
Oldfield scored her first success. Two years later appeared The 
False Friend, a version of Le Sage's Traitre puni. Other 
adaptations from the French were A Country House, from 
Dancourt's Maison de campagne; Confederacy (1705), from the 
same author's Bourgeoises a la mode; Squire Trdooby (1704), a 
version of Moliere's Monsieur de Pourceaugnac ; and The Mis- 
take (1705), from Moliere's Dipit amoureux. 

Collier's attack and the resulting movement must have been 
responsible in part for " Van " turning 'his attention to 
architecture. The demand for splendid country seats in the 
new Palladian style was steadily increasing, and his reputation 
as a modern wit was an introduction in itself. In 1702 he was 
entered as comptroller of the Royal Works (now the Board of 
Works, where several of his designs may still be seen). In 
1703 he wrote to ask his friend Jacob Tonson to procure him a 
" Palladio," and in the same year he was a commissioner at 
Greenwich, where the secretary William Vanbrugh was a kins- 
man of his own, whom Evelyn had appointed at his request. In 
the meantime, Vanbrugh had been appointed architect to the 
earl of Carlisle, and the result, completed in 1714, was the 
Corinthian mansion of Castle Howard. The work is an exten- 
sion of the Palladian plan introduced by Inigo Jones, with the 
addition of immense corridors in segmental colonnades leading 
from the main entrance to the wing blocks. From a scenic artist's 
point of view, it is a magnificent (and certainly his best) piece of 
work. The earl, then deputy earl-marshal, testified his satis- 
faction by procuring for Vanbrugh a high place in the College of 
Arms. In March 1704 he was actually promoted Clarenceux, 
though he not only knew nothing of heraldry but had openly 
ridiculed that grave science in Aesop. The indignant college 
protested in vain, and the architect stuck to his place. His next 
work was to prepare designs for Kneller Hall near Hounslow. 
But the success of Castle Howard now caused him to entertain 
the rash project of building a theatre in the Hay market, from 
his own design, for the acting of his own plays. The joyous 
courage with which, having persuaded thirty people in the 
fashionable world to aid him in finding the money, and Congreve 
to aid him in finding the plays, he began to build in perfect un- 
consciousness of the danger before him, is the only passage in his 
life which may be called pathetic, save of course his struggle 
with the " wicked woman of Marlborough." The magnitude of 
Vanbrugh's architectural ideas grew as the work went on, and 
with the ideas the structure grew till a theatre meant for the 
delicate bijouterie work of polite comedy seemed growing to the 
proportions of the Roman Colosseum. Whether Congreve en- 
deavoured to put a check upon his friend's architectural and 
authorial fervour does not appear. But it must be remembered 
that not only Vanbrugh's plays but his own were to be acted 
there, and that, although Congreve was a man of great sagacity, 
no man, not even he who pretended to set his gentility above his 
genius, is sagacious when confronted by the surpassing excellence 
of his own poems and plays. When at length the time came to 
test the acoustics of the pile, it was found to be sadly defective. 
What changes were made to rectify the errors of structure does 
not appear. The theatre was opened to the public with an 
Italian opera, which was followed by three of Moliere's comedies, 
and these by the Confederacy, Vanbrugh's masterpiece on the 
whole, though perhaps its finest scenes are not equal to the finest 
scenes in The Relapse. 

Vanbrugh at last withdrew from the disastrous speculation; 
Congreve had already withdrawn. But a man to whom Fortune 
had been so kind as she had been to Vanbrugh could hardly be 
depressed by any of her passing frowns. Queen Anne at once 
sent him abroad on an important state errand, and afterwards 



VAN BUREN 



he was commissioned to build Blenheim. Upon the merits 
and demerits of this famous " hollowed quarry " there has been 
much conflict of opinion. As to the sarcasms by Swift, Walpole, 
Evans, and the rest, they are as nothing when set against Sir 
Joshua Reynolds's defence of Vanbrugh and his style. Blenheim 
Palace is probably the largest domestic building in England, 
and consists of three blocks, the centre containing the private 
living rooms, one wing the stables, and the other the kitchens 
and storehouses. It is planned on a colossal scale. Vanbrugh 
considered a building and the parts of a building as simply so 
much material for effect, without regard to their reasonable use 
and the necessary limitations of design. Thus he would support 
his main block by subordinate groups without considering for a 
moment the inconvenience that might be caused by the kitchen 
being removed by four hundred yards from the dining-room. 
Personal comfort was sacrificed to perspective. Windows were 
to adorn the elevation, not to light the interior; and, as Vol- 
taire said, if the rooms had only been as wide as the walls were 
thick, the chateau would have been convenient enough. After 
Blenheim and Castle Howard, his next largest palace was prob- 
ably Fleurs, near Kelso. His plans were only suitable to the 
largest kind of palace. Blenheim, however, was a source of 
great sorrow to the kindly dramatist. Though parliament had 
voted for the building of it, no provision had been made for the 
supplies. The queen while she lived paid them, and then Van- 
brugh was left to the meanness of the duke of Marlborough, and 
afterwards to the insolence of the " wicked woman," who did 
her best to embitter his life. Besides Castle Howard and 
Blenheim, he built many other country mansions, such as 
Grimsthorpe and Buncombe Hall in Yorkshire, Eastbury in 
Dorsetshire, Seaton-Delaval in Northumberland, King's Weston 
near Bristol, Oulton Hall in Cheshire, old Claremont House at 
Esher, old Eaton Hall, Iver Grove, Bucks. He also restored 
Kimbolton Castle for the earl of Manchester. In 1716 he became 
architect to Greenwich Hospital. 

In January 1719 Vanbrugh married Henrietta Maria, daughter 
of Colonel Yarborough of Heslington, and four years after- 
wards, at the accession of George I., he was knighted. He 
afterwards wrote again for the stage, and the unfinished frag- 
ment of the Journey to London (completed by Gibber as The 
Provok'd Husband in 1728) shows that his powers remained to 
the last as fine as ever. His married life was mostly spent at 
Blackheath, very probably in " Bastile House " on Maze Hill, 
repaired in 1904 and now known as Vanbrugh Castle. His wife 
died there at a great age in 1776, but " Van " himself died on 
the 26th of March 1726 in his modest town house, built in 1703 
out of the ruins of Whitehall and satirized by Swift as the 
" goose pie." The site is occupied to-day by the War Office. 
The famous epitaph, " Lie heavy on him, earth," is attributed 
to Abel Evans. The best portrait of the dramatist is the kit- 
cat by Kneller. 

Vanbrugh's works were edited in 2 yols., 1893, by W. C. Ward 
(portraits). Select Plays were issued in the Mermaid Series (ed. 
A. E. H. Swaen) in 1896. See G. H. Lovegrove's Life, Works and 
Influence of Sir John Vanbrugh (1902), Max Dametz's Vanbrughs Leben 
und Werke (1898), and Swift's Works (Bohn), xii. 80 sq. (f. SE.) 

VAN BUREN, MARTIN (1782-1862), eighth president of the 
United States, was born at Kinderhook, New York, on the 5th 
of December 1782, of Dutch descent. His father was a farmer 
and tavern-keeper. His education was limited to that which 
could be obtained in the common schools and at Kinderhook 
Academy, and there is testimony to the effect that as late as 
1829, when he became secretary of state, he wrote crudely 
and incorrectly. In 1796 he began the study of law, completing 
his preparation in 1802 at New York, where he studied under 
William Peter Van Ness (1778-1826), an eminent lawyer and 
later Aaron Burr's second in the duel with Alexander Hamilton. 
Van Buren made the acquaintance of Burr, but did not fall 
under his influence. In 1803 he was admitted to the bar and 
continued in active and successful practice for twenty-five 
years. His practice made him financially independent, and 
paved the way for his entrance into politics. New York politics 
after 1800, the year of the election of Jefferson and the down- 



fall of the Federalists, were peculiarly bitter and personal. The 
Republicans were divided into three factions, followers re- 
spectively of George Clinton (and later of his nephew, De Witt 
Clinton), Robert R. Livingston and Aaron Burr; and such 
Federalist control as there was from time to time after 1799 
depended upon coalition with one or other of these groups. 
Van Buren, who early allied himself with the Clintonians, was 
surrogate of Columbia county from 1808 until 1813, when he 
was removed. In 1812 he entered the state Senate, and he 
also became a member of the court for the correction of errors, 
the highest court in New York until 1847. 

His career in the Senate covered two terms (1812-1820). In 
1815 he became attorney-general, an office which he held, still 
as a member of the Senate, until 1819, when he was displaced to 
make room for a Federalist. He had already, in 1808, removed 
from Kinderhook to Hudson, and in 1816 he took up his residence 
in Albany, where he continued to reside until he entered Jackson's 
cabinet in 1829. As a member of the state Senate he supported 
the War of 1812 and drew up a classification act for the enrol- 
ment of volunteers. He was chosen to draft the resolution of 
thanks voted by the legislature to General Andrew Jackson 
after the battle of New Orleans. He broke with De Witt 
Clinton in 1813, but nevertheless favoured, in 1817, Clinton's 
plan for the Erie Canal. His attitude towards slavery at the 
moment was shown by his vote, in January 1820, for a resolu- 
tion opposing the admission of Missouri as a slave state. In 
the same year he was chosen a presidential elector. It is at 
this point that Van Buren's connexion began with so-called 
" machine politics," a connexion which has made his name 
odious to some historians of the period. He was a leading 
member of the " Albany regency," a group of politicians who 
for more than a generation controlled the politics of New York 
and powerfully influenced those of the nation, and which did 
more than any other agency to make the " spoils system " a 
recognized procedure in national, state and local affairs. Van 
Buren did not originate the system, for it was already well 
developed when he entered public life; but the nickname of 
" Little Magician " which presently attached to him testifies 
to the skill with which he exploited it, and to the popular im- 
pression which his political methods produced. 

In February 1821 he was elected to the United States Senate. 
Before taking his seat he served also as a member of the state 
constitutional convention, where he opposed the grant of 
universal suffrage. His course in the Senate was not altogether 
consistent, though in this respect he is not to be judged more 
harshly than some of his associates. He at first favoured 
internal improvements, and in 1824 proposed a constitutional 
amendment to authorize such undertakings, but the next year 
took ground against them. He voted for the tariff of 1824, 
then gradually abandoned the protectionist position. In the 
presidential election of 1824 he appeared as a strong sup- 
porter of William H. Crawford, and received the electoral vote 
of Georgia for vice-president; but he shrewdly kept out of the 
acrimonious controversy which followed the choice of John 
Quincy Adams. He early recognized the availability of 
Andrew Jackson, however, as a presidential candidate, and 
after the election sought to bring the Crawford and Jackson 
followers together, at the same time strengthening his control 
as a party leader in the Senate. Always notably courteous 
in his treatment of opponents, he showed no bitterness either 
towards J. Q. Adams or Henry Clay, and voted for Clay's con- 
firmation as secretary of state notwithstanding the " corrupt 
bargain " charge; at the same time he opposed internal im- 
provements and declined to support the proposal for a Panama 
Congress. As chairman of the judiciary committee, he brought 
forward a number of measures for the improvement of judicial 
procedure, and in May 1826 joined with Benton in presenting 
a report on executive patronage. In the debate on the " tariff 
of abominations " in 1828 he took no part, but voted for the 
measure in obedience to instructions from the New York legis- 
lature an action which was cited against him as late as the 
presidential campaign of 1844. Van Buren was not an orator, 



882 



VANCE 



but his more important speeches show careful preparation 
and his opinions carried weight; and the oft-repeated charge 
that he refrained from declaring himself on crucial questions 
is hardly borne out by an examination of his senatorial 
career. In February 1827 he was re-elected to the Senate 
by a large majority. He was now one of the recognized 
managers of the Jackson campaign, and a tour of Virginia, the 
Carolinas and Georgia in the spring of 1827 won support for 
Jackson from Crawford. 

In 1828 Van Buren was elected governor of New York for the 
term beginning on the ist of January 1829, and resigned his 
seat in the Senate. But on the sth of March he was appointed 
by President Jackson secretary of state, an office which prob- 
ably had been assured to him before the election, and he 
resigned the governorship. As secretary of state he took care 
to keep on good terms with the " kitchen cabinet," the group 
of politicians who acted as Jackson's advisers, and won the 
lasting regard of Jackson by his courtesies to Mrs John H. Eaton, 
wife of the secretary of war, with whom the wives of the cabinet 
officers had refused to associate. ' He did not oppose Jackson 
in the matter of removals from office, but was not himself an 
active " spoilsman," and protested strongly against the appoint- 
ment of Samuel Swartwout (1783-1856), who was later a de- 
faulter to a large amount as collector of the port of New York. 
He skilfully avoided entanglement in the Jackson-Calhoun 
imbroglio. No diplomatic questions of the first magnitude 
arose during his service as secretary of state, but the settlement 
of long-standing claims against France was prepared for, and 
trade with the British West India colonies was opened. In 
the controversy with the Bank of the United States he sided 
with Jackson. After the breach between Jackson and Calhoun, 
Van Buren was clearly the most prominent candidate for the 
vice-presidency. Jackson in December 1829 had already made 
known his own wish that Van Buren should receive the nomina- 
tion. In April 1831 Van Buren resigned, though he did not 
leave office until June. In August he was appointed minister 
to England, and arrived in London in September. He was 
cordially received, but in February learned that his nomination 
had been rejected by the Senate on the 25th of January. The 
rejection, ostensibly attributed in large part to Van Buren's 
instructions to Louis McLane, the American minister to England, 
regarding the opening of the West India trade, in which refer- 
ence had been made to the results of the election of 1828, was in 
fact the work of Calhoun, the vice-president; and when the 
vote was taken enough of the majority refrained from voting 
to produce a tie and give Calhoun his longed-for " vengeance." 
No greater impetus than this could have been given to Van 
Buren's candidacy for the vice-presidency. After a brief tour 
on the Continent he reached New York on the sth of July. In 
May the Democratic convention, the first held by that party, 
had nominated him for vice-president on the Jackson ticket, 
notwithstanding the strong opposition to him which existed 
in many states. No platform was adopted, the widespread 
popularity of Jackson being relied upon to win success at the 
polls. His declarations during the campaign were vague 
regarding the tariff and unfavourable to the United States 
Bank and to nullification, but he had already somewhat placated 
the South by denying the right of Congress to abolish slavery 
in the District of Columbia without the consent of the slave 
states. In the election he received 189 electoral votes, while 
Jackson received 219 for President. Jackson now determined 
to make Van Buren president in 1836, and bent all his energies 
to that end. In May 1835 Van Buren was unanimously 
nominated by the Democratic convention at Baltimore. He 
expressed himself plainly during the canvass on the questions 
of slavery and the bank, at the same time voting, perhaps with 
a touch of bravado, for a bill offered in 1836 to subject abolition 
literature in the mails to the laws of the several states. Calhoun, 
bitterly hostile to the last, objected to the usual vote of thanks 
to the retiring vice-president, but withdrew his objection. In 
the election Van Buren received 170 electoral votes against 
73 for William Henry Harrison, his principal opponent; but 



the popular vote showed a plurality of less than 25,000 in a 
total vote of about 1,500,000. The election was in fact a victory 
for Jackson rather than for Van Buren. 

The details of Van Buren's administration belong to the history 
of the United States (see UNITED STATES). He announced his 
intention " to follow in the footsteps of his illustrious pre- 
decessor," took over all but one of Jackson's cabinet, and met 
with statesmanlike firmness the' commercial crisis of 1837, already 
prepared for before he took office. No exhibition of ability or 
courage, however, nor yet the most skilful manipulation of the 
political machinery of the party,'could prevent continued hostility 
to him and to the methods for which he was widely believed to 
stand. The state elections of 1837 and 1838 were disastrous for 
the Democrats, and the partial recovery in 1839 was offset by a 
second commercial crisis in that year. Nevertheless, Van Buren 
was unanimously renominated by the Democrats in 1840. 
Charged with being " a Northern man with Southern principles," 
he was frequently interrogated during the campaign, and his 
nomination obviously failed to arouse enthusiasm or even inspire 
confidence. The revolt against Democratic rule was undoubtedly 
serious, but a study of the popular vote shows that the election 
of Harrison, the Whig candidate, was less of a revolution than 
many affected to think. On the expiration of his term Van 
Buren retired to his estate at Kinderhook, but he did not with- 
draw from politics or cease to be a figure of national importance. 
It was even proposed to make him a member of the Federal 
Supreme Court in order to get him out of political life. He con- 
fidently expected to be nominated for president in 1844, and 
his famous letter of the 27th of April, in which he frankly opposed 
the immediate annexation of Texas, though doubtless contribut- 
ing greatly to his defeat, was not made public until he felt practi- 
cally sure of the nomination. In the Democratic convention, 
though he had a majority of the votes, he did not have the two- 
thirds which the rule of the convention required, and after eight 
ballots his name was withdrawn. In 1848 he was again nomi- 
nated, first by the " Barnburner " faction of the Democrats, 
then by the Free Soilers, with whom the " Barnburners " 
coalesced, but no electoral vote was won by the party. In the 
election of 1860 he voted for the fusion ticket in New York which 
was opposed to Abraham Lincoln, but he could not approve 
of President Buchanan's course in dealing with secession, and 
later supported Lincoln. He died in Kinderhook on the 24th of 
July 1862. His memoirs, to 1834, remain unpublished, but an 
Inquiry into the Origin and Course of Political Parties in the 
United States was compiled from it by his sons and published 
in 1867. Van Buren married in 1807 Hannah Hoes (1782-1819), 
by whom he had four sons. 

Van Buren's son ABRAHAM (1807-1873) graduated at West 
Point in 1827, served under General Winfield Scott against the 
Seminole Indians in 1836, and was made captain of the First 
Dragoons. In 1837 he resigned from the army to become his 
father's private secretary, but in 1846, at the outbreak of the 
war with Mexico, he was reappointed with the rank of major 
and paymaster. In August 1847 he was breveted lieutenant- 
colonel for gallant and meritorious conduct at Contreras and 
Churubusco. In 1854 he retired to private life. Another son, 
JOHN (1810-1866), graduated at Yale in 1828, was admitted 
to the bar at Albany in 1830 and was attorney -general of New 
York in 1845-1846. He was popularly known as " Prince 
John " because of his manners and appearance. 

The best biography of Van Buren is by Edward M. Shepard, in 
the "American Statesmen Series" (revised ed., Boston, 1899). 
The Life by George Bancroft (New York, 1889) is highly eulogistic. 
Von Hoist's United States, MacDonald's Jacksonian Democracy, 
Garrison's Westward Extension and T. C. Smith's Parties and 
Slavery (the last three in the " American Nation Series ") give much 
attention to Van Buren's public career. The Van Buren manu- 



scripts are in the Library of Congress. 



(W. MACD.*) 



VANCE, ZEBULON BAIRD (1830-1894), American political 
leader, was born in Buncombe county, North Carolina, on the 
I3th of May 1830. He was educated at Washington College, 
at Salem, Tennessee, and the university of North Carolina 
(1851-52). Entering politics as a Whig, he was elected solicitor 



VANCOUVER, G. VANCOUVER ISLAND 



883 






of Buncombe county (1852) and a member of the state House of 
Commons (1854), and served in the national House of Repre- 
sentatives from December 1858 until the 3rd of March 1861. 
As captain of a company in the i4th and as colonel of the 26th 
North Carolina regiments, he took part in the Virginia campaigns 
of 1861-62. From 1862 until the close of the war he was governor 
of the state, and from the 2oth of May to the sth of July 1865, 
when he was released on parole, was held as a prisoner by the 
United States authorities in Washington. Having been elected 
to the United States Senate in 1870 and been refused admission 
because his disabilities due to his participation in the war 
had not been removed, he took the lead in the fight against 
" carpet-bag " misrule and was chosen governor in the political 
revolution of 1876, serving in 1877-79. He was again elected 
to the Senate in 1878 and was re-elected in 1884 and 1890, 
serving from March 1879 until his death. Senator Vance was 
a typical Southern Whig. He disliked slavery and he hated 
secession. In common 'with other Whigs, he was forced to 
remain in the Democratic party after the war by the fear of 
negro domination. He died at Asheville, North Carolina, on 
the i4th of April 1894. 

See the Life by Clement Dowd (Charlotte, N.C., 1897). 

VANCOUVER, GEORGE (c. 1758-1798), English navigator, 
was born in 1758. He entered the navy at the age of thirteen, 
and accompanied James Cook in his second (1772-74) and 
third (1776-80) voyages of discovery. After serving for several 
years in the West Indies, both under Rodney (his commander in 
the action of the i2th of April 1782) and under Alan Gardner 
(1786-89), Vancouver, on Gardner's recommendation, was 
appointed to command an expedition to the north-west coast 
of America, to take over from the Spaniards the territory 
they had seized (and subsequently relinquished) in that region, 
to explore the coast from 30 N. round to Cook's River (or 
Inlet), to search for an eastward passage to the great lakes, 
and to ascertain the true character of Juan de Fuca Strait. 
Vancouver, accompanied by Lieutenant Broughton, left Fal- 
mouth on the ist of April 1791 and proceeded by way of the 
Cape of Good Hope to Australia, where he carefully surveyed 
part of the south-west coast, especially King George's Sound, 
whose value as a harbour he pointed out. He next made for 
Dusky Bay, New Zealand (which he was the first properly to 
explore), and thence sailing north-east, discovered Oparo Islet 
(27 36' S.; 144 12' W.), and on the 3oth of December reached 
Tahiti, where he was again joined by Broughton, who mean- 
while had discovered Chatham Island. After staying about 
three weeks at Tahiti and several weeks at the Hawaiian Islands, 
Vancouver on the i8th of April 1792 sighted the west coast 
of North America (California, then known as New Albion) in 
39 27' N. He examined the coast up to 52 18' N. with minute 
care, surveying all inlets, discovering the Gulf of Georgia, and 
circumnavigating Vancouver Island (named after him). After 
another visit (February-March 1793) to the Hawaiian Islands, 
in whose races and affairs he took great interest, Vancouver 
resumed his exploration of the American coast in April, sur- 
veying north to 56 N., and south (past the Spanish Cali- 
fornian settlements) to 35 N. During a fresh stay at the 
Hawaiian Islands (January-March 1794) Vancouver accepted 
their submission to Great Britain, but his annexation seems 
never to have been officially ratified. Quitting the group again 
in March 1794, Vancouver sailed, by Chernigov Island and 
Kodiak Island, to Cook's Inlet, which was now proved to be 
no river. After a fresh survey of much of the coast north of 
San Francisco, Vancouver set out homewards via Cape Horn 
and St Helena in October 1794. On the way he made a careful 
examination of Cape St Lucas, the southern point of 'Lower 
California, the Galapagos Islands and some other points. He 
reached the mouth of the Shannon on the i3th of September 

11795 (the Thames on the 2oth of October), and immediately set 
about the preparation of his narrative; but he died at Peters- 
ham in Surrey on the loth of May 1798, before he had com- 
pleted his task. His brother John, assisted by Captain Puget, 
published the complete record in 1 798. 






See A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean and round 
the World ... in 1790-5 . . . under Captain George Vancouver, 
3 vols. (1798), with an atlas of maps and plates. 

VANCOUVER, a city and the county-seat of Clarke county, 
Washington, U.S.A., on the Columbia river about 100 m. from 
its mouth, about 5 m. E. of its confluence with the Willamette, 
and 8 m. N. of Portland, Oregon. Pop. (1890) 3545; (1900) 
3126 (547 foreign-born); (1910) 9300. It is served by the 
Northern Pacific, the Great Northern, the Oregon & Washington, 
and the Spokane, Portland & Seattle railways, and by steamship 
lines, being accessible to sea-going vessels; a ferry connects 
with the Portland Electric railway. The city is the seat of 
St James College (Roman Catholic; 1856) and of the state 
school for defective youth (1886). Vancouver Barracks, east 
of the city, is an important U.S. military post (established in 
1849) and the headquarters of the Military Department of the 
Columbia (including Washington, Oregon, Idaho, except the 
part in Yellowstone Park, and Alaska); the military reservation 
includes some 640 acres. The post commands an excellent 
view of the Columbia, and of the mountain peaks, Mt Hood, 
Three Sisters, Jefferson and St Helens. The city has a public 
library and a public park, and there is a U.S. Land Office here. 
Vancouver lies in a region of extensive forests and of fruit- 
growing and farming lands; among its manufactures are 
lumber products, barrels, condensed milk, flour, beer and 
canned fruit. It was a post of the Hudson's Bay Company 
in 1828-1846, and was protected by a large stockade, to which 
settlers fled for protection when attacked by the Indians. It 
was made the county-seat in 1854, was incorporated as a 
village in 1858 and was chartered as a city in 1889. 

VANCOUVER, a city and port in the province of British 
Columbia, Canada, on the southern side of Burrard Inlet. 
Pop. (1906) about 45,000. It is the western terminus of the 
Canadian Pacific railway. The harbour of Vancouver is one of 
the finest natural harbours in the world. The city is the largest 
in British Columbia, and is the chief Canadian shipping port 
for Japan, China, Australia and the islands at which the C.P.R. 
mail steamers call. There are regular lines of steamers running 
between Vancouver and Alaska and the points of connexion 
with the Yukon territory, as well as lines to Puget Sound and 
San Francisco in the United States. The port also has regular 
and frequent communication by steamer with Victoria, and is 
the headquarters of an extensive coasting trade. In 1886, soon 
after its establishment, a fire swept the whole town out of 
existence, but the inferior wooden buildings at first erected 
have been largely replaced by stone and brick structures, giving 
a handsome appearance to the principal streets. Vancouver 
has well-paved streets and is well supplied with water, electric 
lighting, electric cars and all the improvements of a modern 
city. Stanley Park, a large reserve of 900 acres, is one of the 
principal pleasure resorts. There is also fine sea-bathing at 
English Bay on the outskirts of the city. The " McGill 
University College of British Columbia " at Vancouver is one 
of the colleges of McGill University (Montreal). There are a 
sugar refinery and cooperage works, as well as large sawmills, 
shingle factories and many other industrial concerns. A large 
wholesale trade is carried on with all the settlements of the 
province. Vancouver is the centre of the important timber 
industry of British Columbia. 

VANCOUVER ISLAND, the largest of an archipelago of 
innumerable islands which fringes the Pacific coast of Canada, 
being at the same time the largest island on the west coast of 
North America. It forms part of British Columbia. It extends 
from 48 20' to 51 N. and from 123 to 1 28 30' W., and is thus 285 
m. long and from 40 to 80 m. wide, with an area of about 20,000 
sq. m., being nearly the size of Nova Scotia, which- occupies 
a corresponding position on the Atlantic coast. It is bounded 
on the south by the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and is separated 
from the mainland of the province by the Strait of Georgia 
and Queen Charlotte Sound. A partially submerged range of 
mountains, which has been termed the Vancouver Range, runs 
parallel to the coast of British Columbia; a portion of this range 



88 4 



VANDALS 



forms Vancouver Island, and it again rises above the level j 
of the sea farther north, forming the Queen Charlotte Islands. | 
The coast-line is generally precipitous. The west coast is much I 
broken by bays and inlets the transverse valleys of the sunken : 
range w hich penetrate far inland. Among these may be men- I 
tioned the Alberni Canal, which is 20 m. long with a fine harbour 
at its head, the width of the inlet varying from a half to one mile; 
Nootka Sound, 6 m. wide, and sending three arms inland which 
are from 40 to 160 fathoms deep, as well as Clayoquot, Esperanza, 
Kyuquot and Quatsino Sounds, which also penetrate deeply 
into the island. The general height of the mountain-range 
on Vancouver Island is from 2000 to 3000 ft.; some peaks 
are 6000 ft.; and Victoria Peak is 7484 ft. high. The island 
is composed largely of crystalline and metamorphic rocks, but 
contains some cretaceous areas which hold extensive beds of 
coal, especially on the east coast. These are mined at Nanaimo, 
Ladysmith and other points. The island is covered everywhere 
with an exceedingly dense forest, which makes its interior very 
difficult to traverse, so that there are still portions of the island 
which have not been thoroughly explored. These forests yield 
immense supplies of magnificent timber, which together with 
the coal-field and fisheries constitute the chief resources of the 
island. There are some level tracts on the south-east coast, 
as well as in the narrow, well-watered valleys of the interior, 
which afford excellent agricultural land on which cereals of all 
kinds, as well as all the fruits of the temperate zone, flourish, 
and which are also suitable for raising sheep and cattle. The 
climate of Vancouver Island, especially in the south, is wonder- 
fully mild for the latitude as mild as that of Great Britain, 
with dryer summers. The mean temperature of December 
at Victoria in the south of the island is about 41 Fahr., while 
that of July is about 60. In the north and west the rainfall 
is greater than on the south and east coasts. (F. D. A.) 

VANDALS (Lat. Vandili or Vandilii), a term used by early 
writers only as a collective designation for a group of Teutonic 
tribes including, according to Pliny, the Burgundians and the 
Goths. As a tribal name Vandali occurs first in connexion with 
the Marcomannic War. The people to whom the name is there 
applied seem to be identical with those formerly known as 
Lugii. Another tribe called Silingae by Ptolemy likewise 
appears among the Vandals at a later time. Both these tribes 
appear to have inhabited the upper part of the basin of the 
Oder, and the name of the Silingae is preserved in Silesia. The 
Vandals figure in the earliest legends both of the Goths and the 
Lombards, both of whom they are said to have encountered 
unsuccessfully. They first came into contact with the Romans 
during the Marcomannic War. In the time of Aurelian they in- 
vaded Pannonia, and during the reign of Probus we find them 
fighting in Dacia. In the time of Constantine I., according to 
Jordanes, they suffered a great defeat at the hands of Geberich, 
king of the Goths, their own king Visimar being killed, and the 
survivors were allowed by the Romans to settle in Parfhonia. 
Here they seem to have remained in subjection to the Romans 
for about sixty years. In the year 406 they moved westward, 
according to some writers at the instigation of Stilicho, who is 
himself said to have been of Vandal origin, and crossing the 
Rhine at Mainz proceeded towards Gaul. A portion of the 
nation is, however, said to have remained behind, and Procopius 
tells a story that these remnants sent an embassy to Gaiseric, 
asking that their kinsfolk in Africa should renounce their claims 
to the lands which their forefathers had held in the old homes 
of the race. (F. G. M. B.) 

In Gaul the Vandals fought a great battle with the Franks, in 
which they were defeated with the loss of 2000 men, and their 
king Godegisel was slain. In 409 his son Gunderic led them 
across the Pyrenees. They appear to have settled in Spain 
in two detachments. One, the Asdingian Vandals, occupied 
Galicia, the other, the Silingian, Andalusia. Twenty years of 
bloody and purposeless warfare with the armies of the empire 
and with their fellow-barbarians, the Goths and the Suevi, 
followed. The Silingian Vandals were well-nigh exterminated, 
but their Asdingian brethren (with whom were now associated 



the remains of a Turanian people, the Alani, who had been 
utterly defeated by the Goths) marched across Spain arid took 
possession of Andalusia. 

In 428 or 429 the whole nation set sail for Africa, upon an 
invitation received by their king from Bonifacius, count of 
Africa, who had fallen into disgrace with the court of Ravenna. 
Gunderic was now dead, and supreme power was in the hands of 
his bastard brother, who is generally known in history as 
Genseric, though the more correct form of his name is Gaiseric. 
This man, short of stature and with limping gait, but with a 
great natural capacity for war and dominion, reckless of human 
life and unrestrained by conscience or pity, was for fifty years 
the hero of the Vandal race and the terror of Constantinople 
and Rome. Probably in the month of May 428 he assembled 
all his people on the shore of Andalusia, and numbering the 
males among them from the greybeard down to the newborn 
infant found them to amount to 80,000 souls. The passage was 
effected in the ships of Bonifacius, who, however, soon returning 
to his old loyalty, besought his new allies to depart from Africa. 
They, of course, refused, and Bonifacius turned against them, 
too late, however, to repair the mischief which he had caused. 
Notwithstanding his opposition, the progress of the Vandals 
was rapid, and by May 430 only three cities of Roman Africa 
Carthage, Hippo and Cirta remained untaken. The long siege 
of Hippo (May 430 to July 431), memorable for the last illness and 
death of St Augustine, which occurred during its progress, ended 
unsuccessfully for the Vandals. At length (soth January 435) 
peace was made between the emperor Valentinian III. and 
Gaiseric. The emperor was to retain Carthage and the small 
but rich proconsular province in which it was situated, while 
Hippo and the other six provinces of Africa were abandoned 
to the Vandal. Gaiseric observed this treaty no longer than 
suited his purpose. On the I9th of October 439, without any 
declaration of war, he suddenly attacked Carthage and took it. 
The Vandal occupation of this great city, the third among the 
cities of the Roman empire, lasted for ninety-four years. Gaiseric 
seems to have counted the years of his sovereignty from the date 
of its capture. Though most of the remaining years of Gaiseric's 
life were passed in war, plunder rather than territorial conquest 
seems to have been the object of his expeditions. He made, 
in fact, of Carthage a pirate's stronghold, whence he issued 
forth, like the Barbary pirates of a later day, to attack, as he 
himself said, " the dwellings of the men with whom God is 
angry," leaving the question who those men might be to the 
decision of the elements. Almost alone among the Teutonic 
invaders of the empire he set himself to form a powerful fleet, 
and was probably for thirty years the leading maritime power 
in the Mediterranean. Gaiseric's celebrated expedition against 
Rome (455), undertaken in response to the call of Eudoxia, 
widow of Valentinian, was only the greatest of his marauding 
exploits. He took the city without difficulty, and for fourteen 
days, in a calm and business-like manner, emptied it of all its 
movable wealth. The sacred vessels of the Jewish temple, 
brought to Rome by Titus, are said to have been among the 
spoils carried to Carthage by the conqueror. Eudoxia and her 
two daughters were also carried into captivity. One of the 
princesses, Eudocia, was married to Hunneric, eldest son of 
Gaiseric; her mother and sister, after long and tedious negotia- 
tions, were sent to Constantinople. 

There does not seem to be in the story of the capture of Rome by 
the Vandals any justification for the charge of wilful and object- 
less destruction of public buildings which is implied in the word 
" vandalism." It is probable that this charge grew out of the 
fierce persecution which was carried on by Gaiseric and his son 
against the Catholic Christians, and which is the darkest stain 
on their characters. This persecution is described with great 
vividness, and no doubt with some exaggeration, by the nearly 
contemporary Victor Vitensis. Churches were burned; bishops 
and priests were forced by cruel and revolting tortures to reveal 
the hiding-places of the sacred vessels; the rich provincials 
who were employed about the court, and who still adhered to the 
Catholic faith, were racked and beaten, and put to death. The 



VANDAMME VANDERBILT 



885 






bishops were almost universally banished, and the congregations 
were forbidden to elect their successors, so that the greater part 
of the churches of Africa remained " widowed " for a whole 
generation. In 476, at the very close of Gaiseric's life, by a 
treaty concluded with the Eastern emperor, the bishops were 
permitted to return. There was then a short lull in the perse- 
cution; but on the death of Gaiseric (477) and the accession of 
Hunneric it broke out again with greater violence than ever, 
the ferocity of Hunneric being more thoroughly stupid and 
brutal than the calculating cruelty of his father. 

On the death of Hunneric (484) he was succeeded by his cousin 
Gunthamund, Gaiseric having established seniority among his 
own descendants as the law of succession to his throne. Guntha- 
mund (484-96) and his brother Thrasamund (496-523), though 
Arians, abated some of the rigour of the persecution, and main- 
tained the external credit of the monarchy. Internally, however, 
it was rapidly declining, the once chaste and hardy Vandals 
being demoralized by the fervid climate of Africa and the sinful 
delights of their new capital, and falling ever lower into sloth, 
effeminacy and vice. On the death of Thrasamund, Hilderic 
(523-31), the son of Hunneric and Eudocia, at length succeeded 
to the throne. He adhered to the creed of his mother rather 
than to that of his father; and, in spite of a solemn oath sworn 
to his predecessor that he would not restore the Catholic churches 
to their owners, he at once proceeded to do so and to recall the 
bishops. Hilderic, elderly, Catholic and timid, was very un- 
popular with his subjects, and after a reign of eight years he 
was thrust into prison by his warlike cousin Gelimer (53 1-34) . 

The wrongs of Hilderic, a Catholic, and with the blood of 
Theodosius in his veins, afforded to Justinian a long-coveted 
pretext for overthrowing the Vandal dominion, the latent 
weakness of which was probably known to the statesmen of Con- 
stantinople. A great expedition under the command of Bejis- 
arius (in whose train was the historian Procopius) sailed from 
the Bosporus in June 533, and after touching at Catana in 
Sicily finally reached Africa in the beginning of September. 
Gelimer, who was strangely ignorant of the plans of Justinian, 
had sent his brother Tzazo with some of his best troops to quell 
a rebellion in Sardinia (that island as well as the Balearic Isles 
forming part of the Vandal dominions), and the landing of 
Belisarius was entirely unopposed. He marched rapidly towards 
Carthage and on the I3th of September was confronted by 
Gelimer at Ad Decimum, 10 m. from Carthage. The battle 
did not reflect any great credit either on Byzantine or Vandal 
generalship. It was in fact a series of blunders on both sides, 
but Belisarius made the fewest and victory remained with him. 
On the I4th of September 533 the imperial general entered 
Carthage and ate the feast prepared in Gelimer's palace for its 
lord. Belisarius, however, was too late to save the life of 
Hilderic, who had been slain by his rival's orders as soon as the 
news came of the landing of the imperial army. Still Gelimer 
with many of the Vandal warriors was at liberty. On the return 
of Tzazo from Sardinia a force was collected considerably larger 
than the imperial army, and Gelimer met Belisarius in battle 
at a place about 20 m. from Carthage, called Tricamarum 
(December 533). This battle was far more stubbornly con- 
tested than that of Ad Decimum, but it ended in the utter 
rout of the Vandals and the flight of Gelimer. He took refuge 
in a mountain fortress called Pappua on the Numidian frontier, 
and there, after enduring great hardships in the squalid dwellings 
of the Moors, surrendered to his pursuers in March 534. The 
well-known stories of his laughter when he was introduced to 
Belisarius, and his chant, " Vanitas vanitatum," when he 
walked before the triumphal car of his conqueror through the 
streets of Constantinople, probably point to an intellect dis- 
ordered by his reverses and hardships. The Vandals who were 
carried captive to Constantinople were enlisted in five squadrons 
of cavalry and sent to serve against the Parthians under the 
title " Justiniani Vandali." Four hundred escaped to Africa 
and took part in a mutiny of the imperial troops, which was with 
difficulty quelled by Belisarius (536). After this the Vandals 
disappear from history. The overthrow of their kingdom 



undoubtedly rendered easier the spread of Saracen conquest 
along the northern shore of Africa in the following century. In 
this as in many other fields Justinian sowed that Mahomet 
might reap. (T. H.) 

See Pliny, Natural History, iv. 99; Tacitus, Germania, cc. 2, 43; 
Ptolemy, ii. c. n, 18 ff. ; Julius Capitolinus, De Bella Marco- 
mannico, 17; Vopiscus, Probus, 18; Dexippus, Excerpta, pp. ipff. 
(Bonn); and Jprdanes, 4, 16, 22; Procopius, De Bella Vandalico, 
a first-rate authority for contemporary events, must be used with 
caution for the history of the two or three generations before his 
time. The chroniclers Idatius, Prosper and Victor Tunnunensis 
supply some facts, and for the persecution of the Catholics Victor 
Vitensis and the Vita Augustini of Posidius may be consulted. See 
also E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chaps, xxxiii. and xli. ; Papencordt ; 
Geschichte der vandalischen Herrschaft in Afrika (Berlin, 1837) ; 
T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders (1880-99) ; L. Schmidt, Geschichte 
der Wandalen (Leipzig, 1901) ; and F. Martroye, L Occident d I'epoque 
byzantine (1904). 

VANDAMME, DOMINIQUE RENE\ COUNT (1770-1830), 
French soldier, was born at Cassel, near Dunkirk, on the 5th of 
November 1770. He enlisted in the army in 1786, served in 
Martinique in 1788 and on returning to France entered into 
the Revolutionary movement, raising a company of light 
infantry at his native plSce. His extraordinary bravery and 
vigour in the campaign of 1793 ensured his rapid promotion, and 
after Hondschoote he was made a general of brigade. He served 
in this rank in the campaigns of 1794 in the Low Countries, 
1795 on the Rhine and 1796 in Germany, and at the outbreak 
of the war in 1799 he was promoted general of division. In that 
year and in 1800 he served under Brune, Moreau and Macdonald 
in Holland, Germany and Switzerland. He was renowned for 
his tenacity and fearlessness as a fighting general as well as for 
his frank, rough manners and plundering and dissolute life, but 
once he came under Napoleon's influence he was (unlike most of 
the Rhine Army officers) his absolutely devoted servant. In 
1805, for his splendid leadership at Austerlitz, he was given 
the Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honour, and in 1806-7 he 
commanded a small corps of the Grande Armee which reduced the 
Silesian fortresses. In 1808 he was made count of Unebourg. 
In 1809 he served in the Eckmiihl campaign with distinction, 
but in 1812, while commanding the Westphalian contingent he 
quarrelled with King Jerome Bonaparte and returned to France. 
He returned to the army in 1813. But his corps, sent against the 
line of retreat of the Allies at the time of the battle of Dresden, 
was entangled in the mountains, surrounded and after a fierce 
resistance compelled to surrender at Kulm (see NAPOLEONIC 
CAMPAIGNS). In his captivity he appears to have been treated 
with especial harshness, and when the end of the war released 
him he was forbidden to enter Paris, and sent to Cassel by 
Louis XVIII. He was thus free of all obligations towards the 
Bourbons, and when Napoleon returned, joined him without 
hesitation. The emperor made him a peer of France and placed 
him at the head of the III. corps in the Army of the North (see 
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN). After Waterloo, under Grouchy's com- 
mand, he brought back his corps in good order to Paris and 
thence to the Loire. The Restoration first imprisoned and then 
exiled him, and unlike most of his comrades he was never re- 
employed as a general. He died at Cassel on the isth of July 
1830. 

See Du Casse, Le General Vandamme et sa correspondance. 

VANDERBILT, CORNELIUS (1794-1877), American capit- 
alist, was born near Stapleton, Staten Island, New York, on 
the 27th of May 1794. He was a descendant of Jan Aersten 
Van der Bilt, who emigrated from Holland about 1650 and 
settled near Brooklyn. The family removed to Staten Island 
in 1715. At the age of 16 he bought a sailboat, in which he 
carried farm produce and passengers between Staten Island 
and New York. He was soon doing a profitable carrying 
business, and in 1813 carried supplies to fortifications in 
New York Harbour and the adjacent waters. Recognizing the 
superiority of steam over sailing vessels, he sold his sloops and 
schooners, and in 1817-1829 was a captain on a steam ferry 
between New York and New Brunswick. During the next 
twenty years he developed an extensive carrying trade along 



886 



VANDERLYN VAN DER STAPPEN 



the coast in a leet which became so large as to win for him the 
popular designation of " Commodore." In 1849 he got from the 
Nicaraguan government a charter for a route from Grey town 
on the Atlantic by the San Juan river and Lake Nicaragua to 
San Juan del Sur, on the Pacific; and in 1851-1853 by means 
of this route he conducted a semi-monthly steamship line be- 
tween New York and San Francisco. In 1855-1861 he operated 
a freight and passenger line between New York and Havre, and 
by carrying the United States mails free drove out of business 
his only rival, the Collins line the Cunard boats being at that 
time in use for the Crimean War. In 1857-1862 he sold his 
steamships and turned his attention more and more to the 
development of railways. In 1857 he became a director, and 
in 1863 president, of the New York & Harlem railway com- 
pany, operating a line between New York and Chatham Four 
Corners, in Columbia county, and he greatly improved this 
service. He then acquired a controlling interest in the Hudson 
River railway, of which he became president in 1865; and after 
a sharp struggle in 1868 he became president of the New York 
Central (between Albany and Buffalo), which in 1869 he com- 
bined with the Hudson River road, under the name of the New 
York Central & Hudson River railroad, of which he became 
president. His acquisition of the Lake Shore & Michigan 
Southern railway in 1873 established a through line (controlled 
by him) between New York and Chicago. At the time of his 
death (in New York City on the 4th of January 1877) he owned 
a majority interest in the New York Central & Hudson River, 
the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Harlem, and the 
Canada Southern railways, and had holdings in many others, 
and his fortune was variously estimated at from $90,000,000 
to $100,000,000, about $80,000,000 of which he left to his son, 
William Henry. He made considerable benefactions to Vander- 
bilt University, and gave $50,000 during his life to the Church 
of the Strangers in New York. 

His eldest son, WILLIAM HENRY VANDERBILT (1821-1885), 
was born in New Brunswick, New Jersey, on the 8th of May 
1821. He was a clerk in a New York banking house from 1839 
to 1842, when his father bought him a farm of 75 acres near 
New Dorp, Staten Island, New York. In 1860 he was ap- 
pointed receiver of the Staten Island railway, of which he was 
elected president in 1862, and which he brought into connexion 
with New York by means of a line of ferry-boats. He became 
vice-president of the Hudson River railway in 1865, vice- 
president of the New York Central & Hudson River railway 
in 1869, and president in June 1877, succeeding his father as 
president of the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Canada 
Southern, and the Michigan Central railways. He died in New 
York on the 8th of December 1885. His fortune at the time of 
his death was estimated at $200,000,000. In 1880 he paid all 
the expenses ($100,000) incident to the removal of the obelisk 
(" Cleopatra's Needle ") from Egypt to Central Park, New 
York; in the same year he gave $100,000 to found the Theo- 
logical School of Vanderbilt University, which his father had 
endowed. In 1884 he gave $500,000 to found a school of 
medicine in connexion with the College of Physicians and 
Surgeons in New York. By his will he left $200,000 to Vander- 
bilt University, $100,000 to the Domestic and Foreign Missionary 
Society of the Protestant Episcopal Church, $100,000 to St 
Luke's Hospital in New York, $100,000 to the Young Men's 
Christian Association of New York, $100,000 to the Metro- 
politan Museum of Art in New York, $50,000 to the American 
Museum of Natural History, $100,000 to the Protestant Epis- 
copal Mission Society of New York, and $250,000 in all to various 
other religious and charitable organizations and institutions. 

William Henry's eldest son, CORNELIUS (1843-1899), became 
assistant treasurer of the Harlem railway in 1865, and treasurer 
in 1867; in 1877, after the death of his grandfather, was elected 
first vice-president of the New York Central, and in 1878 be- 
came treasurer of the Michigan Central and vice-president and 
treasurer of the Canada Southern. In 1883, under a reorganiza- 
tion of the New York Central and Michigan Central railways, he 
became chairman of the boards of directors of those two systems 



and their responsible head. His benefactions included $250,000 
(1897) for an addition to St Bartholomew's Hospital in New 
York; to Yale, $1,500,000, part of which was used in building 
Vanderbilt Hall (a dormitory); and $100,000 to the fund for 
the building of the Episcopal Cathedral of St John the Divine 
in New York. To the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New 
York he presented Rosa Bonhe.ur's" Horse Fair." 

See W. A. Croffut, The Vanderbtits and the Story of their Fortune 
(Chicago, 111., 1886) ; D. W. Cross, " The Railroad Men of America," 
in Magazine of Western History, vol. viii. (Cleveland, Ohio, 1888); 
and Burton J. Hendrick, " The Vanderbilt Fortune," in McClure's 
Magazine, vol. xxxii. (New York, 1908-1909). 

VANDERLYN, JOHN (1776-1852), American artist, was 
born at Kingston, New York, on the isth of October 1776. 
He was employed by a print-seller in New York, and was first 
instructed in art by Archibald Robinson (1765-1835), a Scots- 
man who was afterwards one of the directors of the American 
Academy. He copied some of Gilbert Stuart's portraits, 
including one of Aaron Burr, who placed him under Gilbert 
Stuart as a pupil. In 1796 Vanderlyn went to Paris, and in 
1805 to Rome, where he painted his picture of " Marius amid 
the Ruins of Carthage," which was shown in Paris, and obtained 
a gold medal there. This success caused him to remain in Paris 
for seven years, during which time he prospered greatly. In 
1812 he showed a nude "Ariadne" (engraved by Durand, 
and now in the Pennsylvania Academy), which increased his 
fame. When Aaron Burr fled to Paris, Vanderlyn was for 
a time his only support. Vanderlyn returned to America 
in 1815, but did not meet with success; he worked very 
slowly, and neither his portraits nor various panorama which 
he exhibited brought him any considerable financial return. 
In 1842, through friendly influences, he was commissioned 
by Congress to paint " The Landing of Columbus " for one 
of the panels in the rotunda of the Capitol at Washington. 
Going to Paris, he employed to assist him a French artist, 
who, it is said, did most of the work. He died in absolute 
want at Kingston, New York, on the 23rd of September 1852. 
Vanderlyn was the first American to study in France instead 
of in England, and to acquire accurate draughtsmanship. He 
was more academic than his fellows; but, though faithfully 
and capably executed, his work was rather devoid of charm. 
He painted portraits of Presidents Washington (a copy of 
Stuart's portrait, for the National House of Representatives), 
Monroe, Madison, Jackson and Taylor, and of the statesmen 
Robert R. Livingston (New York Historical Society), John C. 
Calhoun and George Clinton. 

VAN DER STAPPEN, CHARLES (1843-1910), Belgian sculptor, 
was born in Brussels, September 1843. His first contribution 
to the Brussels Salon was " The Faun's Toilet " of 1869, and 
thereafter he began to produce work of a high and novel order 
in every class of sculpture, and soon, along with Paul de Vigne, 
became recognized as the leader of the section of the new 
Belgian school of sculpture which, while aiming at truth to 
life, allowed itself nevertheless to be inspired by the classic 
perfection of the art of Greece and the spirit of the Italian 
Renaissance. Van der Stappen has shown his greatest power 
in decorative sculpture, such as we see in the decoration on 
the Palais des Postes, Brussels (1872), as well as the pediment 
" Orchestration " for the Conservatoire de Musique, and the 
noble bronze group, " The Teaching of Art," on the facade of 
the Palace of Fine Arts, Brussels. Among his other decora- 
tive work are the statues for the Alhambra Theatre and the 
caryatides for the house of the architect M. de Curte (1874). His 
best-known monuments are those to " Alexandre Gendebien " 
(1874) and " Baron Coppens," at Sheel (1875). His statues 
include " William the Silent," set up in the Square du Petit 
Sablon, " The Man with the Sword," and " The Sphinx "- 
the last two in the Brussels Museum. The bronze group 
" Ompdrailles " was acquired by the Belgian government 
(1892). In 1893 the sculptor began his collaboration with 
Constantin Meunier for the elaborate decoration of the botanical 
gardens of Brussels, and the result of the connexion may be 



VAN DER WEYDEN VAN DYCK 



887 



seen in " The Builders of Cities," a group which might almost 
have come from his companion, so strongly is it imbued with 
the sentiment and illustrative of the types of the " socialistic 
art " of Meunier. 

See Charles van der Stappen, by Camille Lemonnier; Les Artistes 
beiges contemporains, by E. L. de Taye; The Renaissance of Sculpture 
in Belgium, by O. G. Destre'e (London, 1895). 

VAN DER WEYDEN, ROGER (c. 1400-1464), Flemish 
painter, also known as Roger de la Pasture, Rogier de Bruxelles, 
&c., was born at Tournay, where in 1427 he entered the studio 
of Robert Campin. He established himself in Brussels about 
1435. He was in Italy in 1449-1450, but his visit shows no result 
on his style, which owes nothing to Italian models; and he 
returned to Brussels, where he died on the i8th of June 1464. 
His vigorous, subtle and expressive painting and popular 
religious conceptions had considerable influence on the art 
of Flanders and Germany. Memlinc was his greatest pupil; 
and his place in the early Flemish school is second only to that 
of the Van Eycks. He was not a pupil of Jan van Eyck, as 
was at one time supposed. His principal paintings were: a 
" Descent* from the Cross " (1440), now in Madrid, and another 
(1443) in the church of St Pierre at Louvain; a triptych 
(1438-1440), now in the Berlin Museum; " Madonna with 
Saints " (1450), at the Stadel Institute, Frankfort; a " Last 
Judgment" (1451), in the hospital of Beaune, France; the 
portraits of Philip the Good (Antwerp Museum) and Charles the 
Bold (Brussels Museum), painted about 1456-1458; the " Altar- 
piece of St John " and the triptych from Middelburg (Berlin 
Museum) ; an " Entombment of Christ " (National Gallery) ; 
a " Woman Crying " (Brussels Museum) ; " Descent from the 
Cross " (Louvre) ; " Adoration of the Magi " (Old Pinakothek 
at Munich) ; " Descent from the Cross " (the Hague) ; " Seven 
Sacraments " (Antwerp Museum) ; " Descent from the Cross " 
(Brussels Museum). Some of these latter, and others, 
are only doubtfully attributed to the master. The " Cruci- 
fixion " in the Brussels Museum, assigned either to him or 
to Memlinc, and containing portraits of the Sforzas, probably 
represents Roger van der Weyden in some of the principal 
figures at least, though Memlinc may have completed the 
picture. 

There was a younger Roger van der Weyden (c. 1450-1529), 
to whom a brilliant " Mary Magdalen " in the National Gallery 
is attributed. 

There are Lives of the elder Van der Weyden by A. Wauters 
(1856) and Alex. Pinchart (1876). 

VANDEVELDE, ADRIAN (1639-1672), Dutch animal and 
landscape painter, a brother of William Vandevelde (?..), 
the marine painter, was born at Amsterdam in 1639. He 
was trained in the studio of Jan Wynants, the landscape painter, 
where he made the acquaintance of Philip Wouwerman, who 
is believed to have aided him in his studies of animals, and to 
have exercised a powerful and beneficial influence upon his 
art. Having made exceptionally rapid progress, he was soon 
employed by his master to introduce figures into his landscape 
compositions, and he rendered a similar service to Hobbema, 
Ruysdael, Verboom and other contemporary artists. His 
favourite subjects are scenes of open pasture land, with sheep, 
cattle and goats, which he executed with admirable dexterity, 
with much precision of touch and truth of draughtsmanship, 
and with clear silvery colouring. He painted a few small 
but excellent winter scenes with skaters, and several religious 
subjects, such as the " Descent from the Cross," for the Roman 
Catholic church in Amsterdam. In addition to his paintings, 
of which nearly two hundred have been catalogued, he executed 
about twenty etchings, several of which appear from their 
dates to have been done in his fourteenth year. They are 
simple but pleasing in tonality, and are distinguished by great 
directness of method and by delicacy and certainty of touch. 
Adrian Vandevelde died at Amsterdam in January 1672. 

VANDEVELDE, WILLIAM (1633-1707), the younger, Dutch 
painter, a son of William Vandevelde, the elder, also a painter 
of sea-pieces, was born at Amsterdam in 1633. He was in- 



structed by his father, and afterwards by Simon de Vlieger, a 
marine painter of repute at the time, and had achieved great 
celebrity by his art before he 'came to London. In 1674 he 
was engaged by Charles II., at a salary of 100, to aid his father 
in " taking and making draughts of sea-fights," his part of the 
work being to reproduce in colour the drawings of the elder 
Vandevelde. He was also patronized by the Duke of York 
and by various members of the nobility. He died in London 
on the 6th of April 1707. Most of Vandevelde's finest works 
represent views off the coast of Holland, with Dutch shipping. 
His best productions are delicate, spirited and finished in 
handling, and correct in the drawing of the vessels and their 
rigging. The numerous figures are tellingly introduced, and 
the artist is successful in his renderings of sea, whether in calm 
or storm. 

Vandevelde was a most prolific artist: in addition to his paintings, 
of which Smith catalogues about three hundred and thirty, he 
executed an immense number of drawings, sketches and studies, 
which are prized by collectors. 

VAN DORN, EARL (1820-1863), American soldier, was born 
near Vicksburg in 1820, and entered the army of the United 
States from West Point in 1842. For several years previous 
to the Mexican War he was employed in garrison duty, but in 
that war he saw a good deal of active service, distinguishing 
himself at Cerro Gordo and Churubusco, returning to the 
United States a brevet-major. He also fought in the Seminole 
War and in 1858 against the Comanches. When his state 
seceded in 1861 he resigned his commission in the U.S. army, 
and in the September of that year became major-general C.S.A. 
He commanded the Confederates in the hard-fought battle of 
Pea Ridge, but was superseded for failing to win it. Later in 
1862 he won promotion and a second independent command 
in the West, and led the Confederates at the battle of Corinth 
(the 3rd and 4th of October 1862) at which he came very near 
to success. In spite of the verdict of a court of inquiry, he 
was again superseded. As a subordinate of Lieut-General 
Pemberton he did splendid service to the Confederate cause 
in defeating Grant's first advance on Vicksburg at Holly Springs 
(1862). He was shot in a private quarrel on the 8th of May 1863. 

VAN DYCK, SIR ANTHONY (1599-1641), Flemish painter, 
was born in Antwerp on the 22nd of March 1599. Though the 
name of Van Dyck is frequently met with in the list of Ant- 
werp painters, Anthony's pedigree cannot be traced beyond 
his grandparents, who were silk mercers of some standing. 
He was the seventh of twelve children of Frans Van Dyck, 
an Antwerp tradesman in good circumstances. His mother, 
Maria Cupers, who died when he was scarcely eight years of age, 
^seems to have attained a certain degree of excellence in art 
needlework. Of the boy's early education nothing is known. 
He was little over ten when he was apprenticed to Hendrick 
Van Balen, the painter of many delicate little pictures as well 
as an occasional collaborator of Rubens and Breughel, and the 
master of Snyders. From a document in the state paper office 
at Brussels, relating to a lawsuit between a picture dealer and 
an Antwerp churchman, which arose out of the sale, in 1660, 
of a series of Apostles' heads ascribed to Van. Dyck, it appears 
that, as far back as 1615, Van Dyck had worked independently, 
with pupils of his own, and that his pictures were greatly valued 
by artists and amateurs. Professor Woermann has identified 
several of the Apostles' heads here spoken of with some paintings 
in the gallery at Dresden. Another is in the possession of Earl 
Spencer at Althorp. 

Before he was nineteen (February 1618) Van Dyck became a 
full member of the Antwerp gild of painters; and some idea of 
his ability at the time may be gained from the excellent portraits 
of an ojd lady and gentleman, formerly ascribed to Rubens, in 
the Dresden gallery. Dated 1618, they were originally entered 
as works of Van Dyck, and, as Professor Woermann observes, 
are undoubtedly the same as those spoken of by Mols in his 
MS. annotations on Walpole's Anecdotes, now in the library at 
Brussels. But the same admiration cannot be accorded to the 
earliest religious composition known to have been painted by 



888 



VAN DYCK 



him" Christ falling under the Cross," in St Paul's at Antwerp. 
This picture, of some ten life-size figures, still preserved in the 
place for which it was originally destined, distinctly proves that 
from the outset of his career Van Dyck's power of conception 
was vastly inferior to his refined taste as a portrait painter. At 
first sight it seems also that with him, as with most other Flemish 
painters of the period, every conception, whether sacred or 
profane, needed to be cast in the mould of Rubens. It would 
be too much, however, to assert that Van Dyck at this time 
stood under the guidance of that master; their association, 
indeed, does not seem to have begun until 1619, and Bellori 
(1672), who got his information from Sir Kenelm Digby, Van 
Dyck's bosom friend, tells us that he was first employed in 
making drawings (probably also chiaroscuros) for the use of 
the great master's engravers, and that among works of the 
kind one of the first was the " Battle of the Amazons " (1619). 

In 1620, we know, Van Dyck was working with Rubens, for 
on zoth March, in making arrangements with the Antwerp 
Jesuits for the decoration of their church, the master is allowed 
to avail himself of his pupil's assistance, and obtains for him 
the promise of a picture. This proof of Van Dyck's personal 
reputation is fully confirmed (ryth July) by a correspondent 
of the earl of Arundel, who speaks of Van Dyck as a young man 
of one-and-twenty whose works are scarcely less esteemed than 
those of his master, and adds that, his relations being people 
of considerable wealth, he could hardly be expected to leave his 
home. Van Dyck was, however, thus persuaded, for on z8th 
November Sir Toby Mathew mentions the artist's departure 
to Sir Dudley Carleton, adding that he is in receipt of an annual 
pension of 100 from the king. There is evidence of Van 
Dyck's presence in London till the end of February 1621. He 
is first mentioned in the order-books of the Exchequer on the 
I7th of that month as receiving a reward of 100 " for special 
service by him performed for His Majesty," and on the 28th, 
" Antonio van Dyck, gent., His Majesties servant, is allowed 
to travaile 8 months, he havinge obtayneid his Ma acs leave in 
that behalf, as was signified by the E. of Arundell." What 
Van Dyck did in London is not known. Among his numerous 
paintings still preserved in English houses one only is admitted 
as belonging to the period of this first visit, a full-length portrait 
of James I. in the royal collection. That he was at the time a 
portrait painter of the rarest merit may easily be seen from the 
portrait of " Van der Geest " in the National Gallery (London), 
and from his own likenesses of himself when still quite young and 
beardless, in the National Gallery, in the Pinakothek at Munich 
and in the Wallace Collection. In this last admirable specimen 
the young painter has represented himself in the character of 
Paris. Early paintings by Van Dyck are certainly not scarce 
in British galleries; at Dulwich there is his admirable Samson 
and Delilah, ascribed to the school of Rubens. 

Though the leave of absence was probably obtained by Van 
Dyck for the purpose of studying the masters in Italy, the 
eight months had almost elapsed before he started from Antwerp, 
whither he had gone from London. He left Antwerp on the 
3rd of October 1621, and arrived at Genoa on the 2ist of 
November of the same year. Though Van Dyck unquestion- 
ably first became acquainted with the masterpieces of the great 
Venetian colourists in Rubens's atelier, there can be little doubt 
that most of the pictures which were formerly ascribed to his 
earliest period really date from the years of his Italian journey. 
In fact, studies for some of them can be found in the Chatsworth 
sketch-book. Among these early works are the " Martyrdom 
of St Peter " (Brussels), the " Crowning with Thorns " (Berlin), 
the " Betrayal of Christ " (Madrid and Lord Methuen), " St 
Martin dividing his Cloak" (Windsor Castle), a magnificent 
production, generally ascribed to Rubens, but easily identified 
through Van Dyck's admirable sketch at Dorchester House. 

It is unnecessary to dwell on a number of tales connected 
with Van Dyck's early life, all of which have on closer examina- 
tion proved to be apocryphal; but one story has been too 
frequently told to be altogether ignored. At the very outset 
of his Italian journey the inflammable youth was captivated 



by the beauty of a country girl, and for the love of her painted 
the altar-piece still to be seen in the church at Saventhem, near 
Brussels, in which he himself is supposed to be represented on 
a grey horse, given by Rubens to his pupil. It is now known, 
however, that the picture was commissioned by a gentleman 
living at Saventhem (to the charms of whose daughter Van Dyck 
in reality seems not to have. been altogether insensible), and a 
closer study makes it almost certain that it was executed after, 
not before, his Italian journey. On a reduced scale, and with 
the omission of two or three figures, the " St Martin " at Saven- 
them is a reproduction of the picture at Windsor Castle. 

With the exception of a short visit to Antwerp at the time 
of his father's death in 1622, Van Dyck spent the next five 
years in Italy. No master from beyond the Alps ever took 
up a higher position than Van Dyck among the most celebrated 
representatives of Italian art. Study, as a matter of course, 
had been one of his principal objects. No doubt can be enter- 
tained as to the great influence exerted by the works of Titian, 
Paul Veronese and the other great masters of the Venetian 
school in the development of his genius; still the individuality 
of the painter remains a striking feature of what may be termed 
his Italian works, especially portraits. Their peculiar char- 
acter seems to originate even more in the stateliness of the 
personages he was fortunate enough to have as sitters than in 
any desire to follow individual predilection or prevailing fashion. 
As in later years Van Dyck gives us a striking picture of the 
higher classes in England, so at this stage he makes us acquainted 
with Italian beauty and style; and at no other period is his 
talent more advantageously shown than in some of the glorious 
portraits he painted at Rome, at Florence, and, above all, at 
Genoa. At Rome, whither he journeyed after a prolonged stay 
in Venice, he resided with Cardinal Guido Bentivoglio, who 
had been papal nuncio in Flanders from 1607 to 1617. For this 
patron were painted several works of very great importance, 
the most renowned being the prelate's own portrait, now in 
the Pitti Palace at Florence. Another work was a " Crucifixion," 
representing Christ dying on the cross with uplifted eyes. Most 
probably the picture spoken of by Bellori ought to be identified 
with the admirable canvas now in the gallery at Naples, cata- 
logued as " Scuola di Van Dyck," unsurpassed by any of those 
at Antwerp, Paris, Vienna, Rome or elsewhere. Besides these 
he painted religious subjects and portraits, several of which 
are reckoned among his finest examples, such as the portrait 
of Duquesnoy, better known as Fiammingo, the famous sculptor, 
formerly belonging to the king of the Belgians, and those of Sir 
Robert Shirley and his wife, in Persian attire, now at Petworth. 

Bellori tells us of Van Dyck's prepossessing appearance, of 
his elegance and distinction, altogether so different from the 
habits of his compatriots in Rome, who formed a jovial " gang," 
as they termed their association. Van Dyck seems to have 
kept out of their way, and incurred in consequence such annoy- 
ance as made his stay in Rome much shorter than it would 
otherwise have been. In the company of Lady Arundel he 
travelled to Turin, but he was eager to reach Genoaj where 
Rubens had worked with great success some twenty years before, 
and where his Antwerp friends, Luke and Cornells de Wael, 
for many years resident in Italy, now were. Van Dyck re- 
mained their guest for several months, and their portraits, now 
in the Pinacoteca Capitolina at Rome (engraved by W. Hollar 
from the monochrome at Cassel), may be supposed to have been 
one of his first Genoese productions. Though several of the 
palaces of the " proud " city no longer retain their treasures, and, 
among the specimens of Van Dyck's genius still left, too many 
have been greatly injured by cleaning and retouching, Genoa 
can still boast of a good number of his most attractive pro- 
ductions, portraits of the beautiful ladies and haughty cavaliers 
of the noble houses of Doria, Brignole Sale, Pallavicini, Balbi, 
Cattaneo, 1 Spinola, Lommelini and Grimaldi. It would 

1 Of the Cattaneo portraits, originally eight in number, seven 
were privately sold out of Italy in 1906, and in the following year 
one, a half-length " Portrait of a Man," was acquired for the 
National Gallery, London, for 13,500. The official acquisition 



VAN DYCK 



scarcely be possible to speak too highly of such works as the 
portrait of the lady in white satin and the Durazzo children 
at the Durazzo Palace, the Balbi children at Panshanger, the 
Marchesa Balbi at Dorchester House, the equally beautiful 
portraits of the Lommelini and of the knight in black armour, 
buff jacket and boots in the Scottish National Gallery at 
Edinburgh, or the Marchesa Brignole Sale (formerly at Warwick 
Castle, and afterwards in America). Van Dyck's " Genoese 
manner " is a current expression, and indeed his Genoese por- 
traits are remarkable for their richness of tonality and what 
might be called royal splendour, perhaps never before attained 
in works of the kind. This we may suppose to have had its 
origin, not only in his recent study of Titian, but also in decora- 
tive necessities the size of the palatial galleries and the rich 
hues of the Genoese velvets, on which these portraits were to 
find their place, obliging the painter to find a most uncommon 
strength of contrast. It must also be acknowledged that the 
beauty and distinction of Van Dyck's models are greatly en- 
hanced by a splendour of costume entirely different from the 
dullness then prevalent almost everywhere else. In Italy, more- 
over, he found the reality of those gorgeous backgrounds 
flowing draperies, beautiful gardens, ornamental pillars, 
marble terraces and balustrades which elsewhere must 
be regarded -as fictions merely. Here, finally, he was for the 
first time called upon to paint some of his grandest equestrian 
portraits, and the often-recurring grey steed with flowing 
mane (an admirable study of which belongs to Lord Brownlow) 
was first employed for the portrait of Antonio Giulio Brignole 
(still at Genoa) and for another picture which we may suppose 
to represent the same personage at Stafford House. As with 
Rubens, Titian seems to have been paramount in Van Dyck's 
regard. Copies in great number we know he possessed of the 
master's best works, and several little sketches in the British 
Museum and in the Chatsworth sketch-book bear proof of his 
devout study of the great Venetian. Some of Van Dyck's 
earlier paintings, religious and mythological the " Tribute 
Money " (Brignole Palace), " Holy Family " (Turin), " Virgin 
and Saints " (Louvre), " Virgin " (Grosvenor House), " Martyr- 
dom of St Lawrence " (S. Maria dell' Orto, Venice) , " Bacchanal " 
(Lord Belper) engraved at Genoa as early as 1628 " St 
Sebastian " (Edinburgh) are certainly Titianesque in the 
extreme. Still the master's individuality is not obliterated, and 
the gallery at Parma has a " Virgin with the Infant Asleep," 
which may be termed a marvel of realistic simplicity. 

In 1624 Van Dyck sailed from Genoa to Palermo and there 
painted several persons of rank, including the viceroy, Emmanuel 
Philibert of Savoy. While in Sicily he became acquainted with 
the painter Sofonisba Anguisciola (or Angussola), who was 
then ninety-six years of age and blind; and he was wont to 
say that he had received more valuable information from a blind 
woman than from many a seeing man. No important works of 
Van Dyck are now to be found in Sicily, except the " Virgin 
and Child " at S. Caterina in Palermo, and a " Virgin and 
Child with Saints " in the same city. Bellori tells us that a 
plague broke out and compelled him to leave abruptly, taking 
with him an unfinished picture of St Rosalia, which was 
destined for a confraternity of that name, and was completed 
in Genoa. The composition was repeated in Antwerp for the 
Bachelors' Brotherhood, a picture now in Vienna. Van Dyck 
most probably remained in Genoa till 1626, and here in all likeli- 
hood he painted the De Jodes, father and son, the celebrated 
engravers, who are represented together in a masterly portrait 
in the Capitol at Rome, the companion picture to the brothers 
De Wael; and Nicholas Laniere, musician-in-chief to Charles I., 
a painting spoken of in Van der Dort's catalogue as " done 
beyond the seas." Laniere was in Italy precisely at this time, 
and it was through his portrait (now at Windsor Castle), Wai- 
pole assures us, that Van Dyck attracted the notice of Charles I. 

Traversing the Mont Cenis pass, Van Dyck stopped at Aix 

of this picture, in view of the Italian law of 1902, created consider- 
able discussion in Italy and England. The companion female 
portrait was soon after also purchased. 



with Peiresc, the famous scholar and friend of Rubens, and 
probably proceeded straight to Antwerp. His beautiful por- 
trait of Langlois, the Paris print-seller, from which it was con- 
jectured that he spent some time at Paris, was unquestionably 
painted in Genoa. It is very likely that, before settling again 
at Antwerp, Van Dyck at this time paid a second visit to 
England, to paint a portrait of Queen Henrietta Maria, but 
left again when he found Mytens firmly established as court 
favourite. He probably returned to Antwerp in 1627, though 
there is no recorded proof of his presence before the 3rd of 
March 1628. One of his sisters had died in a convent the year 
before, and he now made a will in favour of. Susan and Isabella, 
two other sisters, also nuns. That Van Dyck was in Antwerp 
on the 1 8th of May is proved by a letter from Lord Carlisle to 
Buckingham (Sainsbury, ciii.). 

Great as may have been the strength of Italian reminiscence, 
from the moment Van Dyck again trod Flemish soil the influence 
of Rubens became predominant, and we can scarcely doubt 
that a competition speedily arose between master and pupil. 
At this period churches and convents were numerous and 
richly endowed; and the number of pictures, stained glass 
windows and elaborate carvings in Belgian churches before 
the French conquest was enormous. Hardly fifty years had 
elapsed since these buildings had been stripped of their artistic 
treasures, and the devout were now eager once more to adorn 
them with productions of the greatest painters. Hence Van 
Dyck's share could be very copious without in any degree inter- 
fering with the vast undertakings assigned to Rubens. The 
latter was also absent for many months in 1629 and 1630, so 
that Van Dyck was for a time the first master in the Netherlands. 
Among the earliest works after his return to Antwerp we find 
the " Crucifixion," given to the Dominican nuns, in accordance 
with the wish expressed by the painter's dying father, and 
now in the Antwerp museum. The figures are life-size, and 
at the foot of the cross, besides a weeping angel, are St Catherine 
of Siena and St Dominic. Neither in type nor in general effect 
does it suggest the master's immediately preceding works. 
As a new feature we observe a kind of elegance, not entirely 
free from mannerism, which is often conspicuous with Van 
Dyck even when the technical excellence commands our 
warmest admiration. Inspiration, as Waagen observes, was 
far more limited with Van Dyck than with Rubens. His truly 
delicate nature led him to restrain his conceptions within the 
bounds of an academic evenness, generally more pleasing to the 
uninitiated than the strength of expression which sometimes 
imparts a sort of violence to the works of Rubens. To Van 
Dyck's second more justly speaking third manner belong 
some of his best religious works. The " Crucifixion " in the 
cathedral at Mechlin is termed by Sir Joshua Reynolds one 
of the finest pictures in the world. Other Crucifixions are 
in St Michael's at Ghent (sketches in Lord Brownlow's collection 
and the Brussels museum) and in the church at Termonde. 
Still finer are the two works painted for the Antwerp Jesuits 
and now at Vienna " The Mystic Marriage of the Blessed 
Herman Joseph " and " St Rosalia Crowned by the Infant 
Saviour." To this period likewise belong the celebrated 
" Elevation of the Cross " at Courtrai and the " St Augustine 
in Ecstasy," in the church of the Jesuits at Antwerp; the 
general effect of this last, it must be acknowledged with 
Reynolds, is inferior to that of the beautiful engraving by De 
Jode, and also to the earl of Northbrook's magnificent sketch. 
At Dulwich we find the first idea of the composition, with many 
interesting differences. It may be a matter of individual 
preference to pronounce Van Dyck's Flemish portraits superior 
to those of an earlier period; but nobody can fail to admit 
that, technically speaking, they indicate a further step towards 
perfection. The darkness of the Genoese portraits has van- 
ished; broad daylight now freely illuminates the model, 
and such works as the portraits of Francisco de Moncada 
(Louvre) and of the Count de Bergh (Prado) are perhaps as 
close to material excellence as any painting could be. The 
full-length likenesses of Philip Le Roy (1630) and his wife 



890 



VAN DYCK 



(1631) (Wallace Collection) and of Mary Louisa of Tassis (Prince 
Liechtenstein, Vienna) are not only the finest examples of the 
master's talent, but deserve to rank among the most beautiful 
portraits ever painted. The " Snyders " at Castle Howard is 
regarded by Waagen as not inferior to the most celebrated 
Raphaels, Titians or Holbeins; and of almost equal excellence 
are the " Wife of Colin de Nole " in the Munich gallery, the 
" Lady and her Daughter " at the Louvre, and the " Lady in 
Black " at Cassel. 

Rapidly rising to honour and wealth, Van Dyck shared 
with Rubens the official title of court painter, and his numerous 
portraits of the infanta in her monastic garb (Paris, Vienna, 
Turin, Parma, &c.) bear testimony to the great favour in which 
he stood with her. When Marie de Medicis, after her flight 
from France, took up her residence in Brussels (1631), she 
honoured Van Dyck, as well as Rubens, with repeated visits, 
and several times called upon him to paint her likeness, as well 
as those of Gaston of Orleans and his wife Margaret of Lorraine, 
and several of the personages of their court. From Gerbier's 
letters we learn that Van Dyck at this time was contemplating 
another journey to England, and was very anxious to be 
commissioned by the infanta and the queen of France to take 
over their portraits as presents for the king and royal family. 
He soon travelled to the Hague to paint the prince and princess 
of Orange and their son. Quite at the beginning of 1632 
Constantine Huygens, who was then living at the Hague, in- 
scribes in his diary, " Pingor a Van Dyckio." When, towards the 
end of March, Van Dyck sailed for England, he took all these 
portraits with him, as we learn from an account of the 8th of 
August 1 63 2 ( Carpenter's Pictorial Notices) . Dutch authors speak 
of a visit paid by Van Dyck to Frans Hals at Haarlem, and of 
a portrait of the latter through which the Antwerp master was 
at once recognized by his Dutch colleague. An engraving of a 
portrait of Hals after Van Dyck seems to confirm the story. 

In undertaking this new journey to London, Van Dyck was 
assured of success, for Gerbier's letters show that ,the king 
had personally desired his presence. As early as March 1629 
Endymion Porter, one of the gentlemen of the king's bed- 
chamber, had been commissioned to order a picture from 
Van Dyck, " Rinaldo and Armida." The canvas, now belonging 
to the duke of Newcastle, may be looked upon as one of the 
master's finest creations. Exceptional favours were bestowed 
upon Van Dyck almost from the day of his arrival in London. 
Besides the title of painter in ordinary, and the grant of an 
annual pension of 200, he received the honour of knighthood 
after a residence of less than three months at court (5th July 
1632). He rapidly achieved popularity among the higher 
classes, and, as Walpole says, his works are so frequent in 
England that to most Englishmen it is difficult to avoid thinking 
of him as their countryman. 

His refined nature is strikingly illustrated in his admirable 
interpretation of English beauty and style. And, if Van Dyck 
be compared to Mytens and Cornelius Janssen, the most dis- 
tinguished painters employed by the English court immediately 
before him, few artists, whether in England or elsewhere, have 
more richly endowed their models with distinction of feature 
and elegance in bearing. To him may be applied what Opie 
says of Titian, " that he combines resemblance with dignity, 
costume with taste, and art with simplicity." We are 
particularly struck with the thorough and immediate identifica- 
tion of his talent with local tastes and exigencies. Charles I. 
and Henrietta Maria, although pictured by several other 
painters, are known to posterity almost exclusively through 
Van Dyck, not from a greater closeness of resemblance to the 
original, but from a particular power of expression and bearing 
which, once seen, it is impossible to forget. The artist was 
lodged at the expense of the crown, with a summer residence 
at Eltham Palace, and was frequently honoured with the 
visits of the king at his studio at Blackfriars. Portraits now 
followed each other with a rapidity scarcely credible to those 
unacquainted with the artist's method. In fact, his mode of 
living and his love of pleasure sufficiently explain his great 



need of money. During the first year of his presence in England 
he painted the king and queen a dozen times. The first of 
these noble portraits is the admirable full-length of Charles I., 
with the queen and their two eldest children, at Windsor 
Castle. The style he adopted in England is generally termed 
his third manner; we might better say his fourth', as he already 
had a very particular style before he set out on his Italian 
journey. De Piles gives us some account of Van Dyck's methods 
at this period of his career. He began with a small sketch 
on grey paper with black and white chalks, or a monochrome 
in oils. This study was passed on to assistants in order to be 
copied on the required scale. When the clothes were sufficiently 
advanced by the pupils from those sent by the model, as well 
as the background and accessories, the master was enabled 
in a few sittings of an hour each to complete the work. Van 
Dyck excelled in painting the hands; he is said to have kept 
special models for this part of his work. It need hardly be said 
that a system of this kind, although employed by Rubens for his 
larger creations, was exceedingly ill adapted to portrait painting. 
In Van Dyck's later productions we too often detect marks of 
haste, as if the brush were becoming a mere implement of trade. 

Nearly the whole of 1634 and 1635 were spent by Van Dyck 
in the Netherlands, whence his brother, an Antwerp priest, 
had been called over by the queen to act as her chaplain. The 
archduchess died on ist December 1633, and Van Dyck naturally 
wished to get his official title renewed by her successor, Ferdinand 
of Austria, brother of Philip IV. That Van Dyck's residence 
in Antwerp was only to be temporary is shown by the power 
given to his sister Susan for the administration of his affairs 
in Belgium (i4th April 1634). On the arrival of the new 
governor Van Dyck was immediately called upon to paint his 
likeness, a picture now in the Madrid gallery, where the same 
personage is also represented by Rubens and Velazquez. Several 
other portraits of Ferdinand, either in his cardinal's robes or 
in military dress, by Van Dyck, occur elsewhere. One on horse- 
back was exhibited at the Grosvenor Gallery, London, in 1887, 
as the duke of Alva (lent by Mr S. Kynaston Main waring). 
Van Dyck was greatly in demand at this time, and his prices 
were correspondingly high, as the Antwerp municipality found 
when they asked for a portrait of the late infanta to decorate 
one of the triumphal arches for the reception of the new governor. 
The most important of Van Dyck's works, at any rate as a 
portrait painter, belong to this period. The picture represent- 
ing in life-size the members of the Brussels corporation, which 
was destroyed by fire during the siege of 1695, is spoken of 
with intense admiration by several writers. Bullart, for 
instance, is very enthusiastic about its fine colour and life- 
like qualities. Among the religious paintings of undisputed 
excellence belonging to the same period are the " Adoration of 
the Shepherds " in the church at Termonde, and the " Deposi- 
tion," where the body of Christ rests upon the lap of the Virgin, 
in the Antwerp museum. Among the portraits are the admir- 
able full-length of Scaglia, the king's frequent agent in the 
Netherlands (at Dorchester House; a replica in the museum 
at Antwerp), the equestrian portrait of Albert of Arenberg 
(Arenberg Palace at Brussels), and a portrait of the same 
nobleman on foot, in the black velvet Spanish dress with golden 
chamberlain's key (long said to be Rubens) at Althorp, the full- 
length of Helena Fourment, Rubens's second wife (at St Peters- 
burg), the beautiful duchess of Havre, Mary Clara de Croy, 
signed and dated 1634 (Mr Ayscough Fawkes), and other 
members of the same family (at Munich) , Thomas of Savoy (at 
Berlin), an admirable half-length of a lady in black (in the 
Vienna gallery), and above all the grandiose picture in which 
John of Nassau is represented at full-length, with his wife and 
children (at Panshanger). Several portraits of Brussels and Ant- 
werp magistrates must also be mentioned, the most important 
being John Van Merstraeten, a Brussels lawyer (at Cassel). 

After being chosen honorary president of the Antwerp gild 
of St Luke, Van Dyck returned to London before the end of 
1635. In spite of the vast number of his later portraits, some 
of them deserve to be ranked among the most celebrated of his 



VAN DYCK 



891 



productions. The group of three English royal children in the 
gallery at Turin (1635), the portraits of Charles I. in the Louvre 
and in the National Gallery, London, the picture of the Pembroke 
family at Wilton House, Sir George and Sir Francis Villiers, and 
the earls of Bristol and Bedford, at Althorp, as well as those 
of Francis Russell, fourth earl of Bedford, and Anne Carr, his 
consort, at Woburn Abbey (1636), all belong to the years im- 
mediately following the master's return from the Netherlands. 

He now married Lady Mary Ruthven, daughter of Sir Patrick 
Ruthven and granddaughter of the earl of Gowrie. There are 
several portraits of her by her husband, the most important 
being in the Munich gallery, in which she is represented in white 
satin, playing on the violoncello. She is also said to figure as 
the Virgin in a picture belonging to Lord Lyttelton. There is a 
capital engraving of her by Bolswert. In another picture, said 
to be Mary Ruthven, an exceedingly handsome lady is repre- 
sented as " Herminia Putting on Clarinda's Armour." There 
can be no doubt as to the model having been Margaret Lemon, 
a celebrated beauty, whose portrait was engraved by W. Hollar 
and J. Morin and painted by Van Dyck at Hampton Court. 
" She was," says Mr Ernest Law, in his excellent catalogue of 
this gallery, " the most beautiful and celebrated, though far 
from being the only mistress of Van Dyck. The great artist, 
in fact, loved beauty in every form, and found the seduction 
of female charms altogether irresistible. She lived with him 
at his house at Blackfriars." The precise date of Van Dyck's 
marriage has not been ascertained. It was probably towards 
the end of 1639. The union is said to have been promoted 
by the artist's friends in order to save him from the consequence 
of his pernicious way of living. Margaret Lemon resented the 
event most cruelly, and tried to maim Van Dyck's right hand. 

Van Dyck found few occasions in England to paint anything 
but portraits. There exists at Belvoir Castle a sketch by him 
representing a procession of the knights of the Garter, a really 
grandiose composition, engraved by Cooper. We know from 
Bellori that Van Dyck had suggested, through his friend .Sir 
Kenelm Digby, for the banqueting-room at Whitehall, a series 
of decorations illustrating the history of the order of the Garter, 
and that the king had been much pleased with the idea. The 
plan, however, failed through the excessively high price asked 
by the painter, and perhaps also because the king had thought 
of having the work done in tapestry. Van Dyck's pension was 
five years in arrear, and, instead of 560, he received finally, 
besides his pension, only 200. 

When the news of Rubens's death reached London (June 1640) 
Van Dyck contemplated a return to his native country, and a 
letter from Ferdinand of Austria to Philip IV. speaks of his 
intended journey to Antwerp on St Luke's Day (i8th October). 
Rubens had left unfinished a series of paintings commanded 
by the king of Spain, and from correspondence published by 
Professor Justi we learn that Van Dyck had been thought of 
to give them the finishing touch. But he absolutely refused to 
finish them. It was then agreed that he should paint an inde- 
pendent canvas destined to complete the series. Van Dyck 
was delighted with this order, and Ferdinand tells his brother 
that he returned to London in great haste " to make prepara- 
tions for his change of residence; possibly," adds the letter, 
" he may still change his mind, for he is stark mad." Whether 
Van Dyck found it possible to work during his short stay in the 
Netherlands is a matter of doubt. Most authors suppose that Van 
Dyck's principal object in travelling to the continent was to be 
entrusted with the decoration of one of the galleries of the 
Louvre. There may be some truth in this, for Mariette speaks 
of a letter he saw, written by Claude Vignon, the French painter, 
in January 1641, asking Langlois for an introduction to Van 
Dyck, who was then in Paris. Unfortunately the great painter 
was thwarted in his aspirations. His health was beginning to 
fail. After his return to London he was frequently obliged to 
interrupt his work; and a letter written (i3th August) from 
Richmond by Lady Anne Roxburgh to Baron W. van Brederode 
at the Hague states that the portraits of the Princess Mary had 
been greatly delayed through Van Dyck's illness, and that the 



prince's (William II. of Orange) would be ready in eight days. 
" As Van Dyck intends leaving England in the course of ten or 
twelve days at latest," she adds, " he will take the paintings 
himself to the princess of Orange." These portraits, now in the 
museum at Amsterdam, are the last Van Dyck painted in 
England. Of works dated 1639 the portrait of Lady Pembroke, 
in the gallery of Darmstadt, is a fine example; and to the same 
year belongs a full-length portrait of Arthur Goodwin at Chats- 
worth. The twin portrait of Thomas Carew and Thomas 
Killigrew, in the royal collection, dated 1638, is certainly most 
delicate, but very weak in tone and slight in handling. Van 
Dyck sailed in September, and probably spent some time with 
his Antwerp friends. Early in November he reached Paris, 
and succeeded in obtaining some important work, when, on 
i6th November, he was compelled to resign his commissions 
on account of the state of his health. Scarcely three weeks 
later (gth December 1641) he died at his residence at Blackfriars. 
Van Dyck was buried in old St Paul's, where a Latin inscription 
was placed on his tomb by Charles I. 

An elegy in Cowley's Miscellanies speaks, not only of the 
painter's talent, but of his amiable disposition. We may perhaps 
point to the coincidence that a Mrs Cowley is in Van Dyck's 
will (of ist December) named guardian of his child, Justiniana 
Anna, born only eight days before her father's death. The 
painter had in the Netherlands an illegitimate daughter, Maria 
Theresia, who was entrusted to his sister, and to whom he 
bequeathed 4000. The name of her mother is not known. 
Not long after her husband's death Lady Van Dyck became the 
second wife of Sir Richard Pryse of Gogerddah in Cardigan- 
shire. She was dead in 1645. Justiniana Van Dyck, who was 
married when scarcely twelve years old to Sir John Stepney 
of Prendergast, was also something of an artist: she painted 
a " Crucifixion," with four angels receiving Christ's blood in 
chalices. A similar subject had been painted by Van Dyck, 
as Bellori tells us, for the duke of Northumberland. After the 
Restoration a pension of 200 for life was granted to Justiniana 
Van Dyck, who died before 1690. 

Properly speaking, Van Dyck cannot be said to have formed a 
school. He was followed to London by some of his earlier colla- 
borators, and there soon met a considerable number of others. Jan 
van Reyn, David Beek, Adrian Hanneman, Mathew Merian, John 
Bockhorst (Lang Jan), Remy van Leemput and Peter Thys were 
foremost among foreigners, Henry Stone and William Dobson 
among Englishmen. To their assistance the master owed much; 
but they are also responsible for the vast number of constantly 
recurring copies which go by his name. It often requires a very 
discriminating eye to distinguish some of these copies from the 
original paintings. Nevertheless, after Van Dyck's death many of 
his coadjutors produced works of undeniable merit. No school 
more strikingly reflects the influence of Van Dyck than the British 
school. Stone and Dobson were, properly speaking, the most 
fortunate of his continuators; and there is little doubt that such 
masters as Reynolds, Gainsborough, Lawrence and Raeburn owe a 
large measure of their superiority to their study of his works. 

Though Van Dyck's reputation greatly suffered through the 
numerous copies he allowed his pupils to take from his works, 
the case is otherwise with engraving: Vorsterman, Pontius, Peter 
de Jode, P. Balliu and S. Bolswert were seldom more fortunate than 
when under his guidance. De Jode's " St Augustine," Bolswert's 
" Ecce Homo " and " Crucifixion," Vorsterman's " Deposition," and 
especially Pontius's " Herman Joseph " rank among the masterpieces 
of the art of engraving. Van Dyck was himself an incomparable etcher, 
and with the needle arrived at a degree of excellence scarcely inferior 
to that exhibited in his paintings. Such prints as the portraits of 
Vorsterman, John de Wael, Snyders, Josse de Momper, Adam van 
Noort, and above all his own effigy, bear witness to his prodigious 
knowledge of design. Print collectors pay extravagant prices for a 
first proof taken from the plates engraved by Van Dyck himself. 
Van Dyck also employed some of the best engravers of his time 
for the production of a gallery of illustrious heads, men and women, 
of different countries. Whether all were taken from life is ques- 
tionable. Gustavus Adolphus and Wallenstein he can hardly nave 
met. Du Breucq, the architect, he never knew. But all the 
sketches and drawings were done by himself, and are often met 
with in public and private galleries. The engravings are sometimes 
very beautiful and in their first states very rare. Published 
successively by Martin van der Enden, Giles Hendrickx and John 
Meyssens, the collection originally consisted of sixteen warriors 
and statesmen, twelve scholars and fifty-two artists. Hendrickx 
raised the number to ninety-nine, and used as a frontispiece the 






892 



VANE, SIR H. 



portrait of Van Dyck, with the following inscription: Icones 
principum, virorum doctorum, &c. &c., numero centum ab Antonio 
Van Dyck pictore ad vivum expressae eiusq. sumtibus aeri incisae, 
1645. Seventeen editions' were published, the last in 1759, with 
124 plates. Many of the plates are the property of the French 
Government, and belong to the Chalcographie Nationale in Paris. 

LITERATURE. See W. Hookham Carpenter, Pictorial Notices, 
consisting of a Memoir of Sir Anthony Van Dyck, with a descriptive 
catalogue of the etchings executed by him (London, 1844); John 
Smith, A Catalogue Raisonni of the Works of the most Eminent 
Dutch, Flemish, and French Painters, part iii. (London, 1841); 
J. Guiffrey, Antoine Van Dyck, sa vie et son ceuvre (Paris, 1882) ; 
A. Michiels, Ant. Van Dyck et ses eleves (Paris, 1881); Ign. von 
Szwykowski, A. Van Dycks Bildnisse bekannter Personen (Leipzig, 
1858); Fr. Wibiral, L'Iconographie d'A. Van Dyck d'apres les 
recherches de H. Weber (Leipzig, 1877) ; Carl Lemcke, A. Van Dyck 
(in Robert Dohme's Kunst und Kunstler, vol. i., Leipzig, 1877); 
Alfr. Woltmann and K. Woermann, Gesch. der Malerei, vol. iii. 
(Leipzig, 1886) ; Max Rooses, Geschiedenis der Antwerpsche Schilder- 
school (Ghent, 1879); F. J. Van den Branden, Gesch. der Antw. 
Schilder school (Antwerp, 1883); Percy Rendall Head, Van Dyck 
(London, 1887); F. G. Stephens, Catalogue of the Exhibition of the 
Works of Sir A. Van Dyck (London, 1887) ; E. Knackfuss, Van Dyck 
(Bielefeld, 1896); Lionel Cust, Anthony Van Dyck (London, 1900), 
an abridgment with emendations, Van Dyck (1906), and A Descrip- 
tion of the Sketch-Book by Sir Anthony Van Dyck . . . at Chatsworth 
(London, 1902); Max Rooses, Chefs-d'teuvres d' Antoine van Dyck 
(Antwerp, 1901); Antoine Van Dyck (Paris, 1902); Frank Newbolt, 
Etchings of Van Dyck (London, 1906). (H. H.; P. G. K.) 

VANE, SIR HENRY (1580-1654), English secretary of state, 
eldest son of Henry Vane or Fane, of Hadlow, Kent, a member 
of an ancient family of that county, by his second wife, Margaret, 
daughter of Roger Twysden of East Peckham, Kent, was born 
on the i8th of February 1589. He matriculated from Brase- 
nose College, Oxford, on the isth of June 1604, was admitted 
to Gray's Inn in 1606, and was knighted by James I. on the 
3rd of March 1611. He purchased several offices at court, 
was made comptroller of the king's household about 1629, 
and in spite of a sharp quarrel with Buckingham managed to 
keep the king's favour, in 1639 becoming treasurer. He was 
returned to parliament in 1614 for Lostwithiel, from 1621 to 
1626 for Carlisle, in 1628 for Retford, and in the Short and Long 
Parliament, assembled in 1640, he sat for Wilton. He was 
despatched on several missions in 1629 and 1630 to Holland, 
and in 1631 to Gustavus Adolphus to secure the restitution of 
the Palatinate, but without success. In 1630 Vane had become 
a privy councillor and one of the chief advisers of the king. He 
was made a commissioner of the Admiralty in 1632 and for the 
colonies in 1636. He was one of the eight privy councillors 
appointed to manage affairs in Scotland on the outbreak of the 
troubles there, and on the 3rd of February 1640, through the 
influence of the queen and of the marquis of Hamilton and in 
opposition to the wishes of Strafford, he was made secretary 
of state in the room of Sir John Coke. In the Short Parliament, 
which assembled in April, it fell to Vane, in his official capa- 
city, to demand supplies. He proposed a bargain by which the 
king should give up ship-money and receive in return twelve 
subsidies. Parliament, however, proved intractable and was 
dissolved on the 5th of May, to prevent a vote against the 
continuance of the war with the Scots. In the impeachment 
of Strafford, Vane played a very important part and caused the 
earl's destruction. He asserted that Strafford had advised the 
king at a meeting of the privy council, " You have an army in 
Ireland; you may employ it to reduce this kingdom." He 
refused to admit or deny the meaning attributed by the pro- 
secution that " this kingdom " signified England; he was 
unsupported by the recollection of any other privy councillor, 
and his statement could not be corroborated by his own notes, 
which had been destroyed by order of the king, but a copy 
obtained through his son, the younger Vane, was produced by 
Pym and owned by Vane to be genuine. He was on bad terms 
with Strafford, who had opposed his appointment to office and 
who had given him special provocation by assuming the barony 
of Raby, a title ardently desired by Vane himself. He was not 
unnaturally accused of collusion and treachery, and there is 
no doubt that he desired Strafford's removal not only on 
private but on public grounds, believing that his sacrifice 



would satisfy the demands of the parliament. Nevertheless, 
there has appeared no evidence to support the charge that he 
deliberately compassed his destruction. Suspicions of his 
fidelity, however, soon increased, and after having accompanied 
the king to Scotland in August 1641, he was dismissed from 
all his appointments on the 4th of November on Charles's return. 
Vane immediately joined the parliament; on Pym's motion, 
on the I3th of December, he was placed on the committee for 
Irish affairs, was made lord lieutenant of Durham on the loth 
of February 1642, became a member of the committee of both 
kingdoms on the 7th of February 1644, and in this capacity 
attended the Scots army in 1645, while the parliament in the 
treaty of Uxbridge demanded for him from Charles a barony 
and the repayment of his losses. He adhered to the parliament 
after the king's death, and in the first parliament of the Pro- 
tectorate he was returned for Kent, but the House had refused 
to appoint him a member of the council of state in February 
1650. He died in 1654. He had married Frances, daughter 
and co-heir of Thomas Darcy of Tolleshurst Darcy in Essex, 
by whom he had a large family of children, of whom the eldest 
son, Sir Henry Vane, the younger, is separately noticed. 

Clarendon invariably speaks of Vane in terms of contempt and 
reproach. He describes him as merely fit for court duties, " of very 
ordinary parts by nature and . . . very illiterate. But being of a 
stirring and boisterous disposition, very industrious and very bold, 
he still wrought himself into some employment." He declares that 
motives of revenge upon Strafford influenced not only his conduct 
in the impeachment but his unsuccessful management of the king's 
business in the Short Parliament, when he " acted that part malici- 
ously and to bring all into confusion." The latter accusation, 
considering the difficulties of the political situation and Vane's 
total want of ability in dealing with them, is probably unfounded. 
On the general charge of betraying the king's cause, Vane's mysteri- 
ous conduct in the impeachment, his great intimacy with Hamilton, 
and the favour with which he was immediately received by the 
Opposition on his dismissal from office, raise suspicions not altogether 
allayed by the absence of proof to substantiate them, while the 
alacrity with which he transferred himself to the parliament points 
to a character, if not of systematic treachery, yet of unprincipled 
and unscrupulous time-serving. Materials, however, to elucidate 
the details and motives of his ill-omened career have hitherto been 
wanting. 

VANE, SIR HENRY (1613-1662), English statesman and 
author, known as " the younger " to distinguish him from his 
father, Sir Henry Vane (<?..), was baptized on the 26th of May 
1613, at Debden, Essex. After an education at Westminster, 
where he was noted for his high and reckless spirits, and at 
Magdalen Hall, Oxford, where he neither matriculated nor 
took his degree, he was attached to the embassy at Vienna and 
at Leiden and Geneva. He had already acquired strong Puritan 
views which, in spite of the personal efforts of Laud, who made 
the attempt at the king's request, he refused to give up. In 

1635, in order to obtain the free exercise of his religion, he 
emigrated to Massachusetts, where he was elected governor in 

1636. After one year in office, during which he showed some 
administrative ability, he was defeated by Winthrop, the former 
governor, chiefly on account of the protection he had given to 
Mrs Hutchinson in the religious controversies which she raised. 
He, however, never lost his interest in the colonies, and used 
his influence hereafter on several occasions in their support. 

Vane returned to England in August 1637. He was made 
joint-treasurer of the navy with Sir W. Russell in January 1639, 
was elected for Hull in the Short and Long Parliaments, and 
was knighted on the 23rd of June 1640. Accidentally finding 
among his father's papers some notes of Strafford's speech in the 
council of May 5, 1640, he allowed Pym to take a copy, and 
was thus instrumental in bringing about Strafford's downfall. 
He carried up the impeachment of Laud from the Commons, was 
a strong supporter, when on the committee of religion, of the 
" Root and Branch " bill, and in June 1641 put forward a 
scheme of church government by which commissioners, half 
lay and half cleric, were to assume ecclesiastical jurisdiction 
in each diocese. During the absence of Pym and Hampden 
from the House at the time of Charles's attempted arrest 
of the five members, Vane led the parliamentary party, and 
was finally dismissed from his office in December 1641, being 



VANE, SIR H. 



893 






reinstated by the parliament in August 1642. The same month 
he was placed upon the committee of defence. In 1643 he was 
the leading man among the commissioners sent to treat for a 
league with the Scots. Vane, who was bitterly opposed to the 
tyranny of the Presbyterian system, was successful in two 
important points. The aim of the Scots was chiefly the pro- 
pagation of their discipline in England and Wales, and for 
this they wanted only a " covenant." The English desired a 
political " league." Vane succeeded in getting the bond termed 
the Solemn League and Covenant, and further in substituting 
the whole expression " according lo the word of God and the 
example of the best Reformed churches " for the latter part 
alone. He succeeded to the leadership of the party on Pym's 
death. He promoted, and became a chief member of, the 
committee of both kingdoms established in February 1644, 
and was sent to York in the summer of the year to urge Fairfax 
and Manchester to march against Prince Rupert, and secretly 
to propose the king's deposition. In 1643 he was one of the 
negotiators of the treaty of Uxbridge. He was, with Cromwell, 
a prime mover in the Self-Denying Ordinance and the New 
Model, and his adherence to the army party and to religious 
tolerance now caused a definite breach with the Scots. Vane 
had at the Westminster Assembly, writes Baillie indignantly, 
" prolixly, earnestly and passionately reasoned for a full liberty 
of conscience to all religions," a policy directly opposed to 
Presbyterianism, and his leadership terminated when the 
latter party obtained the supremacy in parliament in 1646. 
During the subsequent struggle he was one of the six com- 
missioners appointed to treat with the army by the parliament, 
and endeavoured to effect a compromise, but failed, being 
distrusted by both the Levellers and the Presbyterians. His 
views of government may be studied in The People's Case 
Stated, written shortly before his death. " The power which 
is directive, and states and ascertains the morality of the rule 
of obedience, is in the hand of God; but the original, from 
whence all just power arises, which is magistratical and co- 
ercitive, is from the will or free gift of the people, who may 
either keep the power in themselves or give up their subjection 
and will in the hand of another." King and people were bound 
by " the fundamental constitution or compact," which if the 
king violated, the people might return to their original right 
and freedom. 

In spite, however, of these free opinions, Vane still desired 
the maintenance of the monarchy and the constitution. He 
voted for a declaration to this effect on the 28th of April 1648, 
and had consistently opposed the various votes of " non- 
addresses." Several communications had already been fruit- 
lessly attempted with Vane from the king's side, through the 
agency of Lord Lovelace in January 1644, and through that of 
John Ashburnham in March 1646. Vane now supported the re- 
newal of negotiations, and was appointed on the ist of September 
1648 one of the commissioners for the treaty of Newport. He 
here showed a desire to come to terms on the foundation of 
toleration and a " moderate episcopacy," of which Cromwell 
greatly disapproved, and opposed the shaking off of the con- 
ferences. He absented himself from parliament on the occasion 
of " Pride's Purge," and remained in retirement until after the 
king's death, a measure in which he took no part, though he 
continued to act as a member of the government. On the 
1 4th of February 1649 he was placed on the council of state, 
though he refused to take the oath which expressed approba- 
tion of the king's execution. Vane now showed himself an 
able administrator. He served on innumerable committees of 
importance, and was assiduous in his attendance. He furnished 
the supplies for Cromwell's expedition to Scotland, and was one 
of the commissioners sent there subsequently to settle the 
government and negotiate a union between the two countries. 
He showed great energy in colonial and foreign affairs, was a 
leading member of the committee dealing with the latter, and 
in 1651 went on a secret mission to negotiate with Cardinal de 
Retz, who was much struck with his ability, while his knowledge 
of foreign policy, in which he inclined in favour of Holland, 



earned the praise also of Milton. To Vane, as chief com- 
missioner of the navy, belongs largely the credit of the victories 
obtained against Van Tromp. 

In domestic politics Vane continued to urge his views of 
toleration and his opposition to a state church. On the pth of 
January 1650 he brought forward as chairman the report of a 
committee on the regulation of elections. He wished to reform 
the franchise on the property basis, to disfranchise some of the 
existing boroughs, and to give increased representation to the 
large towns; the sitting members, however, were to retain their 
seats. In this he was opposed to Cromwell, who desired an 
entirely new parliament and the supremacy of the army repre- 
sentation. On the 20th of April Cromwell forcibly dissolved 
the Long Parliament while in the act of passing Vane's bill. 
On the latter's protesting, " This is not honest; yea, it is 
against morality and common honesty," Cromwell fell a-railing 
at him, crying out with a loud voice, " O Sir Henry Vane, Sir 
Henry Vane; the Lord deliver me from Sir Henry Vane!" 
(Ludlow, Mem. i. 353). Hitherto they had lived on intimate 
terms of friendship, but this incident created a permanent 
breach. In his seclusion at Raby he now v/rote the Retired 
Man's Meditations (1655). In 1656 he proposed in A Healing 
Question (reprinted in the " Somers Tracts," vol. vi. ed. Scott) 
a new form of government, insisting as before upon a Puritan 
parliament supreme over the army. The seditious movements 
of the Anabaptists were also attributed to his influence, and on 
the 2pth of July 1656 he was summoned before the council. 
Refusing to give security not to disturb the public peace, he was 
on the 9th of September sent prisoner to Carisbrooke Castle, 
and there remained until the 3ist of December. He ad- 
dressed a letter to Cromwell in which he repudiated the extra- 
parliamentary authority he had assumed. In the parliament 
of Richard Cromwell he was elected for Whitchurch, when he 
urged that the protector's power should be strictly limited, 
and the negative voice of the new House of Lords disallowed. 

Subsequently he allied himself with the officers in setting 
aside the protectorate and in restoring the Long Parliament, 
and on Richard Cromwell's abdication he regained his former 
supremacy in the national counsels. He was a member of the 
committee of safety and of the council of state appointed in 
May, was commissioner for the navy and for the appointment 
of army officers, managed foreign affairs and superintended 
finance. He adhered to Lambert, remained a member of the 
government after the latter had turned out the Long Parliament, 
and endeavoured to maintain it by reconciling the disputing 
generals and by negotiating with the navy, which first deserted 
the cause. In consequence, at the restoration of the Long 
Parliament he was expelled the House and ordered to retire to 
Raby. 

At the Restoration Vane was imprisoned in the Tower by 
the king's order. After several conferences between the houses 
of parliament, it was agreed that he should be excepted from 
the indemnity bill, but that a petition should be sent to Charles 
asking that his life might be spared. The petition was granted. 
On the meeting, however, of the new 1 parliament of 1661, a 
vote was passed demanding his trial on the capital charge, 
and Vane was taken back to the Tower in April 1662 from the 
Scilly Isles, where he had been imprisoned. On the 2nd of June 
he appeared before the king's bench to answer the charge of high 
treason, when he made a bold and skilful defence, asserting the 
sovereign power of parliament in justification of his conduct. 
He was, however, found guilty, and executed on Tower Hill 
on the I4th of June 1662. He had married, in 1640, Frances, 
daughter of Sir Christopher Wray of Barlings, by whom he had 
a large family of sons and daughters. Of these Christopher, 
the fifth son, succeeded to his father's estates and was created 
Baron Barnard by William III. 

Vane's great talents as an administrator and statesman have been 
universally acknowledged. He possessed, says Clarendon, " extra- 
ordinary parts, a pleasant wit, a great understanding, a temper 
not to be moved," and in debate " a quick conception and a very 
sharp and weighty expression." His patriotism and assiduity 



8 94 



VANE VANILLA 



in the public service, and complete freedom from corruption, were 
equally admirable and conspicuous. His religious writings, apart 
from his constant devotion to toleration and dislike of a state church, 
are exceedingly obscure both in style and matter, while his en- 
thusiasm and fanaticism in speculative doctrine combine curiously, 
but not perhaps incongruously, with exceptional sagacity and 
shrewdness in practical affairs. " He had an unusual aspect," says 
Clarendon, " which . . . made men think there was something 
in him of the extraordinary; and his whole life made good that 
imagination." Besides the works already mentioned and several 
printed speeches, Vane wrote: A Brie} Answer to a certain Declara- 
tion of John Winthrop (reprinted in the Hutchinson Papers, publ. by 
the Prince Society, 1865); A Needful Corrective or Balance in Popu- 
lar Government ... in answer to Harrington's Oceana ; Of Love of 
God and Union with God; two treatises, viz. (i) An Epistle General to 
the Mystical Body of Christ on Earth, (2) The Face of the Times: 
A Pilgrimage into the Land of Promise . . . (1664). The Trial of 
Sir Henry Vane, Knight (1662), contains, besides his last speech and 
details relating to the trial, The People's Case Stated (reprinted in 
Forster's Life of Vane), The Valley of Jehoshaphat, and Meditations 
concerning Man's Life. A Letter from a True and Lawful Member of 
Parliament to one of the Lords of His Highness's Council (1656), 
attributed to Vane, was written by Clarendon; and The Light 
Shining out of Darkness was probably by Henry Stubbe; while 
The Speech against Richard Cromwell is the composition of some 
contemporary pamphleteer. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Article by C. H. Firth in Diet, of Nat. Biog.; 
Life and Death of Sir Henry Vane, by G. Sikes, 1662 (a treatise on 
the " course of his hidden life "); and Lives by John Forster, in 
Lardner's Cabinet Encyclopaedia: Eminent British Statesmen, vol. iv. 
(1838); by C. W. Upham in "Library of American Biography," 
vol. iv. (1851) ; by J. K. Hosmer (1888) ; and by C. Dalton in Hist, 
of the Family of Wray (1881), ii. 93-137; also Wood's Ath. Oxon. 
(Bliss), iii. 578, and Biographia Britannica. See especially S. R. 
Gardiner's Hist, of England, his Great Civil War and his Common- 
wealth, and Clarendon's Hist, of the Rebellion, and the contem- 
porary memoirs and diaries; Hist. MSS. Comm. MSS. of duke of 
Buccleuch, ii. pt. ii. 756; Masson's Life of Milton, iv. 442 and 
passim; the sonnet addressed by Milton to Vane; and W. W. Ire- 
land, Life of Sir Henry Vane the Younger (1907). (P. C. Y.) 

VANE (formerly spelt "fane," i.e. pennon, flag; cf. Ger. 
Fahne, Du. vaan, Fr. giroueile, Ital. banderuola, Ger. Wetter- 
fahne), the weathercock on a steeple. Vanes seem in early times 
to have been of various forms, as dragons, &c.; but in the 
Tudor period the favourite design was a beast or bird sitting on 
a slender pedestal and carrying an upright rod, on which a thin 
plate of metal is hung like a flag, ornamented in various ways. 

VAN HORNE, SIR WILLIAM CORNELIUS (1843- ), 
Canadian financier, was b'orn in Will county, Illinois, U.S.A., 
on the 3rd of February 1843, of Dutch descent. He was educated 
in the common schools of the state, and in 1857 began work 
as office boy in a railway station. His ability and force brought 
him to the front, and he rose till in 1881 he was appointed 
general manager of the Canadian Pacific railway. For the 
successful completion of this great road his strong will and 
mental grasp were largely responsible, and he it was who not 
only controlled but steadily extended its operations during the 
lean years which followed. In 1884 he became vice-president 
of the line, in 1888 president, and in 1899 chairman of the 
board of directors. From 1885 onward he was more and more 
associated with every branch of Canadian mercantile and 
financial life, and as a publicist gave shrewd expression to his 
views on political and economic questions. After the Spanish- 
American War (1898) he became one of the chief promoters 
of railway and industrial enterprise in Cuba. In May 1894 he 
was knighted by Queen Victoria in acknowledgment of his dis- 
tinguished public services. He was also known as a patroa of 
art and literature and an amateur painter of no little merit. 

VANILLA, a flavouring agent largely used in the manu- 
facture of chocolate, in confectionery and in perfumery. It 
consists of the fermented and dried pods of several species of 
orchids belonging to the genus .Vanilla. 1 The great bulk of 
the commercial article is the produce of V. planifolia, a native 
of south-eastern Mexico, but now largely cultivated in several 
tropical countries, especially in Bourbon, the Seychelles, Tahiti 
and Java. The plant has a long fleshy stem and attaches itself 
by its aerial rootlets to trees; the roots also penetrate the soil 
and derive a considerable portion of their nourishment from 
1 Span, vainilla, dim. of vaina, a pod. 



it. The leaves are alternate, oval-lanceolate and fleshy; the 
light greenish flowers form axillary spikes. The fruit is a pod 




Vanilla Plant (Vanilla planifolia). A, shoot with flower, leaf 
and aerial rootlets; B, pod or fruit. 

from 6 to 10 in. long, and when mature about half an inch in 
diameter. The wild plant yields a smaller and less aromatic 
fruit, distinguished in Mexico as Baynilla cimarona, the culti- 
vated vanilla being known as B. corriente, 

Vanilla was used by the Aztecs of Mexico as an ingredient in the 
manufacture of chocolate before the discovery of America by the 
Spaniards, who adopted its use. The earliest botanical notice is 
given in 1605 by Clusius (Exoticorum Libri Decem), who had received 
fruits from Hugh Morgan, apothecary to Queen Elizabeth ; but he 
seems to have known nothing of its native country or uses. The 
Mexican vanilla had been introduced to cultivation before the 
publication of the second edition of Philip Miller's Gardeners' Dic- 
tionary (1739). It was reintroduced by the marquis of Blandford, 
and in 1807 a flowering specimen was figured and described by R. A. 
Salisbury (Paradisus, London, t. 82). Mexican vanilla is regarded 
as the best. It is principally consumed in the United States. In 
Bourbon about 3000 acres are under cultivation ; the crop is sent to 
Bordeaux, the chief centre of the trade in France. Its odour is said 
to differ from the Mexican variety in having a suggestion of tonqua 
bean. The Seychelles produce large quantities of exceedingly fine 
quality; the produce of these islands goes chiefly to the London 
market. The Java vanilla, grown chiefly in Krawang and the 
Preanger Regencies, is shipped to Holland. The Tahiti produce is 
inferior in quality. 

Mr Hermann Mayer Senior, in the Chemist and Druggist, June 30, 
1906, gives the following figures, which approximately represent the 
world's output of vanilla during the seasons 1905-1906: Bourbon, 
TO tons; Seychelles, 45 tons ; Mauritius, 5 tons; Comores, Mayotte, 
Madagascar, &c., 120 tons; Guadeloupe, Java, Ceylon and Fiji, 
lotons; Mexica, 7ptons; Tahiti, loo tons total, about 420 tons. 

The best varieties of vanilla pods are of a very dark chocolate 
brown or nearly black colour, and are covered with a crystalline 
efflorescence technically known as givre, the presence of which is 
taken as a criterion of quality. The peculiar fragrance of vanilla 
is due to vanillin, CsHgOs, which forms this efflorescence. Chemi- 
cally speaking, it is the aldehyde of methyl-protocatechuic acid. 
It is not naturally present in the fleshy exterior of the pod, but is 
secreted by hair-like papillae lining its three internal angles, and 
ultimately becomes diffused through the viscid oily liquid surround- 
ing the seeds. The amount of vanillin varies according to the kind : 
Mexican vanilla yields 1-69, Bourbon or Rdunion 1-9 to 2-48, and 
Java 2-75%. Besides vanillin, the pods contain vanillic acid 
(which is odourless), about II % of fixed oil, 2-3% of soft resin, 
sugar, gum and oxalate of lime. 

Vanillin forms crystalline needles, fusible at 81 C., and soluble in 
alcohol, ether and oils, hardly soluble in cold, but more so in boiling 
water. Like other aldehydes, it forms a compound with the alkaline 
bisulphites, and can by this means be extracted from bodies con- 
taining it. Vanillin has been found in Siam benzoin and in raw 
sugar, and has been prepared artificially from coniferin, a glucoside 
found in the sapwood of fir-trees, from asafoetida, and from a con- 
stituent of oil of cloves named eugenol. It is from the last-named 
that vanillin is now prepared on a commercial scale, chiefly in 
Germany. Vanillin does not appear to have any physiological 
action on human beings when taken in small doses, as much as 
10 to 15 grains having been administered without noxious results. 
On small animals, however, such as frogs, it appears to act as a 
convulsive. It has been suggested as a stimulant of an excito- 
motor character in atonic dyspepsia. It is a constituent of Gtinz- 
burg's reagent (phloro-vanillin-glucin) for the detection of free 
hydrochloric acid in the gastric contents. The poisonous effects 



VANINI VANNES 



895 



that have on several occasions followed from eating ices flavoured 
with vanilla are not to be attributed to the vanilja, but probably to 
the presence of tyrotoxicon (Pharm. Journ. [3], xvii. p. 150), a poison 
found in milk which has undergone certain putrefactive changes, 
and producing choleraic effects, or perhaps to the presence of micro- 
scopic fungi in the vanilla, the plantations being liable to the attack 
of Bacterium putredinis. Workmen handling the beans in the 
Bordeaux factories are subject to itching of the hands and face; 
but this is caused by an Acarus which occupies the end of the pod. 
In some cases, however, symptoms of dizziness, weariness and 
malaise, with muscular pains, have been felt, due possibly to the 
absorption of the oily juice by the hands of the workmen. 

See also R. A. Rolfe, " Vanillas of Commerce," in Kew Bulletin 
(1895), p. 169, and " Revision of the Genus Vanilla," in Journal of 
The Linnean Society (Botany), xxxii. 439 (1896) ; also S. J. Galbraith, 
on " Cultivation in the Seychelles," U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Division 
of Botany, Bulletin 21 (1898). 

VANINI, LUCILIO, or, as he styled himself in his works, 
GIULIO CESARE (1585-1619), Italian free-thinker, was born at 
Taurisano, near Naples, in 1585. He studied philosophy and 
theology at Rome, and after his return to Naples applied him- 
self to the physical studies which had come into vogue with 
the Renaissance. Like Giordano Bruno, though morally and 
intellectually inferior to him, he was among those who led 
the attack on the old scholasticism and helped to lay the 
foundation of modern philosophy. Vanini resembles Bruno, 
not only in his wandering life and in his tragic death, but also 
in his anti-Christian bias. From Naples he went to Padua, 
where he came under the influence of the Alexandrist Pom- 
ponazzi (q.v.), whom he styles his divine master. At Padua 
he studied law, and was ordained priest. Subsequently he 
led a roving life in France, Switzerland and the Low Countries, 
supporting himself by giving lessons and disseminating anti- 
religious views. He was obliged to flee from Lyons to England 
in 1614, but was imprisoned in London for some reason for forty- 
nine days. Returning to Italy he made an attempt to teach 
in Genoa, but was driven once more to France, where he made 
a valiant effort to clear himself of suspicion by publishing 
a book against atheists, Amphitheatrum Aeternae Providentiae 
Dimno-Magicum (1615). Though the definitions of God are 
somewhat pantheistic, the book is sufficiently orthodox, but 
the arguments are largely ironical, and cannot be taken as 
expounding his real views. Vanini expressly tells us so in 
his second (and only other published) work, De Admirandis 
Naturae Reginae Deaeque Mortalium Arcanis (Paris, 1616), 
which, originally certified by two doctors of the Sorbonne, was 
afterwards re-examined and condemned to the flames. Vanini 
then left Paris, where he had been staying as chaplain to the 
marechal de Bassompierre, and began to teach in Toulouse. 
In November 1618 he was arrested, and after a prolonged trial 
was condemned, as an atheist, to have his tongue cut out, and 
to be strangled at the stake, his body to be afterwards burned to 
ashes. The sentence was executed on the 9th of February 1619. 

See Cousin, Fragments de philosophic cartesienne (Brussels, 
1838-40), i. 1-99; French trans. M. X. Rousselot (Paris, 1842); 
John Owen, Skeptics of the Italian Renaissance (London, 1893), 
345-419; J. Toulan, Etude sur L. Vanini (Strassburg, 1869); 
Cesare Cantu, Gli Eretici d'ltalia (Turin, 1867), iii. 72 ff. ; Fuhr- 
mann, Leben und Schicksale (Leipzig, 1800) ; Vai'sse, L. Vanini 
(Paris, 1871); Palumbo, Vanini, e i suoi tempi (Naples, 1878); 
Passamonti in Rivista italiana di filosofia (1893), vol. iii. 

VANLOO, CHARLES ANDREW (1705-1765), subject painter, 
a younger brother of John Baptist Vanloo (q.v.), was born at 
Nice on the isth of February 1705. He received some in- 
struction from his brother, and like him studied in Rome under 
Luti. Leaving Italy in 1723, he worked in Paris, where he 
gained the first prize for historical painting. After again visit- 
ing Italy in 1727, he was employed by the king of Sardinia, for 
whom he painted a series of subjects illustrative of Tasso. In 
1734 he settled in Paris, and in 1735 became a member of the 
French Academy; and he was decorated with the order of 
St Michael and appointed principal painter to the king. By 
his simplicity of style and correctness of design, the result of 
his study of the great Italian masters, he did much to purify 
the modern French school; but the contemporary praise that 
was lavished upon his productions now appears undue and 



excessive. His " Marriage of the Virgin " is preserved in the 
Louvre. He died at Paris on the isth of July 1765. 

VANLOO, JOHN BAPTIST (1684-1745), French subject and 
portrait painter, was born at Aix in Provence on the I4th of 
January 1684. He was instructed in art by his father. Having 
at an early age executed several pictures for the decoration of 
the church and public buildings at Aix, he was employed on 
similar work at Toulon, which he was obliged to leave during 
the siege of 1707. He was patronized by the prince of Carignan, 
who sent him to Rome, where he studied under Benedetto Luti. 
Here he was much employed on church pictures, and in par- 
ticular executed a greatly praised " Scourging of Christ " for 
St Maria in Monticelli. At Turin he painted the duke of Savoy 
and several members of his court. Then, removing to Paris, 
where he was elected a member of the French Academy, he exe- 
cuted various altar-pieces and restored the works of Primaticcio 
at Fontainebleau. In 1737 he went to England, where he 
attracted attention by his portrait of Colley Gibber and of 
Owen McSwiny, the theatrical manager; the latter, like many 
other of Vanloo's works, was engraved in mezzotint by the 
younger Faber. He also painted Sir Robert Walpole, whose 
portrait by Vanloo in his robes as chancellor of the exchequer 
is in the National Portrait Gallery (London) , and the prince and 
princess of Wales. He did not, however, practise long in England, 
for his health failing he retired to Paris in 1742, and afterwards 
to Aix, where he died on the igth of December 1745. His like- 
nesses were striking and faithful, but seldom flattering, and his 
heads are forcible in colouring. The draperies and accessories in 
his pictures were usually painted by Van Achen, Eccardt and Root. 

VANNES, a town of western France, capital of the depart- 
ment of Morbihan, 84 m. N.W. of Nantes on the railway to 
Brest. Pop. (1906), town, 16,728; commune, 23,561. It is 
situated 10 m. from the open sea, at the confluence of two streams 
forming the Vannes river, which debouches into the land-locked 
Gulf of Morbihan about a mile below the town. The narrow, 
steep and crooked streets of the old town, which lie on a hill 
facing the south, are surrounded by fortifications of the i4th, 
15th and i7th centuries, pierced by four gates and flanked by 
nine towers and five bastions, connected by battlements. In 
the Constable's Tower Olivier de Clisson was confined in 1387. 
The modern suburbs, with the port, the public buildings, 
barracks, convents, squares and promenades, notably the 
Garenne and the park of the Prefecture, surround the old town. 
The archaeological museum, the contents of which are mainly 
the fruit of excavations at Carnac and elsewhere in the vicinity, 
includes one of the richest collections of prehistoric remains in 
Europe. There are also a museum of natural history and a 
library. The cathedral of St Peter overlooks the old town; 
burnt by the Normans in the loth century, it was rebuilt in 
the Ijth, isth and i8th centuries. It has remains of a cloister 
and contains the relics and tomb of the Spanish Dominican 
preacher St Vincent Ferrier, who died at Vannes in 1419. The 
curious round Chapelle du Pardon to the left of the nave was 
built in 1537 in the Italian style. Some interesting old houses, 
including that of the presidents of the parlement of Brittany, 
the rich private collections of M. de Limur, and the church of 
St Paterne (i8th .century) are also worthy of mention. There 
is a monument to Le Sage, born near Vannes. Vannes is the 
seat of a prefect, a bishop and a court of assizes, and has tribunals 
of first instance and of commerce and a branch of the Bank of 
France. A communal college is among the educational institu- 
tions. Among the industries are building, tanning and cotton- 
weaving. The port of Vannes, to the south of the town, is 
formed by the Vannes river and is accessible only to small 
vessels. Vessels of 800 tons can make the harbour of Conleau 
about 2\ m. from the town. 

Vannes (Dariorigum) , the capital of the Veneti (whence 
Gwened, the Breton name of the town), was at the head of the 
Armorican league against Julius Caesar, who in 56 B.C. over- 
came their fleet and opened up their country by six roads. 
St Paternus, the first bishop, was consecrated in 465. In the 
5th century Vannes was ruled for a time by independent counts, 



8 9 6 



VAN RENSSELAER VAN'T HOFF 



but soon came under the yoke of the Franks. Nomenoe, the 
lieutenant of Louis I., the Pious, in Brittany, assumed the title 
of king hi 843, and one of his brothers was the founder of a line 
of counts who distinguished themselves against the Normans 
in the 9th and loth centuries. Vannes became part of the 
duchy of Brittany at the end of the icth century. The estates 
of Brittany met there for the first time in 1203 to urge Philip 
Augustus to avenge the death of Arthur of Brittany. In the 
course of the War of Succession the town was besieged four 
times in 1342. Duke John IV. built here the castle of L'Hermine 
and made it his habitual residence. In 1487 the town was for 
a year hi the hands of Charles VIII. of France. In 1532 
Brittany was definitively united to France. The estates met at 
Vannes several times in the I7th and i8th centuries. During 
the Revolution this town was the scene of the execution in 1795 
of some of the prisoners after the royalist disaster at Quiberon. 

VAN RENSSELAER, STEPHEN (1764-1839), American 
political leader and soldier, " last of the patroons," was born at 
New York City on the ist of November 1764. He was fifth 
in descent from KILLIAN VAN RENSSELAER (c. 1580-1645), the 
original patroon of Rensselaerwyck, New York, who acquired 
his large estates between 1630 and 1637. Stephen was gradu- 
ated at Harvard in 1782. In 1780-90 he was a member of the 
New York Assembly, and from 1791 to 1795 served as a member 
of the state Senate. He was lieutenant-governor of New York 
(1795-1801) for the two terms in which John Jay was governor. 
In 1801 he presided over the state constitutional convention, 
and from 1808 to 1810 was again in the Assembly. He was 
an ardent promoter of the Erie Canal, and as a commissioner 
to examine the proposed route, &c., he reported favourably to 
the Assembly in 1811. In the second war with Great Britain 
he commanded the First Division of the detached militia of the 
state of New York, with the rank of major-general, and on the 
I3th of October 1812 was defeated at the battle of Queenston 
Heights. As he was a Federalist he was severely criticised 
and censured for this defeat and resigned from the army. At 
the close of the war the Erie Canal project was renewed, and 
from 1816 till his death he was a member of the board of canal 
commissioners, and for nearly fifteen years was its president. 
In 1818 he was again elected to the Assembly; in 1819 he 
became a regent of the State University of which he was for a 
time chancellor; and in 1821 he was a delegate to the New 
York constitutional convention. From 1822 to 1829 he was 
a member of the National House of Representatives, 1 and there 
voted for John Quincy Adams for the presidency, and served 
as chairman of the committee on agriculture. In 1820-23 
he sent out at his own expense Professors Amos Eaton 
(1776-1842) and Edward Hitchcock to make extensive surveys, 
results of which were published as An Agricultural and Geological 
Survey of the District adjoining the Erie Canal (Albany, 1824). 
In 1824 he founded a school in Troy which was incorporated 
two years later as the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. He 
died at Albany, New York, on the 26th of January 1839. 

See D. D. Barnard, A Discourse on the Life, Services and Character 
of Stephen Van Rensselaer (Albany, 1839). 

VANSITTART, HENRY (1732-1770 or 1771), Anglo-Indian 
governor, was born in London on the 3rd of June 1732. His 
father, Arthur van Sittart (1691-1760), and his grandfather, 
Peter van Sittart (1651-1705), were both wealthy merchants 
and directors of the Russia company. Peter, a merchant 
adventurer, who had migrated from Danzig to London about 
1670, was also a director of the East India company. The 
family name is taken from the town of Sittard in Limburg. 
Educated at Reading school and at Winchester college, Henry 
Vansittart joined the society of the Franciscans, or the " Hell- 
fire club," at Medmenham, his elder brothers, Arthur and Robert, 
being also members of this fraternity. In 1745 he entered the 

1 He succeeded his cousin, Solomon Van Rensselaer (1744-1852), 
who was in the regular army in 1792-1800, who had fought under 
General Anthony Wayne at Maumee Rapids in 1794 and under 
Stephen Van Rensselaer at Queenston Heights in 1812, and who was 
in the House of Representatives in 1819-1822. 



service of the East India company and sailed for Fort St David; 
here he showed himself very industrious, made the acquaintance 
of Robert Clive and rose rapidly from one position to another. 
As a member of the council of Madras he helped to defend the 
city against the French in 1759, and in July 1760 he went to 
Bengal as president of the council and governor of Fort William. 
Courageously facing the difficulties of his new position, which 
included a serious lack of funds, he deposed the subadar of 
Bengal, Mir Jafar, whom he replaced by his son-in-law, Mir 
Kasim, a circumstance which increased the influence of England 
in the province. He was, however, less successful in another 
direction. Practically ah" the company's servants were traders 
in their private capacity, and as they claimed various privileges 
and exemptions this system was detrimental to the interests 
of the native princes and gave rise to an enormous amount 
of corruption. Vansittart sought to check this, and in 1762 
he made a treaty with Mir Kasim, but the majority of his 
council were against him and in the following year this was 
repudiated. Reprisals on the part of the subadar were followed 
by war, and, annoyed at the failure of his pacific schemes, 
the governor resigned and returned to England in 1764. His 
conduct was attacked before the board of directors in London, 
but events seemed to prove that he 'was in the right, and in 

1769 he became a director of the company, having in the 
previous year obtained a seat in parliament. He was now sent 
on an important mission to India; he left England in September 
1769, but the ship in which he sailed was lost at sea late in 

1770 or early in 1771. One of his five sons was Nicholas 
Vansittart, Baron Bexley (<?..). To defend his conduct in 
Bengal Vansittart published some papers as A Narrative of the 
Transactions in Bengal from 1760 to 1764 (London, 1766). 

Vansittart's brother, Robert Vansittart (1728-1789), who 
was educated at Winchester and at Trinity College, Oxford, 
was regius professor of civil law at Oxford from 1757 until 
his death on the 3ist of January 1789. Another brother, 
George Vansittart (1745-1825), of Bisham Abbey, Berkshire, 
was the father of General George Henry Vansittart (1768- 
1824) and of Vice-Admiral Henry Vansittart (1777-1843). 

VAN'T HOFF, JACOBUS HENDRICUS (1852- ), Dutch 
chemist and physicist, was born in Rotterdam on the 3oth of 
August 1852. He studied from 1869 to 1871 at the polytechnic 
at Delft, in 1871 at the university of Leiden, in 1872 with F. 
A. Kekule at Bonn, in 1873 with C. A. Wurtz at Paris, and 
in 1874, when he took his doctor's degree, with E. Mulder 
at Utrecht. In 1876 he became lecturer on physics at the 
veterinary school at Utrecht, and two years later he was chosen 
professor of chemistry, mineralogy and geology in Amsterdam 
University. In 1894 he declined an invitation to the chair 
of physics at Berlin University, but in 1896 he went to Berlin 
as professor to the Prussian Academy of Sciences, with a salary 
and a laboratory, but freedom to do whatever he liked; and 
at the same 'time he accepted an honorary professorship in the 
university so that he might lecture if he were so minded. On 
taking up these appointments he announced that, the applica- 
tion of mathematics to chemistry remaining his chief aim, 
he proposed to devote himself to the study of the formation 
of oceanic salt deposits, with special reference to the Stassfurt 
deposits. He may be regarded as the founder of the doctrine 
of stereoisomerism (q.v.), for he was the first, hi 1874, to intro- 
duce a definite mechanical theory of valency, and to connect 
the optical activity exhibited by many carbon compounds 
with their chemical constitution. In respect of this doctrine 
of the " asymmetric carbon atom," van't Hoff's name is generally 
linked with that of J. A. le Bel (born on the 2ist of January 
1847, at Pechelbronn, Lower Alsace), who, only two months 
later, independently enunciated the theory of asymmetric 
combinations with carbon; though it must be noted that 
J. Wislicenus, to whom van't Hoff, in fact, acknowledged his 
indebtedness, had already suggested that in order to explain 
the constitution of certain organic bodies, the tridimensional 
arrangement of atoms in space must be taken into account. 
For this work van't Hoff and Le Bel received the Davy medal 



VAN WERT VAPORIZATION 



897 



jointly from the Royal Society in 1893. From 1874 to 1884 
van't Hoff's attention was mainly given to the law of mass- 
action, and he established the theorem known by his name, 
which connects quantitative displacement of equilibrium with 
change of temperature. From 1885 to 1895 he was engaged 
on the theory of solutions, and developing the analogy between 
dilute solutions and gases he showed that the osmotic pressure 
of a solution has the same value as the pressure that solute 
would exert if it were contained as a gas in the same volume 
as is occupied by the solution. From 1885 he published the 
Zeitschrift fur physikalische Chemie, in collaboration with 
Professor W. Ostwald of Leipzig. 

- VAN WERT, a city and the county-seat of Van Wert 
county, Ohio, U.S.A., about 28 m. W. by N. of Lima. Pop. 
(1890) 5512; (190) 6422 (221 foreign-born); (1910) 7157. 
Van Wert is served by the Pennsylvania and the Cincinnati 
Northern railways, and by an interurban electric line. Among 
the principal buildings are the city hall, the court house, the 
Brumback Library of Van Wert county (containing 14,650 
volumes in 1908), the Home Office Building of the Home Guards 
of America (a fraternal society incorporated in 1899 and having 
about 16,000 members in 1910), and the Home Office Building 
of the Central Manufactures' Insurance Co. Van Wert is 
situated in a rich agricultural region. It has railway and 
machine shops and various manufactures. The municipality 
owns and operates the waterworks. Van Wert was settled 
about 1840, was incorporated as a town in 1848 and was 
chartered as a city in 1903. The county and the city were 
named in honour of Isaac Van Wert (1760-1828), one of the 
captors of Major John Andre. 

VAPEREAU, LOUIS GUSTAVE (1810-1906), French man 
of letters and lexicographer, was born at Orleans on the 
4th of April 1819. Educated at the Ecole Normale he became 
a teacher of philosophy, and was entrusted by Victor Cousin 
with the preparation pf his studies on the Pensees of Pascal. 
Under the empire his republican principles cost him his position, 
and Vapereau studied for the bar. He practised, however, 
little or not at all, and after 1870 he was appointed prefect 
of Cantal (1870) and of Tarn et Garonne (1871-73). From 
1877 to 1888 he was inspector-general of public instruction. 
He was the author of some excellent editions of the classics, 
and of works on political and social questions, but he is famous 
for his valuable Diclionnaire universel des contemporains (1858; 
6th ed., 1893), brought up to date in 1895 by a supplementary 
volume. He also drew up a Dictionnaire universel des litte- 
rateurs (1876). At the time of his death at Norsang-sur-Orge 
in 1906, he had been for twenty -six years a regular contributor 
to L 'Illustration, some of his notes written for this journal being 
collected in 1896 as L'Homme et la vie. 

VAPHIO, an ancient site in Laconia, Greece, on the right 
bank of the Eurotas, some 5 m. S. of Sparta. It is famous for 
its " bee-hive " tomb, excavated in 1889 by Dr Tsountas. 
This consists of a walled approach, or Spo/ios, about 97 ft. long, 
leading to a vaulted chamber some 33 ft. in diameter, in the 
floor of which the actual grave was cut. The objects found 
here and transferred to the National Museum in Athens include 
a large number of gems and amethyst beads, together with 
articles in gold, silver, bronze, iron, lead, amber and crystal. 
But by far the finest of them are two golden cups decorated 
with scenes in relief, picturing the capture of bulls. These 
form perhaps the most perfect works of " Mycenaean " or 
" Minoan " art which have survived. It seems likely that the 
Vaphio cups do not represent a local art but were imported 
from Crete, which at that early period was far ahead of main- 
land Greece in artistic development. The tomb, which probably 
belonged to Amyclae rather than to Pharis, as is commonly 
stated, is now almost entirely destroyed. 

See C. Tsountas, 'E<)AMpis 'ApxaioXoTunj (1889), 136172; J. G. 
Frazer, Pausanias's Description of Greece, iii. 135 f. (with full biblio- 
graphy) ; W. Ridgeway, The Early Age of Greece, i. 2628; R. C. 
Bosanquet, Journal of Hellenic Studies (1904), xxiv. 317 ff-I A. 
Riegl, Jahreshefte d. osterr. arch. Institutes (1906), ix. I ff. 

(M. N. T.) 

XXVII. 29 



VAPORIZATION, i. In common language a vapour is a 
gaseous or elastic fluid, which emanates or evaporates from 
the surface of a solid or liquid at temperatures below its 
boiling-point. A volatile liquid or solid is one which evaporates 
rapidly at ordinary temperatures. It is a matter of common 
experience that evaporation is accelerated by currents of air, 
or by the use of an exhaust pump, or by any process which 
removes the vapour rapidly from the liquid. On the other 
hand, it is retarded, and finally ceases, if the vapour is allowed 
to accumulate in a closed space. When this equilibrium 
state is reached, the space is said to be saturated with the vapour; 
the density of the vapour is then the maximum which can 
exist in the presence of the liquid at the temperature of the 
experiment, and its pressure is called the saturation-pressure. 
The term vapour-pressure, when used without qualification, 
is also generally employed to denote the saturation or maxi- 
mum pressure. Dalton showed that the saturation-pressure 
of a vapour depends only on the temperature, and is unaffected 
by the presence of any neutral gas or vapour. This relation 
has been more accurately verified by many subsequent observers, 
and the exceptions to it have been minutely studied and eluci- 
dated. The saturation-pressure invariably increases rapidly 
with rise of temperature, according to a regular law which has 
been the subject of many elaborate investigations. When the 
vapour-pressure of a liquid becomes equal to the external 
pressure, bubbles of vapour are freely formed in the interior 
of the liquid by the familiar process of boiling or ebullition. 
The temperature at which this occurs under the normal atmo- 
spheric pressure of 760 mm. of mercury (reduced to o C. and 
sea-level in latitude 45) is termed the boiling-point (B.P.) of 
the liquid, and is usually determined by taking the temperature 
of the saturated vapour under normal pressure, to avoid error 
from superheating (see below, 3) of the liquid. If the external 
pressure remains constant, the temperature will also remain 
constant, provided that the liquid is pure and that its com- 
position remains unaltered, until the whole is vaporized. If, 
on the other hand, the liquid is contained in a closed space, 
it may be made to boil at much lower temperatures by dimin- 
ishing the pressure; or the temperature of the liquid may be 
raised considerably above the normal boiling-point, as in the 
boiler of a steam-engine, if the pressure is raised by preventing 
the free escape of the vapour. In all cases, if the temperature 
is given, there is a corresponding equilibrium or saturation- 
pressure of the vapour, and vice versa, in accordance with 
Dalton's law. It was shown, however, by Cagniard de la 
Tour (Ann. Chim. Phys., 1822, 1823) that the temperature 
and pressure of the liquid could not be raised indefinitely in 
this manner. By heating liquids in strong glass bulbs with 
manometers attached, he found that at a certain tempera- 
ture the meniscus or curved surface separating the liquid 
from the vapour disappeared, and the bulb became filled with 
an apparently uniform substance. The temperature at which 
this mixing of liquid and vapour occurs is definite for each 
liquid, and is called the critical temperature. La Tour found 
the critical temperature in the case of water to be 362 C., a 
result which has been remarkably confirmed by later researches 
(Cailletet, Ann. Chim. Phys. 25, p. 519, 1892). In many 
books of recent years it has been the custom, following a 
suggestion of Andrews, to restrict the term " gas " to temper- 
atures above the critical temperature, and the term " vapour " 
to temperatures below. But this is often inconvenient in 
practice, as there is no sudden change in the gaseous phase 
at ordinary pressures on passing the critical temperature. It 
is more convenient to employ the terms " vapour " only when 
discussing the properties of the gaseous phase in relation to 
the liquid or solid, and to follow the common usage in describ- 
ing substances like COj, or even SOj and NH 3 , as gases at 
ordinary temperatures and pressures. 

2. Continuity of State. The form of the isothermal curve, 
representing the compression of a vapour at constant tempera- 
ture, consists, as shown in fig. i, A, of three discontinuous 
branches. The relation between pressure and volume for an 



VAPORIZATION 



unsaturated vapour is represented by the branch DE, which is 
similar to the isothermal of a gas obeying Boyle's law. When 
the saturation-pressure is reached at D the vapour begins to 
condense, and the volume diminishes without further increase 
of pressure, giving the isopiestic branch DCB. At B, when the 
vapour is completely liquefied, further compression produces a 
rapid rise of pressure, as shown by the branch BA, representing 




in 



M 



^ 



\ 



21 :,' 





Axis of Vo?ume. 
A 



o i z a + s e 7 a 
VoLume in c.c. per am. 
B 



FlG. I. 
A, James Thomson Isothermal; B, Isothermals of CO 2 (Andrews). 

the behaviour of the liquid. It is possible, however, to trace 
the branch DN for the supersaturated vapour continuously 
beyond D without liquefaction in the absence of nuclei. It is 
similarly possible to trace the liquid branch ABM beyond B 
to lower pressures in the absence of dissolved gases. As the 
temperature is raised, the length of the branch BD, representing 
the increase of volume in passing from the liquid to the gas, 
diminishes, as shown in fig. i, B, which represents the isothermals 
of COi, 1 according to Andrews (Phil. Trans. 1869). Above the 
critical temperature, the discontinuities at B and D disappear 
from the isothermal curve, and it is impossible to obtain separa- 
tion of the two states, liquid and gas, however great the pressure 
applied. The critical pressure is the vapour-pressure of the 
liquid at the critical temperature. It is possible to obtain 
a perfectly continuous passage from the gaseous to the liquid 
state by keeping the vapour at a pressure greater than the 
critical pressure while it is cooled from a temperature above 
the critical point, at which it would expand indefinitely (if the 
pressure were reduced) without separation into two phases, to a 
temperature below the critical point, at which expansion would 
produce separation into liquid and vapour as soon as the pressure 
was reduced to the saturation value. It was maintained by 
Andrews, on the basis of these and similar observations, that the 
gaseous and liquid states were merely widely separated forms 
of the same condition of matter, since one could be converted 
into the other without any breach of continuity or sudden 
evolution of heat or change of volume; just as an amorphous 
solid in the process of fusion becomes gradually more and more 
plastic as the temperature is raised, and passes into the state of 
a viscous liquid with continually diminishing viscosity. The 
same idea was further developed by James Thomson (Proc. R.S., 
1871), who suggested that the discontinuity of the isothermal 
at temperatures below the critical point was only apparent. 
He supposed that the extensions of the liquid and vapour curves 
BM, DN, in fig. i, A, representing the states of superheated 
liquid and supersaturated vapour, might theoretically be joined 
by a continuous curve MN, representing a homogeneous trans- 
formation, which, however, could not be realized in practice, 
as the state of the substance corresponding to this part of the 
curve would be unstable. Maxwell (Nature, 1875) showed 
that the straight line BCD representing the saturation-pressure 
must cut off loops BMC, CND, of equal area from this imaginary 
1 The slight increase of pressure observed during condensation was 
attributed by Andrews to the presence of a trace of air in the COa. 



isothermal; otherwise it would be theoretically possible to 
obtain a balance of work without any difference of temperature 
by taking the substance through the isothermal cycleBCDNCMB. 
The theoretical isothermal of James Thomson is qualitatively 
represented by an equation of the type devised by Van der 
Waals, in which the mutual attraction of the molecules of a 
gas is regarded as equivalent to an internal pressure of the form 
a/i> 2 , which he supposes identical with the capillary pressure of 
the liquid. It has been found, however, that this simple expres- 
sion is not sufficiently exact. It is probable that it is not merely 
a question of varying attraction between similar molecules. A 
vapour should rather be regarded as containing a certain propor- 
tion of compound or coaggregated molecules, which partially 
dissociate when the pressure is diminished or the temperature 
raised. A liquid similarly contains dissolved molecules of 
vapour, and the state of equilibrium is more nearly analogous 
to that between conjugate saturated solutions (e.g. water and 
phenol). 

3. Effect of Capillary Pressure on Ebullition. It was remarked 
at a very early date that water and other liquids could be raised 
under atmospheric pressure several degrees above their normal 
boiling-points in a clean glass vessel without ebullition occurring, 
and that, when a bubble was formed, it would expand explosively, 
producing the phenomenon of "bumping"; but that, if metallic 
filings or other bodies capable of supplying small bubbles of air 
were introduced, ebullition would proceed quietly at the normal 
temperature. L. Dufour succeeded in raising small drops of water, 
suspended in an oil mixture of suitable density, to a temperature 
of nearly 180 C. under atmospheric pressure. Similar observations 
lead to the conclusion that the phenomenon of ebullition, or boiling 
with the formation of bubbles, depends essentially on the presence 
of air or dissolved gas to provide nuclei for the starting-points of 
the bubbles. This is a natural consequence of the capillary pres- 
sure due to surface tension. The vapour-pressure p inside a small 
spherical bubble of radius r must exceed the pressure P in the liquid 
just outside the bubble by 2T/r, where T is the surface tension of 
the liquid. The capillary pressure 2T/r may be very large if r is 
small. It is often stated on the strength of this relation that a 
bubble of radius r in a liquid will not expand indefinitely and rise 
to the surface as in ebullition, until the vapour-pressure p inside 
the bubble exceeds the external pressure P by 2T/r. But this 
neglects the effect of the air or gas contained in the bubble* which 
plays an essential part in the phenomenon. A bubble of vapour 
containing no air or gas could not exist at all in stable equilibrium in 
a liquid. If its radius r were such as to make 2T/r greater than 
pr, it would collapse entirely. A bubble containing gas, on the 
contrary, is in stable equilibrium when its radius r is such that the 
pressure of the gas and vapour inside it balance the external pressure 
P together with the capillary pressure 2T/r. Any diminution of r 
produces an increase in the pressure of the gas which is more than 
sufficient to balance the increase of the capillary pressure 2T/r. 
Supposing that the external pressure and temperature remain 
constant, the partial pressure of the gas inside the bubble varies 
inversely as the volume of the bubble, and may be represented by 
a/r*. The size of the bubble is determined by the equation 
p-\ra/r 3 = P-\-2T/r. The equilibrium is always stable if p is less 
than P. If * is greater than P, the equilibrium becomes unstable 
(and the bubble expands indefinitely), when the gas-pressure a/r* 
is one-third of the capillary pressure 2T/r. This follows immediately 
by differentiating the above equation with respect to r, assuming 
the difference p P to remain constant. Substituting 2T/3r for a/r* 
we obtain the condition of stability, 

In other words, the temperature of a liquid containing bubbles of 
radius r will rise until the excess pressure given by (i) is reached, 
and ebullition will begin as soon as the excess pressure amounts 
to two-thirds of the capillary pressure, and will not be delayed 
until the full capillary pressure is reached, as might appear at 
first sight. Bubbles I millimetre in diameter in water at P = 760 mm. 
become unstable when the temperature reaches 100-05 C. approxi- 
mately. To obtain a superheat of 10 C., where the excess pressure 
is 316 mm., the bubbles must not exceed about jjjth mm. diameter. 
The condensation of a vapour is also retarded by the effect of 
capillary pressure, but the relation in this case is somewhat different. 

4. Effect of Capillary Pressure on Vapour-Pressure. It was 
observed by Sir W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (Phil. Mag. iv. 42, 
p. 448, 1871) that if a capillary tube of radius r is immersed in a 
liquid of surface tension T, and the liquid rises to a height h above 
the plane surface (the whole being enclosed in a vessel of uniform 
temperature containing only the vapour of the liquid) the pressure 
of the vapour at the curved surface of the meniscus in the capillary 
tube will be less than that at the plane surface by the amount, 
gh/v, where g is the acceleration of gravity, and i/f is the density 
of the vapour. But the vapour must be in equilibrium with the 
liquid at both surfaces. Otherwise perpetual motion would ensue 



VAPORIZATION 



899 



in an enclosure at uniform temperature. Consequently the equili- 
brium value of the vapour-pressure must vary with the curvature 
of the surface, or with the capillary pressure due to the curvature. 

If P, p are the hydrostatic pressures in the liquid and vapour 
close to the meniscus, the difference Pp = 2T/r. This is negative 
if r is negative, i.e. if the liquid rises in the tube, but is positive if 
the meniscus is convex and the liquid is depressed in the tube. 
If Po, po are the pressures in the liquid and vapour at the plane 
surface, Po = />o, and if i/V is the density of the liquid, the differences 
of pressure in the liquid and vapour respectively corresponding to 
a difference of level h, are P Po= g/J/V, ppn=ghjv. Com- 
bining these with the relation P p = 2T/r and eliminating gh, we 
obtain, for the change of vapour-pressure ppo, due to change of 
pressure P po, or to curvature l/r, 

-/>o=(P-Po)V/ = 2TV/r(i V). . . (2) 

This increase of vapour-pressure with curvature affords a natural 
explanation of the fact that it is possible to cool a vapour consider- 
ably below the saturation temperature without condensation. The 
vapour-pressure in a fog containing small drops of radius r must 
exceed the normal vapour-pressure over a plane surface at the same 
temperature by the amount 2TV/r( V), which may be consider- 
able if r is small. The same expression measures the supersatura- 
tion required to induce condensation in the presence of dust or 
other nuclei of radius r, and explains why it is that condensation 
always takes place on dust particles if any are present. This 
phenomenon forms the basis of J. Aitken's method of counting 
dust particles, or Wilson's method of counting electrical ions, which 
are also capable of acting as nuclei for starting condensation. 

5. Extension to Higher Pressures. The approximate formula 
above given for the effect of hydrostatic pressure on the vapour- 
pressure assumes the densities of the liquid and vapour constant, 
and is true for small differences of pressure only. If we take Po 
and pn to represent corresponding values of the pressure in the 
liquid and vapour at the same level (and not necessarily at the plane 
surface where Po = pt>), and if the difference of level from P, p is 
small, substituting dP and dp for the small differences of pressure, 
we have accurately the relation vdp=VdP, where V and v are the 
specific volumes of the liquid and vapour under the pressures P 
and p respectively. In order to apply the formula to large differ- 
ences of pressure, it is only necessary to integrate it at constant 
temperature between the required limits of P and p. We thus 
obtain the general equation, 



In applying the general equation (3) to an actual case, the com- 
pressibility of the liquid is the most uncertain factor. Assuming 
the compressibility constant, we may write V = Vo(l aP). For 
the vapour we may employ equation (17) THERMODYNAMICS, viz. 
v = R6/p c+b, as a very close approximation over a wide range. 
The small quantities c and b arte functions of the temperature only. 
Making these substitutions and integrating the equation we obtain 
RS log.(p/p,) = (c-b)(p-p )+Vo(P-Po)-aVo(P 1 -P*o). (4) 

C. T. R. Wilson (Phil. Trans. 1898) has observed that in the 
absence of nuclei a very fine mist is formed in a vapour on sudden 
expansion when its density is about eight times the saturation 
value. Putting p/po = 8 in equation (4), and taking for water vapour 
R=4-6l Xio 6 , and 6 = 300 Abs. we find P Pq equal to 3000 atmo- 
spheres approximately as the pressure required to produce this 
degree of supersaturation, allowing for compressibility of V. The 
term (c b) may be neglected in this case, as p is small, but it would 
amount to about 17% of PV at 200 C. The result obtained from 
the approximate formula (2) would be 9200 atmospheres, which is 
more than treble, and indicates the inapplicability of the simple 
formula in an extreme case. Taking P = 3ooo atmospheres, and 
assuming that the formula 2T/r applies for the capillary pressure, 
we find the equivalent radius of a nucleus corresponding to the 
fine misty condensation to be s-oXicr'cm. This is a quantity of 
molecular dimensions, and lends support to the view that a vapour 
contains a certain proportion of coaggregated molecules, represented 
by the term c in the equation, which are capable of acting as nuclei 
for condensation. The analogous phenomenon of cloudy crystalliza- 
tion, which takes place in a supercooled liquid in the labile state, 
suggests that a liquid may similarly contain molecular crystals of 
solid, which would account, in the case of water, for its anomalous 
expansion and for the variation of its specific heat near the freezing- 
point. 

For small values of the vapour-pressure p, the term (cb) (ppo) 
in equation (4) may generally be neglected, as in the case of water 
at ordinary temperatures. For moderate values of P, not exceeding 
say 100 atmospheres, V may be taken as nearly constant, and the 
equation reduces to the simpler form PV/RO = \og e (p/po), which is 
eften sufficiently exact. 

6. Application to a Solid. If we imagine a vertical column of 
solid in a porous vessel at uniform temperature surrounded by 
vapour, it would appear probable by similar reasoning that it would 
be in equilibrium under its own hydrostatic pressure with the 
pressure of the vapour at different levels. This would give the same 
formula as (2) for the variation of vapour-pressure, with V, the 
specific volume of the solid, in place of V. But since the surface 



tension analogy does not exactly apply in the case of a solid, it is 
perhaps better to deduce the formula from a consideration of the 
effect of pressure on the freezing-point. The freezing-point is 
the point at which the solid and liquid have the same vapour- 
pressure po. Otherwise they could not remain together in equilibrium. 
When the freezing-point is changed by pressure, the vapour-pressures 
p', p", of the solid and liquid must be the same at the new freezing- 
point. The rise of the freezing-point 6 0p, for an increase of 
pressure P Po, is given by the thermodynamic equation (THERMO- 
DYNAMICS, equation (5)) 

L(9-0o)/0o=(P-Po)(V-V), . . . (5) 
where L is the latent heat of fusion, and V', V" are the specific 
volumes of the solid and liquid respectively. The difference 
(p' p") of the vapour-pressures of the solid and liquid under normal 
pressure Po at a temperature 6 near the normal freezing-point 0o, 
is deduced from the same equation (see section 24 below) 

p'-P"=L(e-o )/ve , ... (6) 

where v is the specific volume of the vapour. Substituting for in 
terms of P from (5), we have for the difference of the vapour- 
pressures at 0o under pressure P, 

'_p' = (p_ Po ) (V-V')/. . . . (7) 

The increase of vapour-pressure of the liquid when the pressure is 
increased to P is given by (2), viz. p" po=(P P )V">. The in- 
crease of vapour-pressure of the solid must be less than that of the 
liquid by the amount given by (7), in order that their vapour- 
pressure may be the same at the new freezing-point 8. We thus 
obtain by subtraction 

P'-P*~ (P-Po){V>- (V- V')/t>) = (P-P )V'/t>. 
Which is precisely the same as relation (2) for the liquid, with V 
substituted for V*. Hence the effect of pressure on the vapour- 
pressure follows the same law for both liquid and solid (J. H. 
Poynting, Phil. Mag. xii. p. 40, 1881). 

7. Vapour-Pressure of Solutions. The rise of boiling-point pro- 
duced by a substance in solution was demonstrated by M. Fara- 
day in 1820, but the effect had been known to exist for a long time 
previously. C. H. L. Babo, 1847, gave the law known by his name, 
that the " relative lowering" (ppo)/po of the vapour-pressure of a 
solution, or the ratio of the diminution of vapour-pressure (f po) 
to the vapour-pressure po of the pure solvent at the same tempera- 
ture, was constant, or independent of the temperature, for any 
solution of constant strength. A. Wiillner (Pogg. Ann. 1858, 103, 
p. 529) found the lowering of the vapour-pressure to be nearly pro- 
portional to the strength of the solution for the same salt. W. Ost- 
wald, employing Wiillner's results, found the lowering of vapour- 
pressure produced by different salts in solution in water to be 
approximately the same for solutions containing the same number of 
gramme-molecules of salt per c.c. F. M. Raoult (Comptes Rendus, 
1886^-87) employed other solvents besides water, and showed that the 
relative lowering for different solvents and different dissolved sub- 
stances was the same in many cases for solutions in which the ratio 
of the number of gramme-molecules n of the dissolved substance to 
the number of molecules N of the solvent was the same, or that 
it varied generally in proportion to the ratio n/N. The relative 
lowering of the vapour-pressure can be easily measured by Dalton's 
method of the barometer tube for solvents such as ether, which have 
a sufficient vapour-pressure at ordinary temperatures. But in 
many cases it is more readily determined by observing the rise of the 
boiling-point or the depression of the freezing-point of the solution. 
For the rise in the boiling-point, we have by Clapeyron's equation, 
dp/dO = L(6v, nearly, neglecting the volume of the liquid as com- 
pared with that of the vapour r. If dp is the difference of vapour- 
pressure of solvent dnd solution, and dB the rise in the boiling-point, 
we have the approximate relation, 

n/N=dp/p=mLde/'R8 1 , Raoult 's law, . . (8) 
where m is the molecular weight of the vapour, and R the gas- 
constant which is nearly 2 calories per degree for a gramme-molecule 
of gas. For the depression of the freezing-point a relation of the 
same form applies, but d9 is negative, and L is the latent heat of 
fusion. At the freezing-point, the solution must have the same 
vapour-pressure as the^ solid solvent, with which it is in equilibrium. 
The relation follows immediately from Kirchhoff 's expression (below, 
section 14) for the difference of vapour-pressure of the liquid and 
solid below the freezing-point. 

The most important apparent exceptions to Raoult's law in 
dilute solutions are the cases, (l) in which the molecules of the 
dissolved substance in solution are associated to form compound 
molecules, or dissociated to form other combinations with the 
solvent, in such a way that the actual number of molecules n in the 
solution differs from that calculated from the molecular weight 
corresponding to the accepted formula of the dissolved substance; 
(2) the case in which the molecules of the vapour of the solvent 
are associated in pairs or otherwise so that the molecular weight 
m of the vapour is not that corresponding to its accepted formula. 
These cases are really included in the equation if'we substitute the 
proper values of n or m. In the case of electrolytes, S. Arrhenius 
(Zeit. phys. Chem. i. p. 631) showed how to calculate the effective 
number of molecules n" = (i +e/fco)n,from the molecular conductivity 



goo 



VAPORIZATION 



k of the solution and its value fe> at infinite dilution, for an electrolyte 
iriving rise to e+l ions. The values thus found agreed in the mam 
with Raoult's law for dilute solutions (see SOLUTIONS). For strong 
solutions the discrepancies from Raoult's law often become very 
large even if dissociation is allowed for. Thus for calcium chloride 
the depression of the freezing-point, when n = 7, N = ioo, is nearly 
60" C. At this point n" = lo nearly, and the depression should be 
only 10-4 C. These and similar discrepancies have been very 
generally attributed to a loose and variable association of the mole- 
cules of the dissolved substance with molecules of the solvent, 
which, according to H. C. Jones (Amer. Chem. Jour. 1905, 33, p. 584), 
may vary all the way from a few molecules of water up to at 
least 30 molecules in the case of CaClj, or from 12 to 140 for glycerin. 
It has been shown, however, by Callendar (Proc. R.S.A. 1908) that, 
if the accurate formulae for the vapour-pressure given below are 
employed, the results for strong solutions are consistent with a very 
slight, but important, modification of Raoult's law. It is assumed 
that each molecule of solute combines with a molecules of solvent 
according to the ordinary law of chemical combination, and that 
the number a, representing the degree of hydration, remains con- 
stant within wide limits of temperature and concentration. In this 
case the ratio of the vapour-pressure of the solution p" to that of 
the solvent p' should be equal to the ratio of the number of free 
moleculesof solvent N-an to the whole number of molecules N-an+n 
in the solution. The explanation of this relation is that each of 
the n compound molecules counts as a single molecule, and that, 
if all the molecules were solvent molecules, the vapour-pressure 
would be p', that of the pure solvent. This assumption coincides 
exactly with Raoult's law for the relative lowering of vapour- 
pressure, if = 1, and agrees with it in the limit in all cases for very 
dilute solutions, but it makes a very considerable difference in 
strong solutions if a is greater or less than I. It appears that the 
relatively enormous deviations of CaCl 2 from Raoult's law are 
accounted for on the hypothesis that 0=9, but there is a slight un- 
certainty about the degree of ionization of the strongest solutions 
at -50 C. Cane-sugar appears to require 5 molecules of water of 
hydration both at o C. and at 100 C., whereas KC1 and NaCl 
take more water at 100 C. than at o C. The cases considered by 
Callendar (loc. cit.) are necessarily limited, because the requisite 
data for strong solutions are comparatively scarce. The vapour- 
pressure equations are seldom known with sufficient accuracy, and 
the ionization data are incomplete. But the agreement is very 
good so far as the data extend, and the theory is really simpler than 
Raoult's law, because many different degrees of hydration are known, 
and the assumption = 1 (all monphydrates), which is tacitly in- 
volved in Raoult's law, is in reality inconsistent with other chemical 
relations of the substances concerned. 

8. Vapour-Pressure and Osmotic Pressure. W. F. P. Pfeffer 
(Osmotische. Untersuchungen, Leipzig, 1877) was the first to obtain 
satisfactory measurements of osmotic pressures of cane-sugar 
solutions up to nearly i atmosphere by means of semi-permeable 
membranes of copper ferrocyamde. His observations showed that 
the osmotic pressure was nearly proportional to the concentration 
and to the absolute temperature over a limited range. Van't Hoff 
snowed that the osmotic pressure P due to a number of dissolved 
molecules n in a volume V was the same as would be exerted by 
the same number of gas-molecules at the same temperature in 
the same volume, or that PV = R9n. Arrhenius, by reasoning 
similar to that of section 5, applied to an osmotic cell supporting 
a column of solution by osmotic pressure, deduced the relation 
between the osmotic pressure P at the bottom of the column and 
the vapour-pressure p* of the solution at the top, viz. mPV/R0 = 
log<(p'/p"), which corresponds with the effect of hydrostatic pressure, 
and is equivalent to the assumption that the vapour-pressure of 
the solution at the bottom of the column under pressure P must 
be equal to that of the pure solvent. Poynting (Phil. Mag. 1896, 
42, p. 298) has accordingly defined the osmotic pressure of a solution 
as being the hydrostatic pressure required to make its vapour- 
pressure equal to that of the pure solvent at the same temperature, 
and has shown that this definition agrees approximately with 
Raoult's law and van't Hoff's gas-pressure theory. It is probable 
that osmotic pressure is not really of the same nature as gas-pressure, 
but depends on equilibrium of vapour-pressure. The vapour- 
molecules of the solvent are free to pass through the semi-permeable 
membrane, and will continue to condense in the solution until 
the hydrostatic pressure is so raised as to produce equality of 
vapour-pressure. Lord Berkeley and E. J. G. Hartley (Phil. 
Trans. A. 1906, p. 481) succeeded in measuring osmotic pressures 
of cane-sugar, dextrose, &c., up to 135 atmospheres. The highest 
pressures recorded tor cane-sugar are nearly three times as great as 
those given by van't Hoff's formula for the gas-pressure, but agree 
very well with the vapour-pressure theory, as modified by Callendar, 
provided that we substitute for V in Arrhenius's formula the actual 
specific volume of the solvent in the solution, and if we also assume 
that each molecule of sugar in solution combines with 5 molecules 
of water, as required by the observations on the depression of the 
freezing-point and the rise of the boiling-point. Lord Berkeley and 
Hartley have also verified the theory by direct measurements of 
the vapour-pressures of the same solutions. 



9. Total Heat and Latent Heat. To effect the conversion of a 
solid or liquid into a vapour without change of temperature, it is 
necessary to supply a certain quantity of heat. The quantity 
required per unit mass of the substance is termed the latent heat of 
vaporization. The total heat of the saturated vapour at any 
temperature is usually defined as the quantity of heat required to 
raise unit mass of the liquid from any convenient zero up to the 
temperature considered, and then to evaporate it at that temperature 
under the constant pressure of saturation. The total heat of steam, 
for instance, is generally reckoned from the state of water at the 
freezing-point, o C. If h denote the heat required to raise the 
temperature of the liquid from the selected zero to the temperature 
t C., and if H denote the total heat and L the latent heat of the 
vapour, also at t C., we have evidently the simple relation 

(9) 



The pressure under which the liquid is heated makes very little 
difference to the quantity h, but, in order to make the statement 
definite, it is desirable to add that the liquid should be heated under 
a constant pressure equal to the final saturation-pressure of the 
vapour. The usual definition of total heat applies only to a satu- 
rated vapour. For greater simplicity and generality it is desirable 
to define the total heat of a substance as the function (E+pv), 
where E is the intrinsic energy and the volume of unit mass (see 
THERMODYNAMICS). This agrees with the usual definition in the 
special case of a saturated vapour, if the liquid is heated under the 
final pressure p, as is generally the case in heat engines and in 
experimental measurements of H. 

The method commonly adopted in measuring the latent heat of a 
vapour is to condense the vapour at saturation-pressure in a calori- 
meter. The quantity of heat so measured is the total heat of the 
vapour reckoned from the final temperature of the calorimeter, and 
the heat of the liquid h must be subtracted from the total heat 
measured to find the latent heat of the vapour at the given tempera- 
ture. It is necessary to take special precautions to ensure that the 
vapour is dry or free from drops of liquid. Another method, which 
is suitable for volatile liquids or low temperatures, is to allow the 
liquid to evaporate in a calorimeter, and to measure the quantity 
of heat required for the evaporation of the liquid at the temperature 
of the calorimeter and at saturation-pressure. The first method 
may be called the method of condensation. It was applied in the 
most perfect manner by Regnault to determine the latent heats of 
steam and several other vapours at high pressures. The second 
method may be called the method of evaporation. It is more 
difficult of application than the first, but has given some good results 
in the hands of Griffiths l and Dieterici, although the experiments 
of Regnault by this method were not very successful. 

It was believed for many years, in consequence of some rough 
experiments made by J. Watt, that the total heat of steam was 
constant. This was known as Watt's law, and was sometines 
extended to other vapours. An alternative supposition, due to 
J. Southern, was that the latent heat was constant. The very 
careful experiments of Regnault, published in 1847, showed that the 
truth lay somewhere between the two. The formula which he gave 
for the total heat H of steam at any temperature t C., which has 
since been universally accepted and has formed the basis of all tables 
of the properties of steam, was as follows: 
H= 606- 



He obtained similar formulae for other vapours, but the experiments 
were not so complete or satisfactory as in the case of steam, which 
may conveniently be taken as a typical vapour in comparing theory 
and experiment. 

10. Total Heat of Ideal Vapour. It was proved theoretically by 
W. J. M. Rankine (Proc. R.S.E. vol. xx. p. 173) that the increase of 
the total heat of a saturated vapour between any two temperatures 
should be equal to the specific heat S of the vapour at constant pres- 
sure multiplied by the difference of temperature, provided that the 
saturated vapour behaved as an ideal gas, and that its specific heat 
was independent of the pressure and temperature. Expressed in 
symbols, the relation may be written 

This relation gives a linear formula for the variation of the total 
heat, a result which agrees in form with that found by Regnault for 
steam, and implies that the coefficient of / in his formula should be 
equal to the specific heat S of steam. Rankine's equation follows 
directly from the first law of thermodynamics, and may be proved 
as follows: The heat absorbed in any transformation is the change 
of intrinsic energy plus the external work done. To find the total 
heat H of a vapour, we have H = E+p(v-b), where the intrinsic 
energy E is measured from the selected zero 9o of total heat. The 
external work done is p(v-b), where p is the constant pressure, v 
the volume of the vapour at 6, and b the volume of the liquid at 80. 
If the saturated vapour behaves as a perfect gas, the change of in- 
trinsic energy E depends only on the temperature limits, and is equal 
to 5 (0-0o), where s is the specific heat at constant volume. Taking 
the difference between the values of H for any two temperatures 

1 " Latent Heat of Steam," Phil. Trans. A. 1895; of "Benzene," 
Phil. Mag. 1896. 






VAPORIZATION 



901 



9' and 6", we see that Rankine's result follows immediately, pro- 
vided that p(v b) is equal to (S s)6 or R0/m, which is approxi- 
mately true for gases and vapours when v is very large compared 
with 6. We may observe that the equation (ll) is accurately true 
for an ideal vapour, for which pv=(S-s*)9, provided that the total 
heat is defined as equal to the change of the function (E+pv) between 
the given limits. Adopting this definition, without restriction to 
the case of an ideal vapour or to saturation-pressure, the rate of 
variation of the total heat with temperature (dH/d0) at constant 
pressure is equal to S under all conditions, whether S is constant, or 
varies both with p and 9. (See THERMODYNAMICS, 7.) 

11. Specific Heat of Vapours. The question of the measurement 
of the specific heat of a vapour possesses special interest on account 
of this simple theoretical relation between the specific heat and the 
variation of the latent and total heats. The first accurate calcula- 
tions of the specific heats of air and gases were made by Rankine 
in a continuation of the paper already quoted. Employing Joule's 
value of the mechanical equivalent of heat, then recently published, 
in connexion with the value of the ratio of the specific heats of air 
8/5 = 1-40 deduced from the velocity of sound, Rankine found for 
air 5 = -240, which was much smaller than the best previous deter- 
minations (e.g. Delaroche and Berard, 5 = -267), but agreed very 
closely with the value S = -238, found by Regnault at a later date. 
Adopting for steam the same value of the ratio of the specific heats, 
viz. 1-40, Rankine found 5 = -385, a value which he used, in 
default of a better, in calculating some of the properties of steam, 
although he observed that it was much larger than the coefficient 
305 in Regnault's formula for the variation of the total heat. The 
specific heat of steam was determined shortly afterwards by Regnault 
(Comptes Rendus, 36, p. 676) by condensing superheated steam at 
two different temperatures (about 125 and 225 C.) successively 
in the same calorimeter at atmospheric pressure, and taking the 
difference of the total heats observed. The result found in this 
manner, viz. 5 = -475, greatly increased the apparent discrepancy 
between Regnault s and Rankine's formulae for the total heat. 
The discrepancy was also noticed by G. R. Kirchhoff, who redis- 
covered Rankine's formula (Fogg. Ann. 103, p. 185, 1858). He 
suggested that the high value for S found by Regnault might be due 
to the presence of damp in his superheated steam, or, on the other 
hand, that the assumption that steam at low temperatures followed 
the law pv = R6 might be erroneous. These suggestions have been 
frequently repeated, but it is probable that neither is correct. G. A. 
Zeuner, at a later date (La Chaleur, p. 441), employing the empirical 
formula pv = ^8-\-Cp- u for saturated steam, found the value 
S = -568, which further increased the discrepancy. G. A. Hirn and 
A. A. Cazin (Ann. Chim. Phys. iv. 10, p. 349, 1867) investigated the 
form of the adiabatic for steam passing through the state = 760 
mm., 9 = 373 Abs., by observing the pressure of superheated steam 
at any temperature which just failed to produce a cloud on sudden 
expansion to atmospheric pressure. Assuming an equation of the 
form log (p/76o) =o log (0/373), their results givea = S/R = 4-3O5, or 
8 = 0-474, which agrees very perfectly with Regnault's value. It 
must be observed, however, that the agreement is rather more 
perfect than the comparative roughness of the method would appear 
to warrant. More recently, Macfarlane Gray (Proc. Inst. Mech. 
Eng. 1889), who has devoted minute attention to the reduction of 
Regnault's observations, assuming S/J = 1-400 as the theoretical 
ratio of specific heats of all vapours on his " aether-pressure theory," 
has calculated the properties of steam on the assumption 5 = 0-384. 
He endeavours to support this value by reference to sixteen of 
Regnault's observations on the total heat of steam at atmospheric 
pressure with only 19 to 28 of superheat. These observations 
give values for S ranging from 0-30 to 0-46, with a mean value 0-3778. 
But it must be remarked that the superheat of the steam in these 
experiments is only I or 2 % of the total heat measured. A similar 
objection applies, though with less force, to Regnault's main experi- 
ments between 125 and 225 C., giving the value 8=0-475, in which 
the superheat (on which the value of S depends) is only one-sixteenth 
of the total heat measured. Gray explains the higher value found 
by Regnault over the higher range as due to the presence of particles 
of moisture in the steam, which he thinks " would not be evaporated 
up to 124 C., but would be more likely to be evaporated in the 
higher range of temperature." J. Perry (Steam Engine, p. 580), 
assuming a characteristic equation similar to Zeuner's (which makes 
v a linear function of the temperature at constant pressure, and S 
independent of the pressure), calculates S as a function of the 
temperature to satisfy Regnault's formula (10) for the total heat. 
This method is logically consistent, and gives values ranging from 
0-305 at o to 0-341 at 100 C. and 0-4643! 210 C., but the difference 
from Regnault's 5=0-475 cannot easily be explained. 

12. Throttling Calorimeter Method. The ideal method of deter- 
mining by direct experiment the relation bet ween the total heat and 
the specific heat of a vapour is that of Joule and Thomson, which is 
more commonly known in connexion with steam as the method of 
the throttling calorimeter. It was first employed in the case of 
steam by Peabody as a means of estimating the wetness of saturated 
steam, which is an important factor in testing the performance of an 
engine. If steam or vapour is " wire-drawn " or expanded through 
a porous plug or throttling aperture without external loss or gain 



Z 



100 



_,* 



of heat, the total heat (E+pv) remains constant (THERMODYNAMICS, 

1 1 ) , provided that the experiment is arranged so that the kinetic 

energy of flow is the same on 

either side of the throttle. 

Thus, starting with satu- 
rated steam at a temperature 

0' and pressure f', as repre- 
sented by the point A on the 

pO diagram (fig. 2), if the 

point B represent the state 

p"6"aher passing the throttle, 

the total heat at A is the 

same as that at B, and 

exceeds that at any other 

point D (at the same pressure 

** as at B, but at a 

lower temperature 0) by the 

amount SX(0"-0), which 

would be required to raise 

the temperature from D to 

B at constant pressure. We 

have therefore the simple 

relation between the total 

heats at A and D 

, = S(fl*-fl). (12) 
steam at A con- 
fraction z of sus- 
moisture, the total 



KO H-Q Itio 180 

Temperature Centigrade 

FIG. 2. Throttling Calorimeter 
Method. 



If the 
tains a 
pended 

heat H A is less than the value for dry saturated steam at A by the 
amount zL. If the steam at A were dry and saturated, we should 
have, assuming Regnault's formula (10), H A -H D = -3O5 (0'-9), 
whence, if 5 = -475, we have zL = -3O5 (0'-0) 475 (9"-0). It is 
evident that this is a very delicate method of determining the wet- 
ness z, but, since with dry saturated steam at low pressures this 
formula always gives negative values of the wetness, it is clear that 
Regnault's numerical coefficients must be wrong. 

From a different point of view, equation (12) may be applied to 
determine the specific heat of steam in terms of the rate of variation 
of the total heat. If we assume Regnault's formula (10) for the total 
heat, we have evidently the simple relation S = o-3O5(0'-0)/(0"-0), 
supposing the initial steam to be dry, or at least of the same 
quality as that employed by Regnault. This method was applied 
by J. A. Ewing (B.A. Rep. 1897) to. steam near 100 C. He found 
the specific heat smaller than 0-475, but no numerical results were 
given. A very complete investigation on the same lines was carried 
out by J. H. Grindley (Phil. Trans. 1900) at Owens College under 
the direction of Osborne Reynolds. Assuming dH/dO = 0-305 for 
saturated steam, he found that S was nearly independent of the 
pressure at constant temperature, but that it varied with the temper- 
ature from 0-387 at 100 C. to 0-665 at 160 C. Writing Q for the 
Joule-Thomson " cooling effect," d6/dp, or the slope BC/AC of the 
line of constant total heat, he found that Q was nearly independent 
of the pressure at constant temperature, a result which agrees with 
that of Joule and Thomson for air and CO; but that it varied with 
the temperature as (i/0) 3 - 8 instead of (i/0) 2 . These results for the 
variation of Q are independent of any assumption with regard to the 
variation of H. Employing the values of S calculated from dH/dO = 
0-305, he found that the product SQ was independent of both 
pressure and temperature for the range of his experiments. 
Assuming this result to hold generally, we should have 5 = 0-306 
at o C., which agrees with Rankine s view; but increasing very 
rapidly at higher temperatures to 5 = 1-043 at 200 C., and 1-315 at 
220 C. The characteristic equation, if SQ = constant, would be of 
the form (f+SQ) = R0//>, which does not agree with the well-known 
behaviour of other gases and vapours. Whatever may be the 
objections to Regnault's method of measuring the specific heat of a 
vapour, it seems impossible to reconcile so wide a range of variation 
of S with his value 5 = 0-475 between 125 and 225 C. It is also 
extremely unlikely that a vapour which is so stable a chemical 
compound as steam should show so wide a range of variation of 
specific heat. The experimental results of Grindley with regard to 
the mode of variation of Q have been independently confirmed by 
Callendar (Proc. R.S. 1900), who quotes the results of similar 
experiments made at McGill College in 1897, but gives an entirely 
different interpretation, based on a direct measurement of the 
specific heat at 100 C. by an electrical method. 

The method of deducing the specific heat from Regnault's formula 
for the variation of the total heat is evidently liable in a greater 
degree to the objections which have been urged against his method 
of determining the specific heat, since it makes the value of the 
specific heat depend on small differences of total heat observed 
under conditions of greater difficulty at various pressures. The 
more logical method of procedure is to determine the specific heat 
independently of the total heat, and then to deduce the variations 
of total heat by equation (12). The simplest method of measuring 
the specific heat appears to be that of supplying heat electrically 
to a steady current of vapour in a vacuum-jacket calorimeter, 
and observing the rise of temperature produced. Employing this 
method, Callendar finds 5 = 0-497 for steam at one atmosphere 



902 



VAPORIZATION 



between 103 C. and 1 13 C. This is about 4 % larger than Regnault's 
value, but is not really inconsistent with it, if we suppose that the 
specific heat at any given pressure diminishes slightly with rise of 
temperature, as indicated in formula (16) below. 

13. Corrected Equation of Total Heat. Admitting the value 
8 = 0-497 for the specific heat at 108 C., it is clear that the form 
of Regnault's equation (10) must be wrong, although the numerical 
value of the coefficient 0-305 may approximately represent the 
average rate of variation over the range (100 to 190 C.) of the 
experiments on which it chiefly depends. Regnault's experiments 
at lower temperatures were extremely discordant, and have been 
shown by the work of E. H. Griffiths (Proc. R.S. 1894) and C. H. 
Dieterici (Wied. Ann. 37, p. 504, 1889) to give values of the total 
heat 10 to 6 calories too large between o and 40 C. At low 
pressures and temperatures it is probable that saturated steam 
behaves very nearly as an ideal gas, and that the variation of the 
total heat is closely represented by Rankine's equation with the 
ideal value of S. In order to correct this equation for the deviations 
of the vapour from the ideal state at higher temperatures and 
pressures, the simplest method is to assume a modified equation of 
the Joule-Thomson type (THERMODYNAMICS, equation (17)), which 
has been shown to represent satisfactorily the behaviour of other 
gases and vapours at moderate pressures. Employing this type of 
equation, all the thermodynamical properties 01 the substance may 
conveniently be expressed in terms of the diminution of volume c 
due to the formation of compound or coaggregated molecules, 

V-c. . . (13) 



The corresponding formula for the total heat is 

H-H = S (0-0o) -( + !) (cp 
and for the variation of the specific heat with pressure 



The index n in the above formula, representing the rate of variation 
of c with temperature, is approximately the same as that expressing 
the rate of variation of the cooling effect Q, which is nearly pro- 
portional to c, and is given by the formula 

(14) 

(15) 

(16) 

where S is the value of S when p=o, and is assumed to be inde- 
pendent of 6, as in the case of an ideal gas. 

Callendar's experiments on the cooling effect for steam by the 
throttling calorimeter method gave w=3'33 and = 26-3 c.c. at 
100 C. Grindley's experiments gave nearly the same average 
value of Q over his experimental range, but a rather larger value 
for n, namely, 3-8. For purposes of calculation, Callendar (Proc. 
R.S. 1900) adopted the mean value w = 3'5, and also assumed the 
specific heat at constant volume = 3-5 R (which gives 80 = 4-5 R) 
on the basis of an hypothesis, doubtfully attributed to Maxwell, 
that the number of degrees of freedom of a molecule with m atoms 
is 2m + 1. The assumption n = s/R simplifies the adiabatic equa- 
tion, but the value ra = 3 - 5 gives 80 = 0-497 at zero pressure, which 
was the value found by Callendar experimentally at 108 C. and 
I atmosphere pressure. Later and more accurate experiments have 
confirmed the experimental value, and have shown that the limiting 
value of the specific heat should consequently be somewhat smaller 
than that given by Maxwell's hypothesis. The introduction of 
this correction into the calculations would slightly improve the 
agreement with Regnault's values of the specific heat and total 
heat between 100 and 200 C., where they are most trustworthy, 
but would not materially affect the general nature of the results. 

Values calculated from these formulae are given in the table 
below. The_ values of H at o and 40 agree fairly with those found 
by Dieterici (596-7) and Griffiths (613-2) respectively, but differ 
considerably from Regnault's values 606-5 and 618-7. The rate 
of increase of the total heat, instead of being constant for saturated 
steam as in Regnault's formula, is given by the equation 



dH/d6=S(i-Qdp/de) 



(17) 



and diminishes from 0-478 at o C. to about 0-40 at 100 and 0-20 
at 200 C., decreasing more rapidly at higher temperatures. The 
mean value, 0-313 of dH/d0, between 100 and 200 agrees fairly 
well with Regnault's coefficient 0-305, but it is clear that consider- 
able errors in calculating the wetness of steam or the amount of 
cylinder condensation would result from assuming this important 
coefficient to be constant. The rate of change of the latent heat 
is easily deduced from that of the total heat by subtracting the 
specific heat of the liquid. Since the specific heat of the liquid 
increases rapidly at high temperatures, while dH/dO diminishes, it 
is clear that the latent heat must diminish more and more rapidly 
as the critical point is approached. Regnault's formula for the 
total heat is here again seen to be inadmissible, as it would make 
the latent heat of steam vanish at about 870 C. instead of at 365 C. 
It should be observed, however, that the assumptions made in 
deducing the above formulae apply only for moderate pressures, 
and that the formulae cannot be employed up to the critical point 
owing to the uncertainty of the variation of the specific heats and 
the cooling effect Q at high pressures beyond the experimental 
range. Many attempts have been made to construct formulae 
representing the deviations of vapours from the ideal state up to 



the critical point. One of the most complete is that proposed by 
R. J. E. Clausius, which may be written 

R0lp-v = Re(v-b)(A.-B6 n )lp(v+a')*O n ; . (18) 
but such fomulae are much too complicated to be of any practical 
use, and are too empirical in their nature to permit of the direct 
physical interpretation of the constants they contain. 

14. Empirical Formulae for the Saturation-Pressure. The values 
of the saturation-pressure have been very accurately determined 
for the majority of stable substances, and a large number of empirical 
formulae have been proposed to represent the relation between 
pressure and temperature. These formulae are important on 
account of the labour and ingenuity expended in devising the most 
suitable types, and also as a convenient means of recording the 
experimental data. In the following list, which contains a few 
typical examples, the different formulae are arranged to give the 
logarithm of the saturation-pressure p in terms of the absolute 
temperature 6. As originally proposed, many of these formulae 
were cast in exponential form, but the adoption of the logarithmic 
method of expression throughout the list serves to show more 
clearly the relationship between the various types. 

log = A+B0 .... (Dalton, 1800). . . (19) 

\ogp = C log (A+B0) . . . (Young, 1820). 

log = A0/(B+C0) . . . (Roche, 1830). 

log/> = A+Bfe+Cc i) . . . (Biot, 1844; Regnault). 

\ogp = A+B/e+C/e i . . (Rankine, 1849). 

log = A+B/0-fC logS . . (Kirchhoff,i858;Rankine,i866). 

log = A + B/0 6 .... (Unwin, 1887). 

log p = A + B log 0+C log (0+c). (Bertrand, 1887). 

logp = A+B/(0+C) . . . (Antoine, 1888). 

The formula of Dalton would make the pressure increase in geo- 
metrical progression for equal increments of temperature. In other 
words, the increase of pressure per degree (dp/d8) divided by p 
should be constant and equal to B ; but observation shows that this 
ratio decreases, e.g. from 0-0722 at o C. to 0-0357 a t 100 C. in the 
case of steam. Observing that this rate of diminution is approxi- 
mately as the square of the reciprocal of the absolute temperature, 
we see that the almost equally simple formula log /> = A + B/0 
represents a much closer approximation to experiment. As a 
matter of fact, the two terms A+B/0 are the most important 
in the theoretical expression for the vapour-pressure given below. 
They are not sufficient alone, but give good results when modified, 
as in the simple and accurate formulae of Rankine, Kirchhoff, 
L. C. Antoine and Unwin. If we assume formulae of the simple 
type A+B/0 for two different substances which have the same 
vapour-pressure p at the absolute temperatures 6' and 6" respectively, 
we may write 

log^=A'+B'/9'=A'+B"/9', . . (20) 

from which we deduce that the ratio 6' 18" of the temperatures at 
which the vapour-pressures are the same is a linear function of 
the temperature 6' of one of the substances. This approximate 
relation has been employed by Ramsay and Young (Phil. Mag. 
1887) to deduce the vapour-pressures of any substance from those 
of a standard substance by means of two observations. More 
recently the same method has been applied by A. Findlay (Proc. 
R.S. 1902), under Ramsay's direction, for comparing solubilities 
which are in many respects analogous to vapour-pressures. The 
formulae of Young and Roche are purely empirical, but give very 
fair results over a wide range. That of Biot is far more complicated 
and troublesome, but admits greater accuracy of adaptation, as it 
contains five constants (or six, if 6 is measured from an aibitrary 
zero). It is important as having been adopted by Regnault (and 
also by many subsequent calculators) for the expression of his 
observations on the vapour-pressures of steam and various other 
substances. The formulae of Rankine and Unwin, though probably 
less accurate over the whole range, are much simpler and more 
convenient in practice than that of Biot, and give results which suffice 
in accuracy for the majority of purposes. 

15. Theoretical Equation for the Saturation- Pressure. The em- 
pirical formulae above quoted must be compared and tested in 
the light of the theoretical relation between the latent heat and the 
rate of increase of the vapour-pressure (dp/dS), which is given by the 
second law of thermodynamics, viz. 



e(dp/d8)=L/(vw), 



. (21) 



in which and w are the volumes of unit mass of the vapour and 
liquid respectively at the saturation-point (THERMODYNAMICS, 4). 
This relation cannot be directly integrated, so as to obtain the 
equation for the saturation-pressure, unless L and v w are known 
as functions of 9. Since it is much easier to measure p than cither 
L or v, the relation has generally been employed for deducing either 
L or v from observations of p. For instance, it is usual to calculate 
the specific volumes of saturated steam by assuming Regnault's 
formulae for p and L. The values so found are necessarily erroneous 
if formula (ip) for the total heat is wrong. The reason for adopting 
this method is that the specific volume ofa saturated vapour cannot 
be directly measured with sufficient accuracy on account of the 
readiness with which it condenses on the surface of the containing 
vessel. The specific volumes of superheated vapours may, however, 



VAPORIZATION 



93 



be measured with a satisfactory degree of approximation. The 
deviations from the ideal volume may also be deduced by the method 
of Joule and Thomson. It is found by these methods that the 
behaviour of superheated vapours closely resembles that of non- 
condensible gases, and it is a fair inference that similar behaviour 
would be observed up to the saturation-point if surface condensation 
could be avoided. By assuming suitable forms of the character- 
istic equation to represent the variations of the specific volume 
within certain limits of pressure and temperature, we may therefore 
with propriety deduce equations to represent the saturation-pres- 
sure, which will certainly be thermodynamically consistent, and will 
probably give correct numerical results within the assigned limits. 

The simplest assumptions to make are that the vapour behaves 
as a perfect gas (or that p(v w)=RB), and that L is constant. 
This leads immediately to the simple formula 

log.(/po) = (l/0o-i/0)L/R, . . . (22) 

which is of the same type as log = A+B/0, and shows that the 
coefficient B should be equal to L/R. A formula of this type has 
been widely employed by van't Hoff and others to calculate heats 
of reaction and solution from observations of solubility and vice 
versa. It is obvious, however, that the assumption L = constant is 
not sufficiently accurate in many cases. The rate of variation of 
the latent heat at low pressures is equal to S s, where s is the 
specific heat of the liquid. Under these conditions both S and s 
may be regarded as approximately constant, so that L is a linear 
function of the temperature. Substituting L = L -|-(S s)(0 0o), 
and integrating between limits, we obtain the result 

log = A+B/0+Clog,0, . . . (23) 
where 



and 

A = log e o-B/0o-C 
A formula of this type was first obtained by Kirchhoff (Pogg. Ann. 
103, p. 185, 1858) to represent the vapour-pressure of a solution, and 
was verified by Regnault's experiments on solutions of H 2 SOj in 
water, in which case a constant, the heat of dilution, is added to the 
latent heat. The formula evidently applies to the vapour-pressure 
of the pure solvent as a special case, but Kirchhoff himself does not 
appear to have made This particular application of the formula. 
In the paper which immediately follows, he gives the oft-quoted 
expression for the difference of slope (dpjdO), (dp/d6)i of the 
vapour-pressure curves of a solid and liquid at the triple point, 
which is immediately deducible from (21), viz. 

e(dpld6).-8(dplde)i = (L.-Li)/(v-w) =L//(t or), (24) 
in which L. and L; are the latent heats of vaporization of the solid 
and liquid respectively, the difference of which is equal to the latent 
heat of fusion L/. He proceeds to calculate from this expression 
the difference of vapour-pressures of ice and water in the immediate 
neighbourhood of the melting-point, but does not observe that the 
vapour-pressures themselves may be more accurately calculated for 
a considerable interval of temperature by means of formula (23), by 
substituting the appropriate values of the latent heats and specific 
heats. Taking for ice and water the following numerical data, 
L, = 674-7, Li = 595-2, L/ = 79-s, R=o-iio3 cal./deg., = 4-61 mm., 
S-S = -5I9 cal./deg., and assuming the specific heat of ice to be 
equal to that of steam at constant pressure (which is sufficiently 
approximate, since the term involving the difference of the specific 
heats is very small), we obtain the following numerical formulae, 
by substitution in (23), 

Ice . . logio = o-6640+9-73//0, 

Water . logio/>=o-664o+8-585//0-47o(Iogio0/0o-M//0), 
where/ =0273, a d M =0-4343, the modulus of common logarithms. 
These formulae are practically accurate for a range of 20 or 30 C. 
on either side of the melting-point, as the pressure is so small that 
the vapour may be treated as an ideal gas. They give the following 
numerical values: 

Temperature, C. -20 -10 o +10 +20 

V.P. of ice, mms. 0-79 1-97 4-61 10-20 21-27 

V.P. of water, mms. 0-96 2-17 4-61 9-27 17-58 

The error of the formula for water is less than I mm. (or a'tenth of a 

degree C.), at a temperature so high as 60 C. 

Formula (23) for the vapour-pressure was subsequently deduced 
by Rankine (Phil. Mag. 1866) by combining his equation (n) for 
the total heat of gasification with (21), and assuming an ideal vapour. 
A formula of the same type was given by Athenase Dupr6 (Theorie 
de chaleur, p. 96, Paris, 1869), on the assumption that the latent 
heat was a linear function of the temperature, taking the instance 
of Regnault's formula (10) for steam. It is generally called Dupre's 
formula in continental text-books, but he did not give the values of 
the coefficients in terms of the difference of specific heats of the 
liquid and vapour. It was employed as a purely empirical formula 
by Bertrand and Barus, who calculated the values of the coefficients 
for several substances, so as to obtain the best general agreement 
with the results of observation over a wide range, at high as well as 
low pressures. Applied in this manner, the formula is not appro- 
priate or satisfactory. The values of the coefficients given by 



Bertrand, for instance, in the formula for steam, correspond to the 
values = -576 and L=573 at o C., which are impossible, and the 
values of p given by his formula (e.g. 763 mm. at 100 C.) do not 
agree sufficiently with experiment to be of much practical value. 
The true application of the formula is to low pressures, at which 
it is very accurate. The close agreement found under these con- 
ditions is a very strong confirmation of the correctness of the 
assumption that a vapour at low pressures does really behave 
as an ideal gas of constant specific heat. The formula was 
independently rediscovered by H. R. Hertz (Wied. Ann. 17, 
p. 177, 1882) in a slightly different form, and appropriately applied 
to the calculation of the vapour-pressures of mercury at ordinary 
temperatures, where they are much too small to be accurately 
measured. 

1 6. Corrected Equation of Saturation-Pressure. The approximate 
equation of Rankine (23) begins to be I or 2% in error at the 
boiling-point under atmospheric pressure, owing to the coaggrega- 
tion of the molecules of the vapour and the variation of the specific 
heat of the liquid. The errors from both causes increase more 
rapidly at higher temperatures. It is easy, however, to correct 
the formula for these deviations, and to make it thermodynamically 
consistent with the characteristic equation (13) by substituting the 
appropriate values of (v-w) and L = H h from equations (13) and 
(15) in formula (21) before integrating. Omitting iv and neglecting 
the small variation of the specific heat of the liquid, the result is 
simply the addition of the term (c b)/V to formula (23) 

log=A+B/0+Clog0-Kc-&)/V. . . (25) 
The values of the coefficients B and C remain practically as before. 
The value of c is determined by the throttling experiments, so that 
all the coefficients in the formula with the exception of A are 
determined independently of any observations of the saturation- 
pressure itself. The value of A for steam is determined by the 
consideration that = 760 mm. by definition at 100 C. or 373 Abs. 
The most uncertain data are the variation of the specific heat of 
the liquid and the value of the small quantity b in the formula 
(13). The term b, however, is only 4 % of c at 100 C., and the error 
involved in taking b equal to the volume of the liquid is probably 
small. The effect of variation of the specific heat is more important, 
but is nearly eliminated by the form of the equation. If we write 
h = Sot-}-dh, where so is a selected constant value of the specific 
heat of the liquid, and dh represents the difference of the actual 
value of h at t from the ideal value Sat, and if we similarly write 
<t> = s \og,(8/8o)+d<t> for the entropy of the liquid at /, where <?</> 
represents the corresponding difference in the entropy (which is 
easily calculated from a table of values of h), it is shown by 
Callendar (Proc. R.S. 1900, loc. cit.) that the effect of the variation 
of the specific heat of the liquid is represented in the equation for 
the vapour-pressure by adding to the right-hand side of (23) the 
term (d<j> dh!6)/R. If we proceed instead by the method of 
integrating the equation t{h=6(iiiu)dpJdS, we observe that the 
expression above given results from the integration of the terms 
dh/R6-+w(dp!d9)/R9, which were omitted in (25). Adopting the 
formula of Regnault as corrected by Callendar (Phil. Trans. R.S. 
1902) for the specific heat of water between 100 and 200 C., we 
find the values of the difference (d<t>dh/8) to be less than one-tenth 
of d<t> at 200 C. The whole correction is therefore probably of the 
same order as the uncertainty of the variation of the specific heat 
itself at these temperatures. It may be observed that the cor- 
rection would vanish if we could write dh = itiddp/dO= i wL,/(vw). 
This assumption is made by Gray (Proc. Inst. C.E. 1902). It is 
equivalent, as Callendar (loc. cit.) points out, to supposing that 
the variation of the specific heat is due to the formation and solution 
of a mass wl(v-w) of vapour molecules per unit mass of the liquid. 
But this neglects the latent heat of solution, unless we may suppose 
it included by writing the internal latent heat L,- in place of L in 
Callendar's formula. In any case the correction may probably be 
neglected for practical purposes below 200 C. 

It is interesting to remark that the simple result found in equa- 
tion (25) (according to which the effect of the deviation of the 
vapour from the ideal state is represented by the addition of 
the term (c b)/V to the expression for log p) is independent of the 
assumption that c varies inversely as the re th power of 0, and is 
true generally provided that c b is a function of the temperature 
only and is independent of the pressure. But in order to deduce 
the values of c by the Joule-Thomson method, it is necessary to 
assume an empirical formula, and the type c=Co(0o/0) n is chosen 
as being the simplest. The justification of this assumption lies 
in the fact that the values of c found in this manner, when substi- 
tuted in equation (25) for the saturation-pressure, give correct 
"results for p within the probable limits of error of Regnault's 
experiments. 

17. Numerical Application to Steam. As an instance of the 
application of the method above described, the results in the table 
below are calculated for steam, starting from the following funda- 
mental data: = 760 mm. at < = ioo 6 C. or 373-0 Abs. pVJO 
= 0-11030 calories per degree for ideal steam. 80 = 0-478 calories 
per degree at zero pressure, L = 540-2 calories at 100 C. (Joly- 
Callendar), 71 = 3-33, 100 = 26-30 c.c., 6 = 1 c.c., fc =0-9970* +7t>L 
(v w). 750 mm. Hg. = I megadyne per sq. cm. 



94 



VAQUERO VAR 



TABLE OF PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM ' 



Temp. 
Cent. 


Coaggre- 
gation, c, 
cub. cms. 


Total 
Heat.H, 
calories. 


Latent 
Heat, L, 
calories. 


Specific 
Heat.S, 
cals./deg. 


Saturation- 
Pressure, p, 
mm. of Hg. 





74-43 


595-2 


595-2 


4786 


4-6 


20 


58-81 


604-7 


584-7 


4796 


17-6 


40 


47-19 


614-0 


574-0 


4818 


55-4 


60 


38-68 


623-1 


536-I 


4860 


149-4 


80 


31-60 


631-9 


551-9 


4926 


355-0 


100 


26-30 


640-3 


540-2 


5027 


760-0 


120 


21-93 


648-1 


527-8 


5163 


1490-4 


140 


18-73 


655-1 


5H-5 


5347 


2715-8 


160 


16-00 


661-4 


500-3 


5571 


4647 


1 80 


13-76 


666-9 


485-3 


5834 


7534 


200 


11-92 


671-6 


469-3 


6134 


11660 



The values of the coaggregation-volume c, which form the start- 
ing-point of the calculation, are found by taking n = 10/3 for con- 
venience of division in formula (13). The unit of heat assumed 
in the table is the calorie at 20 C., which is taken as equal to 4-180 
joules, as explained in the article CALORIMETRY. The_latent heat 
L (formula 9) is found by subtracting from H (equation 15) the 
values of the heat of the liquid h given in the same article. The 
values of the specific heat in the next column are calculated for a 
constant pressure equal to that of saturation by formula (16) to 
illustrate the increase of the specific heat with rise of pressure. 
The specific heat at any given pressure diminishes with rise of 
temperature. The values of the saturation-pressure given in the 
last column are calculated by formula (25), which agrees with 
Regnault's observations better than his own empirical formulae. 
The agreement of the values of H with those of Griffiths and Dieterici 
at low temperatures, and of the values of p with those of Reg- 
nault over the whole range, are a confirmation of the accuracy of 
the foregoing theory, and show that the behaviour of a vapour 
like steam may be represented by a series of thermodynamically 
consistent formulae, on the assumption that the limiting value of 
the specific heat is constant, and that the isothermals are generally 
similar in form to those of other gases and vapours at moderate 
pressures. Although it is not possible to represent the properties 
of steam in this manner up to the critical temperature, the above 
method appears more satisfactory than the adoption of the in- 
consistent and purely empirical formulae which form the basis of 
most tables at the present time. _ 

A similar method of calculation might be applied to deduce the 
thermodynamical properties of other vapours, but the required ex- 
perimental data are in most cases very imperfect or even entirely 
wanting. The calorimetric data are generally the most deficient 
and difficult to secure. An immense mass of material has been 
collected on the subject of vapour-pressures and densities, the 
greater part of which will be found in Winkelmann's Handbook, 
in Landolt's and Bornstein's Tables, and in similar compendiums. 
The results vary greatly in accuracy, and are frequently vitiated 
by errors of temperature measurement, by chemical impurities and 
surface condensation, or by peculiarities of the empirical formulae 
employed in smoothing the observations; but it would not be within 
the scope of the present article to discuss these details. Even at 
the boiling-points the discrepancies between different observers 
are frequently considerable. The following table contains the 
most probable values for a few of these points which have been 
determined with the greatest care or frequency : 

Table of 'Boiling-Points at Atmospheric Pressure on Centigrade Scale 

Hydrogen . . 252-6 Benzophenone . +3O5-8 

Oxygen . . -i82-8 Mercury . . +356 (> -7 

Carbon dioxide . 78-3 Sulphur . . +444-5 

Sulphur dioxide . lo-o Cadmium . +756 

Aniline . . +184-! Zinc. . . +916 

Naphthalene . +2i8-o 

Alphabetical Index of Symbols 
A, B, C, Empirical constants in formulae; section 14. 

b, Minimum volume or co-volume of vapour, equation (13). 
C, Concentration of solution, gm. mols. per c.c. 

c, Coaggregatipn-yolume of vapour, equation (13). 
D, d, Density of liquid and vapour. 

E, Intrinsic energy of vapour, 
g, Acceleration of gravity. 
H, Total heat of vapour. 

h. Heat of the liquid ; height of capillary ascent. 
L, Latent heat of vaporization. 
M, Modulus of logarithms. 
m, Molecular weight. 
n, Index of 6 in expression for c, equation (13). 



1 Complete tables of the properties of steam have been worked 
out on the basis of Callendar's formulae by Professor Dr R. Mollier of 
Dresden, Neue Tabellen und Diagramme fur Wasserdampf, published 
by J. Springer (Berlin, 1906). 



P, Osmotic or capillary pressure. 

p, Pressure of vapour. 

Q, Cooling effects in adiathermal expansion. 

R, Constant in gas equation, pv R9. 

r, Radius of curvature, formula (i). 
S, Specific heat of vapour at constant pressure. 

i, Specific heat of liquid, equation (23). 

Specific heat of vapour at constant volume ; section 8. 
T, Surface tension of liquid. 

/, Temperature Centigrade. 
V, Ideal volume of vapour, equation (13). 

Specific volume of solid or liquid, equation (5). 

v, Specific volume of vapour or steam. 
iu, Specific volume of water or liquid. 

8, Temperature on thermodynamic scale. 

<j>, Entropy of vapour or liquid. (H. L. C.) 

VAQUERO, a Spanish word meaning a cowherd or herdsman, 
and so particularly used in Mexico and Spanish America for 
the whole class of men employed on the large cattle-ranches or 
vaquerias. The word, like the corresponding Fr. vacher, cow- 
herd, comes from the Med. Lat. vaccarius (yacca, cow). 

VAR, a department in S.E. France. It was formed in 1790 
of a part of Lower Provence, but in 1860 it was reduced by the 
transfer of the district of Grasse to the newly formed department 
of the Alpes Maritimes, which is the reason why the Var does 
not now 'flow in the department to which it gives its name. It 
is bounded N. by the department of the Basses Alpes (the 
Verdon river forming the boundary), E. by that of the Alpes 
Maritimes (the Siagne stream forming the limit), S. by the 
Mediterranean, and W. by the department of the Bouches du 
Rhone. Its area is 2266 sq. m., its greatest length is about 
62m., and its greatest breadth about 56 m. 

The surface of the department is very hilly, the highest point 
being the Signal des Chens (5620 ft.) at its north-east corner. These 
calcareous hills are much fissured and very dry on the highest 
plateaux, but are rich in springs, which is the cause of very beautiful 
verdure in the valleys. To the W. is the chain (3786 ft.) of the 
Ste Baume, wherein is the celebrated grotto (now a frequented 
pilgrimage place) wherein St Mary Magdalene is said to have taken 
refuge. This chain is connected with the hills (2329 ft.) above 
Toulon. The thickly wooded Montagnes des Maures (2556 ft.), 
which extend above the coast from Hyeres to near Frljus are 
separated from the Ste Baume chain by the Gapeau stream and from 
that of the Esterel by the Argens river: the Maures chain, with 
the Argens valley, forms a sort of geological island in Provence, 
being composed of granite, gneiss ana schists. To the north of the 
Argens valley and in the north-eastern portion of the department 
rises the Esterel chain, the highest summit of which (the Mont 
Vinaigre) attains 2021 ft. : this chain is mainly composed of igneous 
rocks, with some schists and porphyry. The principal river in the 
department is the Argens, which traverses it from W. to E., and 
falls into the sea near Frejus after a course of about 68 m. Its 
chief tributary is the Nartuby, on which stands Draguignan, the 
chief town, while other streams are the Arc, the Huveaune and the 
Gapeau. The extreme north-western extremity of the department 
borders for 2\ m. the Durance, which separates it from the depart- 
ment of Vaucluse. The coast line, which is one of the most pictur- 
esque and varied in France, runs first W. to E., from the Gulf of La 
Ciotat to Cape Camarat, and then S.W. to N.E., from the Gulf of 
St Tropez to that of La Napoule. The shore is dotted (from W. to 
E.) successively by the sand-covered remains of the Phocaean city 
of Tauroentum; the little ports of Bandol and StNazaire; the 

Eeninsula of Cape Sici6 (on which rises the chapel of Notre Dame de 
i Garde, and a famous lighthouse, 1178 ft.) with its eastward 
projection Cape C6pet (338 ft.), bristling with fortifications to 
protect the great harbour of Toulon, to the north-east; the roads 
of Toulon; those of Giens, on the site of the Gallo- Roman town of 
Pomponiana; the curious peninsula of Giens, formerly an island, 
but now attached to the mainland by two long spits of sand, between 
which lies the lagoon of Les Pesquiers, with its salines; the great 
anchorage of Hyeres, shut off from the Mediterranean by the hilly 
and wooded islands of Porquerolles, Port Cros and Le Levant; the 
bold promontories of the Montagnes des Maures, that divide the 
coast into lovely bays; Cape Camarat (1066 ft.), with a lighthouse;' 
the deep Gulf of St Tropez, with perhaps the best natural anchorage 
in all Provence; the Gulf of Fr6jus, where, owing to the accumulated 
alluvial deposits at the mouth of the Argens, the Roman port of 
Forum Julii is now occupied by the inland town of Frejus; the red 
porphyry headlands of the Esterel chain, with the roads of Agay 
between them; and Cape Roux (1486 ft.) looking towards Cannes, 
still farther N.E. The department is divided into three arrondisse- 
ments (Draguignan, Brignoles and Toulon), 30 cantons and 148 
communes. The climate is remarkably fine and mild on the coast, 
where there is complete shelter from the wind, St Raphael (with 
Valescure above it) and Hyeres being now much frequented winter 



VARALLO SESIA VARIA 



95 



resorts. The department now forms the bishopric of Frejus (4th 
century), which is in the ecclesiastical province of Aix en Provence: 
in 1801 there was annexed to it the episcopal see of Toulon, founded 
in the 5th century, and in the ecclesiastical province of Aries. There 
are in the department 135 m. of broad gauge railways, and 148$ 
m. of narrow gauge lines. The principal towns are Toulon, La 
Seyne, Hyeres, Draguignan, its political capital, Brignoles and 
Frejus. There are a number of mines (chiefly iron and coal) in the 
department, and salt is extracted from the marshes near Hyeres, 
while there are manufactories of pottery and extensive vineyards. 
La Seyne is the principal centre of industrial activity. Cut flowers 
are largely exported from Hyeres. In 1901 the population of the 
department was 326,384. (W. A. B. C.) 

VARALLO SESIA, a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province 
of Novara, from which it is 34 m. N.N.W. by rail, situated in 
the valley of the Sesia, 1480 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 
3330 (town); 4265 (commune). The churches of S Gaudenzio, 
S Maria delle Grazie and S Maria di Loreto, all contain works 
by Gaudenzio Ferrari (1471-1546), who was born in the neigh- 
bouring Val Duggia, while the Sacro Monte, a place of pilgrimage 
rising above the town (1995 ft.), is approached by a path leading 
past forty-five chapels containing groups of life-size painted 
terra-cotta figures representing scenes from sacred history, 
with backgrounds in fresco (by Ferrari and others), to the 
pilgrimage church built by Pellegrino Tibaldi after 1578. In 
the works mentioned, as Burckhardt remarks, Ferrari's whole 
development may be traced. 

VARCHI, BENEDETTO (1502-1565), Florentine historian. 
He fought in the defence of Florence during the siege by the 
Mediceans and imperialists in 1530, and was exiled after the 
surrender of the city. In 1536 he took part in Piero Strozzi's 
unsuccessful expedition against Medicean rule, but seven years 
later he was called back to Florence by Cosimo I., who gave him 
a pension and commissioned him to write a history of the city; 
the work covers the period from 1527 to 1538. Varchi also 
wrote a number of plays, poems, dialogues and translations 
from the classics. His history, in sixteen books, was first 
published in Florence in 1721. 

VARDANES, the name of two Parthian kings. 

VARDANES I., succeeded Artabanus II., probably his father, 
in A.D. 40 (Joseph. Ant. xx. 3, 4), but had continually to fight 
against his rival Gotarzes (q.v.). The coins show that he was 
in full possession of the throne from 42 to 45. In 43 he forced 
Seleucia on the Tigris to submit to the Parthians again after a 
rebellion of seven years (Tac. Ann. xi. 9). Ctesiphon, the 
residence of the kings on the left bank of the Tigris, opposite 
to Seleucia, naturally profited by this war; and Vardanes is 
therefore called founder of Ctesiphon by Ammianus Marc, 
xxiii. 6. 23. He also prepared for a war against Rome, with 
the aim of reconquering Armenia (cf. Joseph, Ant. xx. 3, 4), 
but did not dare to face the Roman legions (Tac. Ann. xi. 10). 
In a new war with Gotarzes he gained a great success against 
the eastern nomads. He is praised by Tacitus as a young 
and highly gifted ruler of great energy (cf. Philostratus, Vita 
Apollon. Tyan. i. 21. 28), but lacking in humanity. In the 
summer of 45 he was assassinated while hunting, and Gotarzes 
became king again. 

VARDANES II. rebelled against his father Vologaeses I. in 
A.D. 54 (Tac. Ann. xiii. 7). We know nothing more about 
him and it is not certain whether the coins of a young beardless 
king, which are generally attributed to him, really belong to 
him (Wroth, Catalogue of the Coins of Parthia, p. L. ff.). 

(En. M.) 

VARENIUS, BERNHARDUS [BERNHARD VAREN] (1622- 
1650), German geographer, was born at Hitzacker on the Elbe, 
in the Luneburg district of Hanover. His early years (from 
1627) were spent at Uelzen, where his father was court preacher 
to the duke of Brunswick. Varenius studied at the gymnasium 
of Hamburg (1640-42), and at Konigsberg (1643-45) and 
Leiden (1645-49) universities, where he devoted himself to 
mathematics and medicine, taking his medical degree at Leiden 
in 1649. He then settled at Amsterdam, intending to practise 
medicine. But the recent discoveries of Tasman, Schouten 
and other Dutch navigators, and his friendship for Blaeu and 



other geographers, attracted Varenius to geography. He died 
in 1650, aged only twenty-eight, a victim to the privations and 
miseries of a poor scholar's life. 

In 1649 he published, through L. Elzevir of Amsterdam, his 
Descriptio Regni Japoniae, an excellent compilation. In this 
was included a translation into Latin of part of Jodocus 
Schouten's account of Siam (Appendix de religione Siatnensium, 
ex Descriptione Belgica lodoci Schoutenii), and chapters on the 
religions of various peoples. Next year (1650) appeared, also 
through Elzevir, the work by which he is best known, his 
Geographic, Generalis, in which he endeavoured to lay down the 
general principles of the subject on a wide scientific basis, 
according to the knowledge of his day. The work is divided 
into (i) absolute geography, (2) relative geography and (3) 
comparative geography. The first investigates mathematical 
facts relating to the earth as a whole, its figure, dimensions, 
motions, their measurement, &c. The second part considers 
the earth as affected by the sun and stars, climates, seasons, 
the difference of apparent time at different places, variations 
in the length of the day, &c. The third part treats briefly 
of the actual divisions of_the surface of the earth, their relative 
positions, globe and map-construction, longitude, navigation, &c. 

Varenius, with the materials at his command, dealt with the 
subject in a truly philosophic spirit; and his work long held its 
position as the best treatise in existence on scientific and com- 
parative geography. The work went through many editions. Sir 
Isaac Newton introduced several important improvements into the 
Cambridge edition of 1672; in 1715 Dr Jurin issued another Cam- 
bridge edition with a valuable appendix; in 1733 the whole work 
was translated into English by Dugdale; and in 1736 Dugdale's 
second edition was revised by Shaw. In 1716 an Italian edition 
appeared at Naples; in 1750 a Dutch translation followed; and 
' n '755 a French version, from Shaw's edition, came out at Paris. 
Among later geographers d'Anville and A. von Humboldt especially 
drew attention to Varen's genius and services to science. 

See Breusing, " Lebensnachrichten von Bernhard Varenius " (Geogr. 
Mitthett., 1880); H. Blink's paper on Varenius in Tijdschr. van het 
Nederl. Aandrijksk. Genotschap (1887), ser. ii. pt. 3; and F. Ratzel's 
article " Bernhard Varenius," in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, vol. 
xxxix. (Leipzig, 1895). 

VARESE, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of 
Como, 18 m. by rail W. of that town, and 37 m. N.W. of Milan, 
1253 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 7692 (town); 17,666 
(commune). It is a well-to-do place, beautifully situated near 
the Lake of Varese, and for this reason a favourite summer and 
autumn resort of the Milanese, who have numerous country 
houses in the vicinity. Among them the Villa Litta and the 
Villa Ponte may be specially mentioned. The principal church 
is that of S. Victor (rebuilt 1580-1615 and 1795), to which is 
attached an ancient baptistery (dating from the gth century 
but rebuilt in the I3th). The fine campanile of the church is 
246 ft. high. There is an archaeological museum with pre- 
historic antiquities from the lake-dwellings on an island in 
the Lake of Varese. To the N.W. (a journey of z| hours) is 
the pilgrimage church of the Madonna del Monte (2885 ft.), 
approached by a path which passes fourteen chapels adorned 
with 17th-century frescoes and groups in stucco illustrating 
the mysteries of the rosary. Varese is the seat of active silk- 
spinning, tanning, paper-making and the manufacture of organs 
and vehicles. Excellent wine is made. Varese is a junction 
for Porto Ceresio and Laveno. 

VARIA (mod. Vicovaro), an ancient village of Latium, Italy, 
in the valley of the Anio, on its right bank, and on the Via 
Valeria, 8 m. N.E. of Tibur (Tivoli). It was probably an 
independent town and not within the territory of Tibur, and 
Horace speaks of it as Sabine. Some remains of its walls, 
in rectangular blocks of travertine, still exist. One mile to the 
east is a picturesque gorge of the Anio, in which may be seen 
remains of the ancient aqueducts which supplied Rome, 'con- 
sisting partly of rock-cut channels and partly of ruined bridges: 
above it is the monastery of S Cosimato. Close to this point 
begins the valley of the Digentia (mod. Licenza) in which 
Horace's Sabine farm was situated. On the hill at the east 
of the entrance is the village of Cantalupo or Bardella, which 
has now assumed the name of Mandela, being identified thus 



906 



VARIATION AND SELECTION 



(correctly) with Horace's " rugosus frigore pagus " (Epist. i. 
18, 104). An inscription of the Christian period, found at 
S Cosimato, speaks of the Massa Mandelana (Corp. Inscr. Lat. 
xiv. 3482). About 3 m. up the valley, close to the road on 
the west (right) bank of the stream, are traces of a Roman 
dwelling-house in opus reticulatum with remains of two mosaic 
pavements; this is generally identified with the villa of Horace, 
and probably corresponds fairly closely with its site. That 
the Fons Bandusiae was near the Sabine farm is not a necessary 
inference from Od. iii. 13, in which alone it is mentioned; 
though the scholiasts state it; indeed a fountain of this name 
near Venusia is mentioned in a bull of 1103.' On the other 
hand, that the're was an abundant fountain near the Sabine 
farm is clear from Epist. i. 16. 12, and Sat. ii. 6. 2. It is 
generally identified with the Fonte dei Ratini, but the spring 
of Vigna la Corte, a little farther north, is still more plentiful. 
Some have supposed that the site of the villa was higher up 
the hillside, above Rocca Giovane. For Horace speaks of having 
written Epist. i. 10 " post fanum putre Vacunae," and an 
inscription recording a temple of Victoria restored by Vespasian 
was copied at Rocca Giovane in the i6th century (Corp. Inscr. 
Lat. xiv. 3485). The identification of Victoria with the Sabine 
goddess Vacuna is not, however, absolutely certain: and there 
is here, as elsewhere in Roman literature, a play on the con- 
nexion of the name with vacare, " to take a holiday." In any 
case, the site of the Sabine farm can be approximately, if not 
exactly, fixed as in the neighbourhood of Rocca Giovane. 

See T. Berti, La Villa di Orazio (Rome, 1886); G. Boissier, 
Nouvelles promenades arch&ologiques (Paris, 1886). (T. As.) 

VARIATION AND SELECTION, in biology. Since the 
publication in 1859 of Charles Darwin's Origin of Species, the 
theory of evolution of animals and plants (see EVOLUTION) has 
rested on a linking of the conceptions of variation and selection. 
Living organisms vary, that is to say, no two individuals are 
exactly alike; the death-rate and the multiplication-rate are 
to a certain extent selective, that is to say, on the average, 
in the long run, they favour certain variations and oppress 
other variations. Co-operation of the two factors appears 
to supply a causal theory of the occurrence of evolution; the 
suggestion of their co-operation and the comparison of the 
possible results with the actual achievements of breeders in 
producing varieties were the features of Charles Darwin's 
theoretical work which made it a new beginning in the 
science of biology, and which reduced to insignificance all earlier 
work on the theory of evolution. P. Geddes, J. H. Stirling, 
E. Clodd and H. F. Osborn have made careful studies of pre- 
Darwinian writers on evolution, but the results of their inquiries 
only serve to show the greatness of the departure made by 
Darwin. 

Several of the ancients had a vague belief in continuity 
between the inorganic and the organic and in the modifying 
or variation-producing effects of the environment. Medieval 
writers contain nothing of interest on the subject, and the 
speculations of the earliest of the modern evolutionists, such 
as C. Bonnet, were too vague to be of value. G. L. L. Buffon, 
in a cautious, tentative fashion, suggested rather than stated 
the mutability of species and the influence of the forces of 
nature in moulding organisms. Immanuel Kant, in his Theory 
of the Heavens (1755), foreshadowed a theory of the develop- 
ment of unformed matter into the highest types of animals 
and plants, and suggested that the gradations of structure 
revealed by comparative anatomy pointed to the existence 
of blood relationship of all organisms, due to derivation from 
a common ancestor. He appeared to believe, however, that 
the successive variations and modifications had arisen in response 
to mechanical laws of the organisms themselves rather than 
to the influence of their surroundings. J. G. von Herder 
suggested that increase by multiplication with the consequent 
struggle for existence had played a large part in the organic 
world, but his theme remained vague and undeveloped. 
Erasmus Darwin, the grandfather of Charles Darwin, set forth 
in Zoonomia a much more definite theory of the relation of 



variation to evolution, and the following passage, cited by Clodd, 
clearly expresses it: 

" When we revolve in our minds the metamorphoses of animals, 
as from the tadpole to the frog; secondly, the changes produced by 
artificial cultivation, as in the breeds of horses, dogs and sheep; 
thirdly, the changes produced by conditions of climate and season, 
as in the sheep of warm climates being covered with hair instead of 
wool, and the hares and partridges of northern climates becoming 
white in winter; when, further, we observe the changes of structure 
produced by habit, as shewn especially by men of different occupa- 
tions; or the 'changes produced by artificial mutilation and prenatal 
influences, as in the crossing of species and production of monsters; 
fourth, when we observe the essential unity of plan in all warm- 
blooded animals we are led to conclude that they have been alike 
produced from a single living filament." 

G. R. Treviranus, in the beginning of the igth century, laid 
stress on the indefiniteness of variation, but assumed that 
some of it was adaptive response to the environment, and 
some due to sexual crossing. J. B. P. Lamarck was the first 
author to work out a connected theory of descent and to suggest 
that the relationships of organic forms were due to actual 
affinities. He believed that life was an expanding, growing 
force, and that animals responded to the environment by 
developing new wants, seeking to satisfy these by new move- 
ments and thus by their own striving producing new organs 
which were transmitted to their descendants. Variation was 
in fact a purposive response. 

In 1813 W. C. Wells definitely propounded the theory of 
natural selection, but applied it only to certain human 
characters. In 1831 Patrick Matthew, in the appendix to 
a book on naval timber and arboriculture, laid stress on the 
extreme fecundity of nature " who has in all the varieties of 
her offspring a prolific power much beyond (in many cases a 
thousandfold) what is necessary to fill up the vacancies caused 
by senile decay. As the field of existence is limited and pre- 
occupied, it is only the hardier, more robust, better-suited-to- 
circumstance individuals, who are able to struggle forward to 
maturity, these inhabiting only the situations to which they 
have superior adaptation and greater power of occupancy 
than any other kind; the weaker and less circumstance-suited 
being prematurely destroyed. This principle is in constant 
action; it regulates the colour, the figure, the capacities and 
instincts; those individuals in each species whose colour and 
covering are best suited to concealment or protection from 
enemies, or defence from inclemencies or vicissitudes of climate, 
whose figure is best accommodated to health, strength, defence 
and support; whose capacities and instincts can best regulate 
the physical energies to self-advantage according to circum- 
stances in such immense waste of primary and youthful life 
those only come to maturity from the strict ordeal by which 
nature tests their adaptation to her standard of perfection 
and fitness to continue their kind by reproduction." G. St 
Hilaire and afterwards his son Isodore regarded variation as 
not indefinite but directly evoked by the demands of the 
environment. L. von Buch laid stress on geographical isolation 
as the cause of production of varieties, the different conditions 
of the environment and the segregated interbreeding gradually 
producing local races. K. E. von Baer and M. J. Schleiden 
regarded variation and the production of new or improved 
structures as an unfolding of possibilities latent in the stock. 
Robert Chambers, in the once famous Vestiges of Creation, 
interested and shocked his contemporaries by his denial of 
the fixity of species and his insistence on creation by progressive 
evolution, but had no better theory of the cause of variation 
than to suppose that organisms " from the simplest and oldest 
to the highest and most recent " were possessed of " an inherent 
impulse, imparted by the Almighty both to advance them 
from the several grades and modify their structure as circum- 
stances required." In 1852 C. Naudin compared the origin of 
species in nature with that of varieties under cultivation. 
Herbert Spencer from 1852 onwards maintained the principle 
of evolution and laid special stress on the moulding forces of 
the environment which called into being primarily new functions 
and secondarily new structures. 



VARIATION AND SELECTION 



907 



Although the pre-Darwinian writers amongst them invoked 
nearly every principle that Darwin . or his successors have 
suggested, they failed to carry conviction with regard to evolu- 
tion, and they neither propounded a coherent philosophy of 
variation nor suggested a mechanism by which variations that 
appeared might give rise to new species. The anticipations 
of Darwin were little more than formal and verbal. As T. H. 
Huxley pointed out in his essay on the reception of the Origin 
of Species in the second volume of Darwin's Life and Letters, 
" The suggestion that new species may result from the selective 
action of external conditions upon the variations from their 
specific type which individuals present and which we call 
' spontaneous ' because we are ignorant of their causation 
is as wholly unknown to the historian of scientific ideas as it 
was to biological specialists before 1858. But that suggestion 
is the central idea of the Origin of Species, and contains the 
quintessence of Darwinism." 

C. Darwin opened his argument by consideration of plants 
and animals under domestication. He pointed to the efflo- 
rescence of new forms that had come into existence under the 
protection of man. A multitude of varieties of cultivated plants 
and domesticated animals existed, and these differed amongst 
themselves and from their nearest wild allies to an extent that, 
but for the fact of their domestication, would entitle them to 
the systematic rank of species. Some of these changes he sup- 
posed to have been the result of new conditions, including 
abundance of food and protection from enemies, but most he 
attributed to the accumulated results of selective breeding. 
No doubt such domesticated species might revert, and it has 
been shown that many do revert when restored to wild con- 
ditions, but such reversion is natural if we reflect that the 
domestic varieties are under the guardianship of man and have 
been selected according to his whim and advantage. Compar- 
ing domesticated varieties with species and varieties in nature, 
Darwin showed that the distinction between varieties and species 
was chiefly a matter of opinion, and that the discovery of new 
linking forms often degraded species to varieties. Species, in 
fact, were not fixed categories, but halting-places, often ex- 
tremely difficult to choose, for the surveying mind of the sys- 
tematist. He considered that a struggle for existence was the 
inevitable result of the operation of the principle of Malthus 
in the animal and vegetable worlds. The struggle would be 
most acute between individuals and varieties of the same 
species, with the result that " any being, if it vary however 
slightly, in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex 
and somewhat varying conditions of life, will have a better 
chance of surviving, and thus be naturally selected." Under 
natural selection the less well-adapted forms of life would 
on the average have a heavier death-rate and a lower multi- 
plication-rate. He did not suggest that every variation and 
every character must have a " selection value," although 
he pointed out that, because of our ignorance of animal 
physiology, it was extremely rash to set down any characters 
as valueless to their owners. It is even more important to 
notice that he did not suggest that every individual with a 
favourable variation must be selected, or that the selected or 
favoured animals were better or higher, but merely that they 
were more adapted to their surroundings. 

With regard to variation, Darwin was urgent in stating his 
opinion that the laws of variation were not understood and 
that the phrase " chance " variation was a wholly incorrect 
expression. He thought it probable that circumstances affect- 
ing the reproductive system of the parents had much influence 
in producing a plastic condition of the progeny. He doubted, 
but did not exclude, the importance of the direct effect of 
differences of climate and food and of increased use and disuse, 
except so far as the individual was concerned, but his opinion 
as to these Lamarckian factors changed from time to time. He 
laid much stress on the unity of the organism in every stage of 
its existence, with the re'sulting correlation of variations, so 
that the favouring of one particular variation entailed modi- 
fications of correlated structures. He recognized the existence 



of the large variations, but he believed these to be of little 
value in evolution, and he attached preponderating import- 
ance to relatively minute indeterminate variations. On the 
other hand, he was far from advocating the view that has 
been pithily expressed as the " selection of the fit from the 
fortuitous "; he recognized that variations, although perhaps 
suggested or excited by tne environment, were determined 
by internal causes. He showed how different varieties in a 
species, or species in a genus, tended to display parallel variation, 
clearly indicating that the range and direction of variation 
were limited or determined by the nature of the organism. 

Alfred Russel Wallace, the co-discoverer of the Darwinian 
principles, had sent to Darwin early in 1858 an outline of a 
theory of the origin of species. Darwin found that it was, 
in all essential respects, identical with his own theory at the 
exposition of which he had been working for many years. With 
an unselfish generosity which must always shine in the history 
of science, and indeed of the human race, Darwin proposed 
at once to communicate his correspondent's essay to the 
Linnaean Society of London, but was persuaded by his friends 
to send with it an outline of his own views. Accordingly, on 
the same evening, in July 1858, both communications were 
made to the Linnaean Society. When Wallace found how 
much more fully Darwin was equipped for expounding the 
new views, he exhibited an unselfish modesty that fully re- 
paid Darwin's generosity, henceforth described himself as a 
follower of Darwin, entitled his most important publication 
on the theory of evolution Darwinism, and did not issue it 
until 1889, long after the world had given full credit to Darwin. 
In most respects his ideas were closely parallel with those of 
Darwin. He believed that species had been formed by means 
of natural selection. He insisted that the great powers of 
increase of all organisms led to a tremendous struggle for 
existence, and that variability extended to every part and 
organ of every organism; that the variability was large in amount 
in proportion to the size of the part affected, and occurred in a 
considerable proportion of the individuals of those large and 
dominant species which might be supposed to be breaking up 
into new species. He pointed to the changes wrought on 
domesticated organisms by the artificial selection of similar 
variations, and drew the inference that there must be parallel 
occurrences under wild nature. In the sphere of nature, with 
its vast numbers and constant pressure, not every more favoured 
individual would survive, nor every surviving individual be 
the more favoured, but throughout the changes and chances 
there would be a constant and important bias in favour of the 
individuals more fitted to their conditions. Wallace, however, 
brought into his scheme a factor excluded by Darwin. He 
believed that behind the natural world lay a spiritual world, 
irruptions from which had disturbed the natural sequence of 
causation, certainly in the production of the higher emotional 
and mental qualities of man, probably in the appearance of 
self-consciousness, and possibly in the first origin of life. 

It is to be remembered that the origin of species by the 
modification of pre-existing species, in fact, the doctrine of 
organic evolution, although first made credible by Darwin 
and Wallace, does not depend upon their theory of the relation 
of natural selection to variation. The theory of evolution is 
supported by a great range of evidence, much of which was 
first collected by Darwin, and which has been enormously 
increased by subsequent workers excited by his genius. Such 
evidence relates to the facts of classification, structure, develop- 
ment, and geographical and geological distribution. It now 
remains to examine in closer detail the further knowledge that 
has been gained with regard to variation and the bearing of that 
on the Darwinian position. 

Magnitude of Variation. Darwin was well aware that varia- 
tion ranged from differences so minute as to become apparent 
only on careful measurement to those large departures from 
the normal which may be called abnormalities, malformations 
or monstrosities. He was of the opinion that the summation 
of minute differences had played a preponderating if not 



908 



VARIATION AND SELECTION 



exclusive part in the formation of species. Wallace, whilst 
insisting that the range of observed and measured variation 
was much larger in proportion to the size of the organisms or 
parts of organism affected than was generally believed, leaned 
to the Darwinian view in excluding from the normal factors 
in the origin of species variations of the extremer ranges of 
magnitude. Later writers, and in particular W. Bateson and 
H. de Vries, have urged that as species are discontinuous 
that is to say, marked off by structural differences of considerable 
magnitude it is more probable that they have arisen from 
similarly discontinuous variations. De Vries gave the name 
" mutations " to such considerable variations (it is to be noted 
that a further concept, that of the mode of origin, has been 
added to the word mutation, and that the conception of relative 
size is being removed from it), and Bateson, de Vries and other 
writers have added many striking cases to those recorded by 
Darwin. It is doubtful, however, if there is any philosophical 
basis for distinguishing between variations merely by their 
magnitude. Differences which at their first appearance are 
very minute may result in the kind of variations which certainly 
would be classed as discontinuous. When the cells of the 
morula stage of an embryo are shaken asunder, each, instead 
of forming the appropriate part of a single organism, may form 
a complete new organism. And similarly in the development 
of a complicated organism, the suppression or doubling of a 
single cell or group of cells may bring about striking differences 
in the symmetry of the adult, or the reduction or increase in 
the number of metameric organs. A slight change in the 
structure or activity of a gland, by altering the internal secretion, 
may produce widespread alterations even in an adult organism; 
and we have good reason to suppose that, if compatible with 
viability, such minute changes would have even a greater 
ultimate effect if they occurred in an embryo. Even amongst 
the extreme advocates of the theory of mutations, the import- 
ance of magnitude is being discounted by their suggestion 
that some of the minute variations which have hitherto been 
regarded by them as insignificant " fluctuating variations " 
may be significant mutations. This in effect is to say that not 
magnitude but something else has to be sought for if we are to 
pick out amongst observed variations those which may be the 
material for the differentiation of species. So far as magnitude 
is concerned, the attack on the Darwinian position has failed, 
and it is agreed that species may be discontinuous and none 
the less have been produced from minute variations. 

Causes of Variation. Darwin was careful to insist that we 
did not know the laws of variation, and that when variation 
was attributed to " chance " no more should be read into the 
statement than an expression of our ignorance of the causation. 
It cannot now be doubted that a very large amount of observed 
variation, and especially of the indefinite variation which 
is sometimes spoken of as fluctuating variation, and which is 
usually distributed indefinitely round a mean, is directly 
associated with or induced by the environment. On various 
grounds attempts have been made to exclude such variation 
from the material for the making of species. The variations 
which de Vries has called mutations, and which were at first 
associated by Bateson with what he called discontinuous 
variations as the exclusive source of new species, are now 
supposed by de Vries to be distinguished from fluctuating 
variations by their mode of origin. Such mutations are not 
the product of the environment, but are an outcrop of the 
constitution of the germinal material of the varying organism, 
the result either of causes as yet undetected, or of the premuta- 
tions and eliminations suggested by the work of Mendel (see 
MENDELISM). These attempts to reject environmental varia- 
tion rest on several grounds. In the first place the variations 
in question are " acquired characters." When Darwin and 
Wallace framed their theories it was practically assumed that 
acquired characters were inherited, and the continuous slow 
action of the environment, moulding each generation to a 
slight extent in the same direction, was readily accepted by 
a generation inspired by Sir C. Lyell's doctrine of uniformi- 



tarianism in geological change, as a potent force. A. Weismann, 
however, from theoretical considerations and from analysis 
of supposed cases has at the least thrown doubt on the trans- 
mission of acquired characters. And so the newer school dis- 
card acquired characters and all the Lamarckian factors and 
leave the board clear for " mutations." Analysis of any 
acquired character, however, shows that there are two factors 
involved. The organism is not a passive medium; the amount 
and nature of the response it makes to the action of environment 
depends on its own qualities, and these qualities, on any theory 
of inheritance, pass from generation to generation. Successful 
organisms, or well-adapted organisms, are those that have 
responded to the environment, whether by large or small varia- 
tions, in suitable fashion. It is the character as acquired that 
affords the opportunity for selection, but the quality of respond- 
ing to the environment so as to produce that character is trans- 
mitted. The conceptions of Weismann afford no ground for 
rejecting fluctuating variations from the materials for the 
production of species. 

In the second place, it has been urged, particularly by 
de Vries, that experiment and observation have shown that 
the possible range of fluctuating variation is strictly limited. 
Breeders, he says, who try to build up qualities by the selection 
of the fluctuating variations that occur soon find that they 
reach a maximum beyond which their efforts fail, unless they 
turn to the more rarely occurring but heritable mutations. 
Something will be said later in this article as to the limitation 
of variation; here it is necessary only to say that de Vries is 
introducing no new idea. It is well known that some races 
and some organs in plants and animals are extremely variable, 
and that others are much less variable, and further, that whilst 
some of these differences may be due to intrinsic causes, others 
can be modified by experiment. As Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer 
has pointed out, what is called " specific stability " is a familiar 
obstacle to the producer of novelties, but one which he fre- 
quently succeeds in breaking down by cultural and other 
methods. In a survey of the palaeontological history of plants 
and animals, it is plain that extreme stability and extreme 
mutability both have occurred, sometimes having persisted for 
untold ages, sometimes having succeeded one another for vary- 
ing periods. As yet no solid reason has been alleged for exclud- 
ing fluctuating variations, on account of their limitation, from 
the materials for specific change. J. Cossar Ewart and H. M. 
Vernon have adduced experimental evidence as to the induction 
of variation by such causes as difference in the ages of the 
parents, in the maturity or freshness of the conjugating germ 
cells, and in the condition of nutrition for the embryos. Such 
cases show in the plainest way the co-operation of external 
or environmental and internal or constitutional factors. 

With our present knowledge it is impossible to discriminate 
between variation that may or that may not be the material 
for the differentiation of species by scrutinizing either magnitude 
or probable causation. It is equally impossible to draw an 
exact line between variation induced by the environment and 
variation that may be termed intrinsic. Extrinsic and in- 
trinsic factors are involved in every case, although there is a 
range from instances in which the external factor appears to be 
extreme to instances where the intrinsic factor is dominant. 
Even the results of mutilation involve an intrinsic factor, for 
they range, according to the organ and organism affected, from 
complete regeneration to the most imperfect healing. In the 
effects of exercise, of physiological activity and the gross results 
of such external agencies as food, tempeiature, climate, light, 
pressure and so forth the intrinsic factor appears to become 
more important. The interplay of extrinsic and intrinsic 
factors also differs with the age of the organism affected: the 
more nearly adult it may be, the more direct appears to be 
the influence of the environment; the more nearly embryonic 
the organism may be, the less direct js the result of a force im- 
pressed from without. The old organism is more stable and 
responds in obvious ways to direct assaults from without; 
the young organism is at once less stable and more profoundly 



VARIATION AND SELECTION 



909 



modified by environmental change, replying in terms less easy 
to predict from knowledge of the nature and amount of the 
impinging agency. And finally, there are a series of variations, 
amongst which no doubt are the mutations of de Vries and 
the disintegrations and recombinations of the unit factors with 
which Mendel and his followers have worked, in which the 
external or environmental factor is most remote from the 
actual result. 

Correlated Variation. Every organism is an individual, its 
different parts, organs and functions being associated in a 
degree of intimacy that varies, but that corresponds roughly 
with the integration of the individual and its place in the 
ascending scales of animal or vegetable life. One aspect of 
organic individuality is the correlation of variations, the fact 
that when one part varies, other parts vary more or less sim- 
ultaneously. So far, our knowledge of correlation is almost 
entirely empirical, and the arrangement of the observed facts 
cannot be brought into exact harmony with our guesses at their 
causation. 

Much correlation is the inevitable result of organic structure. 
The various parts of a living organism affect each other in 
adult life and during growth. If, for instance, the testes fail 
to develop normally, the secretion which they discharge into 
the blood is abnormal in character and amount, with the result 
that the characters of the remotest parts of the body are more 
or less profoundly affected. It is now known that similar 
internal secretions, or hormones, pass into the blood trom every 
organ and tissue, so reaching and affecting every part of the 
body. If we reflect on the multitude and complexity of such 
actions and reactions in operation from the youngest stages 
to the end of the life of each individual, we cannot be surprised 
at any correlation. Change in the size of any part or organ, 
however it may have been produced, must bring with it many 
others changes, directly or indirectly. A difference in calibre, 
elasticity or branching of a blood vessel, the smallest variation 
in a nerve or group of vessel-cells, any anatomical or physio- 
logical divergence, is reflected throughout the organism. Much 
of the character of organisms is due to various symmetries, 
radial, bilateral, metameric and so forth, and these symmetries 
arise, partly at least, from the mode of growth by cell division 
and the marshalling of groups of cells to the places where they 
are destined to proliferate. Here, again, a variation in the 
order, nature and number of the divisions, in itself simple, 
may result in symmetrical or correlated changes in all the 
progeny of the affected embryonic part. 

Every new individual starts life (see REPRODUCTION) as a 
mass of germinal material derived from one or from two parents, 
but with a coherent individuality of its own. This individuality 
is the result of the particular selection of qualities it receives 
from its parents, a selection that obviously differs in different 
cases, as, save in the case of " identical twins," which are 
supposed to be the product of a single fertilized ovum, no 
individual pair of brothers, or pair consisting of brother and 
sister, are alike. We are still ignorant of the causes that deter- 
mine the associated selection of inherited qualities that go to 
the making of any individual. Those who have followed up the 
work of Mendel believe that the qualities of the new individual 
are a precise selection from and reconstruction of the parental 
qualities, and that were complete analysis possible, the char- 
acters of the new individual could be predicted with chemical 
accuracy. On other views of inheritance, there would be 
required for prediction knowledge not only of the immediate 
parents but of the whole line of ancestry, with the result that 
prediction could reach only some degree of probability for any 
single individual and be accurate only for the average of a 
sufficient number of individuals. But whatever be the theory 
of the mode of inheritance, or the mechanism by which the 
germinal plasm of an individual is made up, it is plain that there 
is correlation between the various qualities of an individual due 
to the mode of origin of its germ plasm as a selected individual 
portion of the parental germ plasm. 

Observed cases of correlation cover almost every kind of 



anatomical and physiological fact, and range from simple cases 
such as the relation between height of body and length of face 
to such an unexpected nexus as that between fertility and 
height in mothers of daughters. The statistical investigation 
of correlations forms a new branch of biological inquiry, 
generally termed " Biometrics," inaugurated by F. Gallon and 
carried on by Karl Pearson and the late W. F. R. Weldon. 

We quote from the article " Variation and Selection," in 
the tenth edition of this Encyclopaedia, an exposition of the 
biometric method by Weldon: 

The characters of individual animals or plants depend upon so 
many complex conditions, most of which are generally unknown 
to us, that the statements we can make concerning them are of a 
peculiar kind. We cannot predict with any exactness the char- 
acters of a single unborn individual; but if we consider a large 
number of unborn individuals, we can predict with considerable 
accuracy the percentage of individuals which will have the mean 
character proper to their generation, or will differ from that mean 
character within any assigned limits. So long as we confine our 
attention to one or two individuals, we fail to detect any order in 
the occurrence of variations; but when we examine large numbers 
we find that it is possible to arrange them in an orderly series, which 
can be easily and simply described. The series into which we 
can arrange the results of observing phenomena of complex causa- 
tion, whether exhibited by living organisms or not, have certain 
properties in common, which are dealt with by the theory of chance. 
Many of the properties of such series, and the methods of de- 
scribing them, are dealt with elsewhere (see PROBABILITY: Law of 
Error) ; and the frequency with [which the mean value or any 
deviation from the mean value of a character occurs in a race 
of animals or of plants may probably always be expressed in terms 
of one or other of the series there described. The theory of chance 
was applied to the study of human variation by Quetelet; but 
the most important applications of this theory to biological prob- 
lems are due in the first instance to Francis Galton, who used 
the theory of correlation in describing the relation between the 
deviation of one character in an animal body from the mean proper 
to its race and that of a second character in the same body (cor- 
relation as commonly understood), or between deviation of a 
parent from the mean of its generation and deviation of offspring 
from the mean of the following generation (inheritance). The 
conceptions indicated by Galton have been extended and added 
to by Karl Pearson, who has also developed the theory of chance 
so as to provide a means of describing many series of complex 
results in a simpler and more accurate way than was hitherto 
possible. 

The conception of a race of animals or of plants as a group of 
individuals capable of being arranged in an orderly series with 
respect to the condition of a particular character enables us to 
define the " type " of that character proper to the race. Table I. 
shows the number of female swine which had a given number of 
" Miiller's glands " on the right fore leg, in a sample of 2000 swine 
observed by Davenport in Chicago. If we take the whole number 
of glands in the series, and divide this by the whole number of 
swine, we obtain the mean number of glands per swine. For many 
purposes this is the most convenient " type " of the series. Two 

TABLE I. 



Number of 
Glands. 


Number of 
Swine. 


Number of 
Glands. 


Number of 
Swine. 


O 

I 
2 

3 

4 
5 


15 
209 

365 
482 
414 
277 


6 

8 
9 

10 


134 
72 
22 
8 

2 



other ways of determining a "type" will be obvious by reference 
to the diagram, fig. I, in which the observed results are recorded 
by the thick continuous line, and the form of Pearson's " generalized 
probability curve " best fitted to represent them by a dotted line. 
The ordinate of the dotted curve which contains its " centre of 
gravity " has, of course, for its abscissa the " mean " number of 
glands; the maximum ordinate of the curve is, however, at 2-98, 
or sensibly at 3 glands, showing what Pearson has called the 
" modal " number of glands, or the number occurring most fre- 
quently. The ordinate which divides the area of the dptted_curve 
into two equal areas is the median of Galton: it lies in this case 
nearly at 3-38 glands. The best simple measure of the frequency 
of deviations from the mean character is the " standard deviation 
or " error of mean square " of the system (see article PROBABILITY), 
in this case equal to 1-68 glands. 

In cases of nearly symmetrical distribution about the mean, 
the three " types," the mean, the median and the mode, may 
sensibly coincide. For example, in Powis's table of the frequency 
of statures in male Australian criminals between 40 and 50 years 



VARIATION AND SELECTION 



of age (Biometrika, vol. i. part I, p. 41), the mean stature is 
66-91 in., the modal 66-96 in., the median lying between the 




\ 



\ 



\ 



FIG. i. 

two. In other cases the difference between the three may be con- 
siderable. As an example of extreme asymmetry we may take 
de Vries's record of the frequency with which given numbers of 
petals occur in a certain race of buttercups. Pearson has shown 
(Phil. Trans., A., 1893) that this frequency may be closely repre- 
sented by the curve whose equation is 



The curve, and the observations it represents, are drawn in fig. 2. 
The two are compared numerically in Table II. Here the mode 
is at 4-5 petals, the mean at 5-6 petals, the median lying of course 
between the two. 

TABLE II. 



Numbers of petals . 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


Frequency observed. 


133 


55 


23 


7 


2 


2 


o 


Frequency given by 
















Pearson's curve . 


136-9 


48-5 


22-6 


9-6 


3-4 


0-8 


0-2 



The distributions represented in figs, i and 2 may be taken as 
examples of three common forms of series into which the indi- 
viduals of a race may be arranged with 
respect to a single character; a compari- 
son of them will show how little can be 
learnt from a mere statement of racial 
type, without some knowledge of the way 
in which deviations from the type are 
distributed. 

The variability of structures which are 
repeated in the body of the same indi- 
vidual (serial homologues) has been 
studied by Pearson and his pupils with 
important results. The simplest of such 
repeated elements are the cells of the 
tissues, more complex are cell-aggregates, 
from hairs, scales, teeth and the like, up 
to limbs or metameres in animals, or the 
00 leaves and their homologues in plants. 
Serially homologous structures, borne 
on the same body, are commonly differ- 
entiated into sets, the mean character of 
a set produced in one part of the body, 
or during one period of life, differing 
from the mean character of a set produced 
in a different region or at a different 
time. Such differentiation may be 
measured by determining the correlation 
between the position or the time of pro- 
duction and the character of the organs 
produced, the methods by which the 
correlation is measured being those de- 
scribed in the article ERROR, LAW OF. 
An excellent example of structures 



FIG. 2. 



differentiated according to position is given by the appendages 
borne on the stem of an ordinary flowering plant the one or 
two seed leaves; the stem leaves, which may or may not be 
differentiated into secondary sets; and the various floral organs 
borne at the apex of the stem or its lateral branches. The 
change which often occurs in the mean character and varia- 
bility of the flowers produced at different periods of the flowering 



season by the same plant is an example of differentiation associated 
with time of production; as this kind of differentiation is less 
familiar than differentiation according to the region of production, 
it may be well to give an example. In a group of plants of Aster 
prenanlhoides, examined by G. H. Shull (American Naturalist, 
xxxvi., 1902), the mean number of bracts, ray-florets and disc- 
florets, and the standard deviation of each, was determined on four 
different days, with the following result: 

TABLE III. 





Sept. 27. 


Sept. 30. 


Oct. 4. 


Oct. 8. 


Mean No. of bracts 
Standard deviation 
Mean No. of ray-florets 
Standard deviation 
Mean No. disc-florets . 
Standard deviation 


47-41 
5-52 
30-77 
3-99 
56-43 
3-99 


44-34 
5-15 
28-71 

3-57 
5i-7i 
4-99 


43-83 
5-28 
28-25 
3-50 
49-16 
4-88 


41-92 
4-89 
26-34 
3-01 

45-78 
4-78 



Notwithstanding this differentiation, the mean character of a 
series of repeated organs is often constant through a considerable 
region of the body or a considerable period of time; and the 
standard deviation of an " array " of repeated parts, chosen from 
such an area, or within such limits of time, may be taken as a 
measure of the individual variability of the organism which pro- 
duces them. If such an array of repeated organs be chosen from the 
proper region of the body, within proper limits of time, in each of a 
large series of individuals belonging to a rice, and if all the arrays 
so chosen be added together, a series will be formed from which the 
racial variability can be determined. Thus a series of arrays of 
beech leaves, gathered, subject to the precautions indicated, from 
each of 100 beech trees in Buckinghamshire by Professor Pearson, 
gave 16-1 as the mean number of veins per leaf, the standard devia- 
tion of the veins in the series being 1-735. The number of leaves 
gathered from each tree was 26, and the frequency of leaves with 
any observed number of veins in the whole series of 2600 leaves was 
as follows : 

TABLE IV. 



No. of veins . 
No. of leaves . 


10 
I 


II 

7 


12 

34 


13 
no 


H 
3i8 


15 

479 


16 
595 


17 
5i6 


18 
307 


19 

181 


20 

36 


21 

15 


22 

I 



The whole series contains 2600 leaves. If a leaf from this series 
be chosen at random, it is clearly more likely to have sixteen veins 
than to have any other assigned number; but if a first leaf chosen 
at random should prove to have some number of veins other than 
sixteen, a second leaf, chosen at random from the same series, is still 
more likely to have sixteen veins than to have any other assigned 
number. If, however, a series of leaves from the same tree be 
examined in pairs, the fact that one leaf from the tree is known to 
possess an abnormal number of veins makes it probable that the 
next leaf chosen from the same tree will also be abnormal or, in 
other words, the fact that leaves are borne by the same tree estab- 
lishes a correlation between them. Professor Pearson has measured 
this correlation. Taking each leaf of his series, with an assigned 
number of veins, he has determined the array of pairs of leaves 
which can be formed by pairing the chosen leaf with all others 
from its own tree in succession. The pairs so formed were collected 
in a table, from which the correlation between the first leaf and the 
second leaf of a pair, chosen from one tree, could be determined by 
the methods indicated in the article PROBABILITY. The mean and 
standard deviation of all first leaves or of all second leaves will 
clearly be the same as those already determined for the series of 
leaves; since every leaf in the series is used once as a first member 
and once as a second member of a pair. The coefficient of cor- 
relation is 0-5699, which indicates that the standard deviation of 
an array is equal to that of the leaves in general multiplied by 
V I (O-5&99) 2 ; and performing this multiplication, we find 1-426 as 
the standard deviation of an array. The variability of an array of 
such a table that is, of any line or column of it is the mean 
variability of pairs of leaves, each pair chosen from one tree, and 
having one leaf of a particular character; it may therefore be taken 
as a fair measure of the variability of such a tree. We see therefore 
that while leaves, gathered in equal numbers from each of 100 trees, 
are distributed about their mean with a standard deviation of 1-735 
veins, the leaves gathered from a single tree are distributed about 
their mean with a standard deviation of 1-426 veins, the ratio be- 
tween variability of the race and variability of the individual tree 
being V i (o-s699) 2 =0-822. 

The correlation between undifferentiated sets of serial homologues, 
produced by a single individual, is the measure of what Pearson 
has called homotyposis. In an elaborate memoir on the homo- 
typosis in plants (Phil. Trans., vol. 197 A., 1901), from which the 
foregoing statements about beech leaves are taken, Pearson has 
given the correlation between such sets of organs in a large number 
of plants: he and his pupils have subsequently determined the 
correlation between structures repeated in the bodies of individual 
animals. The results obtained are sometimes puzzling, because it is 



VARIATION AND SELECTION 



911 



sometimes difficult to choose the whole series of structures osberyed 
from a region of the body which is not affected by differentiation. 
In spite of this difficulty, however, the values of the correlation 
coefficients so far obtained cluster fairly well round the mean value 
of all of them, which is almost exactly J. From this result it 
follows (see PROBABILITY) that the standard deviation of the 
array, which we have taken as a measure of individual variability, 
is equal to the standard deviation of the race multiplied by 

( ) or by -=. These results cannot be accepted as final, but 

they are based on so many investigations of animals and plants, of 
such widely different kinds, that they may confidently be expected 
to hold for large classes of organic characters. We may therefore 
conclude that for large classes of characters, both animal and 
vegetable, the variability of an individual, as measured by the 
standard deviation of its undifferentiated but repeated organs, is a 
constant fraction of the variability of its race, as measured by the 
standard deviation of the corresponding series of organs produced 
by all the individuals of its race. 

Among the most important structures produced in repeated series 
are the reproductive cells ; and Pearson points out that if the varia- 
bility of animals or of plants be supposed to depend upon that of 
the germ-cells from which they arise, then the correlation between 
brothers in the array produced by the same parents will give a measure 
of the correlation between the parental germ-cells, the determination 
requiring, of course, the same precautions to avoid the effects of 
differentiation as are necessary in the study of other repeated 
organs. After a large series of measurements, involving the most 
varied characters of human brothers, Pearson has shown that the 
correlation has a value very nearly equal to \\ so that the varia- 
bility of human children obeys the same law as that of other 
repeated structures, the standard deviation of an array, produced 
by the same parents, having an average value equal to the 
standard deviation of the whole filial generation multiplied by 

-v/I ( ) or by *. Such measurements of fraternal correlation 

in the lower animal as Pearson and his pupils have at present made 
give values very close to J. The evidence that the correlation between 
sexually produced brethren is the same as that existing between the 
asexually repeated organs on an individual body renders it impos- 
sible to accept Weismann's view that one of the results produced 
by the differentiation of animals and plants into two sexes is an 
increase in the variability of their offspring. Warren has shown by 
direct observation that the correlation between brothers among the 
broods produced parthenogenetically by one of the Aphides has a 
value not far from the \ observed in sexually produced brethren 
(Biometrika, vol. i., 1902); he has obtained a fairly concordant 
result for the broods of parthenogenetic Daphnia (Proc. Roy. Soc. 
vol. Ixv., 1899). Finally, Simpson has measured the correlation 
between the pairs of young produced by the simple asexual division 
of Paramoecium (Biometrika, vol. i. part 4, 1902), and after some 
necessary corrections the value he obtains is 0.56, a value which 
probably does not, if we remember the difficulties of the inquiry, 
differ very significantly from J. There is therefore in a large class 
of cases an indication that the variability of an array of brethren, 
produced either sexually or asexually, is a constant fraction of the 
variability of the race to which the brethren belong. 

Variation and Mendelism. The conceptions of the disciples 
of Mendel, amongst whom W. Bateson is pre-eminent, would 
appear to simplify the problem of variation, especially on its 
mechanical and physiological sides. Their experimental work 
shows that many facts of inheritance correspond with the 
theory that the essential fabric of an organism is a mosaic of 
unit characters. Such units frequently occur in pairs, one 
member of the pair being characterized by the presence, the 
other by the absence of a problematical body at least comparable 
with a ferment, the result of the presence or absence being a 
notable modification of the whole organism or of parts of it. 
According to their view, in the formation of the germ cells a 
segregation of the unit pairs occurs that is to say, the peculiar 
body or ferment is handed on to one daughter-cell but not to 
the other. A similar kind of segregation may take place in the 
formation of the repeated parts of an organism, so that sym- 
metrical repetition may be compared with normal heredity, 
and be due to the presence of similar factors in the divisions of 
the embryonic cells, whilst the differentiation of repeated parts 
may be due to the unequal distribution of such factors and be 
comparable with variation. On such an interpretation, varia- 
tion would result from asymmetrical division and normal 
inheritance from symmetrical division. It is equally clear 
that there is a broad analogy between the kind of characters 
on which systematists often have to rely for the separation of 



species and those which Mendelian workers have shown to 
behave in accordance with the Mendelian theories of mosaic 
inheritance with segregation. The analogy possibly may be 
extended to such cases as the occurrence of flora or fauna with 
alpine characters on the summits of mountains separated by 
broad zones of tropical climate. Segregated inheritance may 
have produced the appropriate combinations which were 
latent in the capacities of the race, and the exigencies of the 
environment protected them in the suitable localities. It is to 
be noticed, however, that the Mendelian conceptions are in no 
sense an alternative to Darwinism; at the most they would 
serve to assist in explaining the mechanism of variation, and 
by enlarging our idea of the factors, increase the rate at which 
we may suppose selection to work. 

Limitation of Variations; Orthogenesis. Darwin and his 
generation were deeply imbued with the Butlerian tradition, 
and regarded the organic world as almost a miracle of adaptation, 
of the minute dovetailing of structure, function and environ- 
ment. Darwin certainly was impressed with the view that 
natural selection and variation together formed a mechanism, 
the central product of which was adaptation. From the 
Butlerian side, too, came the most urgent opposition to Dar- 
winism. How is it possible, it was said, that fortuitous varia- 
tions can furnish the material for the precise and balanced 
adaptations that all nature reveals? Selection cannot create 
the materials on which it is supposed to operate; the begin- 
nings of new organs, the initial stages of new functions cannot 
be supposed to have been useful. Moreover, many naturalists, 
especially those concerned with palaeontology, pointed to the 
existence of orthogenetic series, of long lines of ancestry, which 
displayed not a sporadic differentiation in every direction, but 
apparently a steady and progressive march in one direction. 
E. D. Cope put such a line of argument in the most cogent 
fashion; the course of evolution, both in the production of 
variations and their selection, seemed to him to imply the 
existence of an originative, conscious and directive force, for 
which he invented the term " bathmism " (Gr. )3a0/u6s, a step or 
beginning). On the other hand, dislike of mystical interpreta- 
tions of natural facts has driven many capable naturalists to 
another extreme and has led them to insist on the " all-powerful- 
ness of natural selection " and on the complete indefiniteness 
of variation. The apparent opposition between the conflicting 
schools is more acute than the facts justify. Both sides concur 
in the position assumed by Darwin, that the word " chance " 
in such a phrase as " chance variation " does not mean that the 
occurrences are independent of natural causation and so far 
undetermined, but covers in the first place our ignorance of the 
exact causation. The implication of the phrase may go farther, 
suggesting that there is no connexion between the appearance 
of the variation and the use to which it may be put. No doubt 
a large amount of variation is truly indefinite, so that many 
meaningless or useless variations arise, and in one sense it is a 
mere coincidence if a particular variation turn out to be useful. 
But there are several directions in which the field of variation 
appears to be not only limited but denned in a certain direction. 
Obviously variations depend on the constitution of the varying 
organism; a modification, whether it be large or small, is a 
modification of an already definite and limited structure. 
When beetles, or medusae, or cats vary, the range of possible 
variation is limited and determined by the beetle, medusa or 
cat constitution, and any possible further differentiation or 
specialization must be in a sense at least orthogenetic that is 
to say, a continuation of the line along which the ancestors of 
the individual in question have been forced. Darwin himself 
showed that different species in a genus, or varieties in a species, 
tended to show parallel variations, whilst comparative anatomy 
has made known a multitude of cases where allied series of 
animals or plants show successive stages of parallel but inde- 
pendent variations of important organs and functions. The 
phenomena of convergence are to some extent other instances 
of the same kind and supply evidence that organisms, so to say, 
fall into grooves, that their possibilities of change are defined 



912 



VARIATIONS 



and limited by their past history. Variation, again, as has been 
shown in this article, is limited by correlation; as any change 
involves other changes, the possibilities are limited by the 
organic whole. Finally, it is important to remember that the 
fundamental characteristic of a living organism is its power 
of response to environment, a response or series of responses 
being necessary in a continuous environment for the normal 
facies of the organism to appear, and necessary in a shifting 
environment if the organism is to change suitably and not to 
perish. A continuous environment both from the point of 
view of production of variation and selection of variation would 
appear necessarily to result in a series with the appearance of 
orthogenesis. The past history of the organic world displays 
many successful series and these, as they have survived, must 
inevitably display orthogenesis to some extent; but it also 
displays many failures which indeed may be regarded as show- 
ing that the limitation of variation has been such that the 
organisms have lost the possibility of successful response to a 
new environment. 

Selection and Adaptation. Although knowledge of variation 
has become much wider and more definite, the estimation in 
which natural selection is held has changed very little since 
Darwin and Wallace first expounded their theories. Variation 
provides the material for selection, and although opinions may 
differ as to the nature of that material, the modes by which 
it comes into existence and their relative values and perma- 
nences, there is an increasingly wide consensus of opinion that 
all such material has to pass through the sieve of natural selec- 
tion and that the sifted products form new varieties and species, 
and new adaptations. It appears to be necessary to distinguish 
between the production of species and the production of adapta- 
tion. We have still to admit with Darwin that it is difficult 
or impossible to assign utility to all the characters that dis- 
tinguish species, and particularly to those characters by which 
systematists identify species. The modern tendency for a more 
complete and detailed separation of individual forms into 
specific and sub-specific groups, and the immensely larger 
range of material at the disposal of systematic experts, have 
combined to make it increasingly difficult to imagine conditions 
of the environment under which the species of systematists 
would have been produced by selection. On the other hand, 
the work of modern systematists shows an extraordinarily 
exact relation between their species and geographical locality, 
and the fact of divergent evolution can be almost demon- 
strated in museum collections when localities have been recorded 
exactly. The decision as to whether it is the course of variation 
or the course of selection that has been different in different 
localities can be made only by the field naturalist and the 
experimental breeder. 

With regard to adaptations, it is becoming more and more 
apparent, as experimental knowledge advances, that it is a 
fundamental property of every living organism in every stage 
of its existence to display adaptive response to its environment. 
To what extent such responses are transmitted to offspring, 
and what part they play in the formation of the adaptive 
characters that are conspicuous in many animals, remain dubious, 
but it is at least clear that natural selection can favour those 
individuals and those races which show the greatest power of 
responsive plasticity in the individual. There remains open a 
wide field for inquiry as to the precise relations between selec- 
tion and variation on the one hand, and their products, specific 
differences and adaptive structures, but the advance of know- 
ledge has supplied no alternative to the Darwinian principles. 

In the broadest way variation in organisms is primarily the 
necessary result of the absence of uniformity in the distribution 
of physical forces on the globe, in fact is a mere necessary 
response to the variation of inorganic conditions. So, also, 
in the broadest way, the result of the existence of variation is 
equally inevitable. Some individuals happen to fit the environ- 
ment better, or to respond to the environment better, and these 
on the average" will survive their less fortunate neighbours. 
It is plain that whilst the existence of variation can be demon- 



strated and the occurrence of evolution established by induction 
and deduction, the part played by selection must remain largely 
theoretical. 

We append, however, again from the late Professor Weldon's 
article, a summary of the lines on which it seems possible that 
the actual process of selection may be demonstrated. 

Selection and its results can be adequately studied only in those 
cases which admit of statistical tabulation. In any race of animals, 
the number of young produced in a season is almost always greater 
than the number which survives to attain maturity; it is not 
certain that every one of those which become mature will breed, 
and not all of those which breed contribute an equal number of 
offspring to the next generation. At every stage some individuals 
are prevented from contributing to the next generation, and if the 
continual process of elimination affects individuals possessing any 
one character more strongly than it affects others, so that a relation 
is established between individual character and the chance of pro- 
ducing a certain number of young, selection is said to occur. 

We may distinguish broadly two ways by which such selective 
elimination of individuals from the number of those who contribute 
to the next generation may occur, viz. a differential destruction, 
which prevents certain classes of individuals from breeding by killing 
them, and a series of processes leading to differential fertility among 
the survivors, without necessarily involving any differential death- 
rate. A third form of selection, which may affect the composition 
of the next generation without of necessity involving a differential 
death-rate or a differential fertility, is assortative mating, or the 
tendency of those members of one sex which exhibit a particular 
character to mate only with members of the other sex which exhibit 
the same or some other definite character. 

Differential fertility may be induced in either of two ways. Indi- 
viduals may not be able to pair unless they possess a character 
which is absent, or insufficiently developed, in some members of the 
race. The kind of selection involved may then be measured by 
comparing those animals which pair with the general body of adults. 
This is what Darwin especially intended to denote by the term 
" sexual selection." Or, again, individuals of certain character may 
be able to pair, but the fertility of their union may not be the same 
as that of unions between individuals with other characters. This 
kind of selection, called by Pearson " reproductive " or " genetic " 
selection, may be measured by finding the correlation between the 
characters of the individuals which pair and the number of young 
produced. For an attempt to treat the whole problem of dif- 
ferential fertility and assortative mating numerically, see Pearson, 
The Grammar of Science, 2nd edition, London, 1900. 

Assortative mating exists when individuals which mate are not 
paired at random, but a definite correlation is established between 
the characters of one mate and those of the other. This kind of 
selection is measured by the correlation between deviation of either 
mate from the type, and deviation of the other. Pearson has 
shown that Gallon's function has a value of 0-28 for stature of 
middle-class Englishmen and their wives. 

REFERENCES. W. Bateson, Mendel's Principles of Heredity (Cam- 
bridge, 1909); E. Clodd, Pioneers of Evolution (London, 1897); 
E. D. Cope, Origin of the Fittest (London, 1887); C. Darwin, Origin 
of Species (London), Variation of Plants and Animals (London); 
E. Darwin, Zoonomia (London, 1794); J. Cossar Ewart, " Variation, 
Germinal and Environmental," in Trans. Roy. Dublin Society (1901); 
P. Geddes, " Variation and Selection," Ency. Brit, gth ed. ; G. von 
Herder, Ideen zur Phil. d. Geschichte (1790); R. H. Lock, Recent 
Progress in the Study of Variation, Heredity and Evolution (London, 
1906) ;T. H. Morgan, "Chance or Purpose in the Origin and Evolution 
of Adaptation," Science (New York, 1910), p. 201 ; H. F. Osborn, 
From the Greeks to Darwin (New York, 1894) ; E. B. Poulton, Charles 
Darwin and the Origin of Species (London, 1909) ; J. H. Stirling, 
Darwinianism (London, 1894); Sir W. T. Thisel ton- Dyer, "The 
New Origin of Species," Nature (1910); H. M. Vernon, Variation 
in Animals and Plants (London, 1903); H. de Vries. Species and 
Varieties, their Origin by Mutation (Chicago, 1905); The Mutation 
Theory (London, 1910); A. Russel Wallace, Darwinism (1889); 
A. Weismann, The Evolution Theory (London, 1904) ; W. R. F. 
Weldon, " yariation and Selection," Ency. Brit. loth ed.; Various 
Authorities in Fifty Years of Darwinism (New York, 1909). 

(P. C. M.) 

VARIATIONS, in music, the term given to groups of pro- 
gressively developed versions of a complete self-contained 
theme, retaining the form of that theme though not necessarily 
its melody. This at least is the classical sense of the term, 
though there are modern developments of the variation form 
to which this definition is at once too broad and too precise 
to apply. The aesthetic principle of variations appeared at 
very early stages of music; and it soon became something 
far more definite than the use of ornamental versions of a 
melodic phrase, a use which must have been natural almost as 
soon as music was articulate at all. During the i6th century 



VARIATIONS 






principles aesthetically indistinguishable from some types of 
variation-form inevitably arose in the polyphonic treatment 
of Gregorian hymns verse by verse. Accordingly, the hymns 
and Magnificats of Palestrina might without great extravagance 
be described as contrapuntal sets of variations on ecclesiastical 
tunes, like very free examples of the type shown later in 
extreme simplicity and formality by Haydn's variations on 
his Austrian national anthem in the " Emperor " quartet 
(Op. 76, No. 3). 

Already in the i6th century instrumental music was assuming 
such independence as it could attain by means of a primitive 
variation-form, growing partly out of the habit of playing vocal 
madrigals on the virginals or similar keyed instruments, or 
singing the top part as a solo to an instrumental accompaniment, 
with an overwhelming weight of ornaments beneath which the 
original madrigal was quite unrecognizable. (See, for example, 
the " diminutions " given in the 3Oth volume of Breitkopf & 
Hartel's complete edition of Palestrina's works.) A favourite 
plan, of which numerous examples may be found in the Fitz- 
william Virginal Book, was to put together several popular 
or original tunes, with an ornamental variation sandwiched 
between each. Sometimes, however, sets of variations on a 
single tune were produced, with essentially modern effect, as in 
Byrd's variations on " The Carman's Whistle." Such varia- 
tions were naturally grouped in order of increasing complexity 
and brilliance. Some of the keyboard passages in which the 
early English variation-writers indulged are of extraordinary 
difficulty, even from the standpoint of modern pianoforte 
technique. 

In the 1 7th century a highly artistic form of variation arose, 
very favourable to the earliest composers of the transition 
period, because of the simplicity of its principle, which relieved 
the composer of all the graver problems of formal organization. 
This was the ground-bass, a single phrase placed in the bass 
and repeating itself as long as the composer had fresh harmonies 
and superstructure with which to vary it. In typical examples 
the ground-bass was derived from the dance forms of the 
passacaglia and the chaconne, which in classical music resembled 
each other in being in slow time, and did not otherwise differ 
markedly, except that in the passacaglia the theme could be 
transferred now and then to the treble or to an inner part, a 
purely natural aesthetic resource which makes no radical differ- 
ence to the art-form. The genius of, Purcell was cruelly 
hampered by the lack of possibilities for organizing large 
musical forms in his time, and nothing is more significant 
than the avidity with which he seizes upon the ground-bass 
as a means of giving coherence to his ideas. 

By the time of Bach and Handel a lighter type of variation- 
work, less capable of high organization, and more like Byrd's 
variations on " The Carman's Whistle," had arisen. Bach's 
Aria variola alia maniera Italiana is an instance of this; and 
so is the air et doubles that appears now and then in Handel's 
instrumental works. The principle of this form is simply to 
take a symmetrical melody (generally in binary form) and 
embroider it. Such variations are called doubles whenever 
each variation divides the rhythm systematically into quicker 
notes than the one before. The most familiar example is that 
known as " The Harmonious Blacksmith " in Handel's E major 
suite. Sometimes the air itself was stated in a tangle of 
ornamentation, while the doubles made it float in a simplified 
form over an accompaniment of increasingly rapid flow. (See, 
for example, Handel's D minor suite and the little set in B flat 
on a theme afterwards varied in the noblest modern style by 
Brahms.) 

But Bach had meanwhile applied the principle of the ground- 
bass to variations on a complete symmetrical movement in 
binary form. His Air and 30 Variations, commonly known 
as the " Goldberg " variations, is (with the exception of Bee- 
thoven's 33 Veriinderungen on a waltz by Diabelli) not only 
the most gigantic set of variations in the world, but one of the 
three largest compositions in any form ever written for a single 
instrument. Of course in so large a work the conception of the 



ground-bass, as a clearly recognizable theme repeated with no 
more than slight ornament, would be inadequate whatever 
the variety of the superstructure: but so steady is the drift 
of Bach's bass that he is enabled to represent it by countless 
alternative harmonies and analogous chromatic progressions, 
without weakening its individuality. The grouping of the 
thirty variations is extremely subtle in balance and climax ; 
the more so because there are no means within the terms of 
Bach's art for making a free coda to the work, his ground-bass 
being both too long and too purely a bass to be taken as the 
theme of a fugue, like that in his great passacaglia for organ. 
Yet Bach contrives to round off the work perfectly by the 
simple direction aria da capo at the end. There is no question 
of retaining or varying the melody of the aria, which indeed 
is so ornamental as to be pointless and unrecognizable as a basis 
for variations; nor could it, like the above-mentioned Italian 
examples of Handel, be simplified, since most of its ornaments 
are integral parts of the phrases. 

The next chapter in the history of the variation form is 
intimately connected with the sonata style. A set of variations 
used as a movement for a sonata inevitably tends to be varia- 
tions on the melody. The sonata style implies the identification 
of themes by their melodies rather than by their texture, the 
very term " theme " being primarily used in a melodic con- 
notation (see MELODY). Hence a set of exclusively harmonic 
variations would not be in the sonata style. Now, most of 
the best sets of variations by Mozart and Haydn are movements 
in their sonata works; and this should always be remembered 
in discussing the tendency of their treatment of the form. 
Few of their independent sets are of any importance, since 
most are very early works, or were written for pupils, or 
intended as encore pieces for concerts. Haydn shows a great 
fondness for a special form which, even if earlier specimens can 
be found, he may properly be said to have invented. It con- 
sists of alternating variations on two themes, the first a highly 
organized complete binary melody, and the other a shorter 
binary melody, often beginning with the same figure as the 
first, but clearly contrasted with it, inasmuch as, whichever 
theme is in the major, the other is in the minor. The first 
theme usually returns as if it were going to be unvaried, but 
its first repeat is an ornamental variation. The form is rarely 
worked out far enough to include more than one variation of 
the second theme; but the effect is always that of a happy 
blend of a clearly marked variation form with a more con- 
trasted scheme a little more highly organized than the round- 
and-round symmetry of a minuet and trio, but not so elaborate 
as a rondo. The only later example exactly corresponding to 
Haydn's form is the first allegretto of Beethoven's pianoforte 
trio in E flat, Op. 70, No. 2; although, with a wider range of 
key, a free application of the principle of alternating themes 
is magnificently illustrated by the slow movement of his 
C minor symphony. 

Beethoven in his last works invented another variation-form 
on two themes, in which the first theme is very free in structure 
and the second theme is a more rigid melody in a different 
key and time. The examples of this are the slow movement 
of the gth Symphony and the Lydian figured chorale in the 
A minor quartet. A fine later development of this is the slow 
movement of Brahms's F major string quintet, Op. 88, in 
which the alternation of the two keys gives rise, in the last 
line of the movement, to one of the most astonishing and subtle 
dramatic strokes in all music. 

In sonata works, Beethoven's examples of the normal variation 
form based on a single theme are as wonderful as may be expected 
from him; but nothing is more significant than his strict 
adherence in sonata works to the melodic principle of variation. 
He uses the form as an unsurpassable means of obtaining 
repose in slow movements. The extreme case of this is the 
slow movement of the sonata, Op. 57 (commonly called Appas- 
sionato), which is described in the article on SONATA FORMS. 
In this and in many other instances, his method is aesthetically 
that of the air et doubles, as being the simplest possible means 



VARIATIONS 



of obtaining variety and climax without leaving the funda- 
mental key. Until his latest works, such sets of variations 
are never finished. Their dramatic force is that of a repose 
which is too unearthly to last; and at the first sign of dramatic 
motion or change of key the sublime vision " fades into the 
light of common day," a light which Beethoven is far too great 
an idealist to despise. .(See the andante of the B flat trio, Op. 97 ; 
and the slow movement of the violin concerto, which contains 
two episodic themes in the same key.) In his later works 
Beethoven found means, by striking out into foreign keys or 
foreign rhythms, of organizing a coda which, as it were, finally 
spins down in fragmentary new variations, or even returns to 
the plain theme. Thus he was able to end his sonatas, Opp. 109 
and in, with solemn slow movements in which, with the utmost 
richness of detail and novelty of idea, the melodic variation 
form is nevertheless paramount. Beethoven also found many 
ways of combining melodic variations with the principles of the 
rondo and other more highly organized continuous movements. 
Thus the finale of the Eroica Symphony has not only the 
theme but many ideas of the variations and fugue-passages 
in common with the brilliant set of variations for pianoforte 
on a theme from Prometheus, Op. 35; and the Fantasia for 
pianoforte, chorus and orchestra, and the choral finale of the 
pth Symphony, are sets of melodic variations with freely 
developed connecting links and episodes. In the case of the 
9th Symphony, a second thematic idea eventually combines 
with the figures of the first theme in double fugue. 

But Beethoven's highest art in variation-form is to be found 
in his independent sets of variations. In some of the earliest 
of these, notably in the 24 on a theme by Righini (which was 
his chief bravura performance as a young pianoforte player), 
he far transcends not only the earlier or sonata-form idea of 
melodic variations, but fuses their resources with those of the 
ground-bass, and adds to them his own unparalleled grasp 
of rhythmic organization. Beethoven is the first composer 
who can be said to have discovered that a theme consists not 
only of melody and harmony but of rhythm and form. With 
earlier composers the form of the theme was automatically 
preserved in consequence of the preservation of either its melody 
or its harmony; but Beethoven had an unerring judgment as 
to when the form of a theme might be definite enough to remain 
as a basis for a variation which departed radically from both 
the harmony and the melody. The climax in the history of 
variations dates from the moment when Beethoven was just 
about to begin his 9th Symphony, and received from A. 
Diabelli a waltz which that publisher was sending round to all 
the musicians in Austria so that each might contribute a variation 
to be published for the benefit of the sufferers in the late 
Napoleonic wars. Diabelli's theme was absurdly prosaic, but 
it happened to be perhaps the sturdiest piece of musical anatomy 
that Beethoven or any composer since has ever seen. Not only 
was its harmonic form exceptionally clear and firm, but its 
phrase-rhythm was as simple, recognizable and heterogeneous as 
its other qualities. Its melodic merit was nil, yet it had plenty 
of recognizable melodic figures. All these prosaic technicalities 
are far more likely to impress a great composer as good prac- 
tical resources than those high poetic qualities which critics 
discuss incessantly, but which are to a great artist the air he 
breathes. Diabelli's waltz moved Beethoven to defer his work 
on the gth Symphony ! 

The shape of Diabelli's theme may be illustrated by a diagram 



Tonic. Dominant. Rising sequence. Close in dominant. 

which represents its first sixteen bars; the upright strokes being the 
bars, and the brackets and dots (together with the names under- 
neath) indicating the way in which the rhythm is grouped by 
correspondence of phrase and changes of harmony. The second 
part also consists of sixteen bars, moving harmonically back from 
the dominant to the tonic, and rhythmically of exactly the same 
structure as the first part. This harmonic and sequential plan, 
together with this straightforward square tapering rhythmic 
structure, is so formal in effect that Beethoven can substitute 



lor it almost anything equally familiar that corresponds in its 
proportions. Thus, the alternation of tonic and dominant in the first 
=ight bars may be represented by another familiar form in which 
three bars of tonic and a fourth of dominant are answered by three 
bars of dominant and a fourth of tonic; as in variation 14 (which 
must be reckoned in half-bars). Again, the antithesis of tonic 
and dominant is accompanied in Diabelli's theme by a part of the 
melodic figure being repeated a step higher at the change of harmony ; 
and th ; s naturally produces such devices as the answering of the 
tonic by the supertonic in variation 8, and, still more surprisingly, 
by the flat supertonic in variation 30. In so enormous and resource- 
ful a work, occupying fifty minutes in performance, it is natural 
that some variations should drift rather farther from the anatomy 
of the theme than can be explained by any strict principle ; and so 
the jocular transformation of the beginning of Diabelli's bass into 
the theme of Mozart's Nolle e giorno faticar leads to a couple of 
extra bars at the end of its second part; otherwise the fughetta 
(variation 24) and variations 29 and 31 are the only cases in 
which any considerable part of the structure of the theme is 
lost, except the fugue (variation 32), which is simply an elaborate 
movement on a salient feature of what must by courtesy be called 
Diabelli's melody. A free fugue is a favourite solution of the 
difficult problem of the coda in a set of variations. 

But for the works of Brahms, which invariably retain the 
classical conceptions while developing them in a thoroughly 
modern and living language, it can hardly be claimed that the 
art of variation-writing has advanced since Beethoven. The 
term is now used for a somewhat nondescript method of 
stringing together a series of short fantasias on a theme; a 
method which may be legitimate and artistic in individual 
cases, but hardly constitutes an art-form. There is this great 
disadvantage in variations that neglect the anatomy of the 
theme, that the only way in which, in the absence of other 
means of connexion, they can show any coherence at all is by 
more or less frequently harping on scraps of the melody. The 
effect is (except in unusually happy examples such as the 
Etudes symphoniques of Schumann and the Enigma Variations 
of Elgar) curiously apologetic; because no ambitious composer 
in the "free" modern variation style thinks a melodic varia- 
tion quite worthy of his dignity, and so the melodic allusions 
become the more tiresome from their furtive manner. Many 
" advanced " specimens of variation-form undoubtedly owe 
their origin to a vague impulse of revolt from the unsound 
statements of unobservant writers of mid-i9th century text- 
books, who contented themselves with laying down crude rules 
such as that a variation might " either retain the melody and 
change the harmony, or retain the harmony and change the 
melody," &c., without any attempt to see how the classical 
composers really analysed their themes. It is very characteristic 
of Schumann's -modesty and grasp of facts that he, who was 
the first to produce serious art in a free non-anatomical variation 
style, did not call his experiments variations without qualifica- 
tion. He never wrote a set in which the anatomy of the theme 
was of real importance to the whole; and, with him, whenever 
at least the initial melodic figure of his theme is not traceable 
throughout a section, that section is simply an episode. But 
Schumann knows this perfectly well, and acknowledges it. 
The Etudes symphoniques are called variations only in those 
sections which are fairly strict variations. Elsewhere they 
are simply numbered as etudes. The slow movement of the 
F major string quartet (in which a second theme masquerades 
as the first variation, and some of the other variation-like sec- 
tions are quite free) is called andante quasi variazione; and 
even the strictest of all his variation works is called Impromptus, 
on a theme by Clara Wieck, Op. 5. There is, no doubt, great 
scope for a variation-form which is neither melodic nor anatomic, 
and we have not a word to say against the legitimacy of many 
forms of effective modern fantasia-variations; but the fact 
remains that it is very hazardous to talk of an " advance " 
in the variation-form, when even the best fantasia-variations 
are not only unconnected with any classical type but evidently 
unable to get nearly as far from either the melody or the 
harmony of their theme as the 25th of Bach's " Goldberg " 
variations or many variations in the earliest sets by Beethoven. 
Indeed, the only sound classification of composers of modern 
variations, from the time of Mendelssohn onwards, is that 



VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF 



which distinguishes the composers who seem to know their 
theme from those who do not. (D. F. T.) 

VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF, in mathematics. The cal- 
culus of variations arose from the attempts that were made by 
origin mathematicians in the i7th century to solve problems 
of the of which the following are typical examples, (i) It 
Calculus. j s required to determine the form of a chain of given 
length, hanging from two fixed points, by the condition that its 
centre of gravity must be as low as possible. This problem of 
the catenary was attempted without success by Galileo Galilei 
(1638). (ii) The resistance of a medium to the motion of a 
body being assumed to be a normal pressure, proportional to 
the square of the cosine of the angle between the normal to 
the surface and the direction of motion, it is required to deter- 
mine the meridian curve of a surface of revolution, about an 
axis in the direction of motion, so that the resistance shall 
be the least possible. This problem of the solid of least resistance 
was solved by Sir Isaac Newton (1687). (iii) It is required to 
find a curve joining two fixed points, so that the time of descent 
along this curve from the higher point to the lower may be 
less than the time along any other curve. This problem of 
the brachistochrone was proposed by John (Johann) Bernoulli 
(1696). 

The contributions of the Greek geometry to the subject consist 
of a few theorems discovered by one Zenodorus, of whom little 
g arf is known. Extracts from his writings have been pre- 

hlstory served in the writings of Pappus of Alexandria and Theon 
of Smyrna. He proved that of all curves of given peri- 
meter the circle is that which encloses the largest area. The 
problems from which the subject grew up have in common the 
character of being concerned with the maxima and minima of 
quantities which can be expressed by integrals of the form 



F(*. y, y^dx. 



in which y is an unknown function of x, and F is an assigned function 
of three variables, viz. x, y, and the differential coefficient of y 
with respect to x, here denoted by y'; in special cases x or y may 
not be explicitly present in F, but y' must be. In any such problem 
it is required to determine y as a function of x, so that the integral 
may be a maximum or a minimum, either absolutely or subject 
to the condition that another integral or like form may have a 
prescribed value. For example, in the problem of the catenary, 
the integral 

rx\ 



(*y 

Jxo 



must be a minimum, while the integral 



has a given value. When, as in this example, the length of the 
sought curve is given, the problem is described as isoperimelric. 
At the end of the first memoir by James (Jakob) Bernoulli on the 
infinitesimal calculus (1690), the problem of determining the form 
of a flexible chain was proposed. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz 
gave the solution in 1691, and stated that the centre of gravity is 
lower for this curve than for any other of the same length joining 
the same two points. The first step towards a theory of such 
problems was taken by James Bernoulli (1697) in his solution of 
the problem of the brachistochrone. He pointed out that if a 
curve, as a whole, possesses the maximal or minimal property, 
every part of the curve must itself possess the same property. 
Beyond the discussion of special problems, nothing was attempted 
for many years. 

The first general theory of such problems was sketched by Leon- 
hard Euler in 1736, and was more fully developed by him in his 
Euler. treatise Methodus inveniendi . . . published in 1744. 
He generalized the problems proposed by his predecessors 
by admitting under the sign of integration differential coefficients 
of order higher than the first. To express the condition that an 
integral of the form 

C Xl F(x,y,y',y",...yW)dx 
J Xo 

may be a maximum or minimum, he required that, when y is 
changed into y+u, where u is a function of x, but is everywhere 
' infinitely " small, the integral should be unchanged. Resolving 
the integral into a sum of elements, he transformed this condition 
into an equation of the form 

P flF * 3F-I 

aSpSy*-- +( ~ :) d^dy^>\ ' 

and he concluded that the differential equation obtained by equating 
to zero the expression in the square brackets must be satisfied. 
This equation is in general of the 2rcth order, and the 2n arbitrary 



constants which are contained in the complete primitive must be 
adjusted to satisfy the conditions that y, y', y,... yi- have 
given values at the limits of integration. If the function y is 
required also to satisfy the condition that another integral of the 
same form as the above, but containing a function <j> instead of 
F, may have a prescribed value, Euler achieved his purpose by 
replacing F in the differential equation by F+X<*>, and adjusting 
the constant X so that the condition may be satisfied. This arti- 
fice is known as the isoperimelric rule or rule of the undetermined 
multiplier. Euler illustrated his methods by a large number of 
examples. 

The new theory was provided with a special symbolism by 
Joseph Louis de la Grange (commonly called Lagrange) in a series 
of memoirs published in 1760-62. This symbolism , 
was afterwards adopted by Euler (1764), and Lagrange La Z ra "Z e - 
is generally regarded as the founder of the calculus of variations. 
Euler had been under the necessity of resolving an integral into 
a sum of elements, recording the magnitude of the change pro- 
duced in each element by a slight change in the unknown function, 
and thence forming an expression for the total change in the sum 
under consideration. Lagrange proposed to free the theory from 
this necessity. Euler had allowed such changes in the position 
of the curve, along which the integral, to be made a maximum or 
minimum, is taken, as can be produced by displacement parallel 
to the axis of ordinates. Lagrange admitted a more general change 
of position, which was called variation. The points of the curve 
being specified, by their co-ordinates, x, y, z, and differentiation 
along the curve being denoted, as usual, by the symbol d, Lagrange 
considered the change produced in apy quantity Z, which is ex- 
pressed in terms of *, y, z, dx, dy, dz, d*x, . . . when the co-ordinates 
x, y, z are changed by " infinitely " small increments. This change 
he denoted by SZ, and regarded as the variation of Z. He ex- 
pressed the rules of operation with by the equations 

SdZ=d6Z, S/Z=/5Z. 

By means of these equations fdZ can be transformed by the process 
of integration by parts into such a form that differentials of varia- 
tions occur at the limits of integration only, and the _. 
transformed integral contains no differentials of varia- 
tions. The terms at the limits and the integrand of s y mbols - 
the transformed integral must vanish separately, if the variation 
of the original integral vanishes. The process of freeing the 
original integral from the differentials of variations results in a 
differential equation, or a system of differential equations, for the 
determination of the form of the required curve, and in special 
terminal conditions, which serve to determine the constants that 
enter into the solution of the differential equations. Lagrange's 
method lent itself readily to applications of the generalized prin- 
ciple of virtual velocities to problems of mechanics, and he used 
it in this way in the Mecanique analytique (1788). The terminology 
and notation of mechanics are still largely dominated by these 
ideas of Lagrange, for his methods were powerful and effective 
but they are rendered obscure by the use of " infinitely " small 
quantities, of which, in other departments of mathematics, he 
subsequently became an uncompromising opponent. The same 
ideas were applied by Lagrange himself, by Euler, and by 
other mathematicians to various extensions of the cal- E * iea - 
culus of variations. These include problems concerning sl " s 
integrals of which the limits are variable in accordance *" , 

with assigned conditions, the extension of Euler's rule of * ?*/ 
the multiplier to problems in which the variations are 
restricted by conditions of various types, the maxima and minima 
of integrals involving any number of dependent variables, such as 
are met with in the formulation of the dynamical Principle of 
Least Action, the maxima and minima of double and multiple 
integrals. In all these cases Lagrange's methods have been applied 
successfully to obtain the differential equation, or system of differen- 
tial equations, which must be satisfied if the integral in question 
is a maximum or a minimum. This equation, or equations, will 
be referred to as the principal equation, or principal equations, of 
the problem. 

The problems and method of the calculus admit of more .exact 
Formulation as follows: We confine our attention to the case 
where the sought curve is plane, and the function F _ . 
contains no differential coefficients of order higher than ~ orn "'"*" 
the first. Then the problem is to determine a curve ^"pL t 
joining two fixed points (* , yo) and (*,, yO so that the p rnh i fn , 
line integral 



P'F(*, y, y')dx 
J Xo 



'.aken along the curve may be a maximum or a minimum. When it 
is said that the integral is a minimum for some curve, it is meant 
that it must be possible to mark a finite area in the plane of (x, y), 
so that the curve in question lies entirely within this area, and the 
integral taken along this curve is less than the integral taken along 
any other curve, which joins the same two points and lies entirely 
within the delimited area. There is a similar definition for a maxi- 
mum. The word extremum is often used to connote both maximum 
and minimum. The problem thus posed is known as the First 
Problem of the Calculus of Variations. If we begin v/ith any curve 



916 



VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF 



joining the fixed end points, and surround it by an area of finite 
breadth, any other curve drawn within the area, and joining the 
same end points, is called a variation of the original curve, or a 
varied curve. The original curve is defined by specifying y as a 
function of x. Necessary conditions for the existence of an extremum 
can be found by choosing special methods of variation. 

One method of variation is to replace y by y+tu, where u is a 

function of x, and e is a constant which may be taken as small as 

we please. The function u is independent of e. It is differentiable, 

and its differential coefficient is continuous within the interval of 

. integration. It must vanish at x = x<> and at x = *i. This 

method of variation has the property that, when the 

ordinate of the curve is but slightly changed, the direction 

tlons. Q f tne tan g en t is but slightly changed. Such variations 

are called weak variations. By such a variation the integral is 

changed into 

f*F(*. y+tu, y'+(u')dx, 
and the increment, or variation of the integral, is 



XQ 



,y'+tu')-F(x, y,y')\dx. 

In order that there may be an extremum it is necessary that 
_. f the variation should be one-signed. We expand the ex- 

* ' pression under the sign of integration in powers of t. The 
vana- jj fgt term o f t jj e ex p ans ; on contributes to the variation 
'*"' the term 



This term is called'the first variation. The variation of the integral 
cannot be one-signed unless the first variation vanishes. On trans- 
forming the first variation by integration by parts, and observing 
that u vanishes at xxo and at x=Xi, we find a necessary condition 
for an extremum in the form 



ary 
curves. 



It is a fundamental theorem that this equation cannot hold for all 
admissible functions u, unless the differential equation 

5Jdy'~dy = 

is satisfied at every point of the curve along which the integral 
is taken. This is the principal equation for this problem. The 
Station- curves that are determined by it are called the stationary 
curves, or the extremals, of the integral. We learn that 
the integral cannot be an extremum unless it is taken 
along a stationary curve. 
A difficulty might arise from the fact that, in the foregoing argu- 
ment, it is tacitly assumed that y, as a function of x, is one-valued ; 
and we can have no a priori ground for assuming that this is the case 
for the sought curve. This difficulty might be met by an appeal 
to James Bernoulli's principle, according to which every arc of a 
stationary curve is a stationary curve between the end points of the 
arc a principle which can be proved readily by adopting such a 
method of variation that the arc of the curve between two points 
is displaced, and the rest of the curve is not. But another method 
of meeting it leads to important developments. This is the method 
Para- ^ parametric representation, introduced by K. Weier- 
metrlc strass. According to this method the curve is defined 
method ^y specifying x and y as one-valued functions of a para- 
meter 6. The integral is then of the form 

v, y, x, y)d6, 

where the dots denote differentiation with respect to 0, and Ms a 
homogeneous function of x, y of the first degree. The mode of 
dependence of x and y upon 9 is immaterial to the problem, pro- 
vided that they are one-valued functions of 6. A weak variation 
is obtained by changing x and y into x+eu, y+ev, where u and v 
are functions of which have continuous differential coefficients 
and are independent of 6. It is then found that the principal 
equations of the problem are 

M'dT"dx =0 ' 50"ay~ay =0- 

These equations are equivalent to a single equation, for it can be 
proved without difficulty that, when / is homogeneous of the first 
degree in x, y 



_ 

yldOdx 
where 



_ 
dx 



ay 



f i _ _ i_ ay . _ i ay 

71 ydx 2 xydxdy x 2 dy 2 ' 

The stationary curves obtained by this method are identical with 
those obtained by the previous method. 



The formulation of the problem by the parametric method often 
enables us to simplify the formation and integration of the principal 
equation. A very simple example is furnished by the 
problem: Given two points in the plane of (x, y) on the 
same side of the axis of x, it is required to find a curve . 

joining them, so that this curve may generate, by revolu- catenola - 
tion, about the axis of x, a surface of minimum area. The integral 
to be made a minimum is 



f 
JO 



and the principal equation is 
d. 



= o, 



of which the first integral is 

yx(i?+y*)-l=c, 

M-+ 1 } 1 ' 

and the stationary curves are the catenaries 
y = c cosh{(# a)/c\. 

The required minimal surface is the catenoid generated by the 
revolution of one of these catenaries about its directrix. 

The parametric method can be extended without difficulty so as to 
become applicable to more general classes of problems. A simple 
example is furnished by the problem of forming the equa- 
tions of the path of a ray of light in a variable medium. 
According to Fermat's principle, the integral ftids is a oray. 
minimum, ds representing the element of arc of a ray, and n the 
refractive index. Thus the integral to be made a minimum is 



J 00 

The equations are found at once in forms of the type 



these equations can be written in 



dx 



and, since (i 2 +y L +z")ld8 = c 
the usual forms of the type 

d 



The formation of the first variation of an integral by means of a 
weak variation can be carried out without difficulty in the case of a 
simple integral involving any number of dependent variables and 
differential coefficients of arbitrarily high orders, and also in the 
cases of double and multiple integrals; and the quantities of the 
type (U, which are used in the process, may be regarded as equiva- 
lent to Lagrange's dx, Sy, . . . The same process may not, however, 
be applied to isoperimetric problems. If the first varia- 
tion of the integral which is to be made an extremum, Kuleof 
subject to the condition that another integral has a pre- '* elnu '- 
scribed value, is formed in this way, and if it vanishes, the "P" er - 
curve is a stationary curve for this integral. If the prescribed value 
of the other integral is unaltered, its first variation must vanish; 
and, if the first variation is formed in this way, the curve is a 
stationary curve for this integral also. The two integrals do not, 
however, in general possess the same stationary curves. We can 
avoid this difficulty by taking the variations to be of the form 
ii+M2,_ where a and are independent constants; and we can 
thus obtain a completely satisfactory proof of the rule of the undeter- 
mined multiplier. A proof on these lines was first published by P. Du 
Bois-Reymond (1879). The rule had long been regarded as axiomatic. 

The parametric method enables us to deal easily with the problem 
of variable limits. If, in the First Problem, the terminal point 
(xi, yO is movable on a given guiding curve <f(xi, yj) =o, the first 
variation of the integral can be written 



where (xi+eUi, yi+tfi) is on the curve <t>(xi, yi)=o, and u,, v, 
denote the values of u, v at (xi, y t ). It follows that the required 
curve must be a stationary curve, and that the condition 

_ aj>_ 
dx dy\ dy i 

). The corresponding condition in the case of 



_ _ _ _ 
~' 



must hold at 
the integral 



is found from the equations 
fx = f 



Variable 
limits. 



to be 



, 3F _a/. = 3F 
dy 7 ' dy' ay 7 



Ffc 



VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF 



917 




Trans- 
versals 
of sta- 
tionary 
curves. 



This discussion yields an important result, which may be stated 
as follows: Let two stationary curves of the integral be drawn from 
the same initial point A to points P, Q, which 
are near together, and let the line PQ be 
of length v, and make an angle w with the 
axis of* (fig. i). The excess of the integral 
taken along AQ, from A to Q, above the in- 
tegral taken along AP, from A to P, is 
expressed, correctly to the first order in v, 
by the formula 

v cos a | F(x, y, y') + (tan o> y')^ ? f 

_In this formula x, y are the co-ordinates of 

p. * P, and y' has the value belonging to the 

point P and the stationary curve AP. When 

the coefficient of v cos w in the formula vanishes, the curve AP is 
said to be cut transversely by the line PQ, and a curve which cuts a 
family of stationary curves transversely is described as a 
transversal of those curves. In the problem of variable 
limits, when a terminal point moves on a given guiding 
curve, the integral cannot be an extremum unless the 
stationary curve along which it is taken is cut transversely 
by the guiding curve at the terminal point. A simple 
example is afforded by the shortest line, drawn on a surface, from 
a point to a given curve, lying on the surface. The required curve 
must be a geodesic, and it must cut the given curve at right angles. 
The problem of variable limits may always be treated by a method 
of which the following is the principle: In the First Problem let the 
initial point (%, yo) be fixed, and let the terminal point 
Alterna- ^ y^ m p ve on ^ fixed guiding curve Ci. Now, whatever 
* . the terminal point may be, the integral cannot be an 
extremum unless it is taken along a stationary curve. We 
have then to choose among those stationary curves which are drawn 
from (#o, yo) to points of Ci that one which makes the integral an 
extremum. This can be done by expressing the value of the integral 
taken along a stationary curve from the point (xo, yo) to the point 
(xi, yi) in terms of the co-ordinates x t , y\, and then making this expres- 
sion an extremum, in regard to variations of x\, yi, by the methods of 
the differential calculus, subjecting (xi, yi) to the condition of moving 
on the curve Ci. 

An important example of the first variation of integrals is afforded 
by the Principle of Least Action in dynamics. The kinetic energy 
T is a homogeneous function of the second degree in the differential 
coefficients (ft, q t , . . . q n of the co-ordinates q t , q t , . . . q n with 
respect to the time /, and the potential energy V is a function of these 

co-ordinates. The energy equation is of the form 
Principle T + V = E , 

where E is a constant. A course of the system is defined 
when the co-ordinates gare expressed as functionsof a single 
parameter 6. The action A of the system is defined as the integral 

C flldl, taken along a course from the initial position (g< 0) ) to the final 



of least 
action. 



position (?^ 1) ), but fc and It are not fixed. The equations of motion 
are the principal equations answering to this integral. To obtain 
them it is most convenient to write *(?) for T, and to express the 
integral in the form 



where q' denotes the differential coefficient of a co-ordinate q with 
respect to 0, and, in accordance with the parametric method, the 
limits of integration are fixed, and the integrand is a homogeneous 
function of the q"s of the first degree. There is then no difficulty in 
deducing the Lagrangian equations of motion of the type 

cjT dT dV_ 

dt dq dq + dq~- 

These equations determine the actual course of the system. Now 
if the system, in its actual course, passes from a given initial position 
(<7< >) to a variable final position (q), the action A becomes a function 
of the q's, and the first method used in the problem of variable limits 
shows that, for every q 

3A = aT 
dq dq' 

When the kinetic energy T is expressed as a homogeneous quadratic 
function of the momenta dT/dq, say 



and the differential coefficients of A are introduced instead of those 
of T, the energy equation becomes a non-linear partial differential 
equation of the first order for the determination of A as a function 
of the g's. This equation is 



*A 3A\ , ... 
_ -) + V = E. 



ofvary- 

action. A complete integral of this equation would yield an 

expression for A as a function of the q's containing n 

arbitrary constants, ai, o 2 , ... a,, of which one a is merely 



additive to A ; and the courses of the system which are compatible 
with the equations of motion are determined by equations of the form 

=6 = 6 d A =b 

where the 6's are new arbitrary constants. It is noteworthy that 
the differential equations of the second order by which the geodesies 
on an ellipsoid are determined were first solved by this method 
(C. G. J. Jacobi, 1839). 

It has been proved that every problem of the calculus of varia- 
tions, in which the integral to be made an extremum contains only 
one independent variable, admits of a similar trans- 
formation; that is to say, the integrals of the principal Pnadple 
equations can always be obtained, in the way described 
above, from a complete integral of a partial differential * 
equation of the first order, and this partial differential "^""al- 
equation can always be formed by a process of elimination. ? C "J r 
These results were first proved by A. Clebsch (1858). 

Among other analytical developments of the theory of the first 
variation we may note that the necessary and sufficient condition 
that an expression of the form 

F(x, y, y', /-">) Condition 

should be the differential coefficient of another expression rabillty. 
of the form 



is the identical vanishing of the expression 

aF d aF , d 2 aF . , , jJ 

~dy~Txdy''T"dx* ~dy~"~ ' ' +( -~ 1 '" J: 
The result was first found by Euler (1744). 
A differential equation 

<t>(x, y, y', y") =o 

is the principal equation answering to an integral of the 
form 

JF(x,y,y')dx 
if the equation 

~ox ay* = ay 

is satisfied identically. In the more general case of an 
equation of the form 



Condlttom 
that a 



entlal 
equation 
may arise 
from a 
problem 
of the 
calculus 
of varia- 

<t>(x, y, y', . .y n) ) o tions. 

the corresponding condition is that the differential expression 
obtained by Lagrange's process of variation, viz., 

a* 



must be identical with the " adjoint " differential expression 
d<j> d f d<f> 



This matter has been very fully investigated by A. Hirsch (i{ , t . 

To illustrate the transformation of the first variation of multiple 
integrals we consider a double integral of the form 

ff <!>(*, y, f, P, 2- r,s, f)dxdy, ^^ 

taken over that area of the z plane which is bounded by a variation 
closed curve s'. Here p, q, . . . t denote the partial of a 
differential coefficients of z with respect to x and y of j oua i e 
the first and second orders, according to the usual nota- integral. 
tion. When z'is changed into z+ov, the terms of the first 
order in e are 



rr IW i W 9w i W d W 

VJ ( W +-dp -dx+fq-S^+dr 



Each term must be transformed so that no differential coefficients 
of w are left under the sign of double integration. We exemplify 
the process by taking the term containing dHu/dx 2 . We have 

d (ty dw\ d (W\ dw ) , , 

ai (dr -dx) ~Tx (W)"K\ dxdy 



3A "I 

w) J 



The first two terms are transformed into a line integral taken 
round the boundary s', and we thus find 



M \ *-&%) \ d *'+ff^ (?) "* 

where v denotes the direction of the normal to the edge s' drawn 
outwards. The double integral on the right-hand side contributes 
a term to the principal equation, and the line integral contributes 
terms to the boundary conditions. The line integral admits of 
further transformation by means of the relations 



dw dw 



dw 



Jc 



cos(x, x)cos(y, ~v)f 



cos(* ( y)cos(y, Ogp- 



VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF 



It becomes 



cos(*. 



-cos(,, ,< 



In forming the first term within the square brackets we then use 
the relations 

jpcos(x, v) = -^,cos(y, v),- d -pcos(y, >) = ^cos(x, v), 
d d<i , d d<fr , ->ddt 

a?Tr = ~ cos(y ' y) diH7+ cos ^' 'rgyW' 
where p' denotes the radius of curvature of the curve s'. 

The necessity of freeing the calculus of variations from de- 
pendence upon the notion of infinitely small quantities was realized 
by Lagrange, and the process of discarding such quantities was 
partially carried out by him in his Th&orie des functions analytiques 
(!797)- I* 1 accordance with the interpretation of differentials 
which he made in that treatise, he interpreted the variation of 
an integral, as expressed by means of his symbol 5, as the first 
term, or the sum of the terms of the first order, in the development 
in series of the complete expression for the change that is made 
in the value of the integral when small finite changes are made in 
the variables. The quantity which had been regarded as the 
_. variation of the integral came to be regarded as the first 

. variation, and the discrimination between maxima and 
'"variation ram i ma came to be regarded as requiring the investigation 
' of the second variation. The first step in this theory had 
been taken by A. M. Legendre in 1786. 

In the case of an integral of the form 



Legendre defined the second variation as the integral 



To this expression he added the term I |a(fry) 2 ', which vanishes 

identically because Sy vanishes at x=x<, and at x=x\. He took 
a to satisfy the equation 

d 2 F /a 2 F do 



and thus transformed the expression for the second variation to 



where 



dy 



From this investigation Legendre deduced a new condition for the 

existence of an extremum. It is necessary, not only that the varia- 

tion should vanish, but also that the second variation 

Le ~ , should be one-signed. In the case of the First Problem 

am S Legendre concluded that this cannot happen unless d 2 F/d/ 2 

has the same sign at all points of the stationary curve 

between the end points, and that the sign must be +for a minimum 

and for a maximum. In the application of the perametric method 

the function which has been denoted by/i takes the place of d 2 F/d;y' 2 . 

The transformation of the second variations of integrals of various 

types into forms in which their signs can be determined by inspec- 

tion subsequently became one of the leading problems of the calculus 

of variations. This result came about chiefly through the publica- 

,. tion in 1837 of a memoir by C. G. J. Jacobi. He trans- 

Jaco . formedLegendre'sequationfortheauxiliaryfunctionainto 

a linear differential equation of the second order by the substitution 

d 2 F d 2 F I dw 

dydy +a ~ dy' 2 w dx' 

and he pointed out that Legendre's transformation of the second 
variation cannot be effected if the function w vanishes between the 
limits of integration. He pointed out further, that if the stationary 
curves of the integral are given by an equation of the form 

y = <t>(x, a, b), 

where a, 6 are arbitrary constants, the complete primitive of the 
equation for w is of the form 

. dtt> . D d< 

zo=A^ r +B-jr, 

oa ob 

where A, B are new arbitrary constants. Jacobi stated these pro- 
positions without proof, and the proof of them, and the extension 
of the results to more general problems, became the object of 
numerous investigations. These investigations were, for the most 
part, and for a long time, occupied almost exclusively with analytical 
developments; and the geometrical interpretation which Jacobi 
had given, and which he afterwards emphasized in his Vorlesungen 
uber Dynamik, was neglected until rather recent times. According 
to this interpretation, the stationary curves which start from a point 
(*o, 3"o) have an envelope; and the integral of F, taken along such a 
curve, cannot be an extremum if the point (0, 170) where the curve 
touches the envelope lies on the arc between the end points. Pairs 



of points such as (*o, yo) and (o, TJO) were afterwards called con- 
jugate points by Weierstrass. The proof that the in- _ 
tegral canaot be an extremum if the arc of the curve 
between the fixed end points contains a pair of conjugate /*< 

points was first published by G. Erdmann (1878). 

Examples of conjugate points are afforded by antipodal points 
on a sphere, the conjugate foci of geometrical optics, the kinetic 
foci of analytical dynamics. If the terminal points are a pair of 
conjugate points, the integral is not in general an extremum; but 
there is an exceptional 
case, of which a suitably 
chosen arc of the equator 
of an oblate spheroid may 
serve as an example. In 
the problem of the cate- 
noid a pair of conjugate 
points on any of the 
catenaries, which are the 
stationary curves of the 
problem, is such that the 
tangents to the catenary 
at the two points A and 
A' meet on the axis of 
revolution (fig. 2). When 
both the end points of 
the required curve move 
on fixed guiding curves 

Co, Ci, a stationary curve C, joining a point Ao of Co to a point Ai 
of Ci, cannot yield an extremum unless it is cut transversely by Co 
at Ao and by Ci at Ai. The en- 
velope of stationary curves which 
set out from Co towards Ci, and 
are cut transversely by Co at points 
near Ao, meets C at a point Do; 
and the envelope of stationary 
curves which proceed from Co to Ci, 
and are cut transversely by Ci at 
points near Ai, meets C at a point 
DI. The curve C, drawn from Ao 
to AI, cannot yield an extremum 
if Do or Dj lies between Ao and AI, 
or if Do lies between Ai and DI. 
These results are due to G. A. 
Bliss (1903). A simple example is 
afforded by the shortest line on a 
sphere drawn from one small circle 
to another. In fig. 3 Do is that 




FIG. 2. 




FIG. 3. 



Sources 
of Weler- 
strass's 
theory. 



pole of the small circle AoBo which occurs first on great circles 
cutting AoBo at right angles, and proceeding towards AiBi; DI is 
that pole of the small circle AiBi which occurs first on great circles 
cutting AiBi at right angles, and drawn from points of A Bo 
towards AiBi. The arc AoAi is the required shortest line, and it is 
distinguished from BpBi by the above criterion. 

Jacobi's introduction of conjugate points is one of the germs 
from which the modern theory of the calculus of variations has 
sprung. Another is a remark made by Legendre (1786) 
in regard to the solution of Newton's problem of the 
solid of least resistance. This problem requires that a 
curve be found for which the integral 

W*(i+y*)-*dy 

should be a minimum. The stationary curves are given by the 
equation yy"( !+/")- = const., 

a. result equivalent to Newton's solution of the problem; but 
Legendre observed that, if the integral is taken along a broken line, 
consisting of two straight lines equally inclined to the axis of x in 
opposite senses, the integral can be made as small as we please by 
sufficiently diminishing the angle of inclination. Legendre's remark 
amounts to admitting a variation of Newton's curve, which is not 
a weak variation. Variations which are not weak are such that, 
while the points of a curve are but slightly displaced, the tangents 
undergo large changes of direction. They are distinguished as 
strong variations. A general theory of strong variations in con- 
nexion with the First Problem, and of the conditions which are 
sufficient to secure that the integral taken along a stationary curve 
may be an extremum, was given by Weierstrass in lectures. He 
delivered courses of lectures on the calculus of variations in several 
years between 1865 and 1889, and his chief discoveries in the subject 
seem to have been included in the course for 1879. Through these 
lectures his theory became known to some students and teachers in 
Europe and America, and there have been published a few treatises 
and memoirs devoted to the exposition of his ideas. 

In the First Problem the following conditions are known to be 
necessary for an extremum. I. The path of integration must be a 
stationary curve. II. The expression 3 2 F/d;y' 2 , or the expres- 
sion denoted by /i in the application of the parametric 
method, must not change sign at any point of this curve 
between the end points. III. The arc of the curve between 
the end points must not contain a pair of conjugate points. All 
these results are obtained by using weak variations. Additional 



' 

' C 



VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF 



919 



Field 
of sta- 
tionary 
carves. 




results, relating to strong as well as weak variations, are obtained by 
a method which permits of the expression of the variation of an 
integral as a line integral taken along the varied curve. Let A, B 
be the end points, and let the stationary curve AB be drawn. If the 
end points A, B are not a pair of conjugate points, and if the point 
conjugate to A does not lie on the arc AB, then we may find a point 
A', on the backward continuation of the stationary curve BA beyond 
A, so near to A that the point conjugate to A' lies on the forward 
continuation of the arc AB beyond B. This being the case, it is 
possible to delimit an area of finite breadth, so that the arc AB of 
the stationary curve joining A, B lies entirely within the area, and 
no two stationary curves drawn through A' intersect within 
the area. Through any point of such an area it is possible 
to draw one, and only one, stationary curve which passes 
through A'. This family of stationary curves is said to con- 
stitute afield of stationary curves about the curve AB. We 
suppose that such a field exists, and that the varied curve AQPB 
lies entirely within the delimited area. The variation of the integral 
fF(x, y, y')dx is identical with the line integral of F taken round a 
contour consisting of the varied curve AQPB and the stationary 
curve AB, in the sense AQPBA. The line integral may, as usual, 
be replaced by the sum of line integrals taken round a series of cells, 
the external boundaries of the set of cells being identical with the 

given contour, and the in- 
ternal boundaries of ad- 
B jacent cells being traversed 
twice in opposite senses. 
We may choose a suitable 
FIG. 4. set of cells as follows. 

Let Q, P be points on the 
varied curve, and let A'Q, A'P be the stationary curves of 
the field which pass through Q, P. Let P follow Q in the sense 
AQPB in which the varied curve is described. Then 
the contour consisting of the stationary curve A'Q, 
from A' to Q, the varied curve QP, from Q to P, and 
the stationary curve A'P, from P to A', is the boundary 
of a cell (fig. 4). Let us denote the integral of F 
taken along a stationary curve by round brackets, thus 
(A'Q), and the integral of F taken along any other curve 
by square brackets, thus [PQ]. If the varied curve is divided 
into a number of arcs such as QP we have the result 

[AQPB]-(AB)=Z{(A'Q)-f[QP]-(A'P)!, 

and the right-hand member can be expressed as a line integral 
taken along the varied curve AQPB. 

To effect this transformation we seek an approximate expression 
for the term (A'Q) +[QP] - (A'P) 
when Q, P are near together. 
Let As denote the arc QP, and $ 
the angle which the tangent at 
P to the varied curve, in the sense 
from A to B, makes with the 
axis of x (fig. 5). Also let <t> be 
the angle which the tangent at P 
to the stationary curve A'P, in the 
sense from A' to P, makes with 
the axis of x. We evaluate (A'Q) 
(A'P) approximately by means 
of a result which we obtained in 
connexion with the problem of 
variable limits. Observing that 
the angle here denoted by ^ 
equivalent to the angle formerly 



General 
expres- 
sion for 
variation 
of an 
Integral. 




FIG. 5. 



Also we have 



denoted by *+<> (cf. fig. l), while tan < is equivalent to the quantity 
formerly denoted by y', we obtain the approximate equation 

(A'Q) -(A'P) = -As.cos * \ F(*,y-#) 

which is correct to the first order in As. 

[QP] = As . cos ^(x,y, tan 
correctly to the same order. Hence we find that, correctly to the 
first order in As, 

(A'Q)-HQP]-(A'P)=E(x,y, tan *, tan 
where 

E(x, y, tan <t>, tan 



y, tan ^) 
When the parametric method is used the function E takes the form 



where X, ^ are the direction cosines of the tangent at P to the curve 
AQPB, in the sense from A to B, and /, m are the direction cosines ol 
the tangent at P to the stationary curve A'P, in the sense from A' to P. 
The function E, here introduced, has been called Weierstrass's 
excess function. We learn that the variation of the integral, that 
, . is to say, the excess of the integral of F taken along the 

strass's varied curve above the integral of F taken along the 
excess original curve, is expressible as the line integral /Eds 
function taken along the varied curve. We can therefore state a 
sufficient (but not necessary) condition for the existence ol 
an extremum in the form: When the integral is taken along a 



and 

necessary 
con- 
ditions. 




itationary curve, and there is no pair of conjugate points on the arc of 
the curve terminated by the given end points, the integral is certainly 
an extremum if the excess function has the same sign at all points 
of a finite area containing the whole of this arc within 
t. Further, we may specialize the excess function by 
identifying A' with A, and calculating the function for a 
point P on the arc AB of the stationary curve AB, and an 
arbitrary direction of the tangent at P to the varied curve. 
This process is equivalent to theintroduction of a particular 
type of strong variation. We may in fact take, as a varied curve, 
the arc AQ of a neighbouring stationary curve, the straight line 
QP drawn from Q to a point of the arc AB, and the arc PB of the 
stationary curve AB (fig. 6). The sign of the variation is then the 
same as that of the 
function JL(x, y, tan <t>, 
tan ^), where (x, y) is 
the point P, ^ is the , 
angle which the straight "~ "" 

line QP makes with the F IG. 6. 

axis of x, and <t> is the angle which the tangent at P to the curve 
APB makes with the same axis. We thus arrive at a new necessary 
(but not sufficient) condition for the existence of an extremum of 
the integral /Fds, viz. the specialized excess function, so calculated, 
must not change sign between A and B. 

The sufficient condition, and the new necessary condition, asso- 
ciated with the excess function, as well as the expression for the 
variation as /Eds, are due to Weierstrass. In applica- 
tions to special problems it is generally permissible to 
identify A' with A, and to regard QP as straight. The 
direction of QP must be such that the integral of F taken 
along it is finite and real. We shall describe such direc- 
tions as admissible. In the statement of the sufficient 
condition, and the new necessary condition, it is of course 
understood that the direction specified by $ is admissible. The 
excess function generally vanishes if ^ = <, but it does not change 
sign. It can be shown without difficulty that, when ^ is very nearly 
equal to <#>, the sign of E is the same as that of 



connected 
wHh the 
excess 
function. 



(tan ^ tan <) 2 cos ,. . ,, . 

\oy J y' = tan $ 

and thus the necessary condition as to the sign of the excess function 
includes Legendre's condition as to the sign of d'F/sy 2 . 

Weierstrass's conditions have been obtained by D. Hilbert from 
the observation that, if p is a function of x and y, the integral 



taken along i curve joining two fixed points, has the same value for 
all such curves, provided that there is a field of stationary curves, 
and that p is the gradient at the point (x, y) of that stationary 
curve of the field which passes through this point. 

An instructive example of the excess function, and the condi- 
tions connected with it, is afforded by the integral 



Example 
of the 



orfy*x 3 y 
The first integral of the principal equation is 

y ii- = const., 

and the stationary curves include the axis of x, straight lines 
parallel to the axis of y, and the family of exponential curves 
y = ae". A field of stationary curves is expressed by the equation 

y=y exp {c(*-x )), 

and, as these have no envelope other than the initial point (x a , yo), 
there are no conjugate points. The function /i is 6ij/~ 4 , and this 
is positive for curves going from the initial point in the positive 
direction of the axis of *. The value of the excess function is 

y'cos ^(cotV 3 cotV+2 tan ^ cotV). 

The directions ^ = o and ^ = ir are inadmissible. On putting i/- = JT 
we get 2y 2 cot 3 <t>; and on putting ^ = i>ir we get 2}> 2 cot 3 0. Hence 
the integral taken along AQ'PB is greater than that taken along 
APB, and the integral taken along AQPB is less than that taken 
along APB, when Q'Q are sufficiently near to P on the ordinate of P 
(fig. 7). It follows that the ., 

integral is neither a maximum ' q /B 

nor a minimum. 

It has been proved by 
Weierstrass that the excess 
function cannot be one-signed 
if the function / of the para- 
metric method is a rational 
function of x and y. This 
result includes the above 
example, and the problem of 
the solid of least resistance, 
for which, as Legendre had 
seen, there can be no solu- 




FIG. 7. 



tion if strong variations are admitted. As another example of 
the calculation of excess functions, it may be noted that the 
value o" the excess function in the problem of the catenoid is 



920 



VARICOSE VEINS 



Field 

of sta- 
tionary 
curvet 

and 
trans- 
versals. 



In general it is not necessary that a field of stationary curves 
should consist of curves which pass through a fixed point. Any 
family of stationary curves depending on a single para- 
meter may constitute a field. This remark is of im- 
portance in connexion with the adaptation of Weierstrass's 
results to the problem of variable limits. For the purpose 
of this adaptation A. Kneser (1900) introduced the family 
of stationary curves which are cut transversely by an 
assigned curve. Within the field of these curves we can 
construct the transversals of the family ; that is to say, there 
is a finite area of the plane, through any point of which there passes 
one stationary curve of the field and one curve which cuts alj the 
stationary curves of the field transversely. These curves provide a 
system of curvilinear co-ordinates, in terms of which the value of 
(Fdx, taken along any curve within the area, can be expressed. The 
Value of the integral is the same for all arcs of stationary curves of 
the field which are intercepted between any two assigned transversals. 
In the above discussion of the First Problem it has been assumed 
that the curve which yields an extremum is an arc of a single curve, 
which must be a stationary curve. It is conceivable that the re- 
quired curve might be made up of a finite number of arcs of different 
stationary curves meeting each other at finite angles. It can be 
shown that such a broken curve cannot yield an extremum unless 
both the expressions dF/dy' and F y'(dF/dy') are continuous 
at the corners. In the parametric method dfjdx and df/dy must 
be continuous at the corners. This result limits very considerably 
_. the possibility of such discontinuous solutions, though it 

does not exclude them. An example is afforded by the 
solutions Problem of the catenoid. The axis of x and any lines 
' parallel to the axis of y satisfy the principal equation; 
and the conditions here stated show that the only discontinuous 
solution of the problem is presented by the broken line ACDB 

(fig. 8). A broken line 
like AA'B'B is excluded. 
Discontinuous solutions 
have generally been sup- 
posed to be of special im- 
portance in cases where 
the required curve is re- 
stricted by the condition 
of not crossing the boun- 
dary of a certain limited 
area. In such cases part 
of the boundary may 
have to be taken as part of the curve. Problems of this kind were 
investigated in detail by J. Steiner and I. Todhunter. In recent 
times tne theory has been much extended by C. Caratheodory. 

In any problem of the calculus of variations the first step is the 
formation of the principal equation or equations; and the second 
Exlff. ste P ' s the solution of the equation or equations, in accord- 
ance with the assigned terminal or boundary conditions. 
theorem* If this solution cannot be effected, the methods of the 
calculus fail to answer the question of the existence or non- 
existence of a solution which would yield a maximum or minimum 
of the integral under consideration. On the other hand, if the exist- 
ence of the extremum could be established independently, the 
existence of a solution of the principal equation, which would also 
satisfy the boundary conditions, would be proved. The most famous 
example of such an existence-theorem is Dirichlet's principle, 
according to which there exists a function V, which satisfies the 
equation 

at all points within a closed surface S, and assumes a given value 
at each point of S. The differential equation is the principal 
equation answering to the integral 




axis of x 



taken through the volume within the surface S. The theorem of 
the existence of V is of importance in all those branches of mathe- 
matical physics in which use is made of a potential function, satisfy- 
ing Laplace's equation ; and the two-dimensional form of the theorem 
is of fundamental importance in the theory of functions of a complex 
variable. It has been proposed to establish the existence of V by 
means of the argument that, since I cannot be negative, there must 
Dlrkh- be - amon the functions which have the prescribed 
let's ' boundary values, some one which gives to I the smallest 
principle P os , s , ible value - This unsound argument was first exposed 
by Weierstrass. He observed that precisely the same argu- 
ment would apply to the integral fx*y">dx taken along a curve from 
the point (-1, a) to the point (i, b). On the one hand, the principal 
equation answering to this integral can be solved, and it can be 
proved that it cannot be satisfied by any function y at all points 
of the interval -i <*< i if y has different values at the end points. 
Un the other hand, the integral can be made as small as we please 
by a suitable choice of y. Thus the argument fails to distinguish 
between a minimum and an inferior limit (see FUNCTION). In 
order to prove Dirichlet's principle it becomes necessary ft) devise 
a proof that, in the case of the integral I, there cannot be a limit 



of this kind. This has been effected by Hilbert for the two-dimen- 
sional form of the problem. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The literature of the subject is very extensive, 
and only a few of the more important works can be cited here. 
The earlier history can be gathered from M. Cantor's Geschichte 
d. Math. Bde. 1-3 (Leipzig, 1894-1901). I. Todhunter's History 
of the Calculus of Variations (London, 1861) gives an account 
of the various treatises and memoirs published between 1760 and 
1860. E. Pascal's Cakplo dette variazioni . . . (Milan, 1897; 
German translation, Leipzig, 1899) contains a brief but admirable 
historical summary of the pre-Weierstrassian theory with refer- 
ences to the literature. A general account of the subject, including 
Weierstrass's theory, is given by A. Kneser, Ency. d. math. Wiss. 
ii. A 8; and an account of various extensions of Weitrstrass's 
theory and of Hilbert's work is given by E. Zermelo and H. Hahn, 
Ency. d. math. Wiss. ii. A 8a (Leipzig, 1904). The following 
treatises may be mentioned : L. Euler, Methodus inveniendi 
lineas curvas maximi minimive proprietatr gaudentes . 
(Lausanne and Geneva, 1744) ; J. H. Jellett, An Elementary Treatise 
on the Calculus of Variations (Dublin, 1850); E. Moigno and L. 
Lindelof, " Lecons sur le calc. diff.et int., " Calculdes variations (Paris, 
1861), t. iv. ; L. B. Carll, A Treatise on the Calculus of Variations 
(London, 1885). E. Pascal's book cited above contains a brief 
systematic treatise on the simpler parts of the subject. A. Kneser, 
Lehrbuch d. Variationsrechnung (Brunswick, 1900) ; H. Hancock, 
Lectures on the Calculus of Variations (Cincinnati, 1904); and O. 
Bolza, Lectures on the Calculus of Variations (Chicago, 1904), give 
accounts of Weierstrass's theory. Kneser has made various exten- 
sions of this theory. Bojza gives an introduction to Hilbert's 
theories also. The following memoirs and monographs may be 
mentioned : J. L. Lagrange, ' Essai sur une npuvelle me'thode pour 
determiner les max. et les min. des formules integrates ind6fimes," 
Misc. Taur. (1760-62), t. ii., or (Euvres, t. i. (Paris, 1867); A. M. 
Legendre, " Sur la maniere de distinguer les max. des min. dans le 
calc. des var.," Mjm. Paris Acad. (1786); C. G. J. Jacobi, " Zur 
Theorie d. Variationsrechnung . . . ," J. f. Math. (Crelle), Bd. 
xvii. (1837), or Werke, Bd. iv. (Berlin, 1886); M. Ostrogradsky, 
" M^m. sur le calc. des var. des integrates multiples," Mem. St 
Petersburg Acad. (1838); J. Steiner, " Einfache Beweise d. iso- 
perimetrischen Hauptsatze, J. f. Math. (Crelle), Bd. xviii. (1839); 
O. Hesse, " Uber d. Kriterien d. Max. u. Min. d. einfachen Integ- 
rate," J. f. Math. (Crelle), Bd. liv. (1857); A. Clebsch, "Uber 
diejenigen Probleme d. Variationsrechnung welche nur eine un- 
abhangige Variable enthalten," /. /. Math. (Crelle), Bd. Iv. (1858), 
and other memoirs in this volume and in Bd. Ivi. (1859); A. Mayer, 
Beitrdge z. Theorie d. Max. u. Min. einfacher Integrale (Leipzig, 
1866), and " Kriterien d. Max. u. Min. . . ," /. /. Math. (Crelle), 
Bd. Ixix. (1868); I. Todhunter, Researches in the Calc. of Var. 
(London, 1871); G. Sabinine, " Sur ... les max . . . des integ- 
rales multiples," Bull. Si Petersburg Acad. (1870), t. xv., and 
" Developpements . . . pour ... la discussion de la variation 
seconde des integrates . . . multiples," Bull. d. sciences math. 
(1878); G. Frobenius, " Uber adjungirte lineare Differential- 
ausdriicke," J. f. Math. (Crelle), Bd. Ixxxv. (1878); G. Erdmann, 
" Zur Untersuchung d. zweiten Variation einfacher Integrale," 
Zeitschr. Math. u. Phys. (1878), Bd. xxiii. ; P. Du Bois-Reymond, 
" Erlauterungen z. d. Anfangsgriinden d. Variationsrechnung," 
Math. Ann. (1879), Bd. xv. ; L. Scheeffer, " Max. u. Min. d ein- 
fachen Int.," Math. Ann. (1885), Bd. xxv., and " Uber d. Bedeutung 
d. Begriffe Max. . . ," Math. Ann. (1886), Bd. xxvi. ; A. Hirsch, 
" Uber e. charakteristische Eigenschaft d. Diff.-Gleichungen d. 
Variationsrechnung," Math. Ann. (1897), Bd. xlix. The following 
deal with Weierstrassian and other modern 'developments: H. A. 
Schwarz, " Uber ein die Flachen kleinsten Flacheninhalts betreffen- 
des Problem d. Variationsrechnung," Festschrift on the occasion 
of Weierstrass's 7Oth birthday (1885), Werke, Bd. i. (Berlin, 1890); 
G. Kobb, " Sur les max. et les min. des int. doubles," Ada Math. 
(1892-93), Bde. xyi., xvii.; E. Zermelo, " Untersuchungen z. Varia- 
tionsrechnung,"Z)ijerfa/zon (Berlin, 1894) ; W. F. Osgood, " Sufficient 
Conditions in the Calc. of Var.," Annals of Math. (1901), vol. ii., 
also, " On the Existence of a Minimum . . . ," and " On a Funda- 
mental Property of a Minimum . . . ," Amer. Math. Soc. Trans. 
(1901), vol. ii. ; D. Hilbert, " Math. Probleme," Gottingen Nachr. 
(1900), and "Uber das Dirichlet'sche Prinzip," Gottingen Festschr. 
(Berlin, 1901); G. A. Bliss, " Jacobi's Criterion when both End 
Points are variable," Math. Ann. (1903), Bd. Iviii. ; C. Caratheodory, 
" Uber d. diskontinuirlichen Losungen i. d. Variationsrechnung," 
Dissertation (Gottingen, 1904); and " Uber d. starken Max . . . ," 
Math. Ann. (1906), Bd. Ixii. (A. E. H. L.) 

VARICOSE VEINS (Lat. varix, a dilated vein), a condition of 
the veins which mostly occurs in those parts of the blood- 
stream which are farthest from the heart and occupy a de- 
pendent position. Thus they are found in the legs and thighs; 
in the lowest part of the bowel (piles; see HAEMORRHOIDS), and 
in the spermatic cord (varicocele). Any condition which hinders 
the return of blood from the veins is apt to cause their per- 
manent dilatation; thus is explained the occurrence of varicose 



VARIOLITES VARLEY, C. 



veins in the leg from the wearing of a tight garter, and of piles 
as the result of the pressure of an ovarian tumour or of a pregnant 
uterus, or of disease of the liver. 

Sometimes the trouble is begun by a direct injury to the 
vein, which, by setting up an inflammation, weakens the coats 
of the vein, which then yield under the pressure of the blood- 
stream. In the case of varicocele, the dilatation of the veins 
is probably of developmental origin; many other causes are 
given, but not one of them appears satisfactory. Examina- 
tion of a varicose vein shows that it is increased in length as 
well as in capacity. In some parts of its course the vein has 
its coats much thickened, but at those places where there is 
most dilatation the walls are very thin. Veins thus affected 
give rise to pains and achings, and they are, moreover, liable 
to attacks of inflammation which end in clotting of the blood 
(thrombosis). This is a dangerous condition, as a sudden or 
violent movement is apt to cause the detachment of a piece of 
the clot, which, carried up to the brain or the lung, may cause 
sudden death. Less serious results of varicose veins are swell- 
ing of the parts below (oedema), ulceration and abscess. 

As regards treatment, the wearing of a well-fitting elastic stocking 
will prove beneficial in the case of a moderate dilatation of the veins 
of the leg; the individual must avoid long standing and fatigue. 
It is well also to have the foot of the bed raised three or four inches, 
so that during the night the veins may be kept as empty as possible. 
If the case is more serious, the thinned veins threatening to give way, 
it will be advisable, provided the dilatations are fairly well localized, 
and the general condition of the patient permits, to excise the 
diseased parts, tying the cut ends of the veins, and closing the 
surface wounds with fine sutures. Should a varicose vein be plugged 
with clot, it will be advisable to tie it high up where the coats 
are healthy, and to remove the lower part by dissection. This will 
render the person safe from the very serious risk of a piece of the 
clot being carried to the heart, -and will also permanently rid him 
of his trouble. It may be said generally that any operative treatment 
for varicose veins in the lower extremity is best associated with the 
application of a ligature upon the large surface vein just .before it 
enters the common femoral vein below the fold of the groin. This 
operation removes the risk of the downward pressure of blood in 
the veins whose dilatation has rendered the valves useless. 

In the case of a varicose vein being opened by accident or disease, 
it is quite possible for the individual to bleed to death. The first-aid 
treatment for the serious haemorrhage should consist in laying the 
patient on the floor, raising the limb upon the seat of a chair, and 
fixing a pad over the open vessel by a handkerchief or bandage. 

Varicose veins of the spermatic cord (varicocele) of the left side are 
met with in adolescents. The dilatation is, in all probability, of 
developmental origin, making its appearance at puberty. It is, as 
a rule, of no serious moment, and, unless present in an extreme 
degree, had best be treated merely by a suspension bandage. If, 
however, it is causing real physical distress, it may be treated by 
excision of an inch or two of the bunch of dilated veins. The 
presence of varicocele is apt to cause inconvenience or even dis- 
comfort to men living in India or the tropics, but the Englishman 
who intends spending his life in temperate climes will do well to 
ignore a varicocele. It will become less and less noticeable as time 
goes on. (E. O.*) 

VARIOLITES (Lat. variola, smallpox), in petrology, a group of 
dark green basic igneous rocks which, especially on weathered 
surfaces, exhibit pale coloured spots that give them a pock- 
marked appearance. In some conditions these spots weather 
out prominently; they are grey, pale green, violet or yellowish, 
while the matrix of the rock is usually dark green. The vario- 
lites are related most closely to the basalts or diabases. They 
are nearly always much decomposed, and, since they are also 
fine-grained rocks, their original composition may be much 
obscured by secondary changes. The variolitic spots are 
rounded in outline and are often about a quarter of an inch in 
diameter, but may much exceed this size. They have a radiate 
structure and are sometimes, though not generally, zoned with 
concentric circles of different appearance and composition. 
Many authors have compared them with the spherulites of the 
acid rocks (obsidians and rhyolites), and undoubtedly some 
kinds of variolite are merely glassy spherulitic varieties of basalt. 
The tachylyte selvages of the dolerite dikes of the west of 
Scotland, for example, often contain large brown spherulites 
which are easily visible in hand specimens. These spherulites 
consist of very thin divergent fibres, and their nature is often 
difficult to determine on account of the indefiniteness of the 



921 

optical characters of minerals in this state. It seems probable, 
however, that they are mostly felspar embedded in dark brown 
glass. Small phenocrysts or skeleton crystals of olivine, augite 
and plagioclase felspar may occur in_ these tachylytes. 

Other variolites are glassy or partly crystalline facies of olivine- 
free dolerites, occurring as thin dikes or intrusions, or at the margins 
of dolerite masses. In these the felspars are well crystallized as thin 
rods, with square or forked ends, radiating outwards from a centre. 
They are commonly oligoclase, and sometimes assume branching or 
feathery forms. Some authors would call these " sphaero-crystals " 
rather than spherulites ; they are an intermediate stage between the 
latter and the stellate groupings of felspar which occur frequently 
in igneous rocks. In the same rocks augite spherulites occur also, 
but this mineral forms plumose growths, branching and curved, 
which spread through the glassy base and do not interfere with the 
felspar spherulites. They have much resemblance to the feathery 
ice crystals which form on window-panes. Occasionally olivine- 
dolerites have a coarsely spherulitic structure with long rods of 
plagioclase felspar converging to a point; one example of these 
rocks from Skye contains variolites over three inches in diameter. 

Another group of variolites includes the most famous rock of this 
type, which comes from the Durance, in France. Pebbles of this were 
well known to collectors for a long time before they were traced to their 
source at Mont GeneAre. They were proved to belong to a diabasic 
rock which shows well-marked " pillow-structure " or " spheroidal 
jointing." Each pillow has a marginal portion which is variolitic, but 
towards the centre of the block-shaped masses the structure becomes 
coarse and groups of radiate felspars make their appearance. It is 
doubtful whether the variolite is an intrusive rock or a lava flow. 
Many of these pillow lavas (or spilites) occur in the Devonian rocks 
of Germany, and often they have variolitic facies which seem to 
belong to the same group as the rock of the Durance. Their spheru- 
lites are very often oligoclase felspar or decomposition products 
after a felspathic mineral. In other cases they consist of chlorite 
or pale green amphibole, both of which may be secondary after 
pyroxene. The ground mass is very fine grained and is filled with 
chlorite, epidote, leucoxene, and other secondary minerals. There 
is much reason to believe that it was originally in large measure 
vitreous but has suffered devitrifaction. Sometimes little steam 
cavities occur and may serve as a nucleus from which the variolite 
has grown. The radiate structure of the varioles is often nearly 
obliterated in these much-decomposed rocks, in fact it may never 
have been very perfect. Variolites are found also in several parts 
of the Swiss Alps at Jatluga on Lake Onega, in Anglesey, the Lleyn 
district and Fishguard in Wales, in Cornwall, and in more than one 
place in Ireland. 

Finally, there is a group of spotted rocks formerly known to 
French petrographers as the variolites du Drac from the locality in 
which they are found, but they have been proved to be merely 
vesicular, rotten diabases, with steam cavities filled with white 
calcite and other secondary minerals. (J. S. F.) 

VARISCITE, a native hydrous aluminium phosphate, 
A1PO 4 -2H 2 0, named by A. Breithaupt, in 1837, in consequence 
of its occurrence in the Saxon Voigtland (Variscia). It is a green 
mineral generally occurring as an incrustation or in nodules. 
A compact nodular variety was discovered about 1894 in Cedar 
Valley, near Old Camp Floyd, Utah, and was described by Dr 
G. F. Kunz as utahlite. Its beautiful apple-green colour has 
led to its use, when cut and polished, as an ornamental stone. 
The term utahlite must be distinguished from utahite, the name 
given by A. Arzruni to a basic ferric sulphate, 3(FeO) 2 SO 4 -4H 2 O, 
from Utah. 

VARLEY, CORNELIUS (1781-1873), English water-colour 
painter, a younger brother of John Varley (<?..), was born at 
Hackney, London, on the aist of November 1781. He was 
educated by his uncle, a philosophical instrument maker, 
and under him acquired a knowledge of the natural sciences; 
but about 1800 he joined his brother in a tour through Wales, 
and began the study of art. He was soon engaged in teaching 
drawing. From 1803 till 1859 he was an occasional exhibitor 
n the Royal Academy; and he also contributed regularly to 
:he displays of the Water-Colour Society, of which, in 1803, 
le was one of the founders, and of which he continued a member 
till 1821. His works consist mainly of carefully finished classical 
subjects, with architecture and figures. He published a series 
of etchings of " Boats and other Craft on the River Thames," 
and during his life as an artist he continued deeply interested 
n scientific pursuits. For his improvements in the camera 
ucida, the camera obscura and the microscope he received the 
Isis gold medal of the Society of Art&; and at the International 



922 

Exhibition of 1851 he gained a medal for his invention of 
the graphic telescope. He died at Hampstead on the 2nd of 
October 1873. 

VARLEY, JOHN (1778-1842), English water-colour painter, 
was born at Hackney, London, on the I7th of August 1778. 
His father, a man of scientific attainments and tutor in the 
family of Lord Stanhope, discouraged his leanings towards 
art, and placed him under a silversmith. But on his parent's 
death Varley escaped from this uncongenial employment, and, 
after working with a portrait painter, engaged himself at the 
age of sixteen to an architectural draughtsman, who took him 
on a provincial tour to sketch the principal buildings in the towns 
they visited. His spare hours were employed in sketching from 
nature, and in the evenings he was permitted, like Turner and 
Girtin, to study in the house of Dr Munro. In 1798 he ex- 
hibited his first work, a " View of Peterborough Cathedral," 
in the Royal Academy. In 1799 he visited North Wales, and 
in its wild mountain scenery found the subjects best suited 
to his brush. He returned to the same district in 1800, and again 
in 1802, and the impressions then received powerfully in- 
fluenced the whole course of his art. In 1804 he became a 
foundation member of the Water-Colour Society, and con- 
tributed over forty works to its first exhibition. He had 
married in the previous year; and, in order to provide for 
the wants of an increasing family, he was obliged to produce 
for the dealers much work of a slight and commonplace char- 
acter. He also taught drawing, and some of his pupils, such 
as John Linnell and William Hunt, afterwards became cele- 
brated. He was a firm believer in astrology, skilful in casting 
horoscopes; and some curious instances were related of the 
truth of his predictions. It was at his house that his friend 
William Blake sketched his celebrated " Visionary Heads." 
Varley died at London on the I7th of November 1842. 

Varley's landscapes are graceful and solemn in feeling, and simple 
and broad in treatment, being worked with a full brush and pure 
fresh transparent tints, usually without any admixture of body- 
colour. Though his works are rather mannered and conventional, 
they are well considered and excellent in composition. Some of his 
earlier water-colours, including his " Views of the Thames," were 
painted upon the spot, and possess greater individuality than his 
later productions, which are mainly compositions of mountain and 
lake scenery, produced without direct reference to nature. Among 
his literary works are Zodiacal Physiology (1828); Observations on 
Colour and Sketching from Nature (1830); A Practical Treatise on 
Perspective, and Principles of Landscape Design for Young Artists. 

VARNA, a fortress, seaport, departmental capital and 
episcopal city of Bulgaria; on the Bay of Varna, an inlet of 
the Black Sea, in 43 12' N. and 27 56' E. Pop. (1906) 37,155. 
Varna is built on the hilly north shore of the bay, overlooking 
the estuary of the river Devna or Pravadi, which flows seaward 
through a magnificent valley surrounded by mountains. It is 
the eastern terminus of the Varna-Rustchuk railway, opened 
in 1867, and is connected with all parts of the kingdom by 
branches of this line. The so-called " Varna quadrilateral," 
which has played an important part in Bulgarian military 
history, consists of the fortresses of Varna, Shumla, Rustchuk 
and Silistria (q.v.). Varna is the third city of the kingdom in 
population, after Sofia and Philippopolis, and ranks with 
Burgas as one of the two principal seaports. Its deep and 
capacious bay is sheltered from northerly and north-easterly 
winds, and the construction of modern harbour works has 
greatly increased the facilities for trade. The principal exports 
a e cattle and dairy produce, grain, lamb and goat skins, and 
cloth (shayak); the imports include coal, iron and machinery, 
textiles, petroleum and chemicals. In 1907 the port was 
entered by 869 ships of 926,449 tons, the largest number of 
vessels being Bulgarian and the greatest tonnage Austro- 
Hungarian. Wine is largely produced in the department, and 
in the city there are breweries, distilleries, tanneries and cloth 
factories; cotton-spinning was introduced by a British firm. 
There is a large and commercially important colony of Greeks; 
the Jews, Turks and gipsies are also numerous. Much of the 
city has been constructed since 1878, and the barracks, post 
office, college for girls and National Bank are handsome modern 



VARLEY, J. VARNISH 



buildings. Near Varna is the summer palace of the king of 
Bulgaria. 

Varna has been identified with the ancient Milesian colony 
of Odessus on the coast of Moesia Inferior. It figures largely 
in the history of more recent times, and close by was fought 
in 1444 the battle in which Murad II. slew Wladislaus III. of 
Poland and Hungary, and routed his forces commanded by 
Hunyadi Janos. Varna was occupied in 1828 by the Russians, 
in 1854 by the allies, who here organized the invasion of the 
Crimea, and in 1877 by the Egyptian troops summoned to the de- 
fence of Turkey against the Russians. By the treaty of Berlin 
(1878) it was ceded to Bulgaria. It has long been the seat of 
a Greek metropolitan and since 1870 of a Bulgarian bishop. 

VARNHAGEN VON ENSE, KARL AUGUST (1785-1858), 
German biographer, was born at Dusseldorf on the 2ist of 
February 1785. He studied medicine at Berlin, but devoted 
more attention to philosophy and literature, which he after- 
wards studied more thoroughly at Halle and Tubingen. He 
began his literary career in 1804 as joint-editor with Adelbert 
von Chamisso (q.v.) of a Musenalmanach. In 1809 he joined 
the Austrian army, and was wounded at the battle of Wagram. 
Soon afterwards he accompanied his superior officer, Prince 
Bentheim, to Paris, where he carried on his studies. In 1812 
he entered the Prussian civil service at Berlin, but in the follow- 
ing year resumed his military career, this time as a captain in 
the Russian army. He accompanied Tettenborn, as adjutant, 
to Hamburg and Paris, and his experiences were recorded in 
his Geschichte der Hamburger Ereignisse (London, 1813), and 
his Geschichle der Kriegsziige des Generals von Tettenborn (1815). 
At Paris he entered the diplomatic service of Prussia, and in 
1814 acted under Hardenberg at- the congress of Vienna. He 
also accompanied Hardenberg to Paris in 1815. He was 
resident minister for some time at Karlsruhe, but was recalled 
in 1819, after which, with the title of " Geheimer Legationsrat," 
he lived chiefly at Berlin. He had no fixed official appointment, 
but was often employed in important political business. In 
1814 he married Rahel Antonie Friederike, originally called 
Levin, afterwards Robert, and sister of the poet, Ludwig 
Robert (1778-1832). She was born in 1771 at Berlin, where 
she died in 1833. By birth she was a Jewess; but before her 
marriage she made profession of Christianity. Although she 
never wrote anything for publication, she was a woman of 
remarkable intellectual qualities, and exercised a powerful 
influence on many men of high ability. Her husband, who was 
devotedly attached to her, found in her sympathy and en- 
couragement one of the chief sources of his inspiration as a 
writer. After her death he published a selection from her 
papers, and afterwards much of her correspondence was printed. 
Varnhagen von Ense never fully recovered from the shock 
caused by her death. He himself died suddenly in Berlin on 
the loth of October 1858. 

He made some reputation as an imaginative and critical writer, 
but he is famous chiefly as a biographer. He possessed a remark- 
able power of grouping facts so as to bring out their essential 
significance, and his style is distinguished for its strength, grace 
and purity. Among his principal works are Goethe in den Zeug- 
nissen der Mitlebenden (1824); Biographische Denkmale (5 vols., 
182430; 3rd ed., 1872); and biographies ot General von Seydlitz 
(1834), Sophia Charlotte, queen of Prussia (1837), Field-Marshal 
Schwerin (18^.1), Field-Marshal Keith (1844), and General Billow 
von Dennewitz (1853). His Denkwurdtgkeiten und vermischte 
Schriften appeared in 9 vols. in 1843-59, the two last volumes 
appearing after his death. His niece, Ludmilla Assing, between 
1860 and 1867, edited several volumes of his correspondence 
with eminent men, and his Tagebiicher (14 vols., 1861-70). 
Blatter aus der preussischen Geschichte appeared in 5 vols. 
(1868-69); his correspondence with Rahel in 6 vols. (1874-75); 
and with Carlyle (1892). His selected writings appeared in 19 
vols. in 187176. There is also an extensive literature dealing 
with Rahel Varnhagen von Ense; see especially her husband's 
Rahel, ein Buck des Andenkens (3 vols., 1834); Aus Rahels Herzens- 
leben (1877); E. Schmidt-Weissenfels, Rahel und ihre Zeit (iStf*); 
Briefwechsel zwischen Karoline von Humboldt, Rahel und Varnhagen 
von Ense (1896); O. Berdrow, Rahel Varnhagen (1900). 

VARNISH, a liquid consisting of a gum or resin dissolved 
in alcohol (spirit varnish) or an oil (oil varnish), which on 



VARRO, MARCUS TERENTIUS 



923 



application to wooden and other surfaces improves their appear- 
ance and permanency (see PAINTER- WORK). 

VARRO, MARCUS TERENTIUS (116-27 B.C.), Roman 
polymath and man of letters, was born at Reate in the Sabine 
country. Here he imbibed in his earlier years a good measure 
of the hardy simplicity and strong seriousness which the later 
Romans attributed to the men of the early republic charac- 
teristics which were supposed to linger in the Sabine land after 
they had fled from the rest of Italy. The chief teacher of 
Varro was L. Aelius Stilo, the first systematic student, critic 
and teacher of Latin philology and literature, and of the anti- 
quities of Rome and Italy. Varro also studied at Athens, 
especially under the philosopher Antiochus of Ascalon, whose 
aim it was to lead back the Academic school from the scepticism 
of Arcesilaus and Carneades to the tenets of the early Platonists, 
as he understood them. He was really a stoicizing Platonist; 
and this has led to the error of supposing Varro to have been a 
professed Stoic. The influence of Antiochus is clearly to be 
seen in many remains of Varro's writings. The political career 
of Varro seems to have been late and slow; but he arrived at 
the praetorship, after having been tribune of the people, quaestor 
and curule aedile. In politics and war he followed Pompey's 
lead; but it is probable that he was discontented with the 
course on which his leader entered when the first triumvirate 
was formed, and he may thus have lost his chance of rising to 
the consulate. He actually ridiculed the coalition in a work 
entitled the Three-Headed Monster (TpiKapavos in the Greek of 
Appian). He did not, however, refuse to join the commission 
of twenty by whom the great agrarian scheme of Caesar for the 
resettlement of Capua and Campania was carried into execution 
(59 B.C.). Despite the difference between them in politics, 
Varro and Caesar had literary tastes in common, and were 
friends in private life. Under Pompey Varro saw much active 
service: he was attached to Pompey as pro-quaestor, probably 
during the war against Sertorius in Spain. We next find him, 
as legate, in command of a fleet which kept the seas between 
Delos and Sicily, while Pompey was suppressing the pirates, 
and he even won the " naval crown," a coveted reward of per- 
sonal prowess. A little later he was legate during the last 
Mithradatic war. In the conflict between Caesar and the 
Pompeian party Varro was more than once actively engaged. 
In his Civil War (ii. 17-20) Caesar tells how Varro, when legate 
in Spain along with Afranius and Petreius, lost his two legions 
without striking a blow, because the whole region where he was 
quartered joined the enemy. Caesar curiously intimates that, 
though Varro did his best for Pompey from a sense of duty, his 
heart was really with the other leader. Nevertheless he pro- 
ceeded to Epirus before the battle of Pharsalia, and awaited the 
result at Dyrrachium in the company of Cicero and Cato. Like 
Cicero, Varro received harsh treatment from Mark Antony 
after the Pompeian defeat. Some of his property was actually 
plundered, but restored at the bidding of Caesar, to whom Varro 
in gratitude immediately dedicated one of his most important 
writings. The dictator employed the scholar in aiding him to 
collect and arrange great stores of Greek and Latin literature 
for the vast public library which he intended to found. We 
have glimpses of Varro at this time in the Letters of Cicero. 
He appears as harsh and severe, and a poor stylist. The 
formation of the second triumvirate again plunged Varro into 
danger. Antony took possession anew of the property he had 
been compelled to surrender, and inserted Varro's name on 
the list of the proscribed. His friends, however, afforded him 
protection. He was able to make peace with the triumvirs, 
but sacrificed his property and much of his beloved library. 
He was permitted to spend in quiet study and in writing the 
last fifteen years of his life. He is said to have died (27 B.C.) 
almost pen in hand. 

Varro was not surpassed in the compass of his writings by any 
ancient, not even by_any one of the later Greek philosophers, to 
some of whom tradition ascribes a fabulous number of separate 
works. In a passage quoted by Gellius, Varro himself, when over 
seventy years of age, estimated the number of " books " he had 
written at 490; but " book " here means, not merely such a work 



as was not subdivided into portions, but also a portion of a sub- 
divided work. For example, the Menippean Satires numbered 150, 
and are all counted separately in Varro's estimate. Jerome made 
or copied a catalogue of Varro's works which has come down to us 
in a mutilated form. From this and from other extant materials 
Ritschl has set down the number of the distinct literary works at 
74 and the number of separate " books " at about 620. The later 
years of the author's life were therefore even more fruitful than 
the earlier. The complete catalogue may be roughly arranged 
under three heads (i) belles lettres, (2) history and antiquities, 
(3) technical treatises on philosophy, law, grammar, mathematics, 
philology and other subjects. 

The first of these three classes no doubt mainly belonged to 
Varro's earlier life. In poetry he seems to have attempted nothing 
that was very elaborate, and little of a serious character. His 

fenius tended naturally in the direction of burlesque and satire, 
n belles lettres he showed himself throughout, both in matter and 
form, the pupil and admirer of Lucilius, after whom he wrote satires. 
One poetical work probably consisted of short pieces in the style 
of the mort satirical poems of Catullus. It is doubtful whether, 
as has often been supposed, Varro wrote a philosophical poem some- 
what in the style of Lucretius ; if so, it should rather be classed with 
the prose technical treatises. One curious production was an essay 
in popular illustrated literature, which was almost unique in ancient 
times. Its title was Imagines, and it consisted of 700 prose bio- 
graphies of Greek and Roman celebrities, with a metrical elogium 
for each, accompanied in each case by a portrait. But the lighter 
works of Varro have perished almost to the last line, with the ex- 
ception of numerous fragments of the Menippean Satires. The 
Menippus whom Varro imitated lived in the first half of the 3rd 
century B.C., and was born a Phoenician slave. He became a 
Cynic philosopher, and is a figure familiar to readers of Lucian. 
He flouted life and all philosophies but the Cynic in light compositions, 
partly in prose and partly in verse. A careful study of the fragments 
does not justify Mommsen's glowing account. That the remains 
exhibit variety and fertility, that there are in them numerous happy 
strokes of humour .and satire, and many felicitous phrases and 
descriptions, is true, but the art is on the whole heavy, awkward 
and forced, and the style rudely archaic and untasteful. The Latin 
is frequently as rough and uncouth as that of Lucilius. No doubt 
Varro contemned the Hellenizing innovations by which the hard 
and rude Latin o f his youth was transformed into the polished 
literary language of the late republican and the Augustan age. The 
titles of the Menippean Satires are very diverse. Sometimes 
personal names are chosen, and they range from the gods and demi- 
gods to the slaves, from Hercules to Marcipor. Frequently a 
popular proverb or catchword in Greek or Latin supplies the 
designation: thus we have as titles " I've got You " ("Ex <r) ; 
" You don't Know what Evening is to Bring " (Nescis quid vesper 
serus vchat); "Know Thyself" (TVoiOi atavrbv). Occasionally the 
heading indicates that the writer is flying at some social folly, as in 
" Old Men are Children for the Second Time " (AJs iratfos oi yeporres) 
and in the " Bachelor " (Caelebs). In many satires the philosophers 
were pounded, as in the " Burial of Menippus " and Concerning 
the Sects " (lltpl alptakwv). Each composition seems to have 
been a genuine medley or lanx satura: any topic might 
be introduced which struck the author's fancy at the moment. 
There are many allusions to persons and events of the day, but 
political bitterness seems to have been commonly avoided. The 
whole tone of the writer is that of a laudalor temporis acti, who 
can but scoff at all that has come into fashion in his own day. 
From the numerous citations in later authors it is clear that the 
Menippean Satires were the most popular of Varro's writings. 
Not very unlike the Menippean Satires were the Libri Logistorici, 
or satirical and practical expositions, possibly in dialogue form, of 
some theme most commonly taken from philosophy on its ethical 
side. A few fragments in this style have come down to us and a 
number of titles. These are twofold: that is to say, a personal 
name is followed by words indicating the subject-matter, as Marius 
de Fortuna, from which the contents may easily be guessed, and 
Sisenna de Historia, most likely a dialogue in which the old annal- 
ist of the name was the chief speaker, and discoursed of the principles 
on which history should be written. Among the lighter and more 
popular works may be mentioned twenty-two books of Orations 
(probably never spoken), some funeral eulogies (Lavdationes) , some 
" exhortations " (Suasiones), conceivably of a political character, and 
an account of the author's own life. 

-The second section of Varro's works, those on history and anti- 
quities, form to the present day the basis on which_a large part of 
our knowledge of the earlier Roman history, and in particular of 
Roman constitutional history, ultimately rests. These writings 
were used as a quarry by the compilers and dilettanti of later 
times, such as Pliny, Plutarch, Gellius, Festus, Macrobius, and by 
Christian champions like Tertullian, Arnobius and Augustine, who 
did not disdain to seek in heathen literature the means of defending 
their faith. These men have saved for us a few remains from the 
great wreck made by time. Judging from what has been casually 
preserved, if any considerable portion of Varro's labours as anti- 
quarian and historian were to be now discovered, scholars might 



924 



VARRO, PUBLIUS TERENTIUS VARTHEMA 



find themselves compelled to reconstruct the earlier history of the 
Roman republic from its very foundations. Varro's greatest 
predecessor in this field of inquiry, the man who turned over the 
virgin soil, was Cato the Censor. His example, however, seems to 
have remained unfruitful till the time of Varro's master, Lucius 
Aelius Stilo Praeconinus. From his age to the decay of Roman 
civilization there were never altogether wanting men devoted to the 
study of their nation's past; but none ever pursued the task with the 
advantages of Varro's comprehensive learning, his indefatigable 
industry and his reverent yet discriminating regard for the men 
and the institutions of the earlier ages. The greatest work of this 
class was that on Antiquities, dividedinto forty-one books. Of these 
the first twenty-five were entitled the Antiquities of Human Things 
(Antiquitates Rerum Humanarum), while the remaining sixteen were 
designated the Antiquities of Things Divine (Antiquitates Rerum 
Divinarum). The book was the fruit of Varro's later years, in which he 
gathered together the material laboriously amassed through the 
period of an ordinary lifetime. The second division of the work was 
dedicated to Caesar as supreme pontiff. The design was as far- 
reaching as that of the Natural History of Pliny. The general 
heads of the exposition in the secular portion of the book were 
four (l) " who the men are who act (qui agant), (2) the places 
in which they act (ubi), (3) the times at which they act (quandp), 
(4) the results of their action (quid agant)." In the portion relating 
to divine affairs there were divisions parallel to these four, with a 
fifth, which dealt with the gods in whose honour action in divine 
affairs is taken. Our knowledge of this great book is to a large 
extent derived from the works of the early Christian writers, 
and especially from Augustine's De Civitate Dei. These writers 
naturally quote in the main from the religious section. It is a 
great misfortune that no similar series of citations from the 
secular part of the Antiquitates has come down to us. Most of the 
other historical and antiquarian writings of Varro were special 
elaborations of topics which he could not treat with sufficient 
fulness and minuteness in the larger book. The treatise on the 
Genealogy of the Roman People dealt mainly with the relation of 
Roman chronology to the chronology of Greece and the East. Dates 
were assigned even to mythological occurrences, because Varro be- 
lieved in the theory of Euhemerus, that all the beings worshipped 
as gods had once lived as men. To Varro's researches are mainly 
due the traditional dates assigned to the era of the kings and to that 
of the early republic. Minor writings of the same class were the 
De Vita Populi Romani, apparently a kind of history of Roman 
civilization; the De Familiis Trojanis, an account of the families 
who "came over" with Aeneas; the Aetia (Atria), an explanation 
of the origin of Roman customs, on which Plutarch drew largely in 
his Quaestiones Romanae; a Tribuum Liber, used by Festus; and 
the constitutional handbook written for the instruction of Pompey 
when he became consul. Nor must the labour expended by Varro 
in the study of literary history be forgotten. His activity in this 
direction, as in others, took a wide range. One of his greatest 
achievements was to fix the canon of the genuine plays of Plautus. 
The " Varronian plays " were the twenty which have come down to 
us, along with one which has been lost. 

The third class of treatises, which we have called technical, was 
also numerous and very varied. Philosophy, grammar, the history 
and theory of language, rhetoric, law, arithmetic, astronomy, 
geometry, mensuration, agriculture, naval tactics, were all repre- 
sented. The only works of this kind which have come down to our 
days are the De Lingua Latina (in part) and the De Re Rustica. 
The former originally comprised twenty-five books, three of which 
(the three succeeding the first) are dedicated to a P. Septimius who 
had served with the author in Spain, and the last twenty-one to 
Cicero. The whole work was divided into three main sections, the 
first dealing with the origin of Latin words, the second with their 
inflexions and other modifications, the third with syntax. The 
books still preserved (somewhat imperfectly) are those from the 
fifth to the tenth inclusive. The Latin style is harsh, rugged and 
far from lucid. As Mommsen remarks, the clauses of the sentences 
are often arranged on the thread of the relative pronoun like 
thrushes on a string. The arrangement of the subject-matter, while 
pretending to much precision, is often far from logical. The fifth, 
sixth and seventh books give Varro's views on the etymology of 
Latin words. The principles he applies are those which he had 
learned from the philosophers of the Stoic school Chrysippus, 
Antipater and others. The study of language as it existed in 
Varro's day was thoroughly dominated by Stoic influences. Varro's 
etymologies could be only a priori guesses, but he was well aware of 
their character, and very clearly states at the outset of the fifth 
book the hindrances that barred the way to sound knowledge. He 
was thoroughly alive to the importance of not arguing merely from 
the forms and meanings of words as they existed in his day, and 
was fully_ conscious that language and its mechanism should be 
studied historically. The books from the eighth to the tenth in- 
clusive are devoted to the inflections of words and their other modi- 
fications. These Varro classes all under the head of " declinatio," 
which implies a swerving aside from a type. Thus Herculi from 
Hercules and manubria from manus are equally regarded as examples 
of declinatio. Varro adopts a compromise between the two opposing 



schools of grammarians, those who held that nature intended the 
declinationes of all words of the same class to proceed uniformly 
(which uniformity was called analogia) and those who deemed that 
nature aimed at irregularity (anomalia). The matter is treated with 
considerable confusion of thought. But the facts incidentally cited 
concerning old Latin, and the statements of what had been written 
and thought about language by Varro's predecessors, are of extreme 
value to the student of Latin. The other extant prose work, the 
De Re Rustica, is in three books, each of which is in the form of a 
dialogue, the circumstances and in the main the interlocutors 
being different for each. The dramatic introductions and a few 
of the interludes are bright and interesting, and the Latin style, 
though still awkward and unpolished, is far superior to that of the 
De Lingua Latina. 

AUTHORITIES. The fragments of the different treatises have 
been partially collected in many separate publications of recent date. 
The best editions of the De Lingua Latina are those by C. O. Miiller 
and by L. Spengel (re-edited by his son in 1885). The most recent 
and best recension of the De Re Rustica is that of Keil (Leipzig, 
1884). Of modern scholars Ritschl has deserved best of Varro. 
Several papers in his Opuscula treat of the nature of Varro's works 
which have not come down to us. The work of G. Boissier, .tude sur 
la vie et les ouvrages de M. T. Varron (1861), though superficial, is 
still useful; but a comprehensive work on Varro, on the present 
level of scholarship, is greatly needed. (J. S. R.) 

VARRO, PUBLIUS TERENTIUS, surnamed ATACINUS (c. 
82-36 B.C.), Latin poet, was born near the river Atax in Gallia 
Narbonensis. He was perhaps the first Roman born beyond 
the Alps who attained eminence in literature. He seems to 
have taken at first Ennius and Lucilius as his models, and wrote 
an epic, entitled Bellum Sequanicum, eulogizing the exploits 
of Caesar in Gaul and Britain, and also Satires, of which Horace 
(Satires, i. 10) speaks slightingly. Accordingly to Jerome, Varro 
did not begin to study Greek literature until his thirty-fifth 
year. The last ten years of his life were given up to the imita- 
tion of Greek poets of the Alexandrian school. Quintilian 
(Instil, x. i, 87), who describes him as a " translator," speaks 
of him in qualified terms of praise. Although not vigorous 
enough to excel in the historical epic or in the serious work of 
the Roman satura, Varro yet possessed in considerable measure 
the lighter gifts which we admire in Catullus. 

His chief poem of the later period was the Argonautae, closely 
modelled on the epic of Apollonius Rhodius. The age was prolific 
of epics, both historical and mythological, and that of Varro seems 
to have held a high rank among them. It is highly spoken of by 
Ovid (Am. i. 15, 21, A.A. iii. 335, Tristia, ii. 439) and Statins 
(Silvae, ii. 7, 77), and Propertius (ii. 34, 85) awards equal praise to 
his erotic elegies. Varro was also the author of a Cosmographia, 
or Chorographia, a geographical poem imitated from the Greek of 
Eratosthenes or of Alexander of Ephesus, surnamed Lychnus; and 
of an Ephemeris, a hexameter poem on weather-signs after Aratus, 
from which Virgil has borrowed. Fragments in A. Riese's edition 
of the fragments of the Menippean Satires of Varro of Reate; see 
also monographs by F. Wiillner (1829) and R. Unger (1861). 

VARTHEMA (BARTHEMA, VERTOMANNUS, &c.), LUDOVICO 
DI, of Bologna (fl. 1502-1510), Italian traveller and writer. 
He was perhaps a soldier before beginning his distant journeys, 
which he undertook apparently from a passion for adventure, 
novelty and the fame which (then especially) attended success- 
ful exploration. He left Europe near the end of 1502; early 
in 1503 he reached Alexandria and ascended the Nile to Cairo. 
From Egypt he sailed to Beirut and thence travelled to Tripoli, 
Aleppo and Damascus, where he managed to get himself 
enrolled, under the name of Yunas (Jonah), in the Mameluke 
garrison doubtless after adopting Islam. From Damascus 
he made the pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina as one of the 
Mameluke escort of the Hajj caravan (April- June 1503); 
he describes the sacred cities of Islam and the chief pilgrim 
sites and ceremonies with remarkable accuracy, almost all his 
details being confirmed by later writers. With the view of 
reaching India, he embarked at Jidda, the port of Mecca, and 
sailed down the Red Sea and through the Straits of Bab-el- 
Mandeb to Aden, where he was arrested and imprisoned as a 
Christian spy. He gained his liberty after imprisonment both 
at Aden and Radaa through the partiality of one of the 
sultanas of Yemen, made an extensive tour in south-west 
Arabia (visiting Sana, &c.), and took ship at Aden for the 
Persian Gulf and India. On the way he touched at Zaila 



VARUNA VASARI 



925 



and Berbera in Somaliland; he then (early in 1504?) ran across 
to the Indian port of Diu in Gujarat, afterwards famous ai 
a Portuguese fortress. From Diu he sailed up the Gulf oi 
Cambay to Gogo, and thence turning back towards the Persian 
Gulf made Julfar (just within the entrance of the gulf), Muscat 
and Ormuz. From Ormuz he seems to have journeyed across 
Persia to Herat, returning thence south-west to Shiraz, where 
he entered into partnership with a Persian merchant, who 
accompanied him during nearly all his travels in South Asia. 
After an unsuccessful attempt to reach Samarkand, the two 
returned to Shiraz, came down to Ormuz, and took ship for 
India. From the mouth of the Indus Varthema coasted down 
the whole west coast of India, touching at Cambay and Chaul; 
at Goa, whence he made an excursion inland to Bijapur; at 
Cannanore, from which he again struck into the interior to visit 
Vijayanagar on the Tungabudra; and at Calicut (1505?), 
where he stops to describe the society, manners and customs 
of Malabar, as well as the topography and trade of the city, 
the court and government of its sovereign (the Zamorin), its 
justice, religion, navigation and military organization. No- 
where do Varthema's accuracy and observing power show 
themselves more strikingly. Passing on by the " backwater of 
Cochin," and calling at Kulam (Quilon), he rounded Cape 
Comorin, and passed over to Ceylon (1506?). Though his stay 
here was brief (at Colombo?), he learnt a good deal about the 
island, from which he sailed to Pulicat, slightly north of Madras, 
then subject to Vijayanagar. Thence he crossed over to Ten- 
asserim in the Malay Peninsula, to Banghella, perhaps near 
Chittagong, at the head of the Bay of Bengal, and to Pegu, in 
the company of his Persian friend and of two Chinese Christians 
(Nestorians ?) whom he met at Banghella. After some success- 
ful trading with the king of Pegu, Varthema and his party sailed 
on to Malacca, crossed over to Pider (Pedir) in Sumatra, and 
thence proceeded to Bandan (Banda) and Monoch (one of the 
Moluccas), the farthest eastward points reached by the Italian 
traveller. From the Moluccas he returned westward, touched 
at Borneo, and there chartered a vessel for Java, the " largest 
of islands," as his Christian companions reckoned it. He notes 
the use of compass and chart by the native captain on the 
transit from Bornei to Giava, and preserves a curious, more 
than half-mythical, reference to supposed Far Southern lands. 
From Java he crossed over to Malacca, where he and his Persian 
ally parted from the Chinese Christians; from Malacca he 
returned to the Coromandel coast, and from Negapatam (?) in 
Coromandel he voyaged back, round Cape Comorin, to Kulam 
and Calicut. Varthema was now anxious to resume Christianity 
and return to Europe; after some time he succeeded in desert- 
ing to the Portuguese garrison at Cannanore (early in 1506?). 
He fought for the Portuguese in various engagements, and was 
knighted by the viceroy Francisco d' Almeida, the navigator 
Tristan da Cunha being his " sponsor." Fora year and a half he 
acted as Portuguese factor at Cochin, and on the 6th of December 
1507 (?) he finally left India for Europe by the Cape route. 
Sailing from Cannanore, Varthema apparently struck Africa 
about Malindi, and (probably) coasting by Mombasa and Kilwa 
arrived at Mozambique, where he notices the Portuguese fortress 
then building, and describes with his usual accuracy the negroes 
of the mainland. Beyond the Cape of Good Hope he encountered 
furious storms, but arrived safely in Lisbon after sighting St 
Helena and Ascension, and touching at the Azores. In Portugal 
the king received him cordially, kept him some days at court 
" to learn about India," and confirmed the knighthood con- 
ferred by d' Almeida. His narrative finally brings him to Rome, 
where he takes leave of the reader. As Richard Burton says 
(Pilgrimage to . . . Meccah, 1855, vol. ii. p. 352): "For correct- 
ness of observation and readiness of wit " Varthema " stands in 
the foremost rank of the old Oriental travellers." In Arabia 
and in the Indian archipelago east of Java he is (for Europe 
and Christendom) a real discoverer. Even where passing over 
ground traversed by earlier European explorers, his keen intelli- 
gence frequently adds valuable original notes on peoples, manners, 
customs, laws, religions, products, trade, methods of war, &c. 



Varthema's work (Itinerario de Liidouico de Varthema Bolognese 
. . . ) was first published in Italian at Rome in 1510 (ad instatia de 
Lodouico de Henricis da Corneto Vicetino). Other Italian editions 
appeared at Rome, 1517, at Venice, 1518, 1535, 1563, 1589, &c., at 
Milan, 1519, 1523, 1525, &c. Latin translations appeared at Milan, 
1511 (by Archangelus Madrignanus) ; and at Nuremberg, 1610 
(Frankfort, 1611); as well as in the Novus Orbis of Simon Grynaeus 
(Basel, 1532). German versions came out at Augsburg, 1515 
(Strassburg, 1516); at Strassburg, by Michael Herr, in his New 
Welt, from Grynaeus, 1534; at Leipzig, by Hieronymus Megiserus, 
1610 (and 1615), &c. A Spanish translation was issued at Seville, 
1520 (from the Latin), and a French at Lyons, 1556. Dutch 
versions were printed at Antwerp, 1563 (from Grynaeus), at Utrecht, 
1615 (from the Leipzig German of 1610), and again at Utrecht, 1655. 
The first English translation was of 1576-1577 (in Richard Eden s 
History of Travayle); an extract from Varthema was inserted in 
Samuel Purchas's Pilgrimage (London, 1625-1626); and in 1865 
appeared the Hakluyt Society edition by J. W. Jones and G. P. 
Badger (Travels of Ludovico di Varthema, London). (C. R. B.) 

VARUNA, in early Hindu mythology, the greatest, with 
Indra, of the gods of the Rig Veda. He is invoked with his 
double Mitra in some dozen hymns. As contrasted with Indra 
the war god, Varuna is the lord of the natural laws, the up- 
holder of the physical and moral order of the universe. His 
power is limitless, his anger at wrong-doing unassuageable, 
and he is omniscient. He makes the sunshine; the wind is 
his breath; river valleys are hollowed out at his command. 
Unlike Indra. Varuna has no myths related of him. In the 
later Vedic period he is specially connected with the nocturnal 
heavens. Ultimately in post- Vedic mythology he becomes the 
Hindu Neptune. The earlier conception of Varuna is singularly 
similar to that of Ahuramazda of the Avesta. The name 
Varuna may be Indo-European, identifiable, some believe, 
with the Greek ovpavos (Uranus), and ultimately referable to a 
root var, "to cover," Varuna thus meaning " the Encompasser." 
Among Varuna's aliases are Jalapati, " Lord of Water," and 
Amburaja, " King of Water." 

See A. A. Macdonell, Vedic Mythology (Strassburg, 1897). 

VASA, or NIKOLAISTAD, in the grand duchy of Finland, 
capital of the province of Vasa, on the east coast of the Gulf 
of Bothnia, 327 m. by rail north-west of Helsingfors. Pop. 
(1904) 18,028. It has two classical lyceums for boys and three 
for girls, a school of navigation, and a large number of primary 
schools. There is a shipyard and a considerable export trade. 
Vasa was founded on the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia in 1606, 
but after the great fire of 1852, as the sea had already receded 
for a considerable distance, the town was rebuilt nearer to 
the shore and received the official name of Nikolaistad. The 
population of the province (1904) was 295,187. 

VASARI, GIORGIO (1511-1571), Italian painter and architect, 
whose main distinction, however, rests on his valuable history 
of Italian art, was born at Arezzo on the 3oth of July 1511. 
At a very early age he became a pupil of Guglielmo da Marsiglia, 
a very skilful painter of stained glass, to whom he was recom- 
mended by his own kinsman, the painter Luca Signorelli. At 
the age of sixteen he went to Florence, where he studied under 
Michelangelo and Andrea del Sarto, aided by the patronage 
of the Medici princes. In 1529 he visited Rome and studied 
the works of Raphael and others of his school. The paintings 
of Vasari were much admired by the rapidly degenerating 
taste of the i6th century; but they possess the smallest amount 
of merit, being in the main feeble parodies of the powerful 
works of Michelangelo. Vasari was largely employed in 
Florence, Rome, Naples, Arezzo and other places. Many of 
his pictures still exist, the most important being the wall and 
ceiling paintings in the great hall of the Palazzo Vecchio in 
Florence, and his frescoes on the cupola of the cathedral, which, 
lowever, were not completed at the time of his death. As 
an architect he was perhaps more successful: the loggia of 
the Uffizi by the Arno, and the long passage connecting it 
with the Pitti Palace, are his chief works. Unhappily he did 
much to injure the fine medieval churches of S. Maria Novella 
and Santa Croce, from both of which he removed the original 
rood-screen and loft, and remodelled the retro-choir in the 
degraded taste of his time. Vasari enjoyed a very high repute 



926 



VASCULAR SYSTEM 



during his lifetime and amassed a considerable fortune. He 
built himself in 1547 a fine house in Arezzo, and spent much 
labour in decorating its walls and vaults with paintings. He 
was elected one of the municipal council or priori of his native 
town, and finally rose to the supreme office of gonfaloniere. 
He died at Florence on the 27th of June 1571. 

Personally Vasari was a man of upright character, free from 
vanity, and always ready to appreciate the works of others: 
in spite of the narrow and meretricious taste of his time, he 
expresses a warm admiration of the works of such men as 
Cimabue and Giotto, which is very remarkable. As an art 
historian of his country he must always occupy the highest 
rank. His great work was first published in 1550, and after- 
wards partly rewritten and enlarged in 1568, bearing the title 
Delle Vite de' piu eccellenti pittori, scultori, ed architettori. 
It was dedicated to Cosimo de' Medici, and was printed at 
Florence by the Giunti; it is a small quarto illustrated with 
many good woodcut portraits. This editio princeps of the 
complete work is usually bound in three volumes, and also 
contains a very valuable treatise on the technical methods 
employed in all branches of the arts, entitled Le Tre Arti del 
disegno, dob architettura, pittura, e scoltura. His biographies 
are written in a very pleasant style, interspersed with amusing 
stories. With a few exceptions Vasari's judgment is acute 
and unbiased. And though modern criticism with all the 
new materials opened up by research has done valuable work 
in upsetting a good many of his traditional accounts and 
attributions, the result is a tendency very often to under- 
estimate Vasari's accuracy and to multiply hypotheses of a 
rather speculative character. The work in any case remains 
a classic, however it may be supplemented by the more critical 
research of modern days. 

Vasari gives a sketch of his own biography at the end of his Vile, 
and adds further details about himself and his family in his lives of 
Lazzarp Vasari and Francesco Salviati. The best edition of Vasari's 
works is that published at Florence by Milanesi (1878-1882), which 
embodies the valuable notes in the earlier edition by Le Monnier 
(1846); another, by Venturi, was begun in 1896. The Lines has 
been translated into French, German and English (by Mrs Foster, 
London, 1850). 

VASCULAR SYSTEM. I. ANATOMY. The circulatory or 
blood vascular apparatus consists of the central pump or heart, 
the arteries leading from it to the tissues, the capillaries, through 
the walls of which the blood can give and receive substances 
to and from the tissues of the whole body, and the veins, which 
return the blood to the heart. As an accessory to the venous 
system, the lymphatics, which open finally into the great veins, 
help in returning some of the constituents of the blood. 
Separate articles are devoted to the heart, arteries, veins and 
lymphatic system, and it only remains here to deal with the 
capillaries. 

The blood capillaries form a close network of thin-walled 
tubules from -jTiW to TsW f an mcn i n diameter, permeating, 
with a few exceptions, the whole of the body, and varying 
somewhat in the closeness of its meshwork in different parts. 
In the smallest capillaries, in which the arteries end and from 
which the veins begin, the walls are formed only of somewhat 
oval endothelial cells, each containing an oval nucleus and 
joined to its adjacent cells by a serrated edge, in the inter- 
stices of which is a small amount of intercellular cement, easily 
demonstrated by staining the preparation with nitrate of 
silver. Here and there the cement substance is more plentiful, 
and these spots when small are known as stigmata, when large 
as stomata. As the capillaries approach the arteries on the one 
hand and the veins on the other they blend and become larger, 
and a delicate connective tissue sheath outside the endothelium 
appears, so that the transition from the capillaries into the 
arterioles and venules is almost imperceptible; indeed, the 
difference between a large artery or vein and a capillary, apart 
from size, is practically the amplification and differentiation 
of its connective tissue sheath. 

Embryology. The first appearance of a vascular system is outside 
the body of the embryo in the wall of the yolk sac, that is to say, in 
the mesoderm or the middle one of the three embryonic layers. 



The process is a very early one and in the chick is seen to begin at 
the end of the first day of incubation. The first occurrence is a 
network made up of solid cords of cells forming in certain places 
solid cell masses called the blood islands of Pander. The central 
cells of these islands divide by karyokinesis and gradually float 
away into the vessels which are now being formed by fluid from the 
exterior, finding its way into the centre of the cell cords and pressing 
the peripheral cells flat to form the endothelial lining. These free 
cells from the blood islands are known as erythroblasts and are the 
primitive corpuscles of the foetal blood. They have a large reticular 
nucleus and at first are colourless though haemoglobin gradually 
develops within them and the blood becomes red (see BLOOD). 
The erythroblasts continue to multiply by karyokinesis in early 
foetal life, especially in the liver, spleen, bone marrow and lymphatic 
glands, though later on their formation only occurs in the red bone 
marrow. In most of the erythroblasts the nucleus soon becomes 
contracted, and the cell is then known as a normoblast, while ulti- 
mately the general view is that the nucleus disappears by extrusion 
from the cell and the non-nucleated red blood plates or erythrocytes 
remain. The leucocytes or white blood corpuscles appear later 
than the red, and are probably formed from lymphoid tissue in 
various parts of the body. The blood vessels thus formed in the 
so-called vascular area gradually travel along the vitelline stalk 
into the body of the embryo, and two vessels larger than the rest 
are formed one on each side of the stalk. These are the vitelline 
veins, which, as they pass towards the caudal end of the embryo, 
become the two primitive aortae, and these fuse later on to form the 
heart. After the inversion of the pericardial region and formation 
of the head fold (see COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES) the front of 
the developing heart becomes the back, and the vitelline veins new 
enter it from behind. It must be understood that most of our 
knowledge of the early history of the blood vessels is derived from 
the study of lower mammals and birds, and that this is being gradually 
checked by observations on human embryos and on those of other 
primates. It seems probable that in these mammals, owing to the 
small size of the yolk sac, the vessels of the embryo establish an 
early communication with those of the chorion before the vitelline 
veins are formed (see Quain's Anatomy, vol. i., London, 1908). The 
later stages of the embryology of the vascular system are sketched 
in the articles on Heart, Arteries, Veins and Lymphatic System 
(q.v.). (F. G. P.) 

II. HISTORY OF DISCOVERY 

Galen, following Erasistratus (ob. 280 B.C.) and Aristotle, 
clearly distinguished arteries from veins, and was the first to 
overthrow the old theory of Erasistratus that the 
arteries contained air. According to him, the vein 
arose from the liver in two great trunks, the vena porta and 
vena cava. The first was formed by the union of all the ab- 
dominal veins, which absorbed the chyle prepared in the 
stomach and intestines, and carried it to the liver, where it 
was converted into blood. The vena cava arose in the liver, 
divided into two branches, one ascending through the dia- 
phragm to the heart, furnishing the proper veins of this organ; 
there it received the vena azygos, and entered the right ven- 
tricle, along with a large trunk from the lungs, evidently the 
pulmonary artery. The vena azygos was the superior vena 
cava, the great vein which carries the venous blood from the 
head and upper extremities into the right auricle. The 
descending branch of the great trunk supposed to originate 
in the liver was the inferior vena cava, below the junction of 
the hepatic vein. The arteries arose from the left side of the 
heart by two trunks, one having thin walls (the pulmonary 
veins), the other having thick walls (the aorta). The first was 
supposed to carry blood to the lungs, and the second to carry 
blood to the body. The heart consisted of two ventricles, com- 
municating by pores in the septum; the lungs were parenchy- 
matous organs communicating with the heart by the pulmonary 
veins. The blood-making organ, the liver, separates from 
the blood subtle vapours, the natural spirits, which, carried 
to the heart, mix with the air introduced by respiration, and 
thus form the vital spirits; these, in turn carried to the brain, 
are elaborated into animal spirits, which are distributed to 
all parts of the body by the nerves. 1 Such were the views of 
Galen, taught until early in the i6th century. 

Jacobus. Berengarius of Carpi (ob. 1530) investigated the 
structure of the valves of the heart. Andreas Vesale or Vesalius 
(1514-1564) contributed largely to anatomical know- Vesalius 
ledge, especially to the anatomy of the circulatory 
organs. He determined the position of the heart in the chest; 
1 See Burggraeve's Histoire de I'anatomie (Paris, 1880). 



VASCULAR SYSTEM 



927 



he studied its structure, pointing out the fibrous rings at the 
bases of the ventricles; he showed that its wall consists of 
layers of fibres connected with the fibrous rings; and he de- 
scribed these layers as being of three kinds straight or vertical, 
oblique, and circular or transverse. From the disposition of 
the fibres he reasoned as to the mechanism of the contraction 
and relaxation" of the heart. He supposed that the relaxation, 
or diastole, was accounted for principally by the longitudinal 
fibres contracting so as to draw the apex towards the base, and 
thus cause the sides to bulge out; whilst the contraction, or 
systole, was due to contraction of the transverse or cblique 
fibres. He showed that the pores of Galen, in the septum 
between the ventricles, did not exist, so that there could be 
no communication between the right and left sides of the 
heart, except by the pulmonary circulation. He also investi- 
gated minutely the internal structure of the heart, describing 
the valves, the (alumnae carneae and the musculi papillares. 
He described the mechanism of the valves with much accuracy. 
He had, however, no conception either of a systemic or of a pul- 
monary circulation. To him the heart was a reservoir from 
which the blood ebbed and flowed, and there were two kinds of 
blood, arterial and venous, having different circulations and 
serving different purposes in the body. Vesalius was not only 
a great anatomist: he was a great teacher; and his pupils 
carried on the work in the spirit of their master. Prominent 
among them was Gabriel Fallopius (1523-1562), who studied 
the anastomoses of the blood vessels, without the art of in- 
jection, which was invented by Frederick Ruysch (1638-1731) 
more than a century later. Another pupil was Columbus 
Columbus (Matthieu Reald Columbo, ob. 1560), first a prosector 
in the anatomical rooms of Vesalius and afterwards 
his successor in the chair of anatomy in Padua; his name has 
been mentioned as that of one who anticipated Harvey in the 
discovery of the circulation of the blood. A study of his 
writings clearly shows that he had no true knowledge of the 
circulation, but only a glimpse of how the blood passed from 
the right to the left side of the heart. In his work there is 
evidently a sketch of the pulmonary circulation, although it is 
clear that he did not understand the mechanism of the valves, 
as Vesalius did. As regards the systemic circulation, there is 
the notion simply of an oscillation of the blood from the heart 
to the body and from the body to the heart. Further, he up- 
holds the view of Galen, that all the veins originate in the 
liver; and he even denies the muscular structure of the heart. 1 
Serve/us. J n 1SS 3 Michael Servetus (1511-1553), a pupil or 
junior fellow-student of Vesalius, in his Chris tianismi 
Restitutio, described accurately the pulmonary circulation. 2 
Servetus perceived the course of the circulation from the right 
to the left side of the heart through the lungs, and he also 
recognized that the change from venous into arterial blood took 
place in the lungs and not in the left ventricle. Not so much 
the recognition of the pulmonary circulation, as that had been 
made previously by Columbus, but the discovery of the re- 
spiratory changes in the lungs constitutes Servetus's claim to 
be a pioneer in physiological science. 

Andrea Cesalpino (1510-1603), a great naturalist of this 
period, also made important contributions towards the dis- 
Cesntpinn. cover y f tne circulation, and in Italy he is regarded 
as the real discoverer. 3 Cesalpino knew the pul- 
monary circulation. Further, he was the first to use the 

1 An interesting account of the views of the precursors of Harvey 
will be found in Willis's edition of the Works of Harvey, published 
by the Sydenham Society. Compare also P. Flourens, Histoire de 
la. decouverte de la circulation du sang (Paris, 1854), and Professor 
R. Owen, Experimental Physiology, its Benefits to Mankind, with 
an Address on Unveiling the Statue of W. Harvey, at Folkestone, 6th 
August 1 88 1. 

2 See Willis, Servetus and Calvin (London, 1877). 

3 A learned and critical series of articles by Sampson Gamgee in 
the Lancet, in 1876, gives an excellent account of the controversy as 
to whether Cesalpino or Harvey was the true discoverer of the 
circulation; see also the Harveian oration for 1882 by George 
Johnston (Lancet, July 1882), and Professor G. M. Humphry, Journ. 
Anal, and Phys., October 1882. 



term " circulation," and he went far to demonstrate the 
systemic circulation. He experimentally proved that, when 
a vein is tied, it fills below and not above the ligature. The 
following passage from his Quaestiones Medicae (lib. v. cap. 4, 
fol. 125), quoted by Gamgee, shows his views: 

" The lungs, therefore, drawing the warm blood from the right 
ventricle of the heart through a vein like an artery, and returning 
it by anastomosis to the venal artery (pulmonary vein), which 
tends towards the left ventricle of the heart, and air, being in the 
meantime transmitted through the channels of the aspera arteria 
(trachea and bronchial tubes), which are extended near the venal 
artery, yet not communicating with the aperture as Galen thought, 
tempers with a touch only. This circulation of the blood (huic 
sanguinis circulationi) from the right ventricle of the heart through 
the lungs into the left ventricle of the same exactly agrees with what 
appears from dissection. For there are two receptacles ending in the 
right ventricle and two in the left. But of the two only one intro- 
mits; the other lets out, the membranes (valves) being constituted 
accordingly." 

Still Cesalpino clung to the old idea of there being an 
efflux and reflux of blood to and from the heart, and he had 
confused notions as to the veins conveying nutritive matter, 
whilst the arteries carried the vital spirits to the tissues. He 
does not even appear to have thought of the heart as a con- 
tractive and propulsive organ, and attributed the dilatation 
to " an effervescence of the spirit," whilst the contraction 
or, as he termed it, the " collapse " was due to the appro- 
priation by the heart of nutritive matter. Whilst he imagined 
a communication between the termination of the arteries and 
the commencement of the veins, he does not appear to have 
thought of a direct flow of blood from the one to the other. 
Thus he cannot be regarded as the true discoverer of the cir- 
culation of the blood. More recently Ercolani has . 
put forward claims on behalf of Carlo Ruini as being mvery 
the true discoverer. Ruini published the first edition ofcircu- 
of his anatomical writings in 1598, the year William '"'*> o/ 
Harvey entered at Padua as a medical student. This 
claim has been carefully investigated by Gamgee, who has 
come to the conclusion that it cannot be maintained. 4 

The anatomy of the heart was examined, described and 
figured by Bartolomeo Eustacheo (c. 1500-1574) and by Julius 
Caesar Aranzi or Arantius (c. 1530-1589), whose name is asso- 
ciated with the fibro-cartilaginous thickenings on the free edge 
of the semilunar valves (corpora Arantii). Hieronymus Fab- 
ricius of Acquapendente (1537-1619), the immediate predecessor 
and teacher of Harvey, made the important step of describing 
the valves in the veins; but he thought they had a subsidiary 
office in connexion with the collateral circulation, supposing that 
they diverted the blood into branches near the valves; thus 
he missed seeing the importance of the anatomical and experi- 
mental facts gathered by himself. At the time when Harvey 
arose the general notions as to the circulation may be briefly 
summed up as follows: the blood ebbed and flowed to and 
from the heart in the arteries and veins; from the right side at 
least a portion of it passed to the left side through the vessels 
in the lungs, where it was mixed with air; and, lastly, there 
were two kinds of blood the venous, formed originally in 
the liver, and thence passing to the heart, from which it went 
out to the periphery by the veins and returned by those to 
the heart ; and the arterial, containing " spirits " produced 
by the mixing of the blood and the air in the lungs sent out 
from the heart to the body and returning to the heart by the 
same vessels. The pulmonary circulation was understood so 
far, but its relation to the systemic circulation was unknown. 
The action of the heart, also, as a propulsive organ was not 
recognized. It was not until 1628 that Harvey Harve 
announced his views to the world by publishing his 
treatise De Motu Cordis et Sanguinis. His conclusions are 
given in the following celebrated passage: 

" And now I may be allowed to give in brief my view of the 
circulation of the blood, and to propose it for general adoption. 
Since all things, both argument and ocular demonstration, show 
that the blood passes through the lungs and heart by the auricles and 



4 Gamgee, "Third Historical Fragment," in Lancet, 1876. 



928 



VASCULAR SYSTEM 



ventricles, and is sent for distribution to all parts of the body, where 
it makes its way into the veins and pores of the flesh, and then flows 
by the veins from the circumference on every side to the centre, 
from lesser to the greater veins, and is by them finally ^discharged 
into the vena cava and right auricle of the heart, and this in such a 
quantity, or in such a flux and reflux, thither by the arteries, hither 
by the veins, as cannot possibly be supplied by the ingestor, and is 
much greater than can be required for mere purposes of nutrition, 
it is absolutely necessary to conclude that the blood in the animal 
body is impelled in a circle, and is in a state of ceaseless motion, 
that this is the act or function which the heart performs by means of 
its pulse, and that it is the sole and only end of the motion and 
contraction of the heart " (bk. x. ch. xiv. p. 68). 

Opposed to Caspar Hofmann of Nuremberg (1571-1623), 
Veslingius (Vesling) of Padua (1598-1649), and J. Riolanus 
the younger, this new theory was supported by Roger Drake, 
a young Englishman, who chose it for the subject of a graduation 
thesis at Leiden in 1637, by Werner Rolfinck of Jena (1599- 
1673), and especially by Descartes, and quickly gained the 
ascendant; and its author had the satisfaction of seeing it 
confirmed by the discovery of the capillary circulation, and uni- 
Capiiiary versally adopted. The circulation in the capillaries 
circuia- between the arteries and the veins was discovered by 
tion. Marcellus Malpighi (1628-1694) of Bologna in 1661. 

He saw it first in the lungs and the mesentery of a frog, 
and the discovery was announced in the second of two letters, 
Epistola de Pulmonibus, addressed to Borelli, and dated i66i. J 
Malpighi actually showed the capillary circulation to the aston- 
ished eyes of Harvey. Anthony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) 
in 1673 repeated Malpighi's observations, and studied the 
capillary circulation in a bat's wing, the tail of a tadpole and 
the tail of a fish. William Molyneux studied the circulation in 
the lungs of a water newt in 1683." 

The idea that the same blood was propelled through the body 
in a circuit suggested that life might be sustained by renewing 
the blood in the event of some of it being lost. About 
1 660 Lower, a London physician (died 1691), succeeded 
in transferring the blood of one animal directly from 
its blood vessels into those of another animal. This was first 
done by passing a " quill " or a " small crooked pipe of silver 
or brass " from the carotid artery of one dog to the jugular vein 
of another. 3 This experiment was repeated and modified by 
Sir Edmund King (1629-1709), Thomas Coxe (1615-1685), 
Gayant and Denys with such success as to warrant the opera- 
tion being performed on man, and accordingly it was carried 
out by Lower and King on the 23rd of November 1667, when 
blood from the arteries of a sheep was directly introduced into 
the veins of a man. 4 It would appear that the operation had 
previously been performed with success in Paris. 

The doctrine of the circulation being accepted, physiologists 
next directed their attention to the force of the heart, the 
Force of pressure of the blood in the vessels, its velocity, 
heart and and the phenomena of the pulse wave. Giovanni 
velocity Alphonso Borelli (1608-1679) investigated the circula- 
oi blood. t j Qji ,j ur j n g tne lifetime of Harvey. He early conceived 
the design of applying mathematical principles to the explana- 
tion of animal functions; and, although he fell into 
many errors, he must be regarded as the founder of 
animal mechanics. In his De Motu Animalium (1680-85) he 
stated his theory of the circulation in eighty propositions, 
and in prop. Ixxiii., founding on a supposed relation between 
the bulk and the strength of muscular fibre as found in the 
ventricles, erroneously concluded that the force of the heart 
was equal to the pressure of a weight of 180,000 Ib. He also 
recognized and figured the spiral arrangement of fibres in the 
ventricles. The question was further investigated by James 
Keill, a Scottish physician (1673-1719), who in his 
Account of Animal Secretion, the Quantity of Blood in 
the Human Body, and Muscular Motion (1708) attempted to 
estimate the velocity of blood in the aorta, and gave it at 52 ft. 

1 See his Opera Omnia, vol. i. p. 328. 

s Lowthorp, Abridgement of Trans. Roy. Soc., 5th ed. vol. iii. 



Borelli. 



KelU. 



p.,30. 



bid. p. 231. 



4 Ibid. p. 226. 



per minute. Then, allowing for the resistance of the vessels, 
he showed that the velocity diminishes towards the smaller 
vessels, and arrived at the amazing conclusion that in the 
smallest vessels it travels at the rate of i in. in 278 days, a 
good example of the extravagant errors made by the mathe- 
matical physiologists of the period. Keill further described 
the hydraulic phenomena of the circulation in papers communi- 
cated to the Royal Society and collected in his Essays on Several 
Paris of the Animal Oeconomy (1717). In these essays, by 
estimating the quantity of blood thrown out of the heart by 
each contraction, and the diameter of the aortic orifice, he 
calculated the velocity of the blood. He stated (pp. 84, 87) 
that the blood sent into the aorta with each contraction would 
form a cylinder 8 in. (2 oz.) in length and be driven along 
with a velocity of 156 ft. per minute. Estimating then the 
resistances to be overcome in the vessels, he found the force of 
the heart to be "little above 16 oz.," a remarkable difference 
from the computation of Borelli. Keill's method was ingenious, 
and is of historical interest as being the first attempt to obtain 
quantitative results; but it failed to obtain true results, because 
the data on which he based his calculations were inaccurate. 
These calculations attracted the attention not only of the 
anatomico-physiologists, such as Haller, but also of some of the 
physicists of the time, notably of Jurin and D. Bernoulli. Jurin 
(died 1750) gave the force of the left ventricle at 9 Ib i oz., and 
that of the right ventricle at 6 Ib 3 oz. He also stated with 
remarkable clearness, considering that he reasoned on the subject 
as a physicist, without depending on experimental data gathered 
by himself , the influence on the pulse induced by variations in the 
power of the heart or in the resistance to be overcome. 6 The 
experimental investigation of the problem was supplied Hales. 
by Stephen Hales (1677-1761), rector of Teddington in 
Middlesex, who in 1708 devised the method of estimating the 
force of the heart by inserting a tube into a large artery and 
observing the height to which the blood was impelled into it. 
Hales is the true founder of the modern experimental method 
in physiology. He observed in a horse that the blood rose in 
the vertical tube, which he had connected with the crural artery, 
to the height of 8 ft. 3 in. perpendicular above the level of the 
left ventricle of the heart. But it did not attain its full height 
at once: it rushed up about half-way in an instant, and after- 
wards gradually at each pulse 12,8, 6, 4, 2, and sometimes i in. 
When it was at its full height, it would rise and fall at and after 
each pulse 2, 3 or 4 in.; and sometimes it would fall 12 or 14 in., 
and have there for a time the same vibrations up and down at 
and after each pulse as it had when it was at its full height, to 
which it would rise again after forty or fifty pulses. 6 He then 
estimated the capacity of the left ventricle by a method of 
employing waxen casts, and, after many such experiments and 
measurements in the horse, ox, sheep, fallow deer and dog, he 
calculated that the force of the left ventricle in man is about 
equal to that of a column of blood i\ ft. high, weighing 515 Ib, or, 
in other words, that the pressure the left ventricle has to overcome 
is equal to the pressure of that weight. When we contrast the 
enormous estimate of Borelli (180,000 Ib) with the under-estimate 
of Keill (16 oz.), and when we know that the estimate of Stephen 
Hales (1677-1761), as corroborated by recent investigations by 
means of elaborate scientific appliances, is very near the truth, 
we recognize the far higher service rendered to science by careful 
and judicious experiment than by speculations, however in- 
genious. With the exception of some calculations by Dan 
Bernoulli (1700-1782) in 1748, there was no great contribution 
to haemadynamics till 1808, when two remarkable papers ap- 
peared from Thomas Young (1773-1829). In the first, 
entitled " Hydraulic Investigations," which appeared 
in the Phil. Trans., he investigated the friction and dis- 
charge of fluids running in pipes and the velocity of rivers, the 

5 Jones, Abridgement of Phil. Trans. (3d ed., 1749), vol. v. p. 223. 
See also for an account of the criticisms of D. Bernoulli the elder and 
others, Haller's Elementa Physiologiae, vol. i. p. 448. 

6 Hales, Statical Essays, containing Haemastatics, &c. (1733), vol. ii. 
p. i. 



VASCULAR SYSTEM 



929 






resistance occasioned by flexures in pipes and rivers, the 
propagation of an impulse through an elastic tube, and 
some of the phenomena of pulsations. This paper was 
preparatory to the second, " On the Functions of the Heart 
and Arteries," the Croonian lecture for 1808 in which he 
showed more clearly than had hitherto been done (i) that 
the blood pressure gradually diminishes from the heart to 
the periphery; (2) that the velocity of the blood becomes 
less as it passes from the greater to the smaller vessels; 
(3) that the resistance is chiefly in the smaller vessels, and 
that the elasticity of the coats of the great arteries comes 
into play in overcoming this resistance in the interval be- 
tween systoles; and (4) that the contractile coats do not act 
as propulsive agents, but assist in regulating the distribution 
of blood. 1 

The next epoch of physiological investigation is characterized 
by the introduction 'of instruments for accurate measurement, 
Use of and the graphic method of registering phenomena, 
instru- now so largely used in science. 2 In 1825 appeared 
meats. E anc j Wilhelm Weber's (1804-1891) Wellenkhre, 
and hi 1838 Ernest Weber's (1795-1878) Ad Notat. Ana- 
torn, et Physiolog. i., both of which contain an exposition 
of E. H. Weber's schema of the circulation, a scheme which 
presents a true and consistent theory. In 1826 Jean Louis 
Marie Poiseuille invented the haemadynamometer. 3 This 
was adapted with a marker to a recording cylinder by Lud- 
wig in 1847, so as to form the instrument named by Alfred 
Volkmann (1801-1877) the kymograph. Volkmann devised 
the haemadromometer for measuring the velocity of the blood 
in 1850; for the same purpose Vierordt constructed the haema- 
tachometer in 1858; Chauveau and Pierre Lortet (1792-1868) 
first used their haemadromograph in 1860; and lastly, Ludwig 
and Dogiel obtained the best results as regards velocity by the 
" stream-clock " in 1867. As regards the pulse, the first 
sphygmograph was constructed by Karl Vierordt (1818-1884) 
in 1856; and Etienne Marey's form, of which there are now 
many modifications, appeared in 1860. In 1861 Jean Chauveau 
(b. 1827) and Marey obtained tracings of the variations of 
pressure in the heart cavities (see below), by an experi- 
ment which is of great historical importance. During the past 
twenty-five years vast accumulations of facts have been made 
through the instruments of precision above alluded to, so that 
the conditions of the circulation, as a problem in hydrodynamics, 
have been thoroughly investigated. Since 1845, when the 
brothers Weber discovered the inhibitory action of the vagus, 
and 1858, when Claude Bernard (1813-1878) formulated his 
researches showing the existence of a vaso-motor system of 
nerves, much knowledge has been acquired as to the relations 
of the nervous to the circulatory system. The Webers, John 
Reid (1816-1895), Claude Bernard and Carl Ludwig (1809-1849) 
may be regarded as masters in physiology equal in standing 
to those whose researches have been more especially alluded to 
in this historical sketch. The Webers took the first step towards 
recognizing the great principle of inhibitory action; John Reid 
showed how to investigate the functions of nerves by his classical 
research on the eighth pair of cranial nerves; Claude Bernard 
developed the fundamental conception of vaso-motor nerves; 
and Ludwig showed how this conception, whilst it certainly 
made the hydraulic problems of the circulation infinitely more 
complicated than they were even to the scientific imagination 
of Thomas Young, accounted for some of the phenomena and 
indicated at all events the solidarity of the arrangements in 
the living being. Further, Ludwig and his pupils used the 
evidence supplied by some of the phenomena of the circulation 
to explain even more obscure phenomena of the nervous system, 
and they taught pharmacologists how to study in a scientific 
manner the physiological action of drugs. (J. G. M.) 

'See Miscellaneous Works, ed. Peacock (2 vols., London, 

2 See Marey, La Methode graph, dans les sc. exper. (Paris, 
1878). 

Magendie's Journal, vol. viii. p. 272. 

XXVH. 30 



III. PHYSIOLOGY 

The unicellular animal immersed in water absorbs nutritive 
matter and oxygen, and excretes waste materials with its whole 
surface. Owing to the small mass of the protozoa Thg 
the metabolic products can penetrate throughout the general 
whole. With the evolution of the multicellular organs pHnc/pies 
of the metazoa and the division of physiological labour of ihe clr ~ 
a. circulatory mechanism became of immediate need. 
A double-layered animal like the common water polype Hydra 
can exist, it is true, without such a mechanism, but communities 
of polypes, such as the sponges, form channels for the circulation 
of water. With the development of the three-layered animal 
the coelom or body cavity arose by the splitting of the mesoderm, 
and it was in this body cavity that the evolution of the cir- 
culatory system took place, an evolution which finally became 
perfected in the higher members of the metazoa into a closed 
vascular system filled with red blood. The evolution of the 
red matter, haemoglobin, as a special carrier of oxygen was 
necessitated by the increasing mass and muscular activity 
of the higher animal, in comparison with the size of the oxygen- 
absorbing surface the gill or lung. The blood vascular system 
of the invertebrata such as the Arthropoda and Insecta, is 
not generally a closed system, but consists of a pulsatile heart 
whence proceed arteries which open into lacunar spaces forming 
part of the coelom. The lacunae exist between the organs 
and tissues of the body, and the blood from these spaces is 
returned to a venous sinus whence the heart draws its supply 
through valved openings. The movements of the animal help 
to return the blood from the tissue spaces to the heart, while 
the heart by its rhythmic contraction drives the blood into the 
arteries. Somewhere in the course of this system are placed 
the gills and renal organs, and it appears to be a matter of 
indifference whether the gills be placed on the arterial or venous 
side of the system, both arrangements being found in different 
types. In some types (mussel, earthworm), the whole blood 
passes through the renal organs at each circulation, in others 
(crayfish) only parts. In the earthworm the vascular system 
is closed, the arteries and veins being connected by capillaries 
in place of lacunae. The movement of tissue juices may be 
maintained by physico-chemical forces alone, e.g. by the forces 
of osmosis and adsorption, as is seen in the movements of sap 
in the vascular bundles of plants, in the streaming of protoplasm 
in the plant cell and in the marvellous rhythmic to-and-fro 
movements of the richly granular juice contained in the veins 
of the spreading protoplasmic sheet of myxomycetes. Such 
agencies come into play in the lacunar or capillary part of the 
circulation of the metazoa and are assisted by the movements of 
the body wall and of the alimentary organs. The evolution 
of a special pumping organ, the heart, associated with the 
aeration of the body fluids in the gills, led to the perfection 
of the efficient system of circulation which is found -in the 
vertebrata. 

The blood is to be regarded as alive in as strict a sense as any 
other component of the living body. It is a tissue consisting 
of mobile elements the blood corpuscles and a plasma 
a colloidal albuminous fluid which is analogous to the more 
solid intercellular material of other tissues. The primary 
sources of its elements are the blood-forming organs the 
bone marrow, the haemolymph and lymphatic glands and 
other lymphatic tissue, and the spleen. It circulates as 
the middleman between the tissues, conveying from the ali- 
mentary canal the products of digestion sugar, fat, amino- 
acids and salts; oxygen from the lungs; carbonic acid, 
urea and other waste products of the tissues to the lungs 
and kidneys; internal secretions from one organ to another; 
and acts not only as a carrier, but deals with the material 
remitted to it on the way. One other function of the blood, 
a most important one, must not be omitted, that of defence 
against the invasion of bacteria and their toxins, and other 
parasites. 

The blood is contained in a continuous system of vessels; 
arteries lead from the heart and divide into a multitude of 



93 



VASCULAR SYSTEM 



capillary vessels, and these lead into the veins which finally 
pass back to the heart. The heart is to be regarded as a 

double organ, each half consisting of an auricle and a 
course ventricle. The light half contains dark venous blood 
oithecir- which has been returned from the body and is sent to 
cuiation the lungs: the left heart contains the bright oxygenated 
'mats'"" blood whicn has been returned from the lungs and is 

distributed to the body. There are thus two circu- 
lations the one pulmonary, from the right side of the heart to 
the pulmonary artery and thence to the capillaries of the lungs 
and to the left heart by the pulmonary veins the other 
systemic, from the left side of the heart, by the aorta, to the 
arteries and capillaries of the body tissues and organs, whence 
the blood returns by the veins to the right side of the heart. 

A schematic representation is given of the circulatory system 
in the accompanying diagram. The venous blood flows into 
the right auricle (RA) from the superior vena cava and the 
inferior vena cava. The right ventricle (RV) drives through 
the lungs the blood received from the right auricle. The 
right auriculo-ventricular valve, or tricuspid, and the pulmonary 
semilunar valve are represented directing the flow of blood 
in this direction. From the pulmonary capillaries the blood 




FIG. i . GeneralCourse 
of Circulation and 
some of the Principal 
Vessels. H', right 
ventricle ; H, left 
ventricle; A, A, A, 
aorta; h, part of 
left auricle; P, pul- 
monary artery, going 
to lungs; P, pulmon- 
ary veins ; f, ascend- 
ing or lower vena 
cava; e, trachea or 
wind-pipe ; p, p', 
bronchial tubes; 
a', a, right and left 
carotid arteries; 
i), ', veins from root 
of neck (internal 
jugular and sub- 
clavian), joining to 
form descending or 
upper vena cava ; 
i, hepatic artery 
/, hepatic vein; I, 
superior mesenteric 
artery, going to mes- 
entery and bowels; 
L, portal vein, going 
to liver; k', renal 
artery; k, renal 
vein; V, inferior 
vena cava, splitting 
into the two iliac 
veins, v, v. 




FIG. 2. Scheme of the 
Circulation of the 
Blood in Man, stand- 
ing erect. The venous 
system is stippled. C, 
rigid cranial wall; N, 
muscles and cutaneous 
wall of neck; T, thoracic 
wall; A, muscular and 
cutaneous wall of ab- 
domen ; D, diaphragm ; 
L, muscles and cutaneous 
wall of limbs; P, peri- 
cardium; AO, aorta; 
S. V. C, I. V. C, venae 
cavae; P.V, portal vein; 
V, valves in veins of 
neck, or legs; RA, LA, 
right and left auricles; 
RV, LV, right and left 
ventricles. 



returns by the pulmonary veins (PV) into the left auricle (LA), 
and so through the left auriculo-ventricular or mitral valve 



into the left ventricle (LV). By the left ventricle the. blood 
is driven through the aortic semilunar valve, and is distributed 
to the systemic arteries, and so to the capillaries of the various 
organs and back to the veins. The muscular wall of the 
auricles and that of the right ventricle are much thinner than 
that of the left ventricle. This is so, because the energy 
required of the left ventricle must exceed that of the right 
ventricle, inasmuch as the resistance in the systemic system 
exceeds that in the pulmonary circuit. 

The heart fills with venous blood during its expansion or 
diastole, and forces the blood into the arteries during its con- 
traction or systole. The large arteries are of less capacity 
than the corresponding veins, and their walls are essentially 
extensile and elastic. The pulmonary arteries are especially 
extensile structures. The small arteries and arterioles are 
essentially muscular tubes and can vary considerably in 
diameter. The arterioles open into the capillaries, and these 
are so numerous that each organ may be regarded as a sponge 
full of blood. The skeletal muscles and the muscular walls 
of the viscera at each contraction express the blood within 
them, and materially influence the circulation. The whole 
muscular system, as well as the heart, must therefore be re- 
garded as a pump to the vascular system. The capillary wall 
is composed of a single layer of flattened cells, separating the 
blood within from the tissues without. Through this layer, 
which is of extraordinary tenuity, there takes place an ex- 
change of material between the blood and the tissues, an 
exchange which depends on the physico-chemical conditions 
which characterize the living state of the cells. The phenomena 
of adsorption and osmosis come into play here, but the condi- 
tions still await complete elucidation. The veins are of larger 
calibre than the corresponding arteries, and have tough and 
inextensile walls. Their walls are muscular, and contract on 
local stimulation. The veins are not, as a rule, distended 
with blood to their full potential capacity. The latter is so 
great that the whole blood of the body can collect within the 
veins. 

The heart and lungs are placed within the thoracic cavity 
(T), the floor of which is formed by the muscular diaphragm 
(D); the heart is itself enclosed in a tough inextensile bag, 
the pericardium (P), the function of which is to check over- 
dilatation of the heart. The pericardium bears to the muscular 
wall of the heart the same relation as the leather case of a 
football does to the bag within. In particular, it prevents 
over-distension of the heart during muscular efforts. 

The abdominal organs and blood vessels are encompassed 
by the muscular wall of the abdomen (A), and may be regarded 
as enclosed in a sphere of muscle. Above is the dome of the 
diaphragm (T), and below the basin-like levator ani, closing 
the outlet of the pelvis; in front are the recti muscles, behind 
the quadrati lumborum and the spine; while the oblique and 
transverse muscles complete the wall at either side. The 
brain is enclosed in a rigid and unyielding box of bone the 
cranium, while the limbs are encompassed by the extensile 
and, in health, taut and elastic skin. 

The heart's energy is spent in maintaining a pressure of 
blood in the elastic arteries, and by the difference of pressure 
in the arteries and veins the blood is kept flowing through the 
capillaries into the veins. The movements of the body and 
particularly of respiration help to return the blood from the 
capillaries and veins back to the heart, valves being set in 
the veins to direct the blood in this direction. The blood is a 
viscous fluid and its viscosity varies; it is propelled by a 
heart which varies both in rate and energy; it circulates 
through a system of muscular and elastic arteries and veins, 
which varies in capacity and may alter in elasticity. The 
width of bed through which it flows varies greatly at different 
parts of the circuit, and the resistance offered to the moving 
blood is very much greater in the capillary -sized vessels than 
in the large arteries and veins. The blood continually varies, 
both in quantity and in quality, as it effects exchanges through 
the capillary walls with the tissues. The problems of the 



VASCULAR SYSTEM 



93 



circulation are thus far from simple. They resolve themselves 
mainly into a consideration of (i) the physiology of the heart; 




FIG. 3. The Thoracic Viscera. In this diagram the lungs are 
turned to the side, and the pericardium removed to display the 
heart, a, upper, a', lower lobe of left lung; b, upper, b', middle, 
b", lower lobe of right lung; c, trachea; d, arch of aorta; 
e, superior vena cava; /, pulmonary artery; , left, and h, right 
auricle; k, right, and /,_ left ventricle; m, inferior vena cava; 
, descending aorta; I, innominate artery; 2, right, and 4, left 
common carotid artery; 3, right, and 5, left subclayian artery; 
6, 6, right and left innominate vein ; 7 and 9, left and right internal 
jugular veins; 8 and IO, left and right subclavian veins; II, 12, 
13, left pulmonary artery, bronchus and vein; 14, 15, 16, right 
pulmonary bronchus, artery and vein; 17 and 18, left and right 
coronary arteries. 

(2) the physical characters of the circulation; (3) the control 
of the heart and vessels by the nervous system. 




B - 



F' 




From Hill's Manual of Physiology, 
by permission of Edward Arnold. 

FIG. 4. -Diagram of Cham- 
bers of Heart and Large 
Vessels. 

A, Vena cava, superior. 

B, Vena cava, inferior. 

C, Pulmonary artery. 

D, Aorta. 

E, Right auricle. 

F, Right ventricle. 

G, Left auricle, into which 

open the four pulmon- 
ary veins. 
H, Left ventricle. 

The arrows point the course 
of the blood. 



A. Keith, in Journal of Anatomy 
and Physiology. 

FIG. 5. Showing the Attach- 
ments of the Heart, a, a, 
auricular base of ventricle ; 
c, c, aortic base of ven- 
tricles; d, d, arterial meso- 
cardium ; e, e, venous meso- 
cardium ;/,ascendingaorta ; 
g, pulmonary aorta; h, 
superior vena cava; i, in- 
ferior vena cava, perforat- 
ing diaphragm and peri- 
cardium ; I, m, n, structures 
at the root of the lung 
bronchus, pulmonary ar- 
tery, and pulmonary veins ; 
o, vortex at apex; p, pec- 
tinate musculature of right 
auricle; r, superficial mus- 
culature of right ventricle. 

The Action of the Heart. 

The permanent position and general arrangements of the heart 
are described in a separate article, and it is only necessary here to 
allude to certain points of physiological importance. The substance 



of the heart is composed of a special kind of muscular tissue which 
must be regarded as a syncytium in which no distinct and separate 
cells occur, a complex plexus of branching and anastomosing fibres, 
forming _one functional whole. The fibres are nucleated, have a 
cross-striated structure and are surrounded by delicate connec- 
tive tissue sheaths. The cross-striations are due to the primitive 
fibrils which as in skeletal muscle are differentiated into alternate 
doubly and singly refracting substances. These fibrils are embedded 
in a granular nucleated sarcoplasm. Between the bundles of fibres 
are thin layers of connective tissue containing closely spun networks 
of capillaries. The muscle of the auricles consists of a circular layer 
common to both and a deeper layer separate for each chamber. 
The auriculo-ventricular ring consists of connective tissue surround- 
ing the auriculo-ventricular orifices and separating the auricular from 
the ventricular muscle with the exception of an important band, the 
auriculo-ventricular bundle. The superficial fibres of the ventricles 
appear to have origin in the auriculo-ventricular ring, to wind about 
the heart spirally and to end in the tendons of the papillary muscles 
or pass up to the ring again on the inner surface of the heart. The 
middle layers consist of bundles of fibres running more or less 
circularly round the ventricles. 

The greater part of the heart lies free in the pericardial sac. The 
pericardium is reflected from the wall of the sac on to the wall of the 
heart and attaches the 
heart at the point where 
the venae cavae and 
aorta leave the sac. 
This part of the peri- 
cardium gives a fixation 
point to the auricles, 
for it is attached to the 
roots of the lungs and 
thereby to the thoracic 
wall, to the diaphragm 
and to the structures 
at the root of the neck. 
On opening the chest 
the normal fulcra for 
the movements of the 
auricles are lost, and 
this renders it difficult 
to record the exact 
movements of the heart. 
The attached part of 
the heart is called the 
base, and the venous 
part of the base is the 
beginning and the ar- 
terial part the end of 
the tube, coiled on itself, 
from which in the em- 
bryo the heart develops. 
The longitudinal and 

circular muscle fibres of , _ . . , , _,. , _., , , 
the ventricles are anta- FIG. " Cavities of the Right Side of the 
gonists The circular Heart, a, superior, and b, inferior vena 
fibres by their contrac- ca va ! c < arch of aorta; d pulmonary 
tion tend to lengthen the arter yj , right, and/, left auricular 
apex-base diameter, the appendage ; g, fossa ovalis ; h, Eustachian 
longitudinal fibres resist 7 alve : * mout ? ? f coronary vein; 
this and the two to- l > m < n < c .usps of the tncuspid valve; 
gether wring the blood > < papillary muscles; *, semilunar 
out of the heart. The valve; q, corpus Arantn; r, lunula. 
apex is maintained as 

r. fixed point by this antagonistic action, and thus the longitudinal 
fibres are enabled to expand the auricles by pulling down the 
floor of these chambers. This action is important, as it contributes 
to the filling of the auricles simultaneously with the emptying 
of the ventricles. Tracings of the jugular pulse give evidence of 
such action. 

In the case of the auricles the longitudinal musculi pectinati not 
only help the circular fibres to expel the blood, but draw up the base of 
the ventricle to meet its load of blood. Thus the base of the ventri- 
cular part (or floor of the auricles) is pulled up during auricular 
systole, and down during ventricular systole. The posterior and 
upper borders of the left auricle lie against the unyielding structures 
of the posterior mediastinum, the pulmonary artery and bronchi, the 
floor and anterior part in contact with the base of the ventricle and 
ascending aorta respectively. The latter parts alone are free to 
move during systole. Thus the left ventricular base is drawn up 
and the aorta back on auricular systole (A. Keith). 

As regards the valves of the heart (i ) the tricuspid guards the right 
auriculo-ventricular opening, and consists of three naps of fibrous 
tissue, covered, like all the internal surfaces of the heart, 
with the smooth shining membrane, the endocardium. valvea 
The flaps are continuous at their base, forming an annular ofthe 
membrane surrounding the opening. The bicuspid or mitral j eart 
consists of -two cusps and guards the left auriculo-ventricular 
opening. The under surface and free edge of each cusp of these 




932 



VASCULAR SYSTEM 



valves are attached by chordae tendinae to two papillary muscles ; 
these are pillars of muscle which rise up from the inner surface of 
the ventricles. 

The edges of these valves which come into opposition are exceed- 
ingly thin and delicate, while the outer parts, which bear the full 
systolic pressure of the blood, are tough. The cardiac muscle, by 
its contraction, limits the size of the auriculo-ventricular orifices and 
so maintains the competency of the valves. It is the papillary 
muscles and chordae tendineae which pull down the diaphragm 
formed by the closed valves (the floor of the auricles), thus expanding 
the auricles and enabling the valvular as well as the muscular parts 
of the wall of the ventricles to approach together and wring out the 
blood. The thin, moist, film-like edges ofthe valves of the heart 
come into perfect apposition and prevent all leakage, while the 
fibrous parts give strength and support. The ventricles are never 
completely emptied, for some blood remains in contact with the 
auriculo-ventricular valves up to the end of systole and ensures 



Left anterior cusp of 
pulmonary valve 

Left posterior cusp 
of pulmonary valve' 

Left posterior cusp 
of aortic valve' 

Left coronary artery 



Anterior cusp of 
mitral valve j 

Posterior cusp of 
mitral valve 



Left ventricle 



Modes ot 
examin- 
ing the 
living 
heart. 




34 mm. ; of each of the four pulmonary veins about 13-14 mm. ; 
of the pulmonary artery, 28 mm. ; of the aorta, 32 mm. 

The physiologist or physician has many means at his disposal 
of examining the heart's action. By palpation with the hand 
over the region of the heart, its stroke, the cardiac impulse, 
can be felt. By auscultation with the ear directly, or 
with use of the stethoscope the sounds of the heart can 
be heard. By percussion the anatomical limits of the 
organ can be defined. The cardiac impulse can be re- 
corded by tambour methods of registration, the heart 
sounds by means of the microphone and capillary electrometer, 
while the volume and movements of the heart can be studied with 
the help of the Rontgen rays 

The impulse is caused by the sudden hardening of the muscular 
mass of the ventricles against the wall of the thorax. It is syn- 
chronous with the beginning of systole. The position _. 
at which the impulse is felt varies with changing posture 



Conus arteriosus 



Right anterior cusp of 
pulmonary valve 

'Right coronary artery 

.Anterior cusp of aortic 
valve 

Right posterior cusp of 

aortic valve 
-Anterior (infundibular) 



_Right (marginal) cusp 
of tricuspid valve 
OFterior (septal) cusp 
of tricuspid valve 



Right ventricle 



From Young and Robinson, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. 

FIG. 7. The Bases of the Ventricles of the Heart, showing the auriculo-ventricular, 
aortic and pulmonary orifices and their valves. 



their closure. Incompetency of the valves may arise when the right 
heart is greatly dilated. The aortic and pulmonary valves consist 
of three semilunar, pocket-shaped cusps. A fibrous nodule is 
placed centrally in the free edge of each cusp, whence numerous 
tendinous fibres radiate to the attached borders of the cusp. The 
rest of the free edges which come into apposition are thin and 
delicate. Opposite the cusps are bulgings of the aortic walls the 
sinuses of Valsalva. From the anterior one arises the right coronary 
artery and from the left posterior, the left coronary artery, these 
vessels supply the substance of the heart with blood. Eddies formed 
in the sinuses during the period of systolic output bring the semi- 
lunar valves into apposition, so that they close without noise or jar 
at the moment when the intraventricular becomes less than the 
aortic pressure. The auriculo-ventricular valves are likewise floated 
up by eddies, and brought into apposition at the moment the intra- 
ventricular pressure surmounts that in the auricles. 

The heart in size is about equal to the closed fist of a man. The 
average weight of the heart in the new-born baby is about 24 grrns., 
in the adult 300 grms. The percentage which the heart weight 
bears to the whole body weight is 0-76 in the new-born and 0-46 
in the adult. While the whole body increases in weight 21 -fold, 
the heart increases only 12-74-fold (Vierordt, Karl, 1818-1884). 
The average weight of the male and female heart is almost the same. 
The average volume of the whole heart is about 270 c.c. The 
capacity, estimated by filling the heart with wax, is for each auricle 

about 100-150 c.c., and 
150-230 c.c. for each 
ventricle. There are 
considerable sources of 
error in such measure- 
ments. The muscle 
of the left ventricle is 
about 1-6 cm. in thick- 
ness, and of the right 
ventricle 0-5 cm. The 
left ventricle has twice 
the muscular mass of 
the right. The 




From Hill's Manual of Physiology, by permission of 
Edward Arnold. 



FIG. 8. Position of the Valves of the Heart cumference of the left 
in Systole and Diastole. auriculo-ve n t r i c u 1 a r 

orifice is about 14-0 

cm.; of the right, about 12-5 cm.; of the aortic orifice, 8-0 cm.; 
of the pulmonary orifice, 9-0 cm. The average diameter of the 
vena cava superior is about 23 mm.; of the vena cava inferior, 



of the body, as different parts of the 
thorax come in turn in contact with 
the ventricle. In the supine position it is 
usually to be felt in the fifth intercostal space 
3J inches from the midsternal line. The chest 
wall is driven out by the systole only where the 
heart muscle touches it; at other places it is 
slightly drawn in. This indrawing is attributed 
to the expulsion of the blood out of the 
thorax by the left ventricle. The thorax is a 
closed cavity and the vacuum therein produced 
au e,r LU.UUU,^.-, |>y s ystolic output into the arteries of the 
cusp of tricuspid valve head, limbs and abdomen is tilled by (I) the 
drawing ot air into the lungs, (2) the drawing 
ot venous blood into the great veins and right 
auricle, (3) the slight indrawing of the chest 
wall. The impulse is recorded by placing a 
small cup, or receiving tambour, over the spot 
where it is most evident, and connecting the 
inside of the cup by a tube to a recording tam- 
bour. The cup can be closed by a rubber dam, 
or an air-tight junction can be effected by 
pressing it upon the skin. The stroke of the 
heart is transmitted as a wave of compression 
to the air within the system of tambours. 
The recording tambour is brought to write on 
a drum, moved by clockwork, and covered with 
a paper smoked with lamp-black. From the 



record so obtained we can obtain information as to the time rela- 
tions of the heart-beat, but no accurate information as to its energy 
or amount of contraction. 




L 



From Young and Robinson, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. 
FIG. 9. The Relation of the Heart to the Anterior Wall of the ' 

Thorax. 
I, II, ill, IV, v, vi, the upper six costal cartilages. 

The movements of the heart consist of a series of contractions 
which succeed each other with a certain rhythm. The period of 
contraction is called the systole and that of relaxation 
the diastole. The two auricles contract and relax syn- 
chronously, and these movements are followed by the 
synchronous contraction and relaxation of the ventricles. 
Finally, there is a short period when the whole heart is in 
diastole. The whole series of movements is known as the cardiac 



Move- 
ments ot 
the 
heart. 



VASCULAR SYSTEM 



933 



cycle. Taking 75 as the average number of heart-beats per minute, 
each cardiac cycle will occupy -8 seconds. Of this period 

auricular systole occupies ! second 

auricular diastole occupies -7 ,, 

ventricular systole occupies -3 ,, 

ventricular diastole occupies -5 

In 1861 Chauveau and Marey obtained direct records of the heart 
of a horse, and determined the sequence and duration of the events 
happening in the heart, and measured the endo-cardiac pressure 
by an instrument termed the cardiac sound. The sound a two- 
way tube was pushed down the jugular vein until the orifice of 
one tube lay in the right ventricle and of the other in the right 
auricle. The tubes were connected with recording tambours which 
wrote on a moving drum covered with smoked paper. 

Another tambour was used to record the cardiac impulse. The 
tracings so obtained (fig. 10) teach us the following facts: (i) The 
auricular contraction is less sudden than the ventricular, and lasts 
only a very short time, as indicated by the line ab. The ventricle, 
on the other hand, contracts suddenly and forcibly and remains 
contracted a considerable time, as shown by the line c'd' and by the 
flat top to the curve which succeeds d'. (2) The auricular movement 
precedes the ventricular, and the latter coincides with the impulse 
of the apex against the wall of the chest. (3) The contraction of 
the auricle influences the pressure in the ventricle as shown by the 
small rise a'b', and that of the ventricle influences the pressure 
in the auricle somewhat as shown by the waves cd. Much labour 
has been spent in the contrivance of rapidly acting spring pressure 
gauges, freed as far as possible from inertia, in order to investigate 
more exactly the changes of intracardiac pressure, which were first 
described by Chauveau and Marey. As the intraventricular pressure 



s: 



K 



f 



k 



FIG. 10. Tracings from the Heart of a Horse, by Chauveau and 
Marey. The upper tracing is from the right auricle, the middle 
from the right ventricle, and the lowest from the apex of the 
heart. The horizontal lines represent time, and the vertical 
amount of pressure. The vertical dotted lines mark coincident 
points in the three movements. The breadth of one of the small 
squares represents one-tenth of a second. 

may rise 150 mm. of mercury in one-tenth of a second, it is no easy 
matter to contrive an instrument which will respond as rapidly and 
yet yield an accurate result without overshooting the mark. The 
final result of a most careful inquiry is the confirmation in almost 
every point of Chauveau and Marey's pressure curves. Karl 
Hurthle's differential manometer has proved to be an instrument 
of great value and precision. A double-bored tube cannula is intro- 
duced so that one tube reaches the right auricle and the other the 
right ventricle. In observations on the left side of the heart, one 
tube is placed in the left ventricle and the other in the aorta, and 
each of these tubes is brought into connexion with a tambour. The 
two tambours are placed one on either side of the fulcrum of a 
lever. This lever works against a light spring, which in its turn 
sets in motion a writing-style. The style records the pressure 
changes on a drum covered with smoked paper. By this means 
there can be recorded the exact moment at which the auricular 
pressure exceeds that in the ventricle, that is to say, the moment 
when the auriculo-ventricular valves open; likewise the moment 
when the ventricular pressure becomes greater than that in the 
auricles, and the auriculo-ventricular valves shut. Similarly, there 
can be recorded the moment when the intraventricular pressure 
exceeds that in the aorta and the semilunar valves open, and the 
moment at which the diastole of the ventricle begins, when the 
aortic pressure becomes the greater, and the semilunar valves shut. 
The smoothness with which the heart works is shown by the fact 
that neither the opening nor the closing of the valves is marked by 
any peak or point on the pressure curves. 



pulmoo art. 



The absence of a mechanism for preventing regurgitation of 
blood from the auricles of birds and mammals is remarkable, for 
in fishes, amphibia and reptiles this is effected by valves guarding 
the sino-auricular junction. In the warm-blooded vertebrata with 
the appearance of the diaphragm the sinus becomes merged into 
the right auricle, and the venous cistern formed by the superior 
and inferior venae cavae, the innominate, iliac, hepatic and renal 
veins takes the place of the sinus. 
Six pairs of valves prevent re- 
gurgitation from this cistern, viz. 
those placed in the > common 
femoral, the sub-clavian and 
jugular veins. The cistern when 
filled holds some 400 . c.c. of 
blood; in the liver there is some 
500 c.c. of blood, and this can 
be expressed into the cistern 
by abdominal pressure; in the 
portal venous system, when dis- 
tended, another 500 c.c. may be 
held, which can be expressed 
through the liver into the 
cistern._ A large volume of 
blood is thus at the disposal 
of the heart for it to draw on 
during diastole. Respiration by 
the aspirating action of the 
thorax sucks this blood into the 
heart, while the inspiratory de- 
scent of the diaphragm squeezes 
the abdominal contents and 
forces blood from the liver and 
cistern into the heart. These 
forces take the place of the 
sinus and are far more efficient. 
The intra-abdominal pressure 
may be raised on bending or 
straining till it becomes equi- 
valent to the pressure of a 
column of mercury 80-100 mm. 
high (Keith). Under such con- 
ditions the pericardium prevents 
the right side of the heart 
being over-distended with ven- 
ous blood. 

With these facts in view, we 
can now describe the complete course of a cardiac cycle. We will 
start at the moment when the blood is pouring from the venae 
cavae and pulmonary veins into the two auricles. The auricles are 
relaxed and their cavities open into the ventricles by the funnel- 
shaped apertures formed by the dependent segments of the tricuspid 
and mitral valves. The blood passes freely through these apertures 
into the ventricles. The small positive pressure which is always 
present in the venous cistern (aided by the respiratory forces) 




fem.nng 



A* Keith, in Journal of Anatomy and 
Physiology. 

FlG. II. Diagram of the Venous 
Cistern trom which the Heart is 
fijled. The abdominal or infra- 
diaphragmatic part of the cis- 
tern is indicated in black; the 
thoracic or supra-diaphrag- 
matic is stippled. 




From Diseases of the Heart, by James Mackenzie, M.D., by permission. 

FIG. 12. Tracings of the Jugular Pulse Apex Beat, Carotid and 
Radial Pulses. The perpendicular lines represent the time of the 
following events.: I, the beginning of the auricular systole; 2, 
the beginning of ventricular systole; 3, the appearance of the 
pulse in the carotid ; 4, the appearance of the pulse in the radial ; 
5, the closing of the semilunar valves; 6, the opening of the 
tricuspid valves. 

is at this time filling the right heart, while the positive pressure 
in the pulmonary veins is filling the left heart. The auricular 
systole now takes place. The circular muscle bands compress 
the blood out of the auricles into the ventricles, while the longi- 
tudinal bands aid in this and pull up the base of the ventricles to 
meet the load of blood. As the contraction starts from the mouths 
of the venae cavae, and sweeps towards the ventricles, there can 



934 



VASCULAR SYSTEM 



occur but little regurgitation of blood into the venous cistern, but 
the cessation of flow into the auricle during its systole does produce 
a slight rise of pressure in the cistern, as is shown by tracings taken 
from the jugular pulse. The function of the auricles is to rapidly 
complete the filling of the ventricles. 

The auriculo-ventricular valves are floated up and brought into 
apposition by eddies set up in the blood which streams into the 
ventricles, and close without noise or jar at the moment when the 
intra-ventricular pressure exceeds in the least that in the auricles. 
The systole of the ventricles immediately following that of the auricles 
closes the auriculo-ventricular valves, and as the intra-ventricular 
pressure rises above that in the pulmonary artery and aorta re- 
spectively the semilunar valves open and the blood is expelled; 
these elastic vessels are in their turn expanded by the expulsive 
force of the heart so as to receive the blood. The papillary muscles, 
by contracting synchronously with the muscular wall of the vent- 
ricles, pull down and flatten the dome-like diaphragm formed by the 
closed auriculo-ventricular valves, thus shortening the longitudinal 
diameter of the ventricles, while at the same time they enlarge 
the auricles and so help to fill these cavities. The outflow of blood 
from the ventricles is rapid at first. It becomes slower as the big 
arteries become distended and the pressure of blood rises within 
them, and ceases finally when the pressure becomes equal to that in 
the ventricles. As the outflow diminishes the semilunar pockets 
are filled by eddies of blood, and their thin edges are brought nearer 
and nearer, until finally they come into apposition. The closure is 

effected without jar or noise at 



Y, 



Carotid 



Aorta 



Ventricle 



Auricle 



y 
Jugular 



the moment when the outflow 
ceases and the ventricles begin 
to expand. The heart, as a 
good pump should, works with 
the least possible jar. During 
the contraction of the ventricles 
blood has been pouring from 
the veins into the auricles, and 
directly the ventricular systole 
ceases the auriculo-ventricular 
valves open, and the blood be- 
gins to fill the expanding ven- 
tricular cavities. For a brief 
moment the ventricles remain 
dilated and at rest, then the 
auricles contract again, and the 
cycle of changes, once more, is 
repeated. During the first 
period of ventricular systole 
the period of rising tension 
all the valves are closed and the 
ventricle is getting up pressure. 
This period has been measured 

. - - . . . . , , and is found to occupy -02* 04*. 

From Further Advances in Physiology, by T ne second period -is that of 
permission. systolic output, and lasts about 

FlG 13. Diagrammatic repre- '2*, that is, from the moment 
sentation of the Cardiac Cycle when the semilunar valves open 
and of the Carotid and Jugular to the moment when they close. 
Pulses in relation to standard The upstroke of the pulse curve 
movements. The scale of ab- taken in the aorta, or in the 
scissae is I mm. to 1 J fl sec. carotid artery in man, can be 
S.C. = semilunar valve closure; taken as marking the moment 
A. O. = auriculo - ventricular when the semilunar valves open, 
valves open. The broken lines while the dicrotic notch on the 
indicate those portions of the g,"' 36 curve marks their closure, 
respective curves over which The second sound of the heart 
there is doubt or controversy. occurs immediately after their 

closure, and can be used to mark 
the time of this event on the impulse curve. 

The intra-ventricular pressure curve may rise or fall during the 
output period according to the state of the peripheral resistance. If 
the carotid pulse be recorded synchronously with the impulse 
curve, the time relations can be determined for the human heart. 
The beginning of the upstroke of the impulse curve marks the 
beginning of systole, that of the pulse curve marks the opening of 
the semilunar valves, and the dicrotic notch, which precedes the 
dicrotic wave, marks the closure of these valves and the end of the 
output. The first sound of the heart is synchronous with the 
upstroke of the impulse curve. The maximal systolic pressure 
exerted by the heart varies with the degree of diastolic filling and 
with the obstruction to outflow. The heart responds to the latter 
by a greater output of energy, and this it does with little loss in 
rap'dity of action. The total fluid pressure to which the wall of 
the heart is submitted rapidly increases as the radii of curvature 
become greater. Hence the greater energy required of a dilated 
heart, its tendency to hypertrophy and liability to fail. By its 
reserve power the heart may throw out three or even six times the 
volume of the normal output per minute, and may maintain its 
output when the aortic pressure is twice its normal value. 

The maximal and minimal pressures have been accurately 
recorded in the heart by a manometer fitted with a valve arranged 



so that either only a rise or a fall of pressure is recorded. In the 
right ventricle of the dog the maximal pressures recorded equalled 
35-62 mm. of mercury, in the left ventricle 114-135 mm., in the 
auricles 2-20 mm. (Michael Jager, 1795-1838). A negative pressure, 
of considerable amount but of very fleeting duration, sometimes 
occurs in the ventricles at the beginning of diastole. This is produced 
by the elastic rebound of the fleshy columns of the inner wall of the 
heart, which become pressed together as the blood is wrung out of 
the ventricular cavities. The entry of the first few drops of blood 
from the auricles abolishes this' negative pressure, and it has no 
important influence on the filling of the heart. 

When the ear is applied over the cardiac region of the chest, or 
a stethoscope is employed, two sounds are heard, the first, heard 
most intensely over the apex, is a duller and longer sound 
than the second, which is shorter and sharper and is heard 
best over the base of the heart. The syllables lub, dupp s " a * s ' 
express fairly well the characters of the two sounds, and heart. 
the accent is on lub when the stethoscope is over the apex, thus 
lub-dupp liib-dupp lub-dupp, and on the second sound when over 
the base, thus lub-dupp lub-dupp lub-dupp. The sounds of 
the heart have been successfully recorded by means of the micro- 
phone. Hilrthle inserted the microphone in the primary circuit of 
an E. Du Bois-Reymond induction coil, and placed the nerve of a 
frog-muscle preparation in the secondary circuit. The muscle, 
being attached to a lever, recorded its contraction on a revolving 
drum at the moment when the sound of the heart reached the 
microphone and closed the primary circuit. A capillary electro- 
meter can be inserted in place of the frog-muscle indicator, and the 
movements of the electrometer photographed on a sensitized plate 
moved by clockwork (Willem Einthoven). Each sound gives rise 
to a succession of vibrations of the mercury meniscus of the capillary 
electrometer. The first sound is formed of many component tones 
derived from the sudden tension, and consequent vibration, of the 
ventricular muscle, and of the auriculo-ventricular valves with 
their chordae tendineae. The first sound can be resolved by a trained 
musical ear into two tones, one deep and the other high. The 
deeper tone alone is heard on the contraction of the excised and 
bloodless heart, while the higher tone is produced by throwing the 
auriculo-ventricular valves into tension (John Berry Haycraft). 
In the cold-blooded animal, such as the turtle, the heart muscle 
does not become tense rapidly enough to produce a sound (Allen). 
This sound is not produced by fluid friction as the blood rushes 
through the arterial orifices, for the velocity of outflow is too small 
to produce in this way any noise. Nor is it produced by sudden 
opening of the semilunar valves, for these open quietly and without 
jar at the moment when the intra-ventricular pressure rises above 
that in the aorta. 

The second sound of the heart is produced by the tension of the 
semilunar valves in the aorta and pulmonary artery at the moment 
when the ventricles pass into diastole. These valves close without 
any jar or shock so soon as the arterial pressures rise to the slightest 
degree above that in the ventricles. In the next moment the 
ventricles dilate, and the valves, no longer supported on one side, 
become taut. The elastic vibrations of the walls of the distended 
arteries probably share in the production of this sound. 

When the sounds and the impulse are recorded together the 
record shows that the first sound begins about o-oi sec. before the 
cardiagram marks the beginning of systole, and for the first 0-06 sec. 
of its duration this sound is heard only over the apex. Over the 
base of the heart the first sound is heard just at the time when the 
semilunar valves open and the output begins. The first sound 
ceases before the ventricular contraction is over, for -it is the 
sudden tension, not the continuance of contraction, that causes 
it. The beginning of the second sound marks the sudden tension of 
the semilunar valves which immediately follows their closure. 

For practical purposes it is important to bear in mind what is 
happening in the heart whilst one listens to its sounds. During the 
first sound we have (i) contraction of the ventricles, closure of the 
auriculo-ventricular valves and impulse of the apex against the 
chest ; (2) rushing of the blood into the aortic .and pulmonary artery, 
and filling of the auricles. With the second sound we have closure 
of the semilunar valves from the elastic recoil of the aorta and 
pulmonary artery, relaxation of the ventricular walls, opening of the 
auriculo-ventricular valves so as to allow the passage of blood from 
auricle to ventricle, and diminished pressure of apex against chest 
wall. With the long pause there are (i) gradual refilling of the 
ventricle from the auricle, and (2) contraction of the auricle so as to 
entirely fill the ventricle. The sound of the tricuspid valve is heard 
loudest at the junction of the lower right costal cartilages with the 
sternum, of the mitral over the apex beat, of the aortic semilunar 
valves in the direction of the aorta where it comes nearest to the 
surface at the second right costal cartilage, and of the valves of the 
pulmonary orifice over the third left costal cartilage, to the left and 
external to the margin of the sternum. The sounds are changed in 
character by valvular lesion or muscular weakness of the heart, and 
afford important signs to the physician. Murmurs are produced 
by eddies setting some part of the membranous walls or valve flaps in 
vibration. 

If a stethoscope be placed over a large artery, a murmur will be 



VASCULAR SYSTEM 



935 



heard, caused by the blood rushing through the vessel narrowed by 
the pressure of the instrument. The fluid escapes into a wider 

portion of the vessel beyond 
the point of pressure, and the 
sound is caused by the eddies 
set up there throwing the 
membranous wall of the vessel 
into vibration. Such a sound is 
heard over an aneurism. The 
placental bruit heard during 
I pregnancy is a sound of this 
kind, arising from pressure on 
f the uterine arteries. In cases 
of insufficient aortic valves a 
double blowing murmur may 
be heard, the first being due to 
the rush of blood into the 
vessel, and the second to the 
regurgitation of the blood back 
into the ventricle. These mur- 
murs are produced by eddies 
of blood setting the mem- 
branous parts into vibration. 




the relation of the sounds and 

silences to these events. - Q{ aif in th j. bronchlal 

by the beat of the heart, and may simulate the murmur of aortic 
incompetence. By placing a stethoscope over the jugular vein on 
the right above the collar bone a murmur is heard, the bruit de diable, 
particularly if the subject turn his head to the left. This is held to 
be due to the vibration of the blood in the jugular vein rushing 
from the dilated to the contracted part. It is more marked during 
auricular diastole and during inspiration. 

In the lower vertebrates, as the frog, the heart is directly nourished 
by the blood which fills the cavities in its sponge-like structure. In 
The e warm -blooded vertebrates there is a special arrange- 

iiutntloo ment f coronary vessels. The two coronary arteries (right 
O f the and left) originate at the root of the aorta from the sinuses 
heart. ^ Valsalva. Their branches penetrate the muscular sub- 
stance and end in a rich plexus of capillaries. From these 
arise the radicles of the coronary veins which open into the right 
auricle by the coronary sinus and other small veins. These openings 
are valved. The heart in contracting exerts a greater pressure than 
that of the coronary arteries, and so arrests the flow in these during 
the height of systole, and squeezes the blood within the coronary capil- 
laries and veins on into the right auricle. On diastole the coronary 
system fills again. Sudden occlusion of any large part of the coronary 
arteries produces irregular and inco-ordinate contractions, followed 
by death of the heart. Gradual occlusion of the coronary arteries 
by degenerative changes in advanced life is one of the causes of the 
distressing form of cardiac distress known as angina pectoris. The 
work of the left ventricle is calculated by the formula 
The work w = VP+mt) 2 , where V =volume of blood in c.c. expelled 
per beat, P = mean pressure in aorta, m = mass of the blood 

expelled on systole, and v = the velocity imparted to it. 
The volume of the output has been determined directly by inserting 
the stromuhr in the ascending aorta (Robert Adolf Tigerstedt), and 
indirectly by determining (i) how much oxygen is absorbed per 
minute, (2) the difference in the oxygen content of the arterial and 
venous blood, (3) the number of heart beats. If 1000 c.c. of oxygen 
are absorbed from the air breathed in a minute, and the arterial 
blood contains 10% more oxygen than the venous, it is clear that 
100X100 c.c. of blood must have passed through the lungs in that 
time, and if the heart beat 100 times, the output for each beat 
would be 100 c.c. From the determinations made on animals the 
output is calculated for man to be 60-100 c.c. The velocity of 
the output Can be calculated if the volume of the output is 
known, the duration of the period of output, and the diameter of 
the aorta. The pressure is measured with a manometer. The 
velocity is much greater at the orifice than in the aorta, for 
the blood can flow from the aorta during the whole cardiac cycle, 
while the whole of it must escape through the orifice into the aorta 
during the period of output. The work spent on maintaining the 
velocity is not, however, more than ^ of the whole and is 
generally neglected in the calculation. The output is not greater 
than 60-100 c.c. (3 oz.) (Tigerstedt, Nathan Zuntz), and the mean 
arterial pressure in a healthy man, determined by the sphygmometer, 
is not more than no mm. of mercury (L. Hill). The work of the 
right heart can be reckoned to be J that of the left, for the pressure 
in the pulmonary artery does not exceed 30 mm. The total work of 
the heart during the day may be taken as equal to 20,000 kilogr.- 
metres, and this would be equivalent to 50 calories out of the total 
2500 calories which a man takes in as food. A labourer does about 
150,000 kilogrm.-metres of external work a day. The work of the 
heart is increased two or three times over during severe muscular 
labour. It has been estimated that the heart requires per diem, to 
maintain its energy, an amount of solid food (water-free) equal 
to the weight of solids in the heart itself, i.e. about 60 grms. of 
sugar or proteid. 30 c.c. of blood must be circulated per minute 



through the -coronary arteries of a dog to maintain the vigour of 
the heart. 

The use of oxygen per grm. of weight per minute is high for the 
heart. Thus for the whole body of the dog there was used 
017 c.c. per grm. per min., for the heart -045- -083, _. 
and for the active secretory glands -07-1 -o (Barcroft ^ind , 
and Dixon). It has long been known that the heart oi c \rcuta 
frog or tortoise can be kept beating normally for hours tloo 0/ " 
after removal from the body, if it is provided with the neart 
an artificial circulation of blood or a suitable solution of 
salts. Sydney Ringer worked out the necessary ingredients of this 
solution to be 

Sodium chloride .... 0-7% 
Potassium . . . . 0-03% 
Calcium 0-025% 

The excised mammalian heart can be kept beating in the same way 
provided the nutritive fluid is oxygenated and the heart kept at 
body temperature. A solution containing one-third defibrinated 
blood and two-thirds Ringer's salt solution is most suitable. A 
mammalian heart thus: was restored to activity 7 days after death. 
The beat of the heart of a child was restored 20 hours after death 
from pneumonia. The excised heart of a cat was. kept beating for 
4 days. The heart of a monkey was restored after freezing the body 
of the animal. The nerves of the excised heart retain their action 
for some time if the nutritive fluid is immediately circulated through 
the coronary arteries. Thus the heart's action can be conveniently 
studied when taken from the body of a mammal. 

The cause of the heart beat has naturally been one of the most 
continued objects of inquiry, and the point of view shifts with each 
advance of our experimental methods, and the wider 
extension of the inquiry throughout the animal world. r * e <= 
H. Allen in 1757 was the first to announce that the activity the 
of the heart is not dependent on its connexion with the ? 
nervous system. The excised heart, properly fed, con- 
tinues to beat. The heart of a dog continued to work effectively 
and the animal to keep in health for months after division of all the 
nerves passing to the heart. The heart, it is true, is controlled and 
influenced constantly by the nervous system attuned to the general 
needs of the body but. this control is not essential to life. The 
above dog, when exercised, became fatigued quickly, owing to the 
lack of the nervous control of the heart. When in 1848 Robert 
Remak discovered that groups of nerve cells are contained in the 
heart of the frog, the causation of the beat was attributed to the 
activity of these ganglia. 

Confirmation of this view was found in the experiment of Her- 
mann Stannius which demonstrates that the apex of the heart 
ceases to beat rhythmically if physiologically separated from 
the rest of the heart by ligature or momentary application of a 
clamp. The sinus, on the other hand, which contains ganglion 
cells, continues its beat as before when separated. Further experi- 
ment has shown that the beat of the heart cannot be ascribed to 
the rhythmic activity of the ganglion cells, which in the mammalian 
heart lie scattered in the base of the heart, in the neighbourhood 
of the venous opening and in the auriculo-ventricular groove. 
That this is so is shown by the fact that every strip of heart muscle, 
whether free of ganglion cell or not, is capable of rhythmic activity 
under suitable conditions (Walter Gaskell, 1847- , Theodor 
Wilhelm Engelmann, Alfred Wm. Porter). The inherent power 
of rhythmic contraction is most clearly seen in the embryonic 
heart, for the pulsation of the chick's heart became visible by the 
24th to 48th hour of incubation, while the migration of the ganglion 
cells into the heart from the sympathetic system does not take place 
until the sixth day (His.). The heart muscle is pervaded by a 
network of nerve fibrils, and the supporters of the neurogenic theory 
have had to fall back upon this network as the cause of the beat. 
The " myogenic " theorists place the causation in the muscle itself. 

The pulsating " umbrella " of the jelly-fish is formed of a network 
of nerve fibril and contractile elements, and this can be excited to 
contract by irritating any one of the sensory endings of the nervous 
network which are situated on the edge of the " umbrella." In the 
manifestation of a " refractory period " the " umbrella " behaves 
like the heart. Against this view we may cite the experiment of 
Julius Bernstein (1839), who clamped off the apex of the frog's 
heart to destroy the physiological continuity, kept the animal 
alive till the nerve network had degenerated and then found the 
apex could be mechanically excited to contract. Moreover, skele- 
tal muscle-fibres can be thrown into rhythmic contraction by the 
application of a suitable solution of salts (Wilhelm Biedermann, 
1854), and it is probable that heart muscle is excited to rhythmic 
activity by such means. At any rate the beat is profoundly 
affected by varying slightly the nature and percentage of salts 
supplied in the nutritive fluid. Carlson has recorded experiments 
upon the heart of the horseshoe crab (Limulus) which show that 
its beat at any rate depends on the integrity of the median nerve 
(and its ganglion cells) which runs down the heart. On the other 
hand, Gaskell has shown that any small bridge of heart muscle 
left connecting the auricle and ventricle of the tortoise heart will 
transmit the wave of contraction, while if the nerve passing from 



936 



VASCULAR SYSTEM 



sinus to ventricle be left, and the muscular connexions entirely 
severed, no wave passes. In contradistinction to cross-striated 
muscle the structural unit of the heart is not also a functional 
unit for the heart-cells are, from the earliest stage of development, 
joined together by branches into networks and bands so as to 
form one functional whole, and hence excitation of any one part leads 
to the contraction of the whole. The first part to begin to functionate 
in the embryo is the venous end, and the waves of contraction 
passing thence spread over the developing ventricular segment. 
The muscle-cells of the ventricles are thicker, less sarcoplasmic 
and more clearly striated than the auricular muscle, which is 
more embryonic in structure. The contraction lasts longer in the 
ventricular than in the auricular muscle, while the automatic 
rhythm not only persists longer in the auricles, but is of greater 
frequency, as is clearly seen when the cavities of the heart are 
divided from each other. The venous orifices of the heart are least 
sensitive to injury, .beat longest after death, and are the first to 
recover after arrest. Owing to the more powerful automatism 
of the venous extremity, the contraction normally proceeds thence, 
and. passing as a peristaltic wave over the auricles and ventricles, 
finally reached the arterial orifices. This peristaltic form of con- 
traction is invariable in all periods of development and in all hearts, 
both of invertebrate and vertebrate animals. The peristalsis may, 
with difficulty, be artificially reversed by the application of a 
powerful rhythmic stimulus to the ventricular end. Antiperistalsis 
does not, however, take place easily, because the comparatively slow 
excitatory process in the ventricle has little effect on the auricular 
muscle. The latter, by initiating more rapid contraction- waves, 
over-dominates the former. The frequency of the whole heart is 
accelerated by warming the auricles, while the period of systole is 
alone shortened on warming the ventricles. 

The sequence in the beat of the three chambers of the heart is 
attributed by Gaskell to the delay that occurs in the excitatory 
wave passing through the muscular connexions in the sino-auricular 
and auriculo-ventricular junctions. He showed that such delay 
could be imitated by moderately clamping a strip of heart muscle ; 
the compressed part transmitted the wave less readily, so that the 
part above and below the clamp contracted in sequence. 

In the mammalian heart there has recently been discovered a 
remarkable remnant of primitive fibres persisting in the neighbour- 
hood of the venous orifices (representing the sinus). These fibres 
are in close connexion with the vagus and sympathetic nerves, and 

form the sino-auricular 

node of A. Keith and 
Martin Flack. If this 
node is squeezed by a 
clamp, it prevents the 
effect of excitation of 
the vagus reaching the 
heart. The auricle and 
ventricles of the mam- 
malian heart are connected 
through the septum by 
a remarkable bundle of 
muscle fibres which is 
believed to convey the ex- 
citatory wave from the 
FIG. 1 5. The Right Auricle and Ventricle one cavity to the other, 
of a Calf's Heart, exposed to show the The root of this auriculo- 
course and connexions of the auriculp- ventricular bundle lies in 
ventricular bundle. I , central cartil- the right auricle, the main 
age exposed by dissection; 2, the part is buried in the inter- 
main bundle; 3, auricular fibres from ventricular septum; its 
which the main bundle arises; 4, branches and twigs arc 
right septal division; 5, moderator distributed to all parts of 
band; 6, a cusp of the tricuspid valve; either ventricle; the papil- 
7, posterior group of the musculi lary muscles and fleshy 
papillaries; 8, orifice of the coronary columns, in particular, 
sinus; 9, above orifice of the inferior receive a direct supply, 
vena cava (10); n, orifice of the The muscle fibres are of 
superior vena cava; 12, septal wall a peculiar type, known 
of the right auricle; 13, appendix of as the cells of Pur- 
the right auricle; 14, septal wall of kinje. By this bundle it 
the inf undibulum ; 15, beginning of is believed every part of 
the pulmonary artery; 1 6, apex of the ventricle is brought 
the right ventricle. (After A. Keith, in into synchronous contrac- 
Journal of Anatomy and Physiology.) tion. To its degeneration 

has been ascribed certain 
cases of disturbed cardiac 

rhythm, when the ventricle no longer follows the sequence of auricle 
The evidence of such degeneration is, at present, not convincing. 

The contraction of the heart, like that of other muscle, is accom 
panied by an electrical change. The part in contraction is_ a 
different potential to the part at rest. Thus an electrica 
wave accompanies the wave of contraction. This ha 
been studied by means of the capillary, or the string 
electrometer (Sir John Scott Burdon-Sanderson anc 
Page, Einthoven, Gotch). The photographic record 
obtained with these instruments afford us a most beautifu 



method of recording the rhythm of normal and abnormal hearts 
n man, for they can be obtained by connecting the right hand and 
eft foot of a patient with the instrument. Einthoven, by making 




The 

electrical 
change of 
the heart. 




A R V A R V A R V 

IG. 16. Electrical Changes of Heart. A, diphasic variation of 
auricle; R V, diphasic variation of ventricle. R = base nega- 
tive; V=apex negative to base. After auricular contraction the 
ventricular is delayed an example of arhythmia. (Einthoven.) 
The string galvanometer is the best method for elucidating dis- 
orders of cardiac rhythm. 

use of the telephone wires, recorded in his laboratory the electrical 
changes of the hearts of patients seated in a hospital 2 m. away. 

The heart during the period of systole is refractive to artificial 
excitation, but its susceptibility returns with diastole. The force 
and amplitude of any cardiac contraction depend on the previous, 
activity of the heart and on such physical conditions as the degree 
of diastolic filling, the resistance to systolic outflow, temperature, 
&c., but are independent of the strength of the artificial stimulus 
so long as the latter is efficient. Owing to the refractory period, 
:he slow rate of contraction and the independence of the amplitude 
of contraction on the strength of stimulus, the heart under ordinary 
conditions cannot be thrown, by rapidly repeated excitation, into 
a complete state of tetanic spasm. The refractory period can be 
shortened by heat (40 C.), or by calcium and sodium salts until 
tetanus is obtainable. The cardiac muscle is rich in sarcoplasm, 
and on this depends its power of slow, sustained contraction. The 
leart-muscle, besides rhythmically contracting, possesses " tone," 
and this tone varies with the conditions of metabolism, temperature, 
&c. Chloroform, for example, produces a soft dilated, strychnine, 
adrenalin or ammonia a tonically contracted heart. The mam- 
malian heart ceases to beat at temperatures below 7 C. and above 
44 C., and passes into " heat rigor " at 45 C. 

The Cardiac Nerves. In 1845 the brothers Weber made the 
astonishing discovery that the vagus nerve, when excited, slowed or 
even arrested the action of the heart. 
This was the first proof of the ex- 
istence of inhibitory nerves. The 
cardiac inhibitory nerves have since 
been found in all classes of verte- 
brates and in many invertebrates. 
Some years later v. Beyeld (1862) 
and Moses and Il'ya Cypn (1843- 
) discovered the existence of 
nerve fibres which, when excited, 
augmented and accelerated the beat 
of the heart. These nerves arise 
from 1-5 thoracic anterior spinal 
nerve roots and have their " cell 
stations " in the first thoracic and 
inferior cervical ganglia, whence they 
pass to the heart partly in company 
with the cardiac branches of the 
vagus, and partly as separate twigs. 
The vagus cardiac fibres arise by the 
middle of the lowermost group of 
vagus roots, and have their cell- 
stations in the ganglion cells of the 
heart. These ganglion cells lie 
chiefly in the sub-pericardial tissue 
in the posterior wall of the auricles 
between and around the orifices of 
the venae cavae and pulmonary 

veins and between the aorta and 

pulmonary artery. The minute 

structure of these ganglia and the 

terminations of the nerves have been 

studied particularly by Dogiel. The 

inhibitory fibres arise from a centre 

in the spinal bulb which is in tonic 

action and constantly bridles the 

heart's action. When the vagi are 

divided the frequency of the heart 

increases and the blood pressure rises. The vagus centre is reflexly 

excited by the inhalation of chloroform, ammonia or other vapour 

irritant to the air passages, also by the want of oxygen in the blood 

in asphyxia. It may be excited by irritation of the abdominal 

nerves, e.g. a blow on the abdomen, and by increased pressure 

in the cerebral vessels. The acceleratory and augmenting fibres 




Heart\ _ 

FIG. 17. The origins of 
pneumogastric and vasp- 
motor systems are in 
medulla, that of the sym- 
pathetic in upper portion 
of cord. The arrows in- 
dicate direction of nerve 
currents. In the heart R 
represents a reflex centre, 
I an inhibitory centre and 
A an accelerating centre. 



VASCULAR SYSTEM 



937 





Stlm. of V.goa 
peripheral end 



,Zero 



likewise have their centre in the spinal bulb, and are in tonic action, 
antagonizing more or less the action of the vagal centre. The 
K vagus nerve works 

directly on the cardiac 
muscle, and produces 
some change (signalized 
by a positive variation 
in the electrical state of 
the heart) which results 
in a depression of the 
excitability, the con- 
ductivity, the force and 
the frequency of the 
heart. After the vagal 
arrest the heart beats 
more forcibly, owing, 
it is thought, to the 
greater accumulation of 
contractile material dur- 
ing the period of rest. 
The converse of all these 
effects occurs on stimu- 
lation of the accelerator 
nerves. Excitation of 
these nerves may excite 
to renewed efforts an 

2^ excised heart which has 

7 7 . just ceased to beat 

' by t*"*' " after withdrawal of the 

FIG. iS.-B, arterial blood pressure. K, supply of nutritive 
record of volume of kidney. Inhibi- sc 
tion of heart on faradizing vagus nerve. 

tonically exert a sustaining influence on the heart. 

The alkaloid atropin paralyses the vagal nerve endings in 
the heart, while nicotine paralyses the ganglion cells. Muscarin 
obtained from poisonous fungi slows and finally arrests the heart. 
Adrenalin, the active principle of the medulla of the supra-renal 
glands, augments its power. Chloroform depresses it and in 
poisonous dose throws the heart into paralytic dilatation. A 
great many of the cardiac vagal fibres convey impulse to the spinal 
bulb (centripetal), and reflexly influence the heart frequency, 
the breathing and the tonus of the blood vessels. In particular 
certain fibres, termed depressor (discovered by Ludwig and Cyon, 
1866), cause dilatation of the arterioles and a fall of arterial pressure 
by inhibiting the tonic action of the vaso-motor centre in the spinal 
bulb. The depressor fibres arise from the root of the aorta, and over- 
distension of this part excites them, as evidenced not only by the 
above effect, but also by the electrical variation (action current) 
which has been observed passing up the depressor nerve. Sensory 
impressions originating in the heart do not as a rule enter into 
consciousness. They are carried by the cardiac nerves to the sym- 
pathetic ganglia, and thence to the upper thoracic region of the 
spinal cord, where they come into relation with the sensory nerves 
from the pectoral region, upper limb, shoulder, neck and head. 
The impressions are not felt in the heart, but referred to these 
sensory cutaneous nerves. Thus cardiac pain is felt in the chest 
wall and upper limbs and particularly on the left side. The function 
of the cardiac nerves is to co-ordinate the beat of the heart with 
the needs of the body and to co-ordinate the functions of other 
organs with the needs of the heart. For example, an undue rise of 
arterial pressure, induced, let us say, by compression of the abdomen, 
excites the centre of the vagus and produces slowing of the heart 
and a consequent lowering of arterial pressure. The heart of a 
mammal, however, continues to functionate after a section of all 
the branches of the cardiac plexus has been made, so that the nervous 
control and co-ordination of the heart are not absolutely essential 
to the continuance of life. 

Water flowing through a tube from a constant head of pressure 
encounters a resistance occasioned by the friction of the 
hkal mov ? ng water particles against each other and against the 
stationary layer that wets the wall of the tube. Part of 
concern- e P tent ' a ' energy of the head of pressure is spent in en- 
Ingthe ' dowmg the fluid with kinetic energy, the greater part in 
clrcula- overcoming this resistance is rubbed down into heat. The 
iioa- narrower the tube is made, the greater the friction, until 
finally the flow ceases, the total energy being then in- 
sufficient to overcome the resistance. 

The resistance may be measured at any point in the tube by 
inserting a side tube in the vertical position. The water rises to a 
certain height in the side tube, indicating the Read of pressure spent 
in overcoming the resistance between the point of measurement 
and the orifice. If the lower end of the side tube is bent thus J 
and inserted so that its orifice faces the stream, the water will rise 
higher than it did in the first case. The extra rise indicates 
the head of pressure spent in maintaining the velocity of flow. 
Such a method has been used to measure the velocity of flow in the 
vascular system (Napoleon Cybulski). When a stream of water is 
transmitted intermittently by the frequent strokes of a pump through 



a long elastic rubber tube, the fluid does not issue in jets as it would 
in the case of a rigid tube, but flows out continuously. The elastic 
tube is distended by the force of the pump, and its elasticity main- 
tains the outflow between the strokes. The continuous outflow here 
depends on the elasticity of the tube and the resistance to flow. 

In the vascular system an area of vessels of capillary size is placed 
between the large arteries and veins. This area opposes a great 
resistance to flow. The arteries also are extensile elastic tubes. 
The effect of the peripheral resistance, as it is called, is to raise the 
pressure on the arterial side and lower it on the venous. The re- 
sistance to flow is situated chiefly, not in the capillaries, but in the 
small arteries, where the velocity is high; for "skin friction" 
that is, the friction of the moving concentric layers of blood against 
one another and against the layer which wets the wall of these 
blood vessels is proportional to the surface area and to the viscosity 
of the blood is nearly proportional to the square of the velocity 
of flow, and is inversely proportional to the sectional area of the 
vessels. Owing to the resistance to the capillary outflow, the large 
arteries are expanded by each systolic output of the heart, and the 
elasticity of their walls comes into play, causing the outflow to 
continue during the succeeding diastole of the heart. The condi- 
tions are such that the intermittent flow from the heart is converted 
into a continuous flow through the capillaries. If the arteries were 
rigid tubes, it would be necessary for the heart to force on the whole 
column of blood at one and the same time; but, owing to the 
elasticity of these vessels, the heart is saved from such a prolonged 
and jarring strain, and can pass into diastolic rest, leaving the 
elasticity of the distended arteries to maintain the flow. As a 
result of disease, the elastic tissue may degenerate and the arteries 
become rigid. Besides the saving of heart-strain, there are other 
advantages in the elasticity of the arteries. It has been found 
that an intermittently acting pump maintains a greater outflow 
through an elastic than through a rigid tube; that is to say, if the 
tubes be of equal bore. The four chief factors which co-operate 
in producing tne conditions of pressure and velocity in the vascular 
system are (i) the heart-beat, (2) the peripheral resistance, (3) the 
elasticity of the arteries, (4) the quantity of blood in the system. 
Suppose the body to be in the horizontal position and the vascular 
system to be brought to rest by, say, excitation of the vagus nerve 
and arrest of the heart. A sufficiency of blood to distend it collects 
within the venous cistern. The arterial system, owing to its 
elasticity and contractility, empties. If the heart now begin to 
beat, blood is taken from the venous system and is driven into the 
arterial system. The arteries receive more blood than can escape 
through the capillary vessels, and the arterial side of the system 
becomes distended, until equilibrium is reached, and as much blood 
escapes into the venous side per unit of time as is delivered by the 
heart. The flow in the capillaries and veins has now become a 
constant one and if the side pressure be measured it will be found 
to fall from the arteries to the capillaries, and from the capillaries 
to the venae cavae. In the large arteries there is a large side pressure 
which rises and falls with the pulses of the heart. The pulse 
waves spread out over a wider and wider area as the arteries branch. 
They finally die away in the arterioles. An increase or decrease in 
the energy of the heart-beat will increase or decrease respectively 
the velocity of flow and pressure of the blood. An increase or 
decrease in the total width of the arterioles respectively will lessen 
or raise the resistance; increase or decrease the velocity; lower or 
raise the blood pressure. A loss of blood, other conditions remaining 
the same, would cause a decrease in pressure and velocity. As 
a matter of fact, such a loss is compensated for by the adjustability 
of the vascular system. Tissue lymph passes from the tissues into 
the blood, and the blood vessels of the limbs and abdomen constrict, 
and thus the pressure is kept up, and an efficient circulation main- 
tained through the brain, lungs and coronary vessels of the heart. 

The whole vascular system is lined within by a layer of flattened 
cells, the endothelium; each cell is exceedingly thin and cemented 
to its fellows by a wavy border of an interstitial 
protoplasmic substance. The endothelium affords a s j"' ctore 
smooth surface along which the blood can flow with * ** 
ease. Outside it there exists in the arteries and veins . 
a middle and an external coat. The middle coat varies 
greatly in thickness and contains most of the non-striated 
muscle-cells, which in the smaller arteries and arterioles form a 
particularly well developed band. In the larger arteries (fig. 19) 
a great deal of yellow elastic tissue, together with some white, 
fibrous tissue, pervades the middle coat. At the inner and outer 
border of this coat the elastic fibres fuse to form an internal 
and external fenestrated membrane. This coat endows the arteries 
with extensibility, elasticity and contractility. The outside coat 
consists mostly of white fibrous tissue and not only protects the 
arteries, but by its rigidity prevents over-distension. In trie veins 
(fig. 20), where the middle coat is somewhat thinner and contains 
less elastic tissue, the outer coat consists mostly of muscle-fibres. 
The valves of the veins are formed of fibrous and elastic tissue 
covered with endothelium. As the arterioles branch into capil- 
laries the muscular and elastic elements become less and less, until 
in the capillaries themselves there is left only the layer of endo- 
thelium, supported by some stellate connective tissue cells.- The 



938 



VASCULAR SYSTEM 



capillaries form networks which accommodate themselves to the 
structure of the organs, e.g. longitudinal networks in muscle, loops 

in the papillae of the skin, 
close-mesheu networks round the 
alveoli of glands, cells of liver, &c. 
In the liver the blood penetrates 
into the substance of the liver- 
cells. As the capillaries join 
together to form the vennules, 
muscle- fibres again appear and 









From Young and Robinson, Cunningham's 
Text-Book of Anatomy. 

FIG. 19. Transverse Section 
through the Wall of a Large 
Artery. A, tunica intima; 
B, tunica media; C, tunica 
externa. 



From Young and Robinson, Cunningham's 
Text-Boot of Anatomy. 

FIG. 20. Transverse Section 
of the Wall of a Vein. A, 
tunica intima; B, tunica 
media ; C, tunica externa. 




coat the walls of the latter. The veins have a greater capacity 
than the arteries. Blood vessels, the vasa vasorum, supply the 
walls of the large vessels with nutrition. 

T. eitema 

T. media 

T. intima 

w 

I 

C B A 

From Young and Robinson, Cunningham's Text-Boot of Anatomy. 

FIG. 21. Structure of Blood Vessels (diagrammatic). A 1 , capil- 
lary with simple endothelial walls. A 2 , larger capillary 
with connective tissue sheath, " adventitia capillans"; B, 
capillary arteriole showing muscle cells of middle coat, few 
and scattered; C, artery muscular elements of the tunica 
media forming a continuous layer. 

The vaso-mptor nerves end in a plexus of fibrils among the muscle- 
fibres. Ganglion cells occupy the larger nodes of the nerve plexus. 
The ends of a torn artery retract, coil up within the external coat and 
prevent haemorrhage. The arteries contract when mechanically 
irritated and remain contracted for a long time after excision. They 
tend to contract when submitted to increased blood pressure. The 
capillaries cannot contract of themselves, but their lumen can be 
widened or narrowed by the varying contractility or turgidity of 
the tissues in which they run. 

The arteries successfully withstand elastic strain of the pulse 
70 times a minute throughout the years of a long life. It has 
proved possible to stitch divided arteries and veins together so 
perfectly that the circulation can continue through them. A kidney 
has thus been successfully transplanted from one dog to another, 
and has continued to functionate normally. 

The elastic coefficients of the several layers of the coat of an 
artery increase from within out, and thus great strength is obtained 
with the use of a small amount of material. Over-expansion of the 
arteries is checked by an external coat of inextensible connective 
tissue. The elasticity of a healthy artery is almost perfect, while the 
breaking strain is very great and far above that exerted by the blood 
pressure. The small arteries and arterioles are essentially muscular 
tubes, and can, under the influence of the central nervous system, 
vary considerably in diameter. 

By the expulsion of the blood at each systole the walls of the 
aorta are suddenly distended. From the aorta a wave of 
The pulse, distension ripples down the walls of the arteries. This 
wave of distension is called the pulse. As the pulse is 
distributed over an ever-widening field its energy is expended 
and it disappears finally in the arterioles. From a wounded 
artery' the blood flows out in pulses, from a wounded vein 



continuously. To stop the haemorrhage the ligature must be 
applied between the wound and the heart in the case of the artery, 
and between the peripheral parts and the-wound in the case of the 
vein. The pulse travels about 20 times as fast as the blood flows 
in the arteries (7-8 metres per second). By feeling the pulse we 
can tell whether the heart-beat is frequent, quick, strong, regular, 
&c., and whether the wall of the artery is normal and the pressure 
in the arteries high or low. Frequency expresses the number per 
minute, quickness the duration of a single beat. The pulse is a most 
important guide to the physician. The pulse can be registered 
graphically by means of a sphygmograph. A lever rests on the 
radial artery and transmits the pulse to a system of levers which 
magnifies the movement and records it on a smoked surface moved 
by clockwork. 

In such a record, or sphygmograph, the upstroke corresponds 
to systolic output of the left ventricle, marking the opening of the 
aortic valves, and the pouring of the blood into the arteries. 

The downstroke represents the time during which the blood is 
flowing out of the arteries into the capillaries. There are sub- 
sidiary waves on the downstroke. The chief of these is called the 
dicrptic wave, the notch preceding which marks the closure of the 
semilunar valves. The dicrotic wave is caused by the jerk back 
of the blood towards the heart when the outflow ceases, and is 
most manifest when the systole is short and sharp and the output 
of blood from the arterioles rapid, in other words when the heart- 
beat is strong, the systolic pressure high and the diastolic pressure 
low. A smaller wave, predicrotic, preceding this occurs during the 
period of output and sometimes is placed on the ascending limb of 
the pulse curve. This occurs when the peripheral resistance is 
great, and the pulse is then termed anacrotic. 





FIG. 22. Anacrotic Pulse. 



FIG. 23. Dicrotic Pulse. 



A/WWWWWIAAA 




FIGS. 22, 23 and 24 from Allchin's Manual of Medicine, by permission of 
Macmillan & Co. Ltd. 

FIG. 24. Normal Pulse, and Time Tracing in -} e sec. 

A, Primary wave. C, Dicrotic wave. 

B, Predicrotic wave. D, Post-dicrotic wave. 

The form of these waves is modified by the pressure of application 
of the sphygmograph, and by instrumental errors; and we have no 
scale by which we can measure the blood pressure in sphygmograph 
tracings. To do this another instrument, the sphygmomanometer, 
is employed. 

The pulse may pass through the arterioles and reach the capillaries 
when the arterioles are dilated or when the capillaries are only filled 
at each systole, as may be seen in the pink of the nail when the 
arm is held above the head, and in cases of aortic regurgitation. 

A venous pulse may be recorded in the jugular vein; it exhibits 
oscillations synchronous with auricular and ventricular systole, and 
affords us important information in certain cases of heart disease. 
The normal average pulse rate is 72 per minute, in woman about 80; 
but individual variations from 40100 have been observed consistent 
with health. In the newborn the pulse beats on the average 
130-140 times a minute; in a one-year-old child 120-130; three years 
100; ten years 90; fifteen years 70-75. Active muscular exercise 
may increase the pulse rate to 136. Nervous excitement, extreme 
debility and rise of body temperature also increase it markedly. 
The pulse is more frequent when one stands than. when one sits, or 
lies down, and this is especially so in states of debility. The taking 
of food, especially hot food, increases it. By placing tambours on, say, 
the carotid and radial arteries and recording the two pulses syn- 
chronously, it has been found that the pulse occurs later, the further 
the seat of observation is from the heart. The velocity with which 
the pulse wave travels down the arteries has been determined thus. 
It is about 7-8 metres per second. The wave length of the pulse is 
obtained by multiplying the duration of the inflow of blood into the 
aorta by the velocity of the pulse wave. It is about 3 metres. As 
the return of venous blood and pulmonary circulation is favoured 
during inspiration so that the output of the left ventricle during the 
first part of inspiration is lessened and subsequently increased, 



VASCULAR SYSTEM 



939 



the sphygmograph reveals respiratory oscillations; the whole line 
of the tracing falls during the first part of inspiration and rises sub- 
sequently. 

The circulation in the capillaries may be studied by placing under 
the microscope a transparent membrane such as the web of the 
frog's foot, tail of tadpole, wing of bat, &c. By a special 
illumination one may see the shadow of the blood cor- 
puscles moving through the retinal vessels of one's own eye, 
and even calculate the velocity of flow. The diameter 



The 

capillary 
circula- 
tion. 






of the smaller capillaries is such as to permit the 
passage of the red blood corpuscles in single file only; their 
length is abcut c^th of an inch. The endothelial cells confine 
the blood from direct contact with the tissue lymph and so 
prevent its coagulation, but allow and regulate the exchange 
of material between the blood and lymph. This exchange is 
regulated by the vital activity of the cells, and does not follow 
such laws as pertain to filtration and diffusion through dead 
membranes. There is evidence to show that the cells of the 
hepatic capillaries are capable of protoplasmic movement and of 
phagocytosis. The pressure in the capillaries stands in closer 
relationship to that in the veins than to that in the arteries; for 
example, a rise of pressure in the venae cavae, other things remaining 
the same, raises the pressure in the hepatic capillaries to a like 
amount, while a rise of pressure in the aorta does not, for most of 
the arterial pressure is spent in overcoming the peripheral resistance. 
The filling of the capillaries in the skin varies greatly with tempera- 
ture, posture, &c. When the hand is cold the arterioles are so 
constricted that blood only passes through the wider and more 
direct capillaries. As the skin becomes warm it flushes, the arterioles 
dilating and all the capillary networks becoming filled with blood. 
Muscular movements express the blood out of the capillaries, as may 
be seen by the blanching of the skin which occurs on clenching the 
hand. Raising the hand blanches, and lowering it congests the 
capillaries. The pressure and velocity in the capillaries thus constantly 
vary, owing to alterations in hydrostatic pressure, the pressure of 
the body against external objects, the contraction of the muscles, 
and the contraction of the arterioles. It is not possible therefore 
to set any definite figure to the capillary pressure or velocity. In 
the frog's web, with the foot confined and at rest, the velocity is 
about I mm. per second. We continually make slight movements 
to counteract the hydrostatic effect and prevent the congestion of 
blood in the capillaries of lower parts of the body. It is this tendency 
to congestion which makes it so difficult to stand absolutely motion- 
less for any length of time. The red corpuscles, being the heavier, 
occupy the axis, and the white corpuscles the peripheral layer of the 
capillary stream. If an irritant is placed on the membrane it will 
be observed that the capillaries become wider and crowded with 
corpuscles, the flow slackening and finally becoming arrested owing 
to the passing out of the plasma through the damaged capillary 
wall. The white corpuscles creep out between the endothelial cells 
into the tissues. Such are the first phenomena of inflammation. 
After obstruction of an artery collateral pathways are in most parts 
rapidly formed, for the anastomatic capillaries, stimulated by the 
increased blood flow, develoo into arterioles and arteries. 

Numerous anastomoses exist between the veins, so that if the flow 
of blood be obstructed in one direction it readily finds a passage 
_. _ inanother. Muscularmovement,alterationsof posture and 
respiratory movements particularly forward the venous 
circulation. The barber's pole of the barber surgeon was 
grasped to increase the flow in the old blood-letting 
days. The valves in the veins allow the blood to be forced only 
towards the heart. The pressure in the veins varies according to 
the hydrostatic pressure of the blood column above the point of 
measurement. In the horizontal position, when this factor is almost 
eliminated, the pressure in the large veins is about equal to 5-10 mm. 
of mercury, and even may become negative on taking a deep inspira- 
tion. There thus arises the danger of air being sucked into a wounded 
jugular vein. If air does thus gain entry it may fatally obstruct the 
circulation. 

The venous circulation is impeded by (i) a lessening of heart power, 
(2) valvular defects, such as incompetence or narrowing of the 
orifice which they guard, (3) obstruction to the filling of the heart, 
as in cases of pericardia! effusion, (4) obstruction of the pulmonary 
circulation as in coughing, by pleuritic effusion, &c. The results of 
venous congestion are a less efficient arterial circulation, a dusky 
appearance of the skin, a fall of cutaneous temperature, and an 
effusion of fluid into the tissue spaces producing oedema and dropsy. 
This last effect is not due to increased capillary pressure producing 
increased transudation as has been supposed, for no such increase in 
venous and capillary pressure persists under the conditions. It is 
due to the altered nutrition oi the capillary endothelium and the 
tissues, which results from the deficient circulation. 

If for any reason the left ventricle fail to maintain its full systolic 
output.it ceases to receive the full auricular input, and in consequence 
the pulmonary vessels congest. This tells back on the right heart, 
and the right ventricle is unable to empty itself into the congested 
pulmonary vessels, and this in its turn leads to venous congestion. 
The final result of any obstruction thus is a pooling of the blood in 
the venous cistern. Dyspnoea results from cardiac insufficiency. 



lathe 
veins. 



It is excited by the increased venosity of the blood acting on the 
respiratory centre. Both excess of carbon dioxide and deficiency 
of oxygen excite this centre. The increased respiratory movements 
aid the circulation. 

The venous side of the vascular system, owing to the great size of 
the veins, has a large potential capacity, while many of the capil- 
laries in each organ are empty and collapsed, except at those periods 
of vaso-dilatation and hyperaemia which accompany extreme 
activity of function. The vascular system cannot be regarded as a 
closed system, for the blood-plasma, .whenever the capillary pressure 
is increased, transudes through the capillary wall into the tissue- 
spaces and enters the lymphatics. Thus, if fluid be transfused into 
the circulatory system, it not only collects in the capacious reservoirs 
of the veins and capillaries especially in the lungs, liver and 
abdominal organs but leaks into the tissue-spaces. Hence the 
pressure in the vascular system cannot be raised above the normal 
for any length of time by the injection of even enormous quantities 
of fluid. The lymphatics of tissue-spaces must be regarded as 
part of the vascular system. There is a constant give and take 
between the blood-plasma and the tissue lymph. If the fluid part of 
the blood be increased, then the capillary transudation becomes 
greater, and the excess of fluid is excreted from the kidneys and 
glands of the alimentary canal. If the fluid part of the blood 
diminish, then fluid passes from the tissue-spaces into the 
blood, and the sensation of thirst arises, and more drink is r ^ a a j 
taken. The circulation may be greatly aided by the trans- transfu- 
fusion of salt solution (0-8 %) or blood after severe hemor- g/0/li 
rhage, or in states of surgical shock. Only the blood of man 
must be used. The direct giving of blood by connecting the radial 
artery of a relation to the median vein of a patient has been used as a 
means of effecting restoration. Blood may be withdrawn from the 
system slowly to the extent of 4 %, rapidly to the extent of 2 % of the 
bodyweight, without lowering the arterial pressure, owing to the com- 
pensatory contraction of the arteriolesand the rapid absorption of fluid 
from the tissues into the blood. The withdrawal of the tissue-lymph 
excites extreme thirst and the great need for water which occurs after 
severe hemorrhage. About 75 % by weight of the tissues, excluding 
fat and bone, consists of water. The quantity of blood in the body 
is about Ath of the body weight. That of tissue-lymph is unknown, 
but it must be considerable, probably greater than that of the blood. 
The lymphatics drain off the excess of fluid which transudes from 
the capillaries, and finally return it to the vascular system. The 
interchange between tissue, blood and lymph depends on the forces 
of the living cells, which are as yet far from complete elucidation. 

We may define the velocity of the blood at any point in a vessel 
as the length of the column of blood flowing by that point in a 
second. In the case of a tube, supplied by a constant 
head of pressure, we can divide the tube and measure 
the outflow per second; knowing the volume of this, 
and the cross area of the artery, we can determine the 
length of the column. This kind of experiment 
cannot be done on the living animal, because the opening of 
the vessel alters the resistance to flow, and the loss of blood 
also changes the physiological conditions. 
To determine the velocity other means must 
be devised. Ludwig invented an instrument 
called the stromuhr, consisting of two bulbs 
mounted on a rotating platform pierced with 
two holes. One bulb is filled with oil the 
other with blood. The bulbs are connected 
together by a tube at their upper end, and the 
lower end of the one full of oil is brought over 
the hole in the platform. The central end of 
the artery is connected to the same hole and 
the peripheral end to the other, over which 
stands the bulb full of blood. The blood 
being allowed to flow displaces the oil out of 
the one bulb into the other; directly this 
happens, the bulbs are rotated and the one full 
of oil is again brought over the central end of 
the artery. The number of rotations per 
minute is counted, and the volume of the 
bulb being known we obtain the volume of 
bipod that passes through the instrument per 
minute. In another instrument, the haemo- 
dromograph of Chauveau, there is inserted 
into the artery a }_ tube in which hangs a small 
pendulum; the stem of the pendulum 
passing through a rubber dam which closes the vertical limb 
of the tube. The pendulum is deflected by the flow, and the 
greater the velocity the greater the deflection. The deflection can 
be recorded by connecting the free end of the pendulum to a tam- 
bour arrangement. This instrument allows us to record and 
measure the variations of velocity during systole and diastole of 
the heart, but it can only be used in the vessels of large animals. 
Still other methods have been employed by Cybulski and Stewart. 
The general relations of the velocity of the blood in the arteries, 
capillaries and veins is expressed by the curve shown in fig. 26. 
The velocity in the large arteries may reach 500 mm. per second 



The 

velocity 
of blood 

now. 




FIG. 25. Ludwig's 
Stromuhr. 



940 



VASCULAR SYSTEM 



in systole and fall to 150 mm. in diastole. The smaller the artery 
the less is this difference and the more uniform the rate of flow. 




From Alkhin's Manual of Medicine, by permission of Macmillan & Co. Ltd. 

FlG. 26. Diagram showing General Relations of the Velocity of 
the Blood in the Arteries, Capillaries and Veins. 

The flow in the large veins is approximately equal to that in the 
large arteries. In the jugular vein of a dog the mean velocity was 
found to be 225 mm. and in the carotid 260 mm. per second. The 
velocity in the capillaries has been measured by direct observation 
with the microscope. It is very small, e.g. 0-5-1 mm. per second. 
The variation of velocity in different parts of the vascular system 
is explained by the difference in width of bed through which the 
stream flows. The vascular system may be compared to a stream 
which on entering a field is led into a multitude of irrigation channels, 
the sum of the cross sections of all the channels being far greater 
than that of the stream. The channels unite together again and 
leave the field as one stream. If the flow proceeds uniformly for 
any given unit of time, the same volume must flow through any cross 
section of the system. Thus the greatest velocity is where the 
total bed is narrowest, and slowest where the bed widens to the 
dimensions of a lake. 

The blood in leaving the heart may take a short circuit through 
the coronary system of the heart and so back to the right heart, 
or it may take a long and devious course to the toes and 
back, or through the intestinal capillaries, portal system 
and hepatic capillaries. It is obvious, then, that the time 
any two particles of blood take to complete the circuit 
may be widely different. Experiments have been made to 



determine how rapidly any substance, like a poison, which 
enters the blood may be distributed over the body. A salt 



The time 
necessary 
fora 
complete 
circula- 
tion. 

such as potassium ferrocyanide is injected into the jugular vein, 
and the blood collected in successive samples at seconds of time 
from the opposite jugular vein. These samples are tested for the 
presence of the salt, or a strong solution of methylene blue is injected 
into the jugular vein, and the moment determined with a stop- 
watch when the blue colour appears in the carotid artery. 

The velocity of flow also can be determined in any organ by 
injecting salt solution into an artery, and observing, with the aid of 
a Wheatstone's bridge arrangement, the galvanometric change in 
electrical resistance which occurs in the corresponding vein when 
the salt solution reaches it. The moment of injection and that of 
the alteration in resistance are observed with a stop-watch (Stewart). 
It has been determined that the blood travelling fastest can 
complete the circuit in about the time occupied by 25 to 30 heart- 
beats, say in 20 to 30 seconds; a result which shows how rapidly 
methods must be taken to prevent the absorption of poisons for 
example, snake-poison. The blood travelling fastest in the pul- 
monary circuit occupies only about one-fifth of the time spent by 
that in the systemic circuit. That some of the blood takes a 
very long time to return to the heart is shown by the long time it 
takes to wash the vascular system free of blood by the injection of 
salt solution. 

That the blood is under different pressure in the varipusparts of the 
system has long been known. From a divided artery the 
blood flows out in forcible spurts, while from a vein it 
flows out continuously and with little force. It takes 
very little pressure of the fingers to blanch the capillaries 
of the skin, but an appreciable amount to obliterate the 
radial artery. 

Stephen Hales (1733) was the first to measure the blood pressure. 
He inserted a brass tube into the femoral vein of a horse and con- 
nected it to a long glass tube held vertically, using the trachea of a 
foose as a flexible tube, and found the blood rose to the height of 
ft., oscillated there with each heart-beat, and rose and fell some- 
what with inspiration and expiration. In the vein he found the 
pressure to be only about 12 in. Poiseuille (1828) adapted to 
the same purpose the mercurial manometer, a U-shaped tube con- 
taining mercury, which, being 13-5 times heavier than blood, 
allowed the manometer to be brought to a convenient height. 



The 

pressure 

relation 

lathe 

vascular 

system. 



Systolic or maximum 




... /V A /\ 




/ V I/ V 




Dimstolu: of minimum 
Baseline 


60 mm 

40 mm 

20 mm 



The introduction of rubber tubing for the connexions made the 
method of inquiry comparatively simple. The tubing connecting 
the arterial cannula and the manometer was filled with a suitable 
fluid to prevent coagulation of the blood; also to prevent more 
than a trace of blood entering the connexions. A saturated solu- 
tion of sodium sulphate, or a I % solution of sodium citrate, may be 
employed for this purpose. Ludwig (1847) added a float provided 
with a writing style to the mercurial manometer, and brought the 
style to write on a drum covered with smoked paper and driven 
slowly round by clockwork a kymograph By this means tracings 
of the arterial blood pressure are obtained, and the influence upon 
the blood pressure of various agents recorded and studied. For 
the veins a manometer filled with salt solution is used, as mercury 
is too heavy a fluid to record the far slighter changes of venous 
pressure. The manometer may be connected with a recording 
tambour. 

The arterial blood-pressure record obtained with the mercurial 
manometer exhibits cardiac and respiratory oscillations as shown 
in fig. 18. The method 
gives us a fairly accu- 
rate record of the 
mean pressure, but 
the mass of the mer- 
cury causes such in- 
ertia that the instru- 
ment is quite unable 
to faithfully record 
the systolic and dia- 
stolic variations of 
pressure. To effect 
this record, delicate 
spring manometers of 

rapid action and small 

inertia have been in- From Howell's Text-Book of Physiology, by permission of 
vented. A mercury W. B. Saunders Co. 

manometer provided FIG. 27. Diagram showing Systolic, Mean 
with maximum and and Diastolic Pressure, 

minimum valves has 

also been employed to indicate the maximal systolic and minimal 
diastolic pressure. To determine the blood pressure in man, an 
instrument called the sphygmometer 
is used. The writer's sphygmometer 
consists of a rubber bag covered with 
silk which is filled with air, and con- 
nected by a short length of tube to 
a manometer. This manometer con- 
sists of a graduated glass tube, open 
at one end. A small hole is in the 
side of the tube near this end. A 
meniscus of water is introduced up to 
the side hole-^-the zero mark on the 
scale by placing the open end of the 
tube in water. The bag is now con- 
nected to the gauge so that the side 
hole is closed by the rubber tube. 
Covering the rubber bag with the hand 
and pressing it on the radial artery 
until the pulse (felt beyond) is obliter- 
ated, one reads the height to which 
the meniscus rises in the manometer, 
and this gives us the systolic pressure 
in the artery. The air above the me- 
niscus acts as a spring, converting the 
instrument into a spring manometer. 
It is empirically graduated in mm. Hg. 

It is very necessary to remember 
that the blood pressures, taken in differ- 
ent vessels and postures, vary with the 
hydrostatic pressure of the column of 
blood above the point of measure- 
ment. Thus in the standing posture 
the arterial pressure in the arteries of 
the leg is higher than in the arm by 
the height of the column of blood that 
separates the two points of measure- 
ment. In the horizontal posture the 
pressure is practically the same in all 
the big arteries. The pressure in the 
ascending aorta is kept about the same 
in all postures, while that of the leg 
arteries varies widely. The effect of gravity is compensated there 
by active changes in heart force, splanchnic dilatation, &c. (L. Hill). 
The systolic pressure of young men, taken in the radial artery with 
the arm at the same level as the heart, may be taken to be about no 
mm. of Hg. In men of 40-60 years the systolic pressure is often 
about 140 mm., but in some robust men it is no higher than in youth. 

The venous pressure in man may be measured by finding the 
pressure just required to prevent a cutaneous vein refilling after 
it has been emptied beyond a valve. There is no accurate method 



FIG. 28. Hill's Sphyg- 
mometer. 






VASCULAR SYSTEM 



941 



The pul- 
monary 
circula- 
tion. 



of measuring the capillary pressure. It and the venous pressure 
constantly vary from nothing to a positive amount with rest or 
movement of muscles, change of posture, &c. 

The arterial pressure is raised during exertion by the more forcible 
beat of the heart e.g. pressures of 140-190 mm. Hg have been 
observed immediately after a 3-mile race. It rapidly sinks to a 
lower level than usual after the exertion is over, e.g. 90 mm. Hg, 
owing to the quieter action of the heart and the persistence of the 
cutaneous dilatation of the blood vessels which is evoked by the rise 
of body temperature. The writer has observed in athletes rectal 
temperatures of 102-105 F. after long races. After meals there is 
an increase in cardiac force to maintain the flow through the dilated 
splanchnic vessels. Mental excitement raises the pressure e.g. 
the writer's pressure may be no mm. before and 125 mm. Hg 
after giving a lecture. The origin of the blood pressure in the arteries 
is the energy of the heart. The pressure gradient depends on the 
peripheral resistance. In the arterials the pressure is spent, and 
little of it reaches the capillaries. The return of the capillary blood 
to the veins and the pressure in the veins is due partly to the re- 
mainder of the cardiac force, but more largely to the contraction 
of the skeletal muscles and the viscera, to the action of gravity 
in changes of posture and to the respiratory pump. 

The pulmonary artery, carrying venous blood, divides and sub- 
divides, and the smallest branches end in a plexus of capillaries 
on the walls of the air-cells of the lung. From this plexus 
the blood is drained by the radicles of the four pulmonary 
veins which open into the left auricle. The pressure in 
the pulmonary artery is less than one-third the aortic 
pressure, and the blood takes only one-third of thetime to 
complete the pulmonary circuit that it takes to make the systemic. 
The four chief factors which influence the pulmonary circulation 
are: (i) the forca and output of the right ventricle; (2) the diastolic 
filling action of the left auricle and ventricle; (3) the diameter of 
the pulmonary capillaries, which varies with the respiratory ex- 
pansion of the lungs; (4) the intrathoracic pressure. 

In inspiration the lungs are distended in consequence of the 
greater positive pressure on the inner surfaces being greater than 
the negative pressure on their outer pleural surfaces. The negative 
pressure in the intrathoracic cavity results from the enlargement 
of the thorax by the inspiratory muscles. When the elastic lungs 
are distended by a full inspiration they exert an elastic traction 
amounting to about 15 mm. Hg. The heart and vessels within the 
thorax are submitted to this traction that is, to the pressure of 
the atmosphere minus 15 mm. Hg while the vascular system of 
the rest of the body bears the full atmospheric pressure. The thin- 
walled auricles and veins yield more to this elastic traction than 
the thick-walled ventricles and arteries. Thus inspiration exerts a 
suction action, which furthers the filling of the veins and auricles. 
This action is assisted by the positive pressure exerted by the 
descending diaphragm on the contents of the abdomen. Blood 
is thus both pushed and sucked into the heart in increased amount 
during inspiration. 

Experiment has shown that the blood vessels of the lungs when 
distended are wider than those of collapsed lungs. Suppose an 
elastic bag having minute tubes in its walls be dilated by blowing 
into it, the lumina of the tubes will be lessened, and the same occurs 
in the lungs if they are artificially inflated with air; but if the bag 
be placed in a glass bottle, and the pressure on its outer surface be 
diminished by removing air from the space between the bag and 
the side of the bottle, the bag will distend and the lumina of the 
tubes be increased. Thus it is evident that inspiration, by increas- 
ing the calibre of the pulmonary vessels, draws blood into the lungs, 
and the movements of the lungs become an effective force in carrying 
on the pulmonary circulation. It has been estimated that there is 
about one-twelfth of the whole blood quantum in the lungs during 
inspiration, and one-fifteenth during expiration. The great degree 
of distensibility of the pulmonary vessels allows of frequent adjust- 
ments being made, so that within wide limits as much blood in a 
given time will pass through the pulmonary as through the systemic 
system. The limits of their adjustment may, however, be exceeded 
during violent muscular exertion. The compressive action of the 
skeletal muscles returns the blood to the venous cistern, and if more 
arrives than can be transmitted through the lungs in a given time, 
the right heart becomes engorged, breathlessness occurs, and signs 
of venous congestion appear in the flushed face and turgid veins. 
The weaker the musculature of the heart the more likely is this 
to occur; hence the breathlessness on exertion which characterizes 
cardiac affections. The training of an athlete consists largely in 
developing and adjusting his heart to meet this strain. Similarly 
the weak heart may be trained and improved by carefully adjusted 
exercise. Rhythmic compression of the thorax is the proper 
method of resuscitation from suffocation, for this not only aerates 
the lungs, but produces a circulation of blood. By compressing 
the abdomen to fill the heart, and then compressing the thorax to 
empty it, the valves meanwhile directing the flow, a pressure of 
blood can be maintained in the aorta even when the heart has ceased 
to beat, and this if patiently continued may lead to renewal of 
the heart-beat. There is no certain evidence that the pulmonary 
arteries are controlled by vaso-motor nerves. In the intact animal 



The 
portal 
circula- 
tion. 



The 

cerebral 
circula- 
tion. 



it is difficult to determine whether a rise of pressure in the pul- 
monary artery is induced really by constriction of the pulmonary 
system, or by changes in the output of the heart; hence different 
observers have reached conflicting conclusions. In the case of 
lungs which have been supplied with an artificial circulation and a 
constant head of pressure to eliminate the action of the heart, no 
diminution in outflow has been observed in exciting the branches of 
the vagus or sympathetic nerves which supply the lungs, or by the 
injection of adrenalin (Sir Benjamin C. Brodie (1783-1862), and 
Dixon, Burton-Spitz). 

The portal circulation is peculiar in that the blood passes through 
two sets of capillaries. Arterial blood is conveyed to the capillary 
networks of the stomach, spleen, pancreas and intestines 
by branches of the abdominal aorta. The portal vein is 
formed by the confluence of the mesenteric veins with the 
splenic vein, which together drain these capillaries. The 
portal blood breaks up into a second plexus of capillaries 
within the substance of the liver. The hepatic veins carry the blood 
from this plexus into the inferior vena cava. Ligation of the portal 
vein causes intense congestion of the abdominal vessels, and so dis- 
tensile are these that they can hold nearly all the blood in the body : 
thus the arterial pressure quickly falls, and the animal dies just as if it 
had been bled to death. The portal circulation is largely maintained 
by the action of the respiratory pump, the peristaltic movements 
of the intestine and the rhythmic contractions of the spleen; these 
agencies help to drive the blood through the second set of capillaries 
in the liver. The systole of the heart may tell back on the liver and 
cause it to swell, for there are no valves between it and the inferior 
vena cava. Obstruction in the right heart or pulmonary circula- 
tion at once tells back on the liver. The increased respiration 
which results from muscular exercise greatly furthers the hepatic 
circulation^ while it increases the consumption of food material. 
Thus exercise relieves the over-fed man. The liver is so vascular 
and extensile that it may hold one-quarter of the blood in the body. 

The circulation of the brain is somewhat peculiar, since this 
organ is enclosed in a rigid bony covering. The limbs, glands and 
viscera can expand considerably when the blood pressure 
rises, but the expansion of the brain is confined. By the 
expression of venous blood from the veins and sinuses the 
brain can receive a larger supply of arterial blood at 
each pulse. Increase in arterial pressure increases the 
velocity of flow through the brain, the whole cerebral vascular 
system behaving like a system of rigid tubes when the limits 
of expansion have been reached. For as the pressure transmitted 
directly through the arteries to the capillary veins must always 
be greater than that transmitted through the elastic wall of 
the arteries to the brain tissue, the expansion of the arteries can- 
not obliterate the lumina of the veins. The pressure of the brain 
against the skull wall is circulatory in origin: in the infant's 
fontanelle the brain can be felt to pulse with each heart-beat and 
to expand with expiration. The expiratory impediment to the 
venous flow produces this expansion. A blood clot on the brain or 
depressed piece of bone raise the brain pressure by obliterating the 
capillaries in the compressed area and raising the pressure therein 
to the arterial pressure. The arterial supply to the brain by the 
two carotid and two vertebral arteries is so abundant, and so 
assured by the anastomosis of these vessels in the circle of Willis, 
that at least two of the arteries in the monkey can be tied without 
grave effect. Sudden compression of both carotids may render a 
man unconscious, but will not destroy life, for the centres of respira- 
tion, &c., are supplied by the vertebral arteries. The vertebral 
arteries in their passage to the brain are protected from compression 
by the cervical vertebrae. 

Whether the muscular coat of the cerebral arteries is supplied 
with vaso-motor nerves is uncertain. Hiirthle and others observed 
a rise of pressure in the peripheral end of the carotid artery on 
stimulating the cervical sympathetic nerve. The writer found this 
to be so only when the cervical sympathetic nerve was excited on 
the same side as the carotid pressure was recorded. If the circle 
of Willis was constricted, excitation of either nerve ought to have 
the effect; it is possible that the effect was produced by the vaso- 
constriction of the extra-cranial branches of the carotid. After 
establishing an artificial circulation of the brain Wiggins found that' 
adding adrenalin to the nutritive fluid reduced the outflow, and it 
is supposed that adrenalin acts by stimulating the ends of the vaso- 
motor nerves, rather than by stimulating the muscular coats of 
the arteries. The veins of the pia and dura mater have no middle 
muscular coat and no valves. The venous blood emerges from the 
skull in man mainly through the opening of the lateral sinuses into 
the internal jugular vein; there are communications between the 
cavernous sinuses and the ophthalmic veins of the facial system, 
and with the venous plexuses of the spinal cord. The points of 
emergence of the veins are well protected from closure by compres- 
sion. The brain can regulate its own blood supply by means of the 
cardiac and vaso-motor centres. Deficient supply to these centres 
excites increased frequency of the heart and constriction of the 
arteries, especially those of the great splanchnic area. Cerebral 
excitement has the same effect, so that the active brain is assured of 
a greater blood supply (Bayliss and L. Hill). 



942 



VASCULAR SYSTEM 



The cir- 
culation 
during 
muscular 
activity. 



In each unit of time the same quantity of blood must, on the 
average, flow through the lesser and greater circuit, for otherwise the 
circulation would not continue. Likewise, the average 
velocity at any part of the vascular system must be in- 
versely proportional to the total cross-section at that part. 
In other words, where the bed is wider, the stream is slower; 
the total sectional area of the capillaries is roughly 
estimated to be 700 times greater than that of the aorta 
or venae cavae. Any 'general change in velocity at any section of 
this circuit tells both backwards and forwards on the velocity in all 
other sections, for the average velocity in the arteries, veins and 
capillaries, these vessels being taken respectively as a whole, depends 
always on the relative areas of their total cross-sections. 

The vascular system is especially constructed so that considerable 
changes of pressure may be brought about in the arterial section, 
without any (or scarcely any) alteration of the pressures in the 
venous or pulmonary sections of the circulatory system. A high- 
pressure main (the arteries) runs to all the organs, and this is supplied 
with taps ; for by means of the vaso-motor nerves which control the 
diameter of the arterioles, the stream can be turned on here or there, 
and any part flushed with the blood, while the supply to the remain- 
ing parts is kept under control. Normally, the sum of the resistances 
which at any moment opposes the outflow through the capillaries 
is maintained at the same value, for the vascular system is so co- 
ordinated by the nervous system that dilatation of the arterioles 
in any one organ is compensated for by constriction in another. 
Thus the arterial pressure remains constant, except at times of great 
activity. The great splanchnic area of arterioles acts as " the resist- 
ance box " of the arterial system. By the constriction of these 
arterioles during mental or muscular activity the blood current is 
switched off the abdominal organs on to the brain and muscles, while 
by dilating during rest and digestion they produce the contrary effect. 
The constriction of the splanchnic vessels does not sensibly diminish 
the capacity of the total vascular system, for the veins possess little 
elasticity. Thus variations of arterial pressure, brought about by 
constriction or dilatation of the arterial system, produce little or no 
effect on the pressure in the great veins or pulmonary circuit. The 
contraction of the abdominal muscles, on the other hand, greatly 
influences the diastolic or filling pressure of the heart. It is obviously 
of the utmost importance that the heart should not be over-dilated 
by an increased filling pressure during the period of diastole. 

When a man strains to lift a heavy weight he closes the glottis, 
and by contracting the muscles which are attached to the thorax 
raises the intrathoracic pressure. The rise of intrathoracic pressure 
aids the pericardium in supporting the heart, and prevents over- 
dilatation by resisting the increase in venous blood pressure. This 
increase results from the powerful and sustained contraction of the 
abdominal and other skeletal muscles. In the diagram already given 
it is clear that the contraction of T will counteract the contraction 
of A. At the same time the rise of intrathoracic pressure supports 
the lungs, and prevents the blood, driven out from the veins, from 
congesting within the pulmonary vessels. Over-dilatation both of 
the heart and lungs being thus prevented, the blood expressed from 
the abdomen is driven through the lungs into the left ventricle, and 
so into the arteries. So long as the general and intense muscular 
spasms continue, there is increased resistance to the outflow of the 
blood through the capillaries both of the abdominal viscera and the 
limbs. The arterial pressure rises, therefore, and the flow of blood 
to the central nervous system is increased. The rise of the intra- 
thoracic and intra-abdominal pressures, and the sustained contrac- 
tion of the skeletal muscles, alike hinder the return of venous blood 
from the capillaries to the heart, and, owing to this, the face and 
limbs become congested until the veins stand out as knotted cords. 
It is obvious that at this stage the total capacity of the vascular 
system is greatly diminished, and the pressure in all parts of the 
system is raised. It is during such a muscular effort that a degener- 
ated vessel in the brain is prone to rupture and occasion apoplexy. 
The venous obstruction quickly leads to diminished diastolic filling 
of the heart, and to such a decreased velocity of blood flow that the 
effort is terminated by the lack of oxygen in the brain. During 
any violent exercise, such as running, the skeletal muscles alternately 
contract and expand, and the full flood of the circulation flows through 
the locomotor organs. The stroke of the heart is then both more 
energetic and more frequent, and the blood circulates with in- 
creased velocity. Under these conditions the filling of the heart is 
maintained by the pumping action of the skeletal and respiratory 
muscles. The abdominal- wall is tonically contracted, and the 
reserve of blood is driven from the splanchnic vessels to fill the 
dilated vessels of the locomotor organs. The thorax is tonically 
elevated and the thoracic cavity enlarged, so that the pulmonary 
vessels are dilated. At each respiration the pressure within the 
thoracic cavity becomes less than that of the atmosphere, and the 
blood is aspirated from the veins into the right side of the heart and 
lungs; conversely, at each expiration the thoracic pressure increases, 
and the blood is expressed from the lungs into the left side of the 
heart. While the respiratory pump at all times renders important 
aid to the circulation of the blood, its action becomes of supreme 
importance during such an exercise as running. The runner pants 
for breath, and this not only increases the intake of oxygen, but 



Influence 
of pos- 
ture on 
the cir- 
culation. 

Such is 



maintains the diastolic filling of the heart. It is of the utmost 
importance that man should grasp the fact that the circulation of 
the blood depends not only on the heart, but on the vigour of the 
respiration and the activity of the skeletal muscles. Muscular 
exercise is for this reason a sine qu& non for the maintenance of 
vigorous mental and bodily health. Under the influence of the 
muscular system comes not only the blood but the lymph. The 
lymphatics form a subsidiary system of small valved vessels, and 
drain the tissues of the excess of lymph, which transudes from the 
capillaries of the organs during functional activity, or in con- 
sequence of venous obstruction. The larger lymphatics open into 
the veins at the root of the neck. It is chiefly by the compressive 
action of the skeletal and visceral muscles, and the aspirating action 
of the respiratory pump, that the lymph is propelled onwards. 
It must be borne in mind that the descent of the diaphragm during 
inspiration compresses the abdominal organs, and thus aids the 
aspirating action of the thorax in furthering the return to the heart 
both of venous blood and of lymph. 

The circulation remains efficient not only in the horizontal but 
also in the erect position, and just as much so when a man, like a 
gymnast, is ceaselessly shifting the position of his body. 
Yet in a man standing six feet the hydrostatic pressure of 
a column of blood reaching from the vertex to the soles of 
the feet is equal to 14 cm. of mercury. The blood, owing 
to its weight, continually presses downwards, and under the 
influence of gravity would sink if the veins and capillaries of 
the lower parts were sufficiently extensile to contain it. 
actually the case in the snake or eel, for the heart empties so soon as 
one of these animals is immobilized in the vertical posture. This does 
not occur in an eel or snake immersed in water, for the hydrostatic 
pressure of the column of water outside balances that of the blood 
within. During the evolution of man there have been developed 
special mechanisms by which the determination of the blood to 
the lower parts is prevented, and the assumption of the erect posture 
rendered possible. The pericardium is suspended above by the 
deep cervical fascia, while below it is attached to the central tendon 
of the diaphragm. Almost all displacement of the heart is thus 
prevented. The pericardium supports the right heart when the 
weight of a long column of venous blood suddenly bears upon it, 
as, for example, when a man stands on his head. The abdominal 
viscera are slung upwards to the spine, while below they are sup- 
ported by the pelvic basin and the wall of the abdomen, the muscles 
of which are arranged so as to act as a natural waist-band. In tame 
hutch rabbits, with large patulous abdomens, death may result 
in from 15 to 30 minutes if the animals are suspended and im- 
mobilized in the erect posture, for the circulation through the 
brain ceases and the heart soon becomes emptied of blood. If, 
however, the capacious veins of the abdomen be confined by 
an abdominal bandage, no such result occurs. Man is naturally 
provided with an efficient abdominal belt, although this in many 
is rendered toneless by neglect of exercise and gross or indolent 
living. The splanchnic arterioles are maintained in tonic con- 
traction by the vaso-motor centre, and thus the flow of blood to 
the abdominal viscera is confined within due limits. The veins 
of the limbs are broken into short segments by valves, and these 
support the weight of the blood in the erect posture. The brain 
is confined within the rigid wall of the skull, and by this wall are 
the cerebral vessels supported and confined when the pressure is 
increased by the head-down posture. Every contraction of the 
skeletal muscles compresses the veins of the body and limbs, for 
these are confined beneath the taut and elastic skin. The pressure 
of the body against external objects has a like result. Guided by 
the valves of the veins, the blood is by such means continually 
driven upwards into the venae cavae. If the reader hangs one 
arm motionless, until the veins at the back of the hand become con- 
gested, and then either elevates the limb or forcibly clenches the 
fist, he will recognize the enormous influence which muscular 
exercise, and continual change of posture, has on the return of 
blood to the heart. It becomes wearisome and soon impossible 
for a man to stand motionless. When a man is crucified that is 
to say, immobilized in the erect posture the blood slowly sinks 
to the most dependent parts, oedema and thirst result, and finally 
death from cerebral anaemia ensues. In man, standing erect, 
the heart is situated above its chief reservoir the abdominal 
veins. The blood is raised by the action of the respiratory move- 
ments, which act both as a suction and as a force pump, for the 
blood is not only aspirated into the right ventricle by the expansion 
of the thoracic cavity, but is expressed from the abdomen by the 
descent of the diaphragm. When a man faints from fear, his 
muscular system is relaxed and respiration inhibited. The blood 
in consequence sinks into the abdomen, the face blanches and the 
heart fails to fill. He is resuscitated either by compression of the 
abdomen, or by being placed in the head-down posture. To prevent 
faintness and drive the blood-stream to his brain and muscles, a 
soldier tightens his belt before entering into action. Similarly, men 
and women with lax abdominal wall and toneless muscles take refuge 
in the wearing of abdominal belts, and find comfort in prolonged 
immersion in baths. It would be more rational if they practised 
rope-hauling, and, like fishermen, hardened their abdominal muscles. 



VASCULAR SYSTEM 



943 



In the mature foetus the fluid brought from the placenta by the 
umbilical vein is partly conveyed at once to the vena cava ascendens 
by means of the ductus venosus and partly flows through 
Foetal. two trun k s that um 't e w jth the portal vein, returning the 
blood from the intestines into the substance of the liver, thence to 
be carried back to the vena cava by the hepatic vein. Having thus 
been transmitted through the placenta and the liver, the blood that 
enters the vena cava is purely arterial in character; but, being mixed 
in the vessels with the venous blood returned from the trunk and 
lower extremities, it loses this character in some degree by the time 
that it reaches the heart. In the right auricle, which it then enters, 
it would also be mixed with the venous blood brought down from 
the head and upper extremities by the descending vena cava were 
it not that a provision exists to impede (if it does not entirely 
prevent) any further admixture. This consists in the arrangement 
of the Eustachian valve, which directs the arterial current (that 
flows upwards through the ascending vena cava) into the left side 
of the heart, through the foramen ovale an opening in the septum 
between the auricles whilst it directs the venous current (that is 
being returned by the superior vena cava) into the right ventricle. 
When the ventricles contract, the arterial blood contained in the 
left is propelled into the ascending aorta, and supplies the branches 
that proceed to the head and upper extremities before it undergoes 
any further admixture, whilst the venous blood contained in the 
right ventricle is forced into the pulmonary artery, and thence 
through the ductus arteriosus branching off from the pulmonary 
artery before it passes to the two lungs into the descending aorta, 
mingling with the arterial currents which that vessel previously 
conveyed, and thus supplying the trunk and lower extremities with 
a mixed fluid. A portion of this is conveyed by the umbilical 
arteries to the placenta, in which it undergoes the renovating in- 
fluence of the maternal blood, and from which it is returned in a 
state of purity. In consequence of this arrangement the head 
and upper extremities are supplied with pure blood returning from 
the placenta, whilst the rest of the body receives blood which is 
partly venous. This is probably the explanation of the fact that the 
head and upper extremities are most developed, and from their 
weight occupy the inferior position in the uterus. At birth the 
course of the circulation undergoes changes. As soon as the lungs 
are distended by the first inspiration, a portion of the blood of the 
pulmonary artery is diverted into them and undergoes aeration; 
and, as this portion increases with the full activity of the lungs, 
the ductus arteriosus gradually shrinks, and its cavity finally 
becomes obliterated. At the same time the foramen ovale is closed 
by a valvular fold, and thus the direct communication between the 
two auricles is cut off. When these changes have been accomplished, 
the circulation, which was before carried on upon the plan of that 
of the higher reptiles, becomes that of the complete warm-blooded 
animal, all the blood which has been returned in a venous state to 
the right side of the heart being transmitted through the lungs before 
it can reach the left side or be propelled from its arterial trunks. 
After birth the umbilical arteries shrink and close up and become 
the lateral ligaments of the bladder, while their upper parts remain 
as the superior vesical arteries. The umbilical vein becomes the 
ligamentum teres. The ductus venosus also shrinks and finally is 
closed. The foramen ovale is also closed, and the ductus arteriosus 
shrivels and becomes the ligamentum arteriosum. 

The blood vessels are supplied with constrictor and dilator nerve 
fibres which regulate the size of the vascular bed and the distribu- 
tion of the blood to the various organs. The arteries may be 
e vaso- com p are( l to a high pressure main supplying a town. By 
means of the vaso-motor nerves the arterioles (the house 
' es ' taps) can be opened or closed and the current switched 
on to or off any organ according to its functional needs. If all the 
arterioles be dilated at one and the same time, the aortic pressure 
falls, and the blood taking the pathways of least resistance, gravi- 
tates to the most dependent parts of the vascular system, just as if 
all the taps in a town were opened at once the pressure in the main 
would fail, and only the taps in the lower parts of the town would 
receive a supply. The discovery of the vaso-motor nerves is due 
to Claude Bernard (iSS 1 )- He discovered that by section of the 
cervical sympathetic nerve he could make the ear of a rabbit flush, 
while by stimulation of this nerve he could make it blanch. Claude 
Bernard had the good fortune to make the further discovery that 
stimulation of certain nerves, such as the chorda tympani supplying 
the salivary gland, produces an active dilatation of the blood vessels. 
The vaso-constrictor fibres issue in the anterior spinal roots, from 
the second thoracic to the second lumbar root, and pass to the sym- 
pathetic chain of ganglia. The fibres are of small diameter, and 
probably arise from cells situated in the lateral horn of the grey 
matter of the spinal cord. They each have a cell station in one 
other ganglion and proceed as post-ganglionic fibres to the cervical 
sympathetic, to the mesenteric nerves and to the nerves of the limbs. 
Nicotine paralyses ganglion cells, and by applying this test to the 
various ganglia the cell stations of the vaso-constrictor_ fibres sup- 

C lying each organ have been mapped out. The vaso-dilator fibres 
ave not so restricted an origin, for they issue in the efferent roots 
in all parts of the neural axis. The two kinds of nerves, although 
antagonistic in action, end in the same terminal plexus which 



surrounds the vessels. The presence of vaso-dilator fibres in the 
common nerve trunks is masked, on excitation, by the overpowering 
action of the vaso-constrictor nerves. The latter are, however, more 
rapidly fatigued than the former, and by this and other means 
the presence of vaso-dilator fibres can be demonstrated in almost 
all parts of the body. The neryi-erigentes to the penis and the 
chorda tympani supplying the salivary glands are the most striking 
examples of vaso-dilator nerves. The vaso-dilator nerves for the 
limbs issue in the posterior spinal roots (Bayliss). The posterior roots 
.contain the afferent nerves (touch, pain, &c.). Excitation of these 
fibres causes reflexly a rise of blood pressure directly, a vaso-dilata- 
tion of the part the nerves supply. Thus it is assured that the 
irritated or injured part receives immediately a greater supply of 
blood. The vaso-motor centre exerts a tonic influence over the 
calibre of the arterial and portal systems. 

Much labour has been done since to determine the origin and 
exact distribution of the vaso-motor nerves to the various organs, 
and the reflex conditions under which they come normally into 
action, and, as the fruit, our knowledge of these inquiries has come to 
a condition of considerable exactness. This knowledge is of great 
practical importance to the physician, and it is worth noting that 
it has been obtained entirely by experiment on living but anaes- 
thetized animals. No dissections of the dead animal could have 
informed us of the vaso-motor nerves. Vaso-motor effects can be 
studied by_(i) inspection of the flushing or blanching of an organ; 
(2) measuring the venous outflow; (3) recording the pressure in the 
artery going to and the vein leaving the organ ; (4) observations on 
the volume of an organ. To make these observations, the organ is 
enclosed in a suitable air-tight box or plethysmograph, an' opening 
being contrived for the vessels of the organ to pass through so that 
the circulation may continue. The box is filled with air or water 
and is connected with a recording tambour (see fig. 18). 

The chief effects of vaso-constriction are an increased resistance 
and lessened flow through the organ, diminished volume and tension 
of the organ, the yenous blood issues from it darker in colour and 
the pressure rises in the artery and falls in the vein of the organ, 
and its temperature sinks. Lastly, if a large area be constricted 
the general arterial pressure rises. 

The centre is situated in the spinal bulb beneath the middle of the 
floor of the fourth ventricle. The tone of the vascular system is not 
disturbed when the great brain and mid brain is destroyed as far 
as the region of the pons Varplii, but as soon as the spinal bulb is 
injured or destroyed the arterial pressure falls very greatly, and the 
animal passes into the condition of surgical shock if kept alive by 
artificial respiration. Painting the floor of the fourth ventricle 
with a local anaesthetic, e.g. cocaine, has the same lowering effect 
on the blood pressure. Division of the cervical spinal cord or of the 
splanchnic nerves lowers the blood pressure greatly. The one lesion 
cuts off the whole body, the other the abdominal organs from the 
tonic influence of the centre. The fall of pressure is due almost 
entirely to the pooling of the blood in the portal veins and vena 
cava inferior. On the other hand, electrical excitation of the lower 
end of the divided cord or splanchnic nerves raises the pressure 
by restoring the vascular tone. If an animal be kept alive after 
division of the spinal cord in the lower cervical region, as it may be, 
for the phrenics, the chief motor nerves of respiration, come off 
above this region, it is found that the vascular tone after a time 
becomes restored and the condition of shock passes away. By no 
second section of the spinal cord can the general condition of shock 
be reproduced, but a total obstruction of the cord once more causes 
a general loss of the vascular tone. From the experimental result, 
so obtained, it is argued that subsidiary vaso-motor centres exist 
in the spinal cord, and there is evidence to show that these centres 
may be excited reflexly. After the lumbar cord has been destroyed 
the tone of the vessels of the lower limbs is recovered in the course of 
a few days. In this case the recovery is attributed to the ganglionic 
and nervous structures which are intercalated between the spinal 
cord and the muscular walls of the blood vessels. There are thus 
three mechanisms of control, the bulbar centre' influenced par- 
ticularly by the visual, auditory and vestibular nerves, the spinal 
centres and the peripheral ganglionic structures. 

The vaso-motor centre is reflexly excited by the afferent nerves, 
and its ever-varying tonic action is made up of the balance of the 
" pressor " and " depressor " influences which thus reach it, and 
from the quality of the blood which circulates through it. Pressor 
effects, i.e. those causing increased constriction and rise of arterial 
pressure, may be produced by stimulating the central end of almost 
any afferent nerve, and especially that of a cutaneous nerve. 
Depressor effects are always obtained by stimulating the depressor 
nerve, and may be obtained by stimulating the afferent nerves 
under special conditions. That these reflex vaso-motor effects 
frequently occur is shown by the blush of shame, the blanching of 
the face by fear, the blanching of the skin by exposure to cold and 
the flushing which is produced -by heat. The rabbit's ear blanches 
if its feet are put into cold water. The vaso-motor mechanism 
is one of the most important of those mechanisms which control 
the body heat. Stimulation of the nasal mucous membrane causes 
flushing of the vessels of the head, constriction elsewhere and a 
rise of arterial pressure. Food in the mouth, or even the sight or 



944 



VASCULAR SYSTEM 



smell of food, cause dilatation of the vessels of the salivary gland. 
The mucous membrane of the air passages flush and secrete more 
actively when fi draught of cold air strikes the skin. Ice placed on 
the abdomen constricts not only the vessels in the skin but those in 
the kidney. Many other examples might be given of the control 
which the vaso-motor system exerts, but the above are sufficient to 
suggest the influence which the physician can bring to bear on the 
blood supply of the various organs. 

Discussion has taken place as to whether depressor reflexes are 
brought about by lessening of the vaso-constrictor tone or by ex- 
citation of vaso-dilator nerves. Proof of an undoubtable character 
seems to have been produced that after division of the vaso-con- 
strictor nerves dilatation of a limb can be brought about reflexly 
by stimulating the depressor nerve, and in this case the effect must 
be produced by active excitation of the vaso-dilator nerves. 

Under certain unusual conditions, e.g. deficient supply of oxygen, 
the vaso-motor centre exhibits rhythmical variations in tonicity 
which make themselves visible as rhythmical rises and falls of 
arterial pressure of slow tempo. A waxing and waning of respira- 
tion (Cheyne-Stokes breathing) frequently accompanies these waves. 
Such are observed in sleep, especially in children and in hibernating 
animals. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. References to all the authoritative papers up to 
1892 on the circulation of the blood will be found in Tigerstedt's 
Lehrbuch der Physiologic des Kreislaufs, and up to 1905-1908 in the 
articles on the circulation published in Nagel's Hand-buck der 
Physiologic des Menschen, viz. "Allgemeine Physiologic des Herzens, 
Die Innervation der Kreislaufsorgane," by F. B. Hofmann, " Die 
Mechanik der Kreislaufsorgane," by O. Frank. An elementary intro- 
duction to the subject will be found in Leonard Hill's Manual of 
Physiology, and a more extensive treatment of it in the same author's 
article on the " Mechanism of the Circulation," and Gaskell's article 
on the " Heart " in Schafer's Text-Book of Physiology, or in one of 

y, such as that of fiowell, Stewart 



the larger text-books of physiology, 
Halliburton or Starling. 



(L. E. H.) 



IV. PATHOLOGY or THE VASCULAR SYSTEM 

On account of its intimate relations with every part of the 
body, the circulation is prone to disturbances arising from a 
great series of causes. Some of these produce effects which 
may be regarded as functional mere changes in metabolism, 
whose disturbances react upon the rest of the body; others 
give rise to definite structural alterations. In considering the 
pathology of the circulation, it is useful to divide it into that of 
the heart, that of the blood vessels and that of the blood. 

The heart is liable to changes in the pericardium, malforma- 
tions, changes in the myocardium, changes in the 
heart. endocardium, valvular lesions and functional dis- 
orders. 

(i) The pericardium may become the seat of morbid changes in 
various cardiac enlargements, it may become stretched or dis- 
tended; but the most common and important of the changes is 
an inflammatory one, i.e. pericarditis. This may arise by way of 
the blood stream, as in rheumatism, scarlatina and other infective 
diseases, or by way of the lymph stream. The micro-organisms 
chiefly responsible for the production of pericarditis are the pneumo- 
coccus, the different varieties of streptococci and staphylococci, 
the bacillus tuberculosis, the bacillus coli, and sometimes the gono- 
coccus. In the acute form of the disease the shining serous membrane 
becomes first dull and lustreless, the blood vessels engorged and an 
exudation of serum takes place; then fibrin is deposited both on 
the visceral and parietal layers. When the fluid is insufficient to 
keep the surfaces apart, the separation at each diastole gives rise to 
the well-know_n " friction rub. Sometimes the amount of exuda- 
tion pent up in the pericardial sac is so great as to necessitate its 
being drawn off. The fluid may be serous or sero-fibrinous, or may 
be haemorrhagic, or have undergone a putrefactive change. An 
effusion of serous fluid into the pericardial sac causes considerable 
embarrassment to the course of the blood, by rendering the negative 
pressure, normally present in the sac, positive. The reason for the 
interference with the circulation brought about by this alteration 
of pressure is that the auricles are by compression rendered incap- 
able of accommodating the blood-return from the veins. Analogous 
effects are produced by pressure upon the heart from without, 
whether by aneurysm or tumour, and pleural effusion or pneumo- 
thorax, affecting the viscera from without. In pericarditis it has 
further to be remembered that the effect of the process itself upon 
the muscle fibres lying beneath the membrane is to cause a softening 
of texture and weakenjng of function, whereby the driving power 
of the heart is diminished. In obliteration of the pericardium, 
again, the presence of the adhesions between these two layers leads 
to interference with the contraction of the myocardium, whereby its 
functions are interfered with. Acute ventricular dilatation may 
be associated with pericarditis particularly when the latter is of 
rheumatic origin and is the result of the myocardial softening 



referred to. Pericardial effusions usually undergo absorption, but 
various adhesions, and thickenings known as " white spots," may 
remain. Effusions other than inflammatory are found in the peri- 
cardium, i.e. hydropericardium, a dropsical accumulation, may be 
mistaken for an inflammatory one. It occurs in scarlatina, Bright's 
disease, as part of a general dropsy, or occasionally from some 
mechanical difficulty interfering with the local circulation. When 
the fluid is abundant, it may produce the effects noticed under the 
inflammatory effusion, and the pericardium may become soddened 
and its endothelium degenerated. Haemopericardium, or blood 
in the pericardium, may occur apart from the amount that may 
be mixed with inflammatory effusions. It is associated with 
foreign bodies penetrating from the oesophagus, rupture of an 
aneurysm, or occasionally associated with scurvy and purpura. 
Gas and air may sometimes distend the pericardium. It is also 
liable to new growths, which are usually secondary in character, 
and tuberculosis and hydatids are sometimes found. 

(2) Malformations. We are ignorant of the causes which lead to 
imperfect development of the heart. Many of its malformations 
are of purely pathological interest, but others, such as deficiencies 
of the intra ventricular septum, non-closure of the foramen ovale, 
patency of the ductus arteriosus, or malformations of the valves, pro- 
duce a series of secondary effects resultant on the deficient aeration of 
the blood and sluggishness of the circulation and of venous con- 
gestion. The train of symptoms is similar to those mentioned below 
under acquired valvular lesions, but dropsy is very rare. 

(3) The Myocardium. The coverings of the heart muscle can- 
not long be diseased without affecting the contractile substance 
itself. Any morbid changes in the lung tissues which impede 
the circulation through them, and more particularly emphysema, 
lead to change in the substance of the right ventricle, while morbid 
changes in the systemic arteries lead to changes in the left ventricle. 
In hypertrophy we have an increase of substance. Tangl found 
by direct measurement that the muscle cells are increased in 
diameter. The hypertrophy may be due to increased work thrown 
upon the muscle, as in athletics (idiopathic hypertrophy), or may 
be compensatory, when the muscle is trying to overcome a circu- 
latory defect, as in valvular stenosis or regurgitation. Hyper- 
trophy, when within physiological limits, is to be considered as 
a means of adaptation. When occurring in pathological cir- 
cumstances, it must be regarded as a method of compensation. 
Every structure and every function in a healthy body has greater 
or lesser reserve of energy. In healthy conditions the ordinary 
demands made upon various organs are far below their possible 
responses, and if these be excessive in extent or duration, the 
organs adapt themselves to the conditions imposed on them. In 
abnormal circumstances the process of hypertrophy is brought 
about by the power which the structures have of responding to the 
demands made upon them ; and so long as the process is adequate, 
all disturbances may be averted. As an example of such readjust- 
ment may be cited the fact that in chronic renal cirrhosis, with 
increased thickness of the middle tunic of the arteries, there is 
hypertrophy of the left ventricle. 

Dilatation of the heart is due to the inability of the heart muscle 
to expel the contents of its cavities. It may occur from temporary 
overstress or in the failing compensation of valvular disease, or 
may accompany pathological changes in the muscle such as myo- 
carditis or one of the degenerations. 

From the presence of toxic substances in the blood (whether 
introduced from without or arising within tha body) the cells of 
the cardiac muscle fibres are apt to undergo what is termed cloudy 
swelling the simplest form of degenerative process. The cells 
become larger and duller, with a granular appearance, and the 
nuclei are less distinct. As a result of interference with nutrition, 
whether by simple diminution or perverted processes, fatty de- 
generation ensues. It may be associated, but is not necessarily 
connected, with adipose accumulation and encroachment commonly 
termed infiltration. In true fatty degeneration the muscle cells 
have part of their protoplasm converted into adipose tissue. The 
fibres become granular, and the cells lose their definition, while the 
nuclei are obscure. 

The myocardium undergoes both acute and chronic reaction 
changes. In the former there is enlargement of the nuclei, with 
proliferation but without karyokinesis. The muscle cells become 
swollen and lose their striation, while they are softer in texture 
and altered in outline. The intermuscular tissues are swollen, 
and may be invaded by leucocytes; this may end in abscess for- 
mation or in the production of newly formed fibrous tissue. Chronic 
processes affecting the myocardium give rise to a large amount of 
fibrosis, and the newly formed fibrous tissue separates and com- 
presses the areas of muscle fibres, giving rise to what is commonly 
known as chronic interstitial myocarditis. 

Restitution or recovery may occur to a varying extent in almost 
all of the disease-processes which have been considered, but it has 
to be kept in view that in certain of the degenerative affections 
there is little if any possibility of getting rid of the results of the 
process, which in the reactive changes terminating in the formation 
of much fibrous tissue, or its conversion into adipose or calcareous 
material, the same holds true. Many of the changes, which are 



VASCULAR SYSTEM 



945 



no doubt in their essence conservative, lead to far-reaching con- 
sequences, by their interference with nutritive possibilities. 

Diseased conditions of the myocardium are frequently associated 
with atheromatous degenerations of the coronary arteries, and angina 
pectoris is said to depend upon such state of malnutrition. 

The causes which operate by means of the myocardium are 
almost invariably of a secondary character. The various degenera- 
tions already detailed, and the different forms of myocarditis, as 
well as simple debility of the muscle, are all examples of changes 
due to general or local disturbance. All processes which directly 
or indirectly interfere with the energy of the walls of the heart 
produce twofold effects, by diminishing the aspiratory or suction- 
pump action during diastole, and by lessening its expulsive or 
force-pump action during systole. The immediate result upon 
the heart itself of such disturbances is dilatation of that cavity 
immediately affected. This may occur under perfectly healthy 
conditions. In these, however, the dilatation is evanescent, while 
in the circumstances now under consideration it is permanent, 
and, although compensated, it leads to persistent dilatation. Upon 
the blood vessels the result, whether on account of diminished 
aspiratory or propulsive energy, is that the amount of blood in the 
arterial system is decreased, while it is increased in the venous. 
It is not a necessary consequence that because there is less blood 
in the arteries the arteriaj pressure will be diminished, or the venous 
pressure increased because the veins contain more than their 
normal amount of blood, seeing that the blood pressure depends 
upon many different factors. It is a fact, nevertheless, that in 
consequence of the alteration in the relative amount of blood 
in the arteries and veins there is a considerable disturbance of 
blood pressure. Gravitation may overcome the contractile and 
elastic factors, and several consequences arise from the resulting 
venous engorgement. From transudation, oedema of the de- 
pendent parts of the body and the serous membranes occurs. 
From the sluggish nature of the current, the blood absorbs too 
much carbonic acid and loses too much oxygen, hence cyanosis 
is the result. On account, also, of the slowness of the circulation, 
there is a longer period for radiation of heat, and the superficial 
parts of the body accordingly become cold. 

The engorgement of internal organs leads to distinct changes 
in them. The solid viscera, such as the liver, the spleen, the kidney 
and the lung, become enlarged and hyperaemic, and if the disturb- 
ance be continued, cyanotic atrophy ensues. Change in structure, 
with loss of function, takes place from blocking of the vessels by 
blood-clot, whether due to coagulation on the spot, or by the con- 
veyance thither of clots formed elsewhere; a cirrhotic termina- 
tion also is not infrequent, although there is still some doubt whether 
in this latter condition other concomitant causes have not at 
the same time been operative. The brain, although suffering less 
from hyperaemia, is subject to disturbance of the circulation 
through it, while it is a common seat of embolic and thrombotic 
processes. The heart itself, lastly, suffers in consequence of the 
disturbed circulation through it, and by undergoing venous stasis, 
with weakening of its walls a.nd increase of its fibrous tissue, it 
completes the final link in a vicious circle. Effusion into the 
serous sacs, such as the pleura, the pericardium and the peritoneum, 
leads to great disturbance of the viscera with which they are con- 
nected. The mucous membranes, both respiratory and digestive, 
become the seat of catarrhal changes in consequence of the back- 
ward pressure and impure blood. 

(4) Changes in the Endocardium. In endocarditis, or inflamma- 
tion of the lining membrane of the heart, that portion of the mem- 
brane which covers the valves is invariably affected first. Two 
varieties of endocarditis are described, simple and infective or 
ulcerative, but it is difficult to separate them pathologically. Both 
result from poisoning of the membrane by micro-organisms and 
their toxins; the main difference seems to lie in the variety of 
micro-organism present. Simple endocarditis may be associated 
with a variety of diseases, acute rheumatism and scarlet fever being 
the most frequent. In many fatal cases of chorea associated 
with endocarditis the micrococcus rheumaticus has been found 
in the endocardium, while the streptococci present in tonsilitis 
have produced endocarditis in animals. The membrane covering 
the valves loses its smoothness, granulations or elevations forming 
on the free edges; then the endpthelium proliferates and is de- 
stroyed and fibrin becomes deposited, producing what is termed 
a " vegetation." In the lower layers of this vegetation micro- 
organisms can be demonstrated. Finally, portions of the vegeta- 
tions may be broken off and carried as emboli in the bloodstream, 
or two valves may become glued together, narrowing the opening and 
producing stenosis, or the deformed valves may be unable to close 
properly and regurgitation takes place. Thus the lesions of val- 
vular disease are produced. In infective or ulcerative endo- 
carditis, occurring in conjunction with such diseases as pyaemia, 
septicaemia, smallpox and pneumonia, pyogenic micrococci are 
carried into the blood stream, and purulent deposits take place 
around the valves. In this case, however, the emboli are septic, 
and when carried to distant tissues produce there ulceration and 
pus-formation. Numerous abscesses may occur in the wall of 
the heart muscle itself. 



(5) Valvular Lesions. All the valves of the heart are not equally 
liable to disease; those most frequently affected are the aortic 
and mitral valves. We have seen how the lesions of the valves 
are brought about. A valvular lesion may act in two ways: it 
may impede the onward flow of the blood by narrowing the orifice, 
or the mal-closure of the valves may allow a reflux of blood. Either 
of these processes may occur at any of the valvular orifices of the 
heart. Obstruction is usually complicated by some regurgitation 
as well, though the converse does not hold good. An increase of 
the quantity of blood in the auricles, particularly the left, has a 
less marked effect on the heart itself than an increase in the con- 
tents of the ventricles, owing to the left auricle being in continuity 
with the pulmonary system; whereas if the amount of blood in 
the left ventricle bt doubled the ventricle must dilate in order to 
accommodate it. The reserve power of the heart is called upon 
to meet the dilatation, the muscular tissues becoming hyper- 
trophied, and a more powerful systole is produced. As the left 
is the chief ventricle to undergo this change, the apex of the heart 
becomes displaced downwards. Similar changes take place in the 
right ventricle in pulmonary stenosis or tricuspid incompetency. 
Changes in the right ventricle other than primary valvular disease 
of the right side of the heart are frequently preceded by mitral 
incompetence, and are due to extra pressure being thrown upon 
the pulmonary semilunar valves by the pressure in the overfull 
pulmonary system. In mitral regurgitation the accumulation of 
blood in the right auricular cavity leads to its dilatation and an 
engorgement of the pulmonary vessels, pulmonary oedema and 
induration of the lung, which in turn affects the right heart. Should 
compensatory hypertrophy of the right ventricle fail to be estab- 
lished, we get the general venous congestion, dropsy and sequence 
before alluded to. 

(6) Functional Cardiac Disorders. Cardiac rhythm may be 
modified in several ways; there may be variation in either the 
length or the strength of the beat, or the beats may not be asyn- 
chronous. In palpitation or tachycardia its frequency is increased. 
This increase depends upon the inhibition of the action of the 
cardio-inhibitory centre, impulses passing to it from the stomach 
(as in dyspepsia) or from other organs. Tachycardia is also pro- 
duced by toxic action, as in diphtheria and Graves's disease. In 
bradycardia the frequency is diminished. It may be due to toxins 
or to degenerative changes. Intermittence may simulate brady- 
cardia, though the actual rate of the beat is not lessened ; but the 
weak beats fail to reach the periphery. Various irregularities may 
take place, dependent upon perverted nerve action. It is con- 
sidered that the intrinsic nerve elements play a large part in these, 
and in some forms of disease the irregularity is of myocardial origin. 

The blood vessels possess the properties of contractility and 
elasticity in different degrees. Their contractility is char- 
acterized by great tonicity, considerable rhythmic 
action and little or no rapidity of contraction. Their ve ' se i 
elasticity stores up energy in a potential condition, and 
this may be liberated in kinetic form as required. The vessels 
are supported in various degrees by the different tissues in 
which they are found. In the more solid viscera they are 
strongly supported, as in the liver and kidney, while in those 
which are less dense, as in the case of the brain and the lungs, 
they are not so well sustained. 

In many conditions the contractility and elasticity of the blood 
vessels become diminished according as they may be involved 
in various pathological processes purulent, tuberculous or syph- 
ilitic. Chronic toxic conditions lead to numerous degenerations, 
such as fatty degeneration or hyaline degeneration of muscle fibre, 
apparently as the effect of coagulative processes. The tissues 
assume a somewhat glassy appearance, with a distinct tendency 
towards segmentation. Calcareous infiltration is brought about by 
the deposition of lime salts in tissues which have previously under- 
gone fatty or fibroid changes; it particularly affects the arteries 
in senile affections. In consequence of many toxic agencies as 
part of a senile change, and as the effect of long-continued stress, 
the blood vessels undergo a loss of their normal properties. This 
is compensated by the growth of an excessive amount of fibrous 
tissue, leading to various forms of arterial sclerosis, of which the 
best known are endarteritis obliterans, which affects the smaller 
arteries and is due to a toxic irritant and may occur at any age, 
and endarteritis deformans (atheroma), which affects the larger 
arteries during middle age, and is usually due to mechanical irritation. 
As the result of these fibrous changes there is interference with 
the blood current, since the vessels become unyielding yet frangible, 
instead of distensile and elastic, tubes. The sclerotic changes 
lead, moreover, to dilatation of blood vessels, as well as to the 
formation of definite aneurysms. They also pave the way for 
coagulation of blood within them, i.e. thrombosis, while in certain 
situations, more particularly in the brain and in the kidney, rupture 
is apt to take place. Upon the heart also these changes bring 
about far-reaching effects. Dilatation, accompanied by hyper- 
trophy, is a certain result of generalized arterial degeneration, 



94 6 



VASE VASSAR COLLEGE 



while changes in the coronary arteries lead to some of the definite 
results in the walls of the heart which have already been considered. 

Veins are subject also to mechanical and toxic effects. The 
pressure of abdominal tumours, the effects of the weight of a column 
of blood on a long vein, constipation or obstruction _to the venous 
return may cause dilatations or varicosity. The dilatation thins 
the walls of the veins and the valves become incompetent; the 
dilated vessel then becomes twisted and the surrounding tissues 
thickened by the growth of fibrous tissue. The thinned walls 
may rupture, and, owing to the loss of the valves, extensive haemor- 
rhages may take place. Thrombosis may follow the slowing of the 
blood current, and phleboliths are produced by the deposit of 
lime salts in it. Phlebitis is an acute inflammation of a vein. Apart 
from injury it usually follows invasion by a septic thrombus, as 
in the well-known phlegmasia alba dolens, when an infective clot 
from the uterine sinuses reaches the iliac veins. The pathology of 
the blood itself is treated under BLOOD. 

VASE (through Fr. from Lat. vas, a vessel, pi. vasa, of which 
the singular vasum is rarely found; the ultimate root is prob- 
ably was-, to cover, seen in Lat. vestis, clothing, Eng. " vest," 
Gr. <r0i7s, and also in "wear," of garments), a vessel, par- 
ticularly one of ornamental form or decoration; the term is 
often confined to such vessels which are uncovered and with two 
handles, and whose height is great in proportion to their width. 
It is the general term applied to the decorative pottery of the 
ancient Greeks and Romans, of whatever shape (see CERAMICS). 

VASELINE, or mineral jelly, the Paraffinum molle of the 
British Pharmacopoeia, a commercial product of petroleum 
which is largely employed in pharmacy, both alone and as a 
vehicle for the external application of medicinal agents, especi- 
ally when local action rather than absorption is desired, and 
as a protective coating for metallic surfaces. " Vaseline " is a 
registered proprietary name (coined from the German Wasser, 
water, the Greek t\a<ov, oil, and the termination -ine), and is 
strictly applicable only to the material manufactured by one 
company (the Chesebrough Manufacturing Company), but it is 
commonly applied in a generic sense. As met with in com- 
merce, vaseline is a semi-solid mixture of hydrocarbons, having 
a melting-point usually ranging from a little below to a few 
degrees above 100 F. It is colourless, or of a pale yellow colour, 
translucent, fluorescent, amorphous and devoid of taste and 
smell. It does not oxidize on exposure to the air, and is not 
readily acted on by chemical reagents. It is soluble in chloro- 
form, benzene, carbon bisulphide and oil of turpentine. It also 
dissolves in warm ether and in hot alcohol, but separates from 
the latter in flakes on cooling. 

The process employed by the Chesebrough Manufacturing Com- 
pany in the manufacture of vaseline is said to consist essentially in 
the careful distillation of selected crude petroleum, vacuum-stills 
being used to minimize dissociation, and filtration of the residue 
through granular animal charcoal. The filters are either steam- 
jacketed, or are placed in rooms heated to 120" F., or higher. The 
first runnings from the filters are colourless, and when they become 
coloured to a certain extent they are collected for use as a lubricant 
under the name of " filtered cylinder oil." (B. R.) 

VASILKOV, a town of Russia, in the government of Kiev, 
23 m. by rail S.W. of the city of Kiev. Pop. 18,000, chiefly agri- 
cultural. Vasilkov was founded in the loth century, but laid 
waste during the Mongol invasion of 1230-42. In 1320 it was 
taken by the Lithuanians, and later by the Poles, under whom 
it remained until 1686, when it was annexed to Russia. 

VASLUI, the capital of the department of Vaslui, Rumania; 
on a hill at the confluence of the Berlad and Vaslui rivers, and 
on the railway from Jassy to Galatz. Pop. (1900) 13,405. 
There are a fine old church and ruins of a palace built in 1471 
by Stephen the Great. The chief trade is in corn, wine, cattle 
and timber. A fair is held yearly on the first ten days of 
September. 

VASSAL (Fr. vassal, vassaut, vassault, &c.), the tenant and 
follower of a feudal lord (see FEUDALISM). The etymology 
of the word has been a matter of considerable dispute. The 
late Henri de Tourville, in his Histoire de la formation par- 
ticulariste, maintained that vassal is derived from the German 
Cast, a guest, meaning an outsider to whom a portion of a free 
domain was assigned in return for rent and certain fixed services. 
This derivation has a somewhat fantastic air, and seems to have 



been framed to suit an hypothesis. The commonly accepted 
etymology is from the Breton gwaz, Welsh gwas, a lad 'or a 
servant. As the word in its Latin form vassus was at first 
uniformly employed in the sense of slave, this explanation is 
the more acceptable of the two. If it is correct we may say 
that " vassal " was analogous in origin to the name of " boy " 
given to a coloured servant by Europeans in Asia and Africa. 
The word gained in dignity under the Frankish empire through 
the vassi dominici, i.e. servants of the royal household, great 
officers of state, who were sent on extraordinary missions into 
the provinces, to act as assessors to the counts in the courts, or 
generally to settle any questions in the interests of the central 
power. Sometimes they were sent to organize and govern a 
march, sometimes they were rewarded with benefices, and as, 
with the growth of feudalism, these developed into hereditary 
fiefs, the word vassus or vassallus was naturally retained as im- 
plying the relation to the king as overlord, and was extended 
to the holders of all fiefs whether capital or mediate. As feudal 
independence increased, the word vassal lost every vestige of its 
original servile sense, and, since it had come to imply a purely 
military relation, acquired rather the meaning of " free warrior." 
Thus in medieval French poetry vasselage is commonly used in the 
sense of " prowess in arms," or generally of any knightly qualities. 
In this sense it also became acclimatized in England, and 
" vassal " came to be used as equivalent to free-born, soldierly, 
valiant and loyal, in which sense it is commonly used in medieval 
poetry. In countries which were not feudally organized in 
Castile, for instance vassal meant simply subject, and during 
the revolutionary period acquired a distinctly offensive signifi- 
cance as being equivalent to slave. The diminutive form 
vasseletus, for the son of a vassal, after strange fortunes returned 
to something of its original sense of " household servant " in 
the modern " valet " (q.v.) (see also VAVASSOR). 

See Dictionnaire de I'ancienne langue frangaise (Paris, 1895), for 
numerous examples of the use of the word vassal; also Du Cange, 
Glossarium, s. " Vassus." 

VASSAR COLLEGE, a non-sectarian institution for the higher 
education of women, about 2 m. E. of Poughkeepsie, New York, 
U.S.A. It was incorporated in 1861 as Vassar Female College 
(which was changed to Vassar College in 1867), and was named 
in honour of its founder, 1 Matthew Vassar, who transferred to a 
board of trustees of his own selection about $400,000 (increased 
by his will to twice that amount) and the tract of about 200 
acres of land upon which the college was built. Building began 
in June 1861, and the institution was opened on the 2oth of 
September 1865, with John Howard Raymond 2 (1814-1878) as 
president, and Hannah W. Lyman (1816-1871) as lady principal; 
it had a faculty of eight professors and twenty instructors 
and teachers, and an enrolment of 353 pupils. The first 
graduating class was that of 1867, and comprised four members, 
to whom were given temporary certificates stating that they 
were " entitled to be admitted to the First Degree of Liberal 
Arts, " as the propriety of awarding the degree of " bachelor " to 

'Matthew Vassar (1791-1868) was born at East Dereham, Tud- 
denham parish, Norfolk, England, on the zgth of April 1791, son of 
a Baptist who emigrated to the United States in 1796, settled 3 m. 
E. of Poughkeepsie in 1797 and in 1801 established a brewery there. 
The brewery was burned in 1811, and Matthew took up the business 
and in 1812 established an " ale and oyster saloon " and a brewery, 
from which he became wealthy. He was a prominent member of 
the Baptist church. He got the idea of founding a college for 
women from his niece, Lydia Booth, a school teacher. He died on 
the 23rd of June 1868 while reading his farewell report to the Board 
of Trustees. His nephew, MATTHEW VASSAR, Jun. (1809-1881), was 
born in Poughkeepsie, became manager of his uncle's brewery, 
was a member of the Board of Trustees of Vassar College, and its 
treasurer until his death, gave in all about $500,000 to the institu- 
tion, and with his brother, John Guy Vassar (1811-1888), also 
one of the trustees and a benefactor of the college, gave to the 
college the Vassar Brothers' Laboratory. 

2 Raymond graduated at Union College in 1832; studied law 
and then (at Hamilton, N.Y.) theology; in 1839-49 taught 
rhetoric and English literature at Madison (now Colgate) University, 
at Hamilton, *N.Y. ; was professor of belles-lettres at Rochester 
University in 1850-56; and organized the Brooklyn Polytechnic 
Institute in 1856-65. 



VASTO VATICAN COUNCIL 



947 



women was questioned at that time; in 1868 these certificates 
were replaced by diplomas bestowing the degree of A.B. The 
present equipment includes more than twenty buildings, and 
the campus has an area of about 400 acres. The college confers 
the baccalaureate degree in arts (A.B.) upon the completion 
of the regular course of four years, and a second degree in arts 
(A.M.) upon Bachelors of Arts of Vassar or any approved 
college who have completed (by examination and thesis) a course 
of advanced non-professional study. In 1909-10 there were 
about ninety professors and instructors and 1040 students. The 
college had in 1909 total productive funds of about $1,360,000, 
yielding an income of about $600,000. James Monroe Taylor 
(b. 1848), a graduate of the university of Rochester and of 
Rochester Theological Seminary, became president of the college 
in 1886. 

See Benson J. Lossing's Vassar College and its Founder (New York, 
1867) and Frances A. Wood's Earliest Years at Vassar (Pough- 
keepsie, N.Y., 1909). 

VASTO (anc. Histonium), a fortified town of the Abruzzi, 
Italy, in the province of Chieti, situated high on an olive-clad 
slope, about a mile from the Adriatic, 32 m. direct S.E. by E. 
of Chieti and 131 m. by rail from Ancona, 525 ft. above sea- 
level. Pop. (1901), 10,090 (town); 15,542 (commune). It is 
surrounded by medieval walls, and commands fine views extend- 
ing to the Tremiti Islands and Monte Gargano. The churches of 
S. Pietro and S. Giuseppe have Gothic facades. There is a 
medieval castle. The municipal buildings contain a collection 
of Roman antiquities and inscriptions. There are manufactures 
of earthenware, woollen cloth and silk; but the inhabitants are 
chiefly employed in the culture of the olive and in fishing. 

The ancient Histonium was a town of the Frentani, and an 
Oscan inscription of the period of its independence speaks of 
censors there, probably officers of the whole community of the 
Frentani (see R. S. Conway, Italian Dialects, i. 208, Cam- 
bridge, 1897). Though hardly mentioned in history, it was a 
flourishing municipal town under the Roman Empire, as is shown 
by the numerous inscriptions found there. One of these 
mentions its Capitolium or temple of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. 
It lay on the line of the ancient road which prolonged the Via 
Flaminia to the S.E., and reached the coast here after having 
passed through Anxanum (Lanciano). It was, and still is, 
subject to severe earthquakes. (T. As.) 

VATICAN COUNCIL, THE, of. 1869 and 1870, the last ecumeni- 
cal council of the Roman Catholic Church, and the most im- 
portant event in her historical development since the Tridentine 
synod. The preliminaries were surrounded by the closest 
secrecy. As early as the end of the year 1864, Pius IX. had 
commissioned the cardinals resident in Rome to tender him 
their opinions as to the advisability of a council. The majority 
pronounced in favour of the scheme, dissentient voices being 
rare. After March 1865 the convocation of the council was 
no longer in doubt. Thirty-six carefully selected bishops of 
diverse nationalities were privately interrogated with regard 
to the tasks which, in their estimation, should be assigned to 
the prospective assembly. Some of them proposed, inter alia, 
that the doctrine of papal infallibility should be elevated to 
the rank of a dogma. In public, however, Pius IX. made no 
mention of his design till the 26th of June 1867, when Catholic 
bishops from every country were congregated round him in 
Rome on the occasion of the great centenary of St Peter. On 
the 29th of June 1868 the bull Aeterni Patris convened the 
council to Rome, the date being fixed for the 8th of December 
1869. And since the Roman Catholic Church claims that all 
baptized persons belong to her, special bulls were issued, with 
invitations to the bishops of the Oriental Churches, to the 
Protestants and to the other non-Catholics, none of which 
groups complied with the request. 

The object of the council was long a mystery. The Bull of 
Convocation was couched in perfectly general terms, and 
specified no definite tasks a circumstance which at first en- 
sured a favourable reception for the scheme, as it allowed ample 
scope to hope and imagination. But, among liberal Catholics, 



this mood underwent a complete reversal when information 
began to leak out as to- the object of the Curia in convening the 
council. The first epoch-making revelation was given, in 
February 1869, by an article in the Civilta Cattolica, a periodical 
conducted under Jesuit auspices. It was there stated, as the 
view of many Catholics in France, that the council would be of 
very brief duration, since the majority of its members were in 
agreement. As a presumptive theme of the deliberations, it 
mentioned inter alia the proclamation of papal infallibility. 
The whole proceeding was obviously an attempt, from the 
Jesuit side, to gauge the prevalent opinion with regard to this 
favourite doctrine of ultramontanism. The repudiation was 
energetic and unmistakable, especially in Germany. Certain 
articles on " The Council and the Civilta," published by 
Dollinger in the Allgemeine Zeitung, worked like a thunderbolt. 
Unions of the laity, designed to repel the encroachments of 
ultramontanism, sprang up immediately; and all manner of 
old ideas for the remodelling of the clergy were broached anew. 
It must, however, be admitted that counter demonstrations 
were not lacking. The attitude adopted by the German episco- 
pate well exemplifies the ecclesiastical situation of that period. 
The bishops tried to allay the excitement by publishing a 
pastoral letter drawn up in common; but in a written address 
to the pope they declared against the contemplated definition 
of infallibility. In France also a violent conflict broke out. 
Here it was principally the writings of Bishop Maret in Paris 
(Du concile general et de la paix religieuse, 2 vols., 1869), and of 
Bishop Dupanloup of Orleans, which gave expression to the pre- 
valent unrest, and led to those literary controversies in which 
Archbishop Manning of Westminster and Dechamps of Mechlin 
came forward to champion the opposite cause. In Italy the 
free-thinkers considered the moment opportune for renewing 
their agitations on a ' larger scale. They even attempted 
though with no success worth the name to counteract the 
Vatican Council by a rival council in Naples. That the pro- 
jected dogma had weighty opponents among the higher clergy 
of Austria-Hungary, Italy and North America was demonstrated 
during the progress of the council; but before it met all was 
quiet in these countries. The credit of inviting the European 
governments to consider their attitude towards the forthcoming 
synod belongs to the president of the Bavarian ministry, Prince 
Chlodwig of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfiirst, the future imperial 
chancellor. In his circular note to the Powers of the gth of 
April 1869 he analysed the political import of the doctrine of 
papal infallibility, 1 and proposed a common course of action. 
But his overtures met with no response. In view of the strained 
international situation, none of the Powers approached was 
willing to take a step which might easily have resulted in a 
bitter conflict with the Church; and the studied vagueness of 
the Curia in its official pronouncements on the council enabled 
them to assume an attitude of reserve and suspension of judg- 
ment. France was equally inactive, though it rested with her 
to decide whether the council could even meet in Rome: for 
the withdrawal of her troops from the papal state would have 
been the signal for a patriotic Italy to sweep this last impedi- 
ment to national unity from the face of the earth. 

On none of the previous ecumenical councils did the Roman 
see exercise so pronounced an influence as on the Vatican. As 
early as the year 1865 a committee of cardinals had been formed 
as a " special directive congregation'for the affairs of the future 
general council," a title which was usually abbreviated to that 
of" Central Commission." Among the earliest preliminaries, a 
number of distinguished theologians and canonists were retained 
as consultors to the council. In the selection of these the pre- 
ference for men of ultramontane tendencies was so pronounced 
Dollinger, for instance, was not invited that the influences at 
work in the convocation of the council were obvious long before 
its opening. Under the control of the Central Commission were 
six sub-commissions: (i) for dogma; (2) for matters of ecclesi- 
astical discipline; (3) for the religious orders; (4) for the Oriental 
Churches and the missions ;( 5) for the secular policy of the Church ; 
1 The note was drafted by Dollinger (see INFALLIBILITY). 



VATICAN COUNCIL 



(6) for the ceremonial of the council. The pope nominated 
the presidents of the council (Cardinals Reisach, de Luca, Bizarri, 
Bilio and Capalti); also the secretaries and the remaining 
officials. Again, before the proceedings began, he determined 
the order of business on his own initiative (Multiplices inter d. d. 
Nov. 27, 1869), thus precluding the members of the synod 
from any opportunity of co-operating in the task. In these 
regulations the right of fixing the subjects for debate was reserved 
to the pope. The members of the synod, it is true, enjoyed the 
privilege of proposing motions; but these motions could never 
reach the stage of discussion, except by the papal sanction. 
Another fact of great importance was the strict privacy in 
which the labours of the council were to be conducted, the 
members being pledged to silence on every point. For their 
deliberations, two forms of assembly, analogous to those em- 
ployed at Trent, were instituted: the congregationes generates 
and the sessiones. The General Congregations, presided over 
by cardinals, were employed in considering the schemata (drafts) 
submitted to the synod; and provisory votes not regarded as 
binding were there taken. The sessions witnessed the definitive 
voting, the results of which were to be immediately promul- 
gated as ecclesiastical law by the pope. The form of this pro- 
mulgation was, in itself, sufficiently characteristic; for the pope 
was represented as the real agent, while the acknowledgment of 
the share of the council was confined to the phrase sacro appro- 
bante concilia. In contrast to this, we may refer to the synods 
of Constance and Trent (C. Mirbt, Quellenu.s.w., pp.i 55-202, and 
the articles CONSTANCE, COUNCIL OF, and TRENT, COUNCIL or). 
In the event of the drafts submitted by the Curia not being 
unanimously adopted by the General Congregations, they were 
to be remitted, together with the objections raised, to special 
committees chosen from the body of the council. These com- 
mittees (congregationes speciales deputationes) , the presidents of 
which were also nominated by the pope, were four in number: 
(i) for matters of belief; (2) for questions of ecclesiastical dis- 
cipline; (3) for the religious orders; (4) for affairs of the Oriental 
Churches. The whole proceedings took place in the church 
of St Peter, the south transept of which had been prepared 
especially for the purpose. That the acoustic properties of the 
structure were unequal to the demands made upon them was 
obvious from the first day, and occasioned numerous complaints. 

On the 8th of December the first session met, and the council 
was solemnly opened by Pius IX. From beginning to end it 
was dominated by the " Infallibility " problem. At the elections 
to the committees the fact was already obvious; for the leaders 
of the synodal majority in favour of the dogma took excellent 
care that no one should be chosen who was known to lean toward 
the opposite side. The order of procedure excited considerable 
dissatisfaction in many; and a series of petitions, with alter- 
native suggestions, was submitted to the pope, but without suc- 
cess. The very first transactions of the council gave proof that 
numerous bishops held the theory that their convocation im- 
plied the duty of serious and united work, and that they were 
by no means inclined to yield a perfunctory assent to the papal 
propositions, which in part at least stood in urgent need of 
emendation. The Curia awoke to this unpleasant fact during 
the discussion upon the first draft laid before the council, the 
schema De Fide, and some perplexity was the result; for 
on the 8th of December the second session had already been 
announced for the 6th of January. Since the consideration of 
the schema could not possibly be completed by that date, and 
since it was now futile to hope that the doctrine of infallibility 
would be carried by acclamation, and without debate, in that 
session, Archbishop Darboy informing Cardinal de Luca that, 
in this event, a hundred bishops would leave Rome at once, 
the second session, on the 6th of January, was reduced to a mere 
formality, the delegates again declaring their allegiance to the 
Professio Fidei Tridentinae, to which they had already pledged 
themselves at ordination. On the loth of January the schema 
De Fide was referred to the committee " for matters of belief," 
to receive further revision. 

From the loth of January to the 22nd of February 1870 the 



council was occupied with proposals concerning ecclesiastical 
discipline and with questions of church life. On this occasion 
it became evident that the synod was not blind to the necessity 
for many and various reforms. Even the College of Cardinals 
and the Curia did not escape. Complaint was made, for instance, 
that the papal chair and the Roman Congregations were filled 
almost exclusively by Italians; while the control of the Church was 
too much centralized in Rome. Again, the treatment of impedi- 
ments to marriages, of licences and of the scales of charges, was 
submitted to criticism. The fact was elicited that the resolu- 
tions of provincial synods, when transmitted to Rome for appro- 
bation, were there subjected to arbitrary changes, so that the 
contents no longer corresponded with those to which the bishops 
had affixed their signatures. Even the desire for national 
assemblies and for ecumenical councils, held at regular intervals, 
found expression. The delicate subject of the compulsory 
celibacy of the clergy was also discussed; the notorious defects 
of the Roman Breviary were considered, and a long debate 
ensued with regard to the policy of drawing up a short catechism 
for the whole of Catholic Christendom. Even the proposals 
which led to these declarations of opinion many of which were 
neither anticipated nor desired were not accepted by the 
council, but returned for revision to the respective committees. 

That matters progressed slowly was undeniable. It was the 
third month, and not one of the proposals under consideration 
had been despatched. That this unexpected delay was a 
natural sequel to the character of the proposals themselves 
was a fact which the Curia declined to recognize. Consequently, 
as that body could rely upon a complacent majority, it resolved 
to proclaim a new order of procedure, by means of which it 
would be possible to end these unwelcome discussions and 
quicken the pace of the council. By the papal decree of the 
2oth of February the influence of the committees was increased; 
the majority was allowed to cut short a debate by accepting a 
motion for its closure; a plurality of votes was declared suffi- 
cient to carry a proposal; and the voting itself was modified 
by the institution of a " conditional affirmative " (placet iuxta 
modum) in addition to the regular affirmative and negative 
(placet and non placet). Since neither the presidents nor the 
majority of the council could well be expected to employ the 
extensive powers thus placed at their disposal with much 
consideration for the rights of the minority, protests by the 
weaker party against the new regulations were handed in to 
the pope, but to no effect. 

The main object, however, of this alteration in procedure was 
to ensure that if the council could not be induced to accept the 
doctrine of infallibility by acclamation, it should at least do so 
by resolution. From the first the general interest was almost 
exclusively concentrated on this question, which divided the 
members of the synod into two hostile camps. The adherents 
of the contemplated dogma among whom Archbishop Manning 
of Westminster and Bishop Senestrey of Regensburg admittedly 
held the leading position circulated petitions to the pope 
requesting the introduction of a proposal to meet their views; 
and, as a result of their efforts, the signatures of 480 bishops were 
obtained. This manceuvre aroused the other side. Petitions 
to the opposite effect were now similarly distributed, and signed 
by 136 bishops. On the gth of February the committee of 
examination as was only to be expected resolved to re- 
commend the pope to grant the wishes of the majority. The 
remarkable feature of the situation created by these agitations 
was not that the majority of members declared in favour of 
the dogmatization of infallibility that was a foregone conclu- 
sion in view of the strides made by ultramontanism in the 
Roman Catholic Church but that so many could be found 
with courage enough to withstand the aspiration to which 
Pius IX. had given open expression on every possible occasion. 
The weight of their opposition was accentuated by the fact 
that the finest intellects and the ablest theologians of Catholi- 
cism were included in their ranks. The presence of striking 
personalities, whose devotion to the Church was beyond question, 
Archbishop Scherr of Munich, Melchers of Cologne, Bishop 



VATICAN COUNCIL 



949 



Ketteler of Mainz, Bishop Hefele of Rottenburg, Cardinal 
Schwarzenberg of Prague, Cardinal Rauscher of Vienna, Arch- 
bishop Haynald of Kalossa, Bishop Strossmayer of Sirmium, 
Archbishop Darboy of Paris, Bishop Dupanloup of Orleans, to 
say nothing of the others, assured this group an influence 
which, in spite of itself, the opposing faction was bound to feel. 
If the minority indeed had formed one compact phalanx, the 
council might possibly have taken a different course; but this 
it was not, and the fatal truth could not be concealed from 
the pope and his advisers. The bond which united its members 
was not a repudiation of the doctrine of infallibility itself, but 
simply a common sentiment that its elevation to the rank of 
dogma was inopportune at the time. Some possibly many 
may have entertained serious doubts with regard to that 
doctrine; but, if such was the case, they succeeded in repressing 
and disciplining their suspicions, and the greatest anxiety was 
shown to avoid the least attempt at founding their resistance 
on a dogmatic basis. And here the weakness of the opposition 
is at once manifest; it lacked a clear and positive goal. 

In outside circles the proceedings at Rome were followed 
with strained attention, and the battle round the question of 
infallibility was waged with equal violence in France and 
Germany. In the one country public interest was focused 
on the writings of Gratry, the former Oratorian; in the other 
on the trenchant attacks of Dollinger. In England, Newman 
protested against the dogma. The progress of the council 
was marked by a plethora of controversial literature with 
which it was almost impossible to keep pace; articles and 
pamphlets were poured forth in increasing volume month 
after month, and even yet no classified collection of them is 
extant. Among them all, none exceeded in influence the 
Romische Briefe, first published in the Augsburg Allgemeine 
Zeitung, which gave a regular account of the most intimate 
transactions of the council, and maintained a high reputation 
for accuracy in spite of all attempts to discredit their authen- 
ticity. Important service in disseminating information among 
widely extended circles was done by the brochure Ce qui se 
passe au candle (May 1870), which revealed a number of pro- 
ceedings never intended for publicity. 

Among the secret propositions submitted to the council by 
the Curia was the schema De Ecclesia Christi, which was dis- 
tributed to the members on the 2ist of January. This con- 
tained fifteen sections, in which were defined the nature of the 
Church, the position of the pope in the Church, and, more 
especially, the relationship between the Church and the State. 
In case the harmony between these two magnitudes is disturbed, 
the responsibility lies with the State, because it thereby dis- 
regards the rights and duties of the Church (cap. 13). The 
divine law is binding on temporal sovereigns, but the adminis- 
tration of that law is a question which can only be decided by 
the supreme doctrinal authority of the Church (cap. 14). In 
addition to the education of youth, the Church demands ab- 
solute freedom in the training of its clergy and the abroga- 
tion of all restrictions on the religious orders, &c. Thus the 
superiority of Church to State was here enunciated in the same 
drastic terms as in the Syllabus oi Pius IX. (1864) a declara- 
tion of war against the modern political and social order, which 
in its day provoked the unanimous condemnation of public 
opinion. When, in spite of the injunction of secrecy, the 
schema became known outside Rome, its genuineness was at 
first impugned; but as soon as the authenticity of the text 
was established beyond the possibility of doubt, this attempt 
to dogmatize the principles of the notorious Syllabus excited 
the most general indignation, even in the strongholds of 
Catholicism France and Austria. It almost appeared as if 
both governments, incensed by these encroachments on the 
sphere of the State, were at last bent upon bringing pressure 
to bear on the future deliberations of the council; but the 
international situation enabled the Curia to persist in its 
attitude of strict negation towards the despatches of Count 
Beust and Count Daru. On political grounds Napoleon was 
not inclined to employ any form of coercion against the synod; 



Bismarck maintained a like reserve; and although Lord Acton 
influenced Gladstone in the contrary direction, Lord Clarendon 
followed Odo Russell, his charge d'affaires in Rome, who was 
himself adroitly kept in hand by Manning. Thus the danger 
that the attitude of the secular powers might imperil the 
liberties of the council was averted for the second time. 

From the 22nd of February to the i8th of March no meetings 
of the General Congregations took place, on account of struc- 
tural alterations in the aula itself. During this interval all 
uncertainty as to whether the question of infallibility would 
actually be broached was dispelled. On the 6th of March a 
supplementary article to section n of the schema De Ecclesia, 
dealing with the primacy of the Roman see, was transmitted 
to the members, and in it the much disputed doctrine received 
formal expression. But before the animated discussions which 
centred round this problem could begin, it was imperative to 
conclude the debate on the schema De Doctrina Catholica. From 
the deputation " for matters of faith " it returned to the plenum 
in a considerably modified form, and there it occupied the 
attention of the assembly for a full month, beginning with the 
i8th of March. Even in this later stage it frequently gave rise 
to trenchant criticism; but the greatest sensation was created 
by a speech of Bishop Strossmayer, who took exception to 
the terms of the proposal on the ground that it described Pro- 
testantism as the fountain-head of naturalism and as an unclean 
thing (peslis). There followed a dramatic scene: the orator was 
interrupted by the president and compelled by the outcries 
of the indignant fathers to quit the tribune. Nevertheless, 
Strossmayer by his courageous protest succeeded in modifying 
the objectionable clauses. The bishops of the minority were 
still dissatisfied with several passages in the schema, but, 
desirous of concentrating their whole available force in opposi- 
tion to the next proposal, they suppressed their doubts; and 
the result was that, on the 24th of April, in the third public 
session, the Constitutio dogmatica de Fide Catholica 1 was adopted 
unanimously and immediately confirmed by the pope. 

Meanwhile, the elaboration of the all-important business of 
the council had been quietly proceeding. Influenced by the 
alarming number of amendments to the schema De Ecclesia, and 
anxious above all to ensure an early acceptance for the dogma 
of infallibility, the deputation abandoned the idea of subjecting 
the entire doctrine of the Church to debate, and resolved to 
eliminate everything save the one question of papal authority, 
and to submit this to the council alone. That this procedure 
directly challenged criticism was obvious enough, and, within the 
synod, several speakers drew attention to the capriciousness of 
a method which required them to consider the infallibility of the 
pope before the nature of the Church herself had been defined. 
The event, however, justified the wire-pullers of the council in 
their policy, for the path they chose obviated the danger that 
the discussion might lose itself in a maze of generalities. It is 
impossible to give a short and, at the same time, an adequate 
account of the debate: lengthy disquisitions were the order of 
the day, and the disputants did not scruple to indulge in verbose 
repetition of arguments worn threadbare by their predecessors. 
A pleasant impression is left by the great candour of the opposi- 
tion speakers, who, in the course of the next few weeks, made 
every point against the doctrine, which in their position it was 
possible to make. In the general debate, begun on the I3th of 
May, Bishop Hefele of Rottenburg, author of the well-known 
KonzUiengeschichte, criticized the dogma from the standpoint 
of history, adducing the fact that Pope Honorius I. had been 
condemned by the sixth ecumenical council as a heretic (680). 
Others were of opinion that the doctrine implied a radical change 
in the constitution of the Church: one speaker even charac- 
terized it as sacrilege. The contention that the dogma was 
necessitated by the welfare of the Church, or justified by con- 
temporary conditions, met with repeated and energetic repudia- 
tion. The champions of infallibility were, indeed, confronted 
with no slight task : to establish their theory by Holy Writ and 
tradition, and to defend it against the arguments of history. 
1 Mirbt, Quellen, 371-77. 



950 



VATICAN COUNCIL 



But to them it was no hypothesis waiting to be verified, but 
an already existing truth, the possession of which no extraneous 
attacks could for a moment affect. On the 3rd of June the 
general debate was closed, and forty prospective orators com- 
pulsorily silenced. 

In the special debate, which dealt with the proposal in detail, 
every important declaration with regard to the pope was im- 
pugned by one party and upheld by the other. The main 
assault was naturally directed upon the fourth section, " con- 
cerning the doctrinal authority of the pope," and Archbishop 
Guidi of Bologna, in particular, incurred the resentment of the 
majority through his outspoken utterances on the subject. Im- 
mediately after the session he was summoned to the Vatican, 
and, on defending his attitude by an appeal to tradition, 
received from Pius IX. the celebrated answer, " I am the 
tradition." From the beginning of July onwards it became 
increasingly evident that the council was on the verge of ex- 
haustion: the great heat was positively dangerous to members 
accustomed to a colder climate, and the opinion gained ground 
that the spokesmen of both parties had sufficiently elucidated 
their views for the benefit of the conclave. Many delegates 
who had announced their intention of speaking relinquished 
the privilege, and on the i3th of July it was found possible to 
conclude the debate. On that day the voting in the 85th 
General Congregation, on the whole schema, showed that, out 
of 601 members present, 451 had voted placet, 88 non placet and 
62 placet iuxta modum. That the number of prelates who 
rejected the placet would amount to 150 had not been expected. 
The question was now: Could the doctrine of infallibility be 
raised to dogmatic rank when it was repudiated by so formidable 
a minority? At the height of the crisis several leaders of the 
opposition attempted, by a direct appeal to the pope, to secure 
a modification in the terms of the dogma, which might enable 
them to give their assent. On the evening of the isth of July 
six bishops were accorded an audience with Pius IX., in which 
they preferred their modest requests. Ketteler threw himself 
at the feet of the pope and implored, him to restore peace to 
the Church by a little act of compliance. The touching scene 
appeared to have made some impression on Pius IX.; but, 
after the deputation had left, opposing influences gained the 
ascendant, and the result was simply that the clauses on which 
everything hinged received an addition the reverse of con- 
ciliatory (General Congregation, i6th July). The bishops who 
had hitherto formed the recalcitrant minority were now face to 
face with the final decision. On the one hand was their loyalty 
to the pope, allied with the desire to avoid any demonstration 
calculated to impair the prestige of the Church; on the other, 
their conviction that the very doctrine which the council was 
about to proclaim as dogma was a gigantic error. There was 
but one way out of the impasse, to leave Rome before the 
deciding session, and on the i6th of July the pope met their 
wishes and accorded the leave of absence previously withheld. 
A section of the dissentient bishops reiterated their views in a 
letter to Pius IX., and agreed to direct their subsequent actions 
in common, a compact which was not observed. On the i8th 
of July, in the fourth public session, the dogma was accepted 
by 535 dignitaries of the Church, and at once promulgated by 
the pope; only two members, repeated their non placet, and 
these submitted in the same session. The council continued its 
labours for a few more weeks, but its main achievement was 
over, and the remainder of its time was occupied with affairs of 
secondary importance. When, coincident with the outbreak 
of the Franco-German War, the papal state collapsed, the pope 
availed himself of the altered situation, and prorogued the 
council by the bull Postquam Dei munere (October 20). The 
Italian government at once protested against his statement 
that the liberties of the council would be prejudiced by the 
incorporation of Rome into the kingdom of Italy. 

The resolutions of the Vatican Council entirely revolutionized 
the position of the pope within the Church. He is first accredited 
with " complete and supreme jurisdictionary authority over 
the whole Church, not simply in matters of faith and morality, 



but also in matters touching the discipb'ne and governance of 
the Church; and this authority is a regular and immediate 
authority, extending over each and every Church and over 
each and every pastor and believer" (Sessio iv. cap. 3, fin.; 
Mirbt, Quellen, p. 380). These words conceded to the pope a 
universal episcopate in the entire Church, in virtue of which 
he may, at any time, in any diocese, exercise the functions of the 
regular bishop: the individual bishop forfeited the independence 
which he had formerly enjoyed, and the episcopate as a whole 
was dispossessed of that position which, in preceding centuries, 
had enabled it to champion the true welfare of the Church 
against a decadent papacy. Nor was this all: it is laid down 
" as a dogma revealed by God, that the Roman pontiff, when he 
speaks ex cathedra, that is to say, when, in virtue of his supreme 
apostolical authority, and in the exercise of his office as pastor 
and instructor of all Christians, he pronounces any doctrine 
touching faith or morality to be binding on the whole Church, 
is, by reason of the divine assistance promised to him in the 
person of St Peter, endowed with that infallibility which, 
according to the will of the Redeemer, is vouchsafed to the Church 
when she desires to fix a doctrine of faith or morality; and that 
consequently all such decisions of the Roman pontiff are per se 
immutable and independent of the subsequent assent of the 
Church. But if any man, which Heaven forefend ! " proceeds 
the document, " shall venture to deny this definition, let him 
be accursed ! " (Sessio iv. cap. 4; Mirbt, Quellen, p. 381). 
These clauses contain the doctrine of papal infallibility, and 
make the recognition of that doctrine incumbent on all Catholic 
Christians. But how are we to recognize whether the decision 
of the pope is given " in the exercise of his doctrinal office," 
or not? No criterion is assigned, and no authentic interpreta- 
tion has been accorded from the chair of St Peter. Thus great 
uncertainty prevails with regard to utterances ex cathedra; 
and the result has been that every papal declaration has tended 
to be invested with the halo of infallibility. Again, the dogma 
implies a fundamental change in the position of the ecumenical 
councils, which, in conjunction with the papacy, had till then 
been supposed to constitute the representation of the Roman 
Catholic Church. By the Vaticanum they lost every vestige 
of actual, independent authority, for their function of defining 
the doctrine of the Church now passed to the pope; and, though 
in the future they may still be convened, their indispensability 
is a thing of the past. They have ceased to form a constituent 
organ of the Church, and are sunk to the level of a decorative 
or consultative assembly. Thus the decrees of the council 
possess a double significance; they have not only erected the 
papacy into the sole tribunal for questions of belief, but have 
at the same time radically transformed the constitution of the 
Church. The two factors which previously served to check 
the papal ambition have been shorn of their strength, and the 
papacy has attained the status of an absolute monarchy. The 
concurrent loss of the papal states, so far from enfeebling this 
new absolutism, tended, in spite of the protests of the Curia, 
to increase its strength, for its position now became unassail- 
able, and it was enabled to concentrate its energies on a purely 
international policy to a greater extent than formerly. 

The bishops, who, on the council, had impugned the doctrine 
of papal infallibility, submitted without exception to the pro- 
mulgated dogma. Confronted with the alternative of either 
seceding from the Church or adopting a theory which they had 
previously attacked, they resorted to the " sacrifice of reason," 
many with bleeding hearts; many, as it would seem, without 
any pangs of conscience. But though they submitted they 
failed to carry with them the whole of the theologians and lay- 
men who had ranged themselves at their side in the battle against 
the dogma; and after the conclusion of the council a new Church 
was formed, which, in contrast with the fin de siecle Catholicism 
which, by the Vatican Synod, had cut itself loose from the 
traditions of the past, was termed Old Catholic (see the special 
article). 

In the sphere of politics also the Vaticanum was attended by 
important results. The secular governments could not remain 



VATKE VAUBAN 



indifferent to the prospect that the proclamation of papal 
infallibility would invest the dicta of the medieval popes, as to 
the relationship between Church and State, with the character 
of inspired doctrinal decisions, and confer dogmatic authority 
on the principles enunciated in the Syllabus of Pius IX. Nor 
was the fear of these and similar consequences diminished by 
the proceedings of the council itself. The result was that on 
the 30th of July 1870, Austria annulled the Concordat arranged 
with the Curia in 1855. In Prussia the so-called Kulturkampf 
broke out immediately afterwards, and in France the synod so 
accentuated the power of ultramontanism, that, in late years, 
the republic has taken effectual steps to curb it by revoking 
the Concordat of 1801 and completely separating the Church 
from the State. 

The antecedent history of the council was long; its subse- 
quent history is a chapter which has not yet been closed. 
That the dogma was carefully prepared beforehand, mainly by 
the Society of Jesus, is a demonstrable and demonstrated fact, 
notwithstanding the denials emanating from writers belonging 
to the society. 

The general position of Roman Catholicism was consolidated 
by the Vatican Council in more respects than one; for not only 
did it promote the centralization of government in Rome, but 
the process of unification soon made further progress, and the 
attempts to control the intellectual and spiritual life of the 
Church have now assumed dimensions which, a. few decades 
ago, would have been regarded as anachronistic. On the other 
hand, however, a counter-movement can be traced in all 
countries with a predominant Catholic population, the so- 
called Reformed Catholicism, which may wear a different aspect 
in different districts and different strata of society, but is every- 
where distinguished by the same fundamental aspiration 
towards increased liberty. Thus the victory gained by ultra- 
montane influences within the Church a victory for which the 
Vaticanum was largely responsible closes one period of develop- 
ment, but a second has already begun, the keynote of which is 
the search for a modus vivendi between this Vatican system and 
the Catholicism which is rooted in the intellectual life of the 
modern world. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. A resume of the literature bearing on the history 
of this council is given by C. Mirbt in the Realencyclopadie, vol. xx. 

r5 seq. (ed. 3, Leipzig, 1908). The two most detailed accounts are: 
Friedrich, Geschichte des Vatikanischen Konzils (3 vols., Bonn, 
1877, 1883, 1887); and Th. Grauderath, S.J., Geschichte des Vati- 
kanischen Konzils (ed. K. Kirch, 3 vols., Freiburg im Breisgau, 
1903-6). The last-mentioned work represents the Jesuitico- 
Curial standpoint (cf. C. Mirbt, "Die Geschichtschreibung des 
Vatikanischen Konzils," Historische Zeitschrift, Band 101, 1908, pp. 
529-600). The most important collections of the acta are: Collectio 
Lacensis, tome vii. (Freiburg, 1890) ; E. Friedberg, Sammlung der 
Aktenstiicke zum ersten Vatikanischen Konzil (Tubingen, 1872); 
J. Friedrich, Documenta ad illustrandum Concilium Vaticanum 
(Nordlingen, 1871) ; A. v. Roskovany, Romanus Pontifex, tomes 7-16, 
Suppl. 7-10 (Nitriae, 1871-79). For the dogmatic resolutions see 
also C. Mirbt, Quellen zur Geschichte des Papsttums (ed. 2, Tubingen, 
1901), pp. 371-82. For the internal history of the councils one 
of the main sources is Quirinus, Romische Briefe vom Konzil 
(Munich, 1870). Also, J Friedrich, Tagebuch wdhrend des Vati- 
kanischen Konzils (Nordlingen, 1871); Lord Acton, Zur Geschichte 
des Vatikanischen Konziles (Munich, 1871, Eng. in Hist. Essays, 1907) ; 
J. Fessler, Das Vatikanische Concilium (Vienna, 1871); Manning, 
The True Story of the Vatican Council (London, 1877); E. Ollivier, 
L'Eglise et Vetat au concile du Vatican (2 vols., Paris, 1879) ; Purcell, 
Life of Cardinal Manning^ (2 vols., London, 1896). Cecconi's great 
work, La Storia del Concilia ecumenico Vaticano (4 vols., Rome, 1873- 
79) , is incomplete. For criticism of the council, see Janus, Der Papst 
und das Konzil (Leipzig, 1869), revised by J. Friedrich under the 
title F. v. Dollinger, Das Papsttum (Munich, 1892). Also, Glad- 
stone's Vatican Decrees and Vaticanism (London, 1874). (C. M.) 

VATKE, JOHANN KARL WILHELM (1806-1882), German 
Protestant theologian, was born at Behndorf, near Magdeburg, 
on the i4th of March 1806. After acting as Privatdozenl in 
Berlin, he was appointed in 1837 professor extraordinarius. 
Vatke was one of the founders of the newer Hexateuch criticism. 
In the same year in which David Strauss published his Life 
of Jesus, Vatke issued his book, Die Religion des Alien Testa- 
ments nach den kanonischen Buchern entwlckelt, which contained 



the seeds of a revolution in the ideas held about the Old Testa- 
ment. Since, however, his book was too philosophical to be 
popular, the author's theories were practically unnoticed for a 
generation, and the new ideas are now associated especially 
with the names of A. Kuenen and J. Wellhausen (qq.v.). He 
died on the i8tb of April 1882. 

His other works include: Die menschliche Freiheit in ihrem 
Verhdltniss zur Siinde und zur gottlichen Gnade (1841), Historisch- 
kritische Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1886), and Religions- 
philosophie (1888). See O. Pfleiderer, Development of Theology 
(1890), and T. K. Cheyne, Founders of Old Testament Criticism (1893). 

VATTEL, EMERIC (MER) DE (1714-1767) Swiss jurist, the 
son of a Protestant minister, was born at Couvet, in the princi- 
pality of Neuchatel, on the 2Sth of April 1714. He studied at 
Basel and Geneva. During his early years his favourite pursuit 
was philosophy; and, having carefully examined the works of 
G. W. Leibnitz and C. Wolff, he published in 1741 a defence of 
Leibnitz's system against J. P. de Crousaz. In the same year 
Vattel, who was born a subject of the king of Prussia, repaired 
to Berlin in the hope of obtaining some public employment 
from Frederick II., but was disappointed in his expectation. 
Two years later he proceeded to Dresden, where he experienced 
a very favourable reception from Count Briihl, the minister of 
Saxony. In 1746 he obtained from the elector, Augustus III., 
the title of councillor of embassy, accompanied with a pension, 
and was sent to Bern in the capacity of the elector's minister. 
His diplomatic functions did not occupy his whole time, and 
much of his leisure was devoted to literature and jurisprudence. 
Among other works he published Loisirs philosophiques (1747) 
and Melanges de litterature, de morale, et de politique (1757). 
But his reputation chiefly rests on his Droit des gens, ou Principes 
de la loi naturelle appliques d la conduile et aux affaires des 
nations et des souverains (Neuchatel, 1758). During the same 
year he was recalled from Switzerland, to be employed in 
the cabinet of Dresden, and was soon afterwards honoured 
with the title of privy councillor. His labours now became so 
intense as to exhaust his strength, and his health broke down. 
After a period of rest he returned to Dresden in 1766; but his 
renewed exertions soon produced a relapse, and he made another 
excursion to Neuchatel, where he died on the 28th of December 
1767. His last work was entitled Questions de droit naturel, 
ou Observations sur le traite du droit de la nature, par Wolf (Bern, 
1762). 

Vattel's Droit des gens, which is founded on the works of Wolff, 
had in its day a great success, in truth, greater than it deserved. 
His principal and only merit consists in his having rendered the 
ideas of that author accessible to the political and diplomatic 
world. The Droit des gens passed through many editions, and was 
translated into various languages (English in 1760). 

VAUBAN, S^BASTIEN LE PRESTRE DE (1633-1707), 
marshal of France, the most celebrated of military engineers 
(see FORTIFICATION), was born at Saint-Leger-Vauban (Yonne). 
At the age of ten he was left an orphan in very poor circumstances, 
and his boyhood and youth were spent amongst the peasantry 
of his native place. A fortunate event brought him under the 
care of the Carmelite prior of Semur, who undertook his educa- 
tion, and the grounding in mathematics, science and geometry 
which he thus received was of the highest value in his subse- 
quent career. At the age of seventeen Vauban joined the 
regiment of Conde in the war of the Fronde. His gallant 
conduct won him within a year the offer of a commission, 
which he declined on account of poverty. Conde then employed 
him to assist in the fortification of Clermont-en -Argonne. 
Soon afterwards he was taken prisoner by the royal troops; 
but though a rebel he was well treated, and the kindness of 
Mazarin converted the young engineer into a devoted servant 
of the king. He was employed in the siege of St Menehould 
(which he had helped to storm as a Frondeur) and won a 
lieutenancy in the regiment of Burgundy, and at Stenay he was 
twice wounded. Soon afterwards he besieged and took his own 
first fortress, Clermont; and in May 1655 he received his com- 
mission as an ingenieur du rot, having served his apprenticeship 
under the Chevalier de Clerville, one of the foremost engineers 



952 



VAUBAN 



of the time. Between that year and the peace of 1659 he had 
taken part in or directed ten sieges with distinction, had been 
several times wounded, and was rewarded by the king with the 
free gift of a company in the famous Picardy regiment. About 
this time he married a cousin, Jeanne d'Aulnay. After the peace 
Vauban was put in charge of the construction of several im- 
portant defences, amongst other places at Dunkirk, where his 
work continued until the year before his death. On the renewal 
of war in 1662 he conducted, under the eyes of the king, the 
sieges of Douai, Tournai and Lille. At Lille he so distinguished 
himself that he received a lieutenancy in the guard (ranking 
as a colonelcy). 

.The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle confirmed France in the posses- 
sion of new fortresses, which Vauban now improved or rebuilt. 
Hitherto the characteristic features of his method of fortifica- 
tion had not been developed, and the systems of preceding 
engineers were faithfully followed. Colbert and Louvois were 
profoundly interested in the work, and it was at the request 
of the latter that the engineer drew up in 1669 his Memoir -e 
pour seniir a I'instruction dans la conduile des sieges (this, with 
a memorandum on the defence of fortresses by another hand, 
was published at Leiden in 1740). On the renewal of war 
Vauban again conducted the most important sieges (Rhein- 
bergen and Nijmwegen 1672, Maestricht and Trier 1673, 
Besancon 1674). In the latter year he also supervised the 
only defence in which he ever took part, that of Oudenarde. 
This was followed by the reduction of Dinant, Huy and Limburg. 
At this time he wrote for the commandants of Verdun and Le 
Quesnoy, valuable Instructions pour la defense (MS. Depot des 
Fortifications, Paris; see also Quincy, Art de la guerre, Paris, 
1740). In 1676 he was made marechal de camp. He took 
Conde, Bouchain and other places in that year, Valenciennes 
and Cambrai in 1677, Ghent and Ypres in 1678. 

It was at this time that Vauban synthesized the methods of 
attacking strong places, on which his claim to renown as an 
engineer rests far more than on his systems of fortification. 
The introduction of a systematic approach by parallels (said 
to have been suggested by the practice of the Turks at Candia 
in 1668) dates from the siege of Maestricht, and in principle 
remains to this day the standard method of attacking a fortress. 
The peace of Nijmwegen gave more territory to France, and 
more fortresses had to be adapted. Vauban was named com- 
missaire-general des fortifications on the death of De Clerville, 
and wrote in 1679 a memorandum on the places of the new 
frontier, from which it appears that from Dunkirk to Dinant 
France possessed fifteen fortresses and forts, with thirteen more 
in second line. Most of these had been rebuilt by Vauban, 
and further acquisitions, notably Strassburg (1681), involved 
him in unceasing work. At Saarlouis for the first time appeared 
Vauban's " first system " of fortification, which remained 
the accepted standard till comparatively recent times. He 
never hesitated to retain what was of advantage in the methods 
of his predecessors, which he had hitherto followed, and it was 
in practice rather than in theory, that he surpassed them. In 
1682 his "second system," which introduced modifications of 
the first designed to prolong the resistance of the fortress, 
began to appear; and about the same time he wrote a practical 
manual entitled Le Directeur-General des fortifications (Hague, 
1683-85). Having now attained the rank of lieut.-general, 
he took the field once more, and captured Courtrai in 1683, 
and Luxemburg in the following year. The unexpected 
strength of certain towers designed by the Spanish engineer 
Louvigni (fl. 1673) at Luxemburg suggested the tower-bastions 
which are the peculiar feature of Vauban's second system (see 
Augoyat, Memoires inedits du Ml. de Vauban, Paris, 1841) 
which was put into execution at Belfort in the same year 
(Provost du Vernois, De la fortification depuis Vauban, Paris, 
1861). In 1687 he chose Landau as the chief place of arms of 
Lower Alsace, and lavished on the place all the resources of his 
art. But side by side with this development grew up the far 
more important scheme of attack. He instituted a company 
of miners, and the elaborate experiments carried out under his 



supervision resulted in the establishment of all the necessary 
formulae for military mining (Traite des mines, Paris, 1740 and 
1799; Hague, 1744); while at the siege of Ath in 1697, having 
in the meanwhile taken part in more sieges, notably that of 
Namurin 1692 (defended by the great Dutch engineer Coehoorn), 
he employed ricochet fire for the first time as the principal means 
of breaking down the defence. He had indeed already used it 
with effect at Philipsburg in i6$8 and at Namur, but the jealousy 
of the artillery at outside interference had hindered the full use 
of this remarkable invention, which with his other improvements 
rendered the success of the attack almost certain. After the 
peace of Ryswick Vauban rebuilt or improved other fortresses, 
and finally New Breisach, fortified on his " third system "- 
which was in fact a modification of the second and was called 
by Vauban himself systeme de Landau perfectionne. His last 
siege was that of Old Breisach in 1703, when he reduced the 
place in a fortnight. On the i4th of January of that year 
Vauban had been made a marshal of France, a rank too exalted 
for the technical direction of sieges, and his active career came 
to an end with his promotion. Soon afterwards appeared his 
Traite de I'attaque des places, a revised and amplified edition of 
the older memoir of 1669, which contains the methods of the 
fully developed Vauban attack, the main features of which are 
the parallels, ricochet fire and the attack of the defending 
personnel by vertical fire (ed. Augoyat, Paris, 1829). 

But Louis XIV. was now thrown on the defensive, and the 
war of the Spanish Succession saw the gradual wane of Vauban's 
influence, as his fortresses were taken and retaken. The various 
captures of Landau, his chef-d'ceuvre, caused him to be regarded 
with disfavour, for it was not realized that the greatness of his 
services was rather in the attack than in the defence. In the 
darkness of defeat he turned his attention to the defence; 
but his work De la defense des places (ed. by General Valaze, 
Paris, 1829) is of far less worth than the Attaque, and his far- 
seeing ideas on entrenched camps (Traite des fortifications de 
campagne) were coldly received, though therein may be found 
the elements of the " detached forts " system now universal 
in Europe. The close of his life, saddened by the consciousness 
of waning influence and by failing health, he devoted largely to 
the arrangement of the voluminous manuscripts (Mes oisivetes) 
which contained his reflections on war, administration, finance, 
agriculture and the like. In 1689 he had had the courage to 
make a representation to the king in favour of the republication 
of the Edict of Nantes, and in 1698 he wrote his Projet d'une 
dix me - royale (see Economistes financieres du XVIII' siecle, 
Paris, 1851), a remarkable work foreshadowing the principles 
of the French Revolution. Vauban was deeply impressed with 
the deplorable condition of the peasantry, whose labour he 
regarded as the main foundation of all wealth, and protested 
in particular against the unequal incidence of taxation and the 
exemptions and privileges of the upper classes. His dix me - 
royale, a tax to be impartially applied to all classes, was a tenth 
of all agricultural produce payable in kind, and a tenth of 
money chargeable on manufacturers and merchants. This work 
was published in 1707, and instantly suppressed by order of the 
king. The marshal died heart-broken at the failure of his 
efforts a few days after the publication of the order (March 30, 
1707). At the Revolution his remains were scattered, but in 
1808 his heart was found and deposited by order of Napoleon 
in the church of the Invalides. 

Vauban's attention was closely engaged, not only in general 
military matters, but in political and financial reform and the 
inland navigation of France. He carried out the rearmament 
of the French infantry with flint-lock muskets and the socket 
bayonet. The order of St Louis was suggested by him, and 
lastly may be mentioned the fortress-models which he con- 
structed, most of which are in the Invalides at Paris, and 
some in the Berlin Zeughaus. The actual total of his work 
as an engineer is worth recording. He conducted forty sieges 
and took part in more than three hundred combats, while his 
skill and experience were employed on the construction or re- 
building of more than 160 fortresses of all kinds. Mes oisivetes 



VAUCLUSE VAUD 



953 






long remained unpublished, and of the twelve volumes of 
manuscript seven are lost. The remainder were published in 
Paris, 1841-45, in an abridged form, and of the five manuscript 
volumes three are in public hands, and two belong to the families 
of two famous engineers, Augoyat and Haxo. At the Hague 
(1737-1742) appeared, dedicated to Frederick of Prussia, De 
Hondt's edition of De I'attaque et defense, &c., and of this work 
an improved edition appeared subsequently. But the first satis- 
factory editions are those of Augoyat and Valaze mentioned above. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Fontenelle, " Eloge de Vauban " (Mem. Acad. 
Sciences, 1707); D'Argon, Considerations sur le genie de Vauban 
(Paris, 1780) ; Carnot, floge de Vauban (Paris, 1784) (followed by a 
critical Lettre & I'academie, published at La Rochelle, 1785, and 
Carnot's rejoinder, Observations sur la lettre,_ &c., Paris, 1785); 
Dembarrere, Eloge historique de Vauban (Paris, 1784); D'Autilly, 
Eloge de Vauban (Paris, 1788); Sauviac, Eloge, &c. (Paris, 1790); 
Chambray, Notice historique sur Vauban (Paris, 1845); Goulon, 
Memoires sur I'attaque et defense d'une place (Paris and Hague, 1740; 
Amsterdam, 1760; Paris, 1764) ; works by Abbe du Fay (Paris, 1681) 
and Chevalier de Cambray (Amsterdam, 1689), from which came 
various works in English, French, &c. For an account of these 
works and others which appeared subsequently, see Max Jahns, 
Gesch. der Kriegswissenschaften, ii. 1442-47. Allent, Histoire du 
corps de genie (Paris, 1805); Humbert, L'Art du genie (Berlin, 
1785); Hoyer, Gesch. der Kriegskunst (Gottingen, 1797); Ambert, 
Le Ml. de Vauban (Tours, 1882); Histoire de Vauban (Lille, 1844); 
Tripier, La Fortification deduite de son histoire (Paris, 1866) ; Brese- 
Winiari, Vber Entstehen und Wesen der neueren Befestigungsmethode 
(Berlin, 1844); Augoyat, Aperfu historique sur les fortifications, &c. 
(Paris, 1860); Abrege des services du Marechal Vauban (Paris, 1839), 
and the works mentioned above. See also, of shorter works, 
Revue des deux mondes (Aug. 1864 and Oct. 1870); Spectateur 
militaire (1830); Neues militarisches Journal, x. (1803); Jahrbiicher 
fur die deutsche Armee und Marine (1874); Bohms Magazin, xi. 
(Giessen, 1789); Archiv fur die Art. und Ingenieur-Offiziere, xxviii. 
(Berlin, 1850). 

VAUCLUSE, a department of south-eastern France, formed 
in 1793 out of the countship of Venaissin, the principality of 
Orange, and a part of Provence, and bounded by Drome on the 
N., Basses-Alpes on the E., Bouches-du-Rhone (from which it 
is separated by the Durance) on the S., and Card and Ardeche 
(from which it is separated by the Rhone) on the W. It has 
also an enclave, the canton of Valreas, in the department of 
Drome. Pop. (1906) 239,178. Area, 1381 sq. m. The western 
third of Vaucluse belongs to the Rhone valley, and consists of 
the rich and fertile plains of Orange, Carpentras and Cavaillon. 
To the east, with a general west-south-west direction and parallel 
to one another, are the steep barren ranges of Ventoux, Vau- 
cluse and Luberon, consisting of limestones and sandstones. 
The first-mentioned, which is the most northerly, has a maxi- 
mum elevation of 6273 ft.; the culminating peak, on which is a 
meteorological observatory, is isolated and majestic. The Vau- 
cluse chain does not rise above 4075 ft. The most southerly 
range, that of Luberon (3691 ft.), is rich in palaeontological 
remains of extant mammals (the lion, gazelle, wild boar, &c.). 
The Rhone is joined on the left by the Aygues, the Sorgue (rising 
in Petrarch's celebrated fountain of Vaucluse, which has given 
its name to the department), and the impetuous Durance. The 
Sorgue has an important tributary in the Ouveze and the Dur- 
ance in the Coulon (or Calavon). These and other streams feed 
the numerous irrigation canals (Canal de Pierrelatte, Canal de 
Carpentras, &c.) to which is largely due the success of the farmers 
and market-gardeners of the department. The climate is that 
of the Mediterranean region. The valley of the Rhone suffers 
from the mistral, a cold and violent wind from N.N.W.; but 
the other valleys are sheltered by the mountains, and produce 
the oleander, pomegranate, olive, jujube, fig, and other southern 
trees and shrubs. The mean annual temperature is 55 F. 
at Orange and 58 at Avignon; the extremes of temperature 
are 5 and 105 F. Snow is rare. The south wind, which is 
frequent in summer, brings rain. The average annual rainfall 
is 29 in. in the hill region and 22 in the plains. 

Wheat, potatoes, and oats are the most important crops; sugar- 
beet, sorghum, millet, ramie, early vegetables and fruits, among which 
may be mentioned the melons of Cavaillon, are also cultivated, and 
to these must be added the vine, olive and mulberry. The truffles 
of the regions of Apt and Carpentras, and the fragrant herbs of the 



Ventoux range, are renowned. Sheep are the principal live-stock, 
and mules are also numerous. Lignite and sulphur are mined; 
rich deposits of gypsum, fire-clay, ochre, &c., are worked. Mont- 
mirail has mineral springs of some repute. The industrial establish- 
ments include silk mills, silk-spinning factories, oil mills, flour mills, 
paper-mills, wool-spinning factories, confectionery establishments, 
manufactories of pottery, earthenware, bricks, mosaics, tinned 
provisions, chemicals, candles, soap and hats, breweries, puddling 
works, iron and copper foundries, cabinet workshops, blast furnaces, 
sawmills, edge-tool workshops and nursery gardens. Coarse cloth, 
carpets, blankets, and ready-made clothes are also produced. The 
department is served by the Paris-Lyon-Mediterrane railway, and 
the Rhone is navigable for 40 m. within it. It is divided into 4 ar- 
rondissements (Avignon, Apt, Carpentras and Orange), 22 cantons 
and 150 communes. Avignon, the capital, is the seat of an arch- 
bishop. The department belongs to the region of the XV. army 
corps and to the academic (educational circumscription) of Aix, and 
has its appeal court at Nimes. 

Avignon, Apt, Carpentras, Cavaillon, Orange and Vaison, 
the most noteworthy towns, are treated separately, and the in- 
teresting abbey of Senanque, of Romanesque architecture. Other 
places of interest are Gordes, with a town hall of Renaissance 
architecture; Pernes, which has a church of the nth century and 
medieval fortifications; La Tour d'Aigues, with fine ruins of the 
Renaissance chateau of the barons of Central Bonnieux, near which 
there is a bridge of the 2nd or 3rd century over the Calavon; 
Venasque, of Gallo-Roman or even earlier origin, with a baptistery 
of the 8th or 9th century; and Le Thor, with a fine church in the 
Provencal Romanesque style. 

VAUD (Ger. Waadt), one of the cantons of south-western 
Switzerland. Its total area is 1255-2 sq. m. (thus ranking aftei 
the Grisons, Bern and the Valais), of which 1056-7 sq. m. are 
reckoned as "productive" (forests covering 320-1 sq. m. and 
vineyards 24-9 sq. m., this last region being more extensive than 
in any other canton). Of the rest, i66j sq. m. are occupied by 
the portions of various lakes partly in the canton (Geneva, 
123! sq. m.; Neuchatel, 33 sq. m.; and Moral, 35 sq. m.) and 4-3 
by glaciers, the loftiest point in the canton being the Diablerets 
(10,650 ft.). The canton is of very irregular shape, as it owes 
its artificial existence solely to historical causes. It includes 
practically the whole northern shore of the Lake of Geneva, while 
it stretches from the " Alpes Vaudoises " and Bex, on the S.E., 
to the Jura and the French frontier, on the N.W. A long 
narrow tongue extending past Payerne (Peterlingen) to the 
Lake of Neuchatel is just disconnected with the Avenches region 
that forms an " enclave " in the canton of Fribourg, while in 
the canton of Vaud, Fribourg holds the two " enclaves " of 
Vuissens and Surpierre. A small stretch of the right bank of 
the Rhone (from Bex to the Lake of Geneva) is within the canton, 
while various short streams flow down into the Lake of Geneva. 
But the more northerly portion of the canton, beyond the Jorat 
range, to the north of Lausanne, and in particular the valley of 
the Broye, belongs to the Aar, and so to the Rhine basin. The 
canton is thus hilly rather than mountainous, save at its south- 
eastern extremity. It is well supplied with railways, including 
that along the northern shore of the Lake of Geneva, while from 
Bex through Vallorbes runs the main Simplon line towards 
Paris. There are also numerous " regional " or small-gauge 
railways, as well as mountain lines from Montreux past Glion 
up the Rochers de Naye, and from Vevey up the Mont Pelerin, 
not to speak of that (" Montreux-Oberland " line) direct to the 
head of the Sarine valley and so by the Simme valley to the Lake 
of Thun. In 1900 the population was 281,279, of whom 243,463 
were French-speaking, 24,372 German-speaking, and 10,667 
Italian-speaking, while 242,811 were Protestants (Calvinists, 
whether of the larger eglise nalionale or of the smaller 
iglise libre, founded in 1847), 36,980 Romanists, and 1076 
Jews. Agriculture is the main occupation of the inhabitants: 
the land is much subdivided and very highly cultivated. 

The vineyards give employment to great numbers of people. 
Much more white wine is produced than red wine. The best white 
wines of the canton are Yvorne (near Aigle) and La C6te (west of 
Lausanne), while the vineyard of Lavaux (east of Lausanne) pro- 
duces both red and white wine. There is not very much industry 
in the canton, though at Ste Croix in the Jura watches and musical 
boxes are made, while at Payerne tobacco is grown. Many 
foreigners reside in the canton, partly for reasons of health, partly 
on account of the educational advantages that it offers. They chiefly 
favour Lausanne, Vevey and the collection of hamlets known as 



954 



VAUDEVILLE VAUGELAS 



" Montreux," as well as Chateaux d'Oex, in the upper Sarine valley. 
Lausanne (q.v.) is the political capital of the canton. Next in point 
of population comes the " agglomeration " known as Montreux 
(q.v.), with 14,144, and Vevey (q.v.), with 11,781. Other important 
villages or small towns are Yverdon (7985 inhab.), Ste Croix (5905 
inhab.), Payerne (5224 inhab.), Nyon (4882 inhab.), Morges (4421 
inhab.), Aigle (3897 inhab.), and Chateau d'Oex (3025 inhab.). In 
educational matters the canton holds a high place. The academy 
of Lausanne dates from 1537, and was raised to the rank of a uni- 
versity in 1890; and there are a very large number of schools and 
educational establishments at Morges, Lausanne, Vevey, and else- 
where. Pestalozzi's celebrated institution flourished at Yverdon 
from 1806 to 1825. Among the remarkable historical spots in the 
canton are Avenches (the chief Roman settlement in Helvetia), 
Grandson (q.v.) (scene of the famous battle in 1476 against Charles 
the Bold), and the castle of Chillon (where Bonivard, the prior of 
St Victor at Geneva, was imprisoned from 1530 to 1536 for defending 
the freedom of Geneva against the duke of Savoy). 

The canton is divided into 19 administrative districts, which com- 
prise 388 communes. The cantonal constitution dates from 1885. 
The government consists of a Grand Conseil, or great council (one 
member to every 300 electors or fraction over 150), for legislative 
and a conseil d'etat, or council of state, of seven members (chosen by 
the Grand Conseil) for executive purposes. In both cases the term of 
office is four years. Six thousand citizens can compel consideration 
of any project by the legislature (" initiative," first in 1845), and the 
referendum exists in its " facultative " form, if demanded by 6000 
citizens, and also in case of expenditure (not included in the budget) 
of over half a million francs. The two members of the Federal 
Standerath are named by the Grand Conseil, while the fourteen 
members of the Federal Nationalraih are chosen by a popular vote. 
Capital punishment was abolished in 1874. 

The early history of the main part of the territories comprised 
in the present canton is identical with that of south-west Switzer- 
land generally. The Romans conquered (58 B.C.) the Celtic Hel- 
vetii and so thoroughly colonized the land that it has remained 
a Romance-speaking district, despite conquests by the Bur- 
gundians (5th century) and Franks (532) and the incursions of 
the Saracens (icth century). It formed part of the empire of 
Charlemagne, and of the kingdom of Transjurane Burgundy 
(888-1032), the memory of " good queen Bertha," wife of King 
Rudolph II., being still held in high honour. After the ex- 
tinction of the house of Zahringen (1218) the counts of Savoy 
gradually won the larger part of it, especially in the days of 
Peter II., " le petit Charlemagne" (d. 1268). The bishop of 
Lausanne (to which place the see had probably been trans- 
ferred from Aventicum by Marius the Chronicler at the end of 
the 6th century), however, still maintained the temporal power 
given to him by the king of Burgundy, and in 1125 had become 
a prince of the empire. (We must be careful to distinguish 
between the present canton of Vaud and the old medieval Pays 
de Vaud: the districts forming the present canton very nearly 
correspond to the Pays Romand.) Late in the isth century 
Bern began to acquire lands to the south from the dukes of 
Savoy, and it was out of those conquests that the canton was 
formed in 1798. In 1475 she seized Aigle and (in concert with 
Fribourg) fichallens and Grandson as well as Orbe (the latter 
held of the county of Burgundy). Vaud had been occupied by 
Bern for a time (1475-1476), but the final conquest did not take 
place till 1536, when both Savoyard Vaud and the bishopric of 
Lausanne (including Lausanne and Avenches) were overrun 
and annexed by Bern (formally ceded in 1564), who added to 
them (1555) Chateau d'Oex, as her share of the domains of the 
debt-laden count of the Gruyere in the division of the spoil she 
made with Fribourg. Bern in 1526 sent Guillaume Farel, a 
preacher from Dauphine, to carry out the Reformation at Aigle, 
and after 1 536 the new religion was imposed by force of arms and 
the bishop's residence moved to Fribourg (permanently from 
1663). Thus the whole land became Protestant, save the district 
of fichallens. Vaud was ruled very harshly by bailiffs from 
Bern. In 1588 a plot of some nobles to hand it over to Savoy 
was crushed, and in 1723 the enthusiastic idealist Davel lost his 
life in an attempt to raise it to the rank of a canton. Political 
feeling was therefore much excited by the outbreak of the French 
Revolution, and a Vaudois, F. C. de la Harpe, an exile and a 
patriot, persuaded the Directory in Paris to march on Vaud in 
virtue of alleged rights conferred by a treaty of 1565. The 
French troops were received enthusiastically, and the " Lemanic 



republic " was proclaimed (January 1798), succeeded by the 
short-lived Rhodanic republic, till in March 1798 the canton of 
L6man was formed as a district of the Helvetic republic. This 
corresponded precisely with the present canton minus Avenches 
and Payerne, which were given to the canton of Vaud (set up in 
1803). The new canton was thus made up of the Bernese con- 
quests of 1475, 1475-76, 1536 and 1555. The constitutions of 
1803 and 1814 favoured the towns and wealthy men, so that an 
agitation went on for a radical change, which was effected in the 
constitution of 1831. Originally acting as a mediator, Vaud 
finally joined the anti-Jesuit movement (especially after the 
radicals came into power in 1845), opposed the Sonderbund, 
and accepted the new federal constitution of 1848, of which 
Druey of Vaud was one of the two drafters. From 1839 to 1846 
the canton was distracted by religious struggles, owing to the 
attempt of the radicals to turn the church into a simple depart- 
ment of state, a struggle which ended in the splitting off (1847) 
of the " free church." The cantonal feeling in Vaud is very 
strong, and was the main cause of the failure of the project of 
revising the federal constitution in 1872, though that of 1874 
was accepted. In 1879 Vaud was one of the three cantons which 
voted (though in vain) against a grant in aid of the St Gotthard 
railway. In 1882 the radicals obtained a great majority, and 
in 1885 the constitution of 1861 was revised. 

AUTHORITIES. C. Burnier, La Vie vaudoise el la revolution 
(Lausanne, 1902); E. Busset and E. de la Harpe, Aux Ormonts 
(2nd ed., Lausanne, 1906) ; J. Cart, Histoire de la liberte des cultes 
dans le canton de Vaud (Lausanne, 1890); A. Ceresole, Legendes des 
Alpes vaudoises (Lausanne, 1885); E. de la Harpe, Guide du Jura 
vaudois (Neuchcltel, 1903); H. Diibi, Climbers 1 Guide for the 
Bernese Oberland, vol. iii. (including the Alpes Vaudoises) .(London, 
I9 O 7); E. Dunant, Guide illustre du musee d' Avenches (Lausanne, 
1900); F. Forel, Charles communales du pays de Vaud, 1214-1527 
(Lausanne, 1872); P. Maillefer, Histoire du canton de Vaud 
(Lausanne, 1903) ; Memoires et documents (published by the Soc. 
d'Histoire de la Suisse Romande) (Lausanne, from 1838); A.'ide 
Montet, T. Rittener and A. Bonnard, Chez nos aieux (Lausanne, 
1902) ; A. Pfleghart, Die schweizerische Uhrenindustrie (Leipzig, 
1908) ; J. R. Rahn, Geschichte des Schlosses Chillon (2 parts, Zurich, 
1888-89); E. Rambert, Bex et ses environs (Lausanne, 1871); 
Alexandre Vinet (2nd ed., Lausanne, 1875), and Ascensions et 
flaneries (Alpes vaudoises) (new ed., Lausanne, 1888); Meredith 
Read, Historic Studies in Vaud, Berne and Savoy (2 vols., London, 
1897); A. Vautier, La Patrie itaudoise (Lausanne, 1903); L. 
Vulliemin, Le Canton de Vaud (yd ed., Lausanne, 1885); A. 
Wagnon, Autour des Plans (Bex, 1890). See LAUSANNE. 

(W. A. B. C.) 

VAUDEVILLE, a term now generally given to a musical 
drama of a light, humorous or comic description interspersed 
with songs and dances. In English usage " vaudeville " is 
practically synonymous with what is more generally known as 
" musical comedy," but in America it is applied also to a music- 
hall variety entertainment. This modern sense is developed 
from the French vaudeville of the i8th century, a popular form 
of light dramatic composition, consisting of pantomime, dances, 
songs and dialogue, written in couplets. It is generally ac- 
cepted that the word is to be identified with vau-de-mre, the 
name given to the convivial songs of the 1 5th century. This 
name originated with a literary association known as the " Cow- 
pagnons Gallois," i.e. " boon companions " or " gay comrades " 
in the valley of the Vire and Virene in Normandy. The most 
famous of the authors of these songs was Olivier Basselin (q.v.). 
When in the i7th century the term had become applied to 
topical, satiric verses current in the towns, it was corrupted 
into its present form, either from d vau le mile, or iioix de ville. 

VAUGELAS, CLAUDE FAVRE. SEIGNEUR DE, BARON DE 
PEROGES (1595-1650), French grammarian and man of letters, 
was born at Meximieu, department of Ain, on the 6th of January 
1595. He became gentleman-in-waiting to Gaston d'Orleans, 
and continued faithful to this prince in his disgrace, although 
his fidelity cost him a pension from the crown on which he 
was largely dependent. His thorough knowledge of the French 
language and the correctness of his speech won for him a place 
among the original academicians. On the representation of 
his colleagues his pension was restored so that he might have 
leisure to pursue his admirable Rcmarques sur la langue franfaise 



VAUGHAN, C. J. VAUGHAN, H. 



(1647). In this work he maintained that words and expressions 
were to be judged by the current usage of the best society, of 
which, as an habitue of the Hotel de Rambouillet, Vaugelas 
was a competent judge. He shares with Malherbe the credit 
of having purified French diction. His book fixed the current 
usage, and the classical writers of the i7th century regulated 
their practice by it. Protests against the academical doctrine 
were not lacking. Scipion Dupleix in his Liberte de la langue 
franfaise dans sa purete (1651) pleaded for the richer and freer 
language of the i6th century, and Frangois de la Mothe le Vayer 
took a similar standpoint in his Lettres a Gabriel Naude touchant 
les Rcmarques sur la langue franqaise. Towards the end of his life 
Vaugelas became tutor to the sons of Thomas Francis of Savoy, 
prince of Carignan. He died in Paris in February 1650. His 
translation from Quintus Curtius, La Vie d'Alexandre (post- 
humously published in 1653) deserves notice as an application 
of the author's own rules. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. -See Remarques sur la langue fran$aise, edited with 
a key by V. Conrart, and introductory notes by A. Chassang 
(Paris, 1880). The principles of Vaugelas's judgments are explained 
in the Etudes critiques (7" serie) of M. Brunetiere, who regards the 
name of Vaugelas as a symbol of all that was done in the first halt 
of the i6th century to perfect and purify the French language. 
See also F. Brunot in the Histoire de la langue et litterature franqaise 
of Petit de Julleville. 

VAUGHAN, CHARLES JOHN (1816-1897), English scholar 
and divine, was educated at Rugby and Cambridge, where he 
was bracketed senior classic with Lord Lyttelton in 1838. In 
1839 he was elected fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and 
for a short time studied law. He took orders, however, in 1841, 
and became vicar of St Martin's, Leicester. Three years later 
he was elected headmaster of Harrow. He resigned the head- 
mastership in 1859 and accepted the bishopric of Rochester, but 
afterwards withdrew his acceptance. In 1880 he was appointed 
vicar of Doncaster. He was appointed master of the Temple in 
1869, and dean of Llandaff in 1879. In 1894 he was elected 
president of University College, Cardiff, in recognition of the 
prominent part he took in its foundation. Vaughan was a 
well-known Broad Churchman, an eloquent preacher and an able 
writer on theological subjects, his numerous works including 
lectures, commentaries and sermons; he was joint-author with 
the Rev. John Llewelyn Davies (b. 1826) also a well-known 
Cambridge scholar and Broad Churchman of a well-known 
translation of Plato's Republic. 

VAUGHAN, HENRY (1622-1695^, . called the " Silurist," 
English poet and mystic, was born of an ancient Welsh family 
at Newton St Briget near Scethrog by Usk, Brecknockshire, on 
the lyth of April 1622. His grandfather, Thomas Vaughan, 
was the son of Charles Vaughan of Tretower Castle, and had 
acquired the farm of Newton by marriage. From 1632 to 1638 
he and his twin brother Thomas, noticed below, were privately 
educated by the Rev. Matthew Herbert, rector of Llangattock, 
to whom they both addressed Latin verses expressing their 
gratitude. Anthony a Wood, who is the main authority for 
Vaughan's biography, says that Henry was entered at Jesus 
College, Oxford, in 1638, but no corroboration of the statement 
is forthcoming, although Thomas Vaughan's matriculation is 
entered, nor does Henry Vaughan ever allude to residence at 
the university. 1 He was sent to London to study law, but 
turning his attention to medicine, he became a physician, and 
settled first at Brecon and later at Scethrog to the practice of his 
art. He was regarded, says Wood, as an " ingenious person, 
but proud and humorous." It seems likely that he fought on 
the king's side in the Welsh campaign of 1645, and was present 
at the battle of Rowton Heath. In 1646 appeared Poems, with 
the Tenth Satyre of Juvenal Englished, by Henry Vaughan, Gent. 
The poems in this volume are chiefly addressed to " Amoret," 
and the last is on Priory Grove, the home of the " matchless 
Orinda," Mrs Katharine Philips. A second volume of secular 

'Two poems in the Eucnaristica Oxoniensia (1641) are signed 
" H. Vaughan, Jes. Coll.," but are probably by a contemporary of 
the same name, noticed by Wood. See Mr E. K. Chambers's bio- 
graphical note in vol. ii. of Vaughan's Works. 



955 

verse, Olor Iscanus, which takes its name from the opening 
verses addressed to the Isca (Usk), was published by a friend, 
probably Thomas Vaughan, without the author's consent, in 
1651. The book includes three prose translations from Latin 
versions of Plutarch and Maximus of Tyre, and one in praise of 
a country life from Guevara. The preface is dated 1647, and 
the reason for Vaughan's reluctance to print the book is to be 
sought in the preface to Silex Scintillans: or Sacred Poems and 
Pious Ejaculations (1650). There he says: " The first that 
with any effectual success attempted a diversion of this foul and 
overflowing stream (of profane poetry) was the blessed man, 
Mr George Herbert, whose holy life and verse gained many pious 
converts, of whom I am the least." He further expresses his 
debt in " The Match," when he says that his own " fierce, wild 
blood ... is still tam'd by those bright fires which thee 
inflam'd." His debt to Herbert extended to the form of his 
poetry and sometimes to the actual expressions used in it, and 
a long list of parallel passages has been adduced. His other 
works are The Mount of Olives: or Solitary Devotions, with a 
translation, Man in Glory, from the Latin of Anselm (1652); 
Flares Solitudinis (1654), consisting of two prose translations 
from Nierembergius, one from St Eucherius, and a h'fe of 
Paulinus, bishop of Nola; Hermetical Physick, translated from 
the Naturae Sanctuarium of Henricus Nollius; Thalia Rediviva; 
The Pass-Times and Diversions of a Country Muse (1678), which 
includes some of his brother's poems. Henry Vaughan died at 
Scethrog on the 23rd of April 1695, and was buried in the church- 
yard of Llansantffraed. 

As a poet Vaughan comes latest in the so-called " meta- 
physical " school of the i7th century. He is a disciple of Donne, 
but follows him mainly as he saw him reflected in George Herbert. 
He analyses his experiences, amatory and sacred, with excessive 
ingenuity, striking out, every now and then, through his ex- 
treme intensity of feeling and his close observation of nature, 
lines and phrases of marvellous felicity. He is of imagination 
all compact, and is happiest when he abandons himself most 
completely to his vision. It is, as Canon H. C. Beeching has 
said, " undoubtedly the mystical element in Vaughan's writing 
by which he takes rank as a poet ... it is easy to see that he 
has a passion for Nature for her own sake, that he has observed 
her moods; that indeed the world is to him no less than a veil 
of the eternal spirit, whose presence may be felt in any, even the 
smallest part." In this imaginative outlook on Nature he no 
doubt exercised great influence on Wordsworth, who is known 
to have possessed a copy of his poems, and it is difficult to avoid 
seeing in " The Retreat " the germ of the later poet's " Ode 
on Intimations of Immortality." By this poem, with " The 
World," mainly because of its magnificent opening stanza, 
" Beyond the Veil," and " Peace," he is best known to the 
ordinary reader. 

The complete works of Henry Vaughan were edited for the Fuller 
Worthies Library by Dr A. B. Grosart in 1871. The Poems of 
Henry Vaughan, Silurist, were edited in 1896 by Mr E. K. Chambers, 
with an introduction by Canon H. C. Beeching, for the Muses' 
Library. 

VAUGHAN, HERBERT (1832-1903), cardinal and arch- 
bishop of Westminster, was born at Gloucester on the isth of 
April 1832, the eldest son of lieutenant-colonel John Francis 
Vaughan, head of an old Roman Catholic family, the Vaughans 
of Courtfield, Herefordshire. His mother, a daughter of John 
Rolls of The Hendre, Monmouthshire, was intensely religious; 
and all the daughters of the family entered convents, while six 
of the eight sons took priest's orders, three of them rising to 
the episcopate, Roger becoming archbishop of Sydney, and 
John bishop of Sebastopolis. Herbert spent six years at 
Stonyhurst, and was then sent to study with the Benedictines 
at Downside, near Bath, and subsequently at the Jesuit school 
of Brugelette, Belgium, which was afterwards removed to Paris. 
In 1851 he went to Rome. After two years of study at the 
Accademia dei nobili ecclesiastici, where he became a friend 
and disciple of Manning, he took priest's orders at Lucca 
in 1854. On his return to England he became for a period 



VAUGHAN, T. VAULT 



vice-president of St Edmund's College, Ware, at that time the 
chief seminary for candidates for the priesthood in the south 
of England. Since childhood he had been filled with zeal for 
foreign missions, and he conceived the determination to found 
a great English missionary college to fit young priests for the 
work of evangelizing the heathen. With this object he made 
a great begging expedition to America in 1863, from which 
he returned with 11,000. St Joseph's Foreign Missionary 
College, Mill Hill Park, London, was opened in 1869. Vaughan 
also became proprietor of the Tablet, and used its columns 
vigorously for propagandist purposes. In 1872 he was con- 
secrated bishop of Salford, and in 1892 succeeded Manning 
as archbishop of Westminster, receiving the cardinal's hat 
in 1893. Vaughan was a man of very different type from his 
predecessor; he had none of Manning's intellectual finesse or 
his ardour in social reform, but he was an ecclesiastic of remark- 
ably fine presence and aristocratic leanings, intransigeant in 
theological policy, and in personal character simply devout. 

It was his most cherished ambition to see before he died an 
adequate Roman Catholic cathedral in Westminster, and he 
laboured untiringly to secure subscriptions, with the result 
that its foundation stone was laid in 1895, and that when he 
died, on the igth of June 1903, the building was so far complete 
that a Requiem Mass was said there over his body before it 
was removed to its resting-place at Mill Hill Park. 

See the Life of Cardinal Vaughan, by J. G. Snead Cox (2 vols., 
London, 1910). 

VAUGHAN, THOMAS (1622-1666), English alchemist and 
mystic, was the younger twin brother of Henry Vaughan, the 
" Silurist." He matriculated from Jesus College, Oxford, in 
1638, took his B.A. degree in 1642, and became fellow of his 
college. He remained for some years at Oxford, but also held 
the living of his native parish of Llansantfread from 1640 till 
1649, when he was ejected, under the Act for the Propagation 
of the Gospel in Wales, upon charges of drunkenness, im- 
morality and bearing arms for the king. Subsequently he lived 
at his brother's farm of Newton and in various parts of London, 
and studied alchemy and kindred subjects. He married in 
1651 and lost his wife in 1658. After the Restoration he found 
a patron in Sir Robert Murray, with whom he fled from London 
to Oxford during the plague of 1665. He appears to have had 
some employment of state, but he continued his favourite 
studies and actually died of the fumes of mercury at the house 
of Samuel Kem at Albury on the 27th of February 1666. 
Vaughan regarded himself as a philosopher of nature, and 
although he certainly sought the universal solvent, his pub- 
lished writings deal rather with magic and mysticism than 
with technical alchemy. They also contain much contro- 
versy with Henry More the Platonist. Vaughan was called 
a Rosicrucian, but denied the imputation. He wrote or trans- 
lated Anthroposophia Theomagica (1650); Anima Magica 
Abscondita (1650); Magia Adamica and Coelum Terrae (1650); 
The Man-Mouse taken in a Trap (1650); The Second Wash; or 
the Moor Scoured once more (1651); Lumen de Lumine and 
Aphorisimi Magici Eugeniani (1651); The Fame and Confession 
of the Fraternity of R.C. (1652); Aula Lucis (1652); Euphrates 
(1655); Nollius' Chymists Key (1657); A Brief Natural 
History (1669). Most of these pamphlets appeared under the 
pseudonym of Eugenius Philalethes. Vaughan was probably, 
although it is by no means certain, not the famous adept known 
as Eirenaeus Philalethes, who was alleged to have found the 
philosopher's stone in America, and to whom the Introitus 
Apertus in Occlusum Regis Palatium (1667) and other writings 
are ascribed. In 1896 Vaughan was the subject of an amaz- 
ing mystification in the Memoires d'une ex-Palladiste. These 
formed part of certain alleged revelations as to the practice of 
devil-worship by the initiates of freemasonry. The author, 
whose name was given as Diana Vaughan, claimed to be a 
descendant of Thomas and to possess family papers which 
showed amongst other marvels that he had made a pact with 
Lucifer, and had helped to found freemasonry as a Satanic 
society. The inventors of the hoax, which took in many 



eminent Catholic ecclesiastics, were some unscrupulous Paris 
journalists. 

The Magical Writings of Thomas Vaughan were edited by Mr A. E. 
Waite in 1888. His miscellaneous Latin and English verses are 
included in vol. ii. of Dr A. B. Grosart's Fuller Worthies Library 
edition of the Works of Henry Vaughan (1871). A manuscript book 
of his, with alchemical and autobiographical jottings made between 
1658 and 1662, forms Brit. Mus. Sloane MS. 1741. Biographical 
data are in Mr E. K. Chambars's'Muses Library edition of the Poems 
of Henry Vaughan (1896), together with an account and criticism 
of the Memoires d'une ex-Palladiste. These fabrications were also 
discussed by Mr A. E. Waite, Devil-Worship in France (1896), and 
finally exposed by M. Gaston Mery, La Verite sur Diana Vaughan. 

(E. K. C.) 

VAUGHAN, WILLIAM (1577-1641), English author and 
colonial pioneer, son of Walter Vaughan (d. 1598), was born at 
Golden Grove, Carmarthenshire, his father's estate, in 1577. He 
was descended from an ancient prince of Powys. His brother, 
John Vaughan (1572-1634), became ist earl of Carbery; and 
another brother, General Sir Henry or Harry Vaughan (1587- 
1659), was a well-known royalist leader. William was educated 
at Jesus College, Oxford, and took the degree of LL.D. at Vienna. 
In 1616 he bought a grant of land in the south coast of New- 
foundland, to which he sent two batches of settlers. In 1622 
he visited the settlement, which he called Cambriol, and returned 
to England in 1625. Vaughan apparently paid another visit 
to his colony, but his plans for its prosperity were foiled by the 
severe winters. He died at his house of Torcoed, Carmarthen- 
shire, in August 1641. 

His chief work is The Golden Grove (1600), a general guide to 
morals, politics and literature, in which the manners of the time are 
severely criticized, plays being denounced as folly and wickedness. 
The section in praise of poetry borrows much from earlier writers 
on the subject. The Golden Fleece . . . transported from Cambriol 
Colchis . . . by Orpheus jun., alias Witt Vaughan, which contains 
information about Newfoundland, is the most interesting of his 
other works. 

VAULT 1 (Fr. wute, Ital. wlta, Ger. Gewolbe), in architecture, 
the term given to the covering over of a space with stone or 
brick in arched form, the component parts of which exert a 
thrust and necessitate a counter resistance. In the case of 
vaults built under the level of the ground, the latter gave all 
that was required, but, when raised aloft, various expedients 
had to be employed, such as great thickness of walls in the case 
of barrel or continuous vaults, and cross walls or buttresses 
when intersecting vaults were employed. The simplest kind 
of vault is that known as the barrel, wagon or tunnel vault, 
which is generally semicircular in section, and may be regarded 
as a continuous arch, the length of which is in excess of its 
diameter; like the arch (q.v.), the same provision is required 
as regards its temporary support whilst the voussoirs consti- 
tuting one of its rings are being placed in position, for until the 
upper voussoir, or keystone, is introduced it is not self-supporting. 
At the present day, when timber of all kinds is easily procurable, 
this temporary support is given by centring, consisting of a 
framed truss with semicircular or segmental head, which carries 
the voussoirs until the ring of the whole arch is completed and 
is then, with a barrel vault, shifted on to support other rings; 
in early times, and particularly in Chaldaea and Egypt, where 
timber was scarce, other means of support had to be contrived, 
and it would seem that it was only in Roman times that centring 
was regularly employed. 

The earliest example known of a vault is that found under 
the Chaldaean ziggurat at Nippur in Babylonia, ascribed to 
about 4000 B.C., which was built of burnt bricks cemented with 
clay mortar. The earliest tunnel vaults in Egypt are those at 
Requaqnah and Denderah, c. 3500 B.C.; these were built in 
unburnt brick in three rings over passages descending to tombs: 
in these cases, as the span of the vault was only 6 ft., the bricks 
constituting the voussoirs were laid flatwise, and adhered suffi- 
ciently to those behind to enable the ring to be completed without 
other support; in the granaries built by Ramessu II., still in 
part existing behind the Ramesseum, at Thebes, the span was 
12 ft., and another system was employed; the lower part of 
1 For the form of safe so called see SAFES. 



VAULT 



957 



the arch was built in horizontal courses, up to about one-third 
of the height, and the rings above were inclined back at a slight 
angle, so that the bricks of each ring, laid flatwise, adhered till 
the ring was completed, no centring of any kind being required; 
the vault thus formed was elliptic in section, arising from the 
method of its construction. A similar system of construction 
was employed for the vault over the great hall at Ctesiphon, 
where the material employed was burnt bricks or tiles of great 
dimensions, cemented with mortar; but the span was close 
upon 83 ft., and the thickness of the vault was nearly 5 ft. at 
the top, there being four rings of brickwork. It is probable 
that the great vaults of the Assyrian palaces were constructed 
in the same way, but with unburnt bricks dried only in the sun: 
one of the drains discovered by Layard at Nimrud was built 
in rings sloping backwards. From the fact that each Assyrian 
monarch on his accession to the throne commenced his reign 
by the erection of a palace, it is probable that, owing to the 
ephemeral construction of these great vaults, half a century 
was the term of their existence. This may also account for the 
fact that no domed structures exist of the type shown in one of 
the has reliefs from Nimrud (fig. i); the tradition of their 




FIG. i. 

erection, however, would seem to have been handed down to 
their successors in Mesopotamia, viz. to the Sassanians, who in 
their palaces at Serbistan and Firuzabad built domes of similar 
form to those shown in the Nimrud sculptures, the chief differ- 
ence being that, constructed in rubble stone and cemented with 
mortar, they still exist, though probably abandoned on the 
Mahommedan invasion in the 7th century. 

In all the instances above quoted in Chaldaea and Egypt the 
bricks, whether burnt or sun-dried, were of the description to 
which the term " tile " would now be given; the dimensions 
varied from i8or 2oin. to 10 in., being generally square and about 
4 to 2 in. thick, and they were not shaped as voussoirs, the con- 
necting medium being thicker at the top than at the bottom. 
The earliest Egyptian examples of regular voussoirs in stone 
belong to the XXVIth Dynasty (c. 650 B.C.) in the additions 
made then to the temple of Medinet-Abou, and here it is 
probable that centring of some kind was provided, as the vaults 
are built in rings, so that the same centring could be shifted 
on after the completion of each ring. The earliest example 
of regularly shaped voussoirs, and of about the same date, is 
found in the cloaca at Graviscae in Etruria, with a span of about 
14 ft., the voussoirs of which are from 5 to 6 ft. long. The 
cloaca maxima in Rome, built by Tarquin (603 B.C.) to drain 
the marshy ground between the Palatine and the Capitoline 
Hills, was according to Commendatore Boni vaulted over in the 




FIG. 2. 



ist century B.C., the vault being over 800 ft. long, 10 ft. in span, 
with three concentric rings of voussoirs. 

So far, all the vaults mentioned have been barrel vaults, 
which, when not built underground, required continuous walls 
of great thickness to resist their thrust; the earliest example 
of the next variety, the intersecting barrel vault, is said to be 
over a small hall at Pergamum, in Asia Minor, but its first em- 
ployment over halls of great dimensions is due to the Romans. 
When two semicircular barrel vaults of the same diameter cross 
one another (fig. 2) their intersection (a true ellipse) is known 
as a groin, down 
which the thrust of 
the vault is carried 
to the cross walls; 
if a series of two or 
more barrel vaults 
intersect one another, 
the weight is carried 
on to the piers at 
their intersection and 
the thrust is trans- 
mitted to the outer 
cross walls; thus in 
the Roman reservoir at Baiae, known as the piscina mira- 
bilis, a series of five aisles with semicircular barrel vaults 
are intersected by twelve cross aisles, the vaults being carried 
on 48 piers and thick external walls. The width of these aisles 
being only about 13 ft. there was no great difficulty in the 
construction of these vaults, but in the Roman Thermae the 
tepidarium had a span of 80 ft., more than twice that of an 
English cathedral, so that its construction both from the 
statical and economical point of view was of the greatest im- 
portance. The researches of M. Choisy (L'Art de bdtir chez les 
Romains), based on a minute examination of those portions of 
the vaults which still remain in situ, have shown that, on a 
comparatively slight centring, consisting of trusses placed about 
10 ft. apart and covered with planks laid from truss to truss, 
were laid to begin with two layers of the Roman brick 
(measuring nearly 2 ft. square and 2 in. thick); on these and 
on the trusses transverse rings of brick*were built with longi- 
tudinal ties at intervals; on the brick layers and embedding 
the rings and cross ties concrete was thrown in horizontal 
layers, the haunches being filled in solid, and the surface sloped 
on either side and covered over with a tile roof of low pitch laid 
direct on the concrete. The rings relieved the centring from 
the weight imposed, and the two layers of bricks carried the 
concrete till it had set. As the walls carrying these vaults 
were also built in concrete with occasional bond courses of 
brick, the whole structure was homogeneous. One of the 
important ingredients of the mortar was a volcanic deposit 
found near Rome, known as pozzolana, which, when the concrete 
had set, not only made the concrete as solid as the rock itself, 
but to a certain extent neutralized the thrust of the vaults, 
which formed shells equivalent to that of a metal lid, the 
Romans, however, do not seem to have recognized the extra- 
ordinary value of this pozzolana mixture, for they otherwise 
provided amply for the counteracting of any thrust which 
might exist by the erection of cross walls and buttresses. In 
the tepidaria of the Thermae and in the basilica of Constantine, 
in order to bring the thrust well within the walls, the main 
barrel vault of the hall was brought forward on each side and 
rested on detached columns, which constituted the principal 
architectural decoration. In cases where the cross vaults 
intersecting were not of the same span as those of the main 
vault, the arches were either stilted so that their soffits might 
be of the same height, or they formed smaller intersections in 
the lower part of the vault; in both of these cases, however, 
the intersections or groins were twisted, for which it was very 
difficult to form a centring, and, moreover, they were of dis- 
agreeable effect: though every attempt was made to mask 
this in the decoration of the vault by panels and reliefs modelled 
in stucco. 



958 



VAULT 



The widest hall vaulted by the Romans was that of the 
throne room in the palace of Diocletian on the Palatine Hill, 
and this had the enormous span of 100 ft., its thrust being 
counteracted by other halls on either side with buttresses 
outside. In provincial towns and in other parts of the Roman 
Empire, where the material pozzolana was not procurable, the 
Romans had to trust to their mortar as a cementing medium, 
but this, though excellent of its kind, was not of sufficient 
cohesive strength to allow of the erection of vaults of more than 
about 40 ft. span, Which were generally built in rubble masonry. 
There still exist in Asia Minor and Syria some vaulted halls, 
generally attached to thermae, which are carried on walls of 
great thickness. There were many varieties of the Roman 
vault, whether continuous or intersected, such as those employed 
over the corridors on the Colosseum and the theatre of Mar- 
cellus, but in these cases the springing of the vault was above 
the summit of the arches of the main front, so that there was 
no intersection; on the other hand, over the corridors were 
either elliptical or semicircular, or over the staircases rising 
vaults, all of which were more difficult to construct; there were 
also numerous solutions of vault over circular halls, of which 
that of the Pantheon was the most important example, having 
a diameter of 142 ft., and over the hemicycles, which were 
sometimes of great size; that known as Canopus in Hadrian's 
villa at Tivoli had a diameter of 75 ft., and was vaulted over 
with a series of ribs, between which were alternating rampant 
flat and semicircular webs and cells; in the same villa and in 
Rome were octagonal halls with various other combinations of 
vault. Another type of vault not yet referred to is that of the 
Tabularium arcade where the cloister vault was employed. 
Fig. 3 compared with fig. 2 will show the difference; in the 

former the angles of 
intersection are inset, 
and in the latter they 
are groins with pro- 
jecting angles at the 
base, which die away 
at the summit. 

The .vault of the 
basilica, commenced 
by Diocletian and 
completed by Con- 
stantine, was the last 
great work carried out 

by the Romans, and two centuries pass before the next important 
development is found in the church of Sta Sophia at Con- 
stantinople. It is probable that the realization of the great 
advance in the science of vaulting shown in this church owed 
something to the eastern tradition of dome vaulting seen in 
the Assyrian domes, which are known to us only by the repre- 
sentations in the bas-relief from Nimriid (fig. i), because in 
the great water cisterns in Constantinople, known as the Yeri 
Batan Serai (the underground palace) and Bin bir-derek (cistern 
with a thousand and one columns), both built by Constantine, 
we find the intersecting groin vaults of the Romans already 
replaced by small cupolas or domes. These domes, however, 
are of small dimensions when compared with that projected 
and carried out by Justinian in Sta Sophia. Previous to this 
the greatest dome was that of the Pantheon at Rome, but this 
was carried on an immense wall 20 ft. thick, and with the 
exception of small niches or recesses in the thickness of the wall 
could not be extended, so that Justinian apparently instructed 
his architect to provide an immense hemicycle or apse at the 
eastern end, a similar apse at the western end, and great arches 
on either side, the walls under which would be pierced with 
windows. 

The diagram (fig. 4) shows the outlines of the solution of the 
problem. If a hemispherical dome is cut by four vertical planes, 
the intersection gives four semicircular arches ; if cut in addition by 
a horizontal plane tangent to the top of these arches, it describes 
a circle; that portion of the sphere which is below this circle and 
between the arches, forming a spherical spandril, is the pendentive 
(fig. 5), and its radius is equal to the diagonal of the square on which 




the four arches rest. Having obtained a circle for the base of the 
dome, it is not necessary that the upper portion of the dome should 




FIG. 4. 



FIG. 5. AA, penden- 
tive. 



spring from the same level as the arches, or that its domical surface 
should be a continuation of that of the pendentive. The first and 
second dome of Sta Sophia apparently fell down, so that Justinian 
determined to raise it, possibly to give greater lightness to the 
structure, but mainly in order to obtain increased light for the 
interior of the church. This was effected by piercing it with forty 
windows the effect of which was of an extraordinary nature, as the 
light streaming through these windows gave to the dome the appear- 
ance of being suspended in the air. The pendentive which carried 
the dome rested on four great arches, the thrust of those crossing 
the church being counteracted by immense buttresses which tra- 
versed the aisles, and the other two partly by smaller arches in the 
apse, the thrust being carried to the outer walls, and to a certain ex- 
tent by the side walls which were built under the arches. From the 
description given by Procopius we gather that the centring employed 
for the great arches consisted of a wall erected to support them during 
their erection. The construction of the pendentives is not known, 
but it is surmised that to the top of the pendentives they were built 
in horizontal courses of brick, projecting one over the other, the 
projecting angles being cut off afterwards and covered with stucco 
in which the mosaics were embedded ; this was the method employed 
in the erection of the Perigordian domes, to which we shall return ; 
these, however, were of less diameter than those of Sta Sophia, 
being only about 40 to 60 ft. instead of 107 ft. The apotheosis 
of Byzantine architecture, in fact, was reached in Sta Sophia, for 
although it formed the model on which all subsequent Byzantine 
churches were based, so far as their plan was concerned, no domes 
approaching the former in dimensions were even attempted. The 
principal difference in some later examples is that which took place 
in the form of the pendentive on which the dome was carried. 
Instead of the spherical spandril of Sta Sophia, large niches were 
formed in the angles, as in the mosque of Damascus, which was 
built by Byzantine workmen for the Sherif al Walid in A.D. 705; 
these gave an octagonal base on which the hemispherical dome 
rested (fig. 6); or again, as in the Sassanian palaces of Serbistan 
and Firuzabad of the 4th and 5th cen- 
tury of our era, when a series of con- ,-'''"' ~~~~"-- 
centric arch rings, projecting one in front . ' 
of the other, were built, giving also an 
octagonal base; each of these penden- 
tives is known as a squinch. 

There is one other remarkable vault, 
also built by Justinian, in the church of 
S. Sergius and Bacchus in Constantinople. 
The cetitral area of this church was octa- 
gonal on plan, and the dome is divided 
into sixteen compartments; of these 
eight consist of broad flat bands rising FIG. 6. BB, niche or 
from the centre of each of the walls, squinch pendentive. 
and the alternate eight are concave cells 

over the angles of the octagon, which externally and internally give 
to the roof the appearance of an umbrella. 

Although the dome constitutes the principal characteristic 
of the Byzantine church, throughout Asia Minor are numerous 
examples in which the naves are vaulted with the semicircular 
barrel vault, and this is the type of vault found throughout the 
south of France in the nth and I2th centuries, the only change 
being the occasional substitution of the pointed barrel vault, 
adopted not only on account of its exerting a less thrust, but 
because, as pointed out by Fergusson (vol. ii. p. 46), the roofing 
tiles were laid directly on the vault and a less amount of filling 
in at the top was required. The continuous thrust of the barrel 
vault in these cases was met either by semicircular or pointed 
barrel vaults on the aisles, which had only half the span of the 
nave; of this there is an interesting example in the chapel of 
St John in the Tower of London and sometimes by half-barrel 
vaults. The great thickness of the walls, however, required in 
such constructions would seem to have led to another solution 




VAULT 



959 



of the problem of roofing over churches with incombustible 
material, viz. that which is found throughout Perigord and La 
Charente, where a scries of domes carried on pendentives covered 
over the nave, the chief peculiarities of these domes being the 
fact that the arches carrying them form part of the pendentives, 
which are all built in horizontal courses. 

The intersecting and groined vault of the Romans was em- 
ployed in the early Christian churches in Rome, but only over 
the aisles, which were comparatively of small span, but in these 
there was a tendency to raise the centres of these vaults, which 
became slightly domical; in all these cases centring was 
employed. 

Reference has been made to the twisting of the groins in 
Roman work, where the intersecting barrel vaults were not of 
the same diameter; their construction must at all times have 
been somewhat difficult, but where the barrel vaulting was 
carried round over the choir aisle and was intersected, as in St 
Bartholomew's, Smithfield, by semicones, instead of cylinders, 
it became worse and the groins more complicated; this would 
seem to have led to a change of system, and to the introduction 
of a new feature, which completely revolutionized the con- 
struction of the vault. Hitherto the intersecting features were 
geometrical surfaces, of which the diagonal groins were the 
intersections, elliptical in form, generally weak in construction 
and often twisting (Plate I. fig. 13). The medieval builder 
reversed the process, and set up the diagonal ribs first, which 
were utilized as permanent centres, and on these he carried 
his vault or web, which henceforward took its shape from the 
ribs. Instead of the elliptical curve which was given by the 
intersection of two semicircular barrel vaults, or cylinders, he 
employed the semicircular arch for the diagonal ribs; this, how- 
ever, raised the centre of the square bay vaulted above the 
level of the transverse arches and of the wall ribs, and thus gave 
the appearance of a dome to the vault, such as may be seen in the 
nave of Sant' Ambrogio, Milan. To meet this, at first the trans- 
verse and wall ribs were stilted, or the upper part of their arches 
was raised, as in the Abbaye-aux-Hommes at Caen, and the 
abbey of Lessay, in Normandy. The problem was ultimately 
solved by the introduction of the pointed arch for the trans- 
verse and wall ribs the pointed arch had long been known and 
employed, on account of its much greater strength and of the less 
thrust it exerted on the walls. When employed for the ribs of 
a vault, however narrow the span might be, by adopting a 
pointed arch, its summit could be made to range in height with 
the diagonal rib; and, moreover, when utilized for the ribs of the 
annular vault, as in the aisle round the apsidal termination of 
the choir, it was not necessary that the half ribs on the outer 
side should be in the same plane as those of the inner side; for 
when the opposite ribs met in the centre of the annular vault, 
the thrust was equally transmitted from one to the other, and 
being already a broken arch the change of its direction was not 
noticeable. 

The first introduction of the pointed arch rib would seem to 
have taken place in the choir aisles of the abbey of St Denis, 
near Paris, built by the Abbe Suger in 1135, and it was in the 
church at Vezelay (1140) that it was extended to the square 
bay of the porch. Before entering into the question of the we"b 
or stone shell of the vault carried on the ribs, the earlier develop- 
ment of the great vaults which were thrown over the naves of a 
cathedral, or church, before the introduction of the pointed arch 
rib, shall here be noted. As has been pointed out, the aisles 
had already in the early Christian churches been covered over 
with groined vaults, the only advance made in the later develop- 
ments being the introduction of transverse ribs ^dividing the 
bays into square compartments; but when in the 'i 2th century 

1 Transverse ribs under the vaulting surfaces had been employed 
from very early times by the Romans, and utilized as permanent 
stone centrings for their vaults; perhaps the earliest examples are 
those in the corridor of the Tabularium in Rome, which is divided 
into square bays, each vaulted with a cloister dome. Transverse 
ribs are also found in the Roman Piscinae and in the Nymphaeum 
at Nimes; they were not introduced by the Romanesque masons 
till the nth century. 



the first attempts were made to vault over the naves, another 
difficulty presented itself, because the latter were twice the width 
of the aisles, so that it became necessary to include two bays of 
the aisles to form one square bay in the nave. This was an 
immense space to vault over, and, moreover, it followed that 
every alternate pier served no purpose, so far as the support of 
the nave vault was concerned, and this would seem to have sug- 
gested an alternative, viz. to provide a supplementary rib across 
the church and between the transverse ribs. This resulted in 
what is known as a sexpartite, or six-celled vault, of which one 
of the earliest examples is found in the Abbaye-aux-Hommes 
(S.. Etienne) at Caen. This church, built by William the Con- 
queror, was originally constructed to carry a timber roof only, 
but nearly a century later the upper part of the nave walls were 
partly rebuilt, in order that it might be covered with a vault. 
The immense size, however, of the square vault over the nave 
necessitated some additional support, so that an intermediate 
rib was thrown across the church, dividing the square compart- 
ment into six cells, and called the sexpartite vault (fig. 7); 






L:. 





FIG. 7. Sexpartite. 



this was adopted in the cathedrals of Sens (1170), Laon (1195), 
Noyon (1190), Paris (1223-35), an d Bourges (1250). The 
intermediate rib, however, had the disadvantage of partially 
obscuring one side of the clerestory windows, and it threw 
unequal weights on the alternate piers, so that in the 
cathedral of Soissons (1205) a quadripartite (fig. 8) or 







FIG. 8. Quadripartite. 

four-celled vault was introduced, the width of each bay being 
half the span of the nave, and corresponding therefore with 
the aisle piers. To this there are some exceptions, in Sant' 
Ambrogio, Milan, and San Michele, Pa via (the original vault), 
and in the cathedrals of Spires, Mainz and Worms, where the 
quadripartite vaults are nearly square, the intermediate piers 
of the aisles being of much smaller dimensions. In England 
sexpartite vaults exist at Canterbury (1175) (set out by William 
of Sens), Rochester (1200), Lincoln (1215), Durham (east tran- 
sept), and St Faith's chapel, Westminster Abbey. 

In the earlier stage of rib vaulting, the arched ribs consisted of 
independent -or separate voussoirs down to the springing; the 
difficulty, however, of working the ribs separately led to two other 
important changes: (i) the lower part of the transverse diagonal 



960 



VAULT 




and wall ribs were all worked out of one stone; and (2) the lower 
courses were all made horizontal, constituting what is known as the 
tas-de-charge (g.v.) or solid springer. Fig. 9 is a diagram made by 

Professor Willis taken from the 
south transept of Westminster 
Abbey. The horizontal courses 
rise to N. or about half the 
height of the vault, but the ribs 
are freed from one another from 
the point M. The tas-de-charge, 
or solid springer, had two ad- 
vantages: (i) it enabled _the 
stone courses to run straight 
through the wall, so as to bond 
the whole together much better; 
and (2) it lessened the span of 
the vault, which then required 
a centring of smaller .dimen- 
sions. As soon as the ribs were 
completed, the web or stone shell 
FIG. 9. AB, springing of trans- of the vault was laid on them. In 
verse and diagonal ribs; P, some English work, as may be seen 
centre of the same; DE, longi- in fig. 9, each course of stone was 
tudinal ridge rib; DF, inter- of uniform height from one side 
section of webs; M, top of solid to the other; but, as the diagonal 
springer; KM, starting level rib was longer than either the 
of web; LK, springing of wall transverse or wall rib, the courses 
rib; EBD, bosses at inter- dipped towards the former, and at 
. section of ribs. the apex of the vault were cut 

to fit one another. At an early 

period, in consequence of the great span of the vault and the very 
slight rise or curvature of the web, it was thought better to simplify 
the construction of the web by introducing intermediate ribs between 
the wall rib and the diagonal rib and between the diagonal and the 
transverse ribs; and in order to meet the thrust of these intermediate 
ribs a ridge rib was required, and the prolongation of this rib to the 
wall rib hid the junction of the web at the summit, which was not 
always very sightly, and constituted the ridge rib. In France, on 
the other hand, the web courses were always laid horizontally, and 
they are therefore of unequal height, increasing towards the diagonal 
rib. Each course also was given a slight rise in the centre, so as to 
increase its strength; this enabled the French masons to dispense 
with the intermediate rib, which was not introduced by them till 
the I5th century, and then more as a decorative than a constructive 
feature, as the domical form given to the French web rendered 
unnecessary the ridge rib, which, with some few exceptions, exists 
only in England. In both English and French vaulting centring 
was rarely required for the building of the web, a template (Fr. cerce) 
being employed to support the stones of each ring until it was com- 
plete. In Italy, Germany and Spain the French method of building 
the web was adopted, with horizontal courses and a domical form. 
Sometimes, in the case of comparatively narrow compartments, and 
more especially in clerestories, the wall rib was stilted, and this 
caused a peculiar twisting of the web, as may be seen in fig. 9, where 
the springing of the wall rib is at K: to these twisted surfaces the 
term " ploughshare vaulting " is given. 

One of the earliest examples of the introduction of the inter- 
mediate rib is found in the nave of Lincoln Cathedral, and there the 
ridge rib is not carried to the wall rib. It was soon found, however, 
that the construction of the web was much facilitated by additional 
ribs, and consequently there was a tendency to increase their number, 
so that in the nave of Exeter Cathedral three intermediate ribs were 
provided between the wall rib and the diagonal rib. In order to 
mask the junction of the various ribs, their intersections were 
ornamented with richly carved bosses, and this practice increased 
on the introduction of another short rib, known as the lierne, a term 
in France given to the ridge rib. Lierne ribs in English vaults are 
short ribs crossing between the main ribs, and were employed chiefly 
as decorative features, as, for instance, in the stellar vault (see 
Plate I. fig. 1 6), one of the best examples of which exists in the 
vault of the oriel window of Crosby Hall, London. The tendency to 
increase the number of ribs led to singular results in some cases, as 
in the choir of Gloucester (see Plate II. fig. 17), where the ordinary 
diagonal ribs become mere ornamental mouldings on the surface of 
an intersected pointed barrel vault, and again in the cloisters, where 
the introduction of the fan vault, forming a concave-sided conoid, 
returned to the principles of the Roman geometrical vault. This is 
further shown in the construction of these fan vaults, for although 
in the earliest examples each of the ribs above the tas-de-charge was 
an independent feature, eventually it was found easier to carve them 
and the web out of the solid stone, so that the rib and web were 
purely decorative and had no constructional or independent functions. 
The fan vault would seem to have owed its origin to the employ- 
ment of centrings of one curve for all the ribs, instead of having 
separate centrings for the transverse, diagonal wall and intermediate 
ribs; it was facilitated also by the introduction of the four-centred 
arch, because the lower portion of the arch formed part of the fan, or 
conoid, and the upper part could be extended at pleasure with a 
greater radius across the vault. The simplest version is that found 



in the cloisters of Gloucester Cathedral, where the fans meet one 
another at the summit, so that there are only small compartments 
between the fans to be filled up. In later examples, as in King's 
College chapel, Cambridge (see Plate II. fig. 18), on account of the 
great dimensions of the vault, it was found necessary to introduce 
transverse ribs, which were required to give greater strength. 
Similar transverse ribs are found in Henry VI I. 's chapel (see Plate 
II. fig. 19) and in the divinity schools at Oxford, where a new 
development presented itself. One of the defects of the fan vault 
at Gloucester is the appearance it gives of being half sunk in the 
wall; to remedy this, in the two buildings just quoted, the complete 
conoid is detached and treated as a pendant. 

One of the most interesting examples of the fan vault is that over 
the staircase leading to the hall of Christ Church, Oxford, and here 
the complete conoid is displayed in its centre carried on a central 
column. This vault, not built until 1640, is an exceptional example 
of the long continuance of traditional workmanship, probably in 
Oxford transmitted in consequence of the late vaulting of the 
entrance gateways to the colleges. Fan vaulting is peculiar to 
England, the only example approaching it in France being the 
pendant of the Lady chapel at Caudebec, in Normandy. In France, 
Germany and Spain the multiplication of ribs in the 1 5th century 
led to decorative vaults of various kinds, but with some singular 
modifications. Thus in Germany, recognizing that the rib was no 
longer a necessary 
constructive.feature, 
they cut it off ab- 
ruptly, leaving a 
stump only; in 
France, on the other 
hand, they gave still 
more importance to 
the rib, by making 
it of greater depth, 
piercing it with 
tracery and hanging 
pendants from it, 
and the web became 
a horizontal stone 
paving laid on the 
top of these deco- 
rated vertical webs. 
This is the cha- 
racteristic of the 
great Renaissance 
work in France and 
Spain; but it soon 
gave way to Italian 
influence, when the 
construction of 
vaults reverted to 
the geometrical sur- 
faces of the Romans, 
without, however, 
always that eco- 
nomy in centring to 
which they had at- 
tached so much im- 
portance, and more 
especially in small 
structures. In large vaults, where it constituted an important 
element in expense, the chief boast of some of the most eminent 




JFwt 



FIG. 10. 




FIG. ii. 

architects has been that centring was dispensed with, as in 
the case of the dome at Florence, built by Brunelleschi, and 
Ferguson cites as an example the great dome of the church at 



VAULT 



PLATE I. 




Photo, Valentine & Sons. 

FIG. 13 INTERSECTING GROINED VAULTING. Early 
example. St John's Chapel, Tower of London. 





Photo, Valentine & Sons. 

FIG. 14. INTERSECTING RIBBED VAULTING. Late 
example. Chapter House, Bristol Cathedral. 



Photo, F. Frith & Co. Ltd. 

FIG. 15. EARLY ENGLISH VAULTING. Winchester 
XXVII g6o Cathedral, Waynfleet's Chantry. 




Photo, P. Frith & Co. Ltd. 

FIG. 16. EARLY ENGLISH LIERNE VAULTING. 
Tower of Salisbury Cathedral. 



PLATE II. 



VAULT 





Pltalo, The Plwlochrome Co. 

FIG. 17. DECORATED OR LIERNE VAULTING. 

Choir of Gloucester Cathedral. 
(See also Plate VIII., Fig. 82, ARCHITECTURE.) 



Pltalo, G. W. Wilson & Co. 
FIG. 18. FAN VAULTING. King's College Chapel, Cambridge 




Photo, C 



FIG. 19 FAN VAULTING. Henry VII. Chapel, Westminster. 



VAUQUELIN, L. N. VAUVENARGUES 



961 



Mousta in Malta, erected in the first half of the igth century, which 
was built entirely without centring of any kind. Fig. 10 is a 
plan and section of the vault of Henry VII. 's chapel and fig. II a 
perspective view, in which it will be seen that the transverse rib 
thrown across the chapel carries the pendant, the weight of the latter 
probably preventing a rise in the haunches. 

There are two other ribbed vaults in India which form no part 
of the development of European vaults, but are too remarkable to 
be passed over; one carries the central dome of the Jumma Musjid 
at Bijapur (A.D. 1559), and the other is the tomb of Mahommed 
(A.D. 1626-1660) in the same town. The vault of the latter was 
constructed over a hall 135 ft. square, to carry a hemispherical 
dome. The ribs, instead of being carried across the angles only, thus 
giving an octagonal base for the dome, are carried across to the 
further pier of the octagon (fig. 12) and consequently intersect one 

another, reducing the cen- 
tral opening to 97 ft. in 
diameter, and, by the 
weight of the masonry 
they carry, serving as 
counterpoise to the thrust 
of the dome, which is set 
back so as to leave a 
passage about 12 ft. wide 
round the interior. The 
internal diameter of the 
dome is 124 ft., its height 
175 ft. and the ribs struck 
from four centres have 
their springing 57 ft. from 
the floor of the hall. The 
Jumma Musjid dome was 
of smaller dimensions, on 
a square of 70 ft. with a 
diameter of 57 ft., and 
was carried on piers only 
.instead of immensely thick 
which might exist was 




FIG. 12. Plan of Bijapur Dome, 
walls as in the tomb; but any thrust 



counteracted by its transmission across aisles to the outer wall. 

(R. P. S.) 

VAUQUELIN, LOUIS NICOLAS (1763-1829), French chemist, 
was born at Saint- Andre-d'Hebertot in Normandy on the i6th 
of May 1763. His first acquaintance with chemistry was 
gained as laboratory boy to an apothecary in Rouen (1777- 
1779), and after various vicissitudes he obtained an introduction 
to A. F. Fourcroy, in whose laboratory he was an assistant from 
1783-1791. At first his work appeared as that of his master 
and patron, then in their joint-names; but in 1790 he began to 
publish on his own authority, and between that year and 1833 
his name is associated with 376 papers. Most of these were 
simple records of patient and laborious analytical operations, 
and it is perhaps surprising that among all the substances he 
analysed he only detected two new elements beryllium (1798) 
in beryl and chromium (1797) in a red lead ore from Siberia. 
Either together or successively he held the offices of inspector 
of mines, professor at the School of Mines and at the Polytechnic 
School, assayer of gold and silver articles, professor of chemistry 
in the College de France and at the Jardin des Plantes, member 
of the Council of Industry and Commerce, commissioner on the 
pharmacy laws, and finally professor of chemistry to the Medical 
Faculty, to which he succeeded on Fourcroy's death in 1809. 
His lectures, which were supplemented with practical laboratory 
teaching, were attended by many chemists who subsequently 
attained distinction. He died at his birthplace on the i4th of 
November 1829. 

VAUQUELIN DE LA FRESNAYE, JEAN (1536-1608), French 
poet, was born at the chateau of La Fresnaye, near Falaise in 
Normandy, in 1536. He studied the humanities at Paris and 
law at Poitiers and Bourges. He fought in the civil wars under 
Marshal Matignon and was wounded at the siege of Saint-L6 
(1574). Most of his life was spent at Caen, where he was 
president, and he died there in 1608. La Fresnaye was a 
disciple of Ronsard, but, while praising the reforms of the Pleiade, 
he laid stress on the continuity of French literary history. He 
was a student of the trouveres and the old chroniclers, and 
desired to see French poetry set on a national basis. These 
views he expounded in an Art poetique, begun at the desire of 
Henry III. in 1574, but not published until 1605. 

His Foresteries appeared in 1555; his Diverse* poesies, including 
the Art poetique, the Satyres franc,oises, addressed to various dis- 

xxvii. 31 



tinguished contemporaries, and the Idylles, with some epigrams and 
sonnets, appeared in 1605. Among his political writings may be 
noted Pour la monarchie du royaume centre la division (1569). 

The Art poetique was edited by G. Pellissier in 1885. It is summar- 
ized for English readers in vol. li. of Mr George Saintsbury's History 
of Criticism. A notice of the poet by J. Travers is prefixed to an 
edition of the (Euvres diverses (Caen, 1872). 

VAUVENARGUES, LUC DE CLAPIERS, MARQUIS DE (1715- 
I 747)> French moralist and miscellaneous writer, was born at 
Aix in Provence on the 6th of August 1715. His family was 
poor though noble; he was educated at the college of Aix, 
where he learned little neither Latin nor Greek but by means 
of a translation acquired a great admiration for Plutarch. He 
entered the army as sub-lieutenant in the king's regiment, and 
served for more than ten years, taking part in the Italian cam- 
paign of Marshal Villars in 1733, and in the disastrous expedition 
to Bohemia in support of Frederick the Great's designs on 
Silesia, in which the French were abandoned by their ally. 
Vauvenargues took part in Marshal Belle-Isle's winter retreat 
from Prague. On this occasion his legs were frozen, and though 
he spent a long time in hospital at Nancy he never completely 
recovered. He was present at the battle of Dettingen, and on 
his return to France was garrisoned at Arras. His military 
career was now at an end. He had long been desired by the 
marquis of Mirabeau, author of L' Ami des hommes, and father 
of the statesman, to turn to literature, but poverty prevented 
him from going to Paris as his friend wished. He wished to 
enter the diplomatic service, and made applications to the 
ministers and to the king himself. These efforts were unsuccess- 
ful, but Vauvenargues was on the point of securing his appoint- 
ment through the intervention of Voltaire when an attack of 
smallpox completed the ruin of his health and rendered diplo- 
matic employment out of the question. Voltaire then asked 
him to submit to him his ideas of the difference between Racine 
and Corneille. The acquaintance thus begun ripened into real 
and lasting friendship. Vauvenargues removed to Paris in 
1745, and lived there in the closest retirement, seeing but few 
friends, of whom Marmontel and Voltaire were the chief. 
Among his correspondents was the archaeologist Fauris de 
Saint- Vincens. Vauvenargues published in 1746 an Introduction 
a la connaissance de I'esprit humain, with certain Reflexions and 
Maximes appended. He died in Paris on the 28th of May 1747. 

The bulk of Vauvenargues 's work is very small, but its 
interest is very considerable. In the Introduction, in the 
Reflexions and in the minor fragments, it consists, in fact, of 
detached and somewhat desultory thoughts on questions of 
moral philosophy and of literary criticism. Sainte-Beuve has 
mildly said that as a literary critic Vauvenargues " shows 
inexperience." His literary criticism is indeed limited to a 
repetition in crude form of the stock ideas of his time. Thus he 
exaggerates immensely the value of Racine and Boileau, but 
depreciates Corneille and even Moliere. As a writer he stands 
far higher. His style is indeed, according to strict academic 
judgment, somewhat incorrect, and his few excursions into 
rhetoric have the artificial and affected character which mars 
so much 18th-century work. His strength, however, is not really 
in any way that of a man of letters, but that of a moralist. He 
did not adopt the complete philosophe attitude; in his letters, 
at any rate, he poses as " neutral " between the religious and the 
anti-religious school. In some of his maxims about politics 
there is also traceable the hollow and confused jargon about 
tyrants and liberty which did so much to bring about the 
struggles of the Revolution. It is in morals proper, in the 
discussion and application of general principles of conduct, that 
Vauvenargues shines. He is not an exact psychologist, much 
less a rigorous metaphysician. His terminology is popular and 
loose, and he hardly attempts the co-ordination of his ideas into 
any system. His real strength is in a department which the 
French have always cultivated with greater success than any 
other modern people the expression in more or less epigram- 
matic language of the results of acute observation of human 
conduct and motives, for which he had found ample leisure in 
his campaigns. The chief distinction between Vauvenargues 



962 



VAUX, C. VECTOR ANALYSIS 



and his great predecessor La Rochefoucauld is that Vauven- 
argues, unlike La Rochefoucauld, thinks nobly of man, and is 
altogether inclined rather to the Stoic than to the Epicurean 
theory. He has indeed been called a modern Stoic, and, allow- 
ing for the vagueness of all such phrases, there is much to be said 
for the description. 

An edition of the (Euvres of Vauvenargues, slightly enlarged, 
appeared in the year of his death. There were some subsequent 
editions, superseded by that of M. Gilbert (2 vols., 1857), which 
contains some correspondence, some Dialogues of the Dead, " cha- 
racters " in imitation of Theophrastus and La Bruy&re, and numerous 
short pieces of criticism and moralizing. The best comments on 
Vauvenargues, besides those contained in Gilbert's edition, are to be 
found in four essays by Sainte-Beuve in Causeries du lundi, vols. iii. 
and xiv., and in Villemain's Tableau de la literature frangaise 
iu XVIII siecle. 

See also M. Palfologue, Vauvenargues (1890); and Selections from 
. . . La Bruyere and Vauvenargues, with memoir and notes by Miss 
Elizabeth Lee (1903). 

VAUX, CALVERT (1824-1895), American architect and land- 
scape gardener, was born in London on the 24th of December 
1824. He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School and in 
the office of Lewis N. Cottingham (1787-1847). In 1850 he 
went to America and became A. J. Downing's architectural 
partner. In 1856 and 1866 Vaux was associated with F. L. 
Olmsted in the plans for the improvement of various parks. 
He designed the Belvidere in Central Park, New York, and built 
a number of country houses in Newport, besides many town 
houses and public institutions. 

VAUX OF HARROWDEN, THOMAS VAUX, 2ND BARON (1510- 
1556), English poet, eldest son of Nicholas Vaux, ist Baron 
Vaux, was born in 1510. In 1527 he accompanied Cardinal 
Wolsey on his embassy to France; he attended Henry VIII. to 
Calais and Boulogne in 1532; in 1531 he took his seat in the 
House of Lords, and was made Knight of the Bath at the corona- 
tion of Anne Boleyn. He was captain of the Isle of Jersey until 
1536. He married Elizabeth Cheney, and died in October 1556. 
Sketches of Vaux and his wife by Holbein are at Windsor, 
and a finished portrait of Lady Vaux is at Hampton Court. 
Two of his poems were included in the Songes and Sonettes of 
Surrey (Tottel's Miscellany, 1557). They are " The assault of 
Cupid upon the fort where the lover's hart lay wounded, and 
how he was taken," and the " Dittye . . . representinge the 
Image of Deathe," which the gravedigger in Shakespeare's 
Hamlet misquotes. Thirteen pieces in the Paradise of Dainty 
Devices (1576) are signed by him. These are reprinted in Dr 
A. B. Grosart's Miscellanies of the Fuller Worthies Library 
(vol. iv., 1872). 

VAUXHALL, a district on the south bank of the river 
Thames, in London, England, included in the metropolitan 
borough of Lambeth. The manor was held by Falkes de 
Breaute (whence the name, Falkes Hall) in the time of John and 
Henry III. About 1661 public gardens were laid out here, 
known as the New Spring Garden, and later as Spring Gardens, 
but more familiar under the title of Vauxhall Gardens. They 
soon fecame the favourite fashionable resort of the metropolis; 
but as a place of general entertainment they underwent great 
development from 1732 under the management of Jonathan 
Tyers (d. 1767) and his sons Thomas and Jonathan. In 1822, 
with the approval of George IV., who frequented the gardens 
before his accession, the epithet Royal was added to their title. 
By the middle of the I9th century, however, Vauxhall had lost 
its high reputation; in 1859 the gardens were finally closed, and 
the site was quickly built over. 

VAVASSOR (Med. Lat. valvassor, vasvassor; Fr. vavassour, 
tavassor, vasseur, &c.), in its most general sense a mediate vassal, 
i.e. one holding a fief under a vassal. The word was, however, 
applied at various times to the most diverse ranks in the feudal 
hierarchy, being used practically as the synonym of vassal. 
Thus tenants-in-chief of the crown are described by the Emperor 
Conrad (Lex Lamgob. lib. iii. tit. 8, 4) as vahassores majores 
as distinguished from mediate tenants, valvassores minores. 
Gradually the term without qualification was found convenient 
for describing sub-vassals, tenants-in-chief being called capitanei 



or barones (see BARON). Its implication, however, still varied 
in different places and times. Bracton (lib. i. cap. 8, 2) ranks 
the magnates seu -oalvassores between barons and knights; for 
him they are " men of great dignity," and in this order they are 
found in a charter of Henry II. (1166). But in the regestum 
of Philip Augustus (fol. 158) we find that five vavassors are 
reckoned as the equivalent of one knight. Finally, Du Cange 
quotes two charters, one of 1187, another of 1349, in which 
vavassors are clearly distinguished from nobles. 

The derivation of the word vavassor is very obscure. The 
fanciful interpretation of Bracton, vas sortitum ad valetudinem (a 
vessel chosen to honour), may be at once rejected. Others would 
derive it from vassi ad valvas (at the folding-doors, valvae), i.e. 
servants of the royal antechamber. Du Cange, with more justice, 
regards it merely as an obscure variant of vassus. (W. A. P.) 

VAYGACH (variously Waigats, Waigatch, &c.), an island off 
the Arctic coast of Russia, between it and Novaya Zemlya, 
bounded S. by the narrow Yugor Strait, and N. by that of Kara. 
It is roughly oblong in form; its length from S.E. to N.W. is 
70 m., and its greatest breadth 28. Its greatest elevation 
scarcely exceeds 300 ft. For the most part it consists of tundra, 
with frequent marshes and small lakes. Slight rocky ridges 
run generally along its length, and the coast has low cliffs 
in places. The island consists in the main of limestone, and its 
elevation above the sea is geologically recent. Raised beaches 
are frequently to be traced. The rocks are heavily scored 
by ice, but this was probably marine ice, not that of glaciers. 
Grasses, mosses and Arctic flowering plants are abundant, but 
there are no trees excepting occasional dwarf willows. Foxes 
and lemmings are met with, but whereas animals are few, birds 
are very numerous; a variety of ducks, waders, &c., frequent 
the marshes and lakes. The island is visited periodically by 
a few Samoyedes; they formerly considered it sacred, and 
some of their sacrificial piles, consisting of drift-wood, deer's 
horns and the skulls of bears and deer, have been observed by 
travellers. In spite of their conversion to Christianity, the 
Samoyedes still regard these piles with superstition. The origin 
of the .name Vaygach is as dubious as its orthography; it has 
been held to be Dutch (waaien, to blow, and gat, a strait, hence 
" windy strait ") or Russian, in which case it is probably a 
surname. 

Comparatively little was known of the interior of the island until 
Mr F. G. Jackson made the circuit of it on foot in 1893 (see his 
Great Frozen Land, London, 1895; also H. J. Pearson, Beyond 
Petsora Eastward, London, 1899). 

VECTOR ANALYSIS, in mathematics, the calculus of vectors. 
The position of a point B relative to another point A is specified 
by means of the straight line drawn from A to B. It may 
equally well be specified by any equal and parallel line drawn 
in the same sense from (say) C to D, since the position of D 
relative to C is the same as that of B relative to A. A straight 
line conceived in this way as having a definite length, direction 
and sense, but no definite location in space, is called a vector. 

It may be denoted by AB (or CD), or (when no confusion is 
likely to arise) simply by AB. Thus a vector may be used to 
specify a displacement of translation (without rotation) of a 
rigid body. Again, a force acting on a particle, the velocity 
or momentum of a particle, the state of electric or magnetic 
polarization at a particular point of a medium, are examples 
of physical entities which are naturally represented by vectors. 

The quantities, on the other hand, with which we are familiar 
in ordinary arithmetical algebra, and which have merely magni- 
tude and sign, without any intrinsic reference to direction, 
are distinguished as scalars, since they are completely specified 
by their position on the proper scale of measurement. The mass 
of a body, the pressure of a gas, the charge of an electrified 
conductor, are instances of scalar magnitudes. It is convenient 
to emphasize this distinction by a difference of notation; thus 
scalar quantities may be denoted by italic type, vectors (when 
they are represented by single symbols) by " black " or " Claren- 
don " type. 

There are certain combinations of vectors with one another, 



VECTOR ANALYSIS 



9 6 3 



and with scalars, which have important geometrical or physical 
significance. Various systems of " vector analysis " have been 
devised for the purpose of dealing methodically with these; 
we shall here confine ourselves to the one which is at present 
in most general use. Any such calculus must of course begin 
with definitions of the fundamental symbols and operations; 
these are in the first instance quite arbitrary conventions, but 
it is convenient so to frame them that the analogy with the 
processes of ordinary algebra may as far as possible be main- 
tained. 

As already explained, two vectors which are represented by equal 
and parallel straight lines drawn in the same sense are regarded as 
identical. Again, the product of a scalar m into a vector A is 
naturally denned as the vector whose direction is the sajne as that of 
A, but whose length is to that of A in the ratio m, the sense (more- 
over) being the same as that of A or the reverse, according as m is 
positive or negative. We denote it by mA. The particular case 
where m=-l is denoted by A, so that a change of sign simply 
reverses the sense of a vector. 

As regards combinations of two vectors, we have in the first place 
the one suggested by composition of displacements in kinematics, 
or of forces or couples in statics. Thus if a rigid body receive in 

succession two translations represented by AB and BC, the final 
result is equivalent to the translation represented by AC. It is 
convenient, therefore, to regard AC as in a sense the " geometric 
sum " of AB and BC, and to write 

AB+BC=AC. 

This constitutes the definition of vector addition; and it is evident 
at once from fig. I that 

BC+AB = AD+DC = AC =AB+BC. 
Hence, A and B being any two vectors, we have 

A-r-B=B+A, (i) 

i.e. addition of vectors, like ordinary arithmetical addition, is subject 
to the " commutative law." As regards subtraction, we dsfine A B 

as the equivalent of A + (-B); thus in fig. I, if AB=A, BC = B, 
we have 

A+B=AC, A-B = DB. 

When the sum (or difference) of two vectors is to be further dealt 
with as a single vector, this may be indicated by the use of curved 
brackets, e.g. (A+B). It is easily seen from a figure that 

(A+B)+C = A+(B+C), .... (2) 
and so on; i.e. the " associative law " of addition also holds. 
Again, if m be any scalar quantity, we have 

m(A+B)=wA+mB (3) 

or, in words, the multiplication of a vector sum by a scalar follows 
the " distributive law. The truth of (3) is obvious on reference to 
the similar triangles in fig. 2, where 

OP = A, PQ = B, OP' = iA, P'Q' 





FIG. i. 



FIG. 2. 



It will be noticed that the proofs of (i) and (3) involve the funda- 
mental postulate of the Euclidean geometry. 

The definition of " work " in mechanics gives us another important 
mode of combination of vectors. The product of the absolute 
magnitudes A, B (say) of two vectors A, B into the cosine of the 
angle 9 between their directions is called the scalar product of the two 
vectors, and is denoted by A . B or simply AB. Thus 

AB=^Bcos9 = BA, .... (4) 

so that the " commutative law of multiplication " holds here as in 
ordinary algebra. The " distributive law " is also valid, for we 
have 

A(B+C)=AB+AC, .... (5) 

the proof of this statement being identical with that of the statical 
theorem that the sum of the works of two forces in any displacement 
of a particle is equal to the work of their resultant. 

For an illustration of the next mode of combination of vectors 
we may have recourse to the geometrical theory of the rotation of a 



rigid body about a fixed point O. As explained under MECHANICS, 

the state of motion at any instant is specified by a vector Ol repre- 
senting the angular velocity. The instantaneous velocity of any 
other point P of the body is completely determined by the two 

vectors OI and OP, viz. it is a vector normal to the plane of OI and 
OP, whose absolute magnitude is OI . OP . sin 9, where 6 denotes the 
inclination of OP to OI, and its sense is that due to a right-handed 
rotation about OI. A vector derived according to this rule from 
any two given vectors A, B is called their vector product, and is 
denoted by AxB or by [AB]. This type of combination is frequent 
in electro-magnetism ; thus if C be the current and B the magnetic 
induction, at any point of a conductor, the mechanical force on the 
latter is represented by the vector [CB], It will be noticed in the 
above kinematical example that if the r61es of the two vectors 
OI, OP were interchanged, the resulting vector would have the same 
absolute magnitude as before, but its sense would be reversed. 
Hence 

[AB] = -[BA] (6) 

so that the commutative law does not hold with respect to vector pro- 
ducts. On the other hand, the distributive law applies, for we have 

[A(B+C)] = [AB]+[AC], - . . .(7) 

as may be proved without difficulty by considering the kinematical 
interpretation. 

Various types of triple products may also present themselves, 
the most important being the scalar product of two vectors, one of 
which is itself given as a vector product. Thus A[BC] is equal in 
absolute value to the volume of the parallelepiped constructed on 
three edges OA, OB, OC drawn from a fjoint O to represent the 
vectors A, B, C respectively, and it is positive or negative according 
as the lines OA, OB, OC follow one another in right- or left-handed 
cyclical order. It follows that 

A[BC] = B[CA] = -B[AC]=&c. ... (8) 
In order to exhibit the correspondence between the shorthand 
methods of vector analysis and the more familiar formulae of 
Cartesian geometry, we take a right-handed system of three mutually 
perpendicular axes Ox, Oy, Oz, and adopt three fundamental unit- 
vectors i,j, h, having the positive directions of these axes respectively. 
As regards the scalar products of these unit-vectors, we have, by (4), 

/*=/=A2 = i,y/,=/(/=y/=o. . . . (9) 

Any other vector A is expressed in terms of its scalar projections 
AI, A 2 , A s on the co-ordinate axes by the formula 

A = /A,-h/A2+/fA 3 (10) 

For the scalar product of any two vectors we have 

AB = (/A 1 -h/A 2 +/rA 3 )(/B 1 -h/B 2 +/(B a )=A,B 1 +A 2 B 2 +A 3 B s ,(ii) 
as appears on developing the product and making use of (9). In 
particular, forming the scalar square of A we have 

^^Ai'+A^+A,' (12) 

where A denotes the absolute value of A. 

Again, the rule for vector products, applied to the fundamental 
units, gives 

[/] = [/] = [/,'] =o, . 



Hence 

[AB] = [(/A,+yA 2 +AA 3 )(/B 1 +yB 2 -|-AB 3 )] 

=/(A 2 B 3 -A 3 B 2 )+y(A 3 B 1 -A,B 3 )+/((AiB 2 -A 2 B 1 ) 

= -[BA] (14) 

The correspondence with the formulae which occur in the analytical 
theory of rotations, &c., will be manifest. If we form the scalar 
product of a third vector C into [AB], we obtain 
C[AB]=IAi, Bi, Cil 

A 2 , B 2 , C 2 (15) 

|A 3 , B 3> Cj 
in agreement with the geometrical interpretation already given. 

In such subjects as hydrodynamics and electricity we are intro- 
duced to the notion of scalar and vector fields. With every point P 
of the region under consideration there are associated certain scalars 
(e.g. density, electric or magnetic potential) and vectors (e.g. fluid 
velocity, electric or magnetic force) which are regarded as functions 
of the position of P. If we treat the partial-differential operators 
d/dx, d/dy, d/dz, where x, y, z are the co-ordinates of P, as if they 
were scalar quantities, we are led to some remarkable and signifi- 
cant expressions. Thus if we write 

and operate on a scalar function <, we obtain the vector 

This is called the gradient of <t> and sometimes denoted by " grad 4> " ; 
its direction is that in which <j> most rapidly increases, and its magni- 
tude is equal to the corresponding rate of increase. Thus 



A repetition of the operation v gives 



-TiS (19) 



9 6 4 



VEDDAHS VEDDER 



In the theory of attractions this expression is interpreted as measur- 
ing the degree of attenuation of the quantity <t> at P; if we reverse 
the sign we get the concentration,-^^. 

Again, if we form the scalar product of the operator V into a 
vector A we have 

vA= (/4- +./5^+*a~) ('Ai+yAz+AAs) = "3"^+~ 'QV"^'~SZ' ( 20 ) 

If A represent the velocity at any ooint (x, y, z) of a fluid, the latter 
expression measures the rate at which fluid is flowing away from the 
neighbourhood of P. By a generalization of this idea, it is called 
the divergence of A, and we write 

vA = divA (21) 

The vector product [vA] has also an important significance. We 
find 

[ V A]= [ (iJZ+J-Jry+l'ii) (/A^/Aj+AA,)] 

-'\df~~dz) ~W\di dx~) ^ \dx~~dy) ' ^ 
If A represent as before the velocity of a fluid, the vector last 
written will represent the (doubled) angular velocity of a fluid 
element. Again if A represent the magnetic force at any point of an 
electro-magnetic field, the vector [vA] will represent the electric 
current. In the general case it is called the curl, or the rotation, of 
A, and we write 

[V A] = curl A, or rot A. . . . (23) 

These definitions enable us to give a compact form to two im- 
portant theorems of C. F. Gauss and Sir G. G. Stokes. The former 
of these may be written 

/div A.dV=fAndS, . . . (24) 

where the integration on the left hand includes all the volume- 
elements dV of a given region, and that on the right includes all the 
surface-elements dS of the boundary, n denoting a unit vector drawn 
outwards normal to dS. Again, Stokes's theorem takes the form 

/ Ads =/ curl A.mfS, . . . (25) 

where the integral on the right extends over any open surface, 
whilst on the left ds is an element of the bounding curve, treated as a 
vector. A certain convention is implied as to the relation between 
the positive directions of n and da. 

It is to be observed that the term " vector " has been used to 
include two distinct classes of geometrical and physical entities. 
The first class is typified by a displacement, or a mechanical force. 
A polar vector, as it is called, is a magnitude associated with a certain 
linear direction. This may be specified by any one of a whole 
assemblage of parallel lines, but the two " senses " belonging to any 
one of the lines are distinguished. The members of the second class, 
that of axial vectors, are primarily not vectors at all. An axial 
vector is exemplified by a couple in statics ; it is a magnitude asso- 
ciated with a closed contour lying in any one of a system of parallel 
planes, but the two senses in which the contour may be described 
are distinguished. It was therefore termed by H. Grassmann a 
Plangrosse or Ebenengrosse. Just as a polar vector may be indicated 
by a length, regard being paid to its sense, so an axial vector may be 
denoted by a certain area, regard being paid to direction round the 
contour. A theory of " Plangrossen " might be developed through- 
out on independent lines; but since the laws of combination prove 
to be analogous to those of suitable vectors drawn perpendicular to 
the respective areas, it is convenient for mathematical purposes 
to include them in the same calculus with polar vectors. In the 
case of couples this procedure has been familiar since the time of 
L. Poinsot (1804). In the Cartesian treatment of the subject no 
distinction between polar and axial vectors is necessary so long as we 
deal with congruent systems of co-ordinate axes. But when we 
pass from a right-handed to a left-handed system the formulae of 
transformation are different in the two cases. A polar vector (e.g. 
a displacement) is reversed by the process of reflection in a mirror 
normal to its direction, whilst the corresponding axial vector 
(e.g. a couple) is unaltered. 

REFERENCES. The methods of vector analysis are chiefly used as a 
means of condensed expression of various important relations which 
are of frequent occurrence in mathematical physics, more especially 
in electricity. They are freely employed, for example, in many 
recent German treatises. The historical development of the sub- 
ject can only be briefly referred to. The notions of scalar and 
vector products originated independently with Sir W. R. Hamilton 
(1843) (see QUATERNIONS) and H. Grassmann (1844), but were associ- 
ated with various other conceptions of which no use is made in the 
simplified system above sketched. The present currency of this 
latter system is due mainly to the advocacy of O. Heaviside and 
J. W. Gibbs, although for the systematic physical interpretation of 
the various combinations of symbols which constantly recur in 
electricity and allied subjects we are indebted primarily to the 
classical treatise of J. C. Maxwell on Electricity and Magnetism 
(1873). For further details and applications of the calculus refer- 
ence may be made to the following: O. Heaviside, Electro- Magnetic 
Theory (London, 1894); J. W. Gibbs, Vector Analysis (2nd ed., 
New York, 1907); M. Abraham, Die Maxwellsche Theorie d. 
Elektrizitat (Leipzig, 1904); the articles by H. E. Timerding and M. 



Abraham in vol. iv. of the Encycl. d. Math. Wiss. (Leipzig, 1901-2) ; 
A. H. Bucherer, Elemente d. Veklor- Analysis (Leipzig, 1905). For an 
account of other systems of vector analysis see H. Hankel, Theorie 
d. complexen Zahlensysieme (Leipzig, 1867); and A. N. Whitehead, 
Universal Algebra, vol. i. (Cambridge, 1898). (H. LB.) 

VEDDAHS, or WEDDAHS (from Sanskrit iieddha, " hunter "), 
a primitive people of Ceylon, probably representing the Yakkos 
or "demons " of Sanskrit writers, the true aborigines of the 
island. During the Dutch occupation (1644-1796) they were 
found as far north as Jaffna, but are now confined to the south- 
eastern district, about the wooded Bintenna, BaduUa and Nil- 
gala hills, and thence to the coast near Batticaloa. They are 
divided into two classes, the Kele Weddo or jungle Veddahs, 
and the Can Weddo, or semi-civilized village Veddahs. The 
Veddahs exhibit the phenomenon of a race living the wildest of 
savage lives and yet speaking an Aryan dialect. Craniometrical 
evidence strongly favours the theory, now generally accepted, 
that they represent a branch of the pre-Aryan Dravidians of 
southern India, and that their ancestors probably made a settle- 
ment in the island of Ceylon in prehistoric times, detaching them- 
selves from a migrating horde which passed through the island 
to find at last a permanent home in the continent of Australia. 

The true jungle veddahs are almost a dwarfish race. They 
are dark-skinned and flat-nosed, slight of frame and very small 
of skull, and average no more than 5 ft. Their black hair is 
shaggy rather than lank. They are a shy, harmless, simple 
folk, living chiefly by hunting; they lime birds, catch fish by 
poisoning the water, and are skilled in getting wild honey; 
they have bows with iron-pointed arrows and breed hunting 
dogs. They dwell in caves or bark huts, and their word for 
house is Sinhalese for a hollow tree, rukula. They count on 
their fingers, and make fire with the simplest form of fire-drill 
twirled by hand. They are monogamous, and their conjugal 
fidelity contrasts strongly with the vicious habits of the Sin- 
halese. Their religion has been described as a kind of demon- 
worship, consisting of rude dances and shouts raised to scare 
away the evil spirits, whom they confound with their ancestors. 

The Veddahs are not to be confounded with the Rodiyas of 
the western uplands, who are a much finer race, tall, well- 
porportioned, with regular features, and speak a language said 
to be radically distinct from all the Aryan and Dravidian dialects 
current in Ceylon. There is, however, in Travancore, on the 
mainland, a low-caste " Veda " tribe, nearly black, with wavy 
or frizzly hair, and now speaking a Malayalim (Dravidian) 
dialect (Jagor), who probably approach nearer than the insular 
Veddahs to the aboriginal pre-Dravidian " negrito " element 
of southern India and Malaysia. 

See Percival, Description of Island of Ceylon (1805); Cordiner, 
Description of Ceylon (1807); John Davy, Ceylon and its Inhabitants 
(1821); Stirr, Ceylon and the Singhalese (1850); Sir Emerson 
Tennent, Ceylon (1859): J. Baily, Trans, of Ethnol. Soc., New 
Series, vol. ii. (1863); Rolleston, Trans, of Brit. Ass. (1872); B. F. 
Hartshorne, Fortnightly Review, New Series, vol. xix. p. 406. The 
most elaborate monograph is that of Professor Virchow, Uber die 
Weddas von Ceylon und ihre Beziehungen zu den Nachbarstdmmen 
(Berlin, 1882). See also E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture; A. Thomson, 
" Osteology of Veddahs," in Journ. Anthrop. Institute (1889), vol. 
xix. p. 125; L. de Zpysa, " Origin of Veddahs," in Journal, Ceylon 
Branch, Royal Asiatic Society, vol. vii. 

VEDDER, ELIHU (1836- ), American artist, was born 
in New York City on the 26th of February 1836. He studied 
under the genre and historical painter Tompkins H. Matteson 
(1813-1884), at Sherburne, N.Y., later under Picot, in Paris, 
and then, in 1857-61, in Italy. After 1867 he lived in Rome, 
making occasional visits to America. He was elected to full 
membership in the National Academy of Design, New York, 
in 1865. He devoted himself to the painting of genre pictures, 
which, however, attracted only modest attention until the 
publication, in 1884, of his illustrations to the Rubaiyat of 
Omar Khayyam; these immediately gave him a high place 
in the art world. Important decorative work came later, 
notably the painting symbolizing the art of the city of Rome, 
in the Walker Art Gallery of Bowdoin College, Maine, and the 
five lunettes (in the entrance hall) symbolical of government, 



VEDETTE VEGA CARPIO 



965 



and the mosaic " Minerva" in the Congressional Library at 
Washington. Among his better-known pictures are: " Lair 
of the Sea Serpent," in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts; 
"Young Marsyas," " Cumaean Sibyl," " Nausicaa," in the 
collection of J. Pierpont Morgan; and " Genii and Fisherman," 
in the collection of Martin Brimmer, Boston. 

VEDETTE, a French military term (formed from Lat. videre, 
to see), adopted into English and other languages for a mounted 
sentry or outpost, whose function it is to bring information, give 
signals or warnings of danger, etc., to the main body of troops. 

VEERE, a town in the province of Zeeland, Holland, on the 
island of Walcheren, 4 m. N.N.E. of Middelburg, with which it 
is connected by canal (1867-72). It contains several interesting 
architectural remains of the days of its former prosperity, many 
of its quaintly gabled old houses dating from the i6th century. 
There is a fine Gothic church dating from 1348, but subsequently 
in part destroyed and used for secular purposes; the town hall 
(1475) has a fine gable filled with sculpture, and contains some 
interesting antiquities. 

VEGA, GARCILASO DE LA (1503-1536), Spanish soldier 
and poet, was born at Toledo on the 6th of February 1503. His 
father, Garcilaso (Garcias Laso or Garcilasso) de la Vega, was 
counsellor of state to Ferdinand and Isabella, and for some time 
their ambassador at the court of Rome; by his mother he was 
descended from the illustrious house of Guzman. At the age 
of seventeen he was attached to the bodyguard of Charles V., 
and fought against the insurgent comuneros, being wounded at 
the battle of Olias near Toledo. He afterwards served in the 
north of Italy, and gained great distinction by his bravery at 
the battle of Pavia in 1525. In the following year he married 
a lady-in-waiting to Queen Eleanor. He took part in the 
repulse of the Turks from Vienna in 1529, was present at the 
coronation of the emperor at Bologna in 1530, and was charged 
with a secret mission to Paris in the autumn of the same year. 
In 1531 he accompanied the duke of Alva to Vienna, where, 
for conniving at the clandestine marriage of his nephew to a 
maid-of-honour, he was imprisoned on an island in the Danube. 
During this captivity he composed the fine cancion, " Con un 
manso ruido de agua corriente y clara." Released and restored 
to favour in June 1532, he went to Naples on the staff of Don 
Pedro de Toledo, the newly appointed viceroy, by whom he 
was twice sent on public business of importance to Barcelona, 
in 1533 and 1534. After having accompanied the emperor 
on the expedition to Tunis (1535), where he received two severe 
wounds, he was employed as a confidential agent at Milan and 
Genoa in negotiations connected with the proposed invasion of 
Provence, and joined the expedition when it took the field. 
Being with Charles in the neighbourhood of Frejus during the 
retreat from Marseilles, Garcilaso de la Vega was ordered to 
storm a fort at Muy, which had checked the advance of the army. 
In the successful discharge of this duty he was mortally wounded 
and died twenty-one days afterwards, at Nice (i4th of October 
1536). His poems were entrusted to his friend Boscan, who 
was preparing them for publication along with his own when 
death overtook him in 1540. The volume ultimately appeared 
at Barcelona in 1543, and has often been reprinted. Gar- 
cilaso's share in it consists principally of three eglogas or 
pastorals, which the Spaniards regard as among the finest 
works of the kind in their language, and which for sweetness 
of versification and delicacy of expression take a high rank in 
modern European literature. In addition to the pastorals, 
there are thirty-seven sonnets, five canciones, two elegies and 
a blank verse epistle, all influenced by Italian models. The 
poems rapidly gained a wide popularity; and within a century 
of their appearance they were edited as classics by Francisco 
Sanchez (1577), Herrera (1580) and Tamayo de Vargas (1622). 
An English translation of his works was published by Wiffen 
in 1823. Garcilaso's delicate charm has survived all changes 
of taste, and by universal consent he ranks among the most 
accomplished and artistic of Spanish poets. 

See E. Fernandez de Navarrete, " Vida de Garcilaso de la Vega," in 
the Documentos ineditos para la historia de Espana, vol. xvi.; 



Francesco Flamini, " Imitazioni Italian! in Garcilaso de la Vega," in 
the Biblioteca delte scuole italiane (Milano. 1899). 

VEGA, GARCILASO DE LA, called " Inca " (c. 1535-1616), 
historian of Peru, was born at Cuzco. His father, Sebastiano 
Garcilaso (d. 1559), was a cadet of the illustrious family of La 
Vega, who had gone to Peru in the suite of Pedro de Alvarado, 
and his mother was of the Peruvian blood-royal, a circumstance 
of which he was very proud as giving him a right to the title 
which he claimed by invariably subscribing himself "Inca." 
About 1560 he removed to Spain, and after serving against the 
Moors incurred the hatred of Philip II. and was imprisoned at 
Valladolid. He died in Spain in 1616. A diligent student of 
the language and traditions of his maternal ancestors, Garcilaso 
left a valuable work on Peruvian history; the first part, en- 
titled Comentarios reales que tratan del origen de los Yncas, was 
first published at Lisbon in 1609, and the second part, Historia 
general del Peru, in 1617. 

His history is a source from which all subsequent writers on the 
subject have largely drawn, and still continues to be one of the chief 
authorities on ancient Peru. An English translation by Sir Paul 
Rycaut was published in 1688; one of the first part of the work by 
Sir C. R. Markham for the Hakluyt Society (London, 1869-71); 
and the book has also been translated into French. Garcilaso also 
wrote a history of Florida, La Florida del Ynca, historia del adelantado 
Hernando <fe Soto (Lisbon, 1605, and again Madrid, 1723). An 
edition ol his works in seventeen volumes was published at Madrid 
in 1800. See W. H. Prescott, History of the Conquest of Peru, 
vol. i. (London, 1902) ; Sir C. R. Markham, The Incas of Peru (1910). 

VEGA CARPIO, LOPE FELIX DE (1562-1635), Spanish 
dramatist and poet,. was born on the 25th of November 1562 at 
Madrid. His father and mother, Felix de Vega Carpio and 
Francisca Hernandez Flores, originally came from the valley 
of Carriedo in Asturias, where the hamlet of Vega still exists. 
Lope began his studies at the Theatine college in Madrid, and 
according to his admiring biographer, Perez de Montalban, his 
precocity was extraordinary. On leaving college he entered the 
service of Don Jeronimo Manrique, bishop of Avila, and appears 
to have then begun the composition of his earlier dramas. He 
quitted the bishop's service to enter the university of Alcala de 
Henares, where he devoted himself to what was called philo- 
sophy. The date of Lope's matriculation is unknown, as his name 
does not appear in the university books; but it seems probable 
that he was in residence between 1576 and 1581. He took part 
in the expedition to the Azores in 1582, and from 1583 to 1587 
was secretary to the marques de las Navas. In February 1588 
he was banished for circulating criminal libels against his 
mistress, Elena Osorio, whom he has celebrated under the name of 
Filis. He defied the law by returning to Madrid soon afterwards 
and eloping with Isabel de Urbina, daughter of Philip II. 's 
herald; he married her by proxy on the roth of May 1588, 
and joined the Invincible Armada, losing his brother in one of the 
encounters in the Channel. He settled for a short while at 
Valencia, where he made acquaintance with a circle of young 
poets who were afterwards to be his ardent supporters in found- 
ing the new comedy. He joined the household of the duke of 
Alva, with whom he remained till 1595. Soon afterwards he 
lost his wife; he was prosecuted for criminal conversation in 
1596, became secretary to the marquis de Malpica (afterwards 
count de Lemos), and in 1598 married a second wife, Juana de 
Guardo, by whom he had two children (Carlos, who died in 1612, 
and Feliciana Felix); but she died, shortly after giving birth 
to the latter, in 1613. During this wife's lifetime the poet had 
by a mistress, Micaelade Luxan, two other children Marcela 
del Carpio, who became a nun in 1621, and Lope Felix del Carpio 
y Luxan, who chose the profession of arms and perished at sea 
about 1634. Widowed a second time in 1613, Lope sought a 
refuge in the church. After having been for some time affiliated 
to a tertiary order, he took priest's orders. 

At this juncture, about 1614, he was in the very zenith of his 
glory. A veritable dictator in the Spanish world of letters, he 
wielded over all the authors of his nation a power similar to that 
which was afterwards exercised in France by Voltaire. At this 
distance of time Lope is to us simply a great dramatic poet, the 
founder of the Spanish theatre; but to his contemporaries he was 



9 66 



VEGA CARPIO 



much more. His epics, his pastorals, his odes, his sonnets, now 
forgotten, all placed him in the front rank of authorship. Such 
was his prestige that he dealt with his noble patrons almost on 
a footing of equality. The duke of Sessa in particular, his 
Maecenas from 1605 onwards, was also his personal friend, and 
the tone of Lope's letters to him is one of frank familiarity, 
modified only by some forms of deference. Lope's fame, too, 
had travelled abroad: foreigners of distinction passing through 
Madrid made a point of visiting him; papal legates brought 
him the compliments of their master; in 1627 Urban VIII., 
a Barberini, sent him the diploma of doctor of theology in the 
Collegium Sapientiae and the cross of the order of St John of 
Jerusalem (whence the poet's'titles of " Doctor " and " Frey ") 
His last days were full of sadness; the death of his son Lope, 
the elopement of his daughter, Antonia Clara, wounded him to 
the soul. Montalban tells us that every Friday the poet scourged 
himself so severely that the walls of his room were sprinkled with 
his blood. His death, on the 27th of August 1635, was followed 
by national mourning. 

Leaving out of account certain theories which in the long run 
greatly influenced his manner of writing, Lope belonged in literature 
to what may be called the school of good sense ; he boasted that he 
was a Spaniard pur sang, and steadfastly maintained that a writer's 
business is to write so as to make himself understood. When 
brought face to face with the coterie of the precieux and quint- 
essenci.es, Lope takes the position of a defender of the language of ordi- 
nary life, the good old Castilian tongue. In the dispute which arose 
between the partisans of the two schools of cultos and llanos, he 
ranged himself on the side of the latter. In the matter of versifica- 
tion he refuses to admit that the long Italian verse has the advantage 
of the Castilian octosyllabic. Unfortunately the books that he read, 
his literary connexions, his fear of Italian criticism, all exercised 
an influence upon his naturally robust spirit, and, like so many 
others, he caught the prevalent contagion of mannerism and of 
pompous phraseology. His literary culture was chiefly Latin-Italian ; 
and, if he defends the tradition of the nation and the pure simplicity 
of the old Castilian against " los de la nueva poesia," that is to say, 
the innovators of the school of Gongora and against the jargon 
of the cultos, still he does not wish to be taken for an uninformed 
person, a writer devoid of classical training : he especially emphasizes 
the fact that he has passed through the university, and is continually 
accentuating the difference between the ingenios cientificos (those 
who know Latin) and legos ignorantes (ignorant laymen). With 
what a sense of superiority, for example, does he mention that 
Cervantes was not to his mind sufficiently cientifico (preface to Las 
Fortunas de Diana), the fact being that Cervantes had been neither 
at Alcala nor at Salamanca! 

For a rapid survey of the works of Lope, it is convenient to begin 
with those which the Spaniards include under the name of Obras 
Sueltas, the title of the large collection of the poet's non-dramatic 
works (Madrid, 21 vols. 4*0, 1776-79). We shall enumerate the 
most important of these, as far as possible in the order of publication. 
The Arcadia (1598), a pastoral romance, inspired by Sannazaro, 
is one of the poet's most wearisome productions. La Dragontea 
(1598) is a fantastic history in verse of Sir Francis Drake's last 
expedition and death. Isidro (1599), a narrative of the life of Isidore, 
patron of Madrid, is called a Castilian poem on account of the rhythm 
in which it is composed quintillas of octosyllabic verse. The 
Hermosura de Angelica (1602), in three books, is a sort of continua- 
tion of the Orlando Furioso, in octaves after the fashion of the 
original poem. Finally, the Rimas are a miscellany of short pieces. 
In 1604 was published the Peregrine en su Patria, a romance 
similar in kind to the Aelhiopica of Heliodorus. Having imitated 
Ariosto, he proceeded to imitate Tasso; but his Jerusalem Conquis- 
tada (1609) has preserved nothing of the art shown in its model, 
and is an insipid performance. Next follows the Pastores de Belen 
(1612), a pious pastoral, dedicated to his son Carlos, which forms 
a pendant to his secular Arcadia; and incidental pieces pub- 
lished in connexion with the solemnities of the beatification 
and canonization of St Isidore in 1620 and 1622. It is enough to 
mention La Filomena (1621), La Circe (1624) and other poems 
published about the same date, as also the four prose novels, Las 
Fortunas de Diana, El Desdichado par la Honra, La Mas Prudente 
Venganza and Guzmdn el Bravo. The great success of the Novelas 
Exemplares of Cervantes (1613) had stimulated Lope, but in this 
instance at least the cientifico was completely defeated by the 
lego: Lope's novels have none of the grace, naturalness or interest 
whjch characterize those of his rival. The last important work 
which has to be mentioned before we leave the narrative poetry 
of Lope is the Laurel de A polo (1630). This piece describes the 
coronation 6f the poets of Spain on Helicon by Apollo, and it 
is more meritorious as a bibliographical manual of Spanish poetry 
at that time than as genuine poetry. One other obra suelta, 
closely akin to Lope's dramatic works, though not, properly speaking, 



a drama, is La Dorotea (1632). Lope describes it as an " action 
in prose," but it is rather a " romance in dialogue "; for, although 
divided into acts, the narrative is dramatic in form only. Of all 
Lope's productions Dorotea shows most observation and study ; the 
style also is unusually simple and easy. Of all this mass of obras 
sueltas, filling more than twenty volumes, very little (leaving 
Dorotea out of account) holds its own in the judgment of posterity. 
The lyrical element alone retains some vitality. From the Rimas and 
other collections of detached piefces one could compile a pleasing 
anthology of sonnets, epistles, elegies and romances, to which it 
would be proper to add the Catomaquia, a burlesque poem published 
along with other metrical pieces in 1634 by Lope under the pseu- 
donym of Tome de Burguillos. But here the list would end. 

It is, however, to his dramatic writings that Lope owes his eminent 
place in literary history. It is very curious to notice how he himself 
always treats the art of comedy-writing as one of the humblest of 
trades (de pane lucrando), and protests against the supposition that 
in writing for the stage his aim is glory and not money. The 
reason is not far to seek. The Spanish drama, which, if not literally 
the creation of Lope, at least owes to him its definitive form the 
three-act comedy was totally regardless of the precepts of the 
school, the pseudo-Aristotelianism of the doctors of the period. 
Lope accordingly, who stood in awe of the criticism of the cientificos, 
felt bound to prove that, from the point of view of literary art, he 
attached no value to the " rustic fruits of his humble vega. In his 
Arte Nuevo de hacer comedias en este tiempo (1609), Lope begins by 
showing that he knows as well as any one the established rules of 
poetry, and then excuses himself for his inability to follow them 
on the ground that the " vulgar " Spaniard cares nothing about 
them. " Let us then speak to him in the language of fools, since it 
is he who pays us." Another reason which made it necessary for him 
to speak deprecatingly of his dramatic works, is the circumstance 
that the vast majority of them were written in haste and to order. 
The poet does not hesitate to confess that " more than a hundred of 
my comedies have taken only twenty-four hours to pass from my 
brain to the boards of the theatre." Perez de Montalban, who has 
a great admiration for this kind of cleverness, tells how, at Toledo, 
on a certain occasion, Lope composed fifteen acts in fifteen days 
that is to say, five entire comedies, which he read to his friends step 
by step with the process of their composition. On another occasion, 
when pressed by a manager who wanted something for the carnival, 
Lope took Montalban as a collaborator; the two friends parcelled 
out the comedy between them, Lope undertaking the first act, 
Montalban the second, and the third, to save time, was divided 
between them. In two days they had finished the first two acts, 
and on the third Montalban rose at two in the morning and at eleven 
he had finished. Then he went in search of Lope, who, when 
questioned as to his progress, replied: " I got up at five, finished the 
act, breakfasted, wrote an epistle of fifty tercets, and have now 
finished watering the garden, and a rather tough business it has 
been." Nevertheless, Lope did write dramas in which the plan 
is more fully matured and the execution more carefully carried 
out; still, hurried composition and reckless production are after all 
among the distinctive marks of his theatrical works. Towards the 
close of his career Lope somewhat modified the severe and disdainful 
judgments-he had formerly passed upon his dramatic performances; 
he seems to have had a presentiment that posterity, in spite of the 
grave defects of his work in that department, would nevertheless 
place it much higher than La Dragontea, the Jerusalem Conquistada 
and other works of which he himself thought so much. We may 
certainly credit Lope with creative power, with the instinct which 
enabled him to reproduce the facts of history or those supplied by the 
imagination in a multitude of dramatic situations with an astonish- 
ing cleverness and flexibility of expression; but unfortunately, 
instead of concentrating his talent upon the production of a limited 
number of works which he might have brought to perfection, he 
dissipated it, so to say, and scattered it to the winds. 

The catalogue of Lope's comedies has been drawn up by himself ; 
and, in spite of some discrepancies in his figures, it is established 
that up to 1604 he had composed, in round numbers, as many as 
230. In 1609 the figure had risen to 483, in 1618 to 800, in 1620 to 
900, in 1625 to 1070, and in 1632 to 1500. Ultimately Montalbin 
in the Fama Postuma (1636) set down the total of Lope's dramatic 
productions at 1800 plays and more than 400 autos sacramentales. 
Of this number there are 637 plays which are known to us by their 
titles (from the lists of the Peregrine) ; but the printed or MS. text 
of only 458 is actually accessible, besides some 50 autos and a few 
entremeses. Very many of these pieces were printed during Lope's 
lifetime, either in collections of varies autores or as separate issues by 
booksellers who surreptitiously bought from the actors the manu- 
scripts of their roles or else caused the unpublished comedy to be 
written down from memory by persons whom they sent to attend 
the first representation. Such pieces therefore as do not figure in 
the collection published under Lope's own direction or under that 
of his friends cannot be regarded as perfectly authentic, and it would 
be unfair to hold their author responsible for all the faults and 
defects they exhibit. On the other hand, there exist comedies in 
Lope's own handwriting which have not yet been printed. 

The classification of this enormous mass of dramatic literature is 



VEGETABLE VEGETARIANISM 



967 



a task of great difficulty, inasmuch as the terms usually employed, 
such as comedy, tragedy and the like, do not apply here. There is 
not explicitness enough in the division current in Spain, which 
recognizes three categories: (i) comedias de capa y espada, the 
subjects of which are drawn from everyday life and in which the 
persons appear as simple caballeros; (2) comedias de ruido or de teatro, 
in which kings and princes are the leading characters and the 
action is accompanied with a greater display of dramatic machinery ; 
(3) comedias divinas or de santos. Some other arrangement must be 
attempted. In the first place, Lope's work belongs essentially to the 
drama of intrigue; be the subject what it may, it is always the plot 
that determines everything else. Lope in the whole range of his 
dramatic works has no piece comparable to La Verdad Sospechosa of 
Ruiz de Alarcon, the most finished example in Spanish literature of 
the comedy of character; and the comedy of manners is represented 
only by El Galdn Castrucho, El Anzuelo de Fenisa, and one or two 
others. It is from history, and particularly Spanish history, that 
Lope has borrowed more than from any other source. It would in 
fact be difficult to say what national and patriotic subjects, from the 
reign of the half-fabulous King Pelayo down to the history of his 
own age, he has not put upon the stage. But it is to the class 
of capa y espada also called novelesco, because the subjects are 
almost always love intrigues complicated with affairs of honour 
that Lope's most celebrated plays belong. In these he has most 
fully displayed his powers of imagination (the subjects being all 
invented) and his skill in elaborating a plot. Among the plays of 
this class which are those best known in Europe, and most frequently 
imitated and translated, may be specially mentioned Los Ramilletes 
de Madrid, La Boba para los Otros y Discreta para si, El Perro del 
Hortelano, La Viuda de Valencia, and El Maestro de Danzar. In 
some of them Lope has sought to set forth some moral maxim, and 
illustrate its abuse by a living example. Thus, on the theme that 
" poverty is no crime," we have the play entitled Las Flares de 
Don Juan, in which he shows in the history of two brothers the 
triumph of virtuous poverty over opulent vice; at the same time 
he attacks indirectly the institution of primogeniture, which often 
places in the hands of an unworthy person the honour and substance 
of a family when the younger members would be much better 
qualified for the trust. Such pieces are, however, rare in Lope's 
repertory; in common with all other writers of his order in Spain, 
with the occasional exception of Ruiz de Alarcon, his sole aim is to 
amuse and stir his public, not troubling himself about its instruction. 
The strong point of such writers is and always will be their manage- 
ment of the plot. As has been said by Le Sage, a good judge: 
" The Spaniards are our masters in the art of planning and skilfully 
working out a plot ; they know how to set forth their subject with 
infinite art and in the most advantageous light." It is not necessary 
to dwell here upon the other varieties of comedy represented in 
Lope's works, that is, the comedias divinas, fiestas (mythological 
dramas for the most part), entremeses and autos. In none of them has 
he produced anything of the highest order, or even comparable to 
the better performances of his contemporaries and successors. 

To sum up, Lope found a poorly organized drama, plays being 
composed sometimes in four acts, sometimes in three; and, though 
they were written in verse, the structure of the versification was left 
far too much to the caprice of the individual] writer. The style of 
drama then in vogue he adopted, because the Spanish public liked 
it. The narrow framework it afforded he enlarged to an extra- 
ordinary degree, introducing everything that could possibly furnish 
material for dramatic situations, the Bible, ancient mythology, the 
lives of the saints, ancient history, Spanish history, the legends 
of the middle ages, the writings of the Italian novelists, current 
events, Spanish life in the 1 7th century. Before him manners and 
the conditions of persons and characters had been barely sketched ; 
with fuller observation and more careful description he created real 
types, and gave to each social order the language and drapery 
appropriate to it. The old comedy was awkward and poor in its 
versification; he introduced order into the use of all the forms of 
national poetry, from the old romance couplets to the rarest lyrical 
combinations borrowed from Italy. Hence he was justified in 
saying that those who should come after him had only to go on 
along the path which he had opened up. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Hugo Albert Rennert, The Life of Lope de Vega 
(Glasgow, 1904); C. A. de la Barrera, Nueva Biografia de Lope de 
Vega (Madrid, 1890); C. PeVez Pastor, Proceso de Lope de Vega par 
libelos contra unos comicos (Madrid, 1901), to which is appended 
Datos desconocidos para la vida de Lope de Vega. For Lope's literary 
theories and doctrine of dramatic art, reference may be made to 
M. MenSndez y Pelayo, Historia de las Ideas Esteticas en Espana, 
and to A. Morel Fatio, La Comedie espagnole du XVII me sMe 
(8vo, Paris, 1885). The Obras Sueltas were published by Francisco 
Cerda y Rico (21 vols. Ato, Madrid, 1776-1779). A complete edition 
of the Obras de Lope de Vega, edited by M. Men6ndezy Pelayo, has 
been undertaken by the Spanish Academy. Rennert's biography 
contains an admirable bibliography of Lope's plays and autos. 

(A.M.-FA.; J.F.-K.) 

VEGETABLE (Late Lat. vegetaUlis, full of life, animating 
from vegetare, frequentative of vegere to quicken, arouse, vegefas, 



vigorous, active, cf. vigor, strength, vigour, &c.), a word used 
as a general term for plants (?..), and specifically, in popular 
language, of such plants as can be eaten by man or animals, 
whether cooked or raw, and whether the whole of such plants 
are edible, or only the leaves or the roots or tubers. Among 
such edible or culinary plants or portions of plants, a further 
distinction is made popularly between " fruits " and " vege- 
tables," for which see FRUIT. 

For the botany and cultivation of vegetables see under the 
specific names, e.g. POTATO, TURNIP, &c. &c., and generally, 
HORTICULTURE. 

VEGETABLE MARROW, Cucurbila Pepo, var. ovifera, the 
most important of the gourds (q.v.), used as an esculent, furnish- 
ing in good seasons a very large supply for the table. They are 
best when eaten quite young and not over-boiled, the flesh being 
then tender, and the flavour sweet and nutty. The Custard 
Marrow, or crown gourd, bears a peculiar-looking flattened fruit 
with scalloped edges, which has a sweeter and less nutty flavour 
than the true marrow. A very distinct form known as Pen-y-Byd 
has a delicate creamy white nearly globular fruit, with a firm 
flesh. The bush marrows are more bushy in habit and taller 
and more sturdy in growth. 

Vegetable marrows require a warm situation and a rich soil free 
from stagnant moisture. They do well on a rubbish or old-dung 
heap, or in a warm border on little hillocks made up with any 
fermenting material, to give them a slight warmth at starting. 
The seeds should be sown in a warm pit in April, and forwarded 
under glass, but in a very mild heat; the plants must be shifted 
into larger pots, and be gradually hardened previous to being planted 
out, when the mild weather sets in in May or June. The use of 
hand-glasses makes it possible to transplant earlier than would 
otherwise be advisable. The seeds may be sown early in May in 
pots under a hand-glass, or towards the end of May in the open 
ground, if heat is not at command. The true vegetable marrow 
bears fruit of an oblong-elliptical shape, about 9 in. long, pale- 
greenish while young, with whitish flesh, and scarcely any indication 
of ribs; when mature it is of a pale yellow colour. There is a 
variety which is more oblong, grows to 15 or 18 in., and has the 
surface slightly marked by irregular longitudinal obtuse ribs. The 
shoots may be allowed to run along the surface of the ground, or 
they may be trained against a wall or paling, or on trellises. As 
the gourds cross readily, care is necessary to keep any particular 
variety true. One of the best vegetable marrows is called Moore's 
Vegetable Cream. 

VEGETARIANISM, a comparatively modern word, which 
came into use about the year 1847, as applied to the practice of 
living upon foods from which fish, flesh and fowl are excluded. 
There have from time to time been various sects or schools of 
thought that have advocated narrower views. Some of these 
have excluded all animal products such as milk and eggs and 
cheese. Some have excluded all cooked foods, and have 
preached the virtues of fruits and nuts and grains in their natural 
ripe state. Some have abstained from all underground-grown 
roots and tubers, and have claimed special benefits from using 
only those fruits and vegetables that are grown in the sunlight. 
Some have given up all grain and pulse foods, and have declared 
that old age can be best resisted by living entirely upon fruits, 
salads, nuts, soft water and milk products. Some have added 
fish to their dietary; but, speaking generally, all who are called 
vegetarians will be found to abstain from the use of flesh and 
fowl and almost invariably also from fish as food. 

The fact, however, must not be overlooked that while vege- 
tarian societies claim as " vegetarians " all who abstain from 
flesh* foods, there is a large and growing number of people who 
repudiate the name of " vegetarian " because of its associations, 
but who none the less, for some of the reasons detailed below, 
abstain from eating anything that has been killed. The Order 
of the Golden Age, for example, with its headquarters at Bar- 
combe Hall, Paignton, South Devon, adopted the words 
" Fruitarian ". and " Fruitarianism " to denote the dietary of 
its members. The rule laid down by the Order is abstinence so 
far as possible from all foods which are obtained by the cruel 
infliction of pain, and the minimum that is set is complete 
" abstinence from flesh and fowl," while net-caught fish may 
be used by associate members. 



9 68 



VEGETIUS VEGLIA 



The reasons that are advanced for the practice of fruitarianism 
or vegetarianism are very comprehensive, but the principal ones 
may be considered to be the following : 

1. Health. (o) On the ground that animals are affected by 

diseases which are communicable, and are actually com- 
municated, to man by the ingestion of their flesh, e.g. 
parasites, tuberculosis; (/3) on the ground that the flesh 
of artificially fed animals is full of excretory substances, 
and that, therefore, under modern conditions, flesh-eating is 
injurious, and may be a cause of excretory substance and 
uric acid deposits or rapid tissue-destroying diseases in 
man; e.g. gout, cancer. 

2. Economy.- -On the ground that the assimilable nutriment 

from a given weight of selected fruit and grain and nut and 
vegetable foods will cost less than the same nutriment 
obtained from flesh foods. 

3. Social Economy. On the ground that an acre of cultivable 

land under fruit and vegetable cultivation will produce 
from two to twenty times as much food as if the same land 
were utilized for feeding cattle. 

4. Racial Improvement. On the ground that the aim of every 

prosperous community should be to have a large proportion 
of hardy country yeomen, and that horticulture and agri- 
culture demand such a high ratio of labour, as compared 
with feeding and breeding cattle, that the country popula- 
tion would be greatly increased by the substitution of a 
fruit and vegetable for an animal dietary. 

5. Character Improvement. On the ground that after the virtues 

of courage and valour and fearlessness have been taught 
in the lower stages of evolution, the virtue of gentle humane- 
ness and extended sympathy for all that can suffer should 
be taught in the higher cycles of the evolutionary spiral. 
Flesh-eating entailing necessarily an immense volume of 
pain upon the sentient animal creation should be abstained 
from by the " higher classes " in the evolutionary scale. 

Organizations have been established to advocate this method 
of living under the name of " Vegetarian Societies " in many 
countries chiefly the United Kingdom, America, Germany, 
France, Austria, Holland and Australia. Propagandism is 
carried on by lectures, literature, cookery demonstrations and 
restaurants. In England, the oldest and one of the most im- 
portant societies is " The Vegetarian Society," of which the 
headquarters are at Oxford Street, Manchester. There are also 
several small London societies, and an active London Associa- 
tion. A few provincial towns, too, have small societies. An 
attempt has been made to organize the various vegetarian 
societies of the world under the title of " The Vegetarian Federal 
Union." The headquarters of the London societies and of the 
" Union " are at Memorial Hall, Farringdon Street, E.C. 

There are nominally about 35 organized societies in exist- 
ence, but the extent to which public opinion and practice in the 
matter of dietary has been affected by vegetarianism is not to be 
gauged by the membership of such organizations. There are 
in England a number of vegetarian restaurants and boarding- 
houses, one hospital and one or two sanatoria. In Germany 
and America there are many institutions where flesh is only 
prescribed in special cases. Flesh food is not included in the 
dietary of the chief hospitals and orphanages of the native 
states of India, excepting in the wards devoted to Europeans. 

The athletic side of the movement has been represented in 
national and international races by vegetarians winning the 
Berlin and Dresden walking match (125 m.), the Carwardine 
Cup (100 m.) and Dibble Shield (6 hours) cycling races (1901 and 
1902), the amateur championship of England in racquets and in 
tennis (held by Mr Eustace Miles for a series of years), the cycling 
championship of India (3 years), half-mile running championship 
of Scotland (1896), world's amateur cycle records for all times 
from 4 hours to 13 hours (1902), 100 miles championship York- 
shire Road Club (1899, 1901). 

In the religious world the Seventh-Day Adventists (who are 
connected with many sanatoria and the manufacture of food 
specialities) and some Bible Christians, the worshippers of 
Vishnu and the Swami Narang and Vishnoi sects, amongst 
others, preach abstinence from flesh food. The Salvation Army, 
the Tolstoyans and the Doukhobors encourage it. A number of 
orders in the Roman Catholic church (e.g. the Trappists) and in the 
Hindu faith (e.g. the Dadupanthi Sadus) are pledged abstainers. 

The general question of food values is discussed in the article 
DIETETICS; see also NUTRITION. But there is no doubt that, 



whatever may be the view taken as to the extreme theory of 
vegetarianism, it has had considerable effect in modifying the 
excessive meat-consuming regime of previous days, and in intro- 
ducing new varieties of vegetable cooking into the service of the 
table. 

The literature on the subject is considerable, but the two classics 
are perhaps The Ethics of Diet, by Howard Williams, and The 
Perfect Way in Diet, by Dr Anna Kingsford. In former years 
the " Vegetarian Society " was the most active in producing 
literature, but since about 1901 the Order of the Golden Age has 
come to the front with new and up-to-date books, booklets and 
leaflets, and the Ideal Publishing Union has reprinted much of the 
earlier literature. The chief periodicals are the Vegetarian (weekly), 
the Herald of the Golden Age (monthly), the Vegetarian Messenger 
(monthly), the Vegetarian (American monthly), the Children's 
Garden (monthly). (J. O.) 

VEGETIUS (FLAVIUS VEGETIUS RENATUS), a celebrated 
military writer of the 4th century. Nothing is known of his 
life, station and military experience, save that in MSS. he 
is called vir illustris and also comes. His treatise, Epitoma rei 
militaris, sive institutorum rei militaris libri quinque, was dedi- 
cated to the reigning emperor (? Theodosius the Great). His 
sources, according to his own statement, were Cato, Cornelius 
Celsus, Frontinus, Paternus and the imperial constitutions 
of Augustus, Trajan and Hadrian. The book, which is a con- 
fused and unscientific compilation, has to be used with great 
caution, but is none the less invaluable to the student of the 
ancient art of war. 

The first book is a plea for army reform, and vividly portrays the 
military decadence of the empire. The third contains a series of 
military maxims which were (rightly enough, considering the 
similarity in the military conditions of the two ages) the foundation 
of military learning for every European commander, from William 
the Silent to Frederick the Great. When the French Revolution 
and the " nation in arms " came into history, we hear little more 
of Vegetius. Some of the maxims may be mentioned here as 
illustrating the principles of a war for limited political objects 
(see ARMY) with which he deals. " All that is advantageous to the 
enemy is disadvantageous to you, and all that is useful to you, 
damages the enemy " ; " No man is to be employed in the field 
who is not trained and tested in discipline "; " It is better to beat 
the enemy through want, surprises and care for difficult places (i.e. 
through manoeuvre) than by a battle in the open field " maxims 
that have guided the leaders of professional armies in all countries 
and at all times, as witness the Chinese generals Sun and Wu (see 
E. F. Calthrop, The Book of War, London, 1908). His " seven normal 
dispositions for battle," once in honour amongst European stu- 
dents of the art of war, are equally ludicrous if applied to present- 
day conditions. His book on siegecraft is important as containing 
the best description of late empire and medieval siege matters, &c., 
and from it amongst other things we learn details of the siege engine 
called onager, which afterwards played a great part in sieges. The 
fifth book is an account of the material and personnel of the 
Roman navy. 

In manuscript, Vegetius's work had a great vogue from the first, 
and its rules of siegecraft were much studied in the middle ages. 
It was translated into English, French and even Bulgarian before 
the invention of printing. The first printed editions are assigned 
to Utrecht (1473), Cologne (1476), Paris (1478), Rome (in Veteres 
de re mil. scriptores, 1487), and Pisa (1488). A German translation 
by Ludwig Hohenwang appeared at Ulm in 1475. Vegetius's 
position as the premier military critic was thenceforward assured. 
As late as the i8th century we find so eminent a soldier as Marshal 
Puysegur basing his own works on this acknowledged model, and 
the famous Prince de Ligne wrote " C'est un livre d'or." The fullest 
and most important modern edition is that of Karl Lang (Leipzig, 
1869). An English version through the French was published by 
Caxton in 1489. For a detailed critical estimate of Vegetius's 
works and influence see Max Jahns, Gesch. der Kriegswissenschaften, 
i. 109-125. 

VEGLIA (Slavonic, Krk), an island in the Adriatic Sea, off 
the west coast of Croatia, from which it is separated by the 
Canale della Morlacca. It is situated in the Gulf of Quarnero, 
and is separated from the island of Cherso, lying on the S.W., 
by the Canale di Mezzo. Together with Cherso and Lussin, 
the three principal islands of the Quarnero group, it forms the 
administrative district of Lussin, belonging to the Austrian 
crownland of Istria. Veglia is the largest island of the Quarnero 
group, having an area of 146 sq. m. It is 24 m. long and about 
14 m. across at its widest part. The surface is mostly rugged 
and mountainous; but the central, southern and western 
districts are fertile. The principal town is Veglia (pop. 2074), 



VEII VEINS 



969 



situated on the south-west coast, with a good harbour and an 
interesting cathedral. 

VEII, an ancient town of Etruria, Italy, situated about 10 m. 
N. by W. of Rome by road. It is mentioned in the earliest 
history of Rome as a constant enemy, being the nearest Etruscan 
city to Rome. The story of the slaughter of the Fabii, who had 
encamped in the territory of Veii, and of whom but one boy 
escaped, is well known. After constant warfare, the last war 
(the fourteenth, according to the annalists) broke out in 406 B.C. 
The Romans laid siege to the city, and, after a ten years' siege, 
M. Furius Camillus took it by storm in 396, by means, so we are 
told, of a tunnel leading into the citadel. According to the 
legend, the emissarium of the Alban Lake was constructed in 
^obedience to the Delphic oracle, which declared that, until 
it was drained, Veii could not be taken. The territory of Veii 
was three years afterwards divided among the Roman plebs. 
Veii is mentioned in connexion with the defeat of the Romans 
at the Allia in 390 B.C., after which many Roman soldiers 
fled there, while a project was actually broached for abandoning 
Rome for Veii, which was successfully opposed by Camillus. 
From this time onwards we hear little or. nothing of Veii up to 
the end of the Republic. Propertius speaks indeed of the 
shepherds within its walls. Augustus, however, founded a 
municipality there (municipium Augustum Veiens), inscriptions 
of which have been found down to the time of Constantius, 
after which, at some date unknown, the place was deserted. 
The medieval castle of Isola Farnese, on a hill to the south of 
the city, 1 is first mentioned in a document of A.D. 1003; but 
Veii itself had disappeared to such an extent that its very site 
was uncertain, though some scholars identified it correctly, 
until the excavations of the igth century finally decided the 
question. Veii was not on a high road, but was reached by 
branch roads from the Via Clodia. The site is characteristic 
a plateau, the highest point of which is 407 ft. above sea-level, 
divided from the surrounding country by deep ravines, and 
accessible only on the west, where it was defended by a wall 
and fosse. Remains of the city walls, built of blocks of tufa 
2 ft. high, may be traced at various points in the circuit. The 
area covered measures about i sq. m. There are no other 
remains on the site of the city earlier than the Roman period, 
and these are now somewhat scanty. The site of the Forum 
has been discovered on the west side of the plateau; a statue 
of Tiberius, now in the Vatican, and the twelve Ionic columns 
now decorating the colonnade on the W. side of the Piazza 
Colonna at Rome were found there. The acropolis was at the 
eastern extremity of the site, where the two ravines converge; 
it is connected with the rest of the plateau by a narrow neck, and 
here a large number of ex-votos in terra-cotta, indicating the 
presence of a temple, and dating at earliest from the 3rd century 
B.C., have been found. The first discovery of them was made in 
1655-1667, when remains of the temple (of Juno?) to which they 
belonged were also found (R. Lanciani, Pagan and Christian 
Rome, London, 1892, p. 64). In the deep ravine to the N. of 
the site of the town, traversed by the Cremera brook, are the 
ruins of two ancient bridges and of some baths of the Roman 
period; and here is also the Ponte Sodo, a natural tunnel, 
artificially enlarged, through which the stream passes. Out- 
side the city tombs have been discovered at various times. 
The earliest belonged to the Villanova period (8th and gth 
centuries, B.C.), probably before the coming of the Etruscans. 
Others are cut in the rock and are Etruscan. The most famous 
is the Grotta Campana found in 1843, which contains paintings 
on the walls with representations of animals, among the earliest 
in Etruria. There are also several tumuli. To a later period 
belongs a columbarium cut in the rock, with niches for urns. 

See L. Canina, L'antica citta di Veto (Rome,_i847); G. Dennis, 
Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883), i. I sqq. 

(T. As.) 

VEIL (O.Fr. veile, mod. voile, from Lat. velum, cloth, awning, 
sail), a cloth or piece of other fabric used as a means of con- 

1 Some have considered Isola Farnese to have been the arx of 
Veii, but this is unlikely. 



cealing something from the view, as in the veils of the Jewish 
tabernacle, which hung before the Holy Place, and before the 
Most Holy Place. The word is, however, chiefly used of a 
covering for the face and head, as worn by women. The veiling 
of the face by women is a practice among the Mohammedan 
races of the East and among those peoples which have come 
under the influence of Islam. It is observed only when outside 
the harem and not by slaves or by the very poor, and rarely 
by the Bedouin women. The face-veil (burka') is a long strip 
of white muslin covering the whole of the face except the eyes 
and reaching nearly to the feet. Among the poorer classes the 
burka' is made of coarse black crepe, or the tarhah, the head-veil, 
is drawn round the lower part of the face. There is also the 
double veil or yashmak, serving as a head- and face-veil (see 
INDIA, Indian Costume). In European countries the veil has 
played a large part in the head-dress of women. It took many 
shapes in the early middle ages and could be brought over the 
face as a covering or protection. Later it became a mere orna- 
mental appendage, hanging down from the high, peaked and 
elaborate head-dresses then worn. In modern times it has 
become a piece of gauze, lace or net attached to the hat or 
bonnet and used as a protection against dust, light or wind. 

VEINS, in anatomy. The veins (Lat. vena) are blood vessels 
which return the blood from the capillaries toward the heart. 
As they approach that organ they join together to form larger 
and larger trunks. In man and other mammals three venous 
systems are recognized: (i) the general venous system; (2) the 
pulmonary system; and (3 the hepatic portal system. (See also 
VASCULAR SYSTEM.) 

The general venous system consists of superficial and deep veins; 
the former lie in the superficial fascia and are often visible through 
the skin. They are usually accompanied by lymphatic vessels 
though not as a rule by arteries, and, sooner or later, they empty 
their blood into the deep veins, often passing through special openings 
in the deep fascia to do so. The deep veins always accompany 
arteries, and are therefore known as venae comites. With small 
and medium-sized arteries that is to say, arteries whose diameter is 
not much greater than that of an ordinary lead pencil there are two 
of these venae comites, one on each side, connected by occasional 
cross communications, but arteries of a larger calibre have only one 
companion vein. In the scalp and face the superficial veins are 
remarkable for accompanying, more or less closely, corresponding 
arteries more or less closely because the arteries in this region 
are very tortuous (see ARTERIES), and so are sometimes near their 
veins and sometimes far away, since the veins run a comparatively 
straight course. Frontal, superficial temporal, posterior auricular 
and occipital veins are found in the scalp, their names indicating the 
areas they drain. Like all other superficial veins, they anastomose 
freely with one another and also at certain places communicate, 
through foramina in the skull, with the intracranial blood sinuses; 
these communications are known as emissary veins, and act as 
safety-valves to the sinuses. The frontal vein on the forehead 
passes down on the inner side of the eyelids, where it is known as 
the angular, and then becomes the facial vein, which runs down to 
an inch in front of the angle of the jaw, whence it passes into the 
neck to join the common facial. In the greater part of its course 
it lies some distance behind the facial artery. The superficial 
temporal vein runs down in front of the ear, where it joins the internal 
maxillary vein from the pterygoid plexus and so forms the temporo- 
mo-xttlary trunk, which passes down, embedded_in the parotid gland, 
to about the angle of the jaw. Here it divides into an anterior 
branch, which joins the facial vein to form the common facial, and 
a posterior, which receives the posterior auricular vein and in this 
way forms the external jugular. 

The external jugular vein is easily recognized through the skin 
and platysma muscle on the side of the neck, and eventually pierces 
the deep fascia above the middle of the clavicle to join the subclavian 
vein. The occipital vein sinks deeply into the back of the neck and 
so forms the beginning of the vertebral vein. 

The intracranial blood sinuses lie between two layers of the dura 
mater and differ from the veins in having fibrous walls which do not 
contract or expand. The superior longitudinal sinus runs' along the 
upper margin of the falx cerebri (see BRAIN), while the inferior 
longitudinal sinus runs along the lower margin; these drain the 
surface of the brain, and the blood passes backward in both. Where 
the falx meets the tentorium cerebelli, the inferior longitudinal 
sinus receives the veins of Galen from the interior of the brain and 
then passes backward as the straight sinus to join the superior 
longitudinal sinus at the internal occipital protuberance (see SKULL). 
This meeting-place is known as the torcular Herophili, and from it 
the blood passes outward and downward through the right and left 
lateral sinuses, which groove the cranium (see SKULL) until they 



970 



VEINS 



reach the posterior lacerated foramina, through which they pass 
to form the beginning of the internal jugular veins. Most of the 
blood from the base of the brain passes into the cavernous sinuses 
which lie in the middle cranial fossa, one on each side of the pituitary 
fossa. These receive the ophthalmic veins from the orbit in front 
and, after running backward for about an inch, divide into the 
superior and inferior petrosal sinuses, the former of which joins the 
lateral sinus within the cranium, but the latter runs_to the posterior 
lacerated foramen, after passing through which it joins the lateral 
sinus, which is now becoming the internal jugular vein. 

The internal jugular vein (fig. 5, I.J.) thus formed runs down at 
first behind and then to the outer side of the internal and common 
carotid arteries and at the root of the neck joins the subclavian vein 
of its own side to form the innominate vein. In its course down the 
neck it receives the common facial vein already mentioned, as well 
as tributaries from the tongue, pharynx, larynx and thyroid body. 
The deep veins of the head ana face tend to form plexuses rather 
than venae comites; of these, pterygoid, deep temporal, pharyngeal 
and suboccipital plexuses are recognized. 

Veins of the Upper Extremity. On the dorsum of the hand and in 
front of the wrist superficial venous plexuses are easily seen through 
the skin. From these the blood passes up the forearm chiefly on its 
flexor surface by the radial, median and anterior and posterior ulna 
veins. Just below the bend of the elbow the median vein com- 
municates with the deep veins and then divides into two branches 
like the limbs of a Y Of these the inner is the median basilic and is 
noticeable as the vein from which patients were usually bled, while 
the outer is the median cephalic. After a course of an inch or two 
the median basilic is joined by the anterior and posterior ulnar veins 
and the median cephalic by the radial. After this junction the median 
basilic is continued up the inner side of the arm as the basilic which 
pierces the deep fascia about the middle of the arm and in the axilla 
Joins the venae comites of the brachial artery to form the axillary 
vein, which lies on the inner side of its artery. The median cephalic 
vein after joining the radial runs up the outer side of the arm as the 
cephalic and a little below the clavicle passes through the costo- 
coracoid membrane to enter the upper part of the axillary vein. 
At the outer border of the first rib the axillary vein becomes the 
subclavian (fig. 5, S.), which lies in front of and below its artery and 
is separated from it by the scalenus anticus muscle. The arrange- 
ment of the superficial veins, especially in front of the elbow, is 
liable to great variation and often differs on the right and left sides 
of the same body. 

Veins of the Lower Extremity. The superficial veins of the lower 
extremity begin in a venous arch on the dorsum of the foot. From 
the inner extremity of this the internal saphenous vein runs up, in 
front of the inner ankle, along the inner side of the leg, and, passing 
behind the inner side of the knee, continues up the thigh, gradually 
working forward until it reaches the saphenous opening in the deep 
fascia of the thigh a little below the spine of the pubis. Here it 
pierces the deep fascia (fascia lata) to enter the common femoral 
vein. In this long course it has many valves and receives numerous 
tributaries, one of which, the saphenous collateral, runs up nearly 
parallel to it and on its outer side and joins it just below the 
saphenous opening. From the inner end of the dorsal arch of the 
foot the external saphenous vein runs up behind the outer ankle 
along the mid line of the calf to pierce the deep fascia in the popliteal 
space behind the knee to open into the popliteal vein. Among the 
deep veins venae comites are found until the popliteal artery is 
reached, while above this superficial, deep and common femoral veins 
accompany their respective arteries. In the groin the common 
femoral vein lies on the inner side of its artery. 

Veins of the Abdomen. The common femoral vein, after passing 
deep to Poupart's ligament, becomes the external iliac (fig. 5, E.I.) 
which runs along the brim of the true pelvis and, after a course of 
some three inches, joins the internal iliac (fig. 5, I.I.) which drains 
the pelvis and so forms the common iliac vein. In front of the body 
of the fifth lumbar vertebra the common iliac veins of the two 
sides unite to form the inferior vena cava (fig. 5, I.V.C.), a very large 
trunk which runs up on the right of the abdominal aorta to an open- 
ing in the diaphragm (q.v.). On its way it receives spermatic or 
ovarian veins from the genital glands, renal veins (fig. 5, R.V.) from 
the kidneys, and lumbar veins (fig. 5, L.V.) from the abdominal walls. 
Before reaching the diaphragm it lies in a groove in the back of the 
liver (q.v.) and receives the hepatic veins from that organ. The 
hepatic portal system which lies in the abdomen will be treated later. 

Veins of the Thorax. The inferior vena cava, after piercing the 
diaphragm, has a very short thoracic course and opens into the 
lower and back part of the right auricle of the heart (q.v.). The 
right and left innominate veins (fig. 5, R.I. and L.I.) are formed 
behind the sternal end of the clavicle by the union of the subclavian 
and internal jugulars of their own side. The left vein is much 
longer than the right and runs nearly horizontally behind the upper 
half of the manubrium sterni to join its fellow on the right side of 
that bone just below the first nb. By the junction of these the 
superior vena cava (fig. 5, S.V.C.) is formed, which runs down to the 
right auricle of the heart. The chief tributaries of the innominate 
veins are the vertebral, the internal mammary and the inferior thyroid. 

The intercostal veins open into the azygos veins, which begin in the 



abdomen sometimes by a vertical trunk joining the lumbar veins 
known as the ascending lumbar, sometimes on the right side by a 
communication with the inferior vena cava. The right azygos vein 
is known as the vena azygos major (fig. 5, A.M.) and passes through 
the aortic opening of the diaphragm. Entering the thorax, it runs 
up in front of the thoracic vertebrae, to the right of the aorta and 
thoracic duct, and receives the intercostal veins of the right side. 
At the level of the fourth thoracic vertebra it arches forward to 
open into the posterior surface of the superior vena cava. 

On the left side, the upper intercostal veins join to form the left 
superior intercostal vein (fig. 5, L.S.I.), which opens into the left 
innominate. Lower down the intercostal veins Irom the fourth 
to the seventh spaces form the superior hemiazygos vein or hemiazygos 
accessoria (fig. 5, H.A.), which runs down on the left of the spinal 
column and, crossing it about the level of the eighth or ninth thoracic 
vertebra, opens into the vena azygos major. The lower intercostal 
veins on the left side join the inferior hemiazygos vein (fig. 5, H.V.), 
which runs up and opens either into the superior hemiazygos or into 
the azygos major below the opening of that vein. 

Pulmonary Venous System. The veins emerging from the lungs 
bring back the oxygenated blood from those organs to the left 
ventricle of the heart and also the greater part, if not all, of the blood 
carried by the bronchial arteries to nourish the lungs. The existence 
of bronchial veins is asserted, but they are extremely difficult to 
demonstrate, and if present are cmite incapable of returning all the 
blood which the bronchial arteries carry to the lungs. There are 
three pulmonary veins coming out of the right lung, while on the 
left there are only two. On the right side, however, two of the 
three veins usually unite in the root_of the lung, so that there are. 
as a rule two pulmonary veins entering the left auricle of the heart 
on each side, but it is not uncommon to find three on the right side 
or one on the left. The pulmonary veins have no valves and return 
the blood carried to the lungs by the pulmonary arteries as well as 
most, if not all, of that carried by the bronchial arteries. 

Hepatic Portal System. The veins which drain the blood from 
the stomach, intestines, spleen and pancreas unite to form a large 
vein which begins behind the head of the pancreas and ends by 
dividing into right and left branches in the transverse fissure of the 
liver. This is the portal vein which lies in front of the inferior 
vena cava and is about three inches long. Its formative tribu- 
taries are the superior and inferior mesenteric and the splenic veins. 
These accompany the arteries of the same name, and their most 
usual method of termination is that the inferior mesenteric runs up 
and joins the splenic to the left of the middle line of the body, and 
this, after running horizontally to a point a little to the right of the 
middle line, joins the superior mesenteric, and so the portal vein is 
formed. There are two marked characteristics of the portal system ; 
one is that it has no valves and the other that it begins and ends in 
capillaries, since the two terminal branches of the portal vein 
branch and rebranch in a manner already described in the article 
LIVER. In the lower part of the rectum the veins run partly into 
the portal and partly into the general system, and in this dependent 
position they are liable to become varicose and to form haemor- 
rhoids or piles. 

The histology of the veins corresponds very closely to that of 
the arteries (q.v.) ; their walls are, however, much thinner and there 
is less muscular and elastic tissue. At certain places, especially 
where tributaries come in, the endothelial lining is raised to form 
semilunar pocket-like valves. In most cases there are two cusps 
to each valve, buf three or one are sometimes found. The opening 
of the pocket is of course arranged so that it shall only be filled 
when there is a tendency to regurgitation of the blood. 

Embryology. 

The vitelline or omphalo-mesenleric veins, returning the blood from 
the yolk sac, are the first to appear, and later on, with the formation 
of the placenta, the umbilical veins develop. Both these open into 
the hinder (caudal) part of the heart, which is already being con- 
stricted off as the sinus venosus (see fig. i). 

While this is going on the veins from the different body segments 
are received into two longitudinal 
trunks on each side, the anterior 
(cephalic) of which is the primitive 
jugular or anterior cardinal (fig. i, S.V. 
P.J.), and the posterior (caudal), the 
posterior cardinal or simply cardinal 
vein (fig. i, P.C.). As the heart is 
at first situated in the region which 
will later be the neck of the embryo, 
the primitive jugular receives very 
few segmental veins and the cardinal 
very many. These, two trunks join 
one another on each side and open 
into the side of the sinus venosus (S.V.) 
by a transverse communication which 
is called the duct of Cuvier (D.C.). The condition of the venous 
system at this stage is shown in the accompanying diagram 

(fig- i)- 
As the vitelline veins run from the yolk sac to the heart along 



PJ. 



R 




1 s.v. 



P.C. 



P.C. 



FIG. i. 



VEINS 



each side of the primitive fore-gut they pick up the mesenteric 
veins from the intestines as well as the splenic and pancreatic veins 
as soon as these viscera are formed. The Jiver, however, is developed 
right across their path, and both they and the umbilical veins break 
up into a mass of capillaries in it,' leaving that part of them which 
lies between the liver and the heart to form the primitive hepatic 
veins (fig. 2, H.V.)! While the vitelline veins are lying on each 
side of the fore-gut (future duodenum) they are connected by three 
transverse channels, the anterior and posterior of which appear on 
the ventral side of the gut, the middle on the dorsal side (see fig. 2). 



971 




FIG. 3. 



This figure of eight does not persist, however, because the anterior 
(cephalic) part of it on the left and the posterior (caudal) part on 
the right become obliterated, and what is left forms the portal 
vein (fig. 3, P.V.). The two umbilical veins unite at the umbilicus 
(fig. 3) and soon all the blood from the placenta passes through the 
left one, the right becoming rudimentary. 

The left umbilical vein on reaching the liver now joins the left 
branch of the portal vein and establishes a new communication 
with the left hepatic vein. This is the ductus venosus (fig. 3, D.V.), 
and, as soon as it is formed, there is no longer any need that all 
the blood returning from the placenta should pass through the 
liver capillaries. The. development of the cardinal veins must now 
be returned to. As the heart moves from the neck into the thorax 
the primitive jugulars elongate and it is now recognized become 
the internal jugulars in the greater part of their extent. When the 



arms begin to bud out subclavian veins are developed (fig. 4, S.) 
and an oblique connecting vein (figs. 4 and 5, L.I.) is established 



PJ. 



PJ. 




S.V, 




E.I.- 



between the point of junction of the left subclavian with the 
primitive jugular and the hinder part of the primitive jugular of 
the right side. This connexion becomes the left innominate vein, 
while the hinder part of the primitive jugular persists as the left 
superior intercostal vein (fig. 5, L.S.I.). On the right side that part 
of the primitive jugular between the subclavian and the junction 
with the left innominate becomes the right innominate (figs. 4 and 
5, R.I.) while the hinder (caudal) part of the right primitive jugular 
and the right duct of Cuvier become the superior vena caya (figs. 4 
and 5. S.V.C.). The external jugular is a later formation. The 
right -and left posterior cardinal veins receive the intercostal and 



lumbar segmental veins and are continued into the lower limbs as 
the internal iliac and eventually the sciatic veins (figs. 4 and 5, 1. 1.), 
the primitive bloodpath from the thighs. The veins from the 
primitive kidneys open into the segmental veins, and when the 
permanent kidney is formed (see URINARY SYSTEM) a large renal 
vein on each side is established. There are, however, many cross 
communications (fig. 4, T.C.) between the right and left posterior 
cardinal veins, some of which become very important later on, 
though most of them are transitory. The probable origin of the 
inferior vena cam is to be sought in a pair of veins called subcardinals 
which have been found in the rabbit embryo lying parallel and a 
little ventral to the posterior cardinals (fig. 4, R.S.C.-L.S.C.) and 
effecting a junction with the renals and transverse communications 
(T.C.) as they cross these. Posteriorly (caudal) they join the cardinals, 
but anteriorly the right one establishes a communication with the 
ductus venosus (fig. 4, D.V.) a little below the point at which that 
vessel joins the left hepatic. It is from the right one of these that 
the greater part of the inferior vena cava is formed. It will now 
be seen that the adult vena cava is formed by contributions from 
four embryonic veins, most anteriorly the hepatic, then the ductus 
venosus, then the right subcardinal and posteriorly the right posterior 
cardinal (F. T. Lewis, Am. J. of Anat. vol. I, 229,, 1902). The 
anterior (cephalic) part of the right posterior cardinal forms the 
vena azygos major, and an inspection of fig. 4 will show that in the 
adult this may rise from the renal, from an ascending lumbar vein 
or, by a cross communication above the renal, from the inferior 
vena cava. The left posterior cardinal becomes obliterated below 
and its segmental tributaries find their way by cross communications 
to the vena cava (fig. 5). Above (cephalad) the left renal vein the 
left cardinal forms the hemiazygos (fig. S, H.V.) and, higher still, 
the hemiazygos accessoria (fig. 5, H.A.). These open into the 
azygos major by persistent cross communications which He dorsal 
to the heart when that organ reaches its permanent position. It 
must be mentioned in this connexion that some modern authorities 
doubt whether the azygos veins of mammals are really persistent 
cardinals except. quite in their anterior parts, just before they join 
the ducts of Cuvier. The left duct of Cuvier is only represented 
in the human adult by the oblique vein of Marshall on the dorsum 
of the left auricle. The external iliac veins (figs. 4 and 5, E.I.) 
become fully developed, like their arteries, when the blood changes 
its course from the back to the front of tne thigh. After birth the 
umbilical vein and the ductus venosus become converted into 
fibrous cords and the circulation in the pulmonary veins is established. 
(For further details see Development of the Human Body, by J. P. 
McMurrich, London, 1906. In this will be found the literature of 
the subject up to that date, the writings of F. Hochstetter being 
the most important. See also Quain's Anat. vol. i., 1908.) 

Comparative Anatomy. 

In the Acrania (Amphioxus), although there is no heart, the 
blood vessels returning the blood to the subpharyngeal region are 
distinctly of a vertebrate type. There is a subintestinal vessel or 
vein bringing the blood from the intestine to the liver and breaking 
up into capillaries in that organ just as the portal vein does in the 
higher forms. From the liver a hepatic vein carries the blood 
forward to the region below the pharynx where the heart is formed 
in Vertebrata. There is no renal portal system. In the Cyclo- 
stomata (lampreys and hags) the cardinal veins are formed and the 
blood from the caudal vein passes directly into the posterior cardinals 
without any renal portal system. In fishes the single caudal vein 
divides into two branches, each of which runs forward to the outer 
side of its respective kidney and ends by giving numerous branches 
to that viscus. The blood returning from the kidney passes into 
the beginning of its own posterior cardinal vein or sinus, which lies 
on the inner side of the kidney. This constitutes a renal portal 
system. The cardinal veins and ducts of Cuvier closely resemble 
the arrangement already detailed in the human foetus, while the 
hepatic portal system from the intestine to the liver is constant in 
this and all other vertebrates. 

In the Dipnoi (mud-fish) a pulmonary vein from the lung-like 
swim-bladder is formed and an inferior vena cava or postcaval vein 
carries the blood from the kidneys to the heart. This is its first 
appearance in the vertebrate phylum. In the lower fishes there is a 
vein of the lateral line on each side, but in the Dipnoi these coalesce 
and form a median anterior (ventral) abdominal vein which is 
constant in the Amphibia. Subclavian and iliac veins return the 
blood from the fins and open respectively into the junction of the 
anterior and posterior cardinals and into the caudal vein. 

In the tailed Amphibia (Urodela) the postcaval and posterior 
cardinal veins are well developed, the former vessel running from the 
right cardinal vein a little in front of (cephalad) the kidney to the 
hepatic vein, in this way closely foreshadowing man's embryology. 
In the Anura (frogs and toads) the posterior cardinals are usually 
suppressed, but these are very specialized animals. The anterior 
abdominal vein in amphibians jeins the portal vein close to the 
liver. 

In the Reptilia the renal portal circulation persists, but is rudi- 
mentary in birds and disappears in mammals. The anterior ab- 
dominal or epigastric vein of amphibians and reptiles returns the 
Dlood from the allantois in the embryo and in higher forms becomes 



972 



VEINS 



the umbilical veins returning the blood from the placenta; there is, 
therefore, a continuous line of ascent from the lateral line veins 
of the fish to the umbilical vein of man. In reptiles, birds, mono- 
tremes, marsupials and many rodents, insectivores, bats and un- 
gulates, a left superior vena cava (precaval vein) is present as well 
as a right; it passes ventral to the root of the left lung and then 
dorsal to the left auricle of the heart until it reaches the coronary 
sinus to open into the right auricle. Its course is indicated in man by 
the left superior intercostal vein, the vestigial fold of Marshall (see 
COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES) and the oblique vein of Marshall. 
It can be readily reconstructed from figs. 4 and 5 if the transverse 
communication (L.I.) is obliterated. In some mammals the post- 
caval vein is double, especially in its hinder (caudal) part, and this 
sometimes occurs as a human abnormality (see F. W. McClure, 
Am. Journ. of Anal. vol. 2, 1903, and vol. 5, 1906, also Anal. 
Anzeiger, Bd. 29, 1906). 

Except in Cetacea, one or both azygos veins are always present in 
mammals. When there is only one it is usually the right, though a 
few forms among the marsupials, rodents and ungulates have only 
the left (F. E. Beddard, P.Z.S., 1907, p. 181). In many of the lower 
mammals the external jugular vein is much larger than the internal 
and returns most of the blood from the brain through an opening 
called the postglenoid foramen. For this reason it was formerly 
regarded as the representative of the primitive jugular. It is now, 
however, thought that the internal jugular is that Representative, 
and that the arrangement of man, in which the internal jugular 
drains the interior of the cranium, is the more generalized and 
primitive. 

For further details and literature see R. Wiedersheim's Compara- 
tive Anatomy of Vertebrates, translated by W. N. Parker (London, 
1907). (F. G. P.) 

VEINS, in geology, masses of rock which occupy fissures in 
other rocks. They may have originated in many different ways 
and present a great variety of forms and structures. We may 
classify them in three groups: (i.) veins of igneous rock, (ii.) of 
sedimentary, and (iii.) of minerals deposited by water or by 
gases. 

Veins of igneous rock are practically the same as dikes; 
yet a distinction is sometimes made that dikes are narrow, 
often straight- walled and run for considerable distances, while 
veins are irregular, discontinuous and of limited extent. Where 
granite invades sedimentary or metamorphic rocks it very 
commonly emits vast numbers of dikes. The margin of the 
granite is full of blocks of all sizes, so that it is often impossible 
to say where the solid granite ends and the fringe of veins begins. 
An intrusion plexus of this sort seldom extends for more than 
a few hundred yards; many granites, on the other hand, have 
sharp and well-defined margins and send few veins into the 
country rock. 

In plutonic rock areas veining is also very common. Great 
intrusive masses have not as a rule been injected in one stage 
but have been slowly enlarged by gradual or repeated inflows, 
and often the earliest portions had consolidated before the last 
were introduced. Very frequently the older rocks are of a 
different character, being usually more basic than those which 
succeed them, and this makes the veining more obvious. For 
instance, it is common to find peridotite traversed by many 
veins of gabbro, or diorite injected with numerous veins of 
granite, though in either case the rocks are part of one plutonic 
boss or laccolite. The crystalline structure of the vein-rock 
and the surrounding mass is usually quite similar and there 
may be no fine-grained edges to the veins; these facts establish 
that the older mass though solid had not yet cooled down, so 
that the veining is directly connected with the injection process 
and the two rocks have been derived from the same source, 
but one is slightly later than the other. 

Among the Laurentian or Lewisian gneisses, which resemble 
granites, diorites and gabbros in composition, but have a banded or 
foliated structure, veining of this type is almost universal. The 
veins are of all sizes and of very irregular shape. Frequently they 
run along the foliation of the gneiss, but often also they cross it 
obliquely or at right angles. Such gneisses were produced by the 
injection of a partly differentiated and consequently non-homo- 
geneous magma, by successive stages, under a rock crust which was 
in movement or was subjected to intermittent pressures- during 
consolidation. 

In certain cases *he new material introduced into the rock by these 
veins bulks almost as largely as the original substance. A shale, 
slate or phyjlite is sometimes so filled with threads of granite that 
its composition and appearance are completely altered. Thin pale 



threads of quartz and felspar, not more than a tenth of an inch in 
thickness may be seen following the bedding planes, or the cleavage 
and sometimes also the slip cleavage. The distance between the 
veins may be no greater than the breadth of the veins themselves, 
and thus a striped or banded rock is produced, resembling a gniess 
but of dual origin, a mixed rock which is described properly as a 
" composite " or " synthetic " gneiss. The French geologists who 
first insisted on the importance of this group of rocks have called the 
process lit par lit (bed-by-bed) injection. The best examples of this 
in Britain are to be found around the granites of Mull and northern 
Sutherlandshire. The rocks invaded by granite in this manner 
often show intense contact alteration and are tc a large extent 
recrystallized. 

The short irregular veins which commonly occur within areas of 
granite, diorite, gabbro and other plutonic rocks are often much 
more coarsely crystalline than the rock around them. This is no 
doubt partly due to the high temperature of the whole complex and 
to slow crystallization, but it may also be ascribed to the action of 
vapours dissolved in the magma and gradually released as it solidi- 
fies. Such coarse-grained igneous rocks are called pegmatites 
(q.v.). It is clear that they are not purely igneous but are partly 
pneumatolytic. 

With the pegmatites we may class the fine-grained acid veins 
(aplites) which are found not only in granites but also in many 
diabases. They occur in irregular streaks or as long branching 
well-defined veins, and are usually more rich in quartz and felspar 
than the surrounding rock. Formerly they were often described 
as contemporaneous or as segregation veins; but no vein can be in 
strict accuracy contemporaneous with the rock which it intersects, 
and many of them give evidence of having been intruded into their 
present situation, since their minerals are so arranged as to show 
flexion structure. But they are always intimately connected, as 
their mineral composition indicates, with the rock mass in which 
they lie, and they represent merely the last part of the magma to 
consolidate. The fissures they occupy are presumably due to 
contraction, seeing that they are not accompanied by displacement, 
brecciation or faulting. 

Veins of sedimentary rock are few and of little importance. 
They occur where sediment has gathered in cavities of other 
rocks. Lava streams, for example, when they cool become 
split up into irregular blocks, and in the crevices between these 
ashes, sand and clay will settle. Submarine lavas are often 
traversed by great numbers of thin veins of sandstone, and a 
similar phenomenon may also be noted in the tuff of submarine 
necks or other ash beds. Cracks in limestone and dolomite are 
widened by the solvent action of percolating waters and may be 
filled with gravel, soil, clay and sand. In the Carboniferous 
Limestone, for instance, veins of bedded sandstone sometimes 
pass down from overlying Triassic deposits. The upper surface 
of the chalk in the south of England has frequently many deep 
funnel-shaped pipes which are occupied by Tertiary or recent 
accumulations. 

The third group of veins, namely, those which have been 
filled by deposits from solution in water or in vapours, is of the 
greatest importance as including a very large number of mineral 
veins and ore-bodies. They are also the source of the great 
majority of the finely crystallized specimens of minerals. 

The deposition of minerals on the walls of fissures by a process 
of sublimation may be observed at any active volcano. The cracks 
in the upper part of lava flows are often lined by crystals of sal- 
ammoniac, sodium chloride, ferric chloride and other volatile sub- 
stances. By oxidation cf the iron chloride bright scales of haematite 
(ferric oxide) arise; sulphurous acid and sulphuretted hydrogen, 
given 'out as gases, react on one another, producing yellow en- 
crustations of sulphur; and copper oxide (tenorite) and a great 
variety of other minerals (alum, iron sulphate, realgar, berates and 
fluoride) are found about fumaroles of Vesuvius and other volcanoes. 

Most veins, however, are not of superficial origin but have been 
formed at some depth. The heat given out by masses of rocks 
which were injected in a molten state is no doubt sufficiently high 
to volatilize many minerals. The pressure, however, also must be 
taken into account, as it tends to retain these substances in a liquid 
condition. Water vapour is always the most abundant gas in a 
volcanic magma, and next to it are carbonic acid, sulphurous acid, 
sulphurettedhydrogen and hydrochloric acid. The physical condition 
of the substances passing outwards from an igneous mass through 
fissures in the superincumbent rocks will depend on the nature of 
the substances, on the temperature and the pressure. Near the 
granite the heat is so great, at first at any rate, that gaseous materials 
must greatly preponderate; but farther away many of them _ will 
be condensed and hot aqueous solutions of complex composition 
will fill the cracks. 

Veins deposited by the action of gases and vapours are said to 
be of " pneumatolytic" origin; where hot aqueous solutions have 



VEIT VEITCH 



973 



been the principal agency in their formation they are " hydato- 
genetic." It is often very difficult to ascertain to which of these 
classes a mineral vein belongs, especially as we are in ignorance of 
the behaviour of many substances at high temperatures and under 
great pressures. 

The veins which yield tin-ores in Cornwall and in most other tin- 
producing countries are generally regarded as typical pneumatolytic 
deposits. Tin forms a volatile fluoride which may be decomposed 
by water, forming tin oxide, the fluorine passing into hydrofluoric 
acid which may act as a catalytic agent or carrier by again combining 
with tin. Around tin-bearing veins and in the material which fills 
them there are usually many minerals containing fluorine, such as 
topaz, fluor-spar and white mica. Some borates too are volatile 
at high temperatures, and minerals containing boron (especially 
tourmaline) are very common in tin veins. Also since ore deposits 
of this character are found nearly invariably in granite or in the 
rocks which have been invaded by granite there is good reason 
to hold that fluoric and boric gases were important agents in the 
production of tin veins. It is not necessary, however, to believe 
that all the materials which are found in these veins were introduced 
as vapours, for as the temperature sank currents of hot water 
would follow which would fill up any cavities. 

The tin veins of Cornwall often contain copper ores in their upper 
parts and at greater distances from the granite, a fact which indi- 
cates that the copper salts were deposited from solution at lower 
temperatures than the tin ores. A very large number of important 
ore deposits have been laid down by hot waters emanating from 
deep-seated intrusive masses. Nearly all the principal goldfields 
(except gravels or placers) are in districts where igneous dikes, 
veins and sills abound, and it is often perfectly clear that the intro- 
duction of the gold ores is intimately connected with the intrusive 
masses. The Witwatersrand deposits, although by many con- 
sidered to be old auriferous gravel, have been regarded as owing 
their value to gold deposited from vapours emanating from certain 
of the dikes which traverse the banket rock or conglomerate. The 
importance of these hot ascending currents of water, proceeding 
from eruptive magmas, has been fully recognized, and is now pro- 
bably the most widely accepted theory of the genesis of mineral veins. 

The water falling on the earth's surface will to a large extent 
percolate downwards into the rocks, and it will dissolve mineral 
matters, especially at the greater depths, owing to the increased 
temperature and pressure; conversely, as it ascends it will lay down 
deposits or veins. This is the theory of " lateral secretion," at 
one time in great favour, but now regarded as of less importance. 
Ferruginous waters on passing through limestone rocks may de- 
posit their iron as haematite or siderite, removing a proportionate 
amount of lime, and in this way great bodies of ironstone have been 
formed, as in Cumberland and Yorkshire, partly along the bedding 
of the limestone but also in veins, pockets and irregular masses. 
Many lead and zinc veins probably belong also to this class. By 
analysis it has been proved that in nearly all the common rocks 
there exist very minute quantities of such metals as gold, silver, 
lead, copper, zinc. If these can be extracted in solution in water they 
might conceivably be deposited subsequently in fissures in the rocks. 

Controversy has raged between opposing schools of geologists, 
one considering that most mineral veins owe their existence to 
currents of hot water ascending from deep-seated igneous rocks, 
and the other that the metals were derived from the country rocks 
of the veins and were extracted from them by cold descending 
currents of water. There are cases which can be explained on one 
of these hypotheses only, and sufficiently establish that both of them 
are valid; but the general opinion at the present time is in favour 
of the first of these explanations as the most general. 

The fissures in which veins have been deposited owe their origin 
to a variety of causes. Many of them are lines of fault, the walls 
of which have been displaced before the introduction of the vein 
minerals. Others seem to be of the same nature as joints, and are 
due either to contraction of the rocks on solidification, to folding 
or to earthquake shocks. In the vicinity of intrusive masses many 
fissures have been produced by the contraction of rock masses which 
had been greatly heated and then slowly cooled. Veins often occur 
in groups or systems, which have a parallel trend and may some- 
times be followed for many miles. The larger veins may branch 
and the branches sometimes unite after a time, enclosing masses of 
country rock or " horses." Cross-courses are fissures which inter- 
sect the lodes; they are often barren, and at other times carry 
an entirely different suite of minerals from those of the mineral 
veins. A peculiar group of veins has been described from the 
Bendigo district of Australia; they are saddle-shaped_ and in 
transverse section resemble an inverted U. The beds in which 
they occur are folded sharply into arches and troughs, and _ in 
folding they have separated at the crests of the arches, leaving 
hollows which were subsequently filled up with ore. 

The minerals occurring in the veins are sometimes classified as 
"ores" and "gangue": the former being those which are of 
value while the others are unprofitable. The commonest of the 
gangue minerals are quartz, calcite, barytes and fluor-spar. Usually 
a large number of minerals occurs in each vein, and the natural 
association or " paragenesis " of certain minerals which frequently 



are found together is a practical guide of much value to the engineer 
and prospector. A definite sequence in the order of deposit of the 
constituent minerals can often be recognized, the earlier being 
situated on the walls of the fissures or enclosed and surrounded by 
the later, and the microscopic study of veinstone shows that they 
have often a complicated history. 

Many types of structure are met with in veinstones and vein 
deposits. Some are structureless, homogeneous or massive, like 
the quartz veins which are often found in districts composed of 
slate or phyllite. Others are banded, with sheets of deposit, each 
consisting of one mineral, usually parallel to the walls of the lode. 
These veins are often symmetrical, with corresponding layers fol- 
lowing one another inwards from the walls on each side. 

The veinstones are frequently crushed either by faulting or by 
irregular movements of the walls, and in such cases the veinstones 
have a shattered or brecciated appearance. If the crushing took 
place while the ore deposits were still being introduced, the broken 
rock is often cemented together into a compact mass. Rounded 
masses of rock or of veinstone are often met with, looking exactly 
like pebbles, but they are analogous to crush-conglomerates, as the 
fragments have been shaped by the movements of the walls of the 
vein. Frequently these movements have reopened a fissure which 
had been filled up, and a new vein is subsequently formed alongside 
of the old one ; this process may be repeated several times. 

The mineral-bearing solutions may exert a powerful influence on 
the walls of the veins, removing certain constituents and depositing 
others; in this way the walls of the vein become ill defined. The 
commonest change of this kind is silicification, and rocks of many 
different kinds, such as slate, limestone, andesite and felsite, are 
often completely replaced by quartz in the vicinity _ of mineral 
veins which have a quartzose gangue. Tin veins in granite and slate 
may be surrounded by a zone of rock which has been impregnated 
with cassiterite and is worth working for the metal. These changes 
are of a " metasomatic " type, involving replacement of the original 
rock-substance by introduced materials. Many of the best examples 
of this are furnished by limestone, which is one of the rocks most 
easily affected by percolating solutions. 

The distinction between mineral veins and other veins is to a large 
extent artificial. With improvement of methods of mining and 
extraction deposits formerly unprofitable become payable, and in 
all cases veins vary considerably in the amount of ore they carry. 
The rich parts are sometimes called sheets or bonanzas, while the 
barren portions are often left standing in the mine. Near the 
ground surface the veinstones become oxidized and the metallic 
minerals are represented by oxides, carbonates, hydrates, or in the 
case of gold and silver veins they may be rich in the metals them- 
selves. Below the zone where oxidizing surface-waters percolate a 
different series of minerals occurs, such as sulphides, arsenides and 
tellurides. If the ores are insoluble they will tend to be concentrated 
in the upper part of the vein rock, which may be greatly enriched 
in this way. Pyritic veins are changed to rusty-looking masses, 
" gossans," owing to the oxidation of the iron at the surface. Though 
instances are known of veins which come to an end when followed 
downwards, it seems probable that the majority of veins descend 
to great depths, and there is little reason to believe that they become 
less rich in the heavy metals. (J. S. F.) 

VEIT, PHILIPP (1793-1877), German painter, one of the 
leaders of the German romantic school, was born in Berlin. 
Having received his first art education in Dresden and Vienna, 
he was strongly influenced by, and joined the group of, the 
Nazarenes in Rome, where he worked for some years before 
taking up his abode in Frankfort. In this city, where his 
most important works are preserved at the Staedel Institute, 
he was active from 1830 to 1843, as director of the art collections 
and as professor of painting. From 1853 to his death in 1877 
he held the post of director of the municipal gallery at Mayence. 
Like his fellow-Nazarenes he was more draughtsman than painter, 
and though his sense of colour was stronger than that of Over- 
beck or Cornelius, his works are generally more of the nature 
of coloured cartoons than of paintings in the modern sense. 
His principal work is the large fresco of " The Introduction of 
Christianity into Germany by St Boniface," at the Staedel 
Institute in Frankfort. In the cathedral of that city is his 
" Assumption," whilst the Berlin National Gallery' has his 
painting of " The Two Marys at the 'Sepulchre." To Veit is 
due the credit of having been the first to revive the almost 
forgotten technique of fresco painting. 

See Kunst, KilnsOer und Kunstwerke, by Valentin Veit. 

VEITCH, JOHN (1820-1894), Scottish poet, philosopher, 
and historian of the Scottish border, son of a Peninsular veteran, 
was born at Peebles on the 24th of October 1829, and educated 
at Edinburgh University. He was assistant lecturer successively 



VEJER DE LA FRONTERA VELAZQUEZ 



974 

to Sir William Hamilton and A. Campbell Fraser (1856-60). 
In 1860 he was appointed to the chair of logic, metaphysics 
and rhetoric at St Andrews, and in 1864 to the corresponding 
chair at Glasgow. In philosophy an intuitionist, he dismissed the 
idealist arguments with some abruptness, and thereby lost much 
of the influence gained by the force of his personal character. 
He died on the 3rd of September 1894. He will be remembered 
chiefly for his work on Border literature and antiquities. 

He published translations of Descartes' Discours de la methode 
(1850) and Meditationes (1852); an edition of Sir W. Hamilton's 
lectures with memoir (1869, in collaboration with H. L. Mansel); 
Tweed, and other Poems (1875); History and Poetry of the Scottish 
Border (1877; ed. 1893); Institutes of Logic (1885); Knowing and 
Being (1889); Merlin (1889); Dualism and Monism (1895); Border 
Essays (1896). See Memoir by his niece, Mary R. L. Bryce (1896). 

VEJ&R DE LA FRONTERA, a town of southern Spain, in 
the province of Cadiz, on the right bank of the river Barbate 
and on the Cadiz-Tarifa railway. Pop. (1900) 11,298. Vejer 
de la Frontera occupies a low hill overlooking the Straits of 
Gibraltar and surrounded by orchards and orange groves. 
It contains several ancient churches and convents, and the 
architecture of many of its houses recalls the period of Moorish 
rule, which lasted from 711 until the town was captured by St 
Ferdinand of Castile in 1248. Agriculture and fruit-farming 
are the chief industries; fighting bulls are also bred in the 
neighbourhood. 

VELARIUM, the curtain or awning extended above the audi- 
torium of the Roman theatres and amphitheatres to protect 
the spectators from sun and rain. 

VELAZQUEZ, DIEGO RODRIGUEZ DE SILVA Y (1599- 
1660), the head of the Spanish school of painting and one of 
the greatest painters the world has known, was born in Seville 
early in June 1599, the year in which Van Dyck also first saw 
the light at Antwerp. His European fame is of comparatively 
recent origin, dating from the first quarter of the igth century. 
Till then his pictures had lain immured in the palaces and 
museum of Madrid; and from want of popular appreciation 
they had to a large extent escaped the rapacity of the French 
marshals during the Peninsular War. In 1828 Sir David 
Wilkie 1 wrote from Madrid that he felt himself in the presence 
of a new power in art as he looked at the works of Velazquez, 
and at the same time found a wonderful affinity between this 
master and the English school of portrait painters, being 
specially reminded of the firm, square touch of Raeburn. He 
was struck by the sense of modernness of impression, of direct 
contact with nature, and of vital force which pervaded all the 
work of Velazquez, in landscape as well as in portraiture. Time 
and criticism have now fully established hfs reputation as 
one of the most consummate of painters, and accordingly 
Ruskin says of him that " everything Velazquez does may be 
taken as absolutely right by the student." At the present day 
his marvellous technique and strong individuality have given 
him a power in European art such as is exercised by no other 
of the old masters. Although acquainted with all the Italian 
schools, and the friend of the foremost painters of his day, 
he was strong enough to withstand every external influence 
and to work out for himself the development of his own nature 
and his own principles of art. A realist of the realists, he painted 
only what he saw; consequently his imagination seems limited. 
His religious conceptions are of the earth earthy, although 
some of his works, such as the " Crucifixion " and the " Christ 
at the Column," are characterized by an intensity of pathos in 
which he ranks second to no painter. His men and women 
seem to breathe, his horses are full of action and his dogs of 
life, so quick and close is his grasp of his subject. England was 
the first nation to recognize his extraordinary merit, and it 
owns by far the largest share of his works outside of Spain. 2 

1 See Cunningham's Life, vol. H. 

1 Of the 274 works attributed to Velazquez by Mr Curtis, 121 are in 
the United Kingdom, while France has but 13, Austria-Hungary 12, 
Russia 7, and Germany about the same number. Beruete, who only 
allows 90 known pictures to be genuine works of Velazquez, allots 
14 to the United Kingdom, which number still considerably exceeds 
that of any other country save Spain. 



But Velazquez can only be seen in all his power in the gallery 
of the Prado at Madrid, where over sixty of his works are pre- 
served, including historical, mythological and religious subjects, 
as well as landscapes and portraits. It is hardly creditable 
to the patriotism of Seville, his native town, that no example of 
his work is to be seen in the gallery of that city. Seville was 
then in the height of its prosperity, " the pearl of Spain," 
carrying on a great trade with the New World, and was also a 
vigorous centre of literature and art. For more than a hundred 
years it had fostered a native school of painting which ranked 
high in the Peninsula, and it reckoned among its citizens many 
whose names are prominent in Spanish literature. 

Velazquez was the son of Rodriguez de Silva, a lawyer in 
Seville, descended from a noble Portuguese family, and was 
baptized on the 6th of June 1599- Following a common 
Spanish usage, he is known by his mother's name Velazquez. 
There has been considerable diversity of opinion as to his full 
name, but he was known to his contemporaries as Diego de Silva 
Velazquez, and signed his name thus. He was educated, 
says Palomino, by his parents in the fear of God, and was in- 
tended for a learned profession, for which he received a good 
training in languages and philosophy. But the bent of the boy 
was towards art, and he was placed under the elder Herrera, 
a vigorous painter who disregarded the Italian influence of the 
early Seville school. From his works in Seville we can see that 
Herrera was a bold and effective painter; but he was at the 
same time a man of unruly temper, and his pupils could seldom 
stay long with him. Velazquez remained but one year long 
enough, however, to influence his life. It was probably from 
Herrera that he learned to use long brushes, or, as J. E. Hodgson, 
R.A., suggested, brushes with long bristles, by means of which 
his colours seem to be floated on the canvas by a light, fluent 
touch, the envy and despair of his successors. From Herrera's 
studio Velazquez betook himself to a very different master, the 
learned and pedantic Pacheco, the author of a heavy book 
on painting, and, as we see by his works at Madrid, a dull, 
commonplace painter, though at times he could rise to a rare 
freedom of handling and to a simple, direct realism that is in 
direct contradiction to the cult of Raphael preached by him in 
his writing. A portrait by Pacheco, owned by Sir Frederick 
Cook, which shows this master's full power, was exhibited at 
Burlington House in 1907. In Pacheco's school Velazquez 
remained for five years, studying proportion and perspective, 
and seeing all that was best in the literary and artistic circles 
of Seville. Here also he fell in love with his master's daughter 
Juana, whom he married in 1618 with the hearty approval 
of Pacheco, who praises his hand and heart, claiming at the 
same time all the credit of having been his master. The young 
painter set himself to copy the commonest things about him 
earthenware jars of the country people, birds, fish, fruit and 
flowers of the market-place. To paint well and thoroughly 
what he saw, to model with his brush, and to colour under the 
influence of light and shade were for him the vital purpose, 
the first lesson, in his art. It was with deliberate purpose that 
Velazquez painted these bodegones (tavern-pieces) , as they were 
called; for we are told that he said he would rather be the first 
painter of common things than the second in higher art. Carry- 
ing out this idea still further, Velazquez felt that to master 
the subtlety of the human face he must make this a special 
study, and he accordingly engaged a peasant lad to be his 
servant and model, making innumerable studies in charcoal 
and chalk, and catching his every expression. We see this 
model, probably, in the laughing boy of the Hermitage " Break- 
fast," or in the youngest of the " Musicians " acquired for the 
Berlin Museum in 1906. In such work as this, and in his studies 
by the wayside, Velazquez laid the foundation of his subsequent 
mastery of expression, of penetration into character, and of 
rendering the life of his sitter to the quick. He saw the world 
around him teeming with life and objects interesting to the 
painter, and he set himself to render these. His manner is 
as national as that of Cervantes. He lived and died racy of 
the soil. The position and reputation of Velazquez were now 



VELAZQUEZ 



975 



assured at Seville. There his wife bore him two daughters 
all his family so far as is known. The younger died in infancy, 
while the elder, Francisca, in due time married Bautista del 
Mazo, a painter, whose large family is that which is represented 
in the important picture in Vienna which was at cjne time 
called the " Family of Velazquez." This picture is now by 
common consent given to Mazo. In the gallery at Madrid 
there is a portrait of Juana, his wife, holding a drawing-tablet 
on her knee. There was formerly in the possession of Lord 
Dudley another portrait of his wife by Velazquez, painted, 
perhaps, in the first year of their happy marriage. Of this 
early Seville manner we have an excellent example in " El 
Aguador " (the Water-Carrier) at Apsley House (London). 
Firm almost to hardness, it displays close study of nature. 
One can see in it the youthful struggle to portray the effects 
of light stealing here and there over the prominent features of 
the face, groping after the effects which the painter was to master 
later on. The brushwork is bold and broad, and the outlines 
firmly marked. As is usual with Velazquez at this time, the 
harmony of colours is red, brown and yellow, reminding one of 
Ribera. For sacred subjects we may turn to the " Adoration 
of the Magi " at Madrid, dated 1619, and the " Christ and the 
Pilgrims of Emmaus " in the collection of Don Manuel de So to 
in Zurich, in both of which we have excellent examples of his 
realism. In the " St John in the Desert " we again find his 
peasant boy transformed into the saint. 

But Velazquez was now eager to see more of the world. 
Madrid, with its fine Titians, held out strong inducements. 
Accordingly, in 1622, fortified with letters of introduction to 
Fonseca, who held a good position at court, he spent some 
months there, accompanied only by his servant. Here he 
painted the portrait of the poet Gongora, a commission from 
Pacheco, but the picture known by that name in the gallery 
at Madrid cannot with certainty be identified as Velazquez's 
portrait; it is more probably by Zurbaran. The impression 
which Velazquez made in the capital must have been very 
strong, for in the following year he was summoned to return by 
Olivares, the all-powerful minister of Philip IV., fifty ducats 
being allowed to defray his expenses. On this occasion he was 
accompanied by his father-in-law. Next year (1624) he received 
from the king three hundred ducats to pay the cost of the 
removal of his family to Madrid, which became his home for 
the remainder of his life. Weak and worthless as a king, Philip 
had inherited the art-loving propensities of his race, and was 
proud to be considered a poet and a painter. It is one of the 
best features of his character that he remained for a period of 
thirty-six years the faithful and attached friend of Velazquez, 
whose merit he soon recognized, declaring that no other painter 
should ever paint his portrait. By his equestrian portrait of the 
king, painted in 1623, Velazquez secured admission to the royal 
service with a salary of twenty ducats per month, besides medical 
attendance, lodgings and payment for the pictures he might 
paint. The portrait was exhibited on the steps of San Felipe, and 
was received with enthusiasm, being vaunted by poets, among 
them Pacheco. It has unfortunately disappeared, having prob- 
ably perished in one of the numerous fires which occurred in the 
royal palaces. The Prado, however, has two portraits of the king 
(Nos. 1070 and io7i)in which the harshness of the Seville period 
has disappeared and the tones are more delicate. The modelling 
is firm, recalling that of Antonio Mor, the Dutch portrait painter 
of Philip II., who exercised a considerable influence on the 
Spanish school. In the same year the prince of Wales (after- 
wards Charles I.) arrived at the court of Spain. We are told 
that he sat to Velazquez, but the picture has disappeared. 1 

In 1628 Rubens visited Madrid on a diplomatic mission for 
nine months, and Velazquez was appointed by the king to be 
his guide among the art treasures of Spain. Rubens was then 

1 In 1847 Mr John Snare of Reading exhibited a picture which 
had come from the sale of Lord Fife in 1809, and which he maintained 
to be the long-lost work. This led to much controversy; but the 
claim was rejected by experts, and the picture is said to be now in 
America. 



at the height of his fame, and had undertaken as a commission 
from Olivares the large pictures which now adorn the great 
hall in Grosvenor House (London). These months might have 
been a new turning-point in the career of a weaker man than 
Velazquez, for Rubens added to his brilliant style as a painter 
the manner of a fascinating courtier. Rubens had a high opinion 
of the talent of Velazquez, as is attested by Fuensalida, but he 
effected no change in the style of the strong Spaniard. He im- 
pressed him, however, with the desire to see Italy and the works 
of her mighty painters. In 1627 the king had given for competi- 
tion among the painters of Spain the subject of the Expulsion of 
the Moors. Velazquez bore off the palm; but his picture was 
destroyed in a fire at the palace in 1734. Palomino, however, 
describes it. Philip III. points with his baton to a crowd of 
men and women driven off under charge of soldiers, while Spain, 
a majestic female, sits looking calmly on. The triumph of 
Velazquez was rewarded by his being appointed gentleman 
usher. To this was shortly afterwards added a daily allowance 
of twelve reals, the same amount as was allowed to the court 
barbers, and ninety ducats a year for dress, which was also paid 
to the dwarfs, buffoons and players about the king's person 
truly a curious estimate of talent at the court of Spain. As an 
extra payment he received (though it was not paid for five 
years) one hundred ducats for the picture of Bacchus, painted 
in 1629 (No. 1058 of the Madrid gallery). The spirit and aim 
of this work are better understood from its Spanish name, " Los 
Borrachos " or " Los Bebedores " (the Topers), who are paying 
mock homage to a half-naked ivy-crowned young man seated on 
a wine barrel. It is like a story by Cervantes, and is brimful 
of jovial humour. One can easily see in this picture of national 
manners how Velazquez had reaped the benefit of his close study 
of peasant life. The painting is firm and solid, and the light 
and shade are more deftly handled than, in former works. Al- 
together, this production may be taken as the most advanced 
example of the first style of Velazquez. It is usual to divide 
his artistic career by his two visits to Italy, his second style 
following the first visit and his third the second. Roughly 
speaking, this somewhat arbitrary division may be accepted, 
though it will not always apply, for, as is usual in the case of 
many great painters, his styles at times overlap each other. 
Velazquez rarely signed his pictures, and the royal archives give 
the dates of only his more important works. Internal evidence 
and history, as regards his portraits, supply to a certain extent 
the rest. 

In 1629 Philip gave Velazquez permission to carry out his 
desire of visiting Italy, without loss of salary, making him besides 
a present of four hundred ducats, to which Olivares added two 
hundred. He sailed from Barcelona in August in the company of 
the marquis de Spinola, the conqueror of Breda, then on his way 
to take command of the Spanish troops at Milan. It was during 
this voyage that Velazquez must have heard the details of the 
surrender of Breda from the lips of the victor, and he must have 
sketched his fine head, known to us also by the portrait by Van 
Dyck. But the great picture was not painted till many years 
later, for Spinola had fallen into disfavour at court. In Venice 
Velazquez made copies of the " Crucifixion " and the " Last 
Supper " of Tintoretto, which he sent to the king, and in Rome 
he copied Michelangelo and Raphael, lodging in the Villa Medici 
till fever compelled him to remove into the city. Here he painted 
the " Forge of Vulcan " (No. 1059 of the Madrid gallery) , in which 
Apollo narrates to the astonished Vulcan, a village blacksmith, 
the news of the infidelity of Venus, while four Cyclops listen to 
the scandal. The mythological treatment is similar to that of the 
" Bacchus ": it is realistic and Spanish to the last degree, giving 
a picture of the interior of an Andalusian smithy, with Apollo 
thrown in to make the story tell. The conception is common- 
place, yet the impression it produces is undoubted from the 
vividness of the representation and the power of expression. 
The modelling of the half-naked figures is excellent. Altogether 
this picture is much superior to the other work painted at the 
same time, " Joseph's Coat," which now hangs in the Escorial. 
Both these works are evidently painted from the same models. 



VELAZQUEZ 



In looking at these two pictures the spectator is especially struck 
by the fact that they betray no trace of the influence of the 
Italians. Velazquez remained true to himself. At Rome he 
also painted the two beautiful landscapes of the gardens of the 
Villa Medici, now in the Madrid museum (1106 and 1107), full 
of sparkle and charm. Landscape as an expression of art never 
had attraction for the Spaniards; but Velazquez here shows how 
great a master he was in this branch. The silvery views of 
Aranjuez, which at one time passed under his name, are now 
considered to be the work of his pupil Mazo. After a visit to 
Naples in 1631, where he worked with his countryman Ribera, 
and painted a charming portrait of the Infanta Maria, sister of 
Philip, Velazquez returned early in the year to Madrid. 

He then painted the first of many portraits of the young 
prince, Don Baltasar Carlos, the heir to the throne, dignified 
and lordly even in his childhood, caracoling in the dress of a 
field-marshal on his prancing steed. The Wallace collection 
includes an example which is probably a copy by Mazo; but 
the finest in the United Kingdom is the well-known picture at 
Grosvenor House, a masterly example of the second manner of 
Velazquez. The colour is warm and bright, the workmanship 
solid and fused like enamel, while light and air pervade every 
corner. The scene is in the riding-school of the palace, the king 
and queen looking on from a balcony, while Olivares is in attend- 
ance as master of the horse to the prince. Don Baltasar died in 
1646 at the age of seventeen, so that judged by his age this 
picture must have been painted about 1641, two years before 
the fall of Olivares. This powerful minister was the early and 
constant patron of the painter. His impassive, saturnine face 
is familiar to us from the many portraits painted by Velazquez, 
a face which, like his royal master's, seems never to have known 
a smile, and in which are written pride and disdain. Two are of 
surpassing excellence the full-length formerly in the Holford 
collection (exhibited at Burlington House in 1887), stately and 
dignified, in which he wears the green cross of Alcantara and 
holds a wand, the badge of his office as master of the horse; the 
other the great equestrian portrait of the Madrid gallery (No. 
1069), in which he is flatteringly represented as a field-marshal 
in all his pomp during an action. It is difficult to overpraise 
the excellence of this work, either as regards its dramatic power 
or its masterly execution. In these portraits Velazquez has 
well repaid the debt of gratitude which he owed to his first 
patron, whom he stood by in his fall, thus exposing himself to 
the risk and it was not a light one of incurring the anger of 
the jealous Philip. The king, however, showed no sign of malice 
towards his favoured painter. Faithful in few things, Philip 
kept true to Velazquez, whom he visited daily in his studio in 
the palace, and to whom he stood in many attitudes and cos- 
tumes, as a huntsman with his dogs, as a warrior in command of 
his troops, and even on his knees at prayer, wearing ever the 
same dull uninterested look. His pale face and lack-lustre 
eye, his fair flowing hair and moustaches curled up to his eyes, 
and his heavy projecting Austrian under-lip are known in many 
a portrait and nowhere more supremely than in the wonderful 
canvasof the London National Gallery (No. 745), where he seems 
to live and breathe. Few portraits in the whole range of art will 
compare with this work, in which the consummate handling 
of Velazquez is seen at its best, for it is in his late and most per- 
fect manner. 1 From one of the equestrian portraits of the king, 
painted in 1638, the sculptor Montanes modelled a statue 
which was cast in bronze by the Florentine sculptor Tacca, and 
which now stands in the Plaza del Oriente at Madrid, " a solid 
Velazquez," as it has been well named by Ford. This portrait 
exists no more; but there is no lack of others, for Velazquez 

1 In this and in all his portraits Philip wears the golilla, a stiff linen 
collar projecting at right angles from the neck. It was invented 
by the king, who was so proud of it that he celebrated it by a festival, 
followed by a procession to church to thank God for the blessing 
(Madame D'Aulnoy, Voyage d'Espagne). The golilla was thus the 
height of fashion and appears in most of the male portraits of the 
period. In regard to the wonderful structure of Philip's moustaches, 
it is said that, to preserve their form, they were encased during the 
night in perfumed leather covers called bigoteras. 



was in constant and close attendance on Philip, accompanying 
him in his journeys to Aragon in 1642 and 1644, and was doubt- 
less present with him when he entered Lerida as a conqueror. 
It was then that he painted the great equestrian portrait 
(No. 1066 of the Madrid gallery) in which the king is represented 
as a great commander leading his troops a role which Philip 
never played except in a theatrical pageant. All is full of ani- 
mation except the stolid face of the king. It hangs as a pendant 
to the great Olivares portrait fit rivals of the neighbouring 
Charles V. by Titian, which doubtless fired Velazquez to excel 
himself, and both remarkable for their silvery tone and their 
feeling of open air and harmony combined with brilliancy. The 
light plays on the armour and scarf thrown to the wind, showing 
how completely Velazquez had mastered the effects he strove 
to reach in his early days. Of these two r great works the 
Wallace collection includes small but excellent copies. 

But, besides the forty portraits of Philip by Velazquez, or 
attributed to him, we have portraits of other members of the 
royal family, of Philip's first wife, Isabella of Bourbon, and her 
children, especially of her eldest son, Don Baltasar Carlos, of 
whom, besides those already mentioned, there is a beautiful full- 
length in a private room at Buckingham Palace. Cavaliers, 
soldiers, churchmen and poets of the court, as for example the 
Quevedo at Apsley House (shown in Burlington House in 1887), 
sat to the painter and, even if forgotten by history, will live on 
his canvas. The Admiral Pulido Pareja from Lord Radnor's 
collection, now at the National Gallery, is said to have been taken 
by Philip for the living man; nevertheless, A. de Beruete is 
emphatic in denying Velazquez's authorship of this picture, 
which he attributes to Mazo. It has been remarked that the 
Spaniards have always been chary of committing to canvas 
the portraits of their beautiful women. Queens and infantas 
may be painted and exhibited, but ladies rarely. One wonders 
who the beautiful woman can be that adorns the Wallace collec- 
tion, the splendid brunette so unlike the usual fair-haired female 
sitters to Velazquez. She belongs to this period of his work, 
to the ripeness of his middle period. Instinct with life, her 
bosom seems to heave and the blood to pulsate through her 
veins. The touch is firm but free, showing the easy strength 
of the great master. Rarely has flesh been painted with such 
a glow, yet with such reserve. This picture is one of the 
ornaments of the Wallace collection. But, if we have few ladies 
of the court of Philip, we have in great plenty his buffoons and 
dwarfs. Even these deformed or half-witted creatures attract 
our sympathy as we look at their portraits by Velazquez, who, 
true to his nature, treats them gently and kindly, as in " El 
Primo " (the Favourite), whose intelligent face and huge folio 
with ink-bottle and pen by his side show him to be a wiser and 
better-educated man than many of the gallants of the court. 
"El Bobo de Coria," " El Nino de VaUecas" and " Pablillos," a 
buffoon evidently acting a part, all belong to this middle period. 
From these commissioned portraits of the menials of the court 
it is pleasant to turn to one of the greatest of historical works, the 
" Surrender of Breda," often known as " Las Lanzas," from the 
serried rank of lances breaking the sky, which is believed to 
have been painted about 1647. It represents the moment when 
the vanquished Justin of Nassau in front of his Dutch troops is 
submissively bending as he offers to his conqueror Spinola the 
keys of the town, which, with courteous grace, the victor refuses 
to accept, as he lays his hand gently on the shoulder of his de- 
feated foe. Behind Spinola stand the Spanish troops bearing 
their lances aloft, while beyond is a long stretch of the Low 
Country, dotted with fortifications and giving the impression 
of vast space and distance. The picture is full of light and air, 
and is perhaps the finest example of the silvery bluish style of 
Velazquez. In conception it is as fine as in execution, and one 
looks in vain for a trace of " the malicious pencil " which Sir 
William Stirling-Maxwell discerned in the treatment of Justin 
and his gallant Dutchmen. 

The greatest of the religious paintings by Velazquez belongs 
also to this middle period, the " Christ on the Cross " (Madrid 
gallery, No. 1055). Palomino says it was painted in 1638 for 



VELAZQUEZ 



977 



the convent of San Placido. It is a work of tremendous power 
and of great originality, the moment chosen being that immedi- 
ately after death. The Saviour's 'head hangs on his breast and 
a mass of dark tangled hair conceals part of the face. The 
beautiful form is projected against a black and hopeless sky from 
which light has been blotted out. The figure stands absolutely 
alone, without any accessory. The skull and serpent described 
by Sir William Stirling-Maxwell were added by some pious 
bungler at a much later date. The picture was lengthened to 
suit its place in an oratory; but this addition has since been 
removed. To the same period belongs the great " Boar Hunt " 
at the National Gallery, a magnificent work in spite of some 
restorations. The smaller " Boar Hunt " in the Wallace col- 
lection is from the brush of Mazo; and the " Conversation, a 
Group of Thirteen Persons," at the Louvre, a picture which in 
conception has much in common with these hunting scenes, 
probably owes its origin to the same artist. A. de Beruete 
emphatically denies Velazquez's authorship of this much be- 
lauded picture, which he describes as a " mediocre imitation, 
probably by Mazo." 

Velazquez's son-in-law Mazo had succeeded him as usher 
in 1634, and he himself had received steady promotion in the 
royal household, receiving a pension of 500 ducats in 1640, in- 
creased to 700 in 1648, for portraits painted and to be painted, 
and being appointed inspector of works in the palace in 1647. 
Philip now entrusted him with the carrying out of a design on 
which he had long set his heart, the founding of an academy of 
art in Spain. Rich in pictures, Spain was weak in statuary, 
and Velazquez was commissioned to proceed to Italy to make 
purchases. Accompanied by his faithful slave Pareja, whom he 
taught to be a good painter, he sailed from Malaga in 1649, land- 
ing at Genoa, and proceeding thence by Milan to Venice, buying 
Titians, Tintorettos and Veroneses as he went. A curious 
conversation which he is said to have had with Salvator Rosa 
is reported by Boschini, 1 in which the Spaniard with perfect 
frankness confesses his want of appreciation of Raphael and his 
admiration of Titian, "first of all Italian men." It seems a 
possible story, for Velazquez bought according to his likings and 
painted in the spirit of his own ideals. At Modena he was re- 
ceived with much favour by the duke, and doubtless here he 
painted the portrait of the duke at the Modena gallery and 
two splendid portraits which now adorn the Dresden gallery, 
for these pictures came from the Modena sale of 1746. They 
presage the advent of the painter's third and latest manner, a 
noble example of which is the great portrait of Innocent X. in 
the Doria palace at Rome, to which city Velazquez now pro- 
ceeded. There he was received with marked favour by the 
pope, who presented him with a medal and gold chain. Of this 
portrait, thought by Sir Joshua Reynolds to be the finest picture 
in Rome, Palomino says that Velazquez took a copy to Spain. 
There exist several in different galleries, some of them possibly 
studies for the original or replicas painted for Philip. One of 
the most remarkable is that in Apsley House, exhibited in 
Burlington House in 1887. The modelling of the stern impassive 
face comes near to perfection, so delicate are the gradations in 
the full light; all sharpness of outline has disappeared; and the 
features seem moulded by the broad and masterly brushwork. 
When closely examined, the work seems coarse, yet at the proper 
distance it gives the very essence of living flesh. The handling 
is rapid but unerring. Velazquez had now reached the manera 
abreviada, as the Spaniards call this bolder style. This is but 
another way of saying that his early and laborious studies and 
his close observation of nature had given to him in due time, as 
to all great painters, the power of representing what he saw 
by simpler means and with more absolute truth. At Rome he 
painted also a portrait of his servant Pareja, probably the picture 
of Lord Radnor's collection, which procured his election into 
the academy of St Luke. Philip was now wearying for his re- 
turn; accordingly, after a visit to Naples, where he saw his old 
friend Ribera, he returned to Spain by Barcelona in 1651, taking 
with him many pictures and 300 pieces of statuary, which he 
1 See Stirling-Maxwell's Velazquez and Ms Works, p. 161. 



afterwards arranged and catalogued for the king. Undraped 
sculpture was, however, abhorrent to the Spanish Church, and 
after Philip's death these works gradually disappeared. 

Isabella of Bourbon had died in 1644, and the king had 
married Mariana of Austria, whom Velazquez now painted in 
many attitudes. He was specially chosen by the king to fill 
the high office of " aposentador major," which imposed on him 
the duty of looking after the quarters occupied by the court 
whether at home or in their journeys a responsible function, 
which was no sinecure and interfered with the exercise of his 
art. Yet far from indicating any decline, his works of this 
period are amongst the highest examples of his style. The 
dwarf " Don Antonio el Ingles " (the Englishman) with his 
dog, " Aesop," " Menippus " and " the Sculptor Montanes," 
all in the Madrid gallery, show his surest and freest manner. To 
these may be added the charming portraits of the royal children 
in the Louvre and Vienna, among the choicest of his works. It 
is one of these infantas, Margarita Maria, the eldest daughter 
of the new queen, that is the subject of the well-known picture 
" Las Meninas " (the Maids of Honour), 1062, in the Madrid 
gallery, painted in 1656, where the little lady holds court, 
surrounded by her ladies-in-waiting, her dwarfs and her mastiff, 
while Velazquez is seen standing at his easel. This is the finest 
portrait we have of the great painter. It is a face of much 
dignity, power and sweetness like his life, equable and serene, 
unruffled by care. " Las Meninas " was the picture of which 
Luca Giordano said that it was the " theology of painting," 
another way of expressing the opinion of Sir Thomas Lawrence, 
that this work is the philosophy of art, so true is it in rendering 
the desired effect. The result is there, one knows not by what 
means, as if by a first intention without labour, absolutely 
right. The story is told that the king painted the red cross 
of Santiago on the breast of the painter, as it appears to-day 
on the canvas. Velazquez did not, however, receive the honour 
till 1659, three years after the execution of this work. Even 
the powerful king of Spain could not make his favourite a 
belted knight without a commission to inquire into the purity 
of his lineage on both sides of the house. The records of this 
commission have been found among the archives of the order 
of Santiago by M. Villaamil. Fortunately the pedigree could 
bear scrutiny, as for generations the family was found free 
from all taint of heresy, from all trace of Jewish or Moorish 
blood and from contamination by trade or commerce. The 
difficulty connected with the fact that he was a painter was got 
over by his being painter to the king and by the declaration that 
he did not sell his pictures. But for this royal appointment, 
which enabled him to escape the censorship of the Inquisition, 
we should never have had his splendid " Venus and Cupid," 
formerly belonging to Mr Morritt of Rokeby Hall and bought 
by the National Art Collections Fund for 45,000 for the 
National Gallery in 1905. It is painted in his latest manner 
and is worthy of comparison with Titian. 2 There were in truth 
but two patrons of art in Spain the church and the art-loving 
king and court. Murillo was the artist favoured by the church, 
while Velazquez was patronized by the crown. One difference, 
however, deserves to be noted. Murillo, who toiled for a rich 
and powerful church, left scarcely sufficient means to pay for 
his burial, while Velazquez lived and died in the enjoyment of 
good salaries and pensions. Yet on occasions Philip gave 
commissions for religious pictures to Velazquez among 
others, and belonging to this later period, the " Coronation of 
the Virgin " (Madrid, 1056), splendid in colour a harmony of 
red, blue and grey but deficient in religious feeling and 
dignity. It was painted for the oratory of the queen, doubtless 
Mariana, in the palace at Madrid. Another royal commission 
for the hermitage of Buen Retire was the " St Anthony the 
Abbot and St Paul the Hermit," painted in 1659, tne landscape 

8 Some uncertainties in the proprietorial history of this picture 
have led to considerable discussion concerning its authenticity. 
But the suggestion that Maze's signature could be detected on it was 
repudiated by an expert committee in 1910 who carefully examined 
the painting. 



97 8 



VELEIA VELIUS LONGUS 



of which excited the warm admiration of Sir David Wilkie 
(No. 1057 in the Prado). The last of his works which we shall 
name is "Las Hilanderas " or the Spinners (Madrid, 1061), 
painted about 1656, representing the interior of the royal 
tapestry works. The subject is nothing, the treatment every- 
thing. It is full of light, air and movement, splendid in colour 
and marvellous in handling. This picture, Raphael Mengs 
said, seemed to have been painted not by the hand but by the 
pure force of will. We see in it the full ripeness of the power 
of Velazquez, a concentration of all the art-knowledge he had 
gathered during his long artistic career of more than forty 
years. In no picture is he greater as a colourist. The scheme 
is simple a harmony of red, bluish-green, grey and black, 
which are varied and blended with consummate skill. 

In 1660 a treaty of peace between France and Spain was to 
be consummated by the marriage of the infanta Maria Theresa 
with Louis XIV., and the ceremony was to take place in the 
Island of Pheasants, a small swampy island in the Bidassoa. 
Velazquez was charged with the decoration of the Spanish 
pavilion and with the whole scenic display. In the midst of 
the grandees of the first two courts in Christendom Velazquez 
attracted much attention by the nobility of his bearing and the 
splendour of his costume. On the 26th of June he returned to 
Madrid, and on the 3ist of July he was stricken with fever. Feel- 
ing his end approaching, he signed his will, appointing as his 
sole executors his wife and his firm friend Fuensalida, keeper 
of the royal records. He died on the 6th of August 1660, 
passing away in the full possession of his great powers, and 
leaving no work behind him to show a trace of decay. He 
was buried in the Fuensalida vault of the church of San Juan, 
and within eight days his wife Juana was laid beside him. 
Unfortunately this church was destroyed by the French in 
1811, so that his place of interment is now unknown. There 
was much difficulty in adjusting the tangled accounts out- 
standing between Velazquez and the treasury, and it was not 
till 1666, after the death of Philip, that they were finally settled. 

Velazquez can hardly be said to have formed a school of 
painting. Apart from the circumstance that his occupations 
at court would have prevented this, his genius was too personal 
for transmission by teaching. Yet his influence on those 
immediately connected with him was considerable. In 1642 
he befriended young Murillo on his arrival in Madrid, received 
him into his house, and directed his studies for three years. 
His son-in-law Mazo painted in his manner, and doubtless 
many pictures by Mazo are attributed to the master. Carreno, 
though never a pupil, was a favourite nd had the good sense 
to appreciate him and imitate him. His faithful slave Pareja 
studied his methods and produced work which by the favour of 
Velazquez procured his manumission from Philip. But the 
appreciation of the fine talent of Velazquez passed away 
quickly in Spain, as that country began to fall to pieces. 

In addition to the standard works by Palomino (1724), Cean 
Bermudez (1800) and Pacheco (1649), see the biographical 
notice by Don Pedro de Madrazo in his Catalogo del Museo del Prado 
(1872); Velazquez and his Works (1855) and Annals of Artists of 
Spain (1848), by W.Stirling (afterwards SirW. Stirling-Maxwell); 
Ford's Handbook to Spain (1855) and his article in the English 
Cyclopaedia; Velazquez and Murillo, by Charles B. Curtis (1883); 
the works of W. Burger (T. Thore) ; Gesch. d. Malerei, by 
Woltmann and Woermann; Sir Edmund Head's Handbook of 
Spanish Painting (1848); Works of Velazquez (prints), by G. W. 
Reid (1872); Gaz. d. Beaux Arts, art. " Velazquez," by Paul Lefort 
(second period, 1879-82); Carl Justi, Diego Velazquez u. sein 
Jahrhundert (2 vols., Bonn, 1888); The Life of Velazquez, by Sir 
Walter Armstrong (London, 1896); Velazquez, by R. A. M. Steven- 
son (London, 1899) ; Velazquez outside the Prado Museum, by Don 
Manuel Mesonero Romanes (Madrid, 1899); The Life and Works 
of Don Diego Velazquez, by Don Jacinto Octavio Picon (Madrid, 
1899); Days with Velazquez, by C. Lewis Hind (London, 1906); 
and, finally, Don A. de Beruete's standard work on the subject, 
Velazquez (London, 1906), which contains reproductions of all the 
master's paintings of which the author admits the authenticity. 

(J. F. W.;P. G. K.) 

VELEIA, an ancient town of Aemilia, Italy, situated about 
20 m. S. of Placentia. It is mentioned by Pliny among the 
towns of the eighth region, though the Veleiates were Ligurians 



by race. Its inhabitants were in the census of Vespasian 
found to be remarkable for their longevity. Nothing further 
was known of it until 1747, when some ploughmen found the 
famous Tabula alimentaria, now in the museum at Parma. 
This, the largest inscribed bronze tablet of antiquity (4 ft. 6 in. 
by 9 ft. 6 in.) contains the list of estates in the territories of 
Veleia, Libarna, Placentia, Parma and Luca, in which Trajan 
had assigned before 102 B.C. 72,000 sesterces (720) and then 
1,044,000 sesterces (10,440), on a mortgage bond to forty-six 
estates, the total value of which was reckoned at over 
13,000,000 sesterces (130,000), the interest on which at 5% 
was to serve for the support of 266 boys and 36 girls, the former 
receiving 16, the latter 12 sesterces a month. See Ligures 
Baebiani for a similar inscription. Excavations were begun 
on the site in 1760, and were at first successful; the forum and 
basilica, the thermae and the amphitheatre, private houses, &c., 
with many statues (twelve of marble from the basilica, and a 
fine bronze head of Hadrian) and inscriptions were discovered. 
Pre-Roman cremation tombs have also been found, with objects 
of bronze and iron of no great value. But later excavations 
which were carried on at intervals up to 1876 have given less 
fruitful results. The oldest dated monument is a bronze tablet 
with a portion of the text of the Lex Rubria of 49 B.C. which 
dealt with the administration of justice in Cisalpine Gaul in 
connexion with the extension to it of the privileges of the 
Roman franchise, the latest an inscription of A.D. 276. How 
and when it was abandoned is uncertain: the previously pre- 
valent view that it was destroyed by a landslip was proved to 
be mistaken by the excavations of 1876. Most of the objects 
found are in the museum at Parma. 

See G. Antolini, Le Ravine di Veleia (Milan, 1831); G. Mariotti 
in Notizie degli Scavi (1877), 157; E. Bormann in Corpus Inscript. 
Latin (Berlin, 1888), xi. 204 sqq. (T. As.) 

VELEZ-MALAGA, a town of southern Spain, in the province 
of Malaga, finely situated in a fertile valley at the southern 
base of the lofty Sierra de Alhama, and on the left bank of the 
small river Velez, i m. from its mouth and 27 m. by road E.N.E. 
of Malaga. Pop. (1900) 23,586. Velez-Malaga formerly was a 
place of considerable commercial importance, but its prosperity 
has much declined; there is no railway, and the town suffered 
severely in the earthquakes of 1884 and the floods of 1907. 
The vegetation of the neighbourhood is most luxuriant, includ- 
ing the aloe, palm, sugar-cane, prickly pear, orange, vine, olive 
and sweet potato. Velez-Malaga was held by the Moors from 
711 to 1487, when it was captured by Ferdinand of Castile. 
Under Moorish rule the citadel was built and the town became 
an important trading station and fortress. Its harbour, the 
Velez estuary, affords good anchorage and is well sheltered. 

VELIA (Gr. TX?j, later 'EXta), an ancient town of Lucania, 
Italy, on the hill now crowned by the medieval castle of 
Castellammare della Bruca, 440 ft. above sea-level, on the 
S.W. coast, if m. N.W. of the modern railway station of Ascea, 
25 m. S.E. of Paestum. Remains of the city walls, with traces 
of one gate and several towers, of a total length of over 3 m., 
still exist, and belong to three different periods, in all of which 
the crystalline limestone of the locality is used. Bricks were 
also employed in later times; their form is peculiar to this place, 
each having two rectangular channels on one side, and being 
about 15 in. square, with a thickness of nearly 4 in. They all 
bear Greek brick-stamps. There are some remains of cisterns 
on the site, and various other traces of buildings. The town 
was mainly celebrated for the philosophers who bore its name 
(see ELEATIC SCHOOL). About 530 B.C. the Phocaeans, driven 
from Corsica, seized it from the Oenotrians. Its coins were 
widely diffused in S. Italy, and it kept its independence even in 
Roman times, and only became a municipium after the Social 
War. 

See W. Schlenning in Jahrbuch des K. Deutschen Arch. Instituts 
(1889), iv. 169 sqq. (T. As.) 

VELIUS LONGUS (2nd cent. A.D.), Latin grammarian during 
the reign of Trajan (or Hadrian), author of an extant treatise 
on Orthography (H. Keil, Grammatici Lalini, vii.). He is 



VELLEIUS PATERCULUS VELVET 



979 



mentioned by Macrobius (Saturnalia, iii. 6, 6) and Servius 
(on Aen. x. 245) as a commentator on Virgil. 

See M. Schanz, Gesckichte der romischen Litteratur, iv. i (1904) ; 
Teuffel, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. trans., 1900), 343, 2. 

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, MARCUS (c. 19 B.C.-C. A.D. 31), 
Roman historian. Although his praenomen is given as Marcus 
by Priscian, some modern scholars identify him with Gaius 
Velleius Paterculus, whose name occurs in an inscription on a 
north African milestone (C.I.L. viii. 10, 311). He belonged to 
a distinguished Campanian family, and early entered the army. 
He served as military tribune in Thrace, Macedonia, Greece 
and the East, and in A.D. 2 was present at the interview on the 
Euphrates between Gaius Caesar, grandson of Augustus, and 
the Parthian king. Afterwards, as praefect of cavalry and 
legatus, he served for eight years (from A.D. 4) in Germany 
and Pannonia under Tiberius. For his services he was rewarded 
with the quaestorship in 7, and, together with his brother, 
with the praetorship in 15. He was still alive in 30, for his- 
tory contains many references to the consulship of M. Vinicius 
in that year. It has been conjectured that he was put to death 
in 31 as a friend of Sejanus, whose praises he celebrates in a 
most fulsome manner. 

He wrote a compendium of Roman history in two books 
dedicated to M. Vinicius, from the dispersion of the Greeks 
after the siege of Troy down to the death of Livia (A.D. 29). 
The first book brings the history down to the destruction of 
Carthage, 146 B.C.; portions of it are wanting, including the 
beginning. The later history, especially the period from the 
death of Caesar, 44 B.C., to the death of Augustus, A.D. 14, is 
treated in much greater detail. Brief notices are given of 
Greek and Roman literature, but it is strange that no mention 
is made of Plautus, Horace and Propertius. The author is a 
vain and shallow courtier, and destitute of real historical insight, 
although generally trustworthy in his statements of ^individual 
facts. He may be regarded as a courtly annalist rather than 
an historian. His knowledge is superficial, his blunders 
numerous, his chronology inconsistent. He labours at portrait- 
painting, but his portraits are daubs. On Caesar, Augustus 
and above all on his patron Tiberius, he lavishes praise or 
flattery. The repetitions, redundancies, and slovenliness of 
expression which disfigure the work may be partly due to the 
haste with which (as the author frequently reminds us) it was 
written. Some blemishes of style, particularly the clumsy and 
involved structure of his sentences, may perhaps be ascribed to 
insufficient literary training. The inflated rhetoric, the strain- 
ing after effect by means of hyperbole, antithesis and epigram, 
mark the degenerate taste of the Silver Age, of which Paterculus 
is the earliest example. He purposed to write a fuller history 
of the later period, which should include the civil war between 
Caesar and Pompey and the wars of Tiberius; but there is no 
evidence that he carried out this intention. His chief authori- 
ties were Cato's Origines, the Annalesoi Q. Hortensius, Pompeius 
Trogus, Cornelius Nepos and Livy. 

Velleius Paterculus was little known in antiquity. He seems to 
have been read by Lucan and imitated by Sulpicius Severus, but 
he is mentioned only by the scholiast on Lucan, and once by Priscian. 
The text of the work, preserved in a single badly written and 
mutilated MS. (discovered by Beatus Rhenanus in 1515 in the abbey 
of Murbach in Alsace and now lost), is very corrupt. Editio 
princeps, 1520; early editions by the great scholars Justus Lipsius, 
J. Gruter, N. Heinsius, P. Burmann; modern editions, Ruhnken 
and Frotscher (1830-39), J. C. Orelli (1835), F. Kritz (1840, ed. min. 
1848), F. Haase (1858), C. Halm (1876), R. Ellis (1898) (reviewed 
by W. Warde Fowler in Classical Review, May 1899) ; on the sources 
see F. Burmeister, " De Fontibus Vellei Paterculi," in Berliner 
Studien fur classische Philologie (1894), xv. English translation 
by J. S. Watson in Bohn's Classical Library. 

VELLETRI (anc. Velilrae), a town and episcopal see of the 
province of Rome, Italy, at the south-east foot of the outer 
ring wall of the Alban crater, 26 m. S.E. of Rome by rail, 
1155 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 14,243 (town), 18,734 
(commune). It is the seat of the bishop of Ostia, and has a 
statue of Pope Clement VIII. Good wine is made in the fertile 
vineyards of the district, and there is a government experimental 



station for viticulture. Velletri is the junction of the Terra- 
cina line and a branch to Segni on the main line to Naples. 
Velletri has a fine view of the Volscian mountains and over 
the Pomptine Marshes to the Circeian promontory. The town 
contains a few objects of interest; at the highest point is the 
prominent municipal palace, containing a few ancient inscrip- 
tions, among them one relating to a restoration of the amphi- 
theatre under Valentinian and Valens. The internal facade 
of the Palazzo Ginetti is finely decorated with stucco, and has 
a curious detached baroque staircase by Martino Lunghi the 
younger, which Burckhardt calls unique if only for the view 
to which its arched colonnades serve as a frame. The lofty 
campanile of S. Maria in Trivio, erected in 1353 in gratitude 
for the liberation of the city from a plague which devastated 
it in 1348, is in the style of contemporary brick campanili in 
Rome, but built mainly of black selce, with white marble 
columns at the windows. The cathedral (the see of the titular 
bishop of Ostia) was reconstructed in 1660, but contains traces 
of the older structure. Of the ancient town nothing practically 
remains above ground; scanty traces of the city walls have 
been excavated (and covered again) near the railway station, 
and the present walls are entirely medieval. 

The ancient city of Velitrae was Volscian in Republican 
times, and it is the only Volscian town of which an inscription 
in that language is preserved (4th century B.C.). It mentions 
the two principal magistrates as medix. It was, however, a 
member of the Latin League in 499 B.C., so that in origin it 
may have been Latin and have fallen into Volscian hands 
later. It was important as commanding the approach to the 
valley between the Alban and Volscian mountains. In 494 it 
was taken from the Volscians and became a Roman colony. 
This was strengthened in 404, but in 393 Velitrae regained 
its freedom and was Rome's strongest opponent; it was only 
reduced in 338, when the freedom of Latium finally perished. 
Its resistance was punished by the destruction of its walls and 
the banishment of its town councillors to Etruria, while their 
lands were handed over to Roman colonists. We hear little 
or nothing of it subsequently except as the home of the gens 
Octavia, to which the Emperor Augustus belonged. The 
neighbourhood contains some remains of villas, but not pro- 
portionately very many; there are more on the side towards 
Lanuvium (W.). The Via Appia passed considerably below the 
town (some 5 m. away), which was reached by a branch road 
from it, diverging at the post station of Sublanuvio. During 
the whole of the middle ages it was subject to the papacy. 

(T. As.) 

VELLORE, a town of British India, in the North Arcot 
district of Madras, on the river Palar and the South Indian 
railway, 87 m. W. of Madras city. Pop. (1901) 43,537. It 
has a strongly built fortress, which was famous in the wars 
of the Carnatic. It dates traditionally from the I3th century, 
but more probably only from the I7th. It is a fine example 
of Indian military architecture, and contains a temple adorned 
with admirable sculptures. In 1780 it withstood a siege for 
two years by Hyder Ali. After the fall of Seringapatam (1799) 
Vellore was selected as the residence of the sons of Tippoo 
Sahib, and to their intrigues has been attributed the mutiny of 
the sepoys here in 1806. An American mission manages a high 
school, raised to the rank of a college in 1898; and the police 
training school for the presidency is also situated here. Vellore 
has a large grain trade, and flowers are cultivated in the vicinity. 

VELVET, a silken textile fabric having a short dense piled 
surface. In all probability the art of velvet-weaving originated 
in the Far East; and it is not till about the beginning of the 
I4th century that we find any mention of the textile. The 
peculiar properties of velvet, the splendid yet softened depth 
of dye-colour it exhibited, at once marked it out as a fit material 
for ecclesiastical vestments, royal and state robes, and sump- 
tuous hangings; and the most magnificent textures of medieval 
times were Italian velvets. These were in many ways most 
effectively treated for ornamentation, such as by varying the 
colour of the pile, by producing pile of different lengths (pile 



980 



VELVETEEN VENDEE, WARS OF THE 



upon pile, or double pile), and by brocading with plain silk, 
with uncut pile or with a ground of gold tissue, &c. The 
earliest sources of European artistic velvets were Lucca, Genoa, 
Florence and Venice, and Genoa continues to send out rich 
velvet textures. Somewhat later the art was taken up by 
Flemish weavers, and in the i6th century Bruges attained a re- 
putation for velvets not inferior to that of the great Italian cities. 

VELVETEEN, a cotton cloth made in imitation of velvet. 
The term is sometimes applied to a mixture of silk and cotton. 
Some velveteens are a kind of fustian, having a rib of velvet 
pile alternating with a plain depression. The velveteen trade 
varies a good deal with the fashions that control the production 
of velvet. Velveteens are commonly woven in sheeting looms, 
and manufacturers are able to alternate the two kinds of goods 
according to the demand. 

VENAFRUM, an ancient town of Campania, Italy, close to 
the boundaries of both Latium adjectum and Samnium. Its 
site is occupied by the modern Venafro, a village with 4716 
inhabitants (1901), on the railway from Isernia to Caianello, 
15 m. S.W. of the former, 658 ft. above sea-level. Ancient 
authors tell us but little about it, except that it was one of those 
towns governed by a prefect sent yearly from Rome, and that 
in the Social War it was taken by the allies by treachery. 
Augustus founded a colony there and provided for the con- 
struction of an aqueduct (cf. the long decree relating to it in 
Corp. Inscr. Lai. x. No. 4842). It seems to have been a place of 
some importance. Its olive oil was the best in Italy, and Cato 
mentions its brickworks and iron manufactures. The original 
line of the Via Latina probably ran through Venafrum, making 
a detour, which the later road seems to have avoided (cf. LATINA, 
VIA). Rufrae was probably dependent on it. Roads also ran 
from Venafrum to Aesernia and to Telesia by way of Allifae. 
Of ancient remains hardly anything is left some traces of an 
amphitheatre and fragments of polygonal walls only. (T. As.) 

VEND ACE, the name of a British freshwater fish of the genus 
Coregonws, of which two other species are indigenous in the 
fresh waters of the British Islands, the gwyniad and the pollan. 
The vendace (C. vandeslus) is restricted to some lochs in Dum- 
friesshire, Scotland; it is, however, very similar to a species 
(C. albula) which inhabits some of the large and deep lakes of 
northern Europe. From its general resemblance to a dace the 
French name of the latter, vandoise, was transferred to it at the 
period when French was the language of the court and aristo- 
cracy of Scotland. So great is the local celebrity of the fish that 
a story has been invented ascribing to Mary Queen of Scots the 
merit of having introduced it into the Lochmaben lochs. It is 
considered a great delicacy, and on favourable days when the 
shoals rise to the surface, near the edges of the loch, great 
numbers may be taken. It spawns in November. In length it 
scarcely exceeds 8 in. 

VENDEE, a maritime department of western France, formed 
in 1790 out of Bas-Poitou, and taking its name from an unim- 
portant tributary of the Sevre Niortaise. It is bounded by 
Loire-Inferieure and Maine-et-Loire on the N., by Deux-Sevres 
on the E., by Charente-Inferieure on the S. and by the Atlantic 
Ocean on the W. for 93 m. Pop. (1906) 442,777. Area, 2708 
sq. m. The islands of Yeu (area, 8 sq. m.) and Noirmoutier 
(?..) are included. The Se'vre Nantaise on the N.E. and the 
Sevre Niortaise on the S., besides other streams of minor im- 
portance, form natural boundaries. The department falls into 
three divisions woodland (Bocage), plain (Cote) and marsh 
(Marais) . 

The highest point (748 ft.) is situated in the woodland, which 
occupies the greater part of Vendfee, on the water-parting between 
the Loire and the rivers of the coast. This region, which, geo- 
logically, is composed of granite, gneiss, mica-schist, schist and 
lias, abounds in springs, and is fresh and verdant; the landscape 
is characterized by open fields surrounded by trees, which supplied 
ambushes and retreats to the Vendeans in the civil war at the end 
of the i8th century. The marshes, raised above the sea-level 
within historic times (four centuries ago), consist of two portions, 
the Breton marsh in the north and the Poitevin marsh in the south ; 
the latter extends into the departments of Charente-Inferieure and 
Deux-Sevres. The region includes productive salt marshes and 



fertile cultivated areas artificially drained. Its area is constantly 
being increased by the alluvium of the rivers and the secular eleva- 
tion of the coast. The celebrated beds of sea-shells near St Michel 
en 1'Herm 2300 ft. long, 985 ft. broad and from 30 to 50 ft. deep 
show to what extent the coast has risen. The plain of Vendee 
lying between the Bocage and the Poitevin marsh is bare and treeless, 
but fertile, though poor in springs; geologically rt is composed of lias 
and oolite. The department is drained by the Sevre Nantaise 
(tributary of the Loire) and the Boulogne (a feeder of Lake Grandlieu 
in Loire-Inferieure), both draining into the basin of the Loire; and 
by the Vie, the Lay (with the Yon), and the Sevre Niortaise (with 
the Autise and the Vendee), which flow into the Atlantic. The 
climate is that of the Girondine region, mildand damp, the temperature 
rarely rising above 77 or falling below 18 F. ; 120 to 150 days of 
rain give an average annual rainfall of 25 in. The woodland is 
colder than the plain, and the marsh is damp and unhealthy. 

The department is agriculturally prosperous. Wheat is the 
most important crop, oats, potatoes, clover, lucerne and mangold- 
wurzels ranking next. Beans, flax and colza may also be mentioned. 
Wine is grown in the south of the department. The rearing of live 
stock flourishes in the Bocage and the marsh, the pastures of the 
latter nourishing fine oxen and horses, and sheep famous for the 
excellence of their mutton. Cider-apples, pears, peaches, plums, 
cherries and walnuts are among the fruits grown. Coal is mined 
in the south-east of the department (basin of Vouvant) and anti- 
mony is found; limestone is quarried. The spinning and weaving 
of wool, cotton and flax is carried on, and there are potteries, paper- 
mills, tan-yards, dye-works, manufactories of hats, boots and shoes, 
glass and lampblack, flour-mills, distilleries, oil-works, tile-works and 
shipbuilding yards. Sardines and tinned foods are prepared. The 
sardine fishery is active on the coast and there are extensive oyster- 
beds near Sables-d'Olonne. Corn, cattle, mules, fish, salt, wine, 
honey, wood, glass and manure are exported ; wine, wood, building 
material, coal, phosphates and petroleum are among the imports. 
Sables-d'Olonne is the principal fishing and commercial port. 

Vendee is served by the Ouest-Etat railway and has 81 m. of 
navigable rivers and canals. The department forms the diocese 
of Lugon, has its court of appeal and educational centre at Poitiers, 
and is included in the district of the XL Army Corps (headquarters 
at Nantes). There are three arrondissements (La Roche-sur-Yon, 
Fontenay-le-Comte and Sables-d'Olonne), 30 cantons, and 304 
communes. The principal towns are La Roche-sur-Yon, Les 
Sables-d'Olonne, Fontenay-le-Comte and Lucpn, which are treated 
under separate headings. Other places of interest are Foussais, 
Nieul-sur-1'Autise and Vouvant, with Romanesque churches; 
Pouzauges, which has a stronghold of the I3th century; Maillezais, 
with the ruins of its old cathedral; Talmont and Tiffauges, both 
possessing ruined castles; and Le Bernard with noteworthy mega- 
lithic remains. 

VENDEE, WARS OF THE, a counter-revolutionary insur- 
rection which took place during the French Revolution (q.v.), 
not only in Vendee proper but also in Lower Poitou, Anjou, 
Lower Maine and Brittany. The district was mainly inhabited 
by peasants; it contained few important towns, and the 
bourgeois were but a feeble minority. The ideas of the Revolu- 
tion were slow in penetrating to this ignorant peasant population, 
which had always been less civilized than the majority of 
Frenchmen, and in 1789 the events which roused enthusiasm 
throughout the rest of France left the Vend6ans indifferent. 
Presently, too, signs of discontent appeared. The priests who 
had refused to submit to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy 
perambulated these retired districts, and stigmatized the revolu- 
tionists as heretics. In 1791 two " representatives on mission " 
informed the Convention of the disquieting condition of Vendee, 
and this news was quickly followed by the exposure of a royalist 
plot organized by the marquis de la Rouerie. 

The signal for a widespread rising was the introduction of 
conscription acts for the recruiting of the depleted armies on 
the eastern frontiers. In February 1793 the Convention de- 
creed a levy on the whole of France, and on the eve of the 
ballot the Vendee, rather than comply with this requisition, 
broke out in insurrection. The Vendean peasant refused to 
join the republican army, not for want of fighting qualities or 
ardour, but because the army of the old regime was recruited 
from bad characters and broken men, and the peasant, ignorant 
of the great change that had followed the Revolution, thought 
that the barrack-room was no place for a good Christian. In 
March 1793 the officer commanding at Cholet was killed, and 
republicans were massacred at Machecoul and St Florent. 
Giving rein to their ancient antipathy, the revolted peasantry 
attacked the towns, which were liberal in ideas and republican 



VENDEMIAIRE VENDETTA 



981 



in sympathies. The leaders of these first risings were men of 
humble birth, such as J. Cathelineau, a pedlar. J. N. Stofflet, 
a gamekeeper, and the barber Gaston. Cholet, Bressuire, 
Fontenay-le-Comte and Samur were surprised. The influence 
of the priests kept up the fanaticism of the peasants, and a 
great manifestation of religious feeling took place on Easter eve, 
but the republican soldiers taken prisoners were often maltreated 
and even tortured. 

These first successes of the Vendeans coincided with grave 
republican reverses on the frontier war with England, Holland 
and Spain, the defeat of Neerwinden and the defection of 
Dumouriez. The emigres then began to throw in their lot 
with the Vendeans. Royalist nobles like the marquis de 
Bonchamp, F. A. Charette de la Contrie, Gigot d'Elbee, Henri 
de la Rochejaquelein and the marquis de Lescure placed 
themselves at the head of the peasants. Although several 
of these leaders were Voltairians, they held up Louis XVI., 
who had been executed in January 1793, as a martyr to 
Catholicism, and the Vendeans, who had hitherto styled them- 
selves the Christian Army, now adopted the name of the 
Catholic and Royal Army. 

The Convention took measures against the emigres and the 
refractory priests. By a decree of the ipth of March 1793 
every person accused of taking part in the counter-revolutionary 
revolts, or of wearing the white cockade (the royalist emblem), 
was declared an outlaw. The prisoners were to be tried by 
military commissions, and the sole penalty was death with 
confiscation of property. The Convention also sent repre- 
sentatives on mission into Vendee to effect the purging of the 
municipalities, the reorganization of the national guards in 
the republican towns, and the active prosecution of the revolu- 
tionary propaganda. These measures proving insufficient, a 
decree was promulgated on the 3oth of April 1793 for the 
despatch of regular troops; but, in spite of their failure to 
capture Nantes (where Cathelineau was mortally wounded), 
the successes of the Vendeans continued. On the 3ist of July, 
therefore, at Barere's suggestion, it was decreed that the woods 
of the Vendee should be burnt, the harvest carried off to safe 
places in rear of the army, the cattle seized, the women and 
children concentrated in camps in the interior, and that every 
male from the age of sixteen in the neighbouring regions should 
be called upon to take arms. Further, on the ist of August, 
the troops that had formed the garrison of Mainz, which were 
unavailable against foreign enemies by the terms of their 
capitulation to the Austrians, were ordered to Vendee. The 
programme was carried out by the so-called " infernal columns." 

At the end of August 1793, the republicans had three armies 
in the Vendee the army of Rochelle, the army of Brest and 
the Mayensais; but their generals were either ciphers, like 
C. P. H. Ronsin, or divided among themselves, like J. A. 
Rossignol and J. B. C. Canclaux. They were uncertain whether 
to cut off the Vendeans from the sea or to drive them westwards; 
and moreover, their men were undisciplined. Although the 
peasants had to leave their chiefs and work on the land, the 
Vendeans still remained formidable opponents. They were 
equipped partly with arms supplied by England, and partly 
with fowling-pieces, which at that period were superior to 
the small-arms used by the regular troops, and their intimate 
knowledge of the country gave them an immense advantage. 
They gathered and burst like a storm on their enemies, and, 
if repulsed, dispersed at the famous order, " Egaillez-vous les 
gars," to unite again some days later. 

The dissensions of the republican leaders and the demoralizing 
tactics of the Vendeans resulted in republican defeats at Chan- 
tonnay, Torfou, Coron, St Lambert, Montaigu and St Fulgent. 
The Convention resolved to bring the war to an end before 
October, and placed the troops under the undivided command, 
first of Jean Lechelle and then of Louis Turreau, who had as 
subordinates such men as Marceau, Kleber and Westermann. 
On the 7th of October the various divisions concentrated at 
Bressuire, took Chatillon after two bloody engagements, and 
defeated the Vendeans at Cholet, Beaupreau and La Trem- 



blaye. After this repulse, the royalists, under Stofflet and La 
Rochejaquelein, attempted to rouse the Cotentin and crossed 
the Loire. Beaten back at Granville, they tried to re-enter the 
Vendee, but were repulsed at Angers. They re-formed at Le 
Mans, where they were defeated by Westermann, and the same 
officer definitively annihilated the main body of the insurgents 
at Savenay (December 1793). 

Regular warfare was now at an end, although Turreau and 
his " infernal columns " still continued to scour the disaffected 
districts. After the 9th Thermidor attempts were made to 
pacify the country. The Convention issued conciliatory 
proclamations allowing the Vendeans liberty of worship and 
guaranteeing their property. General Hoche applied these 
measures with great success. He restored their cattle to the 
peasants who submitted, " let the priests have a few crowns," 
and on the 2oth of July 1795 annihilated an 6migr& expedition 
which had been equipped in England and had seized Fort 
Penthievre and Quiberon. Treaties were concluded at La 
Jaunaie (February 15, 1795) and at La Mabillaie, and were 
fairly well observed by the Vendeans; and nothing remained 
but to cope with the feeble and scattered remnant of the Ven- 
deans still under arms, and with the Chouans (q.v.). On the 
30th of July 1796 the state of siege was raised in the western 
departments. 

During the Hundred Days there was a revival of the Vendean 
war, the suppression of which occupied a large corps of Napoleon's 
army, and in a measure weakened him in the northern theatre 
of war (see WATERLOO CAMPAIGN). 

In 1832 again an abortive insurrection broke out in support 
of the Bourbons, at the instigavion of the duchess of Berry; 
the Vendean hero on this occasion was the baron de Charette. 

There are numerous articles on the Vendean insurrection of 1793 
in the Revue du Bas-Poitou, Revue historique de I'Anjou, Revue de 
Bretagne, de Vendee et d'Anjou, Revue historique de I 'Quest, Revue 
historique et archeologique du Maine, and La Vendee historique. See 
also R. Bittard des Fortes, " Bibliographic historique et critique des 
guerres de Vendee et de la Chouannerie " in the Revue du Bas-Poitou 
(1903 seq.) ; C. L. Chassin, Etudes sur la Vendee et la Chouannerie 
(La Preparation de la guerre La Vendee patriote Les Pacifications 
de I'Ouest), Paris, 1892 seq., II vols. (the best general work on the 
subject); C. Port, Les Origines de la Vendee (Paris, 1888); C. 
Leroux-Cesbron, " Correspondance des representants en mission 
a 1'armee de 1'ouest (1794-95) " in the Nouvelle Revue retrospective 
(1898); Blachez, Bonchamps et I' insurrection vendeenne (Paris, 
1902); P. Mautouchet, Le Conventional Philippeaux (Paris, 1901). 
On 1815 a modern work is Les Cent Jours en Vendee; le general 
Lamarque, by B. Lasserre (Paris, 1907); on 1832 see La Vendee, by 
Vicomfe A. de Courson (1909). (R. A.*) 

VENDEMIAIRE (from Lat. vindemia, vintage), the name 
given during the French Revolution to the first month of the 
year in the Republican Calendar. Vendemiaire began on the 
22nd, 23rd or 24th of September, and ended on the 22nd, 23rd 
or 24th of October according to the year, and was the season 
of the vintage in the wine districts of northern France. In 
accordance with the suggestion of Fabre d'Eglantine, each 
of the days of the republican year was consecrated to some 
useful object. For instance, I Vendemiaire was the festival 
of the grape, 10 Vendemiaire of the vat, 13 Vendemiaire of the 
pumpkin, 15 Vendemiaire of the ass, 20 Vendemiaire of the 
wine-press, and 30 Vend6miaire of the cask. The most im- 
portant event in this month was the quelling of the royalist 
rising on 13 Vendemiaire year IV. (4th of October 1795), in 
which General Bonaparte (afterwards the emperor Napoleon) 
distinguished himself by his energy and skill in using artillery. 

See Baron R. de Larcy, Le 13 Vendemiaire (Paris, 1872). 

VENDETTA (Ital. from Lat. vindicta, revenge, vindicare, to 
defend oneself), the term applied to the custom of the family 
feud, by which the nearest kinsman of a murdered man was 
obliged to take up the quarrel and avenge his death. From 
being an obligation upon the nearest, it grew to be an obligation 
on all the relatives, involving families in bitter private wars 
among themselves. It is a development of that stage in civiliza- 
tion common to all primitive communities, when the injury done 
was held to be more than personal, a wrong done to the whole gens . 



982 



VENDOME, DUG DE VENER 



The term originated in Corsica, where the vendetta has long 
played an important part in the social life. If the murderer 
could not be found, his family were liable to fall victims to the 
vendetta. The feud was sometimes complicated by the ven- 
detta transversale, when each of two branches of a family had a 
murder to revenge on the other. In Corsica it was regarded as 
the most sacred family duty. Mediators (parolanti) sometimes 
intervened successfully to end the feuds, and extort an oath to 
forgo vengeance. The custom still survives in Corsica in its 
complete form, and partially in Sardinia, Sicily, Montenegro, 
Afghanistan, among the Mainotes of Greece, the Albanians, 
Druses and Bedouins. 

VENDdME, LOUIS JOSEPH, Due DE (1654-1712), marshal 
of France, was the son of Louis, 2nd duke of Vend&me, and the 
great-grandson of Henry IV. and Gabrielle d'Estrees. Entering 
the army at the age of eighteen he soon distinguished himself 
by his vigour and personal courage in the Dutch wars, and 
by 1688 he had risen to the rank of lieutenant-general. In the 
war of the Grand Alliance he rendered conspicuous service under 
Luxemburg at Steinkirk and under Catinat at Marsaglia, and in 
1695 he was placed in command of the army operating in Cata- 
lonia where he took Barcelona. Soon afterwards he received 
the marshalate. In 1702, after the first unsuccessful campaign of 
Catinat and Villeroi, he was placed in command of the Franco- 
Spanish army in Italy (see SPANISH SUCCESSION WAR). During 
three campaigns in that country he proved himself a worthy 
antagonist to Prince Eugene, whom at last he defeated at 
Cassano by his magnificent courage and command over his 
troops, converting the defeat that his indolent brother, the Grand 
Prior, had incurred into a glorious success. Next year, after 
holding his own as before, he was sent to Flanders to repair the 
disaster of Ramillies with the result that his successors Marsin 
and Philip of Orleans were totally defeated, while in the new 
sphere Vendome was merely the mentor of the pious and un- 
enterprising duke of Burgundy, and was unable to prevent the 
defeat of Oudenarde. He therefore retired in disgust to his 
estates, but it was not long before he was summoned to take 
command of the army of Philip in Spain, and there he won his 
last victories, crowning his work with the battle of Villaviciosa. 
Before the end of the war he died suddenly at Vinaros on the 
nth of June 1712. Vend6me was one of the most remarkable 
soldiers in the history of the French army, and second only to 
Villars amongst the generals of France of the i8th century. He 
had, besides the skill and the fertile imagination of the true 
army leader, the brilliant courage of a soldier. But the real 
secret of his uniform success was his extraordinary influence 
over his men. 

VENDOME, a town of north-central France, capital of an 
arrondissement in the department of Loir-et-Cher, 22 m. N.W. 
of Blois by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 7381; commune, 9804. 
VendAme is situated on the Loir, which here divides into nume- 
rous arms intersecting the town. On the south it is overlooked 
by an eminence on which stand ruins of the castle of the counts 
of Vend6me, dating in part to the nth century. The abbey- 
church of the Trinity (i2th to isth century) has a fine facade in 
the florid Gothic style. The belfry, surmounted by a stone 
steeple, stands isolated in front of the church; it belongs to the 
middle of the i2th century, and is one of the finest examples of 
Transition architecture. Abbey buildings of various periods 
lie round the church. The church of La Madeleine (i sfh century) 
is surmounted by a stone spire, an indifferent imitation of that of 
the abbey. The fine tower of St Martin (i6th century) is all 
that remains of the church of that name. The town hall occu- 
pies the old gate of St George; its river front is composed of 
two large crenelated and machicolated towers, connected by a 
pavilion. The ancient hospital of St Jacques afterwards became 
a college of the Oratorians, and now serves as a lycee for boys; 
the charming chapel, dating from the 1 5th century, in the most 
florid Gothic style, is preserved. The town has a well-known 
archaeological and scientific society, and possesses a library 
with more than three hundred MSS., and a museum, mostly 
archaeological, in front of which stands a statue of the poet 



Ronsard. There is also a statue of Marshal Rochambeau,.born 
at Vend6me in 1725. There are some interesting houses of the 
1 5th and i6th centuries. Vend6me has a sub-prefecture and a 
tribunal of first instance. The river supplies motive power to 
flour-mills, and the town manufactures gloves, paper and carved 
mouldings, and carries on tanning and nursery-gardening to- 
gether with trade in butter and, cheese. 

Vend6me (Vindocinum) appears originally to have been a 
Gallic oppidum, replaced later by a feudal castle, around which 
the modern town arose. Christianity was introduced by St 
Bienheure in the sth century, and the important abbey of the 
Trinity (which claimed to possess a tear shed by Christ at the 
tomb of Lazarus) was founded about 1030. When the reign of 
the Capetian dynasty began, Vendome was the chief town of a 
countship belonging to Bouchard, called " the Venerable," who 
died in the monastery of Saint-Maur-des-Fosses in 1007. The 
succession passed by various marriages to the houses of Nevers, 
Preuilly and Montoire. Bouchard VII., count of Vend&me and 
Castres (d. c. 1374), left as his heiress his sister Catherine, the 
wife of John of Bourbon, count of la Marche. The countship of 
Vend6me was raised to the rank of a duchy and a peerage 
of France for Charles of Bourbon (1515); his son Anthony 
of Bourbon, king of Navarre, was the father of Henry IV., who 
gave the duchy of Vend&me in 1598 to his natural son Caesar 
(1594-1665). Caesar, duke of Vend6me, took part in the disturb- 
ances which went on in France under the government of Richelieu 
and of Mazarin, and had as his sons Louis, duke of Vend6me 
(1612-1669), wno married a niece of Mazarin, and Francis, duke 
of Beaufort. The last of the family in the male line (1645-1712) 
was Louis XIV. 's famous general, Louis Joseph, duke of 
Vendome (<?..). The title of duke of Vendome is now borne by 
Prince Emmanuel of Orleans, son of the duke of Alencon. 

See J. de Petigny, Histoire arcMologigue du Vendomois (2nd ed.. 
1882). 

VENEER, a thin layer of wood, ivory, pearl or other material 
of high decorative value fixed to a poorer surface by glue or 
other adhesive to improve its appearance. Wood veneers are 
exceedingly common: only the best woods are used and the 
layer may be as thin as paper a circumstance due to improve- 
ments in the machinery for cutting the logs. The surface to 
which the veneer is to be attached is prepared perfectly smooth, 
a film of glue applied, and then the veneer laid on. It is now 
ironed perfectly flat, all superfluous glue being pressed out, and 
then allowed to dry in a press. The surface is now ready for 
polishing. 

VENER [Wener or Viiner; often written, with the addition of 
the definite article, Vcnern], the largest lake in" Sweden and the 
third largest in Europe. It has an area of 2149 S Q- m -; a 
maximum length of 87 m.; an extreme breadth of 44 m.; a 
maximum depth of 292 ft.; and an altitude above sea-level of 
144 ft., though the surface sometimes rises as much as 10 ft. or 
more, for the lake is the recipient of the waters of numerous 
streams, the largest being the Klar, which drains the forests of 
Vermland and Kopparberg to the north. It is drained by the 
Gota river southward to the Cattegat. It is divided into two 
basins by two peninsulas and a group of islands, the western 
half being known as Lake Dalbo. The northern shores are high, 
rocky and in part wooded, the southern open and low, though 
isolated hills occur, such as the Kinnekulle (988 ft.), an abrupt 
hill exhibiting a remarkable series of geological strata. Several 
islands fringe this shore; of these Leek 6 has a fine medieval 
castle. This lake and Lake Vetter contain degenerate species of 
marine fauna, left after the retreat of the sea in which both were 
formerly included. 

By means of the Dalsland Canal from Kppmannabro, midway 
on the west shore of Dalbo, the lake, which is the scene of a busy 
traffic in timber, iron and agricultural produce, has communication 
with Fredrikshald in Norway; and it is traversed from Venersborg 
on the south to Siotorp on the east by the Gota (g.v.) Canal route. 
The principal lake-ports are on the north Karlstad (g.n.) and 
Kristmehamn, with iron-works and tobacco factory; on the east 
Mariestad, chief town of the district of Skaraborg, taking its name 
from the queen of Charles IX. (1599-161 i);-on the south Liclkoping, 
near the Kinnekulle, and Venersborg at the outflow of the Gota, 



VENERABLE VENEREAL DISEASES 



983 






with its old bridge and canal of the I7th century, a museum, and 
iron foundries, tanneries and match and paper factories. 

VENERABLE (Lat. venerabilis, worthy of reverence, vemrari, 
to reverence, to worship, allied to Venus, love; the Indo-Germ. 
root is wen-, to desire, whence Eng. " win," properly to struggle 
for, hence to gain), worthy of honour, respect and reverence, 
especially a term applied to dignified or honourable age. It is 
specifically used as a title of address given to archdeacons in the 
Anglican Church. It was naturally a term of respectful address 
from early times; thus St Augustine (Epist. 76, 88, 139) cites 
it of bishops, and Philip I. of France was styled venerabilis and 
venerandus (see Du Cange, Gloss, s.v. Venerabilitas). In the 
Roman Church the granting of the title " venerable " is the first 
step in the long process of the canonization of saints (see 
CANONIZATION) . 

VENEREAL DISEASES (from " venery," i.e. the pursuit of 
Venus, the goddess of love), a general term for the diseases 
resulting from impure sexual intercourse. Three distinct 
affections are included under this term gonorrhoea, local con- 
tagious ulcers, known as chancres, and syphilis. At one time 
these were regarded as different forms of the same disease. 
They are, however, three distinct diseases, due to separate 
causes, and have nothing in common except their habitat. 
The cause in each case is a definite specific virus, a micro- 
organism. In the case of gonorrhoea the virus attacks the 
mucous membranes, especially that of the urethra, the vagina 
and the uterus. Chancres attack the mucous membranes and 
the skin. In syphilis the whole system comes under the influ- 
ence of the poison. 

Though these three affections are generally acquired as the 
result of impure sexual intercourse, there are other . methods 
of contagion, as, for example, when the accoucheur is poisoned 
whilst delivering a syphilitic woman, the surgeon when operat- 
ing on a syphilitic patient, the wet-nurse who is suckling a 
syphilitic infant, and so on. An individual may be attacked 
by any one or any two of the three, or by all at the same time, 
as the result of one and the same connexion. But they do 
not show themselves at the same time. In other words, they 
have different stages of incubation. In gonorrhoea the disease 
appears very rapidly. So also in the case of the soft chancres, 
the first symptoms commencing as a rule three or four days 
after inoculation. It is different, however, with syphilis, the 
period of incubation being twenty-eight days, though it may 
be much longer. The length of the period of incubation, there- 
fore, is of great diagnostic help in the case of syphilis. 

For many years the term " venereal disease " was used very 
loosely, though the writers before the year 1786 had a tolerably 
clear idea that three distinct diseases were included under the 
term: the lues venerea, now called syphilis, gonorrhoea, and 
a condition leading to bubo and associated with a multiple 
chancre which is known at the present day as " soft sores." 
John Hunter, as the result of an unfortunate experiment, 
taught that there was but a single venereal poison which mani- 
fested itself in different ways. It took the French school many 
years of hard work to show that the poison of syphilis was 
distinct from that producing a soft sore, and that the virus 
of a soft sore was incapable, when pure, of causing gonorrhoea. 

The evidence brought forward by Ricord, by Lancereaux 
and by Fournier was convincing. It has been confirmed by 
bacteriology, and it has happened by a remarkable coincidence 
that the truth of the French teaching about syphilis was first 
established on the firm basis of experiment in France itself, 
when Professor Metchnikoff at the Institut Pasteur in Paris 
gave in his adherence to Schaudinn's work, which showed that 
the Spirochaeta pallida germ was the cause of the disease. 

A. Gonorrhoea. 

Gonorrhoea is a specific inflammation of the mucous membrane 
of the urethra and other passages, by the reception into it of 
germs known as diplococci (5iirX6os, double; K&KKOS, berry the 
germs being double, like the halves of a walnut). After the illus- 
trious discoverer, the germ is often spoken of as the gonococcus of 
Neisser. Gonorrhoea is apt to be a very serious disease, and it 
sometimes ends fatally. 



The germs find entrance during coitus and multiply at enormous 
rate, spreading to all the glands and crevices of the membrane, 
and setting free in their development a toxin which causes great 
irritation of the passage with inflammation and swelling. They 
remain quietly incubating for three or four days, or even longer; 
then acute inflammation comes on, with profuse discharge of thick 
yellow matter, with much scalding during micturition, and there 
may be so much local pain that it is difficult for the person to move 
about. Microscopic examination of the discharge shows abundant 
pus corpuscles and epithelial cells from the membrane, together 
with swarms of diplococci (gonococci). 

The inflammatory process may extend backwards and give rise 
to acute prostatitis (see PROSTATE GLAND), with retention of urine; 
to the duct of the testes and give rise to acute epididymitis 
(swollen testicle); and to the bladder, causing acute cystitis. It 
may also cause local abscesses, or, by irritation, set up crops of warts. 

The treatment of acute gonorrhoea is best carried out if the 
patient can lie up for a while. He must avoid all fermented drinks 
and rich foods, and se'xual and other excitement, and he should 
drink freely of such things as barley-water, in order to dilute, and 
lessen the irritation of, the urine. Hot baths are comforting. 
Laxatives should be freely given. The urethra should be frequently 
washed out with a warm solution of permanganate of potash, a 
grain to the pint, and, later, a weak solution of one of the zinc or 
silver salts may be used as an injection. 

Capsules of copaiba or oil of sandalwood, and a paste of cubebs 
pepper, have a beneficial influence, and, later, if the man is de- 
pressed, quinine and iron will be found useful. 

In ten days or a fortnight the inflammation gradually subsides, 
a thin watery discharge remaining which is known as gleet. But 
inasmuch as this discharge contains gonococci it may, though scarce 
noticeable, set up acute specific inflammation in the opposite sex. 

In the case of the female the inflammation is apt to extend to the 
uterus and along the Fallopian tubes, perhaps to give rise to an 
abscess in the tube (salpingitis) which, bursting, may cause fatal 
peritonitis. 

A lingering gleet may be due to the presence of a definite ulcera- 
tion in the urethra, as shown by examination with a slender tube 
illuminated by electricity the endoscope. The ulcer having been 
induced to heal by the application of a nitrate of silver lotion, all 
discharges cease. Chronic inflammation is necessarily associated 
with the formation of interstitial fibrous tissue, and the contraction 
of this new formation causes narrowing of the urethra, or stricture. 
Thus gleet and stricture are often associated, and the occasional 
passage of a large bougie may suffice to cure both. Often, however, 
a stricture of the urethra proves rebellious in the extreme, and 
leads to diseases of the bladder and kidneys which may prove fatal. 

One of the most important points in the management of a case 
of gonorrhoea is to prevent all risk of the septic discharge coming 
into contact with the eye. It sometimes happens that the patient 
inadvertently introduces the germs into his own eye by his finger, 
or that his eye, or the eye of some member of the household, becomes 
inoculated by the use of an infected towel. If this happen, prompt 
and energetic measures must be taken to save the eye. 

If so be that at the time of delivery a woman be the subject of 
gonorrhoea, there is great probability of the eyes of the infant being 
affected. The symptoms appear on the third day after birth, and 
the disease may end in complete blindness. The name of the 
disease is ophthalmia neonatorum (see BLINDNESS). 

By the term gonorrhoeal rheumatism it is implied that the gonococci 
have been carried by the blood stream to one or more joints in 
which an acute inflammation has been set up. It is apt to occur in 
the third week of the disease, and it may end in permanent stiffness 
of the joints or in abscess. 

In rare cases the germs find their way to the pleura or pericardium, 
setting up an inflammation which may even end fatally. 

For a man to marry whilst there is the slightest risk of his still 
being the subject of gonorrhoea would be to subject his wife to the 
probability of infection, ending with chronic inflammation of the 
womb or of septic peritonitis. Yet it is often extremely difficult 
to say when a man is cured. That there is no longer any discharge 
does not suffice to show that he has ceased to be infective. Nothing 
less than repeated examinations of the urethral mucus by the 
microscope, ending in a negative result, should be accepted as 
evidence of the cure being complete. And these examinations 
should be made after he has returned to his former ways of eating, 
drinking and working. 

B. Local Contagious Ulcers. 

Chancroid, soft chancre or soft sore is so named in contradistinction 
to the Hunterian sore of syphilitic infection, the one characteristic 
of which is its hardness. The soft chancre is a contagious ulcer of 
the genitals, due to the inoculation of a distinct form of micro- 
organism, the bacillus of Ducrey; and, provided that the specific 
germ of syphilis is not inoculated at the same time, the chancre 
is not followed by constitutional affection. In other words, the 
disease is purely local, and if some of the discharge of one of these 
ulcers is inoculated on another part of the body of the individual 
a sore of an exactly similar nature appears. This reproduction of 
the sore can be done over and over again on the same individual. 



984 



VENEREAL DISEASES 



always with the same result. But in the case of the Hunterian 
sore, inoculation of the individual from the primary sore gives no 
result, because, as explained below, the constitutional disease has 
rendered the individual proof against further infection. The soft 
sore is often multiple. It makes its appearance about three days 
after the exposure, and as it increases in size free suppuration takes 
place. It is often of about the size of a silver threepence. Its base 
remains soft. In individuals broken down in health, the ulceration 
is apt to extend with great rapidity, and is then spoken of as 
phagedaenic. 

Just as an individual may contract syphilis and gonorrhoea at 
the same connexion, so also he may be inoculated simultaneously 
with the bacilli of the soft chancre and the spirochaete of syphilis. 
In this case the soft chancres may make their appearance, as usual, 
within the first three or four days, but though passing through the 
customary stages they may refuse quite to heal, or, having healed, 
they may become indurated in the second month, constitutional 
symptoms following in due course. 

The virulence of soft sores being due to the presence of harmful 
germs, the surface of the sores should be touched with pure carbolic 
acid, which has the effect of destroying the germs and converting 
the sores into healthy ulcers. Or the chancres may be treated by 
the application of lint soaked in weak carbolic lotion. If the sore 
happens to be under a tight prepuce, and the germs are of great 
activity as is apt to happen in such a case ulceration may extend 
with extreme rapidity. It is advisable, therefore, to remove or to 
lay open the prepuce, in order that the sores may be effectively 
dealt with. 

Bubo. The bacilli from the soft sore are apt to find their way 
into the lymphatic vessels, and so to reach the glands in the groin, 
when they set up destructive inflammation. Under the influence of 
rest the inflammation may subside, but if it continues and suppura- 
tion threatens, the gland had better be laid open and scraped out. 
If a speck of the contents of the abscess be inoculated on to the skin, 
a soft chancre is again produced. 

C. Syphilis. 

The cause of syphilis, whether inherited or acquired, is the 
presence in the blood and tissues of the same organism, which can 
be demonstrated in the various secondary lesions, in the blood 
and in the internal organs. The name of the germ is Spirochaeta 
pallida; 1 it is a protozoon of spiral form, from 4 to 20 n in length 
and i n in diameter, with a flagellum at either extremity. It 
possesses motility of three kinds a lashing, a corkscrew and a 
to-and-fro movement. It stains pale pink with Giemsa's fluid. 
At the time of writing (1910) it has not been found practicable to 
make an artificial cultivation of the spirochaete. But it may 
generally be found in primary and secondary syphilitic lesions by 
the aid of a ^ in. oil-immersion lens and abundant patience. The 
pale, spiral, hair-like germ is also found in children who inherit 
syphilis. Inoculations of the spirochaete in monkeys have pro- 
duced the characteristic primary (Hunterian) sores, which have 
proved infective to other monkeys. And in the reproduced primary 
sores, as also in the secondary lesions following them, the same 
specific micro-organism has been demonstrated. 

Syphilis is an infective fever, and its life-history may well be 
compared with that of vaccinia. A child is vaccinated on the arm 
with vaccine lymph for two or three days nothing is observed; 
but on the fourth day redness appears, and by the eighth day a 
characteristic vaccine vesicle is formed, which bursts and sets free 
a discharge which dries into a scab. If on the eighth day the clear 
lymph in the vesicle is introduced at another point in the child's 
skin, no characteristic local effect follows. The system is " pro- 
tected " by the previous inoculation; this protection will last for 
some years, and perhaps for life. There is, then, exposure to a 
poison; its introduction locally; a period of incubation; a charac- 
teristic appearance at the seat of inoculation; a change in the 
constitution of the individual, and protection for a variable period. 
So with syphilis. The syphilitic poison is introduced at the seat 
of an abrasion either on the genital organs or on some other part 
of the surface of the body. The poison lies quiescent for a variable 
period. The average period is four weeks. A cartilaginous, 
button-like hardness appears at the seat of inoculation. If this 
is irritated in any way, an ulceration takes place; but ulceration is 
an accident, not an essential. From the primary seat the system 
becomes infected. The virus, passing along the lymphatic vessels, 
attacks the nearest chain of lymphatic glands. If the original sore 
is in the genital organs, the glands in the groin are first attacked; 
if in the hand, the glands of the elbow or armpit; if on the lip, 
the glands below the jaw. The affected glands are indurated and 
painless; they may become inflamed, just as the primary lesion 
may, but the inflammation is an accident, not an essential. In 
due course the poison may affect the whole glandular system. The 
body generally is so altered that various skin eruptions, often 
symmetrical, break out. Any irritation of the mucous membrane 
is followed by superficial ulcerations, and in the later stages of the 



1 From xatri), long hair, on account of the waving, hair-like appear- 
ance of the germ. 



disease skin-eruptions, scajy, pimply, pustular or tuberculous in 
type, appear. These eruptions do not itch. The individual is as a 
general rule protected against a second attack of syphilis, although 
there have been rare cases recorded in which individuals have 
been attacked a second time. In weakly people, in severe cases, 
or in cases that have not been properly treated by the surgeon, 
syphilitic deposits termed gummata are formed, which are very 
apt to break down and give rise to deep ulcerations. Gummata 
may attack any part ; the skin, muscles, liver and brain are the 
favourite sites. 

It by no means follows that because the infecting sore is small, 
unimportant or quickly healed, the attack, of which the sore is 
the first (primary) symptom, will be mild. The most serious train 
of symptoms may follow the healing of a primary sore which has 
been so unimportant as scarcely to have attracted the attention 
of the individual, or actually to have escaped notice. Indeed, it 
not infrequently happens that the most serious forms of secondary 
or tertiary symptoms succeed a sore which was regarded as of such 
trivial nature that the individual declined to submit himself to 
treatment, or quickly withdrew himself from it to enter a fool's 
paradise. The advisability of ceasing from treatment should 
always be determined by the surgeon, never by the patient; 
mercurial treatment must be continued long after the disappear- 
ance of the secondary eruptions. It is the disease which the surgeon 
has to cure, not the symptoms. The patient is apt to think only of 
the symptoms. 

" Is the disease curable? " This is the question constantly put 
by the patient on his coming for treatment. The answer is: " Yes; 
beyond doubt." But the individual must be made to understand 
the necessity of his submitting himself trustfully and patiently to 
a prolonged course of treatment. A second question is as to whether, 
in the course of the disease, his hair will fall out, his body will be 
covered with sores and his face with blotches, and if his bones will 
be attacked. Here, again, the answer will be that prompt submission 
to treatment will render all such calamities extremely improbable. 
Another question often put is as to whether the disease is con- 
tagious or infectious. Obviously, if a man has a primary sore or 
a secondary eruption upon the lip or tongue he should use his own 
glass, cup or spoon, and should refrain from kissing any one. If 
due care thus be taken no danger is likely to ensue. 

The diagnosis of syphilis is often difficult. The first appearance 
of the sore about four weeks after exposure to the risk of infection, 
its hardness, the indolent enlargement of the associated lymphatic 
glands, and the occurrence of rash or of sore throat, are all helpful. 
But when the primary sore occurs on the finger, the face or, indeed, 
in any extra-genital region, it is apt to be lacking in the usual 
characteristics, and so the diagnosis may for a while be missed. In 
the case of doubt, the blood of the patient should be submitted to 
the delicate test known as the Wassermann reaction. 

The General Treatment of Syphilis. It is impracticable to lay down 
a hard and fast line for the treatment of the disease, for no two 
individuals are exactly alike, neither does the disease follow a strict 
path in all cases. But experience has amply shown that in the 
early stages of the disease, mercury, at least for the present, is the 
only drug on which reliance can be placed. Guaiacum was at one 
time extensively used, and somehow or another sarsaparilla acquired 
a bubble reputation; but the practical surgeon of to-day ignores 
these drugs in the treatment of syphilis. Still, mercury must be 
prescribed with great judgment. For a man worn out by alcoholic 
or other excesses, or with health broken down by tuberculosis or 
other exhausting disease, mercury must be given with great caution. 
In times past, its reckless administration until profuse salivation 
was set up, or until the teeth fell out and the very jawbones became 
diseased, deservedly brought the mercurial treatment into disrepute. 
" Better the disease than the remedy," said public opinion, and 
not without reason. But this miscarriage of treatment is absolutely 
a thing of the past. Before placing a patient under mercurial 
treatment it ought to be seen that there is no unwholesome 
condition of his gums, and that his teeth are put in a satisfactory 
state; unless this is done, the administration of small doses of mercury 
may have the effect of producing salivation, and, in consequence, 
a temporary cessation of the treatment. In any case the gums 
must be watched, and the treatment stopped if tenderness occurs. 

There are several ways of giving mercury: (a) by the mouth; 
(6) by rubbing a mercurial ointment into the skin; (c) by injec- 
tion into the muscles; (d) by inhalation of mercurial vapour. In- 
unction is especially suited for those whom mercury given by the 
mouth causes diarrhoea or other disturbance; in a private house, 
however, it is found " dirty " and objectionable. 

The fumigation-treatment is carried out by seating the naked man 
on a cane-bottomed chair and covering him over with a blanket; 
calomel being volatilized, its fumes are carried under the blanket 
along with steam. 

Treatment by intra-muscular injections is increasing in popularity, 
but in carrying it out, great care must be taken that no septic germs 
are introduced. The preparation of mercury is given in solution 
or mixed with oil, and is usually injected about once a week into the 
muscles of the buttock or loin. The "grey oil," which is much 
used for injections, consists of finely divided metallic mercury in 



VENEREAL DISEASES 



985 



some fluid fat. Calomel is also used suspended in olive oil. After 
a few months of weekly injections there should be some weeks of 
rest from treatment. 

But the most usual, and, perhaps, the most satisfactory method 
of administering mercury is by the mouth, in the form of pills or 
mixtures. The pills generally contain metallic mercury finely 
divided, as in " blue pill" and as in pills made of "grey powder, 
or as calomel, or some other salt of mercury, such as the bichloride 
or tannate. The preparation given in a mixture is usually a solu- 
tion of perchloride of mercury. 

Whilst the individual is undergoing mercurial treatment his diet 
must be regulated. Plain meat, roast and boiled, and vegetables 
which cannot cause indigestion or diarrhoea, will form his chief 
food. Spirits and liqueurs should be absolutely forbidden, but a 
glass or two of wholesome wine or beer may occasionally be allowed. 
If there is any secondary eruption of the tongue, mouth or throat, 
smoking must be forbidden. The dress must be warm, and there 
should be no exposure to extremes of cold or heat, nor should 
excessive work or amusement be undertaken. Briefly, it may be 
said that the subject of syphilis should live low and think high. 
It has been said by an English physician who delighted in epigrams, 
"Syphilis once, syphilis ever"; but this is not true. If the in- 
dividual places himself unreservedly and continuously under the 
treatment of a trustworthy practitioner, he may confidently look 
forward to a cure; and, if so be that he is eventually married, may 
depend upon his children showing no sign of his unfortunate infection. 

Unlike whooping-cough, smallpox or pleurisy, syphilis is not a 
disease which, left untreated, cures itself in the course of time. 
Syphilis is a disease which peculiarly calls for treatment, and that 
treatment, to be effectual, must be prolonged. To promote the 
healing of an ulcer, or to get rid of a cutaneous eruption, the result 
of syphilis, is not to treat syphilis. It is merely to free the patient 
of a symptom of the disease. To cure syphilis and the disease is 
curable the treatment must be patient and prolonged. And it 
must be for the surgeon to say to the individual that he may con- 
sider himself as cured, not for the patient to take upon himself 
the assumption that, because no secondary or tertiary symptoms 
have been seen for a certain number of months, he is cured. 

In the midst of the uncertainties which surround the subject of 
syphilis, the question sometimes arises as to whether the treatment 
by mercury, for instance, is of the importance which is ascribed to 
it. Two instances may be given in proof of its undoubted value. 
First, a woman who has been infected and never properly treated, 
becomes pregnant, and though, perhaps, showing signs of good 
health in every other respect, has a miscarriage; pregnancy and 
miscarriage follow each other at short intervals, four, six or eight 
times. Then, at last, she is put upon mercurial treatment, and, 
going to her full time, bears a healthy infant. Second, an infected 
but healthy-looking woman, who has not been properly treated, 
produces a child who, in the course of a few weeks, becomes shrivelled 
and wan. His food does him no good, and daily he becomes more 
miserable. At last some mercurial ointment is spread upon his 
" binder," and he quickly becomes healthy and happy, and, in 
due course, if the treatment is persevered in, is entirely cured. 

When should the Treatment of Syphilis be begun? The answer to 
this important question is: " As soon as the disease is diagnosed." 
As soon as it is seen that the primary sore is hard, and that the 
glands in anatomical association with it are swollen, mercury should 
be administered. It may not prevent the outbreak of the secondary 
symptoms, but it may greatly modify them. But if a surgeon is 
in doubt as to whether a sore is truly an infecting one, he should 
wait before condemning the individual as syphilitic, and placing 
him under the necessity of submitting himself to perhaps a two years' 
treatment, which, after all, may not have been necessary. Time 
would quickly clear up doubt. 

Abortive Treatment. When it is remembered that the germs of 
syphilis have been incubating at the seat of inoculation for a month, 
more or less, before the primary sore or chancre makes its appearance, 
it may be taken for granted that the removal of the sore by wide 
dissection, or its destruction by cautery, will not prevent the 
occurrence of secondary symptoms. For during those weeks the 
germs were finding their way into the lymphatics and the blood 
vessels and were producing a general infection. 

When the disease has undergone a sufficient treatment by 
mercury, or when a patient presents himself with lesions which 
denote the fact that the disease has passed into the tertiary stage, a 
solution of iodide of potassium is given in combination with that of 
perchloride of mercury, or the iodide is given by itself. In these 
conditions the effect of the potassium salt is often most remarkable. 
It is a drug of the greatest value, and, recognized as such, is apt to 
be found an important ingredient in popular " blood mixtures." 
If given, however, in doses larger than can be borne by the patient, 
its poisonous effects are manifested by a metallic taste, by 
watering of the eyes and by the breaking out on the back and 
shoulders of scattered pimples. 

Thus, mercury in some form is the recognized and proper treatment 
for syphilis in the secondary stage, and iodide of potassium in the 
tertiary. And, for as much as one cannot say where the secondary 
stage ends and the tertiary begins, it is a common practice to com- 



bine the mercuric with the potash salt in the treatment of certain 
phases of the disease. 

In 1910 attention was hopefully directed towards Professor 
Ehrlich's treatment of syphilis by a complex preparation of arsenic, 
conveniently spoken of as " 606. 

Gummata. The most characteristic form of the generalized 
syphilitic infection, which may not manifest itself for several years 
after the reception of the virus, is a new growth in various organs 
the liver, testes or brain, the muscles (tongue and jaw-muscles 
especially), the periosteum, the skin and the lungs. The deposits 
are called gummata from the tenacious appearance of the fresh-cut 
surface and of the discharge oozing from it. The structure consists 
of small round cells among thin fibres; it closely resembles granula- 
tion-tissue, only that the cells are smaller and the intercellular, 
substance (fibres) denser. Molecular death, or necrosis, overtakes 
this ill-organized, new formation at various central points, owing 
to the inadequacy of the blood supply. One remarkable feature of 
the process is the overgrowth of cells in the inner coat of the arteries 
within the affected area, which may obliterate the vessel. Gummata, 
and the ulcers left by them, constitute the tertiary manifestations 
of syphilis. 

In a large proportion of cases only the secondary symptoms 
occur, and not the tertiary, the virus having presumably exhausted 
itself or been destroyed by treatment in the earlier manifestations. 

Inherited Syphilis. In the syphilis of the offspring it is necessary 
to distinguish two classes of effects there are the effects of general 
intra-uterine mal-nutrition, due to the placental syphilis of the 
mother; and there are the true specific effects acquired by inherit- 
ance from either parent and conveyed, along with all other inherited 
qualities, in the sperm-elements or in the ovum. These two classes 
of effects are commingled in such a way as not to be readily dis- 
tinguished; but it is probable that the ill-organized growth of 
bone, at the epiphysial line in the long bones (sometimes amounting 
to suppuration), and on the surfaces of the membrane-bones of the 
skull (Parrot's nodes) is a result of general placental mal-nutrition, 
like the corresponding errors of growth in rickets. The rashes and 
fissures of the skin, the snuffles and such-like well-known symptoms 
in the offspring are characteristic effects of the specific taint; so 
also the peculiar overgrowth in the liver, the interstitial pneumonia 
alba of the lungs and the like. As in rickets, it is in many cases 
some months after birth before the congenital syphilitic effects 
show themselves, while other effects come to light during childhood 
and youth. 

It must be remembered that the moist eruptions and ulcera- 
tions about the mouth and anus of the infant, as well as the skin 
affections generally, are charged with the spirochaetes and are highly 
contagious. 

From the second to the sixth year there is commonly a rest in 
the symptoms that are regarded as characteristic, but the tibiae 
may become thickened from periostitis, or a joint may become 
swollen and painful, and resolve under mercurial treatment. 

The characteristic physiognomy gradually manifests itself if the 
child is not treated with mercury-^ the flattened nose, the square 
forehead, the radiating lines from the mouth, the stunted figure 
and pallid face. During the second dentition, the three signs, as 
pointed out by Jonathan Hutchinson, may be looked for the notched 
incisor teeth of the upper jaw, interstitial corneitis and syphilitic 
deafness. Perforation of the soft or hard palate may occur, and 
ulcerations of the skin and cellular tissue. Destruction of the nasal 
bones, caries of the forehead and skull, of the long bones, may also 
take place. 

Colics' Law. A woman giving birth to a syphilitic infant cannot 
be inoculated with syphilis by the infant when she is suckling it; 
in other words, though the mother may have shown no definite 
signs of syphilis, she is immune; whereas the syphilitic infant put 
to the breast of a healthy woman may inoculate her nipple and 
convey syphilis to her. This is known as Colles' Law, and it is 
explained by the theory that, the mother's blood being already 
infected, her skin is proof against a local cultivation of germs in the 
form of a Hunterian sore. 

Syphilis and Marriage. The question as to how soon it would 
be safe for a person with secondary syphilis to marry is of extreme 
importance, and the disregard of it may cause lasting mental distress 
to the parent and permanent physical injury to the offspring. A 
man who finds himself to be the subject of secondary syphilis when 
he is engaged to be married would do well honourably to free himself 
from responsibility. But should a person who has been under 
regular and continuous treatment desire to marry, consent may be 
given when he has seen no symptoms of his disease for two full 
years. But even then no actual promise can be made that his 
troubles are at an end. 

The transmission of syphilis to the third generation is quite possible, 
but it is difficult of absolute proof because of the chance of there 
having been intercurrent infection of the offspring of the second 
generation. 

REFERENCES. A. Fournier, Treatment of Syphilis, trans. C. F. 
Marshall (1906); R. Clement Lucas, Brit. Med. Journal (1908); 
A Manual of Venereal Diseases, by Sir Alfred Keogh and others 
(1907) ; Power and Murphy, A System of Syphilis (1908). (E. O. *) 



9 86 



VENETI 



VENETI, the name given to two ancient European tribes, 
(i) A Celtic people in the N.W. of Gallia Celtica, whose ter- 
ritory corresponded roughly to the department of Morbihan. 
They were the most powerful maritime people on the Atlantic 
and carried on a considerable trade with Britain. Their name 
still remains in the town of Vannes. In the winter of 57 B.C., 
with some of their neighbours, they took up arms against the 
Romans, and in 56 were decisively defeated in a naval engage- 
ment, details of which are given in Caesar's Bell. Gall. iii. and 
Dio Cassius xxxix. 40-43. 

For criticisms of these narratives, and a discussion of the question 
of the scene of operations, see T. R. Holmes, Caesar's Conquest of 
Gaul (1899), pp. 205, 663, 674, and for the extent of their territory, 

P-59- 

(2) The inhabitants of a district in the north of Italy (also 
called 'EveroL, Heneti, by the Greeks). The extent of their 
territory before their incorporation by the Romans is un- 
certain. It was at first included in Cisalpine Gaul, but under 
Augustus was known as the tenth region of Italy (Venetia and 
Histria). It was bounded on the W. by the Athesis (Adige), 
or, according to others, by the Addua (Adda); on the N. by 
the Carnic Alps; on the E. by the Timavus (Timavo) or the 
Formio (Risano); on the S. by the Adriatic Gulf. From the 
earliest times the Veneti appear to have been a peaceful people, 
chiefly engaged in commercial pursuits. They carried on an 
extensive trade in amber, which reached them overland from 
the shores of the Baltic. They were especially famous for 
their skill in the training and breeding of horses, attributed 
to their stay in Thrace, whence they brought the cult of Diomede 
into their Italian home. Homer (//. ii. 85) speaks of the Paphla- 
gonian Heneti as breeders of " wild mules," and their fond- 
ness for horses is regarded as a proof of their descent from the 
"horse-taming" Trojans. Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, who 
assisted them to repel the attacks of the Liburnian pirates, 
is said to have kept a stud in their country. Herodotus men- 
tions a curious [marriage custom, which seems of Eastern 
origin. Once a year the marriageable maidens of a village 
were collected together. Each young man chose a bride, for 
whom he had to pay a sum of money in proportion to her 
beauty. The sums thus obtained were used by the public 
officials to dower the less beautiful and thus afford them the 
chance of obtaining a husband. According to the pseudo- 
Scymnus of Chios (Periegesis, 400) the Veneti were fond of 
wearing black, a custom even now prevalent amongst them. 
They were a flourishing and wealthy people, and noted for 
their uprightness and morality. 

The first historical mention of the Veneti occurs in connexion 
with the capture of Rome by the Gauls, whose retreat is said 
to have been caused by an irruption of the Veneti into their 
territory (Polybius ii. 18). At the request of the Romans they 
rendered them assistance in their wars against the Gauls north 
and south of the Po, and ever afterwards remained their loyal 
allies. Some time during the Second Punic War they passed, 
not by right of conquest but by force of circumstances, under 
Roman rule. At first they possessed complete autonomy in 
internal administration; in 89 Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo be- 
stowed upon them the jus Latinum; they probably obtained 
the full franchise from Caesaf at the same time as the Trans- 
padane Gauls (49). Under the Empire Venetia and Istria were 
included in the tenth region of Italy, with capital Aquileia. 
Down to the time of the Antonines the country enjoyed great 
prosperity, which was interrupted by the invasion of the Quadi 
and Marcomanni and a destructive plague. From that time 
it was devastated at intervals by the barbarians by the 
Alamanni, Franks and Juthungi in 286; by the Goths under 
Alaric (beginning of the 5th century); by the Huns under 
Attila (452), who utterly destroyed Aquileia and several other 
cities. Under Theodoric the Great (ruler of Italy from 493- 
526) the land had rest, and in 568 was occupied by the Lom- 
bards. The most important river of Venetia was the Athesis 
(Adige); its chief towns Patavium (see PADUA), Aquileia (q.v.), 
Altinum (Altino), Belunum (Belluno, still a considerable town). 



Language. We have nearly 100 inscriptions which record 
the language spoken by the tribe in pre-Roman days, the bulk 
of which we owe to the admirable and devoted excavations 
carried out at Este since 1890 by Prof. A. Prosdocimi and Sign. 
A. Alfonsi. But a not unimportant number have also come to 
light at Verona and Padua, and at different points along the 
great North and South route of, the Brenner Pass, especially at 
Bozen; and there are a few more scanty and scattered monu- 
ments in the Carinthian Alps now preserved chiefly in the 
Museums at Klagenfurt and Vienna (the K.K. Naturhistorisches 
Museum, Ethnographische Abteilung). All but a few of these 
Venetic inscriptions were seen and transcribed by the present 
writer in the spring of 1908, and their texts with a careful 
collection of the local and personal names of the district made 
by Miss S. E. Jackson will appear as the first part of " The 
Pre-Italic Dialects" in the Proceedings of the British Academy. 

The alphabet of the inscriptions, in all its varieties, is probably 
(in spite of Pauli, Die Veneter, p. 226, whose judgment seems 
somewhat arbitrary) either derived from or at least influenced 
by some form of the Etruscan alphabet, since it not merely coin- 
cides with that alphabet in several characteristic signs, such as 
the use of the compound symbol vh ($} ^J) with the value of/, but 
lacks the symbols for the mediae B D G. These, or the sounds 
which had descended from them in Venetic, were represented 
by using symbols which in the Western Greek alphabets denoted 
kindred sounds; % z where we should expect d (zoto," he gave"), 
$ <t> where we should expect b (ipohuos, " Boius "), T (i.e. x) 
where we should expect g ( m f-x> "ego"). But though we find 
the symbols in positions where they correspond to the mediae in 
kindred languages, it is uncertain what the precise variety of 
sound which they denoted was; thus, for example, Venetic --x, 
is certainly equivalent to the Latin ego, but we cannot be certain 
that the sound of the two words was precisely the same. The 
symbol for is not used to denote d (since that is represented 
by z). In the inscriptions of Padua and Verona the sign is 
and seems there to denote some variety of sound closely akin to 
t; the word which at Padua and Verona is written -e-kupe- 
Qari-s- (probably meaning " charioteer ") appears as ecupelaris 
in Latin alphabet in an inscription published by Elia Lattes 
(" Iscrizioni Inedite Venete ed Etrusche," Rendiconti del R. 
1st. Lomb. di Sc. e Lett., Serie II. vol. 34, 1901). The full 
Venetic alphabet at its best period is preserved for us on several 
curious and interesting dedicatory objects found at Este, which 
were offered to the goddess of the place called Rehlia, a name 
obviously equivalent to Latin Rectia, some of whose prerogatives, 
to judge from the long nails which are offered to her, frequently 
accompanied by small wedges, would seem to have been those 
of the goddess whom Horace calls Necessitas (Odes, i. 35, 17). 
The offerings in question are thin bronze plates of whose surface 
the greater part is covered by alphabetic signs, with an inscrip- 
tion stating that such and such a worshipper makes an offering 
of the plate to the Goddess Rectia. Besides the letters of the 
alphabet in their order, these plates contain a kind of catalogue 
of the most common combination of letters, and although none 
of the plates is now completely preserved this characteristic and 
their general likeness to one another provide enough material 
to place the alphabet of Este beyond all doubt. It is written 
from right to left, and the alternate lines curl round so that the 
letters proceed in the opposite direction and stand with their 
feet turned towards those in the preceding line. This charac- 
teristic, technically known as " serpentine boustrophedon," 
with the sign for h (ijl), points to some connexion with the 
alphabets of the East Italic (" Sabellic ") inscriptions (see 
SABELLIC). 

The alphabet of Este then, in what the archaeological remains 
show to have been the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C., was as follows: 

^ a, $ c, 1 v, % z, til h, $$ 6, $.k, 1 /, ~[ m, 1 n, <| p, 
M i, Q r, * and $ s, X ', A , O or 4>, tx, O o. 

Paul! (Die Veneter, p. 229) compares it to the Western Greek 
alphabet as used in Elis, but it is difficult to point to any especial 



VENETIA VENETTE 



987 



mark of affinity with this particular branch of the Western alphabet, 
while there are some marked differences, such as X instead of 

Elean T, Q instead of Elean (prevailingly) ^ and&- x instead of 
I and 'I 1 instead of the regular Western though the latter 
symbol is not quoted as occurring in Elis itself (E. S. Roberts, Greek 
Epigraphy, i. 390). 

Even the few words that have already been cited from the in- 
scriptions will have shown that the language belongs to the Indo- 
European group. Unfortunately the inscriptions of Este, although 
numerous, belong to only two classes, dedications and epitaphs; 
hence the forms with which they supply us, though attested by 
welcome repetition, are somewhat limited in number. The typical 
beginning for a dedication is me\o. . . .zona-s-to sahnateh rehtiiah, 
i.e. " me dedit Rectiae Sanatrici," " so and so gave me to the 
Healing Goddess Rectia"; and sometimes the form of the verb 
is simply z-o-to. The correspondence of these two forms with the 
Greek middle aorist of the verb (8-6oro), and with the Latin 
donare is obvious, and the present writer is convinced, for reasons 
which it is impossible to state fully here, that the dots which, it 
will be observed, are placed on either side of the last sound of their 
syllable, denote the accent of the word; the most striking evidence 
being the coincidence in position of the dots with the place of the 
Greek accent on kindred words; for example, the cognomen Lehvo-s- 
on an inscription of Vicenza is clearly identical with the Latin 
Laevus and the Greek Xcurts. These signs are altogether absent 
from some words, e.g. from the Accusative M*X (presumably a 
proclitic) and syllables containing the letter |J|, whose form would 
make the dots a cumbrous addition. One other inscription of 
special linguistic interest should be cited here; it appears to be the 
artist's inscription of a vase of the 6th century B.C. found recently 
at Padua 

voffo klvBeari-s- vhax-s-to, . 

where the first name appears to be identical with the Latin Otho 
and to explain its aspirate, and the last word appears to be the 
Venetic equivalent of the Latin fecit, but to be in the middle voice 
without any augment. If this interpretation be correct and the 
use of iro(j;<re by Greek artists commends it strongly the form 
illustrates in rather a striking way the character of the language 
as intermediate between Greek and Latin. 1 

In the archaeological aspect the Venetic remains are particularly 
interesting as representing very fully the culture of what is known as 
the early Iron Age, the monuments of which were discovered in the 
excavations at Villanova, and are now admirably exhibited in the 
Museum at Bologna. The earliest begin, according to the generally 
accepted dating, from the nth century B.C. The remains at Este 
begin a very little later, but no inscriptions appear upon them until 
we reach the pottery of the 6th century B.C. It remains therefore 
to be determined whether this Venetic language was the proper 
speech of the people who. as it is generally supposed, brought with 
them the early Iron culture into Italy from north of the Alps in the 
nth century B.C., or whether it was the language of the people of 
the soil whom they conquered. So far as the scanty linguistic 
evidence at present extends, in the place names and the personal 
names of the Ligurian and the Venetic districts, it appears to the 
present writer on the whole to be more in favour of the second view. 
This probability would become a certainty if we could accept as 
established the view of Professor Ridgeway and others, which 
identifies the authors of the early Iron culture with the Umbrians 
of historical times and ascribes to them the Umbro-Safine language 
(which with Latin constitutes the Italic division of the Indo- 
European languages), and which almost certainly was the language 
originally spoken by the patrician class at Rome (see further SABINI). 
Even now it must be admitted that this view possesses a high degree 
of probability. 

The chief authority on the Venetic inscriptions published up to 
1908 is Carl Pauli (Altital. Studien, vol. 3, " Die Veneter," Leipzig, 
1891), but so far as the present writer's observation may be trusted 
the text which Pauli gives of the inscriptions is somewhat defective. 
Some were reported by Mommsen, Die Inschriften Norditalischen 
Alphabets (Zurich, 1853); the rest have been recorded in the Notizie 
degli Scavi as they appeared, by Ghirardini in the volumes for 1880 
and 1888, by Prosdocimi in that for 1890. These articles contain 
careful accounts of the archaeological remains. (R. S. C.) 

VENETIA, a territorial division of northern Italy, lying 
between the Alps and the Adriatic, and stretching from the 
frontier of Carinthia and Istria (Austria) in the north-east to 
the lower Po and Lombardy in the south-west. It comprises 
the provinces of Belluno, Padua, Rovigo, Treviso, Udine, Venice, 
Verona and Vicenza, and has an area of 9476 sq. m. Pop. (1881) 
2,814,173; (1901) 3,192,897. The crops principally grown are 
maize, wheat, rice, grapes, mulberry leaves, tobacco, chestnuts, 

1 Some further details will be found in the Preliminary Report 
presented to the British Academy published in the Athenaeum, 
August 8th, 1908. 



potatoes and hemp. Copper and lignite are mined, and turf 
is dug. The chief industries are the manufacture of woollens, 
cottons, silks, glass, laces, tobacco, straw-plait, paper, sugar and 
hemp, the breeding of silkworms, iron-founding and working, 
timber-cutting and shipbuilding. At Mira is a large candle 
factory. The peasantry suffer much from pellagra. 

The territory differs much in character; the Po and other smaller 
rivers which fall into the Adriatic terminate in a huge and continually 
advancing delta which extends right along the coast, and is liable 
to inundation. The shore lagoons are, however, rendered healthy 
by the ebb and flow of the tide, which is much more considerable 
than elsewhere in the Mediterranean. To the north of the Po at 
the foot of the mountains is a fertile territory, while the mountains 
themselves are not productive. The chief towns in the various 
provinces, with their communal population in 1901, are: Belluno 
19,050; total of province 214,803, number of communes 66; 
Padua 81,242; Monselice 11,571, Este 10,779, Piove di Sacco 
10,021; total of province 444,360, number of communes, 103; 
Rovigo 10,735, Adria 15,711; total of province 222,057, number of 
communes 63; Treviso 32,793, Castelfranco Veneto 12,440, Monte- 
belluna 10,284, Conegliano 10,252; total of province 416,945, 
number of communes 95; Udine 36,899, Pordenone 12,409, S. Vito 
al Tagliamento 10,160; total of province 614,270, number of com- 
munes 179; Venice 148,471, Chioggia 31,218, Cavarzere 16,388, 
Mira 12,169, Mestre 11,625; total of province 399,823, number of 
communes 50; Verona 73,917, Legnago 14,535; total of province 
427,018, number of communes 113; Vicenza 43,703, Bassano 15,097; 
Schio 13,524; Arzignano 10,426, Lonigo 10,390; total of province 
453,621, number of communes 123. Railway communication in 
Venetia is fairly good; there is a main line from Milan to Mestre 
(the junction for Venice) and thence to Trieste by a line near the 
coast, or by Treviso, Udine and Pontebba (Pontafel) into Austria. 
Another route into Austria, the Brenner, leaves the Milan- Venice 
line at Verona, which is connected with Modena (and so with central 
and southern Italy) by a railway through Mantua. Another main 
line runs from Bologna to Ferrara, Rovigo and Padua, joining the 
Milan-Venice line at the last-named place. Intercommunication 
between the main lines is secured by branch railways and steam 
tramways. The Po, however, forms somewhat of an obstacle, 
but is crossed by the main lines to Modena and Bologna near Mantua 
and Rovigo respectively. 

The district which later bore the name of Venetia was in- 
habited, under the Roman Republic, by a variety of tribes 
Celts, Veneti, Raeti, &c. Under Augustus, Venetia and Histria 
formed the tenth region of Augustus, the latter including the 
Istrian peninsula as far as the river Arsia, i.e. with the exclusion 
of the strip along the E. coast (Liburnia). In all directions, 
indeed, it extended farther than Venetia in the modern sense, 
being bounded on the S. by the Po and its main (north) arm, 
extending on the W. as far as the Adda and on the N. into a part 
of southern Tirol. It was thus far the largest of the regions of 
Italy, but possessed comparatively few towns; though such as 
there were, with the large territories, acquired considerable 
power and influence. The easiness of the Brenner pass and the 
abundance of communication with the sea led to the rise of 
such towns as Verona, Padua and Aquileia: and Milan only 
became more important than any of these when the German 
attacks on Italy were felt farther west. 

When the Roman Empire fell the towns were many of them 
destroyed by Attila, and the inhabitants took refuge in the 
islands of the lagoons. It is to this that Venice owes its origin, 
under Byzantine protection, early in the gth century A.D. For 
the gradual growth of Venetian supremacy over the whole 
territory, and for its subsequent history, see VENICE. 

VENETTE, JEAN DE (c. 1307-^ 1370), French chronicler, 
was born at Venette, near Compiegne. He became prior of the 
Carmelite convent in the Place Maubert, Paris, in 1339, and 
was provincial of France from 1341 to 1366. In 1368 he was 
still living, but probably died within a year or two of that date. 
His Latin Chronicle, covering the years 1340 to 1368, was 
published by Achery (SpicUegium, vol. iii.) with the continua- 
tions of the chronicle of William of Nangis, though it has every 
claim to be considered as an independent work. During the 
years 1358 and 1359 the entries were contemporary with the 
events recorded; the earlier portion of the work, if it was 
begun as early as 1340, was subjected to revision later. Jean 
de Venette was a child of the people, and his sympathies were 
entirely with the peasants. His point of view is thus directly 



VENEZUELA 



opposed to that of Froissart. His democratic sympathies led 
him to support Etienne Marcel, and though he returned to his 
allegiance to the kings of France he remained a severe critic. 
Jean de Venette also wrote a long French poem, La Vie des trois 
Maries, about 1347. 

See Lacurne de Sainte-Palaye in Memoires de I'Academie, vols. viii. 
and xiii. ; Geraud and Deprez in Melanges de I'ecole de Rome (1899), 
vol. xix. ; and A. Molinier, Les Sources de Vhistoire de France (1904), 
tome iv. 

VENEZUELA, 1 a republic of South America, facing the 
Caribbean sea, and bounded E. by British Guiana and Brazil, 
S. by Brazil and W. by Colombia. Its boundary with Colombia 
is unfixed, a decision by the king of Spain, as arbitrator, in 
March 1891, having been rejected by Venezuela. The boundary 
dispute with British Guiana was settled in October 1899 by an 
arbitration court in Paris. The line is subject to any question 
between the two countries and Brazil. The boundary with 
Brazil was fixed by a special commission in 1880. The republic 
lies between lat. i 40' S. and 12 26' N., long. 59 40' and 73 
31' W., and has an area of 599,538 sq. m. according to the 
Venezuelan Year Book of 1906. This area, however, was 
subject to the settlement of the Colombia boundary line, and 
the measurement is only approximate. 

Topography. The surface of Venezuela is broken into three very 
irregular divisions by its mountain systems: (l) the mountainous 
area of the N.W. and N.; (2) the Orinoco basin with the llanos on 
its northern border and great forested areas in the S. and S.W. ; 
and (3) the Guiana highlands. A branch of the eastern chain of 
the Andes enters Venezuela in the west about 7 N. lat., and under 
the name of the Sierra Nevada de M6rida proceeds north-eastwards 
towards Trieste Gulf. This branch consists of parallel chains 
enclosing elevated valleys, in one of which lies the town of M6rida 
at the height of 5410 ft., overlooked by the highest summit of 
the chain (Picacho de la Sierra, 15,420 ft.). The sierra contains the 
water-parting between the basin of the Orinoco and those of the 
small rivers on the north-west. Hence it may be considered to 
terminate where the Rio Cojedes, which drains the elevated valley 
in which Barquisimeto stands, after rising on its western slopes 
flows eastwards into the basin of the Orinoco. Beyond the Cojedes 
begin two parallel ranges known as the Maritime Andes of Venezuela, 
which stretch east and west along the coast. The valley between 
these two ranges is the most densely peopled part of Venezuela. 
Above Caracas the highest peak of the system, Silla de Caracas, rises 
to 8531 ft. Behind the wide bay between Cape Codera and Cumana 
there is an interruption in the Maritime Andes; but both ranges 
reappear between Cumana and the Gulf of Paria. West of the 
Maritime Andes low ranges (3500-5000 ft.) trend northwards from 
the end of the Sierra de Merida towards the coast on the east side 
of the Lake of Maracaibo, while the region on the west of that 
lake consists of lagoon-studded lowlands. East and south of the 
Sierra de Merida and the Maritime Andes the region is thinly pop- 
ulated and little known. It consists of two portions a vast, hilly 
or mountainous area, densely wooded, in the south-east and south, 
and level plains in the north-west between the Orinoco and the 
Apur and the mountains. The latter is known as the llanos of 
the Orinoco, a region described by Humboldt as a vast " sea of 
grass," with islands of wood scattered here and there. Since the 
time of Humboldt, however, the aspect of these plains would seem 
to have changed. On the occasion of Karl F. Appun's visit in 1850 
trees seem still to have been comparatively rare; but a different 
aspect was presented when Dr P. Jonas visited the llanos in 1878. 
From the Galera, the southernmost range of hills north of the 
Orinoco basin, the traveller saw a vast plain thickly grown with low 
trees. As far as Calabozo (about one-third of the distance between 
the hills and the Apure) it was now chaparros (Curatella americana), 
now mimosas, which were the prevailing feature of the landscape. 
But towards the south the open grass-covered spaces increased 
in number and area. To the south of Calabozo woods of consider- 
able extent were seen. This change is due to the decline of horse- 
and cattle-rearing in the llanos, partly in consequence of political 
disturbances and partly of a murrain which broke out m 1843 
among horses, mules and asses. The decline in stock-raising would 
also suspend the practice of burning off the dead grass to improve the 
new pasturage. Along the Brazilian frontier and about the sources 
of the Orinoco tributaries on the eastern slopes of the Andes there 
are extensive forests, sometimes broken with grassy campos. The 
surface of the llanos is almost a dead level, the general elevation 

1 The name means " little Venice," and is a modification of the 
name of Venecia (Venice), originally bestowed by Alonzo de Ojeda 
in 1499 on an Indian village, composed of pile dwellings on the 
shores of the Gulf of Maracaibo, which was called by him the Gulf 
of Venecia. 



varying from about 375 to 400 ft., rising almost imperceptibly to 
600-800 ft. around its immediate margins. So uniform is the level 
over a great part of these plains that in the rainy season hundreds 
of square miles are submerged, and the country is covered with a 
network of connecting channels. When the Orinoco is reached its 
lower basin is contracted between the Guiana highlands and the 
northern sierras, and its tributaries begin to come in more nearly 
at right angles, showing that the margins of the actual valley are 
nearer and higher. About 62 30' the great river reaches what may 
be considered sea-level, and from this point numerous channels 
find their way across the silted-up delta plain to the sea. This 
region, together with that of the Guiana frontier, is heavily forested. 
In the extreme S. (territory of Amazonas) and S.E. the surface 
again rises into mountain ranges, which include the Parima and 
Pacaraima sierras on and adjacent to the Brazilian frontier, with 
a number of short spurs reaching northward toward the Orinoco, 
such as the Mapichi, Maraguaca, Maigualida, Matos, Rincote and 
Usupamo. All this region belongs to the drainage basin of the 
Orinoco, and rivers of large volume flow down between these spurs. 
Some of the culminating points in these ranges are the Cerros 
Yaparana (7175 ft.) and Duida (8120 ft.) in the Parima sierras 
near the upper Orinoco, the Sierra de Maraguaca (8228 ft.), and 
the celebrated flat-topped Mt Roraima (8530 ft.) in the Pacaraima 
sierras on the boundary line with Brazil and British Guiana. Near 
the Orinoco the general elevation drops to about 1500 ft. All this 
region is densely forested, and is inhabited only by scattered tribes 
of Indians. 

Probably not less than four-fifths of the territory of Venezuela 
belong to the drainage basin of the Orinoco (q.v.). The Orinoco is 
supposed to have 436 tributaries, of which, among the largest, the 
Caroni-Paragua, Aro, Caura, Cuchivero, Suapure, Sipapo and Ventuari 
have their sources in the Guiana highlands; the Suata, Manapere 
and Guaritico in the northern sierras; and the Apur<5, Uricana, 
Arauca, Capanaparo, Meta, Vichada and Guaviare (the last three 
being Colombian rivers) in the llanos and Andes. The Apur6 
receives two large tributaries from the northern sierras the Guarico 
and Portuguesa. Apart from these, the rivers of Venezuela are 
small and, except those of the Maracaibo basin, are rarely navigable. 
The larger are the Guanipa and Guarapiche, which flow eastwards 
to the Gulf of Paria; the Aragua, Unare and Tuy, which flow to 
the Caribbean coast E. of Caracas; the Yaracui, Aroa and Tocuyo 
to the same coast W. of Caracas; and the Motatan, Chama, Escalante, 
Catatumbo, Apan and Palmar, which discharge into Lake Maracaibo. 
The hydrography of the region last mentioned, where the lowlands 
are flat and the rainfall heavy, is extremely complicated owing to 
the great number of small rivers and of lakes on or near the lower 
river courses. The deep lower courses of these streams and the 
small neighbouring lakes were once part of the great lake itself, 
which is being slowly filled by silt. The lakes of Venezuela are said 
to number 204. The largest are the Maracaibo (q.v.); El Zulia, 
with an area of 290 sq. m., a short distance S. of Maracaibo 
among a jarge number of lakes, lagoons and swamps; Valencia, 
near the city of that name, in the Maritime Andes, about 1350 ft. 
above sea-level, with an area of 216 sq. m.; Laguneta, in the state 
of Zulia; and Taciragua, a coastal lagoon in the state of Miranda. 
There are numerous lagoons in the llano districts caused by the 
periodical floods of the rivers, and extensive esteros and cienagas, 
in part due to the same causes, but these either dry up in the dry 
season or are greatly reduced in area. 

The coast outline of Venezuela is indented with a large number of 
gulfs and bays, comparatively few of which, however, are open to 
foreign commerce. The larger indentations are the Gulf of Mara- 
caibo, or Venezuela, which extends inland through the Lake of 
Maracaibo, with which it is connected by a comparatively narrow 
channel, and is formed by the peninsulas of Goajira and Paraguana; 
the Gulf of Paria, between the peninsula of that name and the 
island of Trinidad ; the Gulf of Coro, opening into the Gulf of Mara-, 
caibo; the Gulf of Cariaco, between the peninsula of Araya and the 
state of Bermudez; the Golfo Triste, on the E. coast of the 'state 
of Lara; and the small Gulf of Santa F<j, on the northern coast of 
Bermudez. Besides these there are a number of small indentations, 
sheltered anchorages formed by islands and reefs like that of Puerto 
Cabello, and estuaries and also open roadsteads, like those of La 
Guaira and Carupano, which serve important ports. The islands 
on the coast forming part of the national territory number 71, with 
an aggregate area of 14,633 sq. m., according to official calculations. 
The largest of these is the island of Margarita, N. of the peninsula 
of Araya, in the vicinity of which is the island of Tortuga and several 
groups of islets, generally uninhabited. (A. J. L.) 

Geology. Geologically Venezuela consists of three distinct 
regions: (i) South of the Orinoco a great mass of granite, gneiss, 
pyroxenite and other crystalline rocks, continuous with that of 
Guiana and probably of Archean age. This mass also forms the 
bed of the Orinoco from its junction with the Apur6 nearly to its 
mouth, and it probably extends northwards for some distance 
beneath the more recent deposits of the plain. (2) The llanos, 
covered by deposits of Quaternary or late Tertiary age. (3) The 
mountain ranges of the north-west and north. These ranges appear 
to belong to two systems. The Cordillera of Merida is one of the 



VENEZUELA 



989 



branches of the Andes, and the strike of the folds which compose it 
is usually from south-west to north-east. The Caribbean chain 
along the north coast is part of the Antillean system, and here the 
strike of the folds is nearly west to east or west-south-west to east- 
north-east. The two systems of folds meet about Barquisimeto, 
where the structure becomes very complex and is not thoroughly 
understood. The rocks of Falcon are believed by Sievers to belong 
to the Andean system ; while the outlying peninsula of Paraguana 
probably belongs, geologically, to the same massif as Goajira and 
the Sierra Nevada de Santa Maria in Colombia. The oldest rocks 
in the country are the granites, gneisses, &c., of the southern massif 
and the crystalline schists which form the axis of the Cordillera 
and the Caribbean chain. In the latter range a few Ordovician 
fossils have been found, but in general the oldest strata which have 
yielded organic remains belong to the Cretaceous system. The 
Cretaceous beds form a band along each side of the Cordillera and 
along the southern flank of the Caribbean chain, and they spread 
over the greater part of the provinces of Falcon and Lara. The 
Lower Cretaceous consists chiefly of sandstones and shales and the 
Middle Cretaceous of very fossiliferous limestone. There is con- 
siderable difference of opinion as to the chronology of the succeeding 
beds, and the boundary between the Cretaceous and Tertiary systems 
is drawn at various horizons by different observers. The Cerro de 
Oro series is the most important 
group of these beds and takes a con- 
siderable share in the formation of 
the mountain ranges. It belongs 
either to the Upper Cretaceous or to 
the Lower Tertiary, or possibly in 
part to the one and in part to the 
other. 1 (P. LA.) 

Climate. The climate of Venezuela 
is everywhere tropical except where 
modified by altitude. In the Maritime 
Andes at and above the altitude of 
Caracas it may be described as semi- 
tropical, and in the still higher regions 
of western Venezuela it approaches 
the mild temperate. On the coast 
and the northern slopes of the Mari- 
time Andes the tropical heat is 
greatly modified by the trade-winds. 
At La Guaira the mean temperature 
for the year is 85 F., at Caracas 
(3025 ft.) it is 71-2 (or 66-2 accord- 
ing to an official return), at Cumana 
it is 83, at Valencia 76, Coro 82, 
Barquisimeto 78, Yaritagua 80-6, 
Merida 61, Trujillo 72, and Mara- 
caibo 81. South of the sierras, 
however, the climate is much drier 
and hotter. The low temperatures 
of the night in these regions lower 
the mean annual temperatures. At 
Calabozo, for instance, the mean is 
about 88, though the maximum 
in summer is not far from 100. 
At Ciudad Bolivar, which is less 
sheltered from the trade-winds, the 
mean is 83 and the maximum 
91-4. The lowest temperatures re- 
corded in official reports are those 
of Mucuchies, in the state of Mdrida, 
where the maximum is 68, the 
minimum 43 and the mean 56. 
The year is divided into two seasons, 
the dry and wet, the latter occurring from April to October, 
when the temperature is also the highest. On the llanos the 
dry season destroys the pasturage completely, dries up the small 
streams and lagoons, and compels many animals of semi-aquatic 
habits to aestivate. At Caracas the annual rainfall ranged from 
602 to 863 millimetres between 1894 and 1902. In general the 
climate of Venezuela is healthy wherever the ocean winds have free 
access. Sheltered places in the lowlands, especially near streams 
and lagoons, are malarial and enervating, and at some points on the 
coast are subject to dangerous fevers. The sanitary condition is 
generally bad, and many forms of disease prevail that are not due 
to the climate. 

Fauna. The fauna and flora of Venezuela are similar in nearly 
all respects to those of the neighbouring regions of Guiana, Brazil 
and Colombia, the open llanos of the Orinoco being something of 

1 See G. P. Wall, " On the Geology of a part of Venezuela and of 
Trinidad," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, vol. xvi. (1860), pp. 
4.60-70, pi. xxi. ; H. Karsten, Geologic de la Colombie Bolivarienne 
(Berlin, 1886); W. Sievers, " Karten zur physikalischen Geographic 
von Venezuela," Peterm. Mittheil. vol. xlii. (1896), pp. 125-29, 
pi. x. 



a neutral district between the great forested regions on the E., S. 
and W. Among the animals indigenous to the country are seven 
species of the cat family, including the puma, the jaguar and the 
ocelot; the wild dog (Cam's Azarae); several representatives of the 
marten family, including two species of Galictts, two of the otter 
(Lutra brasiliensis and L. pteronura) and one of the skunk; two 
species of bear (Ursus ornatus and U. nasutus) ; and the " kinkajou." 
There are six species of monkey corresponding to those of Guiana 
and the Amazon valley, the sloth and ant-eater, 12 known genera 
of rodents, including many species of Mures, the cavy, the capybara, 
the paca, the nutria, the agouti, the tree porcupine, Loncheres 
cristata, Echimys cayen and the Brazilian hare. Among the pachy- 
derms the tapir is found in the forests of the Orinoco. There are 
two species of the peccary, Dicotyles lorguatus and D. labiatus. 
There are also 2 species of. deer, Cervus rufus and C. simplicornis. 
There are 3 species of opossum. On the coast and in the Orinoco 
there may be found the manatee and the dolphin. The Reptilia 
include II species of the crocodile, alligator and lizard, including 
the savage jacare of the Amazon, several species of turtle, 4 species 
of batrachians, and 29 species of serpents, including the striped 
rattlesnake (Crotalus dunssus), Lachesis mutus, and a rather rare 
species of Cophias. Among the non-venomous species, the commonest 
are the boa-constrictor, the anaconda (Eunectes murinus) and the 



60" 



Cvital of Ftdtmt District 
CffilaJt of Stalti ana Ttrrt( 




Coluber Variabilis. Bird life is represented chiefly by migratory 
species, particularly of genera that inhabit the shores of streams 
and lagoons. The shallow lagoons of the llanos, like those of the 
Argentine pampas, are favourite fishing grounds for these birds. 
In the garzeros of Venezuela are to be found nearly every kind of 
heron, crane, stork and ibis, together with an incredible number 
of Grallatores. Ducks are also numerous in species and individuals, 
including a small bird called the guiriri, in imitation of its cry. 
Birds of prey are numerous. One species, the guacharo (Steatornis 
caripensis), or oil-bird, is commonly said to occur only in 
Venezuela, though it is found in Colombia and Ecuador also. 
They live in caves, especially in Caripe, and are caught in large 
numbers for the oil extracted from them, which is commonly 
known as " Caripe butter." The bell-bird (Chasmorhynchus 
carunculatus) is common in the forests of the Orinoco. Insect 
life is perhaps poorer and less varied than in Brazil, but in the 14 
orders of insects there are no less than 98 families, each including 
many genera and species. There are 8 families of Coleoptera, 
6 of Orthoptera, 23 of Hymenoptera, 14 of Lepidoptera and 7 of 
Diptera. Locusts are very numerous in the interior, and commit 
great ravages. Molluscs are common on the coasts, including the 
pearl oyster, and in the fresh-water streams and lakes. The coral 
polyp is also found in Venezuelan waters. The domestic animals 



990 



VENEZUELA 



of Venezuela the horse, ass, ox, sheep, goat, hog, dog, cat, &c. are 
not indigenous. 

Flora. The flora of Venezuela covers a wide range because of the 
vertical climatic zones. The coastal zone and lower slopes of all 
the mountains, including the lower Orinoco region and the 
Maracaibo basin, are clothed with a typical tropical vegetation. 
There is no seasonal interruption in vegetation. The tropical 
vegetation extends to an altitude of about 1300 ft., above which it 
may be classed as semi-tropical up to about 3500 ft., and temperate 
up to 7200 ft., above which the vegetation is Alpine. Palms 
grow everywhere; among them the coco-nut palm (Cpcos nucifera) 
is the most prominent. There are some exotics in this zone, 
like the mango, which thrive so well that they are thought to 
be indigenous. The cacau is at its best in the humid forests 
of this region and is cultivated in the rich alluvial valleys, and 
the banana thrives everywhere, as well as the exotic orange and 
lemon. On the mountain slopes orchids are found in great profusion. 
Sugar-cane is cultivated in the alluvial valleys and coffee on their 
slopes up to a height of about 2000 ft. Among the many tropical 
fruits found here are bananas, guavas, mangoes, cashews, bread- 
fruit, aguacates, papayas, zapotes, granadillas, oranges, lemons and 
limes. In the next zone are grown many of the cereals (includ- 
ing rice), beans, tobacco, sugar-cane, peaches, apricots, quinces and 
strawberries. The llanos have some distinguishing characteristics. 
They are extensive grassy plains, the lowest being the bed of an 
ancient inland lake about which is a broad terrace (mesa), the talus 
perhaps of the ancient encircling highlands. The lower level has 
extensive lagoons and swampy areas and suffers less from the long 
periodical drought. Its wild grasses are luxuriant and a shrubby 
growth is found along many of its streams. The decline 
in stock-breeding resulted in a considerable growth of trees and 
chaparral over the greater part of the plain. A large part of the 
chaparral consists of the chaparro, a low evergreen oak of hardy 
characteristics, mixed with mimosa, desmauthus, zonia and others. 
Much of this region is covered with gamelote, a tall, worthless, grass 
with sharp stiff blades. One of the most remarkable palms of 
the Orinoco region is the " moriche " (Mauritia flexuosa). The 
fruit is edible and its juice is made into beer; the sap of the tree 
is made into wine, and its pith into bread; the leaves furnish an 
excellent thatch, and the fibre extracted from their midribs is used 
for fish lines, cordage, hammocks, nets, &c. ; and the wood is hard 
and makes good building material. The fruit of the Guilielma is 
also widely used for food among the natives. Among other forest 
trees of economic importance are the silk-cotton tree (Bombaxceiba), 
the palo de vaca, or cow-tree (Brosimum galactodendron), whose sap 
resembles milk and is used for that purpose, the Inga saman, the 
Hevea guayanensis, celebrated in the production of rubber, and the 
Attalea speciosa, distinguished for the length of its leaves. 

The principal economic plants of the country are cacau, coffee, 
cassava (manioc) called " mandioca " in Brazil, Indian corn, beans, 
sweet potatoes, taro, sugar-cane, cotton and tobacco. Of these 
coffee and sugar-cane were introduced by Europeans. 

Population. The population of Venezuela is largely a matter 
of conjecture, no census having been taken since the third 
general census of 1891, which gave a total population of 2,323,527, 
of which 1,137,139 were males and 1,186,388 females, and there 
were 42,898 foreign residents. The official Handbook of Vene- 
zuela for 1904 estimated the population for the preceding year 
as 2,663,671. The population consists of a small percentage 
of whites of European descent, chiefly Spaniards, various 
tribes and settlements of Indians, largely of the Arawak and Carib 
families, and a large percentage of mestizos, or mixed bloods. 
There is a large admixture of African blood. Hiibner estimates 
the mixed of all races at 93 %, the highest among all the South 
American nationab'ties, and the Creoles at i% only; but this 
is clearly incorrect. Perhaps a closer approximation would 
be to rate the Creole element (whites of European descent) 
at 10%, as in Colombia, and the mixed races at 70%, 
the remainder consisting of Africans, Indians and resident 
foreigners. 

Territorial Divisions. The territorial divisions of Venezuela 
have been subjected to many changes. Under the constitution 
of the 27th of April 1904, the republic was divided into 13 states, 
i federal district and 5 territories, the names of which are as 
follows, those of the capital cities being given in brackets: 
Federal District (Caracas and La Asuncion); Aragua (La 
Victoria); Bermudez (Cumana); Bolivar (Ciudad Bolivar); 
Carabobo (Valencia); Falc6n (Coro); Guarico (Calabozo); 
Lara (Barquisimeto) ; Merida (Merida); Miranda (Ocumare); 
Tachira (San Crist6bal); Trujillo (Trujillo); Zamora (San 
Carlos); Zulia (Maracaibo), with the following territories: 
Amazonas (San Fernando de Atabapo); Col6n (Gran Roque); 



Cristobal Col6n (Cristobal Col6n); Delta- Amacuro (San Josede 
Amacuro) ; Yaruari (Guacipati). 

On the 5th of August 1909, however, a new division was pro- 
mulgated, giving 20 states, I federal district and 2 territories. 
Under this division some of the recognized administrative units 
were greatly altered in area or even abolished, and the capital status 
of several cities was apparently affected. The division was as 
follows: Federal District (Caracas); Anzoategui (Barcelona); 
Apurd (San Fernando de Apur6) ; Aragua (La Victoria) ; 
Bolivar (Ciudad Bolivar); Carabobo (Valencia); Cojedes (San 
Carlos); Falcon (Coro); Guarico (Calabozo); Lara (Barquisi- 
meto) ; Merida (Mdrida) ; Miranda (Ocumare) ; Monagas (Maturin) ; 
Nueva Esparta (La Asuncion) ; Portuguesa (Guanare) ; Sucre 
(Cumana); Tachira (San Cristobal); Trujillo (Trujillo); Yaracuy 
(San Felipe); Zamora (Barinas); Zulia (Maracaibo), with the 
following territories: Amazonas (San Fernando de Atabapo); 
Delta-Amacuro (Tucupita). 

Communications and Commerce. There has been no great de- 
velopment of railway construction in Venezuela, partly on account 
of political insecurity and partly because of the backward industrial 
state of the country. In 1908 there were only 13 railway lines 
with a mileage of about 540 m., including the short lines from 
Caracas to El Valle and La Guaira to Maiquetia and Macuto, and the 
La Vela and Coro. The longest of these is the German line from 
Caracas to Valencia (ill m.), and the next longest the Great Tachira, 
running from Encontrada on Lake Maracaibo inland to Uraca 
(71 m.), with a projected extension to San Cristobal. Another 
line in the Lake Maracaibo region is known as the Great La Ceiba, 
and runs from a point near the lake to the vicinity of Valera and 
Trujillo. An important line connects the thriving city of Bar- 
quisimeto with the port of Tucacas. The best known of the 
Venezuelan railways is the short line from La Guaira to Caracas 
(22 1 m.), which scales the steep sides of the mountain behind 
La Guaira' and reaches an elevation of 3135 ft. before arriving at 
Caracas. It is a British enterprise, and is one of the few railways 
in Venezuela that pay a dividend. The Puerto Cabello and Valencia 
line (34 m.) is another British undertaking and carries a good traffic. 
A part of this line is built with a central cog-rail. Probably a 
return to settled political and industrial conditions in Venezuela 
will result in a large addition to its railway mileage, as a means 
of bringing the fertile inland districts into direct communication 
with the coast. 

In steamship lines the republic has almost nothing to show. A 
regular service is maintained on Lake Maracaibo, one on Lake 
Valencia, and another on the Orinoco, Apur6 and Portuguesa 
rivers, starting from Ciudad Boltvar. 

The coast of Venezuela has an aggregate length of 1876 m., and 
there are 32 ports, large and small, not including those of Lakes 
Maracaibo and Tacarigua and the Orinoco. The great majority 
of these have only a limited commerce, restricted to domestic 
exchanges. The first-class ports are La Guaira, Puerto Cabello, 
Ciudad Bolivar, Maracaibo and Carupano, and the second-class are 
Sucre, Juan Griego, Guiria, Cano Colorado, Guanta, Tucacas, La 
Vela and Porlamar. The commerce of these ports, both in the 
foreign and domestic trade, is small, tariff regulations being onerous, 
and the people too impoverished to be consumers of much beyond 
the barest necessaries of life. The total foreign trade in 1908 
amounted to $9,778,810 imports and $14,560,830 exports, the values 
being in U.S. gold. The exports to the United States were valued 
at $5.550,073 and to France $5,496,627. The principal exports 
were coffee, cacau, divi-divi, rubber, hides and skins, cattle and 
asphalt. The imports include manufactured articles of all kinds, 
hardware and building materials, earthenware and glassware, 
furniture, drugs and medicines, wines, foodstuffs, coal, petroleum 
and many other things. The coasting trade is largely made up of 
products destined for exportation, or imports trans-shipped from 
the first-class ports to the smaller ones which have no direct re- 
lations with foreign countries. In the absence of statistical returns 
it is impossible to giye the values of this branch of trade. The 
exchanges of domestic products are less important than they 
should be. The Orinoco trade is carried on almost wholly through 
Port of Spain, Trinidad, where merchandise and produce is trans- 
ferred between light draught river boats and foreign ocean-going 
steamers. The distance from Port of Spain to Ciudad Bolivar is 
299 m. and the traffic is carried by foreign-owned steamers. Under 
the administration of President Cipriano Castro this traffic was 
suspended for a long time, and trans-shipments were made at La 
Guaira. Above Ciudad Bolivar transportation is effected by two 
or three small river steamers and a great number of small craft 
(lauchas, bungos, balandras, &c.), using sails, oars and punting poles. 
Agriculture. The principal industries of Venezuela are agri- 
cultural and pastoral. Both have suffered heavily from military 
operations, but still they have remained the basis of Venezuelan 
wealth and progress. Much the greater part of the republic is fertile 
and adapted to cultivation. Irrigation, which has not been used 
to any great extent, is needed in some parts of the country for the 
best results, but in others, as in the valleys and on the northern 
slopes of the Maritime Andes, the rainfall is sufficiently well distri- 
buted to meet most requirements. The long dry season of the 



VENEZUELA 



991 



llanos and surrounding slopes, which have not as yet been devoted 
to cultivation, will require a different system of agriculture with 
systematic irrigation. In colonial times the llanos were covered 
with immense herds of cattle and horses and were inhabited by a race 
of hardy, expert horsemen, the llaneros. Both sides in the War of 
Independence drew upon these herds, and the llaneros were among 
the bravest in both armies. The end of the war found the llanos 
a desert, both herds and herdsmen having nearly disappeared. 
Successive civil wars prevented their recovery, and these great plains 
which ought to be one of the chief sources of meat supply for the 
world are comparatively destitute of stock, and the only source of 
revenue from this industry is the small number of animals shipped 
to the West Indies. The breeding of goats and swine is an 
important industry in some regions. The climatic conditions are 
not so favourable as in Argentina, but these are counterbalanced 
to some extent by the great river system of the Orinoco, whose large 
navigable tributaries cross the plains from end to end, and whose 
smaller streams from the surrounding highlands provide superior 
opportunities for water storage and irrigation. On the mesas alfalfa 
could be substituted for the native grasses and be used for stock 
when the pasturage of the lower plains is not available. Other 
industries of the colonial period were the cultivation of indigo and 
tobacco. The former has nearly disappeared, but the latter is 
still one of the more important products of the country. The best 
known tobacco-producing localities are Capadare, Yaritagua, M6rida, 
Cumanacoa, Guanape, Guaribe and Barinas. The best quality is 
that from the Capadare district, in the state of Falcon, which rivals 
that of the Vuelta Abajo of Cuba. No effort is made to improve 
the Venezuelan product, a part of which is exported to Cuba for 
cigar making. The principal agricultural products are coffee, 
cacau (cacao), sugar, Indian corn and beans. Coffee was introduced 
from Martinique in 1784 and its exportation began five years later. 
It is grown at elevations of 1600 to 3000 ft., and the yield is reported 
fo be i to i ft per tree, which is much less than the yield m Sao 
Paulo, Brazil. An official work (Veloz Goiticoa, Venezuela, Washing- 
ton, 1904) gives the number of coffee trees in Venezuela as 250, 000,000 
belonging to 33,000 estates; the output was 42,806 tons in 1907. 
Several grades are produced in Venezuela, determined by geographi- 
cal position, altitude and method of curing and preparing for market. 
The Maracaibo type from the mountain-slopes of M6rida, Trujillo 
and Tachira is perhaps the best known and brings the best price. 
Cacau (Theobroma cacao) is an indigenous product and is extensively 
cultivated on the Caribbean slopes. It requires a high temperature 
(about 80 F.), rich soil and a high degree of humidity for the 
best development of the tree. The tree has an average height of 
12-13 ft., begins bearing five years after planting, requires little 
attention beyond occasional irrigation, bears two crops a year (June 
and December), and produces well until it is forty years of age the 
yield being from 490 to 600 Ib per acre of 100 trees. There are two 
grades of Venezuelan cacau the criollo or native, and the trinitario, 
or Trinidad, the first being superior in quality. The best cacau 
comes from the vicinity of Caracas and is marketed under that name. 
The exportation of 1907 was about 14,000 tons. Sugar-cane is not 
indigenous, but it is cultivated with marked success in the lowlands 
of Zulia, and at various points on the coast. The industry, however, 
has not kept pace with its development in other countries and, in 
great part, still employs antiquated methods and machinery. Its 
principal product is " papelon," or brown sugar, which is put on 
the market in the shape of small cylindrical and cubical masses of 
if to 3i ft weight. This quality is the only one consumed in the 
country, with the exception of a comparatively small quantity of 
granulated, and of refined sugar in tablets prepared for people of 
the well-to-do classes. The annual output is about 3000 tons. 
Cotton was produced in several places in colonial times, but the 
output has declined to a few thousand pounds. The plant is in- 
digenous and grows well, but, unlike cacau, it requires much manual 
labour in its cultivation and picking and does not seem to be favoured 
by the planters. Indian corn is widely grown and provides the 
staple food of the people, especially in the interior. Beans also 
are a common food, and are universally produced, especially the 
black bean. Wheat was introduced by the Spaniards immediately 
after their occupation of Venezuela, and is grown in the elevated 
districts of Aragua and the western states, but the production does 
not exceed home consumption. Rice is a common article of food 
and is one of the principal imports. Several states are offering 
bounties to encourage its cultivation at home. Other agricultural 
products are sweet potatoes, cassava (manioc), yuca, yams, white 
potatoes, maguey, okra, peanuts, pease, all the vegetables of the 
hot and temperate climates, oranges, lemons, limes, bananas, 
plantains, figs, grapes, coco-nuts, pine-apples, strawberries, plums, 
guavas, breadfruit, mangoes and many others. There are also 
many fruits found growing wild, like those of the cactus and various 
palms, and these are largely consumed. The forest products, 
whose collection and preparation form regular industries, are rubber 
(called caucho or goma), tonka beans, vanilla, copaiba, chique-chique, 
sarsaparilla, divi-divi, dye-woods, cabinet-woods and fibres. The 
rubber forests are on the Orinoco and its tributaries of the Guiana 
highlands. 

Mining. The principal minerals are gold, copper, iron, sulphur, 



coal, asphalt and petroleum. Silver, tin, lead, mercury and 
precious stones are listed among the mineral resources of the country, 
but no mines have been developed, and they are possibilities only. 
Gold is found throughout a wide area, but chiefly in the Yuruari 
region, about too m. S.W. of the principal mouth of the Orinoco 
and near the borders of British Guiana, where the famous El Callao 
minesare. These mines have produced as much as 181,040-2 Spanish 
oz. in one year (1886) and a total of 1,320,929-09 oz. from 1871 to 
1890, while another report gives an output valued at $23,000,000 
U.S. gold in the fifteen years from 1884 to 1899. The production 
since then has greatly declined. There are 14 copper mines in the 
country, those at Aroa, 70 m. W. of Puerto Cabello and in railway 
communication with Tucacas (89 m.), being the most productive. 
They date from 1605 and now belong to an English company. 
The output from 1878 to 1891 was 329,218 tons of ore and 53,053 
tons of regulus, valued at 2, 794,986. Iron of a good quality has 
been found in the Imataca region, Delta-Amacuro territory, 53 m. 
from the " Boca Grande " of the Orinoco. The principal coal 
deposits developed are at Naricual, near Barcelona, and a railway 
has been constructed to bring the output to the port of Guanta. 
Asphalt is taken from several deposits from Maracaibo, Cumani 
and Pedernales in the Orinoco delta. The latter place also yields 
petroleum. Sulphur is mined near Carupano, and salt in Zulia and 
on the peninsula of Araya. The latter is a government monopoly, 
and the high prices at which it is sold constitute a serious prejudice 
to the people and to industries like that of meat packing. 

Pearl Fisheries. One of the oldest of Venezuelan industries, the 
Margarita pearl fisheries, was prohibited in 1909 for an indefinite 
time because of the threatened extinction of the oyster beds. The 
industry dates from the first exploration of this coast and wag 
probably carried on before that by the natives. The fisheries are 
established about the islands of Margarita, Coche and Cubagua, 
the best producing beds being at El Tirano and Macanao, the first 
N.E. and the other N.W. of Margarita. The natives engaged in 
the fishery used some 400 sailboats of 3 to 15 tons capacity, and the 
beds were raked in search of pearl oysters. In 1900 a concession 
was granted for an exclusive right to fish for pearls, &c., between 
Margarita and the coast, the contractor to use submarine 
apparatus. 

Manufactures. There are few manufacturing industries in Vene- 
zuela, and these usually of the parasitic type, created by official 
favour and protected by high tariffs on imports in competition. 
The manufactures of this class include aerated waters, beer, 
candles, chocolate, cigarettes, cotton fabrics, hats, ice, matches, boots 
and shoes, drugs and medicines. There are a number of electric 
plants, three of which use water power, one at El Encantado, 10 m. 
from Caracas, one at MeVida, and the third at San Cristobal, Tachira. 
The plants using steam for motive power are at Caracas, Maracaibo, 
Valencia and Puerto Cabello. There has been some development 
in the manufacture of agricultural machinery and implements, 
vehicles, pianos and furniture, and some older industries, such as 
tanning leather and the manufacture of saddles and harness, the 
milling of wheat and Indian corn, distilling, soap-making, &c. At 
Guanta there is a factory for the manufacture of patent fuel from 
Naricual coal and asphalt. In 1901 there was one saladero, or meat- 
packing establishment, in the Orinoco-Apur region, but it did not 
prove successful because of the high cost of salt. 

Government. The government of Venezuela is that of a 
federal republic of nominally independent, self-governing 
states, administered according to the provisions of the consti- 
tution of the 2yth of April 1904, modified or revised on the 
$th of August 1909. The legislative power is nominally 
vested in a national Congress of two houses the Senate and 
Chamber of Deputies which meets at Caracas every two years 
on the 23rd of May, the session lasting 90 days. The Senate 
consists of two members from each state, or 40 members, who 
are elected by the state legislatures for a period of four years. 
A senator must be a native-born citizen and not less than thirty 
years of age. The Chamber consists of popular representatives, 
elected by direct vote, in the proportion of one deputy for each 
35,000 of population, each state being entitled to at least one 
deputy, or two in case its population exceeds 15,000, the federal 
district and territories being entitled to representatives on the 
same terms. A deputy must also be a native-born citizen, 
not less than twenty-one years of age, and is elected for a 
period of four years. 

The executive power is vested by the constitution in a presi- 
dent, two vice-presidents and a cabinet of ministers. The 
president and vice-presidents, who must be Venezuelans by 
birth and more than thirty years old, are elected by an electoral 
body or council composed of members of the national Congress, 
one member from each state and the Federal District. This 



992 



VENEZUELA 



council elects by an absolute majority of votes. The presi- 
dential term is four years (it was six years under the constitution 
of 1904), and the president cannot succeed himself. The 
powers of the executive, direct and implied, are very broad 
and permit the exercise of much absolute authority. The 
president is assisted by a cabinet of seven ministers and the 
governor of the federal district, their respective departments 
being interior, foreign relations, finance and public credit, war 
and marine, fomenlo (promotion), public works and public 
instruction. The ministers are required to countersign all acts 
relating to their respective departments, and are held respon- 
sible both before Congress and the courts for their acts. The 
department of fomento is charged with the supervision of all 
matters relating to agriculture, stock-raising, mines, industries, 
commerce, statistics, immigration, public lands, posts, tele- 
graphs and telephones. The department of the interior is also 
charged with matters relating to the administration of justice, 
religion and public worship. 

The judicial power is vested in a supreme federal court, 
called the Corte Federal y de Casacion, and such subordinate 
tribunals as may be created by law. As the laws and pro- 
cedure are uniform throughout the republic and all decrees 
and findings have legal effect everywhere, the state judicial 
organizations may be considered as taking the place of district 
federal courts, although the constitution does not declare them 
so. The federal court consists of 7 members, representing as 
many judicial districts of the republic, who are elected by 
Congress for periods of six years (Const. 1904), and are eligible 
for re-election. It is the supreme tribunal of the republic, 
having original jurisdiction in cases of impeachment, the con- 
stitutionality of laws, and controversies between states or 
officials. It is also a court of appeal (Casacion) in certain 
cases, as defined by law. The judicial organization of the states 
includes in each a supreme court of three members, a superior 
court, courts of first instance, district courts and municipal 
courts. The judicial terms in the states are for three years. 
In the territories there are civil and criminal courts of first 
instance, and municipal courts. The laws of Venezuela are 
well codified both as to law and procedure, in civil, criminal 
and commercial cases. 

The state governments are autonomous and consist of legis- 
lative assemblies composed of deputies elected by ballot for a 
period of three years (Const. 1904), which meet in their respective 
state capitals on the ist of December for sessions of thirty days, 
and for each a president and two vice-presidents chosen by 
the legislative assembly for a term of three years. The states 
are divided into districts and these into municipios, the executive 
head of which is a jefe politico. There is a municipal council of 
seven members in each district, elected by the municipios, and 
in each municipio a communal junta appointed by the municipal 
council. The governors of the federal territories are appointees 
of the president of the republic, and the jefe politico of each 
territorial municipio is an appointee of the governor. The 
Federal District is the seat of federal authority, and consists 
of a small territory surrounding Caracas and La Guaira, known 
in the territorial division of 1904 as the West district, and the 
island of Margarita and some neighbouring islands, known as 
the East district. 

There are two classes of citizens in Venezuela native-born 
and naturalized. The first includes the children of Venezuelan 
parents born in foreign countries; the latter comprises four 
classes: natives of Spanish-American republics, foreign- 
born persons, foreigners naturalized through special laws 
and foreign women married to Venezuelans. The power of 
granting citizenship to foreigners is vested in the president of 
the republic, who is also empowered to refuse admission to the 
country to undesirable foreigners, or to expel those who have 
violated the special law (April n, 1903) relating to their conduct 
in Venezuelan territory. The right of suffrage is exercised by 
Venezuelan males over 21 years of age, and all electors are 
eligible to public office except where the constitution declares 
otherwise. Foreign companies are permitted to transact 



business in Venezuela, subject to the laws relating to non- 
residents and also to the laws of the country governing national 
companies. 

Army. The military forces of Venezuela consist nominally of 
about 20 battalions of infantry, of 400 men each, and 8 batteries 
of artillery, of 200 men each. There is also a battalion of marines 
employed about the ports and in the arsenals. The organization 
and equipment is defective, and the force deficient in numbers and 
discipline. The police force and fire companies in the larger cities 
are organized on a military basis, and are sometimes used for 
military purposes. For a people so accustomed to revolutionary 
outbreaks, the Venezuelans are singularly deficient in military 
organization. There is no lack of officers of the highest grades, 
but the rank and file are not uniformed, equipped or drilled, and 
military campaigns are usually irregular in character and of com- 
paratively short duration. It should be said that Venezuela has 
a modern military organization so far as law can make it. It is 
drawn in imitation of European models, and makes military service 
compulsory for all Venezuelans between 21 and 50 years. This 
national force is divided into actives and reserves, the strength 
of the first being fixed by Congress, and all the rest, of unknown 
number, belong to the latter. The provisions of the law, however, 
have never been enforced, and the actives or regular army are 
recruited by impressment rather than through conscription. There 
is a military academy at Caracas, and battalion schools are provided 
for officers and privates, but they are of little value. 

Education. In popular education Venezuela has done almost 
nothing worthy of record. As in Chile, Peru and Colombia, the 
ruling classes and the Church have taken little interest in the educa- 
tion of the Indians and mestizos. Venezuela, it is true, has a com- 
prehensive public instruction law, and attendance at the public 
schools is both gratuitous and nominally compulsory. But outside 
the cities, towns and large villages near the coast there are no schools 
and no teachers, nor has the government done anything to provide 
them. This law has been in force since about 1870, but on the 3Oth 
of 'June 1908 there were only 1150 public schools in the republic 
with a total enrolment of 35,777 pupils. There are a number of 
parochial and conventual schools, the church being hostile to the 
public-school system. An overwhelming majority of the people is 
illiterate and is practically unconscious of the defect. In 1908 the 
educational facilities provided by the republic, not including some 
private subventioned schools, were two universities and thirty- 
three national colleges. The universities are at Caracas and Merida, 
the latter known as the Universidad de los Andes. The Caracas 
institution dates from early colonial times and numbers many 
prominent Venezuelans among its alumni. The national college 
corresponds to the lyceum and high school of other countries. There 
are law, medical and engineering schools in the country, but one 
rarely hears of them. The episcopal seminaries are usually good, 
especially the one at Caracas. In addition to these, there are 
normal, polytechnic, mining and agricultural schools, the last at 
Caracas and provided with a good library and museum. There are 
several mechanics' schools (Artes y Oficios) in the larger cities, and 
a large number of private schools. Further educational facilities 
are provided by a national library with about 50,000 volumes, a 
national museum, with a valuable historical collection, the Cajigal 
Observatory, devoted to astronomical and meteorological work, 
and the Venezuelan Academy and National Academy of History 
the first devoted to the national language and literature, and the 
second to its history. 

Religion. The Roman Catholic is the religion of the state, but 
freedom of worship is nominally guaranteed by law. The president, 
however, is empowered to deny admission into the country of 
foreigners engaged in special religious work not meeting his approval. 
Practically no other form of worship exists in the country than 
that of the Roman Catholic Church, the Protestant and other 
denominations holding their services in inconspicuous chapels or 
private apartments in the larger cities, where considerable numbers 
of foreigners reside. The state contributes to the support of the 
Church, builds its churches and provides for the salaries of its 
clergy, and at the same time it has the right to approve or reject 
all ecclesiastical appointments and to permit or forbid the execution 
of all decrees of the Roman See relating to Venezuela. The Church 
hierarchy consists of one archbishop (Caracas) and four suffragan 
bishops (Merida, Guayana, Barquisimeto and Guarico). 

Finance. The financial situation in Venezuela was for a long time 
extremely complicated and discreditable, owing to defaults in the 
payment of public debts, complications arising from the guarantee 
of interest on railways and other public works, responsibility for 
damages to private property during civil wars and bad administra- 
tion. To meet increasing obligations, taxation has been extended 
and heavily increased. The public revenues are derived from 
customs taxes and charges on imports and exports, transit taxes, 
cattle taxes, profits on coinage, receipts from state monopolies, 
receipts from various public services such as the post office, telegraph, 
Caracas waterworks, &c., and sundry taxes, fines and other sources. 
From 60 to 70% of the revenue is derived from the custom-house, 
and the next largest source is the transit tax. The official budget 



VENEZUELA 



993 



returns for 1904-6 show the revenues and expenditures to have 
been 

1904. 1905. 1906. 

Bolivares. Bolivares. Bolivares. 

Revenue . . . 57,576,741 49.385,379 49,293,067 
Expenditure . . 52.925.521 54,718,163 51,874,694 

A considerable part of the expenditure since 1903 consists of pay- 
ments on account of foreign debts which Venezuela was compelled to 
satisfy. To meet these, taxes were increased wherever possible, thus 
increasing both sides of the budget beyond its normal for those years. 

The public debt of Venezuela dates back to the War of Indepen- 
dence, when loans were raised in Europe for account of the united 
colonies of Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuela. The separation 
of the Colombian republic into its three original parts took place 
in 1830, and in 1834 the foreign debt contracted was divided among 
the three, Venezuela being charged with 28|%, or 2,794,826, 
of which 906,430 were arrears of interest. Other items were 
afterwards added to liquidate other obligations than those included 
in the above, chiefly on account of the internal debt. Several con- 
versions and compositions followed, interest being paid irregularly. 
In 1880-81 there was a consolidation and conversion of the re- 
public's foreign indebtedness through a new loan of 2,750,000 at 
3%, and in 1896 a new loan of 50,000,000 bolivares (1,980,198) for 
railway guarantees and other domestic obligations. In August 
1904 these loans and arrears of interest brought the foreign debt 
up to 5,618,725, which in 1905 was converted into a " diplomatic " 
debt of 5,229,700 (3%). During these years Venezuela had been 
pursuing the dangerous policy of granting interest guarantees on 
the construction of railways by foreign corporations, which not 
only brought the government into conflict with them on account 
of defaulted payments, but also through disputed interpretations 
of contracts and alleged arbitrary acts on the part of government 
officials. In the civil wars the government was also held responsible 
for damages to these properties and for the mistreatment of foreigners 
residing in the country. Some of these claims brought Venezuela 
into conflict with the governments of Great Britain, Germany and 
Italy in 1903, and Venezuelan ports were blockaded and there was 
an enforced settlement of the claims (about 104,417), which were 
to be paid from 30% of the revenues of the La Guaira and Puerto 
Cabello custom-houses. This settlement was followed by an adjust- 
ment of all other claims, payment to be effected through the same 
channels. In 1908 (July 31) the total debt of Venezuela (according 
to official returns) consisted of the following items: 

Bolivares. 

Consolidated internal debt 63,171,818 

Diplomatic debt (Spanish, French and Dutch) . 7,014,569 

(French, 1903-4) . . . 5.733.49 

,. of 1905 132,049,925 

Unconsolidated debt in circulation . . . 4,561,742 

Total . 212,531,544 
or, at 255 bolivares per , 8,417,091 

The currency of Venezuela is on a gold basis, the coinage of silver 
and nickel is restricted, and the state issues no paper notes. Foreign 
coins were formerly legal tender in the republic, but this has been 
changed by the exclusion of foreign silver coins and the acceptance 
of foreign gold coins as a commodity at a fixed value. Under the 
currency law of the 3ist of March 1879, the thousandth part of a 
kilogramme of gold was made the monetary unit and was called a 
bolivar, in honour of the Venezuelan liberator. The denominations 
provided for by this law are 

Gold: 100, 50, 20, 10 and 5 bolivares. 

Silver: 5, 2, I bolivares', 50, 20 centimes. 

Nickel: I2j and 5 centimes. 

These denominations are still in use except the silver 2O-centimos 
piece, which was replaced by one of 25 centimes in 1891. The 
silver ^-bolivar piece is usually known as a " dollar," and is equiva- 
lent to 48J pence, or 96^ cents U.S. gold. The old " peso " is 
no longer used except in accounts, and is reckoned at 4 bolivares, 
being sometimes described as a " soft " dollar. Silver and nickel 
are legal tender for 50 and 20 bolivares respectively. Paper currency 
is issued by the banks of Venezuela, Caracas and Maracaibo under 
the provisions of a general banking law, and their notes, although 
not legal tender, are everywhere accepted at their face value. 

The metric weights and measures have been officially adopted 
by Venezuela, but the old Spanish units are still popularly used 
throughout the country. (A. J. L.) 

History. The coast of Venezuela was the first part of the 
American mainland sighted by Columbus, who, during his 
third voyage in 1498, entered the Gulf of Paria and sailed 
along the coast of the delta of the Orinoco. In the following 
year a much greater extent of coast was traced out by Alonzo 
de Ojeda, who was accompanied by the more celebrated 
Amerigo Vespucci. In 1550 the territory was erected into the 
captain-generalcy of Caracas, and it remained under Spanish 
rule till the early part of the ipth century. During this period 

XXV7I. 32 



negro slaves were introduced; but less attention was given 
by the Spaniards to this region than to other parts of Spanish 
America, which were known to be rich in the precious metals. 

In 1810 Venezuela rose against the Spanish yoke, and on 
the I4th of July 1811 the independence of the territory was 
proclaimed. A war ensued which lasted for upwards of ten 
years and the principal events of which are described under 
BOLIVAR (q.v.), a native of Caracas and the leading spirit of 
the revolt. It was not till the 3oth of March 1845 that the 
independence of the republic was recognized by Spain in the 
treaty of Madrid. Shortly after the battle of Carabobo (June 
24, 1821), by which the power of Spain in this part of the 
world was broken, Venezuela was united with the federal state 
of Colombia, which embraced the present Colombia and Ecuador ; 
but the Venezuelans were averse to the Confederation, and an 
agitation was set on foot in the autumn of 1829 which resulted 
in the issue of a decree (December 8) by General Paez dis- 
solving the union, and declaring Venezuela a sovereign and 
independent state. The following years were marked by re- 
curring attempts at revolution, but on the whole Venezuela 
during the period 1830-1846 was less disturbed than the neigh- 
bouring republic owing to the dominating influence of General 
Paez, who during the whole of that time exercised practically 
dictatorial power. In 1849 a successful revolution broke out 
and Paez was driven out of the country. The author of his 
expulsion, General Jose Tadeo Monagas, had in 1847 been 
nominated, like so many of his predecessors, to the presidency 
by Paez, but he was able to win the support of the army and 
assert his independence of his patron. Paez raised the standard 
of revolt, but Monagas was completely victorious. For ten 
years, amidst continual civil war, Monagas was supreme. The 
chief political incident of his rule was a decree abolishing 
slavery in 1854. General Juan Jose Falcon, after some years 
of civil war and confusion, maintained himself at the head of 
affairs from 1863 to 1868. In 1864 he divided Venezuela into 
twenty states and formed them into a Federal republic. The 
twenty parties whose struggles had caused so much strife and 
bloodshed were the Unionists, who desired a centralized govern- 
ment, and the Federalists, who preferred a federation of semi- 
autonomous provinces. The latter now triumphed. A revolt 
headed by Monagas broke out in 1868, and Falcon had to fly 
the country. In the following year Antonio Guzman Blanco 
succeeded in making himself dictator, after a long series of 
battles in which he was victorious over the Unionists. 

For two decades after the close of these revolutionary troubles 
in 1870 the supreme power in Venezuela was, for all practical 
purposes, in the hands of Guzman Blanco. He evaded the 
clause in the constitution prohibiting the election of a pre- 
sident for successive terms of office by invariably arranging 
for the nomination of some adherent of his own as chief of the 
executive, and then pulling the strings behind this figurehead. 
The tenure of the presidential office was for two years, and at 
every alternate election Guzman Blanco was declared to be 
duly and legally chosen to fill the post of chief magistrate of 
the republic. In 1889 there was an open revolt against the 
dictatorial system so long in vogue; and President Rojas Paul, 
Blanco's locum tenens, was forced to flee the country and take 
refuge in the Dutch colony of Curacoa. A scene of riot and 
disorder was enacted in the Venezuelan capital. Statues of 
Blanco, which had been erected in various places in the city 
of Caracas, were broken by the mob, and wherever a portrait 
of the dictator was found it was torn to pieces. No follower 
of the Blanco regime was safe. An election was held and 
General Andueza Palacios was nominated president. A move- 
ment was set on foot for the reform of the constitution, the 
principal objects of this agitation being to prolong the pre- 
sidential term to four years, to give Congress the right to choose 
the president of the republic, and to amend certain sections 
concerning the rights of persons taking part in armed insurrec- 
tion arising out of political issues. All might have gone well 
for President Palacios had he not supposed that this extension 
of the presidential period might be made to apply to himself. 



994 



VENEZUELA 



His attempt to force this question produced violent opposition 
in 1891, and ended in a rising headed by General Joaquin 
Crespo. This revolt, which was accompanied by severe fight- 
ing, ended in 1892 in the triumph of the insurgents, Palacios 
and his followers being forced to leave the country to save 
their lives. General Crespo became all-powerful; but he did 
not immediately accept the position of president. The reform 
of the constitution was agreed to, and in 1894 General Crespo 
was duly declared elected to the presidency by Congress for 
a period of four years. One of the clauses of the reformed 
constitution accords belligerent rights to all persons taking up 
arms against the state authority, provided they can show that 
their action is the outcome of political motives. Another 
clause protects the property of rebels against confiscation. 
Indeed, a premium on armed insurrection is virtually granted. 

In April 1895 the long-standing dispute as to the boundary 
between British Guiana and Venezuela was brought to a 
crisis by the action of the Venezuelan authorities in arresting 
Inspectors Barnes and Baker, of the British Guiana police, with 
a few of their subordinates, on the Cuyuni river, the charge 
being that they were illegally exercising the functions of -British 
officials in Venezuelan territory. Messrs Barnes and Baker 
were subsequently released, and in due course made their report 
on the occurrence. For the moment nothing more was heard 
of this boundary question by the public, but General Crespo 
instructed the Venezuelan minister in Washington to ask for 
the assistance of the United States in the event of any demand 
being made by the British Government for an indemnity. 
Whilst this frontier difficulty was still simmering, an insurrec- 
tion against General Crespo was fomented by Dr J. P. Rojas 
Paul, the representative of the Blanco regime, and came to a 
head in October 1895, risings occurring in the northern and 
southern sections of the republic. Some desultory fighting 
took place for three or four months, but the revolt was never 
popular, and was completely suppressed early in 1896. The 
Guiana boundary question began now to assume an acute 
stage, the Venezuelan minister in Washington having persuaded 
President Cleveland to take up the cause of Venezuela in vindi- 
cation of the principles of the Monroe doctrine. On the i8th 
of December 1895 a message was sent to the United States 
Congress by President Cleveland practically stating that any 
attempt on the part of the British Government to enforce its 
claims upon Venezuela as regards the boundary between that 
country and Guiana without resort to arbitration would be 
considered as a casus belli by his government. The news of 
this message caused violent agitation in Caracas and other 
towns. A league was formed binding merchants not to deal 
in goods of British origin; patriotic associations were estab- 
lished for the purpose of defending Venezuela against British 
aggression, and the militia were embodied. The question was 
subsequently arranged in 1899 by arbitration, and by the pay- 
ment of a moderate indemnity to the British officers and men 
who had been captured. Diplomatic relations between the 
two countries, which had been broken off in consequence of 
the dispute, were resumed in 1897. 

In 1898 General Crespo was succeeded as president by Senor 
Andrade, who had represented Venezuela in Washington during 
the most acute stage of the frontier question. Towards the 
end of the year a revolutionary movement took place with the 
object of ousting Andrade from power. The insurrection was 
crushed, but in one of the final skirmishes a chance bullet struck 
General Crespo, who was in command of the government troops, 
and he died from the effects of the wound. A subsequent revolt 
overthrew President Andrade in 1900. General Cipriano Castro 
then became president. During 1901 and 1902 the internal 
Condition of the country remained disturbed, and fighting went 
on continually between the government troops and the revolu- 
tionists. 

The inhabitants of Venezuela have a right to vote for the 
members of Congress, but in reality this privilege is not exercised 
by them. Official nominees are as a rule returned without any 
opposition, the details of the voting having been previously 



arranged by the local authorities in conformity with instructions 
from headquarters. In these circumstances the administration 
of public affairs fell into the hands of an oligarchy, who governed 
the country to suit their own convenience. President Castro 
was for eight years a dictator, ruling by corrupt and revolution- 
ary methods, and in defiance of obligations to the foreign creditors 
of the country. The wrongs inflicted by him on companies and 
individuals of various nationalities, who had invested capital in 
industrial enterprises in Venezuela, led to a blockade of the 
Venezuelan ports in 1903 by English, German and Italian 
warships. Finding that diplomacy was of no avail to obtain the 
reparation from Castro that was demanded by their subjects, 
the three powers unwillingly had recourse to coercion. The 
president, however, sheltered himself behind the Monroe doctrine 
and 'appealed to the government of the United States to inter- 
vene. The dispute was finally referred by mutual consent to 
the Hague Court of Arbitration. The Washington government 
had indeed no cause to be well disposed to Castro, for he treated 
the interests of Americans in Venezuela with the same high- 
handed contempt for honesty and justice as those of Europeans. 
The demand of the United States for a revision of what is known 
as the Olcott Award in connexion with the Orinoco Steamship 
Company was in 1905 met by a refusal to reopen the case. 
Meanwhile the country, which up to the blockade of 1903 had 
been seething with revolutions, now became much quieter. In 
1906, the president refused to allow M. Taigny, the French 
minister, to land, on the ground that he had broken the quaran- 
tine regulations. In consequence, France broke off diplomatic 
relations. In the following year, by the decision of the Hague 
Tribunal, the Venezuela government had to pay the British, 
German and Italian claims, amounting to 691,160; but there 
was still 840,000 due to other nationalities, which remained to 
be settled. The year 1907 was marked by the repudiation of 
the debt to Belgium, and fresh difficulties with the United 
States. Finally, in 1908 a dispute arose with Holland on the 
ground of the harbouring of refugees in Curacoa. The Dutch 
Minister was expelled", and Holland replied by the despatch of 
gunboats, who destroyed the Venezuelan fleet and blockaded the 
ports. In December General Castro left upon a visit to Europe, 
nominally for a surgical operation. In his absence a rising 
against the dictator took place at Caracas, and his adherents 
were seized and imprisoned. Juan Vincenti Gomez, the vice- 
president, now placed himself at the head of affairs and formed an 
administration. He was installed as president in June 1910. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. C. E. Akers, History of South America (New 
York, 1906); E. Andr6, A Naturalist in the Guianas (London, 
1904); A. F. Bandelier, The Gilded Man (New York, 1893); 
William Barry, Venezuela (London, 1886); M. B. and C. W. 
Beebe, Our Search for a Wilderness (1910); A. Codazzi, Resumen 
de la Geografia de Venezuela (Paris, 1841); R. H. Davis, Three 
Gringos in Venezuela and Central America (London, 1896); J. C. 
Dawson, The South American Republics, vol ii. (New York, 1905); 
Dr A. Ernst, Les Produits de Venezuela (Bremen, 1874); A. von 
Humboldt and Aim4 Bonpland, Personal Narrative of Travel to the 
Equinoctial Regions of America (3 vols., London) ; M. Landaeta 
Resales, Gran Recopilacion Geogrdfica Estadistica i Historica de 
Venezuela (1889); P. E. Martin, Through Five Republics of South 
America (London, 1905); Bartolpme' Mitre (condensed translation 
by William Pilling), The Emancipation of South America (London, 
'893); G. Orsi de Mombello, Venezuela y sus riquezas (Caracas, 
1890); H. J. Mozans, Up the Orinoco and down the Magdalena 
(New York, 1910); F. Pimentel y Roth, Resumen cronologica de las 
leyes y decretas del credito publico de Venezuela, desde el ano de 
1826 hasta el de 1872-1873; W. L. Scruggs, The Colombian and 
Venezuelan Republics (2nd ed., Boston, 1905) ; W. L. Scruggs and 
J. J. Storrow, The Brief for Venezuela [Boundary dispute] (London, 
1896); J. M. Spence, The Land of Bolivar: Adventures in Venezuela 
(2 vols., London, 1878); J. Strickland, Documents and Maps of the 
Boundary Question between Venezuela and British Guiana (London, 
1896); S. P. Triana, Down the Orinoco in a Canoe (London, 1902); 
N. Veloz Goiticoa, Venezuela: Geographical Sketch, Natural Re- 
sources, Laws, &c. [Bur. of American Republics] (Washington, 
1904); F, Vizcarrondo Rojas, Resena Geogrdfica de Venezuela 
(Caracas, 1895); R. G. Watson, Spanish and Portuguese South 
America during the Colonial Period (2 vols., London, 1884); W. 
E. Wood, Venezuela: Two Years on the Spanish Main (London); 
and the Anuario esladistico de los Estados Unidos de Venezuela 
(Caracas) ; Diplomatic and Consular Reports. 



VENGURLA VENICE 



995 



VENGURLA, a seaport on the west coast of India in Ratnagiri 
district, Bombay. Pop. (1901) 19,018. It was an early site 
of both Dutch and English factories, and was formerly the port 
for communication with the garrisons in the Southern Mahratta 
country. In the neighbourhood are the " Burnt Islands," with 
the Vengurla Rock lighthouse. 

VENICE (Venezia), a city and seaport of Italy, occupying one 
of the most remarkable sites in the world. At the head of the 
Adriatic, between the mountains and the sea, lies that part of 
the Lombard plain known as the Veneto. The whole of this 
plain has been formed by the debris swept down from the Alps 
by the rivers Po, Ticino, Oglio, Adda, Mincio, Adige, Brenta, 
Piave, Livenza, Tagliamento and Isonzo. The substratum of 
the plain is a bed of boulders, covered during the lapse of ages by 
a deposit of rich alluvial soil. The rivers when they debouch 
from the mountains assume an eastern trend in their effort to 
reach the sea. The result is that the plain is being gradually 
extended in an easterly direction, and cities like Ravenna, 
Adria and Aquileia, which were once seaports, lie now many 
miles inland. The encroachment of land on sea has been cal- 
culated at the rate of about three miles in a thousand years. 
A strong current sets round the head of the Adriatic from east 
to west. This current catches the silt brought down by the 
rivers and projects it in long banks, or lidi, parallel with the 
shore. In process of time some of these banks, as in the case 
of Venice, raised themselves above the level of the water and 
became the true shore-line, while behind them lay large surfaces 
of water, called lagoons, formed partly by the fresh water 
brought down by the rivers, partly by the salt-water tide which 
found its way in by the channels of the river mouths. Along 
the coast-line, roughly speaking between the Apennines at 
Rimini and the Carnic Alps at Trieste, three main systems of 
lagoons were thus created, the lagoon of Grado or Marano to 
the east, the lagoon of Venice in the middle, and the lagoon of 
Comacchio to the south-west (for plan, see HARBOUR). All 
three are dotted with small islands, possibly the remains of some 
earlier Udo. These islands are little else than low mud banks, 
barely rising above the water-level. On a group of these mud 
banks about the middle of the lagoon of Venice stands the city of 
Venice. It would be difficult to imagine a site less adapted for 
the foundation and growth of a great community. The soil is 
an oozy mud which can only be made capable of carrying build- 
ings by the artificial means of pile-driving; there is no land fit for 
agriculture or the rearing of cattle; the sole food supply is fish 
from the lagoon, and there is no drinking-water save such as 
could be stored from the rainfall. Yet the group of islands 
called Rialto, in mid- Venetian lagoon, were first the asylum and 
then the magnificent and permanent home of a race that took 
a prominent part in the medieval and Renaissance history of 
Europe. The local drawbacks and difficulties once surmounted, 
Venice by her geographical position became the seaport nearest 
the heart of Europe. 

Ethnography and Early History. As to the ethnography of the 
race little is known that is certain. It has frequently been said 
that the lagoon population was originally composed of refugees 
from the mainland seeking asylum from the incursions of Huns, 
Goths and Lombards; but it is more probable that, long before 
the date of the earliest barbarian inroad, the lagoon islands 
already had a population of fisherfolk. In any case we may 
take it that the lagoon-dwellers were racially identical with the 
inhabitants of the neighbouring mainland, the Heneti or Veneti. 
That the Heneti themselves were immigrants is generally ad- 
mitted. The earlier ethnographers, like Strabo, put forward 
three theories as to the original home of the race. Strabo 
himself talks of Armoric Heneti, and supposes them to have 
come from the neighbourhood of Brittany; another theory 
gives us Sarmatian Heneti, from the Baltic provinces; while 
the most widely accepted view was that they reached Italy from 
Paphlagonia. Modern scholarship has rejected these theories. 
Pauli and Kretschmer, proceeding on the basis of language, 
have reached conclusions which in the main are identical. 
Pauli, who has published all the known inscriptions of the 



Heneti, holds that the language is Illyrian, closely connected 
with Messapian. Kretschmer goes further and divides the 
Illyrian language into two sharply defined dialects, the northern 
dialect being represented by the Heneti. The result is that in 
the present condition of our knowledge we must conclude that 
the Heneti were a branch of the Illyrian people. The Eneti of 
Paphlagonia, the Veneti of Brittany and the Venedi of the 
Baltic, are probably quite distinct, and the similarity of name 
is merely a coincidence. 

The dwellings of the primitive settlers in the lagoons were, 
in all probability, rude huts made of long reeds, such as may 
be seen to this day in the lagoon of Grado. A ditch was cut 
deep into the mud so as to retain the water at low tide, and 
there the boats of the fishermen lay. The ground about the 
hut was made solid and protected from corrosion by a palisade 
of wattled osiers, thus creating the earliest form of the fonda- 
menta, or quay, which runs along the side of so many Venetian 
canals and is so prominent a feature in the construction of the 
city. Gradually, as time went on, and probably with the influx 
of refugees from the mainland, bricks made of lagoon mud 
came to take the place of wattle and reeds in the construction 
of the houses. Groups of dwellings, such as are still to be 
seen on some of the small canals at Burano, clustered together 
along the banks of the deeper channels which traverse the 
lagoon islands and give access to the tide. It is these channels 
which determined the lines of construction; the dwellings fol- 
lowed their windings, and that accounts for the extraordinarily 
complex network of calles and canals which characterizes 
modern Venice. The alleys or calli number 2327, with a total 
length of, 8g| m.; the canals number 177 and measure 28 m. 
The whole site of Venice is dominated by the existence of one 
great main canal, the Grand Canal, which, winding through the 
town in the shape of the letter S, divides it into two equal parts. 
This great canal was probably at one time the bed of a river 
flowing into the lagoons near Mestre. The smaller canals all 
serve as arteries to the Grand Canal. One other broad canal, 
once the bed of the Brenta, divides the island of the Giudecca 
from the rest of the city and takes its name from that island. 
The ordinary Venetian house was built round a courtyard, and 
was one storey high; on the roof was an open loggia for drying 
clothes; in front, between the house and the water, ran the 
fondamenta. The earliest churches were built with cemeteries 
for the dead; and thus we find the nucleus of the city of Venice, 
little isolated groups of dwellings each on its separate islet, 
scattered, as Cassiodorus 1 says, like sea-birds' nests over the 
face of the waters. Some of the islets were still uninhabited, 
covered with a dense low growth which served as cover for 
game and even for wolves. 

With the destruction of the mainland cities by repeated 
barbarian invasions, and thanks to the gradual development 
of Venice as a centre of coasting trade in the northern Adriatic, 
the aspect of the city changed. Brick and more rarely stone 
took the place of wood and wattle. The assaults of the Dal- 
matian pirates, attracted by the growing wealth of the city, 
necessitated the building of strong castellated houses, of which 
no example has come down to our day, but we may gather 
what they were like from Petrarch's description of his house 
on the Riva degli Schiavoni, with its two flanking towers, 
probably retaining the primitive form, and also from the repre- 
sentations of protecting towers which occur in Carpaccio's 
pictures. The canals too were guarded by chains stretched 
across their mouths and by towers in some cases, as, for ex- 
ample, in the case of the Torresella Canal, which takes its name 
from these defence works. These houses clustered round the 
churches which now began to be built in considerable numbers, 
and formed the various contrade of the city. The Cronica 
altinate in the vision of Fra Mauro gives us a picturesque account 
of the founding of the various parishes, Olivolo or Castello, 
St Raffaello, St Salvadore, Sta Maria Formosa, S. Giovanni 
in Bragora, the Apostoli and Sta Giustina. Tradition has it 
that the earliest church in Venice was S. Giacomo di Rialto, 
1 Secretary to Theodoric the Great, in a letter dated A.D. 523. 



996 



VENICE 



said to have been founded in 432. The canals between these 
clusters of houses were deepened and cleared out, and in some 
cases trees were planted along the banks, or fondamenta; we 
hear of the cypresses on San Giorgio Maggiore, of an ancient 
mulberry tree at San Salvadore, of a great elder tree near the 
Procuratie Vecchie where the magistrates were wont to tie 
their horses. There were vineyards and orchards (broli) on 
land reclaimed from the sea, and lying between the various 
clusters of houses, which had not yet been consolidated into 
one continuous city. The canals were crossed by wooden 
bridges without steps, and in the case of the wide Grand Canal 
the bridge at Rialto was carried on boats. Gradually, how- 
ever, stone bridges came into use. The earliest of these was 
the bridge of San Zaccaria, mentioned in a document of 1170. 
The Rialto bridge was designed in 1178 by Nicolo Barattieri, 
and was carried on pontoons. In 1255 and 1264 it was rebuilt, 
still in wood. It was carried on beams and could be raised 
in the middle, as we see it in Carpaccio's picture of " The 
Miracle of the Cross." The present bridge, the work of Antonio 
or Giovanni Contino, whose nickname was da Ponte, dates 
from 1588-91, and cost 250,000 ducats. The same archi- 
tect was responsible for the lofty "Bridge of Sighs" (1595- 
1605), connecting the ducal palace with the state prisons 
(1591-97) on the opposite side of the narrow canal on the east 
of the Rio del Palazzo. 

The early bridges were inclined planes and could easily be 
crossed by horses. It was not till the city became more populous 
and when stone-stepped bridges were introduced that the use 
of horses died out. As late as 1365 the Doge Lorenzo Celsi 
owned a famous stud of chargers, and in 1490 the Doge Michele 
Steno's stables, where the present Zecca stands, were famous 
throughout Italy. In 1392 a law put an end to riding in the 
Merceria, on account of the crowd, and all horses and mules 
were obliged to carry bells to warn foot-passengers. The lanes 
and alleys of the early city were unpaved and filthy with slops 
from the houses. But in the i3th century the Venetians began 
to pave the more frequented streets with brick. Ferries or 
traghetti for crossing the canals were also established as early 
as the 1 3th century; we find record of ferries at San Gregorio, 
San Felice, San Toma, San Samuele, and so on, and also of 
longer ferries to the outlying islands like Murano and Chioggia, 
or to the mainland at Mestre and Fusina. The boatmen early 
erected themselves into gilds. 

Gondolas. The characteristic conveyances on the canals of 
Venice which take the place of cabs in other cities are the 
gondolas, flat-bottomed boats, some 30 ft. long by 4 or 5 ft. 
wide, curving out of the water at the ends, with ornamental 
bow and stern pieces and an iron beak (ferro), resembling a 
halberd, which is the highest part of the boat. The gondolier 
stands on a poppa at the stern with his face towards the bow, 
and propels the gondola with a single oar. There is a low 
cabin (felze) for passengers; the ordinary gondolas can take 
four or six persons, and larger ones (barca or battello) take 
eight. Gondolas are mentioned as far back as 1094, and, prior 
to a sumptuary edict passed by the great council in the i6th 
century, making black their compulsory colour, they were very 
different in appearance from now. Instead of the present boat, 
with its heavy black cabin and absence of colouring, the older 
forms had an awning of rich stuffs or gold embroideries, sup- 
ported on a light arched framework open at both ends; this 
is the gondola still seen in Carpaccio's and Gentile Bellini's 
pictures (c. 1500). Since 1880 services of omnibus steamers 
(now municipal) have also been introduced. 

Byzantine Architecture. We can trace the continuous growth 
of Venice through the successive styles of Byzantine, Gothic, 
early Renaissance and late Renaissance architecture. The 
whole subject is magnificently treated in Ruskin's Stones of 
Venice. The two most striking buildings in Venice, St Mark's 
and the Doge's Palace, at once give us an example of the 
two earlier styles, the Byzantine and the Gothic, at least in 
their general design, though both are so capricious in develop- 
ment and in decoration that they may more justly be con- 



sidered as unique specimens rather than as typical examples 
of their respective styles. In truth, owing to its isolated 
position on the very verge of Italy, and to its close con- 
nexion with the East, Venetian architecture was an inde- 
pendent development. Though displaying a preponderance of 
Oriental characteristics, it retained a quality of its own quite 
unlike the styles evolved by other Western countries. 

The Byzantine style prevailed 'in Venice during the nth and 
1 2th centuries. The arches of this period are semicircular and 
usually highjy stilted. Sculptured ornamentation, flowing scroll- 
work of semi-conventional foliage mingled with grotesque animals, 
birds or dragons, is freely applied to arches and string courses. The 
walls are built of solid brickwork and then covered with thin slabs 
of rich and costly marbles. Sculptured panels, with conventional 
motives, peacocks, eagles devouring hares, peacocks drinking from a 
cup on a tall pillar, are let into both exterior and interior walls, 
as are roundels of precious marbles, sawn from columns of porphyry, 
serpentine, yerd antique, &c. The adoption of veneer for decora- 
tion prohibited any deep cutting, and almost all the sculpture is 
shallow. Only in the capitals, which are of extraordinary richness 
and variety, do we get any deep or bold relief. Dentil mouldings, 
of which examples may still be seen in the remains of the palace of 
Blachernae at Constantinople, are characteristic of Venetian orna- 
mentation at this period, and remain a permanent feature in Venetian 
architecture down to the nth century. The dome is the leading 
idea or motif in Byzantine ecclesiastical architecture; the domes 
are placed over square, not circular apartments, and their bases 
are Drought to a circle by means of pendentives. In exterior 
elevation the chief effect is produced by the grouping of the domes. 
In the interior the effect is gained by broad masses of chromatic 
decoration in marble-veneer and mosaics on a gold ground to 
cover the walls and vaults, and by elaborate pavements of opus 
sectile and opus Alexandrinum. Owing to the marshy site the 
foundations of buildings in Venice offered considerable difficulties. 
A trench was dug in the soft upper mud until the stratum of stiff 
blue clay was reached. Piles of elm, oak, white poplar or larch were 
driven into this clay to the depth of 1 6 to 20 ft. or until absolute 
resistance was encountered. The heads of the piles were from 
10 to II in. in diameter and they were driven in almost in contact. 
On this surface of pile heads was laid a platform of two layers of 
squared oak beams; and on this again the foundations proper were 
built. In some cases, however, as for example in the ducal palace 
itself, if the clay appeared sufficiently firm, the piles were dispensed 
with and the foundations went up directly from the oak platform 
which rested immediately on the clay. During the middle ages 
the walls of Venetian buildings were constructed invariably of brick. 
They were usually solid, but in some cases they were built a sacco 
that is to say, two thin outer walls were built and the space between 
them was filled with grouted rubble. The delicate creamy Istrian 
stone, which is now so prominent a feature in Venetian architecture, 
did not come into common use till after the nth century, when 
the Istrian coast became permanently Venetian. Before 1405 the 
mortar used in Venice was made of lime from Istria, which possessed 
no hydraulic qualities and was consequently very perishable, a 
fact which to a large extent accounts for the fall of the Campanile 
of San Marco. But when Venice took possession of the mainland 
her builders were able to employ a strong hydraulic dark lime from 
Albettone, which formed a durable cement, capable of resisting salt 
water and the corrosive sea air. 

The church of St Mark's, originally the private chapel of 
the doge, is unique among the buildings of the world in respect 
of its unparalleled richness of material and decoration. 
It grew with the growing state whose religious centre it Mark's 
was, and was adorned with the spoils of countless 
other buildings, both in the East and on the Italian mainland. 
A law of the republic required every merchant trading to the 
East to bring back some material for the adornment of the 
fane. Indeed, the building has been compared to the treasure 
den of a gang of "sea sharkers," and from a museum of 
sculpture of the most varied kind, nearly every century from 
the 4th down to the latest Renaissance being represented. The 
present church is the third on this site. Soon after the con- 
centration at Rialto (see History below), a small wooden church 
was erected about the year 828 for the reception of the relics 
of St Mark, which had been brought from Alexandria when 
the Moslems pulled down the church where he was buried. 
St Mark then became the patron saint of Venice in place of 
St Theodore. This church was burned in 976 along with the 
ducal palace in the insurrection against the Doge Candiano IV. 
Pietro Orseolo and his successors rebuilt the church on a 
larger scale in the form of a basilica with three eastern apses 
and no transept, and Byzantine workmen were employed. As 



VENICE 



997 



the state grew in wealth and importance the church grew with 
it. About the year 1063 the Doge Contarini resolved to re- 
model St Mark's. There can be no doubt that Byzantine artists 
had a large share in the work, but it is equally certain that 
Lombard workmen were employed along with the Orientals, 
and thus St Mark's became, as it were, a workshop in which 
two styles, Byzantine and Lombard, met and were fused 
together, giving birth to a new style, peculiar to the district, 
which may fairly be called Veneto-Byzantine. 

In plan (see the article ARCHITECTURE) St Mark's is a Greek cross 
of equal arms, covered by a dome in the centre, 42 ft. in diameter, 
and by a dome over each of the arms. The plan is derived from the 
Church of the Holy Apostles at Constantinople, now covered by 
the mosque of Mahommed II., and bears a strong resemblance to 
the plan of St Front at Perigueux in France (1120). The addition 
of a narthex before the main front and a vestibule on the northern 
side brings the whole western arm of the cross to a square on plan. 
In elevation the fagade seems to have connexion with the five-bayed 
facade of the Kahriyeh Jame, or mosaic mosque, at Constantinople. 
The exterior facade is enriched with marble columns brought from 
Alexandria and other cities of the East, and bearing in many cases 
incised graffiti. Mosaics are employed to decorate the spandrils of 
the arches. Only one of the original mosaics now exists, the one 
over the doorway at the north-western, or St Alipio, angle. Its 
subject, which is of high historical value as a record of costume, 
represents the translation of the body of St Mark, and gives us a view 
of the west facade of the church as it was at the beginning of the 
13th century before the addition of the ogee gables, with alternat- 
ing crockets and statues, and the intermediate pinnacled canopies 
placed between the five great arches of the upper storey. The top 
of the narthex forms a wide gallery, communicating with the interior 
at the triforium level. In the centre of this gallery stand the four 
colossal bronze horses which belonged to some Graeco- Roman 
triumphal quadriga, and were brought to Venice by the Doge 
Enrico Dandolo after the fall of Constantinople in 1204; they were 
carried off by Napoleon to Paris in 1797, and restored by Francis 
of Austria in 1815. 

Mosaic is the essential decoration of the church, and the architec- 
tural details are subordinated to the colour scheme. These mosaics 
belong to very various dates. The Doge Domenico Selvo began the 
decoration of the church in 1071, though it is uncertain whether 
any of his work can be now identified. The mosaics of the domes 
would seem to belong to the I2th century, probably before 1150. 
The mosaics of the atrium date from 1200 to 1300; the subjects 
are taken from Old Testament story. The baptistery mosaics 
represent the life of St John. The mosaics in the chapel of St 
Isidore (finished by Andrea Dandolo), giving us the life of the saint, 
were executed in 1355. In the sacristy is a series of loth-century 
mosaics, and in other parts of the church are inferior and later 
mosaics from cartoons by later Venetian ^masters. Below the 
mosaics the walls and arches are covered with rare marbles, por- 
phyries and alabaster from ancient columns sawn into slices 
and so arranged in broad bands as to produce a rich gamut of 
colour. 

The eastern crypt, or confessio, extends under the whole of the 
choir and has three apses, like the upper church. The body of St 
Mark formerly rested here, but is now within the high altar. Below 
the nave is another crypt. The floors of both crypts have sunk 
considerably and are often under water; this settlement accounts 
for the inequalities of the pavement. The original part of the 
magnificent mosaic pavement probably dates from the middle of 
the I2th century, if we may judge from the pavement at Murano, 
exactly similar in style, material and workmanship, which bears 
the date 1140. The pavement consists partly of opus Alexandrinum 
of red and green porphyry mixed with marbles, partly of tesselated 
work of glass and marble tesserae. 

The choir stands about 4 ft. above the nave and is separated 
from it by a marble rood-screen, on the architrave of which stand 
fourteen figures, the signed work of Jacobello and Pietro Paolo 
delle Masegne, 1394. 

The Pala d'oro, or retable of the high altar, is one of the chief 
glories of St Mark's. It is one of the most magnificent specimens 
of goldsmiths' and jewellers' work in existence. It was ordered 
in 976 at Constantinople by the Doge Pietro I. Orseolo, and was 
enlarged and enriched with gems and modified in form, first by a 
Greek artificer in 1105, and then by Venetians between 1209 and 
I 345- It is composed of figures of Christ, angels, prophets and 
saints, in Byzantine ename] run into gold plates. It is about 1 1 ft. 6 in. 
wide, and about 4 ft. 8 in. high. It contains 1300 great pearls, 
400 garnets, 90 amethysts, 300 sapphires, 300 emeralds, 15 rubies, 
75 balas rubies, 4 topazes, 2 cameos; the gems, except where they 
have been replaced, are cut en cabochon. The treasury of St Mark's 
contains a magnificent collection of church plate and jewels. 

Fine examples of Venetian Byzantine palaces at least of 
the facades are still to be seen on the Grand Canal and in 
some of the small canals. The interiors have been modified 



past recognition of their original disposition. The Byzantine 
palace seems to have had twin angle-towers geminas 
angulares tunes such as those of the Ca' Molin on the 
Riva degli Schiavoni, where Petrarch lived. The Byata- 
restored (1880) Fondaco l dei Turchi (13 th century), tiae 
now the Museo Civico, also has two angle-towers. The ('* 
facades presented continuous colonnades on each floor with semi- 
circular high stilted arches, leaving a very small amount of 
wall space. The buildings were usually battlemented in fantastic 
form. A good specimen may be seen in Lazzaro Sebastiani's 
picture of the piazzetta, in the Museo Civico. There on the 
right we see the handsome building of the old bakery, occupy- 
ing the site of the present library; it has two arcades 
of Saracenic arches and a fine row of battlements. Other 
specimens still in existence are the municipal buildings, Palazzo 
Loredan and Palazzo Farsetti if, indeed, these are not to 
be considered rather as Romanesque and the splendid Ca' da 
Mosto, all on the Grand Canal. The richest ornamentation 
was applied to the arches and string courses, while plaques of 
sculpture, roundels and coats of arms adorned the facades. 
The remains of a Byzantine facade now almost entirely built 
into a wall in the Rio di Ca' Foscari offer us excellent illustra- 
tion of this decorative work. 




FIG. i. Square of St Mark and surrounding buildings. The 
original campo was bounded on the west by the canal B, with the 
6th-century church of S. Geminiano, C, on its west bank. The 
first enlargement of the square was effected by Doge Sebastiano 
Ziani in 1176, when he filled up the canal and rebuilt the church 
on a new site at D, thus nearly doubling the size of the square. 
Lastly, the square was extended southwards in the i6th century, 
when the new palace of the procurators, K, was built by Scamozzi. 
Gentile Bellini's picture shows a line of houses along FF, reaching 
up to the great campanile, A. Napoleon I. in 1805-10 pulled 
down the church of S. Geminiano and built a new block at the 
west end of the square, L. The dates of the various parts of the 
existing ducal palace are indicated on the plan; the rebuilding 
was carried on in the following order, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V. At 
Z is the treasury of St Mark, which was originally one of the towers 
belonging to the old ducal palace; E, site of old houses; G, clock- 
tower; H, old palace of procurators; J, old library; M, two 
columns; N, Ponte della Paglia; O, Bridge of Sighs; W, Giants' 
Staircase; X, sacristy of St Mark; Y, Piazzetta. 

Gothic Architecture. Venetian Gothic, both ecclesiastical 
and domestic, shares most of the characteristics of north 
Italian Gothic generally, though in domestic architecture it 
displays one peculiarity which we shall presently note. The 
material, brick and terra-cotta, is the determining cause of 
the characteristics of north Italian Gothic 

1 This palace was originally, the property of the Pesaro family, 
and afterwards of the duke of Este, and finally of the republic, 
which used it as a dwelling-place for royal guests before letting it 
to Turkish merchants. The word Fondaco (derived through Arabic 
from the Greek jravSoxeioi'), as applied to some of the Venetian palaces, 
denotes the mercantile headquarters of a foreign trading nation. 
Those still existing are the Turkish and the German (F. de' Tedeschi), 
the latter now converted into the post office. 



VENICE 



Flatness and lack of deep shadows, owing to the impossibility 
of obtaining heavy cornices in that material, mark the style. The 
prevalence of sunlight led to a restriction of the windows and 
exaggeration of wall space. The development of tracery was 
hindered both by the material and by the relative insignificance 
of the windows. On the other hand, the plastic quality of terra- 
cotta suggested an abundance of delicate ornamentation on a small 
scale, which produced its effect by its own individual beauty without 
broad reference to the general scheme. Coloured marbles and 
frescoes served a like purpose. The exteriors of the north Italian 
Gothic churches are characterized by the flatness of the roof; the 
treatment of the west facade as a mere screen wall, masking the true 
lines of the aisle roofs; the great circular window in the west front 
for lighting the nave; the absence of pinnacles owing to the un- 
importance of the buttresses; the west-end porches with columns 
resting on lions or other animals. The peculiarity of Venetian 
domestic Gothic to which we have referred is this: we frequently 
find tracery used to fill rectangular, not arched, openings. The 
result is that the tracery itself has to support the structure above 
it is, in fact, constructional whereas in most other countries the 
tracery is merely, as it were, a pierced screen filling in a construc- 
tional arch. Hence the noticeable heaviness of Venetian tracery. 

The ducal palace, like St Mark's, is a symbol and an epitome 
of the race which evolved it. Soon after the concentration 
The a t Rialto the doge Angelo Particiaco began an official 

aacal residence for the head of the state. It was probably 
palace. a &ma \\ t strongly fortified castle; one of its massive 
angle-towers is now incorporated in St Mark's and serves as 
the treasury. During the earlier years of the republic the 
ducal palace was frequently destroyed and rebuilt. It was 
burnt in 976 and again in 1106. At the close of the I2th 
century (1173-1179) Sebastian Ziani restored and enlarged 
the palace. Of his work some traces still remain in the richly 
sculptured bands built in at intervals along the 14th-century 
facade on the Rio, and part of the handsome larch-wood beams 
which formed the loggia of the piazzetta facade, still visible 
on the inner wall of the present loggia. The present magnificent 
building was a slow growth extending over three centuries and 
expanding gradually as the republic grew in riches. 

The palace as we now see it was begun about 1300 by Doge 
Pietro Gradenigo, who soon after the closing of the great council 
gave its permanent form to the Venetian constitution. It is there- 
fore, in a sense, contemporaneous with the early manhood of the 
state. Gradenigo built the facade along the Rio. About 1309 
the arcaded facade along the lagoon front was taken in hand, and 
set the design for the whole of the external frontage of the palace. 
Towards the end of the i^th century, this facade, with its lower 
colonnade, upper loggia with handsome Gothic tracery, and the 
vast impending upper storey, which give to the whole building 
its striking appearance and audacious design, had been carried as 
far as the tenth column on the piazzetta side. At this point, perhaps 
out of regard for the remains of Ziani's palace, the work seems to 
have been arrested for many years, but in 1424 the building was 
resumed and carried as far as the north-west, or judgment, angle, 
near St Mark's, thus completing the sea and piazzetta facades as 
we now see them. The great gateway, the Porta della Carta, was 
added in 1439-42 from designs by Bartholomeo Buono (or Bon) and 
his son. The block of buildings in the interior, connecting the Porta 
della Carta to the Rio wing, was added about 1462 by the doge 
Cristoforo Moro. In 1479 a fire consumed the earlier buildings 
along the Rio, and these were replaced (1480-1550) by the present 
Renaissance structure. 

The two main facades, those towards the sea and the piazzetta, 
consist of a repetition of the same design, that which was begun 
in the early years of the idth century. The name of the architect 
who began the work and thus fixed the design of the whole is not 
certainly known, but it must have been a man of an earlier genera- 
tion than that of Filippo Calendario, who is often stated to have 
been the chief architect of the older portion. Calendario was an 
accomplice in the conspiracy of Marino Faliero, and was executed 
together with the doge in 1355. It appears probable that a Venetian 
architect and sculptor named Pietro Baseggio was the chief master- 
builder in the first half of the I4th century. The design of these 
facades is very striking and unlike that of any other building in the 
world. It consists of two storeys with open colonnades, forming a 
long loggia on the ground and first floors, with seventeen arches 
on the sea front and eighteen on the other facade. Above this is 
a lofty third storey, pierced with a few large windows, with pointed 
arches once filled with tracery, which js now lost. The whole 
surface of the ponderous upper storey is covered with a diaper 
pattern in slabs of creamy white Istrian stone and red Verona 
marble, giving a delicate rosy-orange hue to the building. Very 
beautiful sculpture, executed with an ivory-like minuteness of 
finish, is used to decorate the whole building with wonderful profusion. 



At each of the three free angles is a large group immediately over 
the lower column. At the south-east angle is the " Drunkenness of 
Noah," at the south-west the " Fall of Man," and at the north-west 
the " Judgment of Solomon." Over each, at a much higher level, is a 
colossal figure of an archangel Raphael, Michael and Gabriel. 

The great internal court is surrounded with arcading. From 
the interior of the court access is given to the upper loggia by 
a very beautiful staircase of early Renaissance style, built in the 
middle of the isth century by Antonio Rizzo. Two colossal statues 
of Neptune and Mars at the top of these stairs were executed by 
Jacppo Sansovino in 1554 hence the name " giants' staircase. 
Owing to a fire which gutted a great part of the palace in 1574, the 
internal appearance of the rooms was completely changed, and the 
fine series of early Paduan and Venetian paintings which decorated 
the walls of the chief rooms was lost. At present the magnificent 
council chambers for the different legislative bodies of the Venetian 
republic and the state apartments of the doges are richly decorated 
with gilt carving and panelling in the style of the later Renaissance. 
On the walls of the chief council chambers are a magnificent series 
of oil-paintings by Tintoretto and other less able Venetians among 
them Tintoretto's masterpiece, " Bacchus and Ariadne," and his enor- 
mous picture of Paradise, the largest oil-painting in the world. 

Among the many Gothic churches of Venice the largest are 
the Franciscan church of Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari (1250- 
1280), and the Dominican church of SS. Giovanni e 
Paolo (1260-1400). The Frari is remarkable for its "h'J'nhes. 
fine choir-stalls and for the series of six eastern chapels 
which from outside give a very good example of Gothic brick- 
work, comparable with the even finer apse of the now dese- 
crated church of San Gregorio. The church of SS. Giovanni e 
Paolo was the usual burying-place of the doges, and contains 
many noble mausoleums of various dates. Besides these two 
churches we may mention Santo Stefano, an interesting build- 
ing of central Gothic, " the best ecclesiastical example of it in 
Venice." The apse is built over a canal. The west entrance 
is later than the rest of the edifice and is of the richest Re- 
naissance Gothic, a little earlier than the Porta della Carta. 

But it is in the domestic architecture of Venice that we 
find the most striking and characteristic examples of Gothic. 
The introduction of that style, coincided with the 
consolidation of the Venetian constitution and the 
development of Venetian commerce both in the Levant 
and with England and Flanders. The wealth which thus 
accrued found architectural expression in those noble palaces, 
so characteristic of Venice, which line the Grand and smaller 
canals. They are so numerous that we cannot do more than 
call attention to one or two. 

The most striking example is undoubtedly the Ca' d' Oro, so 
called from the profusion of gold employed on its facade. It 
was built for Marino Contarini in 1421, rather a late period in 
the development of the style. 

_ Marino kept a minute entry of his expenses, a document of the 
highest value, not merely for the history of the building, but also 
for the light it throws on the private life of the great patricians 
who gave to Venice such noble examples of art. Contarini was to 
some extent his own architect. He had the assistance of Marco 
d' Amadeo, a master-builder, and of Matteo Reverti, a Milanese 
sculptor, who were joined later on by Giovanni Buono and his 
son Bartolomeo._ Other artists, of whom we know nothing else, 
such as Antonio Busetto, Antonio Foscolo, Gasparino Rosso, 
Giacomo da Como, Marco da Legno and others, were called in to 
help in evolving this masterpiece of decorated architecture, affording 
us an example of the way in which the ducal palace and other 
monuments of Venice grew out of the collaboration of numerous 
nameless artists. By the year 1431 the facade was nearly completed, 
and Contarini made a bargain with Martino and Giovanni Benzon 
for the marbles to cover what was yet unfinished. The facade is 
a triumph of graceful elegance; so light is the tracery, so rich the 
decoration, so successful the breach of symmetry which gives us a 
wing upon the left-hand side but none upon the right. But Con- 
tarini was not content to leave the marbles .as they were. He 
desired to have_the facade of his house in colour. The contract 
for_this work, signed with Master Zuan de Franza, conjures up a 
vision of the Ca d' Oro ablaze with colour and gleaming with the 
gold ornamentation from which it took its name. 

Other notable examples of this style are the Palazzo Ariani at 
San Raffaelle, with its handsome window in a design of intersect- 
ing circles; the beautiful window with the symbols of the four 
Evangelists in the spandrils, jn the facade of a house at San 
Stae; the row of three Giustinian palaces at S. Barnaba; the 
Palazzo Priuli at San Severo, with a remarkably graceful angle- 
window, where the columnar mullion carries down the angle of the 



Gothic 
palaces. 



VENICE 



999 



wall; 'the flamboyant balconies of the Palazzo Contarini Fasan; 
the Palazzo Bernardo on a side canal near S. Polo, a late central 
Gothic building (1380-1400) which Ruskin describes as " of the 
finest kind and superb in its effect of colour when seen from the 
side. Taken as a whole, after the ducal palace this is the noblest 
effect of all in Venice." 

Early Renaissance. Towards the close of the isth century 
Venetian architecture began to feel the influence of the classical 
revival; but, lying far from Rome and retaining still her 
connexion with the East, Venice did not fall under the sway of 
the classical ideals either so quickly or so completely as most 
Italian cities. Indeed, in this as in the earlier styles, Venice 
struck out a line for herself and developed a style of her own, 
known as Lombardesque, after the family of the Lombardi 
(Solari) who came from Carona on the Lake of Lugano and may 
be said to have created it. 

The essential point about the style is that it is intermediary 
between Venetian Gothic and full Renaissance. We find it retaining 
some traces of Byzantine influence in the decorated surfaces of 
applied marbles, and in the roundels of porphyry and verd antique, 
while it also retained certain characteristics of Gothic, as, for instance, 
in the pointed arches of the Renaissance faga.de in the courtyard 
of the ducal palace designed by Antonio Rizzo (1499). Special 
notes of the style are the central grouping of the windows, leaving 
comparatively solid spaces on each side, which gives the effect of 




Churches. 



FIG. 2. Ca' d' Oro, as originally built. 

a main building with wings; the large amount of window space; 
the comparative flatness of the facades; the employment of a 
cornice to each storey; the effect of light and shade given by the 
balconies; and in churches by the circular pediments on the facades. 

The most perfect example of this style in ecclesiastical archi- 
tecture is the little church of the Miracoli built by Pietro 
Lombardo in 1480. The church is without aisles, and 
has a semicircular roof, and the choir is raised twelve 
steps above the floor of the nave. The walls, both internally 
and externally, are encrusted with marbles. The facade has 
the characteristic circular pediment with a large west window 
surrounded by three smaller windows separated by two orna- 
mental roundels in coloured marble and of geometric design. 
Below the pediment comes an arcade with flat pilasters, which 
runs all round the exterior of the church. Two of the bays 
contain round-headed windows; the other three are filled in 
with white marble adorned by crosses and roundels in coloured 
marble. The lower order contains the flat pilastered portal 
with two panelled spaces on each side. 

Similar results are obtained in the magnificent facade of the 
Scuola di San Marco, at SS. Giovanni e Paolo, which has six semi- 
circular pediments of varying size crowning the six bays, in the 
upper order of which are four noble Romanesque windows. The 
lower order contains the handsome portal with a semicircular 
pediment, while four of the remaining bays are filled with quaint 
scenes in surprisingly skilful perspective. The facade of San 
Zaccaria (1457-1515), the stately design of Anton Marco Gambello 
and Mauro Coducci, offers some slight modifications in the use of 



the semicircular pediment, the line of the aisle roof being indicated 
by quarter-circle pediments abutting on the facade of the nave. 
San Salvadore, the work of Tullio Lombardo (1530), is severer and 
less highly ornamented than the preceding examples, but its plan 
is singularly impressive, giving the effect of great space in a com- 
paratively small area. In this connexion we must mention the 
Scuola of S. Giovanni Evangelista at the Frari, with its fore-court 
and screen adorned by pilasters delicately decorated with foliage 
in low relief, and its noble staircase whose double flights unite on 
a landing under a shallow cupola. This also was the work of Pietro 
Lombardo and his son Tullio. 

Early Renaissance palaces occur frequently in Venice and 
form a pleasing contrast with those in the Gothic style. The 
Palazzo Dario with its dedication, Urbis genio, the 
superb Manzoni-Montecuculi-Polignac, with its friezes 
of spread-eagles in low relief, and the Vendramini-Calergi 
or Non nobis palace, whose facade is characterized by its round- 
headed windows of grouped twin lights between columns, are 
among the more important; though beautiful specimens, such 
as the Palazzo Trevisan on the Rio della Paglia, and the Palazzo 
Corner Reali at the Fava, are to be found all over the city. 

Later Renaissance. When we come to the fully developed 
Renaissance, architecture in Venice ceases to possess that 
peculiarly individual imprint which marks the earlier Library 
styles. It is still characterized by great splendour; otsaa 
indeed, the library of San Marco, built by Jacopo Marco. 
Sansovino in 1536, is justly considered the most sumptuous 
example of Renaissance architecture in the world. It is rich, 
ornate, yet hardly florid, distinguished by splendid effects 
of light and shade, obtained by a far bolder use of projections 
than had hitherto been found in the somewhat flat design of 
Venetian facades. The columned, round-headed windows are 
set in deeply between the pillars which carry the massive 
entablature, and this again i.= surmounted by a balustrade 
with obelisks at each angle and figures marking the line of each 
bay. The Istrian stone of which the edifice is built has taken 
a fine patina, which makes the whole look like some richly 
embossed casket in oxidized silver. 

The full meaning of the change which had come over Venetian 
architecture, of the gulf which lies between the early Lombard- 
esque style, so purely characteristic of Venice, and the fully 
developed classical revival, which now assumed undisputed 
sway, may best be grasped by comparing the old and the new 
Procuratie. Not more than eighty years separate these two 
buildings; the old Procuratie were built by Bartolomeo Buono 
about 1500, the new by Scamozzi in 1580, yet it is clear that 
each belongs to an entirely different world of artistic ideas. 
The Procuratie Vecchie is perhaps the longest arcaded facade 
in the world and certainly shows the least amount of wall 
space; the whole design is simple, the moulding and ornamenta- 
tion severe. The Procuratie Nuove, which after all is merely 
Scamozzi's continuation of Sansovino's library, displays all the 
richness of that ornate building. 

Among the churches of this period we may mention San Geminiano, 
designed by Sansovino, and destroyed at the beginning of the igth 
century to make room for the ball-room built by Napoleon 
for Eugene Beauharnais. The churches of San Giorgio c " ore " es - 
Maggiore and of the Redentore, a votive church for liberation from 
the plague, are both by Palladia In 1632 Baldassare Longhena built 
the fine church of Santa Maria della Salute, also a votive church, 
erected by the state to commemorate the cessation of the plague of 
1630. This noble pile, with a large and handsome dome, a secondary 
cupola over the altar, and a striking portal and flight of steps, 
occupies one of the most conspicuous sites in Venice on the point 
of land that separates the mouth of the Guidecca from the Grand 
Canal. In plan it is an octagon with chapels projecting one on 
each side. The volute buttresses, each crowned with a statue, add 
quaintly but happily to the general effect. After Longhena's date 
church architecture in Venice declined upon the dubious taste of 
baroque; the facades of San Moise and of Santa Maria del Giglio 
are good specimens of this style. 

The palaces of the later Renaissance are numerous and frequently 
grandiose though frigid in design. The more remarkable are 
Sansovino's Palazzo Corner, Longhena's massive and 
imposing Palazzo Pesaro, the Palazzo Rezzonico, from Palaces. 
designs by Longhena with the third storey added by Massari, 
Sammicheli's Palazzo Corner at San Polo, and Massari's well-propor- 
tioned and dignified Palazzo Grassi at San Samuele, built in 1 740. 



IOOO 



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Modern Buildings. In recent times the general prosperity 
of the city, which is on the ascendant, has brought about a 
revival of domestic and civic architecture. The architects 
Rupolo and Sardi have erected a considerable number of build- 
ings, in which they have attempted, and with considerable 
success, to return either to Venetian Gothic or to the early 
Renaissance Lombardesque style. The most striking of these 
modern buildings are the new wing of the Hotel d'ltalie, San 
Moise, and the very successful fish market at Rialto, designed 
by Laurenti and carried out by Rupolo, in which a happy 
return to early Venetian Gothic has been effected in conjunction 
with a skilful adaptation of one of the most famous of the old 
houses of Venice, the Stalon, or palace of the Quirini family. 

Gild Halls. Among the most remarkable buildings in Venice 
are the scuole, or gild halls, of the various confraternities. They 
were pious foundations created for mutual benefit and for purposes 
of charity. The scuole were divided into the six scuole grandi, 
so called from their numbers, wealth and privileges, and the scuole 
minori or fragile, which in most cases were associated with an art 
or craft. The scuole minori were usually attached to some church 
in the quarter where the particular trade flourished. They had their 
special altar dedicated to the patron of the gild, a private burying- 
place, and a room in which they held their chapter. The six scuole 
grandi, San Teodoro, S. Maria delta Carita, S. Giovanni Evangelista, 
San Marco, della Misericordia and San Rocco, on the other hand, 
built themselves magnificent gild halls. We have already mentioned 
two of these, the Scuola di San Giovanni Evangelista and the Scuola 
di San Marco, both of them masterpieces of the Lombardesque 
style. The Scuola di San Marco is now a part of the town hospital, 
and besides its facade, already described, it is remarkable for the 
handsome carved ceiling in the main hall (1463). Other beautiful 
ceilings are to be found in the great hall and the hall of the Albergo 
in the Scuola della Carita, now the Accademia. They are the work 
of Marco Cozzi of Vicenza and were executed between 1461 and 
1464. The design of the former is a trellis crossing the ceiling 
diagonally; in each of the lacunae is carved a cherubim with eight 
wings; the figures and the trellis are gilded; the ground is a rich 
ultramarine. Bnt the most magnificent of these gild halls is the 
Scuola di San Rocco, designed by Bartolomeo Buono in 1517 and 
carried out by Scarpagnino and Sante Lombardo. The facade 
on the Campo is large and pure in conception. The great staircase 
and the lower and upper halls contain the unrivalled series of paint- 
ings by Tintoretto, which called forth such unbounded enthusiasm 
on the part of Ruskin. 

Campanili. Among the more striking features of Venice we 
must reckon the campanili or bell-towers (see CAMPANILE). These 
were at one time more numerous than at the present day; earth- 
quakes and subsidence of foundations have brought many of them 
down, the latest to fall being the great tower of San Marco itself, 
which collapsed on July I4th, 1902. Its reconstruction was at once 
undertaken, and completed in 1910. In a few other cases, for 
example at San Giorgio Maggiore, the fallen campanili were restored ; 
but for the most part they were not replaced. The Venetian cam- 
panile usually stands detached from the church. It is almost 
invariably square; the only examples of round campanili in this 
part of Italy are to be found at Ravenna and at Caorle to the east 
of Venice; while inside Venice itself the solitary exception to the 
square plan was the campanile of San Paternian, built in 999 and 
now demolished, which was a hexagon. The campanile is usually 
a plain brick shaft with shallow pilasters running up the faces. 
It has small angle-windows to light the interior inclined plane or 
staircase, and is not broken into storeys with grouped windows as 
in the case of the Lombard bell-towers. Above the shaft comes 
the arcaded bell-chamber, frequently built of Istrian stone; and 
above that again the attic, either round or square or octagonal, 
carrying either a cone or a pyramid or a cupola, sometimes sur- 
mounted by a cross or a gilded angel which serves as a weather- 
cock. Cressets used to be kept burning at night on some of the 
campanili to serve as beacons for those at sea. Among the existing 
campanili the oldest are San Geremia, dating from the nth century, 
San Samuele from the I2th, San Barnaba and San Zaccaria from 
the I3th. The campanile of S. Giovanni Elemosinario at Rialto 
(1398-1400) is called by Ruskin " the most interesting piece of 
central Gothic remaining comparatively intact in Venice. 

Public Monuments. Venetian sculpture is for the most part 
ancillary to architecture; for example, Antonio Rizzo's "Adam" 
and ' Eve " (1464), which face the giants'-staircase in the ducal 
palace, are parts of the decorative scheme; Sansovino's splendid 
monument to Tomaso Rangone is an essential feature of the facade 
of San Giuliano. The most successful Venetian sculpture is to 
be found in the many noble sepulchral private monuments. The 
jealousy of the Venetian republic forbade the erection of monuments 
to her great men. The sole exception is the superb equestrian 
statue in honour of the General Bartolomeo Colleoni, which stands 
on the Campo SS. Giovanni e Paolo. By his will Colleoni left his 



vast fortune to Venice on condition that a monument should be 
raised to him at St Mark's. He meant the great piazza, but by a 
quibble the republic evaded the concession of so unique an honour 
and claimed to have fulfilled the conditions of the bequest by erecting 
the monument at the Scuola of St Mark. The republic entrusted 
the work to the Florentine Verrocchio, who dying before the statue 
was completed begged the government to allow his pupil Lorenzo 
di Credi to carry it to a conclusion. The Venetians, however, called 
in Alessandro Leopardi, who cast' the great equestrian group and 
added the pure and graceful pedestal. The monument was un- 
veiled on the 2 1st of March 1496. Leonardo was also the creator 
C'S.OS) of the three handsome bronze sockets in front of St Mark's 
which held the flagstaffs of the banners of Cyprus, Morea and Crete, 
when the republic was mistress of those territories. 

By the side of the sea in the piazzetta, on to which the west facade 
of the ducal palace faces, stand two ancient columns of Egyptian 
granite, one red and the other grey. These great monoliths were 
brought as trophies to Venice by Doge Domenico Michieli in 1126, 
after his victories in Syria. In 1180 they were set up with their 
present fine capitals and bases by a Lombard engineer, Niccolo de' 
Barattieri. The grey column is surmounted by a fine bronze Iron 
of Byzantine style, cast in Venice for Doge Ziani about 1178 (this 
was cacried off to Paris by Napoleon in 1797, and sent back in 
pieces in 1816; but in 1893 it was put together again) ; and in 1329 a 
marble statue of St Theodore, standing upon a crocodile, was 
placed on the other column. Among modern monuments the most 
successful is that to Goldoni at San Bartolomeo near the Rialto. 
It is the work of the sculptor dal Zotto. 

Institutions. Perhaps the most famous institution of Venice is the 
arsenal, whose history and activity has continued unbroken from the 
earliest days of the republic down to the present time. 
The arsenal was founded about the year 1 104 by the doge 
Ordelap Falier. Before that date Venetian shipping was arse '" 1 - 
built, at the spot near the piazzetta, known as the terra nova, where 
the royal gardens now are. The arsenal, which was famous in Dante's 
day, received its first enlargement in 1304, when, on the design of 
Andrea Pisano, new building sheds and the rope walk or Tana were 
erected. Pisano's building sheds, nine in a row, with peculiarly shaped 
roofs, were still standing intact one of the most interesting medieval 
monuments of Venice until recently, but they have been modified 
past recognition. In 1325 the second addition, the arsenale nuovo, 
was made, and a third, the arsenale nuovissimo, in 1473; a fourth, 
the Riparto delle Galeazze, about 1539; and in 1564 the fifth enlarge- 
ment, the Canal delle Galeazze e Vasca, took place. After the fall of 
the republic the arsenal continued to occupy the attention of the 
various governments. In 1810 the site of the suppressed convent 
and church of the Celestia was added. The entire circuit of the 
arsenal, about two miles in extent, is protected by a lofty wall with 
turrets. The main door of the arsenal is the first example in Venice 
of the purely classical style. It is a noble portal, erected in 1460, 
apparently from designs by Fra Giocondo, with the lion of St Mark 
in the attic. The statuary, with Sta Giustina on the summit of 
the tympanum, was added in 1571 and 1578. The whole design 
was modified in 1688 so as to represent a triumphal arch in honour 
of Morosini Peloponnesiaco, who brought from Athens to Venice 
the four lions in Pentelic marble which now stand before the gate. 
(On the largest of these lions is cut a runic inscription recording an 
attack on the Piraeus in the nth century by Norse warriors of the 
Varangian guard, under Harold Hardrada, afterwards 1047 king 
of Norway!) The arsenal suffered frequently and severely from 
fires, the worst being those of 1509 and 1569; yet such was the 
wealth of Venice that in the following year she put upon the seas 
the fleet that crushed the Turks at Lepanto in 1571. 

The Lido, which lies about 2 m. S.E. of Venice and divides the 
lagoon from the sea, is rapidly becoming a fashionable bathing-place. 
The point of San Nicolo del Lido is strongly fortified to _. 
protect the new entrance to the port (see harbour). Inside LHo. 

the fortress lies the old Protestant burying-ground, with tombs of 
Sackville, of John Murray, of Sir Francis Vincent, last ambassador 
but one from Great Britain to the republic, of Consul Smith, whose 
collection of books forms the nucleus of the King's library in the 
British Museum, and of Catherine Tofts, the singer, Smith's first 
wife. At Sant' Elisabetta is the bathing establishment. 

Libraries. The library of San Marco contains upwards of 35,000 
printed volumes and about 10,000 manuscripts. The library is 
said to owe its origin to Petrarch's donation of his books to the 
republic. Most of these have now disappeared. In 1635 Fra 
Fortunato Olmo found in a room over the great door of St Mark's 
a number of books which he supposed to be Petrarch's gift. He 
sent a list to Tomasini, who published it in his Petrarca Redivivus 
(Patavii, 1635). These codices passed to the Marciana, and Zanetti 
catalogued them as the Fondo antico. It is very doubtful whether 
these books really belonged to Petrarch. We may date the true 
foundation of the library to the donation of Cardinal Bessarion. 
Bessarion had intended to bequeath his books to the Benedictines 
of San Giorgio Maggiore, but Pietro Morosini, Venetian ambassador 
at Rome, pointed out the inconvenience of housing his library on 
an island that could not easily be reached. The cardinal therefore 
obtained a bull from Pope Paul II., permitting him to recall his 






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original' donation, and in a letter dated from the baths of Viterbo, 
May 13th, 1468, he made over his Ijbrary to the republic. The 
principal treasures of the collection, including splendid Byzantine 
book-covers, the priceless codices of Homer, the Grimani Breviary, 
an early Dante, &c., are exhibited under cases in the Sala Bessarione 
in the 2ecca or mint where the library has been installed. Another 
library was left to the public by the munificence of Count Quirini- 
Stampalia, who bequeathed his collections and his house at Santa 
Maria Formosa to be held in trust for students. The state archives 
are housed in the Franciscan monastery at the Frari. They contain 
the voluminous and invaluable records of the Venetian republic, 
diplomatic, judicial, commercial, notarial, &c. Under the republic 
the various departments of state stored their records in various 
buildings, at the ducal palace, at the Scuola di San Teodoro, at the 
Camerlenghi. The Austrian government gathered all these into 
one building and arranged the vast masses of papers in fairly con- 
venient order. Though the state papers of Venice have suffered 
from fire and the series begins comparatively late, yet their fullness 
and the world-wide sweep of Venetian interests render this collection 
an inexhaustible storehouse of data for students. Among other 
learned institutions we may mention the Ateneo Veneto, the De- 
putazione 1 per la Storia Patria, and the Royal Institute of Science, 
Letters and Art, which has its seat in the Palazzo Loredan at 
Santo Stefano. 

Harbour. Under the republic commercial shipping used to enter 
Venice by the port of San Nicolo del Lido and lie along the quay 
called the Riva degli Schiavoni, in the basin of San Marco, and up 
the broad Giudecca Canal. But with the decline of Venice the trade 
of the port fell off; the mouth of the Lido entrance became gradu- 
ally silted up owing to the joint action of the tide and the current, 
and for many years complete stagnation characterized the port. 
Under Austrian rule a revival began, which has been continued and 
intensified since Venice became part of united Italy. When the 
railway bridge brought Venice into touch with the mainland and 
the rest of Europe, it became necessary to do something to reopen 
the harbour to larger shipping. The Austrians, abandoning the 
nearer Lido entrance to the lagoons, resolved to deepen and keep 
open the Malamocco entrance. This is 8 m. distant from Venice, 
and can only be reached by a long and tortuous channel across 
the lagoon, whose course is marked out by those groups of piles 
which are so characteristic a feature of the lagoon landscape. 
The channel required constant dredging and was altogether incon- 
venient; yet for many years it remained the main sea approach 
to Venice. A dock was constructed at the western or farther end 
of the Giudecca Canal, near the railway. The unification of Italy, 
the growing prosperity of the country, above all the opening of 
the Suez Canal, which restored to Venice the full value of her 
position as the port farthest into the heart of Europe, brought 
about an immense expansion of trade. The government accordingly 
resolved to reopen the Lido entrance to the lagoon, and thus to 
afford a shorter and more commodious access from the sea. As 
at the Malamocco entrance so at the Lido, two moles were run 
out in a south-westerly direction; the westerly is about 2 m., the 
easterly about 3 m. in length. The natural scour thus created 
has given a depth of 26 ft. of water through the sand-bank. The 
mean rise and fall of the tide is about 2 ft., but under certain con- 
ditions of wind the variation amounts to 5 ft. and over. The health 
of the city depends, of course, to a large extent on this ebb and 
flow. The government also turned its attention to the inadequate 
accommodation at the docks, and proposals for a new quay on the 
western side of the present basin, and for a second basin 900 yds. 
long and 170 yds. wide, were the result. 

Trade. A comparison between the exports and imports of the 
years 1886 and 1905 will give an exact idea of the rate at which 
the port of Venice developed. In 1886 the total value of exports 
to foreign countries amounted to 7,239,479; of imports, 8,788,012. 
In 1905 the exports to foreign countries valued 11,650,932, the 
imports 13,659,306. As has been the case throughout her history, 
. the trade of Venice is still mainly a transit trade. Wheat, coal, 
cotton, petroleum, wood, lime and cement are brought into Venice 
for shipment to the Levant or for distribution over Italy and Europe. 

Venice became very celebrated in the 15th century for textiles. 
Its damasks and other silk stuffs with patterns of extraordinary 
beauty surpassed in variety and splendour those of the other chief 
centres of silk-weaving, such as Florence and Genoa. In addition 
to the native stuffs, an immense quantity of costly Oriental carpets, 
wall-hangings and other textiles was imported into Venice, partly 
for its own use, and partly for export throughout western Europe. 
On occasions of festivals or pageants the balconies, the bridges, the 
boats, and even the facades of the houses, were hung with rich 
Eastern carpets or patterned textiles in gold and coloured silk. The 
glass manufactory of Murano (q.v.), a small island about ij m. to the 
north of Venice, was a great source of revenue to the republic. Glass 
drinking cups and ornamental vessels, some decorated with enamel 
painting, and " silvered " mirrors were produced in great quantities 
from the I4th century downwards, and exported. Like many other 
arts in Venice, that of glass-making appears to have been imported 
from Moslem countries, and the influence of Oriental design can be 
traced in much of the Venetian glass. The art of making stained- 



glass windows was not practised by the Venetians; almost the 
only fine glass in Venice is that in a south transept window in 
the Dominican church, which, though designed by able Venetian 
painters, is obviously the work of foreigners. 

_ The ancient glass-bead industry (conterie), which some years 
since suffered severely from over-production, has now regained 
its position ^through the_union of the different factories, by which 
the output is controlled in such a way as to render trade profitable. 
Venetian beads are now sent in large quantities to the various 
colonies in Africa, and to India, Sumatra and Borneo. Similarly, the 
glass industry has revived. New amalgams and methods of colour- 
ing have been discovered, and fresh forms have been diligently 
studied. Special progress has been made in the production of 
mirrors, electric lamps, candelabra and mosaics. New industries 
are those of tapestry, brocades, imitation of ancient stuffs, cloth 
of silver and gold, and Venetian laces. The secret of lace-making 
was believed to have been lost, but the late Signer Fambri discovered 
at Chioggia an old woman who knew it, and placed her at the head 
of a lace school. Fambri was ruined by his enterprise, but other 
manufacturers, more expert than he, drew profit from his initiative, 
and founded flourishing factories at Pellestrina and Burano. Other 
important industries are wood-carving (of an artistic excellence 
long unknown), artistic iron-working, jewelling, bronze-casting, the 
production of steam-engines, machinery, matches (largely exported to 
Turkey, Egypt, Russia, Austria-Hungary and Greece), clock-making, 
wool-weaving and the manufacture of chemical manures. 

Population. In 1548 the population of Venice numbered 
158,069; in 1607-29, 142,804; in 1706, 140,256; in 1785, 
I 39,95', in 1881, 132,826. The municipal bulletin of the 
3ist of December 1906 gives a total of 169,563, not including 
4835 soldiers. 

Administration. Venice is administered by a prefect repre- 
senting the crown and responsible to the central government 
at Rome, from whom he receives orders. Under his cognizance 
come questions of public order, health and elections to parlia- 
ment. The two arms of the police, the Carabinieri and the 
Publica Sicurezza, are at his disposal. Purely local matters, 
however, are in the hands of the municipio or town council. 
At the head of the town council is the Sindaco or mayor, elected 
by the council itself. 

Under the republic, and until modern times, the water supply 
of Venice was furnished by the storage of rain-water supplemented 
by water brought from the Brenta in boats. The famous Venetian 
pozzi, or wells for storing rain-water from the roofs and streets, 
consisted of a closed basin with a water-tight stratum of clay at 
the bottom, upon which a slab of stone was laid; a brick shaft 
of radiating bricks laid in a permeable jointing material of clay and 
sand was then built. At some distance from the shaft a square 
water-tight wall was built, and the space between it and the shaft 
was filled in with sand, which was purified of all saline matter by 
repeated washings; on the ground-level perforated stones set at 
the four corners of the basin admitted the rain-water, which was 
discharged from the roof s by lead pipes ; this water filtered through 
the sand and percolated into the shaft of the well, whence it was 
drawn in copper buckets. The present water supply, introduced 
in 1884, is brought from the commune of Trebaseleghe, where it is 
collected from 120 artesian wells. It is carried under the lagoon 
to Sant' Andrea, where the reservoirs are placed. 

Of the 19,000 houses in Venice only 6000 have drains and sinks, 
all the others discharge sewage through pipes directly or indirectly 
into the canals. With the rise and fall of the tide the discharge 
pipes are flushed at the bottom. An important investigation 
undertaken by the Bacterioscopical Laboratory, with regard to the 
pollution of the Venetian canals by the city sewage, led to the 
discovery that the water of the lagoons possesses auto-purifying 
power, not only in the large canals but even in the smallest rami- 
fications of the waterways. The investigation was carried out with 
scrupulous scientific rigour upon samples of water taken in every part 
of the city, at all states of the tide and under various atmospheric 
conditions. 

The church is ruled by the patriarch of Venice, the metropolitan 
of the province formed by the Veneto. The patriarch of Venice 
is usually raised to the purple. The patriarchate dates from 1451, 
when on the death of Domenico Michiel, patriarch of Grado, the 
seat of that honour was transferred from desolate and insalubrious 
Grado to the cathedral church of Castello in Venice, and Michiel 's 
successor, Lorenzo Giustinian, assumed the title of patriarch of 
Venice. On the fall of the republic St Mark's became the cathedral 
church of the patriarch. There are thirty parishes in the city of 
Venice and fifteen in the lagoon islands and on the littoral. 

In recent times there has been a good deal of activity in Venice 
in regard to the preservation of its artistic and architectural trea- 
sures. Some of the earlier activity was unfortunately misplaced. 
St Mark's suffered on two occasions: first during the restoration of 
the north facade in 1843, and again during that of the south facade, 



1002 



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begun in 1865 and finished in 1878. The latter facade was com- 
pletely reconstructed upon 2200 piles driven to great depths, with 
the result that the general harmony of the monument the effect 
of time and of atmospheric conditions was completely lost. A 
lively agitation all over Europe, and particularly in England (con- 
ducted by Ruskin and William Morris), led the Italian government 
to discard the Austrian plan of restoration, at least as regards the 
interior of the Basilica, and to respect the ancient portions which 
had stood the test of time and had escaped "renewal" by- man. 
In 1880 a Vigilance Committee was appointed to watch over the 
restoration of the interior. The committee secured much verde 
antico and porphyry for the restoration of the pavement, in place 
of the common marbles which it had been intended to use, and 
organized special workshops for the restoration and preservation 
of the ancient mosaics, which it had been intended to detach and 
replace. Pieces already detached were restored to their original 
positions, and those blackened by damp and dust were carefully 
cleaned. Breaks were filled up with cubes obtained from fragments 
of contemporary mosaics previously demolished. In this way the 
mosaics of the two arches of the atrium and those of the Zeno chapel 
were cleaned and preserved. 

Contemporaneously with the restoration of the southern facade 
of St Mark's, the restoration of the colonnade of the ducal 
palace towards the Piazzetta and the Mole was undertaken at a 
cost of 23,000. The chief work was executed at the south-west 
angle, where the columns of the arcade had become so broken and 
distorted as to menace the safety of the whole building. The 
corner towards the Ponte della Paglia was also restored, and the 
hideous device of walling up the five last arches, adopted in the 
l6th century by the architect Da Ponte, was removed without 
prejudice to the stability of the structure. In order to lighten the 
palace the Venetian Institute of Science, Letters and Arts removed 
its headquarters and its natural history collection to Santo Stefano. 
For the same reason the Biblioteca Marciana with its 350,000 
volumes was moved to the Old Mint, opposite the ducal palace. 
The space thus cleared has been used for the rearrangement of 
the Archaeological and Artistic Museum. Side by side with these 
changes has proceeded the reorganization of the Royal Gallery of 
Ancient Art, which, created by Napoleon I. for the students of 
the adjoining Academy of Fine Arts, gradually acquired such 
importance that in 1882 the government divided it from the 
academy and rendered it autonomous. The gallery now con- 
stitutes a unique collection of Venetian paintings from the most 
ancient artists down to Tiepolo, one hall only being reserved 
for other Italian schools and one for foreign schools. Altogether 
the gallery contains twenty rooms, one being assigned to the 
complete cycle of the " History of Saint Ursula," by Carpaccio; 
another to Giambellino and to the Celliniani ; and a whole wall of 
a third being occupied by the famous Veronese, " II Convito in 
casa di Levi." Titian's Presentazione al Tempio," painted for 
the Scuola della Carita, which is now the seat of the gallery, has 
been placed in its original position. The hall of the Assumption 
has been left untouched. Nineteenth-century pictures have been 
eliminated as foreign to the character of the collection, and inferior 
works relegated to a side passage. The reorganization of the 
Archaeological and Artistic Museum and of the Royal Gallery of 
Ancient Art coincided with the inauguration in April 1895 of a 
series of biennial International Art Exhibitions, arranged in order 
to celebrate the silver wedding of the king and queen of Italy. A 
special brick structure was erected in the public gardens to receive 
the works of contemporary artists, both Italian and foreign. The 
selection of works was made by an international jury from which 
Venetian artists were excluded. The second exhibition, visited 
by 336,500 persons, was held in 1897, and a third in 1899. The 
success of this exhibition (visited by 407,930 persons) led to the 
organization of a fourth exhibition in 1901, largely devoted to the 
works of Ruskin. The institution of these exhibitions furnished 
Prince Giovanelli with an opportunity to found at Venice a Gallery 
of Modern Art, for which a home was found in the Palazzo Pesaro, 
bequeathed to the city by Princess Bevilacqua la Masa. 

History. It is usually affirmed that the state ofVenice owes 
its origin to the barbarian invasions of north Italy; that it 
was founded by refugees from the mainland cities who sought 
asylum from the Huns in the impregnable shallows and mud 
banks of the lagoons ; and that the year 452, the year when 
Attila sacked Aquileia, may be taken as the birth-year of 
Venice. That is true in a measure. Venice, like Rome and 
other famous cities, was an asylum city. But it is nearly 
certain that long before Attila and his Huns swept down upon 
the Venetian plain the little islands of the lagoon already had 
a population of poor but hardy fisherfolk living in quasi-inde- 
pendence, thanks to their poverty and their inaccessible site. 
This population was augmented from time to time by refugees 
from the mainland cities of Aquileia, -Concordia, Opitergium 
Altinum and Patavium. But these did not mingle readily 



with the indigenous population; as each wave of barbarian 
invasion fell back, these refugees returned to their mainland 
homes, and it required the pressure of many successive incur- 
sions to induce them finally to abandon the mainland for the 
lagoon, a decision which was not reached till the Lombard 
invasion of 568. On each occasion, no doubt, some of the 
refugees remained behind in the islands, and gradually built 
and peopled the twelve lagoon townships, which formed the 
germ of the state of Venice and were subsequently concen- 
trated at Rialto or in the city we now know as Venice. These 
twelve townships were Grade, Bibione, Caorle, Jesolo, Heraclea, 
Torcello, Murano, Rialto, Malamocco, Poveglia, Chioggia and 
Sottomarina. The effect of the final Lombard invasion is 
shown by the resolve to quit the mainland and the rapid build- 
ing of churches which is recorded by the Cronaca altinate. The 
people who finally abandoned the mainland and took their 
priests with them are the people who made the Venetian re- 
public. But they were not as yet a homogeneous population. 
The rivalries of the mainland cities were continued at closer 
quarters inside the narrow circuit of the lagoons, and there 
was, moreover, the initial schism between the indigenous fisher 
population and the town-bred refugees, and these facts con- 
stitute the first of the problems which now affronted the growing 
community: the internal problem of fusion and development. 
The second problem of prime importance was the external 
problem of independence. The early history of the republic is 
chiefly concerned with the solution of these two problems. 

To take the problem of independence first. There is little 
doubt that the original lagoon population depended for its 
administration, as far as it had any, upon the larger cities of 
the mainland. There is a tradition that Venice was founded 
by " consuls from Padua "; and Padua claimed complete 
control of the course of the Brenta down to its mouth at Mala- 
mocco. The destruction of the mainland cities, and the flight 
of their leading inhabitants to the lagoons, encouraged the 
lagoon population to assert a growing independence, and led 
them to advance the doctrine that they were " born inde- 
pendent." Their development as a maritime people, engaged 
in small trading and intimately acquainted with their home 
waters, led Belisarius to seek their help in his task of recovering 
Italy from the Goths. He was successful; and the lagoons 
became, theoretically at least, a part of the Eastern empire. 
But the empire was vast and weak, and its capital lay far 
away; in practice, no doubt, the lagoon population enjoyed 
virtual independence, though later the Byzantine claim to 
suzerainty became one of the leading factors in the formation 
of the state. It was from Byzantium that the Venetian people 
received the first recognition of their existence as a separate 
community. Their maritime importance compelled Narses, 
the imperial commander, to seek their aid in transporting his 
army from Grado ; and when the Paduans appealed to the 
Eunuch to restore their rights over the Brenta, the Venetians 
replied by declaring that islands of the lagoon and the river 
mouths that fell into the estuary were the property of those 
who had rendered them habitable and serviceable. Narses 
declined to intervene, Padua was powerless to enforce its claims 
and Venice established a virtual independence of the mainland. 
Nor was it long before Venice made a similar assertion to the 
imperial representative, Longinus. He was endeavouring to 
treat with Alboin and the Lombards, and desired to assure 
himself of Venetian support. He invited the Venetians to give 
him an escort to Constantinople, which they did, and also to 
acknowledge themselves subjects of the empire. But they 
replied that " God who is our help and protector has saved us 
that we might dwell upon these waters. This second Venice 
which we have raised in the lagoons is our mighty habitation; 
no power of emperor or of prince can touch us." That was an 
explicit statement of Venetian aims and contentions: the place 
and people had made each other and now belonged exclusively 
to each other. Longinus admitted that the Venetians were 
indeed " a great people with a strong habitation "; but by 
dint of promising large concessions and trading privileges, he 



VENICE 



1003 



induced the Venetians to make an act of submission though 
not upon oath. The terms of this pact resulted in the first 
diploma conferred on Venice as a separate community (584). 
But it was inevitable that, when the barbarians, Lombard or 
Frank, were once established on the mainland of Italy, Venice 
should be brought first into trading and then into political 
relations with their near neighbours, who as masters of Italy 
also put forward a claim to sovereignty in the lagoons. It is 
between the two claims of east and west that Venice struggled 
for and achieved recognized independence. 

Turning to the other problem, that of internal fusion and 
consolidation, we find that in 466, fourteen years after the fall 
of Aquileia, the population of the twelve lagoon townships met 
at Grado for the election of one tribune from each island for 
the better government of the separate communities, and above 
all to put an end to rivalries which had already begun to play 
a disintegrating part. But when the lagoon population was 
largely augmented in 568 as the result of Alboin's invasion, these 
jealousies were accentuated, and in 584 it was found expedient 
to appoint twelve other tribunes, known as the Tribuni Majores, 
who formed a kind of central committee to deal with all matters 
affecting the general weal of the lagoon communities. But the 
Tribuni Majores were equally powerless to allay the jealousies 
of the growing townships which formed the lagoon community. 
Rivalry in fishing and in trading, coupled with ancient anti- 
pathies inherited from the various mainland cities of origin, were 
no doubt the cause of these internecine feuds. A crisis was 
reached when Christopher, patriarch of Grado, convened the 
people of the lagoon at Heraclea, and urged them to suppress 
the twelve tribunes and to choose a single head of the state. To 
this they agreed, and in 697 Venice elected her first doge, Paulo 
Lucio Anafesto. 

The growing importance of the lagoon townships, owing to 
their maritime skill, their expanding trade, created by their 
position between east and west, their monopoly of salt and 
salted fish, which gave them a strong position in the mainland 
markets, rendered it inevitable that a clash must come over the 
question of independence, when either east or west should claim 
that Venice belonged to them; and inside the lagoons the 
growing prosperity, coupled with the external threat to their 
liberties, concentrated the population into two well-defined 
parties what may be called the aristocratic party, because 
it leaned towards imperial Byzantium and also displayed a 
tendency to make the dogeship hereditary, and the democratic 
party, connected with the original population of the lagoons, 
aspiring to free institutions, and consequently leaning more 
towards the church and the Prankish kingdom which protected 
the church. The aristocratic party was captained by the town- 
ship of Heraclea, which had given the first doge, Anafesto, to the 
newly formed community. The democratic party was cham- 
pioned first by Jesolo and then by Malamocco. 

The advent of the Franks determined the final solution. 
The emperor Leo, the Isaurian, came to open rupture with 
Pope Gregory II. over the question of images. The pope 
appealed to Liutprand, the powerful king of the Lombards, to 
attack the imperial possessions in Ravenna. He did so, and 
expelled the exarch Paul, who took refuge in Venice and was 
restored to his post by the doge of the Heraclean or Byzantine 
party, Orso, who in return for this assistance received the 
imperial title of hypatos, and trading rights in Ravenna. The 
pope, however, soon had cause for alarm at the spread of the 
Lombard power which he had encouraged. Liutprand pro- 
ceeded to occupy territory in the Ducato Romano. The pope, 
looking about for a saviour, cast his eyes on Charles Martel, whose 
victory at Tours had riveted the attention of the world. 
Charles's son, Pippin, was crowned king of Italy, entered the 
peninsula at the head of the Franks, defeated the Lombards, 
took Ravenna and presented it to the pope, while retain- 
ing a feudal superiority. Desiderius, the last Lombard king, 
endeavoured to recover Ravenna. Charlemagne, Pippin's 
son, descended upon Italy, broke up the Lombard kingdom 
(774), confirmed his father's donation to the pope, and in 



reprisals for Venetian assistance to the exarch, ordered the pope 
to expel the Venetians from the Pentapolis. Venice was now 
brought face to face with the Franks under their powerful 
sovereign, who soon showed that he intended to claim the 
lagoons as part of his new kingdom. In Venice the result of 
this menace was a decided reaction towards Byzantium. In 
opposition to the Prankish claim, Venice resolved to affirm her 
dependence on the Eastern empire. But the democratic party, 
the Prankish party in Venice, was powerful. Feeling ran high. 
A crisis was rapidly approaching. The Byzantine Doge Giovanni 
Galbaio attacked Grado, the see of the Francophil Patriarch 
Giovanni, captured it, and flung the bishop from the tower of 
his palace. But the murdered patriarch was succeeded by his 
no less Francophil nephew Fortunatus, a strong partisan, a 
restless and indomitable man, who along with Obelerio of 
Malamocco now assumed the lead of the democratic party. 
He and his followers plotted the murder of the doge, were dis- 
covered, and sought safety at the court of Charlemagne, where 
Fortunatus strongly urged the Franks to attack the lagoons. 

Meantime the internal politics of Venice had been steadily 
preparing the way for the approaching fusion at Rialto. The 
period from the election of the first doge to the appearance 
of the Franks was characterized by fierce struggles between 
Heraclea and Jesolo. At length the whole population agreed 
to fix their capital at Malamocco, a compromise between the 
two incompatible parties, marking an important step towards 
final fusion at Rialto. 

That central event of early Venetian history was reached 
when Pippin resolved to make good his title as king of Italy. 
He turned his attention to the lagoon of Venice, which had 
been steadily growing in commercial and maritime importance, 
and had, on the whole, shown a sympathy for Byzantium 
rather than for the Franks. Pippin determined to subdue the 
lagoons. He gathered a fleet at Ravenna, captured Chioggia, 
and pushed on up the Lido towards the capital of the lagoons 
at Malamocco. But the Venetians, in face of the danger, once 
more removed their capital, this time to Rialto, that group of 
islands we now call Venice, lying in mid-lagoon between the 
lidi and the mainland. This step was fatal to Pippin's designs. 
The intricate water-ways and the stubborn Venetian defence 
baffled all his attempts to reach Rialto; the summer heats came 
on; the Lido was unhealthy. Pippin was forced to retire. A 
treaty between Charlemagne and Nicephorus (810) recognized 
the Venetians as subjects of the Eastern empire, while preserving 
to them the trading rights on the mainland of Italy which they 
had acquired under Liutprand. 

The concentration at Rialto marks the beginning of the 
history of Venice as a full-grown state. The external menace 
to their independence had welded together the place and the 
people; the same pressure had brought about the fusion of the 
conflicting parties in the lagoon townships into one homo- 
geneous whole. There was for the future one Venice and one 
Venetian people dwelling at Rialto, the city of compromise 
between the dangers from the mainland, exemplified by Attila 
and Alboin, and the perils from the sea, illustrated by Pippin's 
attack. The position of Venice was now assured. The state 
was a vassal of a weak and distant empire, which would leave 
it virtually free to pursue its own career; it was an independent 
tributary of a near and powerful kingdom with which it could 
trade, and trade between east and west became henceforth the 
note of its development. 

The first doge elected in Rialto was Angelo Particiaco, a 
Heraclean noble, with a strong bias towards Byzantium, and 
his reign was signalized by the building of the first church 
of San Marco, and by the translation of the saint's body from 
Alexandria, as though to affirm and to symbolize the creation 
of united Venice. 

The history of Venice during the next two hundred years 
is marked externally by the growth of the city, thanks to 
an ever-expanding trade, both down the Adriatic, which brought 
the republic into collision with the Dalmatian pirates and led 
to their final conquest, in 1000, by the doge Pietro Orseolo II., 



IOO4 



VENICE 



and also on! the mainland, where Venice gradually acquired 
trading rights, partly by imperial diploma, partly by the estab- 
lishment and the supply of markets on the mainland rivers, 
the Sile and the Brenta. Internally this period is characterized 
by the attempt of three powerful families, the Particiachi, the 
Candiani and the Orseoli, to create an hereditary dogeship, and 
the violent resistance offered by the people. We find seven 
of the Particiachi, five Candiani and three Orseoli reigning 
in almost unbroken succession, until, with the ostracism of 
the whole Orseolo family in 1032, the dynastic tendency was 
crushed for ever. During the same period we also note the 
development of certain families, thanks to the accumulation 
of wealth by trade, and here we get the beginnings of that 
commercial aristocracy whose evolution was the dominant 
factor in the constitutional history of the republic. 

The growing wealth of Venice soon attracted the cupidity 
of her piratical neighbours on the coast of Dalmatia. The 
swift Liburnian vessels began to raid the Lido, compelling 
the Venetians to arm their own vessels and thus to form the 
nucleus of their famous fleet, the importance of which was 
recognized by the Golden Bull of the emperor Basil, which 
conferred on Venetian merchants privileges far more extensive 
than any they had hitherto enjoyed, on condition that the 
Venetian fleet was to be at the disposition of the emperor. 
But the Dalmatian raids continued to harass Venetian trade, 
till, in i coo, the great doge Pietro Orseolo II. attacked and 
captured Curzola and stormed the piratical stronghold of 
Lagosta, crushing the freebooters in their citadel. The doge 
assumed the title of duke of Dalmatia, and a great step was 
taken towards the supremacy of Venice in the Adriatic, which 
was essential to the free development of her commerce and also 
enabled her to reap the pecuniary advantages to be derived 
from the Crusades. She now commanded the route to the 
Holy Land and could supply the necessary transport, and from 
the Crusades her growing aristocracy reaped large profits. 
Orseolo's victory was commemorated and its significance 
affirmed by the magnificent symbolical ceremony of the 
" wedding of the sea " (Sposalizio del Mar), celebrated hence- 
forward every Ascension day. The result of the first three 
Crusades was that Venice acquired trading rights, a Venetian 
quarter, church, market, bakery, &c., in many of the Levant 
cities, e.g. in Sidon (1102) and in Tyre (1123). The fall of Tyre 
marks a great advance in development of Venetian trade; 
the republic had now passed beyond the Adriatic, and had 
taken an important step towards that complete -command 
of the Levant which she established after the Fourth 
Crusade. 

This expansion of the trade of Venice resulted in the rapid 
development of the wealthier classes, with a growing tendency 
to draw together for the purpose of securing to themselves the 
entire direction of Venetian politics in order to dominate 
Venetian commerce. To achieve their object, a double line of 
conduct was imposed upon them: they had to absorb the powers 
of the doge, and also to deprive the people of the voice they 
possessed in the management of state affairs by their presence 
in the condone or general assembly of the whole community, 
which was still the fountain of all authority. The first step 
towards curtailing the power of the doge was taken in 
1.032, when the family of the Orseoli was finally expelled 
from Venice and the doge Domenico Flabianico was called 
to the throne. A law was then passed forbidding for the 
future the election of a doge-consort, a device by which the 
Particiachi, the Candiani and the Orseoli had each of them 
nearly succeeded in carrying out their dynastic ambitions. 
Further, two ducal councillors were appointed to assist the doge, 
and he was compelled, not merely permitted, to seek the advice 
of the more prominent citizens at moments of crisis. By this 
reform two important offices in the Venetian constitution the 
privy council (consiglieri ditcali) and the senate (the pregadi 
or invited) came into being. Both were gradually developed 
on the lines desired by the aristocracy, till we reach the year 
1171. 



The growth of Venetian trade and wealth in the Levant 
roused the jealousy of Genoa and the hostility of the imperial 
court at Constantinople, where the Venetians are said to have 
numbered 200,000 and to have held a large quarter of the 
city in terror by their brawls. The emperor Manuel I., 
urged on by the Genoese and other rivals of Venice, seized 
tjie pretext. The Venetians were arrested and their goods con- 
fiscated. Popular feeling at Venice ran so high that the state 
was rashly swept into war with the empire. To provide the 
requisite funds for this vast undertaking, a forced loan of 
i % on net incomes was raised ; the money bore interest at 
the rate of 4%. The bonds were negotiable, and afford us the 
earliest instance of the issue of government stock. The doge 
Vitale Michiel II. led the expedition in person. It proved a 
disastrous failure, and on the return of the shattered remnants 
(1171) a great constitutional reform seemed necessary. The 
Venetians resolved to create a deliberative assembly, which 
should act with greater caution than the condone, which had 
just landed the state in a ruinous campaign. Forty members 
were elected in each of the six divisions of the city, giving a 
body of 480 members, who served for one year and on retiring 
named two deputies for each sestiere to nominate the council 
for the succeeding year. This was the germ of the great 
council, the Maggior Consiglio, which was rendered strictly 
oligarchic in 1 296. As the duties of this council were to appoint 
all officers of state, including the doge, it is clear that by its 
creation the aristocracy had considerably curtailed the powers 
of the people, who had hitherto elected the doge in general 
assembly; and at the creation of Michiel's successor, Sebastiano 
Ziani (1172), the new doge was presented to the people merely 
for confirmation, not fdr election. The assembly protested, but 
was appeased by the empty formula, " This is your doge an 
it please you." Moreover, still further to limit the power of 
the doge, the number of ducal councillors was raised from two 
to six. In 1198, on the election of Enrico Dandolo, the aris- 
tocracy carried their policy one step farther, and by the 
promissione ducale, or coronation oath, which every doge was 
required to swear, they acquired a powerful weapon for the 
suppression of all that remained of ancient ducal authority. 
The promissione ducale was binding on the doge and his family, 
and could be, and frequently was, altered at each new election, 
a commission, Inquisitori sopra il doge defunto, being appointed 
to scrutinize the actions of the deceased doge and to add to 
the new oath whatever provisions they thought necessary to 
reduce the dogeship to the position of a mere figurehead in the 
state. 

In spite of the check to their trade received from the emperor 
Manuel in 1171, Venetian commerce continued to flourish, 
the Venetian fleet to grow and the Venetians to amass wealth. 
When the Fourth Crusade was proclaimed at Soissons, it was to 
Venice that the leaders applied for transport, and she agreed 
to furnish transport for 4500 horses, 9000 knights, 20,000 foot, 
and provisions for one year: the price was 85,000 silver marks 
of Cologne and half of all conquests. But Zara and Dalmatia 
had revolted from Venice in 1166 and were as yet unsubdued. 
Venetian supremacy in the Adriatic had been temporarily 
shaken. The 85,000 marks, the price of transport, were not 
forthcoming, and the Venetians declined to sail till they were 
paid. The doge Dandolo now saw an opportunity to benefit 
Venice. He offered to postpone the receipt of the money if the 
Crusaders would reduce Zara and Dalmatia for the republic. 
These terms were accepted. Zara was recovered, and while still 
at Zara the leaders of the Crusade, supported by Dandolo, re- 
solved for their own private purposes to attack Constantinople, 
instead of making for the Holy Land. Boniface, marquis of 
Monferrat, desired to make good the claim to Salonica, and 
the Venetians doubtless wished to upset the Greek empire, 
which had recently shown itself so friendly to their rivals the 
Genoese. Constantinople fell (1204), thanks chiefly to the 
ability of the Venetians under Dandolo. The city was sacked, 
and a Latin empire, with Baldwin of Flanders as emperor, was 
established at Constantinople (see ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER). 



VENICE 



1005 



In the partition of the spoils Venice claimed and received, in 
her own phrase, " a half and a quarter of the Roman empire." 
To her fell the Cyclades, the Sporades, the islands and the 
eastern shores of the Adriatic, the shores of the Propontis and 
the Euxine, and the littoral of Thessaly, and she bought Crete 
from the marquis of Monferrat. The accession of territory was 
not only vast, it was of the highest importance to Venetian 
commerce. She now commanded the Adriatic, the Ionian 
islands, the archipelago, the Sea of Marmora and the Black Sea, 
the trade route between Constantinople and western Europe, 
and she had already established herself in the seaports of 
Syria, and thus held the trade route between Asia Minor and 
Europe. She was raised at once to the position of a European 
power. In order to hold these possessions, she borrowed from 
the Franks the feudal system, and granted fiefs in the Greek 
islands to her more powerful families, on condition that 
they held the trade route open for her. The expansion of 
commerce which resulted from the Fourth Crusade soon made 
itself evident in the city by a rapid development in its archi- 
tecture and by a decided strengthening of the commercial 
aristocracy, which eventually led to the great constitutional 
reform the closing of the Maggior Consiglio in 1296, whereby 
Venice became a rigid oligarchy. Externally this rapid success 
awoke the implacable hatred of Genoa, and led to the long and 
exhausting series of Genoese wars which ended at Chioggia 
in 1380. 

The closing of the great council was, no doubt, mainly due 
to the slowly formed resolution on the part of the great com- 
mercial families to secure a monopoly in the Levant trade which 
the Fourth Crusade had placed definitely in their hands. The 
theory of the government, a theory expressed throughout the 
whole commercial career of the republic, the theory which made 
Venice a rigidly protective state, was that the Levant trade 
belonged solely to Venice and her citizens. No one but a Vene- 
tian citizen was permitted to share in the profits of that 
trade. But the population of Venice was growing rapidly, 
and citizenship was as yet undefined. To secure for themselves 
the command of trade the leading commercial families resolved 
to erect themselves into a dose gild, which should have in its 
hands the sole direction of the business concern, the exploita- 
tion of the East. This policy took definite shape in 1297, when 
the Doge Pietro Gradenigo proposed and carried the following 
measure: the supreme court, the Quarantia, was called upon 
to ballot, one by one, the names of all who for the last four years 
had held a seat in the great council created in 1171. Those who 
received twelve favourable votes became members of the great 
council. A commission of three was appointed to submit further 
names for baEot. The three commissioners at once laid down 
a rule which contains the essence of the act that only those 
who could prove that a paternal ancestor had sat in the great 
council should be eligible for election. This measure divided 
the community into three great categories: (i) those who had 
never sat in the council themselves and whose ancestors had 
never 'sat; these were of course the vast majority of the popula- 
tion, and they were excluded for ever from the great council: 
(2) those whose paternal ancestors had sat in the council; 
these were eligible and were gradually admitted to a seat, their 
sons becoming eligible on majority: (3) those who were of the 
council at the passing of this act or had sat during the four 
preceding years; their sons likewise became eligible on attain- 
ing majority. As all offices were filled by the great council, 
exclusion meant political disfranchisement. A close caste was 
created which very seldom and very reluctantly admitted new 
members to its body. The Heralds' College, the awogadori di 
comun, in order to ensure purity of blood, were ordered to open 
a register of all marriages and births among members of the 
newly created caste, and these registers formed the basis of the 
famous Libra d'oro. 

The closing of the great council and the creation of the patrician 
caste brought about a revolution among those who suffered 
disfranchisement. In the year 1300 the people, led by Marin 
Bocconio, attempted to force their way into the great council 



and to reclaim their rights. The doors were opened, the ring- 
leaders were admitted and immediately seized and hanged. 
Ten years later a more serious revolution, the only revolution 
that seriously shook the state, broke out and was also crushed. 
This conspiracy was championed by Bajamonte Tiepolo, and 
seems to have been an expression of patrician protest against the 
serrala, just as Bocconio's revolt had represented popular in- 
dignation. Tiepolo, followed by members of the Quirini family 
and many nobles with their followers, attempted to seize the 
Piazza on the isth of June 1310. They were met by the Doge 
Pietro Gradenigo and crushed. Quirini was killed, and Tiepolo 
and his followers fled. 

The chief importance of the Tiepoline conspiracy lies in the 
fact that it resulted in the establishment of the Council of Ten. 
Erected first as a temporary committee of public safety to hunt 
down the remnant of the conspirators and to keep a vigilant 
watch on Tiepolo's movements, it was finally made permanent in 
1 335- The secrecy of its deliberations and the rapidity with 
which it 'could act made it a useful adjunct to the constitution, 
and it gradually absorbed many of the more important functions 
of the state. 

With the creation of the Council of Ten the main lines of 
the Venetian constitution were completed. At the basis of the 
pyramid we get the great council, the elective body composed 
of all who enjoyed the suffrage, i.e. of the patrician caste. 
Above the great council came the senate, the deliberative and 
legislative body par excellence. To the senate belonged all 
questions relating to foreign affairs, finance, commerce, peace 
and war. Parallel with the senate, but extraneous to the main 
lines of the constitution, came the Council of Ten. As a 
committee of public safety it dealt with all cases of conspiracy; 
for example, it tried the Doge Marino Falier and the General 
Carmagnola; on the same ground all cases affecting public 
morals came within its extensive criminal jurisdiction. In the 
region of foreign affairs it was in communication with envoys 
abroad, and its orders would override those of the senate. It 
also had its own departments of finance and war. Above the 
senate and the Ten came the Collegia or cabinet, the adminis- 
trative branch of the constitution. All affairs of state passed 
through its hands. It was the initiatory body; and it lay with 
the Collegia to send matters for deliberation either before the 
senate or before the Ten. At the apex of the pyramid came the 
doge and his council, the point of highest honour and least weight 
in the constitution. 

To turn now to the external events which followed on the 
Fourth Crusade. These events are chiefly concerned with 
the long struggle with Genoa over the possession of the Levant 
and Black Sea trade. By the establishment of the Latin empire 
Venice had gained a preponderance. But it was impossible 
that the rival Venetian and Genoese merchants, dwelling at 
close quarters in the Levant cities, should not come to blows. 
They fell out at Acre in 1253. The first Genoese war began 
and ended in 1258 by the complete defeat of Genoa. But in 
1261 the Greeks, supported by the Genoese, took advantage 
of the absence of the Venetian fleet from Constantinople to 
seize the city and to restore the Greek empire in the person of 
Michael VIII. Palaeologus. The Balance turned against Venice 
again. The Genoese were established in the spacious quarter of 
Galata and threatened to absorb the trade of the Levant. To 
recover her position Venice went to war again, and in 1264 
destroyed the Genoese fleet off Trepani, in Sicilian waters. 
This victory was decisive at Constantinople, where the emperor 
abandoned the defeated Genoese and restored Venice to her 
former position. The appearance of the Ottoman Turk and 
the final collapse of the Latin empire in Syria brought about 
the next campaign between the rival maritime powers. 
Tripoli (1289) and Acre (1291) fell to the Mussulman, and the 
Venetian title to her trading privileges, her diplomas from the 
Latin empire, disappeared. To the scandal of Christendom, 
Venice at once entered into treaty with the new masters of 
Syria and obtained a confirmation of her ancient trading rights. 
Genoa replied by attempting to close the Dardanelles. Venice 



ioo6 



VENICE 



made this action a casus belli. The Genoese won a victory 
in the gulf of Alexandretta (1294); but on the other hand the 
Venetians under Ruggiero Morosini forced the Dardanelles and 
sacked the Genoese quarter of Galata. The decisive engage- 
ment, however, of this campaign was fought at Curzola (1299) 
in the Adriatic, when Venice suffered a crushing defeat. A peace, 
honourable to both parties, was brought about by Matteo 
Visconti, lord of Milan, in that same year. But the quarrel 
between the republics, both fighting for trade supremacy 
that is to say, for their lives could not come to an end till one 
or other was thoroughly crushed. The fur trade of the Black 
Sea furnished the pretext for the next war (1353-54), which ended 
in the crushing defeat of Venice at Sapienza, and the loss of her 
entire fleet. But though Venice herself seemed to lie open to 
the Genoese, they took no advantage of their victory; they 
were probably too exhausted. The lord of Milan again arranged 
a peace (1355). 

We have now reached the last phase of the struggle for mari- 
time supremacy. Under pressure from Venice the emperor 
John V. Palaeologus granted possession of the island of Tenedos 
to the republic. The island commanded the entrance to the 
Dardanelles. Genoa determined to oppose the concession, 
and war broke out. The Genoese Admiral Luciano Doria 
sailed into the Adriatic, attacked and defeated Vettor Pisani 
at Pola in Istria, and again Venice and the lagoons lay at the 
mercy of the enemy. Doria resolved to blockade and starve 
Venice to surrender. He was master of the sea, and the flow 
of provisions from the mainland was cut off by Genoa's ally, 
Francesco I. Carrara, lord of Padua. Doria seized Chioggia 
as a base of operations and drew his fleet inside the lagoons. 
The situation was extremely critical for Venice, but she rose 
to the occasion. Vettor Pisani was placed in command, and by 
a stroke of naval genius he grasped the weakness of Doria's 
position. Sailing to Chioggia he blocked the channel leading 
from the lagoon to the sea, and Doria was caught in a trap. 
Pisani stationed himself outside the Lido, on the open sea, to 
intercept relief should any appear, and Doria, instead of block- 
ading Venice, was himself blockaded in Chioggia. For many 
months the siege went on; but Pisani gradually assumed the 
offensive as Genoese spirits and food ran low. Finally, in 
June 1380 the flower of the Genoese fleet surrendered at dis- 
cretion. Genoa never recovered from the blow, and Venice 
remained undisputed mistress of the Mediterranean and the 
Levant trade. 

The defeat of Genoa and the establishment of Venetian 
supremacy in the Mediterranean brought the state to a further 
step in its development. The undisputed mastery of the 
eastern trade increased its bulk in Venice. But as the city 
became the recognized mart for exchange of goods between east 
and west, the freedom of the western outlet assumed the aspect 
of a paramount question. It was useless for Venice to accumu- 
late eastern merchandise if she could not freely pass it on to 
the west. If the various states on the immediate mainland 
could levy taxes on Venetian goods in transit, the Venetian 
merchant would inevitably suffer in profits. The geographical 
position of Venice and her commercial policy alike compelled 
her to attempt to secure the command of the rivers and roads 
of the mainland, at least up to the mountains, that is to 
say, of the north-western outlet, just as she had obtained com- 
mand of the south-eastern inlet. She was compelled to turn her 
attention, though reluctantly, to the mainland of Italy. Another 
consideration drove her in the same direction. During the 
long wars with Genoa, after the defeats of Curzola, Sapienza, 
Pola, above all during the crisis of the war of Chioggia, it had 
been brought home to the Venetians that, as they owned no 
meat or corn-producing territory, a crushing defeat at sea and 
a blockade on the mainland exposed them to the grave danger 
of being starved into surrender. Both these pressing neces- 
sities, for a free outlet for merchandise and for a food-supplying 
area, drove Venice on to the mainland, and compelled her to 
initiate a policy which eventually landed her in the disastrous 
wars of Cambrai. The period with which we are now dealing 



is the epoch of the despots, the signori, and in pursuit of expan- 
sion on the mainland Venice was brought into collision first 
with the Scaligeri of Verona, then with the Carraresi of Padua, 
and finally with the Visconti of Milan. Hitherto Venice had 
enjoyed the advantages of isolation; the lagoons were virtually 
impregnable; she had no land frontier to defend. But when 
she touched the mainland she at once became possessed of a 
frontier which could be attacked, and found herself compelled 
either to expand in self-defence or to lose the territory she ,had 
acquired. 

Venice had already established a tentative hold on the im- 
mediate mainland as early as 1339. She was forced into war 
by Mastino della Scala, lord of Padua, Vicenza, Treviso, Feltre 
and Belluno, as well as of Verona, who imposed a duty on 
the transport of Venetian goods. A league against the Scala 
domination was formed, and the result was the fall of the 
family. Venice took possession of Padua, but in the terms of 
the league she at once conferred the lordship on the Carraresi, 
retaining Treviso and Bassano for herself. But it is not till 
we come to the opening of the next century that Venice de- 
finitely acquired land possessions and found herself committed 
to all the difficulties and intricacies of Italian mainland politics. 
On the death of Gian Galeazzo Visconti in 1402, his large pos- 
sessions broke up. His neighbours and his generals seized what 
was nearest to hand. Francesco II. Carrara, lord of Padua, 
attempted to seize Vicenza and Verona. But Venice had been 
made to suffer at the hands of Carrara, who had levied heavy 
dues on transit, and moreover during the Chioggian War had 
helped the Genoese and cut off the food supply from the main- 
land. She was therefore forced in self-defence to crush the 
family of Carrara and to make herself permanently mistress of 
the immediate mainland. Accordingly when Gian Galeazzo's. 
widow applied to the republic for help against Carrara it was, 
readily granted, and, after some years of fighting, the posses- 
sions of the Carraresi, Padua, Treviso, Bassano, commanding 
the Val Sugana route, as well as Vicenza and Verona, passed 
definitely under Venetian rule. This expansion of mainland 
territory was followed in 1420 by the acquisition of Friuli after 
a successful war with the emperor Sigismund, thus bringing 
the possessions of the republic up to the Carnic and Julian 
Alps, their natural frontier on the north-east. 

Venice was soon made to feel the consequences of having 
become a mainland power, the difficulties entailed by holding 
possessions which others coveted, and the weakness of a land 
frontier. To the west the new duke of Milan, Filippo Maria 
Visconti, was steadily piecing together the fragments of his. 
father's shattered duchy. He was determined to recover 
Verona and Vicenza from Venice, and intended, as his father 
had done, to make himself master of all north Italy. The 
conflict between Venice and Milan led to three wars in 1426, 
1427 and 1429. Venice was successful on the whole. She 
established her hold permanently on Verona and Vicenza, and 
acquired besides both Brescia and Bergamo; and later she 
occupied Crema. The war of Ferrara and the peace of Bagnolo 
(1484) gave her Rovigo and the Polesine. This, with the excep- 
tion of a brief tenure of Cremona (1499-1512), formed her per- 
manent territory down to the fall of the republic. Her frontiers, 
now ran from the seacoast near Monfalcone, following the 
line of the Carnic and Julian and Raetian Alps to the Adda, 
down the course of that river till it joins the Po, and thence 
along the line of the Po back to the sea. But long and exhaust- 
ing wars were entailed ' upon her for the maintenance of her 
hold. The rapid formation of this land empire, and the obvious 
intention to expand, called the attention not only of Italy but 
of Europe to this power which seemed destined to become 
supreme in north Italy, and eventually led to the league of 
Cambrai for the dismemberment of Venice. Contemporane- 
ously other events were menacing the ascendancy and exhaust- 
ing the treasury of the republic. In 1453 Constantinople fell 
to the Ottoman Turks, and although Venice entered at once 
into treaty with the new power and desired to trade with it, 
not to fight with it, yet it was impossible that her possessions. 



VENISON VENN 



in the Levant and the archipelago should not eventually bring 
her into collision with the expanding energy of the Mussulman. 
Europe persistently refused to assist the republic to preserve 
a trade in which she had established a rigid monopoly, and 
Venice was left to fight the Turk single-handed. The first 
Turkish war lasted from 1464 to 1479, and ended in the loss 
of Negropont and several places in the Morea, and the pay- 
ment by Venice of an annual tribute for trading rights. She 
was consoled, however, by the acquisition of Cyprus, which 
came into her possession (1488) on the extinction of the dynasty 
of Lusignan with the death of James II. and his son James III., 
Caterina Cornaro, James II.'s widow, ceding the kingdom of 
Cyprus to Venice, since she could not hope to maintain it un- 
aided against the Turks. The acquisition of Cyprus marks 
the extreme limit of Venetian expansion in the Levant; from 
this date onward there is little to record save the gradual loss 
of her maritime possessions. 

Exhausting as the Turkish wars were to the Venetian treasury, 
her trade was still so flourishing that she might have survived 
the strain had not the discovery of the Cape route to the Indies 
cut the tap-root of her commercial prosperity by diverting the 
stream of traffic from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic. When 
Diaz rounded the Cape in 1486 a fatal blow was struck at 
Venetian commercial supremacy. The discovery of the Cape 
route saved the breaking of bulk between India and Europe, 
and saved the dues exacted by the masters of Syria and Egypt. 
Trade passed into the hands of the Portuguese, the Dutch and 
the English. Venice lost her monopoly of oriental traffic. 

To complete her misfortunes, the European powers, the church 
and the small states of Italy, partly from jealous greed of her 
possessions, partly on the plea of her treason to Christendom in 
making terms with Islam, partly from fear of her expansion in 
north Italy, coalesced at Cambrai in 1508 for the partition of 
Venetian possessions. The war proved disastrous for Venice. 
The victory of Agnadello (1510) gave the allies the complete 
command of Venetian territory down to the shores of the lagoon. 
But the mutual jealousy of the allies saved her. The pope, 
having recovered the Romagna and secured the objects for which 
he had joined the league, was unwilling to see all north Italy 
in the hands of foreigners, and quitted the union. The emperor 
Maximilian failed to make good his hold on Padua, and was 
jealous of the French. The league broke up, and the mainland 
cities of the Veneto returned of their own accord to their allegi- 
ance to St Mark. But the republic never recovered from the 
blow, coming as it did on the top of the Turkish wars and the loss 
of her trade by the discovery of the Cape route. She ceased to 
be a great power, and was henceforth entirely concerned in the 
effort to preserve her remaining possessions and her very in- 
dependence. The settlement of the peninsula by Charles V.'s 
coronation at Bologna in 1530 secured the preponderance to 
Spain, and the combination of Spain and the church dominated 
the politics of Italy. Dread of the Turks and dread of Spain 
were the two terrors which haunted Venice till the republic 
fell. That she retained her independence so long was due to 
a double accident: the impregnability of the lagoons and the 
jealousies of the great powers. 

But the decline was a slow process. Venice still possessed 
considerable wealth and extensive possessions. Between 1499 
and 1716 she went to war four times with the Turks, emerging 
from each campaign with some further loss of maritime territory. 
The fourth Turkish war (1570-1573) was signalized by the 
glorious victory of Lepanto (1571), due chiefly to the prowess 
of the Venetians under their doge Sebastian Venier. But her 
allies failed to support her. They reaped no fruits from the 
victory, and Cyprus was taken from her after the heroic defence 
of Famagusta by Bragadino, who was flayed alive, and his skin, 
stuffed with straw, borne in triumph to Constantinople. The 
fifth Turkish war (1645-1668) entailed the loss of Crete; and 
though Morosini reconquered the Morea for a brief space in 
1685, that province was finally lost to Venice in 1716. 

So far as European politics are concerned, the latter years of 
the republic are made memorable by one important event: the 



1007 



resistance which Venice, under the guidance of Fra Paolo Sarpi, 
offered to the growing claims of the Curia Romana, advanced by 
Pope Paul V. Venice was placed under interdict (1606), but she 
asserted the rights of temporal sovereigns with a courage which 
was successful and won for her the esteem and approval of most 
European sovereigns. 

But the chief glory of her declining years was undoubtedly 
her splendid art. Giorgione, Titian, Sansovino, Tintoret, Paolo 
Veronese and Palladio all lived and worked after the disastrous 
wars of the league of Cambrai. The chief characteristic of 
Venice during these years is that she became the great pleasure- 
city of Europe. The end of the republic came when the French 
Revolution burst over Europe. Napoleon was determined to 
destroy the oligarchical government, and seized the pretext that 
Venice was hostile to him and a menace to his line of retreat 
while engaged in his Austrian campaign of 1797. The peace of 
Leoben left Venice without an ally. The government resolved 
to offer no resistance to the conqueror, and the doge Lodovico 
Manin abdicated on the izth of May 1797. On the I7th of 
October Napoleon handed Venice over to Austria by the peace 
of Campo Formio, and between 1798 and 1814 she passed from 
France to Austria and Austria to France till the coalition of that 
latter year assigned her definitely to Austria. In 1848 a revolu- 
tion broke out and a provisional republican government under 
Daniele Manin (q.v.) maintained itself for a brief space. In 1866 
the defeat of Austria by the Prussians led to the incorporation of 
Venice in United Italy. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. S. Romanin, Storm documentata di Venezia 
(Venice, 1853); P. Molmenti, La Storia di Venezia nella Vita privata 
(Bergamo, 1906; also English translation, London); P. Daru, 
Storia della Republica di Venezia, tr. from the French, Capolago, 
1837 (this edition is recommended on account of the notes and 
additions); W. C. Hazlitt, The Venetian Republic (London, 1900); 
C. Yriarte, Venise (Paris, 1875); W. R. Thayer, A Short History of 
Venice (New York, 1905) ; H. F. Brown, Venice, an Historical Sketch 
of the Republic (London, 1895); H. Kretschmer, Geschichte von 
Venedig, Band I. (Gotha, 1905); A. Gfrorer, Geschichte Venedigs bis 
zum Jahr 104.8 (Gratz, 1872); G. Filiasi, Memorie storiche de' Veneti 
primi e secundi (Venezia, 1796); F. G. Hodgson, The Early History 
of Venice (London, 1901); C. Hopf, Chroniques Greco- Romaines 
(Berlin, 1873) ; W. Heyd, Geschichte des Levantehandels im Mittelalter 
(Stuttgart, 1879); G. L. Tafel and G. M. Thomas, Urkunden zur 
dlteren Handels-und Staatsgeschichte der Republik Venedig (Vienna, 
1856); V. Sandi, Storia civile della Republtca di Venezia (Venice, 
J 755) ; C. A. Marin, Storia civile e pplilica del Commercio de' Veneziani 
(Venice, 1 798) ; H. F. Brown, Studies in the History of Venice (London, 
1907); M. Samedo, Diarii (Venice, 1879-1903). (H. F. B.) 

VENISON (pronounced venzori), originally a word meaning a 
beast of any kind killed in the chase, but now only applied to the 
flesh of the deer prepared for eating. The O. Fr. veneisun, 
venoison, &c., mod. venaison, meant the flesh of the deer or boar, 
the principal beasts of the chase (Lat. venalio, hunting). 

VENLO, a frontier town in the province of Limburg, Holland, 
on the right bank of the Maas, and a junction station 43 m. 
by rail N.N.E. of Maastricht. Pop. 15,000. It is joined by 
a bridge over the Maas, with the opposite village of Blerik. 
Venlo, with narrow streets irregularly built, is not of the ordinary 
Dutch type in architectural style. The picturesque town hall 
(JSQSX the only building of special interest, contains some 
interesting paintings by Hubert Goltzius (1526-1583). The 
church dates from 1304. There is a college for the higher 
education of Roman Catholic priests. The leading industries 
are distilling, brewing, tanning, spinning, needlemaking and 
tobacco manufacture. There is also a considerable trade by 
river with Rotterdam. 

VENN, HENRY (1725-1797), English evangelical divine, was 
born at Barnes, Surrey, and educated at Cambridge. He took 
orders in 1747, and was elected fellow of Queens' College, 
Cambridge, in 1749. After holding a curacy at Barton, 
Cambridgeshire, he became curate of St Matthew, Friday 
Street, London, and of West Horsley, Surrey, in 1750, and 
then of Clapham in 1754. In the preceding year he was chosen 
lecturer of St Swithin's, London Stone. He was vicar of 
Huddersfield from 1759 to 1771, when he exchanged to the 
living of Yelling, Huntingdonshire. Besides being a leader 



ioo8 



VENOSA VENTILATION 



of the evangelical revival, he was well known as the author of 
The Compleat Duly of Man (London, 1763), a work in which 
he intended to supplement the teaching embodied in the anony- 
mous Whole Duty of Man. His son, John Venn (1730-1813), 
was one of the founders of the Church Missionary Society, and 
his grandson, Henry Venn (1796-1873), was honorary secretary 
of that society from 1841 to 1873. 

, VENOSA (anc. Venusia, g.v.), a town and bishop's see of the 
Basilicata in the province of Potenza, Italy, on the eastern 
side of Mount Vulture, 52 m. by rail S.S.E. of Foggia, 1345 ft. 
above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 8503. The castle was built 
in 1470 by Pirro di Balzo, and contains four stables each for 
fifty horses. Many fragments of Roman workmanship are 
built into the walls of the cathedral, which is due to him also. 
The abbey church of SS. Trinita is historically interesting; it 
was consecrated in 1059 by Pope Nicholas II. and passed into 
the hands of the Knights of St John in the time of Boniface VIII. 
(1295-1303). In the central aisle is the tomb of Alberada, the 
first wife of Robert Guiscard and mother of Bohemund. An 
inscription on the wall commemorates the great Norman brothers 
William Iron Arm (d. 1046), Brogo (murdered at Venosa in 1051), 
Humfrey (d. 1057) and Robert Guiscard (d. at Corfu in 1085). 
The bones of these brothers rest together in a simple stone 
sarcophagus opposite the tomb of Alberada. The church 
also contains some 14th-century frescoes. Behind it is a larger 
church, which was begun for the Benedictines about 1150, 
from the designs of a French architect, in imitation of the 
Cluniac church at Paray-le-Monial, but never carried beyond 
the spring of the vaulting. The ancient amphitheatre adjacent 
furnished the materials for its walls. 

See A. Avena, Monumenti dell' Italia Meridionale (Naples, 1902), 
323 sqq. ; O. de Lorenzo, Venosa e la Regione del Vulture (Bergamo, 
1906). 

VENTILATION (Lat. venttiare, from ventus, wind), the pro- 
cess and practice of keeping an enclosed place supplied with 
proper air for breathing; and so, by analogy, a term used 
for exposing any subject to the winds of public criticism. The 
air which we breathe consists chiefly of two gases, oxygen and 
nitrogen, with certain small proportions of other gases, such 
as carbonic acid (carbon dioxide), ozone and argon. Oxygen,, 
which is the active and important constituent, and on which 
life and combustion depend, forms about one-fifth of the whole, 
while nitrogen, which is inert and acts as a diluent, forms nearly 
four-fifths. Of this mixture each adult person breathes some 
2600 gallons or 425 cub. ft. in twenty-four hours. In air 
that has passed through the lungs the proportion of oxygen is 
reduced and that of carbon dioxide increased. Of the various 
impurities that are found in the air of inhabited rooms, carbonic 
acid gas forms the best practical index of the efficiency of the 
ventilation. The open air of London and other large inland 
towns contains about four parts by volume of the gas in 10,000 
of air. In the country, and in towns near the sea, two to three 
and a half parts in 10,000 is a more usual proportion. Authori- 
ties on ventilation usually take four parts hi 10,000 as the 
standard for pure air, and use the excess over that quantity in 
estimating the adequacy of the air supply. But they differ 
as to the proportion to which the carbonic acid may be allowed 

standard to r * se un( ^ er a 8d s y stem f ventilation. It is 
ot parity, generally admitted that the air in which people dwell 

and sleep should not under any circumstances be 
allowed to contain more than ten parts in 10,000. This has been 
accepted as the permissible' proportion by Carnelley, Haldane 
and Anderson, after an extensive examination of the air of 
middle and lower class dwellings. 

The rate at which an adult expires carbonic acid varies 
widely with his condition of repose, being least in sleep, greater 
Kate of i n waking rest, and very much greater in violent 
con- exercise. As a basis on which to calculate the air 

sumption necessary for proper ventilation we may take the 

production of carbonic acid by an adult as 0-6 
cub. ft. per hour. Hence he will produce per hour, in 6000 
cub. ft. of air, a pollution amounting to one part of carbonic 



acid in 10,000 of air. If the excess of carbonic acid were to 
be kept down to this figure (i in 10,000), it would be necessary 
to supply 6000 cub. ft. of fresh air per hour; if the permis- 
sible excess be two parts in 10,000 half this supply of fresh air 
will suffice; and so on. We therefore have the following 
relation between (i) the quantity of air supplied per person per 
hour, (2) the excess of carbonic acid which results, and (3) the 
total quantity of carbonic acid' present, on the assumption 
that the fresh air that is admitted contains four parts by volume 
in 10,000: 



Air supplied per 
Adult per Hour. 


Carbonic Acid 
(Parts by Volume in 10,000). 


Cubic Feet. 


Excess due to 
Respiration. 


Total 
Quantity. 


IOOO 

1 200 
1500 

2OOO 
3000 


6 
5 
4 
3 

2 


10 

9 

8 

6 



Some investigators have maintained that, in addition to an in- 
creased proportion of carbonic acid, air which has passed through the 
lungs contains a special poison. This view, however, is not accepted 
by others; J. S. Haldane and Lorrain Smith, for instance, conclude 
" that the immediate dangers from breathing air highly vitiated 
by respiration arise entirely from the excess of carbonic acid and 
deficiency of oxygen " (Journ. Path, and Boot. 1892, i, 175). Car- 
bonic acid, however, is not the only agent that has to be reckoned 
with in badly ventilated rooms, for the unpleasant effects they pro- 
duce may also be due to increase of moisture and temperature and 
to the odours that arise from lack of cleanliness. Again, though 
there may be no unduly large proportion of carbonic acid present, 
the air of an apartment may be exceedingly impure when the 
criterion is the number of micro-organisms it contains. This 
also may be greatly reduced by efficient ventilation. Comparisons 
carried out by Carnelley, Haldane and Anderson (Phil. Trans., 
1887, 178 B, 61) between schools known to be well ventilated (by 
mechanical means) and schools ventilated at haphazard or not 
ventilated at all showed that the average number of micro-organisms 
was 17 per litre in the former, and in the others 152. Results of 
great interest were obtained by the experiment of stopping the 
mechanical ventilators for a few hours or days. Tested by the 
proportion of carbonic acid, the air of course became very bad; 
tested by the number of micro-organisms, it remained comparatively 
pure, the number being, in fact, scarcely greater than when ventila- 
tion was going on, and far less than the average in " naturally 
ventilated schools. This proves in a striking way the advantage 
of systematic ventilation. 

In the ventilation of buildings four main points have to 
be considered: (i) the area of floor to be provided for each 
person; (2) the cubic capacity of the room required ventiia- 
for each occupant; (3) the allowance to be made tioaot 
for the vitiation of the air by gas or oil burners; l>aaala x s - 
and (4) the quantity of fresh air which must be brought 
in and of vitiated air that must be extracted for each indi- 
vidual. The first will depend upon the objects to which 
the room is devoted, whether a ward of a hospital or a 
school or a place of public assembly. The purity of the air 
of a room depends to a great extent on the proportion of 
its cubic capacity to the number of inmates. The influence 
of capacity is, however, often overrated. Even when the 
allowance of space is very liberal, if no fresh air be supplied, 
the atmosphere of a room quickly falls below the standard of 
purity specified above; on the other hand, the space per inmate 
may be almost indefinitely reduced if sufficient means are 
provided for systematic ventilation. Large rooms are good, 
chiefly because of their action as reservoirs of air in those cases 
(too common in practice) where no sufficient provision is made 
for continuous ventilation, and where the air is changed mainly 
by intermittent ventilation, such as occurs when doors or 
windows are opened. With regard to the third point, in build- 
ings lighted by gas or oil the calculations for the supply of fresh 
and the extraction of foul air must include an allowance for the 
vitiation of air by the products of combustion. The rate at 
which this takes place may be roughly estimated in the case of 
gas by treating each cubic foot of gas burnt per hour as equal 



VENTILATION 



1009 



to one person. Thus an ordinary burner giving a light of 
about twenty candles and burning 4 cub. ft. of gas per hour 
vitiates the air as much as four persons, and an incandescent 
burner as much as one and a half persons. A small reading- 
lamp burning oil uses the air of four men; a large central 
table lamp uses as much air as seven men. 

As to the fourth point there is great diversity of opinion. To 
preserve the lowest standard of purity tolerated by sanitarians, 
ventilation must go$>n at the rate per person of 1000 cub. ft. 
per hour, and 3000 cub. ft. per hour are required to preserve 
the higher standard on which some authorities insist. E. A. 
Parkes advised a supply of 2000 cub. ft. of air per hour for 
persons in health and 3000 or 4000 cub. ft. for sick persons. 
In the case of a public assembly hall no great harm will occur to 
an audience occupying the room for a comparatively short time 
if 30 cub. ft. of air per minute are provided for each person. 
The United States book on school architecture gives a practical 
application to its remarks on this subject as follows: 

The amount of fresh air which is allowed to hospital patients 
is about 2500 cub. ft. each per hour. Criminals in French 
prisons have to content themselves with 1500 cub. ft. per hour. 
Assuming that we care two-thirds as much for the health of our 
children as we do for that of our thieves and murderers, we will 
make them an allowance of 1000 cub. ft. each per hour, or about 
16 cub. ft. per minute. Forty-eight children will then need an 
hourly supply of 48,000 cub. ft. Definite provision must therefore 
be made for withdrawing this quantity of foul air. No matter 
how many inlets there may be, the fresh air will only enter as 
fast as the foul escapes, and this can only find an outlet through 
ducts intended for that purpose, porous walls and crevices serving 
in cool weather only for inward flow. What, then, must be the 
size of the shaft to exhaust 48,000 ft. per hour? In a shaft 20 ft. 
high, vertical and smooth inside, with a difference in temperature 
of 20, the velocity will be about 2\ ft. per second, or 9000 ft. 
per hour; that is, it will carry off 9000 cub. ft. of air per hour for 
every square foot of its sectional area. To convey 48,000 cub. ft., it 
must have a sectional area of 55 sq. ft. 

A general idea of the floor area, cubic space and fresh air 
supply per inmate allowed by law or by custom in certain cases 
is given in the table below: 









Cubic Feet of 


Class of Building. 


Floor Area 
in Feet 


Cubic 
Capacity in 
Feet per 


Fresh Air 
supplied and 
Foul Air 




per Person. 


Person. 1 


extracted per 








Person. 


Schools . 


9 to 10 


200 


i, 800 


Barracks 


70 


720 


i, 800 


Prisons . 


90 


800 


i, 800 


Concert halls and 








theatres 


9 


1 08 


2,000 


Billiard and smoke- 








rooms . 






2,000 


Hospitals 


I2O 


1,440 


2,000 to 3,000 


Public libraries 


20 


2,400 


2,500 


Turkish baths. 


70 


800 


5,000 


Workshops 


120 


1,440 


5,000 


Cowsheds, per cow . 


90 


1,100 


10,000 


Stables ; per horse . 


1 2O 


i, 600 


12,000 



1 In calculating the cubic capacity per person the height should 
not be measured beyond 12 ft. above the floor. 

The supply of fresh air indicated in the table should not 
be regarded as entirely satisfactory, for the standard of purity 
suggested is low, and ought to be exceeded, but it might deter 
many from moving in the matter if a proper and higher standard 
were to be laid down at first. 

One of the most important points is the proper warming of 
the fresh air introduced into buildings, for unless that be done, 
when a cold day occurs all the ventilating arrangements will 
probably be closed. The fact should not be lost sight of that 
the air in a room may on the one hand be quite cold and yet 
very foul, and on the other, warm and yet perfectly fresh. 
To avoid draught the air should enter through a large number of 
small orifices, so that the currents may be thoroughly diffused. 
This is done by gratings. The friction of their bars, however, 
seriously diminishes their capacity for passing air, and careful 



experiments show conclusively that very ample grating area is 
required to deliver large volumes. The same remark applies 
to extracting-flues. Owing to the small size and the roughness 
of the surface the velocity of the upward current is small, and 
the quantity of air that passes out is often much less than is 
requisite. 

Means of Ventilation. In order that the atmosphere of a 
room should be changed by means of air currents, thereby 
securing proper ventilation, three things are necessary; (i) an 
inlet or inlets for the fresh air, (2) an outlet or outlets for the 
vitiated air, and (3) a motive force to produce and maintain 
the current. In systems which are distinguished by the general 
name of mechanical or artificial ventilation special provision is 
made for driving the air, by fans, or by furnaces, or by other 
contrivances to be described more fully below. In what is 
called natural ventilation no special appliance is used to give 
motive force, but the forces are made use of which are supplied 
by (i) the wind, (2) the elevated temperature of the room's 
atmosphere, and (3) the draught of fires used for heating. 

Natural Ventilation. The chief agent in domestic ventilation 
is the chimney; when a bright fire is burning in an open grate, 
it rarely happens that any other outlet for foul air from a room 
need be provided. The column of hot air and burnt gases in the 
chimney is less heavy, because of its high temperature, than an 
equal column of air outside; the pressure at the base is therefore 
less than the pressure at the same level outside. This supplies a 
motive force compelling air to enter at the bottom through the 
grate and through the opening over the grate, and causing a current 
to ascend. The motive force which the chimney supplies has not 
only to do work on the column of air within the chimney, chimney 
in setting it in motion and in overcoming frictional re- . 
sistance to its flow: it has also to set the air entering the 
room in motion and to overcome frictional resistance at the inlets. 
From want of proper inlets air has to be dragged in at a high velocity 
and against much resistance, under the doors, between the window 
sashes and through many other chinks and crevices. Under these 
conditions the air enters in small streams or narrow sheets, ill- 
distributed and moving so fast as to form disagreeable draughts, 
the pressure in the room is kept so low that an opened door or window 
lets in a deluge of cold air, and the current up the chimney is much 
reduced. If the attempt is made to stop draughts by applying 
sand-bags and listing to the crevices at which air streams in, matters 
only become worse in other respects; the true remedy of course lies 
in providing proper inlets. The discharge of air by an ordinary 
open fire and chimney varies widely, depending on the rate of 
combustion, the height and section and form of the chimney, and 
the freedom with which air is entering the room. About 10,000 
cub. ft. per hour is probably a fair average, about enough to keep 
the air fresh for half a dozen persons. Even when no fire is burning 
the chimney plays an important part in ventilation ; the air within 
an inhabited room being generally warmer than the air outside, it is 
only necessary that an up-current should be started in order that 
the chimney should maintain it, and it will usually be found that 
a current is, in fact, passing up. 

When a room is occupied for any considerable length of time by 
more than about half a dozen persons, the chimney outlet should 
be supplemented by others, which usually take the form other 
of gratings in the ceiling or cornices in communication outlets, 
with flues leading to the open air. These openings 
should be protected from down-draught by light flap valves of oiled 
silk or sheet mica. 

With regard to inlets, a first care must be to avoid such currents 
of cold air as will give the disagreeable and dangerous sensation of 
draught. At ordinary temperatures a current of outer air laletg 
to which the body is exposed will be felt as a draught if 
its velocity exceeds 3, or even 2 ft. per second. The current entering 
a room may, however, be allowed to move with a speed much greater 
than this without causing discomfort, provided its direction keeps 
it from striking directly on the persons of the inmates. To secure 
this, it should enter, not horizontally nor through gratings on the 
floor, but vertically through openings high enough to carry the 
entering stream into the upper atmosphere of the room, where it 
will mix as completely as possible with warm air before its presence 
can be felt. A favourite form of inlet is the Sheringham (fig. i). 
When opened it forms a 
wedge-shaped projection 
into the room, and admits ^ 
air in an upward stream \ 
through the open top. It |^_ 
should be placed at a height " 

f A,fl 6 ft ' n b r e - tl f ,' evel FIG. i. Sheringham Air Inlet, 
of the floor. Other inlets are 

made by using hollow perforated blocks of earthenware, called air- 
bricks, built into the wall; these are often shaped on the inner 



n 



1010 



VENTILATION 



Tohin 
tube. 

6 ft. 



side like an inverted louvre-board or Venetian blind, with slots 
that slope so as to give an upward inclination to the entering 
stream. 

In another and most valuable form of ventilator, the Tobin tube, 
the fresh air enters vertically upwards. The usual arrangement 
of Tobin tube (shown in front elevation and section in 
fig. 2) is a short vertical shaftt>f metal plate or wood which 
leads up the wall from the floor level to a height of 5 or 
Its lower end communicates with the outer air through an 
air-grating in the wall; from its 
upper end, which is freely open, the 
current of fresh air rises in a smooth 
stream. Various forms of section 
9 may be given to the tube: if placed 

in a corner it will be triangular or 
segmental ; against a flat wall a 
shallow rectangular form is most 
usual, or it may be placed in a 
channel so as to be flush with the 
face of the wall; a lining of wood 
forming a dado may even be made 
to serve as a Tobin tube by setting 
it out a little way from the wall. 
The tube is often furnished with a 




FIG. 2. Tobin Tube. 



regulating valve, and contrivances 
m may be added for cleansing the 
entering air. A muslin or canvas 
bag hung in the tube, or a screen 
stretched diagonally across it, may 
be used to filter out dust; the 




same object is served in some degree by forcing the air, as it enters 
the tube at the bottom, to pass in close contact with the surface of 
water in a tray, by means of a deflecting plate. 
These complications have a double drawback: they 
require frequent attention to keep them in order, 
and by putting resistance in the way of the 
stream they are apt to reduce the 'efficiency of 
the ventilation. 1 The air entering by a Tobin 
tube may be warmed by a coil of hot pipes within 
the tube or by a small gas-stove (provided, of 
course, with a flue to discharge outside the pro- 
ducts of combustion), or the tube may draw its 
supply, not directly from the outer atmosphere, 

p IG , Short but from a hot-air flue. The opening should 

Tobin Tube always be about the level of a man's head, but the 
tube need not extend down to the floor: all that is 
essential is that it should have sufficient length to let the air issue 
in a smooth vertical current without eddies (fig. 3). 

These inlets are at once so simple and effective that no hesitation 
need be felt in introducing them freely in the rooms of dwelling- 
houses. When no special provision is made for them in 
the walls, the advantage of a current entering vertically 
may still be in some degree secured by help of certain 
makeshift contrivances. One of these, suggested by Dr 
Hinkes Bird, is to open one sash of the window a few 
inches and fill up the opening by a board ; air then enters in a zig- 
zag course through the space between the meeting rails of the 
sashes. Still another plan is to have a light frame of wood or 
metal or glass made to fit in front of the lower sash when the 
window is opened, forming virtually a Tobin tube in front of the 
window. 

As an example of the systematic ventilation of dwelling-rooms 
on a large scale, the following particulars may be quoted of arrange- 
ments that have been successfully used in English 
*"**" barracks. One or more outlet-shafts of wood fitted with 
men s in ^^ valves to prevent down-draught are carried from the 
1 highest part of the room, discharging some feet above the 
roof under a louvre. The number and size of these shafts are such 
as to give about 12 sq. in. of sectional area per head, and the chimney 
gives about 6 sq. in. more per head. About half the air enters 
cold through air-bricks or Sheringham valves at a height of about 
9 ft. from the floor, and the other half is warmed by passing through 
flues behind the grate. The inlets taken together give an area of 
about ii sq. in. per head. A fairly regular circulation of some 1200 
cub. ft. per head per hour is found to take place, and the proportion 
of carbonic acid ranges from 7 to 10 parts in 10,000. 



Ventila- 
tion by 
window 
and door. 



1 When the air is not filtered, and when it has been warmed before 
entering, the vertical direction of the stream is- readily traced by 
dust, which is deposited on the wall in a nearly upright column, 
spreading slightly fan-wise as it rises. With cold air the deposit 
of dust is comparatively slight. The difference is due to the fact, 
noticed and explained by Mr John Aitken, that air quickly de- 
posits any suspended particles when it is brought into contact with 
a surface colder than itself, but retains them in suspension if the 
surface be warmer than the air. Another domestic illustration 
of the same fact is given by the greater dustiness of walls and 
furniture in a stove-heated room than in a room heated by an open 
fire. 




FIG. 4. Sectional Plan of 
Buchan's Exhaust Cowl. 



In the natural ventilation of churches, halls and other large 
rooms we often find air admitted by gratings in the floor or near it; 
or the inlets may consist, like Tobin tubes, of upright flues fa pabllc 
rising to a height of about 6 ft. above the floor, from which bu !, dlags 
the air proceeds in vertical streams. If the air is to be 
warmed before it enters, the supply may be drawn from a chamber 
warmed by hot-water or steam pipes or by a stove, and the tempera- 
ture of the room may be regulated by allowing part of the air to come 
from a hot chamber and part from outside, the two currents mixing 
in the shaft from which the inlets to the room draw their supply. 
Outlets usually consist of gratings or plain openings at or near the 
ceiling, preferably at a considerable distance from points vertically 
above the inlet tubes. One of the chief difficulties in natural 
ventilation is to guard them against down-draught through the 
action of the wind. Numberless forms of cowl have been devised 
with this object, with the further intention of turning the wind 
to useful account by making it assist the up-current of foul air. 
Some of these exhaust cowls are of the revolving class, made to 
various designs and dimensions and put in rotation by Exhaust 
the force of the wind. Revolving cowls are liable to fail COH ,/ S 
by sticking, and, generally speaking, fixed cowls are to be 
preferred. They are designed in many forms, of which Buchan's 
may be cited as a good example. Fig. 4 shows this ventilator in 

horizontal section: oa is the vertical 

exhaust flue through which the foul air 
rises; near the top this expands into a 
polygonal chamber, bbbb, with vertical 
sides, consisting partly of perforated 
sheet-metal plates; outside of these 
are fixed vertical curved guide-plates, 
c,c,c,c; the wind, blowing between j 
these and the polygonal chamber, 
sucks air from the centre through the ' 
perforated sides. The efficient working 
of an exhaust cowl, however, depends 
almost entirely upon the favourable 
conditions of the wind. 2 The two 
things that supply motive force in 
automatic or natural ventilation by 
means of exhaust cowls and similar 
appliances the difference of tempera- 
ture between inner and outer air, and 
the wind are so variable that even the best arrangements of inlets 
and outlets give a somewhat uncertain result. As an example, it is 
evident that on a hot day with little movement in the air this mode 
of ventilation would be practically ineffectual. Under other condi- 
tions these automatic air-extractors not infrequently become inlets, 
thus reversing the whole system and pouring cold air on the heads 
of the inmates of the apartment or hall. To secure a strictly uniform 
delivery of air, unaffected' by changes of season or of weather, it 
is necessary that the influence of these irregular motive forces be as 
far as possible minimized, and recourse must consequently be had 
to some mechanical force as a means of driving the air and securing 
adequate ventilation of the building. 

Artificial Ventilation. Buildings may be mechanically ventilated 
on the vacuum system, the plenum system, or on a system com- 
bining the best points of both. In nearly every case of the appli- 
cation to modern buildings of mechanical means of ventilation the 
combined system in one form or another is adopted. In the vacuum 
system the motive force is applied at the outlets; the vitiated air 
is drawn from the rooms, and the pressure of the atmosphere in 
them is slightly less than the pressure outside. Upon the foul air 
being withdrawn fresh air finds its way in by means of conveniently 
placed inlets. In the plenum the motive force is applied at the 
inlets; fresh air is forced in and drives the vitiated air before it 
until it escapes at the outlets provided. The pressure within the 
room is greater than outside. The plenum method has distinct 
advantages : it makes the air escape instead of coming in as a_ cold 
draught at every crevice and casual opening to the outer air; it 
avoids drawing foul air from sewers and basement; and with it, 
more easily than with the other, one may guard against _ the ^dis- 
turbing influence of wind. In the plenum method the air is driven 
by fans; in the vacuum method suction is produced by fans or by 
heating the column of air in a long vertical shaft through which the 
discharge takes place. Water jets and steam jets have also been 
employed to impel or extract the air. Whatever system of venti- 
lation is adopted, it is most important that windows capable of 
being widely opened should also be provided to aerate at frequent 
intervals the whole building, either as a whole or in sections, and 
they should be so arranged that no corner can be left stagnant or 
unswept by the purifying current. The Victoria Hospital at 
Glasgow and the Royal General Hospital at Birmingham are, 
however, ventilated on the plenum system without the aid of open 
windows, with what are said to be satisfactory results. In the case 
of hospitals, it is evident that aeration by means of open windows 
could not in Great Britain be effected except on warm and sunny 



* For an account of tests of various forms of ventilating cowls, 
see S. S. Hellyer, The Plumber and Sanitary Houses. 



VENTILATION 



days, but in the case of concert halls, theatres and similar buildings 
it is possible (and most essential) thoroughly to aerate the building 
between each occupation. 

The extraction of foul air should in most cases be effected at the 
top of a room or building, so as to utilize the natural tendency of 
Bxtrac- wa n air to rise; but at Birmingham and elsewhere the 
tloa of outlets are near the floor, the fresh air being brought in 
vitiated half-way up the walls and directed towards the ceiling. 
nlfr The air inlets should be Tobin tubes or similar devices, 

placed some 4 or 5 ft. above the floor, and so arranged that 
the air should be passed in contact with radiators or pipes to warm it 
before entering. In the case of a building for one of the American 
legislatures, the warmed fresh air is allowed to enter on the level in 
front of the desk of each member, so that he secures a proper volume 
of fresh air for his own use before it is breathed by his neighbour. 

The introduction of rapidly revolving, but silent, fans, driven by 
electricity, is a great advance which places within the reach of the 
Fans engineer or architect the means for solving the problem 

of ventilation of buildings, and has been to a large extent 
responsible for the rapid progress of the art of ventilation. The fan 
and motor combined extend the advantages of positive mechanical 
ventilation to all who have access to electric current, with the further 
benefit that the extreme simplicity of the electric driving of the fans 

'eatly facilitates the control and distribution of ventilating effect, 
he moderate power required by these fans for a given duty has 
contributed greatly to their extended use. They should deliver into 
a chamber of considerable size, so that the velocity of the air may 
become reduced before it passes into the distributing flues. The 
question of silence in running, in such places as houses of parliament, 
law courts, churches and chapels, is of paramount importance, and 
no fan should be accepted until it is proved by actual working to be 
noiseless. 

In some instances revolving pumps of the Root's blower type 
are used (see BELLOWS AND BLOWING MACHINES). At the Dundee 
College a battery of five of these blowers, each discharging over 
150,000 cub. ft. of air per hour, is driven easily by a gas engine of 
two horse-power. The air is passed through two filters of coarsely 
woven fabrics which serve to remove all particles of impurity. The 
rooms are heated by having coils of Perkins's high-pressure hot- 
water pipes (see HEATING) in the main distributing flues. The inlets 
are flat upright tubes extending up the side walls to a height of 
nearly 6 ft., and open at the top. Outlets are generally provided in 
the end walls, one group near the ceiling, another a few feet from the 
foot. They are fitted with doors which allow one or other to be 
closed; the high-level outlets are used in warm weather, when the 
fresh air that comes in is comparatively cool ; the low-level ones are 
used in cold weather, when the fresh air, having been heated before 
it enters, would tend to rise and pass out too directly if the outlets 
near the ceiling were open. The outlet shafts communicate with a 
louvred tower or turrets on the roof. Each room receives a volume 
of air equal to its cubic capacity in about 12 minutes, so that the 
atmosphere is completely changed five times in an hour. The inlets 
are proportioned to do this without allowing the velocity with which 
air enters to exceed 6 ft. per second. 

The water-spray ventilator is a mechanical ventilator using a jet 
of water to impel the air. A nozzle at the top of a circular 
air-shaft delivers a conical sheet of water, which impinges 
on the sides ol the shaft a little way below and carries 
down with it a considerable stream of air. This ventilator 
is used either to force air into rooms or to draw it out; 
in the former case a small stove is often added to heat the supply. 

In the early days of mechanical ventilation extraction by a hot-air 
shaft was a more common mode of ventilating hospitals and other 
E t m public buildings than now. The heat was applied by a 
^ oa ft " furnace or stove at the bottom of the shaft, or by coils 
hot-air ' hot-water or steam pipes. In the lecture theatre of the 
shaft Paris Conservatoire des Arts A. J. Morin employed this 

means of extraction, and arranged that the fresh air should 
enter through the ceiling and the foul air be drawn off through the 
floor from under the seats; this reversal of the natural direction 
of the current is of course only possible when a sufficient external 
motive force is applied. 

In theatres and similar buildings clusters of gas jets or sunlight 
burners, fixed at the ceiling level at the base of a metal shaft which 
is connected with the open air, serve as effective ventilating agents 
by extracting the foul air which collects in the upper part of the 
hall. 

To ensure the admission of the desired amount of air into a room, 
and to arrive at the proper allowance of inlets and outlets, it is 
_. necessary to ascertain the direction and velocity of the 

e movement of the air through them. The quantity of air 

passing through a given opening is found by multiplying 
the area of the opening expressed in square feet by the 
velocity of the current of air stated in lineal feet per minute, 
the product being the number of cubic feet passing per minute. 
Where the air is admitted through gratings only the clear area should 
be calculated, the amount of solid material being deducted from the 
gross superficies of the grating. The velocity of the air current may 
be determined by means of an anemometer (q.v.). 



ment 
of air. 



ion 

We may conclude with a short summary of the methods 
adopted of ventilating a number of typical buildings of various 
classes of different countries. 

The Smallpox Hospital at Bradford consists of two wards, 75 ft. by 
15 ft., placed back to back, with a space of about 3 ft. between them 
enclosed by walls forming a foul-air chamber of the same length as 
the wards, and reaching to the ceiling. At this level are outlets 
for the vitiated air one over each bed. A furnace at the base of 
a tall shaft withdraws through these outlets the air which passes 
through the furnace on its way to the outer air. The windows are 
tightly closed and fresh air enters from a chamber below through 
gratings in the floor at the foot of each bed. 

The New York General Hospital was stated in 1875 to contain 
163 beds. In the wards there is one window to each bed, each 
pier between the windows containing a foul-air extracting flue 
running from the base of the building and connected in the roof 
with large trunks leading to an exhaust fan. The heating is by 
steam coils placed in the basement in such a way that by a valve 
the cool fresh air can be sent either through or around the heating 
coil. The warmed fresh air is conveyed through an air-tight iron 
pipe fitted in each extracting shaft and is admitted to the wards 
through slits in the window-sills forming a jet directed upward on the 
principle of Tobin tubes. The outlet openings for the foul air are 
placed one beneath each bed, with extra outlets for occasional use 
at the top and base of the external walls. The placing of the fresh- 
air supply pipes in an inaccessible position inside the foul air ducts 
cannot be approved for hospital ventilation, as it is quite possible 
that in time, through the decay of the pipe joints or of the pipes 
themselves, communication may be established between the fresh 
and foul air, thus entirely upsetting the system of ventilation. 

The City Hospital of Hamburg, containing 130 beds, was opened 
in 1890. The buildings are one storey high and are heated on the 
ancient Roman hypocaust principle. Beneath the entire floor run 
longitudinally a number of brick and concrete flues about 30 in. 
squarei covered on the top with marble tiles, forming the floor of the 
wards. In these flues are placed the steam heating pipes. Warmed 
fresh air is admitted through large radiators in the centre of the 
wards, the vitiated air escaping through openings in the ridge of the 
roof. Mr H. Percy Adams adopted a similar hypocaust method for 
warming the chapel and the dming-hall at the King Edward VII. 
Tuberculosis Sanatorium at Midhurst, Sussex, except that the 
radiators are omitted from the centre of the rooms and placed in 
recesses in the side walls. 

In the Houses of Parliament at Westminster, which were designed 
and built for the public business in 1836, considerable attention is 
devoted to the question of the purification of the air, but the arrange- 
ments are lamentably antiquated and ineffectual in their working. 
The supply of fresh air is drawn by fans from the terrace at the 
river front, and, after being warmed and moistened or cooled by 
water-spray or blocks of ice, as the temperature may require, passes 
through exceedingly tortuous and restricted air passages to the 
various chambers, where it is admitted through large gratings in the 
floor, which are covered by porous matting to prevent draughts. 
The outlets for the vitiated air are in the ceilings of the apartments, 
and from these the air has to be dragged down to the base of the 
ventilating shaft in the Victoria tower, where an up-current is main- 
tained by a large furnace. 

The French Chamber of Deputies, according to a report made 
by M. Frelat in 1891, is much overcrowded, the allowance of floor 
space for each member being only 30 square centimetres. The 
apparatus is powerful enough to change the air every six minutes, 
but to avoid draughts it can only be worked slowly. Fresh air 
is driven down by a fan through openings in the ceiling, and vitiated 
air removed at the floor, giving a downward system of ventilation. 

For the ventilation of the new Sessions House at the corner of 
Newgate Street and Old Bailey, London, opened in 1907, an ela- 
borate system on the plenum downward principle was installed. 
The fresh air, drawn in at the basement by powerful fans, passed 
in turn through purifying screens, on which water was constantly 
playing, and over steam-heated coils, before entering the distributing 
trunks; into these sufficient cold air also was admitted to reduce it 
to the required temperature. Branch ducts conveyed this warmed 
[resh air to the points of inlet just below the ceiling. The outlets 
For the vitiated air were placed near the floor level, an electric fan 
drawing it up and discharging it at the roof. It was claimed that 
600 tons of filtered and warmed or cooled fresh air were passed 
through the building every hour. 

In the Capitol at Washington in America the upward 
system is installed. Fresh air, warmed by coils in the basement, 
is delivered by means of fans through openings in the floors of the 
various chambers and galleries, and the extractors, are placed in the 
ceilings. This foul air passes out of the building through louvre 
ventilators placed on the roof ridge. Some of the vitiated atmo- 
sphere, however that from the corridors and galleries is drawn 
ay means of a fan to the basement and blown up a lofty shaft. 

The Grand Opera House in Vienna is ventilated on a most ela- 
Dorate and complete system, the arrangements there giving ex- 
cellent results. The scheme for heating and ventilating this 



1012 

building was designed by D. Bohm. The building measures 397 ft. 
by 299 ft., and the theatre will hold about 2700 persons. Ventila- 
tion is effected by two fans, the lower for propulsion, the upper for 
extraction. The latter is aided also by the heat produced by the 
great pendant which has ninety burners. The heating is effected 
by steam, and the air enters the hall at a temperature of from 63 
to 65 F., the points of entrance being at the' floor and the risers 
of the seating. Each gallery and compartment of the theatre, in- 
cluding the stage, has a separate installation of heating apparatus 
and supply duct so that any one portion may be warmed and venti- 
lated independently of the rest. The velocity of the incoming air 
is between I and 2 ft. per second. The driving fan in the 
basement sends air into the building at the rate of 1059 cub. ft. 
per head per hour by means of electricity. The temperature in 
different parts of the house can be observed in a central control 
office, and here also are the levers which control the valves regulating 
the air supply, both hot and cold. During a performance the super- 
intendent of heating and ventilation is on duty in this office and 
secures to each part of the building its proper supply of fresh air 
at a proper temperature. 

For the ventilation of mines see MINING, and for that of railway 
tunnels see TUNNEL. 

AUTHORITIES. The following are the principal publications on 
ventilation: J. S. Billings, Ventilation and \Heating ; Leeds, Treatise 
on Ventilation ; Carpenter, Heating and Ventilating Buildings. 

(J- BT.) 

VENTIMIGLIA (Fr. Vintimille, anc. Album Intimilium or 
Albintimilium) , a frontier fortress, seaport and episcopal see of 
Liguria, Italy, in the province of Porto Maurizio, 94 m. W. by 
S. of Genoa by rail, and 4 m. from the Franco-Italian frontier, 
45 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 3452 (town); 11,468 (com- 
mune). The present Gothic cathedral' is built on the ruins of 
an earlier Lombard church, and this again on a Roman building, 
possibly a temple. The ruins of the ancient town are situated 
in the plain of Nervia, 3 m. to the E. of the modern. It was 
a munitipium with an extensive territory, and of some import- 
ance under the Empire, but was plundered by the partisans 
of Otho in A.D. 69. Remains of a theatre are visible, and 
remains of many other buildings have been discovered, among 
them traces of the ancient city walls, a fine mosaic, found in 
1852 but at once destroyed, and a number of tombs to the 
west of the theatre. The caves of the Balzi Rossi have proved 
rich in palaeolithic remains of the Quaternary period. 

See Notizie degli Scam, passim, especially 1877, 288 (G. Rossi). 

VENTNOR, a watering-place in the Isle of Wight, England, 
I2 m. S. by W. of Ryde by rail. Pop. of urban district (1901) 
5866. It is finely situated in the Undercliff district, at the 
foot of St Boniface Down, which reaches a height of 787 ft. 
The town is built on a succession of terraces sloping towards 
the sea, and from its sheltered situation, equable temperature, 
and comparatively dry atmosphere is regarded as one of the 
best resorts in England for consumptive invalids. In the 
middle of the tgth century it was only a small fishing hamlet, 
now it extends along the shore for a distance of about 2 m., 
including Bonchurch to the east. It possesses assembly 
rooms, a literary and scientific institution, an esplanade, a pier 
and extensive recreation grounds. The churches of Ventnor 
are all modern, but that of St Boniface at Bonchurch is a small 
Norman building, perhaps the oldest in the island. Among the 
benevolent and charitable institutions are the royal national 
hospital for consumptives (founded in 1869), the seaside home of 
the London city mission, the St Catherine's home for consump- 
tives and the convalescent home of the Royal Hants Hospital. 

VENTRILOQUISM (Lat. venter, belly, and loqui, to speak), 
the art of producing the voice in such a manner that it shall 
appear to proceed, not from the speaker's own mouth, but from 
some place altogether distant from him. The art of ventrilo- 
quism was formerly supposed to result from a peculiar use of 
the stomach (whence the name) during the process of inhalation. 
As a matter of fact, the words are formed in the normal manner, 
but the breath is allowed to escape very slowly, the tones being 
muffled by narrowing the glottis and the mouth opened as 
little as possible, while the tongue is retracted and only its tip 
moves. Gestures and facial expression are employed at the 
same time to assist in the deception by stimulating the imagina- 
tion of the listeners and to distract their attention from the 
speaker. " Thus," says Huxley, " if the ventriloquist desire 



VENTIMIGLIA VENUE 



to create the belief that a voice issues from the bowels of the 
earth, he imitates, with great accuracy, the tones of such a 
half -stifled voice, and suggests the existence of some one uttering 
it by directing his answers and gestures towards the ground. 
The gestures and tones are such as would be produced by a 
given cause; and, no other cause being apparent, the mind of 
the bystander insensibly judges the suggested cause to exist." 
Ventriloquism, which is still a recognized form of conjuring en- 
tertainment, is of ancient origin. Traces of the art are found 
in Egyptian and Hebrew archaeology. Eurykles of Athens was 
the most celebrated of Greek ventriloquists, who were called 
after him Euryklides, and also Engastrimanteis (belly-prophets). 
It is not impossible that the priests of ancient times were 
masters of this art, and that to it may be ascribed such miracles 
as the speaking statues of the Egyptians, the Greek oracles, 
and the stone in the river Pactolus, the sound of which put 
robbers to flight. Many uncivilized races of modern times 
are adepts in ventriloquism, as the Zulus, the Maoris and the 
Eskimos. It is well known in Hindustan and China, where it 
is practised by travelling magicians. 

See De la Chapelle, Le Ventriloque, ou I'engastrimythe (London, 
1772); E. Schultz, Die Kunst des Bauchredens (Erfurt, 1895); 
Sievers, Grundz&ge der Phonetic (Leipzig, 1901); Russel, Ventrilo- 
quism (London, 1898). 

VENUE (derived through the French, from Lat. venire, to 
come), in English law the term denoting the place from which 
a jury must come for the trial of a case. The word occurs 
early in constitutional documents, for it was for a long time 
one of the essentials of trial by jury that the jury should belong 
to the neighbourhood (vicinetum, visne) in which the cause of 
action arose or the alleged crime was committed (see JURY). 
This was founded on the idea that the jurors were in the nature 
of witnesses for or against the character or innocence of the 
party. The phrase duodecim legales homines de vicineto, or its 
equivalent, is found in the Constitutions of Clarendon (1164), 
the Assize of the Forest (1184) and in Glanvill. 

Civil Matters. Civil actions came to be classified as local and 
transitory, the former where the cause of action could only arise 
in a particular county, such as trespass to land, the latter where 
it might have arisen in any county, such as debt. In the latter case 
the plaintiff might lay the venue where he pleased, i.e. try the 
cause in any part of England subject to the power of the court or a 
judge to change the place of trial. The law on the subject is now 
only of antiquarian interest, for under the rules of the Supreme 
Court (Ord. xxxvi. r. i), " there shall be no local venue for the trial 
of any action, except where otherwise provided by statute, but in 
every action in every division the place of trial shall be fixed by the 
court or a judge." All local venues created by statutes prior to 
1875 were superseded by the rules of the Supreme Court and have 
not been revived by the present rules; and many of such statutes 
have been expressly or impliedly repealed by the Public Authorities 
Protection Act 1893. The present practice is to fix the place of 
trial in the order for directions now made in every civil action in 
the High Court. The place is selected by reference to the wishes 
of the parties, the residence of the witnesses, and with a view to 
reducing the costs of litigation. 

Criminal Matters. Proceedings by indictment or criminal in- 
formation are not affected by the changes of procedure as to civil 
actions; and it is necessary to ascertain in the case of each offence 
the venue, i.e. the proper place of trial, which, unless otherwise 
provided by statute, must be the county or other jurisdiction in 
which acts constituting the offence have been done. Numerous 
acts provide for the place of trial of offences committed partly in 
one county and partly in another, or on the high seas or abroad, 
and of special offences, such as those under the Post Office, Merchant 
Shipping, Slave Trade, and Foreign Enlistment Acts. The place 
of trial may be changed by the king's bench division, where it is 
probable that a fair trial could not be had in the county of the venue. 
Until 1825 it was necessary to have as juries in criminal cases jurors 
from the hundred in which the offence was said to have been com- 
mitted, and to be very particular to specify the venue as to each 
act imputed to the accused. This strictness continued to some extent 
until the passing of the Criminal Procedure Act 1851, which makes 
it unnecessary to state any venue in the body of an indictment, 
and no indictment is to be held bad for want of a proper perfect 
venue. Since this enactment (which applies to Ireland as well as to 
England) it is sufficient to state the venue in the margin of the in- 
dictment in this form, " Middlesex to wit," and it is unnecessary to 
mention the venue in the body of the indictment or information, 
though in certain case_s such as burglary it is usual, if not essential, 
to give a " local description." 



VENUS 



1013 



Scotland. In Scottish law venue is not used as a technical term, 
but there are statutory provisions for changing the place of trial in 
both civil and criminal cases. 

United States. In the United States venue may generally be 
changed by the courts; but in some states it is provided by their 
constitutions that provision for change of venue is to be made by 
the legislature. In other states the passing of local or special laws 
for change of venue is forbidden. (W. F. C.) 

VENUS, an old Roman and Latin goddess, apparently repre- 
senting beauty and growth in nature, and especially in gardens, 
where the Roman practical sense would most naturally see 
these. She had two temples in Rome, one in the grove of 
Libitina, with whom she was wrongly identified, and the other 
near the Circus Maximus, both of which had as their dedication 
day the igth of August, the festival of the Vinalia rustica, a 
fact which also points in the direction of skilled cultivation as 
the human work of which she was protectress. But this old 
Latin deity was in historical times entirely absorbed by the 
Greek Aphrodite, and assumed the characteristics of a cult of 
human love, which in her original form she had never possessed. 
(See APHRODITE.) 

VENUS, in astronomy, the second of the major planets in 
the order of distance from the sun, and moving next within the 
orbit of the earth. Its symbol is 9 . At inferior conjunction it 
approaches nearer to the earth than any other major planet, but 
in that position it is practically invisible. Its apparent motion 
may be described as an oscillation from one side of the sun to the 
other, the complete period of which is 1-6 years, and the greatest 
elongation about 45 on each side of the sun. When east of the 
latter it appears as the " evening star " in the west after sunset, 
while near western elongation it is seen as the " morning star " 
before sunrise. In these aspects it was known to the ancients 
as "E<rirepos, Hesperus, and 'Eoxr^opos or "Itocr^opos, Phosphorus. 
The eccentricity of its orbit is smaller than that of any other 
planet except Neptune. 

Notwithstanding the near approach of Venus to the earth, 
its situation relative to the sun is unfavourable to the study of its 
physical constitution. Near inferior conjunction only a narrow 
crescent of light is visible; and when, as the planet moves away, 
this crescent becomes broader, the distance of the planet con- 
stantly increases. When it appears as a half-moon it is at a 
distance of more than two-thirds that of the sun, and nearly 
double the distance of Mars in opposition. The difficulty of 
reaching any conclusion on the subject of its constitution is 
heightened by the seeming absence of any well-marked features 
on the visible part of its brilliant surface. In the telescope it 
presents much the appearance of burnished silver, without spot 
or blemish. It is true that observers have from time to time 
thought they could detect slight variations of shade indicating 
an axial rotation. As far back as 1667 G. D. Cassini thought he 
saw a bright spot near the southern horn, observations 
*/Venus of wh i ch 8 ave a period of about 23 hours. In 1726 
Francesco Bianchini (1662-1729), a papal chamberlain, 
made similar observations from which he inferred a period of 
more than 24 days. It was shown, however, that the observa- 
tions of Bianchini could be reconciled with those of Cassini by 
supposing that, as he observed the planet night after night, it 
had made one rotation and a little more. J. H. Schroeter also 
found a revolution of less than 24 hours. But Sir W. Herschel, 
as in the case of Mercury, was never able to detect any changes 
from which a period of rotation could be determined. During 
the years 1888-1890, G. Schiaparelli made an exhaustive study of 
the whole subject, the results of which were summed up in five 
brief notes, read to the Lombardian Academy of Sciences during 
the year 1890. His general conclusion was that Venus always 
presents the same face to the sun, as the moon does to the earth. 
The same result has been reached by the observations at the 
Lowell Observatory. The inference that the axial rotation is at 
least much slower than that of the earth is strengthened by the 
measures of different diameters of the planet made while it was 
in transit across the disk of the sun in 1874 and 1882. These 
show no measurable ellipticity of the disk, but they are not 
sufficiently accurate to lead to any more precise conclusion than 



that just stated. Still, the difficulty and uncertainty attending 
all observations hitherto made upon the disk are such that no 
conclusion respecting the time of rotation can be regarded as 
established. Against the view of Schiaparelli is to be set the 
great improbability that a body so distant from the sun as Venus 
could be permanently so acted upon as to keep its axial rotation 
in precise coincidence with its orbital motion. Only one way 
seems to be open for settling the question; this is by spectro- 
scopic observations of the displacement of the spectral lines at 
the two limbs of the planet. Attempts by this method have been 
made by A. A. Belopolski at Pulkova, and by the astronomers of 
the Lowell Observatory. It is, however, found that the amount 
of displacement is so small that it has evaded certain detection 
up to the present time. Belopolski's measures were decidedly 
in favour of an axial rotation, while the Lowell results were not. 
Other observations than those we have cited show that Venus 
is surrounded by an atmosphere so filled with clouds that it is 
doubtful whether any view of the solid body of the Atmo- 
planet can ever be obtained. The first evidence in sphere of 
favour of an atmosphere was found in the fact Veaa *- 
that, when near inferior conjunction, the visible outline of 
the thin crescent extended through more than 180. Most 
remarkable was an observation by Chester Smith Lyman at 
New Haven during the conjunction of 1866, when the planet 
was just without the sun. A thin line of light was supposed 
to be seen all round the limb of the planet most distant from the 
sun. But as no such appearance was seen during the approach 
of the planet to the sun at the transits of 1874 and 1882, when 
the conditions were much more favourable, it seems likely that 
such observations are the result of an optical illusion. During 
the latter of the two transits the phenomena of this class observed 
were of an unexpected character. Not a trace of the planet could 
be seen until it began to impinge upon the solar disk. When 
about half of its diameter had entered upon the sun the outline 
outside the disk of the sun began to be marked by broken 
portions of an arc of light. This did not begin at the point A 
(fig. i) farthest from the sun, as it should have done if due 




FIG. i. 

wholly to refraction, but immediately at the sun itself, as shown 
in the cut at the point B. Portions of this arc were formed one 
by one at various other points of the dotted outline, and when 
the planet was about three-fourths upon the sun the arc was 
completed. But there was no strengthening of the line at the 
middle point, as there should have been if due to refraction. 
Yet refraction must have played some part in the phenomenon, 
because otherwise no illumination could have been visible 
under the circumstances. The most satisfactory explanation 
seems to be that of H. N. Russell, whose conclusion is that the 
atmosphere is so permeated with fine particles of vapour up 
to its outer limit as to be only translucent without being fully 
transparent. Thus what is seen is the irregular reflection of the 
light at an extremely small angle from the particles of vapour. 

The question whether Venus has a satellite has always inter- 
ested astronomers. During the I7th and i8th centuries Cassini 
at Paris and James Short (1710-1768) in England, as 
well as other observers during the same period, saw an 
object which had the appearance of a satellite. But as 
no such object has been seen by the most careful search with the 
best instruments of recent times, the supposed object must be 
regarded as what is known to the practical astronomer as a 
" ghost " produced by refraction from the lenses of the eye- 
piece, or perhaps of the object-glass, of the telescope. 



VENUSIA VENUS'S LOOKING GLASS 



If the orbit of Venus lay in the plane of the ecliptic, it would be 
seen to pass over the disk of the sun at every inferior conjunction. 
But the inclination of the orbit, 3 36', is so large that a 
transit is seen only when the earth and Venus pass a node of 
' Veaus - the orbit at nearly the same time. The earth passes the 
line of nodes about the 7th of June and the 7th of December of each 
year. The date of passage is about a day later in each successive 
century. Venus passes the node near enough to these dates to be 
seen against the sun only four times in a period of 243 years. The 
following list of dates from 1518 to 2012 shows the law of recur- 
rence. 



1518 June 2. 
1526 June I. 
1631 December 7. 
1639 December 4. 
1761 June 6. 


1769 June 3. 
1874 December 9. 
1882 December 6. 
2004 June 8. 
2012 June 6. 



The first of these transits actually seen was that of 1639, which 
was imperfectly observed by Jeremiah Horrox (1619-1641) shortly 
before sunset. Special interest in them was first excited by Edmund 
Halley a century later, who showed that the parallax of the sun could 
be determined by observing transits of Venus from regions of the 
earth's surface where the displacement by parallax was greatest. 
Governments, scientific organizations and individuals fitted out 
expeditions on a very large scale to make the necessary observations 
upon the four transits which have since occurred. The disappoint- 
ing character of the results so far as the solar parallax is concerned 
are stated in the article PARALLAX, SOLAR. It may be said in a 
general way that the observations, even when made by experienced 
astronomers, exhibited irregularities and discordances several times 
greater than one had a right to expect. Other methods of deter- 
mining the distance of the sun have been so perfected that the 
results of these transits now count but little. (S. N.) 

VENUSIA (mod. Venosa, q.v.), an ancient city of Apulia, 
Italy, on the Via Appia, about 6 m. S. of the river Aufidus 
(Ofanto), and not far from the boundary of Lucania (hence 
Horace describes himself as " Lucanus an Apulus anceps, nam 
Venusinus arat finem sub utrumque colonus "). It was taken 
by the Romans after the Samnite war of 291 B.C., and became 
a colony at once, no fewer than 20,000 men being sent there, 
owing to its military importance. Throughout the Hannibalic 
wars it remained faithful to Rome, and had a further contingent 
of colonists sent in 200 B.C. to replace its losses in war. Some 
coins of Venusia of this period exist. It took part in the Social 
War, and was recaptured by Quintus Metellus Pius; it then 
became a municipium, but in 43 B.C. its territory was assigned 
to the veterans of the triumvirs, and it became a colony once 
more. Horace was born here, the son of a freedman, in 65 B.C. 
It remained an important place under the Empire as a station 
on the Via Appia, though Mommsen's description of it (Corp. 
Inscr. Lat. ix. p. 45) as having branch roads to Equus Tuticus 
and Potentia, and Kiepert's maps annexed to the volume, do 
not agree with one another. Remains of the ancient city walls 
and of an amphitheatre still exist, and a number of inscriptions 
have been found there. Jewish catacombs with inscriptions in 
Hebrew, Greek and Latin show the importance of the Jewish popu- 
lation here in the 4th and sth centuries after Christ. (T. As.) 

VENUS'S FLY-TRAP (Dionaea muscipula), a remarkable 
insectivorous plant, a native of North and South Carolina, first 
described in 1768 by the American botanist Ellis, in a letter 
to Linnaeus, in which he gave a substantially correct account 
of the structure and functions of its leaves, and even suggested 
the probability of their carnivorism. Linnaeus declared it 
the most wonderful of plants (miraculum naturae), yet only 
admitted that it showed an extreme case of sensitiveness, 
supposing that the insects were only accidentally captured and 
subsequently allowed to escape. The insectivorous habit of 
the plant was subsequently fully investigated and described 
by Charles Darwin in his book on insectivorous plants. 

The plant is a small herb with a rosette of radical leaves with 
broad leaf -like footstalks. Each leaf has two lobes, standing at rather 
less than a right angle to each other, their edges being produced 
into spike-like processes (fig. i). The upper surface of each lobe is 
covered with minute circular sessile glands, each consisting of from 
20 to 30 cells filled with purplish fluid; it bears also three fine- 
pointed sensitive bristles arranged in a triangle (fig. 3). These contain 
no fibro-vascular bundles, but present an articulation near their 
bases, which enables them to bend parallel to the surface of the leaf 
when the lobes close. When the bristles are touched by an insect 
the lobes close very sharply upon the hinge-like midrib, the spikes 





interlock, and the insect is imprisoned (fig. 2). If very minute, and so 
not worth digesting, it is able to escape between the interlocked spines ; 
more usually, how- 
ever, it is retained 
between the lobes, 
which gradually but 
firmly compress it, 
until its form is dis- 
tinguishable from 
without. The leaf 
thus forms itself into 
a temporary stomach, 
and the glands, 
hitherto dry, com- 
mence, as soon as , 
excited by the ab- 
sorption of a trace of 

nitrogenous matter, FIG. I. Leaf of Venus's Fly-Trap (Dionaea 
to pour out an acid muscipula), viewed laterally in its ex- 
secretion containing panded state, slightly enlarged. (After 
a ferment or enzyme, Darwin.) 
similar to that ex- 
creted by the leaves of the sundew, which rapidly dissolves the soft 
parts of the insect. This is produced in such abundance that, 
when Darwin made a small 
opening at the base of one 
lobe of a leaf which had 
closed over a large crushed 
fly, the secretion con- 
tinued to run down the 

footstalk during the whole .. BJPES^ 

time nine days during "M A 

which the plant was kept 
under observation. The 
closing of the leaf is due 
to a redistribution of water 
in the cells brought about 

by a change in the pro- ^*W*W*t*-ZS8i^~ B 
toplasm which follows the 
stimulation of the sensi- Flo. 2. Leaf of D. muscipula closed 
tive bristles. O ver Insect. A, viewed from the 

Though the bristles s icj e; g ) from above, 
are exquisitely sensitive 

to the slightest contact with solid bodies, yet they are far less 
sensitive than those of the sundew (Drosera) to prolonged pres- 
sure, a singular difference in evident 
relation to the habits of the two 
plants. Like the leaves of Drosera, 
however, those of Dionaea are 
completely indifferent to wind and 
rain. The surface of the blade is 
very slightly sensitive; it may be 
roughly handled or scratched with- 
out causing movement, but closes 
when its surface or midrib is deeply 
pricked or cut. Irritation of the 
triangular area on each lobe enclosed 
by the sensitive bristles causes 
closure. The footstalk is quite in- 
sensitive. Inorganic or non-nitro- 
genous bodies, placed on the leaves 
without touching the sensitive 
bristles, do not excite movement, 
but nitrogenous bodies, if in the 
least degree damp, cause after 
several hours the lobes to close 
slowly. So too the leaf which has 
closed over a digestible body ap- 
plies a gradual pressure, which ' 
serves to bring the glands on both 
sides into contact with the body. 
Thus we see that there are two kinds 
of movement, adapted for different ; 
purposes, one rapid, excited me- ; 
chanically, the other slow, excited 
chemically. Leaves made to close 
over insoluble bodies reopen in less FI G . 3. A, sensitive bristle 
than twenty-four hours, and are an d glands of D. muscipula, 
ready, even before being fully ex- Xso; B, glands, X3oo. 
panded, to shut again. But if 

they have closed over nitrogen-yielding bodies, they remain 
closely shut for many days, and after re-expanding are torpid, 
and never act again, or only after a considerable time. Even in 
a state of nature, the most vigorous leaves are very rarely able to 
digest more than twice, or at most thrice, during their life. 

VENUS'S LOOKING GLASS, a popular garden name for 
Campanula Speculum (or Specularia Speculum), from the old 
name for the plant, Speculum Veneris. It is a common 




VERA, A. VERATRUM 



cornfield plant in the south of Europe, and is grown in gardens 
on account of its brilliant purple flowers. 

VERA, AUGUSTO (1813-1885), Italian philosopher, was born 
at Amelia in the province of Perugia on the 4th of May 1813. 
He was educated in Rome and Paris, and, after teaching classics 
for some years in Geneva, held chairs of philosophy in various 
colleges in France, and subsequently was professor in Strass- 
burg and in Paris. He left Paris after the coup d'etat of 1851 
and spent nine years in England. Attaching himself with 
enthusiasm to Hegel's system, Vera (who wrote fluently both 
in French and in English as well as in Italian) became widely 
influential in spreading a knowledge of the Hegelian doctrine, 
and became the chief representative of Italian Hegelianism. 
Without any marked originality, his writings are distinguished 
by lucidity of exposition and genuine philosophic spirit. In 
1860 Vera returned to Italy, where he was made professor of 
philosophy in the royal academy of Milan. In the following 
year he was transferred to Naples as professor of philosophy 
in the university there. His Prolusioni alia Storia della Filo- 
sofia and Lezioni sulla Filosofia della Storia were connected with 
his professorial work, which was specially devoted to the history 
of philosophy and the philosophy of history. He held this 
post till his death, which took place at Naples on the I3th of 
July 1885. 

Among his numerous works may be mentioned Introduction a 
la philosophic d' Hegel (1855; 2nd ed., 1865); Probleme de la certi- 
tude (1845); Le Hegelianisme et la philosophic (1861); Melanges 
philosophiques (1862); Essais de philosophic Hegelienne (1864); 
Strauss, I'ancienne et la nouvelle foi (1873), an attack upon Strauss's 
last " confession," written from the standpoint of an orthodox 
Hegelian; and a comprehensive work in Italian, // Problema dell' 
Assoluto (Naples, 1872-82). His English works are an Inquiry 
into Speculative and Experimental Science (London, 1856); Intro- 
duction to Speculative Logic and Philosophy (St Louis, 1875), an d 
a translation of Bretschneider's History of Religion and of the Chris- 
tian Church. He published also translations into French with com- 
mentaries of Hegel's works: Logique de Hegel (Paris, 1859; 2nd ed., 
1874); Philosophic de la nature de Hegel (1863-65); Philosophic 
de I esprit de Hegel (1867-69); Philosophic de la religion de Hegel 
(1876-78, incomplete). 

See R. Mariano, Augusta Vera (Naples, 1887) and Strauss e Vera 
(Rome, 1874); Karl Rosenkranz, Hegel's Naturphilosophie und 
deren Bearbeitung dttrch A. Vera (Berlin, 1868). 

VERA CRUZ (officially VERA CRUZ LLAVE), a Gulf Coast state 
of Mexico, bounded N. by Tamaulipas, W. by San Luis Potosi, 
Hidalgo, Puebla and Oaxaca, and S.E. by Chiapas and Tabasco. 
Pop. (1900) 981,030. It is about 50 m. wide, extending along 
the coast, N.W. to S.E., for a distance of 435 m., with an area 
of 29,201 sq. m. It was the seat of an ancient Indian civiliza- 
tion antedating the Aztecs and is filled with remarkable and 
interesting ruins; it is now one of the richest states of the 
republic. It consists of a low, sandy coastal zone, much broken 
with tidewater streams and lagoons, behind which the land 
rises gradually to the base of the sierras and then in rich valleys 
and wooded slopes to their summits on the eastern margin of 
the great Mexican plateau, from which rise the majestic summits 
of Orizaba and Cofre de Perote. The climate is hot, humid 
and malarial, except on the higher elevations; the rainfall is 
heavy, and the tropical vegetation is so dense that it is prac- 
tically impossible to clear it away. At Coatzacoalcos the 
annual precipitation ranges from 125 to 140 in., but it steadily 
decreases towards the N. On the higher slopes of the sierras 
prehistoric terraces are found, evidently constructed to prevent 
the washing away of the soil by these heavy rains. More than 
forty rivers cross the state from the sierras to the coast, the 
following being navigable on their lower courses Coatzacoalcos, 
San Juan, Tonto, Papaloapam, Tuxpam and Casones. Several 
of the lagoons on the coast are also navigable, that of Tamiahua 
on the northern coast, about 100 m. long, being connected 
with the port of Tampico by inland channels. There are 
several' ports on the coast Coatzacoalcos, Alvarado, Vera 
Cruz, Nautla, Tecolutla and Tuxpam. The products of the 
state are chiefly agricultural cotton, sugar, rum, tobacco, 
coffee, cacao, vanilla, maize, beans and fruit. Cattle-raising is 
followed in some districts, cattle and hides being among the 



1015 



exports. Among the forest products are rubber, cabinet woods, 
dye-woods, broom-root, chicle, jalap and orchids. Vera Cruz 
is one of the largest producers of sugar and rum in Mexico. 
There are a number of cotton factories (one of the largest in 
Mexico being at Orizaba), chiefly devoted to the making of 
coarse cloth for the lower classes. Tobacco factories are also 
numerous. Other manufactures include paper, chocolate, soap 
and matches. There are four lines of railway converging at 
Vera Cruz, two of which cross the state by different routes 
to converge again at Mexico city. Another, the Tehuantepec 
National railway, crosses in the south, and is connected with 
Vera Cruz (city) by the Vera Cruz & Pacific line, which 
traverses the state in a south-easterly direction. The capital 
is Jalapa, and its principal towns are Vera Cruz, Orizaba, Cordova 
and Coatzacoalcos. 

VERA CRUZ, a city and seaport of Mexico, in the state of 
Vera Cruz, on a slight indentation of the coast of the Gulf of 
Mexico, in 19 n' 50" N., 96 20' W., slightly sheltered by some 
small islands and reefs. Pop. (1900) 29,164. Vera Cruz is the 
most important port of the republic. It is 263' m. by rail E. 
of the city of Mexico, with which it is connected by two lines 
of railway. It is built on a flat, sandy, barren beach, only a few 
feet above sea-level. The harbour is confined to a compara- 
tively narrow channel inside a line of reefs and small islands, 
which is exposed to the full force of northern storms . New 
port works were completed towards the end of the igth century, 
which, by means of breakwaters, afford complete protection. 
In 1905 the four railway companies having terminal stations 
in Vera Cruz united in the organization of a joint terminal 
association, with union station, tracks, warehouses, quays, 
cranes, &c. 

Vera Cruz dates from 1520, soon after the first landing there 
of Cortes. This settlement was called Villa Rica de Vera 
Cruz, but was soon after moyed to the harbour of Bernal, in 
1525 to a point now called Old Vera Cruz, and in 1599 to its 
present site. It was pillaged by privateers in 1653 and 1712, 
and this led to the erection of the celebrated fort of San Juan 
de Ulua, or Ulloa, on one of the reefs in front of the city. In 
1838 it was captured by the French, in 1847 (March 29) by an 
American army under General Winfield Scott, who made Vera 
Cruz a base for his march upon the city of Mexico, and in 1861 
by the French. 

VERANDAH, or VERANDA, a roofed gallery or portico 
attached to the outside of a dwelling-house or other building, 
usually open at the sides or partially covered by lattice-work 
or glass or other screens. The roofing is slanting and supported 
by pillars ; a light rail or balustrade often surrounds it. The 
word in English is comparatively modern, having only been 
included by Todd in his edition of Johnson's Dictionary in 1827. 
But it was known earlier in India, and the occurrence of the 
word in modern Hindustani (varanda) and Malayan (baranda) 
has led some etymologists to connect the word with the Persian 
bardmadan, to climb. It is, however, certainly of European 
origin, and was taken to the East by the early Portuguese 
navigators. It is to be found as early as the end of the 
15th century and the beginning of the i6th in Spanish and 
Portuguese (so Minsheu, " varanda, railes to leane the brest 
on "), and apparently is to be referred to Lat. vara, a forked 
pole or rod. 

VERATRUM. The Greek physicians were acquainted with a 
poisonous herb which they called white hellebore, and which 
has been supposed to represent the Veratrum album of modern 
botanists. Be this as it may, in modern times the name has 
been applied to a genus of herbaceous plants belonging to the 
natural order Liliaceae. Veratrum is a tall-growing herb, 
having a fibrous root-stock, an erect stem, with numerous broad, 
plicated leaves placed alternately, and terminal, much-branched 
clusters of greenish or purplish polygamous flowers. Each 
perfect flower consists of six regular petals, as many stamens, 
whose anthers open outwardly, and a three-celled superior ovary 
which ripens into a three-celled, many-seeded capsule. The 
genus comprises about nine species, natives of the temperate 



ioi6 



VERBENA VERCELLI 



regions of the northern hemisphere, generally growing in 
pastures or woods. V. album and the American species F. viride 
are commonly grown in gardens as ornamental perennials, but 
their poisonous qualities should be kept in mind, particularly 
as they bear a considerable resemblance in foliage to the 
harmless Gentiana lutea. Both contain the potent alkaloid 
veratrine. (See also HELLEBORE.) 

VERBENA. The genus Verbena (vervain) in botany gives its 
name to the natural order (Verbenaceae) of which it is a member. 
The species are herbaceous or somewhat shrubby, erect or pro- 
cumbent, with opposite or whorled leaves, generally deeply 
cut. The sessile flowers are aggregated into close spikes. Each 
flower has a tubular, ribbed calyx, a more or less irregular 
tubular two-lipped corolla, with four (didynamous) stamens 
springing from the interior of the corolla-tube. The anthers are 
two-celled, with or without a gland-like appendage at the apex. 
The ovary is entire or four-lobed, and always four-celled, with a 
single ovule in each cell; the style is unequally two-lobed at the 
apex. The fruit consists of four hard nutlets within the persistent 
calyx. There are about eighty species known, mostly natives 
of tropical and subtropical America, a very few species occur- 
ring also in the Old World. The vervein, or vervain, V. ojjkinalis, 
native of central and north Asia, Europe and North Africa, 
and common on dry waste ground in the south of England 
(rarer in the north), was the object of much superstitious 
veneration on the part of our pagan ancestors, who attributed 
marvellous properties to it, provided it were gathered in a 
particular manner and with much complex ceremonial. The 
plant is now but lightly esteemed, and its medicinal virtues 
are wholly discredited. The garden verbenas are derivatives 
from various South American species, such as V. teucrioides, 
a native of southern Brazil, and F. chamaedrifolia from 
Argentina and southern Brazil. The range of colours extends 
from pure white to rose-coloured, carmine, violet and purple. 
Striped forms also are cultivated. The lemon-scented verbena 
of gardens, so much valued for the fragrance of its leaves, was 
once referred to this genus under the name F. triphylla, sub- 
sequently called Aloysia, but is now referred to the genus Lippia 
as L. citriodora; it differs from Verbena in having two, not 
four, nutlets in the fruit. 

The garden verbenas, although somewhat misprized for some 
years, have once more become popular as bedding plants, and 
also for pot culture. They are easily raised from seeds sown 
in heat in February or March, but choice varieties, like Miss 
Willmott and others, can only be kept true when raised from 
cuttings. These are best secured from old plants cut down 
in the autumn and started into growth in gentle heat and 
moisture the following spring. They root readily in a compost 
of sandy loam and leaf soil. Besides the garden varieties, 
F. venosa, a Brazilian species with bluish-violet flowers, is a 
popular plant for massing in beds during the summer months. 

VERBOCZY, ISTVAN [STEPHEN WERBOCZ] (i46s?-iS4i), 
Hungarian jurist and statesman, first became known as a 
scholar and theologian of such eminence that he was appointed 
to accompany the emperor Charles V. to Worms, to take up 
the cudgels against Luther. He began his political career as 
the deputy of the county of Ugocsa to the diet of 1498, where 
his eloquence and scholarship had a great effect in procuring 
the extension of the privileges of the gentry and the exclusion 
of all foreign competitors for the Hungarian throne in future 
elections. He was the spokesman and leader of the gentry 
against the magnates and prelates at the diets of 1500, 1501 
and 1505. At the last diet he insisted, in his petition to 
the king, that the law should be binding upon all the gentry 
alike, and firmly established in the minds of the people the 
principle of a national monarchy. The most striking proof 
of his popularity at this time is the fact that the diet voted 
him two denarii per hearth for his services in 1505, a circum- 
stance unexampled in Hungarian history. In 1517 Verboczy 
was appointed the guardian of the infant Louis II., and was 
sent on a foreign mission to solicit the aid of Christendom 
against the Turks. On his return he found the strife of parties 



fiercer than ever and the whole country in a state of anarchy. 
At the diet of Hatvan, on the 2Sth of June 1525, he delivered a 
reconciliatory oration which so affected the assembly that it 
elected him palatine. During the brief time he held that high 
office he unselfishly and courageously endeavoured to serve 
both king and people by humbling the pride of the magnates 
who were primarily responsible for the dilapidation of the 
realm. But he was deposed at the following diet, and retired 
from public life till the election of Janos Zapolya, who realized 
his theory of a national king and from whom he accepted 
the chancellorship. He now devoted himself entirely to the 
study of jurisprudence, and the result of his labours was the 
famous Opus tripartitum juris consuetudinarii inclyti regni 
hungariae, which was the law-book of Hungary till 1848. 

See Arpad Kar61yi, Verboczy's Mission to the Diet of Worms 
(Hung.; Budapest, 1880); Vilmor Fraknoi, Before and after the 
Catastrophe of Mohdcs (Hung.; Budapest, 1876); ibid., Stephen Wer- 
boczi (Hung.; Budapest, 1899). (R. N. B.) 

VERBOECKHOVEN, EUGENE JOSEPH (1799-1881), Belgian 
painter, was born at Warneton in West Flanders, and received 
instruction in drawing and modelling from his father, the 
sculptor Barthelemy Verboeckhoven. Subsequently he settled 
in Brussels and devoted himself almost exclusively to animal 
subjects. His paintings of sheep, of horses and of cattle in 
landscape, somewhat after the manner of Potter, brought him 
universal fame, and were eagerly sought for by collectors. 
Precise and careful finish is the chief quality of his art, which 
is entirely objective and lacking in inspiration. Verboeckhoven 
visited England in 1826, Germany in 1828, and France and 
Italy in 1841, and died at Brussels in 1881. He was a member 
of the academies of Brussels, Ghent, Antwerp, St Petersburg 
and Amsterdam. Examples of his art are to be found in nearly 
all the important galleries of Europe and the United States, 
notably hi Brussels, Antwerp, Amsterdam, Hamburg, Berlin, 
Munich, New York, Boston and Washington. His long life 
and ceaseless industry account for the enormous number of his 
pictures in public and private collections and in the art market. 
In addition to his painted work he executed some fifty etched 
plates of similar subjects. 

VERBRUGGEN, SUSANNA (c. 1667-1703), English actress, 
was the daughter of an actor named Percival, and her first 
recorded stage appearance was in 1681 in D'Urfey's Sir Barnaby 
Whig. She played at Dorset Garden and the Theatre Royal, 
and in 1686 married William Mountfort (q.v.). By 1690 she was 
one of the leading actresses in Betterton's company. About 
a year after Mountfort's death, in 1692, she married John 
Verbruggen (fl. i688-c. 1 707) , also an actor of considerable ability. 

VERCELLI (anc. Vercellae), a town and archiepiscopal see 
of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Novara, 13 m. S.W. of 
that town by rail. Pop. (1901) 17,922 (town), 30,470 (commune). 
It is situated 430 ft. above sea-level on the river Sesia, at its 
junction with the Canterana. Vercelli is a point at which 
railways diverge for Novara, Mortara, Casale Monferrato and 
Santhia (for Turin). The walls by which Vercelli was formerly 
surrounded have been demolished, and their place is now occupied 
by boulevards, from which a fine view of the Alps (especially 
the Monte Rosa group) is obtained. The streets are for the 
most part tortuous and narrow; there is a large market-place 
(Piazza Cavour) with a statue of Cavour (1861). The cathedral 
is a large building dating from the i6th century; its library 
contains a number of rare ancient MSS., especially the Codex 
Vercellensis, one of the most important MSS. of the old 
Latin version of the Gospels, written in the 4th or sth 
century by Eusebius, bishop of Vercelli. A museum close by 
contains Roman antiquities. The churches of S. Andrea (a 
large and fine Romanesque Gothic building dating from 1219- 
1224, with an interior in the French Gothic style), S. Paolo, S. 
Caterina and S. Cristoforo possess valuable examples of the 
work of Gaudenzio Ferrari (1471-1546) and of his follower 
Lanini. Silk-spinning is important, and VercelU 1 is one of the 
principal Italian centres of the exportation of cereals and 
especially of rice. There are corn and rice mills of large size, 



VERCELLI BOOK VERDI 



1017 



while cotton and woollen mills and factories of artificial manure, 
&c., have attained importance. 

Vercellae was originally the chief city of the Libici (a Ligurian 
tribe) and afterwards became a Roman municipium of some 
importance. It stood at the junction of roads to Eporedia, 
Novaria and Mediolanum, Laumellum (for Ticinum) and 
perhaps Hasta. No ancient remains exist above ground, but 
many inscriptions, tombs and other antiquities have been 
found. Remains of the theatre and amphitheatre were seen 
in the i6th century, and remains of ancient streets have 
more recently been found during drainage operations. There 
were apparently four principal streets all leading to the centre 
of the town where the Forum must have been situated. Of 
the walls, however, nothing is known except from medieval 
documents (cf. L. Bruzza, Iscrizioni antiche Vercdlesi, Rome, 
1874). In the neighbourhood (near Rotto on the Sesia) are the 
Raudii Campi where Hannibal won his first victory on Italian 
soil (218 B.C.), and where in 101 B.C. Marius and Catulus routed 
the Cimbri. From about 1228 till 1372 Vercelli was the seat 
of a university. (T. As.) 

VERCELLI BOOK (CODEX VERCELLENSIS), an Early English 
MS. containing, besides homilies, a number of poetical and 
imaginative pieces: A ndreas, The Fates of the Apostles, Address 
of the Soul to the Body, Falseness of Men, Dream of the Rood, 
Elene and a prose Life of Guthlac. It was found in the cathedral 
library of Vercelli, Piedmont, by a German jurist Friedrich 
Blume,in 182 2, and was first described in his Her Italicum (Berlin 
and Stettin, 4 vols., 1824-36). An untenable explanation of the 
presence of the MS. at Vercelli suggested that it had been 
brought there by Johannes Scotus Erigena. But the hand- 
writing dates from the beginning of the nth century, long 
after his death. According to Dr Wiilker the MS. probably 
belonged to the hospice for English pilgrims, founded, together 
with the monastery of St Andrew, by Cardinal Jacopo Guala- 
Bicchieri (d. 1227), a native of Vercelli and bishop of the city, 
in 1219, on his return from England, where he had been papal 
legate from 1216 to 1218. The cardinal, a man of wide learning, 
possessed a large library, which he left to the monastery; 
and the Vercelli codex may well have been included in it. 

Its contents were partially printed (by Benjamin Thorpe from 
Blume's transcript) in Appendix B to C. P. Cooper's Report of 
Rymeri Feeder a for 1836; by J. M. Kemble, The Poetry of the Codex 
Vercellensis, with an English translation (Aelfric Soc., 1843-56), 
and in a better text based directly on the MS. by Wiilker in his 
edition of C. W. M. Grein's Bibliothek der A.S. Poesie (Leipzig, 
1894), vol. ii. Codex Vercellensis, by Dr Richard Wiilker (Leipzig, 
1894), is a facsimile of the MS. 

For the description and history of the MS. see also Wiilker's 
Grundriss . . . der A.S. Litteratur (1885), pp. 237-42, and A. Napier 
in Zeitschrift fur deutsches Altertum (Berlin, 1889, vol. 21, new series; 
old series, vol. 33, p. 66), for a collation of Wiilker's text with the MS. 
For the individual poems see also CYNEWULF. 

VERDEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of 
Hanover, on the navigable Aller, 3 m. above its confluence 
with the Weser, 22m. S.E. of Bremen by the railway to Hanover. 
Pop. (1900) 9842. The most noticeable edifices are the beautiful 
Gothic cathedral, the churches of St Andrew and St John, a 
new Roman Catholic church (1894) and the celebrated cathedral 
school. Its industries embrace the manufacture of agricul- 
tural machinery, cigar-making, brewing and distilling. Verden 
was the see of a bishopric founded in the first quarter of the 
9th century, or earlier, and secularized in 1648. The duchy 
of Verden was then ceded to Sweden, passed in 1719 to Hanover 
and in 1810 to the kingdom of Westphalia. It was restored 
to Hanover in 1814, and was, with Hanover, annexed by Prussia 
in 1866. 

See Ostenberg, A us Verden' s Vergangenheit (Stade, 1876). 

VERDERER (0. Fr. verdier, Med. Lat. viridarius), a term 
used in English forest law for a judicial officer appointed to look 
after what was known as the " vert " (0. Fr. verd, green; Lat. 
viridis), i.e. the forest trees and underwood in the royal forests. 
It was the verderer's duty to keep the assizes and attend to 
all matters relating to trespasses (see FOREST LAW). 



VERDI, GIUSEPPE FORTUNING FRANCESCO (1813-1901), 
Italian composer, was born on the loth of October 1813 at Le 
Roncole, a poor village near the city of Busseto. His parents 
kept a little inn, combined with a kind of village shop. Verdi 
received some instruction from the village organist, but his 
musical education really began with his entrance into the house 
of business of Antonio Barezzi, a merchant of Busseto. Barezzi 
was a thorough musician, and under his auspices Verdi was 
speedily introduced to such musical society as Busseto could 
boast. He studied under Giovanni Provesi, who was maestro 
di cappella of the cathedral and conductor of the municipal 
orchestra, for which Verdi wrote many marches and other 
instrumental pieces. These compositions are now the principal 
treasures of the library of Busseto. Among them is Verdi's first 
symphony, which was written at the age of fifteen and performed 
in 1828. In 1832 Verdi went to Milan to complete his studies. 
He was rejected by the authorities of the Conservatorio, but 
remained in Milan as a pupil of Vincenzo Lavigna, with whom 
he worked until the death of Provesi in 1833 recalled him to 
Busseto. A clerical intrigue prevented him from succeeding 
his old master as cathedral organist, but he was appointed 
conductor of the municipal orchestra, and organist of the church 
of San Bartolomeo. After three years in Busseto, Verdi returned 
to Milan, where his first opera, Oberto, Conte di San Bonifacio, 
was produced in 1839. His next work, a comic opera, known 
variously as Un Giorno di Regno and // F into Stanislao, was 
written in peculiarly distressing circumstances, the composer 
having had the misfortune to lose his wife and two children in 
the course of two months. Un Giorno di Regno was a complete 
failure, and Verdi, stung by disappointment, made up his mind 
to write no more for the stage. He kept his word for a year, but 
was then persuaded by Merelli, the impresario of La Scala, to 
look at a libretto by Solera. The poem took his fancy, in a short 
time the music was written, and in 1842 the production of 
Nabucodonosor placed Verdi in the front rank of living Italian 
composers. The success of Nabucodonosor was surpassed by 
that of its two successors, I Lombardi (1843) an d Ernani (1844), 
the latter of which was the first of Verdi's operas to find its way 
to England. With Ernani Verdi became the most popular 
composer in Europe, and the incessant demands made upon him 
reacted upon his style. For several years after the production 
of Ernani he wrote nothing which has survived to our time 
nothing which deserved to survive. In Macbeth (1847) there are 
passages of some power, and passages too which indicate an 
approaching transition to a less conventional method of expres- 
sion. In Luisa Miller (1849) also there is a noticeable increase 
of refinement in style, which contrasts favourably with the 
melodramatic vulgarity, of his earlier manner. 

It was unfortunate that I Masnadieri, which was written for 
the English stage and produced under Lumley's management 
at Her Majesty's Theatre in 1847, should have been one of the 
worst of the many bad works which Verdi composed at this 
period of his career. Not the presence of the composer, who 
travelled to England to conduct the first performance, nor 
the genius of Jenny Lind, who sang the part of the heroine, 
could redeem it from failure. In 1851 Verdi won one of 
the greatest triumphs of his career with Rigoletto, a triumph 
which was fully sustained by the production two years later of 
// Trovatore and La Traviata. In these works Verdi reached the 
culminating point of what may be called his second manner. 
His development had been steady though gradual, and it is only 
necessary to compare the treatment of voice and orchestra in 
Rigoletto with that in Ernani to realize how quickly his talent 
had developed during these seven years. The popularity of 
Rigoletto, II Trovatore and La Traviata was enormous, and 
consolidated Verdi's fame outside the frontiers of Italy. In 
1855 he received a commission to write an opera for the Paris 
Opera, to be produced during the Universal Exhibition. He 
wrote Les Vepres Siciliennes, a work which though temporarily 
successful has not retained its popularity. It contains some 
fine music, but suffers from the composer's perhaps unconscious 
attempt to adopt the grandiose manner of French opera. Of 



ioi8 



VERDICT VERDUN 



the works written during the next ten years only Un Ballo in 
Maschera (1859) has maintained a fitful hold upon public atten- 
tion. La Forza del Destine (1862) and Don Carlos, the latter of 
which was written for the Paris Exhibition of 1867, have the faults 
incident to works written during a period of transition. At this 
point in his career Verdi was preparing to emancipate himself 
from the fetters of conventionality which had hitherto hindered 
his development. In these two works there are indications of 
an aspiration towards a freer method of expression, which 
harmonize ill with the more conventional style of the composer's 
earlier years. In Aida, an opera upon an Egyptian subject, 
written in response to an invitation from Ismail Pasha, and 
produced at Cairo in 1871, Verdi entered upon the third period 
of his career. In this work he broke definitely with the operatic 
tradition which he had inherited from Donizetti, in favour of a 
method of utterance, which, though perhaps affected in some 
degree by the influence of Wagner, still retains the main cha- 
racteristics of Italian music. In Aida the treatment of the 
orchestra is throughout masterly, and shows a richness of 
resource which those who knew only Verdi's earlier works 
scarcely suspected him of possessing; nevertheless, the human 
voice was still the centre of Verdi's system. Verdi kept 
thoroughly abreast of modern musical development, but his 
artistic sense prevented him from falling into the excesses of the 
German school. In the Requiem, which was written in 1874 to 
commemorate the death of Manzoni, Verdi applied his newly 
found system to sacred music. His Requiem was bitterly 
assailed by pedants and purists, partly on the ground of its 
defiance of obsolete rules of musical grammar and partly because 
of its theatrical treatment of sacred subjects, but by saner and 
more sympathetic critics, of whom Brahms was not the least 
enthusiastic, it has been accepted as a work of genius. There 
are passages in it with which Protestant feeling can scarcely 
sympathize, but its passionate intensity and dramatic force, 
and the extraordinary musical beauty with which it abounds, 
amply atone for what to sorne may seem errors of taste. In 1881 
a revised version of Simon Boccanegra, an earlier work which 
had not been successful, was produced at Milan. The libretto 
had been in part rewritten by Arrigo Boito, and Verdi wrote a 
great deal of new music for the revival, which was eminently 
successful. After this it was generally supposed that Verdi, who 
had reached an advanced age, had finally relinquished composi- 
tion, but after a lapse of some years it became known that he 
was at work upon a new opera, and in 1887 Otello was produced 
at Milan. The libretto, a masterly condensation of Shakespeare's 
Othello, was the work of Boito. Otello recalls Aida in the general 
outlines of its structure, but voices and orchestra are treated with 
greater freedom than in the earlier work, and there is a conspicuous 
absence of set airs. In so far as regards the essential qualities 
of the music, Otello is an immense advance upon anything Verdi 
had previously written. It has a dramatic force and a power 
of characterization for which it would be vain to look in his 
earlier work, and which are all the more remarkable as appearing 
for the first time in this high degree of development in a work 
written in extreme old age. All that has been said of Otello 
may be repeated of Falstaff, which was produced in 1893, when 
the composer was in his eightieth year, with the addition that 
the later work contains, besides the dramatic power and musical 
skill of the earlier work, a fund of delicate and fanciful humour 
which recalls the gayest mood of Mozart. The libretto of 
Falstajf, which is the work of Boito, is an adaptation of The 
Merry Wives of Windsor, with the addition of a few passages 
from Henry IV. After the production of Falstaf, Verdi wrote 
nothing for the stage. In 1898 he produced four sacred pieces, 
settings of the Ave Maria, Laudi alia Virgine (words from Dante's 
Paradise), the Slabat Mater and the Te Deum, the first two for 
voices alone, the last two for voices and orchestra. In these 
pieces Verdi abandoned to a certain extent the theatrical manner 
of the Requiem for one more restrained and more in keeping 
with ecclesiastical traditions. In imaginative power and 
musical beauty these pieces yield to none of Verdi's works. 
With the exception of these and the Requiem, Verdi has written 



little save for the stage. Among his minor works may. be 
mentioned a string quartet, composed in 1873, a hymn written 
for the opening of the International Exhibition of 1862, two sets 
of songs, a Paternoster for five-part chorus, and an Ave Maria 
for soprano solo, with string accompaniment. The venerable 
composer died at Milan on the 27th of January 1901. 

The following is a complete list of Verdi's operas, with the dates 
and places of production: Oberto (Milan, 1839) ; Un Giorno di Regno 
(Milan, 1840); Nabucodonosor (Milan, 1842); / Lombardi (Milan, 
1843); Ernani (Venice, 1844); / Due Foscari (Rome, 1844); 
Ciovanna d'Arco (Milan, 1845); Alzira (Naples, 1845); Attila 
(Venice, 1846); Macbeth (Florence, 1847); / Masnadieri (London, 
1847); // Corsaro (Trieste, 1848); La Battaglia di Legnano (Rome, 
1849); Luisa Miller (Naples, 1849); Stiff elio (Trieste, 1850); 
Rigoletto (Venice, 1851); // Trovatore (Rome, 1853); La Traviata 
(Venice, 1853); Les V&pres Siciliennes (Paris, 1855); Simon Bocca- 
negra (Venice, 1857; revised version, Milan, 1881); Aroldo [a 
revised version of Stiffelio] (Rimini, 1857) ; Un Ballo in Maschera, 
(Rome, 1859); La Forza del Destino (St Petersburg, 1862); Don 
Carlos (Paris, 1867); Aida (Cairo, 1871); Otello (Milan, 1887); 
Falstaff (Milan, 1893). 'R. A. S.) 

VERDICT (O. Fr. verdit, Lat. vere dictum, truly said, used 
in Late Latin in one word with its present significance), the 
decision of a jury in a criminal or civil cause, given to the court 
through the foreman of the jury and recorded. In English 
law verdicts may be " general," i.e. in criminal cases " guilty " 
or " not guilty," or " special," when there is some question 
of law which the jury wish to leave to the consideration of 
the court; in this case the verdict is given in the form of a 
statement of facts as found by the jury, and the issue is left 
to be found by the court in accordance with the law upon such 
facts as found (see JURY). 

VERDIGRIS, a pigment, consisting of basic copper carbonates, 
made by acting upon copper plates with pyroligneous acid 
soaked up in cloths, exposing the plates to air, then dipping 
in water, and finally scraping off the greenish crust; the plate 
is re-exposed and the operation repeated till it is used up. 
Another method consists in exposing thin copper sheets to the 
acid vapours rising from the residues or " marcs " of wine 
factories, the product being scraped off, and the plate re- 
exposed. Both processes require several weeks. The pigment 
appears with several shades of blue and green; blue verdigris 
is chiefly CuO-Cu(C 2 H 3 O 2 ) 2 -6H 2 O, while light blue and green 
verdigris contain 2CuOCu(C 2 H 3 2 )2-2H2O. Besides being used 
as a paint it is employed in dyeing and calico-printing, and 
also in the manufacture of other paints, e.g. Schweinfurt green, 
which is a double salt of the acetate and arsenite. A liniment 
or ointment is also used in medicine as a cure for warts. It 
is an irritant poison (hence the need that acid substances should 
never be cooked in copper utensils); the best antidote is white 
of egg and milk. 

VERDUN, a garrison town of north-eastern France, capital 
of an arrondissement in the department of Meuse, on the main 
line of the Eastern railway between Paris and Metz, 42 m. 
N.N.E. of Bar-le-Duc. Pop. (1906) 12,837. I n addition the 
population comptee a part (soldiers, &c.) numbers 8198. Verdun 
is situated in a basin surrounded by vine-clad hills on the 
Meuse, which here forms the Eastern Canal. 

Verdun as a fortress is of first-rate importance. It lies 
directly opposite the frontier of German Lorraine and the great 
entrenched camp of Metz. At the time of the war of 1870 
(when it was defended for long without hope of success by 
General Guerin de Waldersbach) it was still a small antiquated 
fortress of the Vauban epoch, but in the long line of fortifica- 
tions on the Meuse created by Serre de Riviere in 1875 Verdun, 
forming the left of the " Meuse Line " barrier, was made the 
centre of an entrenched camp. The first lesson of 1870 being 
taken to heart, forts were placed (Belrupt S.E., St Michel N.E., 
Belleville N. and La Chaume and Regret W.) on all the sur- 
rounding heights that the besiegers had used for their batteries, 
but the designers soon extended the line of the eastern defences 
as far out as the sharply defined cliffs that, rising gently for 
some miles from the Meuse, come to an abrupt edge and over- 
look the plain of Woevre. On this front, which is about 55 m. 



VERDY DU VERNOIS VERB (FAMILY) 



,1019 



long, the most important works are (from right to left) Chatillon, 
Manezel, Moulainville, Eix, Mardi Gras, Lanfee, Vaux and 
Hardimont. At right angles to this line, the south front, the 
works of which are placed along one of the long western spurs 
of the line of heights, are forts Rozellier, St Symphorien and 
Haudainville, the last overlooking the Meuse. The north front, 
also on a spur of the ridge, is thickly studded with forts, these 
in some cases being but 200 yds. apart and the left fort over- 
looking the Meuse. Behind the east front, chiefly designed to 
close the valley by which the Metz-Verdun railway penetrates 
the line of heights, are Fort Tavannes with its outworks and 
a series of batteries on the adjacent spurs. On the left bank 
of the Meuse there is a complete semicircle of forts. At the 
northern end of this semicircle (besides some works in the 
valley itself), and crossing its fire with the left of the north 
front, is Fort Belle-Epine, then comes Marre, Bourrus and 
Bruyeres, all four being on a single ridge facing N.W. The 
west front is composed of Fort Germonville, Fort Bois de Sar- 
telles, Fort Bois du Chapitre, Fort Landrecourt and Fort 
Dugny, which last is within sight of Fort Haudainville over the 
Meuse. In second line behind these works are Fort Choisel, 
Ghana redoubt and Fort Sartelles. In all there are 16 large 
forts and about 20 smaller works, the perimeter of the whole 
being about 30 m. and the greatest diameter of the fort-ring 9. 

The chief quarter of the town lies on the slope of the left 
bank of the river and is dominated by the citadel which occupies 
the site of the old abbey of St Vanne founded in the loth 
century. Several arms of the river intersect the quarter on 
the right bank. The whole town is surrounded by a bastioned 
enceinte, pierced by four gates; that to the N.E., the Porte 
Chaussee, flanked by two crenelated towers, is an interesting 
specimen of the military architecture of the isth century. 
The cathedral of Notre-Dame stands on the site of two previous 
churches of the Romanesque period, the first of which was 
burnt down in 1047; a crypt and other remains of the second 
building consecrated in 1147 are still to be seen, but the greater 
part of the present church dated from subsequent periods. 
Built under the influence of Rhenish architecture, Notre-Dame 
has double transepts and, till the i8th century when the western 
apse was replaced by a facade, had an apse at each extremity. 
A fine cloister to the S.W. of the cathedral dates from the 
15th century. The hotel-de-ville (i7th century) contains the 
museum. 

Verdun is the seat of a bishop and a sub-prefect and has 
tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a communal college, 
ecclesiastical seminaries and a branch of the Bank of France. 
The industries include metal founding, the manufacture of 
sweetmeats (dragees de Verdun), machinery, nails, files, em- 
broidery, linen, chairs and rope and the distillation of liqueurs. 
The canal port has trade in timber, agricultural produce, stone 
and building materials and coal. 

Verdun (Verodwnum), an important town at the time of the 
Roman conquest, was made a part of Belgica Prima. The 
bishopric, of which the most celebrated holder was St Vanne 
(498-525), dates from the 3rd century. Verdun was destroyed 
during the period of the barbarian invasions, and did not re- 
cover till towards the end of the sth century. Clovis seized 
the town in 502, and it afterwards belonged to the kingdom 
of Austrasia. In 843 the famous treaty was signed here by 
the sons of Louis the Pious (see GERMANY, History). In the 
loth century Verdun was definitively conquered by Germany 
and put under the temporal authority of its bishops. Together 
with Toul and Metz, the town and its domain formed the ter- 
ritory of the Trois-fiveches. In the nth century the burghers 
of the now free and imperial town began a struggle with their 
bishops, which ended in their obtaining certain rights in the 
I2th century. In 1552 Henry II. of France took possession of 
the Trois-Eveches, which finally became French by the treaty 
of Westphalia. In 1792, after some hours of bombardment, 
the citizens opened their gates to the Prussians a weakness 
which the Revolutionary Government punished by the execu- 
tion of several of the inhabitants. In 1870 the Prussians, 



unable to seize the town by a coup de main, invested and 
bombarded it three different times, till it capitulated in the 
beginning of November. 

VERDY DU VERNOIS, JULIUS VON (1832- ), German 
general and military writer, was born in 1832 and entered 
the Prussian infantry in 1850. After some years of regimental 
service he came under the notice of Moltke, the newly appointed 
chief of the general staff, as an exceptionally gifted soldier, and 
at the outbreak of the war against Austria in 1866 he was 
appointed major on the staff of the II. Army (crown prince of 
Prussia) . In this capacity he took part in the campaign on the 
upper Elbe and in the battle of Koniggra tz. Promoted shortly 
after this to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, he was in 1867 
placed at the head of a section of the general staff, becoming 
thereby one of Moltke's principal confidential assistants. In 
this capacity he served at the headquarters of the German 
army throughout the war of 1870-71, and he was frequently 
employed in the most important missions, as for instance on the 
2nd of August, when he was sent to impress upon the III. Army 
headquarters the necessity of a prompt advancing into Alsace, 
and on the 26th of the same month, when he was sent to advise 
the crown prince of Saxony as to the strategical intentions of 
the supreme command at the crisis of the Sedan campaign. 
At the close of the war he continued to serve in the office of the 
general staff, and also lectured at the War Academy. It was 
in the latter position that he developed the system of thorough 
tactical education which is the abiding result of his work. 
His method may be studied in English translations of his Studies 
in Troop-leading, and may be summarized as the assumption of 
an actual military situation on the actual ground, followed by 
critical discussion of the successive measures that a commander, 
whether of a brigade, division or larger force, should take in 
the sequel, given his orders and his knowledge of the general 
situation. Moltke's own series of tactical problems, extending 
from 1859 to 1889, contributed very powerfully, of course, to 
the education of the selected young officers who passed through 
Verdy's hands, but Moltke dealt rather with a great number 
of separate problems, while Verdy developed in detail the 
successive events and ruling ideas of a whole day's or week's 
work in the same units. Moltke therefore may be said to have 
developed the art of forming correct ideas and plans, Verdy 
that of applying them, but these are after all merely tendencies, 
not sharply divided schemes, in the teaching of Prussian staff 
officers during the years of intellectual development between 
1870 and 1888. In all this Moltke, Verdy and Bronsart von 
Schellendorf worked in close co-operation. In 1876 Verdy 
became a major-general, from 1879-1883 he held an important 
position in the ministry of war, and in 1881 he was promoted 
lieutenant-general. In 1887 he became governor of Strassburg, 
in 1888 general of infantry and in 1889 minister of war. He 
retired from the active list in 1890. In 1894 the university of 
Konigsberg made him a Dr. Phil, honoris causa. 

General von Verdy du Vernois's principal writings are: Theil- 
nahtne der II. Armee am Feldzuge 1866 (Berlin, 1866); Im Haupt- 
quartier der II. Armee 1866 (Berlin, 1900) ; Sludien uber den Krieg 
auf Grundlage . . . 1870/1 (Berlin, 1892-96); Im grossen 
Hauptquartier 1870/1 (Berlin, 1895; English translation); Sludien 
iiber Truppenfuhrung (Berlin, 1870; new edition, 1892, English 
translation) and Studien iiber den Krieg (Berlin, 1901-1906). 

VERB, the family of which is extolled by Macaulay as " the 
longest and most illustrious line of nobles that England has seen," 
appears to have derived the surname which the verse of Tenny- 
son has made synonymous with ancient blood, from the little 
village of Ver near Bayeux. Its founder, Aubrey (Albericus) 
de Vere, appears in Domesday Book (1086) as the holder of a 
great fief in Essex, Cambridgeshire and Suffolk. His son (or 
grandson) and namesake was a trusted officer of Henry I., from 
whom he received the hereditary office of great chamberlain in 
1133. It was probably he who erected the noble tower which gave 
name to Castle Hedingham, Essex, the head of his fief, and 
which stands as the finest example of a private Norman keep. 
Slain in 1141, he was succeeded by his son Aubrey, who had 
already become count of Guines, in right of his wife, on her 



1020 



VERB, SIR FRANCIS 



grandfather's death. Through the powerful influence of his 
sister's husband, Geoffrey, earl of Essex, he obtained from 
the empress Matilda, in 1142, the earldom of Oxford, which was 
afterwards confirmed to his house by Henry II. His younger 
son, Robert (c. 1170-1221), became 3rd earl in 1214, and, siding 
with the barons, became one of the twenty-five executors of 
Magna Carta. His marriage with a Bolebec heiress brought 
in what was afterwards claimed as a barony, and led to the 
style of Viscount Bolebec (or Bulbeck) for the earl's heirs. 

Robert, the 5th earl (1240-1296), who brought into his family 
the chamberlainship to the queen by his marriage with the 
Sandford heiress, sided with Simon de Montfort, and lost for a 
time his earldom and offices. John, the 7th earl (1313-1360), 
was a distinguished soldier, fighting at Crecy and Poitiers and 
in all Edward III.'s wars in his time; and his marriage with a 
Badlesmere heiress added to the lands and titles of his house. 
His son, Thomas(i337-i37i),alsoasoldier, was father of Robert, 
9th earl, the famous favourite of Richard II. In spite of his 
attainder (1388), his uncle Aubrey (c. 1340-1400), a follower of 
the Black Prince, was restored to the earldom, by consent of 
parliament in 1393, but not to the great chamberlainship. As 
the earldom (which had been held in fee) was granted to him 
in tail male, this is looked on by some as a new creation. His 
elder son, Richard (d. 1417), the next earl, held a command at 
Agincourt, and was father of Earl John, who was beheaded as 
a Lancastrian, with his eldest son, in 1462. Their death was 
avenged by his younger son John, the I3th earl (1443-1513), who 
shared to the full in the triumph of the Red Rose. On the 
death of his nephew John, the next earl (d. 1526), the baronies 
(it was afterwards held) passed away to his sisters, but the 
earldom descended to his cousin John (d. 1540), though the 
crown resumed the great chamberlainship. This John, who 
was in favour with Henry VIII., was grandfather, through 
his younger son Geoffrey, of the celebrated " fighting Veres," 
Sir Francis and his brother Sir Horace. His eldest son John, 
i6th earl (c. 1512-1562), was in favour with Edward VI., Mary 
and Elizabeth, and contrived to recover for his family the 
office of great chamberlain. 

Hitherto the earls, in spite of their vicissitudes, had retained 
possession of their ancient seat arid great estates; but Edward, 
the son of Earl John, was a spendthrift. A brilliant, gifted 
courtier, in whom Elizabeth delighted, he quarrelled with his 
father-in-law, Burghley, " sent his patrimony flying," patronized 
players, poets and musicians, and wrote excellent verse himself. 
His son Henry, the i8th earl (1593-1625), was twice imprisoned 
in the Tower as an opponent of Buckingham's policy, fought 
in the Palatinate and the Low Countries and died on campaign 
at the Hague in 1625. Then ensued the great dispute for the 
inheritance of his title and office (Hedingham Castle having 
passed away) between Robert Vere, his second cousin and heir- 
male, and Robert, Lord Willoughby d'Eresby, son of his aunt, 
Lady Mary Vere. The earldom was secured by the former, a 
poor officer in Holland, but the office was adjudged to Lord 
Willoughby, in whose descendants it is now vested. Earl Robert 
was slain before Maestricht in 1632, leaving an only son, Aubrey 
(1626-1703), 2oth and last earl. His marriage with a Bayning 
heiress restored the fortunes of his house, and his Royalist 
intrigues under the Commonwealth were rewarded at the 
Restoration by sundry favours, among them the command of a 
regiment of horse, known from him as " the Oxford Blues " 
and still familiar as "the Blues" (Royal Horse Guards). 
James II. deprived him of his regiment and his lieutenancy of 
Essex for opposing his policy, but the prince of Orange, whom he 
joined, restored them. His long tenure of the ancient earldom 
ended in 1703, when he died, the last known male descendant 
of the house of Vere. His daughter Diana having married 
the ist duke of St Albans, their descendants are named De 
Vere Beauclerk, and received the barony of Vere (1705). 

The halo surrounding the name of Vere is seen as early as 
1626 in the stately panegyric of Chief Justice Crewe. " I 
suppose there is no man that hath any apprehension of gentry, 
or nobleness, but his affection stands to the continuance of so 



noble a name and house." In the great days of the house, 
Earl John, says Stowe, rode into London city " with eighty 
gentlemen in a livery of Reading tawney, and chains of gold 
about their necks, before him, and one hundred tall yeomen 
in the like livery to follow him," wearing the famous badge 
of the blue boar (verres), which is still to be seen in Essex 
churches and forming the sign of Essex inns. Another badge 
of the Veres was the mullet in the first quarter of their shield, 
which, at Barnet Field, by a fatal error, was taken for the sun 
of York. Among the offices they held were the forestership 
of Essex and the keepership of Colchester Castle, and they 
founded the Essex religious houses of Hatfield Broadoak, 
Hedingham and Earls Colne. 

AUTHORITIES. Domesday Book; Abingdon Chron. and Red 
Book of the Exchequer (Rolls Series); Pipe Roll of 1130 (Record 
Commission); Dugdale's Baronage; G. E. C(okayne)'s Complete 
Peerage; Doyle's Official Baronage; Collins's Historical Precedents; 
Morant's History of Essex; Round's Geoffrey de Mandeville and 
Feudal England; Nichols's " Descent of the Earldom of Oxford " 
(Arch. Journ. vol. ix.); Vere papers among the Round MSS. in 
App. ix. to 1 4th Report on Historical MSS.; Lords' Reports on the 
Dignity of a Peer; Palmer's Peerage Law in England. The claim- 
ants' cases and the appendices of documents in the contest for the 
great chamberlainship (1902) are valuable for the history of the 
Veres. (J- H. R.) 

VERE, SIR FRANCIS (1560-1609), English soldier, was the 
son of Geoffrey Vere of Crepping Hall, Essex, and nephew of 
the 1 6th earl of Oxford. He first went on active service 
under Leicester in 1585, and was soon in the thick of the war 
raging in the Low Countries. At the siege of Sluys young Vere 
greatly distinguished himself under Sir Roger Williams and 
Sir Thomas Baskerville. In 1588 he was in the garrison of 
Bergen-op-Zoom, which delivered itself from the besiegers by 
its own good fighting, and was knighted by Willoughby on the 
field of battle. In the next year Sir Francis became sergeant- 
major-general of the English troops in the Low Countries, and 
soon afterwards the chief command devolved upon him. This 
position he retained during fifteen campaigns, with almost un- 
broken success. Working in close co-operation with the Dutch 
forces under Maurice, he step by step secured the country for 
the cause of independence. Vere won the reputation of being 
the first soldier of the day, his English troops acquired a 
cohesion and training fitting them to face the best Spanish 
troops, and his camp became the fashionable training-ground of 
all aspiring soldiers, amongst others not only his brother Horace, 
but men of such note as Ferdinando (Lord) Fairfax, Gervase 
Markham and Miles Standish. Sir Francis served in the Cadiz 
expedition of 1596, and in 1598 was entrusted with the negotia- 
tion of the treaty whereby the Dutch agreed to take a greater 
share of the burden of the war than they had hitherto done. 
His success in this task obtained him the governorship of 
Brill and the rank of general. The culminating point of his 
career came when, in 1600, on the advice of Barneveld, the 
states general decided to carry the war into the enemy's 
country. In the battle of Nieuwport (2nd July 1600), one of 
the most desperately contested battles of the age, Vere and 
Maurice completely defeated the veteran Spanish troops of the 
archduke Albert. This was followed by the celebrated defence 
of Ostend from July 1601 to March 1602. When James I. 
made peace with Spain, Vere retired from active service and 
spent the remainder of his days in country life in England, 
occupying himself with the compilation of his Commentaries of 
the Divers Pieces of Service wherein he had Command (1657; re- 
printed in Arber's English Garner, 1883). He died in 1609, 
soon after the truce recognized the independence of the United 
Provinces, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 

His younger brother SIR HORACE VERE, BARON VERE OF 
TILBURY (1565-1635), began his military career as the lieutenant 
of Sir Francis's Company in 1590. Thenceforward he was con- 
tinually on active service in the Low Countries, and, like his 
brother, took part in the Cadiz expedition of 1596; at Nieuw- 
port and Ostend Sir Horace (who had been knighted at Cadiz) 
held command of some importance. On his brother's retire- 
ment Sir Horace, as senior colonel, assumed command of the 



VERESHCHAGIN VERGENNES 



1021 



whole English force, which he held until 1607, being opposed 
to Ambrosio Spinola, the most famous of the continental 
generals of the time, against whom he manoeuvred and fought 
in a manner equal to the best of his brother's, or even of Parma's, 
work. From 1607 to 1620 he saw but little active service 
except the siege of Jiilich (1610). In 1620 he accepted the 
command of the volunteers who were going to the assistance of 
the Elector Palatine. This famous expedition to the Rhine 
and the Main was from the first a forlorn hope. Opposed by 
his old adversary Spinola, Vere manoeuvred with success for 
two campaigns, but he was helpless against the armies of Tilly 
and Cordova, and in the end he could only furnish scanty 
garrisons for Frankenthal, Heidelberg and Mannheim. Each 
of these places fell after a desperate resistance, and their gar- 
risons returned to England. In 1624 Vere was once more on 
service in the United Provinces. The attempted relief of Breda 
in the following year was considered one of the most brilliant 
feats of the time, and the general was made Baron Vere of 
Tilbury. In 1629 the sieges of Bois-le-duc (s'Hertogenbosch) 
and of Maestricht closed his military career. Lord Vere died 
suddenly in 1635 and was buried by the side of his brother in 
Westminster Abbey. 

See Clements C. Markham, The Fighting Veres (London, 1888). 

VERESHCHAGIN, VASSILI VASSILIEVICH (1842-1904), 
Russian artist and traveller, was born at Tcherepovets, in the 
government of Novgorod, on the 26th of October 1842. His 
father was a Russian landowner of noble birth, and from his 
mother he inherited Tatar blood. When he was eight years 
old he was sent to Tsarskoe Selo to enter the Alexander cadet 
corps, and three years later he entered the naval school at 
St Petersburg, making his first voyage in 1858. He graduated 
first in the list from the naval school, but left the service im- 
mediately to begin the study of drawing in earnest. He won 
a medal two years later, in 1863, from the St Petersburg 
Academy for his "Ulysses slaying the Suitors." In 1864 he 
proceeded to Paris, where he studied under Ger&me, though 
he dissented widely from his master's methods. In the Salon 
of 1866 he exhibited a drawing of " Doukhobors chanting their 
Psalms," and in the next year he accompanied General Kauff- 
mann's expedition to Turkestan, his military service at the 
siege of Samarkand procuring for him the cross of St George. 
He was an indefatigable traveller in Turkestan in 1869, the 
Himalayas, India and Tibet in 1873, and again in India in 
1884. After a period of hard work in Paris and Munich he 
exhibited some of his Turkestan pictures in St Petersburg in 
1874, among them two which were afterwards suppressed on 
the representations of Russian soldiers " The Apotheosis of 
War," a pyramid of skulls dedicated " to all conquerors, past, 
present and to come," and " Left Behind," the picture of a 
dying soldier deserted by his fellows. Vereshchagin was with 
the Russian army during the Turkish campaign of 1877; he 
was present at the crossing of the Shipka Pass and at the siege 
of Plevna, where his brother was killed; and he was danger- 
ously wounded during the preparations for the crossing of the 
Danube near Rustchuk. At the conclusion of the war he acted 
as secretary to General Skobelev at San Stefano. After the 
war he settled at Munich, where he produced his war pictures 
so rapidly that he was freely accused of employing assistants. 
The sensational subjects of his pictures, and their didactic aim 
the promotion of peace by a representation of the horrors 
of war attracted a large section of the public not usually 
interested in art to the series of exhibitions of his pictures in 
Paris in 1881 and subsequently in London, Berlin, Dresden, 
Vienna and other cities. He aroused much controversy by 
his series of three pictures of a Roman execution (the Cruci- 
fixion), of sepoys blown from the guns in India, and of the 
execution of Nihilists in St Petersburg. A journey in Syria 
and Palestine in 1884 furnished him with an equally discussed 
set of subjects from the New Testament. The " 1812 " series 
on Napoleon's Russian campaign, on which he also wrcte a 
book, seem to have been inspired by Tolstoi's War and Peace, 
and were painted in 1893 at Moscow, where the artist eventually 



settled. Vereshchagin was in the Far East during the Chino- 
Japanese War, with the American troops in the Philippines, 
and with the Russian troops in Manchuria. He perished in 
the sinking of the Russian flagship, " Petropavlovsk," on the 
I3th of April 1904. His last work, a picture of a council of 
war presided over by Admiral Makaroff, was recovered almost 
uninjured. 

See E. Zabel, " Wereschtschagin " (1900), in Knackfuss's KunsUer- 
mpnographien (Bielefeld and Leipzig). The finest collection of his 
pictures is in the Tretiakov gallery in Moscow. 

VERGA, GIOVANNI (1840- ), Italian novelist, was born 
at Catania, Sicily. In 1865 he published Storia di una pec- 
calrice and / Carbonari della montagna, but his literary reputa- 
tion was established by his Eva and Storia di una capinera 
(1869). Other novels followed, the best of which are Mala- 
wglia (1881) and Maestro Don Gesualdo (1889). His finest 
work, however, is seen in his short stories and sketches of Sicilian 
peasantry, Medda (1874) and Vila del campi (1880); and his 
Cavalleria Rusticana acquired new popularity from its drama- 
tization and from Mascagni's opera on this subject. Verga and 
Fogazzaro between them may be said to have faithfully chro- 
nicled the inner and popular life of southern and northern Italy. 

VERGE (Lat. iiirga, a rod), originally a staff denoting autho- 
rity, whence (from the ceremony in swearing fealty to a lord) 
the sense of a measurement, and so boundary or border, of 
land, or generally a margin of space. In architecture, a verge 
is the edge of the tiling projecting over the gable of a roof; 
that on the horizontal portion being called " eaves." The 
term " verge board," generally now known as barge board, 
is the name given to the board under the verge of gables, some- 
times moulded, and often very richly carved, perforated and 
cusped, and frequently having pendants and sometimes finials 
at the apex. 

VERGENNES, CHARLES GRAVIER, COMTE DE (1717-1787), 
French statesman, was born at Dijon on the 2oth of December 
1717. He was introduced to the profession of diplomacy by 
his uncle, M. de Chavigny, under whom he saw his first service 
at Lisbon. His successful conduct of French interests at the 
court of Trier in 1750 and the following years led to his being 
sent to Constantinople in 1755 at first as minister plenipoten- 
tiary, then as ambassador. In 1768 he was recalled, ostensibly 
because of a mesalliance with Mme Testa, widow of a Pera 
surgeon, but really because Choiseul thought him not zealous 
enough in provoking a quarrel between Russia and Turkey. 
After Choiseul's death he was sent to Stockholm with instruc- 
tions to help the aristocratic party of the " Hats " with advice 
and money. The revolution by which Gustavus III. (August 
19, 1772) secured for himself the reality instead of the shadow 
of power was a great diplomatic triumph for France. With the 
accession of Louis XVI. Vergennes became foreign minister. 
His general policy was one of friendly relations with Austria, 
combined with the limitation of Joseph II. 's ambitious designs; 
the protection of Turkey; and opposition at all points to 
England. His hatred of England and his desire to avenge 
the disasters of the Seven Years' War led to his support of the 
American States in the War of Independence, a step of which 
the moral and financial results had not a little to do with the 
Revolution of 1789. Vergennes sought by a series of negotia- 
tions to secure the armed neutrality of the Northern Powers 
eventually carried out by Catherine II.; he ceded to the de- 
mands of Beaumarchais that France should secretly provide the 
Americans with arms and volunteers. In 1777 he informed the 
American commissioners that France acknowledged the Republic 
and was willing to form an offensive and defensive alliance with 
the new state. In domestic affairs Vergennes belonged to the 
old school. He intrigued against Necker, whom he regarded as 
a dangerous innovator, a republican, a foreigner and a Pro- 
testant. In 1781 he became chief of the council of finance, 
and in 1783 he supported the nomination of Calonne as controller 
general. Vergennes died on the I3th of February 1787, before 
the meeting of the Assembly of Notables which he is said to have 
suggested to Louis XVI. 



1022 



VERGER VERGNIAUD 



See P. Fauchelle, La Diplomatic franc,aise et la Ligue des neutres 
de 1780 (1776-83) (Paris, 1893) ; John Jay, The Peace Negotiations of 
1782-83 as illustrated by the Confidential Papers of Shelburne and 
Vergennes (New York, 1888); L. Bonneville de Marsangy, Le 
Chevalier de Vergennes, son ambassade a Constantinople (Paris, 1894), 
and Le Chevalier de Vergennes, son ambassade en Suede (Paris, 1898). 

VERGER (M.E. vergere; O. Fr. vergier; Med. Lat. virgarius, 
one who bears a rod or staff, an apparitor; Lat. virga, rod), 
one who carries a " verge " or staff of office. The principal 
use of the term is ecclesiastical, and refers to the person who 
carries a staff as a symbol of office before a bishop or other 
church dignitary when taking part in a service, especially one 
held in a cathedral. The word has thus come to mean in 
general usage an official caretaker of any place of worship whose 
duty it is to show the building to those who wish to view it, 
and to find seats for the congregation at a service. 

VERGNIAUD, PIERRE VICTURNIEN (1753-1793), French 
orator and revolutionist, was born on the 3ist of May 1753 at 
Limoges. He was the son of a merchant of that town who lost 
the greater part of his means by speculation. The boy was 
early sent to the college of the Jesuits at Limoges, and soon 
achieved distinction. Turgot was then intendant of Limousin. 
In his presence young Yergniaud on one occasion recited some 
verses of his own composition. Turgot was struck with the 
talent they displayed, and by virtue of his patronage Vergniaud, 
having gone to Paris, was admitted to the college of Plessis. 
It is impossible to read the speeches of Vergniaud without being 
convinced of the solidity of his education, and in particular 
of the wide range of his knowledge of the classics, and of his 
acquaintance familiar and sympathetic with ancient philo- 
sophy and history. 

Duputy, president of the parlement of Bordeaux, with whom 
Vergniaud became acquainted, conceived the greatest admiration 
and affection for him and appointed him his secretary. Verg- 
niaud was thereafter called to the bar (1782). The influence of 
Duputy gained for him the beginnings of a practice; but Verg- 
niaud, though capable of extraordinary efforts, too often re- 
lapsed into reverie, and was indisposed for study and sustained 
exertion, even in a cause which he approved. This weakness 
appears equally in his political and in his professional life: 
he would refuse practice if his purse were moderately well 
filled; he would sit for weeks in the Assembly in listlessness 
and silence, while the policy he had shaped was being gradually 
undermined, and then rise, brilliant as ever, but too late to 
avert the calamities which he foresaw. In 1789 Vergniaud 
was elected a member of the general council of the department 
of the Gironde. Being deeply stirred by the best ideas of the 
Revolutionary epoch, he found a more congenial sphere for the 
display of his great powers in his new position. About this 
period he was charged with the defence of a member of the 
national guard of Brives, which was accused of provoking dis- 
orders in the department of La Correze. Abandoning all 
reserve, Vergniaud delivered one of the great orations of his life, 
depicting the misfortunes of the peasantry in language of such 
combined dignity, pathos and power that his fame as an orator 
spread far and wide. 

Vergniaud was chosen a representative of the Gironde to 
the National Legislative Assembly in August 1791, and he 
forthwith proceeded to Paris. The Legislative Assembly met 
on the ist of October. For a time, according to his habit, he 
refrained from speaking; but on the 2$th of October he ascended 
the tribune, and he had not spoken long before the whole Assembly 
felt that a new power had arisen which might control even the 
destinies of France. This judgment was re-echoed outside, and 
he was almost immediately elected president of the Assembly 
for the usual brief term. Between the outbreak of the Revolu- 
tion and his election to the Legislative Assembly the political 
views of Vergniaud had undergone a decided change. At first 
he had lauded a constitutional monarchy; but the flight of 
Louis XVI. filled him with distrust of the sovereign, and his 
views in favour of a republic were rapidly developed. The 
sentiments and passions which his eloquence aroused were, 
however, watchfully utilized by a more extreme party. It 



happened thus even with his first Assembly speech, on the 
Emigres. His proposal was mainly that a treble annual contri- 
bution should be levied on their property; but the Assembly 
confiscated their goods and decreed their deaths. One great 
blot on his reputation is that step by step he was led on to 
palliate violence and crime, to the excesses of which his eyes 
were only opened by the massacres of September, and which 
ultimately overwhelmed the party of Girondists which he led. 
The disgrace to his name is indelible that on the igth of March 
1792, when the perpetrators of the massacre of Avignon had 
been introduced to the Assembly by Collot d'Herbois, Vergniaud 
spoke indulgently of their crimes and lent the authority of his 
voice to their amnesty. In language sometimes turgid, but 
nearly always of pure and powerful eloquence, he worked 
at the theme of the emigres, as it developed into that of the 
counter-revolution; and in his occasional appearances in the 
tribune, as well as in the project of an address to the French 
people which he presented to the Assembly on the 27th of 
December 1791, he shook the heart of France, and, especially 
by his call to arms on the i8th of January, shaped the policy 
which culminated in the declaration of war against the king of 
Bohemia and Hungary on the 2oth of April. This policy in 
foreign affairs, which he pursued through the winter and spring 
of 1791-92, he combined with another that of fanning the 
suspicions of the people against the monarchy, which he identified 
with the counter-revolution, and of forcing on a change of 
ministry. On the loth of March Vergniaud delivered a power- 
ful oration in which he denounced the intrigues of the court 
and uttered his famous apostrophe to the Tuileries: " In 
ancient times fear and terror have often issued from that 
famous palace; let them re-enter it to-day in the name of the 
law!" The speech overthrew De Lessart, whose accusation 
was decreed; and Roland, the nominee of the Girondists, 
entered the ministry. By the month of June the opposition of 
Vergniaud (whose voice still commanded the country) to the king 
rose to fever heat. On the 2gth of May Vergniaud went so far 
as to support the disbanding of the king's guard. But he 
appears to have been unaware of the extent of the feelings of 
animosity which he had done much to arouse in the people, 
probably because he was wholly unconnected with the practices 
of the party of the Mountain as the instigators of actual violence. 
This party used Vergniaud, whose lofty and serene ideas they 
applauded and travestied in action. Then came the riot of the 
2oth of June and the invasion of the Tuileries. He rushed 
among the crowd, but was powerless to quell the tumult. Con- 
tinuing for yet a little longer his course of feverous, almost 
frenzied, opposition to the throne, on the 3rd of July he electri- 
fied France by his bold denunciation of the king, not only as a 
hypocrite and a despot, but as a base traitor to the constitution. 
His speeches breathe the very spirit of the storm, and they 
were perhaps the greatest single factor in the development 
of the events of the time. On the loth of August the Tuileries 
was stormed, and the royal family took refuge in the Assembly. 
Vergniaud presided. To the request of the king for protection 
he replied in dignified and respectful language. An extra- 
ordinary commission was appointed: Vergniaud wrote and read 
its recommendations that a National Convention be formed, the 
king be provisionally suspended from office, a governor appointed 
for his son, and the royal family be consigned to the Luxem- 
bourg. Hardly had the great orator attained the object of his 
aim the overthrow of Louis as a sovereign when he became 
conscious of the forces by which he was surrounded. He de- 
nounced the massacres of September their inception, their 
horror and the future to which they pointed in language so 
vivid and powerful that it raised for a time the spirits of the 
Girondists, while on the other hand it aroused the fatal opposi- 
tion of the Parisian leaders. 

The questions whether Louis XVI. was to be judged, and 
if so by whom, were the subject of protracted debate in the 
Convention. They were of absorbing interest to Paris, to France 
and to Europe; and upon them the Girondist leader at last, on 
the 3ist of December 1792, broke silence, delivering one of his 



VERHAEREN VERLAINE 



1023 



greatest orations, probably one of the greatest combinations of 
sound reasoning, sagacity and eloquence which has ever been 
displayed in the annals of French politics. He pronounced in 
favour of an appeal to the people. He pictured the consequences 
of that temper of vengeance which animated the Parisian mob 
and was fatally controlling the policy of the Convention, and the 
prostration which would ensue to France after even a successful 
struggle with a European coalition, which would spring up after 
the murder of the king. The great effort failed; and four days 
afterwards something happened which still further endangered 
Vergniaud and his whole party. This was the discovery of 
a note signed by him along with Gaudet and Gensonne and 
presented to the king two or three weeks before the loth of 
August. It contained nothing but sound and patriotic sugges- 
tions, but it was greedily seized upon by the enemies of the 
Gironde as evidence of treason. On the i6th of January 1793 
the vote began to be taken in the Convention upon the punish- 
ment of the king. Vergniaud voted early, and voted for death. 
The action of the great Girondist was and will always remain 
inscrutable, but it was followed by a similar verdict from nearly 
the whole party which he led. On the i7th Vergniaud presided 
at the Convention, and it fell to him, labouring under the most 
painful excitement, to announce the fatal result of the voting. 
Then for many weeks he sank, exhausted, into silence. 

When the institution of a revolutionary tribunal was proposed, 
Vergniaud vehemently opposed the project, denouncing the 
tribunal as a more awful inquisition than that of Venice, and 
avowing that his party would all die rather than consent to it. 
Their death by stratagem had already been planned, and on 
the loth of March they had to go into hiding. On the I3th 
Vergniaud boldly exposed the conspiracy in the Convention. 
The antagonism caused by such an attitude had reached a 
significant point when on the loth of April Robespierre himself 
laid his accusation before the Convention. He fastened especi- 
ally upon Vergniaud's letter to the king and his support of the 
appeal to the people as a proof that he was a moderate in its then 
despised sense. Vergniaud made a brilliant extemporaneous 
reply, and the attack for the moment failed. But now, night 
after night, Vergniaud and his colleagues found themselves 
obliged to change their abode, to avoid assassination, a price 
being even put upon their heads. Still with unfaltering courage 
they continued their resistance to the dominant faction, till on 
the 2nd of June 1 793 things came to a head. The Convention was 
surrounded with an armed mob, who clamoured for the " twenty- 
two." In the midst of this it was forced to continue its delibera- 
tions. The decree of accusation was voted, and the Girondists 
were proscribed. 

Vergniaud was offered a safe retreat. He accepted it only for 
a day, and then returned to his own dwelling. He was kept 
under surveillance there for nearly a month, and in the earjy 
days of July was imprisoned in La Force. He carried poison 
with him, but never used it. His tender affection for his relatives 
abundantly appears from his correspondence, along with his pro- 
found attachment to the great ideas of the Revolution and his 
noble love of country. On one of the walls of the Carmelite 
convent to which for a short time the prisoners were removed 
Vergniaud wrote in letters of blood: " Potius mori quam foedari." 
Early in October the Convention brought forward its indictment 
of the twenty-two Girondists. They were sent for trial to the 
Revolutionary tribunal, before which they appeared on the 27th 
of October. The procedure was a travesty of justice. Early on 
the morning of the 3ist of October 1793 the Girondists were 
conveyed to the scaffold, singing on the way the Marseillaise 
and keeping up the strain till one by one they were guillotined. 
Vergniaud was executed last. He died unconfessed, a philosopher 
and a patriot. 

See Gay de Vernon, Vergniaud (Limoges, 1858); and L. de 
Verdiere, Biographic de Vergniaud (Paris, 1866). (T. S.) 

VERHAEREN, fiMILE (1855- ), Belgian poet, was born 
at Saint-Amand, near Antwerp, on the 2ist of May 1855. He 
was sent to school at Ghent, where he formed a friendship 
with Georges Rodenbach. He studied at the university of 



Louvain, and there started a journal, La Semaine, which he 
edited in conjunction with the operatic singer Van Dyck. La 
Semaine was suppressed by the authorities, as was its successor, 
Le Type, in which Verhaeren had as fellow- workers Max Waller, 
Iwan Gilkin and Albert Giraud. In 1881 he was admitted to 
the bar at Brussels, but he soon devoted his whole energies 
to literature, and especially to the organs of " young Belgium," 
La Jeune Belgique and UArt moderne, making himself especially 
the champion of the impressionist painters. Verhaeren learnt 
his art of poetry from the great Flemish artists, and in his early 
robust works, Les Flamandes (1883) and Les Moines (1886), 
he displays similar qualities of strength, sometimes degenerating 
into violence. A period of physical weakness followed, trans- 
lated into terms of poetry in three volumes of verse, Les Soirs 
(1887), Les Debacles (1888) and Les Flambeaux noirs (1889). 
Au bord de la route (1890) and Les Apparus dans mes chemins 
(1891) followed. Verhaeren then passed from applying his 
pictorial method to psychological studies to the task of indi- 
vidualizing the towns, villages and fields of his native country, 
the first outcome being his Campagnes hallucinees (1893). In 
Villages illusoires he describes the tragedy of the fields and 
farms deserted by the people in their race to the towns, and in 
Les Villes tentaculaires (1895) the great industrial centres devour- 
ing the surrounding country. Later volumes of poems are Les 
Heures claires (1896), Les Visages de la vie (1899), Les P elites 
Legendes (1900), Les Forces tumullueuses (1901); Les Tendresses 
premieres (1904). In 1898 he wrote a lyric drama Les Aubes, 
in 1900 a four-act piece Le Cloitre, represented both in Brussels 
and Paris, and in 1901 a historical drama Philippe II. 

The poems of fimile Verhaeren were translated into English by 
Alma Strettel (1899); and Les Aubes by Mr Arthur Symons (1898). 
A long list of articles dealing with Verhaeren is to be found in 
Poetes d'Aujourd'hui (1900) of A. van Bever and Paul Leautaud. 

VERKHNE-UDINSK, a town of Asiatic Russia, in East Siberia, 
province of Transbaikalia, on the right bank of the Uda, at its 
confluence with the Selenga, 102 m. by rail E. of Lake Baikal, 
to which steamers ply. Pop. (1883) 4130; (1897) 8002. It 
was founded as a small fort in 1668, and is a centre for the 
overland trade in tea with China, and an emporium both for 
grain and animal products, exported, and for metals, machinery 
and manufactured goods, imported. Its yearly fair is of great 
importance. 

VERLAINE, PAUL (1844-1896), French lyric poet, was born 
at Metz on the 3Oth of March 1844. He was the son of one 
of Napoleon's soldiers, who had become a captain of engineers. 
Paul Verlaine was educated in Paris, and became clerk in an 
insurance company. He was a member of the Parnassian 
circle, with Catulle Mendes, Sully Prudhomme, Francois Coppee 
and the rest. His first volume of poems, the Poemes salurniens 
(1866), was written under Parnassian influences, from which 
the Fttes galantes (1869), as of a Watteau of poetry, began a 
delicate escape; and in La Bonne Chanson (1870) the defection 
was still more marked. He married in 1870 Mile. Mautet. 
During the Commune he was involved with the authorities 
for having sheltered his friends, and was obliged to leave France. 
In 1871 the strange young poet Jean Arthur Rimbaud came 
somewhat troublingly into his life, into which drink had already 
brought a lasting disturbance. With Rimbaud he wandered 
over France, Belgium, England, until a pistol-shot, fortunately 
ill-aimed, against his companion brought upon him two years 
of imprisonment at Mons. Solitude, confinement and thought 
converted a pagan into a Catholic, without, however, rooting 
out what was most human in the pagan; and after many years' 
silence he published Sagesse (1881), a collection of religious poems, 
which, for humble and passionate conviction, as well as originality 
of poetic beauty, must be ranked with the finest religious poems 
ever written. Romances sans paroles, composed during the 
intervals of wandering, appeared in 1874, and shows us Verlaine 
at his most perfect moment of artistic self-possession, before he 
has quite found what is deepest in himself. He returned to 
France in 1875. His wife had obtained a divorce from him, 
and Verlaine made another short stay in England, acting as a 



1024 



VERLAT VERMIGLI 



teacher of French. After about two years' absence Verlaine 
was again in France. He acted as teacher in more than one 
school and even tried farming. The death of his mother, to 
whom he was tenderly attached, dissolved the ties that bound 
him to " respectable " society. During the rest of his life he 
lived in poverty, often in hospital, but always with the heed- 
less and unconquerable cheerfulness of a child. After a long 
obscurity, famous only in the Latin Quarter, among the cafes 
where he spent so much of his days and nights, he enjoyed at 
last a European celebrity. In 1894 he paid another visit to 
England, this time as a distinguished poet, and lectured at 
London and Oxford. He died in Paris on the 8th of January 
1896. His eighteen volumes of .verse (among which may be 
further mentioned Jadis et nagu&re, 1884; Amour, 1888; 
Parallelement, 1889; Bonheur, 1891) vary greatly in quality 
as in substance; they are all the sincere expression, almost 
the instantaneous notation, of himself, of his varying moods, 
sensual passion, the passion of the mystic, the delight of the 
sensitive artist in the fine shades of sensation. He brought 
into French verse a note of lyrical song, a delicacy in the evoca- 
tion of sound and colour, which has seemed almost to create 
poetry over again, as it provides a language out of which 
rhetoric has been cleansed and a rhythm into which a new music 
has come with a new simplicity. (A. SY.) 

His (Euvres completes (3 vols.) were published in 1899, &c. ; 
(Euvres posthumes (1903). See also Paid Verlaine, sa vie, son asuvre, 
by E. Lepelletier (1907) ; monographs by M. Dullaert (Ghent, 1896), 
C. Morice (1888); also Anatole France, La Vie litteraire (3rd series, 
'891) ; J. Lemaitre, Nos contemporains (1889), vol. iv. ; E. Delille, 
"The Poet Verlaine," in the Fortnightly Review (March 1891); 
A. Symons, in the National Review (June 1892); V. Thompson, 
French Portraits (Boston, U.S.A., 1900); and the poet's own 
Confessions (1895) and his Poetes maudits (1888). A bibliography 
of Verlaine with an account of the existing portraits of him is in- 
cluded in the Poetes d'Aujourd'hui (nth ed., 1905) of MM. A. van 
Bever and P. Leautaud. The Vie by Lepelletier has been trans- 
lated into English by E. M. Lang (1909). 

VERLAT, MICHEL MARIE CHARLES (1824-1890), Belgian 
painter, was born at Antwerp on the 25th of November 1824. 
He was a pupil of Nicaise de Keyser, and studied at the Antwerp 
Academy. In 1842 appeared his first important picture, 
" Pippin the Short Killing a Lion." About 1849 he went to 
Paris, where he worked under Ary Scheffer. In 1855 he won 
a gold medal at the Exposition Universelle at Paris with his 
" Tiger Attacking a Herd of Buffaloes," and in 1858 exhibited 
" Le Coup de collier " (now in the Antwerp Gallery) at the Paris 
Salon. In 1866 he was appointed director of the Academy 
at Weimar, where he painted some fine portraits, notably those 
of the grand-duchess of Saxony and of the musician Liszt. 
Soon after his return to Antwerp in 1875 he visited Palestine, 
and brought back a large number of interesting pictures, 
including " Vox Populi " (Antwerp Gallery), " The Tomb of 
Jesus," and " The Flight into Egypt." In 1885 he was appointed 
director of the Antwerp Academy. Other important works 
by Verlat are the panoramas of the battle of Waterloo and 
the treaty of San Stefano, " Christ between the Two Thieves," 
"Defending the Flock" (Antwerp Gallery), "Oxen Plough- 
ing in Palestine " (Antwerp Gallery), " Godfrey of Bouillon at 
the Siege of Jerusalem " (Brussels Gallery), and " Sheep-Dog 
Defending the Flock " (Brussels Gallery). He executed a series 
of original etchings, and published in 1879 a book on the Antwerp 
Academy. He died at Antwerp on the 23rd of October 1890. 

VERMANDOIS, a French countship composed originally of 
the two burgraviates (chatellenies) of St Quentin (Aisne) and 
Peronne (Somme). Herbert I., the earliest of its hereditary 
counts, was descended in direct male line from the emperor 
Charlemagne, and was killed in 902 by an assassin in the pay 
of Baldwin II., count of Flanders. His son, Herbert II. (902- 
943)1 a man absolutely devoid of scruples, considerably in- 
creased the territorial power of the house of Vermandois, and 
kept the lawful king of France, the unlucky Charles the Simple, 
prisoner for six years. His successors, Albert I., Herbert III., 
Albert II., Otto and Herbert IV., were unimportant. In 
1077 the last male of the first house of Vermandois, Herbert IV., 



received the countship of Valois in right of his wife. He died 
soon afterwards, leaving his inheritance to his daughter Adela, 
whose first husband was Hugh the Great, the brother of king 
Philip I. Hugh was one of the leaders of the first crusade, 
and died in 1102 at Tarsus in Cilicia. The eldest son of Hugh 
and Adela was count Raoul (Rudolph) I. (c. 1120-1152), who 
married Alix of Guyenne, sister of the queen, Eleanor, and had 
by her three children: Raoul (Rudolph) II., the Leper (count 
from 1152-67); Isabelle, who possessed from 1167 to 1183 
the countships of Vermandois, Valois and Amiens conjointly 
with her husband, Philip of Alsace, count of Flanders; and 
Eleanor. By the terms of a treaty concluded in 1185 with 
the king, Philip Augustus, the count of Flanders kept the 
countship of Vermandois until his death, in 1191. At this date 
a new arrangement gave Eleanor (d. 1213) a life interest in 
the eastern part of Vermandois, together with the title of 
countess of St Quentin, and the king entered immediately into 
possession of Peronne and its dependencies. 

See Anselme, Histoire genealogique de la maison royale de France 
(1726), i. 48-51 and 531-34; Colhette, Memoires pour Vhistoire du 
Vermandois (1771-72). (A. Lo.) 

VERMICELLI (plural of Ital. vermicello, little worm, Lat. 
vermicellus, diminutive of vermis, worm), the name of a kind 
of paste, made of the granular meal of certain hard wheats, 
and used as a food. It is made into worm-like threads, whence 
its name, and differs from macaroni only in being made solid 
and not in hollow tubes. " Spaghetti " (dim. of spago, a small 
cord) is a larger kind of vermicelli. In Italy these various 
pastes form a staple article of food. In other countries " ver- 
micelli" is used in soups and puddings, &c. 

VERMIGLI, PIETRO MARTIRE, generally known as PETER 
MARTYR (1500-1562), born at Florence on the 8th of May 1500, 
was son of Stefano Vermigli, a follower of Savonarola, by his 
first wife, Maria Fumantina. He owed his Christian names to 
a vow which his father, actuated by the death of several children 
in infancy, had made to dedicate any that survived to the 
Dominican saint, Peter Martyr, who lived in the i3th century. 
Educated in the Augustinian cloister at Fiesole, he was trans- 
ferred in 1519 to the convent of St John of Verdara near Padua, 
where he graduated D.D. about 1527 and made the acquaint- 
ance of the future Cardinal Pole. From that year onwards 
he was employed as a public preacher at Brescia, Pisa, Venice 
and Rome; and in his intervals of leisure he mastered Greek 
and Hebrew. In 1530 he was elected abbot of the Augustinian 
monastery at Spoleto, and in 1533 prior of the convent of St 
Peter ad Aram at Naples. About this time he read Bucer's 
commentaries on the Gospels and the Psalms and also Zwingli's 
De iiera el falsa religione; and his Biblical studies began to 
affect his views. He was accused of erroneous doctrine, and 
the Spanish viceroy of Naples prohibited his preaching. The 
prohibition was removed on appeal to Rome, but in 1541 
Vermigli was transferred to Lucca, where he again fell under 
suspicion. Summoned to appear before a chapter of his order 
at Genoa, he fled in 1542 to Pisa and thence to another Italian 
reformer, Bernardino Ochino, at Florence. Ochino escaped to 
Geneva, and Vermigli to Zurich, thence to Basel, and finally 
to Strassburg, where, with Bucer's support, he was appointed 
professor of theology and married his first wife, Catherine 
Dammartin of Metz. 

Vermigli and Ochino were both invited to England by 
Cranmer in 1547, and given a pension of forty marks by the 
government. In 1548 Vermigli was appointed regius professor 
of divinity at Oxford, in succession to the notorious Dr Richard 
Smith, and was incorporated D.D. In 1549 he took part in 
a great disputation on the Eucharist. He had abandoned 
Luther's doctrine of consubstantiation and adopted the doctrine 
of a Real Presence conditioned by the faith of the recipient. 
This was similar to the view now held by Cranmer and Ridley, 
but it is difficult to prove that Vermigli had any great influence 
in the modifications of the Book of Common Prayer made in 
1552. He was consulted on the question, but his recommenda- 
tions seem hardly distinguishable from those of Bucer, the 



VERMILION VERMONT 



1025 



effect of which is itself disputable. He was also appointed one 
of the commissioners for the reform of the canon law. 

On Mary's accession Vermigli was permitted to return to 
Strassburg, where, after some opposition raised on the ground 
that he had abandoned Lutheran doctrine, he was reappointed 
professor of theology. He befriended a number of English 
exiles, but had himself in 1556 to accept an offer of the chair 
of Hebrew at Zurich owing to his increased alienation from 
Lutheranism. He was invited to Geneva in 1557, and to 
England again in 1561, but declined both invitations, main- 
taining, however, a constant correspondence with Jewel and 
other English prelates and reformers until his death at Zurich on 
the i2th of November 1562. His first wife, who died at Oxford 
on the isth of February 1553, was disinterred in 1557 and tried 
for heresy; legal evidence was not forthcoming because witnesses 
had not understood her tongue; and instead of the corpse 
being burnt, it was merely cast on a dunghill in the stable of 
the dean of Christ Church. The remains were identified after 
Elizabeth's accession, mingled with the supposed relics of St 
Frideswide to prevent future desecration, and reburied in the 
cathedral. Vermigli's second wife, Caterina Merenda, whom 
he married at Zurich, survived him, marrying a merchant of 
Locarno. 

Vermigli published over a score of theological works, chiefly 
Biblical commentaries and treatises on the Eucharist. His 
learning was greater than his originality, and he was one of 
the least heterodox of the Italian divines who rejected Roman 
Catholicism. His views approximated most nearly to those of 
Martin Bucer. 

Josias Simler's Oratio, published in 1563 and translated into English 
in 1583, is the basis of subsequent accounts of Vermigli. The best 
lives are by F. C. Schlosser (1809) and C. Schmidt (1858). See also 
Parker Soc. Publ. (General Index), especially the Zurich Letters; 
Strype's Works; Foxe's Acts and Monuments; Burnet's Hist., ed. 
Pocock; Dixon's History; and Diet, of Nat. Biogr. Iviii. 253-256. 

(A. F. P.) 

VERMILION, a scarlet pigment composed of mercuric sulphide, 
HgS. It may be obtained direct from pure and bright coloured 
portions of the native ore cinnabar, or, artificially, by subliming 
a mixture of mercury and sulphur. The product is ground and 
levigated; and when dry it is ready for use. It is also prepared 
by digesting precipitated mercuric sulphide with an alkaline 
sulphide for some hours; it is said that Chinese vermilion owes 
its superiority to being made in this way. In addition to its 
brilliance, vermilion is a pigment of great intensity and dura- 
bility, remaining unaffected by acid fumes. Being costly, it is 
much subject to adulteration; but the fraudulent additions 
may easily be detected by volatilization, v/hich in the case of 
pure vermilion leaves no residue. See PIGMENTS and MERCURY. 

VERMIN (Fr. vermine, formed as if from Lat. verminus, 
vermis, a worm), the collective name applied to various classes 
of objectionable, harmful or destructive animals. To game- 
keepers and those interested in the preservation of game, all 
animals such as the pole-cat, weasel, stoat, hawks, owls, &c., 
which destroy the eggs or young of preserved birds, are classed 
as " vermin," and the same term includes rats, mice, &c. It is 
also the collective name given to all those disgusting and objec- 
tionable insects that infest human beings, houses, &c., when 
allowed to be in a filthy and unsanitary condition, such as bugs, 
fleas, lice, &c, 

VERMONT, a North Atlantic state of the United States of 
America and one of the New England group, lying between 
latitude 42 44' and 45 o' 43" N., and between longitudes 
3 35' and 5 29' E. from Washington. It is bounded N. by the 
Canadian province of Quebec, E. by the Connecticut river, which 
separates it from New Hampshire, S. by Massachusetts, and W. 
by New York and Lake Champlain, which separates it in part 
from New York. Its total area is 9564 sq. m., and of this 
440 sq. m. is water surface. 

Surface. Vermont is a portion of the plateau-like New England 
upland, broken by mountain ranges, individual mountains and 
high hills, rising above the general upland surface, and_ by deep 
narrow valleys, cut below that surface. The mean elevation of the 

xxvn. 33 



state above the sea is about 1000 ft. Extremes range from 106 ft. 
at Maquam on the N.E. shore of Lake Champlain (96 ft.) to 4364 ft. 
at the summit of Mount Mansfield, about 25 m. E. of that lake. 
The most prominent feature of the surface is the Green Mountains, 
which extend nearly N. and S. through the state a little W. of the 
middle. From the Massachusetts border N. for two-thirds the 
length of the state the range is only slightly broken, but farther N. 
it is cut deep by the valleys of the Winooski and Lamoille rivers. 
The crest line is generally more than 2000 ft. high, considerable 
areas are above 2500 ft., and the following summits exceed 4000 ft. : 
Mount Mansfield, 4364 ft.; Killington Peak, 4241 ft.; Camel's 
Hump, 4088 ft.; Mount Lincoln, 4078 ft.; and Jay Peak, 4018 ft. 
West of the Green Mountains the Taconic Mountains form a nearly 
parallel (but distinct) range, extending from New York and Massa- 
chusetts N. nearly to the centre of Vermont ; and a series of broken 
uplifts, known as the Red Sandrock Mountains, extend farther N. 
along the shore of Lake Champlain. The Taconic Mountains rise 
in very irregular masses to 1500-2000 ft., and reach their maximum 
elevation in Mount Equinox at 3816 ft. The Red Sartdrock Moun- 
tains are similar to one another in form and structure, generally 
rounded on the N. and E., but with some rugged escarpments facing 
the lake; their highest point is Snake Mountain (1271 ft.) in 
Addison county. There are no mountain ranges in the state E. of 
the Green Mountains, but distributed along the entire E. border are 
a number of tall and oval or conical shaped masses known as the 
Granitic Mountains, and between these and the Green Mountains 
the country is largely occupied by high hills and deeply carved 
valleys. Mount Ascutney, one of the Granitic Mountains, rises 
abruptly from the floor of the Connecticut Valley to a height of 
3320 ft. The least broken section of Vermont is on the somewhat 

fentle slope of the Green Mountains in the N.W. and on Grand 
sle, North Hero Island, and Isle La Motte in Lake Champlain. 
The forms of Vermont's mountains, even to the highest summits, 
were to a great extent rounded by glaciation, but as the rocks vary 
much in texture and are often steeply inclined, stream erosion has 
cut valleys deep and narrow, often mere gorges. 

Where the Green Mountain range is unbroken, in the S. two-thirds 
of the state, it forms a water-parting between the streams which 
flow W. or fcN.W. into Lake Champlain or the H udson river and those 
flowing S.E. into the Connecticut river; but farther N. the line 
separating the Hudson-Champlain basin from the Connecticut 
basin runs among the Granitic Mountains; and extending 25 m. S. 
from the Canadian border is a small area that is drained N. into Lake 
Memphremagog, the waters of which, like those of Lake Champlain, 
are tributary to the St Lawrence river. North of Massachusetts 
the Connecticut river is wholly within New Hampshire Vermont's 
eastern boundary is low-water mark on the W. bank of the Connecti- 
cut river. The largest and only navigable rivers of Vermont are 
among those flowing into Lake Champlain: the Missisquoi, the 
Lamoille, the Winooski and Otter Creek. The Batten Kill is the 
principal river flowing into the Hudson. The Deerfield, West, 
Williams, White, Passumpsic and Nulhegan rivers are the largest 
of the many streams which are tributary to the Connecticut. The 
Black, Barton and Clyde rivers flow into Lake Memphremagog. 
Vermont's rivers are generally swift, and in many places they are 
made very picturesque by their clear and sparkling waters, rapids, 
falls, gorges and wooded banks. 

Lake Champlain, which lies beautifully in the valley between the 
Green and Adirondack mountains, belongs mostly to Vermont. The 
state has a shore line upon it of 150 m. or more, and in its N. portion 
are numerous islands which are attractive resorts during the summer 
season. On the N. border of the state is Lake Memphremagog 
with islands, a rugged prominence known as Owl's Head on its W. 
border, Jay Peak, farther back, and a beautiful farming country to 
the eastward. There are also a large number of small lakes and 
ponds lying wholly within the state. Of these Lake Bomoseen in 
Rutland county and Willoughby Lake in Orleans county are the 
Jargest. Willoughby Lake is about 6 m. long by i-i J m. wide, and 
its situation between two rugged mountains makes a scene of 
great natural beauty. All the lakes of the state were formed by 
glaciation. 

Fauna. The most common wild animals are deer, rabbits, 
squirrels, raccoons, skunks, woodchucks and muskrats. There 
are some porcupines, red foxes, minks and martens, but the 
moose, wolf and lynx are practically extinct. The ruffed grouse 
(or " partridge ") is the most common of game birds, but woodcock, 
ducks and geese are quite common. Prominent among a great 
variety of song-birds and insectivorous birds are the robin, blue bird, 
cat bird, sparrows, meadow-lark, bobolink, thrushes, chickadee, 
wrens, brown thrasher, gold finch, cedar wax-wing, flycatchers, 
nuthatches, flicker (golden-winged woodpecker), downy and hairy 
woodpeckers, rose-breasted grosbeak, Baltimore oriole, barn- 
swallow, chimney swift, purple martin, purple finch (linnet), vireos 
and several species of warblers. Birds of prey comprise several 
species_ of hawks and owls, and a few eagles. A few sturgeon are 
taken in Lake Champlain. The lakes, ponds and streams afford 
some of the best trout fishing in the country, and many of them also 
abound in pickerel, pike, perch, black bass and land-locked salmon. 
There is a state fish and game commissioner, and the state has a fish 



1026 



VERMONT 



hatchery at Roxbury and a forest and game farm at Sharon. There 
are Federal hatcheries at Swanton (for pike perch and yellow perch) 
and at Holden (for trout). 

Pl ora . Vermont (vert mont), the Green Mountain State, was so 
named from the evergreen forests of its mountains, whose principal 
trees are spruce and fir on the upper slopes and white pine and 
hemlock on the lower. Among deciduous trees the state is noted 
for its sugar maples; birch and beech are common on the hills, and 
oaks, elm, hickory, ash, poplar, basswood, willow, chestnut and 
butternut on the less elevated areas. Among indigenous fruit- 
bearing trees, shrubs, vines and plants are the plum, cherry, grape, 
blackberry, raspberry, cranberry and strawberry. A few of the 
medicinal plants are ginseng, pleurisy root, snake root, blood root, 
blue flag and marshmallow. Orchids are very prominent among 
a great variety of flowering plants. Along the shore of Lake 
Champlain are a few species of maritime plants that remain from the 
time when portions of western Vermont were covered by the sea, 
and on the upper slopes of some of the higher mountains are a few 
Alpine species; these, however, are much less numerous on the 
Green Mountains of Vermont than on the White Mountains of New 
Hampshire. The state's lumber trade was important until 1890, 
when the white pine was nearly exhausted, although there were 
still spruce and hemlock. 

Climate. The state usually has long and severe winters and cool 
summers, but sudden changes of temperature are common at all 
seasons. The mean temperature for January, the coldest month, 
is only 17 F.; for the three winter months it is 19 F., and for the 
five months from November to March inclusive it is 24-3 F. For 
July, the warmest month, the mean temperature is 68 F. ; for the 
entire year it is 43 F. Extremes of temperature have ranged from 
-36 F. at Woodstock, Windsor county, in February 1896 to 97 F. 
at Cornwall, Addison county, in June 1901. The eastern section 
of the state is colder than the western, and the central or most 
mountainous section is still colder; for example, the mean annual 
temperature of Burlington, on Lake Champlain, is 46 F., while that 
of Saint Johnsbury, a little farther S. and near the E. border, is only 
42 F., and that of Northfield. still farther S. but inthe middle section, 
is only 41 F. The mean annual precipitation for the entire state 
is about 38-5 in.; more rain falls in summer than in any other 
season, and more falls in the southern section than in the northern. 
The average annual fall of snow throughout the state is about 90 in., 
but at Jacksonville near the S. border it often exceeds no in. More 
snow falls in February than in any other month. In the Connecti- 
cut and Hudson-Champlain valleys the winds blow mostly from 
either the N. or the S., but in several of the smaller valleys the pre- 
vailing winds are from the N.W. 

Soil. The soil is for the most part glacial drift, composed of 
clay, sand and gravel, and varying greatly in depth. On the higher 
elevations it is generally stony and sterile, but in the valleys and on 
many of the lower hills, where it consists largely of clay and sand, it 
is quite productive. The best soils are in the west section, where 
limestone clays or shell marls arc common. 

Forests. Vermont was heavily forested with white pine, spruce 
and hemlock, and, in the southern part of the state and along the 
shore of Lake Champlain, with some hard woods. The white pine 
had been much cut off by 1890 and it is no longer commercially im- 
portant. The woodland area of the state in 1900 was estimated to be 
3900 sq. m., about 43 % of the land area of the state. 

Fisheries. Lake Champlain furnishes the only commerical 
fishing grounds in Vermont, with the exceptions of small catches of 
white fish in Lake Bomoseen, Lake St Catherine in Rutland county 
and Lake Memphremagog. The total catch in 1895 was 208,139 ft, 
valued at $7160, and in 1902 was 528,682 ft, valued at $37,669. 
The capital invested in fisheries in 1902 was $9417, and the number 
of men employed, 145. The most valuable fish taken was wall- 
eyed pike, and the catch of this fish and of pickerel from Lake 
Champlain in 1902 exceeded in value that from any other body of 
fresh water in the United States excepting Lake Huron and Lake 
Erie. The wall-eyed pike taken in 1902 were valued at $16,915 
(210,936 ft); white fish, $5777 (80,191 ft); pickerel, $4144 
(51,711 ft); yellow perch, $2575 (43,917 ft); sturgeon, $2051 
('5. 59 ft). an< J suckers, $1854 (37,375 ft); other varieties taken in 
smaller quantities included smelt, sun-fish and eels. 

Agriculture. Vermont is largely an agricultural state; in 1900, 
out of a total of 134,933 persons engaged in gainful occupations, 
49,820 were engaged in agriculture, 36,180 in manufacturing and 
mechanical pursuits, 23,028 in domestic and personal service, 
18,889 m trade and transportation, and 7016 in professional 
service; and of a total land area of 9124 sq. m., 7382 sq. m. 
(4,724,400 acres) were included in farms. The percentage of 
improved farm land, as in Maine, New York and Pennsylvania, 
increased from 1850 until 1890 and decreased after 1890; and in 1900 
out of a total acreage of 4,724,400 acres only 2,126,624 acres (45%) 
were improved. Of the 33,104 farms in the state in 1900, 25,982 
were farmed by their owners, 1373 by part owners, 314 by owners 
and tenants, 2424 by cash tenants, 2396 by share tenants, and 
615 by managers; 637 farms had more than 500 acres, 3431 were 
between 260 and 500 acres, 5512 between 175 and 260 acres, 10,215 
between 100 and 175 acres, 6513 betwesn 50 and 100 acres, 3511 



between 20 and 50 acres, and 3285 less than 20 acres; and dairy 
produce was the principal source of income of more than one-half 
of these (16,700), live stock the principal source of income of 7323 
farms, and hay and grain of 2519 farms. The general sterility of 
the soil except along rivers and the bases of hills has made intensive 
cultivation always necessary, and the competition of new and rich 
western farm lands has made the agriculture of Vermont develop 
further toward specialization in dairying and raising live stock. 
In 1910 there were 495,000 neat cattle (285,000 milch cows), 94,000 
horses (average value, $106), 229,600 sheep and 95,000 swine. The 
horses of Vermont have been famous in the development of American 
racing stocks; the Morgan stock is best known, and other famous 
Vermont strains are Messenger and Black Hawk. Hay and forage 
are the most important crops, and Vermont grasses for grazing 
have been favourably known since the close of the l8th century. 
In 1909 on 879,000 acres a crop of hay (excluding forage) was raised 
valued at $16,155,000. The cereals are relatively unimportant. 
The largest cereal crop is oats, of which, in 1909, 2,608,000 bushels 
(valued at $l ,304,000) were produced on 81 ,000 acres. 

Mines and Quarries. The principal mineral resource of Vermont 
is its building and monumental stone, including marble and granite 
and a small amount of limestone. The value of the total amount 
of stone produced in 1908 in Vermont was $7,152,624. Vermont 
marble is the best and most plentiful in the United States. It has 
been quarried since 1785; marble monuments were first manu- 
factured about 1808; and at South Dorset in 1818 marble seems 
first to have been sawed in blocks, the earlier method having been 
chiselling. It is found generally throughout the western part of 
the state. The principal supply is in West Rutland, Proctor and 
Pittsford; this, the " Rutland marble," is a duller, less lustrous 
white, and of a greater durability than the Carrara marble, and is 
used largely for monuments and statuary. There are other large 
quarries at Dorset and East Dorset, Bennington county; the finest 
marbles from this region are the white, slightly marked with pale 
brown and with greenish lines; they are commonly used for build- 
ing, the Harvard Medical School and the office of the U.S. Senate 
being examples. At Rutland, Proctor and Dorset many darker 
shades are found, including " moss vein, " olive green and various 
shades of blue, green, yellow and pink, which are used for ornamental 
purposes. There are important quarries in Franklin county (at 
Swanton), the stone being a dark Chazy limestone, in which pink 
and red (" jasper," " lyonnaise " and " royal red ") marbles of 
Cambrian age are found. At Monkton, Addison county, there is a 
quarry from which other red marbles are taken; and at Roxbury, 
Washington county, a fine serpentine, called " green marble," 
or verde antique, is quarried. On Isle La Motte, Grand Isle county, 
there are marble quarries, the characteristic colours of the marble 
being " Fisk black " and " Fisk grey." The output of marble in 
1908 was valued at $4,679,960 (out of a total of $7,733,920 for the 
entire production of marble in the United States). Only less 
important and only less early to be established in Vermont was the 
quarrying of granite, which began in 1812, but which has been 
developed chiefly since 1880, largely by means of the building of 
" granite railroads " which connect each quarry with a main railway 
line a means of transportation as important as the logging rail- 
ways of the Western states and of Canada. The largest granite 
quarries are near Barre, Washington county, a city which owes its 
importance to the quarries. The Barre granites, like those of 
Woodbury and Calais (also in Washington county) and part of those 
of South Ryegate, Kirby and Newark (Caledonia county), are of 
the biotite type; they are grey, except the stone from Newark, 
which is pinkish. Of the quartz-monzonite type are the whitish 
granites of Bethel and Rochester (Windsor county) and Randolph 
(Orange county), the light grey of Dummerston (Windham county), 
and the darker greys of Cabot (Washington county), Derby (Orleans 
county), Hardwick and Groton (Caledonia county) and Topsham 
(Orange county). The olive green syenite found on Mount Ascut- 
ney, near the Connecticut river, in Windsor county, is a hornblende- 
augite. Other important granite quarries are near Williamstown, 
Dummerston, Berlin and Woodbury. The total value of the 
output of granite in the state in 1908 was $2,451,933. In 1908 
the output of limestone was valued at $20,731 ; there are limestone 
quarries in Washington and Orange counties and on Isle La Mottc. 
Slate-quarrying and cutting is carried on in the south-western part 
of the state, in Rutland county; there are important quarries at 
Fair Haven, Poultney, Castleton, Wells and Pawlet. In Washing- 
ton county there are quarries near Northfield. The industry began 
about 1840, though one quarry had been opened as early as 1805. 
There are two green varieties, called in the trade " sea-green " and 
" unfading green, " the former being used for a cheap roofing 
slate; and there are purplish varieties. In 1908 the value of slate 
produced was $1,710,491 (out of a total production for the United 
States of $6,316,817). 

Manufactures. The first important industry of the state was 
" rafting " lumber from Vermont through Lake Champlain and the 
Richelieu and St Lawrence rivers to Quebec. Burlington became 
a great lumber market for a trade moving in the direction of Boston 
after the Richelieu river was blocked to navigation and railway 
transportation began, and in 1882 Burlington was the third lumber 



VERMONT 



1027 



centre in the United States. Mountain streams furnish important 
water-power, and the typical factory of Vermont has long been 
a sawmill run by a water-wheel. The value of sawmill products 
in 1905 was $5,888,441, and of planing-mill products $3,080,117. 
Closely connected with the manufacture of lumber is the making of 
paper and wood pulp, centralized at Bellows Falls, with water- 
power on the Connecticut river and with the raw materials near; 
the product was valued in 1905 at $3,831,448. Dairy industries 
have rapidly increased in value: in 1905 the value of butter and 
cheese was $6,416,434, more than any other single industry under 
the census classification. If a less arbitrary classification be followed 
the principal manufacturing industries would be stone manufacture 
and textiles. The first marble quarry was opened in Dorset in 1785 
and a second at Middlebury in 1805; and the first granite was 
quarried in 1812. Barre is the centre of the granite business, and 
the region about Rutland, especially Proctor, is the principal seat of 
the marble industry. The product of stone manufactures in 1905 
was $9,570,436. Vermont was almost the last of the New England 
states to develop textile manufactures, though the manufacture of 
woollen goods was begun in 1824. The greatest development was 
between 1900 and 1905; the total value of textiles in the former 
year was $5,407,217 (woollen goods, $2,572,646; hosiery and knit 
goods, $1,834,685; cotton goods, $999,886) and in the latter was 
$7,773,612 (woollen goods, $4,698,405; hosiery and knit goods, 
$1,988,685; and cotton goods, $1,086,522). Other important 
manufactures are : flour and grist mill products, foundry and machine- 
shop products, furniture, patent medicines and compounds, 
roofing materials, and scales and balances, manufactured especially 
at St Johnsbury. 

Transportation and Commerce. Railway transportation is supplied 
to Vermont by parallel lines crossing diagonally every part of the 
state at about equal intervals and running in general in a N.W. and 
S.E. direction, and by lines running N. and S. respectively along the 
eastern and western borders of the state. The railway map of the 
state thus has roughly the appearance of a gridiron. The principal 
railways are: the lines operated by the Boston & Maine system, 
extending along the eastern border from Brattleboro through Bellows 
Falls, and St Johnsbury to the Canada boundary (Vermont Valley, 
Sullivan County, and Connecticut & Passumpsic Rivers railways), 
with a line, the St Johnsbury & Lake Champlain railway, extending 
across the northern part of the state from Lunenburg to Maguam 
Bay; the Central Vermont railway (Grand Trunk system) which 
crosses the state diagonally from S.E. to N.W., connecting Burlington, 
Montpelier and St Albans and affording connexion to the north with 
Montreal and to the south over trackage shared with the Boston & 
Maine, with the New London Northern which is leased by this road, 
and the Rutland railway (New York Central system) extending 
along the western edge of the state and connecting Rutland with 
Burlington to the north and with Bellows Falls and Bennington to 
the south. These railways provide outlets for through freight and 
passenger traffic southward to Boston and New York, and to the 
north to St Johns and Montreal. 

The southern part of the state was early opened to railways, 
the Sullivan County railway (operated by the Boston & Maine) 
having been opened in 1849; and in 1850 the state had 290 m. of 
railway; in 1870, 614 m.; in 1890, 991-42 m.; and on the 1st of 
January 1909, 1093-43 m. Water communication is afforded by 
Lake Champlain to the south, for seven months of the year, by way of 
the Champlain canal, via Whitehall, New York, to Troy and the 
Hudson river and the Atlantic coast, and to the north by way of the 
Richelieu river and the Chambly canal to the St Lawrence. The 
commerce of the lake consists principally of coal, wood pulp and 
building material, besides general merchandise. The only river with 
traffic of commercial importance is Otter Creek, flowing northwards 
into the southern part of Lake Champlain and having a navigable 
length of 8 m. to Vergennes, with a depth to this point of 8 ft. at low 
water. The commerce on Lake Champlain is carried on chiefly 
through Burlington, the port of entry for the Vermont customs 
district. The tonnage of the commerce of this port amounted, accord- 
ing to the reports of the United States army engineers, to 107,421 tons 
in 1904 and to 249,174 tons in 1908, of which in the latter year 
nearly 80 % was lumber. 

Population. The population of Vermont in 1890 was 332,422; 
in 1900, 343,641 ; and in 1910, 355J956. 1 Of the total population in 
1900, 298, 077 were native whites, 44,747 were foreign-born, 826 
were negroes and 39 were Chinese. Of the inhabitants born in 
the United States, 19,974 were natives of New York, 9675 were 
natives of New Hampshire and 9111 were natives of Massachu- 
setts. Of the foreign-born, 14,924 were French Canadians, 10,616 
were English Canadians and 7453 were Irish. Of the total popu- 
lation, 117,344 were of foreign parentage (i.e. either one or both 

'According to previous censuses, the population was as follows: 
(1790) 85,425; (1800) 154465; (1810) 217,895; (1820) 235,981; 
(1830) 280,652; (1840) 291,948; (1850) 314,120; (1860) 315,098; 
(1870) 330,551 ; (1880) 332,286. The increase between 1850 and 
1900 was remarkably small. 



parents were foreign-born) and 27,226 were of French Canadian 
and 20,228 of Irish parentage, both on the father's and on the 
mother's side. Of 147,223 communicants of all churches in 
1906, the largest number, 82,272, were Roman Catholics, 22,109 
were Congregationalists, 17,471 Methodist Episcopalians, 8450 
Baptists, 1501 Free Baptists and 5278 Protestant Episcopalians. 
The principal cities are Burlington, Rutland, Barre, Montpelier 
(the capital) and St Albans. 

Administration. Vermont has been governed under the 
constitution of 1777, that of 1786 and that of 1793, with twenty- 
eight amendments, of which the first was adopted in 1828, the 
second to thirteenth in 1836, the fourteenth to twenty-third 
in 1850, the twenty-fourth, twenty-fifth and twenty-sixth in 
1870, and the twenty-seventh and twenty-eighth in 1883. The 
administrative officers of the state are a governor, a lieutenant- 
governor, a secretary of state, a state treasurer, and an auditor 
of accounts, elected by popular vote, and an inspector of finance, 
a commissioner of taxes, a superintendent of education, a fish 
and game commissioner, three railroad commissioners, and 
various boards and commissions, of whom some are elected by 
the General Assembly and some are appointed by the governor 
with the advice and consent of the Senate. All elections and 
appointments are biennial. The governor has limited powers of 
appointment and pardon and a veto power which may be over- 
ridden by a majority vote in each house. 

The legislative department consists of a senate of 30 members, 
apportioned among the counties according to population, but with 
the proviso that each county must have at least one senator, and 
a House of Representatives of 245 members, one from each township. 
Since 1870 elections and legislative sessions have been biennial. The 
powers of the two houses are equal except that revenue measures 
must originate in the House of Representatives. 

The judiciary is composed of a supreme court of seven members, 
a court of chancery, a county court in each county, a probate court 
in each probate district, and justices of the peace. The judges of the 
supreme court are elected biennially by the General Assembly, and 
all the other judicial officers are elected by the people. Sessions of 
the supreme court are held in each county once a year in addition to 
the general session which meets at some central place selected by 
the judges. The court of chancery is held by the judges of the 
supreme court, the county by a supreme court judge with the aid of 
two associates elected by the people of the county. 

For the administration of local affairs the state is divided into 
14 counties and 245 townships. There is no special board of com- 
missioners or supervisors as in most of the other states, the county 
authority being the assistant judges of the county court. The 
assistant judges, the sheriff and the state's attorney are elected 
annually by popular vote. The county treasurer is elected by the 
assistant judges. The more important township officials are a 
moderator, a board of selectmen, a clerk, a treasurer and a super- 
intendent of schools. Any community containing thirty or more 
houses may, with the approval of the selectmen of the town, receive 
a separate village organization. Their officials are a clerk, five 
trustees, a collector of taxes and a treasurer. 

All citizens of the United States residing in Vermont are citizens 
of the state. The right of suffrage is confined by the constitution 
to adult male citizens who have resided in the state for one year. 
Women have the right to vote in all elections relating to schools and 
school officers in cities, towns and graded school districts, and also 
the right to be elected to any local school position or to the office of 
township clerk. The original method of revising the constitution 
was adopted from Pennsylvania (see History), and it was retained 
long after Pennsylvania had abandoned it. Thirteen censors 
chosen septennially were empowered to suggest amendments and to 
call a convention to pass upon them. The censors, being elected 
on a general ticket, were always more progressive than the con- 
vention, which was chosen on the principle of equal township repre- 
sentation. In spite of the repeated recommendations of the censors, 
the convention refused to abolish the collegiate executive and the 
unicameral legislative system until 1836. Propositions to establish 
the judiciary on a more permanent tenure were also voted down 
in 1814, 1822, 1857 and 1870, and the state still elects its judges for 
two years' terms. On its own suggestion, the council of censors was 
abolished in 1870 and the present method of amending the constitu- 
tion was adopted. Every tenth year, beginning in 1880, the Senate 
is authorized to propose amendments, which proposals, if concurred 
in by the majority of the members of the House of Representatives, 
are published in the principal newspapers of the state. If they are 
again approved by a majority of each house in the next General 
Assembly, they are submitted tinajly to a direct popular vote, a 
majority of the votes cast being decisive. 

Miscellaneous Laws. A married woman may hold her separate 
property, carry on business, sue and be sued the same as if she 



1028 



VERMONT 



were single, except that in conveying or mortgaging her real estate 
she must be joined by her husband. A widow has a dower 
interest in one-third of her husband's real estate unless barred by a 
jointure or an agreement. A widower is in any case entitled by 
courtesy to one-third of his wife's real estate, and he may choose 
between his rights by courtesy and the provisions of his wife's will. 
Where there is no issue and the deceased dies intestate the surviving 
spouse is entitled to the whole estate, both real and personal, if it 
does not exceed $2000, and if it exceeds that sum the survivor is 
entitled to $2000 and one- half of the remainder; if there are Ho 
kindred, the whole of the estate goes to the surviving spouse. The 
causes for a divorce are adultery, sentence to confinement in the 
state prison for three years or more and actual confinement at the 
time of the suit, intolerable severity, wilful desertion for three con- 
secutive years or absence for seven years without being heard from, 
or wanton and cruel refusal or neglect of the husband to provide a 
suitable maintenance for his wife. The plaintiff must have resided 
in the state for at least the year preceding the application, and if 
the cause accrued in some other state or country before the parties 
lived together in Vermont and while neither party lived there, the 
plaintiff must have been a resident at least for two years preceding 
the action. When a divorce is granted, the defendant is not per- 
mitted to marry other than the plaintiff for three years, unless the 
plaintiff dies. The homestead of a householder or head of a family 
to the value of $500 is, so long as it continues to be used as the home- 
stead, exempt from levy or attachment other than upon causes 
existing at the time it was acquired and for taxes. If the owner 
is a married man, he cannot sell or mortgage it, except for the pur- 
chase money, unless his wife joins him in the execution. 

Education. The public-school system is under the supervision 
af a state superintendent of education, elected biennially by the 
General Assembly, and local schools are under union superintendents 
and in a few cases under town superintendents. The district 
system was displaced in 1893 by a township system. The revenues 
for educational purposes are derived mainly from a state tax of 8 % 
on the general list, from local taxes, and from the interest on the 
permanent school fund, which (including the money paid to Vermont 
by the United States government when a portion of the treasury 
surplus was distributed among the states in 1837) amounted in 
1908 to $1,120,218. The schools are open to all children between 
the ages of 5 and 20, and attendance for twenty-six weeks in each 
year is made compulsory for those who are between the ages of 8 
and 15. The average number of weeks in the " legal schools " 
(about 95% of the public schools) was 32 weeks in 1907-1908. 
The chief institutions for higher instruction are the university of 
Vermont and State Agricultural College (1800, 1865), a land-grant 
college at Burlington, Middlebury College (1800) at Middlebury, 
Norwich University (1819) at Northfield, and the state normal 
schools at Randolph (1867), Johnson (1867) and Castleton (1868). 

Charitable and Penal Institutions. The charitable and penal insti- 
tutions of the state are controlled by separate boards of directors, 
but all are subject to the general supervision of a board of visitors 
composed of the governor, lieutenant-governor and speaker of the 
House of Representatives, and a woman appointed by the governor. 
There are a state prison at Windsor (1808), a house of correction 
at Rutland (1878), an industrial school at Vergennes (1866), and 
hospitals for the insane at Brattleboro (1836) and Waterbury 
(1891). Biennial appropriations are made for the support of the 
deaf and dumb, the blind and imbecile children at various institu- 
tions in Massachusetts and Connecticut. 

Finance. The chief sources of revenue for the state are a cor- 
poration tax, a collateral inheritance tax (1904) and a licence tax. 
There is no general property tax except a special levy of 8 % on the 
general list for school purposes and 5 % for the construction of roads. 
For the year ending on the 3Oth of June 1908 the total receipts were 
$1,822,390, the expenditures were $1,871,166. The state is prac- 
tically free from debt, the only obligation of this character being 
$135.5 in 6% bonds, payable in 1910, which were issued in behalf 
ef the Agricultural College. The banking institutions are supervised 
by an inspector of finance, who reports annually to the General 
Assembly. There were no banks in the state until 1806, when a 
state bank (controlled by the state) was established which was 
finally closed up in 1845, although as early as 1812 a law was 
passed to close it. The first private state bank was opened in 
1817; an act of 1831 provided for a safety fund guaranteeing bank 
circulations and derived from a 4?% tax on capital stock and a 
10% tax on profits; but this law was modified in 1842, the tax 
being removed from banks giving specie guarantees; and a free 
banking act was passed in 1851. Owing to the high rate of taxation 
on deposits, a considerable part of the savings of the people is sent 
into other states. 

History. Samuel de Champlain, as governor of Quebec, 
entered what is now Vermont in July 1609 in an expedition 
against the Iroquois, and thus laid the basis for the French 
claim. In 1665 the French built a fort on Isle la Motte. The 
first English settlement was probably made at Chimney Point, 
in Addison township, in 1690 by a party from Albany. The first 
permanent white settlement was established by Massachusetts at 



Fort Dummer (near the present Dummerj in the south-eastern 
part of the present town of Brattleboro) in 1 7 24. Similar outposts 
were located during the next few years at SartwelTs Fort and 
Bridgman's Fort in the township of Vernon (Windham county) 
and at Fort Hill in the township of Putney (N. of Brattleboro, 
in Windham county). The territory in which these settlements 
had been made was involved in the boundary dispute between 
Massachusetts and New Hampshire, which was settled in 1741 
by a decision of the king in council favourable to New Hamp- 
shire (q.v.). The extension of the southern boundary line 
by this decision due westward until it met His Majesty's 
other governments gave rise, however, to a controversy 
with New York. New Hampshire claimed that her territory 
extended as far to the west as those of Massachusetts and 
Connecticut, whereas New York, under the charter of 1664, 
claimed eastward to the Connecticut river. New York pro- 
tested against the Bennington grant in 1749, but the question 
did not become serious until the chief obstacle to settlement was 
removed by the conquest of Canada in 1760-61. From 1761 to 
1763 Governor John Wentworth of New Hampshire issued 108 
grants, and settlements were established in Brattleboro, Putney. 
Westminster, Halifax, Marlborough, Wilmington, New Fane, 
Rockingham, Townshend, Vernon (Hinsdale) and Dummerston 
(all in Windham county, except Vernon, which is in Cheshire 
county). A privy council decree recognizing the claims of New 
York was issued on the 2oth of July 1764, and the settlers were 
soon afterwards ordered to surrender their patents and repurchase 
the land from the proper authorities at Albany. Under the 
leadership of Ethan Allen, Seth Warner and Remember Baker 
(1737-1775), they refused obedience and took up arms in defence 
of their rights. About the close of 1771 Colonel Allen organized 
a regular military force among the inhabitants of the district W. 
of the mountains, which came to be known as the Green Mountain 
Boys. The trouble was soon complicated by the conflict with 
the mother country. On the i3th of March 1775, a riot occurred 
at Westminster between the people of Cumberland county and 
the royal authorities, in which two of the people were killed. 
The Green Mountain Boys, with some help from Connecticut, 
captured Fort Ticonderoga on the loth of May 1775, and took 
part in the Canadian expedition of 1775 under Montgomery 
and Schuyler. Within the state itself battles were fought at 
Hubbardton on the 7th of July and Bennington on the i6th 
of August 1777. The representatives of the towns assembled 
in convention at Dorset and Westminster in 1776 (Jan. 16-17, 
July 24-25, September 25-28, October 30), and on'the isth of 
January 1777 adopted a declaration of independence, assumed 
the name New Connecticut and appointed Dr Jonas Fay (1737- 
1818), Thomas Chittenden (1730-1797), Hemon Allen (1740- 
1788), Dr Reuben Jones and Jacob Bayley a committee to 
submit their proceedings to the Continental Congress. The 
chief adviser of the committee in Philadelphia was Dr Thomas 
Young, a prominent physician, who had helped to draft the 
Pennsylvania constitution of 1776. Young advised them to call 
their state Vermont, and he also sent through them a circular 
letter, dated the nth of April 1777, urging the people to adopt 
a state constitution on the Pennsylvania model. The advice 
was followed. A convention met at Windsor (July 2-8, 1777), 
and drafted a document which contained almost all of the 
important provisions of the constitution of Pennsylvania, such 
as a unicameral legislature, a plural executive and a council of 
censors, which was not abolished until 1870. One important 
variation, however, was a clause in the bill of rights providing for 
the abolition of slavery, Vermont being the first state in America 
to take such action. The first legislature of the state met at 
Windsor in March 1778, and voted to admit sixteen towns east of 
the Connecticut river which were dissatisfied with the rule of 
New Hampshire. As a result, New York and New Hampshire 
formed a secret agreement to divide the state between them- 
selves, the mountains to be the line of division. In this crisis 
the British government through General Sir Frederick Haldimand 
offered to recognize Vermont as a separate province and to give 
her very liberal terms provided she would desert the other states. 



VERMOREL VERNACULAR 



1029 



Ethan Allen (q.v.) and some of the other leaders seemed inclined 
to accept these overtures, but for various reasons, the chief of 
which was the general success of the American cause, the scheme 
was soon abandoned. The difficulties with New Hampshire 
were adjusted in 1782, the west bank of the Connecticut being 
accepted as the final boundary, but New York refused to abandon 
her claims until 1700. In the meantime, Vermont continued as 
an independent state without any recognition from Congress 
until its admission into the Union on the 4th of March 1791. 
The legislature wandered about from town to town until 1808, 
when the capital was permanently located at Montpelier. In 
presidential campaigns the state has been Federalist, 1792-1800; 
Democratic-Republican, 1804-1820; Adams-Republican, 1824- 
1828; Anti-Masonic, 1832; Whig, 1836-1852; and Republican 
since 1856. During the War of 1812 Vermont troops took part in 
the battles of Chippewa, Lundy 's Lane, Lake Erie and Plattsburgh ; 
but the only engagement in the state itself was the defence of 
Fort Cassin (at the mouth of Otter Creek in the N.W. corner of 
the present Addison county) in 1813. On the igth of October 
1864 a small band of Confederate soldiers under Lieutenant B.H. 
Young crossed the frontier from Canada and raided the town of 
St Albans. A few of the inhabitants were wounded and one was 
killed and about $200,000 was taken from the vaults of the local 
banks. St Albans was also the headquarters of an attempted 
Fenian invasion of Canada in 1870. Since 1815 a considerable 
proportion of the native stock has migrated to the W., but the 
loss has been partially offset by an influx of French Canadians. 
The wool-growing industry has been almost entirely destroyed 
by the competition of Australia and the West, and the people 
are now engaged mainly in dairy-farming, timbering, granite- and 
marble-quarrying, and in keeping summer boarders. 

GOVERNORS 

Thomas Chittenden 1778-1789 

Moses Robinson 1789-1790 

Thomas Chittenden, 1 Federalist . . . 1790-1797 
Paul Brigham, acting-governor, Federalist . 1797 

Isaac Tichenor, Federalist .... 1797-1807 

Israel Smith, Democratic-Republican . . 1807-1808 

Isaac Tichenor, Federalist .... 1808-1809 

Jonas Galusha, Democratic-Republican . . 1809-1813 

Martin Chittenden, Federalist . . . 1813-1815 

Jonas Galusha, Democratic-Republican . . 1815-1820 

Richard Skinner, . . 1820-1823 

Cornelius P. Van Ness, . . 1823-1826 

Ezra Butler, Adams-Clay .... 1826-1828 

Samuel C. Crafts, Adams-Clay . . . . 1828-1831 

William A. Palmer, Anti-Masonic Fusion . . 1831-1835 

Silas H. Jennison, 2 acting-governor, Whig . 1835-1836 

Silas H. Jennison, Whig 1836-1841 

Charles Paine, 1841-1843 

John Mattocks, 1843-1844. 

William Slade, 1844-1846 

Horace Eaton, 1846-1848 

Carlos Coolidge, 1848-1850 

Charles K. Williams, 1850-1852 

Erastus Fairbanks, 1852-1853 

John S. Robinson, 1853-1854 

Stephen Royce, Republican .... 1854-1856 

Ryland Fletcher, .... 1856-1858 

Hiland Hall, .... 1858-1860 

Erastus Fairbanks, .... 1860-1861 

Frederick Holbrook, .... 1861-1863 

J. Gregory Smith, .... 1863-1865 

Paul Dillingham, .... 1865-1867 

John B. Page, .... 1867-1869 

Peter T. Washburn, 3 Republican . . . 1869-1870 
George W. Hendee, acting-governor, Republican 1870 

John W. Stewart, Republican .... 1870-1872 

ulius Convers, .... 1872-1874 

Asahel Peck, .... 1874-1876 

Horace Fairbanks, .... 1876-1878 

Redfield Proctor, .... 1878-1880 

Koswell Farnham, .... 1880-1882 

John L. Barstow, .... 1882-1884 



1 Died in office on the 25th of August 1797; succeeded by the 
lieutenant-governor. 

1 As there was no governor elected by the people, Jennison as 
lieutenant-governor elect acted as governor. 

8 Died in office on the 7th of February 1870; succeeded by the 
leutenant-governor. 



Samuel E. Pingree, Republican 
Ebenezer J. Ormsbee, 
William P. Dillingham, 
Carroll S. Page, 
Levi K. Fuller, 
Urban A. Woodbury, 
Josiah Grout, 
Edward C. Smith, 
William W. Stickney, 
John G. McCullough, 
Charles J. Bell, 
Fletcher D. Proctqr, 
George H. Prouty, 
John A. Mead, 



1884-1886 
1886-1888 
1888-1890 
1890-1892 
1892-1894 
1894-1896 
1896-1898 
1898-1900 
1900-1902 
1902-1904 
1904-1906 
1906-1908 
1908-1910 
1910- 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. For physical description and material on 
minerals see the Report on the Geology of Vermont: Descriptive, 
Theoretical, Economical and Scenographical (2 vols., Claremont, 
N.H., 1861); G. H. Perkins, Reports of the State Geologist, especially 
vols. iv., v., vi., new series (Concord, N.H., 1904, 1906, 1908) ; and 
" Underground Waters of Vermont " in Water Supply and Irrigation 
Paper No. 114 (Washington, 1905) of the U.S. Geological Survey; 
T. Nelson Dale, The Granites of Vermont (ibid., 1909), an abstract 
of which appears in the sixth volume of the state Report mentioned 
above; and Henry M. Seely, " The Geology of Vermont," pp. 53-67, 
vol. 5 (1901) of The Vermonter. 

For the government of the state see The Revised Laws of Vermont 
(Rutland, 1881); the Vermont Legislative Directory, published 
biennially at Montpelier; the biennial reports of the secretary of 
state, the auditor, the treasurer, the commissioner of state taxes, 
the superintendent of education, the supervisors of the insane, &c., 
and the annual reports of the inspector of finance. See also L. H. 
Meader, The Council of Censors (Providence, 1899); F. A. Wood, 
The History of Taxation in Vermont (New York, 1894), and G. G. 
Bush, History of Education in Vermont (Washington, 1900). 

For a general bibliography of Vermont history see M. D. Gilman, 
Bibliography of Vermont (Burlington, 1897). The standard authori- 
ties for the period before 1791 are: Ira Allen, Natural and 
Political History of the State of Vermont (London, 1898); B. H. Hall, 
History of Eastern Vermont to the Close of the Eighteenth Century 
(2 vols., New York, 1858, 2nd ed., Albany, 1865); and Hiland 
Hall, History of Vermont from its Discovery to its Admission into 
the Union in 1791 (Albany, 1868). A more recent book, based 
almost entirely on these three, but containing a few sketchy supple- 
mentary chapters, is R. E. Robinson, Vermont (Boston, 1892) in 
the " American Commonwealths " Series. See also Records of the 
Council of Safety and Governor and Council of Vermont (8 vols., 
Montpelier, 1873-1880); Vermont Historical Society, Collections 
(2 vols., Montpelier, 1870-1871) ; Proceedings (l vol., Montpelier, 
1898); and Report of the Regents of the University of New York on 
the Boundaries of the State of New York (2 vols., Albany, 1874-1884). 

VERMOREL, AUGUSTS JEAN MARIE (1841-1871), French 
journalist, was born at Denice, France, on the 2ist of June 1841. 
A radical and socialist, he was attached to the staff of the 
Presse (1864) and the Libcrte (1866). In the latter year he was 
appointed editor of the Courrier Fran(ais, and his attacks on 
the government in that organ led to his imprisonment. In 
1869 he was editor of the Reforme, and was again imprisoned for 
denouncing the government. On the overthrow of the Empire 
in 1870 he was released and took an active part in the Commune. 
He was dangerously wounded while fighting at the barricades, 
taken prisoner and removed to Versailles, where he died on 
the 2oth of June 1871. 

VERMOUTH, an alcoholic beverage, the basis of which 
consists of a fortified and aromatized white wine. The best 
French vermouth is made from the white wines of the Herault 
district. The wine is fortified with spirit up to a strength of 
about 15% of alcohol, and is then stored in casks exposed to 
the sun's rays for a year or two. Another portion of the wine 
is fortified up to a strength of about 50% of alcohol, and in this 
various aromatic and tonic materials are macerated, in casks 
which are exposed to the sun in the same way as the bulk of the 
wine. The two liquids are then mixed in such proportions as to 
make the strength of the ultimate product about 1 7 % of alcohol 
by volume. Excellent vermouth is also manufactured in Italy, 
the produce of that country being generally of a " sweet," that 
made in France of a " dry " type. 

VERNACULAR (Lat. verna, dim. vernaculus, a slave born in 
his master's house), a term meaning native or indigenous, 
belonging to the country where a person is born. The word 
is practically confined in English usage to language, whether of 
the country as a whole or of particular dialects or idioms. 



1030 



VERNE VERNET 



VERNE, JULES (1828-1905), French author, was born at 
Nantes on the 8th of February 1828. After completing his 
studies at the Nantes Iyc6e, he went to Paris to study for the 
bar. About 1848, in conjunction with Michel Carre, he wrote 
librettos for two operettas, and in 1850 his verse comedy, Les 
Failles rompues, in which Alexandre Dumas fils had some share, 
was produced at the Gymnase. For some years his interests 
alternated between the theatre and the bourse, but some 
travellers' stories which he wrote for the Musee des Families 
seem to have revealed to him the true direction of his talent 
the delineation, viz., of delightfully extravagant voyages and 
adventures to which cleverly prepared scientific and geo- 
graphical details lent an air of verisimilitude. Something of 
the kind had been done before, after kindred methods, by 
Cyrano de Bergerac, by Swift and Defoe, and later by Mayne 
Reid. But in his own particular application of plausible 
scientific apparatus Verne undoubtedly struck out a depart- 
ment for himself in the wide literary genre of voyages imaginaires. 
His first success was obtained with Cinq semaines en ballon, 
which he wrote for Hetzel's Magazin d'Education in 1862, and 
thenceforward, for a quarter of a century, scarcely a year 
passed in which Hetzel did not publish one or more of his fantastic 
stories, illustrated generally by pictures of the most lurid and 
sensational description. The most successful of these romances 
include: Voyage au centre de la terre (1864); De la terre A la 
lune (1865); Vingt mille lieues sous les mers (1869); Les 
Anglais au pole nord (1870); and Voyage autour du monde en 
quatre-vingts jours, which first appeared in Le Temps in 1872. 
The adaptation of this last (produced with immense success at 
the Porte St Martin theatre on the 8th of November 1874) 
and of another excellent tale, Michael Strogojf (at the Chatelet, 
1880), both dramas being written in conjunction with Adolphe 
d'Ennery, proved the most acceptable of Verne's theatrical 
pieces. The novels were translated into the various European 
languages and some even into Japanese and Arabic and 
had an enormous success in England. But after 1877, when he 
published Hector Servadac, a romance of existence upon a comet, 
the writer's invention began to show signs of fatigue (his kingdom 
had been invaded in different directions and at different times 
by such writers as R. M. Ballantyne, Rider Haggard and 
H. G. Wells), and he even committed himself, somewhat un- 
guardedly, to very gloomy predictions as to the future of the 
novel. Jules Verne's own novels, however, will certainly long 
continue to delight readers by reason of their sparkling style, 
their picturesque verve apparently inherited directly from 
Dumas their amusing and good-natured national caricatures, 
and the ingenuity with which the love element is either sub- 
ordinated or completely excluded. M. Verne, who was always 
extremely popular in society, divided his time for the most 
part between Paris, his home at Amiens and his yacht. He 
was a member of the Legion of Honour, and several of his 
romances were crowned by the French Academy, but he was 
never enrolled among its members. He died at Amiens on 
the 24th of March 1905. His brother, Paul Verne, contri- 
buted to the Transactions of the French Alpine Club, and wrote 
an Ascension du Mont Blanc for his brother's collection of 
Voyages extraordinaires in 1874. 

VERNET, the name of three eminent French painters. 

I. CLAUDE JOSEPH VERNET (1714-1789), who was born at 
Avignon on the I4th of August 1714, when only fourteen years 
of age aided his father, a skilful decorative painter, in the most 
important parts of his work. But the panels of sedan chairs 
could not satisfy his ambition, and he started for Rome. The 
sight of the sea at Marseilles and his voyage thence to Civita 
Vecchia made a deep impression on him, and immediately after 
his arrival he entered the studio of a marine painter, Bernardino 
Fergioni. Slowly but surely Claude Joseph made his way and 
attracted notice. With a certain conventionality in design, 
proper to his day, he allied the results of constant and honest 
observation of natural effects of atmosphere, which he rendered 
with unusual pictorial art. Perhaps no painter of landscapes 
or sea-pieces has ever made the human figure so completely a 



part of the scene depicted or so important a factor in his design. 
" Others may know better," he said, with just pride, " how 
to paint the sky, the earth, the ocean; no one knows better 
than I how to paint a picture." For twenty years Vernet lived 
on in Rome, producing views of seaports, storms, calms, moon- 
lights, &c., when he was recalled (1753) to Paris, and executed, 
by royal command, the remarkable series of the seaports of 
France (Louvre) by which he is best known. On his return he 
became a member of the academy, but he had previously con- 
tributed to the exhibitions of 1746 and following years, and he 
continued to exhibit, with rare exceptions, down to the date 
of his death, which took place in his lodgings in the Louvre on 
the 3rd of December 1789. Amongst the very numerous en- 
gravers of his works may be specially cited Le Bas, Cochin, 
Basan, Duret, Flipart and Le Veau in France, and in England 
Vivares. 

II. ANTOINE CHARLES HORACE VERNET (1758-1835), com- 
monly called CARLE, the youngest child of the above-named, 
was born at Bordeaux in 1758, where his father was painting 
the view from the chateau of La Trompette (Louvre). He 
showed, at the age of five, an extraordinary passion for drawing 
horses, but went through the regular academical course as a 
pupil of Lepicie. Strangely enough, on arriving in Italy after 
carrying off the grand prix (1782), he lost all ambition and 
interest in his profession, so that his father had to recall him 
to France to prevent his entering a monastery. In Paris Carle 
Vernet became himself again, and distinguished himself at the 
exhibition of 1791 by his " Triumph of Paulus Aemilius," a work 
in which he broke with reigning traditions in classical subjects 
and drew the horse with the forms he had learnt from nature 
in stables and riding-schools. But the Revolution drew on, and 
Carle Vernet's career for awhile seemed to end in the anguish 
of his sister's death on the scaffold. When he again began to 
produce, it was as the man of another era: his drawings of 
the Italian campaign brought him fresh laurels; his vast 
canvas, the " Battle of Marengo," obtained great success; and 
for his " Morning of Austerlitz " Napoleon bestowed on him 
the Legion of Honour. His hunting-pieces, races, landscapes, 
and work as a lithographer (chiefly under the Restoration) had 
also a great vogue. From Louis XVIII. he received the order 
of St Michael. In 1827 he accompanied his son Horace (see 
below) to Rome, and died in Paris on his return, on the i?th 
of November 1835. 

III. EMILE JEAN HORACE VERNET (1789-1863), commonly 
called HORACE, born in Paris on the 3Oth of June 1789, was 
one of the most characteristic, if not one of the ablest, of the 
military painters of France. He was just twenty when he 
exhibited the " Taking of an Entrenched Camp " a work 
which showed no depth of observation, but was distinguished 
by a good deal of character. His picture of his own studio (the 
rendezvous of the Liberals under the Restoration), in which he 
represented himself painting tranquilly, whilst boxing, fencing, 
drum- and horn-playing, &c., were going on, in the midst of a 
medley of visitors, horses, dogs and models, is one of his best 
works, and, together with his " Defence of the Barrier at 
Clichy " (Louvre), won for him an immense popularity. Enjoy- 
ing equal favour with the court and with the opposition, he 
was most improperly appointed director of the school of France 
at Rome, from 1828 to 1835, and thither he carried the atmo- 
sphere of racket in which he habitually lived. After his return 
the whole of the Constantine room at Versailles was decorated 
by him in the short space of three years. This vast work 
shows Vernet at his best and at his worst: as a picture it begins 
and ends nowhere and the composition is all to pieces; but it 
has good qualities of faithful and exact representation. He 
died at Paris on the i7th of January 1863. The twenty works 
which were exhibited after his death confirmed his reputation 
for extraordinary facility; he had tried every sort of subject, 
showing affinity for all that was anecdotic rather than dramatic, 
failing most wherever most was demanded of him, and never 
reaching either beauty of colour or dignity of line. Vernet 
was, in short, a brilliant off-hand sketcher of all he saw, as he 



VERNEUIL, P. E. P. DE VERNIER 



1031 



said himself, " from his window," and even in this work there 
was a good deal of affectation of the impromptu. 

See Lagrange, Joseph Vernet et la peinture au XVIII" siecle (1861) ; 
C. Blanc, Les Vernet (1845); A. Dayot, Les Vernet (1898). 

VERNEUIL, PHILLIPPE EDOUARD POULLETIER DE 

(1805-1873), French palaeontologist, was born in Paris on the 
I3th of February 1805. He was educated for the law, but 
being of independent means he was free to follow his own 
inclinations, and having attended lectures on geology by Elie 
de Beaumont he was so attracted to the subject that he devoted 
himself assiduously to the study of science. He spent several 
years in travel through various parts of Europe, specially 
examining the geology of the Crimea, on which he published an 
essay (Mem. Soc. Geol. France, 1837). He next investigated 
the Devonian rocks and fossils of the Bas-Boulonnais; and in 
1830 accompanied Sedgwick and Murchison in a study of the 
older Palaeozoic rocks of the Rhenish provinces and Belgium, 
the palaeontological results being communicated to the Geo- 
logical Society of London in conjunction with D'Archiac. 
When Murchison commenced his geological examination of the 
Russian empire, he requested de Verneuil to accompany him, 
and the researches of the latter were incorporated in the second 
volume of The Geology of Russia in Europe and the Ural Moun- 
tains (1845). Subsequently de Verneuil paid a visit to the 
United States to study the history of the palaeozoic rocks in 
that country, and the results were published in 1847 (Bull. 
Soc. Geol. France). In later years he made numerous expedi- 
tions into Spain, and his observations were embodied in Carte 
geologique de I'Espagne et du Portugal (1864), prepared in associa- 
tion with E. Collomb. In 1853 the Wollaston medal of the 
Geological Society of London was awarded to him, and in 1860 
he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Society. He 
died in Paris on the 2gth of May 1873. 

VERNEUIL, a town of north-western France, in the depart- 
ment of Eure, 34 m. S.S.W. of Evreux by rail. Pop. (1906) 
3529. Verneuil, situated on the left bank of the Avre, has a 
number of old houses and churches. Of the latter the most 
important is the church of La Madeleine (nth to i7th century), 
the facade of which is flanked by an imposing square tower 
of the first half of the i6th century, similar in origin and appear- 
ance to the Tour de Beurre of Rouen cathedral. The church 
contains old stained glass, an ironwork pulpit and other works 
of art. The church of Notre Dame (i2th and i6th centuries) 
possesses stone carvings of the Romanesque period and good 
stained glass. The Tour Grise is a fine cylindrical keep built 
in 1 1 20 by Henry I., who fortified Verneuil as a stronghold 
for the Norman frontier. The town rose to considerable 
importance, and is said to have numbered as many as 25,000 
inhabitants. 

In 1424 the French were severely defeated by John, duke of 
Bedford, under the walls of Verneuil, which was then surrendered 
to the English; this victory confirmed the supremacy of the 
English over the country north of the Loire. The town was 
recaptured in 1449. It carries on ironfounding, dyeing and the 
manufacture of machinery. 

VERNEY, the name of an English family which settled first 
of all at Fleetmarston in Buckinghamshire, then at Penley in 
Hertfordshire, and finally at Middle Claydon in Buckingham- 
shire. Its pedigree goes back to Ralph de Verney (fl. 1216- 
1223), but the fortunes of the family were made by Sir Ralph 
Verney (d. 1478), who was lord mayor of London in 1465 and 
M.P. for the city in 1472. His eldest son, Sir John Verney, 
married Margaret, heiress of Sir Robert Whittingham of Penley, 
and the fourth Sir Ralph Verney married in 1525 Elizabeth, 
one of the six co-heiresses of John, Lord Braye. Sir Edmund 
Verney of Penley (d. 1600) left two sons, half-brothers, Sir 
Francis Verney (1584-1615), who became a soldier of fortune 
and a buccaneer, and died at Messina in hospital in extreme 
poverty, and Sir Edmund Verney (1590-1642) of Middle 
Claydon, Bucks. Sir Edmund accompanied Prince Charles 
and Buckingham on the abortive mission to Madrid in 1623, 
and was knight-marshal to King Charles I. When the Civil 



War broke out the royal standard was entrusted to him at 
Nottingham, and while defending it he was slain at Edgehill 
in 1642. His eldest son, Sir Ralph Verney (1613-1696), ist 
baronet, sat for Aylesbury in both the Short and the Long 
parliaments. He took the side of the parliament at the outset 
of the Civil War, but went abroad in 1643 rather than sign 
the Covenant, and his estates were sequestrated in 1646. He 
returned to England in 1653, and, though he refused to act 
against Cromwell, was subsequently reconciled to the Restora- 
tion government. His brother, Sir Edmund (1616-1649), had 
taken the king's side, and was one of those murdered in 
cold blood by Cromwell's soldiers at the sack of Drogheda. 
Sir Ralph Verney 's estates and honours descended to his son, 
Sir John (c. 1640-1717), who was created Viscount Fermanagh 
in the Irish peerage in 1703 and was father of Ralph Verney, 
created Earl Verney in 1743. Earl Verney's sister, Margaret 
Verney, by her marriage with Sir Thomas Cave, linked the 
Verney family a second time with the barony of Braye, and the 
present Lord Braye's surname is Verney-Cave. Earl Verney's 
eldest son, John, predeceased him in 1737, leaving a post- 
humous daughter, Mary (1737-1810), who was created Baroness 
Fermanagh in 1792. His second son, Ralph, 2nd Earl Verney 
(c. 1712-1791), was a friend of Edmund Burke, who entered 
parliament as Verney's nominee for Wendover. Earl Verney 
was an ardent supporter of the Whig interest, but received 
no reward from the party leaders. He rebuilt Claydon House 
with great splendour from the plans of John Adam, but, with 
his financial ventures, this brought him to bankruptcy. He 
died childless in March 1791 and his titles became extinct. 

The present Verney family, of Claydon Hall, Buckingham- 
shire, is descended in the male line from Felix Calvert (1596-1674) 
of Little Hadham, Hertfordshire. The Right Hon. Sir Harry 
Verney, 2nd baronet (1801-1894), was the son of General 
Sir Harry Calvert, G.C.B., created a baronet in 1818. He 
assumed the name of Verney in compliance with the will of 
Mary Verney, Baroness Fermanagh, mentioned above. This lady 
died unmarried, leaving the paternal estates and the Verney 
portraits to her half-sister, Catherine Calvert (Mrs Wright), 
known thenceforward as Mrs Verney, on whose death in 1827 
they came into the possession of her cousin, Sir Harry Calvert 
(Verney). Sir Harry Verney entered the House of Commons for 
Buckingham in 1832, and remained a member of the House with 
two short intervals for fifty-two years. He married in 1835 
Eliza, daughter of Admiral Sir George Johnstone Hope, K.C.B., 
M.P., and secondly Frances Parthenope Nightingale, sister of 
Florence Nightingale. 

Frances, Lady Verney, collected from the mass of papers pre- 
served at Claydon House the Memoirs of the Verney Family during 
the Seventeenth Century, which contain a charming picture of the 
life and manners of the country gentlemen of that day. A second 
edition, abridged and corrected by Margaret M. Verney, appeared 
in 2 vols. in 1904. See also the Verney Papers edited for the 
Camden Society in 1853-18^54. 

The Verneys who hold the barony of Willoughby de Broke 
descend from the Rev. Robert Barnard, prebendary of Win- 
chester, who married in 1793 the Hon. Louisa Verney Peyto, 
daughter of John Peyto, i4th Baron Willoughby de Broke, 
and co-heiress of her brother Henry, i6th baron. The Peytos 
inherited the Verney estates in Warwickshire through Margaret 
Greville (d. 1631), sister and heiress of Fulke Greville, Lord 
Brooke (q.v.), who married Sir Richard Verney of Compton 
Murdac, Warwickshire. Robert John Barnard, i8th Baron 
Willoughby de Broke, who took in 1853 the surname of Verney 
in lieu of Barnard, was the grandfather of the igth Lord 
Willoughby de Broke (Richard Greville Verney), who sat in 
the House of Commons from 1895 to 1900 for S.E. Warwick- 
shire and succeeded to the title in 1902. 

VERNIER, PIERRE (c. 1580-1637), inventor of the instru- 
ment which bears his name, was born at Ornans (near Besanfon) 
in Burgundy about 1 580. He was for a considerable time com- 
mandant of the castle in his native town. In 1631 he pub- 
lished at Brussels a treatise entitled Construction, usage et 
proprietes du quadrant nouveau de mathfmatiques, in which 



1032 



VERNIS MARTIN VERNON, E. 



the instrument associated with his name is described. He died 
at Ornans in 1637. 

The instrument invented by Vernier is frequently called a nonius, 
particularly in Germany, after Pedro Nunez (1492-1577), professor 
of mathematics at the university of Coimbra ; but this is incorrect, 
as the contrivance described by the latter in his work De crepusculis 
(1542) is a different one, although the principle is practically the 
same. Nunez drew on the plane of a quadrant 44 concentric arcs 

divided respectively into 89, 88, 46 equal parts; and if the 

alidade did not coincide with one of the divisions on the principal 
arc, which was divided into 90 parts, the number of degrees in a 
quadrant, it would fall more or less accurately on a division line 
of one of the auxiliary arcs, from which the value of the measured 
angle could be made out. This instrument was, however, very 
difficult to make, and was but little used. Vernier proposed to 
attach to a quadrant divided into half-degrees a movable sector 
of a length equal to 31 half-degrees, but divided into 30 equal parts, 
whereby single minutes could be read off by seeing which division 
line of the "sector" coincided with a division line of the quadrant. 
The idea had been mentioned by Christopher Clavius (1537-1612) 
in his Opera mathematical, 1612 (ii. 5 and iii. 10), but he did not 
propose to attach permanently an arc divided in this way to the 
alidade; this happy application of the principle at all events 
belongs to Vernier. 

The principle of the vernier is readily understood from the 
following account: Let AB (see fig.) be the normal scale, i.e. a 
scale graduated according to a standard of length, CD, a scale (placed 
in contact with AB for convenience) graduated so that 10 divisions 
equal II divisions of the scale AB, and EF a scale placed similarly 
and graduated so that 10 divisions equal 9 divisions of the scale AB. 
Consider the combination AB and CD. Obviously each division 




of CD is i^th greater than the normal scale division. Let o represent 
a length to be measured, placed so that one end is at the zero of 
the normal scale, and the other end in contact with the end of the 
vernier CD marked ip. It is noted that graduation 4 of the vernier 
coincides with a division of the standard, and the determination 
of the excess of o over 3 scale divisions reduces to the difference of 
7 divisions of the normal scale and 6 divisions of the vernier. This 
is -4, since each vernier division equals I- 1 scale division. Hence 
the scale reading of the vernier which coincides with a graduation 
of the normal scale gives the decimal to be added to the normal 
scale reading. Now consider the scales AB and EF, and let be 
the length to be measured; the scale EF being placed so that the 
zero end is in contact with an end of (I. Obviously each division 
of EF is ^th less than that of the normal scale. It is seen that 
division 6 of the vernier coincides with a normal scale division, and 
obviously the excess of over two normal scale divisions equals 
the difference between 6 normal scale divisions and 6 vernier 
divisions, i.e. 0-6. Thus again in this case the vernier reading 
which coincides with a scale reading gives the decimal to be added 
to the normal scale. The second tvpe of vernier is that more 
commonly adopted, and its application to special appliances is 
quite simple. For example, the normal scale to an English barometer 
is graduated in j^ths of an inch. The vernier is such that 24 
divisions of the normal scale equal 25 of the vernier; each of the 
latter therefore is -002 or sinth inch lefs than the normal division. 
In the scientific barometer, the normal scale is graduated in milli- 
metres, and the vernier so that 20 scale divisions equal 19 mm. 
This combination reads to 0-05 mm. 

VERNIS MARTIN, a generic name, derived from a distinguished 
family of French artist-artificers of the i8th century, given 
to a brilliant translucent lacquer extensively used in the decora- 
tion of furniture, carriages, sedan chairs and a multitude of 
small articles such as snuff-boxes and fans. There were four 
brothers of the Martin family: Guillaume (d. 1749), Simon 
Etienne, Julien and Robert (1706-1765), the two first-named 
being the elder. They were the children of Etienne Martin, a 
tailor, and began life as coach-painters. They neither invented, 
nor claimed to have invented, the varnish which bears their 
name, but they enormously improved, and eventually brought 
to perfection, compositions and methods of applying them 
which were already more or less familiar. Oriental lacquer 
speedily acquired high favour in France, and many attempts 
were made to imitate it. Some of these attempts were pass- 
ably successful, and we can hardly doubt that many of the 
examples in the possession of Louis XIV. at his death were of 



European manufacture. Chinese lacquer was, however, im- 
ported in large quantities, and sometimes panels were made in 
China from designs prepared in Paris, just as English coats of 
arms were placed upon Chinese porcelain in its place of origin. 
Biographical details of the career of the brothers Martin are 
scanty, but we know that the eldest was already in business in 
1724. Their method and work must have come rapidly into 
vogue, for in 1730 Guillaume and Simon Etienne Martin were 
granted by letters patent a twenty years' monopoly, subse- 
quently renewed, of making " toutes sortes d'ouvrages en relief 
de la Chine et du Japon." At the height of their fame the 
brothers directed at least three factories in Paris, and in 1748 
they were all classed together as a " Manufacture nationale." 
One of them was still in existence in 1785. The literature of their 
day had much to say of the freres Martin. In Voltaire's comedy 
of Nadine, produced in 1749, mention is made of a berline 
" bonne et brillante, tous les panneaux par Martin sont vernis "; 
also in his Premier discours sur I'inegalite des conditions he 
speaks of " des lambris dores et vernis par Martin." The 
marquis de Mirabeau in L 'Ami des hommes refers to the enamelled 
snuff-boxes and varnished carriages which came from the Martins' 
factory. It is the fate of all the great artists of the past to have 
had their names attached, by popular rumour or interested 
artifice, to a multitude of works which they never saw, and the 
Martins have suffered considerably in this respect. That the 
quality of their production varied between very wide limits is 
established by existing and undoubted examples; but it is 
extremely improbable that even their three factories could have 
turned out the infinite quantity of examples that has been 
attributed to them. Yet their production was large and ex- 
ceedingly miscellaneous, for such was the rage for their lacquer 
that it was applied to every possible object. Nor need we be 
surprised at a rage which was by no means confined to France. 
At its best Vernis Martin has a splendour of sheen, a perfection 
of polish, a beauty of translucence which compel the admiration 
due to a consummate specimen of handiwork. Every variety 
of the lacquer of the Far East was imitated and often improved 
upon by the Martins the black with raised gold ornaments, the 
red, and finally in the wonderful green ground, powdered with 
gold, they reached the high- water mark of their delightful art. 
This delicate work, poudre and wavy-lined with gold or semi with 
flowers overlaid with transparent enamel, is seen at its best on 
small boxes, fans, needle-cases and such-like. Of the larger 
specimens from the Martins' factories a vast quantity has disap- 
peared, or been cut up into decorative panels. It would appear 
that none of the work they placed in the famous hotels of old 
Paris is now in situ, and it is to museums that we must go 
for really fine examples to the Musee de Cluny for an exquisite 
children's sedan chair and the coach used by the French ambas- 
sador to Venice under Louis XV.; to the Wallace collection for 
the tables with richly chased mounts that have been attributed 
to Dubois; to Fontainebleau for a famous commode. Even 
the decorations of the apartments of the dauphin at Versailles, 
executed, or at least begun, in 1749, have vanished; so have 
those at Bellevue. It has been generally accepted that of the 
four brothers Robert Martin accomplished the most original 
and the most completely artistic work. He left a son, Jean 
Alexandre, who described himself in 1767 as " Vernisseur du Roi 
de Prusse." He was employed at Sans Souci, but failed to 
continue the great traditions of his father and his uncles. The 
Revolution finally extinguished a taste which had lasted for a 
large part of the i8th century. Since then the production 
of lacquer has, on the whole, been an industry rather than 
an art. (J. P.-B.) 

VERNON, EDWARD (1684-1757), English admiral, was born 
in Westminster on the I2th of November 1684. He was the 
second son of James Vernon, secretary of state from 1697- 
1700, a scion of an ancient Staffordshire family who is best 
remembered by three volumes of his letters to the duke of 
Shrewsbury, which were published in 1841; and his mother 
was Mary, daughter of Sir John Buck of Lincolnshire. Edward 
Vernon was sent to Westminster school at the age of seven, 



VERNON VERONA 



1033 



and remained there till he was sixteen. Outside its walls he 
studied, with a view to his future profession, such branches of 
knowledge as geometry, geography and the construction of 
military weapons. He entered the navy in 1701, and from that 
time until 1707 took part in many expeditions in the Mediter- 
ranean and the West Indies. He served with Sir George Rooke 
at the taking of Gibraltar in July 1704; and on his return to 
England Queen Anne acknowledged his gallantry with the 
present of two hundred guineas. He next served in the West 
Indies with Commodore Sir Charles Wager, a brave seaman, 
who afterwards rose to the highest position at the admiralty 
in the Whig ministry of Walpole, and was pitted against Vernon 
both in the House of Commons and at the polling-booth. In 
1715, and again in 1726, Vernon assisted in the naval operations 
in the Baltic, supporting Sir John Norris in the first enterprise, 
and on the latter serving under his old chief, Sir Charles Wager. 
During the long supremacy of Walpole little opportunity arose 
for distinction in warfare, and Vernon's energies found relief 
in politics. At the general election of 1722 he was returned for 
both Dunwich in Suffolk and Penryn in Cornwall, but chose 
the latter constituency. In the succeeding parliament of 1727 
he was again chosen member for Penryn; but he failed to 
retain his seat after the dissolution in 1734. At this period 
the English people regarded the Spaniards as their legitimate 
enemies, and the ill-feeling of the two countries was fanned 
both in poetry and in prose. The political antagonists of 
Walpole charged him with pusillanimity to Spain. With 
Pulteney and most of his associates this battle-ground was 
selected rather from expediency than from principle; but 
Vernon represented the natural instincts of the sea-captain, 
and with the sailor as with the soldier the motto was " No 
peace with Spain." In debate he spoke often, and frequently 
with effect, but his language always savoured of extravagance. 
He pledged himself in 1739 to capture Porto Bello with a 
squadron of but six ships, and the minister whom he had 
assailed with his invectives sent him, as vice-admiral of the 
blue and commander of the fleet in the West Indies, to the 
enterprise with the force which he had himself called sufficient. 
Vernon weighed anchor from Spithead on the 23rd of July 
1739 and arrived off Porto Bello on zoth November. Next day 
the combat began with a bombardment of an outlying fort 
which protected the mouth of the harbour, and on the 22nd of 
November the castle and town surrendered with a loss on the 
English side of only seven men. The joy of the nation knew 
no bounds. Vernon's birthday was celebrated in 1740 in 
London with public illuminations, and 130 medals were struck 
in his honour. In February 1741 in a by-election at Ports- 
mouth Vernon was again sent to parliament. At the general 
election in the following May he was returned for Ipswich, 
Rochester and Penryn, and all but succeeded in winning 
Westminster. 1 He elected to sit for Ipswich. A larger squad- 
ron was placed under Vernon's command at the close of 1 740, 
and with this force he resolved upon attacking Cartagena. 
After a fierce struggle, the castle, which stood at the harbour's 
entrance, was gained; but in the attack upon the city the 
troops and sailors failed to act in concert, and, with the numbers 
of his forces thinned by combat and by disease, the British 
admiral retired to Jamaica. The incidents of this disastrous at- 
tempt are described in Smollett's Roderick Random, chap, xxxi., 
&c. A similar enterprise in July 1741 against Santiago de 
Cuba met with a similar reverse, and Vernon attributed the 
defeat to the divided command of the British forces. During 
his command he did a good deal for the health of his crews. 
He first introduced the custom of mixing the rum served to the 
sailors in the West Indies with water. The word " grog " is 
said to be derived from the nickname of " old Grog " given 
him by the sailors, because he wore a peculiar grogram boat- 
cloak. He landed at Bristol on the 6th of January 1743, and 
on the 24th of January received the freedom of the city of 
London. When the country dreaded the march of Prince 
Charles to London, the fleet in the Downs was placed under 
1 Grego's Parliamentary Elections (London, 1886), pp. 95-106. 



the command of Vernon; but his jealous disposition brooked no 
interference from the admiralty, and on the ist of January 1746 
he struck his flag and handed over the command to another. 
His next act was to describe his grievances in a couple of angry 
pamphlets, revealing the communications of his official chiefs, 
and for this indiscretion he was struck off the list of flag officers 
(April ii, 1746). He continued to represent the borough of 
Ipswich until his death, but with this proceeding his public 
services practically ceased. He died suddenly at Nacton in 
Suffolk, the 3oth of October 1757, and was buried in the church 
of the village. 

Vernon's gallantry was unquestioned; but his valour not infre- 
quently degenerated into foolhardiness, and he dwelt more often 
than is usual with British seamen on the merits of his own exploits. 
His politics were those of the Tory party, and his differences with 
the Whigs and with his colleagues in the services led to his publishing 
several pamphlets on his political conduct. A Memorial of Admiral 
Vernon from Contemporary Authorities was printed by W. F. Vernon 
for private circulation in 1861. 

VERNON, a town of north-western France, in the depart- 
ment of Eure, 19 m. E.N.E. of Evreux by road. Pop. (1906) 
7274. Vernon stands on the left bank of the Seine opposite 
the forest of Vernon, a stone bridge uniting it to Vernonnet on 
the right bank, where there are important stone quarries. The 
forest of Bizy lies to the south of the town. Its church is an in- 
teresting building dating from the i2th to the i$th centuries, 
and there is a cylindrical keep built by Henry I. of England. 
The port on the Seine carries on trade in stone and coal, and 
the town has workshops for the manufacture of army engineer- 
ing material and manufactures benzine, aniline dyes, 'wooden 
shoes, liqueurs, &c. 

Vernon in 1196 was ceded by its count to Philip Augustus, 
Richard I. resigning his suzerainty. The first Estates of Nor- 
mandy were held at Vernon in 1452. 

VEROLI (anc. Verulae), a town and episcopal see of the 
province of Rome, Italy, 10 m. by road N.E. of Frosinone, 
1870 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 2622 (town); 12,655 
(commune). The town is situated on a hill in a strong position 
with a fine view, on the site of the ancient Hernican town of 
Verulae, 7 m. S.E. of Aletrium. It retains remains of its 
ancient polygonal enceinte, especially near the summit of the 
hill, later occupied by a medieval castle. It is hardly men- 
tioned in history: we know that it became a municipium 
in 90 B.C. The cathedral treasury contains the breviary of 
S. Louis of Toulouse, and some interesting reliquaries, one in 
ivory with bas-reliefs, and two in the Gothic style, of silver 
gilt 

VERON, LOUIS DESIRE (1798-1867), French publicist, was 
born at Paris on the 5th of April 1798. In 1829 he founded 
the Revue de Paris, and from 1838 to 1852 was owner and 
director of the Constitutionnel, in which he published in Eugene 
Sue's Wandering Jew. It was also during Veron's direction and 
at his suggestion that Sainte-Beuve contributed the Causeries 
du lundi. From 1831-1835 he was director of the Paris Opera. 
In 1852 he was elected to the Corps Legislatif as an official 
candidate. He was the author of various books, of which the 
best known is Memoires d'un bourgeois de Paris (1853-1855). 
He died in Paris on the 27th of September 1867. 

VERON, PIERRE (1831-1900), French publicist, was born in 
Paris on the igth of April 1831, and in 1854 published his first 
book, a volume of verse. In 1858 he joined the staff of Charivari, 
and edited that paper from 1865-99. He was the author of 
a large number of novels dealing with Parisian life, and for many 
years his rooms in the Rue de Rivoli were the meeting-place 
of the most famous French literary, artistic and political cele- 
brities. He died in Paris on the 2nd of November 1900. 

VERONA, a city and episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, the 
capital of the province of Verona, situated 194 ft. above sea-level 
in a loop made by the winding of the Adige (anc. Attests), 
Pop. (1906) 61,618 (town); 79,574 (commune). It is 93 m. E. 
of Milan and 71 m. W. of Venice by rail, and is also the point of 
departure of the main lines to Mantua and Modena and to the 
Brenner, while a branch line runs N.W. to Caprino, another S.E 



1034 



VERONA 



to Legnago, and steam tramways to Cologna Veneta, Coriano 
and S. Giacomo. 

The basilica of S. Zeno (an early bishop of Verona who became 
its patron saint), which stands outside the ancient city, is one 
Ch rches ^ tne most interesting Romanesque churches in Italy. 
The church was remodelled in 1139, to which period 
much of the existing structure belongs, including the richly 
sculptured west front and the open confessio or crypt, which 
occupies the eastern half of the church, raising the choir high 
above the nave. The nave, dating from the nth century, is 
supported by alternate columns and pillars, and contains 
frescoes of the nth-i4th centuries. The. cloisters of S. Zeno, 
rebuilt in 1123, are an interesting example of brick and marble 
construction. Like many other churches in Verona, S. Zeno is 
mainly built of mixed brick and stone in alternate bands: four 
or five courses of fine red brick lie between bands of hard cream- 
coloured limestone or marble, forming broad stripes of red and 
white all over the wall. A similarly variegated effect in red and 
white is produced by building the arches of windows and doors 
with alternating voussoirs in brick and marble. The neighbour- 
hood of Verona is especially rich in fine limestones and marbles 
of many different kinds, especially a close-grained cream- 
coloured marble and a rich mottled red marble, which are largely 
used, not only in Verona, but also in Venice and other cities of 
the province. The same quarry produces both kinds, and indeed 
the same block is sometimes half red and half white. On the 
north side of the church is a lofty tower, called the tower of 
Peppin; while the slender brick campanile on the south dates 
from 1045 to 1178. 

The cathedral, consecrated in 1187 by Pope Urban III., stands 
at the northern extremity of the ancient city, by the bank of the 
Adige; it is inferior in size and importance to S. Zeno, but has 
a fine 12th-century west front of equal interest, richly decorated 
with naive Romanesque sculpture (1135). The rest of the 
exterior is built in bands of red and white, with slightly pro- 
jecting pilasters along the walls; it has a noble cloister, with two 
storeys of arcading. The campanile by Sanmichele is unfinished. 
Its baptistery, rebuilt early in the 1 2th century , is a quite separate 
building, with nave and apse, forming a church dedicated to 
S. Giovanni in Fonte. Pope Lucius III., who held a council at 
Verona in 1184, is buried in the cathedral, under the pavement 
before the high altar. The Dominican church of S. Anastasia 
is a mine of wealth in early examples of painting and sculp- 
ture, and one of the finest buildings in Italy of semi-Gothic style. 
It consists of a nave in six bays, aisles, transepts, each with 
two eastern chapels, and an apse, all vaulted with simple 
quadripartite brick groining. It was begun in 1261, but not 
completed till 1422, and is specially remarkable for its very 
beautiful and complete scheme of coloured decoration, much of 
which is contemporary with the building. The vaults are grace- 
fully painted with floreated bands along the ribs and central 
patterns in each " cell," in rich soft colours on a white plastered 
ground. The eastern portion of the vaulting, including the 
choir and one bay of the nave, has the older and simpler 
decorations; the rest of the nave has more elaborate painted 
ornament foliage mixed with figures of Dominican saints, 
executed in the isth century. There are many fine frescoes in 
the interior ranging from c. 1300 (knights kneeling before the 
Virgin) to the isth century, including Pisanello's beautiful 
painting of St George (mentioned below). This church also 
contains a large number of fine sculptured tombs of the I4th 
and isth centuries, with noble effigies and reliefs of saints and 
sacred subjects. It is mainly built of red brick, with fine nave 
columns of red and white marble and an elaborate marble pave- 
ment inlaid in many different patterns. Its general proportions 
are specially noble, and the exterior view is good. The church 
of S. Fermo Maggiore comes next in interest. With the 
exception of the crypt, which is older, the existing edifice was 
rebuilt in 1313. The facade is of brick and marble used alter- 
nately. The plan is unusual, consisting of a large nave without 
aisles, the span being between 45 and 50 ft.; it also has two 
shallow transepts and an apsidal east end. The roof, which is 



especially magnificent, is the finest example of a class which as a 
rule is only found in Venetia or in churches built by Venetian 
architects in Istria and other subject provinces: the framing 
is concealed by coving or barrel-vaulting in wood, the surface of 
which is divided into small square panels, all painted and gilt, 
giving a very rich effect. In this case the i4th and isth century 
painted decorations are well preserved. Delicate patterns cover 
all the framework of the panelling and fill the panels themselves; 
at two stages, where there is a check in the line cf the coving, 
rows of half-figures of saints are minutely painted on blue or gold 
grounds, forming a scheme of indescribably splendid decoration. 
A simpler roof of the same class exists at S. Zeno; it is trefoil- 
shaped in section, with a tie-beam joining the cusps. The 
church of S. Maria in Organo, dating from 1481, with a facade 
of 1592 from Sanmichele's designs, contains paintings by 
various Veronese masters, and some fine choir-stalls of 1499 by 
Fra Gioconda. Though not built till after his death, the church 
of S. Giorgio in Braida, on the other side of the river, was also 
designed by Sanmichele, and possesses many good pictures of 
the Veronese school. The Romanesque church of S. Lorenzo, re- 
stored in 1896-1898, contains old frescoes. S. Stefano is another 
Romanesque church, probably of the nth century. There are 
several other fine churches in Verona, some of early date. One 
of the I4th century is dedicated to Thomas a Becket of Canter- 
bury. 

The strongly fortified castle (Castel Vecchio) built by the 
Delia Scala lords in the i4th century stands on the line of the wall 
of Theodoric, close by the river. A very picturesque Bridges 
battlemented bridge leads from it to the other shore, and 
sloping down over three arches of different sizes, the fort/flea- 
largest next to the castle and the smallest at the other " oas - 
end. There are four other bridges across the Adige: one, the 
graceful Ponte di Pietra, rests upon ancient foundations, while 
the two arches nearest to the left bank are Roman; but it has 
been frequently restored. Remains of another ancient bridge 
were found in the river itself in 1891 behind S. Anastasia. The 
16th-century lines of fortification enclose a very much larger area 
than the Roman city, forming a great loop to the west, and also 
including a considerable space on the left bank of the river. 
In the latter part of the city, on a steep elevation, stands the 
castle of St Peter, originally founded by Theodoric, on the site, 
perhaps, of the earliest citadel, mostly rebuilt by Gian Galeazzo 
Visconti in 1393, and dismantled by the French in 1801. This 
and the other fortifications of Verona were rebuilt or repaired 
by the Austrians, but are no longer kept up as military defences. 
Verona, which is the chief military centre of the Italian province 
of Venetia, is now being surrounded with a circle of forts far 
outside the obsolete city walls. 

The early palaces of Verona, before its conquest by Venice, 
were of noble and simple design, mostly built of fine red brick, 
with an inner court, surrounded on the ground floor 
by open arches like a cloister, as, for example, the 
Palazzo della Ragione, an assize court, begun in the 1 2th century. 
The arches, round or more often pointed in form, were decorated 
with moulded terra-cotta enrichments, and often with alternating 
voussoirs of marble. The Scaligeri Palace is a fine example, 
dating from the i4th century, with, in the cortile, an external 
staircase leading to an upper loggia, above the usual arcade on 
the ground floor. It has a lofty campanile, surmounted by a 
graceful octagonal upper storey. This palace is said to have 
been mainly built by Can Signorio (Della Scala) about 1370. 
After the conquest by Venice the domestic buildings of Verona 
assumed quite a different type. They became feeble copies 
of Venetian palaces, in which one form of window, with an ogee 
arch, framed by the dentil moulding, is almost always used. 
The monotony and lifelessness of this form of architecture are 
shown in the meaningless way in which details, suited only to 
the Venetian methods of veneering walls with thin marble slabs, 
are copied in the solid marbles of Verona. From the skill of 
Fra Giocondo, Verona was for many years one of the chief 
centres in which the most refined and graceful forms of the 
early Renaissance were developed. The town hall, with its 



VERONA 



1035 



light open loggia of semicircular arches on the ground floor, 
was designed by Fra Giocondo towards the end of the isth 
century; its sculptured enrichments of pilasters and friezes 
are very graceful, though lacking the vigorous life of the 
earlier medieval sculptured ornamentation. Verona contains 
a number of handsome palaces designed by Sanmichele in the 
1 6th century. The finest are those of the Bevilacqua, 1 Canossa 
and Pompeii families. The last of these is now the property 
of the city, and contains a gallery with some good pictures, 
especially of the Verona, Padua and Venice schools. As in Venice, 
many of the 16th-century palaces in Verona had stuccoed 
facades, richly decorated with large fresco paintings, often 
by very able painters. Verona, perhaps, had as many of these 
paintings as any town in Italy, but comparatively few are 
preserved and those only to a small extent. The domestic 
architecture of Verona cannot thus be now fairly estimated, and 
seems monotonous, heavy and uninteresting. The house of the 
painter Niccolo Giolfino still has its frescoes in a good state of 
preservation, and gives a vivid notion of what must once have 
been the effect of these gorgeous pictured palaces. The epis- 
copal palace contains the ancient and valuable chapter library, 
of about 12,000 volumes and over 500 MSS., among them 
the palimpsest of the Institutiones of Gaius which Niebuhr 
discovered. The Piazza delle Erbe (fruit and vegetable market) 
Squares anc * t ^ ie P' azza dei Signori, adjoining one another 
in the oldest part of the city, are very picturesque 
and beautiful, being surrounded by many fine medieval buildings, 
several of them of a public character (Palazzo dei Giureconsulti, 
Palazzo della Ragione and the lofty Torre Civica, 273 ft. 
high), while in the north-east corner of the latter Piazza is 
the fine early Renaissance Palazzo del Consiglio (1476-1492), 
probably designed by Fra Giocondo. In the former Piazza a 
copy of the lion of Venice has been erected. 

The Roman remains of Verona surpass those of any other city 
of northern Itajy. The most conspicuous of them is the great 
Roman amphitheatre, a building perhaps of the end of the 1st 
remains, century A.D., which in general form closely resembled 
the Colosseum in Rome. Its axes measured 505 and 
404 ft. Almost the whole of its external arcades, with three tiers of 
arches, have now disappeared; it was partly thrown down by an 
earthquake in 1184, and subsequently used to supply building 
materials. Many of its blocks are still visible in the walls of various 
medieval buildings. The interior, with seats for about 25,000 
people, has been frequently restored, till nothing of the old seats 
exists. There are also remains of a well-preserved Roman theatre, 
close to the left bank of the river. A number of fine sculptures 
were found in the square in front of the cathedral in 1890, and 
architectural fragments belonging to some public building. In 
1884-86 portions of a number of fine mosaic pavements were dis- 
covered extending over a very large area under the cloister and other 
parts of the cathedral, about 7 ft. below the present ground level. 
They had geometric patterns with birds, trees, &c., and bore inscrip- 
tions in mosaic with the names of the donors. Parts ot them had 
been discovered previously. They seem to belong to two different 
buildings, both early churches of the 5th and 6th centuries A.D. (cf. 
Notizie degli Scavi, 1884, 401). For the two triumphal arches (Porta 
dei Bosan and Porta dei Leoni) see below. The Museo Lapidario 
contains a fine collection of Roman and Etruscan inscriptions and 
sculpture, mostly collected and published by Scipione Maffei in the 
1 8th century. 

Veronese Art. In many respects the resemblance between Verona 
and Florence is very striking; in both cases we have a strongly 
fortified city built in a fertile valley, on the banks of a winding 
river, with suburbs on higher ground, rising close above the main 
city. In architectural magnificence and in wealth of sculpture and 
painting Verona almost rivalled the Tuscan city, and, like it, gave 
birth to a very large number of artists who distinguished themselves 
in all branches of the fine arts. 

Painting in Verona may be divided into four periods, (i.) The 
first period is characterized by wall paintings of purely native style, 
Palatine closely resembling the early Christian pictures in the cata- 
combs of Rome. Examples dating from the loth to the 
nth century have been discovered hidden by whitewash on the 
oldest parts of the nave walls of the church of S. Zeno. They are 
a very interesting survival of the almost classical Roman style of 
painting, and appear to be quite free from the generally prevalent 
Byzantine influence, (ii.) The Byzantine period seems to have 

1 The valuable collection of works of art once preserved in the 
Bevilacqua Palace has long been dispersed. 



lasted during the I2th and I3th centuries, (iii.) The Giottesque 

e;riod begins contemporaneously with Altichiero da Zevio and 
iacomo degli Avanzi, whose chief works were executed during the 
second half of the I4th century. These two painters were among the 
ablest of Giotto's followers, and adorned Verona and Padua with a 
number of very beautiful frescoes, rich in composition, delicate in 
colour, and remarkable for their highly finished modelling and detail. 
(iy.) To the fourth period belong several important painters. 
Pisanello or Vittore Pisano, a charming painter and the greatest 
medallist of Italy, was probably a pupil of Altichiero. 2 Most of his 
frescoes in Verona have perished; but one of great beauty still 
exists in a very perfect state in the church of S. Anastasia, high up 
over the arched opening into one of the eastern chapels cf the south 
transept. The scene represents St George and the Princess after 
the conquest of the Dragon, with accessory figures, the sea, a 
mountainous landscape and an elaborately painted city in the back- 
ground. The only other existing fresco by Pisanello is an Annun- 
ciation in S. Fermo Maggiore. For Pisanello's pupils and other 
painters of subsequent date, see PAINTING. These include Liberale 
da Verona, Domenico and Francesco Morone, Girolamo dai Libri 
(1474-1556), &c. Domenico del Riccio, usually nicknamed Brusasorci 
(1494-1567), was a prolific painter whose works are very numerous 
in Verona. Paolo Cagliari or Paul Veronese, and the Bonifagios, 
though natives of Verona, belong rather to the Venetian school. 

Verona is specially rich in early examples of decorative sculpture, 
(i.) The first period is that of northern or Lombardic influence, 
exemplified in the very interesting series of reliefs which _. 
cover the western facades of the church of S. Zeno and the 
cathedral, dating from the I2th century. These reliefs 
represent both sacred subjects and scenes of war and hunting, 
mixed with grotesque monsters, such as specially delighted the rude, 
vigorous nature of the Lombards; they are all richly decorative in 
effect, though strange and unskilful in detail. Part of the western 
bronze doors of S. Zeno are especially interesting as being among the 
earliest important examples in Italy of cast bronze reliefs. They are 
frequently stated to be of beaten bronze, but they are really castings, 
apparently by the cire perdue process. They represent scenes from 
the life of S. Zeno, are rudely modelled, and yet very dramatic and 
sculpturesque in style. Parts of these doors are covered with 
bronze reliefs of scenes from the Bible, which are of still earlier date, 
and were probably brought to Verona from the Rhine provinces. 
Many of the I2th century reliefs and sculptured capitals in S. Zeno 
are signed by the sculptor but these merely constitute lists of names 
about whom nothing is known, (ii.) In the I3th century the 
sculpture seems to have lost the Lombard vigour, without acquiring 
any qualities of superior grace or refinement. The font in the 
baptistery near the cathedral is an early example of this. Each 
side of the octagon is covered with a large relief of a Biblical subject, 
very dull in style and coarse in execution. The font itself is inter- 
esting for its early form, one common in the chief baptisteries of 
northern Italy : like an island in the centre of the great octagonal 
tank is a lobed marble receptacle, in which the officiating priest stood 
while he immersed the catechumens. A movable wooden bridge 
must have been used to enable the priest to cross the water in the 
surrounding tank. (iii.) The next period is that of Florentine 
influence. This is exemplified in the magnificently sculptured 
tombs of the Della Scala lords, designed with steadily growing 
splendour, from the simple sarcophagus of Martirio I. down to the 
elaborate erection over the tomb of the fratricide Can Signorio, 
adorned with statuettes of the virtues, to the possession of which he 
could lay so little claim. 3 The recumbent effigies and decorative 
details of these tombs are very beautiful, but the smaller figures of 
angels, saints and virtues are rather clumsy in proportion. The 
latest tomb, that of Can Signorio, erected during his lifetime (c. 1370), 
is signed " Boninus de Campigliono Mediolanensis Dioecesis." This 
sculptor, though of Milanese origin, belongs really to the school of the 
Florentine Andrea Pisano. One characteristic of the I4th and 1 5th 
centuries in Verona was the custom, also followed in other Lom- 
bardic cities, of setting large equestrian statues over the tombs of 
powerful military leaders, in some cases above the recumbent effigy 
of the dead man, as if to represent him in full vigour of life as well as 
in death. That which crowns the canopy over the tomb of Can 
Grande is a very noble, though somewhat quaint, work, (iv.) In 
the 1 5th century the influence of Venice became paramount, though 
this was really only a further development of the Florentine manner, 
Venice itself having been directly influenced in the I4th century by 
many able sculptors from Florence. 

The architecture of Verona, like its sculpture, passed through 
Lombard, Florentine and Venetian stages, (i.) The church of 
S. Zeno and thecathedral.bothof which were mainlyrebuilt 
in the I2th century, are noble examples of the Lombardic 
style, with few single-light windows, and with the walls 
decorated externally by series of pilasters, and by alternating bands 
of red and white, in stone or brick. The arches of this period are 



Archi- 
tecture. 



2 There is every reason to doubt Vasari's statement that Pisanello 
was a pupil of Andrea del Castagno. 

8 See an eloquent description by Ruskin, Stones of Venice, iii. 
pp. 70 seq. 



1036 



VERONA, CONGRESS OF 



semicircular and rest on round columns and capitals, richly carved 
with grotesque figures and foliage. Most of the external ornamenta- 
tion is usually concentrated on the western front, which often has a 
lofty arched porch on marble columns, resting on griffins or lions 
devouring their prey. (iL) The Florentine period (c. 1250 to 1400) 
is represented by the church of S. Anastasia, and by many more or 
less mutilated palaces, with fine courts surrounded by arcades in 
one or more storeys. The arches are mostly pointed, and in other 
respects the influence of northern Gothic was more direct in Verona 
than in Florence. Solidity of mass and simplicity of detail are 
among the characteristics of this period, (iii.) The Venetian period 
(c. 1400-1480) was one of little originality or vigour, the buildings 
of this date being largely rather dull copies of those at Venice, 
(iv.) The early Renaissance developed into very exceptional beauty 
in Verona, mainly through the genius of Fra Giocondo (i435 -I 5i4)i 
a native of Verona, who was at first a friar in the monastery of 
S. Maria in Organo. He rose to great celebrity as an architect, and 
designed many graceful and richly sculptured buildings in Venice, 
Rome and even in France; he used classical forms with great taste 
and skill, and with much of the freedom of the older medieval archi- 
tects, and was specially remarkable for his rich and delicate sculptured 
decorations. Another of the leading architects of the next stage of the 
Renaissance was the Veronese M ichele Sanmichele ( 1 484-1 559) , a great 
military engineer, and designer of an immense number of magnificent 
palaces in Verona and other cities of Venetia. His buildings are 
stately and graceful in proportion, but show a tendency towards 
dull scholastic classicism. The facades of his palaces were in the 
lower storey only decorated by rustication, of which he made great 
use, while the upper part was intended to be decorated with frescoes, 
which (as we have said) have in most cases perished. To him are 
also due the various gates and the most important bastions in the 
walls of Verona. In consequence of the disastrous flood of 1882, 
important embankment works were executed along the Adige at 
a cost of 300,000. These works preclude all danger of future 
inundation. In addition to the Adige embankment, other hydraulic 
works have been either completed or undertaken. An irrigation 
canal, deriving water from the Sega, furnishes nj cubic metres 
per second to the fields of the upper Veronese district. The 
Camuzzoni industrial canal, which runs from the Chievo di 
S. Massimo to the suburb of Tombetta, furnishes 26 cubic metres 
of water per second, and generates 4000 horse-power. The cutting 
of this canal led to the construction of an aqueduct for drinking 
water, which, besides supplying the city, furnishes an ice factory 
with enough water to make 200 quintals of ice per day. The motive- 
power generated by the Camuzzoni canal is utilized by a large nail 
Factory, flour mills, paper mills, cotton mills and works for the 
distribution of electric energy. 

The Adige embankment gave an impetus to building enterprise, 
the banks of the river being now flanked by villas and large dwelling- 
houses. 

History. The ancient Verona was a town of the Cenomani, 
a Gaulish tribe, whose chief town was Brixia. It became a 
Latin colony in 89 B.C. and, acquiring citizenship with the rest of 
Gallis Transpadana in 49 B.C., became a municipium. Tacitus 
wrongly speaks of it as a colony; but it appears to have received 
a new colony under Gallienus. In the time of Augustus it was 
inferior to Patavium in importance, but on a par with Mediolanum, 
and superior to Brixia and other towns of the district. Inscrip- 
tions testify to its importance among others one which indi- 
cates that it was the headquarters of the collectors of the 5% 
inheritance tax under the Empire in Italy beyond the Po. 
Its territory stretched as far as Hostilia on the Padus (Po), 30 m. 
to the south, and was extensive on other sides also, though its 
exact limits are uncertain. It was an important point in the 
road system of the district, lying on that between Mediolanum 
and Aquileia, while here diverged to the north the roads up the 
Athesis valley and over the Brenner into Raetia, and to the 
south roads ran to Betriacum, Mantua and Hostilia. It was the 
birthplace of the poet Catullus. In A.D. 69 it became the head- 
quarters of the legions which were siding with Vespasian. Its 
fertile surroundings, its central position at the junction of 
several great roads, and the natural strength of its position, 
defended by a river along two-thirds of its circumference, all 
combined to make Verona one of the richest and most important 
cities in northern Italy, although its extent within the walls was 
not large. The existing remains of walls and gates date from 
the period between the 3rd of April and the 4th of December of 
the year 265. A very handsome triumphal arch, now called 
the Porta de' Borsari, was restored in this year by Gallienus 
(as the inscription upon it, which has taken the place of an older 
one, cancelled to make room for it, records), and became one of 



the city gates. It is a double arch, and above it are two orders 
of smaller arcades. The same was the case with the Porta 
dei Leoni, another rather similar triumphal arch on the east 
of the city, and with a third arch, the Arco dei Gavi, demolished 
in 1805. This last seems to have belonged to the ist century 
A.D.; remains of it are preserved in the amphitheatre. It took 
its name from the family in whose honour it was erected; 
the architect was one L. Vitruvius Cerdo, possibly a pupil and 
freedman of the famous writer on architecture. The Porta dei 
Leoni, on the other hand, bears the name of Tiberius Flavius 
Noricus, a quattuorvir iure ditundo, i.e. one of the four chief 
magistrates of the city (probably and century A.D.). The 
original line of walls did not include the amphitheatre, but 
passed N.E. of it; it was, however, afterwards included in the 
enceinte as a kind of massive corner tower. 1 The emperor 
Constantine, while advancing towards Rome from Gaul, besieged 
and took Verona (312); it was here, too, that Odoacer was 
defeated (499) by Theodoric the Goth, Dietrich von Bern 
i.e. Verona of German legends, who built a castle at Verona 
and frequently resided there. He enlarged the fortified area by 
constructing a wall and ditch (now called Adigetto) straight 
across the loop, to the S.W. of the amphitheatre, and also built 
thermae and restored the aequeducts, which had long been 
out of use. 

In the middle ages Verona gradually grew in size and im- 
portance. Alboin, the Lombard king, captured it in 568, and 
it was one of the chief residences of the Lombard, and later of 
the Prankish, monarchs; and though, like other cities of northern 
Italy, it suffered much during the Guelph and Ghibelline st niggles, 
it rose to a foremost position both from the political and the 
artistic point of view under its various rulers of the Scaliger or 
Delia Scala family. The first prominent member of this family 
and founder of his dynasty was Mastino I. della Scala, who 
ruled over the city from 1260 till his death in 1277. Verona had 
previously fallen under the power of a less able despot, Ezzelino 
da Romano, who died in 1259. Alberto deHa Scaha (died in 
1301) was succeeded by his eldest son Bartolomeo, who was 
confirmed as ruler of Verona by the popular vote, and died 
in 1304. It was in his time that Romeo and Juliet are said to 
have lived. AJboino, the second son, succeeded his brother, 
and died in 131 1, when the youngest son of Alberto, Can Grande, 
who since 1308 had been joint-lord of Verona with his brother, 
succeeded to the undivided power. Can Grande (Francesco 
della Scala, d. 1329) was the best and most illustrious of his 
line, and is specially famous as the hospitable patron of Dante 
(q.v.). Other princes of this dynasty, which lasted for rather 
more than a century, were Giovanni (d. 1350), Mastino II. 
(d. 1351), Can Grande II. (d. 1359) and Can Signorio (d. 1375). 
In 1389 Gian Galeazzo Visconti, duke of Milan, became by 
conquest lord of Verona. Soon after his death the city fell by 
treacherous means into the hands of Francesco II. di Carrara, 
lord of Padua. In 1404-1405 Verona, together with Padua, 
was finally conquered by Venice, and remained subject to the 
Venetians till the overthrow of the republic by Napoleon in 
1797, who in the same year, after the treaty of Campo Formio, 
ceded it to the Austrians with the rest of Venetia. They 
fortified it strongly in 1814, and with Peschiera, Mantua and 
Legnago it formed part of the famous quadrilateral which until 
1866 was the chief support of their rule in Italy. 

See the various works by Scipione Maffei (Verona Illustrata, 
1728; Museum Veronense, 1749); and Th. Mommsen in Corp. 
Inscr. Latin (Berlin, 1883), v. p. 327 (with bibliography); A. Wiel, 
The Story of Verona (London, 1902); Notizie degli scavi, passim; 
E. Giani, L' Antico teatro di Verona (Verona, 1908). 

(J. H. M.;T. As.) 

VERONA, CONGRESS OF, the last of the series of inter- 
national conferences or congresses based on the principle 
enunciated in Art. 6 of the treaty of Paris of November 2oth, 
1815 (see EUROPE, History). It met at Verona on the 2oth 

1 The view of some scholars is that the original walls were earlier 
than the time of Gallienus, who reconstructed them on the old lines, 
taking in, however, the amphitheatre. 



VERONAL VERONICA, ST 



of October 1822. The emperor Alexander I. of Russia was 
present in person. There were also present Count Nesselrode, 
the Russian minister of foreign affairs; Prince Metternich, 
representing Austria; Prince Hardenberg and Count Berns- 
torff, representing Prussia; MM. de Montmorency and Chateau- 
briand, representing France; and the duke of Wellington, 
representing Great Britain in place of Lord Londonderry 
(Castlereagh), whose tragic death occurred on the eve of his 
setting out to the congress. 

In the instructions drawn up by Londonderry for his own 
guidance, which had been handed to Wellington by Canning 
without alteration, was clearly denned the attitude of Great 
Britain towards the three questions which it was supposed 
would be discussed, viz. the Turkish Question (Greek insurrec- 
tion), the question of intervention in favour of the royal power 
in Spain, together with that of the revolted Spanish colonies, 
and the Italian Question. As regards the latter it was laid 
down that Great Britain could not charge herself with any 
superintendence of a system in which she had merely acquiesced, 
and the duty of the British minister would be merely to keep 
himself informed, and to see that nothing was done " incon- 
sistent with the European system and the treaties." To make 
this attitude quite clear, Wellington was further instructed not 
to hand in his credentials until this question had been disposed 
of, his place being meanwhile taken by Lord Londonderry 
(Stewart), Castlereagh's half-brother and successor in the title, 
who had fulfilled the same function at Troppau and Laibach. 
In the Spanish Question Wellington was to give voice to the 
uncompromising opposition of Great Britain to the whole 
principle of intervention. In the Turkish Question, the prob- 
able raising of which had alone induced the British govern- 
ment to send a plenipotentiary to the congress, he was to 
suggest the eventual necessity for recognizing the belligerent 
rights of the Greeks, and, in the event of concerted interven- 
tion, to be careful not to commit Great Britain beyond the 
limits of good offices. 

The immediate problems arising out of the Turkish Question 
had, however, been settled between the emperor Alexander and 
Metternich, to their mutual satisfaction, at the preliminary 
conferences held at Vienna in September, and at Verona the 
only question raised was that of the proposed French interven- 
tion in Spain. The discussion was opened by three questions 
formally propounded by Montmorency: (i) Would the Allies 
withdraw their ministers from Madrid in the event of France 
being compelled to do so? (2) In case of war, under what 
form and by what acts would the powers give France their 
moral support, so as to give to her action the force of the 
Alliance, and inspire a salutary fear in the revolutionaries of 
all countries? (3) What material aid would the powers give, 
if asked by France to intervene, under restrictions which she 
would declare and they would recognize? 

The reply of Alexander, who expressed his surprise at the 
desire of France to keep the question " wholly French, " was 
to offer to march 150,000 Russians through Germany to Pied- 
mont, where they could be held ready to act against the Jacobins 
whether in Spain or France. This solution appealed to Metter- 
nich and Montmorency as little as to Wellington; but though 
united in opposing it, four days of " confidential communica- 
tions " revealed a fundamental difference of opinion between 
the representative of Great Britain and those of the continental 
powers on the main point at issue. Wellington, firmly based 
on the principle of non-intervention, refused to have anything 
to do with the suggestion, made by Metternich, that the powers 
should address a common note to the Spanish government in 
support of the action of France. Finally, Metternich proposed 
that the Allies should " hold a common language, but in 
separate notes, though uniform in their principles and objects." 
This solution was adopted by the continental powers; and 
Wellington, in accordance with his instructions not to counten- 
ance any intervention in Spanish affairs, took no part in the 
conferences that followed. On the 3oth of October the powers 
handed in their formal replies to the French memorandum. 



Russia, Austria and Prussia would act as France should in 
respect of their ministers in Spain, and would give to France 
every countenance and assistance she might require, the details 
" being reserved to be specified in a treaty." Wellington, on 
the other hand, replied on behalf of Great Britain that " having 
no knowledge of the cause of dispute, and not being able to 
form a judgment upon a hypothetical case, he could give no 
answer to any of the questions." 

Thus was proclaimed the open breach of Great Britain with 
the principles and policy of the Great Alliance, which is what 
gives to the congress its main historical interest. 

See Cambridge Modern Hist., chap. i. " The Congresses," by W. 
Alison Phillips, and for authorities, ibid. p. 787. (W. A. P.) 

VERONAL, in medicine, diethylmalonyl urea or diethyl- 
barbituric acid (C 2 H 6 ) 2 C[CO-NH]2CO, extensively used as a 
hypnotic. It is prepared by condensing diethylmalonic ester 
with urea in the presence of sodium ethylate, or by acting 
with ethyl iodide on the silver salt of malonyl urea; it forms 
a white crystalline powder, which is- odourless, and has a 
slightly bitter taste. Its introduction followed the investiga- 
tions of Emil Fischer and J. v. Merling on the pharmacological 
properties of certain open and closed ureides. Led thereto by 
the impression that hypnotic action appears to be largely 
dependent on the presence of ethyl groups, they prepared 
diethylacetyl urea, diethylmalonyl urea, and dipropylmalonyl 
urea. All three were found to be hypnotics: the first was 
about equal in power to sulphonal, whilst the third was four 
times as powerful, but its use was attended by prolonged after- 
effects. Veronal was found to be midway. It is best given 
in cachets (10 to 15 grains). As it does not affect the circulatory 
or respiratory systems, or temperature, it can be employed in 
many diseased conditions of the heart and lungs as well as in 
mental disturbances, acute alcoholism, morphinomania and 
kidney disease. If taken during a prolonged period it seems 
to lose its effect. A soluble salt of veronal has been introduced 
under the name of medinal. Although the toxicity of veronal 
is low, 135 grains having been taken in a single dose without 
serious results, the unreasonable consumption by persons 
suffering from insomnia has led to many deaths, and it 
has been suggested that the sale should be restricted by the 
Pharmacy Acts. 

VERONICA, ST. According to the most recent version of 
the legend, Veronica was a. pious woman of Jerusalem, who, 
moved with pity by the spectacle of Jesus carrying His cross to 
Golgotha, gave Him her kerchief in order that He might wipe the 
drops of agony from His brow. The Lord accepted the offering, 
and after using the napkin handed it back to her with the image 
of His face miraculously impressed upon it. This, however, is 
not the primitive form of the legend, which a close examination 
shows to be derived from the following story related by Eusebius 
in his Historia Ecclesiastica (vii. 18). At Caesarea Philippi 
dwelt the woman whom the Lord healed of an issue of blood 
(Matt. ix. 20), and at the door of her house stood, on one side a 
statue of a woman in an attitude of supplication, and on the other 
side that of a man stretching forth his hand to the woman. It 
was said that the male figure represented Christ, and that the 
group had been set up in recognition of the miraculous -cure. 
Legend was not long in providing the woman of the Gospel with 
a name. In the West she was identified with Martha of Bethany; 
in the East she was called Berenike, or Beronike, the name 
appearing in as early a work as the Ada Pilati, the most ancient 
form of which goes back to the 4th century. Towards the 
6th century the legend of the woman with the issue of blood 
became merged in the legend of Pilate, as is shown in the 
writings known in the middle ages as Cura sanitatis Tiberii 
and Vindicta Sahatoris. According to the former of these 
accounts Veronica, in memory of her cure, caused a portrait 
of the Saviour to be painted. The emperor Tiberius, when 
afflicted with a grievous sickness, commanded the woman to 
bring the portrait to him, worshipped Christ before her eyes, 
and was cured. The legend continued to gather accretions, 
and a miraculous origin came to be assigned to the image. It 



io 3 8 



VERRES VERROCCHIO 



appears that in the izth century the image began to be identi- 
fied with one preserved at Rome, and in the popular speech 
the image, too, was called Veronica. It is interesting to note 
that the fanciful derivation of the same Veronica from the 
words Vera icon (euooi') " true image " is not, as has been 
thought, of modern origin, since it occurs in the Otia Imperialia 
(iii. 25) of Gervase of Tilbury (fl. 1211), who says: " Est 
ergo Veronica pictura Domini vera." In several churches the 
office of St Veronica, matron, is observed on various dates. 

See Acta Sanctorum, February, i. 449-57; L. F. C. Tischendorf, 
Evangelia apocrypha (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1877), p. 239; E. von 
Dobschiitz, Christus'bilder (Leipzig, 1899); H. Thurston, The 
Stations of the Cross (London, 1906). (H. DE.) 

VERRES, GAIUS (c. 120-43 B.C.), Roman magistrate, notori- 
ous for his misgovernment of Sicily. It is not known to what 
gens he belonged. He at first supported Marius and the popu- 
lar party, but soon went over to the other side. Sulla made 
him a present of land at Beneventum, and secured him against 
punishment for embezzlement. In 80, Verres was quaestor in 
Asia on the staff of Cn. Cornelius Dolabella, governor of Cilicia. 
The governor and his subordinate plundered in concert, till in 
78 Dolabella had to stand his trial at Rome, and was convicted, 
mainly on the evidence of Verres, who thus secured a pardon 
for himself. In 74, by a lavish use of bribes, Verres secured 
the city praetorship, and, as a creature of Sulla, abused his 
authority to further the political ends of his party. He was 
then sent as governor to Sicily, the richest of the Roman pro- 
vinces. The people were for the most part prosperous and 
contented, but under Verres the island experienced more misery 
and desolation than during the time of the first Punic or the 
recent servile wars. The corn-growers and the revenue col- 
lectors were ruined by exorbitant imposts or by the iniquitous 
cancelling of contracts; temples and private houses were 
robbed of their works of art; and the rights of Roman citizens 
were disregarded. Verres returned to Rome in 70, and in the 
same year, at the request of the Sicilians, Cicero prosecuted him. 
Verres entrusted his defence to the most eminent of Roman 
advocates, Q. Hortensius, and he had the sympathy and support 
of several of the leading Roman nobles. The court was com- 
posed exclusively of senators, some of whom might have been 
his personal friends. But the presiding judge, the city praetor, 
M'. Acilius Glabrio, was a thoroughly honest man, and his 
assessors were at least not accessible to bribery. Verres vainly 
tried to get the trial postponed till 69 when his friend Metellus 
would be the presiding judge, but in August Cicero opened the 
case. The effect of the first brief speech was so overwhelming 
that Hortensius refused to reply, and recommended his client 
to leave the country. Before the expiration of the nine days 
allowed for the prosecution Verres was on his way to Massilia. 
There he lived in exile till 43, when he was proscribed by Antony, 
the reason alleged being his refusal to surrender some of his 
art treasures which Antony coveted. Verres may not have 
been quite so black as he is painted by Cicero, on whose speeches 
we depend entirely for our knowledge of him, but there can 
hardly be a doubt that he stood pre-eminent among the worst 
specimens of Roman provincial governors. Of the seven 
Verrine orations only two were actually delivered; the re- 
maining five were compiled from the depositions of witnesses, 
and published after the flight of Verres. 

VERRIUS FLACCUS, MARCUS (c. 10 B.C.), Roman gram- 
marian and teacher, flourished under Augustus and Tiberius. 
He was a freedman, and his manumitter has been identified 
with Verrius Flaccus, an authority on pontifical law; but for 
chronological reasons the name of Veranius Flaccus, a writer on 
augury, has been suggested (Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman 
Lit. 199, 4). He gained such a reputation by his methods of 
instruction that he was summoned to court to bring up Gaius 
and Lucius, the grandsons of Augustus. He removed there with 
his whole school, and his salary was greatly increased on the 
condition that he took no fresh pupils. He died at an advanced 
age during the reign of Tiberius (Suetonius, De Grammaticis, 17), 
and a statue in his honour was erected at Praeneste, in a marble 



recess, with inscriptions from his Fasli. Flaccus was also a 
distinguished philologist and antiquarian investigator. For 
his most important work (De Verborum Significatu) see FESTUS, 
SEXTUS. Of the calendar of Roman festivals (Fasti Praenestini) 
engraved on marble and set up in the forum at Praeneste, some 
fragments were discovered (1771) at some distance from the 
town itself in a Christian building of later date, and some 
consular fasti in the forum itself (1778). The collection was 
subsequently increased by two new fragments. 

Other lost works of Flaccus were: De Orthographia: De Obscuris 
Catonis, an elucidation of obscurities in the writings of the elder 
Cato; Saturnus, dealing with questions of Roman ritual; Rerum 
memoria dignarum libri, an encyclopaedic work much used by 
Pliny the elder; Res Etruscae, probably on augury. 

For the fragments of the Fasti see Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, 
i. pp. 311, 474; G. Gatti, " Due nuovi Frammenti del Calendario 
di Verrio Flacco," in Atti della r. Accademia dei Lincei. 5th ser., 
vol. 5, pt. 2, p. 421 (1898); Winther, De fastis Verrii Flacci ab 
Ovidio adhibilis (1885) ; J. E. Sandys, Classical Scholarship (ed. 1906), 
vol. i., index, s.v. " Verrius "; fragments of Flaccus in C. O. Miiller's 
edition of Festus; see also H. Nettleship, Lectures and Essays. 

VERROCCHIO, ANDREA DEL (1435-1488), Italian gold- 
smith, sculptor and painter, was born at Florence. He was 
the son of Michele di Francesco de' Cioni, and took his name 
from his master, the goldsmith Giuliano Verrocchi. Except 
through his works, little is known of his life. As a painter he 
occupies an important position from the fact that Leonardo 
da Vinci and Lorenzo di Credi worked for many years in his 
bottega as pupils and assistants. Only one existing painting 
can be attributed with absolute certainty to Verrocchio's hand, 
the celebrated " Baptism of Christ," originally painted for the 
monks of Vallombrosa, and now in the academy of Florence. 
The figures of Christ and the Baptist are executed with great 
vigour and refinement of touch, but are rather hard and angular 
in style. The two angels are of a much more graceful cast; 
the face of one is of especial beauty, and Vasari is probably right 
in saying that this head was painted by the young Leonardo. 
Other pictures from Verrocchio's bottega probably exist, as, 
for example, two in the National Gallery of London formerly 
attributed to Ant. Pollaiuolo " Tobias and the Angel " (No. 
781) and the very lovely " Madonna and Angels " (No. 296), both 
very brilliant and jewel-like in colour. This exquisite painting 
may possibly have been painted from Verrocchio's design by 
Lorenzo di Credi while he was under the immediate influence of 
his wonderful fellow-pupil, Da Vinci. 1 

In examining Verrocchio's work as a sculptor we are on surer 
ground. One of his earliest works was the beautiful marble 
medallion of the Madonna, over the tomb of Leonardo Bruni 
of Arezzo in the church of Santa Croce at Florence. In 1472 
Verrocchio completed the fine tomb of Giovanni and Piero de' 
Medici, between the sacristy and the lady chapel of San Lorenzo 
at Florence. This consists of a great porphyry sarcophagus 
enriched with magnificent acanthus foliage in bronze. Above 
it is a graceful open bronze grill, made like a network of cordage. 
In 1474 Verrocchio began the monument to Cardinal Forteguerra 
at the west end of Pistoia cathedral. The kneeling figure of 
the cardinal was never completed, and now lies in a room of 
La Sapienza, but the whole design is shown in what is probably 
Verrocchio's original clay sketch, now in the South Kensington 
Museum. Though this work was designed by Verrocchio, the 
actual execution of it was entrusted to his assistant, the Floren- 
tine Lorenzetto. In 1476 Verrocchio modelled and cast the 
fine but too realistic bronze statue of David, now in the Bargello 
(Florence); and in the following year he completed one of the 
reliefs of the magnificent silver altar-frontal of the Florentine 
baptistery, that representing the " Beheading of St John." 
Verrocchio's other works in the precious metals are now lost, 
but Vasari records that he made many elaborate pieces of plate 
and jewelry, such as morses for copes, as well as a series of silver 
statues of the Apostles for the pope's chapel in the Vatican. 
Between 1478 and 1483 he was occupied in making the bronze 
group of the " Unbelief of St Thomas," which still stands in 

1 See Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Painting in Italy (London, 1864), 
ii. pp. 400 seq. 



VERSAILLES 



1039 



, 
, 

' N^V.i " -y?K^SS 




one of the external niches of Or San Michele (Florence). 
He received 800 florins for these two figures, which are more 

remarkable for the 
excellence of their 
technique than for 
their sculpturesque 
beauty. The atti- 
tudes are rather rigid 
and the faces hard in 
expression. V e r r o c- 
chio's chief master- 
piece was the colossal 
bronze equestrian 
statue of the Vene- 
tian general Barto- 
lommeo Colleoni, 
which stands in the 
piazza of SS. Gio- 
vanni e Paolo at Venice. 
Verrocchio received the 
order for this statue in 
1479, but had only 
completed the model 
when he died in 1488. 
In spite of his request 
that the casting should 
be entrusted to his 
Clay sketch for the monument of Cardinal pupil Lorenzo di Credi, 
Forteguerra, showing the kneeling por- th u ' 

trait of the cardinal, which is not in the ~ W , 
actual monument ; a very poor modern to Alessandro Leo- 
figure occupies its place. pardi by the Venetian 

senate, and the statue 

was gilt and unveiled in I4Q6. 1 There appears to be no doubt 
that the model was completed by Verrocchio himself, and that 
nothing more than its reproduction in bronze should be attributed 
to the much feebler hand of Leopardi, who, however, has set his 
own name alone on the belly-band of the horse ALEXANDER- 
LEOPARDVS V. F. OPUS. This is perhaps the noblest 
equestrian statue in the world, being in some respects superior 
to the antique bronze of Marcus Aurelius in Rome and to that 
of Gattamelata at Padua by Donatello. The horse is designed 
with wonderful nobility and spirit, and the easy pose of the 
great general, combining perfect balance with absolute ease and 
security in the saddle, is a marvel of sculpturesque ability. 
Most remarkable skill is shown by the way in which Verrocchio 
has exaggerated the strongly marked features of the general, 
so that nothing of its powerful effect is lost by the lofty position 
of the head. According to Vasari, Verrocchio was one of 
the first sculptors who made a practical use of casts from living 
and dead subjects. He is said also to have produced plastic 
works in terra-cotta, wood and in wax decorated with colour. 
As a sculptor his chief pupil was Francesco di Simone, the 
son of that Simone whom Vasari wrongly calls a brother of 
Donatello. Another pupil was Agnolo di Polo (Paolo), who 
worked chiefly in terra-cotta. 

Verrocchio died in Venice in 1488, and was buried in the 
church of St Ambrogio in Florence. 

See also Hans Mackowsky, " Verrocchio . . . Mit 80 Abbildungen " 
(1901), Kunster Monographien, No. 52. (J. H. M.) 

VERSAILLES, a town of northern France, capital of the 
department of Seine-et-Oise, 12 m. by road W.S.W. of Paris, 
with which it is connected by rail and tram. Pop. (1906) town, 
45,246; commune, 54,820. Versailles owes its existence to the 
palace built by Louis XIV. It stands 460 ft. above the sea, and 
its fresh healthy air and nearness to the capital attract many 
residents. The three avenues of St Cloud, Paris and Sceaux 
converge in the Place d'Armes. Between them stand the former 
stables of the palace, now occupied by the artillery and engineers. 
To the south lies the quarter of Satory, the oldest part of Ver- 
sailles, with the cathedral of St Louis, and to the north the new 
quarter, with the church of Notre Dame. To the west a gilded 
1 See Gay, Cart. ined. i. p. 367. 



iron gate and a stone balustrade shut off the great court of the 
palace from the Place d'Armes. In this court, which slopes 
upwards from the gate, stand statues of Richelieu, Conde, 
Du Guesclin and other famous Frenchmen. At the highest 
point there is an equestrian statue in bronze of Louis XIV., and 
to the right and left of this stretch the long wings of the palace, 
while behind it extend the Cour Royale and the smaller Cour de 
Marbre, to the north, south and west of which rise the central 
buildings. The buildings clustered round the Cour de Marbre, 
which include the apartments of Louis XIV., project into the 
gardens on the west considerably beyond the rest of the facade. 
To the north the Chapel Court and to the south the Princes Court, 
with vaulted passages leading to the gardens, separate the side 
from the central buildings. On the other is the inscription, 
" A toutes les gloires de la France," which Louis Philippe justified 
by forming a collection of works of art (valued at 1,000,000), 
commemorating the great events and persons of French history. 
The palace chapel (1696-1710), the roof of which can be seen from 
afar rising above the rest of the building, was the last work of 
J. Hardouin-Mansart. 

The ground-floor of the north wing on the garden side contains 
eleven halls of historical pictures from Clovis to Louis XVI., 
and on the side of the interior courts a gallery containing casts of 
royal funereal monuments. The Halls of the Crusades open off 
this gallery, and are decorated with the arms of crusaders and with 
modern pictures dealing with that period. On the first floor of 
the north wing on the garden side are ten halls of pictures com- 
memorating historical events from 1795 to 1830; on the court 
side is the Gallery of Sculpture, which contains the Joan of Arc of 
the princess Marie of Orleans; and there are seven halls chiefly 
devoted to French campaigns and generals in Africa, Italy, the 
Crimea and Mexico, with some famous war pictures by Horace 
Vernet. The second storey has a portrait gallery. In the north 
wing is also the theatre built under Louis XV. by Jacques-Ange 
Gabriel, which was first used on the l6th of May 1770 on the marriage 
of the dauphin (afterwards Louis XVI.) and Marie Antoinette. 
Here, on the 2nd of October 1789, the celebrated banquet was given 
to the Gardes du Corps, the toasts at which provoked the riots that 
drove the royal family from Versailles; and here the National 
Assembly met from the loth of March 1871 till the proclamation 
of the constitution in 1875, and the Senate from the 8th of March 
1876 till the return of the two chambers to Paris in 1879. On the 
ground-floor of the central buildings are the halls of celebrated 
warriors (once the anteroom of Madame de Pompadour), marshals, 
constables and admirals, and the suite of rooms known as the 
Dauphin's Apartments, now given up to historical portraits. The 
Galerie Basse, once known as the Gallery of Louis XIII., leads to 
the rooms surrounding the Marble Court, a series of which contains 
many plans of battles. The lobbies of the ground-floor are full of 
busts, statues and tombs of kings and celebrated men. The famous 
staterooms are on the first floor. On the garden side, facing the north, 
are a series of seven halls, some of them decorated with tapestries 
representing the life of Louis XIV. Among them may be mentioned 
the Hall of Hercules, till 1710 the upper half of the old chapel, 
where the dukes of Chartres, Maine and Burgundy were married, 
and Bossuet, Massillon and Bourdaloue preached; the Hall of 
Mercury, where the coffin of Louis XIV. stood for eight days after 
his death; and the Hall of Apollo, or throne room. To the front 
of the palace, facing the west, are the Galleries of War and Peace, 
with allegorical pictures, and the Glass Gallery, built by Mansart 
in 1678 (235 ft. long, 35 wide and 42 high), having 34 arches, 17 of 
which are filled with windows looking on the gardens and 17 with 
large mirrors. The gallery is overloaded with ornament, and the 
pictures by Charles Lcbrun, the trophies and figures of children 
by Antoine Coysevox, and the inscriptions attributed to Boileau 
and Racine, all glorify Louis XIV. This gallery was used by him 
as a throne room on state occasions. Here the king of Prussia 
was proclaimed emperor of Germany on the l8th of January 1871. 
Connected with the Gallery of Peace are the queen's apartments, 
occupied successively by Marie Therese, Marie Leczinska and Marie 
Antoinette, where the duchess of Angouleme was born, the duchess 
of Burgundy died, and Marie Antoinette was almost assassinated 
on the 6th of October 1789. Behind the Glass Gallery on the side 
of the court are the rooms of Louis XIV. The CEil de Boeuf, named 
from its oval window, was the anteroom where the courtiers waited 
till the king rose. In it is a picture representing Louis XIV. and his 
family as Olympian deities; and it leads to the bedroom in which 
Louis XIV. died, after using it from 1701, and which Louis XV. 
occupied from 1722 to 1738. In the south wing of the palace, 
on the ground-floor, is the Gallery of the Republic and the First 
Empire, the rooms of which contain paintings of scenes in the life 
of Napoleon I. A sculpture gallery contains busts of celebrated 
scholars, artists, generals and public men from the time of Louis XVI. 
onwards. In the south wing is also the room where the Chamber 



1040 



VERS DE SOCIETE 



of Deputies met from 1876 till 1879, and where the Congress has 
since sat to revise the constitution voted at Versailles in 1875 and 
to elect the president of the republic. The first floor is almost 
entirely occupied by the Battle Gallery (394 ft. long and 43 wide), 
opened in 1836 on the site of rooms used by Monsieur the brother 
of Louis XIV. and the duke and duchess of Chartres. It is lighted 
from above, and the walls are hung with pictures of French victories. 
In the window openings are the names of soldiers killed while fight- 
ing for France, with the names of the battles in which they fell, 
and there are more than eighty busts of princes, admirals, constables, 
marshals and celebrated warriors who met a similar death. An- 
other room is given up to the events of 1830 and the accession of 
Louis Philippe, and a gallery contains the statues and busts of kings 
and celebrities. 

The gardens of Versailles were planned by Andre Le N6tre. 
The ground falls away on every side from a terrace adorned with 
ornamental basins, statues and bronze groups. Westwards 
from the palace extends a broad avenue, planted with large 
trees, and having along its centre the grass of the " Tapis Vert "; 
it is continued by the Grand Canal, 200 ft. wide and i m. long. On 
the south of the terrace two splendid staircases lead past the 
Orangery to the Swiss Lake, beyond which is the wood of Satory. 
On the north an avenue, with twenty-two groups of three children, 
each group holding a marble basin from which a jet of water 
rises, slopes gently down to the Basin of Neptune, remarkable 
for its fine sculptures and abundant water. The Orangery 
(built in 1685 by Mansart) is the finest piece of architecture at 
Versailles; the central gallery is 508 ft. long and 42 wide, and 
each of the side galleries is 375 ft. long. There are 1200 
orange trees, one of which is said to date from 1421, and 300 
other kinds of trees. 

The alleys of the parks are ornamented with statues, vases 
and regularly cut yews, and bordered by hedges surrounding the 
shrubberies. Between the central terrace and the Tapis Vert is 
the Basin of Latona or the Frogs, with a white marble group of 
Latona with Apollo and Diana. Beyond the Tapis Vert is the large 
Basin of Apollo, who is represented in his chariot drawn by four 
horses; there are three jets of water, one 60, the others 50 ft- in 
height. The Grand Canal is still used for nautical displays; under 
Louis XIV. it was covered with Venetian gondolas and other boats, 
and the evening entertainments usually ended with a display of 
fireworks. Around the Tapis Vert are numerous groves, the most 
remarkable being the Ballroom or Rockery, with a waterfall ; 
the Queen's Shrubbery, the scene of the intrigue of the diamond 
necklace; that of the Colonnade, with thirty-two marble columns 
and a group of Pluto carrying off Prosperine, by Frangois Girardon ; 
the King's Shrubbery, laid out in the English style by Louis Philippe; 
the beautiful Grove of Apollo, with a group of that god and the 
nymphs, by Girardon; and the Basin of Enceladus, with a jet of 
water 75 ft. high. 

Among the chief attractions of Versailles are the fountains and 
waterworks made by Louis XIV. in imitation of those he had 
seen at Fouquet's chateau of Vaux. Owing to the scarcity of 
water at Versailles, the works at Marly-le-Roi were constructed in 
order to bring water from the Seine; but part of the supply thus 
obtained was diverted to the newly erected chateau of Marly. 
Vast sums of money were spent and many lives lost in an attempt 
to bring water from the Eure, but the work was stopped by the 
war of 1688. At last the waters of the plateau between Versailles 
and Rambouillet were collected and led by channels (total length 
98 m.) to the gardens, the soil of which covers innumerable 
pipes, vaults and aqueducts. 

Beyond the present park, but within that of Louis XIV., are the 
two Trianons. The Grand Trianon was originally erected as a 
retreat for Louis XIV. in 1670, but in 1687 Mansart built a new 
palace on its site. Louis XV., after establishing a botanic 
garden, made Gabriel build in 1766 the small pavilion of the 
Petit Trianon, where the machinery is still shown by which his 
supper-table came up through the floor. It was a favourite 
residence of Marie Antoinette, who had a garden laid out in the 
English style, with rustic villas in which the ladies of the court 
led a mimic peasant-life. The Grand Trianon is a one-storeyed 
building with two wings, and has been occupied by Monsieur 
(Louis XIV.'s brother), by the Great Dauphin, Napoleon I., 
and Louis Philippe and his court. The gardens of the Grand 
Trianon are in the same style as those of Versailles, and there 
is a museum with a curious collection of state carriages, old 
harness, &c. 



Apart from the palace, there are no buildings of interest in 
Versailles; the church of Notre Dame, built by Mansart, the 
cathedral of St Louis, built by his grandson, the Protestant 
church and the English chapel being in no way remarkable. 
The celebrated tennis-court (Jeu de Paume) is now used as a 
museum. The large and sumptuous palace of the prefecture 
was built during the second empire, and was a residence of the 
president of the republic from 1871 'to 1879. The library consists 
of 60,000 volumes; and the military hospital formerly accom- 
modated 2000 people in the service of the palace. There are 
statues of General Hoche and of Abbe de 1'Epee in the town. 
A school of horticulture was founded in 1874, attached to an 
excellent garden, near the Swiss Lake. 

Versailles is the seat of a bishopric, a prefect and a court of 
assizes, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board 
of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of comrnerce and a branch of the 
Bank of France, and, among its educational establishments, lycees 
and training colleges for both sexes and a technical school. It is 
an important garrison town and has a school of military engineer- 
ing and artillery. Distilling, boot and shoe making, and market- 
gardening employ many of the people, but the town has no specially 
characteristic industry. The links of the Paris Golf Club are at La 
Boulie near Versailles. 

Louis XIII. often hunted in the woods of Versailles, and 
built a small pavilion at the corner of what is now the rue de 
la Pompe and the avenue of St Cloud. In 1627 he entrusted 
Jacques Lemercier with the plan of a chateau. In 1661 Louis 
Levau made some additions which were further developed by 
him in 1668. In 1678 Mansart took over the work, the Galerie 
des Glaces, the chapel and the two wings being due to him. 
In 1682 Louis XIV. took up his residence in the chateau. It 
is estimated that 20 million pounds were spent on the palace, 
gardens and works of art, the accounts for which were destroyed 
by the king. Till his time the town was represented by a few 
houses to the south of the present Place d'Armes; but land was 
given to the lords of the court and new houses sprang up, chiefly 
in the north quarter. Under Louis XV. the parish of St Louis 
was formed to the south for the increasing population, and new 
streets were built to the north on the meadows of Clagny, where 
in 1674 Mansart had built at Louis XIV.'s orders a chateau 
for Madame de Montespan, which was now pulled down. Under 
Louis XVI. the town extended to the east and received a muni- 
cipality; in 1802 it gave its name to a bishopric. In 1783 the 
armistice preliminary to the treaty of peace between Great 
Britain and the United States was signed at Versailles. The 
states-general met here on the sth of May 1789, and on the 
2oth of June took the solemn oath in the Tennis Court by 
which they bound themselves not to separate till they had 
given France a constitution. Napoleon neglected, and Louis 
XVIII. and Charles X. merely kept up, Versailles, but Louis 
Philippe restored its ancient splendour at the cost of 
1,000,000. In 1870 and 1871 the town was the headquarters 
of the German army besieging Paris. After the peace Versailles 
was the seat of the French National Assembly while the 
commune was triumphant in Paris, and of the two chambers 
till 1879, being declared the official capital of France. 

See A. P. Gille, Versailles et les deux Trianons, with illustrations by 
M. Lambert (Tours, 1899, 1900); P. de Nolhac, La Creation de 
Versailles (Versailles, 1901); J. E. Farmer, Versailles and the Court 
under Louis XIV. (New York, 1905). 

VERS DE SOCIETE, a term for social or familiar poetry, 
which was originally borrowed from the French, and has now 
come to rank as an English expression (see Fennell, The Stam- 
ford Dictionary of Anglicised Words). The use of the phrase as 
an English one is first met with at the opening of the I9th 
century. It is to be observed that it has come to bear a meaning 
which is not wholly equivalent to that of the French original. 
It was said of the blind philosopher, M. C. J. Pougens (1755- 
1833), that his petits vers de societe procured great success 
for him in the salons of Paris, and several of the rhymesters of 
the early i8th century were prominent for their adroitness in 
composing petits vers sur des sujets legers. The prince of such 
graceful triflers was the Abbe de Chaulieu (1630-1720), of 
whom it was said that he made verses solely for the amusement 



VERSE 



1041 



of his friends, and without the smallest intention of seeing 
them in print. The best of his effusions have preserved a 
certain freshness because of the neatness with which they are 
turned, but it can scarcely be said that they have any pre- 
tension to be called poetry. . They were inspired by incidents 
in the private life of the day, and were largely addressed to a 
few friends of exalted rank, who were hardly less witty than 
the author himself, such as the due de Nevers, the marquis de 
Lassay, the duchesse de Bouillon and the marquis de la Fare. 
In the collections of Chaulieu's works, which were very often 
reprinted, side by side with his own pieces will be found petits 
vers de societe indited by these great friends of his, and often 
quite as well turned as his own. To write such verses, indeed, 
was almost an accomplishment of good breeding. An enormous 
collection of them was brought together by Titon du Tillet 
(1676-1762), in his Parnasse franQois, where those who are 
curious on the subject may observe to satiety how ingenious 
and artificial and trifling the vers de societe of the French 
1 8th century could be. The fashion for them followed upon 
the decline of an interest in rondeaux, ballades and villanelles, 
and Chaulieu himself had not a little to do with throwing those 
ingenuities out of fashion, his attack on Benserade, who went 
so far as to turn the whole of Ovid's Metamorphoses into ron- 
deaux, being, according to his editor of 1732, " the first work 
which displayed the delicacy of the Abbe de Chaulieu's taste, 
and his talent for poetry." Of the writers of vers de societe 
in France, J. B. Rousseau had the most poetical faculty; he 
was, in fact, a poet, and he wrote a " Billet a Chaulieu ." which 
is a gem of delicate and playful charm. But, as a rule, the 
efforts of the French versifiers dans les petits genres were not 
of considerable poetic value. 

If in England the expression vers de socieli carries with it 
more literary dignity, this is mainly due to the genius of one 
man. Prior's Poems on Several Occasions, collected in 1709, 
presents us with some of the earliest entirely characteristic 
specimens of vers de societe, and with some of the best. Here 
the poet consciously, and openly, resigns the pretension of 
high effort and an appeal to Parnassus. He is paying a visit 
at Burghley House, where the conversation turns on the merits 
and adventures of Mr Fleet wood Shepherd; Prior then and 
there throws off, in extremely graceful verse, a piece appro- 
priate to the occasion. He addresses it, and he dates it (May 
14, 1689); and this is a typical example of vers de societe. 
It will be seen that Prior, who learned much from his residence 
in the heart of the French world of fashion between 1711 and 
1715, treats very much the same subjects as Chaulieu and La 
Fare were treating, but he does so with more force of style and 
dignity of imagination. As the i8th century progressed, the 
example of Prior was often followed by English poets, without, 
however, any general recapture of his forcible grace. The 
vers de societe tended to be merged in the epistle and in the 
epigram. Swift, however, when he was neither coarse nor 
frigid, sometimes achieved a genuine success, as in the admir- 
able verses on his own death. The odes of Ambrose Philips 
(1671-1749) addressed by name to various private persons, 
and, most happily, to children, were not understood in his own 
age, but possess some of the most fortunate characteristics of 
pure vers de societe. In his " Welcome from Greece," a study 
in ottava rima, Gay produced a masterpiece in this delicate 
class, but most of his easy writings belong to a different category. 
Nothing of peculiar importance detains us until we reach 
Cowper, whose poems for particular occasions, such as those 
on " Mrs Throckmorton's Bullfinch " and " The Distressed 
Travellers," are models of the poetic use of actual circumstances 
treated with an agreeable levity, or an artful naivete. In a 
later age, Byron, who excelled in so many departments of 
poetry, was an occasional writer of brilliant vers de society, 
such as the epistle " Huzza, Hodgson," but to find a direct 
successor to Prior it is necessary to pass Henry Luttrell (1765- 
1851) and W. R. Spencer (1769-1834), and to come down to 
W. M. Praed (q.v.}. A certain character was given to English vers 
de societe by Hood and Barham, but the former was too much 



addicted to a play upon words, the latter was too boisterous, 
to be considered as direct continuers of the tradition of Prior. 
That tradition, however, was revived by Frederick Locker, 
afterwards Locker-Lampson (1821-1895), whose London 
Lyrics, first printed in 1857 and constantly modified until 
1893, is in some respects the typical modern example of pure 
vers de socitte. Locker was a simple, clear and easy writer; 
he successfully avoided the least appearance of that effort 
which is fatal to this kind of verse. His " Rotten Row," 
with its reminiscences of the early sixties, 

" But where is now the courtly troop 

That once rode laughing by? 
I miss the curls of Cantelupe, 
The laugh of Lady Di," 

touches of real portraiture is a perfect example of vers de 
societe. Since the days of Locker, those who have attempted 
to strike the lighter lyre in English have been very numerous. 
Almost immeasurably superior to the rest has been Mr Austin 
Dobson, who is, however, something more than a writer of vers 
de societe. 

Collections of vers de societe of much excellence have been pub- 
lished by J. K. Stephen (1859-92), Andrew Lang (b. 1844), A. D. 
Godley (b. 1856), Owen Seaman (b. 1861) and A. R. Ropes (" Adrian 
Ross '*) (b. 1859). ' (E. G.) 

VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by 
turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an 
arrangement of syllables into feet), the name given to an 
assemblage of words so placed together as to produce a metrical 
effect. The art of making, and the science of analysing, such 
verses is known as Versification. According to Max Miiller, 
there is an analogy between versus and the Sanskrit term, vritta, 
which is the name given by the ancient grammarians of India 
to the rule determining the value of the quantity in vedic 
poetry. In modern speech, verse is directly contrasted with 
prose, as being essentially the result of an attention to determined 
rules of form. In English we speak of " a verse " or " verses," 
with reference to specific instances, or of " verse," as the general 
science or art of metrical expression, with its regulations and 
phenomena. A verse, which is a series of rhythmical syllables, 
divided by pauses, is destined in script to occupy a single line, 
and was so understood by the ancients (the or/xosof the Greeks). 
The Alexandrian scholiast Hephaestion speaks distinctly of 
verses that ceased to be verses because they were too long; 
he stigmatizes a pentameter line of Callimachus as GTLXOV 
virepnerpov. There is no danger, therefore, in our emphasiz- 
ing this rule, and in saying that, even in Mr Swinburne's 
most extended experiments the theory is that a verse fills but 
one line in a supposititious piece of writing. 

It is essential that the verse so limited should be a complete 
form in itself. It is not, like a clause or a sentence in prose, 
unrecurrent and unlimited, but it presents us with a successive 
and a continuous cadence, confined within definite bounds. 
There has been a constant discussion as to what it is in which 
this succession and this continuity consist, and here we come 
at once to the principal difficulty which makes the analysis 
of the processes of the poets so difficult. To go back to the 
earliest European tradition, it is universally admitted that the 
ancient Greeks considered the art of verse as a branch of music, 
and as such co-ordinated it with harmony and orchestral effect. 
This appears from definite statements preserved in the fragments 
of Aristoxenus of Tarentum, a grammarian who lived in the age 
of Alexander the Great, and whom we shall see to have been the 
first who laid down definite laws for prosody as a department 
of musical art (JWUCTIKI?). It was found necessary, in order 
to compose a work of musical value, to work out a system of 
disciplined and linked movement. This system, or arrangement, 
was called rhythm, and this is common to all the arts of melody. 
Harmony, consisting in the reproduction of the found of human 
voices or of musical instruments, and orchestrics, dealing with 
the movements of the human body, were expressed in metrical 
art by that arrangement of syllables which is known as rhythm. 
The science of metre is the teaching of those laws on which 



1042 



VERSE 



depends the rhythmical forms of poetry. This science has been, 
from the earliest ages of criticism, divided into a study of the 
general principles upon which all these forms are builded, and 
upon the special types into which they have gradually developed. 

In considering ancient versification, it is necessary to give 
attention to Latin as well as to Greek metre, because although 
the Roman poets were in the main dependent upon the earlier 
tradition, there were several points at which they broke away, 
and were almost entirely independent. Roman verse, though 
essentially the same as Greek verse, was modified by the national 
development of Italian forms of poetry, by a simplified imitation 
of Greek measures, and by a varied intensity in the creation of 
new types of the old Greek artistic forms (Volkmann). In 
later times there was a tendency to consider the laws of metre 
as superior to, and almost independent of, the native impulse 
of the poet; and this is where the study of the old poetry 
itself is most salutary, as checking us in our tendency to bow 
too slavishly to the rules of the grammarians. No doubt, in 
the archaic times, theory and practice went hand in hand. 
The poet, held in constant check by the exigencies of music, 
was obliged to recognize the existence of certain rules, the 
necessity of which was confirmed by the delicacy of his ear. 
These he would pass down to his disciples, with any further 
discoveries which he might himself have made. For instance, 
what we are somewhat vaguely told of the influence of a poet 
like Archilochus, to whom the very invention of trochaic and 
iambic metre is, perhaps fabulously, attributed, points to the 
probability that in Archilochus the Ionian race produced a 
poet of extraordinary daring and delicacy of ear, who gathered 
the wandering rhythms that had existed, and had doubtless 
been used in an uncertain way before his time, into a system 
which could be depended upon, and not in his hands only, 
to produce certain effects of welcome variety. His system would 
engage the attention of theorists, and we learn that by the 
time of Plato schools of oral metrical education were already 
in existence, where the science of sounds and syllables was 
already beginning to be recognized, as may be seen in the 
Cratylus. Before long, the teachings in these peripatetic schools 
would be preserved, for safety's sake, in writing, and the 
theoretic literature of versification would begin. In fact, we 
read in Suidas of a certain Lasus of Hermione who wrote an 
Art of Poetry, and the age of this, the earliest of recorded 
authorities on the formal laws of verse, is fixed for us by the 
fact that he is spoken of as having been the master of Pindar. 
Of the writings of Lasus and his followers, however, nothing 
remains, and the character of their teaching is problematical. 
In the 3rd century B.C., however, we come upon a figure which 
preserves a definite character; this is Aristoxenus, the disciple 
of Aristotle, who gave his undivided attention to rhythm, and 
who lives, unfortunately only in fragments, as the most eminent 
musical critic of antiquity. The brief fragments of his Elements 
of Rhythm (pv6^u<a. OTOIX^} , originally written in three books, 
are of unsurpassed value to us as illustrating the attitude of 
classical Greece to the interrelation of verse and music. The 
third book of Aristoxenus dealt specifically with Xe, or the 
application of rhythm to artistically composed and written verse. 

It is certain that, after the time of Alexander the Great, the 
theories of verse tended somewhat rapidly to release themselves 
from the theories of music, and when, in the successive ages of 
Greek criticism, much attention was given to the laws of 
versification, less and less was said about harmony and more 
and more about metre. Rules, often of a highly arbitrary 
nature, were drawn up by grammarians, who founded their 
laws on a scholiastic study of the ancient poets. The majority 
of the works in which these rules were collected are lost, but 
an enchiridion of Greek metres, by Hephaestion, a scholiast 
of the 2nd century A.D., has been preserved. First printed in 
1526, editions and translations of Hephaestion's manual have 
not been infrequent. 

It is from Hephaestion that most of our ideas on the subject of 
classical prosody are obtained. His work, as we possess it, seems to 
be a summary, made by himself, for use in schools, of an exhaustive 



treatise he had published on the Greek metrical system as a whole, 
in 48 books. The pre-eminent importance of Hephaestion was 
exposed to the learned world of Europe by Th. Gaisford, in 1810. 
A contemporary of Hephaestion, Herodian, who was one of the 
most eminent of Alexandrian grammarians, gave close attention to 
prosody, and was believed to have summed up everything that 
could be known on the subject of verse by critics of the 2nd century 
A.D., in his Mfyi\ri irpoay&ia, in twenty books. As Herodian, 
throughout his life, seems to have concentrated his attention on the 
study of Homer, it is supposed that he started with a consideration 
of the metre and accent of the Iliad. The almost complete loss of 
his treatises is regrettable. Philoxenus was the author of a very 
early work, Htpl lurpav; but this is entirely lost. In the musical 
cyclopaedia of Quintilian, there was included a chapter on the 
elements of the rhythmic art, and in this the metres recognized at 
the time were recorded and described. Among the Latin authorities 
on versification, the leading place is taken, in the 1st century B.C., by 
Terentius Varro, whose systematic treatment of metre in his works 
De sermone latino and De lingua latina is often referred to But we 
know more of Terentianus Maurus, who flourished in the second 
half of the 2nd century A.D., since we possess from his hand a hand- 
book to metre, written in verse, in which, in particular, the Horatian 
metres are carefully analysed. He follows Caesius Bassus, the 
friend of Nero, who had dedicated to his imperial patron a work 
on prosody, of which fragments exist. Three tracts, attributed to 
the rhetor C. Marius Victorinus (one entitled De rations metrorum), 
belong to the 4th century, and are still quoted by scholars. Another 
early authority was Flavius Mallius Theodorus, whose De Metris 
has been frequently reprinted. 

The metrical theory of the Byzantine grammarians was 
entirely in unison with the old tradition of the Alexandrian 
schools, and depended on the authority of Hephaestion. Michael 
Psellus, in the pth century, wrote abundantly on the subject, and 
towards the close of the Empire the verse-handbooks of Isaac 
Tzetzes (d. 1138) and of his brother Joannes were in general use. 
A large number of other Byzantine scholiasts and theorists are 
mentioned in this connexion by Gleditsch. Very little attention 
was paid to metrical science in medieval and even Renaissance 
days. It is much to the honour of English scholarship that the 
earliest modern writer who made a rational study, of ancient 
metre was Richard Bentley, in his Schediasma de metris Teren- 
tianis, printed at Cambridge in 1726. He was soon followed 
by the Germans, in particular by Hermann, Boeckh and J. A. 
Apel. To this day, German scholarship easily leads in the 
rational and accurate study of classical versification. 

The chief principle in ancient verse was quantity, that is, 
the amount of time involved in the effort to express a syllable. 
Accordingly, the two basal types which lie at the foundation of 
classical metre are "longs" and "shorts." The convention 
was that a long syllable was equal to two short ones: accord- 
ingly there was a real truth in calling the succession of such 
" feet " metre, for the length, or weight, of the syllables forming 
them could be, and was, measured. What has to be realized 
in speaking of ancient metre is that the value of these feet was 
defined with exactitude, not left uncertain, as it is in modern 
European verse, when accent is almost always made the guiding 
principle. In Greek verse, there might be an ictus (stress), 
which fell upon the long syllable, but it could only be a regulat- 
ing element, and accent was always a secondary element in the 
construction of Greek metre. The " feet " recognized and 
described by the ancient grammarians were various, and in 
their apparent diversity sometimes difficult to follow, but the 
comprehension of them is simplified if the student realizes that 
the names given to them are often superfluous. The main 
distinction between feet consists in the diversity of the relation 
between the strong and the weak syllables. There are naturally 
only two movements, the quick and the slow. Thus we have 
the anapaest ( - ' , short-short-long) and the dactyl 
( '*-''*-', long-short-short), which are equal, and differ only 
as regards the position of their parts. To these follow two feet 
which must be considered as in their essence non-metrical, as 
it is only in combination with others that they can become 

metrical. These are the spondee ( , long-long) and 

the pyrrhic ( ' >-', short-short). Of more essential character 
are the two descriptions of slow feet, the iamb ( - , short- 
long) and the trochee ( ^, long-short). Besides these 
definite types, the ingenuity of formalists has invented an 



VERSE 



1043 



almost infinite number of other " feet." It is, perhaps, 
necessary to mention some of the principal of these, although 
they are, in the majority of cases, purely arbitrary. In the 
rapid measures we find the tribrach ( - ^ --, short-short- 
short), the molossus ( , long-long-long), the amphibrach 
(^ '', short-long-short), the amphimacer ( -- - , long.- 
short-long), the bacchius (^ -- , short-long-long) and the 
antibacchius ( -- --, long-long-short). There is a foot of 
four syllables, the choriamb ( -^ *-* , long-short-short- 
long), which is the fundamental foot in Aeolic verse very 
frequently mentioned, but very seldom met with. 

It must not be forgotten that the prosodical terminology 
of the Greeks, which is often treated by non-poetical writers 
as something scientific and even sacrosanct, dates from a 
time when ancient literature had lost all its freshness and 
impulse, and was exclusively the study of analysts and gram- 
marians. Between the life of Pindar, for instance, and that of 
Hephaestion, the great metrical authority, there extends a 
longer period than between Chaucer and Professor Skeat; and 
to appreciate the value of the rules of Greek prosody we must 
recollect that those rules were invented by learned and academic 
men to account for phenomena which they observed, and 
wished to comprehend, in writings that had long been classical, 
and were already growing positively archaic. The fact seems 
to be that the combination of long and short syllables into 
spondees, iambs, dactyls and anapaests, forms the sole genuine 
basis of all classical verse. 

Metre is a science which pays attention to all the possible 
regular arrangements which can be made of these four indis- 
pensable and indestructible types. Of the metres of the ancients 
by far the most often employed, and no doubt the oldest, was the 
dactylic hexameter, a combination of six feet, five successive 
dactyls and a spondee or trochee: 



This was known to the ancients as " epic " verse, in contrast 
to the various lyrical measures. The poetry of Homer is the 
typical example of the use of the epic hexameter, and the 
character of the Homeric saga led to the fashion by which the 
dactylic hexameter, whatever its subject, was styled " heroic 
metre." The earliest epics, doubtless, were chanted to the 
accompaniment of a stringed instrument, on which the pulsa- 
tion of the verse (ibnj) was recorded. It was the opinion of 
W. Christ that the origin of the hexameter was to be sought 
in hieratic poetry, the fulness of the long dactylic line attracting 
the priests to its use in the delivery of oracles, from which it 
naturally passed to solemn tales of the actions of gods and heroes. 
It is more difficult to see how, later on, it became the vehicle 
for comic and satiric writing, and is found at last adopted by 
the bucolic poets for their amorous and pastoral dialogues. 
The Homeric form of the dactylic hexameter has been usually 
taken, and was taken in classical times, as the normal one, 
but there have been many variations. A hexameter found in 
Catullus consists exclusively of spondees, and deviation from 
the original heroic type could go no further. This concentration 
of heavy sounds was cultivated to give solemnity to the cha- 
racter of the line. In the whole matter, it is best to recognize 
that the rules of the grammarians were made after the event, 
to account for the fact that the poets had chosen, while adhering 
to the verse-structure of five rapid beats and a subsidence, to 
vary the internal character of that structure exactly as their 
ear and their passion dictated. This seems particularly true 
in the case of the caesura, where the question is not so much 
a matter of defining " male " caesura or " female " caesura, 
" bucolic " caesura or " trochaic," as of patiently noting 
instances in which the unconscious poet, led by his inspiration, 
has varied his pauses and his emphasis at his own free will. 
The critics have written much of " proscdical licence," but 
verse in the days of Homer, like verse now, is simply good or bad, 
and if it is good it may show liberty and variety, but it knows 
nothing of " licence." 

We pass, by a natural transition, to the pentameter, which 



is the most frequently employed of what are known as the 
syncopied forms of dactylic verse. It was used with the hexa- 
meter, to produce the effect which was early called elegiac, and 
its form shows the appropriateness of this custom: 

"Cynthia | prima fu- | it, || Cynthia | finis e- | rit." 

A hexameter, full of energy and exaltation, followed by a 
descending and melancholy pentameter, had an immediate 
tendency to take a complete form, and this is the origin of the 
stanza. The peculiar character of this two-line stanza has been 
fixed for all time by a brilliant epigram of Schiller, which is itself 
a specimen of the form: 

" Im Hexameter steigt des Springquells fliissige Saule, 
Im Pentameter drauf fallt sie melodisch nerab." 

Such a distich was called an elegy, eXe-yeloc, as specially suitable 
to an isXeyos or lamentation. It is difficult to say with certainty 
whether the distich so composed was essential as an accompani- 
ment to flute-music in the earliest times, or how soon there came 
to be written purely literary elegies towards which the melody 
stood in a secondary or ornamental relation. It has, however, 
been observed that even when the distich had obviously come 
to be a purely intellectual or lyrical thing, there remained in 
the sound of the pentameter the trace of lamentation, in which 
its primitive use at funeral services was clearly preserved. 
Other grammarians, however, among whom Casar, in his work 
on the origin of elegiac verse, is prominent, do not believe in 
the lugubrious essence of the pentameter, and think that the 
elegiacal couplet was originally erotic, and was adapted to 
mournful themes by Simonides. If we may credit a passage 
in Athenaeus, it would seem that the earliest-known elegists, 
such as Callinus and Solon, wrote for recitation, pure and 
simple, without the accompaniment of any instrument. 

Trochaic verse is called by the ancient grammarians head- 
less (a.Kt<t>a\oi') , because it really consists of iambic verse 
deprived of its head, or opening syllable. The iambic 
measure (^ ^ ^ ) becomes trochaic if we cut off 
the first "short," and make it run - -~* -' ^ . 
The pure trochaic trimeter and tetrameter had a character 
of breathless speed, and sometimes bore the name of choric 
(pvdnos xopttos), because it was peculiarly appropriate to the 
dance, and was used for poems which expressed a quickly 
stepping sentiment. It is understood that, after having been 
known as a musical movement, it was first employed in 
the composition of poetry by Archilpchus of Paros, in the 
7th century B.C. 

Iambic metre was, next to the dactylic hexameter, the form of 
verse most frequently employed by the poets of Greek antiquity. 
Archilochus, again, who seems to have been a great initiator 
in the arts of versification, is credited with the invention of the 
iambic trimeter also, but it certainly existed before his time. 
Murray believes the original iambic measure, in its popular 
familiarity, to have sprung from the worship of the homely 
peasant gods, Dionysus and Demeter. It was not far removed 
from prose; it gave a writer opportunity for expressing popular 
thoughts in a manner which simple men could appreciate, being 
close to their own unsophisticated speech. In particular, it 
presented itself as a heaven-made instrument for the talent of 
Euripides, " who, seeing poetry and meaning in every stone 
of a street, found in the current iambic trimeter a vehicle 
of expression in some ways more flexible even than prose." 

It was not, however, until the invention of the lyric proper, 
whether individual to the poet, or choral, that the full richness 
of possible rhythms became obvious to the Greeks. The lyric 
inspiration came originally from the island of Lesbos, and it 
passed down through the Asiatic archipelago to Crete before 
it reached the mainland of Greece. The Lesbians cultivated 
a monodic ode-poetry in strophes and monostrophes, the en- 
chanting beauty of which can still be realized in measure from 
what remains to us of the writings of Sappho and Alcaeus 
There is a stanza known as the Sapphic and another as the 
Alcaic. 



1044 

The Sapphic runs as follows: 



VERSE 



The stanza of Alcaeus runs: 



These marvellous inventions suited the different moods of these 
strongly contrasted lyrists, the " violet-crowned, pure, softly 
smiling Sappho," and the fiery, vehement soldier who was 
Alcaeus. We must give them peculiar attention, since they 
were the two earliest models for the lyric passion which has 
since then expressed itself in so many stanzaic forms, but in 
none of so faultless a perfection as the original Lesbian types. 

The name of Stesichorus of Himera points to the belief of 
antiquity that he was the earliest poet who gave form to the 
choral song; he must have been called the " choir-setter " 
because he arranged and wrote for choirs semi-epic verse of a 
new kind, " made up of halves of the epic hexameter, inter- 
spersed with short variations epitrites, anapaests or mere 
syncopae just enough to break the dactylic swing, to make the 
verse lyrical " (Gilbert Murray). But it appears to be to Arion 
that the artistic form of the dithyramb is due. We are all 
among innovators and creators in this glorious sth century B.C. 
Simonides gathered the various inventions together, and exer- 
cised his genius upon them all: he was the earliest universal 
lyrist of the world: he treated the styles of verse, as Shelley 
or as Victor Hugo did, with an impartial mastery. 

After the happy event of the Persian War, Athens became 
the centre of literary activity in Greece, and here the great 
school of drama developed itself, using for its vehicle, in dialogue, 
monologue and chorus, nearly all the metres which earlier ages 
and distant provinces had invented. The verse-form which 
the dramatists preferred to use was almost exclusively the 
iambic trimeter, a form which adapted itself equally well to 
tragedy and to comedy. Aeschylus employed for his choruses 
a great number of lyric measures, which Sophocles and Euripides 
reduced and regulated. With the age of the dramatists the 
creative power of the Greeks in versification came to an end, 
and the revival of poetic enthusiasm in the Alexandrian age 
brought with it no talent for fresh metrical inventions, and the 
time had now arrived when the harvest of Greek prosody was 
completely garnered. 

Latin Metre. Very little is known about the verse-forms 
of the original inhabitants of Italy, before the introduction of 
Greek influences. The earliest use of poetry as a national 
art in Italy is to be judged by inscriptions in what is called 
the Saturnian metre. Already, the first Latin epic poets, 
Livius Andronicus in his Odyssia, Naevius in his Bettum Punicum, 
the Scipios in their Elogia, combined their rude national sense 
of folk-song with a consciousness of the quantitative rules of 
the Greeks. But the same writers, in their dramas, undoubtedly 
used Greek metres without adaptation, and it is therefore likely 
that the ancient Saturnian measure was already looked upon 
as barbarous, and it makes no further reappearance in Latin 
literature (cf. Gleditsch). The introduction of Greek dramatic 
metre marks the start of regular poetry among the Latins, 
which was due, not to men of Roman birth, but to poets of 
Greek extraction or inhabiting the Greek-speaking provinces of 
Italy. These writers, bearing the stamp of a widely recognized 
cultivation, threw the old national verse back into oblivion. 
Latin verse, then, began in a free but loyal modification of the 
principles of Greek verse. Plautus was particularly ambitious 
and skilful in this work, and, aided by a native genius for metre, 
he laid down the basis of Latin dramatic versification. Terence 
was a feebler and at the same time a more timid metrist. In 
satire, the iambic and trochaic measures were carefully adapted 



by Ennius and Lucilius. The dactylic hexameter followed, 
and Ennius, in all matters of verse a daring innovator, directly 
imitated in his Annales the epic measure of the Greeks. To him 
also is attributed the introduction of the elegiac distich, 
hexameter and pentameter. The dactylic hexameter was 
forthwith adopted as the leading metre of the Roman poets, 
and, as Gleditsch has pointed out, the basis upon which all 
future versification was to be erected was firmly laid down 
before the death of Ennius in 169 B.C. Lucilius followed, but 
perhaps with some tendency to retrogression, for the Latin 
critics seem to have looked upon his metre as wanting both in 
melody and elasticity. Lucretius, on the other hand, made a 
further advance on the labours of Ennius, in his study of 

" the rise 
And long roll of the Hexameter." 

Lest, however, this great form of verse should take too exclusive 
a place in the imagination of the Romans, a younger generation, 
with Laevius and Terentius Varro at their head, began to 
imitate the lyrical measures of the Greeks with remarkable 
success. Varro, who has been styled the earliest metrical 
theorist of Rome, opened up a new field in this direction by the 
example of his Menippean satires. These poets left the rigid 
school of Ennius, and sought to emulate the Alexandrians of 
their own age: we see the result in the lyric measures used 
so frracefully and with such brilliant ease by Catullus. The 
versification of the Romans reached its highest point of polish 
in the Augustan age, in the writings of Tibullus, Propertius, 
Virgil and particularly Ovid, who is considered to mark the 
highest level of various excellence which has ever been reached 
by a master of Latin versification. In Horace has been traced a 
tendency to archaism in the study of verse, and in his odes and 
epodes he was not content with the soft Alexandrian models, 
but aimed at achieving more vigorous effects by an imitation 
of the older Greek models, such as Alcaeus and even Archilochus. 
After the Augustan age, it was no longer the Greek poets, 
ancient or recent, who were imitated, but the Augustans them- 
selves were taken as the inapproachable models of Roman verse. 

We have hitherto spoken of classical versification as it was 
regarded by those whom, without offence, we may describe 
as pedants. But there is precious evidence of the mode in 
which metre was regarded by poets, and by one of the greatest 
artists of antiquity. In his Art of Poetry Horace has been 
speaking of the need of method in composition " tantum 
series juncturaque pollet " and this reminds him that he has 
said nothing of the art of verse. The succeeding twenty-four 
lines contain all that this great poet thought it needful to supply 
on the subject with which Alexandrian grammarians could fill 
as many volumes. Although he is actually writing in dactylic 
hexameters, he does not mention this form of verse; he is 
chiefly occupied hi describing, rather unscientifically, the 
iambic trimeter, and in praising the iamb, pes citus. He 
applauds, still somewhat vaguely, the stately versification of 
the precursors, Ennius and Accius, and blames the immodulala 
poemata of careless modern writers, whose laxity is condoned 
by popular ignorance. The only way to escape such faults is to 
study the Greeks by night and by day, but Horace evidently 
means by his exemplaria Graeca, not the scholiasts with their 
lists of metres and their laborious rules, but the old poets with 
their fine raptures. On Italian ground he points to Plautus, 
and laments that the Romans of his own day, fascinated by softer 
cadences, have lost their veneration for the vigorous beauty 
of the Plautinos numeros. And Horace closes with a queer 
suggestion, which may be taken as we please, that a poet in 
an age of flagging inspiration must trust to his fingers as well 
as his ears. 

Modern Versification. The main distinction between classical 
and modern versification consists in the negligence shown by 
the moderns to quantity, which is defined as the length or short- 
ness of the sound of syllables, as determined by the time required 
to pronounce them. This dimension of sound was rigid in the 
case of Greek and Latin poetry, until, in what is known as the 



VERSE 



1045 



Middle Greek period, there came in a general tendency to relax 
the exact value of sounds and syllables, and to introduce accent, 
which is a measure of quality rather than of quantity. A 
syllable, in modern verse, is heavy or light, according as it is 
accented or unaccented that is to say, according as it receives 
stress from the voice or not. In the word " tulip," for instance, 
the syllables are of equal length, but the accent is strongly 
upon the first. It is mainly a question of force with us, not 
of time as with the ancients. There is, however, an element of 
quantity in modern verse, as there was of accent in ancient verse. 
The foot, in modern verse, takes a less prominent place in itself 
than it did in Greece, and is regarded more in relation to the 
whole line of which it makes a part. A mere counting of 
syllables is useless. In Milton's 

" From haunted spring and dale, 
Edg'd with poplar pale," 

an ancient scholiast would have found it impossible to discover 
any harmony, for he would have had no means of measuring 
the value of the heavy accent on " edg'd," followed by a pause, 
and would have demanded another syllable in the second line 
to turn the whole into verse. The first poet to whom it occurred 
that it was needless to attach such predominant importance to 
quantity was Gregory of Nazianzen (d. 389), a Christian bishop 
of the Greek Church. In two important poems by Gregory all 
prosodical discipline is found to have disappeared, and the rule 
of verse has come to be accentual, with a heavy stress on the 
penultimate syllable. About the same time, the Greek fabulist 
Babrius employed a choliambic metre having a strong accent 
on the penultimate. The poets of the transition loved to cultivate 
a loose iambic trimeter in twelve syllables, and shorter octo- 
syllabic forms called " anacreontic," although they were far 
enough from repeating the splendid effects of Anacreon. In 
these the old laws of quantity were more and more generally 
superseded by stress, and in all this we may see the dawn of the 
free accentual versification of modern Europe. 

Romance Languages. The prosodies of Provence, France, 
Italy and Spain were derived from the decayed and simplified 
forms of Latin verse by a slow and sometimes almost intangible 
transition. In these modern metres, however, when they came 
to be independent, it was found that all syllables in the line 
were of equal value, and that the sole criterion of measure was 
the number of these in each case. The relics of ancient versi- 
fication, deprived of all the regulated principles of rhythmical 
art, received in return the ornament of obligatory and difficult 
rhyme, without which the weak rhythm itself would practically 
have disappeared. A new species of rhythm, depending on the 
varieties of mood, was introduced, and stanzaic forms of great 
elaboration and beauty were invented. The earliest standard 
work which exhibits in full the definitions of Romance versi- 
fication is the Leys d' Amors of an unknown Provencal gram- 
marian, written in 1356.' Another medieval treatise of great 
importance is the De Vulgari Eloquentia, written by Dante in 
1304. There is this difference between these two works, that 
the former, written long after the flourishing period of the 
troubadours, analyses what has been accomplished in the past, 
while the other, standing at the starting-point of Italian poetry, 
describes what has to be done in the future. Both of these 
authorities quote the ten-syllable line of five equal feet as most 
to be admired and as forming the basis of poetry. But the 
octosyllabic, almost in the earliest times, became a main 
favourite with the poets, and may be said to be the most fre- 
quently used of all lyrical measures in medieval Romance poetry. 
The earliest specimen of all, however, a mere refrain excepted, 
is the fragment of the Provencal " Boethius," and this is 
decasyllabic, like all French poems of the Charlemagne cycle. 
The typical French heroic verse, the alexandrine of six feet, 
is not found in the old epic poetry. In Provencal and early 
French the position of the caesura in each line was fixed by 
strict rules; in Italian these were relaxed. Dante gives very 
minute, although somewhat obscure, accounts of the essence 
and invention of stanzaic form (cobla in Provencal), in which 
1 But see the article PROVENCAL LITERATURE. 



the Romance poetries excelled from the first. The stanza was 
a group of lines formed on a regular and recurrent arrangement 
of rhymes. It was natural that the poets of Provence should 
carry to an extreme the invention of stanzaic forms, for their 
language was extravagantly rich in rhymes. They invented 
complicated poetic structures of stanza within stanza, and the 
canzo as written by the great troubadours is a marvel of in- 
genuity such as could scarcely be repeated in any other language. 
The extreme fulness and elaboration of the Provencal poets, 
however, has been serviceable as placing a very high ideal of 
structural skill before the poets of all succeeding times, and it 
was of immense value in directing the experiments of the earliest 
poet-artists of Italy and France. 

In French poetry, successive masters corrected the national 
versification and drew closer round it the network of rules 
and principles. The alexandrine was invented in the I2th 
century, as a counterpart to the hexameter of the ancients, 
by Alexander de Bernay. A great part is played in French 
metre by masculine and feminine verse: the former is a verse 
which closes with a letter which is not e mute', the latter a 
verse which closes with e mute, or with e mule followed by s, or 
by the consonants nt. Masculine rhyme is that which combines 
two masculine verses, and feminine that which unites two 
feminine verses; and in regular verse such couplets must be 
alternated. Elision is the rule by which, in the scansion of a 
verse, the letter e at the end of a word is suppressed when it 
immediately precedes e mute or a non-aspirated h. These 
and other immutable rules were laid down by Malherbe, and 
by Boileau in his Art Poelique (1674), and for more than a 
century they were implicitly followed by all writers of verse. 
It was the genius of Victor Hugo which first enfranchised the 
prosody of France, not by rebelling against the rules, but by 
widening their scope in all directions, and by asserting that, in 
spite of its limitations, French verse was a living thing. The 
richness of Hugo's rhymes is proverbial, and the boldness and 
flow of his alexandrines exceeded everything which had been 
so much as dreamed of before his time. The revolution he 
brought about proved universal, and disciples like Theophile 
Gautier could say, in the face of the critics and grammarians 
of the classic school, " If we suspected that Victor Hugo had 
written a single bad verse, we should not dare to admit it to 
ourselves, in a cellar, without a candle." Boileau and Hugo, 
therefore, have been the two lawgivers of the French Parnassus. 
The rules of French verse being, in fact, very severe, and 
weakness, excess of audacity and negligences of all sorts being 
very harshly repressed, it is not surprising that, as the personal 
authority of Hugo declined, various projects were started for 
lightening the burden of prosodical discipline. Since 1880 
those projects have been numerous, and a great many poets of 
genuine inspiration have written in different forms of what 
is called " free verse." 

Teutonic. In very early times the inhabitants of the Ger- 
manic countries developed a prosodical system which owed 
nothing whatever to classical sources. The finest examples 
of this Teutonic verse are found in Icelandic and in Anglo- 
Saxon. The line consisted of two sections, each containing 
two strongly stressed syllables, and of these four long syllables 
three were alliterated. It is plain that there can be detected 
in ancient Teutonic verse but three severe and consistent 
rules, viz. that the section, the strong accentuation, and 
above all the alliteration must be preserved. We find this to 
be the case in High and Low German, Icelandic, Anglo-Saxon, 
and in the revived alliterative English poetry of the i4th 
century, such as " Piers Plowman." There are differences, 
however, which depend on such facts as that the Icelandic 
poems are mainly lyrical and the Anglo-Saxon epics are 
narrative. As time went on, under the pressure of south 
European practice, alliteration ceased to be regarded as the 
sole and sufficient ornament of Teutonic verse, and rhyme 
was occasionally used, but this was a concession which proved 
fatal to the type. With this use of rhyme, the High German 
poetry begins to cease, while England becomes the centre of 



1046 



VERSE 



Teutonic metrical composition. In Icelandic poetry there 
was a highly artificial verse-system known as court-verse 
(drMtkvaelt), which consisted of alliterative groups of two 
lines each, arranged in staves of eight lines. When we consider 
primitive Teutonic verse closely, we see that it did not begin 
with any conscious art, but, as Vigfussen has said, " was simply 
excited and emphatic prose " uttered with the repetition of 
catchwords and letters. The use of these was presently 
regulated. Alliteration of stressed root-syllables formed the 
basis of Teutonic verse, as quantity had formed the basis of 
Greek verse. A study of the " Heliand " and the " Lay of 
Hildebrand " in Old German, of the " Atli " and " Harbard " 
lays in Icelandic, and of the writings attributed to Beowulf, 
Caedmon and Cynewulf in Anglo-Saxon, will show the general 
unity and the local divergences of this class of verse. 

English Metre. The first writer in whom there has been 
discovered a distinct rebellion against the methods of Anglo- 
Saxon " versification is St Godric, who died in 1 1 70. Only 
three brief fragments of his poetry have been preserved, but 
there is no doubt that they show, for the first time, a regular 
composition in feet. A quotation will show the value of St 
Godric's invention: 

" Sainte | Nicholaes, | Codes | druth, 
Tymbre us | faire | scone | hus, 
At thy | burth, | at thy | bare, 
Sainte | Nicholaes, | bring uswel thare." 

From this difficult stanza down to the metres of modern 
English the transition seems gradual and direct, while the 
tradition of Anglo-Saxon alliterative prosody is abruptly 
broken. The fragments of St Godric appear to be independent 
of one another, and therefore indicate that the division of lines 
into feet is not accidental. They are much less dubious, and more 
firm as the basis of an hypothesis, than the famous quatrain 1 
about the singing of the monks of Ely, which is perhaps a little 
earlier in date than the fragments of St Godric. This has 
much picturesque beauty, but if it is carefully examined the 
actual scheme of it as metre seems to evade detection. The 
Ely singer warbled, not knowing what he sang, but St Godric 
knew perfectly well, and must have been a deliberate innovator. 
There is still more definition of feet in the Poema Morale, 
printed by Dr Morris, which is supposed to date from about 
1200. In longer pieces, and particularly in the Ormuhvn, and 
in the Brut of Layamon, which belong to the early part of the 
i3th century, we find, on the whole, less definite abandonment 
of the Anglo-Saxon system of prosody, but nevertheless a 
prominence given both to rhyme and to rhythm. In Layamon, 
particularly, the recognition of a recurrent verse of four accents 
is unquestionable. The place of this poet in the history of 
prosody is very carefully noted by Guest, who remarks that 
in Anglo-Saxon verse, the syllables which take the alliteration 
are always accented, while in the later metres, where alliteration 
was combined with rhyme, the former is often thrown upon 
an unaccented syllable. " Layamon appears to take a middle 
course. It would seem he gave accents both to his rhyming 
and his alliterative syllables; but the former were often obliged 
to content themselves with a false accent." An advance was 
made about fifty years later in Genesis and Exodus, a poem 
published by Professor Skeat, which has such great value in the 
proof it gives of the extension of verbal melody, that Saintsbury 
has said that " it contains more of the kernel of English prosody, 
properly so called, than any [other] single poem before Spenser." 
The phenomenon which we meet with in all these earliest 
attempts at purely English verse is the unconscious deter- 
mination of writers, who had no views about prosody, to follow 
their national instinct in the direction of grouped feet and 
rhymes. This is further emphasized in Horn and Havelok, 
and in the smoother octosyllabics of the 14th-century metrical 
romances, where the rhymes become very frequent, with an 

1 Merie sungen 5e muneches binnen Ely, 
3a Cnut ch[in]ing reu 5er by; 
" Rowe3, cni[h]tes, noer the land 
and here we fees muneches sseng." 



occasional short line or bob, to prevent monotony of effect. 
Few of these romances have much literary value, but their 
prosodical value is very great, for we see in them the normal 
movement of English verse becoming fixed to certain principles 
beyond any possibility of escape: 

" So fair | he spak- | e him withal, 



He light- J ed down- | e in the hall, 

mare | a 
And to I the board- 



Bounde I his mare | among | them all, 
Vnd to ' 



t 

This, from Sir Percevale, is, it must be allowed, an unusually 
correct example; the uncouth 14th-century writers did not 
commonly arrive at their effect without much more irregularity 
and wavering than this, but the design is evident even in their 
worst examples. Between 1210 and 1340 not a single English 
poem of importance is known to have been written in the old 
alliterative measure of the Anglo-Saxons. But at the latter 
date there "set in a singular reaction in favour of alliteration, 
a movement which culminated, after producing some beautiful 
romances, in the satires of Langland. Those writers, and 
they were many, who preserved foot-scansion and rhyme, 
during this alliterative reaction, became ever closer students 
of contemporary French verse, and in the favourite octo- 
syllabic metre " the uncompromising adoption of the French, 
or syllabically uniform, system is the first thing noticeable " 
(Saintsbury). This tendency of Middle English metre culmin- 
ates in the work of John Gower, which is singularly polished 
in its rhyming octosyllabics, although unquestionably nerve- 
less still, and inelastic. 

It is, however, to Chaucer that we turn for far greater con- 
tributions to English verse. He it was who first, with full 
consciousness of power as an artist, adopted the use of elaborate 
stanzas, always in following of the French; he it was who first 
gained freedom of sound by a variation of pause, and by an 
alternation of trochaic and iambic movement. It is the lack 
of these arts which keeps Gower and his predecessors so stiff. 
In particular Chaucer, in his first period, invented rime-royal, 
a stanzaic form (in seven decasyllabic lines, rhymed a b a b b c c), 
peculiarly English in character, which was dominant in our 
literature for more than two hundred years; it was used in the 
long romance of Troilus and Creseide, where English metre for 
the first time displays its beauty to the full. The importance 
of rime-royal is displayed in the fact that its sixth and seventh 
lines actually form the decasyllabic couplet, which is commonly 
held to be a later discovery of Chaucer's, in The Legend of Good 
Women. This is the heroic verse, in which The Canterbury 
Tales are mainly composed, and this metre of five accents, with 
couplet-rhyme, became so powerful in the future history of 
English poetry that it may almost be taken as the central 
and most characteristic of our verse-forms, as the alexandrine 
couplet is in French and Dutch prosody. It seems to have 
been originally called riding-rhyme, the name by which Gascoigne 
describes it (1575). 

It is impossible here to do more than indicate very briefly 
those fluctuations which English prosody underwent when the 
learned and vivid example of Chaucer was withdrawn. The 
metres of Lydgate and his successors were discordant and 
feeble; their ears had learned but very incorrectly the lesson 
of the master. Lydgate, in particular, went back to an earlier 
type, and showed himself more skilful in the old eight-syllable 
measure than in the new decasyllabic. More interesting to 
the prosodical student than the work of these or later Chau- 
cerians is the influence exercised throughout the i5th and early 
i6th centuries by the popular ballads, of which " Chevy Chase " 
is believed to be the oldest surviving example, while " The 
Tale of Gamely n " is the longest. The introduction of the 
loose, elastic ballad-quatrain,- with its melodious tendency to 
refrain, was a matter of great importance in the metamorphosis 
of British verse. The degenerate' forms employed by the 
English isth-century poets in attempting more regular prosody 
were in some measure connected by the greater exactitude of the 
Scotch writers, particularly of Dunbar, who was by far the 
most accomplished metrist between Chaucer and Spenser. 



VERSECZ VERTEBRATA 



1047 



But Wyatt (1503-1542) was long considered the father of modern 
English verse, and though we now plainly enough perceive that 
before his day all the essential discoveries and inventions had 
been made, he nevertheless deserves great honour as a pioneer. 
He introduced, from France and Italy, the prosodical principles 
of the Renaissance order and coherency, concentration and 
definition of sound and that although his own powers in 
metre were far from being highly developed. He and his 
more gifted disciple Surrey introduced into English verse the 
sonnet (not of the pure Italian type, but as a quatorzain with 
a final couplet) as well as other short lyric forms. To Surrey, 
moreover, we owe the introduction from Italian of blank verse, 
the rhymeless metre of five accents, which has taken so prominent 
a place in subsequent English poetry. 

With the heroic couplet, with blank verse, and with a variety 
of short lyric stanzaic measures, the equipment of British verse 
might now be said to be complete. For the moment, however, 
towards the middle of the i6th century, all these excellent 
metres seemed to be abandoned in favour of an awkward couplet 
of fourteen feet, which may have had some relation with the 
French alexandrine. It was always, as Saintsbury says, " a very 
uncertain and risky metre, settling down with a dangerous 
acquiescence into doggerel and sing-song." It was to break 
up this nerveless measure that the remarkable reforms of the 
close of the century were made, and the discoveries of Wyatt 
and Surrey were brought, long after their deaths, into general 
practice. In drama, the doggerel of an earlier age retired before 
a blank verse, which was at first entirely pedestrian and 
mechanical, but struck out variety and music in the hands of 
Marlowe and Shakespeare. But the central magician was 
Spenser, in whom there arose a master of pure verse whose 
range and skill were greater than those of any previous writer 
of English, and before whom Chaucer himself must withdraw. 
It is not too much to say that Spenser took all the elements of 
English verse, as they had existed in more or less timid and 
undeveloped shape for four centuries, and that he moulded 
them together into an instrument capable, for the first time, 
of expressing, or accompanying, every passion, every emotion, 
every variety of sentiment or instinct, which stirs the human 
breast. His great work was that of solidification and emanci- 
pation, but he also created a noble form which bears his name, 
that Spenserian stanza of nine lines closing with an alexandrine, 
which lends itself in the hands of great poets, and great poets 
only, to magnificent narrative effects. 

It was at this moment that a final attempt was made to dis- 
establish the whole scheme of English metre, and to substitute 
for it unrhymed classic measures. In the year 1579 this heresy 
was powerful at Cambridge, and a vigorous attempt was made 
to include Spenser himself among its votaries. It failed, and 
with this failure it may be said that all the essential questions 
connected with English poetry were settled. 

There is enough to fill a score of volumes in the mode in which 
the poets from Spenser downwards have employed the laws of 
English verse, but he was the latest of the legislators who laid 
down the framework of those laws. It is not possible in this 
place to enter into such themes as the rise and fall of Elizabethan 
dramatic blank verse; the perfection of the song and the develop- 
ment of the sonnet; the extraordinary virtuosity of Milton; 
the contest between enjambement (which permits the extension 
of the sentence beyond the limits of the distich) and the 
couplet as introduced by Waller; the victory of that couplet, 
and its use from 1670 to 1800; the slow, growth of ode, which 
had been one of Spenser's inventions; the revivals of pro- 
sodical taste in the ipth century; the extraordinary advance 
in freedom of anapaestic movement. 

It may generally be remarked in connexion with the very 
various, copious and often chaotic criticism of English verse, 
that it has been a misfortune, from the earliest times, that 
pedantic and chimerical theories have too often invaded the 
study of metre. They had tended, from the times of the Alex- 
andrian grammarians down to our own, to treat as a dead thing 
that vivid and elastic art of poetry whose very essence is its life. 



In modern times not a few theorists have allowed themselves 
to diverge into the most extraordinary chains of musical and 
even of mathematical conjecture and have been easily led, in 
the practice of their ingenious learning, to forget that what 
they are talking about is the vehicle in which tremulous and 
ardent thoughts are conveyed to the hearts of men. The poet 
knows the law by instinct, but he treats it as a living guide; 
he varies the pause, he manipulates the accent, he gives the 
vital element of freedom to the verse which he has founded upon 
discipline. It is extremely doubtful whether any youthful poet 
was even helped by prosodical instruction; his earliest measures 
are imitative; he does not compose consciously in " tribrachs " 
and " iambs "; he would gape in astonishment if asked to define 
the " pyrrhichian hypothesis"; his bursts of enthusiasm are 
not modified by a theory of " trisyllabic equivalence." The 
old formula of verse, " variety in unity," holds good in all 
languages, countries and times; the delicate rapture involved 
in a brilliant combination of rhyme and metre is a matter which 
is regulated, indeed, on a consideration of the laws of prosody, 
but depends on other and wider qualities of a moral and an 
aesthetic order. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Richard Bent\ey,Schediasmademetris Terentianis 
(Cambridge, 1726); R. Volkmann, Rhetorik und Metrik der Griechen 
und Romer (ed. Gleditsch, Berlin, 1901); Wilhelm Christ, Metrik 
der Griechen und Romer (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1879); J- L. Ussing, 
Graesk og romersk Metrik (Copenhagen, 1893); Edwin Guest, A 
History of English Rhythms^ (new edition, edited by W. W. Skeat ; 
London, 1882); George Saintsbury, A History of English Prosody 
(3 vols., London, 1906-9) ; J. Schipper, Englische Metrik (2 vols., 
Bonn, 1881); J. B. Mayor, Chapters on English Metre (Cambridge, 
1901); T. S. Omond, English Verse-Structure (London, 1897); 
Metrical Rhythm (London, 1905) ; Theodore de Banville, Petit 
traite de prosodie francaise (2nd ed., Paris, 1872); Robert de Souza, 
Le Rhythme poetique (Paris, 1892); L. E. Kestner, A History of 
French Versification (Oxford, 1903) ; T. Casini, Le Forme metriche 
italiane (Florence, 1900); E. Benot, Prosodia Castellanai versification 
(3 vols., Madrid, 1902). (E. G.) 

VERSECZ (Ger. Werschetz), a town of Hungary, in the 
county of Temes, 235 m. S.S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 
25,199. It has a handsome parish church and is the seat of a 
Greek Orthodox bishop. Versecz is one of the principal wine- 
producing centres in Hungary, and the red wines and brandy 
produced here enjoy a great reputation. Near the town are 
remains of a Roman castle, and a Roman rampart and trench 
which extend for about 60 m. to the north. During the revolu- 
tionary period of 1848-49 the Hungarians defeated the Servians 
here on the nth of July 1848, while on the igth of January 1849 
the town was occupied by the Austrian troops. 

VERTEBRATA, a large branch of the animal kingdom, of 
which the characteristic members are mammals, birds, reptiles, 
batrachians, fish and cyclostomes, the craniate vertebrates 
of modern zoology. These include all the animals which 
possess " vertebrae," pieces of bone or cartilage jointed to form 
a " backbone " or spinal column (see SPINAL CORD), although 
in some of the lower members of the group the segmentation ot 
the spinal column is imperfect. That such animals formed a 
natural group was understood from the earliest times. Aristotle 
placed them together as " Enaima;" or sanguineous animals, 
distinguishing them from the " Anaima," which he believed to 
be bloodless. Later it was discovered that the so-called blood- 
less animals contained uncoloured blood, and the vertebrates 
were distinguished as red-blooded, until G. L. C. F. D. Cuvier 
showed the existence of red blood in some other animals. 
C. Linnaeus made Mammalia, Aves, Amphibia and Pisces the 
first four classes of the animal kingdom, but suggested no cor- 
porate name for them. In 1788 A. J. G. K. Batsch united them 
into a great division, for which he proposed the name " Knoch- 
enthiere," bony animals. J. B. P. Lamarck carried the idea 
further, and first clearly recognized the importance of the 
vertebral column in classification; to him is due the division 
of the animal kingdom into Vertebrata, which included all the 
craniate vertebrates, and Invertebrata, which included all other 
animals. These names and the dichotomy they imply have 
persisted from their convenience, although zoological science 
has come to recognize that the groups are not morphologically 



1048 



VERTEBRATA 



equivalent and that the division is not logical. Cuvier showed 
that there were four groups in the animal kingdom, each corre- 
sponding to a definite type or plan of structure, and that 
craniate vertebrates composed only one of these groups, in- 
vertebrates including three. In the progress of zoology it has 
become clear that the coelomate animals fall into a very large 
number of distinct groups or types, and that the vertebrates 
are only one class amongst many morphologically distinct 
classes. It has been shown further that amongst the animals 
that Lamarck would have placed in the Invertebrata there are 
several which, although devoid of vertebrae or cranium, must 
be associated with vertebrates in any natural system. Closer 
investigation of the anatomy and embryology of the craniate 
vertebrates showed that the possession of a jointed vertebral 
column was not a fundamental characteristic of the group. 
In some creatures, such as sturgeons and lampreys, the position 
of the jointed vertebral column is occupied by an unjointed 
rod, the so-called notochord, whilst all the Vertebrata pass 
through an embryonic stage in which a similar elastic unjointed 
notochord exists as the precursor of the jointed column. It 
was further found that all the vertebrates of- Lamarck displayed 
either in the embryonic condition alone, or both in embryonic 
and adult conditions, a set of passages leading from the anterior- 
lateral portion of the body into the cavity of the pharynx, and 
known as gill-slits, because in those creatures in which they 
become functional for aquatic respiration they lodge the gills 
or branchial tufts. Further, it was found that in all verte- 
brates the great central mass of the nervous system, known as 
the brain and spinal cord, is in reality a hollow tube with more 
or less thickened walls, developed as a strand of tissue along 
the dorsal surface of the embryo, which sinks downwards and 
inwards to form a hollow tube lying dorsal to the notochord. 

In 1866 A. Kowalewsky, in a memoir that is one of the 
classics of vertebrate morphology, worked out the development 
of Amphioxus, then recognized as the simplest of the vertebrate 
group, and compared it with the development of an Ascidian, 
one of a group then termed Tunicate Mollusca, and showed 
that the latter creature, in its larval stage, possessed, like 
Amphioxus, a notochord, gill-slits and a hollow dorsally placed 
nerve-tube. In 1877 E. Ray Lankester published a classifica- 
tion of the animal kingdom in which he definitely associated 
all the Tunicates with the vertebrates, and subdivided Verte- 
brata as follows: Branch A., Urochorda, which contained 
the Tunicates and was characterized by the limitation of the 
notochord to the caudal region; Branch B., Cephalochorda, 
containing Amphioxus, in which the notochord extended from 
the extreme tip of the tail to that of the snout; Branch C., 
Craniata, containing the Cyclostomes, Pisces, Batrachia, 
Reptilia, Aves and Mammalia, in which the anterior extremity 
of the notochord ended in the base of a cranium. Later, F. M. 
Balfour adopted the system of Lankester, but proposed to 
replace the term Vertebrata, which was anatomically mis- 
leading, by the new term Chordata, as the latter term laid 
stress on the existence of the notochord as the fundamental 
character of the group. A. Kowalewsky had shown as early 
as 1866 that the marine worm Balanoglossus, described by Delia 
Chiaje at the end of the i8th century, possessed a set of gill- 
slits similar to those of Amphioxus and Tunicates. From 1884 
to 1886 W. Bateson published a series of studies in which he 
suggested that there was present in Balanoglossus a representa- 
tive of the notochord, and that a portion at least of its nervous 
system was a hollow, dorsally placed tube. On these grounds, 
coupled with the presence of gill-slits, he proposed to add yet a 
lower branch to the Chordata, to include Balanoglossus and 
to be termed Hemichorda, but neither Bateson nor zoologists 
who have written since have accepted the vertebrate affinities of 
Balanoglossus with complete confidence. Still more diffidently, 
S. F. Harmer and others have suggested that Cephalodiscus 
and Phoronis, still more lowly marine invertebrates, have 
claims to be associated with the Chordata. 

It may be accepted definitely that Amphioxus and the Tuni- 
cates must be associated with the craniate vertebrates of Lamarck. 



With regard to the terms Vertebrata and Chordata, usage still 
differs. Those who wish to make the names of the larger groups 
significant labels prefer the term Chordata, and on the whole 
seem to be prevailing, but there remain many zoologists who 
prefer the designation with historical associations, and regard 
it as immaterial if, in the advance of knowledge, the connotation 
may have been so changed that the term has become conven- 
tional rather than verbally significant.. 

The characters and affinities of the lower groups that have 
been included under Chordata are discussed in the articles 
HEMICHORDA, BALANOGLOSSUS, PHORONIDEA, PTEROBRANCHIA, 
TUNICATA and AMPHIOXUS, so that it is necessary here to deal 
only with the general characters of the Chordata or Verte- 
brata Craniata, and to consider the views that have been 
advanced with regard to the origin of vertebrates. 

The Vertebrata Craniata share with the Cephalochordata the 
fundamental characters of the group Chordata. They are bilater- 
ally symmetrical animals with a well-marked metameric segmenta- 
tion of the muscles and muscle septa, with a gut opening by an 
anterior ventral mouth, with lateral gill-slits in the embryo or 
adult, and with a ventro-posterior anus; with a dorsal tubular 
central nervous system, under which lies in the embryo or adult 
an unsegmented notochord of endodermal origin; with the body 
prolonged posteriorly to the anus to form a metamerically segmented 
tail containing notochord, nervous system and muscles; with a 
spacious coelomic cavity and separate blood-vascular system. They 
differ from the Cephalochordata in the extreme cephalization of 
the anterior segments of the body, including the formation of an 
enlarged brain with paired sense organs, the nose, eyes and auditory 
apparatus, and the formation of a cranium, and in the structure 
of the skeleton, heart, liver and organs of excretion and reproduction. 

Evidence points to the origin of the Cephalochordata and the 
Craniata from a common ancestor in which metameric segmenta- 
tion of the mesoblast and the nervous system was complete and 
regular. This condition has been retained by Amphioxus, but in 
the Craniata has been much modified. The lateral mesoblastic 
plates with their contained coelom are unsegmented in craniates, 
although traces of the primitive segmentation are visible in the 
development of Cyclostomes. The dorsal mesoblastic somites 
with the segmental musculature derived from them retain the 
segmental condition in A mphioxus and in the trunk region of craniates, 
but in the head region of the latter there has taken place a fusion 
or cephalization more pronounced in the higher forms, where the 
head is distinct from the trunk, than in lower forms where the head 
passes gradually into the trunk. The exact number of somites 
which have been cephalized is difficult to estimate, and certainly 
varies in different cases, but it appears to be certain that three, 
immediately anterior to the otic region, have been transformed 
into the optic muscles. Those behind the otic region (metaotic 
somites) vary from nine to eleven, and in Cyclostomes give rise to 
segmental muscles in series with those of the trunk. In true fish 
and higher Craniates the anterior one or two of these metaotic 
somites practically disappear, whilst of the remainder none form 
complete segmental muscles, but various portions of them give 
rise to muscles associated with the branchial apparatus (epibranchial 
and hypobranchial), the dorsal portions fading away. In other 
words, the metameric series continued from the trunk to the anterior 
end of the body in the ancestral form, retained by the Cephalochorda, 
and of which traces remain in the development of the Craniata, 
has been modified in the adult Craniata by the suppression of 
certain portions and the specialization of other portions to form 
an unsegmented structure. The process of cephalization, with, 
however, less complete destruction of the segmental arrangement, 
has also affected the anterior nerves of Craniata and brought about 
the distinction between cranial and spinal nerves which is a feature 
of the Craniates. The ancestral form must be supposed to have 
given off from its central nervous system lateral nerves segmentally 
arranged in pairs. Each member of each pair possessed two roots, 
a dorsal and a ventral root, possibly remaining separate, as in the 
Cephalochordata and the cranial nerves of Craniata, possibly joining 
to form a common trunk, as in the spinal nerves of Craniata. The 
ventral roots consisted of motor fibres passing straight outwards -to 
innervate the segmental muscles derived from the dorsal somites; 
the dorsal roots took a longer course, arching outwards and round 
the body to supply the visceral muscles, the mucous membranes, 
the skin and the sense organs connected with these. It appears, 
moreover, that the ventral roots remained in strict association with 
the muscular somites to which they corresponded, and wandered 
beyond their own segmental areas only with these muscles, whereas 
the ramifications of the dorsal fibres had a wider range and were 
less closely bound to segmental regions. Such a primitive condition 
has been retained by Amphioxus, but in the case of Craniata only 
by the spinal nerves. Almost every great anatomist has contributed 
to working out the history of the cranial nerves, and it would be 
a hopeless task to make a just allocation of credit for the various 



VERTEBRATA 



1049 



steps which have led to our present knowledge, but the names of 
C. Gegenbaur, F. M. Balfour, A. M. Marshall, I. W. van Wijhe, 
N. K. Koltzoff, Miss J. B. Platt, J. Beard, H. V. Neal and E. S. 
Goodrich are conspicuous. The Craniates are characterized by 
the presence of ten pairs of cranial nerves, numbered usually I. to 
X., from before backwards, with a course and distribution funda- 
mentally identical throughout the group from the lowest fish to 
man, whilst in the higher forms an additional eleventh and twelfth 
pair have been assumed from the trunk or neck. Pairs I. and II. 
are the nerves of special sense of smell and sight, and in all probability 
are morphologically distinct from true segmental pairs. Pairs III. 
to X. represent various portions of primitive segmental pairs, 
modified in association with the cephalization of the anterior 
region of the body. III., IV. and VI. innervate the muscles of the 
eyeball, and represent the ventral roots of the three prootic somites; 
the dorsal root of the anterior of these three passes to the anterior 
portion of the head as the so-called nervus ophthalmicus profundus. 
The V. of human anatomy, the trigeminal, is formed almost entirely 
from the dorsal root of the nerve of the second prootic somite, 
whilst the VII. or facialis of human anatomy similarly represents 
the greater part of the dorsal root of the third prootic somite, whilst 
the remaining and lesser portion of that root forms the VIII. or 
auditory nerve of human anatomy. The IX. or glossopharyngeal 
represents the dorsal root of the first metaotic somite, the ventral 
root of which persists in Cyclostomes but disappears together with 
the somite in higher Craniates. The X. or vagus of human anatomy 
represents the dorsal root of the second metaotic somite. The 
backward extension of the vagus to supply the regions corresponding 
to the posterior gill-slits and internal viscera has been interpreted 
variously. The explanation at first sight most probable, and that 
has been advocated by Gegenbaur and many other anatomists, 
is that the dorsal roots corresponding to a number of somites have 
fused fco form a single system. The ventral roots of the somites 
in question have a varying fate, being fully represented in the 
Cyclostomes by nerves to musculature developed from these somites, 
whilst in the higher forms thay have in great part disappeared. 
Evidence seems to point to a similar disappearance of the dorsal 
roots of the branchial somites posterior to the first supplied by the 
vagus; but as remnants of them have been traced in the development 
of the various Craniates, it seems as if the vagus were not in reality 
a compound nerve, but the extension of the nerve arising from a 
single dorsal segmental root. Notwithstanding some dubiety in 
detail, the main proposition remains clear: the cranial nerves of 
Craniates have arisen, in the course of a process of cephalization, 
from a primitive set of segmental nerves in series with those of the 
trunk, by a suppression of certain portions and an expansion and 
specialization of other portions. The work of a large number of 
anatomists has shown that the fundamental morphological characters 
of the cranium and brain, organs in which the Craniates are most 
clearly marked off from Cephalochordates, are fundamentally alike 
throughout the group. The original crude theory of L. Oken and 
the poet Goethe, that the skull was composed of expanded and fused 
vertebrae, was disproved by T. H. Huxley and Gegenbaur. There 
can be little doubt, however, that the region behind the infundibulum, 
consisting of part of the optic capsules, the anterior extremity of 
the notochord, the parachordals (for details as to these see article 
SKELETON) and the corresponding lateral and dorsal elements with 
their suspended visceral arches represent at least three cephalic 
somites, and that the process of cephalization has played an important 
part in the formation of the cranium as it has in the case of the 
nerves and muscles of the head. The region of the cranium anterior 
to this is probably a forward growth of the primitive head, produced 
in association with the development of the organs of smell and sight, 
and thus is different in kind from the posterior region. But as 
Amphioxus is obviously degenerate in the region of the head, no 
source of information exists as to the exact mode in which the 
development of the head of the ancestral vertebrate took place. 

It is still less possible to lay down anything definite as to how 
far the structure of the brain of Craniates conforms with a theory 
of origin by a process of cephalization of metameric segments. The 
minute expansion at the anterior end of the nerve tube of Amphioxus 
cannot be called a brain, whilst the brain of all the Craniates is 
identical in morphological type and so complex that it must have 
behind it a long history of development. The embryonic Craniate 
brain appears as three dilatations of the neural tube, respectively 
the posterior or hind-brain, continuous with the spinal cord, the 
mid-brain and the fore-brain. From the hind-brain there arises 
the medulla oblongata or myelencephalon behind, and the meten- 
cephalon in front, the dorsal wall of which gives rise to the cerebellum. 
The hind-brain is closely similar in structure to the spinal cord, and 
gives rise to all the segmental cranial nerves except the patheticus 
and motor oculi. The sides of the mid-brain thicken and give -rise 
to the optic lobes; its floor forms the crura cerebri, whilst the oculo- 
motor and patheticus nerves take origin from it. The fore-brain 
divides into a posterior thalamencephalon and an anterior telen-, 
cephalon. Thickenings of the floor of the thalamencephalon give 
rise to the optic thalami; the paired optic lobes grow out from its 
sides; the pineal body, which primitively was a pair of dorsal eyes, 
grows from the roof and the infundibulum from the floor. The 



telencephalon in front grows out secondarily to an extent progressively 
increasing in the higher groups and forms the corpora striata, the 
cerebral lobes and the rhinencephalon. The most plausible inter- 
pretation is that the mid- and hind-brains represent a cephalized 
continuation of the spinal cord, probably originally metamerically 
segmented, whilst the fore brain has been developed primitively in 
association with the organs of smell and hearing, and secondarily 
in connexion with the increasing elaboration of the higher functions 
of the brain and the development of the association centres of 
which the cerebrum is the seat. 

The details of the structure and development of the sense-organs, 
gill-slits and visceral organs of Craniates are sufficiently discussed 
in the articles dealing with the separate classes of the group. It 
is necessary to refer, however, to new light thrown on the structure 
and morphology of the renal excretory organs due chiefly to the 
investigations of Goodrich. The excretory organs of the vast 
majority of invertebrate coelomate animals are essentially what 
are known as nephridia. Nephridia in their simplest form are 
excretory tubules growing from the exterior inwards, and removing 
from the surrounding tissues or blood vessels waste matter which 
they discharge to the exterior. In many cases these tubules acquire 
secondary openings to the coelom, termed nephrostomes and serving 
to remove waste matter from that space. Finally, in metamerically 
segmented invertebrates the nephridia frequently appear in seg- 
mentally disposed pairs. Gegenbaur, C. Semper, B. Hatschek, and 
many other anatomists have compared the kidneys of Craniates 
with nephridia, supposing the segmental tubules with their coelomic 
apertures to represent nephridia, which, instead of discharging directly 
to the exterior by pores in the segments in which they are situated, 
have come to discharge at each side into a longitudinal common 
duct with a posterior aperture. The excretory system of Amphioxus 
undoubtedly consists of true nephridia, morphologically identical 
with those of the invertebrate coelomates. The latter, however, 
may also possess a different set of organs, also frequently appearing 
as segmentally arranged tubules. These are the genital funnels 
which develop outwards from the coelom, and serve for the 
discharge of the genital products. It is with the latter that the 
segmental tubules of the Craniata are to be compared, and the 
possession of a different type of excretory organ is one of the most 
vital distinctions between the Craniata and the Cephalochordata. 

Origin of the Vertebrata. The recorded fossil history carries us 
backwards with comparative ease from the highest mammals 
to the lowest members of the Craniates. Remains of the latter, 
abundant in the palaeozoic rocks, were undoubtedly true Craniates, 
allied with the Cyclostomes and the lower fishes, but showing no 
more than superficial and dubious resemblances to the members 
of any other group. We have to rely upon general inferences which 
lead to much ingenious argument and little certain result. The 
Craniates can be traced back to fishes not unlike the modern shark 
or dogfish with little dubiety. The Cyqlostomes, although true 
Craniates, present an obviously simpler type of structure: the 
head is less cephalized and therefore less distinct from the trunk; 
lower jaw, true teeth and dermal armature are absent, whilst there 
are other simplifications in the structural type. Very general 
assent could be obtained for the proposition that one stage in the 
ancestry of the Vertebrates must have been not unlike a simplified 
Cyclostome, a bilaterally symmetrical coelomic animal, elongated 
and fish-like in shape, but without paired limbs, with a smooth, soft 
skin, a ventral mouth without teeth or lower jaw and probably 
surrounded by labial palps, with lateral gill-slits and a ventro- 
posterior anus; with an unsegmented notochord and a dorsal 
tubular nerve cord. The brain, however, must have been expanded, 
and there must have been paired organs of smell, two lateral eyes 
and probably two dorsal eyes, and a large paired auditory apparatus. 
The mesoblastic system of muscles and fibrous skeleton was highly 
and regularly segmented, but in the anterior region cephalization 
had proceeded to a considerable extent. The resemblances between 
such a creature and Amphioxus are so close that they cannot be 
dismissed. Amphioxus no doubc is specialized in many respects, 
and probably degenerate in others, just as, if we go to the other 
pole of the Craniates, we know that although the Anthropoid Apes 
are the nearest living representatives of the ancestor of man, they 
are specialized in many respects and almost certainly degenerate 
in other respects. If we carry those processes of progressive change 
by which the Cyclostome type has passed into the low fish type, 
and the low fish type into the higher Craniate type, backwards 
towards Amphioxus we reach the conception of an ancestral creature 
essentially a Cephalochordate, differing no doubt from Amphioxus 
in various details, as one member of a group differs from another, 
but specially marked by the possession of better developed cranial 
sense organs and by the presence of a coelomostomic instead of a 
nephridial excretory system. Paired sense organs of an elaborate 
character have arisen in many groups, and there seems to be no 
special difficulty in supposing that those characteristic of Craniates 
have arisen independently in that group, Amphioxus, although in 
that respect partly degenerate, being degenerate from a stage in 
which the cephalic sense organs were extremely simple. The different 
type of excretory system presents even less theoretical difficulty, 
as both types of segmental funnel exist amongst Invertebrates and 



IO 5 



VERTEBRATA 



may even be present in the same animal. If we follow the process 
of progressive change still further back, we reach a stage in which 
cephalization had practically disappeared, and where even meta- 
meric segmentation was in a much less advanced condition. The 
tadpoles of Ascidians, and still more remotely Balanoglossus, although 
still less than Amphioxus to be regarded as actual ancestral verte- 
brate types, give images of some of the many phases in which the 
ancestral type may have been exhibited. It is needless to say that 
the creatures exhibiting such a stage in the ancestry of the Verte- 
brates would have formed simply one in the vast series of marine 
coelomate types which the anatomy of the Invertebrates shows us 
to have existed. Its distinguishing features would have been the 
presence of gill-slits, of the skeletal rod, known as the notochord, 
and of the dorsal tubular nervous system. We cannot make even 
profitable guesses as to the exact conditions under which these 
features, or the corresponding features of other coelomate types, 
arose in the kaleidoscopic differentiation of form, but consideration 
of the general morphology of the nervous system enables us to see 
the Chordate ancestor in its true perspective amongst other coelomic 
groups. In the Coelentera the nervous system appears as a diffused 
layer of cells and fibres, underlying, and in close connexion with, 
the epidermis. This diffused layer may thicken in special regions, 
forming rings round apertures, radial bands, and so forth, whilst 
in the intervening areas it disappears. In the different groups 
of Coelomates specialized bands and strands have formed in this 
way from a primitive diffuse system, giving rise to the nervous 
patterns distinctive of the various groups, whilst a second process, 
that of inward migration from the epidermis, produces further 
changes. In the Turbellaria there have been formed two ventro- 
lateral cords with variously placed anastamoses; in the Trematodes, 
two ventral, two lateral and two dorsal cords with variously placed 
anastomoses, and in the Cestodes two lateral and in some cases 
one dorsal cord. In the Nemertea the primitive continuous sub- 
epidermal sheath is retained with two lateral and sometimes one 
dorsal thickening. In the Nematodes there are one dorsal, one 
ventral and at each side two lateral thickenings, sometimes separated 
cords, sometimes mere sub-epidermal bands, whilst the traces of a 
circum-oesophageal ring may be regarded as another specialization 
of the primitive complete sheath. In Balanoglossus there is a 
continuous sheath with a dorsal and ventral band, the latter in 
certain regions showing traces of a tubular structure. In Annelids 
and Arthropods there are two ventral bands tending to unite in the 
median ventral line, and a circum-oesophageal collar. In the Chor- 
dates there is a continuous dorsal band, which secondarily migrates 
inwards and becomes tubular. In almost any of these types, as 
the individual becomes more integrated, there is a tendency for 
the nervous matter of the specialized areas to become still further 
massed ; and in bilaterally symmetrical animals with forward pro- 
gression and the beginning of cephalization a specially important 
mass forms something comparable with a brain in special relation 
with the sense organs of the primitive head. If the problem of 
vertebrate origin be considered from the wide point of view of 
comparative anatomy, it becomes no more difficult nor remarkable 
than the differentiation of any other type amongst simple, marine, 
unsegmented, or little segmented, wormhke creatures. It is obvious, 
however, that such a theory of origin cannot expect confirmation 
from the geological record, as it supposes a differentiation of the 
main chordate characters in a stage too simple to leave fossil remains. 
Reference must be made, however, to definite theories of the 
origin of Vertebrates which have been successively urged by ana- 
tomists. A. Dohrn, if not the inventor, was the most ingenious 
advocate of the Annelid theory. He recognized the fundamental 
importance of segmentation in vertebrate structure and sought for 
a highly segmented ancestor. Partly influenced by Ray Lankester's 
studies on degeneration, he held that the apparently simplest 
living members of a group may give misleading clues with respect 
to the ancestral line, and he devoted much brilliant anatomical 
and embryological work to develop the thesis that Amphioxus 
and the Tunicates were degenerate offshoots from a higher verte- 
brate stock. He took a Chaetopod worm as the closest living re- 
presentative of the stock of all segmented animals, and in particular 
of the Vertebrates, laying stress on the segmentation, the large 
coelom, the segmental excretory tubules, the vascular system with 
red blood, the segmentally disposed branchiae, the lateral organs 
of locomotion, and the tendency to form a distinct head. The chief 
difficulty was the nervous system, and this he explained by accepting 
an idea propounded many years before by De Blainville, that the 
dorsal surface of Vertebrates was homologous with the ventral 
surface of Annelids and Arthropods. He assumed that the ances- 
tral type was a marine creature in which reversal of surface was of 
little physiological moment. He supposed that a new mouth had 
been formed, probably by a coalescence of a pair of gill-slits on what 
was to be the ventral surface of the vertebrate, and that the old 
invertebrate mouth with the downward turn of the anterior end of 
the alimentary canal, between the diverging ends of the ventral nerve 
cords, was to be sought for in the roof of the vertebrate brain, possibly 
the pineal body. Dohrn's theory has failed to find acceptance for 
many reasons, of which the chief are the difficulty as to reversal of 
surfaces, the knowledge that segmentation occurs independently in 



many groups of animals and in different organs, greater knowledge 
of the vascular, excretory and nervous systems, and in par- 
ticular the discovery that the pineal body was a degenerate eye. 
F. M. Balfour from the first refused to accept Dohrn s theory and 
suggested that the dorsal position of the nerve cord in Vertebrates 
could be accounted for by supposing that the primitive condition 
was a lateral cord at each side such as were then known to occur in 
Nemertines, and that these cords had fused dorsally in Vertebrates, 
ventrally in Annelids. A. A. W. Hubrecht soon afterwards dis- 
covered the existence of a continuous nerve sheath in Nemertines, 
and he and Ray Lankester suggested a Nemertine origin for Verte- 
brates, and homologized the notochord with the proboscis sheath, 
Ray Lankester, in particular, pointing out that the tubular condition 
of the vertebrate nervous system was secondary, that it consisted 
essentially of a dorsal band, which sank inwards, and that the canal 
might have been at first an epidermal water canal. These authors 
were emphatic in laying stress on the view that no actual Nemertine 
could be supposed to represent the vertebrate ancestor, but that 
the Nemertines were to be taken merely as showing the kind of 
material out of which the vertebrate structure, and in particular 
the vertebrate nervous system, might have arisen. The view 
adopted in this article as given above, is in reality an extension of 
the Hubrecht-Lankester theory. 

The theory of vertebrate origin that has been most elaborately 
expounded is W. H. GaskelPs hypothesis that they are descended 
from Arthropods. Gaskell accepts Dohrn's view of the importance 
of segmentation and of the degeneracy of Amphioxus and Tunicates, 
but rejects the conception of a reversal of surfaces. He takes the 
larval stage of a Cyclostome as the most generalized living repre- 
sentative of the essential vertebrate type, and selects Limulus, the 
kingcrab, in a very general way, as the closest living representative 
of such an Arthropod type as might have been the vertebrate 
ancestor. The starting-point of Gaskell 's theory is the conception 
of the vertebrate nervous system as a band of nervous tissue which 
immediately underlies and gradually grows up round a distinct 
epidermal tube, the tube which forms the vesicles of the brain and 
the central canal of the spinal cord. Ray Lankester had already 
applied this to the Nemertine theory, but Gaskell urges that it affords 
an immediate comparison with Arthropod structures. The ventral 
mouth of Limulus leads vertically upwards through a ring of nervous 
tissue, thecircumoesophageal commissure, into an expanded stomach, 
and from this the digestive tube runs back to the anus immediately 
dorsal to the ventral nerve chain. For Gaskell the infundibulum is 
the Arthropod oesophagus, the ventricles of the brain are the 
stomach, and the spinal canal leading back to fuse "with the anus 
at the neurenteric canal is the Arthropod digestive tract. In the 
Vertebrate a new digestive tract has been formed, probably from a 
structure corresponding to the branchial chamber of Arthropods. 
The lateral halves of the ventral nervous system of the Arthropod, 
where they diverge on either side of the oesophagus, represent the 
crura cerebri of Vertebrates, whilst the supra-oesophageal ganglia 
represent the fore-brain. Gaskell has instituted an elaborate com- 
parison, extending to very minute details of structure, and finds 
remarkable analogies between the organs of Arthropods and 
structures in the Vertebrates. From the palaeontological side, he 
points out that at the time when the earliest known Craniates were 
abundant, large Arthropods, essentially like Limulus, were also 
abundant. He thinks it probable that Vertebrates arose from a 
dominant invertebrate group, and points to many resemblances in 
detail between the Silurian Arthropods Palaeostraca and the 
Craniate Ostracoderms of the same horizon. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. F. M. Balfour, Monograph on the Development of 
Elasmobranch Fishes (1878); W. Bateson, " Balanoglossus," in the 
Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science (1884, 1885, 1886); 
J. Beard, " The System of Branchial Sense-Organs and their Associ- 
ated Ganglia in Ichthyopsida," in the Quart. Jotirn. Micr. Set. (1885) ; 
A. Dohrn, " Studien zur Urgeschichte des V\ irbelthierkorpers," in 
the Mitth. Zool. Sta. (Naples, 1882, 1884, 1885, 1886, 1904); W. H. 
Gaskell, The Origin of Vertebrates (1908); C. Gegenbaur, "Die 
Metameric des Kopfes, in the Morph. Jahrb. (1888); Grundzuge der 
Vergle ichenden A natomie (various editions from 1870) ; E. S. Goodrich, 
volume on " Vertebrata Craniata," in Lankester's Treatise on 
Zoology (1909) (a notable review of the subject, to which the writer 
of this article is specially indebted) ; B. Hatschek, " Die Metameric 
des Amphioxus und des Ammocoetes," in Vertr. Aiiat. Ges. (Wien, 
1892), and Anal. Anz. (1893) ; A. A. W. Hubrecht, " On the Ancestral 
Form of the Chordata," in the Quart. Journ. Micr. Science (1883); 
" The Relation of the Nemertea to the Vertebrata" (ibid. 1887); 
A. Kowalevsky, " Le Developpement de I'Amphioxus lanceolatus," 
in Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (1866); " Entwickelungsgeschichte der 
einfachen Ascidien," in StPetersb.Acad. Sci. (1867), and summarized 
in the Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. (1870); N. K. Koltzof, " Metameric 
des Kopfes von Petromyzon Planeri," in Anal. Anz. (1899); 
" Entwickel. d. Kopfes von Petromyzon Planeri," in Bull. Soc. Imp. 
Nat. Moscow (1902) ; E. Ray Lankester, " Notes on Embryology 
and Classification," in Quart. Journ. Micr. Science (1877); article 
"Vertebrata," inEncy. Brit, (gthed.); A. M. Marshall. " The 
Segmental Value of the Cranial Nerves," in the Journ. Anal, and 
Phys. (1882); H. V. Neal, "Segmentation of Nervous System in 



VERTICAL VESPASIAN 



1051 



Squalus acanthias," in Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. (Harvard, 1898); 
I. W. van Wijhe, " Ueber das Visceralskelet, u. die Nerven des 
Kopfes tier Ganoiden u. von Ceratodus," in Niederl. Arch. f. Zool. 
(1879, 1882) ; various authors (A. Dendy, H. Gadow, J. S. Gardiner, 
W. H. Gaskell, E. S. Goodrich, E. W. MacBride, E. Ray Lankester, 
P. Chalmers Mitchell, A. Smith Woodward), " Discussion on the 
Origin of Vertebrates," in the Proc. of the Linnaean Society (London, 
1910). (P. C. M.) 

VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point), the direction 
of the line of action of gravity, as determined by the plumb- 
line. The angle of the vertical is the angle between the direction 
of the plumb-line and that of the earth's centre (see EARTH, 
FIGURE or THE). 

VERTUE, GEORGE (1684-1756), English engraver and anti- 
quary, was born in St Martin's-in-the-Fields, London, in 1684. 
At the age of thirteen he was apprenticed to an heraldic engraver, 
a Frenchman, who failed in three or four years. Vertue then 
studied drawing at home, and afterwards worked for seven 
years as an engraver under Michael Vandergucht. He was 
patronized by Sir Godfrey Kneller, and was one of the first 
members of the Academy of Painting which that artist instituted 
in 1711. His plate of Archbishop Tillotson, after Kneller, com- 
missioned by Lord Somers, established his reputation as an 
engraver; and he was soon in an excellent practice, engraving 
portraits after Dahl, Richardson, Jervas and Gibson. In 
portraiture alone he executed over five hundred plates. In 
1717 he was appointed engraver to the Society of Antiquaries, 
and his burin was employed upon many interesting statues, 
tombs, portraits and other subjects of an antiquarian nature. 
He died on the 24th of July 1756, and was buried in the cloisters 
of Westminster Abbey. 

From the year 1713 Vertue had been indefatigable in his researches 
on all matters connected with the history of British art, and had 
accumulated about forty volumes of memoranda on the subject. 
These were purchased by Horace Walpole, and form the basis of 
that author's Anecdotes of Painting in England, including an account 
of Vertue's life and a catalogue of his engravings. Vertue's own 
literary works include On Holbein and Gerard's Pictures (1740); 
Medals, Coins, Great Seals, Impressions, from the Elaborate Works of 
Thomas Simon (1753); Catalogue and Description of King Charles 
the First's Capital Collection of Pictures, Limnings, Statues, &c. 
0757); Catalogue of the Collection of Pictures belonging to King 
James II., to which is added a Catalogue of Pictures and Drawings 
in the Closet of Queen Caroline (1758); Catalogue of the Curious 
Collection of Pictures of George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham (1758); 
Description of the Works of that Ingenious Delineator and Engraver, 
W. Hollar (1745). 

VERTUMNUS (or VORTUMNUS, "turning," "changing"), 
in Roman mythology, the god of the changing year with its 
seasons, flowers and fruits, probably of Italian origin. Like 
Proteus, he had the power of assuming any shape he pleased, 
which enabled him to win the love of Pomona (q.v.). His shrine 
and statue (see the well-known description in Propertius iv. 2) 
were in the Vicus Tuscus, and from his connexion with this 
busy street he was regarded as having a special interest in 
trade and barter. At another sanctuary on the slope of the 
Aventine, sacrifice was offered to him every year on the i3th of 
August. It is probable that he was of Etruscan origin (see 
Wissowa, Religion und Kidtus der Romer, 1902, p. 233). 

VERULAMIUM, a Romano-British town situated in the terri- 
tory of the Catuvellauni, close to the modern St Albans (Hert- 
fordshire). Before the Roman conquest it was probably a native 
capital: afterwards it received the dignity of a municipium 
(implying municipal status and Roman citizenship). Tacitus 
tells us that the town was burnt by Boadicea in A.D. 61, but it 
again rose to prosperity. Its site is still easily recognizable. 
Its walls of flint rubble survive in stately fragments, and en- 
close an area of 200 acres. Of the internal buildings little is 
known. A theatre was excavated in 1847, and parts of the 
forum were opened by Mr William Page in 1898; both indicate 
a civilized and cultivated town. The complete uncovering of the 
site was planned in 1910. (F. J. H.) 

VERVET, a Central and South African monkey, known as 
Cercopilhecus pygerythrus. It is nearly allied to the grivet 
(q.v.), but distinguished (as indicated by its name) by the 



presence of a rusty patch at the root of the tail, and by the 
black (instead of grey) chin, hands and feet. 

VERVIERS, a town of Belgium, in the province of Liege, 
not far from the Prussian frontier, and on the main line from 
Liege to Aix-la-Chapelle and Cologne. Pop. (1904) 49,168. It 
is a modern town owing its prosperity to the cloth trade which 
began here in the i8th century. It is situated on the Vesdre, 
which flows into the Ourthe a few miles before its junction with 
the Meuse; and the water of that river is supposed to be especi- 
ally good for dyeing purposes. As the river water was insufficient 
to maintain the local industry an artificial reservoir was con- 
structed at La Gileppe on the Hautes Fagnes, and an imposing 
aqueduct conveys the water stored on these highlands into 
Verviers. There are also extensive glass factories, but these 
have suffered from German competition, and many have been 
closed. A monument to a local celebrity named Chapuis is 
interesting for the reason that his execution by order of the 
prince-bishop of Liege was the last act of sovereignty taken by 
that prelate. 

VESICA PISCIS (Fr. amande mystique), in architecture, the 
term given to a pointed oval panel formed by two equal circles 
cutting each other in their centres; this is a common form 
given to a panel in which the figure of Christ is represented. It 
is commonly employed in medieval seals, and especially those of 
bishops and monastic establishments. 

VESOUL, a town of eastern France, capital of the department 
of Haute-Saone, 236 m. E.S.E. of Paris on the Eastern railway 
to Belfort. Pop. (1906) 8702. Vesoul is situated between the 
isolated conical hill of La Motte (1263 ft.) and the river Burgeon. 
The vine-clad hill, from which there is a fine view of the Jura 
and Vosges mountains, is crowned by a votive chapel which in 
1855 replaced the old fortification. The medieval walls of the 
town, dating from the I3th and i5th centuries, still exist on its 
northern side, and in the narrow and winding streets are many 
old buildings. The church of St George dates from the i8th cen- 
tury. In the pleasant south-eastern quarter are the promenade 
and the Place de la Republique, with a monument to the 
Gardes Mobiles who fell in the war of 1870-71. Vesoul is the 
seat of a prefect, a tribunal of first instance and a court of 
assize, and has a lycee for boys, training colleges for both sexes, 
and a branch of the Bank of France. Distilling and the manu- 
facture of files and tapioca are among the industries. The town 
is a market for farm-produce and cattle. 

Vesoul (Vesulium Castrum, Visolium, Vesuluni) is of ancient 
origin, but in existing records is first mentioned in the gth 
century. It was originally a fief of the church of Besancon, and 
passed afterwards to the house of Burgundy, becoming, in the 
I3th century, capital of the bailiwick of Amont. The castle was 
destroyed in the i7th century. The town suffered much during 
the wars of religion and the Thirty Years' War. Vesoul be- 
longed temporarily to France after the death of Charles the Bold, 
duke of Burgundy; was returned to the empire when Charles 
VIII., king of France, broke off his marriage with the daughter 
of Maximilian, king of the Romans; and again became part of 
France under Louis XIV. after the peace of Nijmwegen in 1678. 

VESPASIAN, in full TITUS FLAVIUS VESPASIANUS, Roman 
emperor A.D. 70-79, was born on the i8th of November, 
A.D. 9, in the Sabine country near Reate. His father was a tax- 
collector and money-lender on a small scale; his mother was 
the sister of a senator. After having served with the army in 
Thrace and been quaestor in Crete and Cyrene, Vespasian rose 
to be aedile and praetor, having meanwhile married Flavia 
Domitilla, the daughter of a Roman knight, by whom he had 
two sons, Titus and Domitian, afterwards emperors. Having 
already served in Germany, in the years 43 and 44, in the 
reign of Claudius, he distinguished himself in command of the 
2nd legion in Britain under Aulus Plautius. He reduced V'ectis 
(Isle of Wight) and penetrated to the borders of Somersetshire. 
In 51 he was for a brief space consul; in 63 he went as governor 
to Africa, where, according to Tacitus (ii. 97), his rule was 
"infamous and odious"; according to Suetonius (Vesp. 4), 
" upright and highly honourable." He went with Nero's 



1052 



VESPERS VESPERS, SICILIAN 



suite to Greece, and in 66 was appointed to conduct the war 
in Judaea, which was threatening general commotion throughout 
the East, owing to a widely spread notion in those parts that from 
Judaea were to come the future rulers of the world. Vespasian, 
who had a strong vein of superstition, was made to believe 
that he was himself to fulfil this expectation, and aU manner 
of omens and oracles and portents were applied to him. He 
also found encouragement in Mucianus, the governor of Syria; 
and although a strict disciplinarian and reformer of abuses, he 
had a soldiery thoroughly devoted to him. All eyes in the 
East were now upon him; Mucianus and the Syrian legions were 
eager to support him; and on the ist of July 69, while he was 
at Caesarea, he was proclaimed emperor, first by the army in 
Egypt, and then by his troops in Judaea. The legions of the 
East at once took the customary oath of allegiance. Neverthe- 
less, Vitellius, the occupant of the throne, had on his side the 
veteran legions of Gaul and Germany, Rome's best troops. 
But the feeling in Vespasian's favour quickly gathered strength, 
and the armies of Mdesia, Pannonia and Illyricum soon declared 
for him, and made him in fact master of half of the Roman world. 
They entered Italy on the north-east under the leadership of 
Antonius Primus, defeated the army of Vitellius at Bedriacum 
(or Betriacum), sacked Cremona and advanced on Rome, which 
they entered after furious fighting and a frightful confusion, in 
which the Capitol was destroyed by fire. The new emperor 
received the tidings of his rival's defeat and death at Alexandria, 
whence he at once forwarded supplies of corn to Rome, which 
were urgently needed, along with an edict or a declaration of 
policy, in which he gave assurance of an entire reversal of the 
laws of Nero, especially those relating to treason. While in 
Egypt he became more and more imbued with superstition, con- 
sulting astrologers and allowing himself to be flattered into a belief 
that he possessed a divine power which could work miracles. 
Leaving the war in Judaea to his son Titus, he arrived at Rome 
in 70. He at once devoted his energies to repairing the evils 
caused by civil war. He restored discipline in the army, 
which under Vitellius had become utterly demoralized, and, 
with the co-operation of the senate, put the government and 
the finances on a sound footing. He renewed old taxes and 
instituted new, increased the tribute of the provinces, and kept 
a watchful eye upon the treasury officials. By his own example 
of simplicity of life, he put to shame the luxury and extravagance 
of the Roman nobles and initiated in many respects a marked 
improvement in the general tone of society. As censor he 
raised the character of the senate, removing unfit and unworthy 
members and promoting good and able men, among them 
the excellent Julius Agricola. At the same time he made it 
more dependent upon the emperor, by exercising an influence 
upon its composition. He altered the constitution of the 
praetorian guard, in which only Italians, formed into nine 
cohorts, were 'enrolled. In 70 a formidable rising in Gaul, 
headed by Claudius Civilis, was suppressed and the German 
frontier made secure; the Jewish War was brought to a close 
by Titus's capture of Jerusalem, and in the following year, 
after the joint triumph of Vespasian and Titus, memorable 
as the first occasion on which a father and his son were thus 
associated together, the temple of Janus was closed, and the 
Roman world had rest for the remaining nine years of Vespasian's 
reign. The peace of Vespasian passed into a proverb. In 78 
Agricola went to Britain, and both extended and consolidated 
the Roman dominion in that province, pushing his arms into 
North Wales and the Isle of Anglesey. In the following year 
Vespasian died, on the 23rd of June. 

The avarice with which both Tacitus and Suetonius stigmatize 
Vespasian seems really to have been an enlightened economy, 
which, in the disordered state of the Roman finances, was an 
absolute necessity. Vespasian could be liberal to impoverished 
senators and knights, to cities and towns desolated by natural 
calamity, and especially to men of letters and of the professor 
class, several of whom he pensioned with salaries of as much 
as 800 a year. Quintilian is said to have been the first public 
teacher who enjoyed this imperial favour. Pliny's great work, 



the Natural History, was written during Vespasian's reign, 
and dedicated to his son Titus. Some of the philosophers 
who talked idly of the good old times of the republic, and thus 
indirectly encouraged conspiracy, provoked him into reviving 
the obsolete penal laws against this class, but only one, Helvidius 
Priscus, was put to death, and he had affronted the emperor 
by studied insults. " I will not kill a dog that barks at me," 
were words honestly expressing the temper of Vespasian. Much 
money was spent on public works and the restoration and 
beautifying of Rome a new forum, the splendid temple of 
Peace, the public baths and the vast Colosseum being begun 
under Vespasian. The roads and aqueducts were repaired, and 
the limits of the pomerium extended. 

To the last Vespasian was a plain, blunt soldier, with decided 
strength of character and ability, and with a steady purpose to 
establish good order and secure the prosperity and welfare of his 
subjects. In his habits he was punctual and regular, transacting 
his business early in the morning, and enjoying his siesta after a 
drive. He had not quite the distinguished bearing looked for in 
an emperor. He was free in his conversation, and his humour, of 
which he had a good deal, was apt to take the form of rather 
coarse jokes. He could jest, it was said, even in his last moments. 
" Methinks I am becoming a god," he whispered to those around 
him. There is something very characteristic in the exclamation 
he is said to have uttered in his last illness, " An emperor ought 
to die standing." 

See Tacitus, Histories; Suetonius, Vespasian; Dio Cassius, 
Ixvi.; Merivale, Hist, of the Romans under the Empire, chs. 57~6o; 
H. Schiller, Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit, i. pt. 2; B. W. 
Henderson, Civil War and Rebellion in the Roman Empire A.D. 69-70 
(1908). 

VESPERS (pfficium vespertinutn), in the Roman Catholic 
liturgy, that part of the daily office which follows none (nona) 
and precedes compline (completorium) . In it the Pater Noster, 
Ave Maria, Deus in Adjutorium, &c., are followed by five 
psalms and five antiphons, after which come the " little chapter," 
the hymn and the verse, which vary according to the season, 
the Magnificat and its antiphon, and the appropriate collect. In 
its general features the use of this office can be traced back 
to a very early date both in the Eastern Church and in the 
Western. Vespers may be said or sung at any time after midday, 
and in some circumstances even before it. (See BREVIARY.) 

VESPERS, SICILIAN, the revolution of the Sicilians against 
the Angevin domination, so called because it broke out at the 
hour of Vespers on Easter Tuesday 1282. Charles I. of Anjou 
had encountered more resistance in conquering Sicily than on the 
mainland, as the people were more independent and more 
strongly attached to the house of Hohenstaufen; and conse- 
quently his government was more oppressive and cruel. The 
officials and the insolent French nobility whom he established 
in the island rode rough-shod over the privileges of the native 
aristocracy and the customs of the people, and the natives were 
ground down by heavy taxes and degrading personal services. 
The debased currency ruined trade, and the government treated 
the Sicilians with the utmost contempt. " The outrage of 
personal service," wrote Amari (Guerra del Vespro, ch. iv.), 
" exceeded the limits of feudalism as well as of the strangest 
and most brutal caprices. Noble and worthy men were forced 
to carry viands and wine on their shoulders to the tables of the 
foreigner, and many young nobles were constrained to turn the 
spit in his kitchens like scullions or slaves." The administra- 
tion was more regular, and therefore more unyielding and 
heartless, than that of the Hohenstaufens, and also more foreign. 
Hatred of Angevin rule grew day by day, until the people were 
driven to revolt. According to tradition, the leader of the 
rising was Giovanni da Procida, a Salernitan noble with Sicilian 
connexions, who had been in the service of Hohenstaufens, but, 
having lost position and property after the fall of Conradin, he 
had taken refuge at the court of -Peter III., king of Aragon, and 
induced him to try to make good his claims on Sicily, which were 
based on the rights of his queen, Costanza, daughter of Manfred. 
But as a matter of fact the actual outbreak was a purely 



VESPUCCI 



1053 



unpremeditated popular movement. Charles at that time was 
making preparations for an attack on the East Roman empire, 
and extorting more money than ever from the Sicilians in order 
to meet his expenses. Peter availed himself of the fears which 
Charles's ambitions were arousing to open negotiations with 
his various enemies, especially with the Greek emperor, Michael 
Palaeologus, the Italian Ghibellines, the discontented Sicilian 
nobles, and perhaps with Pope Nicholas III. Suddenly the 
people of Sicily, goaded beyond endurance, rose against their 
rulers, regardless of these various plots. On the jist of March 
1282 a riot broke out in a church near Palermo, in consequence, 
according to tradition, of the insults of a French soldier towards 
a Sicilian woman, and a general massacre of the French began. 
The rising spread to the city, where the republic was proclaimed, 
and then through the rest of the island; thousands of French 
men, women and children were butchered (there may be some 
exaggeration in the wholesale character. of the slaughter), and 
by the end of April the whole of Sicily was in the hands of the 
rebels. Charles at once led an expedition against the Sicilians 
and besieged Messina; and although the enemy had been expelled, 
they would hardly have been able to withstand this new in- 
vasion successfully had they not received assistance from Peter 
of Aragon and their own nobility, whose conspiracy they had so 
unexpectedly forestalled. This intervention, however, changed 
the character of the movement, and the free communes which 
had been proclaimed throughout the island had to submit to 
the royal prerogatives and to a revived feudalism. Peter, 
having reached Palermo in September 1282, accepted the 
Sicilian crown voluntarily offered to him, levied recruits, and 
declared war on Charles. Hostilities were carried on by land 
and sea, and the Angevin attacks on Messina were repulsed 
and followed up by raids on Calabria, where Reggio and other 
towns declared for King Peter. Charles proposed to settle the 
Sicilian question by a single combat between himself and Peter; 
but although the duel was agreed upon it never took place, 
owing to the mutual distrust of the two rivals. Peter created 
some discontent by conferring many offices in Sicily on Aragonese 
and Catalans, but at the parliament of Catania (1283) he under- 
took at his death to leave Aragon to his son Alphonso and Sicily 
to his younger son James, so that the two crowns should not be 
united, an arrangement which fell in with the Sicilians' aspira- 
tions towards independence. Pope Martin IV., unlike Nicholas 
III., threw the whole weight of his authority in favour of the 
Angevins, excommunicated Peter and the Sicilians, declaring 
that the former had forfeited even his rights to Aragon, con- 
ferred on Charles's expedition to reconquer the island the 
privileges of a crusade, and levied dimes throughout Christendom 
to supply the funds. The reason for this uncompromising 
attitude lies in the papal claim that Sicily was a fief of the 
Church, a claim which could only be enforced by means of the 
Angevins. But Charles's fleet was completely destroyed off 
Malta by that of the Sicilians and Aragonese, commanded by the 
Calabrese Ruggiero di Lauria (June 1283), and a second fleet 
met with a similar fate a year later in the bay of Naples, on 
which occasion Charles's son (afterwards Charles II., lo Zoppo) 
was captured. The Aragonese were now masters of the sea. 
Risings broke out even in the mainland provinces, and while 
Charles was preparing for a supreme effort to re-establish his 
authority he died (1285). Peter died soon after, but the war 
went on and spread to Aragon, which the Angevins, in virtue 
of the pope's excommunication of Peter, were trying to conquer. 
In 1287 the French encountered a fresh naval disaster at the 
hands of Lauria, and a force which they landed in Sicily was 
defeated. A two years' truce was now agreed upon, and Charles 
II. was liberated on his promising to renounce all claims on 
Aragon; but the pope Nicholas IV., who was determined that 
no peace should be made unless the Aragonese gave up the 
island, absolved him from his oath and crowned him king of 
the Two Sicilies (1289). Alphonso died in 1291, and was 
succeeded by his brother James, who took possession of the 
Aragonese crown, leaving his brother Frederick as governor of 
Sicily, thus uniting the two kingdoms, in violation of King 



Peter's promises. He then opened negotiations with Pope 
Boniface VIII. (they had been begun by Alphonso and Nicholas 
IV.), and eventually agreed to surrender the towns captured 
in the Neapolitan provinces to Charles II., and hand over 
Sicily to the Church, actually binding himself to assist in crush- 
ing the Sicilians if they resisted; in exchange he was to marry 
Charles's daughter, Bianca, and to receive Sardinia and Corsica, 
while Charles's cousin, Charles of Valois, was to renounce his 
claims on Aragon (1295). This treaty aroused bitter indignation 
in Sicily, where all classes determined to resist its execution 
at all costs. They found a leader in Frederick, who, rejecting 
all the pope's blandishments and bribes, threw in his lot with 
the Sicilians. For the sequel of the war see under FREDERICK 
III. of Sicily. Peace was made with the treaty of Caltabellotta 
in 1302, which left Sicily an independent kingdom under 
Frederick for that prince's lifetime; and although at his death it 
was to have reverted to the Angevins, he was actually suc- 
ceeded by his son, and the island retained its independence for 
a considerable period. Undoubtedly the Vespers and its con- 
sequences revived Sicilian nationalism after the period of de- 
grading Angevin oppression, and with the new dynasty a higher 
civilization, nearly rivalling that which had flourished under the 
Hohenstaufens, an improved constitution, and fine military 
qualities were the outcome. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The standard work on the subject is Michele 
Amari's Guerra del Vespro (2 vpls. 8th ed., Florence, 1876), which 
is based on a study of the original authorities, but is too strongly 
prejudiced against the French; cf. L. Cadier's Essai sur I'adminis- 
tration du royaume de Sidle par Charles I. et Charles II. d'Anjou 
(fa.sc. 59 of the Bibliotheque des ecoles franf aises de Rome et d'Ath&nes, 
Paris, 1891); A. de Saint-Priest, Histoire de la conquete de Naples 
par Charles d'Anjou (Paris, 184749); F. Lanzani, Storia dei 
communi d' Italia, lib. v. ch. 3 (Milan, 1882) ; A. Cappelli's preface 
to the " Leggenda di Messer Giovanni da Procida," in Miscellanea 
di opuscoli inediti o rari dei secoli XIV. XV. (Turin, 1861). Among 
the original authorities, Ricobaldo Ferrarese (in Muratori, Rer. Ital. 
script, torn, ix.), the two biographies of Martin IV. (ibid.), Fra 
Corrado (ibid. torn, i.), the Catalan author of the " Gesta comitum 
Barcinonensium " (in Barluzio's Marco, Hispanica, ch. 28) should 
be mentioned. A considerable list is given in Amari's Guerra del 
Vespro. (L. V.*) 

VESPUCCI, AMERIGO (1451-1512), merchant and adventurer, 
who gave his name of Amerigo to the new world as America, 
was born at Florence on the gth of March 1451. His father, 
Nastagio (Anastasio) Vespucci, was a notary, and his uncle, 
Fra Giorgio Antonio Vespucci, to whom he owed his education, 
was a scholarly Dominican and a friend of Savonarola. As a 
student Amerigo is said to have shown a preference for natural 
philosophy, astronomy and geography, He was placed as a 
clerk in the great commercial house of the Medici, then the 
ruling family in Florence. A letter of the 3oth of December 
1492 shows that he was then in Seville; and till the i2th of 
January 1496 he seems to have usually resided in Spain, especi- 
ally at Seville and Cadiz, probably as an agent of the "Medici. 
In December 1495, on the death of a Florentine merchant, 
Juanoto Berardi, established at Seville, who had fitted out the 
second expedition of Columbus in 1493, and had also under- 
taken to fit out twelve ships for the king of Spain (April 9th, 
1495), Vespucci was commissioned to complete the contract. 
As Ferdinand, on the loth of April 1495, recalled the monopoly 
conceded to Columbus (this order of April loth, 1495, was 
cancelled on June 2nd, 1497), " private " exploring now had 
an opportunity, and adventurers of all kinds were able to leave 
Spain for the West. Vespucci claims to have sailed with one 
of these " free-lance " expeditions from Cadiz on the loth of 
May 1497. Touching at Grand Canary on the way, the four 
vessels he accompanied, going thirty-seven days on a west- 
south-west course, and making 1000 leagues, are said to have 
reached a supposed continental coast in 16 N., 70 W. from 
Grand Canary (June i6th, 1497). This should have brought 
them into the Pacific. They sailed along the coast, says 
Vespucci, for 80 leagues to the province of Parias (or Lariab), 
and then 870 leagues more, always to the north-west, to the 
" finest harbour in the world," which from this description 
should be in British Columbia or thereabouts. Thence 100 



1054 



VESSEL VESTA 



leagues more to north and north-east to the islands of the people 
called " Iti," from which they returned to Spain, reaching Cadiz 
on the isth of October 1498. Still following Vespucci's own 
statement, he, on the i6th of May 1499, started on a second 
voyage in a fleet of three ships under Alonzo de Ojeda (Hojeda). 
Sailing south-west over 500 leagues they crossed the ocean in 
forty-four days, finding land in 5 S. Thence, encountering vari- 
ous adventures, they worked up to 15 N., and returned to Spain 
by way of Antiglia (Espanola, San Domingo), reaching Cadiz 
on the 8th of September 1500. Entering the service of Dom 
Manuel of Portugal, Vespucci claims to have taken part in a 
third American expedition, which left Lisbon on the loth (or 
1 5th) of May 1501. Vespucci has given two accounts of this 
alleged third voyage, differing in many details, especially dates 
and distances. From Portugal he declares that he sailed to 
Bezeguiche (Cape Verde), and thence south-west for 700 leagues, 
reaching the American coast in 5 S. on the 7th (or I7th) of 
August. Thence eastward for 300 (150) leagues, and south 
and west to 52 S. (or 73 30'; in his own words, " 13 from 
the antarctic pole," i.e. well into the antarctic continent). 
He returned, he adds, by Sierra Leone (June loth), and the 
Azores (end of July), to Lisbon (September 7th, 1502). His 
second Portuguese (and fourth and last American) voyage, as 
alleged by him, was destined for Malacca, which he supposed 
to be in 33 S. (really in 2 14' N.). Starting from Lisbon on 
the icth of May 1503, with a fleet of six ships, and reaching 
Bahia by way of Fernando Noronha (?), Vespucci declares that 
he built a fort at a harbour in 18 S., and thence returned to 
Lisbon (June i8th, 1504). In February 1505, being again in 
Spain, he visited Christopher Columbus, who entrusted to him 
a letter for his son Diego. On the 24th of April 1505, Vespucci 
received Spanish letters of naturalization; and on the 6th of 
August 1508 was appointed piloto mayor or chief pilot of 
Spain, an office which he held till his death, at Seville, on the 
22nd of February 1512. 

If his own account had been trustworthy, it would have 
followed that Vespucci reached the mainland of America eight 
days before John Cabot (June i6th against June 24th, 1497). 
But Vespucci's own statement of his exploring achievements 
hardly carries conviction. This statement is contained (i.) in 
his letter written from Lisbon (March or April 1503) to Lorenzo 
Piero Francesco di Medici, the head of the firm under which 
his business career had been mostly spent, describing the alleged 
Portuguese voyage of March isoi-September 1502. The 
original Italian text is lost, but we possess the Latin translation 
by " Jocundus interpreter," perhaps the Giocondo who brought 
his invitation to Portugal in 1501. This letter was printed (in 
some nine editions) soon after it was written, the first two 
issues (Mundus Novus and Epistola Albericii de Novo Mundo), 
without place or date, appearing before 1504, the third, of 1504 
(Mundus Novus), at Augsburg. Two very early Paris editions 
are also known, and one Strassburg (De Ora Antarctica) of 1505, 
edited by E. Ringmann. It was also included in the Paesi 
novamente retrovati of 1507 (Vicenza) under the title of Novo 
Mondo da Alb. Vesputio. The connexion of the new world with 
Vespucci, thus expressed, is derived from the argument of this 
first letter, that it was right to call Amerigo's discovery a new 
world, because it had not been seen before by any one. This 
prepared the way for the American name soon given to the 
continent, (ii.) In Vespucci's letter, also written from Portugal 
(September 1504), and probably addressed to his old school- 
fellow Piero Soderini, gonfaloniere of Florence 1502-1512. From 
the Italian original (of which four printed copies still exist, 
without place or date, but probably before 1507) a French 
version was made, and from the latter a Latin translation, 
published at St Di6 in Lorraine in April 1507, and immediately 
made use of in the Cosmographiae Introductio (St Die, 1507) 
of Martin Waldseemiiller (Hylacomylus), professor of cosmo- 
graphy in St Die University. Here we have perhaps the first 
suggestion in a printed book that the newly discovered fourth 
part of the world should be called " America, because Americus 
discovered it." Since Alexander von Humboldt discussed the 



subject in his Examen critique de Vhistoire de la geographie 
du nouveau continent (1837), vol. iv., the general weight of 
opinion (in spite of F. A. de Varnhagen, Amerigo Vespucci, son 
caractere, ses ecrits. . . same . . . , Lima, 1865, and other pro- 
Vespuccian works) has been that Vespucci did not make the 
1497 voyage, and that he had no share in the first discovery 
of the American continent. 

See also R. H. Major, Prince Henry the Navigator (London, 1868), 
pp. 367-88; F. A. de Varnhagen, Le Premier voyage de Amerigo 
Vespucci (Vienna, 1869); Npuvettes recherches sur les derniers 
voyages du navigateur florentin (Vienna, 1869); Ainda Amerigo 
Vespucci, Novos estudos (Vienna, 1874); Luigi Hugues, // terzo 
viaggio di A. Vespucci (Florence, 1878); " Alcune considerazipni 
sul Primo Viaggio di A. Vespucci," in the Bolletino of the Italian 
Geographical Society, series ii. vol. x. pp. 2^8-63, 367-80 (Rome, 
1885); " II quarto Viaggio di A. Vespucci," in the same Bolletino, 
year xx., vol. xxiii. pp. 532-54 (Rome, 1886) ; " Sul nome ' America ' ' 
in the same Bolletino, series iii. vol. i. pp. 404-27, 515-30 (Rome, 
1888), and an earlier s^udy under the same title (Turin, 1886); 
" Sopra due lettere di A. Vespucci," in the same, series iii. 
vol. iv. pp. 849-72, 929-51 (Rome, 1891); Narrative^ and Critical 
History of America, edited by Justin Winsor, vol. ii. pp. 129-86 
(1886); The Letters of A. Vespucci (translation, &c., by Clements 
R. Markham, London, Hakluyt Society, 1894); H. Harrisse, A. 
Vespuccius (London, 1895); Jos. Fischer and F. R. von Weiser, 
The Oldest Map with the Name America . . . (Innsbruck, 1903) ; Angelo 
Maria Bandini and Gustavo Uzielli, Vita di Amerigo Vespucci 
(Florence, 1898); B. H. Soulsby in the Journal of the Royal Geo- 
graphical Society (London, February 1902), pp. 201-9. (C. R. B.) 

VESSEL (O. Fr. missel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of 
lias, vase, urn), a word of somewhat wide application for many 
objects, the meaning common to them being capacity to hold 
or contain something. Thus it is a general term for any 
utensil capable of containing liquids, and for those tubular 
structures in anatomy, such as the arteries, veins or lymphatics, 
which contain, secrete or circulate the blood or lymph. Organs 
or structures which are largely supplied with vessels are said 
to be " vascular " (Lat. vasculum, another diminutive of vas). 
Vessel (as in French) is also a general term for all craft capable 
of floating on water larger than a rowing boat. The word is 
also familiar in Biblical phraseology in the figurative sense of 
a person regarded as the recipient of some Divine dispensation, 
a " chosen vessel," or as one into which something is infused 
or poured, " vessel of wrath." 

VESTA (Gr. 'Eoria), the goddess of fire and the domestic 
hearth. The cults of the Greek Hestia (q.v.) and the Latin 
Vesta, both of which involved the guardianship of an ever- 
burning sacred fire, are most probably derived from a very 
early custom, common to a great variety of races in different 
ages. Among primitive peoples it became the custom for each 
village to maintain a constant fire for general use, to avoid the 
necessity of obtaining a spark by friction in case of the accidental 
extinction of all the village fires. 1 This fire, the central hearth 
of the village (focus publicus), became a sacred symbol of home 
and family life. The form of the primitive house in which the 
fire was preserved, probably a round hut made of wattled osiers 
daubed with clay, appears to have survived both in the circular 
prytaneum of the Greeks and in the Aedes Vestae (Temple of 
Vesta) in Rome. To watch this fire would naturally be the duty 
of unmarried women, and hence may have arisen the Roman 
order of virgin priestesses, the vestal whose chief duty it was 
to tend the sacred fire. 

The prehistoric method of getting a spark appears to have 
survived in the rule that, if ever the sacred fire of Vesta did go 
out, the negligent vestal was to be punished by scourging (Livy 
xxviii. n), and the fire rekindled either by friction of dry sticks, 2 
or, in later times, by the sun's rays brought to a focus by a 
concave mirror (Plut. Numa, 9). In the prytaneum (q.v.) 
which existed in every Greek state, a different form of cult was 
developed, though the essential point, the sacred fire, was kept 

1 J. G. Frazer in the Journal of Philology (vol. xiv. pp. 145-72), 
" The Worship of Vesta and its Connexion with the Greek Pry- 
taneum," jives many examples of a similar custom still surviving 
among v^.ious savage races. 

1 An allusion to the earliest method of obtaining fire by rubbing 
two sticks together is probably contained in the myth of Prometheus, 
who brought fire to mortals hidden in a hollow wand. 



VESTA 



up, just as in the Latin worship of Vesta; and in both cases the 
tire was extinguished annually at the beginning of the new year, 
and solemnly rekindled by one of the primitive and hence sacred 
methods. 1 In Rome this was done on the first day of March, 
the Latin New Year's Day (Ovid, Fasti, iii. 137-45). Among 
both Greek and early Latin races, at the founding of a new 
colony, fire was solemnly sent from the prytaneum of the mother 
colony to kindle a similar sacred fire in the new settlement. 
Thus we find that, according to tradition, the worship of Vesta 
in Rome was introduced from Alba Longa (Livy i. 20, and Ovid, 
Fasti, iii. 46), which appears to have been the oldest of the Latin 
colonies in Latium. The most generally received Latin legend 
attributes the founding of the Roman temple of Vesta to Numa, 
who transferred the centre of the cult from Alba, together with 
the four vestal virgins, its priestesses (Plut. Numa, 10). One 
of the later kings, either Tarquin I. or Servius Tullius, is said 
to have increased the number to six (Dion. Hal. iii. 67, and 
Plut. Numa, 10), and it is not till the last years of the pagan 
period that we hear of a seventh vestal having been added 
(see Ambrose, Epist., ed. Pareus, p. 477; also Plut. Rom. 
and Cam.). 

The election (captio) of the vestal during the early period of Rome 
was in the hands of the king, and in those of the pontifex maximus 
under the republic and empire, 2 subject, however, to the following 
conditions (Aul. Cell. i. 12): (l) the candidate was to be more 
than six and less than ten years of age ; (2) she was to be patrima and 
matrima, i.e. having both parents alive; (3) free from physical 
or mental defects; (4) daughter of a free-born resident in Italy. 
Certain details of the election were arranged subject to the provisions 
of the Lex Papia, now unknown. The selected child had her hair 
cut off, and was solemnly admitted by the pontifex maximus, who 
held her by the hand, and, addressing her by the name amata, pro- 
nounced an ancient formula of initiation, which is given by Aulus 
Gellius. In early times there were certain rules by which girls could 
be excused from serving as vestals, but the honour soon became 
so eagerly sought that these provisions were practically useless. 
Vows were taken by the vestal for a period of thirty years, after 
which she was free to return to private life and even to marry 
which she very rarejy did (Aul. Gell. vi. 7). This period of thirty 
years was divided into three decades: during the first the vestal 
learnt her duties; during the second she practised them; and during 
the third she instructed the young vestals. The special dignity of 
chief of the vestals (irirgo vestalis maxima) was reached in order of 
seniority. The inscriptions on the pedestals of statues of various 
vestales maximae show that a number of different grades of honour 
were passed through before reaching the highest dignity or maxi- 
matus. 3 

The duties of the vestals, besides the chief one of tending the holy 
fire (Cic. De Leg. ii. 8), consisted in the daily bringing of water from 
the sacred spring of Egeria, near the Porta Capena, to be used for 
the ceremonial sweeping and sprinkling of the Aedes Vestae. 4 They 
also offered sacrifices of salt cakes muries and mola salsa and poured 
on the altar of sacred fire libations of wine and oij, as is represented 
on the reverses of several first brasses and medallions of the empire. 
The vestals were bound to offer daily prayers for the welfare of 
the Roman state, and more especially in times of danger or cala- 
mity (Cic. Pro Font. 21). They were also the guardians of the 
seven sacred objects on which the stability of the Roman power was 
supposed to depend: the chief of these was the Palladium, a rude 
archaic statue of Pallas, which was said to have been brought by 
Aeneas from the burning Troy. This sacred object was never shown 
to profane eyes, but it is represented on the reverse of a coin 
struck by Antoninus Pius in honour of his deified wife Faustina. 
Strict observance of the vow of chastity was one of the chief obliga- 
tions of the vestals, and it-, breach was punished by burial alive at 
a place near the Porta Coliina known as the Campus Sceleratus (see 
Livy viii. 15 and 89; Plin. Ep. iv. II ; and Suet. Dom. 8). Cases 
of unchastity and its punishment were rare; and, as the evidence 



1 Fire obtained in this way, that is, " pure elemental fire," was 
commonly thought to possess a special sanctity. Even throughout 
the middle ages in Catholic countries, at Easter, when the new year 
began, the old pagan rite survived (see LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF.) 

2 From the time of Augustus the emperors themselves held the 
office of chief pontiff, and with it the privilege of electing the vestals. 

3 These inscriptions are printed in Middleton, Ancient Rome in 
1885, pp. 200-6, and in Archaeologia, xlix. 414-22. 

4 The shrine of Vesta was not a lemplum, in the strict Roman 
sense, as it was not consecrated by the augurs, its sanctity being 
far above the necessity of any such ceremony. Oth^r natural 
springs might be used for the daily sprinkling, but it wai',,,orbidden 
to use water brought in a pipe or other artificial conduit (Tac. Hist. 
iv. 53) ; see also Guhl and Koner, Das Leben der Criechen and Romer 
(Eng. trans, by F. Hueffer, 1875). 



against the vestal was usually that of slaves, given under torture, it 
is probable that in many instances an innocent vestal suffered this 
cruel death. 

The privileges of the vestals and their influential position were very 
remarkable. They were exempt from any patria potestas, except 
that of the pontifex maximus, their religious father; they could 
dispose by will of their property, and were in most respects not 
subject to the Roman laws (" legibus non tenetur," Servius, on 
Virg. Aen. xi. 204; cf. Gaius i. 130, and Dio Cass. Ivi. 10). This 
involved freedom from taxes, and the right to drive through the 
streets of Rome in carriages (plostrum and currus arcuatus) . Some 
bronze plates have been found which were once attached to the 
carriages of vestals; the inscription on one of them runs thus: 
Flaviae Publiciae v.v. maximae inmunis in jugo (see C.l.L. vi. 
2146-2148; cf. also Prudentius, Contra Symm. ii. 1088). They 
were preceded by a lictor when appearing on state occasions, and 
enjoyed other semi-royal honours (Plut. Numa, 10, and Dio Cass. 
xlvii. 19). At theatres and other places of amusement they occupied 
the best seats, except at some of the nude athletic contests, from 
which they were excluded; they also took an important part in all 
the grand religious and state ceremonies, as when the pontifex 
maximus offered sacrifice on the occasion of a triumph before the 
temple of Capitoline Jupiter. They had power to pardon any 
criminal they met in the street on his way to execution, provided 
that the meeting were accidental. The vestals alone shared with 
the emperors the privilege of intramural burial (Serv. on Virg. Aen. 
xi. 206). During life they were richly dowered by the state (Suet. 
Aug. 31), and had public slaves appointed to serve them (see Tac. 
Hist. i. 43). They were also the guardians of the emperor's will, 
and of other important documents of state (Suet. /. Goes. 83, and 
Aug. 101; Tac. Ann. i. 8; Plut. Anton. 58; and Appian, Bell. 
Civ. \. 73). Their influence in the appointment to many offices, 
both religious and secular, appears to have been very great. Many 
of the statues to the chief vestals which were found in the Atrium 
Vestae in 1883-1884 have pedestals inscribed with a dedication re- 
cording that benefits had been conferred on the donor by the vestalis 
maxima. Lastly, they lived in a style of very great splendour; 
their house, the Atrium Vestae, which stood close by the Aedes 
Vestae, was very large and exceptionally magnificent both in decora- 
tion and material (see ROME, Archaeology, " Forum Romanum " 
and map). 

The discovery already mentioned of a number of statues of vestale* 
maximae has thrown new light on the dress of the vestals. 6 With 
one or two exceptions the costume of these statues is much the 
same: they have a long sleeveless tunic (stola), girdled by the zona 
immediately below the breast. One only wears the diploidion over 
the upper part of her figure. The outer garment is an ample 
pallium, wrapped round the body in a great variety of folds, and 
in some cases brought over the head like a hood. All seem to 
have long hair, showing that the process of cutting off the hair at 
initiation was not repeated. One figure wears the suffibulum, a 
rectangular piece of white cloth bordered by a purple stripe, worn 
over the head and fastened on the breast by a fibula. According 
to Festus (ed. Muller, p. 348), this sacred garment was worn 
by the vestals only during the act of sacrificing (see also Varro, 
De Ling. Lat. vi. 21). In all cases the head is closely bound by 
vittae, rope-like twists of woollen cloth, the ends of which usually 
fall in loops on each shoulder (see Servius on Virg. Aen. x. 538). 

The Regia, the official fanum of the pontifex maximus, was 
adjacent to the vestals' house : 

" Hie locus est Vestae, qui Pallada servat et ignem; 
Hie fuit antiqui Regia parva Numae." 6 

When Augustus, after his election to the office of pontifex maximus 
in 12 B.C., moved his place of residence from the Regia to the 
Palatine, he built a new Aedes Vestae near his palace, in the magnifi- 
cent Area Apollinis. This appears to have been a copy of the older 
temple of Vesta. No traces of it now exist; but Pirro Ligorio, in 
the latter part of the l6th century, made some sketches of what 
then existed of this second temple, to illustrate his great MS. on 
Roman antiquities, which is now preserved in the royal library 
at Turin (see Ovid, Fasti, iv. 949-954, and Metam. xv. 864). The 
original course of the Sacra Via passed close to the temple of Vesta ; 
but the road was clumsily built over in the 3rd and 4th centuries. 

The chief festival in honour of Vesta, the Vestalia, was held on 
the gth of June (Ovid, Fasti, vi. 249), after which the temple was 
closed for five days for a ceremonial cleansing. In private houses 
the feast was celebrated by a meal of fish, bread and herbs, eaten, 
not on the usual triclinium, but by the domestic hearth, in front of 
the effigies of the Dii Penates (Ovid, Fasti, vi. 309-310). The feast, 
inaugurated by Augustus in honour of Vesta Palatina, was held on 
the 28th of April, the anniversary of its consecration. 

With regard to statues of the goddess, though the Greek Hestia 
was frequently represented in plastic art, yet among the Romans 



6 These statues appear to have been the work of a privileged class 
of sculptors, who enjoyed the title of " fictores virginum yestalium " 
an honour which is recorded in some of the dedicatory inscriptions 
on the pedestals. 

6 Ovid, Tristia, iii. 29. 



1056 



VESTERAS VESTMENTS 



Vesta appears to have been rarely so treated. The Athenian 
prytaneum contained a statue of Hestia. But there was no effigy 
in the Roman temple of Vesta, although one is commonly shown on 
reverses of coins which have a representation of the temple, and it 
appears to have been commonly thought in Rome that a statue of 
Vesta did exist inside her shrine a mistake which Ovid corrects 
(Fasti, vi. 297-300). No Roman statue now known can be certainly 
considered to represent yesta, though a very beautiful standing 
figure of a female with veiled head (in the Torlonia collection) has, 
with some probability, had this name given to it. 

The worship of Vesta appears to have died out slowly in the 4th 
century, after the adoption of Christianity as the state religion by 
Constantine, and in 382 Gratian confiscated the Atrium Vestae. 
Zosimus (Hist. Nov. v. 38) tells an interesting story of a visit made to 
it at the end of the 4th century by Serena, the wife of the Vandal 
Stilicho, who took a valuable necklace from one of the statues, 
in spite of the remonstrances of an aged woman, the last survivor 
of the vestal virgins. Soon after that time the building appears to 
have fallen into decay, its valuable marble linings and other orna- 
ments having been stripped from its walls. 

AUTHORITIES. For the Atrium and the Aedes Vestae see ROME, 
Archaeology (footnote ad loc.). See also Wissowa, Relig. und Kultus 
der Romer (1902) and authorities under HESTIA. (J. H. M.; X.) 

VESTERAS, or WESTERAS, a town and bishop's see of 
Sweden, capital of the district (Ian) of Vestmanland, on a 
northern bay of Lake Malar, 60 m. N.W. by W. of Stockholm 
by rail. Pop. (1900) 11,999. It is a considerable industrial 
centre and an important lake port. Its Gothic cathedral, 
rebuilt by Birger Jarl on an earlier site, and consecrated in 
1271, was restored in 1850-1860, and again in 1896-1898. The 
episcopal library contains the valuable collection of books 
which Oxenstjerna, the chancellor of Gustavus Adolphus, 
brought away from Mainz near the end of the Thirty Years' 
War. A castle commands the town from an eminence; it 
was captured by Gustavus Vasa and rebuilt by him, and again 
in the i7th century, and remains the seat of the provincial 
government. Here Eric XIV., whose tomb is in the cathedral, 
was confined (1573-1575)- Several national diets were held in 
this town, the most notable being those of 1527, when Gustavus 
Vasa formally introduced the Reformation into Sweden, and 
1544, when he had the Swedish throne declared hereditary in 
his family. The original name of the town was Vestra Aros 
(" western mouth "), in distinction from Ostra Aros, the 
former name of Upsala. 

VESTIBULE (from Lat. vest ib-ulum) , the architectural term 
given to an antechamber next to the entrance and preceding 
the hall; it is also applied to the anteroom of any large apart- 
ment. The word is connected, like Vesta (q.i>.), with the Sanscrit 
root vas-, to dwell, inhabit. In medieval Latin it was occasion- 
ally used, instead of vestiarium, for a vestry (see Du Cange, Gloss, 
med. lat. t s.v.), which is derived from Lat. tiestis, clothing. 

VESTINI, an ancient Sabine tribe which occupied the eastern 
and northern bank of the Aternus in central Italy, entered 
into the Roman alliance, retaining its own independence, in 
304 B.C., and issuing coins of its own in the following century. 
A northerly section round Amiternum near the passes into 
Sabine country probably received the Caerite franchise soon 
after. In spite of this, and of the influence of Hadria, a Latin 
colony founded about 290 B.C. (Livy, Epit. xi.), the local 
dialect, which belongs to the north Oscan group, survived 
certainly to the middle of the 2nd century B.C. (see the in- 
scriptions cited below) and probably until the Social War. 
The oldest Latin inscriptions of the district are C.l.L. ix. 3521, 
from Furfo with Sullan alphabet, and 3574, " litteris anti- 
quissimis," but with couraverunt, a form which, as inter- 
mediate between coir- or coer- and cur-, cannot be earlier than 
too B.C. (see LATIN LANGUAGE). The latter inscription contains 
also the forms magist[r]es (nom. pi.) and ueci (gen. sing.), which 
show that the Latin first spoken by the Vestini was not that 
of Rome, but that of their neighbours the Marsi and Aequi 
(qq.v.). The inscription of Scoppito shows that at the time 
at which it was written the upper Aternus valley must be 
counted Vestine, not Sabine, in point of dialect. 

See further PAELIGNI and SABINI, and for the inscriptions and 
further details, R. S. Con way, The Italic Dialects, pp. 258 ff., on 
which this article is based. (R. S. C.) 



VESTMENTS. The word " vestment " (Lat. vestimentum, 
fr. vestire, to clothe), meaning generally simply an article of 
clothing, is in the usage of the present day practically confined 
to the ceremonial garments worn in public worship; hi this 
sense it may be used equally of the robes or " ornaments " of 
the ministers or priests of any religion. Ecclesiastical vest- 
ments, with which the present article is solely concerned, are 
the special articles of costume worn by the officers of the 
Christian Church " at all times of their ministration " to 
quote the Ornaments Rubric of the English Book of Common 
Prayer, i.e. as distinct from the " clerical costume " worn in 
everyday life. Ecclesiastical vestments may again be divided 
into two categories: (i) liturgical vestments, (2) non-liturgical 
vestments. Liturgical vestments, as their name implies, are 
those which are especially associated with the various functions 
of the liturgy. Of these again, according to the fully developed 
rules of the Catholic Church, there are three classes: (i) vest- 
ments worn only at the celebration of mass chasuble, maniple, 
pontifical gloves, pontifical shoes, the pallium and the papal 
fanone and subcinctorium; (2) vestments never worn at mass, 
but at other liturgical functions, such as processions, administra- 
tion of the sacraments, solemn choir services, i.e. cope and 
surplice; (3) vestments used at both alb, amice, girdle, stole, 
dalmatic, tunicle. Non-liturpical vestments are those, e.g. 
cappa magna, rochet, which have no sacral character, have 
come into use from motives of convenience or as insignia 
of dignity, and are worn at secular as well as ecclesiastical 
functions. 

In the controversies as to the interpretation of the Anglican 
" Ornaments Rubric " (see below) the term " vestments " has 
been applied particularly to those worn at the celebration of 
mass, which is what is meant when it is said that " the 
vestments " are worn at such and such a church. This restric- 
tion of the term has some historical justification: in the First 
Prayer Book of Edward VI. the word " vestment " is used as 
synonymous with but one liturgical garment the chasuble, 
the " mass vestment " par excellence; in the Prayer Book of 
!5S9 " vestments " are eliminated altogether, " ornaments " 
being substituted as a more comprehensive term. As to the 
use of the word, it must be further stated that it is also techni- 
cally applied to altar cloths, the altar being " vested " in 
frontal (antependium) and super-frontal (see ALTAR). 

The subject of ecclesiastical vestments is not only one of 
great interest from the point of view of archaeology and art, 
but is also of importance, in so far as certain " ornaments " 
have become historically associated with certain doctrines on 
which the opinion of the Christian world is sharply divided. 
The present article can only give a brief outline of a subject as 
intricate as it is vast, frequently also extremely obscure, and 
rendered still more obscure by the fact that those who 'have 
applied themselves to it have too often done so in anything 
but a scientific spirit. It will deal briefly (i) with the general 
idea and the historical evolution of ecclesiastical vestments, 
(2) with the vestments as at present worn (a) in the Roman 
Catholic Church, (b) in the Oriental Churches, (c) in the Reformed 
Churches, (d) in the Anglican Church. The more important 
vestments are dealt with in some detail under their separate 
headings; here it will only be necessary to give short descrip- 
tions of those which cannot be conveniently treated separately. 

i . The Origin and Idea of Ecclesiastical Vestments. The liturgical 
vestments of the Catholic Church, East and West, are not, as 
was at one time commonly supposed, borrowed from the sacer- 
dotal ornaments of the Jewish ritual, although the obvious 
analogies of this ritual doubtless to a certain extent determined 
their sacral character; they were developed independently out 
of the various articles of everyday dress worn by citizens of 
the Graeco-Roman world under the Empire. The officers of 
the Church during the first few centuries of its existence were 
content to officiate in the dress of civil life, though their garments 
were expected to be scrupulously clean and of decent quality. 
The few scattered references in contemporary records to the 
dress of the clergy all point to this as the only recognized rule. 



VESTMENTS 



1057 



Thus in the 37th of the so-called " Canons of Hippolytus " we 
read: " As often as the bishops would partake of the Mysteries, 
the presbyters and deacons shall gather round him clad in white, 
quite particularly clean clothes, more beautiful than those of the 
rest of the people." Thus, too, St Jerome, in his commentary 
on Ezek. xliv. 19, says that " We, too, ought not to enter the 
Holy of Holies in our everyday garments . . . when they have 
become denied from the use of ordinary life, but with a clean 
conscience, and in clean garments, hold in our hands the 
Sacrament of the Lord." 

When, in the year 289, St Cyprian was led to martyrdom, 
he wore, according to Eusebius (Hist, eccles. iv. cap. n), an under 
tunic (linea), an upper tunic (dalmalica, tunica) and mantle 
(lacerna, byrrus). This was the ordinary type of the civil costume 
of the time. The tunica, a loose sack-like tunic with a hole for 
the head, was the innermost garment worn by all classes of 
Roman citizens under the republic and empire. It was either 
sleeveless (colobium) or sleeved (tunica manicata or manuleata), 
and originally fell about to the knee, but later on reached to 
the ankles (tunica talaris). St Augustine (De doctr. christ. iii. 
cap. 10, n. 20) says that to wear talares et tunicas manicatas 
was a disgrace among the ancient Romans, but that in his own 
day it was no longer so considered in the case of. persons of 
good birth. The tunica was originally of white wool, but in 
the 3rd century it began to be made of linen, and from the 
4th century was always of linen. About the 6th century the 
long tunica alba went out of fashion in civil life, but it was 
retained in the services of the Church and developed into the 
various forms of the liturgical alb (q.v.) and surplice (q.v.). The 
tunica dalmatica was a long, sleeved upper tunic, originating, 
as its name implies, in Dalmatia, and first becoming fashionable 
at Rome in the 2nd century; it is the origin of the liturgical 
dalmatic and tunicle (see DALMATIC). Another over-dress of 
the Romans was the paenula, a cloak akin to the poncho of 
the modern Spaniards and Spanish Americans, i.e. a large 
piece of stuff with a hole for the head to go through, hanging 
in ample folds round the body. This was originally worn only 
by slaves, soldiers and other people of low degree; in the 3rd 
century, however, it was adopted by fashionable people as a 
convenient riding or travelling cloak; and finally, by the 
sumptuary law of 382 (Cod. Theod. xiv. 10, i, de habitu . . . 
inlra urbcm) it was prescribed as the proper everyday dress 
of senators, instead of the military chlamys, the toga being 
reserved for state occasions. This was the origin of the 

principal liturgical vestment, 
the chasuble (q.v.). 

As late as the 6th century 
these garments were common 
both to the clergy and laity, and, 
so far as their character was 
concerned, were used both in 
the liturgy and in everyday 
life. Meanwhile, however, a 
certain development had taken 
place. By the 4th century 
the garments worn at liturgical 
functions had been separated 
from those in ordinary use, 
though still identical in form. 
It is in the 4th century, too, 
that the first distinctive vest- 
ment makes its appearance, the 
&lM<j>6piov worn by all bishops in 
the East; in the 5th century 
we find this in use at Rome 
under the name of pallium (q.v.), 
as the distinctive ornament of 
the pope (see fig. i). About 
the same time the orarium, or 
stole (q.v.), becomes fixed in 
liturgical use. The main development and definition of the 
ecclesiastical vestments, however, took place between the 




FIG. I. Pope Honorius (d. 
638). From a mosaic in 
S. Agnese in Rome. 



6th and the pth centuries. The secular fashions altered with 
changes of taste; but the Church retained the dress with the 
other traditions of the Roman Empire. At Rome, especially, 
where the popes had succeeded to a share of the power and 
pretensions of the Caesars of the West, the accumulation of 
ecclesiastical vestments symbolized a very special dignity: in 
the second quarter of the 9th century the pope, when fully 
vested, wore a camisia girdled, an alb (linea) girdled, an amice 
(anagolaium) , a tunicle (dalmatica minor), a dalmatic (dalmatica 
major), stole (orarium), chasuble (planeta) and pallium. With 
the exception of the pallium, this was also the costume of 
the Roman deacons. By this time, moreover, the liturgical 
character of the vestments was so completely established that 
they were no longer worn instead of, but over, the ordinary 
dress. 

Hitherto the example of the Roman Church had exercised 
no exclusive determining influence on ritual development even 
in the West. The popes had, from time to time, sent the 
pallium or the dalmatic specifically Roman vestments as 
gifts of honour to various distinguished prelates; Britain, 
converted by a Roman mission, had adopted the Roman use, 
and English missionaries had carried this into the newly 
Christianized parts of Germany; but the great Churches of 
Spain and Gaul preserved their own traditions in vestments 
as in other matters. From the gth century onwards, however, 
this was changed; everywhere in the West the Roman use 
ousted the regional uses. 

This change synchronized with the revival of the Western Empire 
under Charlemagne, a revival which necessarily gave an impulse 
to the claims of the see of Rome. The adoption of the Roman 
liturgical dress had, however, at most an indirect connexion with 
these claims. Charlemagne was active in prescribing the adoption 
of the Roman use; but this was only as part of his general policy 
in the organization of his em- 
pire. A renovation of the Gal- 
lican Church was not the least 
crying need; and, in view of 
the confusion of rites (Galilean, 
Gothic, Roman, Ambrosian) in 
the Prankish empire, Charle- 
magne recognized that this in- 
novation could only be effectu- 
ally carried out by a closer 
connexion with Rome in ritual 
as in other matters. Charle- 
magne's activity in this respect 
was, in effect, but the comple- 
tion of a process that had been 
going on since the 6th century. 
Whatever effect the reinvigora- 
tion of the papacy may have 
had in hastening the process, the 
original impulse towards the 
adoption of the Roman rite had 
proceeded, not from Rome, but 
from Spain and Gaul; it was 
the natural result of the lively 
intercourse between the 
Churches of these countries 
and the Holy See. Nor was the 
process of assimilation by any 
means one-sided. If Spain and 
Gaul borrowed from Rome, they 
also exercised a reciprocal influ- 
ence on the Roman use; it is 
interesting to note in this con- 
nexion, that of the names of 




FIG. 2. Stigand, Archbishop of 
Canterbury (1052-1070); from 
the Bayeux Tapestry. Note 
the absence of the mitre, the 
chasuble short or tucked up in 
front, the maniple still carried 
in the left hand. 



the liturgical vestments a very large proportion are not of Roman 
origin, and that the non-Roman names tended to supersede the 
Roman in Rome itself. 1 



1 Apart from the archiepiscopal pallium, the Churches of Spain 
and Gaul had need to borrow from Rome only the dalmatic, maniple 
and liturgical shoes. On the other hand, it was from Spain and 
Gaul that Rome probably received the orarium (stole) as an ensign 
of the major orders. Father Braun, to whose kindness the writer 
is indebted for the above account of the causes of the ritual changes 
in the Carolingian epoch, adds that the papacy was never narrow- 
minded in its attitude towards local rites, and that it was not until 
the close of the middle ages, when diversity had become confusion 
and worse, that it began to insist upon uniformity. Even then it 
allowed those rites to survive which could prove a tradition of 200 
years. 



xxvil. 34 



1058 



VESTMENTS 



The period between the Qth and the I3th centuries is that 
of the final development of the liturgical vestments in the 
West. In the gth century appeared the pontifical gloves; in 
the loth, the mitre; in the nth, the use of liturgical shoes and 
stockings was reserved for cardinals and bishops. By the i2th 
century, mitre and gloves were worn by all bishops, and in 
many cases they had assumed a new ornament, the rationale, 
a merely honorific decoration (supposed to symbolize doctrine 
and wisdom), sometimes of the nature of a highly ornamental 
broad shoulder collar with dependent lappets; sometimes 
closely resembling the pallium; rarely a " breast-plate " on 
the model of that of the Jewish high priest. 1 This elaboration 
of the pontifical vestments was contemporaneous with, and 
doubtless partly determined by, the assimilation of the bishops 
during those centuries to the type of the great feudal nobles 
whose ambitions and love of pomp they shared. 

In an age when, with the evolution of the feudal organiza- 
tion cf society, even everyday costume was becoming a uni- 
form, symbolizing in material and colour the exact status of 
the wearer, it was natural that in the parallel organization of 
the Church the official vestments should undergo a similar 
process of differentiation and definition. With this process, 
which in all its essential features was completed in the nth 
century, doctrinal developments had little or nothing to do, 
though from the 9th century onwards liturgiologists were busy 
expounding the mystic symbolism of garments which, until 
their imagination set to work, had for 
the most part no symbolism whatever 
(see below). Yet in view of later con- 
troversies, the changes made during 
this period, notably in the vestments 
connected with the mass, are not without 
significance. Hitherto the chasuble had 
been worn indifferently by all ministers 
at the eucharist, even by the acolytes; 
it had been worn also at processions and 
other non-liturgical functions; it was 
now exalted into the mass vestment par 
excellence, worn by the celebrant only, 
or by his immediate assistants (deacon 
and subdeacon) only on very special 
occasions. New vestments were de- 
vised to take the place, on less solemn 
occasions, of those hallowed by associa- 
tion with the holy sacrifice; thus 
the processional cope (q.v.) appeared in 
the nth century and the surplice (q.v.) 
in the I2th. A change, too, came over 
the general character of vestments. Up 
to the pth century these had been very 
plain, without ornament save such tra- 
ditional decorations as the clavi of the 
dalmatic; what splendour they had was 
due to their material and the ample 
folds of their draperies. But from this 
time onwards they tend to become 
more and more elaborately decorated 
with embroidery and jeweller's work 
(see, e.g. the articles CHASUBLE and 

From Braun's Liturgiscfte COPE) 

Gewandmig, by permission ,, . ... 

of B. Herder. Very significant, too, is the parting 

FIG. 3. Monumental of the ways in the development of 
Figure of Bishop liturgical vestments in the East and 
Johannes of Lubeck \y es t. During the first centuries both 
Cathedral." 1 branches of the Church had used vest- 

ments substantially the same, developed 

from common originals; the alb, chasuble, stole and pallium 
were the equivalents of the <jTi\apu>v, favoXtav, upapiov and 

1 The rationale is worn only over the chasuble. It is now used 
only by the bishops of Eichstatt, Cracow, Paderborn and Toul, 
by the special concession of various popes. See Braun, Liturg. 
Gewandung, pp. 676-700. 




u/M<j>6pu>v. While, however, between the 9th and I3th centuries, 
the Western Church was adding largely to her store of vestments; 
that of the East increased her list by but three, the kv\dpiov 
and tinfiavlKia (see MANIPLE) and the ffdwcos (see DALMATIC). 
The living force of development in the Latin Church was 
symbolized in her garments; the stereotyped orthodoxy of the 
Greek Church in hers. With the exception of the mitre, intro- 
duced in the isth or i6th century, the liturgical costume of 
the Eastern clergy remains now practically what it was in the 
9th century. 

In the Western Church, though from the 9th century onwards 
the Roman use had been the norm, considerable alterations 
continued to be made in the shape and decoratioft of the litur- 
gical vestments, and in this respect various JKfiurches de- 
veloped different traditions (see, e.g. CHASUBLE) . jWic definition 





FIG. 4. Dr Henry Sever 
(d. 1471). From a brass 
in the chapel of Merton 
College, Oxford. He is 
vested in surplice, stole 
and cope. 



FIG. 5. Thomas Cranley, 
Archbishop of Dublin 
(d. 1417). From a brass 
in New College Chapel, 
Oxford. In addition to 
the vestments shown in 
fig. 3 he wears the archi- 
episcopal pallium. 



of their use by the various orders of the clergy in the several 
liturgical functions, however, was established by the close of 
the i3th century and still continues in force. Before discussing 
the changes made in the various Reformed Churches, due to the 
doctrinal developments of the i6th century, we may therefore 
give here a list of the vestments now worn by the various orders 
of clergy in the Roman Catholic Church and the Oriental 
Churches. 

Roman Catholic Church. As the sacrifice of the mass is the 
central mystery of the Catholic faith, so the seven orders of 
the hierarchy culminate in that of priest, who alone is em- 
powered to work the daily miracle of the altar (see ORDER, 
HOLY). The vestments worn by the priest when celebrating 
mass are then the most important. The cassock (9.11.), which 
must always be worn under the vestments, is not itself a 
liturgical garment. Over this the priest, robing for mass, puts 
on the amice, alb, girdle (cingulum), stole, maniple and chasuble. 
Taking the other orders downwards: deacons wear amice, alb, 
girdle, stole, maniple 2 and dalmatic; subdeacons, amice, alb, 
girdle, maniple a"nd tunicle; the vestment proper to the minor 
orders, formerly the alb, is now the surplice or cotta. Bishops, 
as belonging to the order of priesthood with completed powers, 
wear the same vestments as the priests, with the addition of 

2 The stole and maniple alone are symbolical of order, i.e. of the 
relation to the sacrifice of the mass. 



VESTMENTS 



the pectoral cross, the pontifical gloves, the pontifical ring, the 
liturgical sandals and caligae, a tunicle worn over the stole 
and under the chasuble, and the mitre (see fig. 3). Arch- 
bishops, on solemn occasions, wear the pallium over the chasuble 
(see fig. 5). Bishops also carry a pastoral staff (q.v.), as symbol 
of their pastoral office. Finally, the pope, when celebrating 
mass, wears the same vestments as an ordinary bishop, with 
the addition of the subcinctorium (see ALB), a dalmatic, worn 
over the tunicle and under the chasuble, and the orale or fanone 

(see AMICE). It should 
be noted that the litur- 
gical head-dress of the 
pope is the mitre, not 
the tiara, which is the 
symbol of his supreme 
office and jurisdiction 
(see TIARA) . 

Of the liturgical vest- 
ments not immediately 
or exclusively associated 
with the sacrifice of the 
mass the most con- 
spicuous are the cope and 
surplice. The biretta, 
top, though not in its 
origin or m some of its 
uses a liturgical vest- 
ment, has developed a 
distinctly liturgical cha- 
racter (see BIRETTA). 
Besides the strictly litur- 
gical vestments there are 
also numerous articles of 
costume worn at choir 
services, in processions, 
or on ceremonial occa- 
sions in everyday life, 
which have no sacral 




From a photograph by Conjugi Cane, Rome. 

FIG. 6. Pope Leo XIII. in his Vest- 
ments as Supreme Pontiff. 



character; such are the 
almuce (q.v.), the cappa 
and mozzetta (see COPE), the rochet (q.v.), the pileolus, a skull- 
cap, worn also sometimes under mitre and tiara. These are 
generally ensigns of dignity; their form and use varies in different 
Churches, and they often represent special privileges conferred by 
the popes, e.g. the cappa of the Lateran basilica worn by the canons 
of Westminster cathedral, or the almuce worn, by concession of 
Pope Pius IX., by the members of the Sistine choir. 

The character of the vestments, the method of putting them on, 
and the occasions on which they are severally to be worn, are regu- 
lated with the minutest care in the Missal and the Caeremoniale. 

Oriental Churches. As already stated, the vestments of the 
great historical Churches of the East are derived from the same 
Graeco-Roman originals as those of the West, but in contra- 
distinction to the latter they have remained practically stereo- 
typed, both in character and number, for a thousand years; 
in the East, however, even more than in the West the tendency 
to gorgeous ornamentation has prevailed. 

An Orthodox bishop, vested for the holy liturgy, wears over 
his cassock (l) the anxapuni, or alb (q.v.); (2) the Siurpa*^")", 
or stole (q.v.) ; (3) the fuirq, a narrow stuff girdle clasped behind, 
which holds together the two vestments above named; (4) the 
cTrinavUia, liturgical cuffs, corresponding, possibly, to the pon- 
tifical gloves of the West; 1 (5) the f-nyova.Tiov, a stiff lozenge- 
shaped piece of stuff hanging at the right side by a piece of riband 
from the girdle or attached to the O-AKKOS, the equivalent of the 
Western maniple (q.v.); (6) the O-AKKOS, like the Western dalmatic 
(q.v.), worn instead of the <j>aivb\i.ov, or chasuble; (7) the 
untxjmpiov, the equivalent of the Western pallium (q.v.). Be- 
sides these, the bishop also wears a pectoral cross (eynAXiriov) 
and a medal containing a relic (iravayia.) . He also has a mitre 
(q.v.), and carries a crozier (SiKavlnuai), a rather short staff 
ending in two curved branches decorated with serpents' heads, 
with a cross between them. 

The vestments of a priest are the sticharion, epitrachelion, girdle, 
epimanikia and phainolion (see CHASUBLE). He wears all these 
vestments only at the celebration of the eucharist and on other 
very solemn occasions; at other ministrations he wears only the 
epitrachelion and phainolion over his cassock. A dignitary in 



1 This is the view of Dr Adrian Fortescue (The Orthodox Eastern 
Church, p. 406) ; according to Braun (Lit. Gewandung, p. 100) they 
were originally merely the ornamental cuffs (Xupia) of the episcopal 
sticharion, which were detached for purposes of convenience. 




priest's orders is distinguished by wearing the epigonation; and in 

Russia the use of the mitre is sometimes conceded to distinguished 

priests by the tsar. The deacon 

wears the sticharion, without a 

girdle, the epimanikia and the 

orarion (wpdpioc, Lat. orarium, see 

STOLE) hanging over his left 

shoulder. The lesser orders wear 

a shorter sticharion and an orarion 

wound round it. 

On less solemn occasions bishops 
wear the mandyas G"ac56aj), a 
cope-like garment fastened at 
the lower corners as well as at 
the neck, and the kalimaukion 
(KaXrjftaiiKiov) , a tall, brimless hat, 
with a veil hanging down behind, 
and, in place of the iia/iicioc they 
carry a short staff with an ivory 
cross-piece. The kalimaukion is 
also worn by the other clergy in 
ordinary life, and with their vest- 
ments at processions, &c. 

The general character of the vest- 
ments is much the same in the 
other Oriental rites. The stich- 
arion answers to the Armenian 
shabik, the Nestorian kutina, the 
Coptic tuniah or stoicharion; the 
epimanikia to the Arm. pasban 
(which, however, resembles rather 
the Latin maniple), the Nestorian 
zando, and the Coptic kiman ; ^ . r\^.\. j T- . 

the epitrachelion to the Arm. F ' G " 7;-An Orthodox Eastern 
por-urar, Syrian uroro, Coptic bat- Patriarch in full Pontificals. 
rashil; the girdle to the Arm. kodi, Nestorian zunro; the phainolion 
to the Nestorian phaino and Arm. shurtshar, both of which are, 
however, cope-shaped. 2 Armenian priests, besides, wear a mitre 
(see MITRE, fig. 3), and a collar-like ornament probably derived from 
the apparel of the Western amice (q.v.). The liturgical handker- 
chief, which in the Greek Church has become the epigonation, has 
retained its original form in the Armenian. 

The Liturgical Colours. In another respect the vestments of 
the Eastern differ from those of the Western Church. In the 
East there is no sequence of liturgical colours, nor, indeed, any 
definite sense of liturgical colour at all; the vestments are 
usually white or red, and stiff with gold embroidery. In the 
West the custom, long universal, of marking the seasons of the 
ecclesiastical year and the more prominent fasts and festivals 
by the colour of the vestments of clergy and altar dates, 
approximately, from the i2th century: the subject is men- 
tioned (c. 1200) in the treatise of Innocent III., De sacro 
altaris mysterio (cap. 10), where the rules are laid down which 
are still essentially those of the Roman Church, 3 though the 
liturgical colours were only four, violet belonging to the category 
of black as that of mourning. Custom in this respect was, 
however, exceedingly varied for a long time, numerous important 
Churches having their own " uses," and it was not until the 
time of the Reformation that the Roman use was fixed and 
became the norm of the Churches of the Roman obedience. 

According to the rubric of the Roman Missal (tit. xviii.) the 
liturgical colours are five: white, red, green, violet, black. Though, 
in the embroidery of vestments, many colours may be used, these 
five above named must severally give the dominant tone of colour 
on the occasions for which they are appointed. Gold brocades 
or cloth-of-gold may, however, be substituted for red, green and 
white, and silver for white. The following is a list of the occasions 
to which the various colours are appropriated : 

White. -Trinity Sunday, all festivals of Christ (except those 
connected with the Passion), festivals of the Blessed Virgin, of the 
Holy Angels and Confessors, of holy virgins and women (not being 
martyrs), nativity of St John the Baptist, festivals of the chains of 
St Peter and of his see (cathedra Petri), Conversion of St Paul, All 
Saints, consecration of churches and altars, anniversary of election 
and coronation of popes, and of election and consecration of bishops. 
White is also worn during the octaves of these festivals, on 
ordinary days (for which no special colour is provided) between 
Easter and Whitsuntide, at certain special masses connected with 
the saints falling under the above category, and at bridal masses. 

2 By the sub-committee of Convocation in their Report (1908) 
these vestments are wrongly classed as copes, i.e. as derived not 
from the paenula but from the lacerna or birrus (see COPE, footnote). 

3 The Church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem seems already to 
have had its canon of liturgical colours. 



io6o 



VESTMENTS 



White is also the colour proper to sacramental processions, and 
generally to all devotions connected with the exposition of the 
Blessed Sacrament. At baptisms the priest wears a violet stole 
during the first part of the service, i.e. the exorcization then changes 
it for a white one. White is worn at the funerals of children. 

Red. Saturday before Whitsunday, Whitsunday and its octave; 
all festivals in commemoration of the sufferings of Christ, i.e. 
festival of the instruments of the Passion, of the Precious Blood, 
of the invention and elevation of the Cross; all festivals of apostles, 
except those above noted; festivals of martyrs; masses for a 

apal election ; the Feast of the Holy Innocents, when it falls on a 
unday (violet if on a week-day), and its octave (always red). In 
England red vestments are worn at the mass (of the Holy Spirit) 
attended by the Roman Catholic judges and barristers at the 
opening of term, the so-called " Red Mass." 

Green. Sundays and week-days Wtween Epiphany and Sep- 
tuagesima, and between Trinity and Advent, except festivals and 
their octaves and Ember days. 

Violet. Advent; the days between Septuagesima and Maundy 
Thursday; vigils that fall on fast days, and Ember days, except 
the vigil before Whitsunday (red) and the Ember days in Whitsun 
week (red). Violet vestments are also worn on days of intercession, 
at votive masses of the Passion, at certain other masses of a pro- 
nouncedly intercessory and penitential character, at intercessory 
processions, at the blessing of candles on Candlemas Day, and at 
the blessing of the baptismal water. A violet stole is worn by the 
priest when giving absolution after confession, and when administer- 
ing Extreme Unction. 

Black. Masses for the dead and funeral ceremonies of adults; 
the mass of the pre-sanctified on Good Friday. 1 

Benediction of Vestments. In the Roman Catholic Church the 
amice, alb, girdle, stole, maniple, chasuble must be solemnly 
blessed by the bishop or his delegate, the prayers and other 
forms to be observed being set forth in the Pontificate (see 
BENEDICTION). JOther vestments e.g. dalmatic, tunicle, 
surplice are sometimes blessed when used in connexion with 
the sacrifice of the mass, but there is no definite rule on the 
subject. The custom is very ancient, Father Braun giving 
evidence as to its existence at Rome as early as the 6th century 
(Liturg. Gewandung, p. 760, &c.). 

Mystic Meaning of Vestments. It is clear from what has been 
said above that the liturgical vestments possessed originally 
no mystic symbolic meaning whatever; it was equally certain 
that, as their origins were forgotten, they would develop such 
a symbolic meaning. The earliest record of any attempt to 
interpret this symbolism that we possess is, so far as the West 
is concerned, the short exposition in the Explicalio Missae of 
Germanus, bishop of Paris (d. 576), the earliest of any elabora- 
tion that of Hrabanus Maurus (d. 856). From the latter's time 
onward a host of liturgists took up the theme, arguing from 
the form, the material, the colour and the fashion of wearing 
the various garments to symbolical interpretations almost as 
numerous as the interpreters themselves. The Report of the 
five bishops divides them into three schools: (i) the moralizing 
school, the oldest, by which as in the case of St Jerome's 
treatment of the Jewish vestments the vestments are ex- 
plained as typical of the virtues proper to those who wear them; 
(2) the Chrislological school, i.e. that which considered the 
minister as the representative of Christ and his garments as 
typical of some aspects of Christ's person or office e.g. the stole 
is his obedience and servitude for our sakes; (3) the allegorical 
school, which treats the priest as a warrior or champion, who 
puts on the amice as a helmet, the alb as a breastplate, and so 
on. We cannot even outline here the process of selection by 
which the symbolic meanings now stereotyped in the Roman 
Pontifical were arrived at. These are taken from the various 
schools of interpretation mentioned above, and are now 
formulated in the words used by the bishop when, in ordaining 
to any office, he places the vestment on the ordinand with the 
appropriate words, e.g. " Take the amice, which signifies 
discipline in speech," while other interpretations survive in 
1 In the Anglican Church, in the numerous cases when the liturgical 
colours are used, these generally follow the Roman use, which was 
in force before the Reformation in the important dioceses of Canter- 
bury, York, London and Exeter. Some Churches, however, have 
adopted the colours of the use of Salisbury (Sarum). The red 
hangings of the Holy Table, usual where the liturgical colours 
are not used, are also like the cushions to support the service 
books supposed to be a survival of the Sarum use. 



the prayers offered by the priest when vesting, e.g. with the 
amice, " Place on my head the helmet of salvation," &c. For 
the symbolic meanings of the various vestments see the separate 
articles devoted to them. 

Protestant Churches. In the Protestant Churches 2 the cus- 
tom as to vestments differs widely, corresponding to a similar 
divergence in tradition and teaching. At the Reformation 
two tendencies became apparent. Luther and his followers re- 
garded vestments as among the adiaphora, and in the Churches 
which afterwards came to be known as " Lutheran " many of 
the traditional vestments were retained. Calvin, on the other 
hand, laid stress on the principle of the utmost simplicity in 
public worship; at Geneva the traditional vestments were 
absolutely abolished, and the Genevan model was followed by 
the Calvinistic or " Reformed " Churches throughout Europe. 
The Church of England, in which the Lutheran and Calvinistic 
points of view struggled for the mastery, a struggle which 
resulted in a compromise, is separately dealt with below. At 
the present day the Lutheran Churches of Denmark and Scan- 
dinavia retain the use of alb and chasuble in the celebration 
of the eucharist (stole, amice, girdle and maniple were disused 
after the Reformation), and for bishops the cope and mitre. 
The surplice is not used, the ministers conducting the ordinary 
services and preaching in a black gown, of the 16th-century 
type, with white bands or ruff. In Germany the Evangelical 
Church (outcome of a compromise between Lutherans and 
Reformed) has, in general, now discarded the old vestments. 
In isolated instances (e.g. at Leipzig) the surplice is still worn; 
but the pastors now usually wear a barret cap, a black gown 
of the type worn by Luther himself, and white bands. In 
Prussia the superintendents now wear pectoral crosses (instituted 
by the emperor William II.). In the " Reformed " Churches 
the minister wears the black " Geneva " gown with bands. It 
is to be noted, however, that this use has been largely dis- 
continued in the modern " Free " Churches. On the other 
hand, some of these have in recent times adopted the surplice, 
and in one at least (the Catholic Apostolic Church) the tradi- 
tional Catholic vestments have been largely revived. 

Anglican Church. The subject of ecclesiastical vestments 
has been, ever since the Reformation, hotly debated in the 
Church of England. For a hundred years after the Eliza- 
bethan settlement the battle raged round the compulsory use 
of the surplice and square cap, both being objected to by the 
extreme Calvinists or Puritans. This question was settled 
after 1662 by the secession of the Nonconformist clergy, and 
no more was heard of the matter until the " Oxford movement " 
in the ipth century. At the outset the followers of Newman 
and Pusey were more concerned with doctrine than with ritual; 
but it was natural that a reassertion of Catholic teaching should 
be followed by a revival of Catholic practice, and by the middle 
of the century certain " Ritualists," pleading the letter of the 
Ornaments Rubric in the Prayer Book, had revived the use 
of many of the pre-Reformation vestments. Into the history 
of the resulting controversies it is impossible to enter. Popular 
passion confused the issues, and raged as violently against 
the substitution of the surplice for the Geneva gown in the 
pulpit as against the revival of the " mass vestments." The 
law was invoked, and, confronted for the first time with the 
intricacies of the Ornaments Rubric, spoke with an uncertain 
voice. In 1870, however, the " vestments " were definitely 
pronounced illegal by the Privy Council (Hebbcrt v. Purchas), 
and since the " Ritualists " refused to bow to this decision, 
parliament intervened with the Public Worship Regulation 
Act of 1874, which set up a disciplinary machinery for enforcing 
the law, and at the same time reconstituted the Court of Arches 
(<?.!>.) The recalcitrant clergy refused to obey an act passed 
solely by the secular authority (convocation not having been 
consulted) or to acknowledge the jurisdiction of a court which 
had been robbed of its " spiritual " character. Prosecutions 

2 The term " Protestant " is used here in its widest sense of those 
Churches which reformed their doctrine and discipline as a result 
of the religious revolution of the i6th century (see REFORMATION). 



VESTMENTS 



1061 



" on the complaint of two parishioners " (too often qualified 
ad hoc by a temporary residence) followed; and since the act 
had provided no penalty save imprisonment for contempt of 
court, there followed the scandal of zealous clergymen being 
lodged in gaol indefinitely " for conscience' sake." This result 
revolted public opinion; the bishops acquired the habit (ren- 
dered easier by the personal expense involved in setting the 
law in motion) of vetoing, under the power given to them in 
the act, all prosecutions; and the act became a dead letter. 
The " persecution " had meanwhile produced its natural 
result: the use of the forbidden vestments rapidly spread; 
and since there was no central authority left competent to 
command obedience, every incumbent intrenched in his 
freehold as a "corporation sole" became a law unto himself. 
The outcome has been that in the Church of England, and in 
many of her daughter Churches, there exists a bewildering variety 
of " uses," varying from that of Sarum and that of Rome down 
to the closest possible approximation to the Geneva model. 

Some explanation of this state of things may be ventured. 
Apart from those clergy (still the majority) who follow in 
all essentials the post-Reformation traditions of the English 
Church, there are three schools among those who justify the 
use of the ancient " eucharistic " l vestments: (i) a small 
number who affect to ignore the' rules of the Prayer Book 
altogether, on the ground that no local or national Church has 
the right to alter the doctrines or practice of the Catholic 
Church, of which they are priests in virtue of their ordination, 
and whose prescriptions and usages they are in conscience 
bound to follow; (2) those who maintain that the Ornaments 
Rubric, in the phrase " second year of King Edward VI.," 
prescribes the ornaments in use before the first Prayer Book; 
(3) those who hold that under the Rubric the ornaments pre- 
scribed in the first Prayer Book are to be " had in use." The 
attitude of the first group needs no comment: it makes every 
priest the arbiter of what is or is not " Catholic," and is destruc- 
tive of that principle of definite authority which is the very 
foundation of Catholicism. The attitude of the second group 
is based on a mistake as to the technical meaning of " the 
second year of Edward VI.," the second Prayer Book not having 
come into use till the third year. 2 As to the third group, their 
contention seems now to be admitted, though not all its implica- 
tions. What, then, are the vestments sanctioned by the Orna- 
ments Rubric ? In its present form this dates from the Prayer 
Book revision of 1662. It runs: " And here it is to be noted 
that such ornaments of the church and of the ministers thereof 
at all times of their ministration shall be retained and be in use, 
as was in the Church of England by the authority of parliament 
in the second year of the reign of King Edward VI." The 
wording of this ws,s taken from the last section of Elizabeth's 
Act of Uniformity, prefixed to the Prayer Book of 1559. In 
the Act, however, these words were added: " until other order 
shall be therein taken by the authority of the Queen's Majesty, 
with the advice of the Commissioners appointed and authorized 
under the Great Seal of England, for causes ecclesiastical, or 
of the Metropolitan." The Rubric in the Prayer Book of 1559 
ran: "... the minister at the time of the Communion, and at 
all other times in his ministration, shall use, &c. . . . according 
to the Act of Parliament set in the beginning of this book." 3 

This term is incorrect (save in the case of chasuble and maniple), 
but is that commonly employed by the " High Church " clergy. 

2 Edward VI. came to the throne on the 28th of January 1547 ; his 
" second year," therefore, lasted from the 28th of January 1548 to the 
2/th of January 1549. The first Prayer Book passed parliament on 
the 2 1st of January 1549, but did not receive the royal assent till 
later, probably March, and was not in compulsory use till Whitsunday, 
June oth, 1549. The old rule, however, was that " every act of parlia- 
ment in which the commencement thereof is not directed to be from 
a specific time, doth commence from the first day of the session of 
parliament in which such act is passed " (33 Geo. III. c. 13). The 
evidence is now clear that the Rubric refers to the first Prayer Book. 
This was decided in Liddell v. Westerton (1857), and is admitted in the 
Report of the five bishops to Convocation on The Ornaments of the 
Church and Us Ministers (1908), which adduces conclusive evidence. 

3 This was inserted, probably by the Privy Council, as a memo- 
randum or interpretation of the clause in the Act of Uniformity. 



Clearly it was the intention of the government, consistently 
with the whole trend of its policy, to cover its concession to the 
Protestant party dominant in the Commons by retaining some 
of the outward forms of the old services until such time as it 
should be expedient to " take other order." Then followed 
a period .of great confusion. If the " massing vestments " 
continued anywhere in use, it was not for long. Whatever the 
letter of the law under the rubric, the Protestant bishops and 
the commissioners made short work of 
such " popish stuff " as chasubles, albs 
and the like. As for copes, in some 
places they were ordered to be worn, 
and were worn at the Holy Com- 
munion, 4 while elsewhere they were 
thrown into the bonfires with the rest. 5 

The difficulty seems to have been 
not to suppress the chasuble, of the 
use of which after 1559 not a single 
authoritative instance has been ad- 
duced, but to save the surplice, which 
the more zealous Puritans looked on 
with scarcely less disfavour. At last, 
in 1565, Queen Elizabeth determined 
to secure uniformity, and wrote to 
Archbishop Parker bidding him pro- 
ceed by order, injunction or censure, 
" according to the order and appoint- 
ment of such laws and ordinances 
as are provided by act of parliament, 
and the true meaning thereof, so that 
uniformity may be enforced." The 
result was the issue in 1566 by the 
archbishop of the statutory Advertise- 
ments, which fixed the vestments of 
the clergy as follows: (i) In the 
ministration of the Holy Communion 
in cathedral and collegiate churches, 
the principal minister to wear a cope, 




FIG. 8. Anglican Priest 
in Cassock, Surplice, 
and Narrow Black 
Scarf. Brass of Wil- 
liam Dye (d. 1567) at 
Westerham, Kent. 



with gospeller and epistoler agreeably; 6 at all other prayers to 
be said at the Communion table, to use no copes but surplices; 

(2) the dean and prebendaries to wear surplice and hood; 

(3) every minister saying public prayers, or ministering the 
sacraments, to wear " a comely surplice with sleeves." 

This has been decided by the judicial committee of the 
Privy Council (Hebbert.v. Purchas, 1870; Ridsdale v. Clifton, 
1877) to have been the " other order " contemplated in the 
Act of Uniformity of Elizabeth, and it was held that from this 
time the cope and surplice alone were legal vestments in the 
Church of England. The authority of the Advertisements, 
indeed, was and is disputed; but their lordships in their judg- 
ment pointed out that they were accepted as authoritative 
by the canons of 1603 (Can. 24 and 58), and argued convincingly 
that the revisers of the Prayer Book in 1662, in restoring the 

Tomlinson (The Prayer Book, Articles and Homilies, p. 122 seq.) 
argues that this was a " fraud rubric " inserted without authority, 
and utterly perverting the meaning of the proviso in the Act of 
Uniformity. This argument is dealt with in the bishop's Report, p. 66. 
4 Resolutions of 1561, " Item that there be used only but one 
apparel; as the cope in the ministration of the Lord's Supper." 
See Report, p. 68. 

6 See Machyn's Diary (Camden Soc. 42; London, 1848), p. 208, 
for St Bartholomew's day, 1559: " All the roods, and Maries and 
Johns, and many other of the church goods, both copes, crosses, 
censers, altar cloths, rood cloths, books, banners, . . . with much 
other gear about London," were " burned with great wonder." 

6 Yet later the cope seems to have been authoritatively pro- 
scribed with the rest. In the Acts of the Privy Council (1578-1580), 
. 208, is the following entry: "A letter to Sir Walter Ashton, 
[night, Mr. Deane of Lichefield, etc. . . . touching certaine copes, 
vestments, tunicles and such other Popishe stuffe informed by 
letter from the Dean of Lichefield to be within the cathedral churche 
of Lichefield; they . . . are required to assemble themselves 
together in the towne of Lichefield and to cause the said Popishe 
stuffe to be sought out and brought before them, and thereupon to 
deface the same . . . and to see the same effectuallie done, and 
thereof to advertise their Lordships." 



1062 



VESTMENTS 



rubric of 1559, had no idea of legalizing any vestments other 
than those in customary use under the Advertisements, and the 
canons (cf. Report of sub-committee of Convocation, pp. 48, 49). 
The law, then, is perfectly clear, so far as two decisions of 
the highest court in the realm can make it so. But apart 
from the fact that the authority of the Privy Council, as not 
being a " spiritual " court, is denied by many of the clergy, 
no one claims that its decisions are irreversible in the light 
of fresh evidence. 

Thirty years after the Ridsdale judgment, the ritual confusion 
in the Church of England was worse than ever, and the old 
ideal expressed in the Acts of Uniformity had given place to a 
desire to sanctify with some sort of authority the parochial 
" uses " which had grown up. In this respect the dominant 
opinion in the Church, intent on compromise, seems to have 
been expressed in the Report presented in 1908 to the con- 
vocation of the province of Canterbury by the sub-committee 
of five bishops appointed to investigate the matter, namely, that 
under the Ornaments Rubric the vestments prescribed in the 
first Prayer Book of Edward VI. are permitted, if not enjoined. 
Even if this be so, the question arises, what vestments were 
prescribed in the Prayer Book of 1549? It has been commonly 
assumed, and the assumption has been translated into practice, 
that the rubrics of 1549 prescribed the use of all the old " mass 
vestments." This, however, is not the case. In the short 
rubric before the communion service the celebrating priest is 
directed to " put upon him ... a white alb plain with a 
vestment or cope," while the assisting priests or deacons are 
to wear " albs with tunicles." In the additional explanatory 
notes at the end of the book, after directions as to the wearing 
of surplice and hood in quire, in cathedral and collegiate 
churches (they are not made obligatory elsewhere), bishops 
are directed to wear, besides the rochet, a surplice or alb, 
and a cope or vestment, with a pastoral staff borne either by 
themselves or their chaplains. 1 Thus the alternative use of 
cope or chasuble (vestment) is allowed at the celebration of 
Holy Communion an obvious compromise; of the amice, 
girdle (cingulum), maniple and stole there is not a word, 2 and 
the inference to be drawn is that these were now disused. The 
cingulum, indeed, which symbolized chastity (i.e. celibacy), 
would naturally have been discarded now that the clergy were 
allowed to marry, while the stole had become intimately 
associated with the doctrine of holy orders elaborated by the 
medieval schoolmen and rejected by the Reformers (see 
ORDER, HOLY). If this be so, the case is exactly parallel 
with that of the Lutheran Churches which, about the same 
time, had discarded all the " mass vestments " except the alb 
and chasuble. It becomes, then, a question whether the 
presem-day practice of many of the clergy, ostensibly based on 
the rubric of 1549, is in fact covered by this. The revived 
use of the stole is the most curious problem involved; for 
this, originally due to a confusion of this vestment with the 

1 There is no mention of mitre, gloves, dalmatic, tunicle, sandals 
and caligae, which were presumably discontinued. 

2 It has been argued that the term " vestment " covers all these. 
The Report of 1908 (Appendix A, p. 109) says cautiously that the 
word " may perhaps in some cases stand for the chasuble with the 
amice, stole and fanon, the alb being mentioned separately," but 
adds that " very many of the instances commonly cited for this 
(e.g. those in Essays on Ceremonial, p. 246) are quite inconclusive, as 
' vestment ' is often a convertible term with ' chasuble ' ; and it 
does not seem to be at all conclusively established that ' vestment ' 
with ' alb ' mentioned separately, and ' cope ' given as an alterna- 
tive, in a document with the precision and directive force of a 
Rubric, means more than the actual chasuble." Father Braun 
(Die liturg. Gewandung in der Englischen Staatskirche) endorses 
this opinion. He gives reasons for believing that in the Church of 
England, under the first Prayer Book, as in the Lutheran Churches, 
while chasuble and alb were retained, stole, maniple, amice and 
girdle were discontinued. With this the bishop of Exeter (Orna- 
ments Rubric, p. 30) would seem to agree, when he says that " the 
customs of the present day do not fully accord with any reason- 
able interpretation of the rubric. The stole, now nearly universal, 
is only covered by the rubric if the word ' vestment ' be taken 
to include it (a very dubious point), and then only at Holy Com- 
munion." 



traditional Anglican black scarf, has now become all but uni- 
versal among the clergy of all schools of thought (see STOLE) . 

The five bishops in their Report, tracing the various vestments 
to their origins, conclude that they are meaningless in them- 
selves, and therefore things indifferent. This appears gravely 
to misread history. The chasuble and the rest, whatever their 
origin, had become associated during the middle ages with 
certain doctrines the rejection of which at the Reformation 
was symbolized by their disuse. 3 Their revival has proceeded 
pari passu with that of the doctrines with which they have 
long since become associated. With the truth or falsehood 
of these doctrines we are not here concerned; but that the 
revived vestments are chiefly valued because of their doctrinal 
significance the clergy who use them would be the last to 
deny. Nor is the argument that they are a visible manifesta- 
tion of the continuity of the Church anything but a double- 
edged weapon; for, as Father Braun pertinently asks, if these 
be their symbolism, of what was their disuse in the Church of 
England for nigh on 300 years a symbol? 4 

In 1910 the question of the " permissive use of vestments," 
in connexion with that of the revision of the Prayer Book 
generally, was still under discussion in the convocations of the 
two provinces. But there was little chance that any change 
in the rubric, even in the improbable event of its receiving 
the sanction of parliament, would produce any appreciable 
effect. It is often forgotten that " extreme " ritual is no 
longer an " innovation " in the English Church; it has become 
the norm in a large number of parishes, and whole generations 
of Church people have grown up to whom it is the only 
familiar type of Christian worship. To attempt to " enforce 
the law " (whatever the law may be) would, therefore, seriously 
wound the consciences of a large number of people who are 
quite unconscious of having broken it. Formally to legalize 
the minimum enjoined by the rubrics of 1549 would, on the 
other hand, offend the " Protestant " section of the Church, 
without reconciling those who would be content with nothing 
short of the Catholic maximum. 

AUTHORITIES. All previous works on vestments have been 
largely superseded by Father Joseph Braun's Die liturgische Ge- 
wandung (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1907), a monument of careful and 
painstaking research, profusely illustrated. This contains a list of 
medieval writers on the subject, another of the inventories used by 
the author, and one of more modern works. W. B. Marriott's 
V'.stiarium Christianum (1868), though it must now be read with 
caution, is still of much value, notably the second part, which 
gives texts (with translations) of passages bearing on the subject 
taken from early and medieval writers, with many interesting 
plates. Of other works may be mentioned Mgr. L. Duchesne's 
Origines du ciilte chrHien (Paris, 1903), and especially C. Renault 
de Fleury's La Messe (Paris, 1883-89). See also F. X. Kraus, 
Realencyklopddie der christlichen Altertumer (Freiburg-i.-B., 1882, 
1886); Smith and Cheetham, Diet, of Christian Antiquities (ed. 
1893) an d The Catholic Encyclopaedia (New York, 1907 onwards). 

For the vestment question in the Church of England see the 
Report of the sub-committee of Convocation on The Ornaments of the 
Church and its Ministers (1908); Hiertirgia Anglicana, documents 
and extracts illustrative of the ceremonial of the Anglican Church 
after the Reformation, new ed. revised and enlarged by Vernon 
Staley (1902-3); J. T. Tomlinson, The Prayer Book, Articles and 
Homilies (1897), a polemical work from the Protestant point of 
view, but scholarly and based on a mass of contemporary 
authorities to which references are given; the bishop of Exeter, 
The Ornaments Rubric (London, 1901), a pamphlet. For the legal 
aspect of the question see G. J. Talbot, Modern Decisions on Ritual 
(London, 1894). (W. A. P.) 



3 This is also> the view taken by Father J. Braun, S.J., in his 
paper on liturgical dress in the Church of England, contributed 
to Stimmen aus Maria-Laach (1910, Heft 7, Freiburg-im-Breisgau). 
In this he criticizes the bishops' Report in a sympathetic spirit, but 
points out how intimately the symbolism of the vestments had 
become associated with the doctrine of the Sacrifice of the Mass, and 
how logical was the action of the Reformers in rejecting certain of 
these vestments. 

* He sees in the revival of " vestments " " an energetic condemna- 
tion of the English Reformation." He adds that this is, of course, 
unintentional (allerdings ohne das sein zu u'ollen). A more intirrate 
acquaintance with the language commonly used by many of the 
more extreme " Ritualists " would have shown him that there has 
been, and is, no lack of such intention. 



VESTRIS, G. A. B. VESUVIUS 



1063 



VESTRIS, GAETANO APPOLINO BALDASSARE (1729- 
1808), French ballet dancer, was born in Florence and made 
his debut at the Opera in 1748. By 1751 his success and his 
vanity had grown to such a point that he is reported to have 
said, " There are but three great men in Europe the king 
of Prussia, Voltaire and I." He was an excellent mimic as 
well as dancer. From 1770 to 1776 he was master and com- 
poser of ballets, retiring, in favour of Noverre, with a pension. 
Two other pensions fell to him, when he gave up his positions 
of first dancer and of first dancer of court ballets, amounting 
in all to 9200 livres. Vestris married a dancer, Anna Heinel 
(1752-1808), of German origin, who had a wonderful success 
at the Opera. He reappeared at the age of sixty-one on the 
occasion of his grandson's debut. By the dancer Mile. Allard, 
Vestris had a son, Marie Auguste Vestris Allard (1760-1842), 
also a ballet dancer, who surpassed his father, if possible, in 
both talent and vanity. His son, Auguste Armand Vestris 
(b. 1825), who took to the same profession, made his debut at the 
Opera in 1800, but left Paris for Italy and never reappeared in 
France. Gaetano's brother, Angelo Vestris (1730-1809), married 
Marie Rose Gourgaud, the sister of the actor Dugazon (q.v.). 

VESTRIS, LUCIA ELIZABETH (1797-1856), English actress, 
was born in London in January 1797, the daughter of Gaetano 
Stefano Bartolozzi (1757-1821) and granddaughter of Fran- 
cesco Bartolozzi, the engraver. In 1813 she married Auguste 
Armand Vestris (see above), who deserted her four years 
later. With an agreeable contralto voice and a pleasing face 
and figure, Madame Vestris had made her first appearance in 
Italian opera in the title-r61e of Peter Winter's // ratio di 
Proserpina at the King's Theatre in 1815. She had an im- 
mediate success in both London and Paris, where she played 
Camille to Talma's Horace in Horace. Her first hit in English 
was at Drury Lane in James Cobb's (1756-1818) Siege of Bel- 
grade (1820). She was particularly a favourite in " breeches 
parts," like Cherubino in the Marriage of Figaro, and in Don 
Giovanni, and with such introduced songs as " Cherry Ripe," 
" Meet me by moonlight alone," " I've been roaming," etc. 
In 1831, having accumulated a fortune, she became lessee of 
the Olympic Theatre, and began the presentation of a series 
of burlesques and extravaganzas for which she made this 
house famous. She married Charles James Mathews in 1838, 
accompanying him to America and aiding him in his subsequent 
managerial ventures. Her last appearance (1854) was for his 
benefit in an adaptation of Madame de Girardin's La Joie fait 
peur, called Sunshine through Clouds, and she died in London 
on the 8th of August 1856. Her musical accomplishments 
and education were not sufficient to distinguish her in grand 
opera, and in high comedy she was only moderately successful. 
But in plays like Loan of a Lover, Paul Pry, Naval Engagements, 
etc., she was delightfully arch and bewitching. 

VESTRY (O. Fr. vestiaire, Lat. vestiarium, a wardrobe), a 
place or room adjoining a church, where the vestments of the 
minister are kept. Hence the name applied to an assembly 
of the parishioners, usually convened in the vestry, to transact 
the business of the parish. In populous parishes it obtains by 
custom in some, and by the " Adoptive " Vestries Act 1831 in 
others, to choose yearly a select number of parishioners, called 
a " select vestry," to manage the concerns of the parish. (See 
PARISH.) 

VESUVIANITE, a rock-forming mineral of complex com- 
position. It is a basic calcium and aluminium silicate con- 
taining small amounts of iron, magnesium, water, 
fluorine, etc., and sometimes boron; the ap- 
proximate formula is H2Ca6(Al,Fe)sSi5Oi8. It 
crystallizes in the tetragonal system, but often 
exhibits optical anomalies, and the optical sign 
varies from positive to negative. Well-devel- 
oped crystals are of frequent occurrence. They 
usually have the form of four- or eight-sided 
prisms terminated by the basal planes (c) and 
pyramid-planes (p in fig.); the prism-planes are vertically 
striated and the basal planes smooth and bright. Crystals are 



transparent to translucent, vitreous in lustre and vary 
in colour from brown to green; a sky-blue variety, called 
cyprine, owes its colour to the presence of a trace of copper. 
The specific gravity is 3-4 and the hardness 6J. The name 
vesuvianite was given by A. G. Werner in 1795, because fine 
crystals of the mineral are found at Vesuvius; these are brown in 
colour and occur in the ejected limestone blocks of Monte Somma. 
Several other names have been applied to this species, one of 
which, idocrase of R. J. Haiiy (1796), is now in common use. 

Vesuvianite is typically a mineral of contact-metamorphic origin, 
occurring most frequently in crystalline limestones at their contact 
with igneous rock-masses; it also occurs in serpentine, chlorite- 
schist and gneiss, and is usually associated with garnet, diopside, 
wollastonite, &c. Localities which have yielded fine crystallized 
specimens are the Ala valley near Turin, Piedmont, Monte Somma 
(Vesuvius), Monzoni in the Fassa valley, Tirol, Achmatovsk near 
Zlatoust in the Urals, the River Wilui district near Lake Baikal in 
Siberia (" wiluite "), Christiansand in Norway, &c. When found in 
transparent crystals of a good green or brown colour it is occasionally 
cut as a gem-stone. A compact variety, closely resembling jade in 
appearance, has been used as an ornamental stone. (L. J. S.) 

VESUVIUS (also Vesevus in ancient poets), a volcano rising 
from the eastern margin of the Bay of Naples in Italy, about 
7 m. E.S.E. of Naples, in the midst of a region which has 
been densely populated by a civilized community for more than 
twenty-five centuries. Hence the mountain has served as a 
type for the general popular conception of a volcano, and its 
history has supplied a large part of the information on which 
geological theories of volcanic action have been based. The 
height of the mountain varies from time to time within limits 
of several hundred feet, according to the effects of successive 
eruptions, but averages about 4000 ft. above sea-level (in 
June 1900, 4275 ft., but after the eruption of 1906 considerably 
less). Vesuvius consists of two distinct portions. On the north- 
ern side a lofty semicircular cliff, reaching a height of 3714 ft., 
half encircles the present active cone, and descends in long 
slopes towards the plains below. This precipice, known as Monte 
Somma, forms the wall of an ancient prehistoric crater of vastly 
greater size than that of the present volcano. The continuation 
of the same wall round its southern half has been in great 
measure obliterated by the operations of the modern vent, which 
has built a younger cone upon it, and is gradually filling up the 
hollow of the prehistoric crater. At the time of its greatest 
dimensions the volcano was perhaps twice as high as it is now. 
By a colossal eruption, of which no historical record remains, 
the upper half of the cone was blown away. It was around this 
truncated cone that the early Greek settlers founded their little 
colonies. 

At the beginning of the Christian era, and for many previous 
centuries, no eruption had been known to take place from the 
mountain, and the volcanic nature of the locality was perhaps 
not even suspected by the inhabitants who planted their vine- 
yards along its fertile slopes, and built their numerous villages 
and towns around its base. The geographer Strabo, however, 
detected the probable volcanic origin of the cone and drew 
attention to its cindery and evidently fire-eaten rocks. From 
his account and other references in classical authors we gather 
that in the first century of the Christian era, and probably for 
hundreds of years before that time, the sides of the mountain 
were richly cultivated, as they are still, the vineyards being of 
extraordinary fertility. The wine they produce is known as 
Lacrimae Christi. But towards the top the upward growth of 
vegetation had not concealed the loose ashes which still remained 
as evidence of the volcanic nature of the place. On this barren 
summit lay a wide flat depression, surrounded with rugged 
walls of rock, which were festooned with wild vines. The present 
crater-wall of Monte Somma is doubtless a relic of that time. It 
was in this lofty rock-girt hollow that the gladiator Spartacus 
was besieged by the praetor Claudius Pulcher; he escaped by 
twisting ropes of vine branches and descending through un- 
guarded fissures in the crater-rim. A painting found in Pompeii 
in 1879 represents Vesuvius before the eruption (Nolizie degli 
scam, 1880, pi. vii.). 

After centuries of quiescence the volcanic energy began again 



1064 



VESUVIUS 



to manifest itself in a succession of earthquakes, which spread 
alarm through Campania. For some sixteen years after 63 
these convulsions continued, doing much damage to the sur- 
rounding towns. At Pompeii, for example, among other de- 
vastation, the temple of Isis was shaken into ruins, and, as an 
inscription records, it was rebuilt from the foundations by the 
munificence of a private citizen. On the 24th of August 79 
the earthquakes, which had been growing more violent, culmi- 
nated in a tremendous explosion of Vesuvius. A contemporary 
account of this event has been preserved in two letters of the 
younger Pliny to the historian Tacitus. He was staying at 
Misenum with his uncle, the elder Pliny, who was in command 
of the fleet. The latter set out on the afternoon of the 24th to 
attempt to rescue people at Herculaneum, but came too late, and 
went to Stabiae, where he spent the night, and died the following 
morning, suffocated by the poisonous fumes which were ex- 
haled from the earth. This eruption was attended with great 
destruction of life and property. Three towns are known to 
have been destroyed Herculaneum at the western base of the 
volcano, Pompeii on the south-east side, and Stabiae, still farther 
south, on the site of the modern Castellamare. There is no evi- 
dence that any lava was emitted during this eruption. But the 
abundant steam given off by the volcano seems to have con- 
densed into copious rain, which, mixing with the light volcanic 
dust and ash, gave rise to torrents of pasty mud, that flowed 
down the slopes and overwhelmed houses and villages. Hercu- 
laneum is believed to have been destroyed by these " water 
lavas," and there is reason to suppose that similar materials 
filled the cellars and lower parts of Pompeii. Comparing the 
statements of Pliny with the facts still observable in the district, 
we perceive that this first recorded eruption of Vesuvius belongs 
to that phase of volcanic action known as the paroxysmal, when, 
after a longer or shorter period of comparative tranquillity, a 
volcano rapidly resumes its energy and the partially filled-up 
crater is cleared out by a succession of tremendous explosions. 
For nearly fifteen hundred years after the catastrophe of 79 
Vesuvius remained in a condition of less activity. Occasional 
eruptions are mentioned, e.g. in A.D. 203, 472 and 685, and nine in 
the middle ages down to 1 500. None, however, was of equal im- 
portance with the first, and their details are given vaguely by 
the authors who allude to them. By the end of the i5th century 
the mountain had resumed much the same general aspect as it 
presented before the eruption described by Pliny. Its crater- 
walls, some 5 m. in circumference, were hung with trees and 
brushwood, and at their base stretched a wide grassy plain, where 
cattle grazed and the wild boar lurked in the thickets. The 
central tract was a lower plain, covered with loose ashes and 
marked by a few pools of hot and saline water. At length, 
after a series of earthquakes lasting for six months and gradu- 
ally increasing in violence, the volcano burst into renewed 
paroxysmal activity on the i6th of December 1631. Vast 



clouds of dust and stones, blown out of the crater and funnel of 
the volcano, were hurled into the air and carried for hundreds 
of miles, the finer particles falling to the earth even in the Adri- 
atic and at Constantinople. The clouds of steam condensed 
into copious torrents, which, mingling with the fine ashes, pro- 
duced muddy streams that swept far and wide over the plains, 
reaching even to the foot of the Apennines. Issuing from the 
flanks of the mountain, several streams of lava flowed down 
towards the west and south, and reached the sea at twelve or 
thirteen different points. Though the inhabitants had been 
warned by the earlier convulsions of the mountain, so swiftly 
did destruction come upon them that 18,000 are said to have 
lost their lives. 

Since this great convulsion, which emptied the crater, Vesuvius 
has never again relapsed into a condition of total quiescence. 
At intervals, varying from a few weeks or months to a few years, 
it has broken out into eruption, sometimes emitting only steam, 
dust and scoriae, but frequently also streams of lava. The 
years 1766-67, 1779, 1794, 1822, 1872 and 1906 were marked by 
special activity. The last completely altered the aspect of the 
cone, considerably reducing its height. 

The modern cone of the mountain has been built up by suc- 
cessive discharges of lava and fragmentary materials round a 
vent of eruption, which lies a little south of the centre of the 
prehistoric crater. The southern segment of the ancient cone, 
answering to the semicircular wall of Somma on the north side, 
has been almost concealed, but is still traceable among the younger 
accumulations. The numerous deep ravines which indented the 
sides of the prehistoric volcano, and still form a marked feature 
on the outer slopes of Somma, have on the south side served 
as channels to guide the currents of lava from the younger 
cone. But they are gradually being filled up there and will 
ultimately disappear under the sheets of molten rock that from 
time to time rush into them from above. On one of the ridges 
between these radiating valleys an observatory for watching 
the progress of the volcano was established by the Neapolitan 
government, and is still supported as a national institution. A 
continuous record of each phase in the volcanic changes has 
been taken, and some progress has been made in the study of 
the phenomena of Vesuvius, and in prognosticating the occur- 
rence and probable intensity of eruptions. The foot of the cone 
is reached from Naples by electric railway, and thence a wire- 
rope railway (opened in 1880) carries visitors to within 150 yds. 
of the mouth of the crater. 

See John Phillips, Vesuvius (1869); Pompei e la Regione Solter- 
rata dal Vesuvio nelV Anno 79 (Naples, 1879); L. Palmieri, Vesuvio 
e la sua Storia (Milan, 1880) ; H. J. Johnstone-Lavis, " The Geology 
of Monte Somma and Vesuvius " (1884), in Quart. Journ. Geol. 
Soc. vol. xl. p. 85; J. L. Lobley, Mount Vesuvius (London, 1889); 
F. Furchheim, Bibliografia del Vesuvio (Naples, 1897); T. McK. 
Hughes, " Herculaneum," in Proc. Camb. Antiq. Soc. No. xlviii. 
p. 25 (Cambridge, 1908). (A. GE.; T. As.) 



END OF TWENTY-SEVENTH VOLUME 



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